A
1 A
SfllCTIONABY OF ISLAM
BEING
\ CYCLOPEDIA OK Till-: DOCTBINES, BITES, CEBEMpNIES, AND
CUSTOMS, TooKTiii' R WITH TIIH TECHNICAL VXD
TIIKOLOdlCAL TEKMS, OF Till-: MUIIAMMADAN
BY
THOMAS PATRICK HUGHES, B.D., M.R.A.8.
\VITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON
II. ALLKN & CO, 13, WATERLOO PLACK, PALL MALL, S.W.
1895
DEDICATED
(WITH PERMISSION)
TO
THE RIGHT REVEREND THOMAS YALPY FRENCH, D,D.
FIRST BISHOP OF LAHORE,
WITH MUCH AFFECTION AND ESTEEM,
BY HIS LORDSHIP'S OBEDIENT SERVANT,
THOMAS PATRICK HUGHES.
PREFACE.
^
THE increased interest manifested in relation to all matters affecting
the East, and the great attention now given to the study of compara
tive religion, seem to indicate that the time has come when an attempt
should be made to place before the English-speaking people of the
world a systematic exposition of the doctrines of the Muslim Faith.
The present work is intended to bupply this want, by giving, in a tabu
lated form, a concise account of the doctrines, rites, ceremonies, and
customs, together with the technical and theological terms, of thu
Muhammadan religion.
Although compiled by a clergyman who has had the privilege of
heing engaged in missionary work afc Peshawar tor a period of twenty
years, this "DICTIONARY OF ISLAM" is not intended to be a contro
versial attack on the religions system of Muhammad, but rather an
exposition of its principles and teachings.
Divided, as the Muslim world is, into numerous sects, it has been
found impossible to take into consideration all the minor differences
which exist amongst them. The Dictionary is, for the most part, an
exposition of the opinions of the Sunni sect, with explanations of the
chief points on which the Shi?»h and Wahhabi schools of thought differ
from it. Very special attention has been given to the views of the
Wahhabis, as it is the Author'* conviction that they represent the
earliest teachings of the Muslim .Faith as they came from Muhammad
and his immediate successors. When it is remembered that, according
to Mr. Wilfrid Blunt's estimate, the Shiah sect only numbers some
ten milliom out of the one hundred and seventy-five millions of Mu-
hammadans in the ^world, it will be seen that, in compiling a Dic-
tionarv of Muhammadanism, the Shiah tenets must of necessity occupy
a secondary place in the study of the religion. Still, upon all
important questions of theology and jurisprudence, these difference*
have been noticed.
The piesrnt book does not profess to be a .Biographical Dic
tionary. The tfrcul work of ll>n Khailikan, translated into MnHioh by
V! PREPAOE.
Slaiie, supplies this. But short biographical notices of persons con
nected with the early history of Islam have been given, inasmuch as
many of these persons are connected with religious dogmas and cere
monies ; the martyrdom of Husain, for instance, as being the foundation
of the Muharram ceremonies ; Abu Hanifah, as connected with a
school of jurisprudence ; and the Khalifah 'Umar as the real founder of
the religious and political power of Islam. In the biographical notice
of Muhammad, the Author has expressed his deep obligations to SIR
WILLIAM MUIR'S great work, the Life of Mahomet.
It is impossible for anyone to write upon the subject of Muham-
madanism without being largely indebted, not only to Sir William
Muir's books, but also to the works of the late MR. LANE, the author
of Modern Egyptians, new editions of which have been edited by MR.
STANLEY LANE POOLE. Numerous quotations from these volumes will
be found in the present work.
But whilst the Author has not hesitated in this compilation to
avail himself of the above and similar works, he has, during a long
residence amongst Muhauimadaii peoples, been able to consult very
numerous Arabic and Persian works in their originals, and to obtain
the assistance of very able Muhammadan native scholars of all schools
of thought in Islam.
He is specially indebted to DR. F. STEINGASS, of the Univer
sity of Munich, the author of the English- Arabic and Arabic-English
Dictionaries, for a careful revision of the whole work The interesting
article on WRITING is from the pen of this distinguished scholar, as
well as some valuable criticisms on the composition of the QUR'AN, and
a biographical sketch of the Khalifah 'Umar.
Orientalists may, perhaps, be surprised to find that SIKHISM has
been treated as a sect of Islam, but the Compiler has been favoured with
a very able and scholarly article <a the subject by Mr. F. PINCOTT,
M.K.A.S., in which he shows that the " religion of Nanak was really
intended as a compromise between Hinduism and Muhammadanism, if
it may not even be spoken of as the religion of a Muhanimadan
sect/' — the publication of which in the present work seemed to be
most desirable,
At the commencement of the publication of the work, the Author
received very valuable assistance from the REV. E. A. P. SHIRREFF,
M.A., Principal of the Lahore Divinity College, as well as from other
friends, which he must gratefully acknowledge.
Amongst the numerous suggestions which the Author received for
PBBFACB. Vli
the compilation of this Dictionary, was one from a well-known Arabic
scholar, to the effect that the value of the work would be enhanced
if the quotations from the Qur'an, and from the Traditions, were given
in their original Arabic. This, however, seemed incompatible with
the general design of the book. The whole structure of the work is
intended to be such as will make it available to English scholars unac
quainted with the Arabic language; and, consequently, most of the
information given will be found under English words rather than under
their Arabic equivalents. For example, for information regarding the
attributes of the Divine Being, the reader must refer to the English
Goo, and not to the Arabic ALLAH; for all the ritual and laws
regarding the liturgical service, to the English PRAYER, and not to
the Arabic SALAT; for the marriage laws and ceremonies, to the Eng
lish MARRIAGE, and not to the Arabic MKAH. It is hoped that, in this
way, the information given will be available to those who are entirely
unacquainted with Oriental languages, or, indeed, with Eastern life.
The quotations from the Qur'an have been given chiefly from
Palmer's and Rodwell's translations; and those in the Qur'anic narra
tive of Biblical characters (MOSES for example) have been taken from
MR. STANLEY LANK POOLE'S edition of Lane's Selections. But, when
needful, entirely new translations of quotations from the Qur'an have
been given.
The " DICTIONARY OF ISLAM" has been compiled with very con
siderable study and labour, in the hope that it will be useful to many ;
—-to the Government official called to administer justice to Muslim
peoples ; to the Christian missionary engaged in controversy with Mus
lim scholars; to the Oriental traveller seeking hospitality amongst
Muslim peoples ; to the student of comparative religion anxious to
learn the true teachings of Islam; — to all, indeed, who care to know
what are those leading principles of thought which move aud guide one
hundred and seventy-five millions of the great human family, forty
millions of whom are under the rule of Her Most Gracious Majesty
the Impress of India.
July 23rrf, 1885.
THE ARA.BIO LETTERS IN THTS VOLUME HAVE BEEN TRANSLITERATED
A.S FOLLOWS : —
Arabic.
Names,
Roman.
Frotmuciaiion.
,
Alif
A
a, i, n< at the beginning of a word.
V
Ba
B
A.s in English.
Ta
T
A soft dentaJ, like the Italian t.
<£>
Sa
s
\rery nearly the sound of th in thing.
B
Jim
J
As in English.
C
Ha
H
A strong aspirate.
t
Kha.
Kh
Cluttural, like the Scotch ch in loch.
Dal
D
Soft dental.
$
Zal
I
A sound between dh and z.
y
Ra
E
)
7a
i
3
£fa
c*~
> As in English-
U*
Sin
\
Shin
Sh
•}
•v^
Sad
S
A strongly articulated s\ in Central Asia
j
aa sw.
Jl
Zad
z
Something like the foreign pronunciation
of the tic in that', in Central Asia and
India, z or ?.w.
k
Ta
T
A strongly articulated palatal t.
•
Za
z
A strongly articulated z.
£
'Am
•
A guttural, the pronunciation of which
;
must be learnt by ear.
£
Gliam
Crh
A strong guttural gii.
0
Fa
F
As in English.
J
Qat
Q
Like ck in stuck
e)
Kaf
K
1
J
Lam
L
r
Mim
M
NQn
N
)As in English.
&
Ba
H
[
j
Watt
W
I
Ya
r
/
-__
Eathah
a
•%
~~
Kasrah
i
V As in Italian.
*._
Zanimah
u
)
0
Himixah
»
Pronounced as a, i, u, preceded by a yery
slight aspiration.
DICTIONARY OF ISLAM.
AAKON. Arabic Harun
The account given of Aaron in the Qur'an
be found in tho article on Moses. In Surah
xix. 29, tho Virgin Mary i* addres*«d as « tho
Sister of Aaron." [MARY, MOCES.J
ABAD (J^). Eternity; without
end, as distinguished fromAzal
without beginning.
•ABASA (LT^). "Ho frowned."
Tke title of the Lxxxth chapter of the Qur'an.
It is said that a blind man, named 'Abdu 'Hah
ibn Umm Maktum, once interrupled Muham
mad in conversation with certain -chiefs of
Quraisb. The Prophet, however, took no
notice of him, but frowned and turned away :
mid in the first verso of this Surah, he is
represented as reproved by God for having
done so : — " Ho frowned and turned his back,
for that the blind man came unto him."
•ABBAS (<j-W*). The son of 'Abdu
VMutialib, and consequently the paternal
uncle of Muhammad. The most celebrated
of the "Companions," and the founder of the
Abbaside dynasty, which held the Khali fato
for a period of 509 year3, namely, from A.I>.
749 to A.D. 1258. He died in A.H. 82. His
son Ibn-' Abbas was also a celebrated autho
rity on Islamic traction? an'! la\v. fins
'ABBAS, ABBAKTHUS .1
ABBASJDES. Arabic al-< Abbdsiyah
(dU~\**J\). The name of a dynasty" ot
Khalifahs descended from al-' Abbas, the son
.>f 'Abdu 'l-Mutt;alib, and a paternal uncle of
Muhammad. On account of their descent
from so near a relation of the Prophet, the
Abbasides had, ever since the introduction of
Islam, been very high in esteem amongst the
Arabs, and had at an early period begun to
excite the jealousy of the Urnaiyade Khalifahs.
who after the defeat of 'All occupied the
throne of the Arabian Empire. Tho Abbas-
idea had for some time asserted their c'aims
to the Khalifate, and in A.D. 746 they com
menced open hostilities. In 749 the Abbaside
Kballifah Abu V Abbas, surnatned as-Saffah,
"the blood-shedder," was recognied as Kha-
lifah at al-Kufah, and Marwan II., the last of
the Cmaiyado Khalifahs, was defeated and
e lain.
Thirty-seven Khalifahs of the Abbaside dy
nasty reigned over the Muhainmadan empire,
extending over the period from A.H. 182 (A.D
749-50) to A.H. 656 (A.D. 1258).
The names of the Abbasido Khalifahs are •---
Abu 'l-'Abbas as-Safiah (A.D. 719;, al-Mansur
(A.I). 754). al-Mahdi (A.D. 770), al-Hadl (A.D.
785), Harun ar Rashid (A.D. 786), al-Amin
(A.D. 809), al-Ma'inim (A.D. 813). al-Mu'tasim
(A.D. 833), al-Wasiq (A.H. 842),al-Mutawakkil
(A.D. 847;, al-Muntasir (A,D. 861), al-Mujjta'in
(A.D. 862), al-Mu'tazz (A.D. SGfi), al-Mulitad)
(A.D. 86»>, al-Mu'tamid (A.D. 870), al-Mu'ta/.id
(A.D. 892)) al-Muktafi (A.D. 902), al-Muqtadir
(A.D. 908). al-Qahir (A.D. 932), ar-Razi (A.D
934), al-Mnttaqi (A.D 940), al-Mustaqfl (A n
044), al-Muti' (A.D. 945), at-Tfii' '(A.D. 974)
al-Qadir (A.D. 994), al-Qaim (A.D. 1031), al
Muqtadi (A.D. 1075). al-Mustazhir (A.D. 1094),
al-Mustarshid (A.D. 1118), ar-Riishid (A.C
1135), al-Muqtafl (A.D. 1136), al-Mu«tanji.l
(A.D. 1160), al-Mustazi (A.D. 1170), an-Naen
(A.D. 1180), as-Zahir (A.D. 1225), al-MustanMr
I'A.D. 1226), al-Musta'sim (A.D. 1242 to A.D.
L258).
In the reign ot ai-.Muata'sim HQiaku,grand-
aon of Jinglz Khan, entered Persia and
became Sultan A.D. 1256. In 1258 he took
Baghdad and put the KJhalifah al-Musta'siiu to
death. [KHALIFAIL]
ABDAL (J^\). " .Substituies, '
pi. of Badal. Certain persons by whom, it is
said, Gcd continues the -world in existence.
Their number is seventy, of whom forty
reside in Syria, and thirty elsewhere. ^Vhon
one dies another takes his place, being* so
1
2 ABDU 'r/LAEI
appointed by God. It i* one of the signs of
the last day that the Abddl will come from
Syria. (Mishkat, xxiii, c, 3.) No one pre
tends to be able to identify these eminent
persons hi the world. God alone knows who
they are, and where they are.
'ABDU 'LLAH (AUU**). The father
of Muhammad, He was the youngest son of
*Ahdu '1-Muttalib. During the pregnancy of
his wife Aminah, he set out on a mercantile
expedition to Gaza in the south of Palestine,
and on his way back he sickened and died at
al-Madlnah, before the birth of his son Mu
hammad (Kdtibul-Wdqidi, p, 18; Muir's
Life of Mahomet, vol. i. p. 11.)
'ABDU 'LLAH IBN SA'D (aW.vt
J^t- ^i) One of Muhammad's secre
taries. It is related that, when Muhammad
instructed 'Abdu 'Hah to write down the
words (Surah xxiii. 12-14), " We (God) have
created man from an extract of clay . . .
then we produced it another creation," 'Abdu
'llah exclaimed, " And blessed be God,
the best of creators"; and Muhammad told
him to write that down also. Whereupon
'Abdu 'llah boasted that he had been inspired
with a sentence which the Prophet had ac
knowledged to be part of the Qur'an. It is of
him that it is written in the Qur'an, Surah vi.
93, "Who is more unjxist than he who devises
against God a lie, or says, ' I am inspired,'
when he i« not inspired at all."
'ABDU 'L-MUTTALIBts-lUttjuc).
Muhammad's grandfather and his guardian
for two years. He died, aged 82, A.D. 578.
His sons were 'Abdu "llah (Muhammad's
father), al-Haris az-Zuhair, Abu Tulib, Abu
Lahab, a 1-' Abbas, and Hamza.
'ABDU 'L-QA.DIR AL-JlLANl
(^^\ joUNjifrc). The celebrated
founder of the Qadiriyah order of darweshes,
surnamed PIr-Dastagir. He died and was
buried at Baghdad, A.H. 501.
'ABDU 'RJBAHMAN IBN <AUF
(^2* ^ ^j^cwjttjk**). One of the Com
panions who embraced Islam at a very early
period, and -was one of those who fled to
Ethiopia. He also accompanied Muhammad
in all his battles, and received twenty wounds
at Uhud, He died A.H. 32, aged 72 or 75.
and was buried at Baql'u 'i-Gharqad. the
graveyard of al -Madman.
ABFL. Arabic Hdbll ( rfU), Heb.
an Hebel In the Qur'an " the two
eons of Adam " are called Ildbil wtt Qdbll,
and the following is the account given of
them in that book (Surah v. 80-35), together
with the remarks of the commentators in
italics (as rendered in Mr. Lane's Selections,
2nded., p. 53), " Recite unto them the history
of the two sons of Adam, namely, Abel
and Cain, with truth. When they offered
[their] offering to God (AbeTs being a ram, and
Cain's being produce of the earth), and it was
accepted from one of them (Mar is ', from Abel;
'ABID
for Jire descended from heaven, and devoured
his offering), and it was not accepted from the
other, Cain was enrauedj but he concealed his
envy until Adam performed a pilgrimage, when
he said unto his brother^ I will assuredly slay
thee. Abel said. Wherefore? Cain answered^
Recause of the acceptance of thine offering to
tht exclusion of mine. Abel replied, God only
accepteth from the pious. If thou stretch
forth to me thy hand to slay me, I will not
stretch forth to thee my hand to slay thee ;
for I fear God, the Lord of the worlds. I
de.sire that thou shouldst bear the sin [which
thou intendest to commit] against me, by
slaying me, and thy sin which thou hast com
mitted before, and bou wilt be of the compa
nions of the fire. — And that is the recompense
of the offenders.— But his soul suffered him to
slay his brother so he slew him; and he
became of [the number of] those who suffer
loss. And he knew not. iv/iat to do with kirn ;
for he was the first dead person upon the face of
the- earth of the sons of Adam. So he, carried
him upon his baek. And God sent a raven,
which scratched up the earth with its biU
and ita talons and raised it over a dead raven
that was with it. until it hid it, to show him
how he should hide the corpse of his brother.
He said, O my disgrace! Am I unable to be
like this raven, and to hide the corpse of my
brother? — And he became of [the number
of] the repentant. And he digged [a grave]
for him and hid him. — On account of this
ivhich Cain did We commanded the children
of Israel that he who sljould slay a soul (not
for the latter's having slain a soiil or committed
wickedness in the earth, such as infidelity, or
adultery, or intercepting the way^ and tht /ike)
[should be regarded] as though he had slain
all mankind ; and he who saveth it alive, by
abstaining from slaying it. as though he had
saved alive all mankind."
" The occasion of their making this offer
ing is thus related, according to the common
tradition in the East. Each of them being
boru with a twin-sister, when they were
grown up, Adam, by God's direction, ordered
Cain to marry Abel's twin-sister, and Abel to
marry Cain's ; (for it being the common
opinion that marriages ought not to be had
in the nearest degrees of consangtiinity, since
they must necessarily marry their sisters, it
seemed reasonable to suppose they ought to
take those of the remoter degree ;) but this
Cain refusing to agree to, because his own
sister w,as the handsomest, Adam ordered
them to make their offerings to God, thereby
referring the dispute to His determination.
The commentators say Cain's offering was a
sheaf of the very worst of his orn, but
Abel's a fat lamb of the best of hi* flock." —
Sale's Koran, I., p. 122.
<ABID O>U). "A worshipper [of
God]." A term generally used for a devout
person. The word frequently occurs in the
Qur'an; e.g. Surah ii. 132: "The baptism
{sibghah} of God! And who is better than
God at baptizing ? We are the worshippers
('abidun) of God." The word aibghah is trans-
ABIQ
latdd by Professor Palmer"dye'' and "dyeing,"
but Sale, following the Muslim commentators,
al-Baizuwi. Jalalu 'd dm, and llu.sainl, who
say it refers to' tho Christian rite, translates it
"baptism." Of hers say that it means. ///mA
or din. the religion of God, with an ndapta-
tation to which mankind are created. See
Lane's Lexicon, f BAPTISM.]
ABIQ (&\). A runaway slave.
[ABSCONDING OF SLAVES.]
ABJAD (^). Tho name oil an
arithmetical arrangement of the alphabet, the
letters of which have different powers from
one to one thousand. It is in the order of
the alphabet as used by the Jews «a far as
400, the six remaining letters feeing added
by the Arabians. The letters spell the
words —
nbjad hauowfiz hulti halaman
sa'j'as r/aras/iat stik/iaz zaziyh
The author of the Arabic Lexicon. nl-Qdmux,
.says that tho first .six words are the names
of celebrated kings of Madyan (Midian), and
that the last two words were added by the
Arabians. Some say they arc the names of
the eight sons of the inventor of the Arabic
character, Muramir ihn Murra.
The following is a list of the letters with
their English equivalents, and the power of
each in numbers : —
ABLUTION
3
b
s-»
j
5
d
j
h
^
w
)
z
)
h
t
t
L
y
tS
dJ
i
J
m
r
n
a
60
s
u*
70
t
t
80
f
vJ
90
(S
100
q
J
200
r
300
sh
•J*
400
t
i~s
500
s
«^>
600
kh
c
700
z
J
800
z
u*
1)00
m
k
1000
gh
t
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
20
30
40
50
[EXORCISM.]
ABLUTION. Arabic, wazu\ wuzu
(fj*j)» Persian, G&rfa** (u^-^j. Ablu
tion is described by Muhammad as "the half of
faith and the key of prayer " (Mixlikat. iii. 3c).
and is founded on tho authority of the Qur'an,
surah v. 8, " 0 Believers! when yo prepare
yourselves for prayer, wash your' faces and
hands up to the elbows, and wipe ycur heads
and your feet to the ankles."
These ablutions arc absolutely necessary as
n preparation for tho recital of" tho liturgical
form of prayer, and are performed as follows:
The worshipper, having tucked up his sleeves
n little higher than his elbows, washes his
hands three times ; then he rinses his mouth
three times, throwing the water into it with
his right hand. After this, he, with his right
hand, throws -water up his nostrils, snuffing
it np at the eame time, and then blow.s it out,
compressing his nostrils with the thumb and
finger of the left, hand — thia being also per
formed three times. He then washes his
face throo tim«-s. throwing up the water with
both hands. Ho noxt- washes his n.;ht hand
and arm, a.- high us the elbow, as many times,
causing tho water to ran along his arm from
the palm of the hand to the elbow. an;l in
the same manner he washes too loft. Then
he draws his wetted right hard over the
upper part of his head, raising his turban
or cap with his loft. It" he has a beard, he
then comb!? it with the wetted fingers of his
right hand, holding his hand with the palm
forwards, and passing the lingers through his
board from the throat upwards. He then
puts the tips of his fore-h'ngcrs into his ears
an 1 twists them round, passing his thumbs at
the same time round the back of tho ears
from tho bottom upwards. Next, he wipes
his neck with the back of the fingers of both
hands, making the ends of his liners meet
behind his neck, and then drawing them for
ward. Lastly, he washes his feet, as high as
the ankles, and passes his fingers between the
toes. During this ceremony, which is gene
rally performed in less than three minutes,
the intending worshipper usually recites some
pious ejaculations or prayers. For example : —
Before, eornmenf.'ing the wazff: — "I am
going to purify myself from all bodily un-
cleanness, preparatory to commencing prayer,
that holy act of duty, which will draw my
soul near to tho throne of the Most High.
In tha name of God. tho Great and Mighty.
Praise bo to God who has given us grace to
be Muslims. Islam is a truth and intidelity
a falsehood."
When washing the nostrils : — -; 0 my God, if
I am pleasing in Thy sight, perfume ine with
the odours of Paradise.1'
When washing the right hand : — " O my
God, on the day of judgment, place the book
of my actions in my right hand, and examine
my account with favour/'
When washing the left hand : — " 0 my God,
place not at the resurrection the book of my
actions in my left hand.''
The Shiya'Is, acting moro in accordance
with the text of the Qur'an quoted above,
only wipe, or rub (maxah) the feet, instead of
washing them, as do the Sunnis.
The ablution need not be performed before
each of the five stated periods of prayer,
when the person is conscious of having
avoided every kind of impurity since tho last
performance of the ablution. Tho private
parts of the body must also bo purified when
necessary. When water cannot be procured,
or would be. injurious to health, the ablution
may be performed with dust or sand. This
ceremony is called Tni/ammum (</.('.)• Tho
washing of tho whoie bodv is neces?nr>/ after
certain periods of impurity. [GHUSJ,.] The
brushing of the teeth is also a religious duly.
[MIMWAK.] The b?ncfits of ablution are.
highly o;iioHt.-d in the sayings of >irr -iru-nad,
He who p-.-rforrnr, the wa . '•;ly
will extract all «in from his body, even tho..
it may ho lurking under his linger nails." " Tti
ABORTION
ABRAHAM
the day 01 resurrection people shall eorne
with bright faces,, handa and fe«>r and there
will be jewels in every place where the waters
of the waziZ have reached. (Mtshkvt. iii. I.)
TDK ABLUTIONS USED IN AFGHAN
ISTAN AND INDIA
VESSELS 10R A15H;TIONS USED IN BGTI-T.
(LAKE'S " EGYPTIANS.")
In all the principal mosques there are
tanks, or -wells, which supply water for the
purposes of Legal purification. [PTIKIFICATION.]
ABORTION. Arabic Isqd£. There
is- no mention of the subject in the Qur'an,
but according to the Fatdwi 'Alamgiri (TO!.
iv. p. 238), it is forbidden after the child ia
formed in the womb. Muhammad is related
to have ordered prayers to be said over an
abortion, when supplication should be made
for the father and mother, '-for forgiveness
and mercy. (Mishkdt, v. c. 2.)
ABRAHAM. Arabic Ibrahim
Cf**W)* One of the six great pro
phets to whom God delivered special laws.
The "Friend of God," Khalilu 'ilah, to whom
were revealed twenty portions (xahifah) of
Scripture.
Abraham is very frequently mentioned in
the Qur'an, together with Ishmacl and Isaac.
The following are Mr. Lane's selections (giving
in italic;* the remarks of Muslim commenta
tors) .-—
" JRernember when Abraham said to his
father Azar (this ivns the swiKunf of Terafi),
Dost thou take images as deities ? Verily I
see thee and thy people to be in a manifest
error. —(And thus, as We shotved him (he error
of his father and his people, did We show
Abraham the kingdom of the heavens and the
earth, and [We did so] that he might be of [the
number of] those who firmly believe.) And
when the night overshadowed him, he saw a
star (it is t>ai<I that it was Venus), [and] he said
unto his people, who were astrologers, This is
my Lord, according to your assertion.— But
when it set. he said, I like not those that set.
to take them as Lords, since it is not meet for u.
Lord to experience alteration and change of
placet, as they are of the nature of accidents
Yet this had no effect upon them. And whea
he saw the moon rising, he said unto them
This is my Lord. — But -when it set, he said.,
Verily if my Lord direct me not (if He ran-
firm me not in the right way\ 1 shall assur'e'tU;
be of the erring people. — This was a hint to
his people that they were in error ; but it had no
effect upon them. And when he saw the sun
rising, be said, This is my Lord. This is
greater than the, star and the moon. — But when
it set. and the proof had been rendered ntore
strong to them, yet they desisted not, be said 0
my people, verily I am clear of the [things]
which ye associate with God; namely the
images and the heavenly bodies. So they naiii
unto him, What dost thou worship? fft.
answered, Verily I direct iriy face unto Him
who hath created the heavens and the earth,
following the right religion, and 1 am Dot of
the polytlieists.— And his people argued with
him ; [but] he said, Do ye argue with tne
respecting God, when Pie hath directed we,
and I fear not what ye associate with Him
unless my Lord will that aught displeauHg
should befall me? My Lord comprebendetti
everything by His knowledge. Will ye hot-
therefore consider? And wherefore -should
I fear what ye have associated with God
when ye fear not for your having ussooiated
with God that of which He hath not sent
down unto you a proof ? Then which of thr
two parties is the more worthy of safety I ,
Are we, or you f If ye know wha is the mor»
worthy of it, f of tow him.- — God saith, Th"e>
•who have. believed, and not mixed their belief
with injustice (that is, polytheism}, for theso
shall bo safety from punishment, and they ar*
rightly directed." (Surah vi. 74-82,")
" Relate unto tfiem, in the book (that is, the
Qm'an^. f he history of Abraham. Verily, he
was a person of great veracity, a prophet.
When he said unto his father Azar, who wor
shipped idols, O my father, wherefore" dost
tliou v/orfihip that which hearefh not, nor
seeth, nor averteth from thee aught, whether
of advantage, or of injury? O my father
verily fja degree] of knowledge hath come
itmo me, that hath not come unfco- tbes :
therefore follow me: [ will direct th«e into a
right way. O my lather, serve not the devil,
ABRAHAM
by obeying him in serving idols ; for the devil j
is very rebellious unto the Compassionate. 0
my father, verily I fear that a punishment will
betid* thee from the Compassionate, if thou
repent not, and that thou wilt be unto the
devil an aider, and a companion in hell-fire. —
He replied, Art thou a rejector of my Gods,
0 A braham, and dost thou revile them f If
thou abstain not, I will assuredly assail theo j
with stones or with ill words ; therefore beware
]f me, and leave me for a long time. — Abra-
'Htm said, Peace from me be on theo ! I will
isk pardon for thee of my Lord ; for He
<s gracious unto mo : and I will separate
nyself from you and from what ye invoke,
ustead of God ; and I will call upon my
Lord : perhaps I shall not be unsuccessful in
calling upon my Lord, as ttt are in calling
upon idols. — And when he had separated him
self from them, and from what they wor
shipped instead of God, by goiny to the F/ofy
Land. We gave him two sons, that he might
cheer himself thereby, namely, Isaac and Jacob :
and each [of themj We made a prophet; and
We bestowed upon them (namely, the three).
of our mercy, wealth and children ; and We
caused them to receive high commendation."
(Surah six. 42-51.)
" We gave unto Abraham his direction for
merly, before he had attained to manhood; and
We know him to be worthy of it. When he
said unto his father and his people, What are
these images, to the worship of which ye are
devoted? — they answered, We found our
fathers worshipping them, and we have fol
lowed their example. He said unto them.
Verily ye and your fathers have been in a
manifest error. They said, Hast thou come
unto us, with tmth in saying this, or art thou
of those who jest? He answered, Nay, your
Lord (the being who de&rveth to be worshipped")
:« the Lord of the heavens and the earth,
who created them, not after the similitude of
anything pre-existing ; and I am of those who
bear witness thereof. And, by God, I will
assuredly, devise a plot against your idols
after ye shall have retired, turning your
backs. — So, after they k<id gone to their place
of assembly , on a day when they held 'a festival.
he break them in pieces with <w vuce, except
the chief of them, upon to/iose i.^k he hung the
axe; that they might return unto it (namely
*he chief) and ace what he had done with the
<)ther*. They said, after thty had returned
and seen what he had done, Who hath done
this unto our gods ? Verily he is. of the
unjust. — And some of them, said, We heard a
young man mention them reproachfully: he
is called Abraham. They said, Then bring
him before the eyes of the people, that they
ma;* hour witness against him of his havinfi
done it They said unto kirn, wftfn he had
been brought, Hast thou done this untu our
gods, O Abraham ? He answered, Nay, this
their chief did it : and ask ye luein, if they
[can} speak. And they returned unto them
selves, upon reflection, and said unto them
selves. Verily ye are the unjust, in worship
ping that which spealceth nut. Then they re
verted to their obstinacy, and said. Verily
ABRAHAM 5
thou knowest that these gpeuk iioc : then
wherefore dost thou order us to ask them ? He
said, Do ye then worship, instead of God,
that which doth not pro lit you at all, nor
injure you if ye worship it not ? Fie on you,
and on that which ye worship instead of God I
Do yo not then understand? — They said,
Burn ye him, and avenge your gods, if ye
will do so. So they collected ahundance of fire
wood for him, and seljire to it ; and they bound
AbruhtUH, and put him into an engine, and cust
him into the fire. But, tauth God, We said, O
fire, be thou cold, and a security unto Abra
ham ! So nouy/it of him was burned save his
bowls: the heat of thejire ceased, but its light
remained.; and by God's saying, Security. —
Abraham was saved from dying ly reason of
it* cold. And they intended against him a
plot ; but he caused them to be the sufferers.
And we delivered him and Lot, the son of hi*
brother Haran, fro pi El-'Erdq, [bringing
them] tmto the land which We blessed for tho
peoples, by the abundance of t'tft rivers and
trees, namely. Syria. Abraham took up his abode
in Palestine, and Lot in JZl-Mutefikeh, be
tween which is u day's journey. And when
•Abraham had asked a son, We gave unt'j him
Isaac, and Jacob as an additional gift, be
yond what he had aslced, bdny a 4cw'* son ; and
all of them We made righteous persons o.nd
prophets. And We made them models of reli
gion who directed inen by Our command uttfo
Our religion ; and We commanded them by
inspiration to do good works and to perform
prayer and to give the appointed alms ; j»ud
they served Us. And unto Lot We gave
judgment and knowledge; and We delivered
him from the city which committed filthy
actions ; for they were a people of evil,
shameful doers •, and We admitted him into
our mercy; for he was [onej of the righteous.'
(Surah xxi. 62-75.)
" Hast thou not considered him who disputed
with Abraham concerning his Lord, because
God had given him the kingdom? And ke
was Nimrod. When Abraham said, (upon his
*ayinq unto him. Who is thy Loi-d, unto whom
ihou /nvitest us ?). My Lord is He who givetb
life and causeth to die, — ho replied. I give
life and cause to die* — And he MMMMMM! twf>
men, and slew one of them., and left the other
So when he saw that fie understood not. Abra
ham said, And verily God bringeth the MIH
irom the east : now do thou bring it from the
west. — And he tvhc disbelieved was con
founded ; and God directeth not tho oh" ending
people." (Surah ii. 260.;
** And Our messengers caine formerly unto
Abraham with good tidings of Itaac and
Jacob, who should be after him. They said,
Peace. He replied. Peace be on you And he
tarried not, but brought a roasted ralf. Aad
when he saw mat their hands touched it not.
he disliked them and conceived a foar oi
them. They said, Fear not : for we avo sent
unto the people of Lot, tluii toeintty dentroy
fJi'in. And hi* wvf« Sarah was standing
serving them, and she laughed, rejoicing at til-
tidings of their destruction. And we Rftve he'.
good tidings of Isaac; and after lean". Jacob
6 ABRAHAM
She said, Alas ! shall I bear a child when I
am an old woman of nine and ninety years,
and when this my husband is art old man of
a hundred or a hundred and twenty years ?
Verily this ("would be] u wonderful thing. —
They said, Dost thou wonder at the com
mand of God? The mercy of God and His
blessings be on you, O people of the house (of
Abraham)] for He is - praise worthy, glorious.
— And when the terror bad departed from
Abraham, and the good tidings had come
unto him, he disputed with Us (tJiat is, with
Our messengers') respecting the people of
Lot; for Abraham was gentle, compassionate,
repentant. And he said unto them, Will ye
destroy a city wherein aw three, hundred be
lievers? They answered, No. He said, And
will ye destroy a city wherein are two
hundred believers c! They answered. No. He
said, And will ye destroy n, city wherein are
forty believers'? They answ ered, No. He said,
And will ye destroy a city wherein are fourteen
believers? They answered, No. He, said, And
tell me, if there- be, in it one believer t They
answered, No. He said, Verily in it is Lot.
They replied, We know best who is in it. And
when their dispute had become tedious, they
said, O Abraham, abstain from this disputa
tion ; for the command of thy Lord hath come
for their destruction, and a punishment not [to
ba] averted is coming upon them." fSurah >zi.
72-78.)
" And when Our decree for the destruction of
the people of Lot came [to bo executed], We
turned them {that is, their cities) upside-
down ; for Gabriel raised them to heaven, and
let them fall upside-down to the earth ; and
We rained upon them stones ot" baked clay,
sent one after another, marked with thy Lord,
each with the name, of him upon whom it should
be cast : and they [are] not far distant from
the offenders ; that is, the stones are not, or the
cities of the people of Lot were not, far distant
from the people of Mekkeh." (Surah xi. 84.)
" And [Abraham] said [after his escape
from Nimrod], Verily I am going unto my
Lord, who will direct me unto the place
whither He hath commanded me to go, namely,
Syria. And when he had arrived at the Holy
La.nd, he said, O my Lord, give me a son
[who shall be one] of the righteous. Where
upon We gave him the glad tidings of a mild
youth. And when he had attained to the
age when he could work with him (as some
say, seven years ; and some, thirteen), he said,
0 my child, verily I have seen in a dream that
1 should sacrifice theo (and the dreams of pro
phets are true ; and their actions, by the com
mand of God) • therefore consider what thou
seest advisable for me to do. He replied, O
my father, do what thou art commanded:
thou shalt find me. if God please, [of tlie
number] of the patient. And when they had
resigned themselves, and he had laid him
down on his temple, in [the -valley of] Mind,
and had drawn the knife across his throat (but
it produced no effect, by reason of an obstacle
interposed by the divine power), We called unto
him, 0 Abraham, thou hast verified the
vision. Verily thus do We reward the well-
ABRAHAM
doers. Verily this was the manifest trial.
And We ransomed him ivhoni he had been com
manded to sacrifice (and he was Ishmael or
Isaac ; for there are two opinions) with an
excellent victim, a ram from Paradise, the
same that Abel had offered: Gabriel (on whom
be peace I ) brought it, and the lord Abraham
sacrificed it, saying, God is most great / And
We left this salutation [to be bestowed] on
him. by the latter generations, Peace [be] on
Abraham ! Thus do We reward the well
doers : for he was of Our believing servants."
(Surah xxxvii. 97-111.)
" Remember when Abraham said, O my Lord,
show me how Thou will raise to life the
dead. — He said, Hast thou not believed ? He
answered, Yea: but / have asked Thc.e that
my heart may be at ease. Ho replied. Then
take four birds and draw them towards thee,
and cut (hem in pieces and mingle together their
flesh and their feathers ; then place \ipon each
mountain of thy land a portion of them, then
call them unto ihee. : they shall come unto
thee quickly; and know thou that God is
mighty [and] wise. — And he took a peacock
and a vulture and a raven and a. cock, and did
with them as hatli been described, and kept their
heads with him. and called them ; whereupon
tkc portions flew about, one to another, until
they became complete : then they came to their
heads." (Surah ii. 262.)
" Remember, when his Lord had tried Abra
ham by [certain] words, commands and prohi
bitions, and he fulfilled them, God said unto
him, I constitute thee a model of religion unto
men. Ho replied. And of my offspring con
stitute models of religion. [God] said, My
covenant doth not apply to the offenders, the
unbelievers among them. — And when We ap
pointed the house (that is, the JCalba/t} to be
a place for the resort of men, and a .place of
security (a man would meet the slayer of his
father there and he would not provoke him [to
revenge],) and [said], Take, O men, the sta
tion of Abraham (the stone upon ivhich he stood
at the time of building the House) as a
place of prayer, that ye. inay perform, behind it
the prayers of the two rafruhs [which are or
dained to be performed after the ceremony]
of the circuiting [of the Ka'bah], — And We
commanded Abraham and Ishmael, [saying],
Purify my House (rid it of the idols) for
those who shall compass [it], and those who
shall abide there, and those who shall bow down
and prostrate themselves. — And when Abra
ham said, O my Lord, make this place a
secure territory (and God hath answered his
prayer, and made it a. sacred place, wherein the
blood of man is not shed, nor is any one op
pressed in it, nor is its game hunted [or shot],
nor are its plants cut or pulled up), and supply
its inhabitants with fruits (which hath been
done by the transporting of at- faif from Syria
thither, when it [that is, the territory of
Makkah] was desert, without soivn land or
water, such of them as shall believe in God
and the last day. — He mentioned them pecu
liarly in the prayer agreeably with the saying
of God, My covenant doth not apply to the
offenders. — God replied, And J mu supply
ABBAHAM
ABU HANIFAH
him who disbelieveth : I will make him to
enjoy a supply of food in this ivorld, a little
while : then I will force him, in the. world to
come, to the punishment of the fire ; and evil
shall be the transit." (Surah ii. 118-120.)
" And remember when Abraham was raising
the foundations of the House (that I'.v, build
ing it), together with Ishmael, and they said.
0 our Lord, accept of us our building; for
Thou art the Hearer of what is said, the
Knower of what is done. O our Lord, also
make us resigned unto Thee, and make from
among our offspring a people resigned unto
Thee, and show us our rites (the ordinances
of our worship, or our pilgrimage}., and be pro
pitious towards us ; for Thou art the Very
Propitious, the Merciful. (They begged Him
to be propitious to them, notwithstanding their
honesty, from a motive of humility, and by way
of instruction to their offspring.) O our Lord,
also send unto them (that is, the. people, of the
House) an apostle from among them (and God
hath answered their prayer by sending Muham
mad), who shall recite unto them Thy signs
(the Qur'dn), and shall teach them the book
(the Qur'dn), and the knowlege that it con-
taineth, and shall purify them from polytheism ;
for Thou art the Mighty, the Wise. — And
who will be averse from the religion of
Abraham but he who makath his soul foolish,
who is ignorant that it is God's creation, and
that the worship of Him is incumbent on it ; or
who lightly csieemeth it and appfieth it to vile
purposes ; when We have chosen him in this
world a* o.n apostle and a friend, and ho shall be
in the world to come one of the righteous for
whom are high ranks ? — And remember when
his Lord said unto him, Resign thyself: — he
replied, I resign myself unto the Lord of the
worlds. — And Abraham commanded his chil
dren to follow it (namely, the religion) ; and
Jacob, his children ; saying, O my children,
verily God hath chosen for you the religion
ofal-Islnni; therefore die not without your
being Muslims. — It was a prohibition from
abandoning Islatn and a command to persevere
therein unto death." (Surah ii. 121-126.)
" When the Jews said, Abraham ivas a Jew,
uinl we are. of his religion, — and the Christians
said the. like, [tho following] was revealed: —
O people of the Scripture, wherefore do ye
argue respecting Abrabain. asserting that he
was of your religion, when the Pentateuch and
the Gospel were not sent down but after him
a long time? Do ye not then understand the.
falsify of your saying'/ So ye. O people, have
argued respecting that of which ye have
knowledge, concerning Moses and Jesus, find
have asserted that ye are of their religion :
then wherefore do ye argue respecting that
of vvhich ye have no knowledge, concerning
Abraham? But God knoweth his case, and
ye know if not. Abraham was not a Jew nor
a Christian : but he was orthodox, a Muslim
[or one resigned], a Unitarian, and he was not
of the polytheists." (Surah iii. f>8-60.)
ABSCONDING OF SLAVES.
Arabic Ibuq (jM). An absconded
male or female slave is called Abig, but an
infant slave who leaves his home is termed
?«//, a word which is also used for an adult
slave who has strayed. The apprehension of
a fugitive slave is a laudable act, and the
person who seizes him should bring him be
fore the magistrate and receive a reward of
forty dirhams. (Hamilton's Hiduyuh, vol. ii
p. 278.)
ABSTINENCE. Arabic Tagwd
. Is very frequently enjoined in
the Qur'an. The word generally applies to
abstinence from idolatry in the first instance,
but it is used to express a life of piety. An
excessive abstinence and a life of asceticism
are condemned in the Qur'an, and tho Chris
tians are charged with the invention of the
monastic life. (Surah Ivii. 27.) ''As for th*
monastic /iff, they invented it themselves."
[MONASTICISM, FASTING.]
ABU 'ABDI 'LLAII (AIH.MS yt).
Muhammad ibn Isma'IIal-Bukhjiri,the author
of the well-known collection of traditions re
ceived by the Sunnis. [BUKHARI.]
ABU 'ABDI 'LLAH AHMAD IBN
HANBAL
[HANBAU]
ABtT 'ABDI 'LLAH IBN ANAS
(u~rt e» ^^ AlN.x*fty\). [MALIK.]
ABtJ 'ABDI 'LLAH MUHAM
MAD IBN AL-HASAN (dW ?\
(^^\ tf A-»^»). Known as Imam
Muhammad. Born at Wasit, a city in Arabian
'Iraq, A.H. 132. He studied under the great
Imam Abu Hani f ah. and had also studied
under Imam Malik for three years. He is cele
brated as one of the disciples of the Iniiim
Abu Hamfah, from whom he occasionally
differs, as ia seen in the Hidayah. HP died
at Rai, in Khurasan, where his tomb is still
to bo seen, A.H. 181).
ABU BA.KR (/> j»t). Of the
origin of his name, thore are various explana
tions. Some think that it means '• the father
of the maiden," and that he received this
title because he wa.s the father of 'Ayishah,
whom Muhammad married when she was only
nine years old. His original name was 'Abdu
'1-Ka'bah (which the Prophet changed into
'Abdu Hah) Ibn Abi Quhufah. He was the
first Khalifah, oi' successor of Muhammad.
[SHTAH.J Muhammadan writers praise him
for the purity of his life, and call him as-
Siddiq, the Veracious. He only reigned two
years, and died August 22nd, A.D. 034.
ABU DA'tjD (^U ,.1). Sulaiman
Ibn al-Ash'as al-Sijistani ; born at al-Basrab
A.H. 202, and died A.n. 275. Tho compiler of
one of the six correct books of Sunni tradi
tions, called the Sunnan Abi Dd'ud, which con
tains 4,008 traditions, said to have been care
fully collated from 500,000. [TRADITIONS.]
ABU HANlFAfI (0U«N &**». yt).
Abu Hamfah an-Nu'man ia the great Sunni
Imam and jurisconsult, and the founder of
8
ABU HURAIRAH
the Hanifi sect His father, Sabit, was a
«lk dealer in the city of al Kufah, and
it is said his grandfather, Buta, was a nativ*
of -Kabul. He was bom at al-Kuf*h, A.H. 80
(A.D. TOO), and died at Baghdad, A.K. 150. Ifc
is regarded as the great oracle of Suntu juris
prudence, and his doctrines, with those ol his
disciplea, the Imam Abu Yusuf and the Imam'
Muhammad, are generally received through
oat Turkey, Tartary, and Hindustan. It it.
related that Imam Malik said that the Imam
A.hu Hanifah was such a logician that, if he
vrere to assert a wooden pillar waa made of
, he would prove it by argument.
ABU HUfcAIRAH (S^yfc #\). One
uf the most constant attendants of Muham
mad, who from his peculiar intimacy has
related more traditions of ths sayings and
doings of the Prophet than any other indi
vidual. His real name is doubtful, but he
was nicknamed Abu Hurairah en account of
his fondness for a kitten. He embraced Islam
in the year of the expedition to Khaibar, A.H.
7. and died in al-Madinah, A.H. 57 or 59,
iged 78.
ABtT JAHL (J*. $\). An im-
placable adversary of Muhammad. His real
name was 'Ainr ibn Hishuin, but he was BUT-
named, by the Muslims, Abu Jahl, or the
••Father of Folly." He is supposed to be
alluded to in the Qur'an, Sfirah xxii. 8.~
" There is a ma^ who disputetb concerning
God without eituor knowledge or direction."
He was a boastful and debauched man, and
wa* killed in the battle of Badr
ABU LAHAB (^oJ #\). One of
iK'j sous of Abi Muttalib, and an uncle tr,
M uham?nad. He was a most bilter enemy tc,
t he Pi 'phet, and opposed the establishment
of Tslion to the utmoat of his power. Hi-
name. was 'Abdu '1- Uzza, but he was surnamea
by Muhammad, Abu Lahab, •' The Father of
the Flame." When Muhammad received the
command to admonish his relations, he called-
thein all together, and told them he was a
warner sent unto them before a -grievous
chastisement. Abu Lahab rejected his mis
sion, and cried out, '* Mayest thou perish 1
Hast ihou called us together for this ? " and
took up a stone to cast at him ; whereupon the
cxitb Surah of the Qur'an was produced : —
" Lee the hands of Abu Lahab perish, and
let himself perish !
His wealth and his gains shall avail him
naught.
Burned shall he be at a fiery flame,
And his wife laden with fire wood,
On her nock a rope of palm fibre."
Abu Lahab is said to have died of grief and
vexation at the defeat which his friends had
received at the battle of Badr, surviving that
misfortune only seven days. His body was
left unburied for several days.
2aid and Abu Lahab are the only relatives j
or friends of Muhammad mentioned by name
in the
'AD
ABU 'L-HUZAIL ZUFAR IBN
AL.HUJZAIL (j>.^ ^ ^ j>^ ^>.
Celebrated as the Imani Zufar, and as a con
temporary and intimate friend of the great
\.ruam Abu Hanifah. Ho died at al-Baarah,
A.H. 158
ABU 'L-QASIM (,*-UK #\). " The
father of Qasira." One of the names of Mo
hammad, assumed on the birth of his son
Qasiin, who died in infancy [MUHAMMAD.]
ABUSIVE LANGUAGE is for-
bidden by the Muslim "law, and the offender
must be punished according to the discretion
of the Qazi. Abu Hanifah says : " If a person
abuse a Musaknan by calling him an ass or
u kog, punishment is not incurred, because
these expressions are in no respect defama
tory of the person to whom they are used,
jt being evident that he is neither an ass
nor a bog. But soroe allege that in our
times chastisement is inflicted, since, in the
modern acceptation, calling a man an ass
or a hog is held to be abuse. Others, again,
allege that it in esteemed only to be- abuse
when the person of whom it is said occupies a
dignified position."' According to Abft Hanifah,
the greatest mirnbor of stripes that can be
inflicted for abusive language is thirty-nine.
(Hamilton's Hidayak, vol. ii. 78.)
Muhammad is related, to have said.
" Abusing a Muslim is disobedience to God,
and it is infidelity for anyone to join such an
one in religious warfare." (Mishkdt, xxii. 2.)
ABU TALIB (^VL f\). Muham
mad's uncle and guardian ; the father of
'All. He is believed to have died aa he hau
lived, an unbeliever in the Prophet's mission:
but for forty years he had been his faithful
friend and guardian. He died in the third
year before the Hi j rah.
ABU 'UBAIDAH
AL- JAR RAH One of the Companions, who
was with the Prophet in all his wars, and
distinguished himself at the battle of Uhtid.
He was highly esteemed by Muhammad, who
made him one of the '•Asharah al-Mubash-
sharah, or ten patriarchs of the Muslim faith.
He died A.H. 18, aged 58.
ABCT YUSUF (oL-,> yt). Known
also as Ya'qub ibn. Ibrahim Born at Bagh
dad, A.H. 118, Studied under the Lnarn Abu
Hanifah, and is celebrated, together with the
Imam Muhammad and the Imam Zufar, as
disciples of the great Imam ; from whose
opinions, however, the three disciples not un-
frequently differ, as will be seen upon refer
ence to the Hiddyah. He died A.H. 182.
'AD («>Ve). A tribe located -to the
south of Arabia, to .which the prophet Hud ia
said to have been sent. See Qur'an, vii. 63: —
"And to 'Ad we sent our brother Hud,
'0 my people,' said he, ' worship God : ye
have no other god than Him' : Will ye not
then fea. Him? '
"Said tlie ""believing chiefs among bia
ADA
Vt certainly perceive that thon art
f mind ; and wo surely docm Ihce
an impostor.'
•' He said, * O my people ! it. is not unsound-
ness of mind in mo, but I am an Apostle
from the Lord of the Worlds.
4{< The messages ot my Lord do J announce
to you, und I am your faithful counsellor.
"' Marvel ye that a waitiing hath come to
you from your Lord through ono of yourselves
that He may warn you ? Remember how he
hath made you the successors of the people
of Noah, and increased you in tnllness of
stature. Remember then the favours of God.
that it may haply be well with you.'
" They said, 'Art thou come to us in order
that we may worship one God alone, and
leave what our fathers worshipped? Then
bring that upon us with which thou threat-
eneat us, if thou be a man >f truth/
"He said. ' Vei.geance and wrath shall sud
denly light on you from your Lord. Do ye
dispute with me about names that you and
your fathers have given your idols, and for
which God hath sent you down no warranty ?
Wait ye then, and I too will wait with you.'
'•' And w» delivered him, and those who
were on his side, by our mercy, and we cut
off, to the last man, those who had treated
our signs as lies, and who were not believers."
Also, Surah Ixxxix. 5 : if Hast thou not seen
how thy Lord dealt with 'Ad at Iram.
adorned with pillars, whose like haye not
been reared in these lands." [HUD, IKAM.]
ADA* (p\»3\). Payment ; satisfac
tion • completing (prayers, «Sc.).
ADAM. Arabic, Adam (^). The
first man. Reckoned by Muslim writers as the
first .prophet, to whom ten portions of scrip
ture (s-ahifah) are said to have been revealed.
Re. is f'ist: nguished by the title of $afiyu'llab,
or, the " chosen one of God.'* He is mentioned
in .the }ur'iin in the following Surahs, which
*re taken from Mr. Lane's Selections (new
edition, by Mr. Stanley Lane-Pocle ; Triibner,
1879), with the commentary in italics : —
u Remember, 0 Muhammad, when thy Lord
said unto the angels, I am aboxit to place in
the earth a vicegerent to act for me in the
execution of my ordinances therein, namely,
Adam, — they said, Wilt Thou place in it one
who will corrupt in it by disobediences, and
will shed blood (as did the. sons of El-Junh,
who were in it; where ore, when they acted
corruptly, God sent to them the angels, who
drove them away to the islands and the moun
tains'), when we [on the contrary] celebrate
the divine perfection, occupying ourselves with
Thy praise, and extol Thy holiness? There
fore we. are more worthy of the vicegerency. —
God replied, Verily I know that which ye
know not, as to the affair of appointing Adam
vicegerent, and that among his posteiity will be
the obedient and the rebellious, :tnd the- just will
be manifest among them. And he, created
Adam from the surface of the earth, tnkinu a
handful of every colour that it comprised^ which
VMS kneaded with various water* ;, and he com-
ADAM 9
ptetely formed it, and breathed into it ike soul ,-
so it became an animated sentient btiny. And
he taught Adam the names of all things, in-
/using the knowledge of them into hts heart.
Then He showed them (namely, the ikmys) to
*be angels, and said, Declare unto roe the
names of these things, if ye 'say truth in y&w
assertion that I will not create any more knov)
ing than ye, and that ye are more worthy of the
Mcegerency. They replied, [ We evio£] Thy
perfection 1 We have no knowledge excepting
what Thou hast taught ue ; for -Thou art the
Knowing, the Wise.— -,God said, 0 Adam, tell
them their names. And when he had told
them their names, God said, Did I not say
unto you that I know the secrets of the
heavens and the earth, and know what ye
reveal of your words, saying, Wilt thou place
in it, etc., and what ye did conceal of your
words, saying, He will not create any more
generous towards Him than we, -nor a^y inert-,
'knowing ? " (Surah ii. 28-31.)
': We created you ; that is, your father Adam :
then We formed you; we formed him, and you
in him: then We said unto the angola, Pro
strate yourselves unto Adam,/>y way of salu
tation ; whereupon they prostrated them
selves, except Iblees, the father of the jinn^
who was amid the angds : lie was not of those
who prostrated themselves. God said, What
hath hindered theo from prostrating thyself,
when I commanded thee ? He answered, J
;im better than he : Thou hast created rue of
tire, and Thou hast created him Of earth.
[God] said, Then descend thoa from it ; thai
is, from Paradise ; or, as some, say, front tk&
heavens; for it is not fit for thee that thou
behave thyself proudly therein : so go thou
forth : verily thou shall be of the contempt
ible. He replied, Grant me respite until th«»
day when they (that is, mankind) shall be
raised from the dead* He t>«id, Thou shall
be of those [-who are] respited : and, in another
verse [in xv. 38> it is said], until the day of
the known period '; that is, until theperiod of the
jirst blast [of the trumpet]. [And the davilj
said, Now, as Thou hast led me into error, I
will surely lay wait for them (that is, for the
sons of Adam) in Thy right way, the way that
leadeth to The-- : then I will surely come upon
them, from before them, and from behind
them, and from their right hands, and from
their left, and hinder them from pursuing the
way (but, faith Ibn 'Abbas, he cannot come
upon them above, test he should intervene be
tween the servant and God's mercy], and Thou
ahalt not find the great nxunbcr cf them
grateful, or believing. [God] said, Go forth
from it, despised and driven away from,
mercy. Whosoever of them (that is, of man
kind) shall follow thee, I will surely fill .
uell with you ail : with thee, and thy off
spring i and toith men.'' (Surah vii. 10-17.)
" And we said, 0 Adam, dwell thou and
thy wife (Houuio [or Eve], whom God created
fron a rib of his left side) in the garden, and
eat ye therefrom plentifully, wherever ye
will ; bu approach v.e not this tree, to eat
thereof ; (and it was whea\,or the grape-vine,
or son.e other tree;) for if ye no xot ye will bo
10
ADAB
of the number o/*the offenders. But the devil.
Iblees, caused them to slip from it, that is
from the garden, by Ms saying unto them, Shall
I show you the way to the tree of eternity'?
And he sware to them by God that he was one
of the faithful advisers to them ; so they ate
of it. and He ejected thorn from from that
state of delight in which they were. And We
said, Descend ye to the earth, ye two with the
offspring that ye comprise [yet unborn] , one
of you '(that is, of your offering) an enemy
to another ,• and there shall be for you, in the
earth, a place of abode, and a provision, of
its vegetable produce, for a time, until the.
period of the expiration of your terms of life.
And Adam learned, from his Lord, words,
which ic ere these; — 0 Lord, we have acted
unjustly to oar own souls, and if Thou do not
forgive us, and be merciful unto us, we shall
surely be. of those who suffer loss. And he
prayed in these words ; and He became pro
pitious towards him, accepting hi* repentance ;
for He is the Very Propitious, the Merciful.
We said, Descend ye from it (from the garden}
altogether; and if there come unto you from
Me a direction (a book and an apostle), those
who follow my direction, there shall come no
fear on them, nor shall thejr grieve in the
world to come ; for they shall enter paradise :
but they who disbelieve and accuse our signs
of falsehood, these shall be the companions
of the fire: they shall remain therein for
ever." (Surah ii. 33-37.)
The Muhammadans say, that when they
were cast down from Paradise [which is in
the seventh heaven}, Adam fell on the isle of
Ceylon, or Sarandib, and Eve near Jiddah
(the port of Makkah) in Arabia ; and that,
after a separation of two hundred years,
Adam was, en his repentance, conducted by
the angel Gabriel to a mountain near Mak
kah, where he found and knew his -wife, the
mountain being then named fArafat; and that
ho afterwards retired with her to Ceylon. — •
Sale.
ADAB (v>^\). Discipline of the
mind and manners ; good education and good
breeding ; politeness ; deportment ; a mode
of conduct or behaviour. A very long section
of the Traditions is devoted to the sayings
of Muhammad regarding rules of conduct,
and is found in the Mishkdtu '1-MasabiJ.t under
the title Bdbu 'l-Adab (book xxii. M.atthew's
Mishkdt). It includes — (1) Salutations, f2)
Asking permission to enter houses, (3) Shak
ing hands and embracing, (4) Rising up, (5)
Sitting, sleeping and walking, (6) Sneezing
and yawning, (7) Laughing, (8) Names, (9)
Poetry and eloquence, (10) Backbiting and
abuse, (11) Promises, (12) Joking, (13) Boast
ing and party spirit. The traditional sayings
on these subjects will be found under their
respective titles, 'flmu 't-Adab is the science
of Philology.
'ADIYAT («*^U). "Swift horses."
The title of the 100th Surah of the Quran, the
second verse of which is, "By the swift
chargers and those who strike fire with their
ADORATION
hoofs." Professor Palmer translates it
" snorting chargers."
AD'IYATU 'L-MASURAH (l&*\
Sj9»U^). "The prayers handed down
by tradition." Those prayers which were
said by Muhammad, in addition to the regular
liturgical prayers. They are found in diffe
rent sections of the traditions or A.li<idi&.
'ADL (J^). Justice. Appointing
what is just; equalising; making of the
same weight. Ransom. The word occurs
twelve times in the Qur'an, e.g.. Surah iv. 128,
•4 Ye are not able, it may bo, to act equitably
to your wives, even though ye covet it."
Surah ii. 44, " Fear the day whereid no soxil
shall pay any random for another soul." Surah
ii. 123, <; And fear the day when no soul shall
pay any ransom for a soul, nor shall an equi
valent bc« received therefrom, nor any inter
cession avail ; and they shall not be helped."
Surah ii. 282. '• Write' it down/az'M/u/fy . . .
then let his agent dictate Jaithjully.* Surah v.
105, " Let there be a testimony between you
when any one of you is at the point of death —
at the time he makes his will — two equitable
persons from amongst you." Surah vi. 69,
"And though it (soul) compensate, with the
fullest compensation it would not be accepted."
Surah v. 115, " The words of thy Lord are
fulfilled in truth unAjmtiw" Surah xvi., 78,
" Is he to be held uqual with him who bids
what is just, and who is on the right way?"
Surah xvi. 92, '- Verily God bids you do
justice." Surah xlix. 8, ;* Make peace with
them with equity and be.yw.s-f." Surah Ixxxii.
8, 4< Thy generous Lord, who created theo and
moulded thee and disposed thee ariyht"
AL-'ADL (JJ«N). One of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It signi
fies "the Just." It does not occur in the
Qur'an as an attribute of the Divine Being,
but it is in the list of attributes given in the
Traditions. (Mishkdt., book x.)
'ADN (o^)- The garden of Eden.
Jannata 'Adn. The. garden of perpetual
abode. The term is used both for the garden
of Eden, in which our first parents dwelt,
and also for a place in celestial bliss. [JAW-
VATU <ADN.]
ADOPTION. Arabic Tabannl
(or**)- An adopted son, or daughter,
of known descent, has no right to inherit
from his. or her, adoptive parents and their
relatives, — the filiation of this >• description
being neither recommended nor recognised by
Muhammadan law. Such son or daughter is,
however, entitled to what may be given under
a valid deed in gift or will. In this particular
the Muhammadan agrees with the English,
and the Hindu with the Roman law. (Tagare
Law Lectures, 1873, p. 124.)
ADORATION. The acts and
postures by which the Muslims express
adoration at the time of prayer are similar to
those tised by the ancient Jews (vide Smith's
Dictionary of the Bible, in loco), and consist of
ADULTERY
Ruku". or the inclination of the body, the
hands being placed on the knees ; and Sujud,
or prostration upon the earth, the forehead
touching the ground. [PKAYEK.] The ador<v
tion of the black stone at Makkah forms
an important feature in the ceremonies of the
pilgrimage. [IIAJJ.J
ADULTERY. Arabic zmff (*V*j).
The term zinff includes both adultery and
fornication, but there is a difference iu the
punishment for these offences. [FOHKICATTON.]
Adultery is established before a Qazi, either
by proof or confession. To establish it upon
proof, four witnesses are required. (Qur'an,
Surah iv, 1.) When witnesses come forward, it
is necessary that they should be examined
particularly concerning the nature of the
offence. When the witnesses shall have borne
testimony completely, declaring that " they
have seen the parties in the vetu act of carnal
conjunction," the Qaxi passes sentence.
A confession of adultery must be made by
the person who has committed the sin, at
four different times, although, according to the
Imam ash-Shan4!, one confession is sufficient.
Some of the doctors hold that if a person
retract his confession, his retraction must be
credited, and he must be forthwith released.
At the commencement of Muhammad's mis
sion, women found guilty of adultery and for-
nioation were punished by being literally
immured — Suratu'n-nisa (iv.) 19, " Shut them
up within their houses till death release
them, or God make some way for them."
This, however, was cancelled, and lapidation
was substituted as the punishment for adul
tery, and 100 stripes nnd one year's banish
ment for fornication.
When an adulterer is to be stoned to death,
he should be carried to some ban-en place,
and the lapidation should be executed, first
by the witnesses, then by the Qazi, and after
wards by the by-standers. When a woman
is stoned, a hole or excavation should be dug
to receive her, as deep an her waist, because
Muhammad ordered such a hole to be dug
for (Xhandia.
It is lawful for a husband to slay his wife
and her p»ramvur, if he shall find them in
the very act. If a supreme ruler, such as
a Khaiifah, commit adultery, he is not subject
to such punishment
The state of marriage which subjects a
whoremonger to lapidation, requires that ho
be fret (i.e. not a slave), a Muslim, and one
who has consummated a lawful marriage.
It will be seen that Muhammadan law is
almot-t identical with the divine law of the Jews
with regard to adultery (Deut. xxiii. 22, Lev .
xix. 20): but the Mosaic penalty applied as
well to the betrothed as to the married
woman.
4AFtr
11
daughter-in-law, granddaughter-in-law. Nor
can any man marry any who stand in any of
these relationships from fosterage. The mar
riage of two sisters at the same time is for
bidden, but the marriage of a deceased wife's
sister is allowed. Marriage with a deceased
brother's wife is very common in Muslim
countries, such marriages being held to be a
very honourable means of providing for a
brother's widow. The marriage of cousins i«
also considered most desirable, as being the
means of keeping families and tribes together.
The passage of the Qur'an on the subject of
affinity, is as follows (Surah v. 27) : —
" Marry not women whom your fathers
have married : for this is a shame, and hate
ful, and an evil way : — though what is past
(i.e. in times of ignorance) may be allowed.
*' Forbidden to you are your mothers, and
your daughters, and your sisters, and your
aunts, both on the father and nlother's
side, and your nieces on the brother and
sister's side, and your foster-mothers, and
your foster-sisters, and the mothers of your
wives, and your step -daughters who are your
wards, born of your wives to whom ye have
gone in: (but if ye have not gone in unlo
them, it shall be no sin in you to marry
them ;) and the wives of your sons who pro
ceed out of your loins ; and ye may not have
fcwo sisters ; except where it is already done.
Verily, God is Indulgent, Merciful !
" Forbidden to you also are married women,
except those who are hi your hands as
slaves : This is the law of God for you. And
it is allowed you, beside this, to seek out
•wives by means of your ealth, with wmodest
conduct, and without fornication. And give
those with whom ye have cohabited their
dowry. This is the law. But it shall be no
crime in you to make agreements over and
above the law. Verily, God is Knowing,
Wise!"
AFFINITY. Arabic Qarabah
The prohibited degrees (hurmalt) with regard
to marriages are as follows : — Mother,
daughter, paternal aunt, maternal aunt, bro
ther's or sister's daughter, grandmother,
granddaughter, mother-in-law, step-mother,
AFFLICTION. Arabic fruen
ghamm (^). The benefits of affliction
are frequently expressed in both the Qu'ran
and Traditions. For example : Surah ii. 150,
" We will try you with something of fear, and
hunger, and loss, of wealth, and souls and
fruit ; but give good tidings to the patient who.
when there falls on them a calamity, say,
' Verily we are God's and veriiy to Him we
return.'" This formula is always used by
Muhammadans in any danger or sudden cala
mity, especially in the presence of death.
In the traditions (see Mishkatu 'l-Masdbih),
Muhammad is related to have said, " A
Muslim ia like nnto standing green corn,
which sometimes stands erect, but is some
times cast down by the wind." *' No affliction
Lefals a servant of God but on account of the
sins which he commits,"
AFSUN (ar-^). The Persian
term for Da'icak or exorcism. [EXOIICISM.]
'AFU (y^). Lit. " erasing, cancel
ling." The word is generally used in Muhain*
inadan books for pardon and forgiveness. It
12
AGENT
occurs eight times in the Qur'an, e.g Surah
ii. 286, " Lord, make us not to carry what we
have not strength for, but forgive tis and par
don us and have mercy on ug." Surah iv
46, " Verily God/>ardon* and forgives.''
At^Afu is one of the ninety-nine special
names of God. It means " one who erases or
cancels;", "The Eraser (of sins.)-" See Qur'an,
Surah iv. 51.
AGENT. Arabic roakil (J^;). One
legally appointed to act for another. For the
Muhaminadan law regarding the appointment
cf agents to transact business, or to negotiate
marriages, see Hamilton's JHiddyak, vol. iii.
p. 1; Baillie's Digest; Banifi Code, p. 75;
Imdmlyah Code, p. 29. The author of the
Hidayah says, u It is lawful for a person to
appoint another his agent for the settlement,
in his behalf, of every contract which he
might lawfully have concluded himself, such
as sale, marriage, and so forth ; " and he then
proceeds to lay down rules for guidance in
such matters at great length. A woman who
remains in privacy and is not accustomed to
go into Court, ought, according to the saying
of Abu Bakf, to appoint an agent and not
appear herself. A slave or a minor may be
appointed agent for a free man.
AL-AHAD O% " The One." A
title given to God. [NAMES OF GOD.]
AHADIYAE (&^). Unity, con-
oord. Al-Akadiyah is a term used by Sufi
mystics to express a condition of the mind.
completely absorbed in a meditation on the
Divine Unity. (See «Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dic
tionary of ike Technical Terms of the Sufis,
Sprenger'a edition.)
AHQAF (t-As^) The name of a
tract of land in Sihr in Yaman, The title of
the XLVith Surah of the Qur'an.
AHLU'L-BAlT(c^Vj^) "The
people of the house." A term used in t>-(-
Qur'an (Surah xxxiii. 33), and in the Hadj$
(Mithlcdt, xxiv. 21), for Muhammad s house
hold.
J*\). A
AHLU 'L-HAWA'
visionary person ; a libertine?
" The people of the book." A term used
in the Qur'an for Jews and Christians, as be
lievers in a revealed religion. Some sects of
the Shi'ahs include the Majusi (Magi) nnder
this term.
• AHMAD (.x**^). The name under
•^vhich Muhammad prof esses that Jesus Christ
foretold his coming. Vide Qur'an, Surah Ixi.
§, "And remember when Jesus the son of
Mary said, '0 children of IsraeU of a truth I
am God's /Vpostle to you to confirm the law
which was given before me, and to announce
an spostle that shall corne after nae, whose
name shall be Ahmad.''" Muhammad had, no
doubt, heard that Our Lord had promised a
Paraclfetos (TrapaK\rjTO<z), John xvi. 7. This
title, understood by him, probably froin the
AL
similarity of sound, as equivalent to Periclytoa
(a-epf/fAwro<»), he applied to himself with
reference to his own name Muhammad, the
praised or gltnifitd one. Muir thinks that in
somo imperfect Arabic translation of lh«
Gospel of St. John, the word rapaKAijros
may have been translated Ahmad, or praised.
(Lift of Mahomet, vol. i 17.)
AHZAB OT^;. " Confederates."
The title of the xxxmrd Surah of the Qur'an.
which is said to have been written when
al-Madinah was besieged by a confederation of
the Jewish tribes with the Arabs of Rfakkah.
A.H. 6.
AIYtTB (vjtf). [JOB.]
AJAL (v>^)« The appointed time
of death, said to be ordained by God from
the first. Qur'an, Surah xxxv. 44, "He
respites them until the appointed time.
When their appointed time comes, verily God
looks upon His servants." [DEATH.]
A JlE 0*^). A terra used in Mu-
hammadan law for a person hired for service.
AJNABI (xs*^). A foreigner;
any person not of Arabia.
AKELIR-I-CHAHAE-I-SHAMBAH
(&^A ^ usJJ). The last Wednesday
of the month of Safar. I* is observed as a
feast in commemoration of Muhammad's
having experienced some mitigation of his
last illness, and having bathed. It was the
last time he performed the legal bathing, for
he died on the twelfth day of the next
month. In some parts of. Islam it is cus
tomary, in th« early moming of this day to
write verses of the Qur'an, known as the
Seven Satuvfin (q.v.), and then wash off the ink
and drink it &B a charm against evil. It is
not observed by the Wahbabls. nor is its ob
servance universal in Islam.
AKHLAQ (o^). $he plural of
Khulq. Natures, dispositions, habits, manners.
The general term for books on morality,
e.g. Akhldq-i-Jalali, Akhldq-i-Muhsini^ the
name of a dissertation on Ethics by Husain
Wa'iz Kashifl, A,H. 910, which has been trans
lated into English by the Rev. II G. Keene
(W. H. Allen & C5o.),
AKHtJND (^^T). A maulawi ; a
teacher. A title of respect given to eminent
j religious teachers. One of the most cele
brated Muhaminadan teachers of modern
tim*9 was the " Akhund of Swat," who died
A.D. 1875. This great religious leader resided
in the village of Sai<}u, in the district of
Swat, on the north-west frontier of India
AKHUNDZADAH (ao\j^). The
son of an Akhund. A title of respect given
to the sons or descendants of celebrated reh
giquf? teachers. [AKHUNP.]
AL (j^). Lit. "offspring, or pos
terity." Used in Muslim works for th* off
! spring 01 Muhammad
'ALIM
AL-A'LA (J^). "The Most
High." The title of the Lxxxvnth Sarah of
the Qur'an, in the second verse of which
the word occurn : " The name of thy Lord th«
Jlfost Hiyh is celebrated. "
4ALAM (,»U). A standard or
ensign. A term used for the flags and stan
dards paraded during the Muhanam. [MU-
1IARRAM, STANDARDS.]
'ALAM (^). TIu; universe;
world ; condition, state of being.
•Alamu 'l-arwdb . The world of spirits.
1 Alamu 'l-^alg . The world • thin life.
'Alamu 'f-bdqi . The future ."state.
'Alamu ''l-cfzamnh . The highest heaven.
' Alamu 'sh-shdhaduh The visible world.
• Alamu 'l-ykaib . The invisible world.
' Alamu Y-«i«'o"M/ . The rational world
The four mystic stages of the Sufis are
' Alamu 'n-ndsut . The present world.
' Alamu 'l-malafcut . The statu of uugHs.
' Alamu 'l-jabarut . The stain •>( puwt-T
• Wainn 'l-ldhut . The state of absorption
into the Divinity.
[8UFI1SM.]
'ALAM AT («*Ufcp). The greater
signs of the resurrection. ['ALAMATU 's
SA'AH, RE8URKECTION.J
' AL AMATU ' N -N U B € W A H
(iu-jJt d>U^). - The signs of Pro
phecy." A term used for the supposed mi
racles and other proofs of the mission of
Muhammad. The title of a chapter in 'the
Traditions. (Mishkdt. xxi. c. vi.)
'ALAMATU '3-SA'AH (**>Wk
icUN). "The* signs of the hour,"
t>. the signs of the tiuio of the Resurrection
and of the Dav of Judgment. The title of a,
section of the Traditions. (Al-tshkvi, xxiii.
i. 3.) [RESURRECTION.]
'ALAQ G^ic). "Congealed blood/'
The titlo of the xcvrth Surah, the first five
v arses of which are generally allovrec} to be
the earliest portion of the Qur'an.
AL-FATYDAK (U^). "The City."
A name sometimes used in the Hadis 'for
ftfiikkah.
ALCHEMY, Araliic Klmiyu,
(fttj^). According let the Kathfu
'z-zunitn, in loco, learned Muslims are not
agreed as to the existence of this occult
science, nor are they of one opinion as to itft
lawfulness, even if it should exist.
ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
Mentioned in the mur'iin aa Zu'/-Qarnain, i.e.
•'Ho of the two UoniR ' with which he i*
represented on his coins. (Surah xviii. 62.)
He seems to have been regarded by Muham
mad as> one invested -with a divine commis
sion: — "Verily \v^ • y*tiMi«5hed his power
upon earth "; but commentators are not agreed
whether to ansiarn to him tfa« position of a
Prophet. Lzu Vt
AL-HAMD (Wt). "Praise." A
title given to the first Surah, so caik-d tocnuse
its first word is Al-hamd. This chapter is
also called FaJiftfi/i, whitn uirni is used by
modern Muslims ior the Surak wuen it is said
for the benefit of (he dead, At-ltumd being
its moreuMual titlr [rATiUAn |
AL-HAMDV'-LrLLAH (*iS j^*J\).
'* Pr»ise belongs to God." An ejaculation which
is called Takmid. and which occurs at the com-
/noneemont of the first, ol.aptnr of (ho Qur an.
It is used as an cjar n/atioii of thanksgiving —
" Thank Ood 1 " It is veiy often recited with
the addition of RuM*i 'l-'alfimin. " Lord of the
Uai verse.5* [TAHMU>.J
Ai.-'ALI (J*l\). One of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It moarifl
44 The Exalted One.'
ALI (<J^). The son of Abu
rfalib, and a couain-^orman to Muhammad.
who adopted him as his son. He married
F&umah, the daughter of Muhammad. Arid
hid by her three sonSj Ha van, Husain!, ;ino
Muhastiin. He was the fourth Khalifah, and
reiifued 'fj om A.H. 85 to /..ir. +0. lie was
struck with a ppi.soned sword by Ibn'Mttljam,
at al-Kufah, and diod after three daya.
aged fifty-nine years. The Fhrahs hold that,
on the death of Muhammad, 'Ah was entitled
to the Khalifate, and the respective claims of
Abu Bakr, 'Umar.and 'Usnian on the pne hand.
and of 'Ali on the other, gave rise to the
Shi'ah schism. 'Ali is surnamed by the Arabs
Asadu 'lldh, and by the Persians Sker-i-
Kihuda, i.e. " The Lion cf <!nd." ffBI*Aa.1
ALIF. The letter Alif (\) ia a
monogram frequently placed at the head of
letters, prescriptions, &c. It is the initial
letter of the word Allah f&l)\, "God."
ALIF LAM MIM Th<> Arabic
letters ^N, corresponding to A L Mt
which occur at the commencement of *ix
Surah*, namely Suratu '1-Baqaruh (n.). Suratu
Ali 'Iinrai; (in.;, ^uratu 'l-'Ankabut (xxil.),
Surntu *r-Rum (xxx.), Suratu Luqmiin (xxu.),
and Suratu V-^jjdaL (\xxxii.j. Muhammad
uever explained the meaning of tiie.se myste
rious letters, rmd consequently ihcy aro a
fruitful scarce of perplexity to learned com
ineutators. JaliUu 'd-din gives an exhaustive
summary of the different views in hin Ilyan
(p. 470). Some suppose they rtand for the
words Alldit, "Aod"; Lutif, "gracious";
Afajld, •' glorious/' Others say they stand for
Ana'lluhu a'/awu, "I »m the God who knoweth.''
Others maintain that they wore not meant to
be understood, and that they weiv inserted
by the Diritie command without explanation,
in order to remind the reader that there wer<*
mysteries which his intellect would never
fathom.
ALU'IMRAN (01,4* JT). "The
family of -Inn-fin." The title of the third
chapter of the Qur'an,
'ALIM C^^), pi. 'ulamd'. A learner
14
AL-CALIM
man. The term usually includes all religious
teachers, such as Imams, Muftis. Qazis, and
Maulawles ; and in Turkey it denotes the poli
tical party led by the religious teachers.
AL-'ALIM >W\. One of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It fre
quently occurs in the Qur'an, and means " The
Wise One."
ALLAH (*itt). [GOD.]
ALLAHU AKBAR (^\ aW).
' God is great," or " God is most great.'1 An
ejaculation which is called the Takb'v, . It-
occurs frequently in the liturgical forms,
and is used when .slaying an animal for food.
[TAKBTR.]
ALMSGIVING. The word gene-
rally used for alms is Sadaqah, or that which
manifests righteousness ; the word zakdt, or
purification,- being specially restricted to the
legal alms. [ZAKAT.] Scidaqdtu 'l-Fitr are
the offerings given on the Lesser Festival.
The duty of almsgiving is very frequently en
joined in the Qur'an, e.g. Surah ii. 274-5.
''What ye expend of good (i.e. of well-
gotten wealth), it shall be paid to you
again, acd ve shall not be wronged. (Give
your alms) unto the poor who are straitened
in God's way and cannot traverse the earth.
. . Those who expend their wealth by night
and by day, secretly and openly, they shall
have their hire with their Lord."
The following are some of the sayings of
Muhammad on the subject of almsgiving, as
they occur in the Traditions : — " The upper
hand is better than the lower one. The
upper hand is the giver of alms, and the
lower hand is the poor beggar." " The best
of alms are those given by a man of small
means, who gives of that which he has earned
by labour, and gives as much as he is able."
•'Begin by giving alms to your own relatives."
•• Doing justice between two people is alms;
assisting a man on his beast is elms ; good
words are alms." "A camel lent out for
milk is alms ; a cup of milk every morning and
evening is alms." '' Your smiling in your
brother's face is alms ; assisting the blind is
alms." '" God says. Be thou liberal, thou child
of Adam, that I may bo liberal to thee." (S*f
Mishkdt; Matthew's edition, vol. i. p. 429.)
ALWAH (cV^ r1- of
tables" (of the Law). Mentioned in the
Qur'an, Surah vii. 142, «* We wrote for him
(Moses) upon the Tables (al-Ah*a&) a monition
concerning every matter."
Muslim divines are not agreed a.s to th<-
n umber either of the tables, or of thy Com
mandments. The commentators JaUUaln say
they were either seven or t«n. [TEN COM-
MANPMKKT8.]
'AMAL-NlMAH (*~i» J*e).. The
Persian" word for Scihtfatu 7--'i'.vuz', or record
of actions kept by the recording angels.
fsAHIFATfT "b-A'MAL, KtHAMU 'l.-XATlBIN'.]
AMAN (c?^). Protection given
AMULETS
by a Muslim conqueror to those who pay
Jizyah, or poll tax. [JIHAD.]
AMB1YA (*Wt), pi. of Nate.
"Prophets." The title of the xxist Surah.
[PROPHETS.]
AMIN (a**. Hebrew
expression of assent used at the conclusion of
prayers, very much as in our Christian wor
ship. ' It is always used at the conclusion of
the Suratu '1-Fatihah, or first chapter of the
Qur'an.
A 7/iMi," Faithful/' Af-Amin is the title which
it is said was given to Muhammad when
a youth, on account of hi? fair and honour
able bearing, which won th«; confidence of the
people.
Amtnu'l-Baft, one who wishes to perform
the piJgritm) ge to Makkah.
AMIN AH (**^). Muhammad's
mother. She was the wife of 'Abdullah, and
the daughter of Wahb ibn 'Abdi Manaf.
She died and was buried at al-Abwa, a place-
midway between Makkah uud al-Madloah,
before her .son claimed the position of a Pro
phet.
AMIR 0*^), Anglice, Emir, " A
ruler; a commander; a. chief: n nobloman."
It includes the various high offices in a Muslim
state; the Imam, or fthaltfah, bt-iui; styled
A mint *l~Umarff, the ruler of rulers; and
A'tnirii V Mu'mimn. the commander of the
believers.
AMIRU 'L-HAJJ (jWt^). The
•'hief of (he pilgrimage." The otrlcer in charge
of the piigrima to Mukkah. [ITAJ.I.]
AMTRU 'L-MU'MiNlN ( ^\
(j^pA\). <k The Commander of the
Believers." A title which was first given Lo
Abdu 'llali ibn Jabsii after his exm-;<liuon to
Nuk.hlah, and which was afterwards assutadd
by the Khali fa he (first by sUmar) and the
Sultan* of Turkey. [KHAUFJJ&]
AMR IBN A L-'ASt (^*^*' ^ ;*«*).
One of the Companions,- celebrated for his
conquest of Syria-, Palest ine mul Egypt, in the
reigns ot Abu Bakr and 'Umar. He died
(accordux to an NaWawT) A.K. 13.
AMULETS. ^ Arabic ffama'tt
(JIW-), fi anything- suspended " ;
7a*trfj. " A relume '' ; ffiiab. k< a rover.''
Amulets, ahhovi^h of heathen origin, are
»-ery Common in Mtthftmmadan countries. The
following are used as aumiets : (1) a small
Qur'an, encased in silk or leather, and »as-
peuded from the shoulder; (2) a chapter or
Verse of the Qvtr'an written on paj-er and
folded in leather or velvet ; (?>) some of th«
names of God, or the numerical power (see
ATM AD) of those names; (4) the namfts' of pro
phets, celebrated saints, or the numerical power
of the same ; (5) the Muhammadan creed,
engraven on stone or silver. The chapters
of th« Qur'an generally selected for Amulets
are: Surahs i., vi., xviii., xxxvi., xliv., ly,.
AMULETS
ixvii.. lx\v;ii. Five verses known as the
Ayuiu 7-//7/Z, or " verses of protection." are
a .too frequently inscribed on Amulets. Thej'
|V« Sfirahs ii. 256 ; xii. 64; xiii. 12; xv. 17:
xxvvii 7. [AYATU 'L-IUFZ.]
These charms are fastened on the arm or
leg, OS- Husp^mU'd round the neck, as a pro-
to.'tkx: a^iinsr. evil.. They are also put on
houses sr;d animals, and, in fact, upon any
thing from which evil is to he averted.
Strict ly: according to the principles ot Islam,
only thfi names of GM!, or vorsnt from the
Quran, ^»ould be U6«.ul for amulets. Informa
tion rei'jnlnsg the formation of magic squares
and a m u lots will b«j found in the article, on
f''X'"-ci;?n3. f EXORCISM, OA'WAH.]
ANGEL
15
AN AMULET OP THE ATTflTBUTK OP GOD — IfiiflZ,
A. KHALI, <ifir?AN SUSPENDED A8 AN AMULET.
AL-AN'AM <rWM). "The Cattle."
The litle of the vitb Surah, in verse 1X7 of
which some superstitious customs of the
Meccans. as tc certain cattle, are incidentally
mentioned.
ANANIYAH i«MUV). From ana,
" I." "Egotism '' Al-ananiyoh is a term used
by thft Sufis to express the existence of man.
ANAS IBiV MALIK
The last of the Companions
of Muhammad, and the founder of the sect of
the Malikts He died at el-Basrah. A..H. i).S.
aged 108.
AL-ANFAL (JVtfM). " The Spoils."
The title of the viuth Surah which was
pCCAStooed by * dispute regarding the spoils
takf-nat the battle of Bn.dr, between the young
men who had fought and the old men who
had staved with the ensigns.
ANGEL. Arabic nial'ak or malak
sXL. ) . Persian Firishta k (&**•.* ) .
t; It is lielieved," says l.hn Majah. " that the
anguls are of a simple substance (created of
light), endowed with life, and ^per-cl,. :md
reason ; nnd that the dinY-rence het-.voen 'h-'iu.
the Jinn, and Shait-'ms is a diiTen--iife. of
riK'i-ios. Know,'' he adds, "that tho .-ui^Is
are sanctified from carnal desire and ihc dij-
turbance of anger : thoy disobey not God in
what He hath commanded them, but do v/h.v
'they are commanded. Tln^ir food is the colc-
brating of His glory : their drink, the pro
claiming of His holiness ; their conversation,
the commemoration of God, Whose nam<- be
exalted; their pleasure, Bi- worship, and
they are created in different forms mid with
different powers." (Arabian Nig/its. 'Lane'<
edition, \otos to tho Introduction, p. 27.;
Foot of uhfMii are archangels, or, HP iJi-^,
are called in /Vrabie, Kfirublijiin (Cherubim),
namely, Jab, all, or Ji.t>ri/\ (Gabriel), the
angel of revelations; Mikail* or Mikal,
(Michael), the patron of the Israelites :
Isrd/l/. the angel who will sound the trumpet
at the- last day; and 'Izrall, or . 'AzratL
the angel of death. Angels are said tu be
inferior in dignity to human prophets, be
cause- all the angelx were commanded to
prostrate themselves before A-'tam (Sui-ah ii.
32). Every believer is attended by two record
ing angels, called the Kiramu 'l-kdtibin, one of
whom records his good actions, and tne other
his evil actions. There are also two angels,
called Mnnkar and Naklr, who examine all
the dead in their graves. Tho chief angel who
has charge of hell is called Malik, and his
subordinates are named Zahani yah , or guards.
A more extended account; of these angels will
be found under their particular titles.
The angels intercede for man : >fc The
angels celebrate the praise of their Lord, and
ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth,''
(Surah xiii. 3.J They also act as guardian
angels : ik Each hath a succession of angels
before him and behind him, who watch over
him by God's l>«he«t.?' (Surah xiii. 12.) "Is
it not enough lor you that your Lord aideth
you with three thousand angels sent down
(from on high)?" (Surah iii. '20.) "He
is the supreme over His servants, and sendeth
forth guardians who watch over you, until,
when death overtaketh any one of you, our
messengers receive him and* fail not." (Surah
fi. 61.)
There are eight angels who support the
throne of God, " And the angels shall be on
its sides, and over them on that day eight
shall bear up the throne of thy Lord." (Surah
Ixix. 17.) Nineteen have charge of hell.
" Over it are nineteen. None but angels have
we made guardians of the fire." (Surwh Hxiv
30, 31.)
The names of the guardian angels given in
the book on Exorcism (da'u'ah), entitled the
Jawdhirv 'l-Khamsah, are Isrilfll, Jibni'il, Kal-
ku'il, Darda'il, Durbu'Il, Raftma'il, Sharka'Il.
Tankafil, Ismail, Sarakika'Il, Kharura'IK
Tatall, Ruvall, Hulall, Hamwukil, 'Itrall,
16
ANIMALS
l, -Ainrirtl, • Awa'fl, Mika'!!, Mahkall,
Harta'il, 'Ata'il, Nnrai), NukhaU UXOR-
OI8M.]
ANIMALS. Arabic Hayawfln
{0V*). According to the Qur'an,
Surah x*r*. 44, " God hath created overy
'Animal of water." " An idea," says Rodwell,
** perhaps derived from Gen. i. 20, 21."
It \s believed that at the Resurrection the
irrational animals will be restored t Hfe, that
they may be brought to judgment, a t\ then be
fitraihilated. See^ Qur'an, Surah vl 38,. * No
kiwi of beast is there on the earth, nor fowl
that tiieth with its wings, but is a comuannitv
like von : nothing have We passed over in thu
book (of the Eternal decrees; : then' unto their
Lord anal)- t.hey be gathered."
AL-*ANKABQT (^y***^;. "The
Spider The title of the xxixth Surah,
in which there -is a passing- reference tp
this insect in the 4(Hh verse: — "The like
ness for those who take to themselves guar
dians besides God is the likeness of the spider
who buildeth her a house; bat truly the
frailest of all houses surely is the house of
the spider
At-AJN$£K ( jUS\). "The Helpers,"
» term used for the dariy converts of al-
Madinah , but when all tbo citizens of al-
Madinah were ostensibly converted ta Islam,
they were all named Jntfdr, while those
Muslims wno accompanied the Prophet from
M'akkahto al-Madinah were called Muk&jir&H,
or exiles. (Mnir's Life of Mahomet., vol iii.
p. 2fi.) [MUHAMMAD.]
ANTIOHBJST. ! MASUU; 'D-DAJ-
JAL.]
APOSTASY FROM ISLAM.
Arabic irtiddd (^^). According to
Muslim law, a male apostate, or Murtadd, is
liable to be'put to death if he continue o'bsti-
nate in his error ; a female apostate is not
subject to capital punishment, but she may
be kept in confinement until she recant.
(Hamilton's Bidayah, vol. ii. p. 227.) If
either the husband or wife apostatize from
the faitb bf Islam, a divorce takes place ipso
fertto ; the wife is entitled, to her whole dower,
'but no sentence of .divorce is necessary. If
the husband and wife both apostatize together,
their marriage is generally allowed to con
tinue, although the Imam Zufar says it is
annulled. But if, after their joint apostasy,
either husband: or wife were singly to return
to Islam, then* the marriage would be disT
solved. (Hamilton's ttidayah, vol. ii. p. 188.)
According to Abfi Hanifah, a male apostate
is disabled froth selling or otherwise dispos
ing of his property. But , Abu Yusuf and
Tmatn Muhammad differ from their master
upon this point, and consider a male apostate
to be as competent to exercise every right as
if h«- were still in the faith. (Iliddyah, vol.
ii; p. 235
If a hoy under age apostatize, he is not
to -be put to death, but to be im^risoned.^ufttil
he come to lull age, when, if he continue m
the state of unbelief, he most be put tfo aeath.
Neither lunatics nor drtmkards are held to
be responsible for their apostasy from Islam,
(Hidayah, vol. ii. 246.) If a person upon com'
putsion become an apostate, his wife is not
divorced, nor are his lands forfeited. If a
person become a Musalman upon compul
sion, and afterwards apostatize, he is not to
be put to death. (Uiddyaki vol. in. 467.)
The will of a male 'apostate is not valid, but
that of a it-male apostate ia valid. (Hidayah,
vol. iv. 637.)
'Ikrimah relates that some apostates, were
brought totheKhalifah'Ali,and he burnt them
alive , biit Ibn 'Abbas heard of it, and said
that the Khalifah had not acted rightly, for
the Prophet had said, " Punish not with God 8
punishment (i.e. fire), but whosoever changes
his religion, kill him with the sword/ (Sahiku
APOSTLE. Arabic rasul
/lawdri (t^)*-). The term rasiil
(apostle or messenger) is applied to Muham
mad, that of hawari being used in tho Qur'an
(Surah iii. 4, 5; Surah iv. Ill, 112 ; Surah Jxi,
14) for the Apostles of Jesus. The word
fiiiwari seems to be derived from the ^thiopic
Iioru, ~ to go " ; hawaryd, *' apostlie " ; although,
according.to al-Baizawi. the commentator, it is
derived from hawra, "to l»e white/ inSyriac,
fteuiai^ and was given to the disciples of Jt^sus,
be aays, on account of their purity of life and
sincerity, or because they were respectable
men and wore white garments. In the Tra
ditions (Miskkdt, book i. c. vi. part 2) kaweri
is »use<i for the followers of all the prophets.
[PROPHETS.]
AL-'AQABAH (M*N). A sheltered
glen near Mina?. celebrated aa, the sc<sno of the
two pledges, the first «nd second pledge of
al-' Aqab«h. The first pledge was made by ten
men of the tribe of Khawaj and ten of Ausf
when thoy plighted their faith TO Muhammad
thus : — " We will not worship any but one
God ; we will not steal ; nor commit adul
tery ; nor kill our children ; nor wiU we
Hlamier our neighbour ; and we will obey the
Prophet of God.' The date assigned to this
pledge by Sir W. Mnir is April .21, A.I>. 621.
Tbe second pledge was a few mouths nfter-
wards, when seT^nty-thrde men and two
women came forward, one by one. and took
an oath of fealty to the Prophet. Muhammad
named twelve of the chief of these men,- and
said : — " Moses chose from auaongt-t his people
twelve leaders. Ye shall be sureties for tho
rest, eveu as were the Apostles of Jesus : and
t am surety for my people. And the people
answered, Awin, So be it." fMuirs Life of
Mahomet, vol. ii. pp. 216, 282.)
** A successor or
deputy.'' ;< One who comes last." Al-'aqib i«s
a title giveri to Muhammad as being styled
" the last of the prophets.*'
'AQILAH (fl*te). The relatives
who pay the expiatory mulct for man
slaughter, or any other legal fine. They must
AQIQAH
be relatives descended from one common
father. (Hamilton's fficfnyah, vol. iv. pages
449, 452; Baillio's Law of Sale, p. 214.)
'AQlQAH (&Ufc).- A custom
observed by the Arabs on the birth of a
child ; namely, leaving the hair on tho
infant's head until the seventh day, -when it in
shaved, and animals are sacrificed, namely,
two sheep for a boy and one for a girl. (Mish-
Jrfit, xviii. c. 3 ) It is enjoined by Muhammadan
law, and observed in all parts of Isliim.
AEABIA. Silcldu 'l-'Arab (^
*r>,**\), Jazlratu 'I-1 Arab (vyd\ *;*>*•) >
'Ardbisttin (yV^^ys). The peninsula
bearing, amongst the Arabs, these names is
the country situated on the east of tho Red
Sea, and extending as far as the Persian fiuJf.
The word probably signifies a " ban-en
place,'' " desert" (Heb. PQIV)-
T T •
Ptolemy divides Arabia into three part?,
Arabia Petraoa, Arabia Felix, and Arabia
Deserta ; but Arabian geographers divide it
into TiJirirnnh, al~Hijaz, an-Najd, al-'Ariiz,
and il-Y<unan.
The 7-aces which have peopled Arabia are
divided into three sections, al-'Arabu 'l-Bai-
d(th, '(fl-^Arabtt fl-eAribah, and al-'Arabu 7-
Mustafribah.
I. Al-'Arabu '1-Bd'idaJi, are the old "lost
Arabs," of whom tradition has preserved the
names of several tribes, as well as some me
morable particulars regarding their extinction.
This may well be called the fabulous period ol
Arabian history : but. as it has the sanction of
the Qur an, it would be sacrilege in a Muslim
to doubt its authenticity. According to
this account, tue most famous of the extinct
tribes wen; those of 'Ad, Samiid, Jadls, and
Tasm, all descended in the third or fourth
genei-ation from Shem. 'Ad, the father of his
tribe, settled, according to tradition, in the
Great Desert of al-Ahqaf soon nfter the con
fusion of tongues. Shaddud his son succeeded
him in the government, and greatly expended,
his dominions. He performed many fabulous
exploits; among others, he erected a magnifi
cent city in the desert of 'Adari, which had
been begun by his father, and adorned it with
a sumptuous palace and delightful gardens,
in imitation of the celestial paradise, in order
to inspire hit* subjects with a superstitious
veneration for him as a god. This superb
structure was built with bricks of gold and
silver alternately disposed. The roof was of
gold, inlaid with precious stones and pearls.
The trees and shrubs were of the same pre
cious materials. The fruits and flowers were
rubies, and on the branches were perched
birds of similar metals, the hollow parts of
which were loaded with every specier, of the
richest perfumes, so that every breeze that
blew came charged with fragrance from th<>
bills of these golden images. To this para
dise lie gave the name of Iram (see Qur'an.
Surah Ixxxix. 6). On the completion o* all
this grandeur, Shaddad set out with a splendid
retinue to admire its beauties. But heaven
ABABIA
17
would not suffer his pride and impiety to go
unpunished ; for, when within a day's journey
of the place, they we're all destroyed by a
terrible noise from the clouds, As a monumei.t
of Divine justice, the city, we are assured,
still stands in the desert, though invisible.
Southey, in his Thalaba, has viewed this and
many of the other fables and superstitions of
the Arabs with tho eye of a poet, a pb;;o-
«opher, and an antiquary. According to at-
Tabari, this legendary palace was discovered
in the time of Mu'awiyah, the first Khali f ah of
Damascus, by a person in search of a st- >y
camel. A fanciful tradition adds, that the
Angel of death, on being asked whether, in
the discharge of his duties, an instance h«»d
ever occurred in which he had felt some com
passion towards his wretched victims, ad
mitted that only twice had his sympathi^i
been awak^n^d -once towards a shipwrecked
infant, which had been exposed on a solitary
plank to struggle for existence with the winds
and waves, and which he spared ; and the
second Htno in cutting off the unhappy Shad-
dad at the moment when almost within view
of the glorious fabric which he had erected
at so much expense. No sooner had the
angel spoken, than n voice from heaven
was heard to declare that the helpless
innocent on the plank was no other than
Shaddad himself ; and that his punishment
was a just retribution for his ingratitude
to a merciful and kind Providence, which
had not only saved his life, but raised' him
to unrivalled wealth and splendour. The
whole fable seems to be a confused tradition
of Belus and the ancient Babylon; or, rather,
as the name would import, of Benhadad, men
tioned in Scripture as one of the most famous
of the Syrian kings, who, we are told, was
worshipped by his subjects.
Of the 'Adites and their succeeding princes,
nothing certain is known, except that they
were dispersed or destroyed in the course of «
few centuries by the sovereigns of al-Yaman.
The tribe of 'Samud first settled in Arabia
Felix, and on their expulsion they repaired
to al-IIijr, on the confines of Syria. Like the
'Adites, they are reported to have been of a
most gigantic stature, the tallest being a hun
dred cubits high and the least sixty : and such
was their muscular power, that, with a stamp
of the foot in the driest soil, they could plant
themselves knee-deep in the earth. They
dwelt, the Qur'an informs us, " in the caves of
the rocks, and cut the mountains into houses,
which remain to tbip day." In this tribe.it is
easy to discover the Thnraudeni of Diodorus,
Pliny, and Ptolemy.
The tribes of Tasm and Jadfs settled be
tween Makkah and al-Mad!nah, and occupied
the whole level country of al-Yaman, living
promiscuously under the same government.
Their history is buried in darkness ; and when
the Arabs wish to denote anything of dubious
; authority, they call it a fable of T.aBjn.
The extinction of these tribes, accord
j ing to the Quran, was miraculous, and a
! signal example of Divine vengeance. The
1 posterity of 'Ad and Ramfld hnd abandonee!
8
18
ARABIA
the •worship of the trne God, arid lapsed into -j
incorrigible idolatry. They had, been chastised i
with .a threu years'* drought, but their hearts
remained hardened. To the former was sent
the Prophet Hud, to reclaim them and preach
the unity of the Godhead. " O m-y people! ''
exclaimed the prophet, '«« ask pardon of your
Lord j then turn unto Him with, penitence,
(and) HQ will send down the heavens upon
you with. copious rains, and with strength in
addition to your strength will Ho- iuereaser
you." Few believed, and the overthrow of
the idolaters was effected by a hot and suf
focating wind, that blew seven nights and
oight days without intermission, accompanied
with a terrible earthquake, by which their
idols were broken to, pieces, and their houses
thrown to the ground. (See Qur'au; Surah vii..
68, xi. 63.) Luqinan,. ^ho, according to 80me,
was a famous king of the * Adi tea, and who
Hved to the age of seven eagles, escaped, with
about sixty others, the common calamity.
These few survivors gave rise to » tribe
called the Latter • Ad ; but on account of tlieir
crimes they were transformed, as the Qur'an
states, into asses or monkeys. Hud returned
to Hazramaut, and was buried in the neigh
bourhood, where a .small town, Qabr Hud.
still bcar.s his naisi". Among the Arabs, -Ad
expresses the same remote age that Saturn or
Ogyges did among the Greeks ; anything of
extreme antiquity is v,nid to be *4as old as
King'Ad."
The idolatrous tribe of Samud had the
prophet Salih sent to them, whom IVHerbelot
makes the son of Arphaxad. while Bocnart
and Sale suppose him to be Peleg, the
brother of Joktan. His preaching had little
effect. The fate of the -Adit es, instead of
being a warning, or.ly set them to dig caverns
in the rocks, whore they hoped to escape the
vengeance' of winds and . tempests. Others
demanded a sign from the prophet in token of
his mission. As a condition of then belief,
they challenged him to a trial of power,
similar to what took place between Elijah
and the -priests of Baal, a,nd promised to
follow the deity that .should gain the. triumph.
From a certain rook a camel big with young
was to come forth in their presence. The
idolaters wor.e foiled ; for on Salih's pointing
to the spot, a she-camel was produced, with a
young one ready woancd. This miracle
wrought eoriviction in a few ; but the rest, far
from believing, hamstrung the mother, killed
her miraculous progeny, and divided the
tiesh among them. This act of impiety sealed
their doom. *' And a violent tempest overtook
the wicked, and they .were found prostrate on
their breasts in their abodes." 'Qur'an,
Surah vii. 71, xi. 64.)
The tribes of Jadls and Tusm owe then-
extinction to. a different cause. A certain
Jespot, a Tasmite, but sovereign of both tribes,
had rendered himself detested by a voluptuous
j;iw claiming for himself a priority of right
over all the bride'* jf the .fadlsites. This
insult w;n not lu b*% toforated. A conspira<y
was I'oniHvt. i'l»e fcmg and his chiefs were
t<) .MI 'mtprtarninont. The avengers
ARABIA
had privately hidden their swords in the
sand, 'and m the moment of mirth and fes
tivity they foil upon the tyrant and his
retinue, and finally extirpated the groater
rJart of liis subjects.
3J. — The pure Arabs are those who claim
to be descended from Joktan or Qaht.im. whom
the present Arabs regard as their principal
founder. The members of this genuine
stock are styled al-'Arahw VAribsvh, tbc
genuine Arabs. According to their genealogy
of this patriarch, his descendants formed two
distinct branches. Ya'rub, one of his sons
founded the kingdonrof nl-Yoman, and Jxu-hum
that of al-Hijax. These two are the only aons
spoken of by the Arabsi Their names do not
uccur in Scripture ; but it has' been conjec
tured that they were the Jerah and Hadorain
mentioned by-Mcsofi as among ihe thirteen
planters of Arabia (Gen. x. 1'G).
In the division of their nation into tribe*
the Arabs resemble the Jews. From an early
era they have regained the distinction of sepa
rate, and independent families. This partit ion
was adverse to the consolidation of power or
political influence, but it furnishes onr chief
guide into the dark abyss of their antiquities.
The posterity of Ya'rub spread and nmlti
plied into innumerable clans. >%>w »ctessi<n»«
rendered now subdi visions necessary. In the
genealogical tables of Sale, Gagnier. ami
Saiyid Ahmad Khan, arc enuincr;ited nearly
three-score tribes of genuine Arabs, many of
whom became celebrated long before the time
of Muhammad, and some of them retain their.
names even at the present day.
III.— The « Aralu 'i-Mtut&ribah, tlie mixed
Arabs, claim to be descended from Islimael
and the daughter of al-Muzaz, King of
al-Hij?iJ5, whom be took to wife, and was of the
ninth generation from Jurhum, the founder of
that kingdom. Of the Jurhumites. till the
time of Ishmael, little is recorded, except the
names of their princes or chiefs, and that
they had possession ,of the territory of »! Hijn/
But as Muljamuiad traces his descent to this
alliance, the Arabs have been moro than
asxially careful to preserve and adorn hi.s
genealogy. The want of a pure ancestry is,
in thei" estimation, more than- compensated
by the dignity of so sacred a connexion ; for
they boast as much an. the Jews of being
reckoned the children of Abraham. This
circumstance will account for .the preference
with which they uniformly regard this branch
of their pedigree, and for the many -romantic
legends thev have grafted upon it. It is not
improbable that the old giants and idolaters
suffered an imaginary extinction to make way
for a more favoured race, ami that Divine
chastisements always overtook those who
dared to invade their cou.secratod terri-
The Scripture account of the expulsion und
Icstiny of tins venei-ated progenitor of the
Arabs is brief, but simple :tnd affecting.
Isum-iM*! Avasj the ^«n of Abraham by Hagar,
in Egyptian al^ve. When fourteen years of
ige, hq was ..supplan^d in the hopes and
affections of his father by the birth of Isaac.
ARABIA
ARABIA
19
through whom the promise* were to descend ;
This event made it nec-essary to remove the I
unhappy fcnjale and her child, who were '
accordingly »ent forth to seek their fortune
in some of the surrounding unoccupied dis-
A small snpply of provision*, *nd «
of water on her shoulder, \v«j» .ill she
carried from the teut of her muster Direct
ing her steps towards her native country, she
wandered with the lad in the wilderness of
Beer-feheba, which was destitute of springs.
Here her utotk failed, and it seemed irupos
Sible to avoid perishing by hunger or thirst.
She resigned herself to her melancholy pro
spects, but the feelings of the mother were
more acute than th« agonies of want and
despair. Unable' to witness her sons death
she laid him under onr- of the shrubs.
took an affecting leave ol him. and retired
to a distance. -' And »he went, »wl sat
her down over against him. u good way «ff
a.s it were M bow-^i,nt ; for she said. Let
we not nee the death of the child. And she
sat ovor against him. ;<nrl liftod tip her voice
and *ept. (f-M-.n. xxi lllj At this moment
au angel directed her to a well of water
close at hand. — a discovery to which they
owed the preservation of their live*:. A pro
mise formerly given was ivrvwed. that
sh mael wa* to become a great nation — that
he was to be a wild man — his hand against
every man, ami every man's hand against him.
The travellers continued their journey to Ihc
wilderness of P:»ran. and there took up their
residence. In due time the lad grew to man
hood, and greatly distinguished himself as an
archer, and his mother took him n wile out of
her own land. Here the sacred narrative
breaks off abruptly, the main object of Moses
being to follow the histojfy of Abraham's
descendants through the line of Isaac. The
Arabs, in their version of Ishmael's history,
have mixed a great deal of romance with the
narrative of Scripture. They assort thnt
al-lliji? w.is the district where he settled, and
that Makkali, then an arid wilderness, was the
identical spui whore his life was providentially
saved, and where Hiigar died and was buried.
The well pointed <mt by the wngel. they be-
lievo to be Die famous Zani?ani. of which all
pious Muslims drink to Ibis day. They
make n«» allusion to his alliance with the
Egyptian woman, by whom ho had twelve
sons (Oen. xxv. 12-18), the chiefs of as many
nations, and (be possessors of separate towns;
but us polygamy was common in his age aud
country, it is not improbable he may have
bad more wivus than one
It was, *ay they, to commemorate the
miraculous preservation of Ishirmcl that (»od
commanded Abraham to build the Ka'-bah.
and his son to furnish the necessary
'materials.
Mul.amniiiduii wnte.rs give tlie following
ncvuiiut of Ishmael and bis descendants :—
liibmael was < onstituted the prince and first
high priest of Makknh. awl. during half a
ceniury hf preached lo the incrediilras Ar»bs
At his deaili, which happened lorty eight
years after ih«» of A Urn him. :md >n \\w l-)7th
of his age. he was Juried in (he lomb ol his
mother Hagar. Between the erection uf the
Ka'bah «nd the birth of Iheir Prophet, the
Arabs reckon about 2,740 years. IshrnaeJ
was Micceedvii in th<» ro^al niwi i«af:erdotal
oAicc by his «-ldost son Nebai. nlthongh the
pedi^ivc of Muhammad is lr*«»«l from Kedar.
a yoongfli brother. Hut his t/imily did not
lon«f enjoy th«i «loub|p authority , lor, in pro
gress of time, the J-urhuinitc* sei^od the go
vernment and Ihe guart|i:inship of the temple,
which they maintained itbont 300 years
These last, again, having corrupted rhf true
wo»fih)p, were assailed, as a punishment of
their crimes, first by the scimitars of the
UhnjHclilcs. who drove their from Makknh,
«nd then by divers uittlanicB. by which
the whole race linally perished. Before
quitting Makkah. however, they committed
every kind of sacrilege and indignity. They
tilled up the Zamzain \vell, after having
thrown into it the treasures and sacred
utensils of the temple, the black ttone, the
swords and cuirasses of Qala'ah. the two
golden gazelles presented hy one of the
kings of Arabia, the sacred image of the ram
substituted :for Isaac, and all the precious
mo*;ible$, forming at once the object and
the workmanship of a superstitious dovo-
tiou. F<>r sever J centuries the posterity
of IshmaH kept possession of the &ut>rcme
lignily.
Thtf follow ing HJ the li«5t ol chiefs who
are said to have ruled (he Hijaz. and to have
been the lineal ance*tor9of Muhammad, as far
as *Atinan : —
A.D. 534 -Abdu 'Hah, the father of Muhammad.
505 -Abdu 1 Mu Ma lib
47*2 Hashim
439 'Abd Mttu-tf
106 Qus.iiy.
373 KiWb,
340 Murrah.
Ji07 Ka«ab.
27 1 Luw/iiy.
241 Ghalib.
208 Fihr or (>ui jUh.
I7"> Mnlik.
142 an-Na?r.
100 Kinannh.
7<"> Kb u / mm a) <
43 Mu»trikah.
10 al-Ya's.
B.C 23 Mur.ar.
56 Ni/.ar.
80 Ma'add.
122 -Adum
The period between Ishmael and 'Adnun is
variously estimated, some reckoning forty,
others only seven. g«nei :Uions. The authority
of Abu'l-Fidii, who makes it ten, is that gene
rally (allowed by tlit* Arabs, beiiiK founded on
a tradition of one of Muhammad's wives.
Making every allowance, however, lor pwfi'i
arehal longevity, even forty generations aro
insulliripui to extend over a spar* at nearly
'A500 yeraiH. From 'Adnan In Wuharjoi»»H
the ^enealovy is coiisiderofl certain, « -ompre-
hending twenty-one genera I IOIIK, and nearly
20
ARABIC
160 different tribes, all branching off from
the same parent stem.
(See Abu'l-Fida; Gagnier's Vie de Maho
met ; Pocock, SfiKcim. Arab. Hist. ; Saiyid
Ahmad Khan's Essays; Sale's Koran, Prelim*
Die ; Crichton's Hist. Arabia.}
ARABIC. Lisdnu-l-'Arah ; Lu-
qhatu 'l-(Arab. The classical language of
Arabia is held to be the language of the
Qur'an, and of the Traditions of Muhammad,
md by reason of its incomparable excellence
is called &j&\ cd-lurjhah, or "the language."
( See Qur'an, Surah xvi. 105, " They say, Surely
<i person teacheth him [i.e. Muhammad]. But
the tongue of him at whom they hint is
foreign, while this [i.e. the Qur'an] is plain
Arabic.")
This classical language is often termed, by
the Arabians themselves, the language of
Ma'add, and the language of Muzar, and is
a compound of many sister dialects, very
often differing among themslelve*, which
were spoken throughout the whole of the
Peninsula before the religion of Muhammad
incited the nation to spread its conquering
armies over foreign countries. Before that
period, feuds among the tribes, throughout
the whole extent of their territory, had pre
vented the blending of their dialects into one
uniform language ; but this effect of disunion
was counteracted in a great measure by the
institution of the sacred months, in which all
acts of hostility were most strictly interdicted,
and by the annual pilgrimage, and the yearly
fair held at 'Ukaz, at which the poets of the
various tribes contended for the meed of
general admiration.
Qatadah says that the Quraish tribe used to
cull what was most excellent in the dialects
of Arabia, so that their dialect became the
best of all. This assertion, however, is .not
altogether correct, for many of the children
of the tribe of Quraish, in the time of Muham
mad, were sent into the desert to be there
nursed, in order to acquire the utmost
chasteness of speech. Muhammad himself
was sent to be brought up among the tribe of
Sa'd ibn Bakr ibn Hawuziu, descendants of
Muzar, but not in the lino of Quraish ; and he
is said to have urged the facts of his being a
Quraish, and having also grown up among
the tribe of Sa'd, as the grounds of his
claim to be the most chaste in speech of the
Arabs. Certain it is that the language of
Ma'add was characterised by the highest degree
of perfection, copiousness, and uniformity, in
the time of Muhammad, although it after
wards declined.
The language of the Qur'an is universally
acknowledged to be the most perfect form of
Arabic Speech. At the same time we must
not forget that the acknowledged claims of the
Qur'an to be the direct utterance of the
Divinity have made it impossible for any
Muslim to criticise the work, and it has be
come the Standard by which other literary
compositions have to be judged, (See Lane's
Introduction to his Arabic Dictionary, am
Palmer's Qur'dn.)
AL-A'RAF
ARABIC LEXICONS. The first
Arabic lexicon is that which is generally
ascribed to al-Khalil, and entitled Kitiibu'l
Ain. The following are the most celebrated
Arabic dictionaries composed after the lAin.
The Jamharah, by IbnDuraid, died A.H. 321.
The Tahzlb, by al-Azhari, died A.II. 370.
The Afvfttg, by the $ahib Ibn 'Abbfid, died
A.H. 385.
The Mujuial, by Ibn Faris; died A.TT. 395.
The Sifrak, by al-Jauharl, died A.H. 398.
The Jd/iiil, by al-Qazzaz. died A.H. 412.
The Mu'ab, by Abu Ghalib, died A.H. 436.
The Mufrkam, by Ibn Sldah, died A.H. 458.
The Asds, by a?-Zamakhshari, died A.H.
538.
The Afuffhrib, by al-Mutarrm, died A.H.
610.
The 'Ubdb, by aS-Sagham, died A.H. 600.
The Lisdnu'l-'Arab,by Ibn Mukarram,died
A.H. 711.
The Tah-zibu 't-Taf&ib, by Mahmud at-
Tanukhi, died A.H. 723.
The Afi$bdh, by Ahmad ibn Muhammad
al-Faiyumi, compiled A.H. 734.
The Afurjhni 'l-Labib, by Ibn Hisham, died
A.H. 761.
The Qdmm, by al-Fairuzabadi, died A.H.
816.
The Sifrdtt (says Mr. Lane in his Preface
to his Dictionary), is among the books of
lexicology like the gahih of Al-BMarl
amongst the books of traditions; fo.rthe point
on which turns the title to reliance is not the
copiousness of the collection, but the condi
tion of genuineness and correctness.
Two well-known dictionaries, compiled in
modern times in Hindustan, are the Gftiydsu 7-
Luyhat. by Maulawi G_hiyaSu 'd-din of Rain-
pur, and the Afuntaha. 'l-'Arab, by 'Abdu 'r-
Rahlm ibn 'Abdu '1-Karim of Saflp.ur. These
are both Arabic and Persian lexicons.
The Arabic-Latin dictionary of Jacob
Golius, waa printed at Leyden, A.D. 1653;
that of Freytag at Halle, A.D. 1830-35.
The Arabic-English and English-Arabic
dictionaries extant are —
Richardson's Persian- Arabic-English, A.D.
1777.
Richardson's English-Persian-Arabic, A.D.
1810.
Francis Jehnson's Persian-Arabic-English,
A.D. 1852.
Catafago's Arabic-English and English-
Arabic, new edition, 1873.
Lane's Arabic-English, A.D. 1863 to 1882,
imperfect.
Dr. Badger's English-Aribic, A.D. 1881.
Dr. Steihgass's English- Arabic, A.D. 1882.
(u>\j&\). (1) The
partition between heaven and hell, described
in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 44, « Betwixt the two
(heaven and hell) there is a partition ; and on
al- A'raf are men who know all by their marks ;
and they shall cry out to the inhabitants of
Paradise, ' Peace be upon you i ' (but) they
have not (yet) entered it, although they so
desire. And when their sight is turned towards
the dwellers in the Fire, they say, • O our Lord,
'ARAFAH
place us not with the unjust people.' " Accord
ing to Sale, al-A'rafia derived from the verb
•ara/bt, \vhi<-h signifies u to distinguish between
things, or to p&rt them"; though some com
mentators give another reason for the imposi
tion of this name, because, say they, those who
stand on this partition will know and distinguish
the blessed from the damned hv their respec
tive marks or characteristics : and others say
the word properly intends anything that is
eleoated, as such a wall of separation must
be supposed to be. Some imagine- it to
bo a sort of limbo for the patriarchs and pro
phets, or for the martyrs and those who have
been most eminent for sanctity. Others
place here those whose good and evil works
are so equal that they exactly counterpoise
each other, and therefore deserve neither
reward nor punishment ; and these, say they,
will on the last da 3' be admitted into Paradise,
after they shall have performed an act of
adoration, which will be imputed to them us
a merit, and will make the scale of their good
works to preponderate. Others suppose this
intermediate space will be a receptacle for
those who hare gone to war, without their
parents' leave, and therein suffered mar
tyrdom ; being excluded from Paradise for
their disobedience, and escaping hell because;
they are martyrs. (2) The title of Surah vii.
(3) A term used by Sixfi mystics to express
a condition of the mind and soul when medi
tating on the existence of God in all things.
'ARAFAH (&/0- The vigil of the
'Idu '1-Azha, or Feast of Sacrifice", when the
pilgrims proceed to Mount 'Arafat. ['IDU
'L-AZHA.]
'ARAFAT (*>U,ft), or 'Am/ah.
The " Mount of Recognition," situated twelve
jnilesi from Maltkah; the place where tho
pilgrims stay on the ninth day of the pil
grimage, and recite the mid- day and after
noon prayers, and hear the Khutbah or
Sermon. Hence it is a name giyen to the
ninth day of the month Zu '1-Hijjah. Upon
the origin of the name given to this mountain,
Burton says, " The Holy Hill owes its name
to the following legond : — When our first
parents forfeited heaven for eating wheat,
which deprived them of their primeval purity,
they were cast do\vn upon earth. The ser
pent descended upon Ispahan, the peacock at
Gabul ; Satan at Bilbays (others say Senrnan
or Seistan), Eve upon 'Arafat, and Adam at
Ceylon (Sarandib). The latter, determining
to seek his wife, began a journey, to which
the earth owes its present mottled appear
ance. Wherever our first father placed his
foot, which was large, a town afterwards
arose ; and between the strides will always
be country. Wandering for many years, he
came to the Mountain of Mercy, where our
common mother was continually calling upon
his name, and their recognition of each other
gave the place the name of 'Arafuh."
ARAZI GJ*^). Lit. "lands"; the
sale of lands. Tombs are not included in the
sale of lands. A place or atation for casting
ARCHITECTURE
21
the harvest is not considered to bo amongst
the rights and advantages of land, and there
fore does not enter into the sale of it.
(Baillie's Law of Sale, pages 54, 55.)
[LAND.]
ARCHITECTURE. The term Sara
cenic is usually applied by English writers to
Muhammadan architecture. But though the
style may be traced to the Arabians, they
cannot themselves be considered the inventors
of it. They had, in fact, no distinctive style
of their own when they made their rapid con
quests, but adapted existing styles of archi
tecture to meet the religious and national
feelings of the Muslims.
Muhammad built a mosque at al-Madinah,
but it was an exceedingly simple structure,
and he left no directions in the Qur'un or in
the Traditions on the subject.
The typical varieties of the earlier Muham-
madan architecture are those which appeared
in Spain and in Egypt ; its later form
appeared in Constantinople. The oldest
Specimen of Saracenic architecture in Spain is
the mosque of Cordova, which MOW serves as
the cathedral of tho city. It was commenced
by the Khalifah 'Abdu 'r-Rahmtn, 78(> A..D.
IN THE SANCTUARY OP THE CATHEDRAL OF
CORDOVA.
with the avowed intention that it should bo
the finest mosque in the world, and Byzantine
architects are said to have been specially
invited to superintend its construction.
The earliest of the Muhainmedan buildings
in Egypt, of which any portions still remain, is
the Mosqua of <Amr at old Cairo, begun
about A.D. 642, but greatly altered or rebuilt
about sixty years later.
On the capture of Constantinople, St. Sophia
was converted by the Muslim conquerors into
their chief Mosque, and made their architec
tural model. The older Saracenic style, as
seen at Cordova and old Cairo, continued to
be the basis of tho new, bxit it was modified
throughout by Byzantine influence. In Persia
22
ARCHITECTURE
\v.e may clearly tra«e in Mnhammndan bniW
the older Persian type, And in India
IN S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE.
the Saracenic architects showed the same
pliancy in adopting the styles of the various
peoples amongst whom they settled. It thus
happens (says Fergusson, in his History of
Indian Architecture), that we have at least
twelve or fifteen different styles «f Muhanv
madan architecture in Central Asia and in
India.
ARCHITECTURE
almost to apparent uisoeunry*, but owing to
the style of the fmtwHishnier.t. this lightness
IN THE I'AJ M \11ALL, AGRA.
A Mi-iking and distinctive feature in early
Muhamraadan architecture- is the horse- shoe
arch, which in time gives way to n rasped or
scalloped arch, strictly so termed, the outline
being produced by intersecting semi arches.
Another variety of Saracenic arch is the cir
cular-headed and stilted form. The pillars arc
commonly of exceedingly slender proportions,
IN TUK MOTI 'MASJItt, AGRA.
oi particular forms Kinds to heighten the
general luxuriance Some have imagined that
Hits element of slenderness in regard to
pillars indicates a tent, origin rtf the style.
This tout -like character has been further kept
up by roncwvr cfihugs and cupolas, embla-
.'.cmed with painting anil gilding1. LVeorationH
couiposed of journal ojul human figures,
interdicted by Mubaminadun law
ate not found in Saracenic arcbilecfuir •
but their geometrical patterns exhibit sin
gular bennty and complexity, inexhaustible
variety uf r oniluu^li ms, aiifl a w wilder fnl
degree ul hainioinous intricacy, arising out of
very simple elements. Lattice or open trellis
EARLY PATHAN STYLE IN THE QUTB BUILDINGS
AT DELHI.
work is another fertile source of tin bell ish
ment, and is similar to the tracery met with
in Gothic buildings. Another characteristic
of Saracenic style is that of the dome. For
the most part domes occur in iiio*<|iies and
tombs, and ar<» of Byva'ntine origin. Minarets
are also ? special feature in Muhftiuinadan
mosques, and contribute much to (Le pu>-
turesqueness of these buildings. They are
4 ART YAH
found in Tno~qnes ol the Uter Sftraeenic si.ylc.
(See Fen?tiisson's Indian and Eastern Arckitt.c-
IX A KOl'SE TN PBSHAAVAH,
. Mr Owen J«nf">'i Athtunbrfi AW«*Y. Tfer-
•AKlYAH (*i/0. A \md of sale
permitted in Islam, namely, wh'on a persoi-
computer what quantity of fruit there its on a
tree and .-oils it before it is plucked. (Mi*h-
ktit. xii e. \,)
'AKlYAH (*». (1) A loan, for
ttio u.j" of anything of which f&irz c?mnor i>c
made: './/. the. loan of a horse \R -Art.)-i/>:
the loan 'of money is (^atz. (2) A #ift. of
vl'ifh th'- fol lowing is an example: — A person
rrmk"s -,\ ^ift to another of the tbttes , t •>
palm-tree m his ^arrli-n; but having after
wards somo doubt of the propriety of that
person coining laily to hi, garden v II.M-,
his family xisualiy :iv», and being. ;it the
aamo time unwilling li> depart t'roaj his
promist, «v to r«-tr:iot his Kift, he f/ivos
some ol tli«- rlatc^ «h;;t have already boon
pulled in lieu of thone upon the tree.
(BaiUio s IMW of .S/.-A . p SOO )
AR.K, ISOAH S (Cy «tUi). It i^
mentioned i»; th.« !»i-tory of the Delude, as
recorded in the \>ui ;in. in tw> places- Suruh
xi. 3i>, '-Bnildthe >»!•:< under oni •',-<• j>i>d after
our revelation," and hin.ih \\iii 27. There
is also supp.)H*ri to IT an allusion to ti. ;ul
in Surjih xxxvi. -U . " And a »i^n t:0 *h»»m i-
that \v(j bare the,iv nifAprii^ in the l:iden ship.
AI-ltii/uNvi s;i/s that Noah -./;»s tw> years
linilding the ark. Mwhicli \\«.- JifX* ctii>it'- 1< n
5() vitlf, aii<l 30 brand. Mod which v«a.s made
of Indian pi r. tie-tree ; that it consi.stt-d < \
three storeys, flu- loAvcst for lx.si.sts.tbr
for men and \\ouicii (who' v"io M.
from eacli ether), ind the hi^li' ^t. \<. •< tjird
The afk is said t<» linvp rested on Iho tiiouu-
tain al-Ji»<li. fN«>\H.]
ARK OF THE COVENANT. Tlio
ASHAB 23
Hcbrew'worJ for "Ark" is pnfi (i.e.
a chest, a rpff?r), Cbalcl.
Arabic ^y^', tyV;. See Qur'an. Sura),
ii. '24 ik, •« Tic liffn of his (Saul's) kuiL'dojn is
that there shall come unto you the ark
(J'dbut)- iu it Minll be srcnnty (or the Shechi
nah, sakimik, Heb. n^^Dtt?
?our
Lord, find the rei:< s of what th<> 1 imily
of Moses :»nd the family o( Aaron left ; the
angels shall bear it." J Ullu 'd din say1;
tbift ark contained the inKi>?eH tf the prophets,
and «*>»« *ent down from heavrn to Adorn,
and at k:j^'lh came to the Israelites, who put
great confidence tLevnin, £»nd continually car
ried it in jront of their army (ill it w»^ taken
by the Ani'»1ckitOK But ni ti.is occasion tho
angels bron,»,ht it tnrk in thei s^^ht < f all *hr»
people, 4i.id pl.»«<fil it at il.t feet of Saul
(TaJut)* wrho was tJ n-nj-»n unanintouslv
rereivod as Kin^.
ARMS, Tho Sale oi. I he salo ol
;ntnoui or warlike stores to rebels, or in their
camp, is forbidden, because soiling arms into
flic hands of rebels is :«n ;>.ssist»ncc to defec
tion. But it i* not forbiddfn to sell the mate
rials for making arms to such persons
fRftmihott'fl tlniiifjdti. vfl ii i'1'5. )
AIuSII (^^*;^/). ( i .) A loiral term
for eoitipensatiou. (2.) Amulet ; r. lino ; pa»--
ticularly thai which is p«iid for shedding o1
blood. (3.) A gill Tor conciliating the favour
of a judge; a bribe. (4.) Whatever ;t pur
chaser rccencs from a seller after '<li<*cnve.r-
iufcT ti fault in ;I;P itrticln
'AESH (v>;*)- 'i'he term n.s^-j ,r
th" Qur'an for the throne of God. Surah ix.
lJJi,k'ITp is the Lord of the smyhty rhr»nf."
Hus^ini, the eprnnieut!»t<(r, sjys the throne
has o,0(X> pillars, and the distance bftwrn
•.^ch pillar is 3,000,000 mile?
;ASABAH (i*«*\ \ legal term
for male rebtliv^s by the tathei s side
agnates.
ASAF (uA<5^). Tin* wnzir or priin<
miniRter < [ Solomon. Alluded to in the
Qnr'fm, Surah xxvil. 40, as "He with whom
WUH knowledge of the scripture ' >fnh«tiJ
in.idan oommeutjitur* say be "*<>« the «on of
l^.lrkhlya.
ASAK (y^). lie1 latin g ; handing
douii by tradition. Generally u«ed for »
H uli- related hy one of the (^onn>anions. as
di«tin^uisiied frmn one ftf the Proj»het's own.
Ar.-ASARTJ 'SH-8HARTF (/^
c_fij>yiJ^). Tht? sacrod relic. A liair
of either the beard or rtuist;i« hi->s ,.f M'lbiiin-
ina-l, 01 a frot-print of Hie iM'.-.pliet. ' )r," of
these *;«<T.:HI relic:- (n h*ir of his benri; is
<%iiibito«l in tli^ i,TCi»l ir.csiiiie at DeJhi,
another in :i inosque in CaSliinerc.
ASHAB (^W«^ pi. oi NflAi/>
Tho C!nmp:iniotif> nr As^ocifltenof Mvihnmm.nl
24 ASHABU
The term .used for a single companion is
vahabi. Concerning the title of " Companion,"
there is considerable controversy as to the
persons to whom it can be applied. Sa'id
ibn al-Musaiyab reckoned none a . " Com
panion," but those who had been a year or
more with Muhammad, and had gone on a
warlike expedition with him. Some say that
everyone who had attained puberty, had em
braced Islam, and had seen the Prophet, was
a lt Companion," even though he had attended
Muhammad but an hour. Others, however,
affirm that none could be a " Companion "
unless Muhammad chose him and he chose
Muhammad, and he adhered to the Prophet
at all , times. The general opinion is that
every one who embraced Islam, saw the Pro
phet, and accompanied him, even for a short
time, was a " Companion."
It is related that the Prophet marched to
Makkah with 10,000 Muslims, to Huuam with
12,000, and that 40,000 accompanied him on
the farewell pilgrimage. The number of the
" Companions " at bis death is said to have
been 144,000.
In point of merit, the refugees (Muhdjrrwi)
are more worthy than the auxiliaries (,4n£o?-) ;
but by way of precedence, the auxiliaries are
more worthy than the later refugees.
The " Companions " have been arranged in
thirteen classes, which are given by Abu '1-Fida
as follows: — 1. Those who first embraced
Islam, such as Khadijah, 'AH, Zaid. and Abu
Bakr, and those who did not delay till he had
established bis mission. II. The Companions
who believed in him after his mission had
been fully established, amongst whom was
'Umar. III. Those who fled to Abyssinia.
IV. The first Companions of 'Aqabah. who
proceeded the Auxiliaries. V. The second
Companions of 'Aqabah. VI. The third Com
panions of < Aqabah, who were seventy. VII.
The refugees who went to the Prophet after
his flight, when he was at Quba, before the
erection of the temple. VIII. The soldiers of
the great battle of Badr, IX. Those who
joined Islam between Badr and Hudaibiyah.
X. Those who took the oath of fealty under
the acacia tree at Hudaibiyah. XI. Those who
joined after the treaty of Hudaibiyah, but
before the conquest. XII. Those that embraced
Islam on the day of conquest. XIII. Those
who were children in the time of the Pro
phet, and had seen him.
Muhammad frequently commended the
" Companions," and spoke of their excellences
and virtues, a chapter in the Traditions being
devoted to this subject, (3/z°x//X;a?, xxiv. o.
xiii.) He i« related to have said, "My com
panions are like stars by which roads are
found, for which ever companion vou follow
vou will find the right road."
AL-ASMABU 'L-FIL (J-Att v»W«1).
" The Companions of the Elephant." A term
%ised in the Chapter of the Elephant, or the
CVth Surah :— !' Hast thou not seen how thy
Lord dealt with the companions of t/ie elephant ?
Did He not cause their stratagem to miscarry ?
AL-ASH'ARIYAH
And He sent against them birds in flocks,
small stones did they hurl down upon them,
and he made them like stubble eaten down! "
This refers to the army of Abrahah, tho
Christian king of Abyssinia and Arabia Felix,
said to have been lost, in the year of Muham
mad's birth, in an expedition against Makkah
for the purpose of destroying the Ka'hah. This
army was cut off by wmall-pox, and there is no
doubt, as the Arabic word for small-pox also
means " small stones," in reference to the
hard gravelly feeling of the pustules, what is
the true interpretation of the fourth verse of
this Surah, which, like many other poetical
passages in the Qur'an, has formed the start
ing point for the most puerile and extravagant
legends.
ASHABU 'L-KAHF (u&\ s^W^).
" The Companions of the Cave," i.e. the Seven
Sleepers, mentioned in the Suratu '1-kahf, or
Chapter xviii. of the Qur'an. The story, as
told by early Christian writers, is given by
Gibbon {Rise and Fall, Chapter xxxi.). When
the Emperor Decius persecuted the Christians,
seven noble youths of Ephesus are said to
have concealed themselves in a cave in the
side of a mountain, where they were doomed
to perish by the tyrant, who gave orders that
the entrance should be firmly secured with a
pile of huge stones. They immediately fell
into a deep slumber, which was miraculously,
prolonged, without injuring the powers of life,
during a period of 187 years. This popular
tale, which Muhammad must have heard
when he drove his camels to the fairs of
Syria, is introduced into the Qur'an as a
divine revelation.
ASHABU '§ - SUFFAH (v>U^
J&uW). " The sitters on the bench "
of the temple at Makkah. They are thus de
scribed by Abu '1-Fidft: "They were poor
strangers, without friends or place of abode,
who claimed the promises of the Apostle of
God and implored his protection. Thus the
porch of the temple became their mansion,
and thence they obtained their name. When
Muhammad went to meals, he used to call
some of them to partake with him ; and he
selected others to eat with his companions.''
m 'ASHARAH MUBASHSHAKAH
(Sj-i~* &yi.*). " The ten who received
glad tidings." Ten of the most distinguished of
Muhammad's followers, whose certain entrance
into Paradise he is said to have foretold.
They are Abu Bakr, 'Utnar, Usman, 'All,
Talhah, az-Zubair, 'Abdu 'r-Rahman, Sa'd-ibn-
Abu-Waqqas. Sa'id ibn Zaid, 'AM 'Ubaidah
ion al-Jarrah. (Mishkdt, book xxiv. c. xx., part
ii.) Muhammad declared it presumption for
anyone to count upon an entrance into
heaven with absolute certainty, but he made
an exception in favour of these ten distin
guished persons.
Ai,-ASH'ABlYAH (fytdR). A sect
formed by Abu ri-Hasan 'Ali ibn Isina'il
al-Ash'arf. born A.H. 280 (A.T>, 873-4).
AL-ASH'ARIYAH
They hold that the attributes of God are
dintmot from His essence, yet in such a
way as to forbid any comparison being
made between God and His creatures. They
say they are not " 4a»/i uor ghair: '' not of Hi's
essence, nor distinct from it: i.e. they cannot
be compared with any other things. They
also hold' that God lias one eternal will,
from which proceed all things, the good
and tbo evil, the useful aud the hurtful. The
destiny of man was written on the eternal
table before the world was created, So far
they go with the Sifatis, but in order to
preserve the moral responsibility of man. they
say that he has power to convert will into
action. But this power cannot create any
thing new, for then God's sovereignty would
beimpaired; MO they say that God in His pro
vidence so orders matters that whenever " a
man desire* to do a certain thing, good or
bad, the action corresponding to the desire is,
there and then, created by God, and, as it
vyere, fitted onto the desire." Thus it seems
as if it came naturally from the >vill of the
roan, whereas it does not. This action l»
called Kasb (acquisition), because it is acquired
by a special creative act of God. It is an
act directed to the obtaining of profit or th«-
removing of injury: the term is therefore in
applicable to the Deity. Abu Bahr al-Bakil
l&ni, a disciple of al-Ash'ari, says: * The
essence or substance of the action is the
effect of the power of God, but its being an
action of obedience, such as prayer, or an
action of disobedience, such as fornication,
are qualities of the action, which proceed
from the power of man.71 The Imam Al-
Haramain (A.H. 419-478) held "that the
actions of men were effected by the power
which God has created in man." " Abu Ishaq
tl-Isfarayini says: "That which maketh im
pression, or hath influence on action, is a
30inpound -if the power of God and the power
)f man." They also believe that the .word of
Sod is eternal, though they acknowledge that
/he vocal sounds used in the Qur'an, which are
,he manifestation of that word, are created.
iThey say, in short, that the Qur'an contains
'!) the eternal word which existed m the
issenoe of God before time was ; and (2) the
fford which consists of sounds and combiua-
ions of letters. This last they call the created
Thus Al-Ash'ari traversed the main posi-
lokf of the Muta/ilites, denying tha!. man can,
>y the aid ot his reason alone, rise to the
cnowledge 01 good and evil. He must exer-
:ise no judgment, but accept all that is re
vealed. He has no right to apply the moral
aws which affect mei, to the actions of God.
t cannot be asserted by the human reason
hat the good will be rewarded or the bad
mniehed in a fnture world. Man must always
ipproach God us a slave, in whom there is no
ight or knowledge to jtidg«; of th^ actions of
he Supreme. Whether God will ar-cept th«
>enifent sfnner or not cannot be «ssert«i, for
In ip an absolute So-vpr^ign, above iill law.
Sale, from ,'kn KhnUtin ; /)<> \fn
for die Prflrfrnkv in /slrim, .-'.m H.
ASWAD 25
1865 ; Zurijesckichte Abu '/-J/ttsan al-ash'ttriffi,
von W. Spitta, 1876 : De Strijd over het JJoyum
in den lxtdm tot op El-aah'ari, door Dr. M. Th.
Hoiusina, Leiden, 1875 ; and Expose <ie In
Ktfonne de I' I slam is me, by M. A. F. Mehren
Leiden, 1878.)
'ASHtTBA <«VU)- Lit. "the
tenth." A voluntary fast day, observed on the
tenth of the month of Muharram. It is related
•that Muhammad observed it, and said it was
a day _reaPected by Jews and Christians.
{Afi&nkat, vii. c. vii. 1.)
It is the only day of Muharram observed
by theSunnl Muslims, being the day on which
it i» said God created Adaiu and Eve. heaven
and hell, the tablet of decree, the pen, life,
tiud death. It is kept by the Sunnisas a fast.
ASIYAH (l**\). The wife of
Pharaoh. Ouo of the four perfect wornetj
(the Virgin Mary, Khadijnh, and Fafcimah,
being the other three). See Mishkdtu l-Ma-
stibih, xxiv. c. 22. She is mentioned in the
Qur'an (Surah Ixvi. 11): " And God striketh
ont a parable for those who believe : the wife
of Pharaoh, wiieii she said, f My Lord, build
for mo a house with Tlieo in Paradise, and
snve tpp from Pharaoh and his works, and
save me from the unjust people."
ASL CJ^). Cause, first principle,
foundation. Aal-wnfar*, "cause and effect."
" fundamental and derivative principle."
ASMA'U 'LLAH (&U\ -U-^). [QOD,
NAMES 0V.]
'ASB (>c). The afternoon
prayer. [FKAYEiis.J The title of the cutrd
Suz^ah uf the Qur'un.
ASS. According to the Imam
Abfi Hunifjih, the assiaan unclean animal, and
its flesh aud milk are unlawful; nor is zakat to
be given on an ass. (Hamilton's Hidd^ah,
vol. i. Iti, iv. 74, 8ti.)
ASSISTANTS. [ANSAE.]
ASTROLOGY. , Arabic 'Ilmu 'n~
nujiiin. Qatitdah says, referring to the Qur'an,
that God has created stars for three uses :
(1) as an ornament to the houvena (Surah
Ixvii. 5); (2) to stone the Dovil with (Surah
Ixvii. 5) ; and (3) to direct travellers through
the forests and -on the sea (Surah xv. 16).
Muhammad condemns those who vtuJy the
stars for any other purpose (Mi.skkdt. xxi.
c. iii. pi. in.), and consequently the science of
Astrology i-j not considered lawful in Islam.
ASWAD (^S\). An impostor
who, in the time uf Muhammad,, claimed
!he prophetic off.ro, Hi.s name was 'Aihalah
ibn iva'b, aqd he belong«d to the tnbe
of 'Aua, of which, he WHH an iunuential chir-f
He was suriinmed 7tu 'l-Hiimir. or •• 'J'he
of th^ Ass," * because he used
r, or, "He
* Put p.notbcr
with the veil.'1
26 ATIIKIST
fiequertly to s»y. The mastei ol the ass
is coming unto ine," and pretendeu to receive
his revelations from two angels, named ^uhaik
and Shuraik: Being- a good hand at legeide-
rn.un, and Having a smooth tongue, he gained
mightily on the multitude by the strange
(eats winch he shewed them, and the elo-
qu«n(;*> of his discourse. By these means ho
greatly increased his power, and having mnde
himself master of ^^ajran an<t the territory of
Ta'if, on the deaiii of Barthtm. the governor
of Yam an for Muhammad, he seurd that pro
vince also, killing Shahr, the son cf HtUftifcn,
and lakim? to wife his widow A/ad whose
father he had also slain. The new*; beiuy
brought to Muhamni.-id, lie sent to his fj-ieuds
and te the tribe of IJatndaiK a party of whoui
conspiring with Qais ibn 'Aijii Ya.ghi.ith, who
bore As wad a gmd$e, and with Fir fur. and
Aswad's \vife, broke by night into his house,
where Firuz surprise A him and out of) his
head While dying, it is said that he roared
Jike a bull. «t which his guards came to the
chamber cloo' but were sent away by his
wile, who told them that the prophet was
on'y Agitated by the divine inspiration. This
was done 'h« very night before Muhammad
died. The next morning the conspirators
caused the following proclamation to \M-
•rna.de. viz. " I bear witness that Muhammad
is the Apostle of God, and that 'Aihalu is a
liar " ; and letters *ere immediately sent
away to Muh-iinmad, with an account of
what had been done; but a messenger from
heaven outstripped thrm. and acquainted the
prophet with the news, which he imparted to
his Crintpaiuons a little before his, dealh, the
letters thi>mselv«* hot arriving till Abii Bakr
was chosen Khalif It is sairt that Muha-in-
mad on his occasion told those who attended
him that before the Day of Judgment thirty
more impostors, besides Musailimah and As-
wad, should appear. The whole time from
the beginning of Aswad's rebellion to hif,
death was four months.
ATHEIST. [DAHRI.]
'ATIRAH (fy^). The sacrifice
offered by the idolatrous Arabs in the month
of Rajab. It was allowed by the Prophet :\i
tho commencement of. his mission, but wan
afterwards abolished. Afiskkdt, book iv. c. «"><>.
" Let there bo no Fara* nor ; Atiruh."
,AT-TAHIYAT (^>W^5^). Ln. "the
|>feetingn." A part of the atato«i prayers.
recited after the rJJ>ji:l>lriji '/-'(£& Hit, aftrr
every two rak'ahs. It is recited whilet ihp
worshipper kneels upon the ground. His left
foot bent under him, he sit^ upon it, ami
places his hands upon his knees nnrl says:
" The adorations (i.e. af-tfthiyatu of the
tongue are for (rod, and also of the body and
of alms-giving. Peace be on t-hee. 0 Prophet,
with the mercy of God and IJis blessing.
Poa-co be upon ns. and upon God's righteous
servants." (Mishkiii, iv., o. -svi.-^ [VHAVKK.]
AUGUKY. [FA'L.J
AYATU L-FATH
AULlYA (*^),. pi. of vefc.
" Favourites of God." The expression occurs
in the Quran in the following verse. " Ar« nwt
the tavourites of God those on whom no rear
shall tsome, nor shall they be pu« to griel ? "
(Surah x. 63).
AUTAD (^?V>- Llt- "pyps or
pillars." A term used by the :>«lis for the
four Saints, by whom the four corners oi the
world are K'atd to he supported.
A'UZU BILLAH (&\* VO- An-
clhor mime for the Ta'anwwz, or the prayct
in the <laily liturgy : " 1 seek refuge with God
the cursed Satan/'
AVENGER OF BLOOD. In the
JMuhsiinmadan law, as in the Jewish, the
punishment for wilful murder Mi left to the
next of kin ; but in the Jewish cor\e
the avenger of Mood was compelled' to tnk«
the life of the murderer, whilst in t ho Muslim
fade be nuiy accept compensation? vide
Qur'jiu. Sin ah it. 173, '*() believers! rot-itiaiion
) for blood-shedding is pies<-i-il.»ed to
you: top free man for the fj-eo. and the slave
for the rlave, und the woman for Ihp woman ;
but be to whom Ins brotlu-r .shrill make any
remission is to he dealt with cipiitably ; and
a payment should be made to him vyiih
liberality. This is a r<-l:i*;;tion (/.«». ol tiie
strict (iV fax td/i'oMfi) from vour I>ord. and a
mercy." [IJIHAS.]
AYAH (^A). LU *-a sign, or
miiMfle." The torui us,ed for our of the
smaller portions of vh'j r* ha piers of the lv>urVin,
which we call verses. 'J'he munber of verses
i;i often set down after the title of the chapter,
but the verses are not marked in the text as
they are in our English Bibtas. The number
of verses in the <^ur'an is variously estimated.
but they :tre generally said to bf» abox»t six
thousand two hundred. [QI:U'AS.J
AL-A'YANU 'S-SAB1TAH
J*,), pi. of 'ayn, iu the sense of
"tho essence" of a thin^;. The established
'essences. A term used by the 8ufi mystics
io express fitfuri-s ornhlematjc of the names
•9 1 God. f'Abdu 'r-Ray./3q'.s Uictiotmry of
Toi-hnif.nl Tfniai of the Sufis. Sprenger'a
edition.)
AYATU 'L-FATH (^ ^). Lit.
•• The verse of victory." The fifty-ninth
verse of the Siiratu 'I-AnTtUi (vi.) of the
Qur'an. Iho powers of this v<«rse are said to
be so great, that if a person constantly recile
it he will obtain his ctosires. It is generally
recited with this objoct forty times altor each
season of prayer. It is as follows : — *• And with
Him are the keys of the secret things ; none
knoweth them but He ; and He knoweth what
ever is on the land and iu the sea ; and no
leaf falleth but He knowcth it ; neither Is there
a grain in the darknesses of the earth- nor a
green thing nor a dry thing, but it is noted in
a clear book."
AY-ATU VHIFZ
27
AYATU h-HF*? rU*rt V') The
verses of protection " Certain verses of
the Qur'an whir-h arc usually insaihfd on
arnulots They are: — Surah li ?'>0. "And
tfae preservation of both (heaven SUM! earlhj is
no burden unto Hun.' Surah xn. l»4, " f.io«l
is the best proteetor." $»iir<»h xni. U. " Th^y
uuard him l»y th<; command of G->d ' Siunh
xv. \!. " Wt> guard him from ovi.>ry devil
driven away by stones" Surah XX.VVH. 7,
••_\ protection agiMnsi ev-iy rebellious devil."
LKURSI
"The vfM'M.- uf i hi-. throne." Veise V5fj of
the M'n-atu 'i-Baqav.in, or chap. u. of the
QniYm. It is i • I ,-itod 'Midiknl. book iv ,
c. xix.. pail in that -All hfard Muham
mad say in h« ))ii)pil. •' (hat person who
repeats the i'/v«/ii V-A't.c.s/ ,ifter every prayer,
nothing !;•• (vents hi^n r-nl<?.iing into Paradise
but life; and whoever .savs it when Jie goes to
his bed-chamber, God \villkeep him in -.rifely,
together with his house rnni the house of hH
riei.'.dib.mr. Tjie verso is as follow* :---••' God !
There is no God hut He ; the Living, the
Abiding. Neither slumber s«i/,«tli Him, u«»r
sleep. To Rim helongeth whatsoever is in
heaven and whatsoever is in (>a7't)j. Wh<.> 1^5
he that can intercede with lliin but by lli.s
own permission? If-1 knoweth what )inlli
bft'd before then , and wh it shall h»^ .-ii>fr
^hern : yet nought "f Hi i.uu\v;^!!t;c do ih<>y
iomprehend, save what He wilieth. His
•THUONK rcaohotir ov^er the heavens ;md the
oarth. and the upholding of butr. burdeneth
Hiin not: IUK! lie i--- the Hi^rii. tii-.; Great."
" The rerse of inheritances." Thu twelfth
verse of the Siirattt 'n-nis-i. or fourth ohaptwr
ol the C^ur'an. It relates to inheritance, and
is the foundation of the Muslim law on the
subject. It is wivnn in the urtiele on Inhe
ritunce. ( iNHtitrrANCE.]
AYIMMATU'L-ASMA
" Th«: leidiusf names." Tlu; seven principal
uwmes or titles of fJod. nninely : —
-4/-//u^f/ . . The Living.
Al vt/irn . . The Krunviug.
Ai'Murul . . 1 he Puj'poser.
Al^u l» The Powerful.
4^- Stint- . The Hearer.
At-I3ajir llu Pt>rr.
Al MutaJcufHn I he Speak er.
AYISHAIJ (SA.U). The daughter
of Alju I'akr, and fhe fivotiiite wif«« of Mu
••Ifimad, to wliuui .she was married whi'ii
onl.y iiiue yiari of a^o. She survived hei
husbuntmatiy years, raid died at al-Mndinah,
A.H. ,5S (A.I>. (>/8), »gcd fJixty-seven, ant)
ohtaiufd tie title of I7«i/fl*< 'l-MtfmiiriH, " The
Mothor of the JBelievers."
AYMAN
, pi of
The
days oi the bright itights," menJionrd <n tl r
(book vii. e- 7, part 3), as days on
whiih Muhammad did not cut. whether liult
i»<r or mnrchino. They are the I3tb. 14th,
ind l5th nights of th« month. (See Lane's
IJir.t.. p. 284 ,
AYYAMU 'L-QARR(yB^V). Thn
day of rest after the day of sacrilire e«t the
AYYAMU'N-NAHR (
Tho season of bttrriHce at the
[HA.U.]
AYYAMU'T - TASHRtQ
^rijd\). The three days after the
feast oi sacrifice at Mina during the Pilgrim
age. &o called brcauso the flesh of the
victims is then third, or because they are not
slain until after *uu-rise. MA »,;. )•! 1.01:1. MACK.]
AYY1M (^.V). A legal term for
a woman having no husband, whether she be
H virgin 01 a wid<»*.
4 A Z A U U ' L-Q AJJR (;-al\ -r>\^) .
••The punishment of the grave." That, -ill
persons, whether believers or not, undergo
some punishment in their graves, is a funda
mental articl'? of the .Muslim belief. These
punishments nro described in the following
Hit lis <jn the fiuthonty of Abu Hnrairah ;—
" The Prophet uf God said. When a corpse
is placed in its grave, two biack angels couti
to it. v.-iiii blue eyes. The name of the one is
Mimkur and of tlte other Nakir, and they inter
rogate the dead person concerning the Prophf!
of God. ff ho bo a .Muslim, he will bear
witness to 'Ix- Unity "? Ucd und the miss-ion
of Muhammad. The angels will then say,
We knew thou wouldst say HO*; and the
vrav(' will thei> expand seventy times seventy
yards in lejigth, and seventy times s-jventy in
breadth. A light will then be given for the
grave, and il will be .said, Sleep.1 Th«n the
dead person will say, • Shall 1 return to my
brethren and inform th*mi of this?' Then
the angels will sayj 'Sleep like the bride
#rooin, till God .shall raise thee up from the
grave on the Day of Resurrection.1 But if
the eorpse be that <>f /in unbeliever, it will
he askocf. ' What .sayest thou about tho
Prophet '" ' and lift will reply, ' I know
him not.' And then the ungels will say.
We knew thou wonldst say «o.' Then the
ground will be ordered to close in npon him,
and it will break his sides, and turn his right
Hide to bi* loft, and he will etiffer perpetual
punishment till <h)d raise him therelrorn."
In another tradition, recorded by 'Ana», it is
said, " TLe wicked will be struck with a
rod (witruqak}) and they will roar out> and
theii cries will be heard by all JMu'mals flint
may he near tin: grave .'\r--pt ing man and tho
genii." (Miitiktlt, hool< I. c. v,).
All Muhaniinadau doc^yrs of the orthodox
schools (whether we apply the U-rm orthodox
to Sun/nor Shr a li) believe in the literal mtei
pre^otiun of these punishments in the. grave,
whit'H are said to tnke place 33 iwon as the
party has left the grave-yard. A
AZAL
AZAtt
perusal of the varicms traditions on the sub
ject must convince any unprejudiced mind
that Muhajnmacl intended to teach a literal
interpretation of his sayings on this subject.
It is related that on one occasion, when the
Prophet was riding through a grave-yard, his
male, hearing the groans of the dead, tried to
throw his master. On that occasion, Muham
mad aaid, "If I were not afraid that you
would leave off burying, I would ask (rod to
give you the power of hearing what 1 hear."
Shaikh 'Abdu '1-Haqq, in his commentary on
the Mishkat, says, "The accounts which are
here given of the punishment of the grave,
are undoubtedly true, and they are not either
imaginary or figurative." (Mishkdt* book i.,
chap. v. ; gee Persian edition with 'Abdu '1-
Haqq'g commentary.)
AZAL (Jj\). Eternity with re
spect to the past, &,<* distinguished from abad
(J^V)> eternity without end,
AZAN (0^). Lit. "• announcement."
The call or summons to public prayers pro
claimed by the Mu'azzin (or crier) — in small
mosques from the side of the building or a.*.
the deor, and in large mosques from the
minaret.
It is in Arabic aS follows : —
JjJ.
Allahu akbar! Allahu nlcbar !
akbar! Allah ti akbar ! Ashhaffu an la it aha
ilia 'ltdfi ! Ashhadu an Id ilaha ilia 'llah I Ash-
fiai/u anna Mubaminadan rasutu-(la/t ! Ash-
hafia anna Afuhammadan rastilu-Udh ! Hayya
•ala 'f-saldli ! Uayija 'ala '$-?aldti ! flayya i
'ala 'IJbLdl.i! ffayya 'ala '1-fa.ldh! Allafiu I
akbtrr I AlWw akbar J Hi iidhct ilia 'Uah !
Which is translated : —
"God is most great! God is most great !
God is most great 1 God is most great ! I
testify that there is no god but God! I tes
tify that there is no god but God ! I testily
that Mahammad is the Apostle of God! I
testify that Muhammad is the Apostle .of God I
Come to prayer! Come to prayer! Come to
salvation! Gome to salvation! God is most-
great ! God is most great ! There is no god
but God!"
In the Az&n in the early morning, after the
words, " Come to salvation 1 * is added fl»LJ\
. r^\ &• «* ty-N - r^\ v+ V
As-saldtv khcnrun mina n-naumif Af-saLdtu
£/jatr«ri mina 'n-navmi! "Prayer is better
than sleep ! Prayer is better than sleep ! *
The Shi'ahs make a slight alteration in the
Azan, by adding the words, • *
khairi 'l-'vmaLi { ffayya lald kfctiri 'i-lainali '
•• Come to the best of works ! Come to the
best of works!" and by repeating the last
sentence of the Azan, " There is no god bui
God," twice instead of ouce, as in the Suuin
Azan.
When the Azan is recited, it is usual for
men of piety and religious feeling to respond
to each call, as, for example, when the
Mu'azzin cries :• —
"Allahu akbar! Aliahu akbar! Allah u
akbar ! Allahu akbar ! "
Those who hear it repeat : —
- Allahu akbar! Allahu akbar! Allahu
akbar i Allahu akbar!"
The Mu'azzin says —
" I testify that there is no god bxit God ; I
testify that there is no God but God."
They reply—
"I testify that there is no God but God ;
I testify that there is no god but God."
Mu'azzin. — "I testify that Muhammad is
the Apostle of God."
Reply. — " I testify that Muhammad is the
Apostle of God."
Mu'azzin. — "Come to prayer."
Reply. — ;'I have no power nor strength but
from God the most High and" Great."
-Mu'aazin. — " Come to salvation."
Reply.— « What God will cth' will be: what
He willeth noi, willeth not be."
The recital of the Azan must be iliaeued to
with great reverence. If a person be walk
ing at the time, he should stand still; if re
clining; sii up. Mr. Lane., in his Modern
Egyptians, s»ys. '• Most of the Mu'axziAS of
Cairo have harmonious and sonorous voices,
which they strain to the utmost pitch ; yet
there is a simple and solemn melody in their
chants wtiich is v«ry striking, particularly in
the stillness of the night." But Va'mbery re
marks that " the Turkisliinees most caieiully
avoid all tune arid melody. The manner in
which the Azan is cried in the west is here
(in Bokhara) declared sinful, and the beautiful
melancholy notes which, in the silent hour
of a moonlit evening, are heard from the
slender minarets on the Bosphorus fascinat
ing every hearer, would be listened to by the
Bokhariot with feelings only of detestation."
The summons to prayer was at lirst the
simple cry, " Gome to public prayer." After
the Qiblah was changed, Muhammad be
thought himself of a more formal call. Some
suggested the Jewish trumpet, others the
Christian bell ; but neither was grateful to the
Prophet's ear. The Azan, or call to prayer
was then established. Tradition claims for
it * supernatural origin, thus : — '• While the
matter was under discussion. 'Abdu 'Huh, &
Khazrajite, dreamed that he met a man clad
in green raiment, carrying a bell. 'Abdu 'Halt,
sought to buy it, saying that it would do well
for bringing together the assembly of the
faithful. "I will show thee a better way,"
replied the stranger; "let a crier cry aloud,
' God is most great,' &c." Waking from
sleep, ' Abd u 'llah proceeded to Muljamrnad, and
told him his dream. (Muir, from Katibu Y-
W&tifa) Hishami recites the story as if
•Abdu'llah had actually met the man.
Bingham, in his Antiquities (vol. ii.. book
AZAK
viii. ohap. vii.), relates that, in the monastery
ot' virgins which Paula, the famous Roman
lady, set up and governed at Jerusalem, the
signal for prayer was given by one going
about and singing •• Hallelujah 1 " for that
was their call to church, as St. Jerome
informs us.
Tb" AZRII is proclaimed before the stated
times of prayer, either by one of the congre
gation, or by the Mu'azzin or crier, who is paid
for the purpose. He must stand with his face
towards Makkah, -with the points of his fore
fingers in his ears, and recite ihn formula
which has been jfiven above
It must uut bo recited by an unclean
person, a drunkard, a madman, or a woman,
AZAR Ojl). Terah, the father
of Abraham. Surah, vi. 74, "And when
AbrahTm said to his father Azxr, Takest thou
images as gods ? "
" The Eastern authors unanimously a^roe
that ho was a statuary, or carver of idols;
and he is represented as the first who made
images of clay, pictures only haying been
in u.j»* before, ainl taught that they were to be
adored as gods. However, we are told his
employment was a very honourable one, and
that he was a great lord, and in high favour
with Nimrod, whos^ son-in-law he was, be
cause he made his idols for him, and was
BACKBITING 29
excellent in his art. Some of the llabbios say
Terah was a priest and chief of the order."—
(Sale.)
AL-AZARLQAH (to,l>Jt). A sect of
heretics founded by Nafi* ibii al-Azraq. who
say that 'All was tin iufidol, and that his
assassin was ri^ht in killing him. ('See ash-
StaArattani, ed. Cnretou, p. A<* . Haarbruecker's
translation, I., p. 133-
AL-'AZBl' (»U*d\;. The slit-eared;
one oi Muhammad's favourite: camels.
AL-AZHA
One of the
ninety- nine special names of God. "The
great One."
'AZtMAH (*•**>*). An incanta
tion.
AL 'AZIZ (j>)*>\)~ One of the
ninety-nine special names ol God, It fre
quently occurs in the Qur'an. It me;uis " the
powerful, or the mighty One "
'AZEA'It, (J*fy)*;. The angel of
Death. Mentioned in the Qur'an under the
title of Maluku Y-3fa;/f, Surah xxxii. 11, " Thu
angel of death who is chaiged with you shall
cause you to die." I MA&AHU 'L-MAUT.]
B.
"RABEf,. Arabic J?V> Ba.KL Men-
tioned once in the Quran, Surah ii. 96:
" Sorcery did they teach to men, and what
had been revealed to the two angels Harut and
Marut at Babil." Babel is regarded by the
Muslims as the fountain-head of the science of
matric. They suppose Harut and Marut to be
two angels who, in consequence of their want
of compassion for the frailties ot mankind,
were .sent down to earth to be tempted. They
bof h .sinned, and, being permitted to choose
whether they would be punished now or here
after, chose the former, and are still sus
pended by the feet at Babel in a rocky pit,
and are the great teachers of magic. (Lane's
Thousand and One Niyli'x, ch. iii. note 14.)
Vide Tafvir-i-'Azizl in loco
BABU 'L-ABWAB
Lit. " The door of doors." A term used by the
Sufis for repentance. ('Abdu 'r-Razzaq's
Dictionary of Fi'fi
BABU 'S-SALAM
" The Gate of Peace." The gateway in the
Sacred mosque at Makkah through which
Muhammad entPrrd when be was elected by
the Qnraish to decide the question as to
which section of the tribe should lift the
Black Stone into its place. It was originally
called the Bab Ban! Shaibah. " the Gate of
the Bauu Shaibah," th* family of Shaibab. ibu
'Usman, to whom Muhammad gave the key
of the Ka'bah. Burkhardt says that there are
now two gateways called by this name.
Bnrton says, " The Babu VSalain resembles in
ity isolation a triumphal arch, and is built of
cut stono." (Burton's PHyi'image, vol. ii.
p. 174. See Muir's Life, of Afuhome.t, pp.
28, 29.)
BABU fN-NISA, (UJt ^\>). "The
Womon's Gate." In later yoars, a« Muhammad
added to the number of his wives, he provided
for each a room or house on the same .side of
the mosque at al-Madinah. From these he
had a private entrance into tho mosque, ufled
only by himself, and the eastern gate still
bears in its name, Babu 'n-Nisar, the aiemory
of the arrangement. (Muir's Life of Maho~
met, iii. p. 20.)
BACKBITING. Anything secretly
whispered of un absent person which is1 cal
culated to injure him, and which is true, is
called d'/i'bn/i, a false accusatioii being ex*
pressed by JSuktun. Abu Hurairah says,
" The qucstiou was put to the Prophet, 'Do
yon know what Imekbitmg is ? ' and he replied,
' It is saying anything: bad of a Muslim.' It
was then said, • But what is it if it is true ? '
30
BADAWI
BAT
And lie said, 'If it is true it is Ghibah, and if
it is a false accusation, it is fjuhtan (i.e.
slander}.'" (Mishkat, x*ii. c. T.)
The foJlowing are sayings of Muhammad on
the subject: — "The best of God's servants
are those who when you meet them speak, of
God. The worst of God's servants are thos^
who carry tales about, to do mischief and
separate friends, and seek out the defects of
good people/' " He who wears two faces in this
world shall have two tongues of fire in the day
of the "Resurrection." "It is unworthy of a
believer to injure people's reputations, or to
curse anyone, or to abuse anyone, or to talk
vainly." "The best atonement you can make
for backbiting is to say, ' 0 God pardon me
and him (whom I have injured).' " Mishkdr,
xxti. c. x.
BADAWl (cSr**)- A name given
to the Bedouin Arabs, or the Arabs of the
desert. Btdnuin is only a corruption of the
plural of this word, which is derived from
jU(i(1w~.t3dth'yah< " a desert."
AL-BADI* (£*J^) is one of the
nincty-nino special names of God. It means
"Ho f ho originates." It occurs in the Qur'im,
Surah ii. 1 1 1, " He is the wonderful originator
of the heavens and the earth; when He
decreeth a matter, Ho doth but say to it,
' Be/ and it is."
BAPR, The battle of. Arabic.
ChazA-atu 'l-Batlr. The first battle of Budr
»v:»s tVnght. in the month uf Rimazan, A.K.
2 (March, A.D. G24), between Muhammad
•ind the Q.uraiah. Many of the principal men
<if the Quraish were slain, including Abu
xlflbl, whose head was brought to the Pro
phet, »ud wln-ii it was cast at his feet, he
exclsitnrd, tk It is more acceptable to me than
the choices; eatnel of /VrablH/' After the,
Vmtlle "yarf <»ver. sonic of the prisoners were
cruelly rnurdpvcd. Tihvsam says the losses of
the Quraish at Utidr v.'ere seventy killed and
seventy prisoners. Tin's victory at Bad* con
solidated the power of Muhammad, and it is
Vcji ?iidc«i by Muslim historians as one of the
most important events of history. Au account
of this celebrated battle will h* found in the
article oti Mv\itiu)in>uL
The second battle of Bndr was a bloodless
victory, and look place in the month /u 'I-
Qa dah. A.it 4. ( April A u &V6).
BAMJRA (V^.) A Nf-stoiian
monk whom Muhammad met when he was
journeying back frt»m Syria to M^kkah, and
wbo is said to have perceived by various
Jiiyns that he was a prophet. Hi* Christian
name is supposed to have \>vu\\ Serums (QL-
Georgius).
Sprenget- thinks that Bahiirfi remained wiih
;'iitihami7jail. anri it has been suggested that
there is an allusion to this monk in the
Qur'an, Surah xvi. 105 : u We know th*t
they say, 'It is only a man who teacheth
him.'" Husain tlie comniontator say6 on this
passage that the Prophel was in the habit of
going every everting to a Christian to h«ar
the Taurat and Injtl. 7q/«ir-?-7/MJ»afni;
Sale, p. 223 •, Muir's Life ' of
\ p. 72.)
BAH1RA H (V-.) . ( 1 .) A sTift
she-t{oat or ewe, which had given birth to a
tenth young one. C2.} A. she-camel, the
mother of which bad brought forth ten
females consecutively before her.
In tli<*&6 and similar rases, the pagan
Arabs observed certain religious ceremonies,
sticb ns slitting the animal's ear. A'c., all of
which are forbidden in the Quran : t' God
hath not ordained any Bahlrah." (Surah v,
Ida.
I '
(£*» , pi. fa buttf'). A sale;
commercial -loaling; harter. Bur .or ''sale,'' in
the langttagc cf thu law. .signifies an exchange
of proportv for properly with the mutual con
sent of parties. For \be rules cowerriing
sales and barter, see Hamilton's Hidayah,
vol. ii. 3GO ; Bail lie"? Afuhtirfitnttdaii Law of
Sale. ', T!ie fatdwd '•Atumgiri.
ISale, in its ordinary acceptation, is a
transfer of property in consideration of a
price in money. The word has a more com
prehensive meaning in the Muhammadan
law, and is applied to every exchange of pro
perty lor property with mutual consent. It,
therefore, includes barter as well as sale, and
also loan, when the articles lent are intended
to be consumed, ftad replaced to the lender by
-a Similar quantity of the same kind. This
transaction, which is truly an exchange of
property for property, is termed ifurr, in the
Muhariunndan law.
Between baiter and salo thore is rto essen
tial distinction in u»«»si. systems of law. and
the joint subject mav in general be consider
ably simplified by bring ireatc-fl of. solely as a
sale. A course b*s been adopted in the
Muharmnatlati law, which obliges the reader
to fix his attention on both sides of the con
tract. This mny nt first appear to him to be
an unnecessary complication uf the subject,
but when he becomes acquainted with the
deftnitkm of price, and the rules for the pro
hibition of excess in the exchange of a largo
class of commodities, wbieh apply to every
form of the contract, be will probably be of
opinion that to treat of the subject in any
other w.iy would be attended with at least
equal difficulties
'J.'ijf. ui hi point which sfcrns to require hia
attention is the meaning of the ••word " pro
perty " as it occurs in the definition ot sale.
original term (*»«/), which has been thus
translated, is defined by Muhammadan
lawyers to be - that which can be taken
possession of and secured." This definition
seems to imply that it is tangible or corpo
real, and things or substances are accordingly
the proper subjects of sale. Mere rights are
not jflfil, and cannot therefore be lawfully sold
apart from the corporeal things with whicb*
they rm»y happen to bo connected. Of suuli
rights one of tbc most important is the right
BAI
BAI*
31
ol a creditor to exact payment of a debt,
which is not a proper subject of sale. Jn
uiher worde, debts cannot, by t.h« Muham-
madnn law. any more than by tho common
UWB of England and Scotland, be lawfully
sold.
Things are commonly divided into niove-
able and immoveable. the latter compre
hending: land and things permanently attached
to it. Hut HIP distinction id not of much im
portance in the Muhammadan lr\v. as the
transfer of land is in nowise distinguished
from that of other kinds of property.
A more important division of things is that
into mifili and knmini. The former are things
which, when th*y happen to perish, are to bo
replaced by on equal quantity of something
similar to them; and th« latter are thing."
which, in the same circumstances, are to be
replaced by their value. These two classe?
have been aptly styled "similars" and " dis-
simiiars " by Mr. Hamilton, in hie translation
of the Hiddyuh. Similars are things which
are usually sold or exchanged by weight, or
by measurement of capacity, that is, by dry
or liquid measure; and dissimilnrs are things
which are not sold or exchanged in either of
these ways. Articles which are nearly alike,
and are commonly sold or exchanged by
number or tale, are classed with the first
division of t >ings. and may be termed " simi
lars of tale " ; while .articles which differ mate
rially from each other, yet are still usually
9old or exchanged by number, belong to th»>
second division, »md may be called '• dissimi
lars of tale." Dirhams and dinars, the onlj
reined money known to the old Arabs, are
included among similars of weight.
Similars of weight and capacity are dis
tinguished in the Muhammad an law from all
other descriptions of property in a very re
markable wjiy. Wheti one article of weight
is sold or exchanged for another article of
weight, or one of measure is sold or ex
changed for another of measure. th«^ delivery
of both must be immediate from hand to hand,
and any delay of delivery in one of them is
unlawful and j»rohibited. Where, again, the
articles exchanged are also of the same kind,
ns when wheat is sold for wheat, or gilver for
.silrer, there must not only be reciprocal and
immediate delivery of both before the separa
tion of the parties, but also absolute equality
of weight or measure, according as the articles
are weighable or measurable, and any excess
on either side is also unlawful ami prohibited.
These two prohibitions constitute in brief the
doctrine of reha, cr '* usury," which is a marked
characteristic of the Muhammadan law of aalo.
The word reha proporly signifies '• excess,"
and there are no terms in the Muhnminadan
law which corresponds to tho words " interest "
and " usury," i« the sense attached to them
in the English language ; but it was expressly
prohibited by Muhammad to his followers to
derive any advantage from loans, and that
particular kind of advantage which is called
by u» interest, and consists in the receiving
back from the borrower a larger quantity
than w«* actually lent to him, was effectually
prevented by the two rules nbovu mentioned
Those, hke some other principles <>[ Muhnin-
madan hiw, are applied with a rigoui and
minuteness that may to us seem incommen
surate with their importance, but are easily
accounted for when we know that ih»»y are
believed to be of divine origin
Similars of weight and capacity havo a
common feature of resemblance, which dis
tinguishes them in their own nature from
other commodities, and marks -with further
peculiarity their treatment in the Muham
madan law. They are aggregates of minate
parts, which are either exactly alike, or so
nearly resemble each other, that the differ
ence between them maybe safely dif regarded.
For this reason they are usually dealt Vilh in
bulk, regard being had only to the whole of a
stipulated quantity, and not to the individual
parts of which it is composed. When sold
in this manner they are said to be indeter
minate. They may, however, be rendered
specific in several ways. Actual delivery, or
production vfith distinct reference at the tirao
of contract, seems to be sufficient lor that
purpose in all cases. hut something short
of this would suffice for iili similars but
money. Thus, flour, or am kind of grain,
may be rendered specific by being enclosed
ia a sack ; or oil, or any liquid, by beinif put
into casks or jars ; and though the vessels
are not actually produced at the time of con
tract, their contents may U<* sufficiently par
ticularised by description of the vessels and
iheir locality. Money is not susceptible of
being thus particularised, and dirimms and
dinars are frequently referred to in the fol
lowing pages as things which cannot be ren
dered specific by description, or specification,
as it is more literally termed. Henco. money
is said to be always indeterminate. Other
similars, including similars of tale, are some
times specific and sometimes indeterminate.
Dissimilars. including those >tf tale^ are always
specific.
" When similars are sold indeterminately,
! the purchaser has no right to any wpooitic
portion of them until it be separated from ;»
' general mass, and marked or identified us
the subjert of the contract. From, the
luomwfit of offer till actual deliver}', he has
nothing to roly upon but the seller's obliga
tion, which may, therefore, be considered the
direct subject of the contract, iinnilars taken
indeterminately are accordingly termed dayn,
or " obligations," in the Muhammadan law.
When taken specifically, they are cla-ssed
with dissimilar^, under the general name of
j 'ayn. The literal meaning of this term is
: •• substance or thing "; but when opposed to
! dayn it means something determinate or spe-
i cific. The subject of traffic may thus be
j divided into two classes, specific and indeter-
' minate ; or. if we substitute for the latter tho
word " obligation," and omit the word " spe
cific '' as unnecessary when not opposed to
' indeterminate. " these classes may, according
to the view of Muhammadan lawyers, be
described as things and obligations.
There IK some degree of presumption in using
32
BAV
BA11
a word in any other than its ordinary accepta
tion; and it is not without hesitation .that (Mr.
Baillie says?) I have ventured to employ the
werd " obligation " t'o signify indeterminate
things. My reasons for doing so are these : first
it expresses the exact meaning of the Arabic
•word dayn, and yet distinguishes this use of
it from another sense, in which it is also
employed in the Muhammadan. law ; second,
it preserves consistency iu the law. Thus, it
will be found hereafter that the effect of sale
is said to be to induce a right in the buyer to
the thing sold, end in. the seller to the price,
end that this effect follows the contract im
mediately before reciprocal possession by the
contracting parties. Now, it is obvious that
this is impossible with regard to things that
are indeterminate, if tho things tnemselves are
considered the subject of the contract , and cases
are mentioned where it is expressly stated that
there is no transfer of property to the purchaser,
when similars of weight of capacity are sold
without being distinctly specified, until actual
possession take place. The difficulty, dis
appears if we consider not the thing itself
but the obligation to render it to be the sub
ject of contract ; for a right to the obligation
passes immediately to the purchaser, and the
seller may be compelled to perform it. If we
now revert to the division of things into simi
lars and dissimilare, money — which, it has
been remarked, is always indeterminate — is
therefore an obligation ; diesimilara, which
are always specific, ?.ve never obligations ;
and other similars, except money, being some
times specific and sometimes indeterminate,
are at one time obligations, and at another
time things or substances.
Before proceeding farther it is necessary to
advert more particularly to the. other sense in
which the word dayn is frequently employed
in the. Mubammadan law. It means strictly
*' obligation," as already observed; but the
obligation may be either that of the contract
ing party himself, or of another. lu the
farmer sense deyn is not only a proper sub
ject of tragic, but forms the sole Subject oi
one important kind of sale, hereafter to be
noticed. But when dayn is used to signify
the obligation of another than the contracting
party, it .is not a proper subject of traffic.
and, as already observed, oannot be lawfully
sold. In the following pages dayn has been
always translated by the word " debt " when it
signifies the obligation of a third party, and
generally by the word "obligation," when it sig
nifies the engagement, of the contracting party
himself, though when the things represented by
the obligation are more prominently brought
forward, it has sometimes been found neces
sary to substitute the expression, "indeter
minate things."
Though barter and sale for P price, are con-
ftmnded under one general nurne in the Mn-
hammadau law, it is sometimes necessary to
consider one of the things exchanged as more
strictly the subject of sale, or thing sold, and
the other as the price- In this view the former
is termed mabl*. and the latter $aman. \
or " price," is defined to be dayn ft \
zimmak, or, literally, an " obligation in respon
sibility." From which, unless the expression
is a mere pleonasm, it would appear that the
word dayn is sometimes used abstractly, and
in a sense distinct from the idea of liability.
That idea, however, is necessary to constitute
price ; for though cloth, when properly de
scribed, may, by reason of its divisibility and
the similarity of its parts, be sometimes
assumed to perform the function of price in a
contract of sale, it is only when >t is not im
mediately delivered, but is to remain for some
time on the "responsibility of he contracting
party, that it can be adopted for that pur
pose.
It is n general principle of the Muham-
niaiaa law of sale, founded on a declaration
of the Prophet, that credit cannot bo opposed
to> credit, that is. that both the things ex
changed cannot be allowed to remain on tho
responsibility of the parties. Hence, it is
only with regard to one of them that any
stipulation for delay iu its delivery is lawful
Price, from its definition above given, admits
of being left on responsibility, and accord
ingly a stipulation for delay in the payment
of tiie price is quite lawful and valid. It
follows that a stipulation for delay in the
delivery of the things sold cannot be lawful.
And thid is the case, with the exception
of one particular kind of sale, hereafter
to be noticed, in which the thing sold is
always indeterminate*, aud the price is paid
in advance. It may, therefore, be said of all
specific things when tha subject of sale, that
a stipulation for delay in their delivery is
illegal, and would invalidate a sale. The
object of this rule may have been to prevent
any change oi the thing sold before delivery,
aud the disputes which might ia consequence
ariao between the parties. But if they were
allowed to seleot whichever they pleased of
the articles exchanged to stand for the price,
and the other for the thing sold, without any
regard to their qualities, the object of the
last-mentioned rule, whatever it may have
been, might be defeated. This seems to have
led to another arrangement of things into
different classes, according to their capacities
for supporting the functions of price or of
the thing sold in a contract of Bale. The first
class compre heeds d'irhams and dinars, which
are always price. The second class comprises
the whole division of dissimilars (with the
single exception of cloth) which are always
the thing sold, or subject of sale, in a con
tract. The third class couiprises, first, all
similars of capacity ; second, all similars of
weight, except dirhanis and dinars • and,
third, all similars of tale. The whole of this
class is capable of supporting both functions,
and is sometimes the thing sold, and some
times the price. The fourth class comprises
clpth, and the copper coin called fttttts.
Sale implies a reciprocal vesting of the
price in the seller find of the thing sold in
the purchaser. This, as already remarked, is
called its legal-effect, and sale may be divided
into different stage;; or degrees of complete
ness, according as this effect is immediate,
BAP
suspended, invalid, or obligatory. Thus, salt?
must ilrst of &11 be duly constituted or con
tracted. After that, there may still be some
bar to its operation, which occasions a sus
pension 01 its effect. This generally arises
from a defect of power in the seller, who may
not be fully competent to art for himself, or
may have insufficient authority, or no autho
rity whatever, over the subject of sale. Tn
this class of sales the effect is dependent on
the assent or ratification of some other person
than the party actually contracting. ^ut
whether the effect of a sale be immediate or
suspended, there may be some taint of ille
gality in the mode of constituting it, or in its
subject, or there may be other circumstances
connected with it, which render it invalid.
The Causes of illegality are many and
various. But even though a sale should be
unimpeachable on the previous gronnds, that
is, though it should be duly constituted,
operative or immediate in its effect, and free
from any ground of illegality, still it may
not be absolutely binding on the parties.
This brings us to another remarkable pecu
liarity of the Muhammadan law, viz. the
doctrine of option, or right of cancellation.
The Prophet himself recommended one of his
followers to reserve a locus penitentix, or
option, for three days in all his purchases.
This has led to the option by stipulation,
which may be reserved by either of the
parties. But besides this, the purchaser has
an option without any stipulation, with
regard to things which he has purchased
witnout. seeing, and also on account of defects
in the thing sold The greatest of all defects
ia a want of title or right in the seller. The
two last options to the purchase constitute
a complete warranty of title and against all
defects on the part of the seller, in which
respect the Muhammadan more nearly re
sembles the Scotch than the English law of
sale.
There are many different kinds of sale.
Twenty or more have been enumerated in tha
Nikayah. of which eight are mentioned and
explained. Four of these, which have refer
ence to the thing sold, may require some
nonce in this place. The first, called Mu-
qayazahi is described as a sale of things for
things, and correspondb nearly with barter;
BAI(
33
but the word " thing " (-ayri) v
opposed
to obligations, and muqayazah is therefore
properly an exchange of specific for specific
things. So that if the goods exchanged were
on both sides or on either side indeterminate,
the transaction would not, T think, be a.
mitqdyazah, though still barter. The second i
sale Is called far/, and is defined to be an
exchange of obligations for obligations. The
usual objects oi ihis contract ane dirhams and
dinars, which being obligations, the defini
tion is generally correct. But an exchange of
money for bullion, or bullion for bullion, i« also
a surf, and every sale of an obligation for an
obligation is not a $arf, so that the definition
is redundant as well as defective. It is essen
tial to the legality of this kind of sale, that
both the things exchanged should be delivered
and taken possession of before the separation
of the parties, and that when they are of the
.same kind, as silver for silver, or gold for
gold, they should also be exactly equal by
weight. These rules are necessary for the
avoidance of reba, or " usury," as already ex
plained ; and the whole of forf, which is
treated of at a length quite disproportionate
to its importance, may be considered a a
continued illustration of the doctrine of re 61.
The third kind of sale is salam. It has been
already observed that there can be no lawful
stipulation for a postponement of the deliv^y
of the thing sold, except under one particular
form or sale. The form alluded to is salcnn.
This word means, literally, '• an advance";
and in a $alam sale the price is immediately
advanced for the goods to be delivered at a
future fixed time. It is only things of the
class of similars that can be sold in this way.
and as they must necessarily be indetermi
nate, the proper subject of sale is an obliga
tion ; while, on the other hand, as the price
must be actually paid or delivered at the
time of the contract, before the separation of
the parties, and must, therefore, even in the
case of its being money, be produced, and in
consequence be particularised or specific, a
salam sale is strictly and properly the sale of
an obligation for a thing, as defined above.
Until actual payment or delivery of the price,
however, it retains its character of an obliga
tion, and for this reason the price and the
goods are both termed " debts," and are
adduced in the same chapter as examples of
the principle that the sale of a debt, that is,
of the money or goods which a person is
under engagement to pay or deliver, before
possession, is invalid. The last of the sales
referred to is the ordinary exchange of goods
for money, which being an obligation, the
transaction is defined to be the sale of things
for obligations.
There is another transaction which comes
within the definition of sale, and has been
already noticed, but may be further adverted
to in this place. It is that which is called
Q,arz in the Arabic, and " loan " in the "English
language. The borrower acquires an abso
lute right of property in the things lent, and
comes under an engagement to return an
equal quantity of things of the same kind.
The transaction is "therefore necessarily
limited to similars, whether of weight, capa
city, or tale, and the things lent and repaid
being of the same kind, the two rules already
mentioned for the prevention of re&a, or
" usnry," must be strictly observed. Hence
it follows that any stipulation on the part of
the borrower for delay or forbearance by the
lender, or any stipulation by the lender for
interest to be paid by the borrower are alike
unlawful.
Notwithstanding the stringency of the rules
for preventing usury, or the taking any inter
est on the loan of money, methods were found
for evading them and still keeping within the
letter ,.f the law. It had always been con
sidered lawful to take a pledge to secure the
repayment of a debt. Pledges were ordi-
34
BAI*
AJ>BA'I8
narily of movable property ; when given as
security for a debt, and the pledge happened
to perish in the hands of the pawnee, the debt
was held to be released to tho extent of the
value of the pledge. Land, though scarcely
liable to this incident, was sometimes made
the subject of pledge, and devices were
adopted for enabling the lender to derive
some advantage from its possession while in
in the state of pledge. But the moderate
advantage to be derived in this way does not
seem to have contented the money-lenders,
who in all ages and countries have been of a
grasping disposition, and the expedient of a
sale with a condition for redemption was
adopted, which very closely resembles an
English mortgage. In the latter, the condi
tion is usually expressed in one of two ways,
viz. either that the sale shall become void,
or that the lender shall resell to the seller, on
payment of principal and interest at an
assigned term. The first of these forms
would be inconsistent with the nature of sale
under the Muhammadan law, but a sale with
a covenant by the lender to reconvey to the
seller on repayment of the loan seeins to
have been in use probably long before the
form was adopted in Europe. It is probable
that a term was fixed within which the re
payment should be made. If repayment
were made .at the assigned term, the lender
was obliged to reconvey ; but if not, the pro
perty would remain his own, and the differ
ence between its Value and the price or sum
lent might have been made an ample compen
sation for the loss of interest. This forni of
sale, which was called Bavu 'l-wctfa, seems to
have been strictly legal according to the most
approved authorities, though held to be what
the law call.3 abominable, as a device for
obtaining what it prohibits.
In constituting sale there is no material
difference between the Muhummadan and
other systems of law. The offer and accept
ance, which are expressed or implied in all
cases, must be so connected as to obviate any
doubt. of the one being intended to apply to
the other. For this purpose the Muham
madan law requires that both shall be inter
changed at the same meeting of the parties,
and that no other business shall be suffered
to intervene between an offer and its accept
ance. A very slight interruption is sufficient
to break the continuity of a negotiation, and
to terminate the meeting in a technical sense,
though the parties should still remain in per
sonal communication. An acceptance after
the interruption of an offer, made before it
would be insufficient to constitute a sale.
This has led to distinctions of the meeting
which may appear unnecessarily minute to a
reader unacquainted with the manners, of
Eastern countries, where the people are often
very dilatory in their bargains, interspersing
them with conversation on indifferent topics.
It is only when a meeting has. reference to the
act of contracting that its meaning is thus
liable to be restricted ; for -when the word
occurs in other parts pf the law, as,, for
instance, when it is said of a $<jrf contract
that the things exchanged must be taken pos
session of at the meeting, the whole period
that the parties may remain together is to be
understood. As personal communication may
be inconvenient in some cases, and impossible
in others, the integrity of the meeting is held
to be sufficiently preserved when a party who
receives an offer by message or letter declares
his acceptance of it on receiving the cotmnti-
nication and apprehending its contents.
When a sale is lawfully contracted, the
property in the things exchanged passes im
mediately from a.nd to the parties respec
tively. In a legil sale, delivery and possession
are not necessary for this purpose. Until
possession is taken, however, the purchaser is
not liable for accidental loss, and the seller
has a Hen for the price on the thing sold.
Delivery by one party is in general tanta
mount to possession taken by the other. It
is, therefore, sometimes of great importance
to ascertain when there is a sufficient deli
very : and many cases, real or imaginary, on
the subject, are inserted in the Fatdwd
'Alamglrit It sometimes happens that a
person purchases a thing of which he is
already in possession, and it then becomes
important to determine in what cases his
previous possession is convertible into a pos»
session under the purchase. Unless so con
verted, it would be held that there is no
delivery under the sale, and the seller would
of course retain his lien and remain liable for
accidental loss,
Though possession is not necessary to com
plete the transfer of property under a legal
sale, the case is different where the contract
is illegal ; for here property does not pass till
possession is taken. , The sale, however,
though so far effectual, is still invalid, and
liable to be set aside by a judge, at the
instance of either of the parties, without any
reference to the fact of the person complain
ing being able to come before him with what
in legal phraseology is termed clean hands.
A Muhammadan judge is obliged by his law
to interfere for the sake cf the law itself, or,
as- it is more Rolemnly termed, for the right
of God, which ii is the duty of the judge to
vindicate, though by so doing he may afford
assistance to a party who personally may
Have no. just claim to his -interference. (TO*
M uhammadan L&w of Sale, according to the
Haneffee Cod'.from the Fatawu Atamgiri by
Neil B. E. Baillie. Smith, Elder & Co".,
London.)
BAIL. Arabic &\** kafdlah. Bail
is of two descriptions : Kafdtah bi-'n-nqfs, or
" security for the person "; Kafdlah bi-'l-mdlt OT
" security for property." In the English courts
in India, bail tor the person is termed
ffdzir-zamani,&nd bail for property Zainatiah..
or " security.1' Bail for the person is lawful
except in cases of punishnfent (ffudud) and
retaliation (Qifds^. (Hiddyah, vol. ii. p, 576.)
AL-BA'IS («£**Wtt). One of the
ninety-nine special names of Ged. It means
BATTU L-HAMD
•« HP who awakes " : " The Awakener " ( in
tho Day of Resurrection^.
BAITU 'L-IJAMD (*++)\ <**).
" The House of Praise." An expression which
occurs in the Traditions (Mishkat v. 7).
When the soul of a child is taken, God says,
" Build a house foi' my servant in Paradise
and call it a house of praise,"
BAITU 'L HARAM (rw\ <^~>).
" The Sacred House " A name given to the
Mecca n mosque. [MASJLDU 'L-HARAM.]
BAITU 'L-HIKMAH (*+<<J\ ^).
Lit. " The House of Wisdom." A term used
by Sufis for the heart of the sincere seekers
after (»od. ('Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dictionary of
Sufi Terms.)
BAITU 'L-LAH («W «>*»). "The
House of God." A name given to the Mecca n
mosque. [MAS JIDU 'L-HARAM. J
BAITU 'L-MAL (JUH «^,). Lit.
" The House of Property." The public trea
sury of a Muslim state, which the ruler is not
allowed to use for his personal expenses, but
only for the public good
The sources of income are : (I) Zakdt, or
the legal tax raised upon land, personal pro
perty, and merchandise, which, after deduct
ing the expense of collecting, should be ex
pended in the support of the poor and destitute.
(2) The fifth of all spoils and booty taken
in war. (3) The produce of mines find of
treaaure-trove (4) Property for which there
is no owner. (5) The Jizyak, or tax levied
on unbelievers. (HUda-vah^ Arabic ed . vol i.
p. 452.)
AL-BAITU 'L-MA'MUR (o~J\
jjwutt). Lit. " The Inhabited House."
A house in the seventh heaven; visited by
Muhammad during the Mi'raj or night-
journey. It is said to be immediately over
the sacred temple at Mnkkah.
BAITU 'L-MIDRAS (u-
"The House of Instruction." A term (used in
a tradition given by Abu Hurairah) for a
Jewish school. (Mishkal, xvii. c. xi.) In
rra
AL-BAITU 'L-MUQADDAS
&**&). "The Holy House." A
name given to the temple at Jerusalem.
[AL-MAS/IDU *L-AQSA.]
BAITU 'L.QUDS (^afiJl o~*).
Lit. " The House of Holiness." A term used
by the $ufis for the heart of the true seeker
"after God when it is absorbed in meditation.
('Afcciu 'r-Razzaq's Dictionary of Sufi Terms.}
BAI'U 'L- WAFA (.UjH £*). The
word wafa means the performance of a pro
mise, and the Bui'u 'I- Wafu. is a sale with a
promise to be performed. It is, in fact, a
pledge in the hands of the pawnee, who is
not^its propritoj . nor is he free to make use
of it wiiuout th& pernaissior. of Ilia owner.
BANUN 35
There are different opinions about th« legality
of this form of sale, but it is now the common
form of mortgage in use in India, where it ia
usually styled Bai* li-l-wafd. (See Baillie's
Muhammadan Law of Sale, p. 303.)
al-BAIYINAH (&«JV). Lit. " The
Evidence." A title given to the xcvurth
Surah of the Qur'an, in which the word
occurs.
BA<L(J*0,Heb.^jnn> i.e. "Lord."
The chief deity worshipped by the Syro-
Phcenician nations. It is known to the
Muhammndans as an idol worshipped in the
days of the Prophet Elisha. (See Ghiydgu V-
Lughah.)
BALAAM. There is said to be an
allusion to Balaam in the Qur'an, Surah vii.
174, " Recite to them the story of him to
whom we gave our signs, and he departed
therefrom, and Satan followed him, and he
was of these who were beguiled."
The commentary of the Jalaiain says that
he -was a learned man amongst the Israelites,
who was requested by the Canaanites to
curse Moses at the time when he was about to
attack the Jabbdrun or " giants," a tribe of the
Canaanites. Balaam at first retused to do so
but at last yielded, when Vcaiuable presents
were made to him. (See Tufs'iru V-./a/a/ain,
p. 142.)
BALAD (^?)- I'M- ^nj country,
district, or town, regarded as an habitation.
Al-BaJad,the sacred territory of Makkah. A
title given to the xcth Surah, in which tho
word occurs.
BALIGH (£JV*). "Of years of legal
maturity; adult." [PUBKRTY.]
BANISHMENT. Arabic v-^
Taykrib. Expatriation for fornication Is
enjoined by Mubammadan law, according to
the Imam ash-Shan" *I, although} I is not allowed
by the other doctors of the law, and it is also
a punishment inflicted upon highway robbers.
BANKRUPT. There is no pro
vision in the Muhammadan law for declaring
a person bankrupt, and BO placing him beyond
the reach of his creditors ; but the Qazi can
declare a debtor insolvent, and free him from
the obligation of zakdt and almsgiving.
BANOISRA'IL (JJ}r\f*). "The
Children of Israel." A title of the xvnth
Surah or chapter of the Qur'an, called .-Jso
Suratu 'I-Afi'rdj.
The plural of ibn
Sons ; posterity ;
.BANUN
(Heb. Q^3
tribe." The word is more familiar to English
readers in its inflected form Bani. The tribes
whose names occur frequently in tho early
history of Islam* and are mentioned in the
Traditions, are the Banu-Qur^is/t, Burtu 'n-
2Vq/;'ar, />in«/ - Quraizah, B'.tnu Ki'tdnah
BAPTISM
BABNABAS
Banu-'Amir, Banu - Asad, Banu - Fazdrali,
Banu-Lihyun^ Banu-Tamim* BanH-Uinaiyah.
Banu-Zahrah, and Banu-Israd.
BAPTISM. The only allusion to
baptism in the Qur'aJi is found in Surah ii.
132: "(We have) the baptism of Clod, and who
is better to baptise than Uod?" The word
here translated baptism is $ibp/iah.. lit.
"dye," which, the commentates kl-Jalalain
and al-B&izawi say, may, by compai (son, refer
to Christian baptisiri, " for," says al-Baizawi,
"• the Nasara (Christians) were in the habit of
dipping their offspring in a yellow water which
they called al-Ma'/nudn/ah arid said it purified
them arid confirmed them as Christians" (Sec
Tafslru 'I'Jalafain and 1'ctfsiru 'l-JlaizduJi, in
loco.)
AL-BAQI
One
. of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It means
" He who remains ; " " The Everlasting One."
The title of the second Surah of the Quran,
occasioned by the story of the red heifer
mentioned in verse 63, "When. Moses said to
his people,, Clod oommrmdeth you to Sacrifice
a oo w."
BAQMJ 'L-GHARQAD(^) g-A).
or for shortness al-Baqi (£~i?j\). The
buryiug-ground at ai-M«dinau,which Muham
mad used to frequent at uigut to pray for for
giveness for the dead. (W&hkdt, iv. c. 28.)
BARA'AH (fc>V)- '" Immunity, or
security." A. title given to the ixth Chapter
of the Qur'an, called also Siirota 't Taubuh,
" The Chapter of Repentance." Tt is remark
able as being the only .Surah without the
introductory form, "In the name of Ciod, the
Merciful, the Compassionate.'' Various reason;-:
are assigned for this omission. .Some com
mentators say that the prayer of mercy is not
placed at the head of a chapter which speaks
chietly of God's wrath
BARAH-I-WAFAT (^U. 6;V).
Btirah (Urdu) •« twelve," and Wafut. The
twelfth day of the month Rabtoi '1-Awwai,
observed in commemoration of Muhammad's
death.
It seems to be a day instituted by the Mu-
hammadans of India, and is not observed
universally amongst the Muslims of all coun
tries. On this day Fdtihahs are recited for
Muhammad's soul, and both in private houses
and mosques portions of the Traditions and
other works in praise of the Prophet's excel
lences are read,
The Wahhabis do not observe this day, as
it is believed to he an innovation, not having
been kept by the early Muslims.
AL-BARA IBN 'AZIB (^ *\^\
*-*Ac). One of the Companions who
accompanied Muhammad at the battle of the
Ditch, and in most of his subsequent engage
ments He assisted in conquering the district
of Rai, A.H. 22, and was with the Khali lah
'All at the battle of the Camel, A.H, 36."
AL»BART (c^UI). "The Maker."
One of the ninety-nine special names of God.
It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah lix. 24 : " He is
God the Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner
His are the excellent names."
BAK1QAH (^). Lit. "Refulgence,
lightning." A term used by the Sufis for that
enlightenment of the so.ul, which at first comes
to the true Muslim as an earnest of greater
enlightenment. ('A,bdu 'r-Razzaq's Dictionary
nf Sufi 7W«a.)
BARNABAS, the Gospel of. The
Mubammadans assert that a gospel of Bar
nabas existed in Ajabic, and it is believed by
some thai Muhammad obtained his account
of Christianity from this spurious gospel.
" Of this gospel the MoriscoeB in Africa
have a translation in Spanish, and there is in
ttie library of Prince Eugene of Savoy a
manuscript of some antiquity, containing an
Italian translation of the same gospel, made.
it is supposed, for the use of renegades. This
book appears te be no original forgery of the
Muhamiuadans, though they have no doubt
interpolated aud altered it since, the better to
serve their purpose; and in particular,
iu.sUad of the Paraclete or Comforter (St.
.John xiv. 16,26' xv. 2t> . xvi 7). they have
in this apocryphal gospel inserted the word
Periclyte, that 13, " the famous or illustrious,"
by which they pretend their prophet was
foretold by name, that being the signification
of Muhammarl m Arabic; aud this they say
to justify that passage in the Qur'an (Surah
HL) where Jesus is formally asserted to have
foretold b^s coiniug, under bis other name of
Ahmad, which is derived from the sucae root
as Muharnmau, and of the haute import.
From these or some other forgeries of the
same stamp, it is that Muhammadans quote
several passages of which there are not the
lea.st footsteps in the New Testament"
(Sale.)
After Mr. Sale had written the extract
whicL wu have quoted, he inspected a Spanish
translation of the Italian copy ot this apocry
phal gospel, of which he gives the following
account/: -
fi The book is a moderate quarlo. in Spanish,
written in a very legible hand, but a little
damaged towards the latter end. It contains
two hundred and twenty-two chapters of un
equal length, and four hundred aud twenty
pages ; and is said, in the front, to be trans
lated from the Italian by an Aragoman
Moslem named Mostafa de Aranda. There is
a preface prefixed to it, wherein the discoverer
of the original AIS., who was a Christian
monk called Fra Marino, tells up that, having
accidentally met with a writing of Irena&us
(among others), -wherein he speaks against
St Paul, alleging for his authority the gospel
of St. Barnabas, he became exceedingly desi
rous to find this gospel • and that God, of his
mercy, having made him very intimate with
Pope Sixtns V., one clay, as they were toge
BARNABAS
BARNABAS
tber in that Pope's library, his Holiness fell
asleep, and he> to employ himself, reaching
down a book to read, the first be laid his
band on proved to be the very gospel he
wanted ; overjoyed at the discovery, be
scrupled not to hide his jirixe in his sleeve,
and on the Pope's awaking, look leave oi~ him,
carrying with him that celestial treasure, by
reading of which lie boram« a convert to
Moharnmadanism.
" This Gospel of Barnabas contains a com
plete history of Jesus Christ, from His birth
to His ascension, and most of the circum
stances of the four real gospels are to be
found therein, but many of them tnrnod, and
some artfully enough, to favour the Muham-
madan system. From the design of the
whole, and the frequent interpolation,6! of
stories and p.i^ag^, wherein Muhammad is
spoken of and foretold by name, a-> the mes
senger of God, and this great prophet who
was to perfect the dispensation of Jesus, it
appears to b«> a most bare-faced forgery. One
particular 1 observe therein induces me to
believe it, to have been dressed up by a rene
gade Christian, slightly instructed in hi.-? DOW
religion, and not educated as a Muhaimnadan
(unless the fault be imputed to the Spanish,
or, perhaps, the Italian translator, and to the
original compiler). T mean Ihu giving to
Muhammad the title of Messiah, and that not,
once or twice only, but in several places ;
whereas, the titleof Messiah, or, as the Arabs
write it, al-Masih, i.e. Christ, is appropriated
to Jesus in the QurYw, and is constantly
applied by the Muhanwiadans to him, and
never to their own Prophet. The passages
produced from, the Italian MS. by M. de la
Monnoye are to be seen m this Spanish ver
sion almost word for word."
The Rev. Joseph White, D.I)., in his Bamp*
ton Lectures of 1784, gives a translation of
those chapters in this spurious Gospel of Bar
nabas, which relate to the supposed cruci
fixion of Judas in the place of our Lord,
and which wo insert : —
"Judas came near to the people with whom
Jegus wan, ,ir,d when He heard the noise He
entered iuto the house where the disciples
slept. And God. seeing the fear and danger
Of Hi« .servant, ordered Gabriel and Michael
and Rafail and Azrail to carry Him out of the
woild
" And they came in all haste, and bare Him
out of the window which looks towards the
south. And they placed Him in the third
heaven, where He will remain blessing God,
in the company of angels, till near the end of
the world." (Chapter 216.)
" And- Judas the traitor entered before the
rest into the place from which Jesus had just
been taken up. And the disciples were
sleeping. And the Wonderful God acted
wonderfully, changing Judas into tho same
figure and speech with Jesus.
'• We believing that it was He. said to him.
Master, whom seekest thou? And he said to
them, smiling, Ye have forgotten yourselves,
since ye do not know Judas Iscanot
"At this time the soldiery entered; and
seeing Judas &n like in every respect to Jesus
laid hands upon him," &r>. (Chapter 217.)
" In whifih (Chap. 218) i« related the passion
of Jmlas the traitor.
" The soldiers afterwards took Jndn<? and
bound bun, notwithstanding he said with
truth to them that he was not Jesus. An«l
soldiers mocked him saj'ing, Sir, do not be
afraid ; for we are come to make thoe King
of Israel : and we have bound thee, because
we know thou hast refused the kingdom. And
Judas said, Ye have lost your senses.
" I came to show you Jesus, that ye mi.-jht.
take Him and yo Lave bound me. who nm
your guide. The soldiers lost, their patience,
hearing this, and they began to go with him,
Striking and bnrtetmg him, till they reached
Jerusalem." &c. £<\ (Chapter 218.)
"They carried him to Mount Calvary,
where they executed criminals, and crucified
him, <*t Hoping him asked for the greater
ignominy. Then he did notning but cry out.
O my God, why hast thou forsaken me, that
T should die unjustly, when the real male
factor bfUih escaped ? I say in truth that he
was so like in person, figure, and gesture to
Jesus, that as many an knew Him. believe.!
firmly that it was He, except Peter, loi
which reason many left his doctrine, believing
that it had been false : as He had said that
He should noi die till the end .if the world.
" But those who stood firm were oppressed
with grief, seeing him die whom they under
stood to be Jesus : not recollecting what He
had told them. And in company witn His
mother, they were present at his death, weep
ing continually. And by moans of Joseph
Abartmatbaaji (szV), they obtained from the
president the body of Judas. And they took
him down iiom the cross, burying him
with much lamentation in the new sepulchre
of Joseph ; having wrapped him up in linen
and precious 'ointment^. (Chapter 219.)
'• They all returned, each man to his
house: and he wh.-t writeth, with James and
John, -"'int with the mother of Jesus to
Nazareth. And the disciples, who did not
Tear God with truth, went by night and stole
th« body of Judas, and hid it ; spreading a
report tlial He (i.t. Jesus) had risen again,
from whence sprung great confusion among
the people.
" And the High Priest commanded, under
pain of anathema, that no one should talk of
him : and on this account raised a great per
secution, banishing some, tormenting others,
and even stoning some to death : because it
was not in the power of anyone to be silent
011 this subject. And then came news to
Nazareth, that Jesus had risen again. And
he that writeth desired the mother of Jesus
to leave off her lamentation. And Mary
said, Let us go to Jerusalem, to sec ii it is
truth. If I «oe Him I shall die content.
(Chapter 220).
: The Virgin returned to Jerusalem with
him that writeth, and James and Joiin, the
same day that the decree of the High Priest
came out
•• And as she feared God, though She knrw
38
BARNABAS
the command was unjust, she entreated those
who talked with her not to speak of her Son.
Who can «ay, how we -were then .affected?
God, who knows the heart of rnfcn, knows
that between the grief for the death of Jadas,
whom we understood to be Jesus, and the
pleasure of acting him risen again, we almost
expired. And the angels who were the
guardians of Mary went up to heaven the
third day, and told Jesus what virus passing.
And He, moved with compassion for His
mother, entreated of God that He might be
seen by His disciples. And the Compas
sionate God ordered His four favourite angels
to place Him within His own house, and to
guard Him three days ; that they and they
only might see Him. who believed in His doc-
tiine. Jesus descended, surrounded with
light, into the house of His mother, where
were the two sisters, Martha and Mary, and
Lazarus, and he that writeth, and Jqhn and
Jaruos, and Peter. And when they saw Him,
they fell with their faces on the earth as if
dead. And Jesus lifted them up, saying,
Fear not, for I am your Master. Lament not
henceforth, for I am alive. They were asto
nished at seeing Jesus, because they thoxight
Him dead. And Mary weeping said, Tell me,
my Son, why, if God gave Thee power to raise
up the dead, did He consent that Thou
shouldest die, with so much reproach and
shame to Thy relations and friends, and so
much hurt to Thy doctrine, leaving us all in
desolation? Jesus replied, embracing His
mother, Believe me. for 1 toll thee the truth,
I have not been dead; for God has reserved
Me for the end of the world, tn saying this
He desired the angel's to manifest themselves,
and to tell how He had passed through every
thing. At the instant they appeared like four
suns ; and all present prostrated themselves
on the ground, overcome by the presence of
the Hflgels. Aud Jesus gave to all of them
something to cover themselves with, that they
migLt be able to hear the angels speak.
'•And Jesus said to His. mother. These are
the Ministers of God. Gabriel knows His
secrets : Michael fights with His enemies ;
Asr-iiicl will cite all to judgment-; and Azrael
receives the souls. Aud the holy ai.gels
told how they had, by the command, of God,
taken up Jesus, and transformed Judas, that
be might suiter the punishment which he
wished to bring on Jesus. And he that
writeth said, Is it lawful for me to ask of
Thee, in the same manner as when thou wast
in the world? A.ud Jesus answered. Speak.
Barnabas, what thout wishest.
" And he said, 1 wish that Thou wouldeet
left me how God, being &o compassionate,
could afflict as so much, in giving us to
understand that Thou wast he that suffered,
for >e> hive been very /tear dying ? And
T'ho'.» boii;,' s prophet, why did He suffer
The* lo f/».U undar disgrace, by (apparently)
placing T hv t' <>ti r cross, and between two
robbeic ? J^ru.r. uu.,weved, Believe Me, Bar
nabas, let tue tault b<.- over so small God
chastiseth it -with much punishment. And as
my tnotber and faithful dibciples loved roe
BAKZAKI1
with * little earthly love, God chastised that
love by this grief ; that He might not chastise
ft in the other world. And though I was
innocent, yet as they called Me God, and His
Son, that the devils might not mock Me on
the Day of Judgment, He has chosen that I
should be mocked in this world.
"And this mocking shall last till the holy
Messenger of God (i.e.' Muhammad) shall
come, who shall undeceive all believers.
And then He said, Jnst art Thou, 0 God 1 and
to Thee only bolongeth the honour and glory,
with worship, for ever." (Chapter 221.)
'« And then He said, Barnabas, that thou
by all means write my gospel, relating every
thing which has happened in the world con
cerm'ng Me ; and let it be done exactly; in
order that the faithful may be undeceived,
knowing the truth. He that writeth said,
Master, I will do it as Thou commandest me,
God willing: but I did not see ail that hap
pened with Judas. Jesus answered, Here
stand Peter and John, who saw it, and will
relate it to thee.
"And He told James and John to call the
seven apostles who were absent, and Nico-
demus, and Joseph Abarhcatheas (sic), and
some of the seventy-two disciples. When they
were come, they did eat with Him; and on
the third day He'commaridedthem all to go to
the mount of Olives with His mother : because
He was to return to heaven. All the apostles
and disciples went, except twenty-five of the
seventy-two, who had Bed to Damascus with
fear. And exactly at Ynid-day, while they
were a"ll in prayer, Jesus came with many
angels (blessing God), with so much bright
ness that they all bent their faces to the
ground. And Jesus raised them up, saying,
Fear not your Master, who comes to 'take
leave of you; and to recommend you to God
our Lord, by the -mercies received from His
bounty: and be He with you!
" And upon this He disappeared with
the angels ; all of us remaining amazed at the
great brightness in which he left us."
(Chapter 222).
AL-BARR (^\). One of the ninety-
nine special names of God. In its ordinaVy
sense it means " pious," or " good." As
applied to God, it means " The Beneficent
One."
BARTER. [BAI'.]
BARZAKH (ej^). (1) A thing
that intervenes between any two things; a
bar; an obstruction- or a thing that makes a
separation between two things. In which
sense it is used in the Qu'ran in tavo places.
Surah xxv. 55, " He hath put an interspace
between them (i.e. the two seas), and a barrier,
which it is forbidden them to pass." Surah
IT. 20, "Yet between them (the two seas) is a
barrier." ,
(2) The interval between tbe presort life
and that which is to come. See Qur'an,
Surah xxiii. 99, "And say, My Lord, I seek
refuge with Thee from the meltings of the
devils, aadlaeek reiuge with Thee from their
BA'S
BA7AQ
39
presence. Until when death comes to any
one of them, he says, My Lord ! send me
buck (to life), if haply I 'may do right in that
which I have left. Not so ! A mere word that
he sp:jafcs ! But behind them there is barzakh
(a bar), until the day when they shall be
raised. Am? when the trumpet shall be
blown, there shall be no relation between
them on that day, nor shall they beg of each
other then." Upon this verse the commentator
B»i/<»iwi aavs : " Kurzakk is an intervening state
, (#<?'//, ' a ban-ier ') between death and the Day
of Judgment, and whoever dies enters it." The
commentator Husain remarks : " Barzabh is
a partition (warn*) between the living and the
Day of Judgment, namely, the grave in which
they will remain until the resurrection." The
commentators al-Jalalain speak of it as a
hajiz, or intervening stnte between death
and judgment. 'Abdu'r-Raz/aq in his Dic
tionary of Technical Terms of the, Sufis
(Spronger's Edition), gives a similar defini~
tion.
The word is employed by Mnhammadan
writers in at least two senses, some using it for
the place of the dead, the grave, and others
for the state of departed souls between death
and judgment.
The condition of believers iu the grave is held
to be one of undisturbed rest, but that of unbe
lievers one of torment : for Muhammad is
related to have said, " There are appointed
for the grave of the ut believer ninety-nine
serpents to bite him until the Day of Resur
rection." (Mishkat,\. c. 5, p. 12.) The word
seems generally to.be used in the sense of
Hades, for every person who dies is said to
enter al-Barzakh.
BA'S (^-**). Lit. " Raising." (1)
The Day of Resurrection. (2) The office of
a messenger or prophet.
BASE MONEY. The sale of one
pure dirh-am and two base ones in exchange for
two pure dirhams and one base one is lawful.
By two base ones (ghalatain), are to be
understood such as pass amongst merchants
bat are rejected at the public treasury.
(fliddyah, vol. ii. 560.)
al-BA?lR.Go-*H). One of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It fre
quently occurs in the Qur'an. and moans
" The All-seeing One."
BASIRAH (S,--?). Lit. " Penetra
tion." The sight of the heart as distinguished
from the sight of the eye (Ba*drah or Ba?ar).
A term used by theologians to express that
enlightenment of the heart '• whereby the
spiritual man can understand spiritual things
with an much certainty as the natural man
can see objects with the sight of the eye.*'
The word occurs twice in the Qnr'an, Surah
xii. 108, " This is my way ; I cry unto God,
routing on clear evidence.'," Surah Ixxv. 14,
" A man shall be evident* against himself.''
AL-BASIT (kAj31). One of the
-aine gpociul names of God. tt means
" He who spreads, or stretches out," and
occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xiii. 15. Af
applied to God, it means, " He who disrmnfcnft
riches," Ac,
BASTARD (\*$\ jJj waladn-'z-mnii).
An illegitimate child has, according to Mu-
haimnadan law, no legal father, and conse
quently the* law does riot allow the father to
interfsro with his illegitimate child, even for
the purposes of education. He cannot inherit
the property of his father, but he is acknow
ledged as the rightful heir of his mother
(Baillie's Digest, p. 432). The evidence of a
bastard is valid, because ha is innocent with
respect to the immorality of his parents ; but
the Imam Malik maintains that bis testimony
is not to be accepted with respect to a charge
of whoredom. (Flidayak, vol. ii, 692.)
BATHING, The Arabic term for
ordinary bathing is (J— A) gliasl, and
that ior the religious purification of the whole
body ghitsf. In all large mosques, and in most
respectable dwellings in Muhammadan coun
tries, there are bnt ring-rooms erected, both
for the ordinary purposes of bathing and
for the religious purification. An account
of the legal purification will be found in the
artiolo GHUSK. Although purifications and
bathing form so essential a part of the Muslim
religion, cleanliness does not distinguish
Muhammadanp, who are generally in this
respect a striking contrast to their Hindu
fellow subjects in India; According to the
saying of Muhammad, decency should be
Observed in bathing, and the clothes from the
waist downwards should not be taken off at
such times. (Mish/cat, iL c. iv.)
BATIL (JW7). That which is false
in doctrine.
AL-BATIN (^Wtt). (1) One of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It means
" that which ia hidden or concealed," " The
Hidden One," or " He that knows hidden
things." (2) A term used in theology
for that which is hidden in its ji^aning, in
contradistinction to that which is evident.
BATlTL (J~?). Lit. "Aahoot or
offset of a palm-tree cut off from its mother
tree ; '' "a virgin " (as cut off or withheld from
men). The term al-Bntul is applied to
Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, because
she was separated from the other women of
her age by her excellences. Heb. nSVrQ
Bfthulah.
BA'tTg (*±»ysV,). A Syriac word,
NrWl (*'•*• "Petition» prayer"),
which, in the dictionary at-Qdmun, is said to
mean the Christian Easter ; and also prayers
for rain, or the Istisqn of the Christians.
(Majmu 't- Bihar, p. 101.)
BAZAQ or BA£IQ (u-M- ^ pro
hibited liquor. The juice of the grape boiled
40
BEARD
BELIEVERS
until a quantity leas than two-thirds evapo
rates.
BEARD. Arabic &«J lihyah or
&J zaqan. The beard is regarded
by Muslims as the badge of the dignity of
manhood. The Prophet is related to have
said, "Do tbe opposite of the polytheists' and
let your beard grow long." (Mish/cdt, xx, iv.)
And the growing of a beard is said to be
Fitrah, or one of those customs which have
been observed by every Prophet. [FITRAH.]
BEAUTY, Female: " The maiden,
whose loveliness inspires the most impas
sioned expression in Arabic poetry and prose,
is celebrated for her slender figure : she is
like the cane among plant?, and is elegant as
the twig of the oriental wiliow. Her face is
like the full moon, presenting the strongest
contrast to the colour of her hair, which (to
preserve the nature of the simile just em
ployed) is of the deepest hue of night, aud
descends to the middle of her back. A rosy
blush overspreads the centre of each cheek ;
and a mole is considered an additional charm.
Tho Arabs, indeed, are particularly extrava
gant in their admiration of this natural beauty-
spot, which, according to its place, is com
pared to a globule of ambergris upon a dish
of alabaster, or upon the surface of a ruby.
The eyes of the Arab beauty are intensely
black, large, and long, of the form of an
almond ; they are full of brilliancy : but this
is softened by a lid slightly depressed, and by
long silken lashes, giving a tender and languid
expression, which is full of enchantment, and
scarcely to be improved by tbe adventitious
aid of the black border of the kuhl', for this
the lovely maiden adds rather for the sake of
fashion than necessity, having what the Arabs
term natural kuhl The eye- brows are thin
and arched, the forehead is wide, and fair as
ivory ; the nose straight, the mouth small ;
tbe lips are of a brilliant red, and the teeth
;' like pearls set in coral." The forms of the
bosom are compared to two pomegranate? ;
the waist is slender ; the hips are wide and
large ; the feet and hands small ; the fingers
tapering, and their extremities dyed with the
deep orange-red tint imparted by Hie ^o.ives
of hi rind.
The following is the most complete analysis
of Arabian beauty, given by an unknown
author, quoted by Al-Ishaqi :- -
"• Four things in a woman should be hlftr.k. :
the hair of the head, the eye-browy, the eye
lashes, and the dark part of the eyes : four
white': the complexion of the skin, tLo white
of the eyes, the teeth, and the legs ; four red:
the tongue, the lips, the middle of the checks,
and the gumz; four round: the head, the
neck, the fore-anna, and the ankles ; four
lony •. the back, the fingers, the arms, and the
legs : four wide : the forehead, the eyes, the
bosom, and the hips -} four /?;ie : the eye-brows.
the nose, the lips, and the fingers ; four thick:
the lower part of the back, the thighs, the
calves of the legs, and the knees ; four smalt:
the ears, the breasts, the hands, and the feet."
(Lane's Arabian Niyhts, vol. i. p. 25.)
BEGrOINGr. It is not lawful for
any person possessing sufficient food for a
day and night to beg (Durru 'l-Mukhtar, p.
108), and it is related that the Prophet said :
" Acts of begging are scratches and wounds
with which a man wounds his own face." "It
is better for a man to take a rope and bring
in a bundle of sticks to sell than to beg."
" A man who continues to beg will appear in
the Day of Judgment without any flesh on
his face." (Mishkdt, Book vi. chap, v.)
BEINGS. According to Muham-
madan belief, there are three different species
of created intelligent beings : (1) Angels
(SfalffMa&y, who are said to be created of
light; (2) Genii (Jinn), who are created of
fire; (3) Mankind (Insan). created of earth.
These intelligent beings are called Zauru Y-
Uqfil, or " Rational beings," whilst unintelli
gent beings " are called Ghair Zawl V-' UquL
ffoytauani-Ndtiq ia also a term used for
rational beings (who can speak), and
Haynwdni-'Ajam for all irrational creatures.
[JINN.]
BELIEVERS. The terms used
for believers are — Mu'min, pi. Mu'minun.: and
Muslim, pi. Muslimun. The difference ex
pressed in these two words ia explained in tbe
Traditions, in a Hadi$ given in the Sahih of
Muslim (p. 27), where it is recorded by 'TJmar,
as having been taught by Muhammad, that a
Mu"min is one who baa iman, or " faith ;"
Faith being a sincere belief in God, His
angels, His inspired books, Hi.s prophets, the
Day of Resurrection, and the predestination
of good and evil; and that a Muslim is one
who is resigned and obedient to the will of
God, and bears witness that there is no god
but God, and that Muhammad is His Apostle,
and is steadfast in prayer, and gives zak.at,
or •' legal alms," and fasts in the month of
Raraazan, and makes a pilgrimage to the
Temple (Bait) at Makkah, if he have tbe
means.
The rewards in store for the believer are
as follows fsee Suralu "l-Baqarah, Surah ii.
76):-
" They who have believed and don«j the
things that be right, they shall be the inmates
of Paradise, — therein to abide for ever.*'
Swat 'n-Nisd, Surah iv. 60 —
;t Those who have believed, and done the
things that are right, we will bring them into
gardens 'neath which the rivers flow— therein
to abide eternally ; therein shall they have
wives of stainless purity: and we will bring
them into shadowing shades."
&tiratu 'l-A^rdf, Surnh vii. 40:-
" Those who have believed and done the
things which are right, (we will lay on no one
a burden beyond his power) — these shall be
inmates of Paradise : for ever shuJl they abide
therein ;
"And will we remove whatever rancour was
in their bosoms : rivers shall roll at their feet ;
and they shall say, ' Praise be to God who
hath guided u>- hither! We t^d not been
guided had not God guided ns! Of a surety
BELLS
BESTIALITY
41
the Apostles of our Lord came to us with
truth.1 And a voice shall cry to them, 'This
is Paradise, of which, as the meed of your
work;*, ye are made fieirs.'
" And the inmates of Paradise shall cry to
the inmates oi'the Fire, "Now have we found
what our Lord promised us to be true. Have
yc too found what your Lord promised you to
be true?' And they shall answer, ' Yea.'
And a Herald shall proclaim between them :
' The curse of God be upou the evil doers,
"Who turn men aside from the way of
God, and seek to make it crooked, and who
believe not in the life to come ! '
" And between them shall be a partition ;
and on rhu well al-A'raf, shall he men who
will know all, by their token.*, and they shall
cry to the inmates of Paradise, 'Peace be on
you ! ' but they shall noi yet eater it, although
they long to do so.
" And when their eyes are turned towards
the iumates of the Fire, they shall say, '0
our Lord ! place us not with the offending
people.'
" And they who are upon al-A'raf shall cry
to those whom they shall know by their
tokens, • Your amassings -and your pride have
availed you nothing.
" ' Are these they on whom ye sware God
would not bestow mercy1/ Enter yc into
Paradise ! where no fear shall be upon you.
neither shall ye put to grief.'
" And the inmates of the fire shall cry to
the jnmates of Paradise • • Pour upon us some
water, or of the refreshments God hath given
you?' They shall they, -Truly God hath
forbidden both to unbelievers."
For a further descriptions of the Muham-
madan future state the reader is referred to
the article PARADISE, which deals more
directly with the sensual character of the
he.iYen supposed to be in store for the
believer in the mission of Muhammad.
The following is « description i-f the
believer which is given in the C^ur'an. Surattt
'i-Afu-nrin'.n, the xxinrd Surah, v. 1 : —
" Happy now the Believers,
Who humble themselves in their prayer.
And who keep aloof from V3in words.
And -wh" ure doers of alms-deeds (zakrit),
And who restrain their appetites,
(Save with their wives, or the slaves whom
their right hands possess ; for in that case
they shall be free from blame :
But they whose desires reach further than
this are transgressors :)
And who tend well their trusts and their
covenants,
And wno keep them strictly to their
prayers :
These <diall be tne heritors, who shall in
herit Paradise, to abide therein for ever."
BELLS. [NAQTJS.]
BENEFICE. [WAQF.]
BENEFICENCE (Arabic i^U-
sizmdhfth) is commended by Muhammad as
one of the evidences of faith. (Mishkdt. Book
i. c. i. part 3.)
Amr ibn 'Abarauh reUtes : "I came to
the Prophet and said.'O Prophet, what in
Islam ? ' And he said, • It is purity ol speech
and hospitality.' I t en said, ' And what >*
faith ? ' And he said, • Patience and bene-
ficence"
BENJAMIN. Heb. \^\^ Arabic
^•W-4 Binydmin. The youngest
of the children of Jacob. He is not men
tioncd by name in the Qur'an, but he is
referred to in Surnh xii. 69, "And when they
entered in unto Joseph, he took his brother
(<'.e. Benjamin) to stay with him. He said
Verily I am thy brother, then take not that
ill which they have been doing. And when
he had equipped them with their equipment,
he placed the drinking-cup in his brother's
pack," &c. [ JOSEPH. J
BEQUESTS. Arabic &~cj wasiyah,
pi. wasut/d. A bequest or will can be made
j verbally, although it is held to be better to
execute it in writing. Two lawful witnesses
are necessary to establish either a verbal
bequest or a written will. A bequest in favour
of a stranger to the amount of one-third of
the whole property, is valid, but a bequest to
any amount beyond that is invalid, unless
the heirs give their consent. If a person
make a bequest in favour of another from
whom he has received a mortal wound, it is
J not valid, and if a legatee slay his testator the
] bequest in his favour is void. A bequest
j made to part of the heirs ia not valid unlese
the other heirs give their consent. The
bequest of a Muslim in favour of an unbe
liever, or of an unbeliever in favour of a
Muslim, is valid. If a person be involved in
debt, legacies bequeathed by him are not
lawful. A bequest in favour of a child yet
unborn is valid, provided the frotus happen to
be less than six months old at the tim« ^f th«
making of the will
If a testator deny his bequest, and the
legatee produce witnesses tc prove it, it is
generally held not to be a retractation of it. If
a person on his death-bed emancipate a slave,
it takes effect after his death
If a person wili that " the pilgrimage in-
| cumbent ou him be performed on his behalf
j after his death,'' his heirs must depute a
person for the purpose, aud supply him with
the necessary expenses. (Hamilton's Hidayah.
vol. i?. 466.)
BESTIALITY is said by Muslim
jurists to be the result of the most vitiated
appetite and the utmost depravity of senti
ment. But if a man commit it, he does not
incur the Hndd, or stated punishment, as the
act is not considered to haye the properties
of whoredom ; the offender is to be punished
by a discretionary correction (TV sir). Ac
cording to Muslim law, the beast should be
killed, and if it be of an eatable species, it
; should be burnt. (Hidayah, voL U- 27.)
j 06o-. According to the Mosaic code, a man
I guilty of this crime was surely to be put to
i death. (Ex. xviii. 19.)
6
42
BETROTHAL
BETROTHAL. [KTHTBAH.]
BFAH (***>). A Christian church.
The word occurs in a tradition in the Mishkat
(iv. c. tJi. 2), and is translated by 'Abdu '1-
Haqq " Kallsah." [CfiUJftCH.]
BID4 AH (*CAJ). A novelty or in
novation in religion ; "heresy ;• schism.
BIER. Arabic *jW jindzah and
januzah. The same word is used for the
"corpse/ the bier, and the funeral. In most
Muhamniftdan, countries the ordinary charpoy,
or '-bedstead," is used for the bier, which, in
the case of a female, is covered with a canopy.
[BURIAL.]
BIHISHT .(«-*«). The Persian
word for the celestial regions. [PARADISE,
JANNAH, FIRDAU8.]
BILADU 'L-ISLlM (,JUH ^).
" The countries of Islam." A term used in
Muhaniraadan law for Muslim countries. It-
is synonymous -with the term Darn '1-Islam.
[DARU 'L-ISLAM.]
BTLAL ( j&O- The first Mu'azzin
or caller to prayer appointed by Muhammad.
He was an Abyssinian slave who had been
ransomed by A*bu Bakr. He 'was tall, dark,
and gaunt, with negro features and bushy
hair. Muhammad honoured and distinguished
him as the "first fruits of Abyssinia." He
survived the Prophet.
BILQlS (v^A). The Queen of
S?.bV, who visited Solomon and became one
01 his '.-queens. An account of her. as it is
given in the Quran, will be found in the
story of King- Solomon, [SOLOMON,] .
BINT LAB0N (^ «**). " The
daughter of a milk-giver." A female camel
two years old: so called because the mother
is then suckling another foal. The proper
age for a camel given in zakut. or " legal
alms,4' for camels from thirty-six m number
up to forty-five.
BINT MAKHlZ (Jte* «^).
"The daughter of a pregnant,'" A female
camel passed one year; so called because
the mother is again pregnant. This is the
proper age for a camel given in zakat, Of
'" alms," for camels from twenty-five in number
up to thirty-five.
BIOGRAPHERS OF MUHAM
MAD. Although the Qur'an may be said to
be the key- stone to tbe biography of Muham
mad, yet it contains but comparatively few
references to the personal history of the Pro
phet. The Traditions, or Ahadis, form the
chief material for all biographical histories.
[TRAWTIOM.] The first who attempted to
compile an account of Muhammad in the
form of a history, was az-Z\thrI, who died
A.M. 124, and whose work, no longer extant,
ie mentioned by Ibn Khailikan. The earliest
biographical writei-8 whose works are extant
5re — Ibn Ishaq, A.H 151; Al-WaqidT,. -A.H.
BIRTH
207; Ibn Hisham, A.H. 2l8; Al-Bukhar!
(history), A.H. 256; At-Tabari, A.H. ' 310.
Amongst more recent biographies, the most
noted are those by Tbnu '1-Asir, A.H. 630. and
Isma'il Abu 'l-tkla', A.H. 732. Abu '1-tlda's
work was translated, into Latin by John
Gagnier, Professor of Arabic at Oxford, A.D.
1723, and into English by the lie v. W. Murray,
Episcopal clergymen at Duffus in Scotland,
and published (without date) at Elgin. The
first life of Muhammad published in English
is that by Dean Prideaux, which first ap
peared in 1723. and afterwards passed through
several editions. Dr. Sprenger commenced a
life of Muhammad in English, and printed the
first part at Allahabad, India, A.D. 1851 ; but
it was never completed. - The learner! author
afterwards published the .whole of his work
in German, at Berlin, 1869. The only com
plete life of Muhammad in English which has
any pretension to original research, is the
well-known fjife of Mahomet , by Sir William
Muir, LL.D. (First Edition, four rols., Londe'n,
1858-61 ; Second Edition, one vol., London
1877). '
BIOGRAPHY,' A Dictionary of
.
Biography ie called
'-- " -
a'smdv
'r-rijal-(iit. " Tber-Names.of .Men"). - The most
celebrated of these is, amongst Muslims, thai
by Ibn Khallikan, which h&$ .always' been
considered a work of the highest importance
for the civil and literary history of thft Mu-
hammadan people. Ibn Khailikan died AH.
681 (A.D. 1282), but hirf dictionary received
numerous additions from subsequent writers.
It has been translated into English by Mac-
Guckin De Slane (Paris, 1843).
BIRDS. It is commonly believed
by the Muhamma dans that all kinds of birds,
and many, if not all, beasts, have a language
by which they communicate their thoughts to
eaqh other, and in the Qur'an (Surah xxvii.
16) it -is stated that King Solomon was taught
the language of birds.
BI'R ZAMZAM (ryj />). The
well of Zamzarn [ZAM-ZAM.]
•BI'R'MA'CNAH (^*>- A'). The
well of Ma'unah. A celebrated spot four
marches from Makkah, where a party of
Muhammad's followers were slain by the
Banii 'Amir and Banu Sulaim. Be professed
to have received a special message from
heaven regarding these martyrs, whioh runs
I thus :— w Acquaint our people that we have
met our Lord. He is well pleased with us,
and we are well pleased with Him." It is a
remarkable verse, as having for Some reason
or other been cancelled, and removed from
the Qur'an. (Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol.
iii. p. 207.)
BIRTH, Evidence of. According
to the Imam Abu Hamfah, if a married woman
should claim to be the mother of a child, her
claim is not to bo valid unless the birth of
of the child is attested by the testimony of
one woman. But in the case of * father, mas-
B1SHARAH
BRIBERY
43
tyuch as the claim of parentage is a matter
which relates purely to himself, Ids testimonj^
alone is to be accepted.
The testimony of the midwife alone is suf
ficient with respect to birth, but with regard
to i)areniayt ', it is established by the fact of
the mother of the child beincr the wife of the
husband.
If tlie woman be in her 'idduh P'DDAH}
from a complete divorce, the testimony of the
midwife is not sufficient with respect to birth,
but the evidence of two men, or of one man
and two women, is requisite. (Hamilton's
Hidnyak, vol. iii. p. 134.)
It is also ruled that it is not lawful for a
person to give evidence to anything which he
has not seen, except in the cases of birth,
deufh, and nxn'riaye. (Vol. ii. 076.)
BISHARAH (6,^): [BTJSURA.]
BI SHAR< (ft* ^>)- Lit- "With-
put the law." A' teun :.j:pHed to those
mystics who totally disregard tbe teaching of
the Qur'au. .Antinom-ans. i'son.j
BISMTLLAH (S$\ r~>). Lit. " In
the name of God." An ejaculation frequently
usuu at the commencement of my under
taking. There are two forms of the Bis-
millah : —
1. Bi-'smi 'Ift'ili 'r-rahmani Y-raAiw, i.e.
"In the name of God. the Compassionate, the
Merciful." This is used at the commencement
of meals, putting ou new clothes, beginning
any new work, and at the commencement of
books. It occurs at the head of every chapter
or surah in the Qur'au, with the exception of
the ixth (i.e. the Suratu 'l-Barffah).
2. Bi-'smi 'llahi 'llaiii 't-oJcbar, i-c. "In the
name of God. God the Most Great." Used at the
time of slaughtering of animals, at the com
mencement of a battle, &c., the attribute of
mercy being omitted on such occasions.
The formula Bi-srni '//a/a' 'r-rahmani V-
rah'un is of Jewish origin. It was in the first
instance taught to the Quraish hy Umaiyah
of Ta'if, the poet, who wus a contemporary
but somewhat older than, Muhammad, and
•who, during his mercantile journeys into
Arabia TVtr-w.i and Syria, had made himself
acquainted with the sacred books and doc
trines of Juws and Christians. (Kitabit V-
Agtiam. lo, Delhi ; quoted by RodwelL)
BIZ A' AH (<kU>). A share in a
mercantile adventure.' Property entrusted to
another to be employed in trade.
BLACK STONE. [AL-HAJARU 'L.
A8WA.D.]
BLASPHEMY. Arabic ^ kufr.
Lit. " to hide " (the truth). It includes a denial
of any of the essential principles of Islam.
A Muslim convicted of blasphyrv is sen
tenced to death in Ivluhamnjadan countries.
[APOSTASY.]
BLEEDING. Arabic <^W- hljd-
iituh. The two greor cm-es recommended ~»T
Muhammad w<j e blooci-ifumg and
honey; and ho taught that it was unlucky to
ho bled on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday,
the most lucky day" being Tuesday, and the
m>Jt,t lucky date the seventeenth of the
month. (JUiikfeStt xx'- c- !•)
BLIND, The. Arabic A'ma, pU
'C/myaji. It is not incumbent upon a blind
man to engage in Jihad, or a religious war.
And, according to the Imam AbuHanifah, the
evidence of a blind person is not admissible,
but the Imam Zufar maintains that such
evidence is lawful when it aiYocts a matter in
which hearsay prevails- Salea and purchases
made by a blind person are lawful. (Hamil
ton's ffidayak, vol. ii., pp. 141, 402, GB2.)
BLOOD. The sale of blood is
unlawful. (Hamilton's ffidaya/t, vol. iL
p. 428.)
BLOOD, The Avenger of.
BLOOD, Issue of. [ISTIHAZAH.]
BOASTING. Arabic 6^'uu mw/iZ-
t/iarah. Muhammad is related to have said,
" I swear by God, a tribe must desist from
boasting of their forefathers: for they are
nothing more than coals from holl-iire (i.e.
they were idolaters) ; and if you do not -leave
oft' boasting, verily you will be move hateful
in the sight of God than a black-beetle. Man
kind are all the 0ons of Adam, and Adam was
of the earth" (Mishfcdt, xxii. c. 13.)
BOOKS OF MOSES. [TAURAT.]
BOOKS, Stealing. The hand of a
thief is not to be cut off for stealing a book.
whatever be the subject of -which it treats,
because the object of the theft can only be the
contents of the book, and not the book itself.
But \ft, it is to be observed, the hand is
to be cut oil for stealing if an account book, '
because hi this oase it is evident that too
object of the theft is not the contents of the
book, b\it rbe paper and material of which
the book is made. (HanoJiton's Hiduyuht vol.
ii. 1*2.)
BOOTS. [SHOES.]
BREACH OF TRUST. Arabic
&U^ khjyCLnah. The punishment of
amputation of the band is not inflicted for a
breach of trust. Atd if a guest steal the pro
perty of hifl host whilst he is staying in his
house, the hand is not cut oft. Branch of
trust in Muslim law being a less offence than
ordinary theft, the puuisbmfnt for broach
of trust is left to the discretion of the judge.
(Hamilton's Ridayah, vol. ii. pp. 93-10;:.)
BRIBERY (Arabic V; riahwnh)
is not mentioned in the <A'ur'ar.. In the fratawa
• Al crmgiri \*Q is stated ii,,v presents to magis
trates are of various kinds; for exampU: it a
present be made in order to establish a friend
ship, it is luwtul ;but if it tip given to iutfaence
the decision of the judge in the donor's
favour, it is unlawful. Ifc is also said, if a
present be made to a judge from a flense of
44 BU'AS
fear, it is lawful to give it, but unlawful to
accept it. (Hamilton's Hidayafi, vol. iii
p. 332.}
BU' AS, Battle of. Arabic *±A*> v»p-
Harb Bu'df. A battle fought between the
Banu Khazraj and Banu Aus, about six
years before the flight of Muhammad from
Makkah.
BUHTAN (<^#). A false accu
sation ; calumny.
The word occurs twice in the Qar'an : —
Surah iv. 112 : ki Whoso commits a fault or
sin, and throws it upon one who is innocent,
he hath to bear calumny (buhtdn) and mani
fests in.".
Surah xxiv. 15; "And why did ye not say
when ye heard it. * It is not for us to speak of
this'? Celebrated be Thy praises, this, is a
mighty calumny (buktdn)" [BACKBITING.]
Heb. nm he wePf"
BUKA (AS
Weeping and lamentation for the dead. Immode
rate weeping and lamentation over the graves
of the dead is clearly forbidden by Muham
mad, who is related to have said, «• Whatever
is from the eyes (i e. tears), and whatever is
from the heart (i.e. sorrow), are from God ;
but what is from the hands and tongue is
from the devil. Keep youraelvea, O women,
from wailing, which is the noise of the devii.'1
(Misltkdt, v. c. vii.) The custom of wailing at
the tombs of the dead is, however, common in
all Muhammadan countries. (See Arabian
Niyhts, Lane's Modtrn Egyptians, Shaw's
Travela in Barbary.) £BURIAU]
BURIAL
BURAQ (JVV Lit; "The bright
one." The animal upon which Muhammad is
said to have performed the nocturnal journey,
called Mi'-raj. He was a white animal, be
tween the size of a mule and an ass, having
two wings. (Majma'u 'l-Bihar, p. 89.) Mu
hammad's conception of this mysterious animal
is not unlike the Assyrian gryphon, of which
Mr. Layard gives a sketch. [MI'KAJ.]
A short
title given to the well-known collection of
Sunni traditions by Abu * Abdu 'llah Muham
mad ibn Isma'il ibn Ibrahim ibn al-Mughirah
al-Ju'fi al-Bukhari, who was born at Bukhara,
A.H. 194 (A.D. 810), and died at the village of
Kbartang near Samarqand* A.H. 256 (A.D.
870). His compilation comprises upwards of
7,000 traditions of the acts and sayings of the
Prophet, selected from a mass of 600,000. His
book is called the ffafrih of al-Bukhdri, and
is said to have been the result of sixteen
years labour. It is said that he was so
anxious to record only trustworthy traditions
that he performed a prostration in worship
before the Almighty before he recorded each
tradition.
BUJOJTU NASSAR (>»
** Nebuchadnezzar." It is thought by Jalalu
'd-din that there is a reference to his army
taking Jerusalem in the Qur'an, Surah xvii. 8,
0 And when the threat for the last (crime)
came (to be inflicted, we sent an enemy) to
barm your faces, and to enter the temple as
they entered it the first time." The author
of the Qamus says that Bukkt is " son," and
an idol," i.e. " the son of
BULAS (u-ty). « Despair/' The
name of one of the chambers of hell, where
the proud will drink of the yellow water of
the infernal regions. (hKshka,tt xxii. c 20.)
THE ASSYRIAN
(Layard ii. 459).
BURGLARY i& punished as an
ordinary theft, namely by the amputation of
the hand, but it is one of the niceties of Mu
hammadan law, according to the Hanafi code,
that if a thief break through the wall of the
house, and enter therein, and take the pro
perty, and deliver it to an accomplice standing
at the entrance of the breach, amputation of
the hand is not incurred by either of the
parties, because the thief who entered the
house did not carry out the property.
(Hidayah, vol. ii. 103.)
BURIAL OF THE DEAD (SjW
Jinazah or JandxaJi). The term Jandzah is used
both for the bier and for the Muhammadan
funeral service. The burial service is founded
upon the practice of Muhammad, and varies
but little in different countries, although the
ceremonies connected with the funeral proces*
fiion are diversified. In Egypt and Bukjjara, for
instance, the male relations. and friends of the
deceased precede the corpse, whilst the female
mourners follow behind. In India and Afghan
istan, women do not usually attend funerals,
and the friends and relatives of the deceased
walk behind the bier. There is a tradition
amongst some Muhammadans that no one
should precede the corpse, as the angels go
before. Funeral processions in Afghanistan
are usually very simple In their arrange
ments, and are said to be more in accordance
with the practice . of the Prophet, than
those of Egypt and Turkey., It is considered
a very meritorious act to carry the bier, and
four from among the near relations, every now
and then relieved by an equal number, carry
it on their shoulders. Unlike our Christian
custom of walking slowly to the grave, the
Muhammadans carry their dead quickly to
the place of interment; for Muhammad is
related to have said, that it is good to carry
the dead quickly to the grave, to cause the
righteous person to arrive soon at happiness,
BURIAL
BURIAL
45
and if he be a bad man, it is ' well to put
wickedness away from one's shoulders. Fu
nerals should always be attended on foot ; for
it is said that Muhammad on one occasion
rebuked his people for following on horse
back. "Have you no shame?" said he,
" since God's angels go on foot, and you go upon
the backs of quadrupeds ? " It is a highly
meritorious act to attend a funeral, whether
it be that of a Muslim, a Jew, or a Christian.
There are, however, two traditions which
appear to mark a change of feeling on the
part of the Prophet of Arabia towards the
Jews and Christians. " A bier passed by the
Prophet, and he stood up ; and it was said to
the Prophet, this is the bier of a Jew. 'It is
the holder of a soul,' he replied, ' from which
•we should take warning and fear.' " This
rule is said to have been abrogated, for, 4<on one
one occasion the Prophet sitting on the road
•when a bier passed, and the Prophet disliked
that the bier of a Jew should be higher than
his head, and he therefore stood up." (Misk-
Jcdt, \ c. v.) Notwithstanding these con
tradictory traditions, we believe that in all
countries Muharamadans are wont to pay great
respect to the funerals of both Jews and
Christiana
The Muhammadan funeral service is not
recited in the graveyard, it being too polluted
a place for so sacred an office; but either in
a mosque, or in some open ppaco near the
dwelling of the deceased person or the grave
yard. The owner of the corpse, i.e. the
nearest relative, is the proper person to
recite the service; but it is usually said by
the family Imam, or theQazi.
The following is the order of the service: —
Some one present calls out, —
" Here begin the prayers for the dead."
Then those present arrange themselves in
three, five, or seven rows opposite the corpse,
with their faces Qi blah -wards (i.e. towards
Makkah). The Imam stands in front of the
ranks opposite the head (the Shi'ahs stand
opposite the loins of a man) of the corpse, if
it be that of male, or the waist, if it be that
of a female.
The whole company having taken up
the Qiyam, or standing position, the Imam
recites the Niyah,
44 1 purpose to perform prayers to God for
this dead person, consisting of four Takbirs"
Then placing his hands to the lobes of his
ears, lie says the first Takblr.
" God is great 1 "
Then folding hi« hands, the right hand
placed upon the left, below the navel, he
reoites the Subftdn :—
" Holiness to Thee, 0 God,
And to Thee, be praise.
Great is Thy Name.
Great is Thy Greatness.
Great ie Thy Praise.
There is no deity but Thee.1'
Then follows the second Takbir : —
« God is great ! "
Then the Dttrud : —
"OGod, have mercy on Muhammad and
apon his descendants, AS Thou didst bestow
mercy, and peace, and blessing, and com pas
sion, and great kindness upon Abraham and
upon his descendants.
" Thou art praised, and Thou art great 1
"0 God, bless Muhammad and bis de
scendants, as Thou didst bless and didst have
compassion and great kindness upon Abrn-
ham and upon his descendants."
Then follows the third Takblr : -
" God is great I "
After which the following prayer (Z)u'o) is
recited : —
»• O God, forgive our living and oar dead
and those of us who are present, and those
who are absent, and our children, and our full
grown persons, our men and our women. 0
God, those whom Thou dost keep alive
amongst us, keep alive in Islam, and those
whom Thou causest to die, let them die in
the Faith."
Then follows the fourth Takbir : —
" God is great ! "
Turning the head round to the right, he
says :—
" Peace and mercy be to Thee."
Turning the head round to the left, he
gays : —
"Peace and mercy be to Thee."
The Takblr ia recited by the Imam aloud,
but the Subhan, the Saldm, the Durud, and
the Du'd, are recited by the Imam and the
people in a low voice.
The people then seat themselves on the
ground, and raise their hands in silent prayer
. in behalf of the deceased's soul, and after
wards addressing the relatives they say, " It
is the decree of God." To which the chief
mourner replies, " I am pleased with the will
of God." He then gives permission to the
people to retire by saying, " There is permis
sion to depart."
Those who wish to return to their houses
do so at this time, and the rest proceed to
the grave. The corpse is then placed on its
back in the grave, with the head to the north
and feet to the south, the face being turned
towards Makkah. The persons who place
the corpse in the grave repeat the following
sentence : " We commit thee to earth in the
name of God and in the religion of the Pro
phet."
The bands of the shroud having been
loosed, the recess, which is called the lahd, is
closed in with tmburnt bricks and the grave
filled in with earth. [GRAVE.] In some
countries it is usual to recite verse 57 of the
xxth Surah of the Qur'an as the clods of
earth are thrown into the grave; but this
practice is objected to by the Wahhabis, and
by many learned divines. The verse is as
follows : —
"From it (the earth) have We (God)
created you. and unto it will We return you.
and out of it will We bring you forth the
second time."
After the burial, the people offer a fatihah
(ie. the first chapter of the Qur'an j in the
name of the deceased, and again when they
have proceeded about forty paces from the
grave they offer another fuhhah ; for at this
46
BURIAL
juncture, it is said, the two angels Munkir
and Nakir examine the deceased as to his
faith. [PUNISHMENTS OF THE GRAVE.] After
this, food is distributed to beggars and reli
gious mendicants as a propitiatory offering to
God, in the name of the deceased person.
If the grave be for the body of a woman, it
should be to the height of a man's chest, if for
a man, to the height of the- waist. At the
bottom of the grave the recess is made on the
side to receive the corpse, which is called
the Id/rid or lahd. The dead are seldom
interred in coffins, although they are not pro
hibited.
To build toijabs with stones or burnt bricks,
or to write a verse of the Qur'an upon them,
is forbidden in the Hadis ; but large stone
and brick tombs are common to all Muham-
tnadan countries, and very frequently they
bear inscriptions.
On the third day after the burial of the dead,
it is usual for the relatives to visit the grave,
and to recite selections from the Qur'an.
Those who can afford to pay Maulavis,
employ these learned men to. recite the whole
ol the Qur'an at the graves of their deceased
relatives ; and, the Qur'an is divided into
sections to admit of its being recited by the
several Maulavis ai. once. During the days
of mourning the relatives abstain from wear
ing any article of dress of a bright colour,
arid their soiled garments remain unchanged.
A. funeral procession in Egypt is graphic
ally described by Mr. Lane in his Modern
Egyptians. We give the account as it con
trasts strikingly with the simple processions
of Sunni Muhammadans in India.
" The first persons are about six or more
poor men. called ; Yamanlyah,"1 mostly blind,
who proceed two and two, or three and three,
together. Walking at a moderate pace, or
rather slowly, they chant incessantly, in a
melancholy tone, the profession of faith
(' There is no deity but God ; Muhammad is
Ood's Apostle; God favour aod preserve him !').
They are followed by some male relations
aud'friends of the deceased, and, in many
cases, by two Or more persons of some sect
of <3arweshes, hearing the flags of their order.
This is a general custom at the tuneral of a
darwesh, Next follow three or four or more
schoolboys ; one of them carries a tnushqf
(or copy of the Qur'an.), or a volume consist-
ng of one of the thirty sections of the Qur'an,
placed upon a kind of desk formed of palm-
;itioks, and covered over, generally with, an
fltubroidered kerchief. These boys chant, in a
higher and livelier voice than the Yamamyah,
usually some words of a poem called the
Hashriya-h, descriptive of the events of the
last day, the judgment, &c. The school
boys immediately precede the bier, which
is borne head-foremost. Three or four
fronds of the deceased usually carry
it for a short distance: then three -or four
•ji^pi Trends bear it a little further; and
fhea these are in liky nr-nner relieved. Casual
passengers, also, oftea take part in this ser
vice, vruidi is e a itemed highly meritorious.
:.IJT. bier wrJI. the female mourner? •.
BURIAL
' sometimes a group of more than a dozen, or
twenty; with their hair dishevelled, though
generally concealed by the head- veil ; crying
and shrieking, as before described ; and often,
the hired mourners accompany them, cele
brating the praises of the deceased. A.nong
the women, the relations and domestics of the
deceased are distinguished by a strip of linen
or cotton stuff or muslin, generally blee,
bound round the head, and tied in u single
knot behind: the ends hanging down a few
inches. Each of these also carries a hand
kerchief, usually dyad blue, which she some
times holds over her shoulders, and at other
times twirls. with both hands over, her head,
or before her face. The cries of the women,
the lively chanting of the youths, and cue
deep tones uttered by the Yamamyah. com
pose a strange discord.
" The funeral procession of a man of wealth,
or of a person of the middle classes, is some
times preceded by three or four or more
cam els $ bearing bread and water to give to
the poor at the tomb, and is composed of a
more numerous and varied assemblage of
persons. The foremost of these are the
Yainanlyah, who chant the profession of the
faith, a,s described above. They are generally
followed by some male friends of the deceased,
and some learned and devout persons who
have been invited to attend the funeral. Next
follows a group of four or more faqihs, chant
ing the ' Suratu l-An'am ' (the vith chapter of
the Qur'an); and sometimes, another group,
chanting the ' Surat Ya-sln ' (the xxxvith
chapter) ; another, chanting the ' Suratu '1-
Kahf ' (the xvrirth chapter); and another
chanting the 'Suratu 'd-Dukhan ' (the xiivtk
chapter). These are followed by some mun-
shids, singing the ' Burdah ; ' and these by
certain persons called ' Ashabu *l-Ahzab,? who
are members of religious orders founded by.
celebrated shaikhs. There are generally four
or more of the order of the Hizbu VSadat, a
similar group of the Hizbu 'sh-Shazilj, and
another of the Hizbi\ "sh-Sha'rawi ; each group
chants a. particular form of prayer. After
them are generally borne two or more half-
furled flags, the banners of one or other of
the principal orders of darweshes. Then
follow the schooi-boys, the bier, and the
female mourners, as in the procession before
described, and, perhaps, the led horses of the
bearers, if these be men of rank. A buffalo,
to be sacrificed at the tomb, wjhere its flesJh
is to be distributed to the poor, sometimes
close3 the procession,
" The funeral of a devout shaikh, or of one
of the great 'Ulama, is still moxe numerously
attended, and the bier of such a person is riot
covered with a shawl. A ' wall' is further
honoured in his funeral by a remarkable
custom. Women follow his bier, but, instead
of wailing, as they would .after the corpse of
an ordinary mortal, they rend the air with the
shiill and quavering cries of joy called
' zaghari.t ' ; and if these cries are di.-seou'unuir"!
but for a minute, tho bearers of the l«>r pro
test that they cannot proceed, that <-. super
natural power riv«{.- tbt-rr. to the .^xl on
BURIAL
BURNING
47
•which they viand. Very often, it is said, a
' wall * impels the hearers of bis corpse to a
particular spot. The following anecdote,
describing an ingenious mode of puzzling a
dead saint in a case of tin.- kind, was related
to me by one of my friends. Sorn* men were
lately bearing the corpse of a ' waif 'to a tomb
prepared for it in .the great cemetery on the
north of the metropolis, but on arriving at the
gate called Babu-'n-Nasr, which leads to the
cemetery, they found thernsewos unable to
proceed further, from the c»uiso above-men
tioned. ' It seems.' said one of the bearers,
4 that the shaikh, is determined not to be
buried in the cemetery of Babu 'n-Nnsr, and
what shall we do?' They- were all much
perplexed, but being as obstinate as the saint
hinrsolf, they did not immediately yield to hia
caprice. Retreating a few paces, and then
advancing with a quick step, they thought by
such an impetus to force the corpse through
the gateway ; but their efforts were unsuccess
ful ; and the same experiment they repeated in
rain several times. They then placed the
bier on the ground to rest and consult; and
one of them, beckoning away his comrades to
a distance beyond the hearing of the dead
saint, aaid to them, ' Let us take up the bier
again, and turn it round several tfmes till the
shaikh becomes giddy ; he then will not know
in what direction wo are going, and wo may
take him easily through the gate.' This they
did ; the saint was puzzled as they expeofeq,
and-quietly buried in the place which he had
so striven to avoid.
" In the funerals of females and boys, the
bier is usually only preceded by the Tainani*
yah, chanting.the profession of the faith, and
by some male relations of the deceased ; and
followed by the female mourners ; unless the
deceased were of a family of wealth, or of
considerable station in the world ; in which
case, the funeral procession is distinguished
by some additional display. I shall give a
short description of one of the most genteel arid
decorous funerals of this kind that 1 have
witnessed : it was that uf a young, unmarried
lady. Two men, each bearing .1. largo, furled,
green Hag, headed the prcctssiun. preceding
the Yatnaniyab, who chanted in in unusually
low unci solemn manner. These faqlrs, who
were in number about eight, were followed by
a group of fakihs. chanting a chapter of the
QiTj-V>>i. Next .ifier the latter was a man
bearing a large, biancb of 'Nnbq' (or lote-
tree\ an rmbJerji of the deceased. On each
side of IMUJ walked a person bearing a tall
fit. 'iff or cane, to the Wp of which were at
tached Severn 1 hoops ornamented with strips
of various coloured paper. These were fol
lowed !>y fvo Turkish soldiers, side by sido.
one bearing, on a small round tray, a gilt
silver 'qumqum' of rose-wsiter, and the
other bearing, on a similar tray, a •mibkbarah'
of gilt silver, in which some odoriferous sub
stance (as benzoin, or frankincense') was
purning. These ve-iae.lu dilTuned the odour of
thriv content:; on the way, and were after
wards utfetj to perfume the sepulchral vault.
Passengers -.veie occasionally sprinkled
with the rose-water. Next followH fn.i
men, each of whom bore, upon a urn* II fn-y,
several sma-11 lighted taper. «>[ wax, >tuok In
lumps of p;iste of 4 hinn2.' Tin* b:er •AT.
covered with rich shawlj, and it* sh^li'd MM.
decorated with handsome orfioirn»r.',n of the
head, having, besides the saia, * ' qi
almas ' (a long ornam-nt r,f g.Jd a»'l <!'M-
inonds worn over the forehead), and, nj>on its
fiat top, a rich diamond qurs. T!, (.'•*• *i-i-
the jewels of the deceased, or \v«-iv. p-;rh*| -s.
as is of Ion the case, borrow^? for !i.-
sion. The f«male in-jurners, f«numi«M ;i!,ei:t
se^en or ^i^jht. clad in the usual ru.-nr ;
the ladies of Kg-ypt (with the U'
covering, «V.cj. followed the hit>r, not oti foot
as is tho common custom in funeuU »;i rliis
country, but mounted on hJ^h-Sftddle
and only the last two or three of 1
wailing ; these being, probably, hir«>d niui" n^-r
In another funeral-procession of n female, t)i«.»
daughter of a Turk of high rank, tho Ynma-
nfyah were followed by six slaves, walking
two by two. The tirst two slaves bon- c.-ct.
a silver qumqum of rose-water, which they
sprinkled on the passengers; and one of ihein
honoured me so profusely as to v/(>t my
dress very uncomfortably; after which, he
poured a small quantity into my hands ; an^3
I wetted my face with it, according to custom.
Each of the next two bore a silver niibkjjiraii.,
with perfume: and the other two carried a
silver Tizqi (or hanging censer), with burning
charcoal of frankincense. The jewels on the
shahid of the bier were of a gostly description.
Eleven ladies, mounted «>n high-saddled agues,
together with several naddabuhs, followed.
BURNING THE DEAD. There
is no express injunction, in either the Qur'an
or the Traditions, regarding the burning of
dead bodies, although the burning of the
living is strictly forbidden. For Muhammad
fiiiid, "Punish not with God's punishment
(which is fire), tor it is not fit. for anyone to
punish with tire but God." (AfisJtltirt. xiv
c. v. part 1.)
The teaching of the Traditions te th.it a
dead body is as^fully conscious of pain as o
living body, for 'Ayishah said, that IhePropLet
said, " Tim breaking of the bont-.s of a corpse
is the same as doing it in life." (Mis'tknt, v.
c. vi. part 2.)
It is, therefore, pretty clearly established
that cremation of the dead k«* strictly forbidden
by the Muhamiuadnn religion. There is,
however, nothing to confirm the hnpr-'ssion
that the burning of a corpse in any way pre
vents its soul entering parndi&e.
BURNING TO DEATH is strictlj
fOfbidden by Muslim law. 'Ikrimah relates
that some apostates' from Islam w*r<» brought
to thfr KJjalifah 'All, and he burnt them ; and
when Ibn 4Abb3s heard of it, he said. " IhfJ
they b«ntn brought to me, I would not h;>ve
burnt them : for the Prophet said, ' Punish
not with God's punishment. Verily it i.^ n<'t
fit for anyone to punish with fire but (iod.'"
. xiv. c. v. part 1.)
48
BtTEQA*
BURQA' (£*)?)• The veil or cover
ing used for the seclusion of women when
walking abroad. [VEILING OP WOMEN.]
BURtJJ (ej,0- Lit- "Towers,"
which some interpret as real towers wherem
the angels1 keep watch. A term used for the
twelve signs of the zodiac. [SIGNS OF THE
ZODIAC.] Al-Buruj is the title of the Lxxxvth
Surah of the Qur'an.
BURYING OF THE BEAD. It
is said by commentators that God taught
mankind to bury their ead when " God sent
a crow to scratch the earth, to show him
(Cain) how he might hide his brother's body."
(Quran, Surah v. 34 ; Tafsir-i- Husaini , in
loco.) The custom of burying their dead is
universal in Islam. The ceremonies con
nected with funerals will be found in the
article on Burial. [BURIAL.]
BURYING-GROUND. Arabic Vs"
magbarat or maqoarah, " The place of graves."
Persian Qabr-gah, or Qabristdn. They are
sometimes spoken of by religious Muslims as
Marqad, a "cemetery" or " sleeping- place,"
but the name has not obtained a general
CALEB
application to buriai-grounds in the East as it
has in the West. They are generally situated
outside the city, the graves being covered
with pebbles, and distinguished by headjstones,
those on the graves of men being with a
tarban-like head. The graves are dug from
north to south. The grave-yards are usually
much neglected. The Wahhabis hold it to
j be a meritorious act, in accordance with the
j injunctions of the Prophet, to neglect the
graves of the dead, the erection of brick tombs
being forbidden. (Hidayah, Arabic ed., vol. i.
p. 90) A grave-yard does not become public
property until the proprietor formally makes
a gift or bequest of it. (Hidayah* vol ii.f
p. 357.)
BUSHRA (v5r^). " Good news ; "
"the gospel." A word used in the Traditions
for the publication of Islam. (MishkatjVtiv.
c i.) " Accept good news, O ye sons of
Tamhn," which -Abdu '1-Haqq says means
" embrace Islam."
[BAI'.J
BUYING.
BU3URG (c%) Lit. " great." A
I Persian word used in the East for a saintly
' person, an old man, or a person of rank.
C.
CJ2SAR. The Arabic and Persian
form of the Latin Caesar in Qaisar. The
word occurs in the traditions of the Sahihu '/-
Muslim (vol. ii. p. 99 j, where it is applied to
the Emperor Heraclius, who received a letter
from Muhammad inviting him to Islam, when
he was at Edessa on his way to Jerusalem,
August, A.D. 628. The origin of the title is
uncertain. Spartianus, in hia life of Aelius
verus (c. ii.), mentions four different opinions
respecting its origin: (I) That the word sig
nified an elephant in the language of the Moors,
and was given as a surname to one of the Julii
because he had killed an elephant ; or (2) That
it was given to one of the Julii because he had
been cut (ca^sus) out of his mother's womb
after her death ; or (3) Because he had been
born with a great quantity of hair (ixiesaries)
on his head ; or (4) Because he had azure-
coloured (caesii) eyes. Of these opinions the
second is the one adopted by the Arabic-
Persian Dictionary the Ghiyasu 'l-Lughdt.
The first of the Julian family who occurs
in history as having obtained the surname of
Cfesar is Sex. Julius Gcesar, praetor in B.C.
208. It was first assumed aa an imperial
title by Augustus as the adopted sou of the
dictator, and was by Augustus handed down
to his adopted son Tiberius. It continued to
be used by Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, as
members, either by adoption or female
descent, of Caesar's family ; but though the
family became extinct with Nero, succeeding
emperors still retained it as part of their
titles, and it was 1h« practice to prefix it to
their own name, as, for instance, /mperator
C<Ksar Domitianus Auyuslus. The title waa
superseded in the Greek Empire under
Alexis Commenus by that of Sebastocrator
In. the west, it was conferred on Charles the
Great, and was borne by those who succeeded
him on the imperial throne. Although this
dignity came to an end with the resignation
of Francis II. in 1306, the title Kaiser is still
assumed by the Emperors of Austria and
Germany, and more recently by the Queen of
England as Qftifor-i-HoM^ or Empress of
India.
CAIN. Arabic J?Vs Qabil (Qabil).
The account. of Cain and Abel as given in the
Qur'an, Surah v. 30. will be found in the
article ABEL. The Commentators say that
the occasion of making the offering wa.s as
follows : Each of them being born with a twin
sister, Adam by God's direction ordered Cain
to marry Abel's twin sister, and Abel to marry
Cain's, but that Cain refused. They were then
ordered to submit the question by making a
sacrifice, and Cain offered a sheaf of the very
worst of his corn, whilst Abel offered the best
futted lamb of his flock. (Tafsiru 'l-Baizaun,
in toco.)
CALEB. Arabic Kdlab. The son
i ;f Jephunneh (JYufannah). He is not men-
i rioned in the Qur'an, but hia name occurs ia
j the Tafsiru, 'l-Baizdwi, m Surah iv. 13
CALF
CALF, GOLDJHJN, The, which, the
Israelites worshipped, is mentioned live times
in the Qur'an. Surahs ii. 48, 88; iv, 152;
vii. 146 ; xx. 90. In Surnh xx. 90, the person
•who made it is said to )>e as Samiri [MOSES.]
CALIPH.
•'CALUMNY is expressed by the
word Qhibak, which means anything whis
pered to the detriment of an absent person,
although it be true. Bullion , expressing a
false accusation. It ie stricaly forbidden in
both the Qur'an and H&dls. [GHIBAH.]
CAMEL. Arabic IJnl In the
Qur'an (Surah Ixxxriii, 17), the institution of
camels to ride upon is mentioned as an
example of God's wisdom and kindness : " Do
(hey not look then at the camel how she is
created." A& a proof of the great usefulness
of the o&mel to tlie Arabian, and of the
manner in which its very existence has in
fluenced his language, it is remarkable that
in almost every page of the Arabic Dic
tionary Qamiis (as also in Richardson's
edition), there, is some reference to a camel.
Camels are a lawful sacrifice on the great
festivals and on other occasions. And al
though it is lawful to slay & camel by &xkh,
or by merely cutting its throat, the most
eligible method, according to Muslim law, in
to slay a camel by nahr, or by spearing it in
the hollow of the throat near the breast bone.
because, says Abu Qanifah, it is According to
the sunnah, or practice of Muhammad, and also
because Lu that pant of the throat three blood
vessels of a camel are combined Hamil
ton's ffidtyah, voL iv. p. 72.) There is zakdt,
or legal alms, on camels. [ZAKAT.] Muham-
mndon law rules that the person who leads a
string of camels is responsible for anything
«jiy one of the camels may injure or tread
down. (Ibid., iv. 379.)
CANAAN. Arabic Knfun. Ac-
cording to al-Jal/Uain and al-Bukiwi, the
commentators. Canaan was the unbelieving
son of Noah, but, according to the Qja.tav»
dictionary, the grandson, who was drowned
in the flood, and whose case is recorded in
the Qur'an (Surah xi. 44). He is $aid to be
a son of Noah's wife Wa'ilah, who was an in-
fidf 1. " And the Ark moved on them amid
waves like mountains: and Noah called to
hie sou — for he was apart — * Embark with us,
0 my child I and be not with the unbelievers/
He said, * I will betake me to a mountain thai*
shall secure me frojc the water.' He said,
'None nhali be seeme this day from the
decree of God, save him en whom He shall
nave mercy/ And a wave passed between
them, and ho was among the drowned."
CAPTIVES. Asir, pi. Uttdro, and
t/taro \ ' With respect to captives, the Imam,
of leader of the army, has it in his choice to
slay them, " because the Prophet put cap
tives to death, and also because shying them
terminates wickedness " ; or, he may if he
clioose. make them filaves. It is not lawhil
CATTLE 4&
for the Imam to send captives back to th«-;i
home and country, because that would be to
strengthen the cause of infidelity against
Islam. If thf-y become Muslims after their
capture, they must not bo put to death, but
they may be sold after their conversion. A
converted captive must not be suffered to
return to his country, and it is not lawful to
release a captive gratuitously. The only
method of dividing plunder which consists of
slaves, is by selling them at tho end of the
expedition and then dividing the money.
(Hidayak, ii. 160.)' fvLmxr.]
CARAVAN. Persian Kdrwa*
Arabic QflfilaJi. As the roads in the ER.AI
are often unsafe and lead through dreary
wastes, merchants and travellers associate
together for mutual defence and comfort.
Those companies are called both Jcarwan
and f/djilafi. The party is always under the
direction of a paid director, who is railed
Karwan- or Qafi la h- #<!*/«. If ai caravan u»
attacked on the road, the Muhammadan law
allows the punishment of cruoifixion for the
offence. (Hidaynh^ vol. ii. 131.) But it is a
curious provision of the Muslim law that if
some of the travellers in a caravan commit,
a robbery upon others of the same caravan,
punishment (re of amputation) ii not in-
cnrred by them. (Vol ji. 137.)
CAKRION (Arabic Matiahj is for-
bidden hi the Qur'en, Surah il 80. " That
which dicth of 'itself* and blood, and iwine's
flesh, aud thai over which any other name
than that of God hath been invoked, is for
bidden. But he who shall partake of them
by constraint . without lust or wilf ulntss, no
sin shall be upon him."
CASTING LOTS. Zalam, or
casting lots by shooting arrows, was an
ancient Arabic oust en , winch is forbidden by
Muhammad in bis Qnr'an, Surah v. 4 ; but
gv^ah, or casting lots, in its ordinary sense,
ia not forbidden, for 'A.yishah relates that
when the Prophet went on a journey, he used
to cast lots as to which wife he should take
with him. (Mishk&t Babv Y-(jofam.)
CATS. Arabic Sirrah. Accord
ing to a Had is of Abu Qtxtadah, who was one,
of the Companions, Mohammad said, " Cats
are not impure, they keep watch around us."
He used water from which a cat had drunk
for his purifications, aud his wife 'Ayishah
ate from a vessel from which a oat had eatan.
(AfzsMft, book iii., c. 10, pt. 2.)
CATTLE. Arabic An'am. They
are said in the Qur'an to be the gift of God .
Sdrah xL 79, " God it is who hath made for
you cattle, that ye may ride on some and eat
others."
Cuttle kept for the purpose of labour, such
as carrying burthens, drawing ploughs, &o.,
are not subject to zukat, neither is there zakai
on oaitlf who are left to forage for ono half
year or more. (Hidayak, i. 18.)
Al-An'am is the title of the sixth Surah of
the Qur'an.
7
50
CAVE
CAVE, The Companions of the
(Arabic- Ashabu 'l-lcdkf). or.the Seven Sleepers
of Ephesus, form the subject of one of the
chapters of the Qur'an, Surah xviii. 6.
[ASHABU VKAHP.J
CELIBACY ( Arabic ' Paula])),
although not absolutely condemned by Mu
hammad, is held to be a lower form of lifo to
that of marriage. It is related that 'Usrmwi
ibn Maz'un wished to lead a celebate life, and
the Prophet forbade him, for, said ho, " When
a Muslim marries he perfects his religion."
it, book xii. c. xx.)
CEYLON. Arabir; SaranJib. ri'he
Commentators say tint when Adam and Eve
were cast out of Paiftdisd, Adain fell on the j
island of Ceylon, and Eve near Jidda h iu I
Arabia, and that after « separation of 200 j
years, Adam was, on his repentance, con- '
ducted by the angel Gabriel to a mountain
near Makkali, where be found am! knew his
wife, the mountain being named 'Arafali : and
that afterv;ards he retired with her to Ceylon,
when they continued to propagate their
species. (D'Herbelot. Bihl. Orient., p. 55.)
CHASTITY. " Neither thoir (the
Muslims') tenets nor their practice will in
any respect hear to come into competition
•with Christian, or even with Jewish morality
.... For instance, wo cull the Muslims
chaste because they abstained from indis
criminate profligacy, and kept carefully
within the bounds prescribed .13 licit by
their Prophet. Bat those bounds, besides the
•utmost freedom of divorce atid change of
wives, admitted an illimitable licence of co
habitation with 'all that the right hand of
the believer might possess,' or, in other
words, with any possible number of damsels
he might choose to purchase, or receive in
gift, or take captive in war." (MxuYs Life of
Mahomet, vol. i. 272. [CONCUBINAGE, SLATES.
MTJT'AH, DIVORCE, MARBTAGE.]
CHARITY, as fa implies tenderness
and affection, is expressed by h,uhb, or Inahab-
bah ; as it denotes almsgiving, it is fadayah.
He who is liberal and charitable to the poor
is called muhibbu 'l-fuqara1.
CHEEUBIM. Arabic KarMi, pj.
Karubln ; Lit. " Those who aro near." Heb.
D^LV^3- 1hfl wor^ karubln is used by the
commentator al-Baizawi, for the angels men
tioned in the Qur'an, Surah xl. 70: "Those
around it (the throne of God; celebrate the
praise of their Lord, and believe in Him and
ask pardon tor those who believe." AI-BaizawI
says the Karubin are tho highest rank, and
the first created angels. Husain savs there
are 70.000 ranks of them round the throne of
God. (Tafxtru Y-/fcnt*MPi, Ta/siru Hufioin,
in loco.}
CHESS. Arabic Shatranj. Ac
cording to the Hidayah, </& is an abomi
nation to play at chess, dfco. or any other
CHILDREN
game, for if anything be etake.2 it ia
gambling (w a **?'?•), which is expressly forr
bidden in the Qur'an; or if, on the other
hand, nothing be hazarded, it is useless and
vain. Besides, the Prophet has declared all
the entertainments 0f a Muslim to bo vain
except, threr. : the breaking1 in of his harse, tho
drawing of his bow, and playing and amusing
himself with his vrives. Several of the
learned, however, deem tho game at chess
lawful as having a tendency to quicken the
understanding. This in the opinion of ash-
S/wfi'L If n man play ut chess for a, stake, it
destroys the integrity of bis 'character, but if
he do not play for a stake, tna intdgritv of hi*
character is not affe^.tad. (Hamilton's- Uida-
yah, \oLiv. p 122. "}
CHILDREN.. Arabic Avl&d.
Thc?e aro no special injunctions in the
Qur'an rfcgarding the customs to be ob
served at the birth of an infant (eireuinci-
sion not being even once mentioned in that
book), nor with reference to the train
ing and instruction of the young: but tho
subject is frequently raf erred to in the Tra
ditions and in Muhammad»n books on Ethics
Muhamrnadang 'have so largely incorporated
the customs of the Hindus in India with their
own, especially those observed at the births of
children, that it is sometimes difficult to dis
tinguish those which are special characteris
tics of Islam ; many of tho customs recorded
in Herklot's Mtutabnati*) for example, being
;nerely those common to Hindus as well as
Muhauimadan.?. We shall, however, endea
vour to describe those ^which are generally
admitted to have some authority in the pre»-
copts of the Muslim religion.
(1.) At tlte birth of a child, after he has
been properly washed with water and bound
in swaddling clothes, ho is carried by the mid
wife to the assembly of male relatives and
friends, who have met on the occasion, when
-the chief Maulawl, or some person present,
recites the Azan, or summons to prayer
[AZAN], in the infant's right ear, and the
Iqdrnan., which is the Aziin with the addition
of the words, " We aro standing up for
prayers" [IQAMAH], in the left ear ; a custom
which is founded on the example of the Pro
phet, who is related to have done so at tho
birth of his grandson Hasan (Mishkvt, book
xviii. c. iv. 2). The Maulawl then chews n
little date fruit and inserts it into the infant's
mouth, a custom also founded upon the ex
ample of Muhammad. (Mishkat, book xviii.
c. iv. 1.) "this ceremony being over, alms are
distributed, and fdti/iah* are recited for -the
health and prosperity of the child. According
to the traditions, the amount of silver given
in ahm should be .of the same weight as
the hair on the infant's head — tho child's
head being shaved for this purpose. (Mish-
kdt, ibid., part 2.) The friends and neigh
bours then visit the home, and bring presents,
and pay congratulatory compliments? on .the
joyful occasion.
(2.) The naminq of the child should, accord
ing to the Traditions (Mishkat, i&iW.), be
CHILDREN
CHILDREN
51
on ihe jevcnth day ; the clnld being
either nurncd after somP meruber of the
family, or »flftr some saint vpnfimlecl by ihe
fnmily, Of sfcme iijimr suggest od by the an
Apinovis hour, tho planet, Oi'lln Sl$n of th«
todiac. [ExcucCiaM.j
(:•».) On this, the tuveuih day, it observed
Abw iho Ceremony of '.rlg/'/c'A, established by
Muhnimnad himself (fidbu I • AtjlqnJt in
Arabic Ed. S*'l.dh of Abu Daud. VDl. li. p 30)
U ronsists of a saeritica to God; 11 the name
of th«» frhild. of two he-gouts for a boy, and
one he goat for a girl. The goa-t$ must bo
not Above a year oW, and without apot or
bJernuh. Tht? animal is dre^f-d and cooked,
miri whilst luw friends eat of it they oiler the
following prayer: — "0 God! I olfer to the;*
instead of my own offspring, lifr for life,
blood, for blood. head for head, bont for bone,
bair fpr h<-iir, .sVin for skin. In the uame cf
thr ;rr*at God, I do sacrifice, this goat 1 "
(4.) 'I'ho mother is purified ou tlie forlitf/i
liny, when shs is at libcity to go about us
usual, and it is on this day that the infant is
generally placed in the swinging cradle pecu
liar tc> eastern households. It is a day nf
some rojoicir£ rtmongsi. the members of the
H.irain.
(5.) As soon as the ehilO is a'bir to talk, or
when lie has attained the ago of four years,
four taor.ihd, and four days, ho is taught -the
££*w«/JaA;*thAft is, to ror-ite the inscription
which occurs at the commenf'enu'nt of tlu
(^ur'au : '• Bi-'smi 'l/dhi V-m/tJ«<?/</ 'r-ruftttn."
li\ the iiMne of God the Mprfu-il. the <ha-
fciouK. AiU r this ceremony, t>:<^ <"Likl is sout
to school and taught the alpha ft»»t. amd to
r*c-ile certain chapters of the (^xir'iui by rote.
(6.) Aocorrting to tho opinion of Sunni
doc-turs, the drettmcvnon of the « bilcl .shoul>'t
take plac-e in hi.s seventh year ; tho opera-
lion beui£ generally performed by iho barber.
[ciKOL'HCiSiON.] The child is not re-quired tn
observe all tho eufetwnrf of the Muslim law
uutil he has arrivod at puberty [>UBKRTI~J ;
but it is )ield jneuinbeut on parents 'and
guardians to teach him tho prayers an soon
as ho bun been circumcised.
(7.) The time when the child has finished
le.citiny the whole of the Quran, once tbrou«h,
is also r*^'arded afi an important epoch in the
life of a child. On this occasion the scholar
make* hi* obeisance to his lutor and presents
nirn vitn tray* of a^octineats, a suit of
clutue*, and money.
As \\o have already remarked, tho mat ruc
tion of youth is a frequent subject of
discussion in books of Muslim Etltrcs.
The following, which is taken from the
Akhldq-i-Jaldli, is an interesting (specimen
of Muhammadan ideas on the subject : —
The first requisite- i*. to employ a proper
nurse of a -well-balanced ten, pertinent, for
the qusilitie.s, both temperament a r and spiri
tual, of tho nurse are commutiirated to the
infant. Next, since we are recommended by
the Traditions to give the name on the seventh
day (after birth), the precept had better be
conformed to. In delaying it, however, there
is this advantage, that time is given for a
deliberate selection of an appropriate naroe.
>\>r, if -wo give the child an ill-ansorted ono.
hia -whole life IH embittered in c.onaequoncr
ifoucu caution iu deter)nin|ng thnnamo is one
of the parent's obligations towards hi« off
spring
11 we would prevent the child's acquiring
culpable habits, we must apply ourselves to
educate him as soon 5s weaned, l^or though
men havo a capacity for perfection, the ion
•Jency to vice is naturally implant«:d in the soul.
The first requisite is to restrain him abso
lutely from all acquaintance with thore ex
cesses which arc characterised as vice. For
the mind of children is like a clear tablet,
equally open to any inscription. Next to that,
he should be taught the institutes of religion
and mien of, propriety, and, according as hi»
power and "capacity may admit, confined to
their pract ice, aud reprehended and restrained
from their noglccU . Thus, at the uge of
seven, we are told by the Traditions to enjoin
him merely to say his prayers ; at the age of
ton, if he omits them, to admoiiish him by
blows. By praising the good und censuring
the bad, we should render -him emulous, of
riglrt and apprehensive of wrong. We should
commend him \vhcn he performs a creditable
action, arid intimidate him -when he commits
a reprehenuible one; and yet we should avoid,
if possible, subjecting him to positive cen
sure, imputing it rather to oversight, lest he
grow audacious. If he keep bis fault u
*ecvet, we are not to rend away the disguise :
but if he do so repeatedly, we must robuko
him severely in private, aggravating tho
heinousneKS of such a practice, and intimmat-
ing,hiru from its repetition. \Ve must beware,
however, oi too much frequency of detection
:iud reproof, for fear of his grow ing. u Red to
censuio, and rontnieting a habit of reckless
ness; nod thus, according to the proverb,
'« Men grow pager for that which is withheld,''
feeling a tendency to repeat the offence. For
these r«asons> -we should prefer to work by
enhancing tho attraction of virtue.
On ineul. drink, and line clothing, he must
be taught to look with contempt, and deeply
impressed wivh tlw conviction that it is the
practice of women only to priz.e the colour
ing antl AgurinK of dress : that men ought to
hold themsolvos Above it The proprieties or
meal-taking are those in which he should be
earliest instructed, as far as he can acquit
them. Ho should bo made to understand that
the proper end of eating is health and not
gratification; that food and drink are a sort
of medicine for the cure of hunger and thirst .
and just as niedk'inrj' aro only to be taken m
tho measure of need, according aa sickness
may require their influence, food and drink
mo only to be used in quantity authcient to
satisfy hunger and remove thirst. He should
be forbidden to vary his diet, and taught to
prefer limiting himself to a single dish. His
appetite i-hould also be checked that he may
be HHtisfied with meals at the stated hours.
X.et him not be a lover of delicacies. He
should now and then be kept on dry brelid
only, in order that in limo of need ho may be
52
CHILDREN
able to subgigt- o« that. Habits like these arc
better than riches. Let his principal meal be
made in the evening rather than the morning,
or he will be overpowered by drowsiness and
lassitude during the day. Flesh let him have
sparingly, or he will grow heavy and dull.
Sweetmeats and other such aperient food
should be forbidden him, as likewise all
liquid at the time of meals. Incumbent as it
is on all men to eschew strong driuks, there
are obvious reasons why it is superlatively so
on boys, impairing them both in mind and
body, and leading to anger, rashness, auda
city, and levity, qualitiea which such a prac
tice is sure to 'confirm. Parties of this nature
he should not be allowed unnecessarily to
frequent, nor to liHten to reprehensible conver
sation. His food should not be given to him
till he hati despatched his tasks, unless suf
fering from positive exhaustion. He 'must be
forbidden to conceal any of his actions, lest
he grow bold in impropriety ; for, manifestly,
the motive to concealment can be no other
than an idea that they are culpable. Sleep
ing in the day and sleeping overmuch at night
should be prohibited. Soft clothing and ali
the uses of luxury, such as cool retreats ju
the liot season, and fires and fur in the cold,
he should be taught to abstain from; he
should be inured to exci'Cise, foot- walking,
horse -riding, and all other appropriate accom
plishments.
Next, let him learn the proprieties of con
versation and behaviour. Let him not he
tricked out with trimmings of the hair and
womanly attention to dress, nor be presented
with ring's till the propar time for wearing
them. Let him be forbidden to boast to Lip
coinpajxious of his ancestry or worldly advan
tages,. Let him be restrained from speaking
untruths or from swearing in. any ease, whether
ci'ue or false ; for an oath is wrongful in any
one, and repugnant to the letter of the Tradi
tions, saving when required by the interest
of the public. And even though oaths may
be requisite to men/to- boys they never can
bo so. Let him ho trained to silence, to
speaking only when addressed, to listening in
tbe presence of his elders, and expressing
himself correctly.
For LH instructor he should have a man of
principle and intelligence, well acquainted
with the discipline of morals*, fond of cleanli
ness, noted for stateliness, dignity, and huma
nity, well acquainted with the dispositions of
kings, with the etiquette of dining in their
company, and with the terms of intercourse
with all classes of mankind. It is desir
able that others of his kind, and especially
sons of noblemen, whose manners have
always a distinguished elegance, should be
at school with him, so that in their society
he may escape lassitude, learn demeanour,
and exert himself with emulation in his
studies.- If the instructor correct him with
blows, he must be forbidden to cry, for that
is the practice of slaves and imbeciles. On
the other hand, the instructor must be care
ful not to resort to blows, except he its wit
ness of an offence openly committed. When
CHILDREN
compelled to inflict them, it is desirable ii»
the outset to make them sxn«aU in number and
great iupain ; otherwise the warning is not so
efficacious, and he may grow audacious
enough to repeat the .offeuce.
Let him be encouraged to liberality, and
taught to look with contempt on the perish
able things of this world ; for more ilfcmnoB
from the love of mouoy than from the simoom
of the, desert or the serpont of the field. The
Imam al-Ghazzall, in commenting 011 the text,
ft Preserye me and them from idolatry," says
that by idols is here meant gold and silver ;
and Abraham's prayer is that he and hia
descendants may be kept far removed front
the worship of gold and silver, and from
fixing their affections on them ; becauso the
love of these was the root of till evil. In his
leisure hours he may be allowed to play,
provided it does not lead to excess of fatigue
or the commission of anything wrong.
When the discerning power begins to pre
ponderate, it should be explained to him that
the original object of worldly possessions ifi
the maintenance of health ; so that the body
may be made to last the period requisite to
the spirit's qualifying itself for the life
eternal. Then, if he is to belong to the
scientific classes, let hiin be instructed in. the
sciences Let him l>e employed (as soen arf
disengaged from studying the essentials of the
religion) in acquiring the sciences. The best
course is to ascertain, by examination of the
youth's character for what science or art he
is best qualified and to employ him accord
ingly ; for, agreeably to the proverb, "All
facilities are not created to the same person ";
eveiyone is not qualified lor every profess-
sion, but each for a particular one.
This, 'indeed, is the expression of a prin
ciple by which the fortunes of man and. of the
world are regulated. With the old philoso
phers it was a practice to Inspect the horo
scope of nativity, and to devote the child to
that profession, which appeared from the
planetary positions to be suitable to his
nature. When a person is adapted to a pro
fession, be can acquire it with little pains ;
and when unadapted, the utmost he can do is
but to waste his time and defer his esta
blishment in life. When a profession bears
an incongruity with his nature, and means
and appliances are tmpropitioua, we should
not urge him to puisne it, but exchange it for
some other, prodded that there ift no hope at
all of succeeding with the first ; otherwise it
may lead to his perplexity. In the prosecu
tion of every profession, let him adopt a
system which will call into play the ardour
of his nature, assist him in preserving health,
and prevent obtusity and lassitude.
As soon as ho is perfect in a profession,
let him be required to gain his livelihood
thereby ; in order that, from an experience
of its advantages, he may strive to master
it completely, and make full progress in
the minutiae of its principles. Aiid for this
livelihood he must be trained to look to
that hononrable emolument which charac
terises the well-connected. He must not
CHILD STEALING
depend on the provision afforded by Lie
Either. For it generally happens, wheu the
sons of the wealthy, by the pride of their
parents' opulence, are debarred from acquir
ing a profession, that they sink by the vicis-
aitudes of fortune into utter insignificance.
Therefore, when he has so far mastered his
profession as to earn a livelihood, it is expe
dient to provide him with a connort, and let
him depend on his separate earning. Tho
King* of Fars, forbearing to bring thoiv sous
up surrounded by domestics and retinue, sent
them off to a distance, in order to habituate
them to a life of hardship. The Dilernite
chiefs had the same practice. A person bred
upon the opposite principle can hardly be
brought to good, especially if at all ad
vanced in yez.rs ; like hard wood which is
with difficulty straightened. And this was
the ansv;i»r Socrates gave, when asked why
his intimacies lay chiefly among tho young.
In training daughters to that which befit*
them, domestic ministration, rigid seclusion,
chastity, modesty, and the other qualities
already appropriated to women — no care can
be too groat. They should be made emulous
of acquiring the virtues of their sex, but must
be altogether forbidden to read and write.
When they reach the marriageable age, no
time should be lost in marrying them to
proper mates. (See Ak}ildq-i-Jaldli, Thomp
son's ed.)
CHILD STEALING. The hand
of a thief is not to be out off for stealing a
free-born child, although there be ornaments
upon it, because a freo person is not property,
and the ornaments are only appendages ; and
also because the thief may plead that he took
the child up when it was crying, with a. view
to appease it. and to deliver it to the nurse.
But Abu Yusuf does not agree with IJanifah. ;
for he says where the value of the ornaments
amounts to ten dirma, amputation is incurred.
Amputation is also inflicted for stealing an
infant slave, because a slave is property,
although Abu Yusuf says it is not. (JJida
yaJi, ii. 91.)
CHOSEOES. Arabic Khusraw.
The King of Persia to whom Muhammad
sent a letter inviting him to Islam. He is
Said to be Nausherwan. (See Ghiya#u V-
Lughat in loco; refer also to Mutr's Life of
Mahomet, vol. ii. 54 n.)
CHRIST. [JESUS CHRIST.]
CHRISTIANITY and CHRIS
TIANS. Arabic, Na$rdniyah, " Christianity";
the terms used for Christians being N&frdn,
pi. Nasaru, or 'Jtatm.
Christianity seems to have been widely dif
fused in A rabia at tho time of Muhammad,
According to Cauasic de Perceval, who quotes
from Arabic writers, Christianity existed
amongst the Baiiii Taghlfb of Mesopotamia,
the Bauii 'Abdu 1-Qais, the Banu HSria of
Najran, the Banu Ghassan of Syria, and
other tribes between al-Madinah and al-
Kufah.
CHRISTIANITY
53
The historian Philostorge;, {Uist. Eccl™.
lib. 1, o. 8) tells us that a monk named Theo-
philus, who was an Indian bishop, was seat
by the Emperor Constance, A.D §42; to the
Himyarite King of Yaman, and obtained per
mission to build three Christian churchc* for
those who professed Christianity ; one ut
Zafar, another at «A<Un, and a third at Hur-
muz on the Persian Gulf. According to the
same author, the Christian religion was in
troduced into Najran in the fifth contury. A
bishop sent by the Patriarch of Alexandria
was established in the city of Zaf or, and we are
told by Muslim authors, quoted by C&ussin de
Perceval, that a Christian church was built, at
$an'a' which was the wonder of the age, the
Roman Emperor and the Viceroy of Abyssinia
f uriiishing the materials and workmen for the-
building. Thtt Arabs of Yaman were ordered b v
the ruler of Abyssinia to perform a pilgrimage
to this new ehurch instead of to the Ka'bah ;
an edict which is said to have been restate*!
and to have given rise to tho M War of the Ele
phant," when Abrahah, the Viceroy of Egypt,
took an oath that he would destroy "the
Mecoan teinpie, and marched at the head of
an army of Abyssinians, mounted on an
elephant. This M War of the Elephant"
marks tho period of Muhammad's birth.
[MUHAMMAD.]
The Christianity of this period ia described
by Mosheiui as " expiring under a motley and
enormous heap of superatitious inventions,
with neither the courage nor the force to raise
her bead or display h<-v national charms to
a darkened and deluded world." Doubtless
much of the success of Islam in its earlier
stage was due to the state of degradation into
which the Christian Church had fallen. The
bitter dissensions of the Greeks, Nestorians.
Eutyohians, and Monophyeites are matters oi
history, and must have held up the religion o(
Jesus to the ridicule of the heathen world.
The controversies regarding the nature and
person of our Divine Lord had begotten <i
sect of Tritheists, led by a Syrian philoso
pher named John Philoponus of Alexandria,
and are sufficient to account for Muhammad's
conception of the Blessed Trinity . The wor
ship of the Virgin Mary bad also given rise to
a religious controversy between the Antiduo-
Mariauites and the Oollyridians ; the former
holding that the Virgin was not immaculate,
and the latter raising her to & position of a
goddess. Under the circumstances it is not
surprising to find that tho uiina of the Arabian
reformer turned away from Christianity aud
endeavoured to construct a religion on the
lines of Judaism. [JUDAISM.]
Al-Bai?awi aud other Muslim commenta
tors, admit that Muhammad received Chris
tian instruction from learned Christians.
named Jubra and Yasara (al-Baizawi on
Surah xvi. 105), and that ou this account the
Quraish said, " It is only some mortal that
teaches him I " For the Traditions relate
that Muhammad used to stop and listen to
theao two Christians as thoy read aloud the
Books of Moses (Taurat) and the New Testa
ment (InjiZ). But it IB remarkable that Mu-
54 CHRISTIANITY
hammad should, after all, have obtained such
a cursory knowledge of Christianity. For
from the text of the Qur'an (extracts of
which are subjoined), it is evident that he wan
under the impression that the 'Sacrament of
Baptism was Sibgkuh, or the dyeing of the
Christians' clothes ;. and if the Chapter of tho
Table refers to the Sacrament of the Lord's
Supper (which is uncertain), it was " a table
seut out of heaven that it may be a recurring
festival/' The doctrine of the Trinity is sup
posed to be a Tritheism of God, Jesus Christ,
and the Virgin Mary; and a proof against
the Divinity of Christ is urged from the. fact
that He and His mcther "both ate food."
Tlie crucifixion is denied, and Mary the
mother of Jesus is confounded with Mary the
sister of Aaron. Such mistakes and omissions
coutd only arise from 'a most imperfect, ac
quaintance with the ordinary institutions and
beliefs of the Christian communities, wilb
"whom Muhammad must have been brought
in contact. The gentler tone and spirit of
the Christians seems to have won the sym
pathy of Muhammad, and his expressions
regarding them are less severe than with
reference to the Jews ; but the abstruse cha
racter of their creed, as shown in their end
less schisms regarding the nature of the
Trinity and the person of Christ, and the
idolatrous character of their worship, «s still
seen in the ancient Syrian and Coptic
cli arches, led him to turn from Christianity
to Judaism as a model whereby to effect the
reformation of a degraded and idolatrous
jjeople like the ancienjj; Arabians. The
Jewish and Mosaic character of Muhammad's
svstem will be treated of in another place.
JUDAISM.]
The following selections from the Qur'un
will show the actual teaching Of that book
regarding Christianity. In the whole 'of the
Qur'an there is not a single quotation from
tho New Testament, and it is noticeable that
nearly all the allusions to Christianity are
contained in Meccan Surahs ; Surah ii. being
according to Jalalu 'd-din Suyuti, one of the
earliest chapters given at Makkah, and
Surah v. the last.
Surah v. #5 :*~
Of all inert thou wilt certainly find the
«/ows, and those who join other gods with
God, to bo tho most intense in hatred of those
who believe; and thou shalt certainly find
those to bo nearest in affection to them who
say, ' We are Christians.' This, because
there are amongst them priests ((jisslsun^)
and monks, and because they are not
proud."
Surah ii. 59 :—
" Verily, they who believe (Muslims), and
they who follow the Jewish" religion, and the
Christians, and the Sabeites— whoever of
these belioveth in God and the last day, and
doeth that which is right, shall have their
reward with their Lord: fear shall not
come upon thorn, neither shall they be
griaved."
(The same vert,* occurs again in Kurtih v.
74.)
OHRTSTI &N1TY
Surah ii. 105 :-
•'Andtney say, None but Jews or Chris
tiana shall enter Paradise:' This; is their
wish. SAK : Give your proofs if .ye speak
the truth. But they who set their face
with resignation Godward, and do what is
right, — their reward is with their Lord ; no
fear shall como on them, neither shall they
be grieved. Moreover, the Jews say, ^ The
Christians leaa on naught : ' 'On naught
lean the Jews,' say the Christians. Yet
both are readers of tho Book. So with like
words say they who have in> knowledge.'
But on the resurrection day, God shall
judge between them as to that in which
they differ. And who comm'uteth a gu-utor
wrong ihitn he who JiinrU-mh God's name
from being remembered in His temples
and who hastetii to ruin them? Such men
cannot enter them but with fear. Theirs
is shame in thi.s world, and a severe tor
ment in the next. The East and tho West
is God's: thei-efore, whichever way ye turn.
there is the face of Cod. Truly God is
immense and knoweth all. And they say,
» God hath a son : ' No I Praise be to
Him 1 But — Jli.s. whatever i^ in the Heaven*
and the Earth I All obeyeth Hun, sole
maker of the Heavens and of tho Earth !
And when Ho decreeth a thing, He only
saith to it. ( Be,' and it is. And they who
have no knowledge say, * Unless God speak
to us, or thou shew us a sign ....!' So,
with like words, said those who wcro
before them : their hearts aru alike.
Clear sighs have we already shown for
those who have firm faith. Vorily, with
the Truth have we sent thee, a bearer
of good tidings and a warner: and of the
people of Hell thou shalt not bo questioned.
But until thou follow their religion, neither
Jews nor Christians will bo .s;iiisiit>rl with
thee. SAIT: Verily, guidance oi God,---
that is the guidance ! And if, after
k the Knowledge,' which hath reached
thee, thou follow their desires, thou shall
tind neither helper nor protector against
God/'
Surah iv. 150 : —
" Nay, but God hath scaled them up for
their unbelief, so that but foA\ believe
A.nd for their unbelief, — and for thoir
having . spoken against Mary a grievous,
calumny .—and for their' saying, * Verily we
have slain the Messiah (J/iwU), Jesus ('/so)
the son of Mary, an Apostle of Gad.' Yel
they slew him not, and they crucified him not,
but they had only his likeness.. And they who
differed about him were in doubt concerning1
him. No sure knowledge bad they about
him, but followed only an . opinion, anJ
they did not really slay him, but God took
him up to Himself. And God is Mighty,
Wise!"
Surah ii. 130 :—
" They say, moreover, < Become Jews or
Christians that ye may ha ye the true
guidance.' . SAI :' Nay 1 the religion of
Abraham, the sound in faith, and not
one of those -who join gods with God I
CHRISTIANITY
Say yo: Wo beliovo in God and that
which hath been sent down to us, and
that which hath been -sent down to Abra
ham and Ishinael and Isaac aiid Jacob and
tbo tribes: and that which hath been
trivou to Moses and to Jesus, aud that
which was. given to the prophets from their
Lord. No difference do .wo make between
any of them : and to God are wo resigned
(Muslims).' If, therefore, they boliove oven
JM ye believe, then have thoy true guid
ance ,* but if they turn back, then do they
cut themselves otT from you : and God will
suffice to protect thee against them, for Hi
JH the Hearer, the Knower. The Baptism
of God, and who is better to baptize than
God ? And Him do wo serve."
Surah v. 75 :-—
" They surely are Infidels who say, « God
i» the third of throe : ' for there is no God
but one God : and if thoy refrain not from
«rtiat they-, say. a grievous chastisement
fthall light on such of them as aro .Infidels.
Will thoy not, therefore, be turned unto
God, and ask pardon of Him? since God
is Forgiving, Merciful! Tho Messiah, Son
of Mary, is but aji Apofitlo ; other Apostles
have flourished before him ; and his mother
was a, just person: they both ate food.
Behold! how we make clear to them the
signs ! then behold how they turn aside I
SAT: Will ye worship, beside God, that
whiclf can neither hurt nor help? But
God! He only Heareth, Knovreth. SAY:
0 people of the Book I outstep not bound?
of truth in your religion; neither follow
the desires of those who have already
gone astray, and who have caused many to
go astray, and have themselves gone astray
from the evennoss of the way. Those
among the childrou of Israel who believed
not were cursed by the tongue of I>avid,
»nd of Jesus, Son of Mary. Thia, because
they were rebellious, and became transgres
sors : they forbade not one another the
iniquity which they wrought! detestable
are their actions 1 "
Surah v. 18 :—
"And of those who say, 'We aro Chris-
tiahs,' hav-e we accepted the covenant. But
they too have forgotten a part of what they
were taught ; wherefore we have stirred up
enmity and hatred among them that shall
last till the day of the Resurrection ; and in
the end will God tell them of their doings.
0 people of the Scriptures I now is our
Apostle come to you to clear up1 to you
much that ye concealed of those Soriptnres,
and to pasB over many things. No\\ hath
a light and a clear Book come to you from
God, by which God will guide him who
shall follow after His good pleasure to
paths of peace, and will bring them put of
the darkness to the light, by His wijl: and
to the straight path will He guide them.
Infidels now are they who say. ' Verily
God is al-Masih Ibn Maryara (the, Messiah,
uen of Mary) ! SAT: And who could aught
obtain from God, if He choso to destroy
ulrMasih Ibn Mary urn, and bis mother, and
CHRISTIANITY
55
all who are on the earth together? For
with God is the sovereignty of the Hca»
vens and of the Earth, and of all that in
between them 1 He. createth what He will ;
and over all things is God potent. Say
tho Jews and Christians, ' Sons are we
of God nnd His beloved.' SAT : Why then
doth Ha chastise you for your sins Y Nay!
yo are l/ut a part of the men whom He
hath created I "
Surah v. 58 :—
"0 Believers! take, not tho JoWs«Kor
Christians as friends. They are but otoo
another's friends. If any one of you takoth
them for his friends, he surely is one of
them! God will not guide the evil-doers-.
So shalt thou bee the diseased At heart
speed away to them, an,d say, ' We fear lent
a change of fortune befall us.' But haply
God will of Himself bring about some vic
tory or event of Hia- own ordering : then soon
will they ropent them of their secret imagin
ings."
Surah xxii. 18 :—
" Aa to those who believe, and the Jews,
and the Su belles, and the Christians, and. the
Magians, and those who join other gods with
God, of a truth, God shall decide between
them on the day of resurrection: for God is
witness of all thing.- "
Surah v. 1,12:—
" Remember when the Apo&tlos said — « 0
Josus, Son of Mary ! is Thy Lord able to send
down a furnished TABLE to us out -of
Heaven ? ' He eaid — « Fear God if ye be
believers.' Thev said — 'We desire to eat
therefrom, and to have our hearts uN*un-«i ;
and to know that thou hust indeed ^pokm
truth to us, and to be witnesses tuoreor'
Jesus, Son of Mary, said-~-*O God, our
Lord ! send down a table to us out >of Hea
ven, that it may become a recurring festival
to us, to the first of us and to the lust oi us,-
and a sign from Thee ; and do Thou nourish
us, for Thou art the be«t of nourishers.'
And God said — Verily, I will cause it to
descend unto you ; but whoever .among yo;i
after that shall disbelieve, I will surely
chastise him with a chastisement wherewith
I will not chastise any other creature.
And when God shall aay-^-' O Jesus, Son
of Mary, hast Thyu said unto mankind—
" Take me and my mother as two Gods,
beside God ? " ' He shall say — • Glory be unto
Thee ! it is not for me to say that which J
know to be not the truth; had 1 said thn ,
verily Thou wouldest have known it : Thou
knowost what is in me, but 1 knov. not v,h;.t
fe in Thee; for Thou well knowest things
unseen I "
Surah xix. 35 r—-
"This is JpfniF,.the son of Mary; this is a
statement of the truth concerning which they
doubt. It boNoometh not God to boget a
son. Glory be to Him ! when Ho decroeth
a thing, He only naith to it, Be, and it i«.
And verily, God is my Lord uud your
Lord ; adore Him then. This is the right
way. But Tho Scots have fallen to variance
among themselves about Jews : bat \voo.
5j6 OHBTSTIANITT
because of the assembly -of a great day, to
those who believe not I "
The only New, Testament samta mentioned
by uame in the Qur'an, are John the Baptist,
Zacharifls, and the Virgin Mary.
In the Mishkdtu 'kMasobtft, there are re
corded in the traditional sayings of Muham-
mml, about six apparent plagiarisms from the
New Testament; but whether the/ are the
plagiarisms of Muhammad himself or of those
who profess to record his sayings, it is impos
sible to tell :—
Abu Hurairah says the Prophet said, " Of.
the seven persons whom God, in the last day,
will draw to Himself, will be a man who has
given alms and concealed it, so that his left
hand knoweth uot what the. right hand
doetfu* (Book i. c, viii, pt. 1 ; oorap
Matt, vi a)
Again : " God accepts not the prayers of
those who pray in long robes." (Book i
c. ix. pt. 2 ; comp. Matt. xii. 38.J
Again : {f The doors of the celestial regions
shall not open to them (the wicked) until :i
camel pasfc through the eye of a. needle. "
(Book v. c. iii. pt. 8; comp. Mark x.
26.)
Abu ITmamab relates that the Prophet
said, "Blessed be Him who bath seen roc.
And blessed be hint who Imth not seen me
and yet hath believed." (Book xxiv. c. xxvi.
pt. 8 ; comp. John xx. 20.)
Mn'ai mates that the' Prophet said, " Do
.unto all men as you would they should do
unto you, and reject for others what vou
would reject for yourself." (Book i. o. i.
pt. 8 ; Matt. vii. 12.)
Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet
said, " Verily God will say in the day of re
surrection, O ye sons of men 1 I was sick and
ye did not visit me. And the sons of men
will say, O Thou defender, b <-.•»/• r-ould we
visit Thee, for Thou art the Lord of the
nuf verge, and art free from sickness ? And
God will say, O ye sons of men, did you not
know that such a one of my servants was
sick and ye did not visit him," 4rc. &c.
(Book v. o. L pt. 1 ; comp. Matt. xxv.
21.)
Although it would be difficult to prove it
froiu the text of the Qur'an, the general
belief of Muhamuiadans is that Christiana
are not in a state of salvation, and Laga, or
the "blazing fire$" mentioned in Surah ikx,
15, is, according to the Imam al-Baghawi,
reserved for them.
The condition of a Christian m a Muslim
state is that of a minimi, or one who pays
tribute to a Muhammadan governor, for
which he enjoys protection. He is allowed
to repair any old church which may have
been in existence at the time the country was
subdued by Islam, but he is not allowed to
erect new ones ; «' for," says Ab& Hanifah,
'* the construction of churches or synagogues
iu Muslim territory is unlawful, being for
bidden in the Traditions." « It also behoves
the Iiuam to make distinction between Mus
lims and Zzmmis (i.e. Christians, Jews, and
others paying tribute). It is therefore not
CHOECHBS
allowable for them to ride upon horses or
use armour, or to wear the same dresses
as Muslims." The reason for this, says
Abu Hanifah, "is that Muhammadans are
to be held in honour and jSimnut are
not."
The wives also of Zimmis are to be kept
apart from those of Muslims on the public
roads and baths. And it is also ordered
that a mark should be placed on their
doors, in order that when Muslim beggar.1?
come to them they should not pray fo
them !
The learned have ruled that a JZimn ;
should not be allowed to ride at all, except
in cases of necessity, and if he be thus of
necessity allowed to ride, he should dismount
when he meets a Muslim- (Htdayah, vol. ii.
219.)
A judge when he administers an oatb
to a Christian, must direct him to say :
" I swear by God who eeitt the Gospel to
Jesus."
It is a singular ruling of the Muhamnrndau
law that a claim of parentage made by a
Christian i? preferable to a claim of bonaage
advanced by a Muslim. Abu Hanifah sayB
if a boy be in tna possession of two men, the
one ti Muslim and the other a Christian, and
the Christian assert, that the boy it hie sou,
and the Muslim assert that he is his slave,
he must be decreed to be the son of the
Christian and free, because although Islam is
the superior religion, there can be no balance
between the claim of offspring and the cJnim
of bondage. (Idem* vol. iv. 133.)
Sir William Muir, referring to Muhammad's
reception of the Banu Hanifah and other
Christian tribes, A.H. 9, says, « On the depar.
ture of the embassy the Prophet gave
them a vessel with some water in it running
over from his own ablutions, and said to
them, ' When ye reach your country break
down your church, sprinkle its site with thip
water, and build a Masjid in its place/ These
command* they carried into effect, and aban
doned Christianity without compunction.
To another Christian tribe he prohibited the
practice of baptism; so that although the
adults continued to be nominally Christian,
their children grew up with no provision but
that of the Qur'an. . ... It is no wonder
that Christianity, thus insulted and trampled
under foot, languished and soon disappeared
from the peninsula." (Life of Mahomet, vol.
iv. 219.)
CHURCHES. Arabic Bta'h and
Karitsah, which -terms include equally
churches and synagogues. The construction
of churches or synagogues fji Muslim terri
tory is unlawful, this being forbidden in the
Traditions ; but as for places of worship which
belonged to tho Jews or Christians before
the country was conquered by the Muham
madan power, they are at liberty to repair
them, because the buildings cannot endure
for ever, cud, as the Imam of the Muslim
army has left these people to the exercise of
their own religion, it is a necessary inference
CIRCUMCISION
that ho has engaged not to prevent them
from building or repairing their churches or
synagogue*. If. however, they attempt to
remove these, and to build them in a place
different from their former situation, ' the
Imam must prevent them, since this is an
actual construction. Monasteries and her
mitages are under the same law. Places of
prayer within their dwellings are allowed to
be constructed, because they are merely an
appurtenance to a private habitation. What
is here said is held to be the rule with
regard to citiea, but not with respect to vil
lages, because as the " tokens of Islam " (i.e.
prayer, festivals, Ac.) appear in cities, zimmis
(i.e. thoee paying tax for protection) "should
not be permitted to exhibit the tokens of
their infidelity in tno face of Islam. But as
the tokens of Islam do not appear in vil-
l»t,'os, the erection of churches and syna
gogues is not prohibited there. But the Imrim
Abu Hanifah held that this exemption merely
applied to the village of Kusa, where the
greater part uf the inhabitants were zimmis.
He adds that in the country of Arabia. Jews
and Christians are prohibited from construct
ing synagogues and churches, either in cities
or vil!ageK, according to the saying of the
Prophet, " Two religions cannbt exist in the
country of Arabia." (HidayaJi, book is. c. viii.)
If a Jew or a Christian, being in sound
health, build a church or a synagogue and
then die, such building is an inheritance, and
descends to the heirs of the founder. Accord
ing to Abu HanifAh, it is i\ pious appropria
tion ; but, his two disciples hold such erections
to be sinful, and only to be considered as or
dinary property. If a Jew or a Christian will
that his house after his death shall be con
verted into either a synagogue or church, the
bequest is valid. (Hidayah, book lii. c. vi.)
The following tradition related by Talaq
ibn 'All tyfishkat, iv. c. viii. 2) exhibits" Mu
hammad'** determination to destroy Christian
churches : " We told the Prophet that there
was a church on our ground ; and we re
quested the favour of his giving us the water
which remained after ho had performed wazu.
And the Prophet called for water, performed
wazu and washed out his mouth ; after which
he poured the water for us into a vessel and
ordered us to return, saying, « When you
arrive, destroy your church (Arabic ii'«A),
and pour this water on the spot, and build a
moaque there."
CIRCUMCISION. Arabic Khitdn,
khitanah, or khatnah. Circumcision is not
once alluded to in tho Qur'ftn. The omission
is remarkable, and Muslim writers do not
attempt Any explanation of it. It is held to
be tttffiuzA, or founded upon the customs of
the Prophet (Fatdwu 'Alamgirl, voL iv.
p. 237), and dating its institution from the
time of Abraham. There is no authentic
account of the circumcision of Muhammad,
but it is asserted by some writers that he was
born circumcised. This, however, is denied by
the most eminent scholars. (Haddu 'i-Makhtar,
vol. y. p. 835.)
CLEAN ANIMALS
57
In the Sahlhu 'LBukhari, p. 931, a short
chapter is devoted to the subject of khilan,
or " circumcision," in which there are three
traditions : —
Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet said
one of the observances of FUrah is circumci
sion.
Abu Hnrairah relates that the Prophet
said that Abraham was circumcised when he
was eighty years old.
Said ibn Jubair relates that it was asked
of Ibn 'Abbas, " How old were you when the
Prophet died ? " He said, " I was circumcised
in the days when it occurred." And Jnbair
says they did not circumcise in those days
until men were full grown.
It in recommended to be performed upon a
boy between tho ages of seven and twelve, but
it in lawful to circumcise a child seven days
after bis birth. In the case of a convert to
Idam from some other creed, to whom the
operation may be an occasion of great suffer
ing, it can be dispensed with, although it is
considered expedient and proper for all new
converts to be circumcised. In all cases an
adult is expected to circumcise himself, as it
is a shame for an adult person to uncoter
himself to another.
The circumcision of females is also allowed,
and is commonly practised in Arabia. (JPa-
tdwa 'AUirngirii vol. iv. p. 237.)
The barber is generally the person em
ployed for the circumcision of boys, and the
operation as practised by Muhnmmadans in
India is performed in the following mauuer.
A bit of stick is used as a probe, and carried
round and round between the gl&ns and pre
puce, to ascertain the exact extent of tha
fraenum, and that no unnatural adhesions
exist. The fox^skinis then drawn fo /wards
and a pair of forceps, consisting oi a couple
of pieces of split bamboo, five or six inches
long and a quarter of an inch thick, tied
firmly together at one end with a string to
the extent of an inch, applied from above in
an oblique direction, so as to exclude about
an inch and a half of the prepuce above and
three-quarters of an inch below. The for
ceps severely grasping it, causes a good deal
of pain, but this state of suffering does not
continue long, since the next thing to be done
is the removal, which is done by one stroke
of the razor drawn directly downwards. The
haemorrhage which follows is inconsiderable
and easily stopped by the application of
burnt rags and ashes.
According to several Muhammad an doctors,
there were seventeen of the prophets bom in
a circumcised state, namely, Zakariya, Shis,
Idris. Yusuf, Hanzalah, 'Isa, Musa, Adam,
NTuh, Shu'aib, Sam, Luf;, Salih, Sulaiman,
Yahyn, Hud, and Muhammad. (Durru V-
Mukhtdr, p. 619.)
CLEAN AND UNCLEAN ANI-
MALS. All quadrupeds that seize their
prey with their teeth, and all birds which
seize it with their talons, are unlawful
(frardm), the Prophet having prohibited man
kind from eating them.
8
58 CLERGY
Hyon.'!S And foxes, being both included
•jnder tho class of animals df prey, are un-
Irtwlul. (This is tho doctrine of Abu Hanifah,
but ash-Shall' j holds that they are lawful )
BlepbviTits and weasels are also animals ot
prey. Pelie-am and kites are nbommable
(tnatcruh), because they devour tlesd. bodies.
Crowd which feed or* grain are '/nv/iiiJi, or
indifferent, but cavrion crows and invent) are
unlawful. Abu Hauifah says the magpie to
indifferent (mubtijf,^ but tho Imam Yusrif snys
il is .'iboxuiuable (iufiferu/i).
Crocodiles and otters and wftsps, ?vnd. in
general, all insects are makrul or abomin
able. The ass and the mule ajv both unlaw
ful. According to Abu Hanilalx and Malik,
Horse-fleah \a unlawful,, but ash-Shafi'i says
it JH indifferent. The ileslt ol hares is also
indifferent.
No animal that live» in the water, except
fidb. is lawful. Cut Malik allows them.
Fishes dying v»f themselves ate \mlawfut.
and so are all animals who are not plain by
%0.f>uh. (Hidayit.lt, vol. iv. p. 74.) [XABAH.]
It must be observed that iu Muhammadan
law animals are either lialuL " lawful," or
muftd^ ' inditi'oreni," or mohuft, "aborain-
ablb " («.(?, -which ia condemned but still is
lawfi^l), or haram, "uuiu^ful."
CLERGY. The Christian clergy
axe saoijtioned ia bho Qiu <>n v.ith fxprossions
rti comparative piaise. Sirrah v. 86: •* Thon
wilt surely iind that the strongest ai ermi'ty
a^:tii>st those who believe are Uu* J''\vs. nnd
the idolaters ; and thou wilt find those to be
nearest in affection to them who say * We
arc Ohristiiiaa': that ift because them arc
•unoii^st them priests (gisst*iri) and uiowk'-
and b<jcauf>e they are not proud."
The Muhamiaudane have no class of people
occupying the precise position of priests or
clergy, Although the Imums. or leaders of
prayers in the public Assembly, are persons of
learning appointed by the congregation. In
Central Asia, it is usual to set apart a learned
man (-well skilled in theology) b^ Ijinding the
turhaii round his head, the aet being per
formed by a leading1 inaul.iwi ot scholui
In Turkey and the western portion of
Islam, those who are qualified to give an
(/pinion in religious matters, and to take the
lead in guiding tho people in spiritual affairs,
are rlied "ulamff (pi. of lalim}. a teiw \\hich
has, »n Hindustan and Central Asia. <i^uuieci
the form of mavltteui, a word derived froin
maula, " lord."
The recognised offices in Islam correspond
ing to 'that of a priest or religious teacher,
are, Imam, Muftlt and Q«?t. Imam (in addi
tion to1 its being used for the Khalif«h, or
Caliph, in the Traditions), is the person who
leads the public prayers, an office answering
to the Latin Anti3t.es. This official is ap
pointed either by the congregation, or "by the
parish or section of the town or village, who
frequent the mosque in which be lend* the
prayers. Mufti is the legal adviser, who
decides difficult religious questions, and
assists the Q,dzi, or judge. Quziia the judge
COMMANDMENTS
and the administrator of the law The
appointments of Mufti and Qrizi Jtro in
the hanus of the Muslim j/overnment ol the
olacc, ll is usual for the QU/.J 10 taka
the lead in prayers at funerals, svhiH tlvs
1m am of tha parish, generally performs the
iit£uht or reli^ioas service at mn triages
[MAtCRJAGE."]
These offices are not necessarily hereditary,
buf it is usual in Muhammadan couiitrip^
for them to pass from father to HOO. In
India at tho present time there are farnilifia
who retain the titles of Mufti and Q«t<,
althougi) the duties connected with those
oJEcoK sre no longer performed by thorn.
CAUTION (Arabic ffatar) is
enjoined by Muhammad^ who is related to
have said. •• A Muslim is not bitten twice at
the* same hole.' '• He is no perfect man who
has not fallen into trouble, forthrroKno skil
ful physician but experience." k* When a man
has spoken,. antl has then looked first to bis
right and then 'lo his left, whal ht Las buid
is sacred to those present and they must
not disclose it to oluer.s." (Afishkat^ xxii
c. xviii.)
COINAGE. [MONEY.]
'COLLECTOR OF TAXES. Arabic
'Anhir. a collector of tJie tenths; ond 'Aim'
mulasadfiit/, a collector of aims.
The Khalifah is to allow ilVe officer em -
jiJoyed in tho collection of the -fakni. as much
ovit oC it :rt *;s in proportion to his labour, and
*viH remunerate liiin&elf and iiis Hssibla/its.
Hitfoyab, voi u p. 54.)
COMMAJSTMTENTS, The Ten.
Li the Qur'jm it is staled that God gave
Moses certain monitions on labtes (.of stone),
and also that be gave him nine elect bigus
(See Surah vii. 1*?. aiwi Surah xvii. 103.)
These two statements have perplexed the
commentators y*rry nincli, and every efi'oi't is
made by them to vecencile the nine. s«gns
with the Te.n Coin/mmd merits, althoagii il is
evident from the Quran itself, thai t be nine
clear signs refer to the miraolos of Mosev.
[PLAGUES OP EGYPT.]
According to ibet Tr^rliHons, t\& Prophet
himself was a Jitlle confused in the mailer,
and nifty to some extent h« responsible for the
mistakes of tbc Ponuncutiilo»Honlii& book, tor
it is refated < Mishkot, book i. p. it. pi i?) thai
a Jew came to the Prophet and asked him
about the nine(&ic/ wonders which appeared
by the hands of Moses. The Propliet Said.
44 Do not associate anyilinig with God do not
steal, do not commit adultery, do not kill do
hot take an innocent before the king to
fee killed, do not practise magic, do not take
interest, do not accuse an innocent woman of
adultery, do not run away in battle, ancl
especially for you, O Jews, not to work on
the Sabbath." 'Abdu 'l-Haqq remark* on
this tradition tha1 the Jew asked about the
nine (*t'c) miracles (ox plagues) of Egypt, and
the 'Prophel gave him the Tea Command
ments.
COMVANDEK
OONODJBtNE
A. comparison of the Tun Commandment i
£ivea by the groat Jewish law-giver with those
recorded in tho above tradition and iu tlv
vith Surah of tho Qur'an. verse 152, will show
how imperfectly the Arabian Prophet -.v.is
acquainted with tho Old Testament serif -
tores.
The eomiaentatofe' l.Iusain, who wrote ft»>n
hundred vear.-, aero, saya tho following VCIS^.H
ia the Suratu 'l-An'am (\'\.} n>v tho«c Ten
Coinmindincnis which in ever* >iiRpon?atir>n
are inrumh-nnt on mankind. »ml ranr.ot be
al'to^ai ed t leaning undoubtedly tho Ten
Oomnunuments ^iven to Mosos;
" SAT • ( 'orris, I will rohearso what your Jjord
hath iriudv) binding.cn you—H') that ye nssigu
not aa^ht to Hjm t>s partner: (2) and that vo
lie £o-A (o yourperonts: (:j) and thftt ye slay
not your children, because of poverty; for
them and for you will wo pro%'ide? (1) and
that ye come not ne*ii to pollutions, outward
or inward (fi) and Hiat ^re slay not :niyi»nr.
whom God Ii.it h forbidden you, unless fo-
a just cause This hath he enjoined on
you, to the iirtent that ye mny understand.
(6) And come not nigh to the substance of
the orphan, but to improve it. until be <*ooie
of ago : (7) and ux* a full measure. and i
just balance : We will not ta,k a *onl beyond
its ability. (8) And when ye give judgment,
observe justice, even though it IHJ the affair
of a kinsman, (9) and fnlfil the covenant of
Gcd. This hath God enjoiied you for your
monition — And, Hhis ia my right wny.'
Follow itthen : CIO) and follow notofA<r paths
leat ya be M»tMrtd from His path. This
hftth He enjoiued you'.thnt vo may fear Him."
COMMANDER OF THE FAITH-
FUL. Arabic .\mi-rn 'I- Ma? mini n
#*\). A title given k»y tho
in the first instance to trw first Kba-
lifah, j\;)Ci Bukr. and afterwards retained by
s\ioce«?di)ig .Xhalifah?, It is assumed by
airaot?t any Mub«jnmarlan ruler in the pro
•<6PV a jv.
GOMMKNTAEIES.
COMMERCE. Arabic
(fyr\- Commerce and merchandise
are «aid in tho Qor'an to be of God." Surnh
xvii. 68: "It IK yonr l^ord who drives the
ahipa for vou in tho sea that yo may seek
»fter T)l«ntv from HJLO ; verily He is ever mer
ciful to you. And ivhert- distress touches you
m the sea, those whom- ye call up.on, except
Him, stray away from yoa; but whjsn Up has
brought you safe to shore, ye also turn "away
(from God) ; for man is evi-r nn^mtefiil."
Zakui is dye on m<jrchandiBO of evory
t»e»rn'i>tionf in proportion to 5 yer cent.
COMPANIONS, The [ASHAB.]
COMPULSION. Arabic Dcrdh
Muharainado.D la«r makes
for persons acting under ccmpul-
whan tho person who compels has it in
his power to execute what bo orders, be be
a king or a thief. (Hiddyah, v,>L iii. p. J 3 •„'.")
K.q. a person foiled into :i f..ntrart \\\-.\\ d...
solve it. A .Mn-hm may hiwfuliv oat fo<>«:
which is prohibited if ho be com;. oiled to .10
so, being threatened with los>- of lifv or limb.
Nor is ,-i Mu-:lim guii*y •«. sin wh'/ declares
himHe!f .-n ;iiilj,>li«".',»r whcu iho losr- c-i a limb
or oi in'" ;s u:ronto:i.>tl. \c.«-jrcuuj? to tu-»
liuiim Abu ll;i:rf,i!i, i: a Muslim ho «'oiapftl!e.i
t;) divorro his wife, tlve divorce is valid; bui
n-ith him the '.then thrf'1 Imams are not
ngrood in tills rr-liniy.
CONCUBINE. Ar.ibic Svrriyah
(&i|-), pi. &.ifui-i. The 3fuhaniind«!an
r'-ii^iun ;»^peii!i to j^ive ahn.tst
license to < unuubiijaje. provided ihe
be a sln'je. ajid nat a free Muslim
Those female s Lives must he
tAkeiv rnptive m war, -(2) or purchased by
ironi-y. '3^ or ihe descendsnts of sla^c%.
liven married womeu. if t«Krn in war, are,
according to «n Jnjutiction of the Qur'nn
Sur^h i?. 28, entirely at- the disposal of th(*
Mu-diiii conqueror. "(Un'awfulJ to yon it**
married women, exr.spt such a» your rijbt
hand possess -.i.t. taken in waivov^pui-ohnseri
slaves)." T hi? institution oi concubinage Is
founded upon the ex»fa|.lc of Muhammad
himself, who took 5;h»nah thf Jewess as l-,is
concubine «fr«»i- ihs l.-^ilt- wuii tb* Enn.
Quraizah (A.H. .r>;, ;;nc: ahi< Mmi* tLti Coyi.
vho was sent him as 3 slavp by tbe «irvoi nov
of Egypt.
Should H concubine bear her macfer a
child, the MnliamuiHUan law ruJeS ihai cho
and her otf spring trre ivso fac'u ire*; For a
further treatment of .this pubject, see arti le
on «I.A vbs.
Amongst the Shi'ahs, the temporary mar
riage callod Mwah exhibit^tbe wor6t form
of concnbrnagp.. [MTJT'AU.]
It i» mtpr^sifng to compare tlio condition
cf the concnbiac uud^r Muslim law jrd
the Mosaic. Under the lav of Mnsos. a
cubitu" would generally ho cltLor a
girl bouglit of her father, or a Gentile cip ivt-
taken iu war. ISo that .whjUt tbe -Mub.im
madan law forbids concubinage ivlth a. fee
woman, tho Mosaic law panniUecJ it and U»gtR-
lated for it. See Exodus xxi. ; •• I; -j JJIAII
sell his daughter to be a maid-servant, 'rru
shall not go out as men-servants do. If the
plea«e not her master who hath betrothed h*r
to himself, then nball lie let her ne redacmod ;
to sell her unto a strange nntionho sha.ll hare
no pnwer,seoin«rhc hath den It -rtec<?it fully with
her."
With regard to femaJe Hlavc.ei takou iu -.vai,
ihe Mocaic Uw ruled. I^mt. xxi, 10: «• Wj,,.n
tiiou 'jo«st to war .'i^iinst tbinr- jnoniies.
and the Lord thy ^Ood hath deliviv-a tneci
into thine hands, and UIOM hum taken them
captive, and secst a beautiful woman, and
hast a desire unto her, ch-r. tuou wouidst
havr her to thy wife: theu tuau fhalt brinj;
her to thino nome, *<. . And it shall V
if thou have nodelix*'-' 'f- her, then thou -*»'.•'
let her go whither she wiH • out thon «li.->J
not neli her."6'<'
60
CONGREGATION
CONGREGATION. The Assembly
of people in a mosque is called Jam'ak
e term also ^™S use(* "* Afghan
,
istan for the mosque itself.
There are special rewards for those Mu-
hanimadans who assemble together for the
stated prayers; for Muhammad has said,
M The prayers which are said in a congrega
tion increase the rewards of the worshipper
twenty-seven degrees." " Say your prayers
in a congregation, far a wolf does not eat the
sheep except one has strayed from rhe flock."
(Miskkat, book iv. ch. xxiv.)
The Sunni style themselves Ahlu Sunnah
wa Jam'ah, i.e. " the people of the traditions
and of the congregation," in contradistinction
to the ShI'ahs, who do not worship in a con
gregation unless the Imam, or leader, be H
man entirely free from sin. [IMAM.]
The word jam'ah is. also used for an
assembly of people collected to decide a quee-.
tion of law or theology, the yi»a' being their
decision, more frequently called ijmd'u V-
ummak.
CONSCIENCE. There is no word
in the Qur'an which exactly expresses
the Christian conception of conscience. The
word nqfs (jj~&)> which, according to Arabic
lexicons, expresses very much the same idea
as the Hebrew ifiv nePh€S^ "life»
spirit, breath" (Job xii.-21), seems to be used
in the Qur'an to convey the meaning of con
science, although English translators render
it " soul." Muslim theologians say there are
four kinds of .consciences spoken of in the
Qur'an : (1) Na/s tawwamah, the " self-
accusing soul or conscience " (Surah Ixxv. 3).
(2) Nafs ammdrah, the " soul or conscience
prone to evil" (Surah xii. 53). (8) Nafs
mvtma'innah, the "peaceful soul or con
science " (Surah Ixxxix. 12). (4) Nafs mul-
harnmah, the " soul or conscience in which
is breathed both bad and good" (Surah
Ixxxiv. 27.)
It occurs also in the sense of conscience in
the Traditions (Mishkat, book i. cb. i. pt. 3) :
" When anything pricks your soul (nafs} for
sake it," Abdu '1-Haqq, in his Persian com
mentary on the Mishkdt) renders it by zdt,
but the English word conscience would seem
to express the precise idea. In Persian Mu-
hammadan works, as well as in common con
versation, the word nafs ia now used in its
evil sense, of desire or^ passion, but it must
be evident that this is not its Q ar'anie men n-
ing. The word'JUJ simmah, which in later
Arabic, together with p*** zamir, is used
to express conscience, has in the only pas
sage where it occurs in the Qur'an a decidedly
different meaning, e.g. Surah ix. 8, 10, where
it means clieutship. Sale and Bodwell both
translate it " faith," but Palmer more accu
rately renders it " ties of elientship."
CONVERSATION, The follow
ing instructions are given in the Qur'an re
garding talking and conversation. Surah
CONVERSATION
xxxi. 17, "Be moderate hi thy walk, and
lower thy voice ; verily the most disagreeable
of voices is the voice of asses.* Surah ii.
77, " Speak to men kindly." In the Tradi
tions, Ibn Mfcs'ud relates that Muhammad
said, «« May those people go to the fire of hell
who speak much."
On the subject of conversation, Faqir Jani
Muhammad As'ad, the author of the cele
brated ethical work entitled the Akhl&k-i-
Jaldli, p. 288, days:—
"He should not talk much, for it is a sign
of levity in feeling and weakness in judgment,
and tends to lower him in point of considera
tion and position. We are told that the Pro
phet used to observe the strictest medium in
his language ; so much so, that, in the most
protracted interviews, you might have counted
the words he uttered.' Buzurg Jauiihr uerd
to say, ' When you see a person talking much
without occasion, be sure he is out of bis
senses.' Let him not give yent to expres
sions till he has determined in his own mind
what he is going to say. When anyone is
relating a story, however well known to the
listener, the. latter is not to intimate his ac
quaintance with it till the narrative ie con
cluded. A question put to others he must
not himseli reply to ; if put to a body of
which he is a member, let him not prevent
the others; and if another ifi engaged in
answering what himself could answer better,
let him keep silence till the other's statement
is completed, and then give his own, but in
such sort its not to annoy the former speaker.
Let him not commence his reply till the
querist/s sentence is concluded. Conversa
tions and discussions which do not concern
him, although held in his presence, he is not
to interfere in; and if people conceal what
they are saying, he must not attempt furtively
to overhear. To his elders he should apeak
with judgment, pitching his Voice at a medium
between high and low. Should any abstruse
topic present itself, he should give it per
spicuity by comparison. Prolixity he should
never aim at, when not absolutely required ;
on the contrary j let it be his endeavour to
compress all he has to say. Neither should he
employ unusual terms 01* far-fetched figures.
He should beware of obscenity and bad lan
guage ; or if be icust needs refer to an inde
cent subject, let him be content witb allusion
by metaphor. Of all things, let him keep
clear of a taste for indelicacy, which tends to
lower his breeding, degrade bis respectability,
and bring him into general disagreement and
dislike. Let his language upon every occa
sion correspond with the exigency of his posi
tion ; and if accompanied by gesticulation of
the hand or eye or eyebrow, let it be only of
that graceful sort which his situation calis
for. Let him never, for right or wrong, en
gage in disputes with others of the company ;
least of all with the elders or the triflers of
it : and when embarked in such dispute, let
him be rigidly observant of the rules of
candour.
"Let him not deal in profound observation
beyond the intellect of those he is addressing
CONVERTS
CORRUPTION
61
but adapt his discourse to the judgment of his
hearers. Thus even the Prophet has declared — ,
' We of the prophetic order are enjoined to ad
dress men in the measure of their understand
ings ' : and Jesus (hlessed be he) said, * Use not
wisdom with the unwise to their annoyance '
(St. Matthew vii. 6 ?). In all his conversation
let him adhere to the ways of courtesy.
N«»ver let him mimic anyone's geutures,
actions, or words, nor give utterance to the
language of menace.
" When addressing a great person, let him
begin with something ominous of good, as the
pennanonce of his fortune, felicity, and so
forth.
" From all back -biting, carping, slander,
and falsehood, whether heard or spoken, let
him hold it essential to keep clear; nay, even
from any partnership with those addicted to
such practices. Let him listen more than he
speaks. It was the answer of a wise man to
those who asked him why he did so,
* Because,' said he, ' God has given me two
ears and only one tongue'; which was as
much as to say, • Hear twice as much as you
speak.'"
CONVERTS TO THE MTJHAM-
M ADAN RELIGION. According to the author
of the Hiddyah (vol. ii. 170), if a hostile in
fidel embrace Islam in a hostile country, his
person is his own, and he is not made a slave,
not- can hi? children be enslaved. His pro
perty is alto his own. But it is not so in the
case of one who has been lirst conquered and
then embraces Islam, for hie own person and
hi« children become slaves, and his wives are
at the mercy of the victorious Muslim, whilst
bin lands also become the property of the
State.
COVENANT. The word in the
Qur'Sn and the Traditions for God's Cove
nant with His people is Misag. Muham
mad taught, both in the Qur'an and in the
Traditions, that in the beginning God called
all the souls of mankind together aud took a,
promise (uKZ'ditzA) and n covenant (mtfag) from
them.
The account of this transaction is given as
follows in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 171 : —
"Thy Lord brought forth their descendants
from -the reins of the sons of Adam and took
them to witness against themselves, • Am I
not.' said He, ' your Lord ? ' They said, * Yes,
we witness it.' This we did, lest ye should
say on the Day of Resurrection, 'Truly, of
this were we heedless, because uninformed.'
" Or lest ye should say, k Our fathers,
indeed, aforetime joined other gods with our
God , and we are their seed after them : wilt
thou destroy us for the doings of vain
men ? ' "
But the story as told in the Traditions is
more graphic : —
" Ubai ibu Ka'b relates, in explanation of
the verse in the Suratu '1-A'raf (verse 171) :
When God created (the spirits of) the sons
of Adam, he collected them together and
made them of different tribes, and of different
appearances, and gave them powers of speech.
Then they began to speak, and God took
from them a promise (u>a'r/<rA),and a covenant
(mi««<7), and said, « Am I not thy Lord?'
They all answered and said, < Thoa art,'
Then God said, ' Swear by the seven hea
vens and the seven earths, and by Adam your
father, that you will not say in the resurrec
tion, We did not understand this. Know ye
therefore that there is no Deity bat Me, and
there is no God but Me. Do not associate
anything with Me. I will verily send to you
yonr own apostles who shall remind you of
this Promise and of this Covenant, and I will
send to you your own books.* The sons of
Adam then replied, 4 We are witnesses that
Thou ait our Lord (Rabb), and our God
(Allah). Thore is no Lord but Thee and no
God but Thee.' Then they confessed this
and made it known to Adam. Then Adam
looked at them and beheld that there were
amongst them those that were rich and poor,
handsome and ugly, and he said, ' 0 Lord
why didst Thou not make them all alike ? '
And the Lord said, « Truly I milled it thus in
order that some of my servants may be
thankful.' Then Adam saw amongst his pos
terity, prophets, like unto lamps, and upon
these lamps there yrere lights, and they were
appointed by special covenants of prophecy
(nabuvoaJi) and of apostleship (raA<z/a/i).
And thus it is written in the Qur'an (Surah
xxxiii. 7), ' Remember we have entered into
covenant with the Prophets, with thee Mu
hammad, and with Noah, and with Abraham,
and with Musa, and with Jesus the Son of
Mary, and we made with them a covenant.'
Aud (continues Ubai) Jesus was amongst the
spirits." (Mishkai, Arabic Ed. Babu '1-Qadr.)
COVERING THE HEAD. There
88 no injunction in either the Qur'an or Tra
ditions as to a man covering his bead during
prayers, although it is generally held to be
more modest and correct for him to do so.
With reference to women, the law in impe
rative, for 'Ayishah relates that Muhammad
said, " God accepts not the prayer of an adult
woman unless she cover her head/' (Afishkat,
iv. c. ix.)
CORRUPTION OF THE SCRIP-
TURES. Muhanxmadans charge the Jews
and Christians with having altered their
sacred books. The word used by Muham-
madan writers for this supposed corruption of
the sacred Scriptures of the Jews and Chris
tians is Tahrlf.
The Imam Fakhru 'd-din Rozi, in bis com
mentary, Tafsir-i-Kabir, explains Tabrif to
mean " to change, alter, or turn aside any
thing from the truth." Muslim divines say
there are two kinds of ta^rlj\ namely, tak-
rif-i-ma'nawi, a corruption of the meaning ;
and tahrif-i-laf$ii a corruption of the words.
Muhammadan controversialists, when they
become acquainted with the nature of the
contents of the sacred books of the Jews and
Christians, and of the impossibility of recon
ciling the contents of the Qur'ao with those of
62
CORRUPTION
the sacred Scripture*, charge the Christians
witb the t(t!irif*i-hrfzi They Bay the
Christians have expanded tVm word akmad
from the prophecies, and have imortod the
expression "Son of God." and the story ol
the- crucifixion, death, and resurrection of our
blessed Lord. This view, however, is not the
one held by the most celebrated of the Mns-
lira communtatorfl.
The Imam Muhammad IsmaMJ al -Bukhari
fp. 1127, lino 7). records that l.bn -A.bhaK said
that "the word Talirif (corniptioto) signifies
to change* a thing from its original nature;
ard that thero is no man who could c.tjrrupt
a single word of what proceeded from Gof!,
«e that tho Jews aud Christians could cornir i.
only by misrepresenting the wettning of the
words of Gorl."
Tbn Mazar and Ibn AM ttariro stale, in the
commentary known as the fafslr , Dvrr-i-
Ma*$it.T* Uiat they have it on tho aiithpnty of
ibn Miuiiynh. thai the Jawraf (i.e. the hook ;
of MOPCS), arid the /it pi (is. the Gospels), are
in the $sm.'.e .state <">f purity in which they wore
sent down from boa .von, find thai no nltera-
fious had boon mo.de in Ihew- hut that the
Jews we ro wont to deceive the people by un
sound arguments, and by wresting the sense
of Scripture.
Shah Wfthyu 'Hah, in bi.s commentary, th«
/Vu?v 7 -Knhi.'. and also Ibn 'Abbas, support
the sanjft view.
This appe'ua to *«* Hie correcl interpret u
tion of the various ver es ol the tjur'an
charging the Jovs \y»th having corrupted (he
uaeamng of the sacred Scriptures.
For example, Siiratu A.li 'fniran fiii •), 72:
4 'There are certainly some ot tfoera who ve»J
the. Scriptures pervorsely, that ye may think
what they read te be really in the Scriptures
yet it is not iri the Scriptures ; and they say
this 15? from Ood, but it. is not from God : and
fchey spert.k that which is false concerning dad
against their own knowledge."
Tbe Iirani Fakhjru 'd-d in. in his commen
tary on this verso, and TO any others of the
same character V hi ell oc'«ur iu the Qur'an,
«ays it refers to a iahnf-t-ma'-nair^ and that
it. does not in can that the J«ws altered thp
text, but merely lh;»t: they made, alterations
in the course of reading
But whilst all the old commentators who
most probably had never seen a copy of tho
sacred books of the Jews and Christians, only
charge them with a fafirif-t ma'naiof, all
modern controversialists amongst the Mo-
hftinumdnns contend for a tafirl/*t-lafzS, as
beinff'tlie only solution of the difficulty. .
la dealing- with such opponents, the Chris
tian divine wiJl avail himself of tbe Following
arguments : —
1. The Qur'on does not charge the Jews
ailid Christians with corrupting the text of
that racred buoks ) and man y> learned Mus-
lirn comrneMl/riorM admit that eurb is not the
case
fc 2. The Qar'au asserts that rbo lioly Scrip
tures of the Jews and Christians existed in
the d»ys of Muhamyiad, Who invan'aJjly
speaks of them with reverence »Dd re&jtecl.
CP^EATION
3 There now exist manulsoripiti oitue OW
ond ^ew Testaments of ri earlier date than
tha/t of Muhammad (A.I>. Gl/' "S2.)
4. There are versions of the Old and New
Testament now exl,ant, which existed heforo
Muhammad ; for .example, the t?opM;agin»;, the
Latin Vulerate. the Syriao. tbi> Coptic, flnd
the Armoiiiao versions.
5. ThoHoxTTpUi, or Octapla of Origen.'vhich
dates foul ceoturiefl before Atfuhainmad, giTOf»
various vei'sion^ of the Old Testament Scvip-
turos in paralloj «:<dumns.
*?. The Syrian < 'hristians o^ St. Thorn})*, : f
Ma hi bar and Travancom, in the south of
India, who were separated from th.o west-ei-n
vvorld for centuries, possess tho aamo Scrip
iures,
7. In tho works ( of Justin Martyr^, who
lived fignj A i>. 103 lo 167, there are nume
rous quotations from our sn-cred books, whicb,
prove that thay wore p\flc»Iy.Uia sa.mo ft?
these we have now -The samo irttiy ho said
of othor early Christian writers.
Mubairwmdan controvorsin lists of the pre
sent day urge that the numerous readings
v.-hich exist in the Christian books are '4 proof
that they have been corruptec). But those do
not affect, in the least, the main points at
issue between tho Christian arnl ihc Muslim.
The Divine Sonsbip of Christ, the Fathor-
hood of God, the GvuciGxion. Death, and Re-
stir reel Jon of Christ and the Atonement, are
all clearly stated in almost every book of the
Now Twstarnnnt, whilst t.hoy are rejected by.
tho Quran.
Tho most plausible- of modern objections
urged by Muslim divines is, that the Chris
tians have /o.v/ the /»?/>/ which, was sent down
from heaven to Jesus ; untl that th« New Tes
tament contains merely the Hod^, or Suhnaii
—the t radii ions handed down by Matthew,
Marli. Luke, John. Paul, and others ft is,
of course, a mere assertion, unsupported by
any proot . but it appears to b« a line of
argument which conunouds ilself to many
modern Mustims.
CREATION. Arabic Khalquk. The
following are the allusions to the Creation which
occur in the Qar'an, Surah J. 37-. "Of ol*d We
(God^ ct* al«d tho bqaveua and the earth and all
that is between them in six days, and no wea
riness touched Us.** Surah xli 85 "Uo.^'
indeed tiiebelieve in Him who in two days
created the earth ? DP yeassign Him equals?
The Lord of tho World is fie. And ]le bin It'
placed 011 the «arth the iirm mountains- which
tower above it, and tie hath blessed it, ami
distributed its noufUhments throughout it
(for the cravings of all are alike), in (our
days. Then lie applied HimsHf to the
heaver, which wa but srnoko and to it and'
to (he earth He said. "Curne ye, in obedience
or against' your will?" and they both said,
u We come obedient." And He completed]
them as seven heavens in two days, and iw
each heaven madp known its office; anil W<ji
furnished the lower heaven with lights and
guardian angels. This is the disposUloa ofj
the AJmig-hly, the all knowing one "
CREED
OEUBLTt
xvl. 3. *«• He created the heavens and tho
earth U set forth his trulh, hi-^U In Him be
exalted above Hio^o'l; Ihey join with Him!
Man hath He vrcated out »>l n noist germ . yet
lo! man is an op«*u CM v liter. And th0 oafttM I
for you hath He n-oatod them, A,c. . . .
Shall He who h.iili created be a* he who
hath not creatod ? Will ye not consider t T
Suiah xiii 2: " It is Cod who Inth reared the
heavens without pillnrs, iliou canst behold .
then seated Himself upon 'Jis throne, and
imposed Jaws on (he sun xnrl moon , each
travel loth to its appointath &>o\\. He ordereth
all things. He, muketh His signs cleat.
Haply ye will have firm taith in a, meeting
with your Lord. And He it is who bath out
stretched the earth, and placed on it the firm
mountains, and rivers; and of everv fruit He
hath placed on it two kinds. He causeth the
mght to enshroud the -day" Surah xxxv
I? • God created you of dust— then of tltt*
germs ot life— tbcn made you two setes.1'
According to the Traditions (Afixhteuf, xxiv
r. i. pt. 3)T God created tho e^rth on Satur
day, the hills on Sunday, ihc trees on Monday,
all unpleasant things on Tuesday, the Ivjrht
on Wednesday; thp boasts on Thursday and
Adam, who was the J-ist of Creation, was
created after the time of afternoon praveraori
Friday.
CREED. Thp Mnhammadan Creed,
or* Kulitnulu .'$/> shaAadaft (shortly Kali*nqk) is
the well known formula : -
•' i testify that there is no doity but
God, and Muhammad iv Ibe Apostle ot
God "
ft is the belief of Mnluiiniuathus that the
first part of this creed, which is called the
mafi wa t'jfW, namely. Thorn to no deity but
God," has heen tho expression of belief of
every prophet sinco the d»va «>f Adam, and
thai the second portion has boon ehangod
according lo tho dispensation ; for o:< mple.
lhat in the days of Moses it would be
•There is no deity Out God, nad Moses is
the Converser with Ood." in tbo Christian
dispensation it wa^ : "TVicro is no deity
but Ood, and Je.sus is I he Spirit of
God.''
Jabir relates that Muhammad aaid ** the
keys of Paradise are bearing witness that
there is no deity but God. '
The recital of the Kahmah* or Creed, is
the first of five pilbirs of practica1 religion in
Islam; and when anyone is con verted to
Isiitm he is .required to repeat this formula.
and the following are the conditions required
of every Muslim with reference to it : —
1. That it shall be repeated aloud, at
least once in a life- time.
2. That tho meaning of it ehall be fully
understood.
3. That it shalj be believed in " by tho
heart."
4. That it shall be professed until death
5. That it shall be recited correctly
6 That it shall be always professod and
declared without hesitation
CSfcaM*/ 7- Wk
CREMATION, [WBVIHO TUB
DEAD.]
CRESCENT. The figuro of the
cresoenl is the Turkish symbol, and hence it
ha* hof,n regarded by Europeans -•»« the spe
cial emblem of tho Muhammad an religion,
although it is unknown to the Muhmnmadans
of tho East Thiei ligure, however, did not
originate with tho Turks, bnt it was the
symbol of sovereignty in the city of Bvzun-
tium previous to the Muslim conquest, ns
may J)C seen from the medals (truck in
honour of Anguslus Trajan and others. The
crescent has been the symbol of three dif
ferent orders of knighthood; tho first of
which was instituted by Charles .1.. King^»f
Naples A.D. 12tftt: tho second in 144S by
Rent: ot Anjou : the third by Sultan Selim
in 1801 It must have been adoptod by'Mu
h/immadan* fot t.hn first time upon the over
throw of the Byzaatine Empire by Muhammad
JI , .ind it is nuvr y;enev^Hy used by (he
Turks «s the insignia of their creed
CROCODILE. Arabic Tim*«A
The flesh of a crocodile i? .unlawful for food
to a Muhaminadan. (Hamilton's Hniayah
iv 7-1,
CROSS, The. Arabic As-SaM>. The
poi 'an dories the cracifixion of our blessed
Lord (cRUCtnxioNj. and it is related by al-
Wftcjidi thuf MuharnmAcl had such a rcpug
nance to the focm of the crosn tha( he broke
everything; brought into his house wich thai
figure upon it. (Muir, iii .61.) According to
Abu Hufainih, Tho Prophet Pui<I. " fswoai by
hortveu, it is near, when Jos UK the Son of M:ny
will descend from heavun upon your people -i
just kjnj^, and Ho will break lite rrov.v, and kill
the swino. (A/4«£feii(xxiii.C.vi) The Imam
Abn Y^usnf says tlwt. if a cross or a crucifix is
stolen from H church, Amputation (the punish
ment lor theft y is not incurred ; but if it is
slolen from a private dwelling it is rbefl.
( Hauiiltoa's ffttlayu/i, vol. ii. \>. OO.^)
CltUCIFIXTON. The
of tho Lord Jesus Christ is dcniod by the
teaching of the Q.ur'an. pfCVMCBBD*.] Tt is
a punishment saactioned by the Muhamraa-
clau religion for highway robbers. (Hauiil
ton's Hicfaija/i.\ol ii. UJl.)
CKUEL.TY. A striking instance
of the cruelty of Muhammad's cbarrrtor
occurs in a tradition given in tho fjafilfiu '/,
Bukhitrl (p. 1019). Anas relates, "Some
of tho people of the tribe of 'fjkl came to the
Prophet and embraced Islam ; hut the air of
al-Madiriyli did not ugfe with Iheui, and thc/j
wanted to U>ave the place. And the Prophet
ordered them to go where t lie camels gtven in
alms were .-is^euibled. and to drink their m«lk
wln'ch they did, and recovered from their
sickness. But *fter this they became apo
states, and renounced Islam and stole fh<*
camels. Then the Prophet sent gome people
after I hem, and they were seized and brought
64
DABBATU L-ABZ
back to al-Madinah. Then the Prophet
ordered their hands and their feet to be cut
off as a punishment for theft, and their eyes
to be pulled out. But the Prophet did not
stop the bleeding, and they died." And in
another it reads, " The Prophet ordered hot
irons "to be drawn across their eyes, and then
to be cast on the plain of al-Madanab ; and
when they asked for water it was not given
them, and they died."
Sir William. Muir (vol. iv. p. 307) says :
}< Magnanimity or moderation are nowhere
discernible as' features in the conduct of Mu
hammad towards such of his enemies as
failed to tender a timeiy allegiance. Over
the bodies of the- Quraish who fell at Badr he
exulted with savage satisfaction ; and several
DAMASCUS
prisoners, accused of no crane but of scepti
cism and political opposition, were deliberately
executed at his command. The Prince- of
Khaibar, after being subjected to inhuman
torture for the purpose of discovering the
treasures of 'his tribe', was, with his cousin,
put to death on the pretext of having trea
cherously concealed them, and his wife was
led away captive to the tent of the con
queror. Sentence of exile was enforced by
Muhammad with rigorous severity on two
whole Jewish tribea at a'1-Madfnah; and of a
third, likewise his neighbours, the women and
children were sold into distant captivity,
while the men, amounting to several hundreds,
were butchered in cold blood before his
eyes."
D.
DABBATU 'L-ARZ
Lit. "The Reptile of the Earth." "A monster
who shall arise in the last day, and shall cry
unto the people of the earth that mankind
have not believed in the revelations of God
(vide Qur'an, Surah xxvii. 84) : " And when
sentence falls upon them we will bring forth
a beast out of the earth, that shall speak to
them and say, * Men of our signs would not
be sure.1"' According to the Traditions he
will be, the third sign of the coming resurrec
tion, and will come forth from the mountain
of Sufah. (Mishkdt, xxiii, c. iv.) Both Sale
and Rodwell have confounded the Oabbatu
'1-Arz with Al-Jasaasah, the spy, mentioned
in a tradition by Fatfmah (Mish/edt, xxiii.
c. iv.), and which is held to be a demon now
in existence. [AL-JASSASAH.] For a descrip
tion of the Dabbah, see the article on the
RESURRECTION.
DABUE Gr*»>). "The West
wind.'' A term used by the Sufis to ex
press the lust of the flesh, and its overwhelm
ing power in the heart of man. (Abdu 'r-
Razzaq's Dictionary of Sufi Terms.)
DAHHA (U«j). Plural of the
Persian *J, ten. The ten days of the
Muharram, during which public mourning for
'AH and his sons is observed by Shl'ah
Muhaminadans. (Wilson's Glossary of Indian
Terms.}
Ap-DAHB ( vft>jM), "A long space
of time." A title given to the Lxxvith
chapter of the Qur'an ; called also Sflratu 1-
Insan, " The Chapter of Man." The title is
taken from the first verse of the chapter:
" Did not there pass over man a long apace of
time?"
DAHKl (vsy*0)- One who believes
in the eternity of matter, and asserts that
the duration of this world is from eternity,
and denies the Day of Resurrection and Jndg-
ment ; an Atheist. ( Qhiydgu '1-LugAat, in
loco.)
DAIN (et^). A debt contracted
with some definite term fixed for repayment,
as distinguished from qarz, which is used for
a loan given without any fixed term for re
payment. [DEBT.]
DAJJAL (JWv>). Lit. "false,
lying." The name given in the ElaAIs to
oertain religious impostors who shall appear
in the world ; a term equivalent to our use
of the word Antichrist. Muhammad is related
to have said there would be about thirty.
The Maaihu 'd-Dajjdl, or "the lying
Christ," it is said, will be the last of the
DajjdlS) for an account ot whom refer to
article on MASIHU 'D-DAJJAL.
DALlL ( J«^). " An argument ; a
proof." Dalll burhdni, " a convincing argu
ment,** Daltl qapi, " a decisive proof."
DAMASCUS. Arabic Dimashq
According to Jalalu 'd-dm Suyiiti, Damas
cus is the second sacred city in Syria,
Jerusalem being the first; and some have
thought it must be the "Irani of the
columns" mentioned in the Qur'an, Sftrah
Ixxxix. 6, although this is not the view of
most Muslim writers. [IRAM.] Damascus is
not mentioned in the Qur'an. With regard to
the date of the erection of the city, Muham-
rnadan historians differ. Some say it was
built by a slave named Dimashq, who be
longed to Abraham, having been given to
the patriarch by Nimrod ; others say Di
mashq was a slave belonging to Alexander the
Great, and that the city was built in his
day.
Damascus was taken by Khalid in the
reign of the Khalifah 'Umar, A.H. 18. and it
became the capital of the Umaiyade Khalifahs
under Mu'awiyah, A.H. 41, and remained the
chief city of Islam until the fall of that
DAMASCUS
DAMASCUS
dynasty, A.II 132, when the Abbflflsides moved
their capital first te al KufaJi and then to
Bagdad.
The great mosque at Damascus was erected
by 'Abdu I Malik ibn M*rw«n, rbe fifth Kha
lifab ol the Umaiyades. It was commenced
A.H. 86 and finished in ten year*, being
erected on the rain* of an ancient Greek
temple nnd ot a tihrj^tiai- church.
The account, as given by .Talaio d -din
8uytifi< in his Ifistury of the Temple of Jwit-
sulem, '* curious and interesting. ^Mowing that
for a time the Muslims and Christians wor
shipped in the same building together.
•• Here fin Dam&aeus) all the servants of
God joined, ana built a Church to worship
Hod in. Some say. however, mat this church
was built by the Greeks : for *Abdu 'llilh Ibn
•Abbas, having marched against Damascus and
besieged it. demolished the wall*, after he had
entered the city by storm. Then there fell
down a stone, haying certain letters inscribed
thereon in th« Greek language. They there
fore sent to bring a certain monk who could
read Greek ; but he said, 'Bring me in pitch
the impression of the letters on the stone,
which he found to be as follows : •« Woe unto
chee, mother of shame! Piou« is he who
inflicts upon thee with usury the ill which
God designs for thee in retribution. Woe unto
thee from five eyes, who shall destroy thy wall
after four thousand years/ Now", 'Abdu 'llah's
entire name was 'Abdu llah Ibn 'All Ibn 'Abdi
'ilah Ibn 'Abbas Ibn 'Abdu '1-Muqallib.
" Again, the historian Ibn Isahii- says r
When God hud granted unto the Muslim:*
the possession, as conquerors of the whole of
Syria, He gtanted them among other cities
thai of Damascus with its dependencies. Thus
God sent dewn His meroy upon them, and the
commnnder-in-ohief of the army (besieging
Dan.ascus), who was cither Abu 'TJbaidah or,
as aonu say, Khalid Tbn al-Walid. wrote a
treaty 01 capitulation and articles of sur
render By these he settled and appointed
founeeu churches to remain in the hands of
the Muslim*. The chnrch of -which we havr
spoken above wa* left open and free for
future consideration. This was on the plon
that Khwlid had entered the city at the
sword's point by the eastern gfcto; but th.v
the Christians at tlir yamo time were allows!
to surrender by Abu 'Uhaidah; who ontei*d
at the '.vt»stcr» gate, openod under articles.
This cnused dissension; but at length it was
agreed that half the place should be regarded
as having capitulated .ind half as stormed.
" The .Muslims therefore . < ok .this church.
and Abu 'Ubaidab made it into n mosque
He* was afterwards appointed Emu of Syria.
and wae the n'r°t who prayed here, nil the
company of Companions praying after him
in the open area, now called the Companions'
Tower; but -t\\* wall must then bnve been
cut through, hard by the leaning' tower, if
the Companions leally prayed in the ' blessed
precinct.' At first the Christians and Mus
lims entered by the .same jjate, which was
' the gate of Adoration and Prayer,' over
against the Qiblah, where tbe great tower now
3 finds. Afterwards the Christians changed
and went into their church bv the gate facm£
the west : fbe Muslims takim? the rifht-hmtd
mosque. But tbe Christians were not «uf-
ferred to chant aloud, or recite their books
or strike their bells (or clappers), m order
to honour the Companions with reverence nnd
fear. Aiso, Mu'awiyah built in his 'lav? a
house for the Amir, right ooposjfw »ho
mosque. Here he built a giemi cbauol.
This palace was noted for Us perfection.
Here Mu'itvriyuli dwelt forty years: nor did
this state of things change from V.H. K to
A.H. bt>. Rut Al-Walid Ibu 'Abdu 1-Mulik
began to think of destroying tho churches.
and of adding come to thoae already in the
hands of the Muslims, so as w construct one
great mosque ; and this because Borne of th-i
Muslims were sore troubled by hearing the
recitations of the Christians from tho Gospel
and their uplifted voices in prayer. He de
signed, therefore, to remore them from th<
Miife'lhns and to annex tbio t*pui 10 tiie other,
so as to make one great mosqu^. Thereiure
he called for the Christians, und asked them
whether they would depart from those places
which wore in their hands, receiving in ex
change greater portions in lieu thereof ; and
ftlso retaining four charchos not mentioned in
thp creac}' — the Church of Maria, the (jhxirch
of ihe Crucified, just -within the eastern gate,
the ohur'ch Tallu '1-Habu, an(i the Church of
the Glorious Mother, occupied previously l»v
the burnishers. This, however, they vehe
mently refused to do. Thereupon tho Khali -
fan said, ' Bring me then the treaty which
you pos*e*s since the time of the <iora-
punionti.' Tney brought it, tbereiore, and it
was read in al-Walid's presence : when, io !
tbe Church of Thomas, outside tne ^ar*j ^f
Thomas, hard by tbe riror, did not enter inVo
tbe treaty, and was oti« of thufo culled 'the
greater of churchos left upon' (tot future
disposal). -There,' he said, ' this will I
destroy and convert it into a mosque.' They
said, • Nay, let it alone, O commander of th*>
Faithful, even although not mentioned amon^
the churches, for wo are content that you t;ikf
the chapel of the church/ To this *£ree-
ment, then, he held them, and received iroiu
them the Qnbbah (or chapel vault, dome) 01
the chnrch. Then he summoned workmen
able to pull clown, and assembled all the
amirs, chiefs, and great men. But the Chris
tian bishops and priests coining, said, ' 0
commander of tho Faithful, wo find in our
books that whosoever shall demolish this
church will go m«»d.' Then said the Khali-
fab, • And I am very willing to be mad with
God's inspiration : therefore no one f«li»ll
demolish it before me.' Then he ascended
the western tower, which hnd two spirei.
and contained a moiwstic cell. Here ho
found a monk, whom he ordered to dencend.
The monk making difficult.^*, and linger
ing, nl-Walid took bim bv <be t>«ck ««f hi*
neck. an«l ceased not pushing him until
he hnd thrown bim down stairs. Then be
ascended to the most lofty spot in the^h'ir"H
above the great altar, cali**<l 'the Ahar if
9
66
DAMASCUS
the Martyrs.' Hero he <eLsed iho ends of
his sash, which was of ft bright yellow colour,
and fixed Ihora into his bell. Taking, then,
an ate into his hand, he struck against the
very topmost stone, and brought it down.
Then ho, called the amirs, and de.sired them
to pull down the building as quickly as pos
sible. Hereupon all the Muslims shoaled,
' God is great ! ' three times ; also the Chris
tians loudly cried out \vith their v/ailing and
woe upon the steps of ./airuri, where they
had assembled. Al-Walid therefore desired
the commander Of his guard to inflict blows
upon them until they should depart, which he
did. The Muslims then demolished all that
the Christians had built in the great square
here — altars and buildings and cloisters —
until the whole square was one flat surfaco.
He then resolved to build a spiendid pile, un
rivalled for boamy of architecture, which
none could hereafter surpass. Al-Walid
therefore commissioned the most eminent
architects and mathematicians to bxxild the
mosque, according to the model they most
preferred. His brother chiefly moved and
stirred him up to this undertaking, :.md next
to him presided Snla-iman *Abdu 'I- Malik.. It
is said that d,J-Wa!M sent to the . king of
Greece to demand stone masons and ot-hor
workmen, for tno purpose of building this
mosque in the way bo desired, Bonding-, word,
that if the king refused, he would overrun
his territory with his anny, and reduce to
utter ruin every church in h \s domin ions, even
the Church of the Holy City, and the Church
of Edessa, and utterly destroy every vestige
of the Greeks still remaining The king of
Greece, sent, therefore, numerous workmen,
with a ^ letter, expressing himself thus: * If
thy father k no wet h what tlioudoest, and per
mits it, tneri truly 1 accuse him of disgraceful
couduet, and blame him more than thee. 11
he understandcth it not, but thou only art
conscious, then i Maine thee above him.'
Wnen tho letter came 10 al-Watotl, be \vished
I o reply unto h and assembled several per
sons for consultation. One oi those was a
well-known poet. \vho said, ; I will answer
him, O Commander of the Faithful ! out of
the Book of God. So said ai-Walid. • Where,
then, is that answer? ' He replied this verse,
• David and Salomon lo i they assume, a
right to tne corn-field, a right to the place
where the people are shearing their sheep.
Also, we are witnesses of their decree; for Solo
mon hath given us to understand it, and both
(David and Solomon; ha ve come to us :t v judffep
and learned men.' Al-Walid, by this reply,
caused great surprise to the king of Greece.
A-i-Firsuk alludes to this in these verses :—
" I have made a separation between the
Christian* and their churrhes, and between the
people who shine and those who are in dark
ness. "
. "1 neglected for a season thus to apportion
their happiness, 1 being u procrastinating vin
dicator of their grievances."
** Thy Lord hath made thee to resolve
upon removing their churches from those
mosques wherein good words are recited."
DAMASCUS
" Whilst they were together in one place
! some were praying and prostrating themselves
on their faces, slightly separated from others
who, behold ) were adoring God and idols.1'
• How shall the people of the Cross unite to
ring- their belb. when the reading of top
Qiir'ari is perpetually intermingled? '
•* I resolved then to remove tbern, just /t»
did those wise men when they decreed taetn-
solves a right to the seed-field and the
flocks."
"When al-WalTd resolved to buikl the
chapel which is in the midst of the cloister,
called • the Vulture's Chapel' (a name given
to it by the country -people, because the por
tioos on each side look like two •wings), he dug
deep at the four corners of the intended
chapel, until the <?arne to sweet and limpid
water. Here they first placed the foundation
of. the wall of the vineyard. Upon Ibis they
built with stouo, »nd when the four cerners
were oi sufficient height, they then buit!
thereon the chapel ; butfil fell down again
Then said al-Walid to some one of the mathe
maticians, who well knew the plan of the
Vultures Chapel, -1 wish you to bmld this
chapel: for the injunction of God hath been
givpn aie. and I am confident that no ono but
tlivsolf may build it. He therefore built the
four corners, and covered them with wir-ker,
and disappeared for a whole year. al-Walid
not knowing where he was. Aiter a year.
al-Wa'.ul du^ down to the four corner foun
dations Then he (/^. the architect1) said
* Do not be in a hurry, O commander of the
Faithful ! Then he found the mathemati
cian, who had a man's head with him. He
caine to the four corners, and uncovered the
wicker work, and lo ! all that had been buill
above ilr> eattb had fallen down, until they
wc/o on a level with the earth. So he said
' From this (work have 1 come).' Then he
proceeded to build, and firmly fixed and sup
ported a beautiful fabric
Some person also saul al-Walid wished 'to
ocmstrnct a brilliant chapel of pure gold,
whereby the rank of the mosque might he
magnified. Hereupon the superintendent said
unto him. • You cannot effect this. Upon
which ai-Wallfl struck him fifty, blows with a
whip, sayiug, Am i then incapable of effect
ing this?' Tho man replied, -Certainly'
Then he said, '1 will1, then, fihd onfc a way to
know the truth, firing forth all the gold
thou hast'; which he did: and al-Walid
melted it. and foi-nied.it- into-. one large brick
which contained one thousand pieces of gold
[>ai the man said, * O Commander of the
Faithful! we shall require se many thousand
bricks of this sort if t.hoo dc-st possess them :
noi Will this suilice for our work. Al-Waikd
i seeing that he was true and just, presented
him with fifty dinars^ and whoft aJ-Walid
roofod the great precinct, lie. adorned the
roof, as well as the whole extent of the pave
ment, with a surface of gold. Some of al-
Walid's family also said unto him, 'They twho
come after thee will emulate th?e in rendering
t he outer roof ot this mosque more commodious
every year.' Upon this al- Walfd ordered all the
DAMASCUS
DAMASCUS
lead ol the country to he collected together, in
order to construct therewith an exterior out
ward covering, answering lo the interior,
which should be light upon the roof, and on
the sido-posts that supported the roof. So
I hoy collected lead throughout all Syria and
many other countries ; and whilst they were
returning, they wt*t with a certain woman
who possessed ,a wei^ut of lead — a weight of
many talents. Tho.y began lo chaffer with
I. bo woman for it. but she reinsert to sell it,
except, for its vfceight in silver. So they
wrote to the Commander of the FaiMiful, in
forming him of this, who replied, -Buy it
from her, even lor its weight in silver. When,
then, they offered thia «mn unto her, she
said, • Now that you have agreed to my pro
posal, and arc satisfied to give the weight in
silver. J giv« the weight as an offering unto
Ood, (o setve for the roof of the mosrruc.'
Hereupon they marked one corner of the
weight with the impression of a seal. • This
is God's.' Some say the woman was au
Israelite ; some say that they sought for
lead in'open flitches or holes, and came to a
Stone .sepulchre, within which wa* a leaden
SHpulchrr, whence th«y brought forth a dead
body, and laid jt on the ground. Whilst drag
ging it out, the head fell to the ground, and
the neck being broken . much blood flowed
forth from the- mouth, whfch terrified them
80 much, that they rapidly tied away. This
i is said to have been the burial-place of King
Saul. Also, the guardian of the mosque came
I unto al-Walid and said, 'O Commander of
1 the Faithful! men say that al-Walid hath ex
pended the money of the treasury unjustly.'
Hereupon al-Walid dosired that all the
people should be summoned to prayer. When
I all were assembled. al-Waiitt mounted tho
I pulpit, and said. * Such and such reports have
j reached me.' Thou he said, *0 'Uniar Ibn
al -Mnhajir ! stand up and produce the money
of the treasury.' Now it was carried upon
tnules. Therefore, pieces of hide being placed,
in the midst, beneath the chapel, he poured
out a 11 the gold and silver, to such a height,
that those who stood ou either side could not
[see one another. Scales berug then brought
lout, the whole was weighed, when it was
found that the amount would suflice for the
j public use for three years To come even if
I nothing were added to the amount Then all
line people j-ejoiced, praising ami glorifying.
God for this. Then «aid tho Khalifah, '6
(people of Damascus ! you boa^t among men
lol" four things : of your air, of your water, of
Ivuur cheerfulness, and of your gracefulness.
IWoiJd that you would add to these a, fifth, and
Jbecotne of the number of those who praise
jGoil, and are liberal in his service. Would
^tbat thus changing, you would become thank
ful suppliants.'
In the Qiblah ot iuis mosque were
('three golden scimitars, enamelled in lapis
lazuli. Upon each scimitar was engraved
^he following sentence, ' In the name
[of God, the Morcttul and Compassionate I
I There is no god but God. ,He is the ever-
living the seJf-bub.sisting Being, who never
slumbers nor sloop.*. There is no god but
God. llo has «o partner. We will never
adore any but our Lord, the one God. Our
faith is Islam, and our Prophet is Muhammad.
This mosque was built, and the churches
•which stjood on the site of the chapel were
demolished, by order of the servant of God,
tho Commander of the Fait hi ul, nl-Walid Ibn
'Abdu '1-Malik Ibu Ma-rwan, in the month
2 ii '1-Qa-dab, A.H. 86.' Upon another tablet
was inscribed, tho whole of the first chapter
of the Qur'au. Here also were depicted tho
stars, then the morning twilight, t/hcn the
spiral course of the sun, then the way
of living which obtained after the arrival
of the Faithful at Damascus. Alsoj it is said,
that all the Uoor or this mosque was divided
into small slabs, and that tho stone (carving)
of the walls extended, to tho utmost pin
nacle. Above was a great golden vine, and
above this were splendid enamelled knobs of
green, red, blue, and white, whereby wore
figured and expressed all countries and
regions, especially the Ka-bah, above tho
tower; also all the countries to the right and
left (of Makk:ib), aud all the most beautiful
shrubs and trees of evury region, famous
either for their fruits or flowers The roof
had cornices of gold. Here was suspend od
a chain oi gold aud silver, which branched off
into seven separate light*. In the tower of
the Companions w<jre» two stone»-r-beryl»
Tsome $a.y they were tho jewels called pearls);
they were called l The Little Ones.' When
the candles were put out, they inflamed the
eyes by tbeifr brilliant light. In the time of
alAmmlbn ar Rashid, Sulaimnn, captain of
(be guard, vvas sent by thai Kjbalifah to Da-
mascus. to steal those stones aud bring them
to him ; which he did When al-Ma mun dis
covered this, he sent ;hen> to Damascus, as a
proof of his brother's misconduct. They
afterwards again vanished, and in thcii place
is a glass vessel In this mosque all tho
gates, from the dome (gallery) uuto the en-
tianc«. are open, and have no bars or locks.
Ovor each is a loose curtaiu. In like manner
there is a curtain upon all the walls at» far as
1 he-bases of the golden vin§, above which are
the enamelled knobs. The capitals of the
pillars were thickly covered with dead gild
ing. Here were also small galleries, to look
down from, enclosed on the four sidos of tne
skirting wall. Al-Walid also built tho
I northern minaret, now called ' the Bride
groom's Tower.' As to the western gallory,
that existed many ages before, in oacb
comer of this was a cell, raised upon very
lolly walls, and used by tho Greeks as an
observatory The two northern of those fell,
and ihe I wo opposite remained. In the year
740, part of the eastern had been burnt. It
then fell down, but was built up anew out of
the Christians' money, because they had me-
dilated the d-jstructiou (of it) by firo. It then
was restored after a most beautiful plan.
This is the tower (but God knows) upon
which Jesus sou of Maria will alight, for Mu
hammad »s reported to have said, ' 1 &aw
Jesus 3on of Maria come forth from near the
68
DAMASCUS
white minaret, east of the mosque, placmg
his hjinds upon the wings of two «ngel3,
firmly bound to him. Upen him was the
JUtrine glory (the Sltechina.it). He was marked
by the red tinge of baptism. This is the
mark, of original sin ' Jesus (it is also said)
shall come forth from the White Tower by
the eastern gate, ami shall enter the mosque.
Then shall the word come forth for Jesus to
fight with \miclm8t at the corner of the
city, as long a.s it shall please God. Now,
when this mosque (the slaves' mosque) was
completed, there was not to be found upon
the face of the earth a building more beau
tiful, more splendid, more graceful, than this.
Chi whatever side, or area, or place, the spec
tator looked, be still thought thatside or spot
the most preferable for beauty. In this
mosque were certain talismans, plac.ed therein
Since the time of the 0 reeks ; so that no veno
mous or stinging creature could by any means
obtain entrance into this enclosure, neither
yerpent, scorpion, beetle, nor spider. They
say, also, that neither sparrows nor pigeons
built their nests there, nor was anything to be
found there which could annoy people. Most,
or all, of those talismans were burnt by the
lire that consumed the mosque, which fire
took place in the night of Sha'-biui, A.H. 461.
Al-Walid J'reqnently prayed in the mosque.
One night (it is related) he said to his
people, * 1 wish to pray to-night in the
mosque; let no one remain there whilst I
pray therein.' So when he came unto the
gate of the Two Moments, he desired the
gate to be opened, and entering in, he saw a
man standing between the gate of the Two
Moments and the gate of St. George, praying.
Ho was rather nearer to the gate of St.
George than to the other. So the Khalifab
said anto his people, ' Did £ not charge you
that no one should remain whilst I was pray
ing- in the mosque? ' Then one of them said.
() Commander of the Faithful! this is St
Cieorge.who prays every night in the mosque/
Again, one prayer in this mosque equals
thirty thousand prayers,
'* Again- A certain man, going out of the
gate of the mosque which is near the Jairun,
met Ka'b the scribe, wlio said, 'Whither
hound?' He replied, » To the Baitu 'l-Mu-
qaddas, therein to pray/ Then said Ka'b, *J
will show you a spot wherein whosoever
prayeth shall receive tho same blessings as if
he prayed in the Baitu 'l-Muqaddas.' The
man, therefore, went with him. Then Ka'b
showed him the space between the little
gate from whence you go to Abyssinia, that
is, the space covered by the arch of the
(yate, containing about one bandied yards,
to the west and said, Whoso prayeth within
those two points chali be regarded as praying
within the Baitu 'l-Muqaddas. Now, th its spot
is said to he a spot fit to be sought by pilgrim*.
Here, it is asserted is the head of Joiin, Bon
of Zacharias (Peace be with him ,'). For al-
Walid ibn Muslim being desired to show
where John's head wavS to be found, pointed
with his hand to the plastered pillar — the
fourth from the east corner Zaid Ibn Wakad
DAMASCUS
says, * At the time it was proposed to build
the mosque of Damascus 1 saw the head of
John, son of Zachariaa, bronght forth from
underneath one of the corners ol the chapel.
The hair of the head was unchanged.' lit
says in another place, Being nominated by
*l-Walkl superintendent of the building, we
found a caye, of which discovery we informed
al-Walld H* came, therefore, unto us at
night, with a wax taper in his hand. Upon
descending we found an. elaborately carved
little shrine, three within three (j'.e. within
the first a second, within the second a third).
Within, this last was a sarcophagus, and
•within this a casket; within which was the
head of John, son of Zacharias. Over the
casket was written, •* Here is the head of John,
sou of Zacharias. Peace he with him I " By
al-Walid's command we restored the head to
the spot whence it had been taJceiu The
pillars which are above this spot are inclined
obliquely to tho others to distinguish the
place. There is also over it a pillar with a
head in plaster.' He asserts again, that
when the happy event occurred of the con
quest of Damascus, a certain person went up
the stairs -which led to the church, then
standing where tho mosque now' stands.
Here the blood of John, son of Zaoharias was
seen to flow in torrents and to boil up, nor
did the blood sink down and become still
until that seventy thousand had been slam
over him. The spot where the head was
found is now called al-Sakasak fperhaos, the
Nail of the Narrow Cave),
" In the days of 'Uxuar, the Christians re
quested that he wouJd confirm their claim to
the right of meeting in those places which al-
Walid had taken from them and converted
into mosques. They, therefore, claimed the
whole inner area as their own from 'Omar.
The latter thought it right to restore them
what al-Walid had taken from them, but
upon examination he found that the churches
without the suburbs were not comprehended
in the articles of surrender by the Compa
nions, such, for example, as the great Church
of the Monastery of Observants or Carmelites,
the Church of the Convent behind the Church
of St. Thomas, and ail the churches of the
neighbouring villages. 'Uuaar therefore gave
them the choice, either to restore them the
churches they demanded, .demolishing in that
case all the other churches, or to leave those
churches unmolested, and to receive from
them a full consent to the free use of the open
space by the Muslims. To this latter pro
posal they, after three days deliberation,
agreed; and proper writings were drawn
up on both sides. They gave the Muslims a
deed of grant, and "Uinar gave them full
security, and assurance of protection. Nothing
was to be compared to this mosque. It
is said to be one of the strongholds of
Paradise, and that no inhabitant of Damascus
would long for Paradise when.be looks upon
his beautiful mosque. Al-Ma'mun came to
Damascus, in company with his brother al-
Mu'tasim, and the Qiizi Yahya Ibn Aksam.
Whilst viewing the mosque he said, * What is
DANCING
DARU L-HARB
69
the most wondrous sight here ? ' His brother
said, ' These offerings and pledges.' Tho Qa^I
Said, 'The marble and the columns. 'Then said
al-Mu'rmm, 'The moat wondrous thing to me
ii!, whether any other could he built at all like
this.' " (Hist. Temple of Jerusalem, by Ja.lalu
'd-din, translated by Reynolds, p. 407.J
D A N C I JN G . Arabic Raqs
Dancing is generally held to be unlawful,
although it does not appear to he forbidden
in either the Qur'an or the Traditions, but
according to al Bukhara (Arabic od., p. I35jf
the Prophet expressly permitted it on the
day of the great festival. Those who hold it
to be unlawful quote the following verse from
the Qur'an, SuraJbi xvii. 39, " Walk not proudly
on the earth," as a prohibition, although it
does not seem to refer to the subject.
The Sufis make dancing a religiouH
exercise, but the Sunni Muslims consider it
unlawful. (Htddyalu 's-Sd'il. p, 107.)
DANIEL. Arabic D&niyaJ,. A
prophet celebrated amongst Muhammadans
as an interpreter of, dreams. He is not men
tioned in either the Qnr'an or the Traditions,
bat in the (fascist', 'l-Ambiya, p. 231, it is
stated that in the reign of Rufchtu Naf$ar
(Nebuchadnezzer) he vraH imprisoned ; and
when he was in prison, the king had a dream
which he had forgotten, and hearing that
Daniel was an interpreter of dreams, he- sent
for him. When Daniel was in the presence
of the King, he refused to prostrate, saying,
it was lawful to prostrate alone to the Lord
Almighty. For this he nearly lost his lift),
but was spared to interpret the king's dream,
which was as follows • " He saw a great idol,
the head of which was of gold, ahove the
oavel of silver, below the navel of copper, the
legs of iron, and the feet of clay. And Sud
denly a stone fell from heaven upon the idol.
»ind ground it to powder, and mixed all the
substances, so that the wind blew them in all
directions ; but the stone grew gradually, and
to such an extent that it covered the whole
earth." The interpretation of it, as given by
Daniel is said to be this : The idol rep resented
different nations : the gold was the kin^dou;
of Mebuciuuinaczar, the silver the kingdom
of his son, the copper I; he Romans, the iron
the Persians, and the clay the tribe Zauzan.
from which tho kings of Persia and "Rome
should be descended: the great stone beir^
a religion \viiich shcuid apread itself o>er the
whole cartb in the last day.
DAll (,U). "A house, dwelling,
habitation, land, country." A word which • i.v
used, in various combinations, e.g. :--
ad-Ddr . The abode— the city of
til-Mad mah.
ad-Duruin . The two abodes- -thla
world and the next.
Dam l-adab . A sent of learning: H
university.
Da.ru 'l-baqd' . The abode which re-
maiaeth — heaven
Ddru V /ana The abode which pusseth
away — oarth.
V-(/Aarwr . The abode of delusion --
the world.
Dnru '{-Awn . The vale of tears— the
earth.
Ddru'l-iblilff . The abode of temptation
—the world
Ddru 'l-khildfak The seat of the Imam or
Khahfah— capital
Duru 'I kulub A library.
Dart/ 't-khuUt The Lome of eternity-
Paradise,
arf- Darn Vna'ww The bleased abode— PJ
radise.
Ddf\i l-gaztV . The Qaei's court.
Ddru 'ah-shffa' A hospital.
Ddru V*ur«r The abode of joy — Para
dise.
Dtirv -z-zarl) . A mint.
Ddru 'tf-fiyd/ah A banqueting-roorn.
[DARU 'L-BAWAR, DA»U 'I-HA.HR, DARU V
ISLAM. DARU 'L-QARAH, DAJtIJ 'S SALAJt, DARU
'S-SALTANAH, DARU 'S-SAWAB.]
DARGAH (»^). A royai court
(Persian). In India it is a tenn used for a
Muhammadan ahrine or tomb of some reputed
holy person, and which is the object of pil
grimage and adoration. (Wilson's Glossary of
Indian Terms. ,)
BAE.U 'L-BAWAR (_>^ ^u).
Lit. '• The abode of perdition/* A term used
for hell in the Qur'an, Surah xiv. 33: "And
have made their people to alight at the abode
of perdition?
DARU 'L-HARB (^r-*^ ^)
"The land of warfare.* According to the
Dictionary Ck\yd*v. 'l-Lughdt. Ddru 'l-hdrb
is cc a country belonging to infidels which ha?
not been subdued by Islam." According tc
the Qdmus, it is ** a country in which peace
has not neen proclaimed between Muslims
aud unbelievers/'
In the Fo-tuwa'Alumyiri, vol. ii. p. 854, it is
written that; a Ddru,'l-harb becomes a Ddru
l-Jddm on one condition, namely, the promul
gation of the edicts of Islam. The Imam
Muhammad, in bis hook called theZiyddah,
says a Ddrv 'I- 1 slain again becomes a Daru 'I-
fiarb, according to Abu. Hanifah, on three
conditions, namely (1) That Ihe edicts of t.hc
unbelievers lie promulgated, and the edicts ol
l.slam be suppressed ; (2} That the country in
question bo adjoining a Ddru'l-harb and no
other Muslim couutry lie between .them
(that i«. when the duty of Jihad or religious
war becomes moumbent on them, and they
have not the po*er to cany it on). (3) That no
protection («//id«) remains for either a Muslim
or H zimnri: viz. that cirnc/rtu 'l-awwal, or tKa,t
lirs l protection which was given them wlienthc
country was first conquered by Islam. The
Imams Yusuf and Muhammad both say that
when the edicts of unbelievers are promul
gated in a country, it is suPUcient to consti
tute it a Ddru 'I-fiurb.
In the Raddu. 'L-Miikhtur, vol. iii. p. 391, it
is stated, u If thr edicts of Islam remain in
force, together with the edicts of the be
lievers, thon the country cannot be said to be
70
DABU L-ISLAM-
a Dnru 'l-karh? The important question as
to whether a. country in the position of Hin
dustan may l).e considered a Ddru 't- 1st am or
a Daru 7 -harb has b'een fully discussed by
Or W. W. Hunter, of the Bengal Civil .Ser
vice, in his work entitled. Indian JtJusvl/nanfi,
which is the result of careful inquiry as to
the necessary conditions of a Jihad, or a
Crescent ade instituted at ' the time of the
excitement which existed in India in
I8?0-71,iu consequence of a Wahhabi con
spiracy for the overthrow of Christian rule in
that country. The whole matter, according
lo the Sunru Wusulinans, hinges upon the
question whether India is Oarv 'l-harb. " a
land of warfare." or Daru 'I -Islam."* land
of Islam,"
The Muh.cs belonging lo the Manifi and
Shafi'i sects at Makkah decided that, " as long
as even syrae of the peculiar observances of'
Islam prevail in a country, it is Daru Y-Ys/n/w."
The decision of the Mufti yf the Mliliki seel
was very similar, being to the following effect :
" A country does not becotno Ddru '/-/<#>•//
as soon as it passes into the hands of the
infidels. but when all or tnost of the injunc
tions of Islam disappear therefrom.1'
Tno Uw doctors of North India decided
that, •' the absence of protection and liberty
to Musulmans is essential in a Jihdd, or reli
gions war, and also that there should be a
probability of victory to the armies of Isiuin."
The Shi* ah decision on the subject was as
follows: ;< A Jihad is lawful only when the
armies of Islam are led by the rightful Imain.
when arms and ammunitions of war and ex
perienced warriors are ready, when it is
aguinu the enemies of God. when ho who
makes war is in possession of his reason, and
when he has secured the permission of his
paronU, and has sufficient money to meet the
expenses of his journey."
Tb« Sunnis and ShT'ahs alike believe in
the eventual triumph of Islam, when the
whole world shall become followers of the
Prophet of Arabia : but whilst the Surmis
are. of course, ready to xindertako thf.
accomplish tne*it of (Jus g-reat end. '• whenever
I here is a probability of victory to the Mu-
sulmatis," the Shi'ahs, true to the one great
principle of their sect, must wait until the
appearance ot a righiiul Imam.
DARU 'Ci-ISLAM (VJu— .iW fa.
" Land of Islam." According lo the tiurJdu Y-
Mukhfdr, vol. iiji-r.p. 391. it is a conntry
in which Vhe edaeU of Islam arc fully pro
mulgated.
In a state brought under Muslims, all those
who do riot embrace the failh are placed
under. certain disabilities. They r,an worship
Qo<j according to their own customs. j/n>#/f//?rf
they are not idolater* ; bxit it musf be done
without any ostentation, and. whilst -cliuTiches
and synagogues may be repaired.vo new place
of worship can be erected "' The construction
of churches., or synagogues, m Muslim \frri~
tory i« unlawful, this being forbidden in the
Traditions ; but if places of worship bclqng-
ing to Jews, or Christian^ be d«sti-oyeil. w
DAUGHTFBS
fall into decay, they are at liberty to repair
them, because buildings oannot endure for
ever."'
Idol temples must be destroyed, and
idolatry suppressed by force in all countries
ruled according, to Strict Muslim law. . (/7«-
dayati, vol. ii p. 219.)
For furlher particulars, see article IXARU
'L-IIARB.
DARU 'I.-QARAR
" TJie abode that abideth." Au oxpression
which occurs in the Qur'an. Surah xl. 42: "0
my people I this present life i& only a passing
joy, bul the life to come is ike mansion that
DARU 'S-SALAM
*' The abode of pence," An expression which
occurs in the Qnr'Sn, Surah vi. 127: '-For
them is a. dvwltiny of peace with their Lord I
and in recompense for tVteir works, shall IJe
be their proloclcv."
DARU 'S-SALTANAH
" The seat of government." A term given to
the capital of a province, or a Muslim state
DARU S-SAWAB (^ytt ;U).
" The house of recompense" A name given
to the Jannatu ''A.dn. or Garden of Eden, by.
the commentator al-Baizawi.
DARVESH, DARWfSH Cu^)-
A Persian word for a religious mendicant. A
dervesh. It is derived from the word dni\
••a door": Hi v>ne who goes Jrom door to
door. Amongst religious Muhanimadans. the
darvesb is called a Ja^ir, which i^ (he word
generally used for religJoas mendicant orders
in Arabic books. The subject is, theiofoi'e,
considered in tho article, on J:AQIIJ.
DACGHT.I2U8. Arabic
pi. Banat; Heb. Bath (j^). In
the law of inheritance, the position of a
daughter is socured by a verse in the Qur'an,
Surah "iv. 12 : - With regard to your children.
God has commanded you to give the sons the
portion of two daughters, and if there be
daughters, more than two, then Ihey shall
have two-thirds of that which their father
hath left, but if she be an only daughter she
shall have fchettaif."
The 'Siriyiffuh explains t'ho above as
follows:—
" Daughters begotten by the deceased take
in three eases: half goes to one only, and two-
thirds to two or more: and. if there be a
sou. the male has the share of two females,
and he makes them i esiduaries. Tho son's
tUrnghtcrs are like the daughters begotten
by the deceased : and they may be in six
cases: half goes to one only, and two-thirds
to two or moi-e, on failure of daughters be
gotten by the deceased ; with a single daugh
ter of the deceased, they have a sixth, com
plcting (with the daughter's half) two- thirds :
but, with two daughters of the deceased, they
have uo share of the inheritance. unle& there
be. in an equal degree with, or in a lower
DAVID
71
degree than them, a boy. who makes them
residixaries. As t«> 1lie remainder between
them, the male has the portion of iwo
females; and all of v'tho sons daughters nrr;
excluded by the son himself,
" If » man l«?av«« three son's daughters,
some of th«m in lower degrees than others,
nnd three daughters of the son of another
son, some of them in lower degree than others,
and three daughters of the son's son of
another son. some of thorn in tower degrees
than others, as in the following table, this is
called the case of
Third set.
Son.
Son
Son
First set. Second set.
Son. Bon.
Son, daughter Sou.
Son. daughter. Son, daughter
Son.. daughter. Son, daughter Son. daughter.
Sou, daughter Son, daughter.
Son, daughter.
"Here the eldest of the first line has none
eqnal in degree frith her • the middle one of
the first line ia equalled in degree by the
eldest of the second, and the youngest- of the
first line is equalled by the middle one of
the second, and by the eldest of the tliiid line;
the youngest of the second line is equalled
by the middle one of the third lino, and the
youngest of the third sot has no equal in
degree. When thou hast comprehended this,
then we say: the eldest of the first line !:HS a
moiety; the middle one af the first I'm- ban
a sixth, together with her equal in degree, to
make up two-thirds ; and those in lower
degrees never take anything*, unless there be
a son with them, who makes them resirhia-
rios, both her who is equal to him in degree.
and her who is above him, but who is not
entitled to a fhare; tho^c belo\v him are ex
cluded." (Ramsay's ed. As-StruJu/a//.)
The age of puberty, or majority, of a
daughter is established by Hie usual si-rns 01
womanhood ; but in the absence of these signs.
according to Abu Hanifah. she is not of age
until she is eighteen. But the two I'm a in 5,
Muhnmmad and yfisuf. fix the age ar fifteen.
and with this opinion the 'main *«h-SljatiM
agrees.
With regunJ tj d daughter's freedom in ?;
niarmge contrarl. Shaikh -Abdu l-Har^. m
his commentary on the Traditions (vol. iii,
p. tO-1)), says, "All the learned doctor are
ngrerd thar ji virgin daughter, until she has
arrived at the age of puberty, is entirely a!
the disposal of her father or lawful guardian,
but that in theeveni of a woman having been
left H wjdow ufior she has attained I he age
of pubertv, she 19 entirely at liberty 'o marry
whom she Jikes " There »s, however, h* says
fioaio difference of opiaion ast Lc I he free
dom of a girl who has not been married and
has am' oet I at tin- aye of puberty. Abu
Hnnitiili mles that she is entirely froe t'rom
the control of her guardian with regard t-o her
marriage. but ash-Shati'f rules otherwise.
Again, as regards a widow who is not of
as?e. Abu Hanifah says she cannot marry
Mithout her guardian's permission but ash-
Shafi'i says she is fr«e
{ According to tlio teaching of the Prophet
" a virgin d^uptter gives h»r consent TO ma
riago by *i fence .'' He alio taught • that a
womart'ripe in years shall have her consent
yaked. and if f,Ue remain silent her silence is
consent, bin if she do not consent, she .shall
not be forced." But ibis tradition is also to
be compared with another, in which he said,
'•There i* no marringo without ihc permission
of the guardians.'' (Mifhkat. xiii. c. iv. pt. 2 )
Honce the difTerence between the learned
doctors on this subject.
The author of the AMHt/-j-JatiiJt says it IH
not advisable to teach girls to read and write
and this us the general feeling amongst'
Miibammadans in all pam of the world,
although it is considered right to enable
them to recite IhoQur'un and the liturgical
prayers.
The father or guardian is to be blamed who
does not marry his daughter at an eaily age.
for Muhammad is related to have said " It
is written In the Beok of Moses, that who
soever does not marry his daughter when Hh0
I hath reached the age of twelve years is re
sponsible for any sin she may commit."
The ancient Arabs utfed to call the nngnh
tliP:M«lAUghturs of Ood." ;ind objected ttron^ly
ns the Badawis do in the present day. to
female otTspring, and they used lo/bnry their
infant daughters a livu. Theae pr^cvkws Mu-
hammad reprobates in the QUI-'HQ. Surah xvi.
59: ** And they ascribe daughters unlo H0d !
Glory be to Him! But they desiro Ihem nol
for themselves. For when the birth of a
daughter i* auuouneecj to any one of them
dark shadows setili- on his fac.'e.and he is sad;
ho hidolh him from the people bccaueo of
the ill tidings. Shall be keep it with disgrace,
or burv it in the dust ? Aro nol their judg
ments wrong ? ''
Mr. HoUw^ll remariia on this verse : "1 hua
Kat)binistn teaches that to be a woman is a
groHl degradation. The Tnodern Jow says in
biH Daily l^-ttyers. 'fol. .r,. <;,'-v13iessedai-tlhou,
(> Lord our O<jd ? King of tbn Univei^ ! wlio
hath not made unr- a \\uujan"
DUMAtl (**,*}. A lorrifitfd town
held by theChrist-irtii d.iof Ukaidar, who was
defeated l»y the Muslim general Klmlid. and
by him converted to Muhftmmadamsm, A.M. 9
I'.nl the mercenary character of TJkaidar's
conversion led him to revolt afti r Muham
mad's death XMuir's Life of Muhm/tet. vol
iv. p. 191.)
DA V I D . Arabic Dawvd, or
Duuuil. A king of Israel and a 1'i-ophet
to whom God revealed the Zabifr, or Book
of Psalms. [ZABUH.] Ho bn& no special
title or Ifalimnfi, as all Muslims are agreed
that he was not a law-giver or the founder
of a dispensation. The account of him in
the Qur'an is exceedingly meagre. It is
given ns follows, with the commentator'-
remarks tra«slal«»d in italic* by Mr. Lane : —
'• An<l God gave him (DttvtJ) the kingship
over tin r/if/c/rcfi of [fratt, aud wisdom, after
the death of Samuel and Sau/, and they
72 DAVID
[namely these two gifts] had not been given
together to any one before him ; and He taught,
him what He pleased, as the art of making
coats of mail, and the language of birds And
•were it not for God's repelling men, one by
another, surely the earth had becom* corrupt j
by the predominance of the pofytfai*t* and the
slaughter of the Muslims "W ike ruin of the
places of worship: but God is beneucent to
the peoples, and hath repelled some by others*
(Surah ii. 227.)
" Hath the story of the two opposing parties
come onto thee, when they ascended over the
walls of the orutory of David^ having been pre
vented going in unto him by the door, because of
his being engaged in devotion? . When they
went in unto David, and he wag frigM*ned at
them, they euid. Fear not: we are two oppos
ing parties, .ft is said that they were two
parties of more than one each \ and it is said
that they- were two individuals, c/tiyela, ivho
varne as ttao litigants, to admoniah DavirL ivho
had ninety -nine vrives, and had desired the wife
of a person why had none but her, and 'married
her and taken her as his wife. [One of them
said.J One of us hath wronged the other ;
therefore judge between us with arufch, and
be not unjust, but direct? us into the righ*--
way. Vorily this my brother in religion liar
nine -and -ninety ewes, and I had owe ewe ; anc
he said, Make me her keeper. And he over
came me in the dispute. — And the other con
fessed him to have spoken truth. — [David]
said, Verily he hath wronged thee in demand
ing thy ewe to add her to his. ewes ; and verily
many associates wrong one another except
those who believe and do righteous deeds :
and few indeed are they.— -And Lhe two angel&
said, ascending in their [proper or assumed]
forms to heaven* The man hath passed sentence
aycinst himself. So David was admonished.
And David perceived that We had tried him
by his tn»e of that woman ; wherefore he asked \
pardon of his Lord, and fell down bowing
himself (or prostrating himself}, and repented.
So We forgave him that ; and verily for him
[was ord tuned] a high rank with Us (that is.
an increase of good fortune in this world), and
[there shall be for him]) an excellent retreat i
in the >w>rld to come." (Surah xxxviii. 20-^24.)
" We compelled the 7nounUin,s to glorify
Us, with David, and the birds also, on his com
manding them to do so, when he experienced
languor ; and We did this. And We taught
birn the art, of making coats of mail (for
before his time plates of metal were used) for
you oniony mankind in general, that they
might defend you from your suffering in
warring with your enerrri.es. — Will ye then,
0 people of Mecca, be thankful for Afy
favours, believing the apostles r" ''Surah xxi.
79, 80.}
Sale observes that Yahyathe commentator,
most rationally understands hereby the divine
revelations which David received from God,
and not the art of making coats of mail,—
The fause of his applying himself to this. art
is thus related in the Miriiiu 'z-Zaman :— He
used to go forth in disguise : and when he
found any people who knew him not. he ap
DA'WAH
preached them and aaked them respecting
the conduct of David, and they praised him
and prayed for him ; but one day, as he was
asking questions respecting tiiniseif as usual,
God sent to him an angel in th« form of a
human being, who said. " An excellent man
were David if he did aot take from th*- public
treasury." Whereupon the heart of Oavid
was contracts, and he begged ot God to
render him independent : so He made iron soft
to him, and it became in hia bands as thread :
and he used to sell a coat of mail for fou»
thousand [pieces of rnoney — whether gold o»
silver is not said], and with part of this he
obtained food for himself, and pail he gave in
alms, .and with part he fed his family- Hen^e
an excellent coat of mail fs often (failed by
the Arabs " Dawudi." i.e. " Davidean." (See
Lane's translation of Th* Thousand and One
Nights, chap. yiii. note 5.)
David, it is said, divided his time regularly,
setting apart one day for the service of God,
another day for rendering justice to his
people, another day for preaching to them,
and another day for his own affairs.
.DA'WA (^^). A claim in a law
suit. A claim or demand. (See Hamilton's
Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 63.)
DA< WAH (V*>). Lit. " A call, in-
vocation (i.e. of God's help)." A term used to
express a system of incantation which >s held
to be lawful by orthodox Muhamma.dans ;
wnilst sihr, " magic," and Kahdnah. •* fortune -
celling," are said to be unlawful, the Pro
phet baviug forbidden both.
From the Muslim books Jt appears chat
Muhammad is believed to nave sanctioned the
use of spells and incan^tionK. so iong as the
words n.sed were only those of the names ot
God, or of the good angels, and of the good
genii ; although the more strict amongst
them (the Wahhabis, for example,) would say
that only an invocation of God Himself was
lawful — teaching which appears to be more
in accordance with that of Muhammad, who
is related to have said. " There is nothing
wrong in using spells so long as you do not
associate anything with God." (Mishlciit. xxi.
c. i.) It is therefore clearly lawful to use
charms and amulets on which tne name of
God only is inscribed, and to invoke the help
of God by any ceremony, provided no one is
associated with Him.
The science of da^wah has, rum.-**-:, ^een
very much elaborated, and in many respects
its teachers seem to have departed from the
original teaching of their Prophet on the sub
ject.
In India, the moat popular work on da'wak
is the Jawdhint 't-Khamsah, by Shaikh Abu
U-Muwayyid of Gujerat. A.n. 9o6, in which he
says the science is used for the following
purposes. (1) To establish friendship or
enmity between two persons. (2) To cause
the cure, or the sickness and death, of a per
son. (3) To secure the accomplishment of
one's wishes, both temporal and spiritual,
(4) To obtain defeat or victory in battle.
T)A'WAH
Thin book is largely made up of Hindu
customs which, in India, have become part of
Muhamuiadanism ; but we shall endeavour
to confine ourselves to a consideration of
those sections -which exhibit the so-called
science as it exists in its relation to Islam.
In order to explain this occult science, we
shall consider it under the following divisions:
1. The qualifications necessary for the 'JwiY,
or the person who practices it.
2. The tablos required by the teacher, and
their uses.
3. An explanation of the terms nifdbtxakat,'*
ushr. qtifl, daur, bazl, khatm, and sari'u Y-
ijdoa/i, and their uses.
4. The methoda employed for commanding
the presence of the genii.
I. When anyone enters upon the study of the
science, he must begin by paying the utmost
attention to cleanliness. No dog, or cat, or
any stranger, is allowed to enter his dwelling-
place, and he must purify his house by burn
ing wood-aloes, pastiles, and other sweet-
scented perfnmes. He must take the utmost
care th.it his body is in no way defiled, and he
nnist bathe and perform the legal ablutions
constantly. A most important preparation
for the exercise of the art is a forty-days' fast
(chillu}, when he must sleep on a mat spread
on the ground, sleep as little as possible, and
not enter into general conversation. Exor
cists not unfrequently repair to some cave or
retired spot in order to undergo complete
abstinence.
The diet of the exorcist must depend upon
DA'WAH
73
the kind of asma, or names of God he intends
to recite. If they are the asmau 'l-jaidliyak,
or " terrible attributes " of the Almighty, then
he must refrain froui.tlie use of meat, fish,
egg^ honey, and musk. If they are the
uxma'u 'l-JamUfyakt or " amiaile attributes,
he must abstain from butter, curds, vinegar,
salt, and ambergrise. If he intends to recite
both attributes, ho must then abstain from
such things as garlic, onions, and assafoetida.
It is also of the utmost importance that the
exorcist should eat things which are lawful,
always speak the truth, and not cherish a
proud or haughty spirit. He should be care
ful not to make a display of his powers before
the world, but treasure up in his bosom the
knowledge of his acquirements. It is con
sidered very dangerous to his own life for a
novice to practice the science of exorcism.
II. Previous to reciting any of the names
or attributes of God for the establishment of
friendship or enmity in behalf of any person,
it is necessary to ascertain the initials of his
or her name in the Arabic alphabet, which
letters are considered by exorcists to be con
nected with the twelve signs of the zodiac,
the seven planets, and tho four elements.
The following tables, which are taken from the
Javjdhiru 'l-Khamsah, occur, in a similar form,
in all books on exorcism, give the above com
binations, together with the nature of the per
fume to bo burnt, and the names of the presid
ing genius and guardian angel. These tables
may be considered the key to the whole
science of exorcism.
Letters of the Alphabet arranged
according to the Abjad [ABJAD],
with their respective number.
1 1
2 V
3 e
4 o
5 4
The J^peoial Attributes or Names
of God.
dU1
Allah.
&
J3d</i.
£+
./ami'.
0^
Dayydn.
gil*
Hadi.
The Number 01 the Attribute.
66
113
114
65
20
Tiie Meaning 01 the Attiibute.
God.
Eternal.
Assembler.
Reckoner.
Guide.
The Glass of the Attribute.
Terrible
Amiable.
Terrible &
Amiable
combined.
Terrible.
Amiable.
The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of
the Letter.
Friendship.
Love.
Love.
Enmity
Enmity.
The Elements. (Arba'ah <And?ir.)
Fire,
Air.
Water. Earth.
Fire.
The Perfume of the Letter.
Black Aloes
Sugar.
Cinnamon.
Red Sandal.
White
Sandal.
The Signs of the Zodiac.
(#*.«/.)
Hamai.
Ram.
Junta'
Twins.
Saratan.
Crab.
Saur.
Bull.
If omul.
Ram.
The Planets.
i Kuwakib.)
Znhal.
Saturn.
Mtishtari
Jupiter.
Mirrikh.
Mars.
Shunt*.
Sun.
Zuhrah.
Venus.
The Genii- (Jmn.)
Qayupush.j Danush.
. Nulush.
Twayush.
Hush.
The Guardian Angels. (M ' uvntklrit.}'
Israfil.
JibriU
KalkaU
Dard-tU
Durball.
10
74
DA'WAH
Letters of the Alphabet arranged
according to the Abjod [AB.TU/],
•with theii' respective number
6 )
7 3
» t
l
9 1
\
10 ^
The Special Attributes or Names
of God. .
Jj
Wall
k
c^
JJaqq.
^
TaKir.
U--v>
YrtStH.
The Number of the Attribute.
46
87
108
215
130
The Meaning of the Attribute.
Friend.
Purifier.
Truth.
Holy.
Chief.
The Class of the Attribute
Amiable
Combined.
^ornbiut'fl.
Terrible.
Amiable.
The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of
the Letter.
Love.
Love.
Hatred.
Desire.
Attraction.
The Elements.
(Arbalah <And$ir.)
Air.
Water.
Earth.
Fire.
Air.
The Perfume of the Letter.
Camphor.
Honey.
Saffron.
Musk.
Roso
Leaves
The Signs of the Zodiac.
(Buruj:)
Jaueff.
Twins.
Sarafan.
Crab.
Jady.
Goat.
HamuL
Ram.
Mlzan.
Scales.
The Planets.
(Kctwdkib )
1 Uif'md.
Mercury.
Qfiinar.
Moon.
Zuhal.
Saturn-
Mmhtari.
Jiipiter.
Jf/rngg.
Mars.
The Genii. (Jinn.)
Puyiish.
Kapixsh.
'Ayush.
Badyush.
Shahbiish.
The Guardian Angel.
(Muwakkil.}
Raftmall.
Sharka'il.
Tankafil.
Tshma'Tl.
Saraklka'il.
Letter? of the Alphabet arranged
according to the Abjad [ABJAD].
with their respective number
20 csJ
30 j
40 p
.-.o o
«0 y,,
The Special Attributes or Names
of God.
Jtf
Ka.fl.
ugj
Lunf.
ClXU
Malik.
.4
**+..
Sawi*.
The Number of the Attribute.
Ill
129
00
286
180
The Meaning of the Attribute.
Sufficient
Bpiiignant.
King.
Light
Hoarer.
The Class of the Attribute.
Amiable.
Amiable.
Terrible.
Amiable..
Combined.
The Quality, "Vice, or Virtue of
the Letter.
Love.
Separation.
Love.
Hatred.
Desire.
The Elements,
("Arba'uh Mna.vz'r.)
Water.
Earth.
Fire.
Air.
Water.
The Perfume of the Letter.
White rose
leaves.
Apples.
Quince.
Hyacii th
afferent
kind R of
Scents.
The Signs of the Zodiac
(Burui.^
*Aqrab.
Scorpion,
Sour,
JBull.
Asad
I Aon.
.Mlzan.
Scales.
Qays.
Arche«'.
The Planets.
('K(t,ii'(ikib.)
Shams.
Sun.
JZtifirtiti.
Venus.
• (Stand.
Mercury.
i.jflwa.r.
Moon.
Zvfr/l.
Saturn.
The Genii. (Jinn.}
Kadyush.
•Adyush
Majbush.
DamalyuRh
Fa' y"' sh.
The Guardian Angels.
( Mutuakkil *
Kharura'il.
Tata'il.
Buya'ii.
1 Hula'il.
Ham-
wakt!
JU'WAH
75
Letters of the Alphabet ursngfltl
according to the Abftul [ABJAD],
with their respective number.
70 £
80 ^
00 ^
100 j
200 }
The Special Attribute* or N«mc*
of God.
>
All
cU*
PattaA
«M^
Samvrf
Mill
Qfdir.
Rath.
The Number of the Attribute
110
489
134
305
202
The Meaning of iho Attribute.
Exalted.
Opener.
Epta-
blinbod.
Powerful.
Lord.
The Class of the Attribute.
Terrible.
Amiable.
Terii ble.
Combined.
Terrible.
The Quality, Vie-, ov Virtue of
the Letter.
Kiches
Enmity.
intimacy
Desire.
Friend
ship.
The Elements.
(Arbakah 'Anusir )
Earth,
Fim
Air.
Water.
Earth
The Perfume of the Letter
White
Pepper
Walnut
Nutmeg.
Orange.
RosewHler.
The Signs of the Zodiar.
( Bur il j.)
Sutnbulah.
Virgin.
,1.>W
Lion
Mizdrt.
Scales.
Hut
Fish.
tiumbhlah
Virgin.
The Planets.
(Kawdkib.)
Mugtnari.
Jupiter.
MirM.
Mars.
Stem*
Sun,
Zvhrah.
Von us
' Utorid.
Mercury.
The Genii.
(Jinn.)
Kashpiisli.
talyiish.
Kulapiish.
Sbamyush
Rahush.
The Guardian Angels.
(Mnwalckil)
Luma'il
Surhma'il.
Ahjmail
Itra'il
Auiwakil
Letters of the. Alphabet arranged
according to the Abjud [ABJAD],
•with their respective number
300 Jh
4(X) '^-j
500 »i,
000 t
The Special Attributes or Names
of God.
&*•
S/iafi-
*+\f
tfzwwah.
i»^y
$dbit.
^\*-
Khaliq.
The Number of the Attribute.
460
40!)
903
731
Tbe Moaning of the Attribute.
Accepter,
Forgiver.
Stable.
Creator.
The Class of Lh? Attribute.
Amiable,
Amiable.
Terrible
Combined.
The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of
! the Letter.'
Enmity.
Sleepless
ness.
Hatred.
Love.
1 The Elements.
{Arb*ah •Aiiatir.)
Fire.
Air.
Water
Eaith
The Pcriucne of the Letter.
White Aloes.
Amber.
White Aloes
Violet.
The Signs of the Zodiac.
( Buritj.)
' A grab.
Scorpion.
Dalw.
Watering Pot.
Hui
Fish.
./tuly
Goal.
The Planets.
(Katuiikib.)
Qftmar.
Moon.
ZuhaL
Saturn
Mvshtari
Jupiter.
MirriM.
Mars.
The Genii. (Jinn.)
Tiibhyush.
Latyush.
Twahyush
Dalayuah.
The GuarJiutj Angels.
(JtftflMttA)
Amra'iL
!
Azrall.
Mfka'il.
MabkaU
76
DA'WAH
Letters of the Alphabet arranged
acco rding to the Abjad [ABJAD],
with their respective number.
700 j
800 ^6
900 t
1000 ^
The Special Attributes or Names
of God.
w*
Zakir.
Zarr.
^
rs -i •
yptt/wr.
(Mafiir.
,The Number of the Attribute.
921
1001
1106
1285
The Meaning of the Attribute.
Retueiuberer
Punisher.
Evident.
Great
Forgiver.
The Class of the Attribute.
Combined.
Terrible.
Terrible.
Amiable.
The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of
the Letter.
Hatred.
Hatred.
Enmity.
Conva
lescence.
The Elements.
(Arba'cth 'Andfir.')
Fire.
Air.
Water.
Earth.
The Perfume of the Letter.
Sweet
Basil.
Laburnam.
Jasmine.
Cloves.
The Signs of the Zodiac.
(Burij.)
Qfau.
Archer.
2)alw.
Watering
Pot.
ffit.
Pish.
Hut.
Fish.
The Planets.
(Kaicakib.)
Shams.
Sun.
Zuhrah.
Venus.
lUtarid.
Mercury.
Qmiar.
Moon.
The Genii.
(Jinn.)
Twakapush.
Ghayush,
Ghafuoush.
'Arkupush.
The Guardian Angel.
(MuwakkiL)
Harfcall.
Ata'iL
Nura'IL
Nukha'fl,
The sex of the signs of the Zodiac (buruf) has been determined as in the following table.
Between males and females exists friendship;, between males and hermaphrodites sometimes
friendship sometimes enmity; between females and hermaphrodites the most inveterate
enmity :— -
FEMALES. HEBMAPHfcODTTES.
. Burj-i-Savr. Twins .
. Burj-i-Afizdn. Virgin
, Burj-i-Saratcin. Goats .
Watering
Pot .
MALES.
Ram
. Bwrj-i-Hamal.
Bull .
Lion.
. Burj-i-A&ad.
Scales .
Scorpion
. Burj-i-'Aqrab.
Crab .
Fish .
Archer
. Burj-i-Hut.
. Burj-i-Qaus.
Burj-i- Sumbulah .
Bwj'i-Jady.
Bwrj-i-Dalu).
Astrologists have determined the relative dispositions of the planets (kawaklb) to be as
follows :— V '
Venus
and
Satui-n.
Venus
and
Moon.
Jupiter
and
Venus.
Jupiter
and
Sun.
Sun
and
Moon.
Jupiter
and
Moon.
Sun
and
Veuus.
> Friendship.
Moon
and
Vlcrcury.
Saturn
and
Mercury,
Jup'iter
and
Mercury.
Mars
and
Mercury.
Venus
and
Mercury.
Mars
and
Venus.
Sun
and
Mercury.
\ Mixed Friendship and
> Enmity or Indiffer-
) enee.
Satuni
and
Sun.
Saturn
and
Moon.
Mars
and
Moon.
Mar?
and
Sun.
Saturn
and
gun.
•
Jupiter
and
Mars.
Jupiter
and
Saturn.
C Enmity.
DA'WAH
The four elements (arba'ah 'anusir) stand in relation to each other as follows :—
77
Water and Water.
Fire and Firo.
£art.h and Earth.
Air and Air.
V Friendship.
Fire and Air.
Air and Water.
) Mixed Friendship and
) or Indifference.
Enmity
Fire and Water.
Fire and Earth.
Earth and Water.
I Enmity
As an illustration of the use of these tables,
two persons, Akram and Rahimah, conteiu-
plato a matrimonial alliance, and wish to
know if it will bo a happy union or other
wise
The exorcist must first ascertain if the
elements (iwlaftth 'andsir). the BIJTOS of the
zodiac (buruj '), Jtnd the planets (Icfiwakib) , are
amicably or inimitably disposed to each other
in the cases of these two individuals, and also
if there is a combination expressed in the ism
or name of God connected with their initial
letters.
In the present instance the initial letter of
Akram is alif, and that of Rahimah, rd, and
a reference to the foregoing tables will pro
duce the following results : —
Akram. Rahimah.
Initial letter.
Alif V.
Raj
The quality of
the letter.
Friendship
Friendship.
The element.
Fire.
Earth.
The attribute.
Allah
Rabb.
Tho quality of
the attribute.
Terrible.
Terrible.
The planet.
Saturu
Mercury.
The sign of the
zodiac.
The ram.
The virgin.
The perfume.
Black aloes.
Rose water.
The genius.
Qayupush.
Rahush.
The angel.
Israfil.
Amwakil
In considering this case, the exorcist will
observe that there is a combination in the
attributes of God, both belonging to the asmtfu
'Ljaldliya/i, or terrible attributes- There is also
a combination in the quality of the letters,
both implying friendship. Their respective
planets, Saturn and Mercury, show a combi
nation of either mixed friendship and enmity,
or, perhaps, indifference. The sign of the
zodiac, the ram being a male, and that of the
virgin a hermaphrodite, show a possible alter
nation of friendship and enmity between the
parties. Tho elements, fire and earth, being
opposed, imply enmity. It therefore appear*
that there will be nothing agfcinfitthesetwoper-
Sona, Akram and Rahimah forming a matrimo
nial alliance, and that they may reasonably ex
pect as much happiness from their union as
usually falU to the lot of the Human race.
Should the good offices of the exorcist be re
quested, he will, by incantation, according1 to
the table given, appeal to the Almighty a.s
Allah and Rabb, '•all in the aid o( the ^.snii
Qayupush and Rahuah, and of the guardian
angels, Israfil and Amwakil. The perfume* he
will burn in his numerous rocit».ls will be black
aloes a.nd roso-water, and so bring about a
speedy increase in the happiness of the per
sons of Akram and Rahimah !
III. As we have ;'lr«ady explained, the in
cantations used by exoroists consist in tho
recital of either the names or attributes of
God, or of certain formulae which are given ir
books on the subject. In tho Jauiahiru '/-
KkamsaJif there were many forms of incanta
tion, but wo select the following one to illus
trate the subject : —
Sutbhtinaku / Id ildha illd onto, ! fiabba-
atin ! wa wdri&ahu, ! wa rdziqaJiu ! ioa
rdfamahu !
Glory be to Thee ! There is no deity but
Thee! Tho Lord of All I and the Inheritor
thereof I and the Provider therefor ! and the
Merciful thereon 1
This incantation consists of forty-four
letters, exclusive of vowel points, as is shown
by tho following table : —
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
H
15
16
17
18
u*
Sin
60
Ba
2
Ha
8
AW
1
Nun
50
Kaf
20
Lam
30
Alif
1
Alif
1
Lain
30
Ha
5
Alif
1
Lara
30
Lam
30
Alif
I
Alif
1
Nun
50
Ta
400
78
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
'26
27
28
29
30
31
32
38
34-
35
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
DA* W All
Itt
200
Ba
2
Ba
2
Kaf
20
La in
30
Lain
30
Shin
300
Ya
10
"H am x ul i
1
Wan
6
Wau
r>
Alif
i
Ea
200
Sa
500
Ha
5
Wau
6
Ra
200
Alif
1
Za
7
Qil
LOO
Ha
5
Wau
6
Ea
200
Alif
1
Ha
8
Mim
40
Ha
5
2613
In reciting such an invocation, units are
reckoned as hundreds, ten s as thousaad-s, hun
dreds as tens of thousands, and thousands as
hundreds of thousands.
• In the above formula —
Its ni?db, or fixed estate, is tho
number of letters (i.e. 46) put
into thousands = . . . 4,500
Its zakdtf or alms, in tho half ol
the nifdb added to itself,
4,500 and 2,250= C,75.t>
Its 'Mft-A?-, or tithes, is half of the
above half added to the nfikai^
6,750 and 1,125= 7,875
Cts qitfl, or lock, is hall of 1,125- 568
I ts daur, or circle, is obtained by
adding to its qufl the sum of
the 'ushr and theii doubling
r he. total :—
6G3
7,875
8,438
8,438
Its bitzit or gtft, io the h*ed
number ,
In khatm, oi seal, is the fixed
number • •
It a sari'u 'l-ijdbak, or speedy
answer, is the fixed number
Total
16,87(5
7,000
1,200
12,000
DA'WAB
After the exorcist has recited tho formula
tho above number of times, he should, in
order to make a reply more certam, treble
the ni$db, making it 135,000, and then add
2,613, the value of the combined number of
letters, making n total of 187,613 recitals.
Tho number of these recitals should be divided
as nearly as possible in equal parts for each
day's reading, provided it be completed within
forty days. By a rehearsal of these, says our
author, the mind of the exorcist becomes com
pletely transported, and, whether ustaep or
awake, he finds himself accompanied by
spirits and genii (jinn) to the highest heavens
«nd the lowest depths of earth. These spirits
then reveal to him hidden mysteries, and
render souls and spirits obedient to the will
of the exorcist.
IV. If the exorcist wish to command the,
presence of genii in behalf of a certain person,
it is generally supposed to be effected in tho
folio win* manner. He must, first of ail, shut
himself up in a room and fast for forty days,
lie should besmear the chamber with reicf
ochre, and, having purified himself, should sil
on a small carpet, and proceed to call the
genius or demon. He must, however, firsl
Knd out what special genii are required to
effect his purpose. If, for example, he is
about to call in the aid of these spirits in be
half of a person named Bahrain («tU$>) he will
find out, first, the special genii presiding over
the name, the letters of -which are, omitting
the vowel points, B H R A M Upon refer
ence to the table it will be seen tbat they are
Danush, Hush, Rahush. Qayupiish, and Maj-
bush. He must then ilud out what are the
special names of God indicated by these
letters, which we Una in the fcabloarea/-/>Y«jf/,
" the Eternal," al-Had~i, - the Guide," ar-lfabb
"the Lord," Allah, "God," al-Maltt, " the
King," He must then ascertain the power of
the letters, indicating the number of times for
the recital, which will be thus j—
B, 2 equal to 200
H. 5 „ 500
R, 200 „ 20,000
A. 1 100
M, 40 ., 4,000
Total
* 1.800
The exorcist should then, in order to call
in Ute help oi the genii, recite the following
formula, not fewer than 24,800 times: —
YS Dannshu! for the sake of the Eternal
One!
Ya Hiishu ! for the sake of the Guide 1
Ya Rahushu! for the sake of the Lord !
Va Qayupushu 1 for the sake of Allah !
Ya Majbusbu ! for the sake of the King I
The exorcist will perform this recital with
his face turned towards the house of the
object he wishes to Affect, and bum the per
fumes indicated according to the tatle for th
letters of Bauram'u name.
There are very many other methods of
performine this exorcism, but the foregoing
will sn/lice is A specimen of tho kind of set
( MAG re. J
DAY
DAY. The Muhammadan day
commences at<«vin-*ot; our Thursday oven-
ing, for example- be''i\x tho beginning of the
Muslim Friday. The Arabic Ywtm denotes
th;< day of twenty-jY.nr hours, and X<r/<«/\ tho
day in coMtvmli-itiuc-tiori to the night (fail).
The day-- i f tho week aro as follows : —
Y'futnu 'I tiluifl. liri-.t -d;iy. >iun!:iy.
YcNUitU 'l-isnttin. secoili; ilay. M":;il'i\.
Yt/t/wu '..-.saA/.syF, third day, Tue>ri;iy.
Yuumit 7- nrha\ fourth day, Wednesday.
Yavrnu V-A'Art/w/x, Thursday.
Yuuinu 'l-j ini-uh. Day ->f Assembly, Friday.
\<tumu 's-sabt, Sabbath -day, Saturday.
Of tin- days of the week, Monday, Wednes
day, Thursday, and KrMay, are estceuied
good nnd -luspi'-i. us : the others evil.
(Qaniin-i-/y,/di/i, p. 40;-5.) Friday is the spe
cial day appointed by Muhammad for meet
ing in the chief mosque for public worship.
[FEIDAY.'J
DAY OF JUDGMENT. |
KFCTION.1
PEATH. Arabic Maut; Wa/Oi.
It is distinctly taught 1-1 the Qur'iui that
tho horn- of -loath is fixed for every living
creature.
Surah xvi. 03 : "If God were to punish men
for their wrong-doing, Hu \vould not leave on
the earth n singlo living creature ; but He
respites thorn until a stated time : and when
their time comes they cannot delay it an
hour, nor ran they hasten it."
•Surah iii. 182: '-Every poul must taste
death, and ye shall ouiy be paid your hire on
the day of resurrection."
Surah L 17 : " The agony of death shall
oomc in truth, that is what thon didst shun."
In the Traditions, Muhammad has taught
that it is sinful to wish for cleat, 11 : - Wish not
for death, not even if thoxi art a doer of good
works, for poradventure thou mayest increase
them with an increase of life. N'or even if
thon art a pinner1, for with increase of life
thou inayest obtain God's pardon."
One day the Prophet said: ""Whosoever
loves to meet God, God will love to mo>.'t him.
and whoever dislikes to meet God. God ^"U
dislike to meet him." Then ^Ayishah said.
" Truly we all dislike death and consider it &
great affliction." The Prophet rcplii.-d, " Thou
dost not understand me. When deutu oom.es
near a bolievcr, then God gives him n spirit of
resignation, and so it is that there is nothing
which a believer likes so much as d<"ith.''
Al-Bara' ibn 'Azib, ono of tho Companions,
says : —
" I came, out with the Prophet at the
tunerai of one -«f iho assistants, and we arrived
just .it the grave, before thoy hud. interred
Uie body, anc1 the Prophet sat down, c.nd we
sat around aim with our heads down, and
were so silent, thai you might sav that birds
were sitting upon our heads. And thoro was
a stick in .lie Prophet's hand with which he
kept striking the ground. Then he raised his
Dead 'ind said twice QJ thrice to his compa- I
nions, ' Seek the protection of God froru the
DPATH
79
punishments of the gi.ive.' After that In-
said: 'Verily, when ; Muslim separat.-th
from the world aud bringeth his soul to futu
rity, angels descend to him from tho i-elostml
regions, whose faces aro white. You might
.say thoir faces aro the sun, and they have .<
shroud of tho shrouds of paradise, and pe>
fumes therefrom. So thoy sit apart from the
deceased, as far as the eyes can Ree. After
which the Angel of Death (Mnhiku 'l-Mfittt)
comes to tho deceased and sits at his head,
and says, '• O pure soul, come forth to God's
pardon and pleasure.1' Then the soul comes
out, issuing like water from a bag, and the
Angol of Death takos it ; and when he takes
it, tho angels do not allow it to remain in his
hands for the twinkling of an eye. But when
the Ansfel of Death has taken'the soul «.f a
servant of God, he resigns it to hit* assistants,
in whose hands is a shroud, and they put It
into the shroud and with the perfumes, when
a fragrance issues from tho >-oul like tho smell
of tho best musk that is to be found on tho
face of tho earth. Thou the angels carry it
upwards, and they do not pass by any con
course of angels who do not say, •• WiiaL i
1 Iiis pure RouJ, and who is owner of it ? " An- '
they say, "• Such a one, the son of such a ^>ne '
<-alling him by the best names by whi -h in-
was known in the world, till they reach tho
lowest region of heaven with him. And tho
angels ask the door to be opened for him,
which is done. Then angel.s follow it through
ea"'h heaven, tho angel of one region, to thoso
oi the next, and so on till it roaches the
seventh heaven, when God says, ''Write lh<»
name of My servant in 'Illiyun, and i-eturr;
him towards the eartn, that is, to his bodv
which is buried in the earth, benause I hav>;
created man from earth and return him to it,
and will hrmg him out from it again as I
brought him out at iirst." Then tho SQU!S ar«-
returned into their bodies, when two angels
[MI NK.AK ana NAKIK] come to the dead man
and cause him to sit up, ana say to him,
« Who is thy Lord ? " Ho replies, -r My Lo.' d
is God." Then they say, " What is thy reli
gion?'' He says, "Islam." Then iney say,
•• What is this mau who is sent to you ? " (i.?.
the Prophet). He says, " He is the Prophet
of God." Then they say, "What is your proof
of his mission,;"' He says, *• i read tiie book
of God, and believed in it, and 1 proved it to
be true." Then a voice ealN mit from tho
culc.stial region.-', *• AIv servant hath spoken
trur>, therefore thro., for him a bed from
Paradise, and dress him in clothes from Para
dise, and open a door for him towards Para
dise.'' Then peace and perfumes come for
him from Paradise, and his grave is enlarged
for him as far as the eye can bee. Then a
man with a beautiful face comes to itin.i,
elegantly dressed, aud perfumed, and he says,
'• Be joyful in that which hath made thee, so.
this is the day which was promised thee.'
Then the dead person says to him, ;" Who art
thou, for thy face is perfectly beautiful ? :' Aru.
the man replies, "I am thy good deeds."
Then the dead person cries out, "O Lord,
hasten the resurrection for my s.ike ! " '
80
DEATH
" « But, continued the Prophet, * when an
infidel dies, and is about to pass from the
world and bring his soul to futurity, black-
faced angels come down to him and with
them sackcloths. Then they sit from the
dead as far, as the eye can see, after which
the Angel of Death conies in order to sit at
his head, and says. " 0 impure soul ! come
forth to the wrath of God." Then the soul is
disturbed in the infidel's body. Then the
Angel of Death draws it out as a hot spit is
drawn out of wet wool
"* Then the Angel of Death takes the soul
of the infidel, and having taken it, the angels
do not allow It to remain with him the twink
ling of an eye, but they take it in the sack-
oloth, and a disagreeable smell issues from
the soul, like that of the most fetid carcass
that can be met with upon the face of the
earth. Then the angels carry it upwards and
do not pass by any assembly of angels who
do not ask whose filthy soul is this. They
answer such an one, the son of such an one,
and they mention him by the worst names
that he bore in the world, till they arrive
with it at the lowest heaven, and call the door
to be opened, but it cannot be done.' Then
the Prophet repeated this verse : « The doors of
the celestial regions shall not bte opened for them,
nor shall they enter into paradise till a camel
passes through the eye of a needle.1 Then God
says, * Write his history in Sijjm,' which is the
lowest earth ; then his soul is thrown down
with violence. Afterwards the Prophet re
peated this verse : ' Unite no partner with
God, for wjtoever unite th tjods with God is like
that which fatteth from high, and the birds
snatch it away, or the wind wafleih it to a dis
tant place.' Then his soul is replaced in his
body, and two angels [MUHKAR and XAKIR]
come to him and set him up, and say, 'Who
is thy Lord ? ' He says, ' Alas ! alas ! I do
not know.' Then they say, 'What is thy
religion ? ' He says, ' Alas ! alas ! I do
not know.* And they say to him, ' What is
the condition of the man who is sent down to
you ? ' He says, * Alas ! alas ! I do not know.1
Then a voice conies from above, saying, « He
lieth ; therefore spread a bed of fire for him
and open a door for him towards hell.' Then
the heat and hot winds of hell come to him,
and his grave is made tight upon him, so as to
squeeze his ribs. And a man with a hideous
countenance comes to him shockingly dressed,
of a vile smell, and ho says, * Be joyful in
that which maketh thee miserable ; this is
the day that was promised thee.' Then the
dead man says, « Who art thou ? Thy face
is hideous, and brings wickedness.' He says,
' I am thy impure actions.' Then the dead
person says, ' 0 Lord, delay the resurrection
on my account!'"
The ceremonies attendiug the death of a
Muslim are described as follows by Jafir
Sharif in Herklot's Qanun-i-Jsldrn, as fol
lows: —
Four or live days previous to a sick man's
approaching his dissolution, he makes his will
in favour of his son or any other person, in the
presence of two or more -witnesses, and either
DEATH
delivers it to others or retains it by him. In
it he likewise appoints his executor. When
about to expire, any learned reader of the
Qur'an is pent for, and requested to repeat
with a loud voice the Surah Ya Sin (or chap,
xxxvi.), in order that the spirit of the man,
by the hearing of its sound, may experience
an easy concentration. It is said that when
the spirit was commanded to enter the body
of Adam, the soul having looked into it once,
observed that it was a bad and dark place,
and unworthy of its. presence! Then the
Just and Most Holy God illuminated the body
of Adam with " lamps of light," and com
manded the spirit to re-enter. It went in a
second time, beheld tbe light, and saw the
whole dwelling, and said, " There is no pleas
ing sound here for me to listen to," It is
generally understood from the best works of
the mystics of the East, that it was owing to
this circumstance that the Almighty created
music. The holy spirit, on hearing the sound
of this music became so delighted that it
entered Adam's body. Commentators on the
Qur'an, expositors of the Traditions and
divines have written, that that sound re
sembled that produced by the repeating of
the Suratu Ya Sin ; it is therefore advisable
to read at the hour of death this chapter
for tranquillizing the soul
The Kalirnatu 'sh-shahadah [CREED] is
also read with an audible voico by those
present. They do not require the patient
to read it himself, as at such a time he is
in a distressing situation, and not in a fit
state of mind to repeat tho Kalimah.
Most people lie insensible, and cannot even
speak, but the pious retain their mental facul
ties and converse till the very last. The fol
lowing is a moat serious religious rule amongst
us, viz. that if a person desire the patient to
repeat the Kaliruah, and the sick man ex
pire without being able to do so, his faith is
considered dubious; whilst the man who
directed him so to do thereby incurs guilt.
It is therefore best that the sitters-by read
it, in anticipation of the hope that the sick
man, by hearing the sound of it, may bring
it to his recollection, and repe&t it either aloud
or in his own mind. In general, when a' per
son is on tho point of death, they pour &har-
hat, made of sugar and water, down his throat,
to facilitate the exit of the vital spark, and
some procure the holy water of the Kainzam
well at Makkah. The moment the spirit has
fled, the mouth is closed; because, if left
open, it would present a disagreeable spec
tacle. The two great toes are brought in
contact and fastened together with a thin slip
of cloth, to prevent the legs remaining apart
They burn perfumes near the corpse. Should
the individual have died in the evening, the
shrouding and burial take place before mid
night ; if he die at a, later hour, or should
the articles required not be procurable at
that late hour, he is buried early on the fol
lowing morning. Tho sooner the sepulchral
rites are performed the better, for it is not
proper to keep a corpse long in the house,
and for this reason the Prophet said that
DEATH
if he way a good man, the sooner he is buried
the more quickly n# will reach heaven ; if a
bad man, he should be speedily buried, in
order that his unhappy lot may pqt fall upon
others in the house ; as also that the relatives
of the deceased may not, by holding the
corpse, weep too much or go without food.
There are male and female washers, whose
province it is to wash and shroud the corpse
for payment. Sometimes, however, the rela
tives do it themselves. In undertaking the
operation of washing, they dig a hole iu the
earth to receive tho water used in the pro
cess, and preveut its spreading over a large
surface, aa some men and women consider it
bad to tread on such water. Then they place
the corpse on a bed, country-cot, plank or
straw. Some women, who are particular in
these matters, are afraid eVen to venture near
the place where the body has been washed .
Having 'stripped the corpse and laid it on its
back, with its head to the east and feet to the j
west, tbey cover it with a cloth — reaching, if it
be a man, from the navel to the calve* of the
legs, if a woman, extending from the cheat to
the feet — and wash it with warm or ^ith cold
water. Th«/ raiae the body gently ind rub
the abdomen four or five times, thon pour
plenty of water, and -wash oF P. 11 the dirt and
filth "with soap, <feo., by means of flocks of
cotton or cloth ; after which, laying the body
on the sides, they waeh them ; then the back,
and thereat of the body ; but gently, because,
life having but just departed, the body IK
gtill warm and not insensible to pain. After
this they wash and clean it well, so that no
offensive smell may remain. They never
throw water into the nostrils or mouth, but
clean them with wicks of cloth or cotton.
After that they perform wttxu' for him, i.e.
they wash his mouth, the two upper «xtremi-
ties up to the elbows, make numaf.i [MASAH]
on his head, and throw water on bis feet ;
these latter constituting the four parts of the
wufii ceremony [ABLUTIONS], They then put
some camphor witb water into a now large
earthen pot, and with a new earthen pot
they take out water and pour it three times,
first from the head to the feet, then from the
right shoulder to the feet, lastly from the left
shoulder to the feet. Every time that a pot
of water is poured the Kalimatv. 'itti^hahadah
is repeated, either by the person washing or
another. Having bathed the body and wiped
it dry with a new piece of cloth, they put on
the sbroud. The shroud consists of three
pieces of cloth, if for a man, and five if for a
woman.
Those for men comprise. 1st, a lungl, or
tzar, reaching from the navel down to the
knees or ankle-joints ; 2nd, a qamis, or
kurta, or fl//«; its length i* from the neck to
the knees or ankles; 3rd, a lifa/ah, or sheet,
from above the head to below the feet.
Women have two additional pieces of cloth :
one a sinah-band, or breast-band, extending
from the arm-pits to above tho ankle- joints :
the other a damni, which encircles the bead
once and has its two ends dangling on each
side, The manner ol shrouding is as follows
DEBT
81
having placed the shrouds on a new mat and
fumigated them with the amoko of perfumes,
the lifafah is spread first on the mat, over it
the Itaigi or tzar, and above that the qami$ ;
and on the latter the *inah-b>tnd, if it be a
woman ; the damni is kept separate and tied
on afterwards. The corpse must be care-
t'ully brought bjr itself from the place where
it was bathed, and laid in the shrouds. Sur-
mah is to be applied to the eyes with a tent
made of paper rolled up, with a ring, or with
a pice, and camphor to seven places, viz. on
the forehead, including thenoso, on tbe palms
of the bauds, on the knees "nd great toes,
after which the different shrouds arts to be
properly put on one after another as they lay.
The colour of the shroud is to be white; no
other is admissible It is of no consequence,
htmevtr, if a coloured clotu is spread
over the bior; which., after the funeral, or
after the fortieth day, is given away to the
fagir who resides in the bury ing-ground, or
to any other person, in- charity. Previous to
shrouding the body, they tear shreds from
the cloths for the purpose of tying them on ;
and after shrouding the body, they tie 9ne
band above the head, a second below the feet,
and a third about tho ohest, leaving about six
or seven fingers5 breadth of cloth above the
head and below the feet, to admit of the ends
being fastened. Should the relict of the
deceased be present, they undo the cloth of
the head and show her Ma face, and get her,
in presence of two witnesses, to remit the
dowry which he had settled upon her ; but it
is preferable that she remit it while he is still
alive. Should the wife, owing to journeying,
be at a distance from him, she is to remit it
on receiving the intelligence of his demise.
Should his mother be present, she likewise
says, " The milk with which I suckled thee I
freely bestow on thee"; but this is merely a
ctastom in India ; it is neither enjoined in
books of theology nor by tho law of Islam.
Then they place ou the corpse a flower -sheet
or merely wreaths of flowers. [GRAVE,
BI/BIAL.]
DEATH, EVIDENCE OF. The
Miihammadiiii law admits of the evidence of
death jivon m a court of justice being merely
fry report 01 hearsay. The reason of this is
that death is an event of such a nature a6 to
admit, tho privacy only of a few. But some
ha^e advanced that, in cases of death, the
information of one man or woman is auf-
Rcient, u because death. IB not seen by many,
9ino«, as it occasions horror, the sight of it is
avoided."
If a person say he was present at the burial
of another, this amounts to the same as an
actual sight of his death, (Hidayah, vol. iv.
p, 673.)
DEBT. In Muhammadan law
there are two words used for debt, Dain
((i**^)* or money borrowed with some fixed
term of payment, and qurz (^^). or money
lent without any definite understanding as to
11
82
DECORUM
DELUGE
its repayment. Imprisonment, for debt is
allowed. (Hidayah, vol. j'i. p. 624.)
Upon the decease of a debtor, the }w
deroands that after the payment of the
funeral expenses, his just debts must be paio
before payment of legacies.
To engage in a JihSd or religious war, is
sajd by Muhammad to remit every sin except
that of being in debt. [.MHAD, I>A*N,
DECOKUM, or modesty of demea
nour between the b^x^s, is srri^tly enjoined in
Muslim law, and a special chapter is devoted
to it in the Dw'ru 'l~A!uk/ttor and oth'.'r works
O"n Muham.mad.in law.
A man is not allowed to look a* K. v/oman
except at her hands *nd face nor is he ullov/ed
bo touch her. Bataphysician is permitted to
oxerciBe the rl-uH^ of his i>roi>ssio;i without
restriction.
A. judL'Q "in the exercise of his olac^ may
look in the face of a woman, awl v,-itnessc3
ire uttder 1ht> sain*) necessity.
DECREES OF COD, Tho. Arabic
Barter or Taq&r. [pjiEucstm \TTON.J
D?tfT/S v7ritt.en r/Cfds ave, ae-
cording to Mtthammadan lav. or tbr»?6 kinds:
I. Mit9tabl/t+i-martMm, or re^-uUr docum*nrs,
f;uch fiS are executed on paper, and h^-v*1 ••»
regular title, superscription, &c.. wbioh. are
equivalent to oral, declarator whether th?
person be nreJenl: -^r absant. "If. Muatobln -i-
(jhoir-i-i'iPrsuM. or irregii.U'.v documents.
such 33 ire not •.<•ritir-.ii on pnpw. bnt, u.pon a
wall or th^ l-»3f of a ires, or upon paper with
out any title or ftuperscriptidn or signature
IU. Chair- f-jHiisfr/bli-, writings which are
not documents in any sense, such as are de
lineated in the air or in the water by Hi*
motions of n <imnb person.
DFPENDANT. Arabic mvdda'a
upon him."
The author of the Hidayah (vol. iii. p. 63>
says a defendant is a person who, if he shouH
•wish to avoid the litigoiion. ':s cunrelUble to
sustain it S om? l-.nve defined e plaintiff, wit'.1
respect to any •.irficle of property, io he j
7>:»«sO'i ^vlio, from his bein<? disseized of fh :
Said arVulp, h»s co I'ight to it but by ir-c
establi-^unepJ.. ot proof; arU ° de;cnda;n io
be a pel-son who has a p!ea cf n^h" ?o that
article frora his seizing or posae^sion j/ it.
The Imam Muhammad h;is ssid th.it a
defendant is a person who denies. This is
correct ; hut it require;-, 3 skill and ki"nr ledge
i»f jurisprudence to distinguish the J<-.ii9v iri
n suit, as the reality and not the appaarance
is efficient, and it frequently happens thnt a
j.erson is iu appearance the plaintiff., whilst ;r
raality he is ^he defendant. Thus, 9 trustee,
when he .jnys no tho owijor of the deposit, " I
hsiva restorcii t-o jro'a vo'ir (TepoaJt," appftuni
'') be j>la;;iti(t, inaswmch f»s ho pk^i'- 'h« '•?-
utrn of ih-? deposit; \^ n\ re.ility hr> is >,he
.atVndnnt, iirr-ij ^v ri-*nie6 the ob%»fiin of
"t»3poii3ibility, and hence his asstition, COTO-
buirtl< ii by an o^tir; must l>c credited.
T) E L I B E K A T I O N (Arabic
ta'anni ^^} is enjoined "by Mu
hammad in the Traditions. We is related to
have said, «' Deliberation in yoor ender-
takings is pleasing to God; and hurry \fajalah)
is pleasing to the devil." "Deliberation is
bast in everything except in the things con
cerning eternity."
DELUGE, The. Arabic Tufa/i
(cgtftjk). The story of the deluge is
£iven by Muhammad in his Quran: to the
Arabians as a " secret history* revealed to
then ;Surah xi. 51). The following are the
allusioos to it in the Qiir'Hn: —
Surah Ixix 11 :—
(< Wlie« the Flood rase high, we bar* yo« in
the Ark,
"That we might '»;ike thai event a warn
ing to you, »ru tl'.fit- ihe let airing ear might
retain it."
Stirah liv. 9 :~
"Before them the peuulo of Noth treated
the truth a* -j li^, 0 jr j*rva»it did tiiey charge
with falsehood, and s^id, ^Ddmoniac ! ' aud /he
vas rejecled.
"Th^n cric-d IIP to his Lord, * Verily, they
prevail against me ; com* tliou therefore to
my succour.'
" So we opened the gates of Heaven with
water which fell in torrents.
" And we caused the eartb ^o break tottli
with springs, and thoir waters met by settl.il
decree.
'•' And we bare him on a vessel made with
planks and nails.
" Under our eyes it floated on : a recom-
penGO'fo him who had b^r-n rejected with un
belief.
''And we left jt a sign: but, is there any
one who receives the warning ?
ic And how great was my v^n^eance and toy
menace ! "
Surali <i. S3:—
" And it was revealed unto Noah : « Verily,
none of thy people shall believe, savo they
who have bolieved already : ih"refere be not
thou grieved at their doings-
"But boild tho Ark ar>.-ir eur eye »!jd
Hfter our revelation : and pi* :»c not with me
for the evil doers, foi I u^v 're to be
drowned.'
" So he built the Ai-k ;. and whenever I he
chiefs of his people pn »•»•>(! U^v theyriaughed
him to scorn: said he,4Tb0Ufh ye' laugh at
us, we truly slio.ll laugii at yott, s»ver as ye
Idugh at us ; and in the eud y« shni) know
" On whom a punishment uhall come in&t
^hall shame him; and on whera shall light a
lasting punishment/
"Tftiis was ft until our sentence came te
pass, and th& earth's surface boiled up. We
seid. « Carry into it one pair of every kind, and
thy family, except him on whom sentence
bath before been passed, and those who have
believed.' Bnt there believed not with him
*xcept a few.
*' And he said, Embark ye therein. In
the name of CM be its coarse and its riding
DEMONS
DRHJ81T
83
at anchor 1 Truly my Lord ia right Gra
cious, Merciful'
•• And the Ark moved on with them amid
waves like mountains: and Noah c;ill«d to
his «on — for he was apart— « Embark with
us, O my child! and be not with the un
believers.'
'* He said, • I will betake me to a mountain
that shall secure me from the water.' H*
*aid, * None shall b* secure this day fit>m th«
decree of God, KA TO him on whom He shall
have mercy.' And a wavo passud between
them, and M WHS among the drowued.
"Audit was said, « 6 Earth.' sw.liow v.p
thy water'; and 'cease, 0 Heaven I ' And the
wator abated, and the decree WAS fulfilled,
and the Ark rested upon al-.Judl; and it w:x.s
K-H, ' A vaunt ! ye tribe of the wicked ! '
" And Noah, called on hi* Lord and «aid,
' U Lord! verily my son 13 «>f my family : and
•!< rorniso is true, and Ihou art the most
ju»t of judges.*
•' H« said, • 0 Noah 1 verily, lie ia not of thy
family: in this thon aotest not aright. Ask
JMI of me tiutt- whereof thou kuo\vest nought :
1 wtuu thee that thou becomanot of tho igno
rant.'
•• He said. * To thee verily, 0 uiy Lord, do I
repair lest I ask that of thee w heroin I have
no knowledge: unless iiiou /orgivo roe and
be merciful to me I shall be one of the
lost.'
* Ifc wns SAJd to him. « vj rfunU 1 fbhark with
peace from Us, and with blessings ou thoe
and on peopled from those who are with theo ;
but as for part, we will suffer them to enjoy
theniiclvcf:, but afterwards they shall suffer
a grievous uuni^tneut from u«to beiuflictod.'
*• This is a secret history which -we reveal
to theo. Thou didst not know them, thou nor
thy people before this."
DEMONS. [DEVILS, GENII.]
DEPORTMENT. Arabi? 't1mu
'l-mu'd&fiuruk (iij4Aji*J\ ^4c). Persian
nishffsf u Iwrkkasi. Tho Traditionists take
some u£in» to explain the precise manner in
which their jfoophel walked, sat, slept, and
rose, but their .accounts are not always uni
form and consistent. For example, \\hibit
'All bad relates that he saw tho Prophet
«« I ueping on his back with one leg over the
other. JuKir Bays the Prophet distinctly for-
Kj'io it.
Modesty of deportment is enjoined in the
«) r'un. .Surah xvii. 3ft: •• Walk not proudly
on MIA «fartt-," whicb tlie commentators say
in«">u» that tiisbt>!iever 14 not to ty^s his head
of his ?n.:c n3 ho walks. Surah ixv. 04:
The ser/^nta of th^ Merciful Ono are thot><»
v/Jio v.>... i,;, on tho earth lowly, and wh*n
tJ«- ignorflni . i' dress thtui say, * Peace I"
Pfu|7i ••! I MubatniTjad Art'}. t'n> author
of the c*>i-bratcd ethical work, ttw ^(li^'/-i-
•fo'«fi» gives the .following advice an regards
general <Ji«i>ortin«iit: —
M« should not hurry ;<a he >v»lk^, lor
that ).< a sign of levity ; neither should ho be
unreasonably tardy, for that is a token of dul-
ness. Let hiui neither stalk like the uver-
bnaring, nor u^ttute himself in the way of
woman ftnd eunuchs; but constantly observe
the middle course. Let him avoid going
often hack wards and forwards, for that be-
tokons bewilderment ; and holding his head
downwards, for that indicates a mind over
come by sorrow and anxiety. In riding, no
less, the same medium ia to be observed.
Whon ho sits, let him not extend his feet, nor
put one upon another. Ho must nevor knee]
except in deference to his king, his preceptor.
«,nd his father, or other such person. Let
him not rest his head on his knoe or his baud,
for that is a mark of dejeotiou and indolence.
Neither let him hold his neok awry, nor in
dulge in foolish tricks, suoh as playing with
his lingers or other joints. Let him avoid
! wlsting round or stretching himself. In spit
ting and blowing his nose, let him be oareful
that no one sees or hears him ; that he blow
it not towards the Qibiah,nor upon his hand.
his skirt, or sieave-lappet.
" Wheq he enters an assembly, let him sit
neither lower nor higher than his proper sta
tion. If he be himsHlf the head of the party,
he can sit as he likes, for his place must be
the highest where fer it may be. If he haa
inadvertently taken a wrong place, let him
exchange it for his own as soon as he dis
covers his mistake: should his own be occu
pied, he inu^t return without •'ititurbing others
or annoying himself
** In the presence 01 his male Or female
domestics, let him never bare anything but
his hands and his face: the parts from his
knee to his navel let him never expose nt all ;
neither in public nor private, oxcopt on occa
sions of necessity for ^ablution and the like,
( Vide Gen. ix. 20 : Lev", xvii, G, xx. 11 ; Deut.
xxii. 30.)
" Jle must not sleep in the presence of other
persons, or lie on his back, particularly as
the habit of snoring is thereby encouraged.
" Should sleep overpower him in the midst
of a party, let him get up, if possible, or else
dispel tho drowsiness by relating some story,
entering* on some debate, and the like. But
if he is with a set of persons who sleep them
selves, let him eithor bear them company or
leave them.
" The upshot of the whole is this : Let him
so behave as not to incommode or disgust
others ; and should any of these observances
appear troublesome, let him reflect, that to
be formed to their contraries would be still
more odious and still more unpleasant than
any pains which their acquirement may cost
him." Afchlaq-i-Jatdli, Thompson's Transla
tion, p. 292.)
DEPOSIT (Arabic
), pi. wadai'), in the kn^u:tu« of
the law, signifies a thing entrusted to the
care of another. The proprietor of the thii»j;
is called mudi', or depositor; the person en
trusted with it \s-muda',or trustee, and the
property deposited is wadi'uh, which lite
rally means the leaving of a tUntf wit'r
another.
84 DEVIL
According to the Hidayufi, the following
are thfe rules of Islam regarding deposits.
A trustee is not responsible for deposit
unless he transgress with respect to it. If
therefore it be lost whilst it ia in his care, and.
the loss has not been occasioned by any fault
of his, the trustee has not to make good the
loss, because the Prophet said, "on honest
trustee is not responsible"
A trustee may aieo keep the deposit him
self or he may entrust it to another, provided
the person is a member of his own family,
but if he gives it to a stranger he renders
himself responsible.
If the deposit is demanded by the depo
sitor, and the trustee neglects to give it up,
it is a transgression, and the trustee becomes
responsible.
If the trustee mix the deposit (as of grain,
•il, Ac.) with his own property, iu such a
manner that the property cannot be separated,
the depositor can claim to share equally in
the whole property. But if the mixture be
the result of accident, the proprietor becomes
a proportionate sharer in the whole.
If the trustee deny the deposit upon de
mand, he is responsible in case of the loss of
it. But not if the denial be made to a
stranger, because (says Abu Yusui)the denial
may be made for the sake of preserving it.
In the case of a deposit by two persons,
the trustee cannot deliver to either his share,
except it be in the presence of the other. And
when two persons receive a divisible article in
trust, each must keep one half, although these
restrictions are not regarded when they are
held to be inconvenient, or contrary to custom.,
DEVIL, The. The devil is believed
to be descended from Jaun, the progenitor of
the evil genii. He is said to have been named
'Azazil, and to have possessed authority over
the animal and spirit kingdom. But when God
created Adam, the devil refused to prostrate
before him, and he was therefore expelled
from Eden. The sentence of death was then
pronounced upon Satan ; but upon seeking a,
respite, he obtained it until 4ho Day of
Judgment, when he will be destroyed. (Vide,
Qur'an, Surah vii. 13.) According to the
Qu'ran, the devil was created of fire, whilst
Adam was created of clay. There are two
words used in the Qur'an to denote this great
spirit of efil: (l; Shaitdn
aii Arabic word derived from skatn,^ opposi
tion," ».«.. " one who ppposes ; (2) Iblis
(u-s»M, Sta/?oXos)» "devil," from balas, «a
wicked or profligate person," i.e. •' the wicked
one." The former expression occurs in the
Qur'an -fifty-two times, and the latter only
nine, whilst in some verses (e.g. Surah ii. 32-
84) the two words Shaitdn and Iblis occur
for the same personality. According to the
Afajma'u I'-Bikdr, shaitdn denotes one who is
far from the truth, and iblls one who is with
out hope
The folio wing is' the teaching of Muhammad
n the Traditions concerning the machinations
of the devil (Mishkat, book i c. iii.): —
DIKAE
" * Verily, the devil enters into man as the
blood into his body.
" * There is not one amongst you but has an
angel and a devil appointed over him.' The
Companions said, * Do you include yourself in
this ? ' He said, « Yes, for me also ; but God
has given me victory over the devil, and he
does not direct me except in what is good.'
" There is not one of the children of Adam,
except Mary and her son (Jesus), but is
touched by the devil at the time of its birth,
hence the child makes a loud noise from the
touch.
" Devil rests his throne upon the waters,
and sends his armies to excite contention and
strife amongst mankind ; and . those in his
armies who are nearest to him in power and
rank, are those who do the most mischiof,
One of them returns to the devil and says,
* I have done so and so ' and be says, ' You
have done nothing ' ; after that another comes,
and says. *ldid not quit him till I made a
division between him and his wife'; then the
devi! appoints him a place near himself, and
says, ' You are a good assistant.'
" The devil sticks close to the sons of
Adam, and an angel also ; the business of the
dovil is to do evil, and that of the angel to
teach him the truth : ami he who meets with
truth and goodness in his mind, let him know
it proceeds from God, and let him praise God ;
and he who finds the other, let him seek for
an asylum from the devil in God.
" Then the Prophet read this verse of the
Qur'an : « The devil threatens you with
poverty ii ye bestow hi charity ; and orders
you to pursue avarice ; but God promises you
grace and abundance from charity/
"'Daman said , « O Prophet of God! indeed
the devil intrudes himself between me and
nay prayers, and my reading perplexes me.'
Then the Prophet said, * This is a demon
called Khanzab, who casts doubt into prayer :
whon you are aware of it, take protection
with God, and spit over your left arm three
times.' 'Us.maYJ said, 'Be it so'; and all
donbt and perplexity waa dispelled."
DEVIL, The Machinations of the.
DIBAOHAH <X*Wo). "Tanning.*'
According to the Traditions, tho skins of
animals are unclean until they are tanned.
Muhammad said, " Take nothing for any
animals that shall have died until you tan
their skins.'* And again, " Tanning purifies.'
(Mishkdt, book iii. c. xi. 2.)
DIMASHQ (o-*-o). [DAMASCUS.]
DIN ((^o). The Arabic word for
" religion." It is used especially for the reli
gion of the Prophets and their inspired books,
but it ie also used for idolatrous religion.
[RELICHON.]
DINAR G^)-. Greek
A gold coin of one misqdf weight, or ninety-
six barley grains, worth about ten shillings
DJKHAM
DITOH
85
According to Mr. Hussey (Ancient Weights,
p. 142^, the average weight of the* Roman
denarii, at the end of tht Commonwealth was
sixty grains, whilst the English shilling con
tains eighty grains. Mr, Lane, in his Arabic
dictionary, says, "its weight is soventy-one
barley-corns and a half, nearly, reckoning the
daniq as eight grains of wheat and two-fifths ;
but if it bo said that tha daniq is eight grains1
of wheat, then the dinar is sixty- eight grains
of wheat and four-seventhe. It is the same
as the minqdi" The dinar is only mentioned
once in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 66 : " And borne of
them if thoxi entrust them with a dinar •, he
will not give it back." It frequently occurs
in books of law.
A GOLD D1NAJ1 OF fflEKACUUS, A.D. 621. WEIGHT SIXTY GRAINS. ACT0AL 31Z&.
A GOLD DINAR OF THE CITY OF OHA3NI, A.M. 616. ACTUAL SIZE
him (Joseph) for a mean price, dirhams
counted out, and they parted with him
cheaply."
DIEEAH (Sjj). Vulg. durrah.
A scourgo made either of a flat piece of
leather or of twisted thongs, and used by the
public censor of morals and religion, called
the muhiasib. This scourgo is inflicted either
tor the omisuion of the daily prayer, or for
the corrimittaJ of sina, which are punishable
by, the law with the infliction of stripes, such
as fornication, scandal, and drunkenness. It is
related that the Khalifah 'Uxnar punished his
son with tho dirrah for drunkenness, and that
he died from its effects. ( Tarikh-i- Khaniis<
vol. ii. p. 262.)
The word used in the Qur'an and Hadis foi*
this scourge is jatdaft. and in theological
works, saut ; but dirrah is now the word
generally used amongst modern Muslims.
A silver coin, the shape of which resembled
that of a date stone. During the caliphate of
•Umar, it was changed into a cirenlar form ;
and in the time of Zubair, it was impressed
with the words Allah, " God," barakah " bless
ing." Hajjaj stamped upon it. the chapter of
the Qur'an called IkhUa (cxii.), and others
say he imprinted it with his own name.
Various accounts are given of their weights ;
some Raying that they were of ten, or nine, or
aix, or five misqdis', whilst others give the
weights of twenty, twelve, and ten qirdts,
asserting at the eame time that 'Urnar had
taken a dirham of each kind, and formed a
coin of fourteen qirdts, being the third part
of the aggregate sum. (Blochmann's Aln-i-
Akbari, p. 36.)
The dirham, although it is frequently men
tioned in books of law, only occurs once in
the Qur'an, Surah xii. 20, "And they sold
* s — «» -
A DIRRAH USBD BY A MOUTASI8 IN THB PESHAWAR VALLEY,
DITCH, Battle of the. Arabic
Qhuawatu 'l-Khandaq (j^*3^ ^).
The defence of al-Madinah against the Banu
Quraizah, A.H. 5, when a trench was dug by
the advice of Salman, and the army of al-
Madinah was posted within it. After a
month's siege, the enemy retired, and the
almost bloodless victory is ascribed by Mu-
bammad in the Qur'in to the interposition of
Providence. Surah xxxiii. 0: "Remember
God's favours to yov when hosts came to you
86 DIVINATION
and we sent against them a wind and hosts (of
angels), that ye could not see, but God know
what ye were doing." fMmr's Life f>f Maho-
met, vol. iii. p. 258.)
DIVINATION. Kahanah, or for-
telling future events, is unlawful in Islam.
Mu'awiyah ibn Hakim relates : •* I said to
the Prophet, «'O Messenger of God, we used
to do some things in tbe time of ignorance of
which we are, not sure now. For example,
we used to consult diviners about future
events?' The Prophet said, « Now that you
have embraced Islam you must not consult
them.' Then I said, f And we used to take
bad omens ? ' The Prophet said, '- If from a
bad omen you are thrown into perplexity, let
it not hinder you from doing tho -work you
had intended to do.* Then I said, « And we
used to draw lines on the ground ? ' And the
Prophet said, * There was one of the Prophets
who used to draw lines on the ground, there-
ford if you can draw a lino like him it iv
good, otherwise it is vain.'"'
*Ayishah Bays "the people asked tho Pro
phet about diviners, whether they spoke true
or not. And he said, ' You must not believe
anything they say.' The people then said,
' But, 0 Prophet ! they sometimes tell what
is true?' The Prophet replied, 'Because
one of the genfi steals away the truth and
carries it into the diviner's ear; and the
diviners mix a hundred lies to one truth.' "
[MAGIC.]
DIVORCE. Arabic i_
In its primitive sense the word I'llu-q meau<
dismission, but in law it sigrJues a r^leas*-;
from the marriage tie.
Tbe Muhammadau law vi divorce \\>
founded upon express injunctions contained
in the Qur'an, as well as in the Traditions.
and its rules occupy a very largo section in
all 'Muhammadan works on jurisprudence.
I. The teaching of the Quran on the subject
is as follows : —
Surah ii. 226 :—
" They who intend to abstain from tbeir
wives shall wait 'four months; but if they go
back from their purpose, then verily God is
Gracious, Merciful :
** And if they resolve on a divorce, then
verily God is He who Hearst h, Knowcth.
" Tbe divorced shall wait the result, until
they have had their courses thrice, nor ought
they to conceal what God halh created in
their wombs, if they believe in God and the
last day; and it will bo more jusi in their
husbands to bring them back when in this
state, if they desire what is right. And it is
lor the women to act as they (the husbands)
act by them, in all fairness ; but the men are
a step above them. God is Mighty, Wise.
" ¥« may give sentence of divorce to your
wives twice: Keep them honourably, or put
them away with kindness. But it is not al i v/od
you to appropriate to yourselves nught of
what ye have given to them, unless both fear
that they cannot keop within the bounds set
up by God. And if ye fear that they can-
DIVORCE
not observe the ordinances of God. no
shall attach to either of you for what the
wife shall herself give for her redemption.
These are uie bounds of God: therefore over
step thorn not ; for whoever ovorsteppeth the
bounds of God, they are evil doers.
»' But if the husband give sentence of divorce
to her a third time, it is not lawful for him to
take her again, until she shall have manned
another husband ; and if he also divorc? her
then shall no blame attach to them if they
I return to each other, thinking that they can
I keep within the bounds fixed by God. And
these are the bounds of GK>d; Ha rnaketh
them clear to those who have knowledge.
" But when ye divorce womeu, and the tim*
for sending them away is come, either retain
them with generosity, or put them away with
generosity : but retain them not by constraint
so as to be unjust towards them. He who
doth so, doth in fact injure himself. And
make not the signs of God a jest ; but remem
ber God's favour towards you, and the Book
and the Wisdom which He hath sent down
to you for your warning, and fear God, and
know that God's knowledge embracoth every
thing.
" And when ye divoroo your wives, and
they have waited tho prescribed time, hinder
them not from marrying the husbands when
they have agreed among themselves in an
honourable way. This warning is for him
among you who believeth in God an^ in tbe
last day. This is most pure for yon, and most
decent. God fcnoweth, but ye know r;c*.
" Mothers, when divorced, shall yiv& suck
to their children two full years, if tho futher
desire that the suckling bo computed; and
such maintenance and clothing a a is fair for
them, shall devolve oo the father. No per
son shall be charged beyond hi* tnsaua. A
mother shall not be pressed unfairly for her
child, nor a father for his child : Ai>d the
same with the father's heir. But if they
choose to wean the child by consent it ml by
bargain, it shall be no fault in thorn. And if
ye choose to have a nurse for year children,
it shall be no fault in you, in case ye p^y
what ye promised her according to that \vbich
is fair. Fear God, and know thai God sooth
>vhat ye do.
14 It shall be no crirric in. yon if ya divorce
your wives so long as ye have not consum
mated the marriage, nor settled any doAvry on
them. And provide what is needful for them
— he who is in ample circumstances accord
ing to his means, and he who is straitenod,
according to his means — with fairness: Thfc
is binding ou those who do what is right
" But if ye divorce them before conr.wM-
matiow, and have already settled a dowry <j\\
them, *;<: shult yioe them haJf of what ya <i iv;
settled, unless they make a release, or !ia
inako a, release in >fhose hand is the mamaga
tie. But if ye rnako.a release, it- will be
nearer to piety."
Surah L\v. 1.-—
"0 Prophet! when ye drvorco women.
OTVOKOE
ilivcree them at their special tin?es. And
rtokor fhosotimea exactly, and fear God your
Lord. Put them not forth from their houses,
nor nHow thorn to depart, unless they have
comM'tterJ « proven adultery. This is the
precept ol* God ; and whoso transgvesseth
the precept i' God, assuredly imperilleth hi.s
own self. Thou knowest not whether, after
this, God 'my not cause something new to
occur whicfc niffv briny you together <taain>
"And -when they have reached their set
rime, then cipher keep them frith kindness, or
•u kindness part fror; tiif1. A;>d take up
nrvoBCK
87
right witnesses froru j-ji.-cr:-. vju. and bear
witness as unto God. Tkin in a caution for
him who believeth hi God :md in the latter
day. And whoso feareth God, to him will He
grant a prosperous issne, and will provide for
nim whence he reckoned not upon it.
"And for him who pnlteth his trust in
Him will God be all-sufficient. God truly will
attain his purpose. For everything hath (aocl
assigned a period. '
" As to such of your wives as iiave no nope
of the recurrence of their times, if ye have
doubts in regard to them, then reckon throo
months, and let the same be the term of
those who have not yet had them. And as
to those who are with child, their period shall
be until they are delivered of their burden.
God will make His command easy to Him who
feareth Him.
" Lodge the divorced wLorevor ye i '<Jge, r>i •-
cording to your means ; and distress then
not by putting them to straits. Ami if l;h*y
ore pregnant, then be at aha^t-s for !hem U!i
they ara delivoroc of l.heir bn-dan :
they suckle your children, ihor p<-y iht»ia
theii hire nnd consult amour; your.si-1 -,vs. and
act generously : And if herein yc meet 'vi(h
obstacles, then let nnothcr femnla suckle for
him.r
II. The teaching of* Muhamm^tiJ, nn 'f
general Subject vf Diuotcc is tt^rw-J in -!^
Tradition* •M follows : —
'• Tho thing wLjch ;i lav.'di1 oiu dtnjilztd by
God it. divoi ..v. '
" Th« v/omnn v/h:; asks bor iiusl>and to
divor •--.? l;-:r without a cauP^ tb»» ••\nf\\ of
}>arhdik'- i^ /orbidden her."
" j'he./e are thre-3 thiugo \ -i.ol*. whethor
'\x ..? in joke or in earnest. H nil f>o consi
dered serious and effectu •!. n. ••' . T-*: riage.
divorce, and taking a wife back.''
"Every diverce is lawful except :i ui.H-
man's." *
u Cui'scd be the second husband who makes
the wife (divorced) lawful for ht first hus
band, and cursed be the first husband for
whom she is made lawful"—- (Mishkat, xiii.
IIL Sunrii Muh.<anniadan Doctors are not
agreed as to the Mornl S^ttu.f ofJ)ivorr.e.
The Imam ash-Slu~Prl. rttfernng ro the
three kinds of divorce (\viii<*;j will be after
wards explained), says: " TVc-y HTP onexcep-
iionftblo and legal because Jiv. re-? is m itself
* lawful act, whonco it ii tiui certain laws
uave been instituted respecting it; and this
legality prevents any idea of danger b:in;r
annexed to it. But, on the other hand, i! ^
Imam Abu Hanlfah and his disciples say
that divorce is in itself a dangerous and dig-
approved procedure, ns it dissolves marriage^
an institution which involves many circum
stances both of a spiritual as well as of a
tomporaj nature. Nor is its propriety «t all
admitted, but on the ground of urgency of
release from an unsuitable wife. And in reply
to ash-Shafi'i, they say that the /eoWzVy .if
divorce does not pre»ept its being considered
dangerous, because it involves matters of both
a spiritual and temporal character.
The author of the tfharfiu 7- WiqayaJi. \.. \ (•••',,
Mays :—'* Divorce Is au abominable transac
tion in the sight of God, therefore su«h an
act should only take place from necessity,
and it is best to only '« "ik» tho one sentence
of divorce (i.*?. taldfju '/.-{ittstui).
IV. The Su/mi Law of Divorce : — Divorcf
may be given either in the present time, or
may be referred to some future period. It
may bo pronounced by the husband either
before or after the comnniTuation of the mar
riage. It may be either givr^i in writing or
verbally.
The words by which divorce can be given
ire of two kinds:— -Snrl/i, or "express," as
when the husband says, •' Thou ><.::.•* divorced " •
and kinayah, or "metaphorical," as when he
says, " Thou art free; thou art cut oft; veil
yourself I Arise ! seek for a mate," <Src. &c.
Divorce is divided into ^alaqu 'n-sunnfth, or
tuat which is according to the Qur'ari and the
Traditions, and //<%« Y-6adi', cu- a novel or
heterodox divorce, which, altriongh it iscon-
"idored lawful, is not considered religion*.
Tataqn 's-suwwh is either tbe fiftfan^ or '* the
most laudable," or hnsftrt, the '* laudable " me
thod, falaqu 'l-afisan, or the • most laudable
method of divorce, is when the husband once
expressly pronounces to his enjoyed but nn-
pregnant wife the sentence, " Thou ai-t di
vorced ! " when she is in j?w/ir or a state of
purity, during which bo has b;i<i go carnal
connection with h<?r, and then leuv^s her to
complete tlio prescribed idduh, or *4 period of
three months." Until the oxpir.ition of the
>iddaki the divorce is ievoo:tbl£, but after the
period is complete, it is irreversible, and if
the husband wishes to take his \\if<? back,
they must go through the ceremony of tuar-
riage. But it must be1 observed that afier
the taldqu 'l-ahsan, the woman is not, aa hi
the other kinds of divorce, compelled to marry
another man, and be divorced before she can
return (-.•• her former husband. All that is
required is ;«. rd-inarriago. The author of the
Hiddyah aays this modu of divorce is called
u/tsan, or " most laudable," becjtufie it was
usually adopted by the Companions of the
Prophet, and also because it loaves it in the
nov^r ot- the iiusband to take his wife back,
and s!'t» thus remains a lawful subject for re-
marri*. e «o \\'>.<\\. Some European writers on
MuhHirmadunism have overlooked this fact
in condemning the Muslim sys'*»in of If /oiv<\
The (tfCtfftft^oMni, or"lav!<?ble
98 DIVORCE
is when the husband repudiates an enjoyed
wife by three sentences of divorce, either ex
press or metaphorical, giving one sentence in
each tuhr, or "period of purity." Imam
Malik condemns this kind of divorce, and
says it is irregular. But Abft Hanlfah holds
it to be hasan, or " good."
The taldqv V-6arfi', or " irregular form of
divorce," is when the husband repudiates his
wife by three sentences, either express or
metaphorical, given them one at a timer
" Thou art divorced I Thou art divorced 1
Thou art divorced ! w Or, " Thou art free I
Thou art free! Thou art free!" Even
holding up three fingers, or dropping three
stones, is held to be a sufficiently implied
divorce to take legal effect. The Muslim
who thus divorces his wife Is hold, in the
Hidayah, to be ac offender against the law,
but the divorce, however irregular, takes
legal affect.
In both these kinds of divorce, badi1 and
bason^ the divorce is revocable (Vq?**) after the
first and second sentences , but it is irrevocable
(bffiri) after the third sentence. After both
fyasan and badi1 divorces, the divorced wife
cannot, under any 'circumstances, return to
her husband until she has been married, and
enjoyed, and divorced by another husband.
Muhammadan doctors say the law has insti
tuted this (somewhat disgraceful) arrange
ment in order to prevent divorces other than
laldqu 'l-afysan.
A husband may divorce his wife without
any misbehaviour on her part, or without
assigning any cause. The divorce of every
husband is effective if he be of a sound un
derstanding and of mature age ; but that of
a boy. or ». lunatic, or one talking in his sleep,
is not effective*
If & man pronounce a divorce whilst in a
state of inebriety from drinking fermented
liquor, such as wine, the divorce takes place.
Repudiation by any husband who is sane and
adult, ia effective, whether he be free or a
slave, willing, or acting: under compulsion ;
and even though it were uttered in sport or
jest, or by a mere slip of the tongue,
instead of some other word. (Fatatoa-£-'Alam-
<7tr?, voL i. p. *97.)
A sick man may divorce hia wife, even
though, he be on his death-bed.
An agent or agents may be appointed by a
husband to divorce bis wife.
In addition to the will and caprice of the
husband, there are also certain conditions
which require a divorce.
The following are causes for divorce, but
generally require to be ratified by a decree
from the Qa$i or " judge n : —
(1.) Mb. That Is, when the husband has
been by any cause deprived of hie organ of
generation. This condition is called majbub.
In this case the wife can obtain instant divorce
if the defect occurred before marriage. Cases
of evident madness and leprosy are treated in
the same way. Divorce can be obtained at
once.
(2.) '//muzA, or "impotence." (This in
cludes ratq, " vulva i'/npervia cceunti " ; and
DIVORCE
qarnt u vulva anteriore parte enascena.**) In
cases of impotency in either husband or wife,
a year of probation can be granted by the
judge.
(3.) Inequality of race or tribe, A woman
cannot be compelled to marry a man who be
longs to an inferior tribe, and, in case of such
a marriage, the elders of the superior tribe
can demand a divorce ; but if the divorce is
not demanded, the marriage contract remains.
(4.) Insufficient dower. If the stipulated
dowry is not given when demanded, divorce
takes place.
(5.) Refusal of Isld?n. If one of the par
ties embrace Islam, the judge mast offer it
to the other three distinct times, and if he or
she refuse, to embrace the faith, divorce takes
place.
(6.) Za'n, or -'imprecation." That is,
when a husband charges his -wife with adul
tery, the charge is investigated, l-ut if there
is no proof, and the man swears his wife is
guilty, and the wife swears she is innocent, a
divorce must be decreed.
(7.) Tiff, or "vow." When a husband
makes a vow not to have carnal intercourse
with bis wife for no less than four months,
and keeps the vow inviolate, an irreversible
divorce takes place.
(8.) .Reason of property. If a husband be
come the proprietor of his wife (a slave), or
the wife the proprietor of her husband (a
slave), divorce takes place.
(&) An invalid marriage of any kind, arising
from incomplete ?ufcdh. or "marriage cere
mony," or from affinity, or from consanguinity.
(10.) Difference of country For example,
if a husband flee from a ddru fl-fazrb, or " land
of enmity," i.e. " a non-Muslim country," to a
darn ''I- Islam, or "country of Islam," and his
wife refuse to perform hijrah (flight) and to
accompany him, she is divorced.
(11.) Apostasy from Islam. The author of
the Raddu 'l-Mukhtdr (vol. ii. p. 643) says :
" When a man or woman apostatises from
Islam, then an immediate dissolution (faskk)
of the marriage takes plaoe, whether the
apostasy be of the man or of the woman,
without a decree from the Qdzi." And again,
(p. 645), " If both husband and wife aposta
tise at the same timo, their marriage bond
remains ; and if at any future time the parties
again return to Islam, no re-marriage ia <
necessary to constitute them man and wife;
but if one of the parties should apostatise
before the other, a dissolution of the marriage
takes place ipso facto."
Mr. J. B. S. Boyle, of Lahore, says : " As ,
relevant to this subject, I give a quotation
from Mr. Currie'a excellent work on the [
Indian Criminal Codas, p. 445. The question j
is as to the effect of apostasy from Islam npon
the marriage relation, and whether sexnal
intercourse with the apostate renders a per- j
son liable to be convicted for adultery under j
Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code. A. and
B., Mahommejdans, married under the Ma-!
fiommedan law, are converted to Christianity
The wife, B., is first converted, but continues j
to lr?e with her husband ; subsequently the
DIVORCE
husband, A., is converted. Subsequent to
the conversion of B., A. and B., still living to
gether as husband and wife, both professing
Christianity, B. has sexual intercourse with
C. Will a conviction hold against C. under
Section 497 ? Both Macnaghten and Baillie
say the marriage becomes dissolved by apos
tasy of either party, and Grady, in his version
of Hamilton's Hidayah> p. 66, says : " If
either husband jor wife apostatize from the
faith, a separation takes place, without
divorce ; according to Abu Hanee/a and Abu
Yoosuf. Imam Mahonuned alleges if the
apostasy is on the part of the husband.
M Apostasy annuls marriage in Haneefa's
opinion, and in apostasy separation takes
place without any decree of the magistrate.
Cases -which might decide this point have
been lately tried both at Lucknow and Allah
abad : at the fbrmer place in rn Afxul Hoztin v.
Had(?. Bc.yvm, and at the latter Zuburdust
Khan v. Wife. But from certain remarks to
be found in the judgment of the High Court,
N. W. R, the Cvmrts of Oudh and N. W. P.,
appear to differ on the moat essential point.
The point before tho Ondh Court was (Hadee
Begum's plea) that her marriage contract was
dissolved by reason of her own apostasy, a
sufficient answer to a suit brought; by her
Mahommadan husband for restitution o! con
jugal rights ; i.e. Does the apostasy of a Ma
hommedan wife dissolve a marriage contract
against tho express wish of a Mahommedan
husband in dar-ool-harb (laud of war)? for
India, it is contended, is not, under its present
administration, dar- or>l-Ielam (land of safety).
The Oudh Court held (admitting that apos
tasy by the husband dissolved the marriage
and freed the wif«) that apostasy by the wife
did not free her if her husband stied for resti
tution of conjugal rights. They argued that
apostasy by the wife, without the wish of the
husband, could not be entertained; in fact,
that as regards her husband's volition, the
apostasy could not exist, and would not be
recognised. That a suit for restitution of
conjugal rights before the competent court of
the time, seemed to thorn to be equivalent of
the suit before the Cazee (Judge). The Oudh
judges, in the absence of distinct precedent,
say they fell back on the customs of the
people amongst whom they lived. The Ondh
Court evidently considered there was an
essential difference between apostasy of a
man and apostasy of a woman, of the hus
band or tho wife ; also between apostasy to a
faith in a book and apostasy to the idol wor
ship Mahommed and his followers renounce.
Do«s such an essential difference exist ? The
point before the High Court N. W. P. was :
Can a M«ihommcdan professing Christianity
subsequent to his marriage with a MuSsnl-
mani, according to the Mahommed an law,
obtain a decree for dissolution of that mar
riage under Act IV. of 1869, bis wife having
subsequently to him professed Christianity,
and they under their new faith having lived
together as man and wife ? or whether the
wife's contention is sound, that her marriage
was cancelled by her husband's apostasy?
DIVORCE 89
They held the apostasy of the husband dis
solved the marriage tie. Thia the Oudh
Court admits, but the point before the
Oudh Oourt waa not before tht High
Court, NT. W. P. ; nevertheless from comments
made by the High Conrt, N. W. P., on the
Oudh decision, they evidently did not agree
with the finding ooine to by the latter Court,
on, the point before it.
" Now, Mr. Carrie asks in the above extract,
does such an essential difference exist be
tween apostasy to a book — that is, to ulcitube*
faith — and apostasy to idol worship ? Answer
ing this question necessitates a few remarks
upon the judgments above mentioned. Ac
cording to Mahommedan law, a man may
lawfully marry a kitabeeah, but marriage
with a Pagan or polytheist is unlawful. But
the principle in Mahommedan law is, that
wt >n one of the parties turns to a state of
religion that would render the marriage con
tract illegal if it were still to be entered into,
what was legal before is made void. A Ma
hommedan woman, becoming a kitaltetih,
does not render the marriagB void, for there
is nothing to render the marriage contract
illegal if it were still to be entered into ; but
if the Mahommedan woman becomes an idol
atress, the marriage is void, for the woman
has turned to a state of religion that would
render the marriage contract illegal if it were
still to be entered into : a Mahommedan woman,
becoming a Christian, consequently, would not
be separated from her husband, because she
belongs to the religion of the book, that is,
a kitatec faith. If a Iritabeeah becomes an
idolatress, the marriage is dissolved, but if
she change from one religion to another, and
still remain a kita&eenh, the marriige is not
vitiated. So far the Oudh Court is correct in
its decision, that the Mahommedan wife's con
version to Christianity did not render the mar
riage null and void, but that a suit for resti
tution of conjugal rights would lie; and
taking tho case of C. having sexual inter-
course with B. the wife of A. converted to
Christianity, a conviction under Section 497,
Indian Penal Code, would hold good. But
with all deference, I do not think that tbo
Oudh Court is correct when it states that
' apostasy by the wife without the wish of the
husband could not be entertained; in fact,
that as regards her husband's volition, the
apostasy could not exist, and would not be
recognised.'
" So far as regards a woman's apostatising
to a kttabee faith, this holds good ; but if a
woman turus to Pagauisui, ipso facto the mar
riage is void, and does not depend upon tho
volition of the husband (having regard to tho
principle Vre have adverted to above), so that
the husband under such circxunstances could
not maintain a suit for conjugal rights, nor
would a conviction hold good again.it C.,
under Section 497, Indian Penal Code for
sexual intercourse with B.. the wife of A., who
has apostatised to Paganism. The decisions
of the two Courts, however, seem correct, on
tho principles of Mahommednu law, as to the
effect of a hnsband apostatising from Islam.
12
90
DIVORCE
DIVORCE
By Mahommedan law, a marriage by a female
Moslem with a man not of th« Mahommedan
faith is unlawful: applying the principle
quoted before, the man haying turned to a
state of religion that wotild render the eon-
tract illegal if it were still to be entered into,
the marriage ib void. The apostasy of the
husband dissolves the marriage tie; conse
quently there does exist 'an essential dif
ference between apostasy of a man and of a
woman, of the apostasy of the husband or the
wife; also bplv.'pt.'u apostasy to a faith in &
book, that is, a revealed religion Laving a
book of fafth, and apostasy to the idol wor
ship Mahoinmed and his followers renounce.
Th« l.i \v- allow A Jj. person the right to cease to
be a Mahownedan in the fullest sense of the
•word, :inii to become a Christian, and to
claim for himself and hia descendants all the
right's and obligations of a British subject."
(Hogq v. . (irW'riicai/1 &c.. 2, Hydds /feporff,
3. Manual of Lawn relating to Mvh<inwui-
dans and their Relations of Life,')
V. In addition to the forma of divorce
already explained, there are three others of a
peculiar nature, called khula\ mubant'ah, ami
filar.
The form of divorce known as khitla*. is when,
a husband aud wife disagreeing, or for any other
cause, the wife, on payment of a compensation
or ransom to her husband, is permitted by
the law to obtain from him a release from the
marriage tie. The khuld is generally effected
by the husband giving hack tho dower or par!
thereof. When the aversion is on the part of
(he husband, it is generally held that he
Should grant Iris wife's request without com
pensation; but this is purely a matter of con
science, and not of law.
Mitbdra'dh is a divorce which if. effected by
a mutual release.
jfttSr, from ?ttAr, "back," is a kind of
divorce which is effected by a husband liken
ing his wife to any part or member of the
body of any of his kinswomen within the pro
hibited degree. As for example, if ho were
to 8ay to his wife, "Thou art to me iike tho
back of my mother;" The motive uf tho
husband in saying so must bo examined, and
if it appear that he meant divorce, his wife is
not lawful to him until he have made expia
tion by freeing a slave, or by fasting two
months, or by feeding sixty poor men. (See
Qnr'an, Surah Iviii. 4.)
f For the Sunn! Law of Divorce, see the
Hid&iiah and its Commentary, the Kifnyah ;
Dnmt 'I'Mvkhtar and its Commentary, the
Rnddit r-MukJjt(ir\ the Fatdwa-i-' Alamgiri •
Hamilton's English Edition, Hidayah ; Taf/ore
Luw Lectures, 1873.)
VL The Ski'ak law of Divorce differ* only
in a Tew- particulars from that of the Sunnis.
A ccording to Shl'ah law, a man must be an
adult of understanding, of free «hoiee and
will, and of design and intention, when he
divorces his wife. A marked contrast to the
licence and liberty allowed by the SunnI
law. Nor can the Shfah divorce be effected
in any language of a metaphorical kind. It
must be express and be pronounced in Arabic
^if the husband understand that language),
and it must be spoken and not written. A
divorce amongst the Shi'ahs does not take
effect if given implicatively or ambiguously,
whether intended or not. It is also absolutely
necessary that the sentence should be pro
nounced by the husband in the presence of
two just persons as witnesses, who shall hear
and testify to tU0 wording of the divorce.
(For tho Shi'ah law of divorce, see Shir*atu
Wffinn; Tafrriru 'l-Ahkam; Mafatlh', Mr.
Neil Baillie's Digest, of Muhammadcui Laui;
Imaminit Code : Tugore Law Lectures, 187/f..)
VII Compared with the Mosaic Law.
When compared with the Mosaic law, it will
bo soon that by the latter, divorce was only
sanctioned when there was " some uncleanne^>s "
in the wife, and that whilst in Islam a husband
can take back his divorced wife, in the law of
God it was not permitted. See Dout. xxiv. 1-4.
" When a man hath taken a wife, and mar
ried her, and it come to pass that she find no
favour in his eyes, because he hath found
some uncleanness in her ; then lot him write
her a bill of divorcement, and give it in her
hand, and .'-end her out of his house.
" And when she is departed out of his house,
she may go and be another man's wife.
"And (/'the latter husband hate her, and
write her a bill of divorcement, and giveth it
in her hand, and serideth her out of his
house : or if tho latter husband die, which
took h«. v to he. his wife ;
" Her former husband, which sent her
a. way, m;».y not take her again to be his wife,
sifter that she is defiled; for that is abomina
tion before the Lord ; and thou shalt not
cause the land to sin, which tho Lord thy
God.giveth thee for an inheritance."
The ground of divorce in the Mosaic law
was " some un cleanness in her." There were
two interpretations of this by the Jewish
doctors of the period of the New Testament.
Tire School of Shammai seemed to limit it to
a moral delinquency in the woman, whilst
that .of Hillcl extended it to trifling causes.
Our Lord appears to have regarded all tho
lesser causes than fornication aft standing on.
too weak a ground.
Matt. v. 32: "But I say unto you, that
whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for
the cause of fornication, causeth her to com
mit adultery : and! whosoever shall marry her
that is divorced committeth adultery."
It will be seen that Muhammad adopted
the teaching of the School of Hillel, omitting
the bill of divorcement, which was enjoined in
Deut. xxiv. 3, thereby placing the woman
entirely afc the will and caprice of her husband.
Burkhardt tells us of an Arab, forty-five
years old, who had had fifty wives, so
that he must have divorced two wives and
married two fresh ones on the average every
year. We have cases of Muhammad's own
" Companions " not much better. This is the
natural and legitimate effect of the law.
Sir William Muir (Life of Mahomet, vol iii.
P- 305) says : •' The idea of conjugal unity i«
utterly unknown to Mahometans, except
ing when the Christian example is fey.chanco
DIWAN
UUWEIi
9J
followed; and even there, the continuance of
the bond is purely dependent an the will of
the husband. ... I believe the moral* of
Hindu society, where polygamy is less encou
raged. to be sounder, in a very marked
degree, than that of Mahometan-society.'1
PIWA'N (oV°)- (l) In Muhiim-
tnadan law, the word signifies an account- or
record book, and also the bags in which the
Qazi's records are kept. (2) It is also a
^ourt of juKtioe, a royal court. (3) Also a
•ninister of state; the chief oflieer in a Mu
laioinadfui state ; a finance minister. (4) In
British courts a law-suit is called diiodni, when
it refers to a civil suit, in contradistinction to
''aujduri, or " criminal suit." (5) A colloe-
ion of odes is called a diwan, e.y. Diwan-i-
i*, " the Poems of llafi&.
, .
DIYAH (*>»>). A pecuniary com
pensation for any offence upon the person.
DOGS (Arabic kalb, pi. kiltib-, Heb.
are uno'can animals; for according to
a tradition by Abu Hurairah, Muhammad said
that when a dog drinks in a vessel, it must
be washed seven times, ami that the first clean
sing should bo with earth. (Mishkat, book
iiL c. ii. pt. 1.)
"Most people bolievethat \vl*en a dog howls
near a bouse it forebodes death, for« it is
said, a dog can distinguish the awful form of
Azra'il, the Angel of Death." (Burton's
Arabia, vol. i. p. 290.)
Ibn *Umr says that dogs used to come into
the Masjid at Makkah in the time of the
Prophet, but tho Companions never purified
the mosque when the dog was dry.
TiiB.Imam Abu Yuauf holds that the sale
of a dog that bites is unlawful, whilst the Imam
ash-Shafi'I has said that the sale of a dog
is absolutely illegal, because the Prophet said
the wages of whoredom and the price of a dog
are forbidden. Abu Hanifah holds that do«s
which are trained to hunt or watch may be
lawfully sold. ^Hamilton's Hidaynh* vol. H.
p. 548.)
It is lawful to hunt with a trained dog
and the sign of a dog being trained is that he
catches game three times without killing it.
The dog must be lot slip with the ejaeulation :
Bismillabi 'l/dhi Akbar ! "In the name of God,
the great flodl" when all game seized by him
becomes lawful food. This custom is fo\indod
upo-n a verso ia- the Qur'an, Surah v. 6 :
u Lawful for you are all good things and what
ye have taught beasts of prey to catch, train
ing them like dogs;. ye teach them as God
taught you. And mention the name of God
over it."
Rules for hunting with dogs will be found
in Hamilton's Hidoyaht vol. iv. p. 170.
DOG STAR. Sirius, or the dog
star, was an object of worship amongst the
aucient Arabs, and is mentioned in the Qur'an,
under the name of ash-Sht'ra, Surah, liii. 50:
" He (God) is the Lord of the Dog Star."
DOWER. Arabic, inahr
Heb. (^pflb)' Dower is considered by
some lawyers to be an effect of^ the marriage
contract, imposed on the husband by the law
as a mark of respect for the subject of the
contract — the wife; while others consider
that it is in exchange for thn usufruct of the
wife, and its payment is necessary, as upon
the provision of a support to the wlf« depends
the permanency of the matrimonial connec
tion. Thus, it is indispensable a fortiori, so
much so, that if it were not mentioned in the
marriage contract, it would be still incumbent
on the husband, as the law will presume it by
virtue of the contract itself, and award it
upon demand being made by the wife. In
such case, the amount of dowor wi!l be to the
extent of the dowers of the women of her
rank and of tho ladies of her father's family.
Special beauty or accomplishments may, how
ever, be pleaded for. recovering a larger
award than the customary dower, whei»e the
amount of dower is not mentioned in the con
tract. There is no limit to the amount of
dower; it may be to a very large amount,
considering the position and circumstance ( f
the bridegroom, but its minimum is never less
than ten dirhams • so where it ia fixed at a
lesser amount, the law will augment it up to
ten dirhams. The dower need not mToriably
be in currency, or even in metal ; everything,
except carrion, blood, wine, and hog. Also
the bridegroom's own labour, if he i« a free
man, being hold by the law to bo a good dower.
Dower is generally divided into two parts,
termed jaufoj[/alt " prompt/' and miiujjal)
"deferred." The mu'ajjnl portion is exigible
on entering into the Contra ct, while the »/«'<//-
jal part of the dower is payable xipon dissolu
tion of the contract. Although the first part
is payable, and is sometimes paid, at the
time the contract is entered into* yet it has
been the general practice- (nt least in India)
to leave it unpaid, and so like an on -demand
obligation it remains due at all times— thrf
vrife's right to thd same not being extinguished
by lapse 'of time; The wife'$ (or her guar
dian's) object in leaving the exigible part of
the dower unrealised, seems to be that there
may always exint a valid guarantee for the
good treatment of her by her husband. The
women of the respectable* classes reserve their
right arid power to demand their exigible
dowers till such time as occasion should re
quire the exercise thereof. The custom of
fixing heavy dowers, generally h«yond th«
hnsbrmd's means, especially in India, seems
to be based upon the intention of checking
the husband from Ill-treating his wife, and,
above all, from his marrying another woman,
as also from wrongfully or causelessly di
vorcing the former. For in the owe of divorce
the woman can demand the tall payment of
the dower. In the evont of the death of the
husband, the payment of the dower has tn*
ftf«t claim- on the estate after funeral ex
penses ; the law regarding it as a just debt:
(Ttrgore Law Lectures, 1873, p* 841; Htddyak,
vol. i. p. 122.)
DREAMS
92
DREAMS. Arabic h
mandm (f^-) ; rwwa' f»y#). The term
used for ft bad dream is Wm, and for an ordi
nary dream tnaudm, ruya being used to express
.i heavenly vision. [RUYA.]
According to the traditions, the Prophet is
related to have said, " A. good dream is of -God's
favour and a ba.d dream is of the devil ; there
fore, when any of you dreams a dream which
ie such a& he is pleased with, then he must not
(ell it to any but a beloved friend ; and when
he dreams a bad dream, then let hiifa seek
protection from God both from its evil and
from the wickedness of Satan ; and let him
a pit three times over his left shoulder, and
not mention the dream to anyone; then,
verily, no evil shall come nigh him." " The
truest dream is tho one which you have about
day-break." " Good dreams are one of the
parts of prophecy." (Mis/ikrit) xxi. o. iv.)
DRESS. Arabic libas
Decent apparel at the time of public worship
is enjoined in the Qur'an, Svirab vii. 29: *'O
children of Adam ! wear your goodly apparel
when ye repair to any mosque." Excess in
apparel and extravagance in drees are re
proved, Surah vii. 25: *' We (God) have sent
down raiment to hide your nakedness, and
splendid garments ; but the raiment of piety,
this is the best."
According to the Hidayah (vol. iv. p. 92), a
dress of silk is not lawful for men, but
women are permitted to wear it. Men are
prohibited from wearing gold ornaments, and
also ornaments of silver, otherwise than a.
silver signet ring. The custom of keeping
handkerchiefs in the hand, except for neces
sary use, is also forbidden.
The following art» some of the sayings of
the Prophet with regard to dress, as recorded
in the Traditions. Mishkat, xx. c. i. : *' God
will not 'look at him on the Day of Resurrec
tion who shall wear long garments from
pride.* " Whoever wears a silken -garment
in this world shall not wear it in the next."
M God will not have compassion upon him
who wears Inng trousers (i.e. below the
ankle) from pride/' "It is lawful for the
women of my people to wear silks and #old
ornaments, but it is unlawful for tJie men."
" Wear white clothes, because they are the
cleanest, and the most agreeable ; and bury
your dead in white clothes."
According to the Traditions, the dress of
Muhammad was exceedingly simple. It fs
said he used to wear only two garments, the
izor, or " under garment * which hung down
three or four inches below his knees, and a
mantle thrown over his shoulders. These
two robes, with the turban, and whit*> cotton
drawers, completed tho Prophet's wardrobe.
His dress was generally of white, but ht» also
wore green, red, and yellow, and sometimes a
black woollen dress. It is said by some tra
ditioniats that in the taking of Makkah he
wore a black turban. The end of his turban
used to bang between his shoulders. And he
used to. wrap it many times round his head.
DRESS
It is said, "the edge of it appeared below
like the soiled clothes of an oil dealer."
He was especially fond of white-striped
yamaul cloth.* He once prayed in a silken
dress, but he cast it aside afterwards, saying.
"it doth not become the faithful to wear
silk." He once prayed in a spotted mautle,
but the spots diverted hia attention, and the
garment was never again worn.
His sleeves, unlike those of the Eastern
choga or kkaftdn, ended at the wrist, and he
never wore long robes reaching to his ankles.
At first, he wore a gold ring with the stone
inwards en his right hand, but it distracted
his attention when preaching, and he changed
it for a silver one. His shoes, which were
often old and cobbled, were of the Hazrauaaut
pattern, with two thongs. And he was in the
habit of praying with bis shoes on. [SHOEH.]
The example of Muhammad has doubtless
in Aliened the customs ol bis followers in the
matter of dress, the fashion of which has re
mained almost ihe same in eastern Muharo-
madan countries centuries p«.st ; for although
there are varieties of dress in Eastern as well
as in European countries, still there are one,
or two characteristics of dress which are
common to all oriental nations which have
embraced Islam, namely, the turban folded
round the head, the white cotton drawers, or
full trousers, tied round the waist by a run
ning string ; the qatms, or " shirt," the hh&f-
tan, or " coat," and the lunyi, or " scarf." The
qamif is the same a» the kttoneth of the He
brews, and the \Hrwv ot the Greeks, a kind of
long shirt with short sleeves, the ends of
which extend over the trousers or drawers,
reaching belov, the knees. The Caftan
answers to the iJcbrc v, *» w«i7 (I Sam.
xviii 4), a tunic worn as an outer garment.
The Jewish -J^j Jbeged, or fl/ftfe? simlah,
:• v T : '
must have been similar, to the quadrangular
piece of cloth still worn as a scarf in Central
Asia, and called a fungi, and similar to the
tal><T of the Egyptians. It is worn in various
ways, eilher wrapped round the body, or worn
over the shoulders, and sometimes folded as
a covering for the head.
The dress of Muhammadans in Egypt is
very minutely described by Mr. Lan*» in his
Mortem Egyptians^ vol. i. p. 36,
The dress of tbfe men of the middle and
higher classes of Egypt consists of the iol-
i;;wng articles. First a pair of full drawers
of linen or cotton tied round the body by a
running string or band, the ends of which are
embroidered with coloured silks, though, con
cealed by the outer dress The ^drawers
descend a little below the knees 0r to the
ankles ; but m»ny of the Araos wilV not wear
long drawers, because prohibited by the Pro
phet. Next is worn a qamis or l< shirt," with
very full sleeves, reaching to the wrist ; it is
made of linen of a loose open texture, or of
cotton stuff, or of muslin, or silk, or of a
mixture of silk and cotton in strips- but
all white. Over this, in winter, or in cool
weather, most persons wear a sudeyree, which
DRESS
is a short vest of cloth, or of striped coloured
silk, or cotton, without sleeves. Over the
shirt and the audeyref, or the former alone, is
•worn a Jong vest of striped silk or cotton
(called kaftan) descending to the anklea, with
long sleeves, extending a few inches beyond
the fingers' ends, hut divided from a point a
little above the wrist, or about the middle of
ttie lore-arm, so that the band is generally ex
posed, though it tnay be concealed by the
sleeve when necessary, for it is customary to
cover the hands in the pre-sonce of a person of
high rank. Round this vest is wound the
girdle, which is 9 coloured shawl, or a lon#
piece of white-figured muslin.
The ordinary outer robe is a long oloth
coat, of any 'colour, called by the Turks
jubbah, but by th»- Egyptians gibbeh, the
alecves of which reach not quite to the wriat.
Some persons also wear a btneesh, which is a
robe of cloth wfth long sleeves, like those of
the faiftdn, but more ample : it is properly a
robe of ceremony, and should be worn over
tho other cloth coat, but many pe/sons vear
it instead of the gibbeh.
Another rob*}* called /orayeeyM, nearly re
sembles the bentesh, it haa very long sleeves,
b\it these are not slit, and it is chiefly worn
by men of the learned professions. In cold 01-
cool weather, a kind of black woollen cloak,
called abayeh, is commonly woru. Sometimes
this is drawn over the head.
In winter, also, many persons wrap a muelin
or other shawl (such as they ose for a tur
ban) about the head and shoulders. The
head-dress consists, first, of a small clone-
fitting cotton cap, which ia often changed;
next a tarboosh, which is a red cloth cap. also
fitting close to the head with a tassel of dark-
blue silk at the crown ; lastly, a long piece
of white muslin, generallf figured, or a kash-
mere shawl, which is wound round the 1a,r-
boosh. Thus is formed the turban. The
DRESS
93
oold weather wear woollen or cotton aueka,
The shoes are of thick rod morocoo, pointed,
and turning up at the toes. Some persons
also wear inuer shoes of soft yellow morocco,
and with soles of the same ; the outer shoes
are taken off on stepping- upon a carpet or
mat, but not the inner ; for this reason the
former are often worn turned down at the
heel
The costume of tb.e men of the lower
orders is very simple. These, if not of the
very poorest class, wear a pair of drawers,
and a long and full shirt or gown of blue
linen or cotton, or of brown woollen stuff,
open from the neck nearly to the waist, and
having wide sleeves. Over this aorne wear a
white or red woollen girdle ; for which ser
vants often substitute a broad red belt of
woollen stuff or of leather, generally contain
ing a receptacle for money. TheJr turban is
generally composed of a white, red, or yellow
AN EGrPTIAK MAULAWI (LANE),
kashmere shawl is seldom worn except in cool
weather. Some persons wear two or three
tarbooshes one over another. .\ shereef (or
descendant of the Prophet) wears a green
turban, or is privileged to do so, but no other
peraon; and it i» not common far any but a
shereei to wear a bright green dress. Stock
ings are not in use, but somo fow persona in
AN ECYPTfAN PEASANT (LAKE).
woollen shawl, or of a piece of coarse cotton
or muslin wound round a tarboosh, under
which is a white or brown felt cap • bat many
are so poor, as to have jio other cap than the
laitw, no turban, nor even drawers nor shoes,
but only the blue or brown shirt, or merely 'A
few rags, while many, on the other hand, wear
a sudtyiee under the blue shirt, and some, par
ticularly servants in the houses of great men.
wear a white shirt, a sudeyree, and a. kaftan,
or gibbeh, or both, and the blue shirt ov«r
all. The full hiees'us of this shirt are surae-
times drawn up by means of a cord, which
DRESS
DfiESS
passes round each shoulder and crosses be
hind, where it is tied in a knot. This custom
is adopted by servants (particularly grooms),
who have cords of crimson or dark blue silk
for this purpose.
In cold weather, many persons of the lower
classes wear an abayah, like that before de
scribed, but coarser and sometimes (instead
of being black) having broad stripes, brown
*nd white, or blue ftnd -white, but the latter
rarely. Another kind of cloak, more full than
the abayeh, of black or deep blue woollen
stuff, Is also very commonly worn, it is called
diffeeyoh. The shoes are of red or yellow
rnorocco, or of sheep-skin. Those of the
groom are of dark red morocco. Those of the
door-keeper and the water-carrier of a private
house, generally yellow.
The Muslims are distinguished by the
colours of their turbans from the Copts and
-the Jews, who (as well as other subjects of
the Turkish Sultan who are not Muslims)
wear black, blue, gray, or light brown tur
bans, and generally dull-coloured dresses.
The distinction of sects, families, dynasties,
«tc., among the Muslim Arabs by the colour
of the turban and other articles of dress, is of
very early origin. There are not many dif
ferent forms of turbans now worn in Egypt ;
that worn by most of the servants is pecu
liarly formal, consisting of several spiral
twists one above another like the threads of
a screw. The kind common among the
middle and higher classes of the tradesmen
and other citizens of the metropolis and large
towns is also very f onn.il, but less so than
that just before alluded to.
The Turkish turban worn in Egypt is of a
more elegant fashion. The Syrian is distin-
tinguished by its width. The Ulama and men
of religion and letters in general used to wear,
as some do still, one particularly wide and
formal called a inukleh. The turban is much
respected. In the houses of the more wealthy
classes, there is usually a chair on which it
is placed at night. This is often sent with
the furniture pf a bride as it is common for
a lady to havo one xipon which to place her
head-dress. It is never used for any other
purpose.
The dress of the women of the middle and
higher orders is. handsome and elegant.
Their shirt is vjary full, likfe that of the men,
but shorter, not reaching to the knees ; it is
,i!so, generally, of the same kind of material
as the men's shirt, or of coloured crape,
sometimes black. A pair of very wide trou
sers (called s/«n£/j/«n) of a coloured striped
stuff, of silk and cottonj or of printed or
plain white muslin, is tied round the hms
under the shirt, with a dikkeh ; its lower ex
tremities are drawn up and tied just- below
the knee with running strings, but it is suf
ficiently long to hang down to the feet, or
almost to the, ground, when attached in this
manner. Over the shirt and shintiyan is worn
H long vest (called ye/e&), of the ?<aine mate
rial as the latter; it nearly resembles the
kaftart of the men, but is more tight to the
nody and' arms; the sleeves atso are longer,
and It is made to bution down tba front from
the bosom to a little below the girdle, instead
of lapping over ; it is open, likewise on each
side, from the height of the hip downwards.
In general, the^yelek is cut in such a man
ner as to leave half of the bosom uncovered,
except by the shirt, but many ladies have it
made more ample at that part, and according
to the most approved fashion it should be of
sufficient length to reach to the ground, or
should exceed that length by two or three
i inches or more. A short vest (called anteree)
reaching only a little below the waist, and
exactly resembling -a yelek of which the
lower part has been cut off, is sometimes
worn instead of the latter. A square shawl,
• or an embroidered kerchief, doubled diago-
i nally, is put loosely round the waist as a
girdle, the two comers that are folded to
gether hanging down behind ; or sometime*
the lady's girdle is folded after the ordinary
Turkish fashion, like that of the men, but
more loosely.
Over the yelek is worn a gibbeh of cloth or
velvet or silk, usually embroidered with gold
or with coloured silk ; it differs in form from
the glbbeh of the men. chiefly in being not so
wide, particularly in the fore part, and is of
the same length as the yelek. Instead of tm's,
a jacket (called saltahj, generally of cloth or
velvet, and embroidered in the same manner
as the gibbeh, is often worn.
The head-dress consists of a takeeyeh and
| tarboosh, with a square kerchief (called
faroodeeyeh*) of printed or painted muslin or
one of crape, wound tightly round, composing
what is called a rab.tah. Two or more such
kerchiefs were commonly used a short time
since, and still are sometimes to form the ladies'
AX KGYFnAN LADY (LANE).
turban, but always wound in a high fiat
shape, very different from that of the turban
of the men. A kind of crown, called fairs,
find other ornaments,are attached to the ladies'
head-dress. A long piece of white rnualin,
embroidered at each end with coloured 8 ilk a
DRESS
DRESS
95
and gold, or of coloured crape ornamented
with gold thread, <fec., and spangte*, rests
upon the head, and hangs down behind,
nearly or quite to the ground ; this is called
tarha/i, it is the head- veil; the face- veil 1
shall presently describe. The hair, except
over the forehead and temples, is divided into
numerous braids or plaits, generally from
eleven to twenty-five in number, but always
of an uneven number; these hang ''own the
back. To each braid of hair are usually
added throe black silk cords with liltlo orna
ments of gold, Ac., attached to tbum. Over
the forehead the huir is cut rather short, Init
t\vo full locks hang down on each side of thi?
face ; these arc often curled in ringlets and
sometimes plaited.
Few of the ladies of Egypt wear stockings
of socks, but many of them wear mezz (or
inner shoes) of yellow or red morocco, some
times embroidered vrith gold. Over these,
whenever they step off the matted or carpeted
part of the floor, they put on baboog (or
slippers) of yellow morocco, with high-pointed
toes, or use high wooden clogs cr pattons-
generally from four to nine inches in height,
and usually ornamented with mother-of-pearl
or silver, drc.
The riding or walking attire is called tez-
yttreh. Whenever a Jady loaves the bouse,
she wears, in addition to what has been ibove
gown: it it* of silk, generally of » pink or
rose or yiolnt colour. Next is put on the
burka' or face-veil, whic"h is a long strip of
white muslin, concealing the whole of the face
except the eyes, and reaching nearly to the
feet. It is suspended at the top by n narrow
band, which passes up the forehead, and
which is sewed, as are. also the two upper
corners of the veil, to a band that is tiod round
the head. The lady then covers herself witb
a habarah, which, for a married lady, is com
posed of two breadths of glossy, black silk,
each ell-wide, and three yards long ; these
are sewed together, at or near the selvages
(according to the height of the peraon) the
seam running horizontally, with respect to the
manner hi which it is worn ; a piece of narrow
black ribbon is sewed inside the upper part,
about six inches from the edge, to tie round
THE INDIAN BURKA. { A. F.
described, first, a large, loose gown (called
tob or seble/i), the sleeves of which are nearly
equal In width to the whole length of the
THE EGYPTIAN HABARAH.
the head. But some of them imitate thp
Turkish ladies of Egypt in holding the front
pnrt so as to conceal all but that portion of
the veil that is above the hands. The un
married ladies wear a habarab of white silk,
or a shawl. Some females of the middle
classes, who cannot afford to purchase a ha-
barah, wear instead of it an eezdr (rrar),
which is a piece of white calico, of the same
form and size as the former, and is' worn in
th« same manner. On the feet are worn short
i boots or socks (called khuff), of yellow mo-
rocco, and over these the baboog. The dress
of a large proportion o( those women of the
lower orders who are not of the poorest class,
consists of a pair of trousers or drawer*
96 DRSSS
(similar inform to the shintiyan of the ladiea,
but generally ol plain -white cotton or linen),
a blu* linen or cotton shirt (n'ot quite so full
as that of the men), reaching to the feet, a
burka' of a kind of coarse black crape, and a
dark blue tarhah of muslin or linen. Some
wear, over the long shirt, or instead of the
latter, a linen tob, of the same form as that
of the ladiea ; and within the long shirt, some
wear a short white shirt : and some, a sudey-
ree also, or an anteree. The sleeves of the
tob are often ttirned up over the head ; either
to prevent their being incommodious, or to
supply the place of a tarhah. In addition to
these articles of dress, many women who are
not of the very poor classes wear, us a cover
ing, a kind of plaid, similar in form to the
habarah composed of two pieces of cotton,
woven in small chequers of blue and white,
or cross stripes, with a mixture of red at each
end It is called milaych] in general it is
AH INDIAN ZAJ4ANA LADT.
worn in the same manner aa the habarah, but
sometimes like the tarhah. The tipper part
of the black burka' is often ornamented with
false pearls, small gold coins, and other little
fiat ornaments of the same metal (called bark);
sometimes with a coral bead, and a gold coin
beneath ; also with some coins of base silver
and more commonly with a pair of chain
tassels of brass OT silver (called oyoon)
attained to the corners. A square black silk
kerchief (called asbeh), with a border of red
and yellow, is bound rouud the head, doubted
diagonally, and tied with a single knot behind ;
or, instead of this, the tarboosh and faroodee-
DBESS
yeh are worn, though by very few women of '
the lower classes*
The best kind of shoes worn by the
females of the lower orders are of red
morocco, turned up, but generally round, at ,
the toes. The burka' and shoea are most
common in Cairo, and are also worn by many
of the women throughout lower Egypt ; but
in Upper Egypt, the burka.' ia very seldom
seen, and shoes are scarcely less uncommon
To supply the place of the former, when necca- ;
sary, a portion of the tarhah is drawn before \
the face, so as to conceal nearly all the coun
tenance except one eye.
Many of the women of the lower orders,
even in the metropolis, never conceal their
faces.
Throughout the greater p&rt of Egypt, the
most common dress of the women merely con
sists of the blue shirt or tob and tarhah. In
the southern parts of Upper Egypt chiefly
above Akhmeetn, most of the women envelop
themselves in a large piece of dark-brown
woollen stuff (called a hulaleeyek), wrapping it
round the body and attaching the upper parts
together over each shoulder, and a piece of
the same they use as a tarhah. This dull
dress, though picturesque, is almost as dis
guising as the blue tinge which women in
these parts of Egypt impart to their lips.
Most of the women of the lower orders wear
a variety of trumpery ornaments, such as ,
ear-rings, necklaces, bracelets, &c., arid some
times a nose-ring.
The women of Egypt deem it more incum
bent upon them to cover the upper and back
part of the head than the face, and more
requisite to conceal the face than moat other
parts of the person. I have often seen
women but hilf covered with miserable rags,
and several times females in the prime of
womanhood, and others in more advanced
age, with nothing on the body but a narrow
strip of rag bound round the hips.
Mr. Burckhart, in his Notes on the Bedouins
and Wahabys (p. 47), thus describes the dreas
of the Badawls of the desert :—
In summer the men wear a coarse cotton
shirt, over which the wealthy put a kambar,
or "long gown," as it is worn in Turkish
towns, of silk or cotton staff. Most of them,
however, do not wear the kombar, but simply !
wear over their shirt a woollen mantle.
There are different sorts of mantles, one very
thin, light, and white vooilen, manufactured
at Baghdad, and called mtsoumy. A coaraer
and heavier kind, striped white and brown
(worn over the meeoumy), is called abba.
The Baghdad abbas are most esteemed, those
made at Hainan, with short wide sleeves, are
called bvush. (In the northern parts of
Syria, every kind of woollen mantle, whether
white, black, or striped white and brown, or
white and blue, are called meshlakk^ I have
not seen any black abbas among the Aeneaes,
but frequently among the sheikhs of Ahl el
Shemal, sometimes interwoven with gold, and
worth as much as ten pounds sterling. The
Aenezes do not wear drawers; they walk and
ride usually barefooted, even the richest of
DBK88
them, although they generally esteem yellow
boats and red shoes. All the Bedouins wear
on the head, instead of the red Turkish cap,
a turban, or square kerchief, of cotton or
cotton and silk mixed ; the turban it* called
keffit ; this th«y fold about the head so that
one cornor falls backward, and two other
corners hang over the foro part of the shoul
ders ; with these two corners they cover their
faces to protect them from the SUITS rays> or
hoi wind, or rain, or to conceal their features
if they wish to be unknown. The keffie is
yellow or yellow mixed with green. Over the
keffic the Aenezes tie, instead of & turban, a
corcr round the bead ; this cord is of camel's
hair, and called akal Some tie a handker
chief about the head, and Jt is- then called
shuife, A few rich sheikh* wear shawls on
their heads of Damascus or Baghdad manu
facture, RtripM red and white* they some
times alao use red caps or taklf (called in
Syria tttrbouth\ and under those thoy wear a
smaller cap of camel's hair called maaraka
(in Syria arkye, where it is generally made of
rino cotton stuff).
DRESS
97
A BEDOUIN (BADAWI) OF THK DESERT.
The Aenezes are distinguished at first sight
from all the Syrian Bedouins by the long
tressoe of their hair. They never shave
their black hair, but cherish it from infancy,
till they can twist it in tresses, that hang
' over the cheeks down to the breast : these
tresses, are called keroun. Some few Aen*x«s
wear girdles of leather, others tie a cord or
a piece of rag over the ehirt Men and women
wear from infancy a leather girdle around the
naked waist, it consists of four or five thongs
twisted together into a cord aa thick as one's
finger. I hear-] that the women tie their
thongs separated from each other, round the
waist. Both metn and women adorn the
girdles wi*h pieces of ribands or amulets. The
Aenezes called it hhakou ; the AW el Shemal
call it bernm. In summer the boys, until the
age of seven or eight years, go stark naked;
but I never saw any young girl in that state,
although it was mentioned that in the interior
of the desert the girls, at that early age, were
not more encumbered by clothing than thoir
little brothers. In wintor, the Bedouins wear
ov«r tho shirt a pelisse, made of several sheep
skins stitched together; many wear these
skins even in summer, because experience has
taught them that Ihe more warmly a perscm
is clothed, tho less he suffers from the <mn.
The Arabs endure tho inclemency of the
rainy season in a wonderful manner. While
everything around thorn suffers from the
cold, they sleep barefooted in an open ent,
where tho fire is not kept up beyond mid
night. Yet in the middle of summer an Arab
Bleeps wrapt in his mantle upon tho burning
Sand, and exposed to the rays of an intensely
hot sun. The ladies' dress is a wide cotton
ge on of u dark colour, blue, brown, or black ,
on their hoads they wear A kerchief called
xhaitber or mekroune, the young females having
it of a red colour, the old of black. All the
Ranalla ladios wear black silk kerchiefs, two
yards square, called shale kns ; these are made
at Damascus. Silver rings are much worn
by the Aeneze ladies, both in the ears and
noses; the ear rings they call terkie (pi U-
raky), the small nose-rings shedre, the larger
(some of which are tbreo inches and a half in
diameter), khezain. All the women puncture
their lips and dye them blue ; this kind of
tattooing they call bertoum. and apply it like
wise in spotting their temples and foreheads.
The Serhhan women puncture their cheeks
breasts, and arms, and the A rumour women
their ankles. Several men also adorn their
arms in the same manner. The Bedouin
ladies half cover their faces with a dark-
coloured veil, called nekye, which is so tied
as to conceal the chin and mouth. The
Egyptian women's veil (berkoa) is used by
the Kebly Arabs. Round their wrists th«
Aenezo ladies wear glass bracelets of various
colours ; the rich also hare silver bracelets
and some wear silver chains about the neck
Both in summer and wintor the men and
women go barefooted
Captain Burton, in his account of Zanzibar,
(rol. i. p. 382), says : —
The Arab's head-dresa is a himmeh 01 ko-
fiyyah (red fez), a Surat calotte (ajiyyah), or
a white skull-cap, worn under a turban
(kiUmba) of Oman silk and cotton religiously
mixed. Usually it is of fine blue and white
cotton check, embroidered and fringed with
broad red border, with the and* hanging in
98
DRESS
DRESS
unequal lengths over ore shoulder. The
eoitiure is highly picturesque. The ruling
family and grandees, however, have modified
its vulgar folds, wearing it peaked in front,
aucl some w nat resembling a tiara. The essen
tial body-clothing, and the auocedaneum for
trousers is an iiur (nyuo yakv Chini), or loin
cloth, tucked in at the waist, six to seven fe«t
long by two to three broad. The colours are
brickdust and white, or blue and white, with
a silk border striped red. black, and yellow.
The very poor wear a dirty bit of cotton
girdled by a hakatt or kunddvi, a rope of
plaited thongs ; the rich prefer a fine embroi
dered stuff from Om an, supported at the waist
by a silver chain. None but the western
Arabs admit the innovation of drawers (surit-
wali). The Jama or upper garment is a collar-
less coat, of the best broad-cloth, leek-green
or some tender colour being preferred. It is
secured over the left breast by a silken loop,
and the straight wide sleeves are gaily lined.
The kizhdo is a kind of waistcoat, covering
only the bust; some wear it with sleeves,
others without. Thedishdashes (in Kisawa-
hili Khanzu), a narrow-sleeved shirt buttoned
at the throat, and extending to midshin, is
made of calico (baftah)., American drill and
other stuffs called doriyah. tarabuzun, and
jamdani. Sailors are known by khuzerangi,
a coarse cotton, stained dingy red-yellow,
with henna or pomegranate rind, and rank
with ware (bastard saffron) and. shark's oil.
Respectable men guard the stomach with a
hizdm, generally a Cashmere or Bombay
shawl ; others wear sashes of the dust-
coloured raw silk, manufactured in Oman.
The outer garment for chilly weather is the
long tight-sleeved Persian jubbeh, jokhah, or
caftan, of European broad-cloth. Most men
shave their beads, and the Shafeis trim or
entirely remove the moustache^.
The palms are reddened with henna, which
is either brought from El Hejaz, or gathered
in the plantations. The only ring is a plain
cornelian seal and the sole other ornament is-
a talisman (hirz, in Kisawahili Hirizi). The
eyes aro blackened with kohl, or antimony of
El Sham — here, not . Syria, but the region
about Meccah — and the mouth crimsoned by
betel, looks as if a tooth had just been knocked
out.
Dr. Eugene Schuylor. in his work on Turk
estan (vol. i. p. 122), says : —
The dress of the Central Asiatic is very
simple. He wears, loose baggy trousers,
Qsually made of coarse white cotton stuff-
fastened tightly round the waist, with a cord
and tassel ; this is a necessary article of dress,
and is never or rarely taken off, at all events
not in the presence of another. Frequently,
when men are at work, this is the only gar
ment, and in- that case it is gradually turned
up under the cord, or rolled up on the legs,
so that the person is almost naked. Over
this is ™orn a long shirt, either white or of
some light-coloured print, reaching almost to
the feet, aud with a very nai-row aperture for
the neck, which renders it somewhat difficult
to pat the head through, The sleeve? are
long and loose. Beyond this there is nothing
more but what is called the chapan, varying
in number according to the weather, or the
whim of the person. The chapan is a loose
gown, cut very sloping in the neck, with
strings to tie it together in front ; and inor
dinately large sleeves, made with an immense
gore, and about twice as long as is necessary ;
exceedingly inconvenient, but useful to con
ceal the hands, as Asiatic politeness dictates.
In summer, these are usually made of Rus
sian prints, or of the native alatcha, a striped
cotton material, or of silk, either striped or
with most gorgeous eastern patterns, in bright
colours, especially r«d,. yellow, and green. T
have sometime* seen men with as many as
four or five of these gowns, even in anramer
they say that it keeps out the heat. In
winter, one gown will frequently be made of
cloth, and lined with line lamb-skin or fur.
The usual girdle is a large handkerchief, or a
AN AFGHAN CHIEF. (A. F. Hole.)
miiall shawl; at times, a long scarf wound
several times tightly ronnd the waist. The
Jews in places tinder native rule are allowed
no girdle, but a bit of rope or cord, as a mark
of ignominy. From the girdle hang the acces
sory knives and peveral small bags and
pouches, often prettily embroidered, for
combs, money, &c On the head there is a
skujl-cap ; these in Tashkent are always em
broidered with silk; in BukharA they are
usually worked with silk, or worsted in cross-
stitch in gay patterns. The turban, called
tchilprtch. or " forty turns," is very long ; and
if the wearer has any pretence to elegance, It
should be of fine thin material, which is
chiefly imported from England. It requires
considerable experience to wind one properly
round the head, so that the folds will be well
made arid the appearance fashionable. One
extremity is left to fall over the left shoulder,
but is usually, except at prayer time, tucked
in over the top. Should this end be on the
right shoulder, it is said to be in the Afghan
style.. The majority of turbans are white
particularly sd in Ta'fchkerit, though white i*
BfiESS
especially the colour of the mullahs and roli-
jfious people, whose learning is judged by the
size of their turbans. In general, merchants
nrefer blue, striped, or chequered material.
I
AN AEGHAN MULLAH.
At hoiot the met* usually go barefooted,
but on going out wear either a ?ort of slipper."
with pointed toes and very small high heeds.
or loof? soft boots, the Sole arid upper being
made of the same material. In the street,
one must in addition pnt on either a slipper or
golosh, or wear riding-boots made of bright
green horso hide, with turned-up pointed
toes and very small high beels.
The dress of the women, in .shape rmd
fashion, differs but little from that of the
men, as they wear similar trousers and shirts,
though, in addition, they have long gowns,
usually of bright-coloured silk, \vhich, extend
from the neck to tho ground. They wt«r
an innumerable quantity of necklaces, and
little amulet^, pcudautp in their hair, and
ear-rings, and occasionally even * nosc-ricg.
This is by no moane so ugly as Is gtupposeJ : a
pretty girl with a torquoisering in one nostril
is not at all unsightly On the contrary, there
is something piquant, m it. Usually, when
outside of the houses, all respectable women
wear a heavy black voil, reaching to their
waists, made of woven horse-hair, and over
that is thrown a d.'irk blue, or green k/ialutt,
the sleeves of which, tied together at the
ands, dangle behind. The theory of this dull
dress is, that the women desire to escape ob
servation, and certainly for that purpose they
have devised h«* most ugly and unseemly
99
costume that could he imagined. They are,
hov/f v*-r, veiy inquisitive, rind occasionally in
bye-streets one is able to get a good glance
at them before they pull down then* veils
The d/vss of the citizens of Persta has been
often dftscnbttd, both by ancient and modern
traveller-. That of the men has changed
/ery materially within the last cnntury. The
tuvhan, a.s a head-dress, is now worn by none
but the Arabian inhabitants of that country.
The Persians wear u Jong cap covered with
lamb's wool, the appearance of which 1$
sometimes improved by being encircled with
a cashmere shawl. The inhabitants of the
principal towns are fond of dressing richly
Their upper garments are either made of
chmU, silk, ov cloth and are often trimmed
with gold or silver Uce ; they also wenr bio
cade , and in winter their clothas ar«» linec
with, furs, of which they import a great
vanity. Ft H not ':u«M>mary for any peison,
except the king to wear jewels ; hut. nothing
can exceed the proiusion which he displays
of those ornaments j and bid subjects ee'eru
peculiarly proud of this part of royal magni
ficence. They assert that when the monarch
is dressed in his most splendid rohes, and is
seated in the sun, that the eye cannot gaze on
the darling- brilliancy of his attire.
DRINKABLES. Arabic asknbah
(L^A.1) There is a chapter in the
Traditions devoted to this subject, and en
titled Babu'l-Ashriltah. The example of Mu
hammad in bis habit ot drinking, having in
fluenced the Eastern world in its habits, the
following traditions are noticeable. Anae
Says tf the. Prophet ha.-", forbidden drinkiogf
water standing,' and that he used to take
breath three times in drinking; »nd would say
drinking in this way cools the stomach,
qneuohes the thivst and gives health and
vigour to the body.
Ibn 'A.bbai< says the .Prophet forbade
drinking water from the mouth of & leather
bag.
Umra Salimah says "the* .Prophet, said,
He who drinks out of a silver cup drinks of
bell firf " (&**&& h.u.w rix c iii.)
DRINKING VESSELS. There
are /ourdriukuig vessule which Muslims were
forbidden by their Prophet to drink out of
jbk. i ,c.i )/iantoni. a "green vessel ";
large gourd hollowed out: naqir.a.
cup made from the hollowed root of a tree :
muzctjftat, a vessel covered with pitch, or with
a glutinouo Bubsrancc. These four kinds of
vessels seem to have been used for fJHnkmg
wine, hence the prohibition
When a dug drinks irom a vessel used by
man, it should he washed seven t<i».cs
(Mishfc-it, book iii. c i*. pt. i.)
DROWNING. Arabic yha.ru j
(&f) I*' i* * strange anomaly in
Muhaiiinmdan law. according to the teaching'
of Abu Hani fab, that if » person cause the
death of another by immersing him under
w&ter until he die, the offence does not
100
DETTNKSKNBSS
amount to murder, and retaliation (gt>a#)is not
inourred. The arguments of the learned divine
are as follows : First, water is analogous to
a small stick or rod, as is seldom or ever
used in murder. Now, it is said in the Tradi
tions that .death produced by a rod is only
manslaughter, and as in that a fine is merely
incurred, so here likewise. Secondly, retalia*
• tion requires the observance of a perfect
equality ; but between drowning and wound
ing there is no equality, the former being
short of the latter with regard to damaging
the body. [MUBDEB.]
DBTJNKENNESS. Shurb (v^)
denotes the state of a person who has taken in
toxicating liquor, whilst svkr (^L») implies a
state of drunkenness. Wine of any kind being
strictly forbidden by the Muslim law, no dis
tinction is made in the punishment of a wine-
drinker and a drunkard. If a Muslim drink
wine, and two witnesses testify to his having
done so, or if his breath smell of wine, or if
he shall himself confess to having taken wine,
or if he be found in a state of intoxication, he
shall be beaten with eighty stripes, or, in the
case of a slave, with forty stripes. (Hiddyah,
vol. ii. p. 67 ; Mtshkat, bk. xv. c iv.) [KHAMR.]
DRTTZES. A heretical mystic sect
of Muhammadans, which arose about the be
ginning of the eleventh century in the moun
tains of Syria. They are now chiefly found
in the districts of Lebanon, and in the neigh
bourhood of Damascus. They were founded
by al-Haklm, the fanatical Khalifah of the
Fafcimite race, who reigned at Cairo, assisted
by two Persians named Hamzah and al-Darazi,
from the latter of whom the sect derives its
name.
De Sacy, in his Expose de la Religion des
Druzes, gives the following summary of their
belief:—
"To acknowledge only one God, without
seeking to penetrate the nature of His being
and of His attributes ; to confess that He can
neither be comprehended by the senses nor
defined by words ; to believe that the Divinity
has shown itself to men at different epochs,
under a human form, without participating in
any of the weaknesses and imperfections of
humanity ; that it has shown itself at last, at
the commencement of the fifth age of the
Hejira, under the figure of Hakim Arur
Allah ; that that was the last of His mani
festations, after which there is none other to
be expected ; that Hakim disappeared in the
year 411 of the Hejira, to try the faith of His
servants, to give room for the apostasy of
hypocrites, and of those who had only em
braced the true religion frdm the hope of
worldly rewards; that in a short time he
would appear again, full of glory and of
majesty, to triumph over all his enemies, to
extend His empire over all the earth, and to
make His faithful worshippers happy for
ever ; to believe that Universal Intelligence is
the first of God's creatures, the only direct
production of Bis omnipotence; that it has
appeared upon the earth at the epoch of each
BOTZES
of the manifestations of the Divinity, and has
finally appeared since the time of Hakim
under the figure of Hamza, son of Ahmad ;
that it is by His ministry that all the other
creatures have been produced ; that Hamza
only possesses the knowledge of all truth,
that he is the prime minister of the true reli
gion, and that he communicates, directly or
indirectly, with the other ministers and with
the faithful, but in different proportions, the
knowledge and the grace which he receives
directly from the Divinity, and of which he is
the sole channel ; that he only has immediate '
access to God, and acts as a mediator tc the
other worshippers of the Supreme Being;
acknowledging that Hamza is he to whom
Hakim will confide his sword, to make his
religion triumph, to conquer all his rivals,
and to distribute rewards and punishments
according to the merits of each one ; to know
the other ministers of religion, and tho rank
which belongs to each of them ; to give to
each the obedience and submission which is
their due ; to confess that every soul has
been created by the Universal Intelligence;
that the number of men is always the same ;
and that souls pass successively into different
bodies ; that they are raised by their attach
ment to truth to a superior degree of excel
lence, or are degraded by neglecting or giving
up religious meditation ; to practise the seven
commandments which the religion of Hamza
imposes upon its followers, and which prin
cipally exacts from them the observance of
truth, charity towards their brethren, the
renunciation of their former religion, the most
entire resignation and submission to the will
of God; to confess that all preceding reli
gions have only been types more or less per
fect of true religion, that all their ceremonial
observances are only allegories, and that the
manifestation of true religion requires the
abrogation of every other creed. Such is
the abridgment of the religious system taught
in the books of the Druses, of which Haitian
is the author, and whose followers are called
Unitarians."
There is a very full and correct account of
the religious belief of the Druzos in the .Jfr-
searches into ike Religions of Syria, by the
Rev. J. Wortabet, M.D. In this work Dr
Wortabet gives the following Catechism of
the Druzes, which expresses their belief with
regard to Christianity : —
" Q. What do ye say concerning the goapel
which the Christians hold ?
" A. That it' is true ; for it is the sayings
Of the Lord Christ, who was Salman el Pha-
riay during the life of Mohammed, and who ia
Hamzeh the son of AH — not the false Christ
who was born of Mary, for he was the son of
Joseph.
" Q. Where was the true Christ when the
false Christ was with the disciples ?
" A. He was among the disciples. He uttered
tho truths of the gospel and taught Christ,
the son of Joseph, the institutes of the Chris
tian religion ; but when Jesus disobeyed the
fcrtie Christ , he put hatred into the hearts of
the Jews, so that they crucified him.
DU'A
DYBB
101
44 What became of him after the crucifixion ?
«' A. They put him into a grave, and the
trne Ohriet came and stole him, and gave out
the report among men that Christ had risen
out of the dead.
" Q. Why did he act in this manner?
" A. That he might establish the Christian
religion, and confirm its followers in what he
had taught them.
" Q. Why did he act in such a manner as to
establish error ?
" A. So that the Unitarians should be con
cealed in the religion of Jesoa and none of
them might be known.
•' Q. Who was it that came from the grave
and entered among the disciples when the
doers were shut ?
" A. The living Christ, who is immortal,
even Haxnzeh, the eon and slave of our Lord.
" Q. Who brought the gospel to light, and
preached it?
" A. Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.*'
"Q. Why did not the Christians acknow
ledge the unity of God ?
" A. Because God had not so decreed.
** Q. Why does God permit the introduction
of evil and infidelity ?
11 A. Because He chooses to mislead some
from, and to guide others, to the truth.
•' Q. If infidelity and error proceed from
Him, why does he punish those who follow
them ?
" A, Because when He deceived them, they
did not obey Hi?".
" Q. How can a deluded man obey, when
he is ignorant of the true state of the daae ?
•'A. We are not bound to answer thia
question, for God is not accountable to his
creatures for his dealings with them."
DU'A'(«A*j). "Prayer." The word
du'ff is generally used for supplication, as dis
tinguished from falat, or the liturgical form
of prayer, e.g. Qur'an, Surah xiv. 42 : "0 my
Lord ! make me and aay posterity to be con
stant in prayer (salaf). O our Lordl and
accept my supplication (rfu'cf). [PBAYERS.J
DU'AM-MA'Stm (*-*— *L-0U)-
Lit. "Recorded prayer." A term used for
prayers which were offered up by the Pro
phet, and have been handed down in the
Traditions.
DU'A'U 'L-QUNtJT (*»yuW .V0j),
called also the Qunutu V- Witr, " The prayer
said standing.1' A form of prayer recited after
the qarffah in the night prayer. Recited by
some sects in the early morning. It is found
in the Traditions. It is as follows : —
" O God, we seek help from Thee, and for
giveness of sins.
" We believe in Thee and trust in Thae.
«* We praise Thee. We thank Thee. We
are not unthankful.
" We expel, and we depart from him who
does not obey Thee.
«« We serve Thee only, and to Theo do we
pray.
" We seek Thee, we prostrate ourselves and
we serve Theo.
14 We hopo for Thy morcy. We fear Thy
punishments.
"Surely Thy Judgments arc upon the
infidels."
DUALISM. Professor Palmer,
following the remarks ol cl-Baizawi the
commentator, says there ie a protest against
the dnalistic doctrine that Light and Dark
ness were two co-eternal principles, in the
Qur'an, Surah vi. 1: "Praised be God who
created the heavens and the earth, and brought
into being the Darkness and the Light."
(Palmer's Qur'an, vol. i. p. lift ; al-Bai?§w? m
Zoco.)
"The
Smoke." The title of the xuvth chapter of
the Qur'an, in which the -words occur (dfch
verse) : " Expect thou the day when the
heaven shall bring a palpable smoke."
DULDUL (J«d*>). The name of
the Prophet's mule which he gave to 'AIL
DUMB, The. Arabic abkam (f&\\
pL buhn,
The intelligible signs of a dumb person
suffice to verify bis bequests and render them
valid ; he may also execute a marriage con
tract, or give a divorce, or execute a sale or
purchase, or sue or incur punishment by signs,
but he cannot sue in a case of qi ?a?, or reta
liation for murder. This rule does not apply
to a person who has been deprived of speech,
but merely to one who has been born dumb
(Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 568.) A dumb person can
also acknowledge and deny the faith by a sign,
AD-DURBATU 'L-BAI2A' (*,.Ut
*U*JV). Lit. « The pearl of light." A
term used by Sufi mystics to express the
'dqlu 'l-awvcal, the first intelligence which
God is said to have created at the beginning
of the animate world. ('Abdn V-Razzaq's
Dictionary ef$*fl Terms.)
DTOtTD (^o; a Persian word.
Arabic a$-Salat (V-9^). A benedic
tion •, imploring mercy. A part of the stated
prayer, recited immediately after the Tashah-
hud. whilst in the same posture. It is as fol
lows : " 0 God, have mercy on Muhammad and
on his descendants, as Thou didst have mercy
on Abraham and on his descendants ! Tbou
art to be praised, and Thou art great 1 O
God, bless Muhammad and his descendants aa
Thou didst bless Abraham and his descen
dants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art
great." The merits of this form of prayer
are said to be very great ; for, according to
Anas, the Prophet said, " He who recites it
will have blessings on his head ten times, ten
sins will be forgiven, and he will be exalted
ten steps." (Mishkdt, book iv. c. xvii.)
[PRATBB.]
DtfZAKE (£)r>)- The Persian
word for. hell. [HELL.]
DYER. According to the Iinam
Abu Hanifah, a dyer of cloth is at liberty to
102
DYING
detain it until he receive his hire for dyeing 11 ;
and if the cloth perish in his hands whilst it
is detained, be is not responsible. (Siddya/i,
vol. iii. 320.)
DYING, The. Very special in
structions are given in Muslim books as to
the treatment of the dying. In the Burnt Y-
Mukhtdr (p. 88), the friends of the dyiug are
recommended, if possible, to turn the head ef
the dying person towards Makkah ; but if this
be not convenient, hie feet should be placed
EARTH
in that direction and his head slightly raiaed.
The Kalimatu 'sh~$hahddah should then be
recited, and the Surah Ya-SIn (xxxvi.) and
Snratu V-Ra'd (xiii.) should be read from
the Qur'an. When the spirit has departed
from the body, the mouth Should b« tied up
and the eyes closed and the arms straight
ened, and the body should be perfumed, and
no unclean person should be suffered to
approach the corpse. Immediate steps should
then be taken for the washing of the corpse
[DEATH,]
E.
EAK-RINGS ; NOSE-RINGS. In
the East it is the universal custom of Mu-
hainmadan women to wear cat-rings, and they
are not unfrequently worn by young men and
children. Gold ear-rings are, however, for
bidden in the Traditions : for Abu Htt.raira.h
relates that the Prophet said, " Whoever
wishes to pat into the ear or the nose of a
friend a ring of hell fire, let him put in the ear
or the nose of his friend a gold ring . .
let your ornament be of silver." And Asm*'
bint Yazld relates the same tradition. (Mi*fi-
kdl, book xx. c, 11, part 2.)
BAB AND NOSE KINGS
EARTH, The. Arabic arz
Muhammad taught his followers that just as
there are seven heaven^ [HEAVEH] one above
another, so there are seven earths one beneath
another, the distance between each of these
regions being five hundred years' journey.
(Mishkat, book xxiv. c. i. part 3.)
In the (Jur'an the earth is said to be stretched
out like a carpet or bed (Sftrah ii. 20 j xiii. 8 ;
Ixxviii. 6), which expression the ancient com
mentators understood to imply that the earth
was a v«st plane, but circular ; and (Surab
xxxix. 67) to be but a handful in the sight
of God, which in the last day shall be changed
into another earth (Surah xiv. 49).
The earth is believed by Mtthammadan
writers to '>e surrounded by a great ,sea
called crl Btfhi n 7- M wAit, or the circumambient
ocean, which is bounded by the mountains of
Qaf. The extent of the earth is said to be
equal to a journey of five hundred years;
two hundred years' jonrney being allotted to
the sea, two hundred to the uninhabited
desert, fcighty to the country of Gog and
Magog ( Ya/uj wet Afitjuf) and the rest to the
civilised world. Certain tsrrce tncoymia in the
midst of the mountains of Qaf are said to be
inhabited by the jinn, or genii. According to
i some. Makkfth (or Jerusalem according to
others) is situated in.the centre of the earth.
On the Mnfiit is tho 'Arshtt 'l-Ibhs, or " Throne
of Satan." The western portion of the Muhit
is often called the Bab.ru 'z-jhtlmat, or ** Sea
of Darkness." and in the south-west corner
of tha earth is the Fountain of Life of which
al-Khizr drank, and in. virtue of which he
still lives, and will live till the Day of Judg
ment. The mountains of Qaf which bound
the great sea Mnhit, form a circular barrier
round the whole earth, and are said to be of
green chrysolite, the colour of which the Pro
phet said imparts a greenish tinb to the sky.
The general opinion is that the mountains of
Qaf bound our earth, but some say there are
countries beyond, each country being a thou
sand years' journey*
The seven earths, which are five hundred
years' journey from each other, are situated
one beneath the other, and each of these
seven regions has its special occupants.
The occupants of the first are men, genii,
and animal*; the second is occupied by the
suffocating wind which destroyed the infldel
tribe of 'Ad (Surah Ixix. 6); the - third is
filled withjfche stones of hell, mentioned in the
Qur'iin (Surah ii. 22 ; Ixvi. 6) as " the fuel of
which is men and stones " ; the fourth by the
sulphur of hell ; the fifth by the serpents of
hell ; the sixth by the scorpions of hell, which
are in size and colour like black mules, and
have tails like spears ; and the seventh by
ttw devil and his angels. Our earth is said
to be supported on the shoulders of an angel,
who stands upon a rock of ruby, which rock
is supported on a huge bull with four thou-
EARTHQUAKE
EATING
103
•and eyes, and the saint number of ears,
noses, mouths, tongues, and feet; between
every ono of each is a distance of five hun
dred years' journey. The name of thus bull
is Rujuta, who is supported by an enormoufi
fish, the name of which is BaJiamut,
The above is but » brief outline of the
Mnhammadan belief as regard* the earth'*
formation; but the statements of Mnham
madan commentators are so wild on the
subject, that it seems quite useless to quoti
th*m as authorities, for they Contradict each
other in endless variety.
EARTHQUAKE, The. Arabic
a»-Zal*alah («jW> The title of the
xcfxth Surah of the Qur'an, iu which it is
Staled that HH earthquake will take place at
the commencement of tho sign* of the last
day:—
" When the Earth with her quaking ghal'
quake
" And the Earth shall cant forth her bur
dens,
« And man shall say. What aileth her?
'• On Uiat day shall *he tell out ber
tiding,
«* BecauBc thy Loid shall have hi spired her.
- On that day shall men come forward in
thronr* to behold their works,
** And whosoever sh&ll have wrought HE
.ttom's weight of good shall behold it,
" And whosoever shall hare wrought an
• tom's weight of evil shall behold it.1'
EATING, According to the Tra
ditions, Muhammad ;inp havo been enjoined
by their Prophet to eat jn God'fl nama, to
return thanks, to eat with their right band,
and with their shoes off, and to Hck the
plate when the meal is finished. The follow
ing we some of Muhammad's precepts on the
subject: —
"The Devil has povror over that food
which is eaten without remembering God,"
"Repeat the name of God. Eat with the
tight hand and oat from before vou."
11 When a man comes into a house at meal
time, and remembers the name of God, the
devil s«ys to his followers, ' There is no place
here for you and me to-night, nor is there any
aupper for us."
" When anyone eattf he mutt not wash his
fingers until he has fir$i licked them,*
"Whoever eats a difth and licks it after
wards, the dish intercedes vith God for
him"
" When victuals aro placed before you, oat
them with your shoes off, because taking; off
your shoes will ease your feet.'1 ('AbcJn II-
Haqq adds, "and do it ont, of respect to the
food.")
" Whoever eate from a plate and licks it
afterwards, the dish says to him, 'May God
free you from hell as you have freed me
from the devils licking me.1 "
Qatadah says that Anas said : " The
Prophet did not eat off a table, as is the
manner of proud men. who do it to avoid
bending their backs." (Minhlc&t, Arabic ed.
Baku 'T-Apimak.)
The following directions are given for cat-
ing, by Faqir Muhammad; As' ad, the author
of the A^hlaq-i-JaldlL (Thompson's English
TranElatiou, p. 294): —
" First of all. ho should wash h'i# hands
DINING
104 EATING
mouth, and nose. Before beginning he should
say, < In the name of God » (BismiUSX) ? and
after ending he must say, ' Glory to God '
(Al-kamduliltdK). He is not to be in a hurry
to begin, unless he is the master of the feast ;
he must not dirty his hands, or clothes, or
the table-linen ; he must not eat with more
than three fingers, nor open his mouth wide ;
not take large mouthfuls, nor swallow them
hastily, nor yet keep them too long mi-
swallowed. He must not suck his fingers in
the course of eating ; but after he has eaten,
he may, or rather ought, as there is scripture
warrant for it.
" Let him not look from dish to dish, nor
smell the food, nor pick and choose it. If
there should be one dish better than the rest,
let him not be greedy on his own account, but
let him offer It; to others. He must not spill
the grease npon his fingers, or so as to wet
his broad and salt He must not eye his com
rades in the midst of hie mouthfuls. Let him
eat from what is next him, unless of fruit,
which it is allowable to eat from every quarter.
What he has onoe put into his mouth (such
as bones, &c.), he must not replace upon his
bread, nor upon the table-cloth; if a bone
has found its way there, let him remove it
unseen. Let him beware of revolting ges
tures, and of letting anything drop from his
mouth into the cup. Let him so behave,
that, if anyone should wish to eat the relicts of
his repast, there may be nothing to revolt him.
BATING WITH JEWS
11 Whero he is [a guest, he must stay his
hand sooner than the master of the feast;
and whenever the rest discontinue eating, he
must act in concert with them, except he be
in his own house, or some other where he
constitutes part of the family. Where he is
himself the host, he must not continue eat
ing when the rest have stayed their hands, -so
that something may be left for anyone who
chances to fancy it.
" If he has occasion to drink in the course
of his meal, let him do it softly, that no noise
in his throat or mouth may be audible to
others. He must not pick his teeth in the
view of the company, nor swallow what his
tongue may extract from between them ; and
so of what may be extracted by the tooth*
pick, let him throw it aside so as to disgust
no one.
" When the time comes for washing his
hands, let him be exceedingly careful in
cleansing his nails and fingers. Similar
must be his particularity hi washing his
lips, mouth, and nostrils. He must not void
his rheum into the basin ; even the water in
which his mouth has been rinsed, let him
cover with his hand as he throws it
away.
"Neither must he take the turn from
others in washing his hands, saving when he
is master of the entertainment, and then he
should be the first to wash."
WASHING THE HAND8.
EATING WITH JEWS OB
CHRISTIAN& In Muhammadan countries,
where the people have not bean brought in
contact with Hindus, with caste prejudices,
Muslims never hesitate to eat with Jews and
Christians, provided the drink and victuals
are such as are lawful in Islam. Since the
British occupation of India, the question has
often been raised, and few Muhammadans will
eat with Englishmen, Syud Ahmad Khan,
C.S.L, has. written a book, in which he proves
that it is lawful for Muhammadans to eat with
both Christians and Jews, and his arguments
would seem to be in accordance with the
teaching of the Qur'an. Surah v. 7 : " Law
ful for you to-day are the good things, and
the food of thd people of the Book (i.e. Jews
and Christians) is lawful for you, and your
food is lawful for them."
Al-BaizawI, commenting on this verse,
ECLIPSE
EDEN
105
says t " This verse includes all kinds of food,
that which is slain lawfully (zabh} or not, and
this verse is of common application to all
the people of the Book, whether Jews or
Christians. But on one occasion Khali/ah
•All did not observe its injunctions with re
gard to the Banu Taghlib. a Christian tribe,
because ho said these people wore not Chris
tians, for they had not embraced anything of
Christianity excapt wine-drinking. And he
does not include amongst the people of the
book, the Majusis, although he included the
Majusis with the people of the Book when
he took the poll-tax from them, according to
a tradition which Muhammad gave regarding
the Majfisis, viz. • Treat the Majusis as you
would treat the people of the Book, but do
not marry with thorn, nor eat what they
slay." (Tafsrru'l-Baizdwl, p 216.)
The commentators, al-Kamalan, say the
only question raised was that of animals
slain by. Jews and Christians, and the learned
are all agreed that animals glain by them are
lawful. (Tafsvm 'l~Jalalain wa'l-Kamdlain,
p. 98.)
The following Hadla is given in the $ahih
Muslim on the subject : Abu Sa'labah related,
" I said, 0 Prophet of God I Verily we live in
a land belonging to the people of the Book
(i.e. Jews or Christians) ; is it lawful, for us
to eat out of their dishes? The Prophet
replied, The order for dishes is thie : if you
can get other dishes, then eat of them ; but if
ye cannot, then wash those of the people of
the Book and eat from them."
The Imam Nawawi, the commentator on
the Sahih Muslim, says Abu Da'ud has
given this Hadis in a somewhat different
form to that hi the text. He says : *• Abfl
Sa'labah relates, we were passing through
tho country of the people of the Book (i.e.
Christians), and they were cooking pigs'
flesh in their dishes, and drinking wine from
their vessels." " For * (continues Nawawi),
<* the learned are all agreed that it ia lawful
to cat with Jews and Christians unless their
vessels are polluted with wine or pork, in
which case they must be washed before they
are used." (£•#& Muslim wa Sharhu Na-
w/aici, p. 146.)
ECLIPSE. The Arabic k&usuf
(*jj— <t) is used to denote either an
oolipse of the sun or of the moon (vide Mish-
kdt. book rv. o. li.) j but it is more specially
applied to an eclipse of the moon ; and kusuf
(*jU~£) for an eclipse of the sun (vide
Richardson's Dictionary). Special prayers,
consisting of two rak'ahs, are enjoined in the
Traditions (Misfikdt, book iv. c. li.) at the
time of an eclipse of either the sun or
moon.
•Abdu 'lleh ibn 'Abbas says : «» There waa
an, eclipse of the sun in the time of the Pro
phet, and he recited prayers^ and the people
recited after him ; and he stood up for a long
time, as long as anyone would be repeating the
Chapter of the Cow (i.e. Surah ii.). Then he
performed a long ruku4 after which he raised
up his head and stood a long time, which
was under the first standing ; after which be
did the second ruku', which was the same as
the first in point of time; then he raised bit*
head up from the second ruku' ; and per
formed two prostrations, as is customary
Then he stood up a long time, in .the second
rak'ah, and this was shorter than the first
standing, in the first rak'ah ; after which he
did a long ruku' in the second rak'aH, and
this was under the first ruku', in the first
rak'ah. After this, he raised up his bead,
and stood a long time ; and this was shorter
than th« first, in the second rak'ah
Then he did a long ruku1 ; and this was
not so great as the first, in the second
rak'ah. Then ho rose up, and performed two
prostrations ; and after repeating the creed,
and giving the salam. he concluded his
prayers. And the sun was bright. And the
Prophet said, * Verily, the sun and moon are
two signs, amongst those which prove the
existence of God, and are not eclipsed on
account of the life or death of any person;
and when ye see this, remember God. The
Companions said, * 0 Prophet ! We saw you
about to take something in the place where
i you stood in prayer, after which we saw you
draw back a little.' And the Prophet said,
"J saw Paradise, and gathered a bunch of
grapes from it; and if I had taken it and
given it to yon, verily you would have eaten
of it as long as the world lasts. I also saw
hell, and never saw such a horrid sight till this
day ; and 1 saw that they wore mostly women
there.' And the Companions said, «O Pro
phet, why are most of the people of hell
women ? * He said, * On account ef their
infidelity : not on account of their dis
obedience to God, but that they are ungrate
ful to their husbands, and hide the good
things done them ; and if you do good to one
of them perpetually, after that, if they see
the least fault in you, they will say, I never
saw you perform a good work.'" (Afishkdt,
book iv. c. iL)
EDEN. Arabic 'Adn (<$J*), which
al-Baizawi says means " a fixed abode." The
Hebrew *W is generally understood by
Hebrew scholars to mean " pleasure " or
« delight."
The word 'Adn is net used in the Qur'an
for the residence of our first parents.the term
used being a^/awnoA, a the garden " : although
tho Muslim Commentators are agreed in
calling it the Jannatu 'Ada, or "Garden of
Eden/' The expressions. Jannutu ''Adn. " the
Garden of Eden" and Janndtn '/4«fo, "the
Gardens of Eden," occur ten times in the
Qur'an, but hi each case they are used for
the fourth heaven, or stage, of celestial bliss.
[PABA.D18E.]
According to the Qur'an, it seems clear
that Jannatu *Adn is coruridered to be a
place in heaven, and not a terrestrial para
dise, and hence a difficulty arises as to the
locality of that Eden from which Adam fell
Is it the same place as the fourth abode of
14
106
EDUCATION
celestial bliss ? or, was it a garden situated in
some part of earth? Al-Baizawi says that
some people have thought this Eden was
Situated in the country of the Philistines, or
between Faris and Kirman. But, he adds,
tha Garden o£ Eden is the Dam '*-£ctie«ft, or
<ftbe House of Recompense," which IP a
stage in the paradise of the heavens ; and
that when Adam aud Eve were cast out oJ
Paradise, Adain fell on the isle of Ceylon, or
Sarandib, and Eve near Jiddah in Arabia;
and after a separation of 200 years, Adam
was. on his repentance, conducted hy th'f
Angel Gabriel to a mountain near Makkah,
^hers he knew his wife Eve, the mountain
'being thence named ' A.rafa.h. (i.e. " the place
of recognition); and that he afterwards j
retired with her to Ceylon, where they con
tinner! to propagate their species.
Muhammad Tahir (Majma'u 't-Bthor, p. j
225), in remarking upon the fact that in the
Traditions the rivers Jaihftn and Jaihan are
said to he rivers in "the garden'1 (al-Jan
7i aft), says the terras are figurative, and mean
that the faith extended to those regions and
made them rivers of paradise. And in
another place (/</ew, p. 164) the same antbor
says the four rivers Satkdn (Jaxartes),
Jcttfitin (JThen), Fvrdt (Euphrates), and iVz/
(Nile), are the rivers of Ptradiao, and that
the rivers Saihan and Jaihan are not tho
saraa as Jaihnn and Jaihan, hut that these
fear rivers already mentioned originally came
from Paradise to this earth of ours.
EDUCATION. Education without
religion is to the Muharamaclan mind an
anconaly. la all books of Tradition.* there
are sections specially devoted to the con
sideration of knowledge, but only so far as
ir, relates to a knowlfihe of God. and of
" God's Book:' (See Satii/lu 'l-'Bukhdn . Babu Y
(/£n») Tbe people v?ho read tbe " Book of
God " are, &ccoi-ding to tbe sayings <;f the
Prophet, described as " assembling together
in mosques, with light anrl contforfc descend
ing upon them? fcha grace of God covering
them, and tbe angels of God encompassing
them round a.bout." The chief aim. and
object of education in Islfm) is, therefore, to
obtain a knowledge of the religion ot Mu-
hamroad, and anything beyond this is con
sidered superfluous, and even dangerous.
Amongst Muhammadan religious leaders
there have always* been two classes — those
vrho aifect the ascetic and strictly religious
life of mortification, such as the Sufi mystics
and the Faqirs [FAQIK] ; and those who, by a
careful study of the Qnr'an, the Traditions,
and the numerous works on divinity, have
attained to a high reputation for scholarship,
and fi-Te known in Turkey as trie *Ulamd\ or
" learned, * and in India, as Maulawls.
Amongst Muhaimu&cUnp generally, a know
ledge of science and variotis branches of
s ocular learning is considered dangerous to
the faitb, and it is, discouraged by the reli
gious, although some assert that Muhammad
has encouragp:! learning of all kinds in the
Qur'au, by tbe following verse, Surah ii. 272 ;~
EDUCATION
" He giveth wisdom to whoia He will, and
He to whom wisdom is given hath had much <
good given him.'
Mr. Liana, in his Modern Egyptians, says:'
'fThe parents seldom devote much of their ;
time or attention to the intellectual education
of their children^ generally contenting tlietn-1
selves with instilling into their youm; mir-iiUa
lev-? prineipier. of religion, and then Bttbimttiifl
r.hem, if they can afford to do .so, to the in4
sti'uotion of a school. As early as possible,]
the child is tough* to say, ' 1 testify that \
tberd is no deity but God. and I testify that
Miilwtmiiad is God's Apostte-' He receives:
also lessons of "religious pride, and learns to]
hate the Christians, and all other sects buti
his own. as thoroughly afi does the Muslim in]
advanced a^e
In connection with till mosques of Impofl
.iince. in all parts of Islaro whether ™ Tur-|
key, ISgy pi, Persia, or India, there ar<> «rn-.ill
schools, either for the education of children,
or For the training of students of divinity.,
The child who attend? these se.minn.ries is
first taughb his alph&het, which he Jeainaj
froni a small board, on which tho letters are]
•written by the teacher. He then becomes)
acquainted with the numerical value of t-aciH
letter. [ABJAD.] After this ho learne toj
writs down the ninety-nine names of God, ancM
other simple words taken from the Qur'arus
[frOn.'j When he has mastered the spoiling!
of words, hf proceeds to learn the first1
chapter of the Qur'an, then the last chapter,
and gi*a dually reads through the whol^j
Quran i»:« Arabic, which he usually does with-;
out understanding a word of it. Haviagj
finished the Qur'an. which is considered an
incumbent religious duty, the pupil is in
structed in the elements of grammar. andJ
perhaps a iew simple rules of arithmetics
To this iri added a knowledge of one Hindu
stani, or Peraiau book. The ability ir read
a single PerpiJin book like the GvUntini QV\
7?'j'.';'.v?f, is eoasidsred in Centra! Asia to be^
the sign of a liberal education. The ordi-i
iiary schoolmaster ia generally a man oft
little learning, the learned Maulawi usually.!
devotuig himself to the str.cly of divinity, i
and not to the education of tha young.
Amongst students of divinit}', who are ealleeM
talabar.n (sing, tittib) */~'z/»i, or " seekers after^
knowledge," the usual course of study is as'
follows; a&-$arf> graaanaatical inflection; an«
nahw, syntax ; at- mantiq, logic : al-budb, arith
metic ; al-jabr we 't-mugobaloJi, algebra ; afc
mrvna ton i-baydn* rhetoric and versification ;
al~Jiqn* jurisprudence; <zl-'aqffid, scholastic^
theology ; ot-tafulr^ commentaries on the*
Qur'an ; lilmu 'l-u$vl, treatises on exegesis,
and the principles and rules of interpretation
of the laws of Islam •, ai~ahadis, the traditions
and ooraicentaries thereon. These are usually
regarded as different branches of learning,
and it ia not often that a, Manila wl, or ' Alim^
attains to the knowledge of each section. For
example, a scholar will be celebrated an
being wall educated in al-ahddis, but he may
be weak ir> cd-jiqh. The teacher, when in
structing his v pupils, seatfi himself nn the
EDUCATION
EDUCATION
107
jjronnd witb his hearers ail seated round him
ji & ring-. Instruction in mosques IB usually
pi veil in the early morning-, after the morning
prayer, and continues some thr&0 01 foui
n.ours. It is again renewed for a short time
jiftfr the mid-day prayer.
i Stuflonls in rcogques are generally sup
ported by the people of the pariah, (each
mosque baring its section or parish), who
pa,n be called upon for food for all the in
InatPtt of a mosque every morning and even
ing. Not ^infrequently mosques are endowed
Uith laud, c»r rents of shops and houses, for
phe payment of professors. Mr. Lane speaks
pf A mogquo in Cairo, which had an eucJ.jw-
menk for the support of three hundred blind
(tudents. The great mosque (iLAzhar, in
3airo, sx the largest and mo*t influential seat
yf learning in Islam. Tji 1875 when the
present witter visaed »c, it hnci ->x many art
5,000 «tudents gathered from all putt. of
the Mtibammadan world.
In India almost every mosque of impor
tance has its class ot students of divinity, but
they are nob established for the purposes of
general education, but for the training of
Students of divinity whc -will in time become
the Imams of mosques. Some of tho Mania-
vrla are men held in great reputation n?
Arabic scholars, bat they are, a<J a rule, very
deficient in general knowledge and informa
tion. Whether we look to India, or Persia., or
Egypt, or Turkey, tha attitude of Muhii'ji-
mftdanisru is undouotedly one JH dirr.c
gotiismto the spread of secular education.
Much hna been made by some writers of
the liberal patronage extended to literature
and b'cienre by 'Abdu 'r-Hahmiw and his suc-
A M173LIV SCHOOL.
Khalifabs of Oarrlova ifi the Middle
Ages, But ihoTD wa3 nothing original, or
ic, in the literature ihii* patronised, for
as Processor Uerberweg veniatks in hie His
tory of Philosophy, " the whole philosophy of
the Arabians was a form of Aristotelianistn
tempered wore or less with Nee-Platonic con
ceptions." The philosophical works of the
Greeks and their works of medical and phy
sical science, ware translated from Greek
into .Arabic by Syrian Ohrifitians, and not by
Arabian Muslims. Muharnmadany cannot be
altogether credited with these Ijterary under
takings.
Al-Maqqarl, in his History of the Dynasties
of Spain., has an interesting notice of educa
tion, in that country, in which ho -wvites : —
" Respecting the state of science amonp: the
Andalnsians (Spaniards), we must own in
juatioe that the people of that country were
the most ardent lovers of knowledge, as well
as those who best know how to appreciate
and distinguish A learned man and an igpo-
rant oce ; indeed, science was so rnurh es
teemed hy them, lhat whoever had not been
endowed by God with the necessary qualifica
tions to acquire it, Hid everything- in his
power to distinguish hirnsiolf. and eonces.1
from the peoplo his want of instruction ; for
an ignorant man was at all times looked
upon as an ohject of the gre&test contempt,
while the learned man, on the contrary, was
not only respected by all, nobles and plebeians,
but wae trusted and consulted on overy ooc&-
108
EGGS
sion ; his name was in every mouth, his
power and influence had no limits, and he was
preferred and distinguished in all the occa
sions of life.
" Owing to this, rich men in Cordova, how
ever illiterate thoy might be, encouraged
letters, rewarded With the greatest munifi
cence writers and poets, and spared neither
trouble nor expense in forming large collec
tions of hooks ; so that, independently of the
famous library founded by the Khalifah al-
Hokim, and which is said by writers worthy
<rf credit to have contained no less than fpqr
hundred thousand volumes, there were in
the capital many other libraries in the hands
of wealthy individuals, where the studious
could dive into the fathomless sea of know
ledge, and bring up its inestimable pearls.
Cordova was indeed, in the opinion of every
author, the city in Andalus where most
books were to be found, and its inhabitants
were renownad for their passion for forming
libraries. To such an extent did this rage
for collection increase, says Ibn Sa*Id, that
any man in power, or holding a situation
under Government, considered himself obliged
to have a library of his own, and would spare
no trouble or expense in collecting books,
merely in order that people might say,— Such
a one has a very fine library, or, he possesses
» unique copy of such a book, or, he hag a
copy of such a work in the hand- writing of
such a one."
EGGS. According to the Imam
Abu Hanlfah, if a person purchase eggs and
after opening them discover them to be of
bad quality and unfit for use, he is entitled
to a complete restitution of the price from
the seller. (Hidayah, yoL ii. p. 415,)
E&YPT. Arabic MIST (y). The
land of Egypt is mentioned several timas in
the Qur'an in connection with the history of
Joseph and Moses. In the year A.H, 7 (A.I>.
628), Muhammad sent an embassy to al-Mu-
qauqis, the Roman Governor of Egypt, who
received the embassy kindly and presented
the Prophet with two female Coptic slaves*
ELEMENTS. Arabic al-'Andsiru
'l-arba'ah (3-*^ j-Uatt), " The four
elements M of fire (nar), air (hawa), water (ma*),
and earth (arz), from which all creation
mineral, animal, and vegetable is produced.
The respective properties of these elements
are said to be as follows : Fire, hot and dry ;
air, hot and cold ; water, cold and wet ;
earth , cold and dry. A knowledge of the
properties of the four elements is required in
the so-called science of Da'wah. [DA'WAH,]
ELEPHANT, The year of. Arabic
<2w% >l-m (J*d\ rU). The year in
which Muhammad was born. Being the
year in which Abrahatu '1- Ashram, an Abys
sinian Christian and Viceroy of the King of
San'a.' in Yaman marched with a large army
and a number of elephants upon Makkah,
with the intention of destroying the Ka'bah.
He was defeated and his army destroyed in
ELOQUENCE
so sudden a manner, as to give rise to the
bgend embodied in the cvth Surah of the
Qur'an, which is known as the Chapter of the
Elephant.
Professor Palmer says it is conjectured
that small-pox broke out amongst the army.
[ASHABU 'L-
ELIJAH. Arabic Hyw
Ilyiisin ((j^J^\) ; Heb.
Testament, 'HXwxs. A prophet men*
tioned In tho following verses in the Qur'an :—
Surah xxxvii. I23> ".Verily Ilya* (jEUias)
was of the Apostles ; and when he said to his
people, ' \Vm ye not fear, Do ye call upon
Ba'i and leave tae best of Creators, God
your Lord, and the Lord of your fathers in the
old time? But they .called him a liar;
verily, they shall surely be arraigned, save
God's sincere servants. And we left him
amongst posterity. Peace upon Hyasln
(Ellas) verily, thus do we reward those who
do well ; verily he was of otir servants who
believe."
Surah vi 85 :" And Zachariah and John,
and Jesus, and Ilyas, all righteous ones."
Al-Baizawi s&ys, '* It has been said that this
Ilyae, is the same as Idris, prefather of Noah.
whilst others say he was the son of Yasin
and descended from Aaron, the brother of
Moses."
ELISHA. Arabic al- Yastf
Heb. - Elisha is mentioned
twice in the Qur'an, under the name al-
Yasw.
Surah xxxviii. 48: "And remember
Ishmael and Elisha, and jgu *l-kin, for each
was righteous."
Sfirah vi 85, 86 : " And Zachaiiah, and John,
and Jesus, and Elias, all righteousness ; and
Ishmael and Elisha and Jonah and Lot, each
havo We preferred above the worlds."
The Commentators give no account of him
except that he was the son of Ukktub>
although the Bible says he was the son of
Shaphat. Husain says he was Ibtiu 'l-ty'uz
(the son of the old woman).
ELOQUENCE. The Arabic word
al-Baydn (0WH)i which is defined in
the Qmydjtu 'l-Lugk/ah. as speaking fluently
and eloquently, occurs once in the Qur'an,
Surah Iv. 3: **Ke created man: he hath
taught him distinct speech." The word also
occurs in the Traditions, and it is remarkable
that although the Qur'an is written in rhythm,
and in a grandiloquent style, that in the Tra
ditions the Prophet seems to affect to despise
eloquence, as will be seen from the folio whig
Ahadi$ : — Ibn 'Umar says the Prophet said,
" May they go to hell who amplify their words."
Abu Umamah relates that the Prophet said,
" Eloquence (al-baydn) is a kind of magic.*'
Ibn Mas'ud relates that the Prophet said,
" Vain talking and embellishing^ (bay an) are
two branches of hypocrisy." 'Amr ibn al-
•AsJ relates that the Prophet said, "I have
EMANCIPATION
BTBBNITY
109
baa/i ordered to speak little, and verily it
is beat to speak little." (AfMJfcaf, book
xxii. o. ix.)
EMANCIPATION OF SLAVES.
Arabic Pttiq (^^}. The emancipa
tion of slavea is recommended by the Pro
phet) but the recommendation applies exclu-
sirely to slaves who are of the Muslim faith.
He is related to have said : " Whoever frees
a Muslim slave God will redeem that person
from hell-fire member for member." (Mish-
kat, book xiii c. xix.) It is therefore laud
able hi a man to release his slave or for a
woman to free her bond- woman, in order that
they may secure freedom in the next world.
(JRidayah, vol. i p. 420.)
ENFRANCHISEMENT. In an
orthodox Muhammadan state, only those
persons who have embraced the Muslim
faith are enfranchised ; all others are called
upon to pay a poll tax (jizyah), for which
they obtain security (amdnj. Those residents
in a Muslim country who are not Muham-
xuadans are expected to wear a distinctive
dress and to reside in a special part of the
village or town in which they live. Slaves
who may embrace the Muslim faith do not
become ipso facto enfranchised, unlesa their
master be an unbeliever, in which • case their
becoming Muslims secures their emancipation.
JBfmrust or persons not Muslims in a Muslim
state, cannot give evidence against a Muslim.
(See Durru 'l-Mukhtdr, in loco.)
ENOCH. [IDBIS.]
ENTERING INTO HOUSES. To
eater suddenly or abruptly into any person's
home or apartment, is reckoned a great inci
vility in aU eastern countries. With Muham-
madans it is a religious duty to give notioe
before you enter a house. The custom is
founded upon an express injunction in the
Qur'an, Surah xxiv. 57-61 :-—
" O ye who believe ! let your slaves and
those of you who have not come of age, aak
leave of you, three times a day, ere they come
into your presence; — before the morning
prayer, and when ye lay aside your garments
at mid-day, and after the evening prayer.
These are your three times of privacy. No
blame shall attach to you or to them, t/ after
these times, when ye go your rounds of at
tendance on one another, they come in without
permission. Thus doth God make clear to
you His signs : and God is Knowing. Wise I
" And when your children come of age, let
them ask leave to come into your presence,
as they who wore before them asked it.
Thus doth God make clear to you his signs :
and God is Knowing, Wise.
* As to women who are past childbearing,
and have no hope of marriage, no blame shall
attach to them if they lay aside their outer
garments, but so as not to shew their orna
ments. Yet if they abstain from this, it will
be better for them : and God Heareth,
Knoweth.
"No crime shall it be in the blind, or in the
lame, or in the sick, to eat at your table* : or
in yourselves, if ye eat in your own houses, or
hi the houses of your fathers, or of your
mothers, or of your brothers, or of your
sisters, or of your uncles on the father's side,
or of your aunts on the father's side, or oi
your uncles on the mother's side, or of your
aunts on the mother's side, or in those of
which ye possess the keys, or hi the house of
your friend. No blame shall attach to you
whether ye eat together or apart.
"And when ye enter houses, salute one
another with a good and blessed greeting as
from God. Thus doth God make dear to you
His signs, that haply ye may comprehend
them."
The following are the traditions given in
the Mishkat on the subject (book xxiL c. 11.) :
Muhammad is related to have said. " Do not
permit anyone to enter your home unless he
gives a salam first" 'Abdu 11ah ibn Mas^ud
says the Prophet said, " The signal for your
pormission to enter is that you lift np the
curtain and enter until I prevent you." ' Abdu
'Hah ibn finer says, " Whenever the Prophet
came to the door of a house, he would not
stand in front of it, but on the side of the
door, and say, 'The poace of God be with
you.' " <Aj|a' ibn Yasar says the Prophet told
him to ask leave to enter even tho room of his
mother.
ENVY. Arabic flasad (Ju->).
The word occurs twice in the Qur'an.
Surah ii. 108 : •« Many of those who have
the Book would fain turn you again into un
believers, even after ye have once believed,
and that through envy.'1
Surah cxiii. : " I seek refuge ..... from
the evil of the envious when he envies."
EPHESUS, The Seven Sleepers of.
[ASHABU 'L.-KAHV.]
ESOP. The Luqman of the Qur'an
is generally supposed by European Writers to
be Escp. Sale is of opinion that Maximus
Planudes borrowed the greater part of his lif a
of Esop from the traditions he met with in
the East concerning Luqmac. [&CQBUK.]
ETEBNITY OF PUNISHMENT.
The Muhammadan religion teaches that all
Muslims (i.e. those who havo embraced the
religion of their Prophet) will be ultimately
saved, although they will suffer for their
actual sins in -a purgatorial hell But those
who have not embraced Islam will suffer a
never-ending torment in ** the fire" (<m-ndr>
Surah ii. 37 : " Those who misbelieve and
call our signs lies, they are the fellows of
hell, they shall dweD therein for ever"
(khdlidun).
Surah xi. 108, 109 : " And as for those who
are wretched — -why in the tire shall they groan
and *ob! to dwell" therein for ever (J&atidunj
as long as the heat 6ns and the earth endur*. '
Al-Baizawi says the expression " as long as
the heavens and the earth endure," is an
Arabic idiom expressing that which is
eternal.
110
EUOHARFST
Ibn 'AraM (died A.D, 6S8), in his book
Ftisa$a 'l-ffik&m, says the word khatidiv the
verses quoted above does not imply etc.r;-iK.l
duration, bat <•>• period, or age. of long dura
tion. Ai-Bftiiiwi, th© commentator, also
admits that the literal meaning of the word
only expresses a period of extended dura
tion , but the JalS,lan and Husaiu both con
tend that its meaning is that of abadl^ or
" never ending," in which no being will be
annihilated, and which no one can over
escape
It is also to be observed that this vjord
Itfutlid is that used for the eternity of bliss of
those in Paradise •, ~
$iitrrth xi. 110; "As for those who are glad
—why in Paradise ! to dwell therein for ever "
EUCHARIST, on LOAD'S
SUPPER, ft J'B 3 singular omission in tjse
Qur'an, that there ig no direct allusion to this
Christian institution.
Both Sale and ftodweH think lliii, there is
a reference to sb in. tfaa following passages in
the Qur'an, Surah v 112-114- ~
" Remember when the Apjptie& «!aid : — 0
Jesus, Son of Mary, is thy Lord able to send
down % table (nuFidah, ' a table.' especially one
covered with victaalfn to us out of heaven ?
He said, Fear God if ye be believers, They
iaid —We desire to eat therefrom, toid tc
have our hearts assured ; and *.o kuovr that
bhou "haif't indeed Spoken truth to xis. and \vt
be witnesses thereof Jes.nSj' Son of Mary,
said • — ' 0 God oar Lord! send down, a table
to us out of heaven, that it may become a, re
curring festive i to us., to the first of us. and
to the last of us, and a sign from Thee : and
do Thou. nourish us, for Thon art the best of
nourishers.' "
MuiUiin commentators are not agreed as !/>
the meaning of tuese verses, but none of then
suggest the institution of th« Lord's Snpjper
as «n explanation.. The interpretations are
as confuted as the -revelatunu
According to the Inaam .al-Bagh«wif *Am-
mar ibn Yasir said that the Prophet said It
was Jle&h and bread which was sent dowi
from heaVen; hui> bRcnuse ths Christians to
whom it was. Heist were unfaithful, it was
taken away, aisd they hftf-ntrie pigs ana
monkeys !
Ibn 'A.bbns saya taat, after a thirty days'
fast, a table was sent down with seven io&ves
and seven Bshes, and the -wliole company of
disciples ate and vvei-a filled (St. Matt. arv.
34). The ooniVijcntatftrs al-Jalalan alao
give tries?* two explar»atioi:s5. and the SRCTH-
menb of the I/ord's Sapper is never ones sug
gested by any Mns]rra doctor in explanation
of the above verses
EUNUCH. Arabic &hflji (cs**-)-
Although in ali partjs of the East, it is usual
for -wealthy Muhammad axis to keep an esta
blishment of eunuchs to guard the female
members of ihe household, it has been strictly
forbidden by Muhammad for any. of his fol-
luvrcrs to make themselves smeh, ot to make
EVIDENCE
others. 'Us.mau ibn Martin caaie to imn and
said, " 0 Prophet I permit me to become a.
eunuch." Bnt Muhammad said, " Bb is not
of my people who makes another aeusoofe or
becomes so himself. The manner in which
my people become eunuchs is to exorcise
fasting," (Mfskkdt, book iv. c. viii.)
EVE. Arabic
[ADAM.]
_ EVIDENCE. Arabic Kk*k&dal
(fo\o6»). The law of evidence i&' very
clearly laid down in ai! MahJnuui&&U) books
of law, especially in tho tftdeyak, and the
JJurru, 'l-MiiKJktar, and ii is interesting to
observe the difference between tbs Uw of
evidence as provided for in the law of Mopes,
and that iaM down in Muhaminadan bseks.
In the PenUtteuch two witnesses at least
were required to aatafolisb, any charge (Nmn.
XXXY 30), and the witness vrho withheld the
truth was censurod (Lev, v. 1), svhilst slan
derous reports and officious witnesses were
disco uragod (Ex, xxiii. 1; l/ev. xix. 16), and
i$lse witnesses were punished with, the punish -
»jaent due to tho o .So nee they sought to esta
blish fDent. xix. 16). According to Josephus.
vyomen and slaves were not admitted to give
evidence. (Ant. iv, e, B, H. 1^«)
The Bunni U>vf as explaiaea by the H
of the ffiddydh (vol. iii. p. 664), is in
•respects tho same as the Jewish 'Anil i<
It in the duty .0.- v^iiut?»tse^ to i>ea^ it^u
tnony, and it is not lawful for1 them to conceal
it, when the party concerned demands it from
them, Beoa'use it is written in tfc«5 (^ur'jin.
clurab. ii. 282, if Let not, witnesses withho!^
their e-videtice \vhen ifc is demanded of them,"
And again-, *' Oonceal aot/ your testimony.,
for whoever concottle its fcestiifeMny i« an
offender.!*
The requisition of the party is a condition,
bec.auiie the delivery of evidence is the right
ot" the party requiring it, and therefore re:-its
upon his re^xiisiti.011 of it. as is tho case with
respect to all other rigiity.
In case? Inducing corporal punishment,
witnesses are at liberty eii,Ker to give or
withhold their testimony as they please,
because in .such case they are diatrfccted.be-
tweeu two laudable actions; twunely, the
estftbliabment of the pnnisbineilt, and the
preservation of tho criminal's character, f jae
concealment of vice ia, moreover, prefet'able:
because the prophet said to a person that had
borne testimony. *' Verily, it would Lave been
better for yotti if you had concealed it": and
also because he else where said, ' Whoever
conceals the rices of ids brother Muslim > shall
have ti veil drawn over his own crimes in both
worlds by God" ' Besides, it ha« been incul-
lated both by the Prophet and his Compa
nions HS commendable to assist iu the pre
vention of corporal pruiiEhmentj and this i,s
in evident argument for fche concealment of
.<uch evidence as tends to establish it. It is
iuciunhent, however, in the case of 'theft, tc*
bear ovt'dftD.ee to the proptriij) by t«e.tiiytRg
EVIDENCE
EVIDENCE
111
that " a certain person took such property,"
in order to preserve the right of the pro
prietor; but the word taken muat be used
instead of stolen, to the ond that the crime
may bo kor>fc concealed; besides, if the word
stolen wero uflt»d, the thief would be rendered
liable to amputnticm; and as, where amputa
tion is incurred, there is no responsibility foi
the property, the proprietors right would l>e
destroyed.
The evidence required in a case of whore
dom is inAiof four men, as has been ruled in
the Quran (Surah xxiv. JJ; and the testi-
naony of a woman iu such a. case i.s not ad
initted, because ar-Zuhrl snys, "in tho time
of the Prophet and his two immediate suc
cessors, it was an invariable rule to exclude
tfc« evidence of women in all cases inducing
punish meut or retaliation," and also because
the testimony ot women involves a degree o*
doubt, as it is merely a Substitute for evi-
deoce, beius accepted only where the testi
mony of mon cannot he had : and therefore
L is not admitted in any "matter liable tv
<irop from the existence of a doubt.
The evidence required in other criminal
cases is that of two inon, according to the
text of the Qur'an ; and the testimony of
women is not admitted, on the strength of
tile tradition of az-Zuhrl above quoted. In
all other cases the evidence required Js that
ei two men, or of one man and two women,
whether the caae relate to property or to
other rights, such a* mitrrtay9t divorce.
agency, creditor ship, or the like. Ash-Shafi'I
has said that Ih^ evidence of one man and
two women cannot be admitted, excepting in
crvses that relate to property, or its depen
dencies, such as hire, MtT, and so forth ;
because the evidence of women fs originally
inadmissible on account of their defect of
understanding their want of memory and
incapacity of governing, whence it is that
their evidence is not admitted in criminal
The evidence of one woman is admitted in
cases of hirth (as where one woman, fo:~
instance, declares that a cerUin woman
brought forth a certain- child). In the same
manner also, the evidence, of one woman is
autiicieiit with respect to virginity, or with
respect to the defects of that part '>( a.
woman v.'hich is concealed from man. The
principle of the law in tln»se cases is derived
from a traditional saying of the Prophet :
'• The evidence of women is valid with
respect to such, things a* it is not fitting for
man to behold.." Aph-Shafi'i holds the evi
dence of four women to bo a necessary cou
ditiou in such cases,
Th* evidence of a woman with rospcct to
istikldl (tbft noise made by a child at it?
birth), is not admlttnblo, in the opinion of
Abu Hannah, so far as relates to th« osta-
blishinent of -,he right oi heritage in tho
child ; because this noise is of «. nature- to b^
known or discovered by men; but is admis
sible st> far as relates to the nc^6B>;itv of
reading funeral prave^-s ovr,- the child :
because these praters aro merely a matter of
religion: in consequence of her evidence,
therefore, the funeral prayers are to he
repeated over it The two disciples, Mu
hammad and Abu Yusut, maintain that the
evidence of a woman is sufficient to establish
the right of heritage altfo , because the noise
in quastiou being made <tt the birth, none but
wonum can oe auppo.-ed to be present when
it is made. The evidence of a woman there
fore, to this noise, is the same as her evidence
to a living birth ; and as the evidence of
women in the one case is aduiissihie.se also is
it tn trie ut/h*-r
in an ngiitfl whether of property or other
wise, the probity of the witness, and the use
nf the word ashhadu, " 1 bear witness," is
absolutely requisite, even in the case of the
evidence of womnn with re.spect to birth a,rd
the like. If. therefore, a witness should scjy
"I know," or ''1 know with certainty/' with
out making use of the word aihhadu, in th'd
case his evidence cannot, be Admitted. 'With
respect to the probity or the witness, it is in
dispensable, because it is written in the
Qur'an, Sfirah Ixv, 2, • Take the evidence of
two just- men": and also because the probify
of the witnesses induces a probability of the
truth
If tho defendant throw a reproach on th«
witnesses, it i<* in that case incumbent en the
Qaai to institute an enquiry into their chi-
racter ; because, in the same manner as it is
probable that a Muslim abstains from falst
hood us being a thing prohibited in the reli
gion he professes, so also is it probable thaf
one. Muslim will not unjustly reproach
another.
It is not lawful tor a person to give evi
dence to such things ap he has not actually
seen, excepting in the oases of birth. <ieath
mairiage, and cohabitation.
But if a person, in any of tho above cases,
^ive,* ovHeru-e 7"rom creditable hearsay, it i?
requisite that he give it in an wtsolut*
mauner, by aaying. for instance, " 1 b?ar tes
timony that A. is the. sru of B," and not, " I
bear testimony so and so, becauss. I havu
heard it" foi in !H:ir u^st; th« O-\z\ cannot
accept it
The te'-.i-imony of any per9<m who is pro-
perty—tbrf is to say, a slave, male or female
—is not admissible; because testimony is of
an authoritative nature ; and a« a slave has
no authority over bis own person, it follow-,
that he can have no authority over other* , u
fortiori.
The testimony of «. porson that has been
punished for slander i« maflmissible, becaupe
it is said in tho Qur'an, Surah xxiv. 4,
'• But a.-» to those who acc\i.s« married per
?ous of whoredom, and T>roduce not four wit
nesses of the fact, scourge them with four
score stripes, iind receive not their tostimony
for over; for such are infamous prevari
cators, — excepting tbosa who fthall after
wards repent."
If an inf,del who ha^ wutiVrod puaicliment
{or sliinder should afterwards bec('rn< (.•
Mn^lim, his evidence is then adiu'ssible ; for
although, on afCvu^.t of Uie sa.id puaiehnient,
112
EVIDENCE
he had lost the degree in which he was before
qualified to give evidence (that is, in ail
matters that related to his own sect), yet by
his conversion to the Muslim faith he
acquires a new competency ia regard to
evidence (namely, competency to give evi
dence relative to Muslims), which he did not
possess before, and which is not affected by
any matter that happened prior to the cir
cumstance which gave birth to it.
Testimony in favour of a son or grandson,
or in favour of a father or grandfather, is not
admissible, because the Prophet has so or
dained. Besides, as there is a kind of com
munion of benefits between these degrees of
kindred, it follows that their testimony in
matters relative to each other is in some
degree a testimony in favour of themselves,
and is therefore liable to suspicion.
So also the Prophet has said, " We are
not to credit the evidence of a wife concern
ing her husband, or of a husband concerning
his wife ; or of a slave concerning his master ;
or of a master concerning his slave; or,
lastly, of a hirer concerning his hireling."
The testimony of one partner in favour of
another, in a matter relative to their joint
property, ie not admissible; because it is in
some degree in favour of himself. The tes
timony, however, of partners, in favour of
each other, in matters not relating to their
joint property, is admissible, because in it
there is no room for suspicion. The testi
mony of a person who has committed a great
crime, such as induces punishment, is not
admissible, because in consequence of such
crime he is unjust. The testimony of a
person who goes naked into the public bath
is inadmissible, because of his committing a
prohibited action in the exposure of his
nakedness.
The testimony of a person who receives
usury is inadmissible; and so, also, of one
who plays for a stake at dice or cheas. The
evidence of a person guilty of base and low
actions, such as making water or eating his
victuals on the high road, is not admissible ;
because where a man is not refrained, by a
sense of shame, from such actions as these,
he exposes himself to a suspicion that he
will not refrain from falsehood.
The evidence of a person who openly
inveighs against the Companions of the Pro
phet and their disciples is not admissible,
because of his apparent want of integrity.
It is otherwise, however, where a person
conceals his sentiments in regard to them,
becanae in such case the want of integrity is
not apparent.
The testimony of swnmw with respect to
each other is admissible, notwithstanding
they be of different religions.
The Imam &bu Hanifah ie of opinion that
a false witness must be stigmatised, but not
chastised with blows. The two disciples are
of opinion that he iimst be scourged and oon-
fined; and this also ia the opinion of ash-
Shafl'I.
The mode of stigmatising a false witness is
this:— If the witness be a sojourn©? in any
EXECUTOR
public street or market-place, let him be
sent to that street or market place; or, if'
otherwise, let him be sent to his own tribe or
kindred, after the evening prayers (as they
are generally assembled in greater numbers
at that time than any other); and let the
stigmatiser inform the people that the Qazi
salutes them, and inform*? them that he has
detected this person in giving false evidence ;
that they must, therefore, beware of him
themselves, and likewise desire others to be
ware of him.
If witnesses retract their testimony prior
to the Qaai passing any decree, it becomes
void; if, on the contrary, the Q&zi pass a
decree, and the witnesses afterwards retract
their testimony, the decree is not thereby
rendered void.
The retraction of evidence is not valid,
unless it be made in the presence of the
Qazi.
EVIL EYE. I?abatu 'l-'Ain (*M
Mohammad was a believer in
baneful influence of an evil eye. Asme?
bint «Umais relates that she said, «O Pro
phet, the family of Jafar are affected by the
baneful influences of an evil eye ; may I use
spells for them or sot?" The Prophet said,
•• Yes, for if there were anything in the world!
which would overcome fate, it would be
an evil eye." (JftsA&d*, book xad. c. i.
part 2.)
EXECUTION.' The Mufcamma-»
dan mode of execution is as follows :— Thtij
executioner (jalldtf) seizes the condemned
culprit by the right hand, while with a sharp
sword or axe he aims a blow at the back of
the neck, and the head is detached at the
first stroke. This mode of execution is still,,
or was till lately, practised in Muharoniadaw
states hi India.
if a Qazi say, I have sentenced such a
person to be stoned, or to have his hand cut
off, or to be killed, do you therefore do it : it
is lawful for that person to whom the Qazi
has given the order to carry it out.
And according to Abu Hanifah, if the Qazi
order the executioner to cut off the right
hand, and the executioner wilfully cut off thi
left, he is not liable to punishment. Bui
other doctors do not agree with him.
EXECUTOR. Arabic Wasi
a term also used for the testator
®oMl lala'l wastycLk (2»«J\ <J
An executor having accepted fcis appointment
in the presence of the testator, is not after
wards at liberty to withdraw, and any aci
indicative of his having accepted the positio
of executor binds him to fulfil his duties.
A Muslim may not appoint a slave, or
reprobate (fesig) or an infidel as his executoi
and in the event of his doing so, the Qaa
must nominate a proper substitute. But 1
none of the testator's heirs have attain*
their majority, a slave may be appointed a
executor until they are of age.
If joint executors have beeu .appointed an
KXILES
EXTRAVAGANCE
one of them die, the QSzI must appoint a.
substitute in dffice.
In the cases of infants or absent heirs, the
executor is entitled to possess himself pro
tern, of their property, but be cannot trade
with his ward's portion.
If a person die without appointing an
executor, the next of kin administers the
estate, and it is HM arrangement of Muslim
law that his father is his executor and not
his eldest son. ((Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 554.)
EXILES, The. [MUHA.TIRTJN.]
EXISTENCES. The Arabic word
wvjud {*>)*•)), expresses a substance,
or esseuce, or existence. According to Mu-
hammfldan writers (see uA*ya$u rl-Ln$hah').
existences . are of three kinds : Wajibu 7-
wujitJ, "a necessary existence," <•.</. Almighty
God : wiunkinu '/-u-«/«rf, " a possible exist
ence," K.<J. the humnn kind $ mumtani'u 7
wvjvd, " an impossible existence," c,.y. a
partner \vith the Divine Being.
These terms are used by Muhammadan
acholarb when discussing the doctrine of the
EtArna.1 Trinity with Christian Evangeli
EXPIATION. The doctrine of
expiation or atonement for neglected duties.
sins of omission and commission, is distin
guished in the Muslim religion from the doc
trine of sucriflco ; sacrifices being strictly
confined to the 'Idu 'l-A'/iha', or Feast of
Sacrifice in tho month of pilgrimage
Thor* are two words employed in the
tyur'an to express the doctrine of expiation :
kajfarak (Sjltf). from kafr, "to hide"; and
ftdyaJt (I»Jki), froui Jidff, " to exchange, or
ransom,"
(1) Kaffctrah occurs in the following
/erse« ;—
Surah v. 4-9:—
41 And therein (Ex. xxi. 23) have m enacted
for them, ' Life for life, an eye for eye. and
nose /or fiosfl, and ear fop ear, nnd tooth for
tooth, and for wounds retaliation:' — Whoso
sbatl compromise it us alms shall have there
in the erpiation of his sin; and whoso will
not Judgo by what God hath sent down — sucl
are ihe transgressor "
Surah v. 91 :—
ff (Jod will not puuish y^u fora mistake;)
-word »" your oaths: but he will punish yon
in regard to an oath taken seriously. Its ex
piation shall be to faed ten poor persons with
such middling' food as ye feed your own
families with, or to clothe them ; or to set
;rec a cjiptive. Bot ho who cannot tind
means, shall fast three days. Thin is tb>
erpiativn of your oatlis \vber- ye shit 11 have
sworn. ^
Surah v. OG :—
" 0 believers ! kill no gomo A mie ye are on
•pilgrimage. Whosoever among you shall
purposely kill it. shall compensate for it in
domestic animals of equal value (according
to the judgment of two iust persons among
you), to OH urought 'is «n ••rTcring' to the
Ka*bah ; or in expiation th<TO'>f shall feed thn
poor; or as the equivalent of tfliis s'hall f^s»
that he may taste tho Hi consequence of Ins
deed. God forgivc>b wliat is past; but v»lio
ever doctb it a^ain, God will tAke vetr-»'*;inre
on him; for God is mightv nnd v?i\e*Hnr>* is
His."
(2) Ft if yah oceura in tbo following versos : —
Surah ii. 180:-
4i But lie amongst you v?ht> 13 ill, or on K
journey, then let him fast another number uf
days; and those who are fU to fast aud do not,
the expiation of this shall be tho mainten M-CO
Of a poor man. And he who of his ivwn
accord performeth a good work, shall d"riv,
good from it : and good shall it be for you ^
fast— if ye knew it."
Stairfthiv 192:—
•'Accomplish the pilffrinuga and Visitation
of the holy places In honyur of God : and (I
ye be hemmed in by toes, send whatever oft'er*
mg shall be 1ho eafiest : ai;d shavo not your
beads until the or»riiifi: lench tho place of
sacrifice. But whoever nmonw yen is sick, or
hath an ailment of th* bead, must erjtiatc
by fasting, or alms, or «n offering "
Surah Ivii. 13 : —
'•On that day the hypocrites, both m«n and
women, shall say to tiio*o who believe,
' Tarry for «s, that we rnny kindle our li^rht
at yours/ It shall be said, ' Return ye back,
and seek light for yourgalvos.' But between
them she-H be set a wall witb a gateway, wilbiu
which shall be the Morry, otrtl in front, witli-
out it, the Torment. Tbey shal) ery to them,
• Wore we not with you?' They shall r.»y,
•' Yes I bu* ye led your. '-elves into temptation
and ye delayed, and yd doubted, a ad -be
good things jo .n'sved deceived you, till the
doom of God arrived: — abd the deceiyer de
ceived you in regard to God.*
"On thai df>y. rh?refore, no cjcpiution eimll
be ^aken fvntr you or frofr, thos^ who be
lieve not :— yo'ir abode Ihe Are I— Tli is shall
be your master: and wiHched the journey
thither ! "
(3) In. theological books th* ^rtrrn kaffvrati*.
'z-tufiuli. •' the atonement forpif.p," is used for
tbtodntiei of ui-ayer. fasting. alm^;Vinjr, anc;
oilgrimage. There is also a popul*; snyingthu'
tiuiirttti 'l-yubur is kufiuraln 'i-ztmilb. i.e. fh
visiting of shrinks oi the saints is on atone
ment for sins.
Theologians define iue terms tM/faroktoA
fidtjuh as ox pressing thai ex.piation which is
'<ln a fo God. whilst '//>/"/' and qifaf are that
vhich is »Hio to m:in. [KINKS, hACRiKiOES.J
For that expiation which is mado by free
ing A alavc, tho word, taltr'n i^ used, a wore
which Implies setting a alavc free for GodL
sake, although i.be word doe? no: in any S.>D.
menu a ransom or atonement for sin. Jt
occurs in tbc Qur'an, SDrah iv. 94, " NMioso-
over kilU a believer by mist«ke let bin
r neck '' (i.e.'a. Muslim slave).
EXTR A. VAGA JSTCE. Arabic L » <lf
Aj^} An extravagant pfirsoa or
15
114
BYES
Srodigal is musrif, or mu&assir, and is oon-
emned in the Qur'an:—
Surah xvii. 28, 29 : " Waste not wastefnlly,
for the wasteful were ever the brothers of
ibe devil • and the devil is ever ungrateful to
his Lord,"
Surah vii. 29 : " O sons of men, take your
ornaments to every mosque ; and eat and
drink, but be not extravagant, for He loves
not the extravagant."
EYES, Arabic lAyn (<^**) ; pi:
Uyun, A'yun, A'yan. " If a pelrson strike
another in the eye, so as to force the member
with its vessels oat of the socket, there is no
retaliation in this case, it being impossible to
preserve a perfect equality in extracting an
eye. But if tbe eye reiaain in its place, and
the sight be destroyed, retaliation is to be
inflicted, as in this case equality may be
effected by extinguishing the sight of the
offender's corresponding eye with a hot iron."
(Bidayak, iv. 294.)
There is fc tradition by Mslik that the diyah
or "fine" for blinding one eye is fifteen camels/
(Mishkat. book xiv. 167.) [EVIL EYE.]
EZEKIEL. Arabic Hizqll. Not
rofmtioned by name, but there is generally
supposed to be an allusion to Ezekial's vision
of the dry bones (Ezek. xxxvii. 1) in the
Qur'an, Surah ii. 244 :—
" Dost thou not look at those who left
their homes by thousands, for fear of death ;
and God said to them 'Die,' and He then
quickened them again? "
Al-Baizawi says that a number of Israelites
fled from their villages either to join in a
religious war, or for fear of the plague, and
were fltruck dead, but Ezekiel raised them
to life fgain.
The Karnalan say he is perhaps the same
as g« '1-Kifl [zv '!
LZBA. Arabic llfmir. The son
of Sharahya', the scribe. Mentioned only
FA'L
once by name in the Qnr'&n, Surah is.
30 :—
" The Jews say 'Uzair (Ezra) is a son of
God."
Al-Baiza/wI says that daring the Babylonish
captivity the taurat (the law) was lost,, and
that as there was no one who remembered
the law whon tLo Jtsws returned from cap
tivity, God raised up Ezra from the dead,
although he had been buried a hundred
years. And fchnt when the JOWP «aw him thus
raised from the dead, they said he must be
the son of God.
This story is supposed to have been ren-
vealed in the Qur'an, Surah it 261 : —
" [Hast thou not considered] him who
passed by a city (which was Jerusalem),
riding upon an ass, and having with him a
basket of figs and a vessel of the juice of grapes
and he was '•Uzair, and it was falling down
upon its roofs, Nebuchadnezzar having ruined
it ? He said, wondering at the power of God,
How will God. quicken this after its 'death ?
— And God caused him to die for a hundred
j years. Then He r&ieed Win to life : and He
said unto At'w, How long hast thou tarried
here ? — He answered I have tarried a day, or
part of a day. — For he slept in the first part of
the aay, and was deprived of his /i/e, and was
reanimated at sunset. He said Nay, thou
hast tarried a hundred years : but look at
thy food and thy drink : they have not be
come changed by time: and look at thine
ass. — And he beheld it dead, and UK bones white
and shining. — We have done this that thou
' mayt&t know, and that We may make thye a
sign of the refturrecti m unto men. And look
at the bones of thine ass, how We will raise
them ; then We will clothe them with flesh.
#o he looked at them, and they had become put
together, and were clothed with Jlesh, and life
u>as breathed into ft, and it braytd. There
fore when it had been made manifest to him
he said, I know that God is able to accom
plish everything."
FAI' (^i). Booty obtained from
infidels. According: to Muhammad ibn Tahir,
/a*5 is booty taken from a country which snb-
twts to Islam without resistance, as distin
guished from gjianimah, or plunder. The
Khallfah 'Umar said it was the special pri
vilege oitihe Prophet to take booty as well as
y>< undo ' privilege not permitted to any other
prophet.
«Anf ibn Malik says the Prophet used to
divide booty on tho same day he took it, and
would give two shares to a man with a wife,
and only one share to a man without one.
(JlM/Uwt, book xvii. c. xii.)
FAITH. [IMAN.J
FAI?-I-AQDA3 (y-Jll oM, Per
sian) Communications of divine
grace made to angels and prophets and other
superior intelligences.
AL-FAJR (^t), « The Daybreak."
The title of the i.xxxixth Surah of the
Qur'an, in the first verse of which the word
occurs.
FA'L ( j^). A good omen, as dis~
tinguished from tiyarah, " a bad omen."
Muhammad is related to have said, "Do
not put faith in a bad omen, but rather take
a good one." The people asked, " What is a
good omen ? w And he replied, " Any good
word which any of you may hear."
Ibn 'Abbas says, "The Prophet used to
take good omens by men's names, but he
would not take bswi omens."
Qaij'an ibn Qabisah says, " The Prophet
forbade taking omens from the running of
animals, the flight of birds, and from throw
ing pebbles, which were done by the idoiators
of Arabia." (Mishkat, book xxi. e. ii.)
It is, however, very commonly practised
AL-FALAQ
amongst the Muhamuiadan^ of India. For
example, if & portion stait out on an impor
tant journey, and he meet a woman first, he
will lake it ap a bad oraen, and if he meet a
ma a he Tvill regard it »* a »<;ood ono.
Ai-FALAQ (OM-*-K), "The Day-
break." The title of the cxruth Surah of the
QurVin. The word sigrdnes cleaving, and de
notes the breaking forth o( the light from the
dark/I-
FALL Th* (of Adam). IB known
amongst Rfutilitn writers as zalfafu Adam,
" the ftjli," or *//'/» ot Adam. The terra zallnh,
"» slip" or "error." bein# applied to pro-
pbettf, but not zuuib, " a sin." v»hich they say
Prophets do riot oornrait.
The following is the account, of Adam's
ltstij)" ae given in tbeQur'au, Siimh ii. 33: —
" And yr* said, »O Adam ! dwell rhou and/
thy wife in tlto Garden, and eat yo plentifully
therefrom -wherever ya Hit: bat lo this tree
come cot nig-h, lest yo become of ~.h« trans
gressor*.'
"Bat I?atan made thorn slip (azaJJtihunw^
from it, and caused their banishment (rom
tiit ptactf in which they were. And we said,
4 Got ye down, the one of ,vou an ouerny to the
others and ihere shall be for you in th*»
eartli & dwelling-place, and a provision for a
time.'*
gftiMb vH 18-24:—
a'And,O Adam! dwell thou and thy Wife
Jn Para d is*?. t,nH ^at ye whence ye will, bat f-o
this tree approach not, lest ye become of thd
auju->t, doers.'
** Then Satan whispered them to show
them their nakedness, which had "been" bidden
from them boih. And he said, 'This ireo
bath yonr Tjord forbidden you, only tost fe
ftiionfd become angels, or lest ye sbonJd be
come immortals.1
" And be hware to them both, « Verily 1
aui vaito you one who connuellath aright/
" So he bt-guilcd them by deceits, and
'when'thoy hnd Ueicd of the trf^j. their naked
ness appe fired u> them, and they began to
sew together upon thuraselvee tbo leaves of
the g-arden. And their Lord culled to them,
* Did I not forbid you thin tvoe, and did i not
.say to you, M Verily. Satan is your declared
enemy " ? '
" They suid. " 0 our Lord I With ourselves
Ua?« we dealt unjustly: if thon forgive us
not and have pity on ns, wo shall surely be
vf tboRe who perish.'
•' He Si/id- • Get y« down, the one of yon an
enemy to the other ; and oa earth dhall be
youi dwplHng, and your provision for a
season.'
•• Ho «aid, • On it shall ye live, and on it
shall y*» diw, and from it shal] ye be taken
forth.'*"
Sutah xx. 114-120 ;—
14 And of old We made a covenant with
Adam ; but he forgat if; and we lound no
flrmtibfld vf}iurpo*t in him.
* And when We said to the angels, ' Fall
down and worship Adain,' they worshipped
all. eavo EMi«, who refused ', and We said.
FAQIE
115
' O Adam I this truly is a foe to thoe and to
thy wife. Let him not therefore drive you
out of the garden, and ye become wretched ;
" « For to thee is it granted that thou shall
not hunger therein, neither shalt thou be
naked ;
«*• And that thou ebalt not thirst therein,
neither shalt thou parch with heat ' ;
"But Satan whispered him: said he, 'O
Adam ! shall I shew thee the tree of Eternity,
aud the Kingdom that faileth cot ? '
"And they both ate thereof, and their
nakedness appeared to them, aud they began
to sew of the leave* of the Garden to cover
them, and Adam disobeyed his Lord and
weut astruy
'* Afterwards his Lord chose him for him
self, And \* as turned towards him, and guided
him."
The Muslim Commentators are much per-
ploxftd as to the scene of the fail of Adam.
Prom the text of the Qur'an it would appear
that the Paradise spoken of was in heaven
and not on earth ; and the tradition, that uhen
Adam was cast forth he fell on the island of
Ceylon, weuld support thi« view. But al-
Baizawi says some say the Garden of Eden
was situated either in the country of the
Philistines or in Paris, and that Adam was
cast out of it and sent m the direction of
Hindustan. But this view he rejects, ind
maintains that the Garden of Eden was in the
heavens, and that the iall occurred before
Adam and Eve inhabited this earth of ours.
[EDEN.]
The Muhurninadan commentators are silent
as to the erTects of Adam's fall upon the
human race.
FALSE WITNESS. Tbe Imam
Abu HanifaK is of npinMn that * false wit
ness mn*t be publioiy stigmatised, bnt not
ch« stilted with blows: but the Imams ixsh-
Shttfi-i, Fusuf, and Muhammad are of opinion
that he should be scourged and imprisoned.
In the Law of Moses, a false witness was
published with the punishment of the offence
it sought to establish. Deut. «. Ilk " Thou
shalt do onto him as he had thought to do
unto his hrr»thor." [EVIDENCE.]
FAN A' f>Ui). Extinction. The
last stage in the $ufiistic journey, [su-
FIIteM.]
FAQIH (Mi). A Muharnmadan
lawyer or theologian. The term is still re
tained in Spanish as alfaqui. [FIQH.]
FAQIE (ytf). Persian darw&h.
The Arabic word/sr^ir signifies " poor"; but
it is need in the sense of being in need of
mercy, and poor iu the sight of God, rather
than in need of worldly assistance. Darwesh
is a Persian word, derived from dar, " a
door," i.e. those who beg from door to door.
The terms are generally used for those wno
lead a religious life. Religious faqirs are
divided into two great classes, the ba *A«r'
(with ihe Uw), or those who govern their
conduct according to the principle^ of Islam ;
TAQ.I n
a.ti.'I the bes/tar1 (without, the tav*;, or those
who Jofpot rule their lives according to the
principles of any religions creed, although
they caU themselves Musulmans. The for
mer are called *«/*, or travellers on the
orders who perform the zikrs, described ic
the article /.IKK,
The AJajgub fakirs are totally absorbed in
religious reverie. The Azad shave their
boards, whiskers. moustach ios. eye-brows, and
eye-lashes, and lead lives of Celibacy.
Tho Azad and Maf*u& faqirs can scarcely
be said to bfc Muhammadans, as they do not
say the regular prayers or observe tho ordi
nances of Islam, so that a description of their
various sects does not fall. •within the limits of
this wofk. The Salik faqirs arc divided hito
very numerous orders ; bur their chief differ
ence consists in their sifs'ilah. or chain of
succession, f^otu their great teachers, the
j<jhalTfnhs' Abu Bakr and 'Ali. who ar« said
to have bean the- founders b/ the religious
order of faqirs.
It is impossible to become acquainted with
all the rules and ceremonies of the numerous
Oi-dars of /aqiis; for, like those of the Free
masons a ad other secret societies, they are
not divulged to the 'uninitiated.
The doctrines of the darwesh. orders aro
those of the Sufi mystics, and their religious
ceremonies consist of exercises called zikrs, or
" recitals." [ZIKR, SUPIISM.]
M. D'Ohsson, in his celebrated work on tht?
Ottomnn Empire, traces the origin of the
order of faqira to the time erf Muhammad
himself :--r-
" In the first year of the Hijrah, forty-five
citizens of Makkalt jDined themselves to as
many others of ai-M'sJ.dmab.. They took an
Oath of fidelity to the doctrines of their Pro
phet, and formed a sect or fraternity, the
obfect of which was to establish among
themselves a community of property, and to
perform every day certain religious practices
in a. spirit of penitence and mortification. To
distinguish themselves froiti other Muham-
rnadans, they took the name of SufiS.
[ftUFiisn.] This name, which later -was at
tributed to the ruoat seahous partisans of
Islam, is the same still in use to indicate! any
Musuhnan who retires from the world to
study, to lead a life of pious contemplation,
and to follow the most painful exercises of an
t'X«ggerated devotion. To the name of SufJ
thay addedSalso that of faqlr, because their
maxim was to renounce the goods of the
Mrlh, and to liVe in an entire abnegation of
all worldly enjoyments, following thereby the
words of ^the Prophet, al-faqru fokhri, or
'Poverty is my. pride,' Following their ex
ample, Abu Bakr and 'AIT established, even
during the life-time of the Prophet and under
hi3 own eyes, religious orders, over which
each presided, with Zikra or -peculiar reli
gious exereises, established by them sepa
rately, and 2. vow taken by each of the volun
tary (Hsclpiefc forming them On his decease.
FAQIK
Abu Bakr made over his office of president to
one Sabnanu '1-Farisi, and 'AH to al-Hasanu
'l-Basrr,.and each of these charges were con
secrated under the title KhaFIfah, or suc
cessor. The two first successors followed
the example of the Khalifahs of Islam, and
transmitted it to their successors, and these
in turn to others, the, most aged and vener
able <jf their fraternity. Some among them,
led byihe delirium of the imagination, wan
dered" away from the primitive rules of their
society, and converted, from time to time,
these fraternities into a multitude of religious
orders.
" They were doubtlessly emboldened in
this enterprise by that of a reeluse who, in
the thirty-seventh year of the Hijrah (A..D
657; termed the fivst order of anchorets ot
the greatest austerity, named [Jwais al-Karnm,
a native of Karu, in Yaman, -who one day
aunoum'c-d that the archangel Gabriel had
appeared to hito in a dream, and in the
aamw of the Eternal God commanded him to
withdraw from the world, and to give hirnsel/
up to a life of contemplation and penitence.
This visionary pretended also to have received
from that heavenly visitor the plan of his
future conduct, and tho rules of his institu
tion. These consisted in a continual absti
nence, in retirement from society, in an aban
donment of the pleasures of innocent nature,
and in the redul of an infinity of prayers
day and night (gilcrs). Uwais even added to
these practices. He went so far as to draw
out his teeth, In honour, It is said, of the
Prophet, vho httd lost two of his own in the
celebrated battle of Uhud. He required h>~
disciples to make the same sacrifice ~H>
pretended that all those who w<m|d be espe
cially favoured by heaven, and really called
to the exercises of bis Order, should lose
their teeth in a supernal aval tn-iinj^r; that an
angel .should draw out thoip teeth whilst in
the midst of a doep sleep ; and that on awaken
ing they should find them by their bednjcle,
The experiences of such a vocation wero
doubtless too severe to attract many prose
lytes to the order ; it only enjoyed, a certain
degree of attraction for fan&tic.s ;rad credu-
lousjj- ignorant people during the first days
of Islam. Since then it ha? remained in
Yaman, -where it originated, and v/hore its
partisans wore always bat few m number."
It was aboufc A.H. 4U (A..U. 766), that the
Shaikh^. Alwan, a tnyatic renowned for his
.•eligbus fervour, founded the first regular
Dfdef of faqns, now Known as the Alwaniffafi,
with its special rules and religious exercises,
although- similar associations of men without,
strict rules bad existed from the days of Abu
Bakr, the firet Kjjallfah. And 'although
thei« is the formal declaration of Muham
mad. " Let there be no unonasticism in Islam,"
still the inclinations of Eastern races to a
solitary and a contemplative life, carried it
ev«D against th<? positive opposition of ortho
dox Islam, and now there is scarcely a
maulavn o? learned man of reputation in
lalau> vfho is not a member of some religious
order.
FAQIft
&ach century gave birth to new orders,
named after their respective found«?rs, but in
the present day there is no means of ascer
taining the actual numbftr of these associa-
PA.Q1U
11?
tjoi.s of mystic Muslims. M, D'OhssoM, lu
the work already quoted^ gives a list of
thirty-two orders, out it is by no means com
prehensive.
No
Name of the
Order.
PuunoVr.
Place of the
Founder's Shriue
Date.
A.H.
Date
A. I..
1
Aiwa my ah . .
Shaikh. Alwan . . .
Jcddiih .
HO
7CO
2
Adfiamiyah .
Ibrahim ibn Adhaui »
Damascus . .
IG1
777
i)
Bastamiyali .
Bayazid Baatami
Jftbal BaBtam
261
ctf4
I
Saqatiyah
Sirri Ssqati . .
Baghdad
295
W7
5
Q.adiriyah
Abdu 'I-Qfulir Jilani
Baghdad . . .
5<5l
U66
8
Rufaiv-'ih . .
Saiyid Ahmad Rufai .
Baghdad
51 B
1182
7
Suhrwardi) .h
Shihabu'd-Din
Baghdad
602
1205
S
Kabrawiyal .
N'nitrin *d-l)in . ,
Khawaziin . . .
617
1220
u
ShawJiyah
Abu *l-l?a9an .
Makkah
656
1258
10
Maulawiyah .
Jalalu 'd Din Ruini .
Conyah . . .
672
1273
11
Bada.wiyftfa . .
ibn 'UFitan Ahmad
Tanta, Egypt
675
127 '»
12
Naqshbandiyah
Pir M'.ihammad
Qrisri Arifan
719
1310
13
Sadiyah
Sadu 'd-Din . .
Damascus
73<>
1335
LI
Bftkbtashfyah
Haji ttakhtasb .
Kir Sber
736
1357
15
Khalwatiyah
IJinar Khalwati • .
C*sarea
900
1397
(tf
Zainiyah
Zuinu M-Din «
Kufah .
833
1438
17
Babaiyah
Abdu M-Ghani .
AdriHtiuple .
870
1465
18
Bahratniyah »
Haji Bfthrarni . .
Ancrora .
376
1471
10
Ashrofiyah .
Ashraf fiami . ,
Oh in Iznie
890
1493
20
Bakriyah . .
Aba Bakv Wnfai
Aleppo . . -. •
902
14%
21
Sunbuliyah . •
Sunbul Yusuf Bulawi
ConstHntinople
936
1529
22
G u) alia ni yah .
Ibrahim Gul.sbani
Cairo
940
1533
23
i;>hii Bashiyah
Santns'i 'd-Din . • .
Magnm.i
951
1544
24
Umra Sunaniyan .
Shaikh Umn.» Sunan
CoMf>tantiiioplo
959
1552
25
Jalwatiyah .
Pir Uftadi . . .
Bvoosa .
988
ISflO
26
Asharjiyah .
Hasaou Td-Diu .
Constantinople
L001
1692
27
Shiimsiyah .
Siiamsu 'd-Din»
Madinah . .
1010
1801
23
Suii^.n IJrumtyah .
Alitu Saaan Uiumi . ,
Alwali .
1079
1668
29
Niyazivah
Mutiamtnad Niyaz . »
Lermios
1100
1694
30
M.uradiyah .
Mur»d Shami . . .
Coristantinople
1132
1711)
3!
Nuruddiniyait
Nuru 'd-Din . . ,
Constantinople
1HQ
1733
32
Jftznaliyuh
.Tamaht 'd-Din .
Constantinople
1164
1750
Throe of those orders, the Bastainiynh, th«
Naqshbandlyah. and tho Bakhtashiyuh, de
A BASTAMI SHAIKH.
from the original ordui' e«t»blishcd by
the first KJialifah, AbQ Bakr. Tbo fourth
,
The Naqshbandlyah, who are the follo
of Khwajnh Pir Muhammad Naqshband,
KhalTfah. cAir. gave birth to all the others.
Each order has its tiitilok^ or chain c>f suc
cession, froiu one of tlieae two great
foundera,
follower.*
aro
M. v^ry numerous order. They usually per
form the Zikr-j-ftjKifi, or silent dflv.otiimfl.
clescribod in the account of ZIKR.
The first duty of the members of this
Order is to recite, daily, particular prayers,
called the khdtiin Mtatvjayan ; once, at least,
the fsliyhjur (Prayer for Forgiveness) ; seven
times the *aiamat; heven timed the FatthoJt
([tret chapter of the Qur'itn); nine time.s the
chapter of the Qur'un called Inshirdh (Chapter
xciv.); lastly, tlie IM/us (Chapter cxii.).
To these arc added the ceremonies culled
Zikr. [/.IKE.]
For those recitals they meet together once
a week: Ordinarily, this is on Thursdny,
and after the fifth prayer of tho day, so
that it occurs after ni«ht fall. In c.-i^h C'ty,
suburb, or quarter, the tmvmbfcrs of this
association, divided into ditT<»vent bodies,
assemble u.1 the bou^e of Mieir respsctiv^ pir
or sliaikh., where, seated, they perform their
118
FAQIR
pious exercises with the most perfect gra-
tity. The shaikh, or any other brother in
his stead, chants the prayers which constitute
the association, and the assembly respond ia
chorus, •« Hu (He)," or " Allah 1 " In some
cities, the Naqshbandivah have especial
halls, consecrated wholly to this purpose,
and then the shaikh only is distinguished
from the other brethren by a special turban.
The Bakhtashiyah was founded by 9
native of Bokhara, and is celebrated us
being the ordor which eventually gave birth
to the fanatical order of Janissaries. The
symbol of their order is the mystic gtrdlo,
which they put off and on seven times,
saying: —
1. •* I tie up greediness, and unbind gene
rosity."
2. " I tie up anger, and unbind meekness.*
3. *• I tie up avarice, and unbind piety."'
4. •« I tie up ignorance, and unbind the foai
of God."
5. " I tie up passion, and unbind the love
of God."
6. " T tie up hunger, and unbind (spiritual)
contentment."
7. " I tie up Satanism and unbind Divine-
ness."
The Maulawiyah are the incut popular reli
gious order of faqlrs iu the Turkish empire,
THE MAULAWl OR DANCING DARWKSH.
They are called by Europeans, who witness
their aikrs and various religious perform
ances "at Constantinople and Cairo, the
•* dancing/' or " whirling " darwesb.es. They
were founded by the Maulawl Jalalu 'd-din
ar-Rumi, the renowned author of the Afa&nawi.
a book much read in Per«ia, and, indeed, in
all parts of Islam,
They have service at their takyah, or " con-
Tent/' every Wednesday and Sunday at two
o'clock. There are about twenty performers,
with high round felt capt and brown marities
At a given signal they all fall flat on their
faces, and rise and walk slowly rouud and
round with their arms folded, bowing and
turning slov?Jy several timea. Tb«vy then ehel
THE MAULAWl OK OANCrSO DARWESBt
off their mantles and appear in long bell-
shaped petticoats and jackets, and then begin
to spin, revolving, dancing and turning with
extraordinary veloefty [ZIKR.]
THB MAULAWl OR DANCING DARWBgH.
The Qadiriyah sprang from the celebrated
Saiyid <Abdu '1-Qadir, sumamed Pir-i-Dasia
gir, whose shrine is at Bagdad. They preo-
tise both the Zikr-i-Jall and the gUtr-i-
Khafi. Most of the Sumii Maulawis on the
north-west frontier of India are members of
this order. In Egypt it is most popular among
fishermen.
The Chishtiyah are followers of Mu'mu 'd- <
din 'Banda Nawaz, eurnamed the Givi ;
dafdz, or the " long-ringletted*" His shfin» j
is at Oalburgak.
The Shl'ahs generally become faqirs of this \
order. They are partial to vocal music, fo?* j
the founder of the order remarked that
FAQ.1R
singing watt the food and support of the soul
They perform the Zikr-i-Jali, described in
the article on ZIK.IL
The Jalallyah were founded by Saiyid
Jal&!u 'd-dln, of Bukhara. They are met
with in Central Asia,. Religious mendicants
are often of this order.
The SuhrwardTyah are a popular order in
Afghanistan, and comprise a number of learned
men. They are the followers of Shihabu 'd-
dm of Suhrward of al-'Iraq. These are th»
most noted orders of ba shar* faqirs.
The be sAar* faqirs are very numerous.
The most popular order in India is that
of the Murdiriyah. founded by Zinda
Shah Murdar, of Sy ia, whose shrine is at
Makanpur, in Oudh. From these have sprung
the Malang faqirs, who crdwd the bazaars of
India. They wear their hair matted and tied
in a knot. 7'he Rufanyah order is also a nume
rous one in some parts of India. They prac
tise the most severe discipline, and mortify
themselves by boating their bodies. They are
known in Turkey and Egypt as the '* Howl-
ing Darweshes.*'
Another well-known order of darwoshes is-
tbe Qalandarlyah, or" Wandering Darweshes,"
founded by Qalandar Yusuf al-AndalusT, a
PAQIB
119
A QALANDAB.
native of Spain. He wnsfor a time a member
of the BakJitawhTs ; but having been dismissed
from the ord«r, ho establish »cJ one of his own,
with the obligation of perpetual travelling.
The Qslamlpr faqir is a prominent character
In Eastern romance.
Bach order is established on different prin
ciples, and has its mlos and statutes and
peculiar devotions. These characteristics ex -
tend even to the garments worn by their fol-
lowora. Each order has, in fact, a particular
dress, and amongst the greater part of them
this is chosen so as to mark a difference in
that of the shaikh from that of the ordinary
members. It is perceived principally in the tur
bans, the shape of the coat, the colours, and tho
nature of the stuff of which the dresses are
made. The shaikhs wear robes of green or
white cloth ; and any of those who in winter
line them with fur, use that kind called petit
gris and zibaline martin. Few darweslies use
cloth for their dress. Black or white felt dresses
called 'abd\ such as are made in some of the
cities of Anatolia, are the most usual Those
TH£ SHAIKH OF THE DANCING DAKWE8HK6 AT
CAIRO. (From a Photograph.)
who wear black felt are the Jalwattia and
the Qadiris. The latter have adopted it for
their boots, and muslin for their turbans.
120
FAQIR
Souie, such as the Maulawi* and the BakrTs,
wear tall caps called kutahs, made also of felt :
and others, such as the Rufaus, use short
caps called Taqfyah. ^o wnieh is added a
coarse cloth. Tho head-dress of almost all
the clarwesbes is called try, which signifies
a "crown." These turbans are of different
forms, either from the manner in which the
muslin is folded, or by the euk of the cloth
which covers tho top of 'the head. The cloth
AN EGYPTIAN FAKIK. (From « Photograph.')
is in several gores. Some nave four, as the
Adharais ; some six. as the Qadhis and
the Sa'dls : the Guishanis have eight : the
Bakhtashis twelve ; and the Jalwatis eighteen.
><N EGYPTIAN FAQIK. (From a, Photograph.)
The darweshes carry about with them one
or other of the following articles t a small
FAQIB
crooked stick or iron, which the devote*
places under his arm-pit or forehead, to leai
upon when he meditates, or an iron or Imisj
bnr on which there is d little artificial hand
wherewith to scratch his unwashed body, i
bag made of lamb-skin, a kashkul or beg'
gar's wallet.
Generally, all the darweshes allow theii
beards nod mustaebios togrow. Some of th<
orders — the Qadiris, Rufa'Ts, Khalwatis, Gui-
shanis, Jalwatis, and the Nuru 'd-dlnJs — still
wear long hair, in memory of the usage of th<
Prophet and several of bis disciples. Some
allow their hair to fall over their ehculders
others tie it up and put it under their turban,
Whilst private Musulmans are in the habii
of holding rosaries of beads as a pastime, the
darweshes do the same, only in a spirit oi
religion and piety. These rosaries hav<
thirty- three, sixty-six, or ninety-nine beads,
which is the number of the attributes of the
Divinity [GOD]. Some havo them always ic
their hands, others in their girdles ; and al
are required to recite, several times during
the day, the particular prayers of their order,
[TASBIH.]
The individual who desires to enter an
order is received in an assembly of the fra
ternity, presided over by the shaikh, \»ho
touches his hand and breathes in hia ear
three times the words, " La ilaha ilia 'Hah "
(" There is no god but God "), commanding
him to repeat them 101, 151, or 301 tiroes
eacli day. This ceremony is called the
Talgin. The recipient, faithful to the orders
of his chief, obligates himself to spend his
time in perfect retirement^ and to report to
the shaikh the visions or dreams which bu
may have during the course of his novitiate.
These dreams, besides characterising the
sanctity of his vocation, and his spiritual
advancement in the order, serve likewise as
so many supernatural means to direct the
sheikh regarding the periods when he may
again breathe in the ear of the neophyte the
second words of the initiation, *' Yd Allah t n
("O God! "), and successively all the others
to the last, " Yd Qahhdr ! " (« 0 avengeful
God J "). The full complement of this exer
cise is called ChiHek, or " forty days," a
period sometimes, even longer, according' to
the dispositions, more or less favourable, of
the candidate. Arrived at the last grade of
his novitiate, he is then supposed to have
fully ended hia career, called TakmiJu- V
Suful, and acquired tho degree of perfec
tion for his solemn admission into the corps
to which he has devoted himself. Duringf
all his novitiate, the recipient bears the name
of Muriel, or " Disciple," and the shaikh who
directs him in this pretended celestial career
cakes the title- of MtinsJritf, or " Spiritual
Guide."
The founder of the Alwania laid out thai
first rules of this novitiate ; they were sub-
seqnentiy perfected by the institution of the
Qsi.diria, and more ao by 'the Khalwatis.
The darweshes of these two last societies are*
distinguished in some countries by the deco- 1
ration of their turban, on the top of which
FAQJfc
<ire embroidered the words " LeT rlahn ilia
'lloh " (There is no god but God).
The tests of tho novice among- the Maula-
wis se&m to be still more severe, and the
reception of these dervishes is attended with
ceremonies peculiar to their order. The
aspirant is 7-equired to labour in the convent
Or toJcyah 1,001 successive days in the lowest
gr&de, on which account he is called tho
knrru kdnk (jackal). If be fails in this
service oul/ one day, oi' is absent one
night, he is obliged to recommence his. novi
tiate. The chief of the kitchen, or </s/i/V-
AasAf, one of the moV notable of the dar-
weshes, p^|5ents 'him to the shaikh, wbo^
seated in an angle of the .sofa, receiv»a hiru
aivuH 4 general assembly of all the darwesbos
of tho convent. The 'candidate kissea the
hand of tb« shaiklj, and takes a seat before
him on a mat, which covers the fleor of the
ball., The chief of the kitchen places bis
right baud on the neck, and his loft hand oo
the forehead of the novice, whilst the shaikh.
takes off hir. cap and holds it ov«r his beftd,
reciting th*? following Pers'mn rUsUch* th«* com
position of tho founder of the order : —
>; It is true greatness and felicHy to close
the heart to s*li human passions; the aban
donment of the vanities of this world is the
bappy effect of the victorious strength given
by the grace of our Holy Prophet."
These verses are followed by the exor
dium of the Takbir, •' Afahu okbor— God is
ijreat."' after \\hich the shaikh covers the
bend of the new davwesh, who now rise?: and
places himself wi&b th<? AshjibashI in the
middle of the hall, whej'O they assume the
nost humble posture, their hands crossed
upon the breast, the left ~foot over tho - rigrbt
root, find- tho head inclined towards thaleft
ihonMer. The shaikh address^ thes* words
rp \\\f* liead of the kitchen: —
" May the services of this riarwesh. thy
Brother, he Mgro^ab'e to the throne of l)«»
EteKml, iii-d ;n th-' -ryes of cur PTr fthe
fouivler of tbe ord<jr); may hi^ satisfaction,-
lis felicity, und his glery o^row in this nest
>f the humble, in the rt-ll of the poor;
let us ercla.'iii ' ff" ' ' in h 011011 •• »f o\lr
PAQ1K
121
They answer "//«'/" ;nid the accepted
novice, dri'sinsr from his place,
band of the shaikh, who at this
undresses to him soinn jjutcrn*>J exhortmions
on the Rubjeut of the duties of his HPW condi-
rion. :iud closes by ordering all tho darweshes
jf tha meeting to recop.nise und embrace their
new brother.
The following 13 said to bt? the usual
method of admitting a liuhftanuubUB to the
order of a ba '<hof faqiv in India. JUviri^
fn-fct performed the legal ftbhitions, the murid
[disciplel <«f?nts himself before the uiurshit.!
[Spiritual guide). The tnurshid then takes
the murid's right hand, and requires of him
\ confession of sm according to the following
form ; —
" I o.sk tor§iv<»n«S4» •>! the great God than
Whom there 'is no other deity, the Eternal,
the Everlasting, thr. Living One: I turh to
Him for repentance, and beg His grace and
forgiveness."
Thfs, or a similar form oF vtrpomancp, is
repeated several times. The tnund then
repeat^ after the rnurshid :—
" I beg- for the favour of Ood and of the
Prophet, -and I take for my, guide to God
ouch H one (here naming' the murshid) not to
change or to separate from him. God is our
witness. By the great God There i& no
deity but God. Amen "
The murshid end t.he murid then recite
the first chapter of the Qur'an, and the uiurfd
concludes the ceremony by kissing the
' hand.
After the initiatory rite, (he murid under
a series of instructions, including- tho
ij'itr.?, which be la required to repeat dcily.
The murid frequently visits his murshid and
sometimes the murshids ptoceeJ on a circuit
of visitation to their disciples. The place
where these ' holy men" sit dcwi: to instruct
tha people is ever aft»r«verus h^ld <;acrod, a
small flag is hoisted on a tree, and it is fenced
in. Hurh places ar-? called " taki/'n'i,'' and nrQ
profccted and kept tree fnnry pollution by
soioe fa'ilr *-ngegecl for the purpose.
Another account of Ih? admission of a
murtdyor '•disciple." into the order of Qnrli-
rfyah faqirs. is given by Tawakfcul Reg inthe
•• Having been, mtroftuceti 07 Akhund
Mulla Mubamroad to SbaiKh Mulia Sbah, my
heart, tb.ruugh freqneot intercourse with
him, w«s filled with such a burning- desire
to arrive at a true knowledge of the mystics]
science, that 1 found no sleep by nigh I, nor
rest by day. When the initiation commenced.
T paa-s^d the whole night, without sleep, and
repeated innumerflb!-1 tim«s the Siirato M-
IMilas :-
Say : He is Ood a»on« ;
Gotl the etorn«l :
He brgetteth non, nnd He Is not be
gotten :
Arid the™ i« "'»>« like unto Hiru.'
"all ti? ii.y
" Who?o«t*«r repeats this Suii'.'t on»» hunriif-u
tiroes oat; 3cco»t'p'i;-:n nil his ^u\vs. I :lc,si:-cd
thai; tho shaikh should bostow on ino hia
lovt. No ^oonei h-id i linisj-j-u my task.
rh>in the heirt of t^e shaikh heoamw full of
sympathy forme. On the following night f
was conducted to his presence. During tb*
"whole of that ni^ht he OODfefelltnutoa his
ttiouehts on me, whilst 1 £3v« mys,.->lf up ;•>
inward meditation Three niglits passtui i <
tin's way. (>n the fourth «ipht tho shaikji
Mid:— 'I*t Mulla SanghTm and Saiih Br»g,
who ere very susceptible to ecstatic Q0M>-
!i'"r.s. apply their spiritual Rnerg-ios to Ta-
wakkul bp-2f.'
f- Thoy d'd so, whilst I passed fbe whole
night in meditation, wit.n my face turned to
ward Makkah. As th« morn'ino Jrevs- near,
a little liftht came into my mmd, out I could
not, di«;1in»uish form or c'olour. After the
morning- prayers, T was taken to the fhaikt
who hado me nforn; him of my uienta!
3l?te I repliod that I had seen a light witb
16
122
FAQIR
my inward eye. On hearing this, the shaikh
became animated and said : 4 Thy heart is
dark, but the time is come when I will show
myself clearly to thee.' He then ordered
me to sit down in front of him, and to im
press his features on my mind. Then having
blindfolded me, he ordered me to concentrate
all my thoughts upon him. I did so, and in
an instant, by the spiritual help of the shaikh,
my. heart opened. He asked me what I saw.
I said that I saw another Tawakkul Beg and
another Mulla Shah. The bandage was then
removed, and I saw the shaikh in front of
me. Again they covered my face, and
again I saw him with my inward eye.
Astonished, I cried: *0 master i whether I
look with iny bodily eye, or with my spiritual
sight, it is always you I see.' I then saw a
dazzling figure approach me. The shaikh
told me to say to the apparition, ' What is
your name?' In my spirit I put the ques
tion, and the figure answered to my heart :
<I<am *Abdu '1-Qadir al-Jilani, I hare already
aided thee, thy heart is opened.' Much
affected, I vowed that in honour of the saint,
I would repeat the whole Qur'an every Friday
night.
" Mulla Shah then said : • The spiritual
world has been shown to Ihee in all its
beauty.' I then rendered perfect obedience
to the shaikh. The following day I saw the
Prophet, the chief Companions, and legions of
saints and angels. After three months I en
tered the cheerless region in wbk-h the
figures appeared no more. During the whole
of this time the shaikh continued to explain
to me the mystery of the doctrine of the
Unity and of the knowlege of God ; but as
yet he did not show me the absolute reality.
It was not until a year had passed that I
arrived at the truo conception of unity* Then
in words such, as these I told the shaikh of
my inspiration, * I iook upon the body as
only dust and water, 1 regard neither my
heart nor my soul, alas 1 that hi separation
from Thee (God) so much of my life has
passed. Thou ivert 1 and I knew it not.'
The shaikh wa* delighted, and said that the
truth of the union with God was now clearly
revealed to ine. Then addressing those who
were present, he said : —
a • Tawakkul Beg learnt from me the doc
trine of the Unity, his inward eye has been
opened, the spheres of colours and of images
have been shown to him. At length, he
entered the colourless region. He has now
attained to the Unity ; doubt and scepticism
henceforth have no power over him. No one
sees the Unity with the outward eye, till the
inward eye gain* strength and power.' "
Each institution imposes on its darweshes
the obligation to recite certain passages at
different times of the day in private, as well
as in common with others. Several ha.ve
also practices which are peculiar to them
selves, and which consist in dances, or rather
religious circular movements. In each con
vent there is a room consecrated to these
exercises. Nothing is simpler than its con
struction; it contains no ornaments of any
nature ; the Huddle of the room, turned to
wards Makkah, contains a nicho or mifyrdb, in
front of which is a small carpet, mostly made
of the skin of a sheep, on which the shaikji of
the community reclines ; over the niche the
name of the founder of the order is written.
In some halls this inscription is surmounted
by7 two others — one containing the Confession
of 'Faith, and the other the words " Bismil-
lah," &c. (" In the name of God, the most
Clement and Merciful.") In others are seen
on the wall to the right and the left of the
niche tablets, on which are written in large
letters the name of God (Allah), that of Mu-
hainiuad, and those of the four first Khalif ahs.
At others are seen the names of al-Hasan
and al-Husain, grandsons of the Prophet,
and some verses of the Qur'an, or others of a
moral character.
The exercises which are followed in these
halls are of various kinds, a description of
which is given in the account of ZIKB.
The more zealous faqirs devote themselves
to the most austere acts, and shut themselves
up in their cells, so as to give themselves up
for whole hours to prayer and meditation;
the others pass very often a whole night in
pronouncing the words Hit and Allah^ or
rather the phrase. La ildha ilia, V/aA. So as
to drive away sleep from their eyes, some of
them stand for whole nights in very uncom
fortable positions. They sit with their feet
«m the ground, the two hands resting upon
their knees : they fasten themselves in this
attitude by a band of leather passed over
theii neck and legs. Others tie their hair
with a cord to the ceiling, and call this usage
Chillehi There are some, also, who devote
themselves to an absolute retirement from
the world, and to the most rigid abstinence,
living 'only on bread and water for twelve
days successively, in honour of the twelve
Imams of Ihe race of 'AH. This retirement is
called Khalwah. They pretend that the
shaikh 'Arnr Ehalwatf was the first to fol
low it, and that he often practised it. They
add that one day, having left his retirement,
he heard a celestial voice saying, "O'Ainr
Khalwati, why dost thou abandon us ? '' and
that, faithful to this oracle, he felt himself
obliged to consecrate the rest of his days to
works of penitence, and even to institute an
order under the name of Khalwatis, a name
signifying " living in retirement." For this
reason, darwesbes of this order consider it
their duty, more than any others, to live in
solitude and abstinence. The more devoted,
among them observe sometimes a painful
fast of forty days consecutively, called by
them al-artyaun (forty). Amongst them all
their object is the expiation of their skis, the
sanctification of their lives, and the glorifica
tion of Islam ; the prosperity of the state, and
the general salvation of the Muhammadan
people. The most ancient and the greatest
of the orders, such as the Alwanis the Ad-
hamis, the Qadins, the Kufa'is, the Naqiih-
bandia, the Khalwatis, &c., are considered as
the cardinal orders ; for which reason thev
call themselves the £/$«&, or " Originate, "
FAQIB
They give to the others the names of the j
Fwru', or " Branches." signifying thereby
secondary ones, to designate tbeir filiation
or emanation from the drat. The order of
the Naqshbandis and Khalwatis hold, how
ever, the first rank in the temporal line ; the
one on account of the conformity of its sta
tutes to the principles of the ten first con
fraternities, and to the lustre which causes
the grandees and principal citizens of the
empire to incorporate themselves in it ; and
the other, because of its being the source of
the mother society which gave birth to many
others, In the spiritual line, the order of
the Qadiris, Maulawis, Bakhtashis, Rufa'is,
and the Sa'dis, are the most distinguished,
especially the three nrst, on account of the
eminent sanctity of their founders, of the mul
titude of the miracles attributed to them, and
of the superabundance of the merit which is
deemed especially attached to them.
Although all of tbem are considered as
mendicant orders, no darweeh is allowed to
beg, especially in public. The only exception
is among the Bakhtashis, who deem it meri
torious to live by alms ; and many of these
visit not only private houses, but even the
streets, public squares, bureaux, and public
houses, for the purpose of recommending
themselves to the charity of their brethren.
They only express their requests by the
words " Skayid Uttdh? a corruption from
tt Shayun li-Uah? which means, " Something
for the love of God." Many of these make it
a rule to live only by the labour of their
hands, in imitation of Haji Bakhtaeh. their
founder; and, like him, they make spoons.
ladles, graters, and other utensils, of wood or
marble. It is these, also, who fashion the
pieces of marble, white or veined, which are
used as collars or buckles for the belts of
all the darweahes of their order, and the
kcuhJculs, or shell cups, in which they are
obliged to ask alms.
Although in no wise bound by any oaths,
all being free to change their community, and
even to return to the world, and there to
adopt any occupation which may please their
fancy, it is rarely that anyone makes use of
this liberty. Each one regards it as a sacred
duty to end his days in the dress of his order.
To this spint of poverty and perseverance, in
which they are sp exemplary, must be added
that of perfect submission to their superior.
This latter is elevated by the deep humility
which accompanies all thejr conduct, not
only in the interior of the cloisters, but even
in private life. One never meets them any
where but "with head bent and the most
respectful countenance. They never salute
anyone, particularly the Maulawis, and the
Bakhtashis, except by the exclamation, " Ya
Hu I " The words At bi-'Uah, " thanks to God,"
frequently are used in their conversation : and
the more devout or enthusiastic speak only
of dreams, visions, celestial spirits, super
natural objects, Ac.
They are seldom exposed to the trouble
and vexations of ambition, because the mo. n
ancient danreahea are those whc may aspire
PARAQL1T
123
to the grade of skuii&h, or superior of the
convent. The shaikh* are named by their
respective generals, called the Raisu '1-
Mnsha'ikh (chief of shaijchs). Those of the
Maulawfo have the distinctive title of Che-
leby Efendi. All reside in the same cities
which contain the ashes of the founders of
their orders, called by the name of Astaneh
signifying ;' the court." They are aabordi-
nate to the Mufti of the capital, who exer
cises absolute jurisdiction over the^n. In the
Turkish Empire the Shaikjm l-Islam bas the
right of removing all the generals of the Ca
rious orders, even those of the Qadiris, the
Maulawis, and of the Bakhtashis. although
the dignity be hereditary in their lamiJy, on
account of their all throe being sprung from
the blood of tbu same founders of their
orders. The Mu/t'i has likewise the right to
confirm the shaikhs who may Ue noinijiated
by any of the* gouerals of the orders.
(3eo The Denrighf.s or Oriental Spiritualism,
by John P. Brown ; Malcolm's Persia ; Lane's
Modern Egyptians : D'Ohsson's Ottoman J£m-
pire ; Ubicini's Letters on Turkey : Herkk>tt's
Mu*almaau\ Tazkiratv 'l-Auliyd. by Shaikh
Farldu 'd-Din aP
FAQR (/>). The life of a Faqir
or an ascetic.
FAR A' (&*). The first-born of
either camels, sheep, or goats, which the
Arab pagans used to offer to idols. This
was allowed by the Prophet at the com
mencement of his mission, but afterwards
abolished. (Mishkdt, book iv. c. 50.)
FARl'IZ (o^V), pi. of Fwrlzah.
" Inheritances.'" A term used for the law of
inheritance, or'flmu 't-Farffiz. Farizah means
literally an ordinance of God, and this, branch
of Muslim law is so called because it is esta
blished fully in the Qur'an, Surah iv. [IKHK-
FAJRAQ (j/). Lit. " Separation."
Faraq-i- Avowal is a term used by Sufi
mystics to express that state of mind in which
the soul is drawn away from a contempla
tion of God by a contemplation of his crea
tion ; and faraq-i-?ani (the second separa
tion) is when the soul is constantly contem
plating the stability of the creation with the
eternity of the Creator. ('Abdu 'r-Razzaq's
Dictionary of Sufi Terms.}
FARAQLlT (W»jVi) The Arabic
rendering of the Greek irapaxA7/ros, u Para
clete." Muhammadan writers assert that it
is the original of the word translated A.(unad
in the following verse in the Qur'an. Surah
Ixi. v. 6:—
"And call to mind when Jesus, son of.
Mary, said :— ' O children of Israel I Verily I
am an Apostle of God unto you, attesting the
Taurdt revealed before me, and giving good
tidings of a Prophet that shall come after
whose name is Ahmad."
Aijmad is another derivative of the root to
which Muhammad belongs, signifying, like it,
1 24 FARSAKH
"the Praised." It is not improbable that in
some imperfect copies of St. John xvi. ?»
Tra,pdi<\r)To<; may. have been rendered TTC/H-
K-A.VTO9, which in some early Arabic, transla
tion of the Gospel may have been translated
Ahmad, Li the Majma'u 'l-Bibor, a wort
written three hundred years a?o, the word
faraqlit is said to me&A «• distinguisher b«-
'tween truth and error The word also occurs
sovrera! times in the -well-known ShT'ah work,
the Hat/ (tit Y-Qw//76 (#»ife Merrick'l transla
tion, page 80). The author says, *;It i* well
known that his (The Prophet's) name in th*»
Taurar is Afiiaaawad, In the gospels (Injil)
Tabtab, and in Lne Psaims (ZobSr) Warnk-
teet" And 'sgah (p 308), "God said to
Jesns, 0 Son of my handmaid . '. . verii\
1 will send the chosen of prophets, Ahioad.
whom I Ijaye Selected of all my creatures.
even Feffafatf my friend and servant.''
[JBSUS.J
FAESAKH (cV>- Persian Far-
sang. A land measure which recurs in M«-
hemaiadsn books of law, ft is a league ot
18.000 feet, pr three and a half miles in
length.
FAKWA.H (V)- An Arab of the
£«nu JuEflm and Governor of 'Amman, who
1*3 represented by tradition (upon imperfect
evidence) as one of the early' martyrs of
Ularn. Having be*>n converted to Islam, the
Roman authorities crucified him, (Muir'fl
Liff of Mahomet, vol. ii. p. 103.)
FAR? (</y)- Thai, which is obli
gatory A term u;oc for those rules and or-
dinauees of religion which ar*» said to have
been established and enjoined by C.Jod Him
self, cs distinguished from tbose which are
established upon Hie praeept or practice cf
the Prophet, u no) w>p*h are filled sunnah.
FAJ?Z KIFA'l (<jJ\tf u*^. A
command' which is imy»oratlve (jurx) upon.
&il .Muslims, Lvt which if one person in eight
or ten performs it., it is sullieiem (kifa'i), or
Equivalent to ail having performed it.
Th«y are generally heitl to be ftv<^ in num
ber : (i) To rotui-i «. salutation : (2) To jifc.ii-
the sick and inquire after their welfare; fS)
Te follow a bier on fW to the grave : (4) To
accept an ujviisition to dinner; (5) Replying
to 4 sneeze. [SNBBZIHG.]
They are also said to ho six or seven m
number, wh«n there are added one or two
of the following: (1) To give advice when
aeked tor it; (I) To help a Muslim tc
verif/ hh oat.lv; (3) To assist a person in
distress. • A.bdu '1 -Haqq says this last injunc
tion applies to all cases, wbelber tihat of •»
Muslim or an infidei. (Mishko.t, book v. cM
part I.)
FARZU *L-*AJN ((^ yifi). An
injunction or ordinance the obligation of
which extends to every Muslim, as prayer,
fd sting1, Af.
FA SID (ou*\i). A seditious or re
bellious person
FASTING
FASJQ (<>»»* J. A term usea ju
Muhamniaclan lav* for a reprobate person
who neglects docornm in his dress and beha
viour. The acceptance of sueh a person's evi
dence is not admissible. He is not regarded
as a Muslim citizen, although ho may profess
Ealam.
FASTING. Arabic Saum (fy)\
Persian' Rozah (6jj>). Fasting was
highly commended by Muhammad as ait
fttonomeut for «in. The following are the
fast5 founded upon the example of the Pro
phet and observed by devout Muslims; — •
(1) The thirty-days of the mouth of JRama-
zan. This mouth's 'fast is regarded as a
divine institution, being enjoined in the
Qur'an ('Surah ii. 180) and is therefore corn
pulsory. [RAMAZAN.]
(2) The day lAskurd\ The tenth day of
the month Muharram. This is a voluntary
fast, but it is pretty generally observed by all
Muslims, for Abu Qatadah relates that the
Prophet said he hoped that the fast of
'Asijura' would cover the sins of the cotuing
year. (Mis/Jcdt, book vii .eh. vii. pt. 1.)
['ASHURA'.J
(3) The six days following the 'Ida V-J^'jr.
Abu Aiyiib relates thai the Prophet said,
" The person who fasts the month of Rama-
Kan, and follows it up -with six days of the
month of Shawwal, will, obtain the rewards of
a continued fas*," (Mishk&ti book v«. ch. vii.
pt, 1.)
(4) The Monday and Tharsday of every
week are recommeVided as fast days, as dis
tinguished from the Christian fast of Wed
nesday. Abu Hurairah relates that tbe Pro
phet said, " The actions of God's servants
are represented at the throne of Gcd on
Mondays and Thursdays." (Mishkat, book
vii. ch. vii. pt. 2.) These days are only
observed by strictly religious Muslims.
(5) The month of Sba'ban. vAyishah re
lates that " the Prtjphet o&ed Sometimes to
fast part of this month find SOmetunea the
whole." \Mishkat, book vii. ch. vii. pt. ].).
ft 3s seldom observed in the present day.
(6) The 13th, I4(h, .tad 15tli of each
month. These days arc* termed ai-vayanw. V-
biz, i.e. the bright doy^, and were observed by
Muhammad himself as fasts. (Mhhkat, hook
vii. ch. vii. pt. 2) These nre generally ob
served by devout Muslims-
(7) Fasting" alternate days, which Muhurn-
road Sflid w^S th» fast observed bjr David.
King of Israel. ( ftfisJfkat, book vii. cb. vii.
pt. l'.)
In the Traditions, fasting is commended by
Muhammad in the following words : —
" Every good act lhat a man does shall
eceive frotn ten to fjeven hundred rewards,
.nit th« rewards of fasting arc beyeud hounds,
for fasting- is for GoJ alone, and Ho will give
its rewards.*
" HP who faats abandons the cravings of
his appetites for God's sake."
u There ai-e two pleasures in fasting-, one
when the person who fasts breaks it, and the
other in the next world when he meets his
FATE
Lord. The very smell oi tbo mouth of »
keeper of a fast is rnors agreeable to God
than tho smell of musk."
" Fasting- is a shield."
:i Wiaeo any ot you fast utter no bad worri*,
nor raise ytxir voice in strife. If anyone
ah use one who 13 lasting, let him refrain from
replying; let him say that he IE keeping a
fast," (Mtshkcit. book vii. cli. i. pt. 1.)
FATE. [PREDESTINATION. I
AL-FATH (es*H), "The victory.1
The title of the XLvmth Surah of the Quran,
in the first verse of which t.he word occurs.
(t Verily We (God) have given thee an obvious
victory, tbdt Ood may pardon thee thy for
mer .in d later sm.1'
Professor Palmer say a " Soqj* of thr com
mentators take this to mean sins committed
by Muhammad before .his call and after it.
Others rofei* tha word to the Unison with tho
Coptic handmaiden Mary, and to bis mar
riage with Za Jnab, the \vife of his adopted son
Zaid." NTone of the commentators we have
consulted, including al-Bai2awI, al-Jalalan,
al-K&malan, and Husain, give the last; in
terpretation, They all say it refers to his
sins before and after his.ctfil lo the Apostle-
ship.
FATHER. In the tktnm law of
inheritance, a father is a sharer in the pro
perty of his son or son's son, taking one-sixth,
but *if his son dio unmarried and without
issue, the father is the residuary and takes
the whole.
According to the law of <fi$a? or reta^ia-
tion, if a father take the life of hie son. he is
hot to be slain, for the Prophet has said,
"Retaliation musJ. not be erecuted upon tbe
parent for his offspring"; and Aba Hanlfnh
adds, "because as the parent is the efficient
cause of his child's existence, it is not proper
that th*» child should require or be the occasion
of tli? father's dentJj "; whence it is that a son
is forbidden to shoot his father, when in tht:
trmy of the enemy, or to throw a. atone at
hitti, if suffering lopidutiou for adultery.
In tho law of evidence, the testimony of d
father for or ogainst his child IR not admitted
in a court of law.
AL-FATIHAH (*»-uM). Lit. "The
opening one." The first chapter of the
Qur'an, called also the Surcrtu 'l-Ham<f< or
th^ "Chapter of Praise." It is h*»ld in great
veneration by Muhammadanr,, find ».* used by
them very much as the Faternffster is recited
by Roman Gatholies. It is related over sick
persons as a means of healing flnd also
fecited as an intercessien for the souls of tho
departed, anrl orcur.s in each ruk'ah of tho
daily prayer. Muhan»(»i»d is related to lutve
said it was the greatest Surah in the Qur nn.
and to have called it the Qur'anu 'l-'Ai'tm, or
the " exalted reading." It is also entitled
th:-. Satfrf-Mavtm or Jhe "seven rv.itaK"
as it contains Seven verses; also fJinmu '/•
Quran, the •< Mother of the Qur'ftn." Accord-
AL-FATIMIYAH
125
ing- to a saying of the Prophet, the fiitihah
wa3 revealed twice; once at Makkah and
once at al-Madinah. The Amln is always said
at the conclusion of this prayer.
The following transliteration of the AraMc
of the Fatihah into English characters may
give some idea of the rhybbm in which the
Qur'an is written : —
• Al-tuimrhi fi~'/lahi fobbi 'l-'atamin.
Ar-rahmani ''r-rahlm.
MLaliki yaumi '4-din.
fiiako na'bvdu, wa-iuaka nasfa'in.
ihdina '$-$irata 'I-w
Strata. 'Ua$wa arfamta
Grhatri 'l-magfifutti *alaihimt wait 'z-
Which iu translated by llodwoll in his English
Qur'an as follows: —
u Praise be to Ood, Lord of all the world 3 :
The Compassionate, the Merciful !
King on the E>ay of Judgment !
Thoe do we worship, and to Thee do we
cry for help !
Guide Thou us on the right path !
The path of fhose to whom Thou art
gracious I
Not of those with whom Thou art ah
gered, nor of those who go astray."
FATIMAK (W,U). A daughter
of Muhammad, by his.iirat wife KhadTjah.
She married « Ali Vhe cousin of Muhammad, by
whom she h:id three sons,al-fiasan, al- Husain,
and al-Mnhshi; the latter died in infancy.
From the two former are descended the pos
terity of the Prophet, known as Saiyids.
FRtimah died six months after her father.
She is spoken of by the Prophet, ns one of the
four perfect women, and is called r/£-/fe#/?/, or
"the Virgin," by whi^b is meant one -who hart
renoonced the World, also Fdtimatu 'z-
zuhrff, or <f the beautiful Fatimah."
There are three women of the name of
Fatimah mentioned in rhe Traditions: (I)
Patimah, the daughter of Muhammad ; (2)
The mother of 'All; (3) The daughter of
Ham/a.h. the uncle of Muhammad.
AL-FATIMI Y A H (4^UI\). « The
Fatimides." A' dynasty of Khalifahs who
t»»igno<l over Egypt and North Africa- froru
A.D. 903 to A.O. U7T. They obtained Jhe
parne frotn the pretensions of thp founder of
their dynasty Abu Muhammad 'Ubaidu
'Mali, who asserted that ho was a SMvid,
and descended from Fatiunah, the daughtor
of che Prophet ands 'AIT. His opponents de
clared he was the grandson of a Jew of the
Magiau religion.
There were in all fourteen KhalTfah.n ot
this dynasty : —
1. *Ul>aidn 'lf<i/i, the first Faliniide rvuali-
fah, was born A.D. 882. Ha*. IMS? inourrcd the
displeasure of al-Muktftfi, the reigning Abab-
sidt? Khallfah. ne was obliged to wander
through various parls of Africa, till through
forltmate cirrnmstanres he waa raised in
A.O. 910 from a dungeon in Segelmessa to
soveroign power. He assumed the title of
al-Mahdl. or "the Director of the Faithful.'1
126
AL-FATIMIYAH
[MAHDI.] He subdued the Amirs in the
north of Africa, who had become independent
of the Abassides, and estabiiched Ms autho
rity from the Atlantic to the borders of
Egypt. He founded Mahadi on the site of
the ancient Aphrodisium, a town on the coast
of Africa, about a hundred miles south of
Tunis, and made it his capital. He became
the author of a great schism among the Mu-
hamniadans by disowning the authority of
the Abassides, and assuming the titles of
Khalif ah and Amiru '1-Mu'minm, " Prince of
the Faithful." His fleets ravaged the coasts
of Italy and Sicily, and his armies frequently
invaded Egypt, but without any permanent
success.
(2) Al-Qa'im succeeded hia father in A.D.
933. During his reign, an impostor, Abu
Yazid, originally an Ethiopian slave, advanced
certain peculiar doctrines in religion, which
he was enabled to propagate over the whole
of the north of Africa, and was so successful
in his military expeditions as to deprive al-
Qa'im of all his dominions, and confine him to
his capital, Mahadi. which he was besieging
when al-Qa'hn died.
(3) Al-Man$ur succeeded his father in
A.D. 946, when the kingdom was in a
state of the greatest confusion. By his valour
and prudence he regained the greater part of
the dominions of his grandfather 'Ubaidu
'Rah, defeated the usurper Abu Y azid, and laid
the foundation of that power which enabled his
son al-Mu'izz to conquer Egypt.
(4) Al-Mu'izz (A.D. 955) was the most
powerful of the Fatimide Khalif a hb. He was
successful in a naval war with Spain, and
took the island of Sicily; but his most cele
brated conquest was that of Egypt, which
was subdued in A.D. 972. Two years after
wards he removed his court to Egypt, and
founded Cairo. The name of the Abasside
Khalif ah was omitted in the Friday prayers,
and his own substituted in its place ; from
which time the great schism of the Fatimide
and Abasside Khalifahs is more frequently
dated than from the assumption of the title
by 'Ubaidu 'llah. The armies of al-Mu'izz
conquered the whole of Palestine and Syria as
far as Damascus.
('6) Ate Aziz (A.D. 978). The dominions re
cently acquired by al-Mu'izz were secured to
the Fatimide Khalif aha by the wise govern
ment of his son, al-'Aziz, who took several
towns in Syria. He married a Christian
woman, whose brothers he made patriarchs
of Alexandria and Jerusalem.
(6) Ai-H&fdm was only eleven years of age
when he succeeded his father in A.D. 996.
He is distinguished even among Oriental
despots by his cruelty and folly. His tyranny
caused frequent insurrections in Cairo. He
persecuted the Jews and Christians, and
burnt their places of worship. By his order
the Church of the Resurrection at Jerusalem
was destroyed (A.D. 1009). His persecutions
of the Christiana induced them to appeal to
their brethren in the West, and was one of
the causes that Jed to the crusades. He
carried his folly so far as to seek to become
AL-FATIMIYAH
the founder of a new religion, and to assert
that ne was the express image of God. lit
was assassinated in A.X> 1021, and was suc
ceeded by his sou.
(7) A%-£tihir (A.D. 1021) was not so cruel*
as his father, but was addicted to pleasure
and resigned all tlie cares of government tc
his Vizirs. IB his reign the power of th^
Fatimide Khalifahs began to decline. Thew
possessed nothing but the external show ol<
royalty ; secluded in the harem, they were
the slaves of. their vizirs whom they could
not remove, and dared not disobey. In addi
tion to the evils of misgovernment, Egypt
was afflicted in the reign of az-Zahir with
one of the moat dreadful famines that evei
visited the country.
(8) Al-Mu8tan?ir (A.D. 1037) was only nin*
years old when he succeeded his father. The*
Turks invaded Syria and Palestine in hie
reign, took Damascus and Jerusalem (1076), ,
where the princes of the house of Ortok, e
Turkish family, established an independent
kingdom. They advanced to the Nile with
the intention of conquering Egypt, but were*
repulsed.
(9) Al-Mustalti (A.D. 1094), the second aou^
of al-Mufltansir, was seated on the throne by
the all-powerful Vizir Afzal, in whoso hancU
the entire power rested during the whole ei
al-Musta'li's reign. The invasion of ABM
Minor by the Crusaders in 1097 appeared tc
Afzal a favourable opportunity for the reco
very of Jerusalem. Refusing to assist th*
Turks against the Crusaders, he marched
against Jerusalem, took it (1098), and de
prived the Ortok princes of the sovereigntj
which they had exercised for twenty years
His possession of Jerusalem WHS, however, o
very short duration, for it was ttfken in tht
following year (1099) by the Crusaders
Anxious to recover his loss, be led an hn
mense army in the same year against Jena
salem, but was entirely defeated by the Cm
saders near Ascalon.
(10) Al-Amir (A.JD. 1101).
(11) Al-Hafiz (A.D. 1129).
) Az-Zafir (A.D. 1149).
13) A.l-F£iz (A.D. 1164).
During these reigns the power of the Fati
mides rapidly decayed.
(14) Ate Azid (A.D. 1160) was the last
Khalifah of the Fatimide dynasty At tht
commencement of his reign Egypt wai
divided into two factions, the respectiv<
chiefs of wbich, Dargham and Shawir, dia-
puted for the dignity of Vizir. Shawir im
plored the assistance of Nuru 'd-dln, who sen
an army into Egypt under the command o
Shirkuh, by means of which his rival wai
crushed. But becoming jealous of Nuru 'd
din's power in Egypt, he solicited the aid ol
Amauri, King of Jerusalem, who marcaec
into Egypt and expelled Shirkuh from th<
country. Nuru d-din soon sent anothei
army into Egypt under the same commander
who was accompanied by his nephew, tht
celebrated Salahu 'd-din (Saladin). Shlrkul
was again unsuccessful, and was obliged tc
retreat. The ambition of Amauri affordec
PATQ
shortly afterwards a more favourable oppor
tunity for the reduction of Egypt. Amauri,
after driving Shirkuh out of the country,
meditated the design of reducing it to his own
authority. Shawir, alarmed at the success
oi Amauri, entreated the assistance of Nuru
d-dln, who sent Shirkuh for the third time at
the head of a numerous army. He repulsed
the Christians, and afterwards put the trea
cherous Vizir to death. Shirkuh succeeded
to his dignity, but dying shortly after, Sala-
din obtained the post of Vizir. As Nuru M-
din was attached to the interests of the
Abassides, he gave orders for the proclama
tion of al-Mustahdi, the Abasside Khallfah,
and for depriving the Fatimides of the Khali-
fate. 'Azid, who was then on a sick-bed,
died a few days afterwards. [KHAUFAH.]
FATQ(J^). Lit. l; Opening." A
term used by Sufi mystics to explain the
eternity of matter, together with its develop
ment in creation. ('Abdu 'r-ttazzaq's Diet.
of Sufi Terms.')
FATE AH (M). Lit. "Languor,"
or "Intermission. (1) The interval between
the supposed revelation of the icvith Surah
of the Qur'an and the Lxxrnh and xcmrd
Surahs. It ie during this period that the
powers of inspiration of the Prophet are said
to have been suspended, and it was then that
he contemplated suicide by intending to cast
himself from Mount Hira'. The accounts of
this interval are confused and contradictory,
and various are the periods assigned to it,
viz. from seven month? to seven years.
I (2) The term is also used for the time
' which elapses between the disappearance of
<! a prophet and tho appearance of another.
^ ( Gkiydfu 'l-Ltighak in loco. )
f (3) A term used by Sufi mystics for a de-
islension in spiritual life. ('Abdu 'r-Razzaq's
. of Sufi Term!,.)
FIDYAH
127
, "The Opener "
[of that which is difficult.
I One of the ninety-nine names or attributes
Li God. it occurs in the Qur'an, Surah
kxxxiv., "For He is the opener who knows."
J FATWA (^r*)- A religious or
Judicial sentence pronounced by the Khallfah
Jor by a Mufti, or Qazi. It is generally
Jwjitten. The following ie a fatwa delivered
Jby the present Mufti of the Hanafi sect at
JMakkah in reply to the question as to
j whether India is a Ddru '/-Islam. Fatwas are
generally written in a similar form to this,
but in Arabic :-
" All praises are due to the Almighty, who
v is Lord of all the creation !
O Almighty, increase my knowledge !
As long as even some of the peculiar
observances of Islam prevail in it it
is the Daru '1-Islam.
The Almighty is Omniscient, Pure and
High!
This is the Fatwd passed by one who
hopes for the secret favour of tht Al-
mighty, who praises God, and prays for
blessings and peace on his Prophet.
(Signed) JAMAL IBN 'ABDo 'L-I.AH
SHAIKH *UMARO *L«HANAFI, the
present Mufti of Makkah (the
Honoured).
May God favour him and his father."
FAFJDAR (jWj*). An officer of
the Moghul Government who was invested
with the charge of the police, and jurisdiction
in all criminal matters. A criminal judge.
Faujdari is a term now used in British courts
for a criminal suit as opposed to diwanl, or
civiL
FATJTCT 'L-HAJJ (&J\ «»,»). The
end of the Pilgrimage. [PILGRIMAGE.]
FA£L (JA*). Lit. "That which
remains over and above : redundant." A
word used in the Qur'an for God's grace or
kindness. Surah ii. 244: "God is Lord of
grace to men, but most men give no thanks."
The Christian idea of divine grace, as in the
New Testament, seems to be better expressed
by fayz-i-aqdas.
FAJZCTLI (J^). Lit. "That
which is in excess.* A term used in Muham-
tnadan law for anything unauthorised, e.g.
bai'-i-fazu/i, is an unauthorised sale. Niktih-
i-fay.vl". is an unauthorised marriage, when
the contracts are made by an unauthorised
agent.
FEAST DAYS. Arabic 'id (^) ;
dual *iddn ; plural a-ydd. The two great
festivals of the Muhammadans are, the '/</«
V-Fitr, and the '7<fo ''l-Azjid. The other fes
tivals which are celebrated as days of Ire-
joicing are, lhe^Skab-i-Bardt, or the fifteenth
day of Sha'ban ; the NaU'Moz, or New Year5*
day; the AJchir-i-Chahdr Shamba, or the
last Wednesday of the month of Safar; the
Laylatu yr-Raghffib, or the first Friday in
the month of the month Rajab ; the Maulud,
or the birthday of Muhammad.
An account of these feasts is given under
their respective titles.
FEMALE INFANTICIDE, which
existed amongst the ancient Arabians, was
condemned by Muhammad. Vide Qur'an : —
Surah xvi.' 60: "For when the birth of a
daughter is announced to any one of them,
dark shadows settle on his face, and he in
sad. He hideth himself from the people be
cause of the bad news : shall he keep it with
disgrace or buiy it in the dust ? Are not
their judgments wrong.''
Surah xvii. 83 : " Kill not your children for
foar of want : for them and for you will We
(God) provide."
Surah Ixxxi. 8 : " . . . And when the dam
sel that had been buried alive shall be asked
(at the Day pf Judgment) for what crime she
was put to death."
FID YAH (*i*»). A ransom. From
Jidff, "to ransom," •« to exchange." An expia-
128
FIG
FIRDAUS
tlon for sin, or for duties unperformed. Tiw
word occurs three tiraee in the Qur'an t—
Surah ii. 180: "For those who are able to
keep it (the fast) and ypt break it, there shall
be as an expiation th*» n;aiutenan<»e of a pool-
man.*'
Surah ii. J92: " Perform the pilgrimage
and the visitation of the holy places. . . . Bgl
whoever among yon is sick, or hath an nil.
ttriflnt of the head, most trpiafe by fasting, or
alms, or a sacrifice.
Sarah I vii. .14: "On that day (the Day of
Jadgment) ao expiation shall be Uken from
you (i.e. the hypocrites) or from those who
do not believe ; your abode is Ibe fire."
T b;e other word used in .the Qur 'an for the
same idea is kaffarah. fKAfpARAR, EXPIA
TION. J
FIG. Arabic at-Tin (^\). The
title of the x.cvth Surah of the Qur'an, so
called because Muhammad makes the Al
mighty swear by that fruit in the first verse.
Al-Bai«awi says God swears by tigs because
of their great use. They are most excellent,
because they can be eaten at once, having no
stones, they are easy of digestion, arid help
to carry off the pbiegin, and grflv«l .in the
kidneys* or bladder, and remove obstructions
of the liver, and also '*m-e piles wid gout.
(Tftfslru 'l-Baizaivi. in foc/,\.
JB'IJAR (jM). Lit. '; That which
»s unlawful. A fcenn fHvftfi fcfrft itt*riefl of sacri
legious wars carrier on between the Quroish
anrt the B;vnu HawSzin, when Mnham*n>id
was o- youth, about A.D. 580-590. (Muir,
vol. ii. 8.)
AT.-FJLL (J*a\)\ The title of the
cvth Surah of the ^.ur'au. as it gives an
account of the AsMbu '/-/"*/, ov '- People of
the Elephant/' } ELEPHANT.]
FINES. Arabic Diyah (M- A
term, which, in its strictest sense, rctsans a
sum exacted for any offence upon the pel-sou,
in consideration lor the olairfi of qisos, or
retaliation; not being insisted upon. (This
does not apply to wilful murder.) A full and
complete Hue ia that levied upon a person for
manslaughter, vvbich consists of either onfi
hundred ten) a. it. camels or ten thousand dir-
hama (silver^), or one thousaud dinars (goldj.
The fine for slayiog a ^voraan is half that
for claying a man, *' because tb^ rank of a
woman it, Lower than that of a man, so alsr
her faculties and uses ! " The fine for slay
ing a zinrmi (be he a J^w, Christian, <w ido
later) is the same as for slaying a Muslim.
A complete fine is also levied for the
destruction of a nose, or a tongue, or a virile
member, and also, if a person tear out the
beard, or the hair of tuc scalp, or the whiskers,
or both eyebrows, so that they never grow
again." because the beauty of the countenance
is thereby effaced."
A complete fine, is due tor any fellow parts,
as for two eyefi, tvrp lips, &c.. and one half the
line for one- single member.
For oach finger, a tenth of the complete
line is. due. and as every
joints, a Uiird of the fine for the whole «? due
fur each joint,.
Tb.e fine fo?- a tooth is a twentieth of the
complete fine.
A half fine is due for mer^lv destroying1 the
nf,f. of a limb, but if a person strike another ia
any way so as to completely destroy the beauty
of his person, a complete fine must be paid.
Wounds on the face, viz. irons the crown of
the head to the chin, are specially treated.
and are termed sftijoj. Of sfn'jaj, or u face
wounds,'* there are ten : (1) hfirifah, or such
as draw no blood— a mere serat^h; (?)• ddmi-
yah, a scratch wh)"ch draws blood, without
causing it to ilow, f3) riamlyah, a scratch
which causes blood to ilow ; (4) baz^oht a out
through the skin ; (5) mvialahimah,. a cut
to the flesh ; (6) simhaq, a wound reaching
into Hie pericranium; (7) miizihah, a wound
wh.ch lays bare the hone; (d) hnshimah, a
fracture of the skull; (9) muvitkitah. a frac
ture which Causes the removal of part of
the sknll: (10) omrno-h^ a wound extending
to the brain.
FOT «n airmifdi wound, a third of the rom
p)ete iin^ is due. Khteeo ca».nels are due for
a, munakifah, fcen for a hdshimah, five for a
nr~>iilifjh. and so on.
All other wounds on other parts of r.he
body may b^ aiijusied for according to the
above scale, but are left to tha decision of
tne jud^e.
Kor further information o?i the subject see
*' Babu '1-Diyah •' in tha iturru 'l-MukMar, or
the tJififtyah, or the fatawa, ' Alamyiri, or the
FIQH. (^a*j. TI»e <logmfltic theo
logy of the Muslims. Worsts on Muhammad a u
law-, whether civil or religious. The books most
read by the SunnTs are the Hidayoh, written
by a learned man named 'Ali ibn Abl Bakr,
A.H. 593. part of which has been .translated
by the late Colonel, Charles Hamiltdn; the
Dam 'l-
'l-JMukhtSr, by 'Ala'u 'd-din, A.M.
i.ho Sharhu I- \Vi(/ai/a/i. by Ubaidu 'llab ibn
Mas-iid, A.M. 745; the Raddu V Mvhttt by
Saiyid Muhammad Ainin ibn Abidi 'd-d7n,
and the Fat Jam 'Alan/i/iri Amongst the
Imaimyah School, 'or Bhi-fths, the principal
works are Kitabu 'sh-Sharai', by Abu 1-
Haaah 'All (A.H. 326); the Aluqni* fT'/'Fiyk,
by Abu Ja-far (A.H. 360); the^ Shara-fit *l-
Islam, by Siiailvh Najmu d-JTn (A.H. 679);
and she J'ainru 'l>( Abhdsi, by Baha'u d-dln
(A.M. 1031).
FlEASAH (^*yj, or farSsak. A
§ufl t^rr/i for the enlighterunent of the heart,
A penefcraiiou into the seorets of t)ie tm-
known. '.titan \l-firvsok< " The acieuce ol
ph-ysiognomy."
(!<>Ucil."
FIBAS.H
In Muhamraadan law " a wife."
FTR'AUN
FIEDATJS
[PHAEOAH.]
y.^). The highest
stage of celestial bliss. Tij.\RADi8£.J
FIKE
FIRE. Arabic nar (ft). (1) The
term cm nar, •• the fire," is generally uaed in
the.Qur'an and the Traditions for "hell."
$) In the Quran (Surah xxxvii. 25* ; the
power of GoU is declared ad Ix'ing able to
•give fire out of a green tree." On which
il Bai/:i.wi say.* " the Uoual way of getting
ire is by rubbing two pieces oi ^o^d tug«»-
iJier one "f which ij markh and the olher
afar, and they produce iiro, although both
ihe dtkks are gr»em (X) The burning io
ieath. of human beings is condemned by
MuliumDia 1, who atiid ' JLet no one puiush
A-ith th<> punishment of lire but God."
FIRSTBORN. Although, the
Arabian legislator followed the Mosaic Jaw
n ao many of lu« legal jnacinioms he
aa* Carefully avoided j*uy legislation as to
he righu of primogeniture although it formed
iuch a markrd feature in tiia Pentateuch, in
.Ahich tho first-born of man and bca.st wero
Iie'votf.d to God. aifcu were redeemed with a
. In the Muslim law of inheritance all
:he sons ahare HqucJly, whiU»i in ihe Mosaic
iyw vac eldest sou received a viouUV portion
>f the jjitiujr's iuherit&ncc ^Doxu. xxi. 17.^
In ca»e3 of chief ahip, or monarchy the
jj«le:st &on usually iniioiii.*, biu ii rests eix-
ireiv upi>n his iitnessj for the position. Very
,>Iien ;ho aidcit »ou is passed by and a
rounder br^th'tr aeloci.<>l as rulei This was
Uao tho case uruoitghi the Jows when Solo
tton .iucj»x?d<>.d 1m father i» the KinKdon;
[I Kings i 30, ii. 25>;
Tho "uriou., fact thai Muk^muiM mad« n<»
)ro\isiuii ior these righu of primogejuture,
liave arisen irora hii havis.p, ha«i no sou
'J survive him
FISH ArabK samak (*&+*). (1)
fish •which, ujing ot ihriuaeives. iloat upon
the surface of *Jhe water, are abominated,
to Ai>u Hauifah. Ash bhauu
Mahk saj- they aro inaiiicreat -\bu
iiv-s Uiut !\»h Hhioh are killed
>y acciaerit are kwful. but such a* dif
af lli(Jtisulve3 without any accident are un-
awful. There are, howovor. uiuereta opiuioi^
o which die u/ cxtxr-.me heat ur
cold.
In the law of sale, it U not lawful to
sell fish which u not \i.t cutr^hl. nor is it
.awful to aoll iish which the vendor muj
caught and afterwards thrown into u
tunk
\Vhibi tbo destruction of nil animals.
ia ouo». is forbidden during the
, fishing in UIM afjn ju* permitted by
the Qu'ran. Surah \. 'J7 . " Lawful for yon i*
the Kauie of the sea/'
FIVK SKN3KS
129
F1TAJM (&*)-. pi. oi' yrfW*.
; siriica ; coiunwtions.
term specially uso.ci tor Uiose wara and
commotion* which snail procude Uie Ik-sur
reclioix. A chapter is devoted to the subject
in all the booke oi traditions, (bee ^a/^Ai/ V
•\\ill bv; Khalilnhs aiier me that will not go
the atxaigLt rv>ad in which 1 have gone, nor
will follow my ex.ir.tpic. but m those time*
tlicie -\\ili bd the hearts of devils in the bodies
oi ia«,n.' jliuuifcth tlicu .;aju ;o him, **0
Plophvt. niiat shall 1 do u J livi- to sec
tho^e d?.j s ? And llw Prophot said, " 01»«y
him who haa the- ru^o ovor you, c?en though
he flog your back and tuLo ^ our money."
Sui*:\.i.h. in a tradition •/iVorfied in at-Tir-
and Abu JJa'ud , huud that Muh<imn,ad
Ihut the suc^.^iion vouldta«c t'or thirty
and tiiat tho ">four rightly dirrjcted
" relgued exactly that time: Abu
liakr, two yoar* ; 'Umar. tent Uaman.
twelve: and Ali <JTM
, A mover of leader 4>f s^cUtioja is cailpd 0
uayltl or rebel.
FIT RAH (*>*)• Lit "Xature."
Oextain ancle* ui uractices 01* the prophets
bofor«* vbf jii'.w 01 .Muu»iiu;.iul uhic'u have
utnjxjui* fcT'iUi'I-i. by him.
4A\ij»hah rulatco that tho Prophet satd :
There are ton ^ualuies of tho prophets —
! clipping the mustacluos. so that they do not
I oiit'ir the inouth not cutting or .shaving the
board, cleansing Ihe ;eeth (i.e. miwak],
cleansing tho no&triis wiiii water at the
usual ablutions, cutting the uails, cleaning
Ihe linger joinU, [julling out iho hairs undor
the arm pits, shaving the hair of ihe privates
vu.shing with water alter passing urine, and
cloansing th^ raouUt. with wator »t the lirae
of hutiiiion •" ^S'-e Sahitiu Muslim.;
The nu^e 5 5 io be washed out wivn water
becanae it I . supposed that the devil resides
in the nose during the night , See MishxJi.)
There is a <iiapter in (hi? Ai-uta of the
P-xrsees. containing inruoctioiis aa to the
paling of ihe nails o/ tb/- hand A and feet.
VIVE FOUNDATIONS OF
ISLAM. (l'j ShaliAduh. or bearing mtuc^
that there is no deity but God ; ^2^ .Siu.'Jf, «r
ihe observance of the five stated periods of
prayer : (Oy Zakal, Klvir'« tfle ^K31 ^"
a year ; ^4) Suum, faatinjf durrn^ the wi.oie oi
o montn of liamazaii;
^
BuJcharlfp 1045: Sahzhu Muslim p 3o8.y
Muhammad is related to ha v- ->H4<J •• The:
Uio montn of liamazaii; o, t&j* the pil-
grimajre to >Iakkub once in. a Uie-time
They arc ui.^ caUod the uve fuuudauons of
j)rontc£, aj distuiguisb^d from the six foun-
d&tioixi of fuilti [ISLAM IMtAN ]
FIVE KEYS OF SECRET
KXOWLEI>GE, which. an. witL God alone are
said to be found in the la^l v» ry> of the Stiruh
Lu<jmiui i xxxist, 34" of tbr Quran "God'.
rtith Him is ^J j the Knowledge of the Hour;
V2) and He «end. Ji dowu rain. ; V3j and He
kuora\eui what is in the wombs; (4) but n;
soul kuj-%. ih what ahall bo on the laurrow j
(b) noithor kuo-weiJti any soul in -what Und h«
shall 'joe. V«riiy God is knowui.or a -id » in
formed of nil"
FIVE SENSES, 'Ihe. Arabic a/-
t. ((Jut-tnia k (&—+*& u*\*<J\).
to Muba;nrnadan welters, there aie
xternal uWnr«"> ions^s. and live- !
130
FOOD
(bdtini) senses. The former being those five
faculties known amongst. European writers as
seeing (bafirak). hearing (sdmtfah), smelling
(shdrAmah'), taste (foV<?oA), touch (Ldmisah).
The latter : common sense (biss-i-mvshtctrok^
the imaginative faculty (guwat-t-khaudC), the
thinking faculty (t/uwat-i-rnuta^arnfah) , the in
stinctive faculty (guwat-t-wdAimak), the re
tentive faculty
FOOD. Arabic ta'am (^),. pi.
atiimak. The injunctions contained in the
Qur'an (Surah ii. 167) respecting food are as
follows : " O ye -who believe ! eat of the good
things with which we have supplied you, and
give God thanks if ye are His worshippers.
Only that which dieth of itself, and blood, and
swine's flesh, and that over which any other
name than that of God hath been invoked,
hath God forbidden you. But he who shall
partake of them by constraint, without desire,
or of necessity, then no sin shall bo upon him
Verily God is forgiving and merciful."
Surah v. 92. t " O Believers I wine (kkamr) and
games of chance, and statues, and divining -
arrows are only an abomination of Satan'e
work ! Avoid them that ye may prosper."
The other injunctions concerning food art-
found in the Traditions ?vnd sayings of Ma
hamraad.
No animal, except fish • rulocusts, is lawful
food unless it be slaught r*3 according to the
Muhamiuadan law, nan-^iy, bjr drawing th?
knife across the throat a»/l c ••:.': ting the wind
pipe, the carotid arteries, ari<; the gullet, re
peating at the same tiiae tte words " 'JBfsmi
'lldhii Alla.hu akbarf ?.«.. " In the name of
God, God is great." A. dean animal, so slaugh
tered, becomes lawful food for Muslims,
whether slaughtered by Jews, Christians, or
Mubammadans, but animals slaughtered by
either an idolater, or an apostate from Islam,
is not lawful
Za.bh, or the slaying ui animals, is of
two kinds. Jkhtiydrl^ or "of choice, aod
Iztirari) or of necessity. The former being
tne slaughtering of animals La the name
of God, the latter being the slaughter effected
by a wound, us in shooting birds or animals,
in whieh case the words Bfsmi 'lidhi, Alidhu
akbar must be said at the time of the dis
charge of the arroTr from the bow or the
shot from the gtm
According to tho Hidayah* ail quadrupeds
that «eize their prey with their teeth, and all
birds which seize it with their talons are un
lawful, because the Prophet has prohibited
mankind from fcatiu^ them. Hyenas, foxes,
elephants, weasels, pelicans, kites, carrion
crown, yavenb, crocodiles, otters, asses,
mules, wasps, and in general all insects, are
forbidden. But there is seme doubt as to the
lawfulness of horses' flash. Fishes dying ot
themselves *ie also forbidde.
The prohibition of wine in the Q.ur'an under
the word kharrrr is held tn exclude all things
which havy an. intoxicating tendency, such as
opium, chars, bhang; and tobacco.
A Muslim can have no religious scruples
to oat with a Christian, aa long as the food
FORNICATION
eaten i? of a lawful kiiid. Saiyid Ahmad i
Khan Bahadar C.S.I., has vmUen a treatise
proving that Itfuliammadons can eat with the
AMr^"Kitd'bi namely, Jews or Christians. The
Muhammad ans of lndia.,)whilflt they -will eat;
food cooked by idolatrous Hindus, reiuse to
touch that cooked either by Natirs or Eure«
pean Christians ; and they often refuse to
allow Christians to draw water from the
public wells, although Hindus are permitted
to do BO. Such objections arise solely from
jealousy of race, and an unfriendly feeling
towards the ruling power. In Afghanistan i
and Persia, no such objections exist : and no
doubt much evil has been caused by Govern- 1
ment allowing Hindustani Muslims to ereate
a religious custom which has no foundation
whatever, except that of national hatred to
their English conquerors. [BATIKS.]
FORBIDDEN FRUIT, The. Men-
tioned in the Qur'an, Surah ii, 33 : ** And we
(God) said, <0 Adam, dwell them and thy wife
in Paradise and eat therefrom amply as you
wish j hut do not draw near this tree ' (shaja-
rafi }."
Ctfueeroiug mi* iree, the Commentators
ha^-e various opinions. Husain says some
say^ it was a fig tree, or a vine, but most
people think it was a grain of -wheat
irom a wheat stalk. [ADAM, FALL.]
FORGIVENESS. [PARDON,
FORGIVENESS OF INJURIES.
Enjoined in the Quran in the following
words (Surah xlii. .38) : " Let the recompense
of evil be only a like evil — but he who for-
giveth and maketh peace, shall find his
reward for it from God ; verily He loveth not
those who act unjustly. And there shall be
no way open (i.e. no blame) against those
who, after being wronged, avenge themselves.
-. . . . Whoso beareth -wrongs and forgiveth~
this is a boiuiden duty."
FORNICATION. Arabic zina'(fy)f
The -word zinff includes both fornication witb
an unmarried person, and adultery with a
married person. [ADULTERY.]
The sin of fornication must be established,
as in the case of adultery, either by proofs or
by confession.
To establish it by proof, tour witnesses are
required, and if any person bring an accusa
tion against a -woman of chaste reputation
and fail to establish it, he must be punished
with eighty stripes. [QAZF.]
When a person for conscience sake con-i
fosses the sin of fornication, the confession
mast be repeated four times at four different
appearances before a qazi, and the person con
fessing must be very exaot and particular as
to the circumstances, so that there can be noj
mistake. A self -accused person may alaoj
retra-ct the confession at any period before, orf'
during, the inflation of the punishmeut. and
the retractation must be accept f-n
The punishment for fornication is one hun~]
dred stripes (or fifty 1'or a slave). Thei
FORTUNE-TELLING
scourging to be inflicted upon a man fltp,nd-
ing and upon a woman sitting; and the
woman ir not to be stripped. It should be
done with moderation, with a, strap or whip,
I whit'fi has no knots upon it, and tht3 stripos
i should be given not all upon the &:ui:o par*
I of the body. [DIB.RAH.]
in some countries banishment is added to
the punishment of scourging tor fornication,
especially if the sin is often repeated, so ae to
i constitute common prostitution.
The law is founded upon the following
i v«r«e in the Qur'an, Surah xxiv. 2-5 : —
•• Tne whore and the whoremonger — scourge
eacti or them wjtb a.n hundred stripes ;' aud
l&f. iK>h compassion keep you irom carrying wit
tno sentence of God, if ye believe in God and
the laat day; And let Homo of the faithful
witness their chastisement,
•' The whoremonger shall not marry otfter
than .<?. whore or an i<iolalrosn ; and the whore
shaii not marry other than a whoremonger
or an idolater. Suoh af fiances are forbidden
to the faithful,
" They who defame virtuous women, and
bring not four witnesses, scourge them with
i fourscore stripen, and receive ye not their tes
timony for ever, for th^na a^e t6rveree
I persons —
> n Save those wbn afterwards repent and
live virtuously: tor truly God is Lenient,
Merciful J "
The Muhammadan law ttirfcj-/) from Jt»Tv ink
law witia regard to fornication : set Exodus
xxii. 16, 17 :— ** If a man entice a maid that
is not betrothed, and lie v/ith her. be shall
surely anaow her to be his wife. If her lather
utterlv refuse to give her unto him, he shall
pay tnoney according to the dowry of virgins "
'Bent xxii. 25-29:— " 11 a damsel that is a
i virgin bo betrothed unto 3. husband, and a man
find her in tb* city and lie with her. then ye
shall bring them out unto ttin »*te 01 the city,
and ye shall stone them with stones that they
die: v>i*» damsel because she cried not, being
in the city, *nd the man because he hath
humbleo. hia neighbour's wife ; BO shalt thou
put away evij from among you. But if a man
find a betrothed damsel in the field, and the
roan force her and lie with her, then the man
only that lay with her shall die. But unto
the ciamsei shalt tbon do nothing: there is in
tne darns*! no sin worthy of death. ... If a
man find a dacisel that is a virgin, which is
not betrothed, and lay hold on her, and lie
with her, and they be found, then the man
that lay with her shall give unto the dwu-
wel'8 father fifty shekels of silver, and Bhe
sh&ll bw his wife: because he hath humbled
her, be may no1 put her away all his
days."
FORTUNE - TELLING. Arabic
kah&nah (&\£y Mu'aAviyab ibn
Bakam relates thai he asked the Prophet if
it were right to consult fortuuu- tellers about
future events, and he replied. ^ Siuea you
have embraced Islam, you must not consult
them [MAOIC.J
FRIDAY 181
h FOSTERAGE. Arabic razd'ah.
rizd'ah (^U;). According to Abu
Hamfah, the period of fosterage is thirty
months ; but the two disciples, Yusut and Mu
hammad, hold it tf, be two years, whilet
Zufar maintains that it is throe years. Fos
terage with respact to the prohibitions
attached to it ia of two kinds ; first, where
a woman takes u strange child to nurse, by
"which all future matrimonial connection
between that child and t,h* woman, or. her
relations within .the prohibited degrees, is
rendered illegal ; secondly, where a woman
nurses two children, male and female, upon
the same milk, which prohibits any jature
matrimonial connection between them. For
further particulars on this subject, see Ha
milton's JFfiddyah, vol. i. page 187.
FOUNDLING. Arabic tagit (M).
L^t. "• That wbk'h is picked up." The per
son vho finds the child is called the mul-
taqit. Tho taking up of a foundling is said
to be a laudable and generous act, end where
the finder sees that the chiid'a life is iu peril,
it is an incumbent religious duty. (Uiddyab,
vol. ii p. 252.)
The maintenance of a toxmdling in ueij-a.ye>i
I rota the pubh'o treasury, but the finder if
not to demand anything for hi? trouble and
expense, but after the finding of the child
has been reported to the magistrate, the child
i* legally placed under the care of the mul-
taqit, and supported by the state. A found-
l.mg is declared to bo free, and not a slave.
ana unless he be found on the land or pro
perty of a Jew or Christian, he is declared
a Muslim. But If the child be found on the
property of a Jew or CLriatian, he will be de-
elared a- Jew or Christian as the case may
be. The rnuitaffif, cannot contract the found
ling in marriage -without the sanction of the
magistrate, but ho may send him to school
and in eveiy 'respect see to his education and
training without consulting the magistrate.
FBLDAY. Arabic J urn? ah, (W>).
Tho Day of Assembly," The Muhammadan
Sabbath, on which they assemble in the Jdmt-
'•Maajid. or chief mohque, and recite two
rik'abi. of prayers and listen to the oration,
oi- khutbah at the time of mid-day prayer
Muhammad claims in the Traditions to h«ve
established Friday RS a day of worship by
divine command. He says, "Friday was or
dered && a di vine day of worship both for the
Jew a'od Christian, but they have actad con
trary to thtt command The Jew .fixed
Saturday and the Christian fixed Sunday."
According to the name traditions, Friday is
" the best day on which the sun rises,
the day on which Adam was taken into
Paradise and turned out of it, the day on
which he repented and on which he died. It
wiH also be the Day of Resurrection."
There is also a certain hour on Friday
(known only to God) on which a Muslim
obtains all the good ho asks of the Almighty.
Muhammad prayed that God may put a seal
on the heart of every Muslim who through
132
FRIENESH1P
negligence onuia prajerfbr tnrec successive
Fridays. Muhammad sai-i .—
" Ulioev^r bathes on Kri lai &ua comes io
truycrs in the begnuung und comes on fuof
and set* near the Jmaia and listens to the
khuibah, and says nothing playful, but sita
iilcnt, evnry j>iep he touk will gel the rewards
of u "whole year 'a voxs-hippia^ and regards of
one year's 'fast and one vtrar'* prayings at
night."
There aro ihr^e description* 01 people
present on Friday, on? oi ;hem *ho comes
W-he masjid talking iritlin^K, and thia la
v»hui !»•: tfotb instead of rewards; an«i there is
a man who is pros^m lor m&ku<^ f>uuulica
lions, and ho asks God. and i! lie >vilU lie
$ivt%» him, if no;, refuses; the third a man
^i»o :uu,u<i3 to hear the kl^utbah and is
silciiL aud do^s not incommode aurone, and
thia Friday covers hi* sins till the next, and
three dav. a longer ; for God say.*. Whoever doth
on*1 good act will receive U:n in return.
(Misfikdi. book iv. c. xliii-y [KHUTBAU ]
FRIENDSHIP with Jews and
Christians is condemned in the v^ur'an, Surah
v. 56 " 0 ye who believe ' lake not the Jews
an-J Christians for your friend* ^or patrons)
they are the friends oi each other; but
whoso amongst you takes thutn ior Irienia
vorilj he ia o£ them, and, voriiy. Ootl ^ruid...-
not an unjust people"
FRUITS OF THE EAKTB are
4'G^ribosl in. the Qur'an as evidences of Oodo
love ua.l care for his creatures.
Surah vi 14*2:—
44 lie it is vvho produccth tf&ruons of iae
viiio tvollised oud uatrelhsod, and the paim
troes, aud thi- corri of various food, and olhed,
and pomegranates, like and unlikf.- t Eat. jf
thair fruit when they bear iruit. and pay liie
due thcreoi on the day o/ its ingatheriu^
and bo noi prodigrJ, for God lovtih not the
prodigal."
Surah xili. 3: ~
" And Rf- it is who hath outstrf tched the
earth, and placed on it the iirm mountains.,
and rivers : and of wvery fruit Tie hath placed
on it tvo kmds Jle causeth the night to
enshroud tho day Verily in this are signs
for those who xaueev.
** And on ilio earth hard by each oth«i are
its various portions: gardens of . grapes and
com, and palm tieea single or clustered.
Though watured by tho same water, yet
so axe make v.«.» more excelleni as food than
other. Verily in all ibis are signs for those
who understand /'
FUGITIVES. (1) A fugitive slave,
eitfcor male or female, is caUed obiq (v5*'0- !
The capture of a fugitive slave is a laudable j
I *
5 LIFE
, and thr captor is entitled to a renard of
brty iiirharas. <2X A fugitive en account of
religion is called mukdjir ( ft-'1-**). Hpftciai
blessings are prc tnif-ed t«» j.hos" who flee their
country on account of thrir orm^ Muslims.
Surah Jv. 101 : •* Who:;ot'vor iir<!R in ihe
wav ui (iovi aii.iil i:nd in ihe earth a 3pa»^iotiu»
refuge."
Surah xxii.&7: "Those who flee in God'*
way and then are Uain or die, God will pro-
vMt Uicjjni viih a godly providicTi.* [SDAVEa
MVHA-JIK.j
FULS (cr^J. An idol (or an idol
drvid^o bon\«5cn the profession of idolairy
and Christianity. Di-svroyed b^ Aii b> order
of Muiiammau, A.H. 630. iMuir* voi iv. p.
177.)
FUNEKAL. Arabic janazak (^^J
FUR AT (^ — *). Tlie rirer
Euphrates, said to be one of the rivers of
Edeii. [EOEN: j
AL-FURQAN (fi)\i/J\) (1) Th>. title
of the xxvth Surah of the Qur'an. (2) One
of the titles of the Qur'an (Surah ii. 181 j i
iu. 25 xxv. 1). (3) The titl^ given to the
Taurat revealed to Moses (Surah ii 50 ; x*i |
49> ^4j The ric;ory on the day of the battle j
of iiadr (Surah viil. 42; (5) A term used by •
Sufi myaiics for a dwtiu^uishing- between
truth and error-
M-jhammadan kxieograp&era aro \uiani-
mous in iutvrpretating the vrord furqan to
aiean xhut v/hich dUtinguiahes between good j
and evil, lawful and unlawful . The Jev?8 use
ihf word ptrck, or pirka, from the same roolj
to den jle a section or portion of acriplure.
FUSSILAT (c^Ui). Lit. »«Were
nxnde plahi. A titi«» of th«; xi.iat Surah
tlie Qur'an from the word occurring in the
second verse. The Surah is abo known as
the Hdmltn as-Sajdali to distlnguah it irom the
Surah juuaind, -\yhuhis aUo called as-Sajdak.-,
or *' Adoration.1'
FUTURE LIFE The immortality
of the soul and the i*eality of a future hfo are
very distinctive doctrines tif tlie religion of
Muhamm&d, and very nuiceroua are tho
references to it in the Qur'an The whole
sysieci of I&lain is based upon the belief in
the future ezisteu^e of the soul of man. A
description of the special character of this
future life vfill be found in the article on
PARADISE.
The terms generally used to express a
future life arc Darn 7 Ak&iral, Dam l-Baq$
Daru'l-Uqba,
GARB
GENII
133
tiABR -.V5)
U A b K I E L . Arabic Jibrail
(^V*)- Iii the Qur'an Jibril t.J*r* )
Ilf Angelic bei&£ who is supposed to have
be-r.» • tlio medium of the rrvfiiarbn of the
Qur'in to .Muhammad He is ineuuoncd
)iUy twice hi th<» Qur'on b% name auravu i-
Baqarali ii. 91 "-Whoso u lur; eiiejny of
'J^-bricl — for he hath by God's leavt> caused
to de»oond on thy heart the confirmation of
previous revelations, ' &c. And again in
.Sura'u VTahrim Ixvi.-j: ••Go.! is hia Pro-
ttv:tor, and Gabriel." He is, however, sup
posed to be spoken ol m Surahs ii. HI, 254;
v 109 ; xvt 1<M, a.s - the Hol\ Spiril, Rinu
l-Qudu* ; in Surah xxvi 193, "as '• the Faith-
rul Spirit," ur-RuitU 'l-Ain*s* •. and in I'm. 5, as
"one terrible in power. ShaJidu V <jmr-a.
Tlie accounv of Gabrioi's first appearance
to Muhammad is related as follow* by Abu
1-Fida • ** Muhamnittd was wont to retire to
Mcrunt Hird for a- month every year, ^hen
the yoar of bi;» mission came, he went to
Mount Hira in the mouth of Ratnazan for tb*
jmi'Dofle of sojotutuiig there, having his
family with him and thore he abode ixntil
the night arrived ui which God was pleased
to bkso him Gabriel came to him, and said
to .him. 'Reeuo! And he replied, 'What
shall I incite ?' And he said, Reciv- thou.
in the name of thy .Lord who rrtwued. Created
man from elotaof blood. Recite thou ! Fpr
the Lord ia most Beneucenl. Who hath
taught vhe u3^ of the pen. Hath taught
man that *hich ho knoweth not.'- After
thU the Prophet vent to the middle of
the mountain, and ht^rd a voice front heavou
which daid, Thuu art tlie Mesaeu^er of God
and 1 din Gabriel.' He continued standing in
his place to contemplate Gabriel until bo
withdrew n [QUBA^ . j
Sir William Muir says ; '« H is clear that at
a later p«\riod at least, if not from the first,
Mahomet confounded Gabriel with the Holy
Ghost The idea may have amen from some
aucL misapprultpjiaion as the following. Mary
conceived Jesas by l.he power of the Holy
Ghost, which overshadowed her. But it wta
Oabrwl who visited Mary to announce the
ooocoptioii of the Saviour. The llolj Ghost
A&S therefore another name for Gabriel. "We
need hardl\ -wonder at this ignorance when
Mahomet s«wm« to have belioved that
Christians held Mary lo be the Uiird person
intheTiiuityl"
With reference to the verse quoted above,
from the Suiatu 'l-Baqar.)h, Sale says the
Commentators say that the Jews asked what
angel it wan that brought the Our an to Mu-
hanin>ad, and on being toid that it was
Gabriel, they replied that he was their
enemy and the messenger of wrath and hxhr-
mem; but that if it b*i bean Michael they
would have believed on him, because tfaitt
angel was their fricud, and the messenger of
peace and plenty
It is also important to observe that the
only distinct (LMortion of Gabriel being the
medium of divine revelation, occurs in a
Mad.'um all Sur-ih
Gabriel io called iuMusUm books ar-y'u/iM V-
/!'*<///<, 'v The Supreme Spirit " ; <v-Raliu V- Mu~
karrum. * T he Honoured Spirit ", Ruhu 'l~riq<i
•' The Spirit of casting into"; Ruhu Y-Q/</<W
-The Holy Spirit"; and ar -JRubu 'I- Ami*.
»* The Faith lu I Spirit.
GAMBLING (Arabic wiawtr,
• j L* forbidden in tlu
Surah ii. 216 : " They wiii ask thae con
cerning wine, and games of chance. Say both
is a great sin,, and advantage also, to men,
but their sin is greater tiiau their adv*.u
tage."
Surah v. 93 : " UniT would Satan sow
hatred und strife amontf you. by witic- aud
games of chance, and turn you asiio from
the remembrance of God, and from prayer .
Wiliyo not, therefore, abstain from taeti- .' '
The evidence of a gambler 13 not admis
sible in >t MnhutTUTKidan court of taw. bccauio
^ajuiii^ Is o t^reai crime. (//ictavuv< *'•
p. 6H8"
O A liDE~L>l . Arabic jannak \ &*± ) ;
Heb. , pi Q">2^ ^-u T^e Qar aa tJCie
of our first parenis is c»ill<x1
Al-jannak. 'the uard^W and nol ./r.w///«
Adn, or the Garden of Kdeu.' Janwtn
Atln being the fourth stage of celestial bliss.
A/-/anndi. " the yardens." is a term frequantly
uaod in the Qur'ar for the state of heavenU
jov , and the utagca of paraduse, which ar?
eight, are known as — (lj The Burden oi
eternity. (2) The dw-ftLLn^ of pu?co. (3) The
dwelling which abideth, (iy The yai<len ol
Edon- (5^ Thp garden of refuge. (&) Thr
garden of delight, (7) The garden of 'liiiyii-
(8) 1'ho Qurdfh of Paradise- TPARADIME.!
GENII. Arabic jinn (c^
jdnn (0^). Muhammad was a
believer in the existence of good and evil
genii and haa left a record of bis belief in the
LX&imd Chapter cf his vjnran, entitled the
^urutu "Jinn. It opena Lhus : —
•' hAY • J t hath been reveaiea to rae that i.
company of JIM N' listened and said,— Verily.
we have heard a marvoUoue diRcours«
(Qur'an) ;
"It guideih to the trutii; wherefore we
believed in it. and we wili not henceforth join
uny being witb our Lord ;
"And He,— may the majesty of our Lord
be exalted I — iiath taker, no spoaae neither
hdth he any offspring
184
GENII
" But the foolish among us hath spoken of
God thEt which is unjust :
" And vee verily , thought that no one
amongst men or jinn would have uttered a
• ie against God.
'•There are indeed people among tr^n who
have sought for refuge unto people among
jiun : but they only ir, created their folly :
"And they thought as ye think, that God
would not raise any from the dead.
" And tho Heavens did we essay, but
found them filled with a mighty garrison, and
with flaming darts;
" And we sat on some of the seats to listen,
hut whoever listeneth findeth an ambush
ready for him of flaming darts."
The following exhaustive account of the
M">iamtnadan belief on the subject is taken
from the writings of the late Mr. Lane (the
learned author of the Modern Egyptian* and
of Notes on the Arabian JVipitp), but slightly
aJtered to meet the requirements of the pre
sent work.
According to a tradition from the Prophet,
this apecies consists of five orders, namely,
Jann (who are the least powerful of all), Jinn?
Shaitans (or devils), •Ifrite, and Marids. Tho
laat, it is added, are the most powerful ; and
the Jann are transformed Jinn, like as certain
apes and swine were transformed men. It
must, however, be remarked that the terms
Jinn and Jann are generally used indiscrimi
nately as names of the whole speoies, wbotbur
good or bad, and that the former term is the
more common. Also, that Shai^an is com
monly used to signify any evil genius. An
•Ifrii is a powerful evil genius ; a Marid* an
tfvil genius of the most powerful class, Th?
Jinn (but, generally speaking, evil ones) arc
called by the Persians Deves, the moat
powerful ovil Jinn, Naraha (which signifies
"males/' though they are said to be males
and females); the good Jinn, Ptrw?, though
this term is commonly applied to females.
In £* tradition from the Prophet, it \» said,
u The Jann were created of a smokeless fire.'*
Tho word which aignifiefl *' a smokeless fire '
has been misunderstood by some as meaning
"the flame of fire."" Al-Jaukarl (in the SikaK)
renders it rightly ; and says that of this fire
was the Shaitan or Iblis created. Al Jann
\K sometimes used as & name ior Iblis, as in
the following verse cf the Qur'an ( Surah xv.
27) : " And the Jann [the father of the Jinn,
i,6. Tblis] we had created before [i.e, before
the creation of Adam] of the fire of the
SamDm [i.e. <:»! th-i fire without ssnoke]."
Jann also signifies " a serpent," as in other
piu-aagas of the Qur'an, and is used in the
same book as synonymous with Jinn. In the
last senee it is generally believed to be used
in the tradition quoted in the eomoienceiaem
of this paragraph. There are several appa
rently contradictory traditions from the Pro-
paet, v?hieh are reconciled by what has been
above stated ; in one it is said that Iblis was
•be father of all the Jann and Shai$axz. ; Jana
being here synonymous with Jinn ; in another,
that Jann was the father of all the Jinn, here
Jann being used u* * name for /6#*.
GENII
«<lt is held," says al-Qaawjm. "that the
Jinn are aerial animals, with transparent
bodies, which can assume various forms.
People differ in opinion respecting these
'beings ; some consider the Jinn and Shaijtana
a« unruly men, hut these pereons are of the
Mu'tazllahs fa sect of Muslim treethitikenjjj
and some hold that God, who&e name be
exalted, created the angels of the light of
fire, and the Jinn of its flame [but this if* at
variance with the general opinion], and the
Shaitana of its f»tr»oke [which is also at,
variance with t-tte common opinion] ; a-nd that
[all] t-iaese kinds of beings are [usually j in
visible to men, but that they assmne what
forms they please, and when thtor form be
conioe, condensed they are visible.'' This last
remark illustrates several* descriptions of
gonii in the Arabian Nights, where the form
oi the monster is at first undefined, or
tike an enormous pillar, and then gradually
assumes a human shape and less gigantic
It is said that God created the Jann (01
Jinn] two- thousano years before Adam [or.
according to some writers, much earlier"!, and
that there are believers and infidels and every
sect among them, as among utejj. Some say
tha.t a prophet named Yusuf was «eiit lo tho
Jinn; others, that they had only preachers or
admonisherH ; others, again, t/hat seventy
apostles were sent, before Muhammad, to
Jinn and men conjointly. Jt is commonly
believed that the preadamite Jinn were co-
versed by forty (or, according to soice,
seventy-two) kings, to each of whom the
Arab writer* give the name of Sulaiman (or
Solomon); and that they derive their appel
lation from the last cf these, who was called
Jarm ibn Jann, and who, some say, built the
Pyramids of Egypt.
The following account ol tee preadanme
Jinn is given by al-Qazwini: —
"It ia related in histories that a raos of
Jinn in ancient times, before the creation of
Adam, inhabited the earth, and covered it,
the land and the sea. and the plains* and tha
mountains ; and the favours of God were mul
tiplied upon them, and they hed government,
and prophecy, and religion and law ; but they
transgressed and offended, and opposed, their
prophets, and made wickedness to abound in
the earth i wnereupou God, whose name be
exalted, sent against thorn an army of angels,
who took possession of thw earth, and di'ove
away the Jinn to the regions of the islands,
and made many of them prisoners; am' «>£
those who were made prisoners was 'Azazii
(afterwards called Iblis, from his despair),
and a nlaughter was madr among them. At
that time, 'Azazii was yuung ; he grew up
among the angels [and probably for that
reason was called one of them]* and became
learned in their knowledge, and assumed tho
government of them ; a«d his da^s -were pro
longed until he became their chief ; and thus
it continued foi a long time, until the affair
between him and Adam happened, as God,
whose name be exalted, hath said, ' When we
said unto the Angels. Worship, ve Adam, and
GENII
falTI worshipped except Iblls, [who] was
[one] of the Jinn.' (Surah 1. 40)."
Iblis. we are told by another authority,
was sent as a governor upon the earth, and
judged among the Jinn a thousand years,
after which he ascended into heaven, and re
mained employed in worship until the crea
tion of Adam. The name of Iblis \vaa origi
nally, according to some, 'Azazil (as before
mentioned), and according to others, al-Haris ;
his patronymic is Abu Munnah or Abu 'I-
fihirnr. It is disputed whether he was. of
the angels or of the Jinn. There aro three
opinions on this point : (1) That ha was of the
angeia, from a tradition from Ibn 'Abbas ;
(2) That be was of the Shamans (or evil
Jinn), as it is said in tb« Qur'Sn, "Except
Ibl'ia' [who] was [one] of the Jinn " ; this was
the opinion of al-Hasanu 'l~.Ba$rf, and is that
.commonly held : (3) That he -was neither of
the angels nor of the Jinn, but created alone
of fire. Ibn 'Abbas founds his opinion on
tne same text from which al-Hasanu '1-Basri
derives his : " When we 'said unto the angels,
worship ye Adam, and [all] worshipped ex
cept Iblis, [who] was [one] of the Jinn''
(before quoted) ; which he explains by say
ing" that the most noble and honourable
among the angels are called " the Jinn," be-
causo they are veiled from the ey«s of the
other angels on account oi tbeir superiority ;
and that Iblis was one of these Jinn. He
adds, that he had the government of the
lowest heaven and of the earth, and was
called the Ta'us (lit. "Peacock") of tho
angels ; and that there was not a spot in the
lowest heaven but he had prostrated himself
upon it ; but when the Jinn rebelled upon the
earth, Gk>d sent a troop of angels, who drove
them to the islands and mountains ; and Ibils
being elated with pride, a»d refusing to pro
strate himself before Adam, God transformed
him into a Shaitan. But this reasoning is
opposed by other verses, iut which Iblla is
represented as saying, " Thou hast created
me of fire, and has created him [Adam] of
earth." It is therefore argued, " If ho were
created originally 'of fire, how was he area ted
of light ? for the angels were [all] created of
light." The former verse may bo explained
by the tradition that Iblis, having been taken
captive, was exalted among the angels; or,
perhaps, there is an ellipsis after tho word
" Ang«ls " : for it might be inferred that the
command given to the Angels was also (and
a fortiori^ to be oibeyed by the Jinn.
According to a tradition, Ibiis and all the
Shai£aus are distinguished from the other
Jinn by a longer existence. " The Shaitans."
it is added, " are the children of Iblis, and
die not but with him; whereas the [other")
Jinn die before him. though they may live
many centuries. But this is not altogether
accordant with the popular belief : Iblis and
many other evil Jinn are to survive mankind,
bat they are to die bofore the general resur
rection, as also even the angels, tho last of
whom will be the Angel of Death, 'Izrfi'il.
Yet not all the evil Jinn are to live thus long.
Many of them are' killed by shooting stars,
GENII
135
hurled at them frem heaven ; wherefore, the
Arabs, whim they see a shooting star (shiha.b),
often exclaim, ' May God transfix, the enemy
of the faith ! ' Many also are killed by other
Jinn, and somo even by men. The fire of
which the Jinn is created circulates iu hia
veins, in place of blood ; therefore, when he
receives a mortal wound, this fire, .issuing
from hifl veins, generally consumes him to
ashes.
The Jinn, it has been already shown, iu-v
peaceable. They also eat and drink, and
propagate their species, sometimes in conjunc
tion with human beings ; in which latter'caso.
the offspring partakes of the nature of both
parents. In all those respects they differ
from the angel a. Among the evil Jinn nre
distinguished the five sone of their chief,
lblu» ; namely, rf ir, who brings about calami
ties, losses, and injuries ; al-ASvar, who *i\-
couravres debauchery: Sut, who suggests lies :
DM ..si ai. who causes hatred between man and
wife ; and Zalotnbfir, who presides over places
of traffic.
The most common forms and habitations
or places of resort of ibe Jinn must now be
described. The following traditions from the
Prophet, are to the purpose : —
The Jinn are of various shapea, having the
forms of serpents, scorpions, liout*, wolves,
jackals, &c. The Jinn are of three kinds —
one on the land, one on the sea, and one in
the air. The Jinn consist of forty troops,
each troop consisting of six hundred thou
sand. The Jinn are of three kinds — one have
wings and fly ; another are snakes and dots •
and the third move about from place to place
like men. Domestic snakes arc* asserted to
be Jinn on the same authority.
The Prophet ordered his followers to kill
serpents and scorpions if they intruded at
preyers ; but on other occasions, he seeuis to
have required b'rst to admonish them to
depart, and thens if thoy remained, to kill
them. The Doctors, however, ditfer in opinion
whether all kinds oj snakes or serpents
should be admouisbod first; or whether any
should : for the Prophet, say they, took a
covenant of tho Jinn [probably after the
above-mentioned command], that they should
not enter the houses of the faithful; there
fore, it is argued, if they enter, they break
their covenant, and it D6Oomd8 lawful to kill
them without previous admonishment. Yet
it is related that 'Ayishah, ono of tho Pro
phet's wives, having killed a nerpent in her
chamber, wag alarmed by a dream, and fear
ing that it might have been a Muslim Jinm, as
it did not enter her chamber, when she was
undressed, gave in alms, as an expiation,
twelve thousand dirhama (about £300), the
price of the blood of a Muslim.
The Jinn are said to appear to mankind
most commonly in the shapes of serpents,
dogs, cats, or human beings. Iu the last
case they are sometimes of the stature of
men, and sometimes of a size enormously
gigantic. If good, they are generally resplen-
dently handsome ; it' evil, horribly hideous.
They become invisible at pleasure (by a rapid
ISO
GENII
extension or rarefaction of the particles
which compose them), or suddenly uiiuppear
ia th<» oarth or air. or through n so'JJd wall.
Vianv Muslims in the present day protest
to liavft secu and held intercourse with
thorn
The Zaubrrah which is a, whirlwind that
f au.es the sand or dust in the form oi a
piJLu- of prodigious height, often seen sweep
ing' across the doserts. and jitlds, is believed
to be caused by tho flight oi an ovil genii
To defend themselves from a Jiim thu«
"riding in the whirlwind, the Arabs often
eselaim, -'Iron,! iron! ' (Iladld! ffctdid!}
or, "Ironl thou unlucky! (Hadid! yd
Afoskumf). as th^ Jinn are suppOKed to have
a great dread of that metal ; or they exclaim.
'• Uod is most great 1 " (Alldhu akbar /) A
similar superstition prevails with respect to
the waterspout at sea.
It is believed that the .chief abode of the
Jinn is in the mountains oi Qaf, which are
supposed to encompass the -whole of our
I'j.rth. But they are also believed to pervade
ho solid hx>dy of our earth, and the firma
ment' and to choose, as their principal places
of resort, 01 of occasional abode, oaths,
VfHils. the latrina. ovens, ruined houses,
inarket-plao -.»«». the juncture? of roads, the sea,
nnd rivers.
The Arabs, therefore, when they pour
water, ifcc., on the ground, or enter » bath, or
let down a bucket into a well, or visit the
latrina, and on various other occasions*, say,
u Permission ! " or " Permission, ve blessed ! "
(l^n \ or tzn yd MulMfraJcitn The evil
spirits Cor evil genii\ it is said, had liberty to
enter any of the seven heavens tiii the birth
of Jesu.*, when they were excluded from throe
of them. On the birth of Muhammad, they
were forbidden the other four They con
tinue, however* to ascend to the confines of
the lowest heaven, and there listening to tho
conversation of the angels respecting things
decreed by God. obtain. .knowledge of futurity,
which they sometimes impart to men, who
by means of talismans or certain invocations
make them to serve the purposes oi magical
performances.
What the Prophet said of Iblis in the fol
lowing tradition, applies also to the evil Jinn
over whom ho presides : His chief abode
[among men] ia the bath; his chief places of .
rosort are tho markets and junctures oi roads ;
his food is whatever i« killed without the
name of God being pronounced over it ; his
'Irink. whatever is intoxicating ; his MURK/HI,
the nmmar (a musical pipe), i.e. any musical
instrument) : his Qnr an. poetry ; his written
character, the marks made iu geomancy j
his speech. fttia**hood ; his .snares are
women.
That particular genii presided over par
ticular places, was the opinion of the early
Arabs. It is said iu the Qur'an (Siiran
Ixxii. 6), " And there were ceitain men who
sought .refuge with certain of the Jinn. " In
the commentary of tha Jalalun, I rind the
following remark on these words : — " When
they halted on th*ir journey, in a place of
GENJJ
fear, each man said, • I seek refuge with the
ierd of this place, from the miachisl of bis
foolish onei ! ' " In illustration of ibis, 1 may
insert the following tradition, translated from
ai-Qazwini — "It is related by a certain
narrator of traditions, that he d*-; cendud 4nto
a valley with his sh«ep, and a wolf carried
off a ewe from among \hem; and hearo.se,
and raised his voice, and cried. P0 inhabitant
of the valley I ' whereupon he heard ;» voice
saying, • 0 wolf, restore to Mm his sheep i'
and the wolf came with the ewe, and left her,
and departed." The same opinion is held by
the modem Arabs, though probably they do
not use such on invocation.
A similar superstition, a relic of ancient
Egyptian credulity, still prevails among the
people of Cairo It is believed that each
quarter of this rity ha* its pecnliar guardian
genius, or AgathuUscniun. which has the form
of a serpent
It has already, beun mentioned th&t sumo oi
the Jinn are Muslirna, and others infidels The
good acquit themselves of tho imperative
duties of religion, namely, prayers, alms
giving, lasting during the month of Rama-
/.oil, and pilgrimage to Makkah ami Mount
Arafat, but in the performance of ihcae
duties they are generally invisible to human
being*.
No man. it is said ever obtained &ur& ab
solute power over Ihe Jinn as Sulaiman ibn
Da ud (Solomon, the son of David). This lie
did by virtue of a most- wonderful talisman.
which is said to have come down to him from
heaven It was a sealing ring, upou which
was engraved u the most xreal name " uf God
[AL rsMu i A-ZAM ], and was partly composed
of brass and partly of iron. With tho br&sabe
stamped hjs written commands to tho good
Jinn , with the iron (for a reason before men
tioned) those to the evil Jinn or devils
Over both orders he had unlimited power, as
well its over the birds and the winds, and, as
is generally said, he wild beasts. His wazir,
Asaf tho sou of Barkhiyah, is also i-Mid to
have been acquainted with •' the most great
name." by uttering which the greatest mira-
clca may be performed, even that oi raising
the dead. By virtue oi tbi* name, enpraved
on his ring. Sulaiman compelled tho Jjnn to
assist in building the temple oi Jerusalem,
and in various other works. Maity of the
evil genii be converted to the true faith, and
many others of this class, who remained
obstinate in infidelity, ho.couiiut-d in
He is said to have been monarch of
whole earth. Hence, perhaps, the name of
Sulaiman is given to the universal monarchr
ol the preadamite Jinn; unless the story oi
his own universal dominion originated from
confounding him with those j-uigs of the
Jinn.
The injuries relalod to have been inhictet
upon human beiiu/s by evil genii ;<ro ot vArionn
kinds. Genii aie auid to havo oftf-n carried
otf be?mtiful women, whom they tt,ivo forcibly
kept as then wives o>' voncubincs. Maiicioua or
disturbed genii are assort™* off on to station
themselvea on Ihe »oof«i. o*- at the v?iiidowp
GKNIi
of houses, and lo throw down bricks and
stones on persons passing by. When, they
take possession ul an. uninhabited house,
they 3eldom fail to persecute terribly any
person who ^0^3 to reside in it. They ar<»
also very apt to pilfer provisions. <frc. Many
learned and devout persons, to secure their
property from such depredations, repent the
words. " Jn the name of God, the Compas
sionate, the Merciful ! " on locking tho doora
of thoir houses, rooms, or closets, and on,
covering the bread -banket, or anything con
taining food. During the month of Ramazun.
the evil genii are believed to bo confined in
prison; anJ. th/roforo, on tho. last night of
that month, with the samo view, women
Hornet hues repeat the words above mentioned,
and sprinkle »alt upon tho floors of the apart
ments of thoir houses.
To complete this sketch of Arabian myth
ology* an account must b^ added of several
creatures generally b«?lk> v od to be of inferior
orders of th«5 Jinn. One of tho.se is tli<»
(iliuK which is commonly regarded as a kind
of Shaitan, or evil genii, that eats anen. ft'ml
.-: also described by some, as a Jinn, or an
enchanter, v. U-> assumes various forma. The
Gituls :u<« *aid to appear in the forms of
various animals, and of human beings, and in
many monstrous shapes : to haunt burial
grounds and otner secjueaturcd spots ; to ioc«l
upon dead Human bodies; and to kill ami
devour anv human creature who has the
misfortune to fall in their way; ..ueuce tho
term •'* Ghul " is applied to any cannibal.
An opinion quoted by a oetobrated author
respecting the CJaul is, that it in a demoniacal
animal, which passes a solitary existence in
I he deserts, resembling both man and brute;
that it appears lo a person travelling alone
in the night and in solitary places, and, bein^
supposed by him to be itself a- traveller,
lures him out oi bis way. Another opinion
stated by him is this: that, -when the Shai-
tans attempt to hear words by stealth [from
the confines of tho lowest heaven] . they are
struck by shooting «tars. and somo are burnt :
.some falling into a sea, or rather a large
nver (bukr'). become converted into croco
diles : and some, falling upon the land, be
come GJiuls. The same author adds tho -fol
lowing tradition : " The (ihul is any Jinn
that is opposed to travol*, Hamming various
forms and uppearam1*'* ; ,-u»d affirms that
iovcral ot in- Companions, of thu Prophet
saw Ghula in their travels; and thai • 'Uniar
among thorn .->Hw .» (J'uitl while on a journey
to Syria, before lalaui, and struck it with hi-,
sword."
It appears that "• Ghul '' is. properly speak
ing, a name 'wlv given io a female demon of
the kind ftbovfl d*».iciibi.<i ; the male is called
rQutrub." it js sttij that these beinyn. and
tho Qtiaddar, or (fharror, and other .similar
creatures, which will presently l>e mentioned,
fire the offspring of Iblia and of a. wife whom
God created for him of the fire of the Sniuum
(which here signifies, as in an instance
bt'f ore mentioned, a. smokeless tiro"); and
that they sprang from an exg. The feinal'e
GENII
137
(rhui, it is addjct, appears io men iu the
deserts, m various lorrn.'i, couvcrbos with
ihciu. and souintluie^ prostitutes h«rsolf to
them.
Tlie Si:lat. or Si-la', is another demoniacal
oreaturo. described by aomo [or rather, by
most authors] as oi tho Jinn. It is said that
it is mostly found in forests ; and that when
it captures a man, it makes him 'lance, and
plays with him as the cat plays with th'j
mouse. A man of Isfahan assorted that
many bwngs of this kind abounded in his
'touutry ; that sometime tho wolf v*ouUi
hunt ono of them by night, aii'l uevour it, and
that, when it had seized it, the .Si'bV would
«;ry out, " Come to my help, for the wolf do-
vourt-th inel" or it would cry. "Who will
liberate me? I have a hundred dinars, ami
ho shall receive them ! " Bui th<* poopU>
kuowiuK Uiat it was the cry of the Si !«', n^
one woul'J liberate it; and so the woi''
vvuitid eat it.
An island in ihe sea of C'iiiii4t(alu
" tho island of the Si'hV," by
from its being said to be inhabited by the
demons so named ; thoy are described as
creature* of hideous forms, supposed to be
Hhaitons, tho offspring of kuman beincjii arid
Jinn, who eat men.
The Ghaddar i« another overture of «t siiui-
lar natuio, described as being found in th»-
borders ot al-Yauian, and sometimoa in Tiha-
mah, and in the upper parts of Kgypt. It ia
said that it entices a man lo it, and either
tortures him in a manner not to be described,
vr merely terrifies him, and leaves him.
Tho Dalhan i.s also a demoniacal being, in
habiting the islands of the seas, having tho
form oi a man. uu.l riding on au ostrich. It
eats the flesh of men whom th» sea casts on
tho shore from wrecks, Some say that ^.
l)alhan once attacked a ship on the :;.-:i . ..;•'•>
desired to take the crew j but they conteiuio-H
with it ; whereupon it uttered n cry whiol.
caxiaod them to fall ou their faces, and it
took them.
The Shiqq is another demoniacal creature,
imving tiic form ot half a human being (like
a man divided longitudinally , : auJ it i» bo-
lie ved that the Xasnus is tho oiTjprinx oi a
Shiqq and of a human being. The
appears to travellers ; sxncl it was a
this kind who killed, and was kilted by 'A 1-
tjamah, the son of bafwan. the son of UiRti-
vah, of whoin it is well known that he waa
killed by a Jinn. So »ays al-QazwIni
The Nasnas (ai>ovo mentioned) as described
as resembling half a human being ; having
half a head, half a body, one arm, and out
lo^, with which it hops with much .isrihty ; as
bo in,* found ai (lie woods of :u- Vaman. aud
being endowed with speech ; " but God,'1 il ii
added. - i.-i all knowing." it is said that it ij
found in H&zramaui as wcllasal-Yamun : arm
that one was brought aliveto al- MuuvwakkiL It
resembled a man in form, excepting that il h;:-;
but half a face, which was in its breast, and
a tail like that of a sheep. The people cf
liazramaut, it is added, eat it ; and its flush
ia sweet. It is only generated iu. their countn-
18
138
GENTILES
A maw vhc v.-ent th«re asserted that he saw
a captured Nasnaw, which cried out formerly,
conjuring him by God and by hims^f.
A raoe of people whose head ia in tne
breast, is described as inhabiting an island
called Jabah ^supposed to* bo Java), in the
sea of Hind, or India. A kind of Nasnas is
also described as inhabiting the island of Kaij,
in the sea of China, .and bavin? wings like
those of the bat,
The Hatif is a being thai is heard, but not
.seen •, arid is often mentioned by Arab writers,.
It is generally the communicator, of some
intelligence* in tho "way of advice, or direction,
or warning. (See .Lane's Modern Egyptians ;
Lake's Note* on the Arabian
GENTILES. Arabic Umnu
from »mm, "a mother"); pi. ummtyun, lit.
"Ignorant as new-bovn babes." Hebrew
D^il- According to fcl-Bai/.ftwi, all the
peotyle of the earth viio do not !K>,s3esf» a
divine Book. In the Qur'an, the term is spe
cially applied to -the idolaters of Arabia.
Surah 'ixii. 2: "He (God) it is who sent
unto the Gentiles a Prophet, amongst them to
recite to them His signs, and to purify them,
and to teach them the Book, the wisdom,
although they w«re before in obvions error."
GEORGE, St. (JIBJI8, AL-KHJZR.j
AL-QHABAH (JLtUUt). "The
desert." A name given to the open plain
near ».1-Madinah-.
(JitABN (<$•**).
in sales.
Fraud or deceit
A species of
demon said to be found on the borders of
al-Yaman. [GJENIL]
(iHABIR (>tJ*). A festival .of
the ShI'abs on the 18th of the month of Zu '1-
Hijjah. when three images? of dough filled
with honey are made to represent Abu Baki ,
'Umar, and *Usman, which are stuck with
knives, and the honey is sipped as typical of
the blood of the usurping Khallfahs. The
festival is named from Qhadlr^ " a pool,'* and
the festival commemorates, it is said, Muham
mad having declared 'All his successor at
Qhatftr JKkum, « watering place midway
between Makkah and al-Madmah.
OHAJB (s-**). Lit. "'Secret,"
The terms £rhaibu l-Huwwah, " Secret es
sence," and al- Ghaibv 'l-Mutfaq, " the absolute
unknowable," are used by §ufl mystics' to
express the nature of God. ('Abdu 'r-Raz-
zaq's Diet, of Svfl Terms.}
QHAIRAH (S^i). ".Jealousy."
Muhammad is related to have said, ** There
is a kind of jealousy (gZtatraA) which Ged
likes, and there is a kind of jealousy which
he abominates. The jealousy which God
likes is when a man has suspicion that his wife
or iblave girl comes and sits by a stranger ;
the jealousy which God abominates is when
without cause, a man harbours in his heart a
GHASB
bad opinion of his wife." (Misklcat, book
xiii. e. XT. pt 2.)
QBAIR-I-MAHDI (^j^yfe). Lit.
Without Mahdi.M A smali sect who believe
that the Imam Mahdl will not reappear. They
say that one Saiyid Muhammad of Jeypore
was the real Mahdi* the 'twelfth Imam, anc
that he has now gene nevev more to return
They venerate him as highly as they do thft
' rophet, and consider all other Muslims to
he unbelievers. On the night called Lailatu
1-Qadr, in the month of Ramazan, they meet
and repeat two rak'ah prayers. After that act
of devotiou is over, they say: "God is Al
mighty, Muhammad is our Prophet, the
Qur'£n arul Mahdl are just and true. Imam
MahdT is oome and gone. Whosoever disbe
lievea this is an infidel." They are a T«J jj
fanatical eect. (See Qanun-i-fslam^)
GHAMAEAT (*«»V^), plural o)
gtemrak, u abyss." A word used to express
the agoniet; of death. It occurs in the Quran,
Surah vi. 98: fi But couldst thoti see when
the ungodly aift in the floods of (hath (gka
mardtu 'l-inaut}, and the angels reach forth
their hands, saying, ' Yield up your souls : —
this day shall ye be recompensed with a hu
miliating punishment.'"
"Tbe Tnde-
One." One of the ninety-nine special
or attributes of God, expressing the
superiority of the Almighty over the neoes-
siiias and requirements ol mankind. The
word occurs in the Qur'an, Surah Ix. 6, and
is translated by Palmer, «* He is rich."
CfHASB (s— ^). " Using by force;
usurpation."
Gha$b, in its literal sense, means the for
cibly taking a thing from another. In the
language of the law it signifies ibe t: king of
the property oi another which is valuable
and Kacred, without the consent ot the pro
prietor, in such a manner as to destroy the
proprietor's possession of it, whence 'it is
that usurpation is established by exacting
service from the slave of another, or by put
ting a burden upon the quadruped of another,
but aot by sitting upon tho oarpfit of
another ; because by the use of the slave
of another, and by loading the quadruped of
another, the possession of the proprietor is
destroyed, whereas by sitting upon the car
pet of another the possession of the pro
prietor is not destroyed It is to be observed
that, if any person knowingly and wilfully
usurp the property of another, he is held in
law to be an offfcnder, and becomes respon
sible for a compensation. Jf? on the con
trary, , he should not have made the usurpa
tion knowingly and wilfully (as where a per
son destroys property on the supposition of
its belonging to himself, and it afterwards
proves the right of another), he is in that
ease also liable for a compensation, because
a compensation is the right of men ; but he is
not an offender, as his erroneous offence is
cancelled. (Hidayah. vol iii. p 622.)
AL-OHASEIYAH
GHUsL
189
Ooverinp, Overwhelming." A name gjvon to
the LxxAvmth Surah of the Qur'an. the word
oomrriug in th" first verse for tho Day ol
Judgment : " Has there come to thee tho
story 01 the overwke/mtng ? "
OJJASIL (J-Vi). «A washer 01
the dead."' An official Is generally appointed
for this purpose by the Imam of the parish.
A tribe of
Arabo inhabiting the western side of rhe
Syrian Jescrt m the time of Muhammad.
(Sec Muir'r, Life of Mahdmet. vol. i. D.
cbcxxiii.)
CiJiAl JL .i'AJS (^ULt). An Arabian
tribe descent! from Qais.
OTTATTs /vA>/). Lit. "One to whom
Wi r-m\ err tor help." A media to.-. A title
givHii 1.0 a >^"^nTT«jnadan saint. k<nu« uold
it to bu tut» hii',*:tiaT, r.rder of sauotity, whilst
others regard it as necouu in rank to that of
fb*tb> According to the GJuya#u t-Luyhah
it is an inferior rank of sanvtiry t^o thai
ot '.Jitt..
" wrath." A word used
Qur'an for the wrath of God! e.tr . Surxh iv
96: "God *ha!l !>o angry with him.''
(o^)- One who tifftus ui
the ojiuse of I«Jain. A hero : <i warrior. One
wiio ftlayu mi model. It is also » litta of
distinct i'U conferred r»y Muslim ruJers upoti
general a nuri warriors of renown. In the
Turkish Empire the title of Qhazl implies
ometuing similar to our "Field Marshal."
Pbo Prophet is related to have said,- "God is
Nponsor for him who go^ forth to fight iu
the road of God, for His satisfaction and tor
that of His Prophet. Ue shall, if he be
not killed, return to hi: >iome with plunder
and rewards. And if he die, his reward is
paradise." (Mishkdt, bouk xvii. c. 1.)
QHAZWAH (50-*). A miiitarv
force when it is lead by eithei an Apcstle
'SasuT) i.i an Imam. A sinaU force com-
i/iandrjcl by one of the Imam's hentenants i» M
-•artyah, ui- brigade. (See Qhiyd$n 'l-Lughah,,
n loco. }
Abu
Hamid Muhammad ibn Mnh^uimaa ibn
Ahmaa ai-Qhazzali, i« a ^velJ '-nown Sunni
doctor suriiHjiifou tfayatu '(-Islam (u the proof
of Islam "). lie was'u native of Tiis. «nd for
sometime a proiessor in the college at Nai-
sapiu. jjorn A.H. 450 (A.D. 1058), died A.fl.
505 (A.n. 1111). at Tus. His -exposition
on tho nature of God will be fonrd in tho
article oof. His great theological work is
the Jfyy&u ' Ulumi 'd-Din.
OBIBAH . (At*-*). " Sia^oor ;
calumny." Anything whispered of an absem
person to his detriment, although it be true.
(Bufitatt expressing a false accusation.,1
GMbah is conuemn^n in thi» Qur'an
xJix.. 12) : "O'beik'veis, avoid ir^u-Di sus
picions, £or some suspicuis arc •.<. crime ;
uoither let one of you traduce (gJvla't -~ Another
in his absenee." A chapter i<* 'U>vovrt to
the condemnation of backbit Jr^g «.n<i valumny
in the Traditions (mde. Miskka.ty ixv.K xxii.
oh. x.)
(>*-*)• An Arahiau
trfbo in the time of Muhammad wno inha^
bited a tract of country in the vicinity of al-
Madinah. They were descendants of Abu
Zarri '1-Glxifari.
GHISHAWAH (^UA). Lit. "A
Covering." \ dimness in the eye. 4 -word
used in tho Qur'an for spiritual fauwuittett.
Surah ii. ti : " Their hearts and thoir ears
hath G.jJ bealed up. and over their eyes in a
c.r> wring. "
The water,,
blood, and matter, supposed by Muhamma
dans »o run down the. skin and flesh of tne
damm.a in hell. See Qur'an, Surah Ixlx. 36 :
"No frinnd ahail he havo here mac day,
nor fco>{
(Jj*). A man-devouring
of the woods. A species of Jinn
[f, KKi!.]
QHULAM (<&*), pi. ifcilrtwh. *
boy uuder ago. A term used in modern
Muslim for a slave, the legal word being
'abd. It occurs iu »,ne Quran for a son.
Surah iii. 42 : " She (Mary) said, * How can
I have a son when a man h»M r «>». r<>Mohod
me?"
•1BULAT (»*). LiL "The Zea.
Juts.7' A title given to a leading seot of tho
Shi'^Lt* WHO, through then bxcessive zeal for
the Imams, have raised them auov* the
degree of human being*
UJJDLtJL r,!^). Detraudmg o4
p\\rloin«u^ tti^ pan of tho lawful plunder in
a jikt-d nr religious war. Forbidden in the
Qur'an. Surah iii. 155: " Exit he who shaU
defrmid, shall come forth with his defraud-
in£?r on ih<* day of the resurrection : then shall
rwory «*uui be paid what it hath merited, and
I t'hev f«nall not be treated with injustice.*1
QjbiUKAB (s^V5;. Lit. " A crow."
Gf&trdbu 'I'Buin: "The ci'ov/ ot s«;par»ition.>>
A term used by the JjJufl mystics for a certain
state of separation from God. cAOUu r-
Razzaq's Diet, of Sufi Terms.)
QHUERAH (V*). A fine ot hve
hundred dirhams. A slave of that value. It
is the fine lor a person striking a Avoman
so as to occasion t> miscameg* (Hidaitah,
vol. iv. p. 552.)
(JHUSL (LMO'. a^ distiuguishea
irom yhasl (washing) is tnt, religious act of
bathing the whole body alter a legal im*
purity. It is founded upon the express in
junction of the Qur'an, Surah v. 9 : «* If ye art.
polluted then purify yourselv»«
Alnd the
140
GHU8L MASNtfN
Traditions most minutely relate the occasions
on which the Prophet performed the cere
mony of rjlusl, or bathing. Tho Muslim
teachers of oil. sects are unanimous in pre
scribing the washing of the whole body aiter
the following acts, which render the body
jtmaby ox impure : (1) ffat/z. menses; (2)
nifds. puerperimn: (8) jimc', coitus; (ij
ihtilam. pollutio nocturna. It is absolutely
necessary that every, part of the body should
be cashed, for 'All relates that the Prophet
said. <* He who leaves but one hair unwashed
on his body, will be punished in hell accord
ingly." (Mishkdt, book ii. c. viii.)
<fflUSL MASNUN foyu^
Lit. " "Washings which are Sunnah."
Such washings are founded upon the Sun-
jiah, or precept and practice of Muhammad,
although, they are ubt supposed to bo of
divine institution. They are four in number :
(1) Upon the admission of a convert to
Islam : (2) Before the Friday prayers and o.n
tlie great festivals: (3) After washing, the
dead; (4) After blood-letting. (See Sakihj
'/-Bukhari, p. 39. Ttibu 'l-Ghusl.) Akrimab
relates that people came from al-'Iraq and
asked Ibn 'Abbas if he believed that bathing
011 Fridays was a divine institution, and Ibn
Abbas replied, u No, but bathing is a great
purifier, and I will tell you how the custom
of bathing began. The people were engaged
in daily labour and wore blankets, and the
people sweated to such a degree ns to cause
a bad smell, so the Prophet said. .' O mon !
bathe ye on Fridays and put some scent on
your clothes.1 " (Matthew's Mishkat. vol i.
p l&O. from the Hadia of Abu Da'ud.^
GIANTS. There is but one allu
sion to giants in the Qur'an, namely, to the
tribe "Ad. who are spoken of as men " with
lofty statures" (Surah Ixxxix. 6J, and the
commentator. Shah -Abdu 'l-A/iz of Delhi,
says they were men of not Jess than twelve
yards in stature According to a tradition in
tho Kitdbu '*k-Shafah by the Qa/1 'Ayaz
(p, 65), Adam was sixty yards in height.
In the Ghtydsu 'l-Lughaii, a giant named »Uj
is mentioned, who was born in the ilays of
Adarn and lived until the time of Moses, a
period of 3,500 years, and that he was so
high, that the flood in the days of Noah only
reached to hjs waist. There are traditions
and stories of giants whoso graves; p-dst unto
the present day, throughout t-ho whole of
Asia Opposite the Church Mission House at
Peshawur in a gravr nino yards long, which
is held in great reverence, by both Muharii-
madans and Hindus. De la Belle, in his
Travels in Persia, vol ii, » . 8i). mentions
several which exist in Persia Giant graves in
Hindustan are numerous.
GIDEON. In the Q.ir'an there is
evidently a confusion in one passage between
the story .of Saul as told 'herein, and tho
account of Gideon given in 11 ic Old Testament,
as the following extracts wiil ihow :--
"And when Saul mavchoci forth with his
forces, he said, * God will le.st you by a river :
GNOSTICS
He who drinketh of it shall not be of my
band ; but he who shall not taste it, drinking
a drink out of the hand excepted, shall be of
my band.' And, except a few of them, they
drank of it. And when they had passed it,
he and those who believed with him, the
former said, * We have no strength this day
against Goliath (Jalut) and his forces : ' But
they who held it as certain that they must
meet Gorl, said, ' How oft, by God's will, hath
a small host vanquished a numerdus. host !
and God is with the steadfastly enduring.'"
(Surah ii. 250.)
Which compare with Judges vii. 5 : —
" So they brought down the people unto
the water 3 and the Lord said unto Gideon,
Every one that lappeth of the water with his
tongue, as a dog lappeth, him shalt thou set
by himsolf ; likewise every one that boweth
down upon his knees to drink. . . . Tho Lorfl
said. By the three hundred men that lapped will
I save you, and deliver the Midianites into thine
hand "'
GIFTS. Arabic hibah (A-A), pi.
hibdt. A deed oJ gift. The term hibah in
the language of Muslim law means a transfer
of property made immediately and without
exchange, He who makes the gift is called
the wdhib, or donor; the thing given, mauhub •
and the person to whom it is given is mauhub
laha.
Muhammad sanctioned the retraction of a
gift when he said, "A donor preserves his
right to his gift, so long as he does not obtain
a return for it." Although there is another
tradition which gays: "Let not a donor re
tract his gifi : but let a father if he pleases
retract his gift to his son." Ash-Shafi'i
maintains that it is not lawful to retract a
gift, except it be from a father to a son. All
the doctors are agreed th-'ft to retract a gift
is an abomination, f or Muhamuiad said : " The
retraction of a gift is like oating one's spittle,"
The general opinion is that a gift to a
stranger may be retracted, but not a gift to
a kinsman. A retracted gift, by the mutual
consent of the parties, should be effected by
j a decree of the Qa?ii, or judge. (Hiddyah,
; vol. iii. p. 21)0.)
GIRDLE. Arabic nitiiq (d*>)-
; Amongst the Bakhtashis and .several other
I orders of faqirK. investiture with a girdle is
the «ign of incorporation into the order. Tho
Bakh.tasb.is say that Adarn was the first to
wear the* girdle worn by them, and after bin,
fifteen other prophets wore it in succession.
viz. Seth, Noah, Shu'aib, Job, Joseph, Abra
ham, Husha% YushaS Jirjis, Jonas, Salih.
Zakariah, al-Khizr, Ilyas, and Jesus. (Brown's
Dervishes, p. 145. )
GNOSTICS. « The singular cor
respondence between the allusions to the cru*
cifixion in the Coran, and the wild specula
tions of the early heretics, have led to the
conjecture that Mahomet acquired his notions
of Christianity from a Gnostic source. Bui
Gnosticism had disappeared from Egypt
GOD
GOD
141
before the sixth ceuwory, and there is no
reason for supposing that it had at any time
gained footing in Arabia. Besides, there is
no afiinity between, thesupernaturalism of the
Gnostics and Docetse, and the rationalism of
the Goran. According to the former, tho
Deity must be removed far from the gross
contact of evil matter ; and the- /Eon Christ,
which alighted upon Jesus at His baptism,
must ascend to its native regions before the
crucifixion. With Mahoinet,on the contrary,
Jesus Christ was a more man — •wonderfully
born, indeed — but still an ordinary man, a
servant of tho Almighty, as others had been
before him. But although there is uo ground
for believing that Gnostic doctrines were
taught to Mahomet, yet some of the strange
fancies of those heretics, preserved in Syrian
tradition, may have come to the ears of his
informants (the chief of whom, even on
Christian topics, sown to have been Jews,
unable probably to distinguish heretical fablr
from Christian doctrine), and htivo been by
them adopted as a likely and convenient
mode of explaining away that which formed
the groat barrier between Jews and Chris
tians." (Muir's Life oj Ma/iot/mt. now ed.
p. 101. j
GOD. The name of the Creator of
the Universe in the Qur'an is Allah, which is
the title given to the Supreme Being by Mu-
hammadans of every race and language.
Allah is supposed to be derived from ildh
a deity or god, with the addition of the deli
nito article al- -Ai-iJuk, "the God "— or, ac
cording to some authorities, it is from Idh, z>.
A/-/ah< •• tho secret one/' But Abu Ham'fah
says that just a.; tho essence of <*od is un
changeable, so i.- His name. *\u>\ that Alt ill
has f;v.>: 11 llio j,:mi<j of tL( Ktcnuu Beu:,.;.
(>Si:o (Jh>i/'-:.-..l<. 'I L-i.'jlt<th.*)
AlliiJ, nuy be a". Ar;ibio rendering of the
Hebrew *•?£$ i-.L and the unused root
u/, '* to l>e strong." or from p
•L
gular l-.-.i ,u of Q^n /ft- It ^ expressed in
Persian and Hindustani by the word Khiull.
derived from the Persian Mnul, self; the
self -existing one.
Another word very frequently used for tho
Almighty in the Qnr'an is Hubh* which i«
generally translated in Knglish versions of tho
Qur'an, »'Lyrd." It t.ccms :•• stand in tlu
relative position of lLo Jehovah of tho Old
Testament and tho Kvpios of the New Testa
ment. Tho word is understood by Muslims
to mean '* the sustaincr," but it is probably
derived from the Hebrew
stronghold," or from its root rab. which, ac-
coi-ding to Gescnius- means " n multitude," or
anything of size or importance.
Tho title Alhih IH called the Isinu 'z-ZaL
«r, the essential name of God. all other titles.
moluding Rabb. bcii^; considered Axmii'u V
titfat, or •' iittiibutes " of the Diviuo Bein^r.
Those attribute are called al-
cr tho '"oxcelleut namu*." iae oxpres^on
• icc-urs in the Qur'an (Surah vii. 179), "But
God'a are excellent, name*, cull on Him
thereby.'' This verse is commented upon in
tho Traditions, and Abu Hurairah s;>\ ; tl.ru
Muhammad said, "Verily, them ore ninety -
nine names of God, and whoever reciu-s tli. .•<
shall enter into Paradise.'
In the same tradition these names (ur
attributes) &re given as follows:—
1. Ar-Rtihman . The Merciful.
2. Ar-Rubwi . . The Cornpasuiunati
3. Al-Mnlik . . The King.
4. Ai-Qyddus. . Tht. Holy.
5. Ax-tialaii> . . The Peace.
fi. Ai-Mu'min . The Faithful.
7. Al-Mnhaimin . Tlie Protector.
S. Al-'-Aziz . . Tho Mighty,
i). Al-Jabbnr . . Tho Repairer.
10. Al-MutukaMir . The Great.
11. Al-Kkdliy . The Creator.
12. Al-Bdri . . Tho Maker.
13. AI-Mu$awtvir . The Fashioner.
11. AL-(^hfiff'i'u- . The Forgiver.
15. Af-Qfihnar . Tho Dominant
JG. Al-Wakkib . The Uestowor.
17. Ar-Rautxmq . Tho Provider.
18 Al-Fatfa/t . The Opener.
1U .ll-'Atim . . The Knower.
20. Al-Qflbiz . . The Kestraincr.
21. Al-£tdsit . . The Spreader.
"22. M-KhaJif . . The Abaser.
2:1 Ar-Effi . . Th,- Exalter.
2-1. A/-Mifisr; . . Tin- Hoiiourer.
25. AI-Muzil . . rl*h. Destroyer.
20. As-ffani- . . Tho llearer.
27. Al Ba$lr . . The Seer.
28. .U-Hdki.n. . The Ruler
29. Al-'Adl . . The Just.
30. Al-JMti/ . . Thi Subtle.
31. Al-Kha(nr . . Tho Aware.
82. Al-tfafo* . . The Clement.
3^. Al-:Azln, . . Tho (fraud.
31. Al-GhajT'r . The Forgiving.
35 4*&-£te*«i . Tin? Grateful.
3C. Al.'Ali . . The Exulted.
37. .ii-Kabir . Tho (.treat.
:W. Al-Haflz . . The Guardian.
30. ALMvqii . . The ;-trengthon«;f
40. Al-Haslb . . The Ueckoner.
41. M-Jalil . . The Maje,ti-.
42. Al-Kanni . . Th': 'Jeneroua
43. Ar-/taf/ib . , The Watcher.
44. At-Mujib . . The Approver.
45. Al- \Viisi* . . The Comprehensive.
40. Al ILiLlm . . The Wise.
47. Al- \Vndnd . The Loving.
48. Al-Majtd . . The Olori-jus.
49. Al-Bai$ . . The Raiser.
50. Ash-ft/M/iid . The Witness.
51. Al-JIuqq . . The Truth.
;>2. A/- Wukil . . The Advocate.
53. Al-'fawi . . The Strong.
54. Al Matin . . The Finn.
55. Al Wall .. . The Patron.
60. Al Hamid . . Th. Laudable.
57. Al Muhsi . . The Counter.
58. Al-Mubdt . . Tho Beginner.
59. Al-Mu'Kl . . The Restorer.
60. Al-JMnhi/i . . The Quickoner.
142
GOD
61. Al-Mumit .
62. Al-gaiy .
63. Al-Qaiyum,
64. Al-Wajid .
65. Al-Mojld .
66. ALWabid -
67. Ab-Samad
68. Al-Qadir
69. Al-Muqtadir
70. Al-Muqaddim
71. Ai-
72. Al-Awwal.
73. Al-Akhir .
74. Az-gdhir .
76. Al-Batin .
76. Al- Wati .
77. Al-Muta'ati
78. Al-Barr .
79. At-Tauwdb
The Killer.
The Living.
The Subsisting.
The Finder.
The Glorious.
The One.
The Eternal
The Powerful.
Th* Prevailing,
The Bringing for
ward.
The Def error.
Tn« First.
The Las*
The Evident.
The Hidden.
Tne tiovwaor.
Tho Exalted.
The Righteous.
The Accepter of
Repentance.
80. Al-Muntagim . The Avenger.
81. AlsAftw . . The Pardoner.
82. Ar-Ra'nf . . The Kind.
88. MaLiku '1-MuUc . The Ruler ol the
Kingdom.
84. Zu 'l-Jaldti wa '/- The Lord of Majesty
Ikram . . and Liberality.
85. Ai-Muqnt - - Tii» Equitable.
86. Al-Jdmi* . . The Collector.
87. Al- Qhani . . The Independent.
88. At-Mughri . The Enrichu
89. Al-Mu>ti . . The Giver.
90. Al-Mdni< . . The Withholder.
91. Az-Zarr . The Distrebser.
92. An~Ndfs . . Tli<j Profiler.
93. Am-Niir The Light.
94. Al-Hadi . . The Guide.
95. Al-Ba,di* . . The Incomparable.
96. Al-Baqi . The Enduring.
97. Al- Wdrig . . The Inheritor.
98. Ar-Ra*kid . . The Director.
99. A$-$abur . . The PatieTif.
The list either begins or closes with Allah,
thus completing the number of one hundred
names, which are usually recited on a rosary
in the ceremony of Zikr [ZIKB], as well as at
all lei&iue moments, by devout Muslims. The
Wahhabis do not use a rosary but count
the names on their fingers, which they say
•was the cu»i«vo f<i the Prophet, for from the
Traditions it appears that Muhammad dm
not use a rosary.
According to the Traditions (Miahkdt, book
x, c. i.). the Almighty has an " exalted
name " known aw the Ismu 'l-A'z&m, which
Muhammad is related to have said was
either in the Suratu 'l-JJaqarah, the second
chapter of the Qur'an, 158th verse, or in the
Suratu Alt 'Imrdn, the thi»-''f chapter, first
verse. The names of God -Ahich occur in
these two Tdrses are ar-Rahman, "the Mv1
ciful," ar-Rahim^ " The GuUipassionate," «/-
Ilaiy, " the Living," and al-Qaiyum, " the
Subsisting." There is, however, another tra
dition, from which it would appear that the
name may be either al-Abad^ "• the One," or
a$-Samad, "the Eternal."
Abdu '1-Haqq, in his remarks on the.se
traditions, says that it is generally held, ac-
GOD
Cording to a tradition bj ayisnari. t>>at thin
great name is known only to the prophet*
and other saintly portions. Tne compiler oi
the Kitdb't 't-Ta'rtfdt eays it is none othew
than t.b« uamo of Allah.
The Prophet having said that wnoevei
cabs upon. God by this name shall obtain all
his desires (Mishkdt; book x. o. i. pt. 2). the
various sects of faqirs arid mystics t»^ou«l
much time in endeavouru\<? to ascertain what
the name reallj is [DA'WAH], and \>ht. ipoisotf
who is able to assert that he has obtained!
this secret knowledge possesses great im
fluence ovei the minds of the superstitious.
Tuere can be little doubt that the discus
sion regarding this exalted name has arisen
from the circuiartiance that Mvihainmaci b«-J
eame awaxo of the fact that tho u«wa uevep
reciteu tiio great name of Jehovah, nnd spon«
of it as "the great and terrible name." " ^e
peculiar name " of God.
Ihe attributes of God y.-. oppressed m tli*
nmety-nine names, are divided into th«
"l-jfilallyah, or the glorioua attribute^
'- -
the asmffu 'l-jantdllyafi. or thft tei-rible attri^
butoe. Such jf»»mc.s as ar-Makrm, " the M«r-
ciful," al-Karim, " the Kind," and al
" tho Forgiver," belonging to the tonner ; ana
ai-Qav>i. "the Strong," al- Muntaqim, "the
AYer^ti," nnd al-Qddir, "the Powerful," to
the latter.
In praying to God it is prxal for the .wor
shipper to address the Almighty by tha|
name or attribute which he wishes to
t<\ For tsjkKXnpie, if praying for paron,
will address God as either al-'Afuw, "th«
lard oner/' or nt-Td>nvdb, •* the Receiver oi
A belief in me existence oi God, His Unity*
Hi* Absolute Power, and in the other essen
tial attributes of an Eternal and Almighty
Being, i° the m^st important part of the
Muslim religion, ana is .supposed to be
pressed in the two clauses of the well-knowa
formula : -
iJ ildha li-Ld. 'l-lahu.
There is no deity But Allah.
The first- clause, " There is no deity," id
known as the Nafl, or that which is rejected,
and the second clause, " But Allah," as the
J$bdt. or that which is established, the
termiVrt/'Z wa-I$bdt being applied to the first
swo clauses of the Muslim's Kctlimak, on
The teaching of Muhammad in his Qur'an
HB to the nature of God, twins such an im
portant consideration m an exposition ol
Iftlaia, that no apology io needed for full and
lengthy quotations from that book on tho
subject.
The following verses are arranged 10
chronological order according to Jaldlu 'd*
din as-Suyutfs list : —
Suratu 'l-Ikhld$. Chapter cxui.
(One of the earliest chapters of the
Qur'an )
41 Say, He is Goa, one i v#od]
" God, the Eternal.
GOD
GOD
148
" He begottetb not nor is begotten,
" And there is none equal unto Him."
Suratu 'l-A(raf. Ohaptm vii. 62.
(Given at al-Madihah.)
"Verily your Lord is God. who crontud the
eavens H"rt the earth in six days: tauu He
scendea the throne. HH cauaeth the night
o cover th« day it fMloweth it swiftly: and
Te created the sun and the moon and the
,tars. uiadt subject utterly to His command.
>o not the whole creation and command be-
ongtoHim? Blessed be God, the Lord of
j -he Worlds/
buratu Marram. Uliaptor xix. 91-96,
(Given at Makkah.)
: "They Kay. * The Compassionate hath
gotten offspring ' -. To have dono an impious
i'.hing.
! "It wanteth little but that" th» heavens be
fe.-euv thereat, and that the earth cleave
•asunder, and that th> mountains fall down in
I pieces.
I " For that they have attributed offspring
fito the Compassionate, when it beseemeth not
I the Compassionate to get offspring.
j " There is none of all that are in the hea-
||vens and the earth but he shall come unto
•the Compassionate as a servant. He hath
•known them and numbered them with an
fcfTflc/ numbering-
•And each of them shall come unto Him
Ion the day of resurrection, aloue.
I " Verily those who hav« believed and have
done the things that are right, on them, the
Compassionate will bestow [His] love.''
Suratit. V-T/z'/r. Chapter xv. 16-25.
(Given at Makkah.)
" We (God) have placed in heaven the ttvvuc
igns of the Zodiac, and adorned them for the
beholds-* »>itk the constellations ;
" And W«x have guarded them (by means of
shooting stars) f^om every accursed devil.
Excepting uini who listened by btealth,
whom a manifest shooting star pursueth.
We have also spread forth the earth, and
thrown thereon firm mountains, and We have
xsed to spring fo^h in it every kind [of
aori thing] \veighed.
* And We have provided ior yovi therein
neeesaaiies of life, and for him whom ye do
And tbfiro is not a thing but the store
houses thcreoi are with Us and We send it
not down save in determined quantities.
We als-., =wnd tho fertilizing winds, and
We send down wave^ from heaven, and give
you to drink thereof : and y« ar« not the
storerj? of it.
And verily We givo life and death, and
Wo are the heirs of nil the creation.
We also know those who have gone
Before you, and We know tnose who follow
f or [you].
''And veriK hv Lord will MMO&bfotiMn
together: for iJeis Wise. Knowing ."
Suratu V-^n'dm. Chapter vi. 59-64
rGivenat Makknb.)'
" With Him are the keys of the hidden
things : none knoweth them but He : and He
knoweth whatsoever is on the land and in
the sea, and there i'alleth not a leaf but H«
knoweth it, nor a grain in the dark parts of
the earth, nor a moist thing nor a drv thing,
but [it is noted] in a distinct writing
" And it is He who taketh your souia at
night, and knowoth what ye have gauiua m
the itay ; then He reviveth you th?r«in, that
an .-.,.;. lintel time may be fulfilled. Then
unto Him shall ye return: theu ^"'' He
declare unto yo-u what ye have done
" And He is the Supreme over His sc-^vanU,
and He sendeth watchers over you, until
when death Cometh unto any one of you, Our
messengers take his sonl. and they fail
not.
" Then are ' uey returned unto God their
Lord, the Triiu. Doth not judgment hnloiig
to Him i And He 1s the most quick ,;f
reckoners.
" SAT, Who dclivereth yov from the uarK-
nessos of toe land and of the «tp*. when ye
supplicate Him numbly and in secret, saying,
( If Thou deliver an from then*. ~u,nger8t we
will assni-odly be of [the muiioor of] the
thankful'?
"SAY, God delivereth you from Lhem and
from every affliction."
Tb., 95-10^ :—
"Verily God cnr.«pt/D the gram to com?
forth, and the dato-Rtono : He brint»eth forth
the living iruiu the dead, and He bringeth
forth tbe dead from the living : This is God ;
then wherefore are ye turned away ?
•' He causeth l-Le dawn to Appear, and hath
ordained the night for rest, and the aun and
the juootj for reckoning time: this is the
appointment of the Mighty, the Wise
"And it is lie who hath ordained for you
the stars, that ye may be guided bv theuj JH
the darkness of the land and of the "°n : We
nave clearly shown the sitrns of O.n ^ower
unto the people who know
" And it is He who hath prou'uetta you
from one soul, and ih*r<> is a place of rest and
of storing : We have clearly shown the signs
to the people who understand.
•» A*»H it ir He who hath sent down water
from heaven, and We have produced thereby
the germs of everything, and We have caused
the green thing to come forth therefrom, from
which We draw forth grains massed; and
from the palm-tree, from its fruit- branch,
clusters of datos heaped together : and ear-
dens of grapes, and the olive and the pome
granate, like one another and not like. Look
s-e at their fruits when i/ney bear tmit, and
their ripening. Verily therein are signs unto
the people who believe.
*' Yet they, have set up the Jinn as partners
of God. though He hath, created them, and
without knowledge txavo they falsely attri-
imtfd t< Hi in sons and daughters. Extolled
be Hiw purity, and high be He exalted above
thflt which they attribute [to Him] 1
" He is the Author of the heaveii« and the
earth. How then snould Ho have offspring,
when He hath no consort, and hath created
everything and knowetb everything ?
' This is God your Lord. There is no God
but He, the Creator of everything : therefore
144
GOD
GOD
worship ye Him; and He is guardian over
ovflrything.
*' The eyes see Him not. but Ho seeth the
•yea : and He is the Gracious, the Knowing.'*
* Suratu Earn Ixraif. Chapter Ixvii. 1-4.
(Given at Makkah.)
" Blessed be He in whose hand is the domi
nion and who is all powerful ;
"Who hath created death and life, that
lie' may prove you, winch of you [will be]
best in' works : and He is the Mighty, the
Very-Forgiving : -.,.
•' Who hath created seven heavens, one
above another. Thou seest qot any fault in
the creation of th* Compassionate. But lift
up the eyes again to hmren. TJost thou see
any fissures ?
"Then lift up the eyes again twice; the
.sight shall return unto thee dull and dim,"
£uratu 'L'Ankabul. Chapter xxix. 40-43.
(Given at Makkah. j,
u The likeness of those who take to them
selves Tutelars instead. of God is UK the like
ness of the spider, which uiaketh for herseli
i dwelling; and the frailest of dwellings
surely is the dwelling of the spider ! If they
know !
ki Verily God -kuoweth whatever thing the/
invoke in His stead ; and He is the Mitrhty.
the Wise,
" And these parables we propound unto
men ; but none understand them except the
wise.
'• God hath created the heavens and th >
earth in truth: verily therein i.sawgn untu
the believers."
Suratu 'l-Baqara/t. Chapter ii. 157-1CO.
(Given at al-Madinah.)
• And your God is One God : there is no
god but He, the Compassionate, the Merciful.
•• Verily in the creation of the heavens uu<l
vhe f arth, and the varying of night and day'
und the ship.s that course upon the sea laifai
v'ith what is profitable to mankind, and th<?
water that God hath sent down from heaven,
quickening the earth thereby after its death,
and scattering about it all kinds of beasts;
and in the changing of the winds, and the
clouds that are compelled to do service be
tween heaven and earth, are aisms unto a
people who understand,
" Yet among men are those who take to
lhem,se}ves, beside God, idols, which they
love us with the lovo of Gyii . but those who
have boiieved are more loving towards God
than the** iowa-rd* their idols"
Ih,, MO; —
'•• Qy<l ' Ibeio ia no God but Ke, the
Uyer-iiivmg, the Ever-Bub^tmg. Slumber
aoizoth -Him not, nor sloop. To Him be»
longeth whatsoever is iu the* lleuvtvus nnd
vbataoeYor is in the Earth. Who i* he that
<kall intercede with Him, unless by If is por-
iftission? He knoweth what [hath been]
before them ;uid what [shnll h«j after them,
and they Khali not compass aught of Hia
knowledge save what Hu willeth, ilU Throne
convpreJbtwdotb tho Heaven;* and (ho Karth;
and the care of them burdeneth Him not
Aod He is the High, the Great,
Ali 'Imran, Chapter m. 2a.
(Given at al-Madinah )
" Say, 0 God, to wnom belongeth dominion,
Thou givest domini9n to whom Thou wilt,
and from whom Thou wilt Thou takest it
away ; Thou exaltest whom Thou wilt, and
whom Thou wilt Thou humblest. In Thy hand
is good. Verily Thou art all-powerful.
" Thou causes! the night to pass into the
day, and Thoxi causest the day to pass into
the night ; and Thou bringest forth the living
from the dead, and Thou bringest forth the
dead from the living ; and Thou givest sus
tenance to whom Thou wilt without mea
sure."
Suratu 'r-Rtfd. Chapter xiii. 13.
("Given at al-Madmah. ;
••It is He who -inaketh the lightning to
appear unto you, [causing] four and hope of
ruin, and formoth the pregnant clouds.
" And the thunder prociaimeth His per-
foctiooi with Hi--i praise : and [likewise] the
anfrels, in fear of Him. And Ho aendeth the
thunderbolts, and striketh with them whom
He pleaseth, whilst they dispute concerning
God ; for He is mighty in power."
Suratu 'ii-NincT. Chapter iv. 51.
(Given af al-Madinah.)
•" Verily God will not forgive the associat '
ing with Him [any other being as a srod], but •
will lorgive other sins unto v/hom He
pleaseth: tmd whoso associatoth [anatherj j
with God bath wrought a great wickedness."
The following is an interpretation of the ^
Muslim belief in the existence and nature of ]
God by the famous scholastic divine, the
Imam al Gha/zali, in his book entitled al- j
Maqsadu V asna, an extract trom which i
Ocklcy has translated from PocccIS* Specinwi
Hisiarice Arabum : —
"Praise be to GodthoCroa.tor aijd Restorer
of all things ; who dooa whatsoever Ho
pleases, who is master of the glorious throne
and mighty force, and directs t£is sincere aer- 5
van Is iuto the right way and the straight
path . who favoureth them, who . have once ]
borne testimony to the unity, by preserving j
their confessions from the darkness of doubt
and hesitation ; who directs them to follow
Ills chosen apostle, upon whom be the bless
ing and ponce of God ; and to go after Hia
most honourable companions, to whom he I
hath vouchsafed His assistance and direction
which is revealed to them in His essence and j
operations by the excellencies of His atlri- j
butes, to the knowledge whereoi no maul
attains but ho that hath been taught by hear- j
ing. To these, aa touching His essence, He J
makcUi known that He in one. and hath no 1
partner j singular, without anything like j
Him ; uniform^ having no contrary; separate,
having no equal. Ho is ancient, having no
first ; eternal, having no beginning ;
inif for ever, having no emJ ; font-inning
eternity, without any termination. He per-
si* u, without oeaaing l j be ; remains with*
oul failing, and never did cease, nor over shall
cease to be described by glorious attributes,
uOr is subject to any decree ao as to be de
termined by any precise Limits or set
GOD
GOD
145
but is the First and the Last, and is within
and without.
"(What Qod is not.) He, glorified be His
name, is not a body endued with form, uor a
substance circumscribed with limits or deter
mined by tno&Hure ; neither does He resemblo
bodies, as they are capable of being measured
or divided. Neither is He a substance, neither
do imbstauces exist in Him ; neither is He an
accident, uor do accidents exist in Him.
Neither is he like to. anything that exists,
neither is anything1 like to Him; nor is h«
determinate in quantity nor comprehended by
bounds, nor circumscribed by the difference*
of situation, nor contained in the heavens.
He sits npon the throne, after that manner
which He Himself hath described, and in that
.tame sense which He Himself means, which
is a sitting far removed from any notion of
contact, or resting upon, or local situation;
but both the throne itself, and whatsoever is
upon it, ore sustained by the goodness of bin
power, and are subject to the grasp of His
hand. But He is above the throne, and above
all things, even to the utmost ends of the
earth ; but so above as at the game time not
to be a whit nearer the throne and the
heaven; since He is exalted by (infinite)
degrees above the throne no less than He in
exalted above the earth, and at the same
time is near to everything that hath a being ;
nay, ' nearer to man than their jugular veins,
and is witness to everything': though His
nearness is not like the riearneas of bodies,
as neither is Hie essence h&e the essence of
bodies. Neither dotb He exiaf; in anything,
neither doth anything exist in Him ; but He
is too high to be contained in ony place/, and
too holy to be determined by time : for He
was before tiin« and place were created, and
Is now after the same maiiuer as He always
was. He is also distinct from the creatures
by His attributes, neither is there anything
besides Himself iu His essence, nor is His
essence in any other besides Him. He is too
holy to be subject to change, or any local
motion; neither do any accidents dwell rn
Him, nor any contingencies befall Him ; but
He abides through all generations with His
glorious attributes, free from all danger \:\
dissolution. As to the attribute fi perfec
tion, He wants no addition of Hid perfection.
As to being, Ho is known to exist V»y U'-rt
apprehension of the understanding : and H*
is seen as He is by an ocular intuition, v^nirh
will be vouchsafed oat of His uterc? and
grace to the holy in the eteraai mansion, com
pleting their joy by the vision of His glorious
presence.
" (Hit power.) He, praised be His nemo,
is living, powerful, mighty, omnipotent, not
liable to any defect or impoteuce; ueitbor
slumbering nor sleeping, nor bedng obnoxious
to decay or death. To Him belongs the
kingdom, and the power, aud the might.
His is the dominion, and the excellency, aud
the creation, and the command thereof. The
heavens are folded up in His right hand, and
all creatures are couched within His grasp.
His excellency consists in Hi* creating and
producing, and His unity in. communicating
existence and a beginning of being. He
created men and their works, and measured
out their maintenance and their determined
times. Nothing that is possible can escape
His grasp, nor can the vicissitudes of things
elude his power. The effects of his might
are innumerable, aud the objects of his know
ledge infinite.
«' (//t.y knowledge.) He, praised be Hifl
name, knows all things that can be under
stood, and comprehends whatsoever comes to
pass, from the extremities ot the earth to the
highest heavens. Even the weight of a pis
mire could not escape Him either in earth or
heaven; but He would perceive the creeping
of the black pismire in the dark night upot
the hard stone, and discern the motion of ac
atom in the open air. He knows what i*
secret and conceals it, and views the 'Mmcep
tions of the minds, and the motions ot
the thoughts, and the inmost recesses of
secrets, by a knowledge ancient and eternal,
that never ceased to be His attribute IVOTO
eternal eternity, and not by any new know,
ledge, snperadded to His essence, either in
hering or adventitious.
*• (//«» tut//.) He, praised be His name,
doth will thoso things to be that are, aud dis
poses of all accidents. Nothing passes in th»^
empire, nor the kingdom, neither little nor
much, nor small nor great, nor good nor evil,
nor profitable cor hurtful, nor faith nor in
fidelity, nor knowledge no«. ignorance, nor
prosperity nor adversity, nor increase nor de-
civ.ase, nor obedience nor rebellion, but by
His determinate counsel and decree, aud His
definite sentence and will. Nor doth the
wink of him that seeth, nor the subtlety of
htm that thinketh, exceed the bounds of His
will ; but it is He who gave all things their
beginning ; He is the creator and restorer, the
sole operator of what He pleases ; there is no
reversing His decree nor delaying what He
hath determined, nor is there any refuge to
man from his rebellion against Him, but only
His help and mercy ; nor hath any man any
power to perform any duty towards Him, but
through His love and wilL Though men,
gmiii, angels and devils, should conspire to
gether either to put ono single atom in
motion, or cause it to cease its motion, with
out His will and approbation, they would not
he able to do it. His will subsists in His
essence amongst the rest oi His attributes,
and was from eternity one of His eternal
Attributes, by which He willed from eternity
i-hr existence of those things that He had
decreed, which were produced in their proper
season according to His eternal will, without
any iff ore or after, and in agreement both
with His knowledge and will, and not by me
thodising of thoughts, nor waiting for a
proj.cr time, for which reason xio one thing
is in Him a hindrance from another.
'• (Hi* hearing and fight.) And He, praised
be His name, is hearing and seeing, and
heareth and seeth. No audible object, how
still soever, escapeth His hearing ; nor is any
thing; visible so small as to escape his sight
19
146
GOD
for distance is no hindrance to His hearing,
nor darkness to His sight. He sees without
pupil or eye-lid, and hears -without any pas
sage or ear, even as He knoweth without a
heart, and performs Hib actions without the
assistance of auy corporeal limb, and creates
without any instrument, for His attributes
(or properties) are not like those of men, any
more than His essence is like theirs.
" (His word.} Furthermore, He doth apeak,
command, -forbid, promise, and threaten by an
eternal, ancient word, subsisting in His
essence. Neither is it like to the word of the
creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice
arising from the commotion of the air and the
collision of bodies, nor letters which are sepa
rated by the joining together of the lips or
the motion of the tongue. The Qur'an, the
Law, the Gospel, and the Psalter, are bopks
sent down by Him to His apostles, and the
Qur'an, indeed, is read with tongues, written
in books, and kept in hearts : yet as subsist
ing. in the essence of God, it doth not become
liable to separation and division whilst it is
transferred into the hearts and the papers.
Thus Moses also heard the Word of God
without voice or letter, even as the saints be
hold the essence of God without substance
or accident. And since these are his attri
butes, He liveth and knoweth. is powerful
and willeth and operateth, and seeth aud
speaketh, by life and knowledge, and will and
hearing, and sight and word, not by His
simple essence.
" (His works.} He, praised be His name,
exists after such a manner that nothing be
sides Him hath any being but what it> pro
duced by His operation, and floweth froin His
jastice after the best, most excellent, most
perfect, and most just model. He is, more
over, wise in His works, and just in His
decrees, But His justice is not to be com
pared with the justice of men. For a man
may be supposed to act unjustly by invading
the possession of another ; but no injustice
can be conceived by God, inasmuch as there
is nothing that belongs to any other besides
Himself, so that wrong is not iniputable to
Him as meddling with things not appertaining
to Him. All things, Himself only except ed,
genii, men, the devil, angels, heaven, earth,
animals, plants, substance, accident, intel
ligible, sensible, were all created originally by
Him. He created them by His power out of
mere privation, and brought them into light,
when as yet they were nothing at all, but He
alone existing from eternity, neither was
there any other with Him. Now He created
all things in the beginning for the manifesta
tion of His power, and His will, and the con
firmation of His word, which was true from
all oteriiity. Not that He stood in need of
them, nor wanted them; but He manifestly
declared His glory in creating und producing,
and commanding, without being1 under any
obligation, nor out of necessity. I/oving kind'-
ness, the showing favour end gvace, and
beneficence, belong to Him; whereas it is in
His power to pour forth, upon men a variety
of torment* , and aiftict them with various
GOB
kinds of sorrows and diseases, which, if He
were to do, His justice could not be arraigned,
nor would he be chargeable with injustice.
Yet he rewards those that woi'ship Him for
their obedience on account of his promise und
beneficence, not of their merit nor of necessity,
since there is nothing which He can be tied
to perform ; nor can any injustice be sup
posed in Him, nor can He be under, any obli
gation to any person whatsoever. That His
creatures, however, should be bound to servo
Him, ariseth from His having declared by the
tongues of the prophets that it was due to
Him from them. The worship of Him is not
simply the dictate of the understanding, but
He sent messengers to carry to men His com
mands, and promises, and threats, whose
veracity He proved by manifest miracles,
whereby men are obliged to give credit to
them in those things that they relate."
Included iu the attributes of God as given
in His ninety nine titles or names, there are
the Haft ft/dl, or Seven Attributes ; Muham
mad al-Barq&wl has expressed them' as
follows : —
(1) Haydt, or Life. God Most High is
alone to be adored. He has neither associate
nor equal He is* free from the Lei perfections
of humanity. He is neither begotten nor
does He beget. He is invisible. He is with
out figure, form, colour or part. His exist
ence has neither beginning nor end. He ii
immutable. If He so wills, He can annihilate
the world in a moment of time and, if it seem*
good to Him, recreate it hi an instant,
Nothing is di fftcuit to Him , whether it he the <
creation of a fly or that of the s.ftven heavens
He receives neither profit nor loss from what
ever may happen. If all the lufidels became
believers and all the irreligious pious, He
would gain no advantage. On the othei
hand, if all Believers became infidels. He
would suffer no loss.
(2) <llm, or Knowledge. He has knowledge
of all things hidden or manifest, whether if*
heaven or on earth. He knows the nnoibei
of the leaves of the trees, of the grains o
wheat and of sand. Events past and future
are known to Him. He knows what enters
into the heart of man and what He utters
with His mouth. He alone, except those tc
whom He has revealed them, knows the in
visible things. He is free from forgetf illness
negligence and error. His knowledge
eternal : it is not posterior to His essence.
(3) Qudrah, or Power, He is Almighty
If He wills, He can raise the dead, maki
stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the heaveue
and the earth, 'and recreate of gold or o
silver thousands. similar to those destroyed
He can transport a man in a moment of turn*
from the east to the west, or from the weal t<
the east or to the seventh heaven. His
power is eternal a priori and a posteriori.
is not posterior to His essence.
(4) IrddaJi. or Will. He can do what H«
wills, and whatever He wills comes to pass
He is not obliged to act. Everything, good oj
evil, in this world exists by His will. He will
the faith of the believer and the piety of th<
GOD
religious. If He -were to change His will
there would be neither a true believer nor a
pious rn^n. He willeth also the unbelief of
the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked
and, without that will, ttiere would neither
be unbelief nor irreligion. All we do we do by
His will: what He willeth not does not come
to pass. If one should ask why God does
not will that all men should believe, we
answer : " We have no right to enquire about
what God wills and does. He is perfectly
free to will and to do what He pleases." In
creating unbelievers, in willing that they
nhould remain in that state; in making ser
pents, scorpions and pigs : in willing, in short,
all that is evil. God has wise ends in view
which it is not necessary that we should
know. We znuefc acknowledge that the. will
of .God in eternal and that it is not posterior
to His essence.
(5) >Sa»*', or Hearing. He hears all sounds
whether low or loud. He hears without an
car, for His attributes are not like those of
men.
(6) Bdsar. or Seeing. He sees all things,
even the ateps of « black ant on a black-stone
in a dark night ; yet He has no eye as men
have.
(7) Kaldm, or Speech. He speaks, but not
with a tongue as men do. He speaks to some
of His servants without the intervention of
another, even as He spoke to Moses, and
to Muhaimnad on the night of the ascension
to heaven. He speaks to others by the instru
mentality of Gabriel, and this is the usual way
in which He communicates His will to the
prophets. It follows from this that the
Qur'an is the word of God , and is eternal and
uncreated. (Sale's Faith of Islam.")
With regard to the Muhammadan belief in
the Supreme Being, Mr. Palgrave, the well-
tnown Oriental traveller, thus expresses
himself :—
"'There is no god but God," are words
simply tantamount in English to the nega
tion of any deity save one alone ; and thus
much they certainly mean in Arabic, but
the imply much more also. Their full sense
is, not only to deny absolutely and unre
servedly all plurality, whether of nature or of
person, in the Supreme Being, not only to
establish the unity of the Unbegetting andUn-
begot, in all its simple and uhcommunicable
Oneness ; but besides this, the words in Arabic
And among Arabs imply that this one Su
preme Being is also the only Agent, the only
Force, the only act existing throughout the
universe, and leave to all beings else, matter
or spirit, instinct or intelligence, physical or
unora.1, nothing but pure unconditional passive-
ness, alike in movement or in quiescence, in
action or in capacity. The sole power; the
eolo motor, movement, energy, and deed, is
God ; the rest is downright inertia and mere
instrumentality, from the highest, archangel
down to the simplest atom of creation. Hence,
in this one sentence, is summed up a system
which, for want of a better name, I may be
permitted to call the Pantheism of Force, or
of Act, thus exclusively assigned to God, Who
GOD
U7
absorbs it all, exercises it all, and to Whom
alone it can be ascribed, whether for preser
ving or for destroying, for relative evil or for
equally relative good. I say ' relative,' be
cause it is clear that in such a theology, no
place is left for absolute good or evil, reason
or extravagance, all is abridged in the auto
cratical will of the One great Agent: 'tic
vofo, sic jubeo, stet pro ratiom volunta* ' : or,
more signiBcantly still, in Arabic- Kema
yesk&o (ka-md yasha.'v)% <as He wills it,' to
quote the constantly recurring expression ot
the Goran.
" Thus immeasnreably and eternally exalted
above, and dissimilar from, all creatures,
which lie levelled before Him on one common
plane of instrumentality and inertness, God is
One in the totality of omnipotent and omni
present action, which acknowledges no rule,
standard, or limit, save His owu sole and
absolute will. He communicates nothing to
His creatures, for their seeming power and
act ever remain His alone, and in return He
receives nothing from them; for whatever
they may bd, that they are in Him, by Him,
and from Him only. And, secondly, no supe
riority, no distinctiou, no pro -eminence, can be
lawfully claimed by one creature over its
fellow, in the utter equalisation of their un
exceptional servitude and abasement ; all are
alike tools of the one solitary Force which
employs them to crush or to benefit, to truth
or to error, to honour or shame, to happiness
or misery, quite independently of their indi
vidual fitness, deserts, or advantage, and
simply because • He wills it,' and « as He
wills it.'
" One might at first sight think that this
tremendous Autocrat, this uncontrolled and
unsympathising Power, would be far above any
thing like passions, desires, or inclinations. Yet
such is not the case, for He has with respect
to His creatures on« main feeling and source
of action, namely, jealousy of them, lest- they
shculd perchance attribute to themselves
something of what is His alone, and thus en
croach on His ail-engrossing kingdom. Hence
He is ever more prone to punish than to
reward, to iniiict pain than to bestow plea
sure, to ruin ^than to build. It is His sin
gular satisfaction to let created beings conti
nually feel that they are nothing else th&n
His slaves, His tools, and contemptible tools
also, that thus they may the better ac
knowledge His superiority, and know His
power to be above their power, His cunning
above their cunning, His will above their
will, His pride above their pride ; or rather,
that there is no power, cunning, will, or pride,
save His own.
" But He Himself, sterile in His inacces
sible height, neither loving nor enjoying aught
save His own and self -measured decree, with
out son, companion, or counsellor, is no less
barren of Himself than for His creatures, and
His own barrenness and lone egoism in Him
self is the cause and rule of His indifferent
and unregardmg despotism around. The
first note is the key of the whole tune, and
the primal idea of God runs through and
148
GOD
GOG AffD MAGOG
modifies the whole system and creed that
centres in Him.
" That the notion here given of the Deifcy,
monstrous and blasphemous as it may appear,
is exactly and literally that which the Goran,
conveys or intends to convey, I at present take
for granted. But that it indeed is so, no one
who baa attentively perused and thought over
the Arabic text (for mere cursory reading,
especially in a translation, will not suffice),
can hesitate to allow. In fact, every phrase
of the preceding sentences, every touch in this
odious portrait, has been taken, to thp best of
my ability, word for word, or at least mean
ing for meaning, from the ' Book.' the truest
mirror of the mind and scope of its writer.
"And that such was m reality Maho
met's mind and idea, is fully confirmed by
the witness-tongue of contemporary -tradition.
Of this we have many authentic samples : the
Saheek ($aAiA), the Commentary of Beydauri*
(al*Baiz<iwi), the Mislikat ul Mosabih and
fifty similar xvorks, afford ample testin ony on
this point. But for the benefit of my readers
in general, all of whom may not huve drunk
equally deep at the fountain-heads of Islamic
dogma, I will subjoin a specimen, known
perhaps to many Orientalists, yet too charac
teristic to be here omitted, a repetition of
which I have endured times out of number
from admiring and approving Wahhabis in
Nojed.
"* Accordingly, when God' — so runs the
tradition : I had better said, the blasphemy —
' resolved to create the human race, He took
into His hands a mass of earth, the same
whence all mankind were to ho formed, and
in which they after a manner pre-existed; anc't
having then divided the <}tod into two equa
portions, He threw the one half into hell,
saying, « These to eternal fire, and I car/-,
not"; and projected the other half into hea
ven, adding, "and thereto Paradise, I care
not." ' (See MishkHtu ' '£Jfo*iM$ Babut 'l-
Qfidr.}
''Commentary would here be superfluous,
But in this w'e have before us the adequate
idea of predestination, or, to give it a truer
name, pre-damnatiou, held and taught in the
school of the Goran. Paradise and hell are
at once totally independent, of love or hatred
on the part of the Deity, and of merits or de
merits, of good or evil conduct, on the part
of the creature ; and, in the corresponding
theory, rightly so, since tho very actions
which we call good or ill-deserving, right or
wrong, wicked or virtuous, are m their ss-
aence all one and of one, and accordingly
merit neither praise nor blame, -punishment
nor recompense, except and sirapH r<.f*,ev fclie
arbitrary value which the all-regulating will
of the great despot may choose to assign cr
impute to fcham. In a word, He burns one in
dividual through ail eternity amid red-hot
chains and seas of molten fire, and seats
another in the plenary enjoyment of an ever
lasting brothel between forty celestial concu
bines, just and equally for His own good
pleasure, and because He wills it.
" Men are thus all en one common level,
here and hereafter, in their physical, social,
and moral light— the level of slaves to one
sole Master, of tools to one universal Agent.
But the equalising process does not stop
here : beasts, birds, fishes, insects, all parti
cipate of the same honour or debasement ; all
are, like man, the slaves of God, the tools
and automata of His will ; and hence .Ma
homet is simply logical find self -consistent
when in the Goran he informs his followers,
that birds, beasts, and the rest are * nations '
like themselves, nor does any intrinsic dis
tinction exist between them and the human
, pecies. except what accidental diversity the
4 King, the Proud One, the Mighty, the Giant/
&c.f as he styles his God, may have been
pleased to make, just as He willed it, and so
long as He may will it.
"However, should any one think himself
aggrieved by such association, he may con
sole himself by reflecting that, on the other
hand, angels, archangels, genii, devils, and
whatever other spiritual beings may exist,
are no less on his level also ; and that if 'he
himself be no better than a camel, he is, how
ever, no worse than Gabriel or any seraph.
And then, over all and above all, t There is
no god but God.'" — (Central and JKastern
Arabia., vol i. p. 365.)
GOO AND MACrOGK Arabic
Ydjiij wa Mdjuj, also spelt Ma'juj
wa 'Ya'j&j (***"V> $J**0' -A- barbarous
people of Central Asia,, perhaps the Turko
mans, who are in the Qnr'an represented as
doing evil in the land in the days of gu 1-
Qarnain (or Alexander). See Surah xviii.
" they said, « 0 Zu '1-Qarnain ! verily Gog
and Magog waste this land ; shall we then pay
theo tribute, so thou build a rampart between
us and them ? '
*' Ho said, ' Better than yov.r tribute is the
might wherewith my Lord* hath strengthened
mo ; but help me strenuously, and I will set a
burner between you and them
"' Bring me blocks of iron,'- — until v/hen it
filled the space between the uin 'ntain sides—
* Ply/ said he, * your bellows, - until when he
had made it red with heat (fire), he said,—
• Bring me molten brass that I may pom* upon
•'And Gog and Magog were not able fco
scale it, neither were they able to dig
through it.
"'This,' said he, 'is a mercy from my
Lord.'*
They are also apuken of in Surah auu. 95,
96, as a people who shall appear in the last
days : —
" There is a ban on e?ery city which we
shall have destroyed, that they shall not
(i Until a way is opened for Gog and Ma
gog, and they shall hasten from every higrh
land."
Al-BaizawI says Yajuj and Majiij are two
tribes descended from Japheth the son of
Noah, and some say Yajuj belong to the
Turks and Majuj to the Jile. (Comp
GOLD
Ezekiel xxxviii. 2 ; xxxix. 1 ; R*Y. xvi. 14 ;
xx. 8.)
GOLD. Arabic zahab (s-^) ; Heb.
^nt* The zakat imposed upon gold is upon
twenty mi^ah one-half misqal. and upon
every four mis.qals in excess, one qirai;, because
the alms upon gold is owe fortieth of the whole.
This is due upon all gold, whether it be in coin
or in ornaments. But ash-ShalH says it is
not due upon the ornaments of women or the
rings of men. (Hidayah, vol. L p. 27.)
The sale of gold is only lawful when it is
exactly equal in point of weight, for Muham
mad said, " Sell gold for gold, from hand to
hand, at an equal rate according to weight,
for any inequality in point of weight is usury."
(Idem, vol. ii. 552.)
" It is not lawful for a man or woman to eat
or drink out of gold or silver vessels. " ( Idem ,
vol. vi. 86.)
GOLIATH. Arabic Jdlut O>yW).
The giant whom King David slew. Men
tioned in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 261 : " And
when they went forth to battle against Jaiut
and his army, they said, * 0 Lord, give us
patience, and strengthen our feat, and help us
against the infidels ! ' Therefore they dis
comfited them by the will of God, and David
slew Jalut."
The commentators have not ventured to
give any account of Jalut.
GOMORRAH. Arabic Ghamurali
Not mentioned by name in
Qur'an ; but Sadum wa Qhenaurdh are un
derstood to be the "overturned cities" re
ferred to iii Surahs ix. 71, Ixix. 9.
GOOD WORKS. Arabic a-s-SaH-
fait (va»WA * \\). According to the
teaching of the Qur'an, good works without
faith will not .save Yrom the torments o/
hell
Surah xviii. 10&-6 : u Shall we tell you who
are they that have lost their labour most :
whose efforts in the present life have been
mistaken, and who deejned that what they
did was right ? They are those who believed
not in the sign* of the Lord, or that they
should ever meet Him. Vain, therefore, are
their works : and no weight will we allow
them on the day of Resurrection."
Faith in the above is belief in the mission
of Muhammad : all Muslims being considered
in a state oi grace, no matter what their actions
may be. With reference to the good deeds of
Muslims, the following is the teaching of
Muhammad, as recorded in the Traditions
(Mithkdt, book x. chap, iii.): —
"Whon a man is brought to Isiani and h.e
performs it well, God covers all his former
sins, and he gets ten rewards for every good
act, up to seven honored, and even more than
that, whereas the reward of misdeeds is as
one to one, unless God passes that over like
wise."
" There are three persons whope actioa*
are not written ; one a person asleep until he
awak.cs ; the second a boy not arrived at
GKANDtfATHER
149
puberty ; the third, a madman until he re
covers his reason."
" Verily, God recordeth both tne good tif-eds
and the evil ducds. He who .has proposed to
do evil und did not do it, for hire Got re
cordeth one perfectly gocu. deed. And h«> «-ho
intended to do good and put. his intentions
into practice, /or him God recordetU from ten
to seven hundred good deeds (according to
their merits). And he who intended to do
evil but did it not, Goa recordeth one good
act, ; out be who intendeth to do evil and doeth
it, for him God recordetb. one evil dred."
"Verily, the condition of that person who
does evil and after that ;M-OCJ deeds, is like the
condition of a mar< with tight armour on,
•:vhich has troubled him. He does oue good
deed and the rings 01 the armour become
open. Ho does another good deed, and the
armour falls from bis body,"
"Verily there was a man amongst those
who were before you to whom the angel of
death came to take his eonl, and he was
asked * Have you done any good act?' He
said i* answer, ' I do not reiueuiner that I
nave done aay good.' It was said to him,
* Look well ixitu yourself, and consider if you
have done any good work. He sa)d, ' 1 do
not f5ad any good in myself, except that I
used to buy and sell in the \vut id And used to
claim my right from tho rich, but allowed
them their leisure to pay me when they liked,
and I forgave the poor.' Theu ^od brought
that man into paradise,"
" An adalt'jrsas was i'orgiven, who passed
by a dog at a well,, and the dog was holding
out his tonguo from thirst, which was near
killing him. Ths woman drew oft her boot
and tied it to the end of her voil, and drew
water for the dt»g, and gav* hin.- to drink, and
she was forgiven on account oi tUat act. It
was asked tho Prophet, * Verily, are there le-
WATila for our doing good to quadrupeds, and
giving them water to drink ? ' He said, ' There
are rewards for benefiting every .\nimal
having a moist liver.' "
" Youv smiling in your brother'* face is
alms : r.rid your exhorting mankind to vir
tuous deed"? ;fc altoa ; and your prohibiting
the iorbiiMea ie alms ; and your showing men
the road when they lose it is alms ; and your
assisting the blicd is alms ; and your removing
stones, thorns, .%nd bones, whioh are inconve
nient to man is alms; and your pouring
water from your bucket into that of your
brother is i»has for you.'*
GOSHAH-NT.&HIN (c^ *+?)•
Lit. ;iOr<e who «it/» m u corner." A Pi nai
term for a devout ftr-son who in reti
?t»gages m the contemplation of the Deity
GOSPEL. Arabic Jnjll (J^)-
A term applied to the whole of the New Tes
tament scriptures. [NEW TBSTAMKKT.]
GRAMMAR. [ILMU 'T-ADAB.]
GRANDFATHER. Arabic jadd
(j^>. If a father die without appoint
ing vn < xc-< utor, the grandfather represents
150
GKANDMOTHEB
the father And in making contracts of mar
riage, the grandfather has precedence of an
executor, although the executor takes prece
dence in managing the property. (Hidayah,
vol. iv. p. 555.) In case of the father being
poor, it is the duty of the grandfather to act
for his grandchild in the distribution of alms,
&f, (Idem, vol. ii. p 244.)
GRANDMOTHER. tw&Acjaddah
(5.x?.). If the mother of an infant
die, the right histanaJi, or guardianship, rests
with the maternal grandmother in preference
to the paternal; but if she be not living, the
paternal grandmother has the right prior to
any other relation. The paternal grandmother
is also entitled to a sixth of the effects of a
child of her son, it tho child's mother be dead,
as being the mother's share. (Hidduah. voL i.
p. 386.)
GRAVE. Arabic qabr (>5) ; Heb.
""Op* ^ke graves of Muhaminadans
are so dug as to allow the body to lie with its
face towards Makkab ; consequently in India
they are dug from north to south. It is usual
to dig a grave the depth equal to the height of
the breast of a middle-sized man, and to make
a recess at the bottom, which is called lafad, in
which the body is placed. The body having
been placed in this recess, it is closed with
unburat bricks, and the grave is filled with
earth and a moand raised over it.
The Traditions of Muhammad, as well as
the works of Muslim doctors, all teach that
a dead body is conscious of pain, and there
fore great care is taken to prevent any pres
sure upon the body.
*Amir relates that his father Sa'd ibn Abi
Waqqas said, on his death-bed, "Make a
lakd for me towards Makkah, and put nnburnt
bricks upon my grave, as was done in the
case of the Prophet (Sftfrihu Muslim, p. 21 11
Sufyan at-Tammar relates that he " saw the
Prophet's grave, and the top of it was like a
camel's back/ (Safafiu V- BMdrl.)
Ibn 'Abbas says " a red cloth was placed
upon the Prophet's grave." (Misttkat, book
v. c. vi.)
Jabir says " the Prophet prohibited build
ing with mortar on graves, and also placing
inscriptions upon them." (AlishJcdt, book r.
c. vi.) But notwithstanding this tradition
(which is acted upon by the Wahhabis),
nmsonry tombs are most common in all pails
of Islam, and form some of the moet striking
specimens of Muhammadan architecture.
[TOMBS.]
GRAVE, The Punishments of the.
['AZABU 'L-QABR.]
GREEKS. Arabic ar-Kum G»>jN),.
by which is meant the Byzantine or Eastern
Empire. In the xxxth chapter of the Qur'an.
entitled the Suratu V-JS«»i, or the% " Chapter
of the Greeks," there is a reference to the
defeat of the Byzantine power by the Per
sians with a supposed prophecy of future sue*
cesses. The chapter begins thus : —
"Alif, Lam. MIm. THE GREEKS have
been defeated
GBEEKS
" In a land hard by : But after their defeat
thev shall defeat their foes,
" In a few years. First and last is. the
affair with God. And on that day shall the
faithful rejoice
%< In the aid of their God : He aidetb whom
He will : and He is the Mighty, the Merciful.
" It is the promise of God : To his promise
God will not be untrue: but most men know
if not."
Following al-Baiziiwi, the Jalalan, and
other commentators, Sale remarks that—
The accomplishment of the propbecy con
tained in this passage, which is very famoua
among the Muhammadans, being insisted on
by their doctors as a convincing proof that
the Qur'an really came down from heaven, it
may be excusable to be a little particular.
The passage is said to have been revealed
on occasion of a great victory obtained by the
Persians over the Greeks, the news whereof
coming to Makkab, the infidels became
strangely elated, and began to abuse Muham
mad and his followers, imagining that this
success of the Persians, who, like themselves,
were idolaters, and supposed to have no
scriptures, against the Christians, who pre
tended as well as Muhammad to worship one
God, and to have -divine scriptures, waa an
earu.est of their o *n future successes against
the Prophet, and those of hi a religion, to
check which vain hopes it was foretold in the
words of the text, that how improbable soever
it might seem, yet the scale should be turned,
in a few years, and the vanquished Greeks
prevail at, remarkably against the Persians.
That this prophecy was exactly fulfilled, the
commentators fail nut to observe, though
they do not exactly agree in the Recounts
they give of its accomplishment, the number
of years between the two actions being not
precisely determined. Some place the vic
tory gained by the Persians in the fifth year
before the Hijra'h, and their defeat by the
Greeks in the second year after it, when the
battle of Badr was fought ; others place the
former irf the third or fourth year before
the Hijrah, and the latter in the end of the
sixth or beginning of the seventh year after it,
when the expedition of al-Hudaibiyah was
undertaken. The date of the victory gained
by the Greeks in the first of these accounts,
interferes with a story which the commenta
tors tell, of a wager laid by Abu Bakr with
Ubaiy ibn Khalf, who turned this prophecy
into ridicule. Abu Bakr* at first laid ten
young camels that the Persians should re
ceive an overthrow within three years, but on
his acquainting Muhammad with what he had
done, that Prophet told him that the word
ferf , made use of in this passage, signified no
determinate number of years, but any number
from three to nine (though some suppose the
tenth year is included), and therefore advised
him to prolong the time and to raise the
wager, which he accordingly proposed to
Ubaiy, and they agreed that the time assigned
shoxxld be nine years and the wager a hun
dred camels. Before the time was elapsed,
Ubaiy died of a wound received at Uhud, in
GROVE
GUARDIANSHIP
151
•the third yea -of the Hijiah; but tbe event
TttjFterwards showing that Abu Bakv had won,
h« received the camels of Ubay's heirs, and
breught them in triumph to Mohammitd.
History informs its- that the successes of
jKh.osru Parvix, King of Persia, who carried
tor a terrible war agHinst. the Creek empire,
to revenge tbe death of Maurice, his father-
in-law, slain by Phoctis, were 7017 great, and
|pontrmied in an uuinlx-.rrnpted course for two-
iftiid-twenty years. Particularly in the year
lof Christ 6*15. about the beginning of the
sixth year before the Hi] rah. the Persians,
Having the preceding year conquered Syria,
made themselves masters of Palestine and
took Jerusalem, which seem* to be that signal
advantage gained over the Greeks mentioned
in this passagej as agreeing best with the
terms hero used, and most likely to alarm the
Arabs by reason of theii vicinity to the scene
ol action : and there was so little probability
at that time, of thr Greeks being able to re
trieve their losses much less to distress the
Persians, l.hat in the i'ollowing years the
anas of t,he latter made still farther and
more considerable progresses, and at length
they 1,'tid siege to Constantinople itself. But
in the year 625, in which the fourth year of
the Hijrah began, abut ten years after the
taking of Jerusalem, the Greeks, when it was
least expected, gained a remarkable victory
over the Persians, and not only obliged them
to quit the territories of the empire, by car
rying '.he war into their own country, but
drore them to the last extremity, ynd spoiled
the capital city al-Madayin; Heraclius en.
joying thenceforward a continued aeries of
good fortune, to the deposition and death of
Kbosru, (Sale's Koran, in loco.)
GROVE, The. Arabic Aikak (**$).
The AftwbtL 'l-Ai/eak, or " the people of the
Grove," are mentioned four times in tbt
Qur*an, Surahs xv. 78, xxvi. 176. xxviii. 21 ,
1 13, as being a tribe or cl*ss of people who
treated the prophets as liars. The following
particulars regarding them are given in Surah
xxvi. 170:—
" The people of tbe grove of Mady an treated
the Apostles as liars.
** When Shu'aib tbeir brother said to them,
' Will ys not fear God ?
" I truly am your trustworthy Apostle.
"Fear God. then, and obey me :
" No reward ask I of you for this : my re
ward is of (;he Lord of the Worlds alone."
GUARDIANSHIP. Guardianship
over a minor is of two kinds: loitoijah
(&•»&«) or guardianship of the property and
education aud Marriage of the ward, and
hizanak, (&^), or guardianship over the
rearing and bringing up of the child.
Guardians are either 30 by natural right or
by testament, or by appointment by a judge.
The guardianship of a minor for tho ma
nagement and preservation of his property
devolves 6rst on his or her fathor, then on
the father's executor, next on the paternal
grandfather, then on bis executor, then on
the executors of such executors, next on the
ruling power or his representative, the Qa?i,
or judge. In default of a father, father's
father, and tbeir executors, ax above, all of
whom are termed near guardians, it rests in
the Qazi to appoint a guardian ot an infant's
property. The otbev paternal kinsmen who
are rfimed remote kindred, and the mother
suocecu. according to proximity, to the guar
dianship of an infant for the purpose of edu
cation and marriage j they have no right to
bt* guardians of his property, unless ap
pointed to be so by the ruling authority, or in
the original proprietor's will, proved by com
petent witnesses. The mother's right of
guardianship is, however, forfeited upon her
being rorn^rvied to a stranger, but regained
vmeu she is divorced by him, and has again
become a widow.
In default of the mother as well as of the
paternal kindred cf a minor, his maternal
relations are, according co proximity, entitled
to g-uardianship for the purposes of educa
tion and marriage, and not for the manage
ment of bis property, unless so appointed in
the late, owner's will or by the Qazi.
The general rule is that a guardian, execu
tor, or nnyone who has the care of the person
and property of a minor, can enter into a
contract which is or likely to be advantageous
and not injurious to his ward.
A guardian may sell or purchase moveables
on account of his ward, either for an equiva
lent or at such a. rate as to occaaion an incon
siderable loss, but not at sucb a rnto &s to
make the loss great and apparent, (ffidayaft
vol, iv. p. 553.)
A guardian Is allowed to borrow money for
tbe support atvd education of his ward, eyen
by pawning1 the minor's property ; the debt so
contracted must be paid out of his (the.
minor'fl ) estate, or by him when he comes of
age.
It is not lawful. for a guardian to pledgr
into his own hands goods belonging to h»<
ward on account of a debt due to hin» or into
the hands of hie child being an infant, ot
into the hands of his slave bein£ a merchant
ynd. free from debt. (Hid&yak* vol. iv. p.
214.)
A father can pswn the goods of his infant
child into his own hands lor a debt due from
the child, or into the hands of another of his
children being an infant.
A father may also pav,'ii on account of his
own debt the goods belonging to. his minor
son. who on coming of age will redeem the
^oods discharging the debt, and h«\vc a claim
on the father for the sum.
The contract of pawn entered irit.o by a
father wvth respect to his minor child's good
cinuot be annulled by to minor, even if it
were not for bis own debt or for lus own
benefit
The mother is, of all the persons, tbe best
entitled to the custody (hitdna/i) of her infant
child during marriago and after separation
from her husband, unless she be an apostaN?,
or wicked. - or unworthy to be trusted.
i vol. i. p. 728.)
152
GUARDIANSHIP
HABIB AN-NAJJAE
Next the mother's mother how high soever
}$ cutif/ied to the custody (frizdnak) of a
child; failing her by death, or marriagi-
to a stranger, the full sister is entitled ;
failing her by death or marriage to a
stranger, the half-sister by the mother. On
failure of her in the same way the daughter
of the full sister, then the daughter of the
halt-sister by the mother. Next the maternal
aunt in the same way, and then the paternal
aunts also in like jnaunev. (Fatdwd-i~*J[tain-
giri, vol. i. p. 728.)
An wnm~i-u)alaa (or n, female slave who has
home a child to her master), when emanci
pated, obtains the right of taking her child.
(Hidayah, vol. i p. 889.)
When it is necessary to remove a boy from
the custody of women, or there is no woman
of his own people to take charge of him, he
is to be given up to his agnate male rela
tives («a?aiaA). Of these the father is the
first, then the paternal grandfather, how-
high soever, then the full brother, then the
half-brother by the father, then the son of the
full brother, then the sou of the half-brother
by the father, then the full paternal uncle,
then the half paternal uncle by the father,
then the sons of paternal uncles in the 'same
order. But though a boy may be given up to
the sou of his paternal unele, a giri should
not be entrusted to him
No male has any right to the custody of a
female child, but one who is within the pro
hibited degrees of relationship to her ; and an
*ajdbah who is profligate has no right to her
custody. (Fatawd-i-'Alamym, vol. i p. 729.)
A female's custody of a boy terminates
when be is seven years old, and of a girl at
her puberty.
Male custody of a boy continues till pu
berty, of a female not only till puberty, but till
she can be safely left to herself and trusted
to take care or* herself.
When a, female has neither father nor
grandfather nor any of her 'afdbah to take
charge of her, or the 'asdbah is pro tiig ate, it
is the duty of the judge to take cognizance of
her condition; and if she can be trusted to-
take care of herself, he should allow her to
live alone, whether she be a -virgin or a s'ntyi-
<iah, and if not, he should place her with some
female aroin, or trustee, in whom he has con
fidence ; for* he is the superintendent of all
Muslims. ^FatdwU't'"Alamgtn, vol. i. p. 780.)
When a mother refuses to take charge of a
child without hire, it maybe committed to
another.
A boy or girl having passed the period of
hizdna-h, has no option to be with one parent
in preference to the other, but must neces
sarily thenceforth remain in charge of the
father. (Hiddyah, vol. L p. 389.)
Be/ore the completion of 'iddah, or disso
lution of marriage, the proper place of $?'?<z«
nak is that where the husband and wife live,
and the former cannot take away the child
out of the custody of the latter. After com-
pletion of her 'gY/daA, and separation from her
husband, a woman can take her child to the
place of her nativity, provided the marriage
had been contracted there, or it is so iieai'
from the place of separation or husband's
residence, that if the husband should leave
fche la bter iu the mox'ning to visit the child,
he can. return to his residence before night.
There is also no objection to her removing
with the child from a village t6 the city or
chief town of the district, the same being ad
vantageous to the child, and in no respect
injurious to the father. If the child's mother
be dead, and its hizanak or custody has
passed to the maternal grandfather, she can
not remove the child to her own city, though
the marriage had taken place there. Other
women than the grandmother are like her in
respect to the place of hizdnah.
When an umm t -walnd\in» been emancipated,
she has no right to take her child from the
city iii whicb the father is residing.
^Hiddyah, vol. i. ; Fatdwd-i-'AlamginiVol. L;
Durrv 'l-Mukhidrtp. 846: Jami'v. V-Jftetfz;
Tagttre Lecture*, 1879; Bailie's Digest, p.
Arabic xaif
GUEST.
(UOSPITALITV.]
OTRZ G^). (1) The Persian
word for the mtraqahj or iron mace, where
with the iafidel dead are smitten in tlieir
graves by the angels Munkar and Nakir.
['AZABU 'L-QABR.}
'2) An iron mace pointed at one end and
having a knob at the other covered with
spikes, and used by the Gurz Mar, or Rula«!
faqirs, for striking against thoir breasts in
their devotional exercises.
p. 291.)
H.
HABA' (A*). "Dust," especially
the finer particles which fly about and are
only conspicuous in the sun's rays.
A term used by the §ufi mystics for those
portions of matter (hayula) which God has
distributed in creation.' (*Abdu 'r-Razzaq's
Diet of Sufi Terms.)
HABIB A
" Habib the Carpenter," whose story is told
in the Qur'an (Surah xxxvl 12), as follows : —
"Set forth to them the instance of the
people of the city (i.e. of Aatioch) wbr-n the
Sent Ones csme to it.
" When we sent two (i.e. John and Jude)
* HABIB AN-NAJJAK
unto the.ij and tuey charged them both with
hupo6ture--therefoTe with a. thiid (i.e. Siinon
Pef.er) we strengthened them : and they s-aid.
* Verily wt? are the Srnt unto yon of God?
l( They said., * Yc HIT. only men like us :
Nought l-aih tJie God of Mn>-' v ,-^-ni a own.
I Ye do nothing but lie/
"They 7aid, 'Our Lord knoweth that we
I aic .;ureiy scut unto you;
"fTo proclaim a clear jnessage is our only
I 1 duty.'
u They f?aid, Of a truth we augur ill trout
1 you; if yr desjst not we will surely stone you,
I and a grievous punlvhment will surely befall
I yon r'rom us.
e;They said, 'Your augury of ill is with
I yourselves. Will ye be warned? Nay, ye
I are an erring- people.'
** Then from the end or' the city a man (?;e.
. Hahlb, Hu1 (Mi-pcntcr) came running1 He
I said < 0 my people! follow the Sent Ones ;
u' Follow those who ask net of you a re-
Jl compe.nce uitd who aro rlgbtly guided.
*** And v.'hy sliould I not worship Him who
} made me, and to whom ye shall .be brought
I back ?
"'Shall I Ukegods beside Him? if t.V«e
' God of mercy be pleased to afdict me, thou-
r interceKSi'on will not avert from me aught,
I nor will they deliver.'
ct* Truly then should I be in a mauif.es t error
•"Veriiy. in your Lovii have 1 believed j
I tlierefo"'^ hear me.5
-It wai said to him. ''Enter thovt into
1 Paradise " (j,v. after they had stoned him to
H dfialh). And he said, *0h that my pfop'lc
i knew
" 'How gracious God h'atlt been to me and
1 that He hatli made me one of //ft honoured
: ones"
"But no army sent we down out of hoavfit;
I if'ter his «./eJc//jnor were we .then sending down
|! or//' -angels —
u There wa,« but one shout from. Gabriel,
p and lo ! they wore extinct.
" Oil! the misery that rests upon my ser-
I rants ! No apostle cometh to them but they
t laugh him to seorn."
Al-Baizawi, the oommentatorj a&yi- the
i people of the City of Antioch were idobiers,
i and that Jesus sent two of his disciples, Yahya
I and Y"\5nas( John and Jude)to preach to them.
i Aud when they nr rived, they met Habih, the
I carpenter, to whom they made Icnowti th*«ir
I miHsi'on. Habib said, ** What, signs can yc
show that ye are sent of God ? ;> And the di.s-
i siples replied, u"We can heal the sick and
give sight to thoso who are born blind, and
i cure, the leprosy." Then Habib brought his
sick sou to them and they laid their bunds
upon him and he was healed. And Habrb
believed on Jesus, and lie made known the
gospel to tho people of the city. Many of the
people vhen came to the disciples* and were
also he.alsd. The news then reached the ear
of the governor of the city, and he. sent for
the two disoiples and they preached, to him.
He replied, " Is your God different from our
God?" They s;- id "Yes, He it is who
made thee and ihv gods.* The governor then
HADIS QUDSI
168
| .;<•!!( them a\vay and out them in prison
j When they were in prison, Tesussent Suam'uu
(Si'uioii Peter), and he came secretly and made
' friends with the servants of rhe governor, and
in u'rm; gained access to the governor's pre
sence, a.nd performed H, miracle in the pre
sence of the governor by .raising a child vrhe
j had been dead seven days. The child when
! raised from the dead, said he had seen Jesus
Christ. i:i heaven, and that he' had interceded
for tho three disciplss »u prison. The
governor believed and many others with
him. Those whe did not believe raised a- dls
turbancc in the. city, and Hablb the carpenter
exhorted Umn to believe. For this hp w««
*t oned, and, having died, entered into Paradise.
rUbib's tonib is still seen at Antioch.and is
visited by Mnhamrruidang as a shrino.
HABTL ( J***). [ABEL.]
HABVVAH (V*). The posture of
sitting with the legs rmd thigha contractor
towards the belly the back bent forwards,
and supported lit that position by the arm.":
crossed over the kneea. Muslims are for-
bidden to sit in this posture during the re
cital of the Khutbah on Fridays {M.inhkat
!>ook iv. p. 45, pt. 2> as it inclines to drowsiness
HA DAS MA?JO.). State of an un
clean person, of on»? '.viio has not performed
the usual abluiious bofot •••>, prayev.
HADD («*»), pi. ftudud. In its pri
mitive sense hadd signifies " obstruction,"
whent'H a porter or gate-keeper is called
hadddd or " obstructer," from his office of
prohibiting people from entering. In Jaw it
expres.se- the punishments, the limits of which
havo, been defined by Muhammad either in the
Quran or in the fjtadlg. These punish in cuts
are (1) Tor adultery, stoning j (2) For forntna-
iion, a itundred stripes ; (8) For ike false
accusation of a married person with adultery
(or Q<U£/), eighty stripes j (4) For apostasy,
deaih; ;5) For drinking win?,, eighty stripe* .
(6) For thfftt the cutting off of the rigbt hand ;
• ?) Foi- highway robbe.ru : lor simple robbery or
the Highway, the loss of hands audinet; foi
robbery with murder, death, either by tin
word or by crucifixion. (ffidayaJt. voL ii.
p. 1. [PUNISHMENT.]
Aj>HADlD (J^*J\). "Iron." The
title of the Juvuth Surah of the Qur'an in
which the word occurs (verse 26): " Wig sent
J own iron, in which are both keen violence and
dvtuitage to men,"
HADIS («*>W). What happens
for the Rrat time; new, fresh. That which
is born in time as opposed to qadi-m, or that
which is without a beginning, as God.
HAI/IS (*j8u»**), pi. ahadis. [TRA-
DITIOW.]
HADIS QUDS! (^-tfu^). A
divine saying. A t.*»rm used tor a kadis whicn
rcJotes A revelation from God in the language
of the Prophet. An example is found in the
Mishk&t (book f. c. i. pt. I ) : " Abu Hurairah
said, l The Prophet of God related tbes-e words
20
154
HADIYAH
AL-HAJAEU L-ASWAD
of God, "The sons oi Adam vex me, and
abuse the age, whereas I am The AGE
itself : In my hands are all events : I have
made the day and night/""
HADIYAH (^JUD). A present or
offering made to persons of consequence,
kmgs or rulers.
HADY (e^)- Cattle sacrificed at
Makkab during the Pilgrimage, as distin
guished from animals sacrificed on the Great
Festival, which are called uzfcya/i. These
animals are branded and sent off with Strings
round their nocks, as offerings to the sacred
temple. They may be bullocks, or camels, or
sheep, or goats. (Mishkdt, book XL c. viii.)
HAFIg (ItfW). Lit. "A guardian "
or protector. (1) One of the names of God,
id-Hafi?:, (2) A governor, e.g. Hdfizu ''I -Bait;
the guardian of the Makkan temple. (3) One
who has committed the whole of the Qur'an
to memory.
'Usman relates that the Prophet said:
" The best person amongst you is tie wbo^Jms
learnt the Quv'an and teaches it, (Mistikdt*
book vil. c. i.) In the east it is usual for
blind men to commit the Qur'aa to memory,
and to thus obtain the honourable distinction
of Ha-fa.
HAFSAH (X«H. One of Muham
mad's wives. She was the daughter of 'Umar.
and the widow 6f Khunaia, an early convert
to Islam. She married Muhammad about six
months after her former husband's death.
During the lifetime of the Prophet she was a
person of considerable influence in his coun
sels, being the daughter of 'Umar. She sur
vived Muhammad some years, and ha.s re
corded several traditions of his sayings.
HAGAE. Arabic Hajar O^*).
The slave wife of Abraham and the mother
of Ishmael. Al*Baizawi says that Hajar was
the slave girl of Sarah, the wife of Abraham,
and she admitted her to Abraham, and from
her was born Ishmael. Sarah became jealous
of Hajar (because, she had a son), and she
demanded of Abraham that he should put
both the mothor and. child away, and he sent
them away in the directioa of Makkah, and
at Makkan God produced for them the spring
Zamzam [ZAMZAM] When the tribe of Jur-
hum .jaw that there was water in that place,
they said to Hajar. " If you will share with
ne the water of this spring, we will share with
you the milk of our herds," and from that
time MakkaJh. became a place of importance.
(Tafoini '1-BaizdwL p. 424.)
HAIR, Arabic sha'r, eha'ar (/*>),
Heb,
The sale of auman hair is unlawful in the
same manner as the use of it for auy purpose
ia unlawful. Being a part of the human
body, it is necessary to preserve it from dis
grace, to which an exposure of it to sale
necessarily subjects it. It is related in the
traditions that God ha;* cursed women who use
false hair. (Hidayah, voL ii. p. 439.) [MEAD 1
HA'rrlYAH (*«WU). A sect of
Muslims founded by Ahmad ibn Ha'it, who
said there were two Gods, one whose exis
tence is from eternity (qadbn), i.e. Allah,
and tho other who is created in time (mufod-
daa), i.e. a) -Ma slh, (Christ), and that it ia he
who will judge the world in the last day.
And he. maintained that this is the meaning
of the words which occur in the traditions :
" God created taan in bis own image." (Kitdlni
'l-Ta'rifdt, in loco.)
HAIWAN (0^). The animal
creation : •which in divided into haiwdn ndtiq^
or rational beings ; and haiwan sdkit, or
irrationat beinga. FANIMALS, BEINGS.]
Ai-HAIY (&J\) } Hob. TT, " The
Living One." One of the ninety nine attributes
of God. The term frequently occurs in the
Qur'an.
HA*I?AH (^?v^) A menstruoug
HAJAR
AL-HA.TARU X-A8WAD
(o^jjty. Lit. " The Black Stone."
The famous black atone which forms part of
the sharp angle of the Ka'bah in the temple
at Makkah. Mr. Burkhardt says, « It is au|
irregxxlar oval, about seven inched in dia
meter, with an undulating surface, composed;
of about a dozen smaller stones of different
si^es and shapes, well joined together with a
small quantity of cement, and perfectly well
smoothed ; it looks as if the whole bad been
broken into as many pieces by a violent bfow,
and then united again. It is very difficult to
determine accurately the qualify of this
stone, which has been worn to its present
surface by the millions of touches and kisses
it has received. It appeared to me like a
lava, containing several small extraneous par
ticles of a whitish and of a yellow substance.
Its colour is now a deep reddish brown ap
proaching to black. It is surrounded on alt
aides by a border composed of a substance
which I took to be a close cement of pitch
and gravel of a similar, but not quite the
same, brownish colour. This border servei
to support its detached pieci-H ; it is two ori
three inches in breadth, aud ripes a little
above the surfac.e of the stone. Both the
border and the stone itself are encircled by A
silver band, broader below than above, and on
the two sides, with a considerable swelling
below, as if n- part of the atone were hidden
under it. The* lower pare of the border it
studded with silver nails."
Captain Burton remarks, " The colour ap
peared to me black and metallic, and the
contre of the stone was sunk about twoinchei
below the metallic circle. Round the sides
was a reddish brown cement, almost level
with the metal, and sloping down to the]
middle of the stone. The band is now a
massive arch of gold or silver gilt. I found
the aperture in which the stone is, one span
and three fingers broad.*'
According to Ibn 'AbbaS, Muhammad said
HAJB
HAJJ
155
'the black stone came down from Paradise,
and at the time of its descent it was whiter
.than milk, but that the sins of the children of
'Adam have caused it to be black, by their
tonching it. That on the Day of Resvrrrec-»
'tiou, when it will have two eyes, by which it
iwill soe and know all those who touched it
and kissed it, and when it will have a tongue
to speak, it will give evidence in favour of
ithose who touched and kissed it.
i Maxhnug Tyrius, who wrote in the second
century, *ays " The Arabians pay homage to I
'know oot what god, which they represent by
o quadrangular stone,'? alluding to the Ka'bah
!or temple which contains the black stone.
The Guebnrs or Ancient, Persians, assert
ithat the Black Stone was amongst the
ijmges and relics left by Mahabad and his
kuccoKSors in the Ka'bah, and that it was an
jemblem of Saturn. It is probably an aero-
Jlite. and owes its reputation, like many others,
(to its fall from the sky. Itp existence as an
lobject oi adoration in an iconoclastic religious
System, can only be accounted for by Muham-
imad s attempt to conciliate t>he idolaters of
;! Arabia.
$ A complete list of the falls of aerolites and
meteoric stones through the atmosphere, is
roublishwd in the Edinburgh Philosophical
Mourned, from a v/ork by Chladni in Gorman,
tin which the subject is ably and f uily treated.
' r3§E_i*
A ' M I ' """^
THE TL4JAJLU 'L-A8WAD.
HAJB (s-^^). A le^ai term iu
[the Muhamraadan lav/ of inheritance, signify
ing the catting off of au heir from his portion.
HAJI (^U), also hajj. A person
who has performed the hajj, or pilgrimage to
Makkab. It is retained as a title of honour by
those who have performed the pilgrim age ,e.^.
ffdji Qdsim, i.e. •* Qasim the Pilgrim." [HA.TJ.]
HAJJ (g^). Lit. "Betting out,"
tending towards." The pilgrimage to Mak-
kah performed in the month of gu '1-Hijjab.
or the twelfth month of the Miihanxmadan
year. It is tho fifth pillar of Muhammadan
practical religion, and an incumbent religious
duty, founded upon express injunctions in
the Qur'au. According to Muhammad it is a
divine institution, and has the following autho
rity in the Qur'an for its due observance : —
(It is noticeable that all the verses in the
Qur'an with regard to the pilgrimage are in the
later SuraJis, wlien they are arranged in their
chronntogical order.)
Surah xxii. 28 :—
«« And proclaim to the peoples a PILGRIM-
AGE (bajj). Let them come to thee on foot
and on every fleet cainel, arriving by every
deep defile ;
" That they may bear witness of its bene-
fitfl to them, and may make mention of God's
name oa the appointed days (i.e. the ten first
days of gu 1-Hijjah), over the brute beasts
with which He hath supplied them for sus
tenance : Therefore eat thereof yourselves,
and feed the oeedy, the poor:
u Then let them bring tho neglect of their
persons to a close, ana let them pay their
vows, and circuit the ancient HOUSP.
»' This do. And he that reepecteth the
sacred ordinances of God, this will be host
for him with his Lord."
Surah ii. 153 :—
** Verily, us-$afe and al-Marwah are among
the signs of God -. whoever then m&keth a pil
grimage (bajf) to the temple, or visiteth it,
shall not be to blame if he go round about
them both. And as for Lim who of his own
accord doeth what is good — God is Grateful,
Knowing/'
Idem, 102:—
k( Accomplish the pilgrimage (/«y/)» and
the visitation ((uwah) tor God : and if ye be
hemmed in by foes, send whatever sacrifice
shall be the easiest, and shave not your heads
until the offering reach the place of sacrifice.
But whoever among you ia sick or bar. an
ailment of the head, must expiate by fasting,
alms, or an offering.
" Aud when ye are safe from foot, he who
contents himself with the visitation Qrtmnth)
until the pilgrimage (bajf), shall bring what
ever offering shall be the easiest. But he
who findeth nothing to offer, shall fast three
days in the pilgrimage itaelf, and seven days
when yc return : they shall be ten days in
all. This is binding on him whose family
bhall not be present at the sacred Mbsquo (al-
tyajsjidv 4I-hardni). And fear God, and know
that God is terrible in punishing.
" Lei tho pilgrimage be made in tho months
already known (?.«;. Sh.iwwal, 2u 1-Qa'dah,
and Zfi 1-]£ijjah) : whoever therefore under-
taketb. the pilgrimage therein, let him not
know a woman, uor transgress, nor wrangle
in the pjlgrijiiage. The good which ye do,
God knoweth it. And provide for your
journey / but the best provision is the fear of
God : fear me, then, 0 men of understanding !
" It shall be no crime in you if ye seek an
increase from your Lord (i.e. to trade) : and
when ye pass swiftly on from 'Arafat, then
rwueinber God near the holy temple (at-Ma$-
jidtt 'l-bardm) ; and remember ftiin, because
He hath guided you who before this wore of
those who wcut astray :
" Theu pass on quickly whore the people
quickly pass (i.e. from 'Araiat), and ask par
don of God, for God is Forgiving, Merciful.
'*And when ye have finished your holy
rites> remember God as ye remember your
own fathers, or with a yet more intense re
membrance I Some men there are who say,
• 0 our Lord ! give ns our portion in this
156
HAJJ
HAJJ
world :' but such shall have no portion in the
next life :
" And some say, ' 0 our Lord ! give us
good in this world and good in the next, and
keep us from the torment of the fire.'
" They shall hare the lot which they have
merited : and God is swift to reckon.
" Bear God in mind during the stated days :
but if any haste away in two days (i..e. after"
r.be #«£;"), it shaJJ bu no fault in him : And it'
any tarry longer, it shall be no fault in him,
it' he fear God. Fear God, then, and know
that to Him shall ye be gathered."
Surah iii.90:—
"The first temple that was founded for
mankind, was that in Bakkah (i.e. Makkah) —
Blessed, and a guidance to human beings,
" In it are evident signs, even the standing-
place of Abraham (Maqunm Ibrahim): and he
who entereth it is safe. And the pilgrimage
to the temple, is a service due to God from
those who are able to journey thither."
Surah v. 2.—
" 0 Believers ! violate neither the rites of
God, nor the sacred month, nor che offering,
nor its ornaments, (i.e. on the necks of ani
mals), nor those vrho press on to the sacred
bouse (al-Baitv '1-Hara-iri), s.eeking favour
h cm their Lord and his good pleasure in them."
The performance of the pilgrim age is in
cumbent upon srery Muslim, oc.ce in his life-
timo, if he be &rz adult, free, sane, "well in
health, and ha* suincient money for the e,x-
penses of the journey and for tho support of
his family during his absence.
If a woman perform the pilgrimage she
must do it in company with her husband, or
& near relative (marram). If she can obtain
the protection of a near relative and has i.ho
necessary expenses for the journey, it is not
lawful for her husband to prevent her perform
ing the pilgrimage. This mafiram is a near re
lative whom it is not lawful for her to marry,
The Imam ash-Shan'I denies the necessity
of such attendance, stating that the y.uran
makes no such restriction. His objection is,
however,, met by a Tradition. " A certain
man came to the Prophet and said : ' My wife
is about to make the hajj, but 1 am called Lo
go on a -warlike expedition.' The Prophet
said: r Turn away from the wax aad accom
pany thy wife in the hajj ' "
.For a lawful hajj there are three actions
which uesfane. and five which are wajib : all
this rest are sunnah or inusialidbb. Thofarz
are: to wear no other garment except the
ifyrqm-; to stand in 'Arafat ; to make the
fciwaf, or circuit round the Kaf'bah.
The wajib duties are : to etay in al-Muzdali-
fah ; to run between Mount as-Safaand Mount
al-Marwah ; to perform the Ramyu 'r-Rijam,
or the casting of the pebbles ; if the pilgrims
are non-Mecca.ns, to make an extra tawaf\ to
shave the head after the pilgrimage is over.
The hajj must be made at the appointed
season. Surah ii. 193: "Let tho pilgrimage
be ruade in the mouths already known."
These months are Shawwal, Zu l-Qa'dah^and
the first ten days of Zu '1-Hijjah. The actual
hajj must be in the month Zii 1-Hijjah, but
the preparations for, and the niyah^ or in
tention of the hajj can be made in the two
preceding months. The 'umrah, or ordinary
visitation PUMRAH], can be done at any
time of the year except on the ninth and
four succeeding days of Zu l-Hijjah. On
each of the various roads leading to Mak
kah, there are at a distance of about five
or six miles from the city stages called
Mlqat. The following are the names. On
the Madinah road, the stage is Called Zii '1-
Hallfah ; on the 'Iraq road, Zatu 'Arq ; on the
Syrian road, Hujfah ; on the Najd road,
Qarn ; on the Yaman road, Yalamlain.
THE PILOHIM.
The following is the orthodox way of per
forming, the pilgrimage, founded upon the ex
ample of the Prophet himself. (See Sabfyu *<-
Bukhari, Kitabu 'l-Manasik, p. 205.) '
Upon the pilgrim's arrival at tho last
stage near Makkak, he bathes himself, and
performs two rak'ah prayers, and then divest
ing himself of his clothes, he assumes the
pilgrim's sacred robe, which is called ikmm.
This garment consists of two seamless wrap
pers, one being wrapped round the waist, and
the other thrown loosely over the shoulder,
the head being left uncovered. Sandals may
also be worn, but not shoes or boots. After
he has assumed the pilgrim's garb, he must
not anoint hiy head, shave any part of his
body, paro his nails, nor wear any other gar
ment than tho ihrdin. The pilgrim having now
entered upon the hajj, faces Makkah, and
makes the riiyah (intention), and says : " O
God, I purpose to make the hajj ; make this
service oa-sy to me and accept it from me."
He then proceeds on his journey to the sacred
city apd on Ms way, as well as at different
periods in the pilgrimage, he recites, or sings
with o. loud voice, the pilgrim's song, called
the Talbiyah. (a word signifying waiting or
HAJJ
•
standing for orders). In Arabic it runs thus
j (as given in tne Sahifa 'l-Bukhdri, p. 210) : —
" Labbaika ! A Udhuinma ! Labbaika !
Labbaika 1 La Shdrika laka ! Labbaika !
Tnna 'l-faamda wa 'n-ni(mata laka, wa 'I-
mulku laka !
Ld shdrikn laka ! '"
Which, following the Persian commentator,
'Abdu'1-Haqq, may be translated as follows : —
« I stand up for Thy service, O God ! I
stand up!
I stand tip ! There is no partner with
Thee ! I stand up !
Verily Thine is the Praise, the Blessing
and the Kingdom !
There is no partner with Thee ! "
Immediately on his arrival at Makkah ha
performs legal ablutions in the Masjidu '1-
haram, and then kissos the black stone (al-
Hajaru 'l-asvrad). He then encompasses the
Ka'bah seven times ; three times at a quick
step or run, and four times at a alow pace.
These acta are called the tawafo&& are per-
f 02 mod by commencing on the ri^bt and
leaving the Ka'bah on the left. Each time
as the pilgrim passes round the Ka'bah, he
touches the Ruknu '1-YamanI, or the Yamani
corner, and kisses the sacred black stone. He
then proceeds to the Ma'qamu Ibrahim (the
place of Abraham), where he recites the 119th
verse of the nnd Surah of the Qur'an, " Take
yo the station of Abraham for a place of
prayer," and performs two rak'ah prayers,
after which he returns to the black stone and
kisses it. He then goes to the gate of the
temple leading to Mount as-$afa, and from it
aocends the hill, reciting the 163rd verse of
tha iird Surah of the Qur'an, "Verily as-Safa
and al-Marwah are the signs of, God." Having
arrived at the summit of the mount, turning
towards the Ka'bah. he recites the following : —
" There is EC deity but only God ! God is
great! There ».- no deity but God alone!
HP hath performed His promise, and hath
aided His servant and b.«th put to flight the
hosts of infidels by Himself alone ! "
These words are recited thrice. He then
ruriH from the top of Mount as-§afa to the sum-
.>' Mount al-Marwah seven times, repeating
Uie aforesaid prayers on the top of each hilL
This i* the sixth day, the evening of which
is spent, at Makkah, where he again, encom
passes the Ka'bah.
Upon the seventh day he listens to the
khutbah, or oration, in the great mosque, in
which are set forth the excellences of the
pih/rimage and the necessary duties required
of al1 true Muslims on the following days.
On the eighth day, which is caflnd Tarwi-
yah, he proceeds with his fellow pilgrims to
Mina, where he stays and performs the usual
services of the Muslim ritual, and remains
the night.
The next day (the ninth), after morning
prayer, ho proceeds to Mount 'Arafat, where
he recites the usual prayers and listed to
another khutbah. He then leaves for al-Mus:-
dalifah, a place midway between Mina and
'Arafat, where he should arrive for the sun
set prayer.
FtAJJ
157
The next day, the tenth, is the Yaamv n
Nahr, or the "Day of Sacrifice," known all
through the Muslim world and celebrated as
the '/<&. 'l-Azfrd. Early in the morning, the
pilgrims having said their prayers at Muzda-
lifah, then proceed in a body to three pillars
in Mina, the first of which i* called the
Shailanu 'l-Kabir, or •' Great Devil.'' The
pilgrim casts seven stones at each of
those pillars, the ceremony being Called the
Ramyu 'r-R?jdm, or casting of stones. Hold
ing the rajin, or pebble between the thumb
and fore- finger of the right hand, the pilgrim
throws it at a distance of not less than fifteen
feet, and says — " In the name of God, the
Almighty, I do this, and in hatred of the
devil and his sbarne." The remaining six
stone3 are thrown in the same way. It "is
said that this ceremony has heeu performed
ever since the days of Abraham. The pil
grim then returns to Mina and performs the
nacrifice of the 'Idu '/-Azlid. The victim may
be a sheep, or a goat, or a cow, or a camel,
according to the means of the pilgrim.
Placing its head towards the Ka bah, its
fore-legs being bandaged together, the pil
grim stands on the light side of his victim
and plunges the knife into its throat with
great force, and cries with a loud voice,
"Alldhu Akbar!" "God is great! 0 God,
accept this sacrifice from me ! ''
This ceremony concludes the pilgrimage,
and the bdji or pilgrim then gets himself
shaved and his nails pared, and the ihrdin
or pilgrim garment is removed. Although
the pilgrimage is over, he should still rest at
Makkah the three following days, which are
known as the Ayydmu 't-Tashrlq^ or the days
of drying up of the blood of the sacrifice.
Three well-earned days of rest after the
peripatetic performance of t^e last four days.
Before he leaves Makkah he should once
more perform the circuits round the Ka'baL
and throw stones at the Satanic pillars at
Mina, seven times. He should also drink of
the water of the xamzam well.
Most Muslims then go to al-Madinah, and
make their salutations at the sbrino of Mu
hammad. This i& regarded as an incumbent
duty by all except, the Wahhabid, who hold
that to make the visitation of the Prophet's
tomb a religious ceremony i;> shirk, or aaso-
ciatiug the creature with God.
From the time the pilgrim has assumed
the ihrarri until he takes it oQ, he must abstain
from worldly affairs and devote hunself. entirely
to the duties of tho hajj. He ia not allowed
to hunt, though he may catch fish if he can.
"O Believers, kill 110 game while ye are on
pilgrimage." (Surah v. 96.) The Prophet
also fcfjid : " He who shows the p'3,ce where
game is to be found, is equally *»s bad art the
man who kills it." The haji must not scratch
himself, lest vermin be destroyed, or a hair be
uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he
must rub himself with the open paim of his
hand. The face *ud head must be left un
covered, the Lair on 'he h*ad and beard un
washed and uncut, "Shave, not your heads
until the offering reach the place of sacrifice."
158 HAJJ
(Surah ii. 192.) On arriving at an elevated
place, on descending a valley, on meeting any
one, on entering th6 city of Makkah or the
sacred temple, the haji should continually
repeat the word " Ldbbaika, Labbaika " ; and
whenever he sees tho Ka'bah he should recite
the Takbir, " God is great 1 " and the Ta'fiJi
" There is no deity but God 1 "
The pilgrimage known as the hajj, as has
been already stated, can only bo made on the
appointed days of the month of gu 1-Hijjah.
A visit at an other time is called tho 'Umrah.
If the pilgrim arrives as late
the ninth day, aad is in time to spend that
day, he can still perform the pilgrimage legally.
The pilgrimage cannot be performed by
proxy by Sunni Muslims, but is allowed by
the Shl'ahs, and it is by both considered a
meritorious act to pay the expenses of one
who cannot afford to perform it. But if a
Muhammadan on his death-bed bequeath a
sum of money to be paid to a certain person
to perform the pilgrimage, it is considered to
satisfy the claims of the Muslim law. If a
Muslim have the means of performing the
pilgrimage, and omit to do so, its omission is
equal to a kabirab, or mortal sin.
According to the saying of the Prophet
(Miskkdt, book xi. ch. 1), the merits of a pil
grimage to Makkah are very great : —
" He who makes a pilgrimage for God's
Bake, and does not talk loosely, nor act
wickedly, shall return as pure from sin as the
day on which he was born.'5 " Verily, they
(the hajj and the 'umrah) put away poverty
and sin like the fires of a forge removes
dross. The reward of a pilgrimage is para
dise." " When you see & pilgrim, solute and
embrace him, and request bim to ask pardon
of God for you, for his own sins have been
forgiven and his supplications will be
accepted."
For a philological and technical explana
tion of the following terms which occur in
thia account of tho Ijajj, refer to the words
as they occur in this dictionary : 'AB&FAH,
AYYAMU 'T-TASHRIQ, HAJAIUT 'L-ASWAD, HAJJ,
IlIBAM, MAKWAH. MA8J1DU 'L-HAKAM, MAQAMU
IBRAHIM, MAUKAM, MIQAT, MUZDALIFAH, TA-
WAF, 'UMHAH, KAMYU 'L-JIMAB, ZAMZAM, TAL-
BIYAH, BUK.'WI] 'l,-YAMA»I, TARWIAH, KHUT-
BAH,- 'IDU 'L-AZHA, SAT A.
The Muslim who has performed the pil
grimage is called a haji, which title he retains,
e.g. Haji Qa^im, the Pilgrim Qusim,
Only five Englishmen are known to have
visited Makkah, and to have witnessed the
ceremonies of the pilgrimage :— Joseph Pitts,
of Exeter, A.I>. 1678; John Lewis Burck-
hardt, A.TX IS 14 : Lieutenant Richard Bui-ton,
of the Bombay Army, A.D. 1853; Mr. H.
Bieknoll, A.D. 1862 ; Mr. T. F. Keane, 1880.
The narratives of each of these " pilgrims "
have been published. The first account in
English of the. visit of a European to Makfab,
is that of Lodovico Bartema, a gentleman of
Rome, who visited Makkah in 1503. His
narrative was published in Willes and Eden's
Decades, A.D. 1555,
Professor Palmer (a Introduction " to the
HAJJ
Qur'an,p. liii.) says : — " The ceremonies of the
pilgrimage could not be entirely done away
with. The universal reverence of the Arab
for the Kaabah was too favourable and
obvious a means for uniting all the tribes
into one confederation with one common pur
pose in view. The traditions of Abraham the
father of their race, and the founder of Mu
hammad's own religion, as he always declared
it to be, no doubt gave the ancient temple a
peculiar sanctity in the Prophet's eyes, and
although he first settled upon Jerusalem as
his qtblah) he afterwards reverted to the
Knabah itself. Here, then, Muhammad found
a shrine, to which, as well as at which, devo
tion had been paid from time immemorial;
it was one thing which the scattered Arabian
nation had in common — the one thing which
gave them even tho shadow of a national
feeling ; and to have dreamed of abolishing
it, or even of diminishing the honours paid to
it, would have been madness and ruin to Ms
enterprise. He therefore did the next best
thing, he cleared it of idols and dedicated it
to the service of God."
Mr. Stanley Lane Poole (Introduction to
Lane's Selections, p. Ixxxiv.) remarks : —
" This same pilgrimage is often urged as
a sign of Mohammad's tendency to supersti
tion and even idolatry. It is asked how the
destroyer of idols could have reconc led his
conscience to the circuits of the Ka/bah and
the veneration of the black stone covered
with adoriug: kisses. The rites of the pil
grimage cannot certainly be defended agauist
the charge of superstition: but it is easy to
see why Mohammad enjoined them. They
were hallowed to him by the memories of
his ancestors, who had beon the guardians of
the sacred temple, and by the traditional re
verence of all his people; and besides this tie
of association, which in itself was enough to
make it impossible for him to do away with
the ritee, Mohammad perceived that the wor
ship in the Ka'bah would prove of real
value to his religion. He swept away the
more idolatrous and immoral part of the
ceremonies, but he retained the pilgrimage
to Mekka .and the old veneration of the
temple for reasons of which it is impossible
to dispute the wisdom He well knew the
consolidating- effect of forming a centre to
which his followers should gather ; and hence
he reasserted the sanctity of the black stone
that ' came down from heaven ' ; he ordained
that everywhere throughout the world the
Muslim should pray looking towards the Ka
'bah, and he enjoined him to make the pil
grimage thither. Mekka is to the Muslim
what Jerusalem is to the Jew. It bears with
it all the influence of centuries of associations
It carries the Muslim back to the cradle of
his faith, the childhood of his prophet ; it re
minds bim of the struggle between the old
faith and the new, of the overthrow of the
idols, and the establishment of the worship of
the One God. And, most of all, it bide him
remember that all his brother Muslims ?.ro
worshipping towards the same sacx*ed spot,
that he k one of a great company of be-
HAJJ
HA.TJ
159
lievers, united by one faith, filled with the
same hopes, reverencing the same tiling, wor
shipping tho same God. Mohammad showed
liia knowledge of the roligioas emotions in
man when he preserved the sanctity of tho
temple of Islam,"
Tho Alakkan pilgrimage admits of no other
explanation than this, that the Prophet of
Arabia found it expedient to compromise with
Arabian idolatry. And hence we find the
superstition and silly easterns of the Hajj
grafted on to a religion which professes to be
both monotheistic in its principle, and icono
clastic in its practices.
A careful and critical study of Islnm will,
we think, convince any candid mind that at first
Muhammad intended to construct his religion
on the linos of the Old Testament. Abraham,
the true Muslim, was his prototype, Moses
his law-giver, and Jerusalem his Qibfah. But
circumstances were ever wont to change not
only the Prophet's revelations, but also hi,s
moral standai-ds. Makkp.h became the Qib-
lah : and the spectacle of the Muslim world
bowing in the direction of a black stone,
whilst they worship the one God. marks
Islam, with its Makkau pilgrimage, as a reli
gion of compromise,
Apologists of Islam have endeavoured to
shield Muhammad from the solemn charge of
having " forged the name of God," but we
know of nothing which can justify the act of
giving the stupid and unmeaning ceremonies
of the pilgrimage all the force and solemnity
of a divino enactment.
Tho Wahhftbis, the Puritans of Islam, re
gard the circumambulatiou of the Prophet's
tomb as superstitious (as shirk, or associating
something with God, in tact), but how can
they justify the foolish ceremonies of thc-
hajj ? If reverence for the Prophet'* tomb if,
shirk, what are the runnings at ae-Safa and
al-Marwah, the atonings of the pillars, and the-
kissings of the black stone? No Muslim
has evor yet attempted to give a spiritual
explanation of the ceremonies of tho Makkau
pilgrimage, for in attempting to do so he
would be charged with the heresy of tthirfc !
Mr. W. S. Blunb in his Future of Islam,
has given some interesting statistics regard
ing the pilgrimage to Makkah in the year
1880, which he obtained during a residence at
Cairo, Damascus, and Jiddah. The figures,
he says, are taken principally from an official
record kept for some years past at Jiddah, and
checked as far as European subjects are
concerned, Ly reference to the consular
agents residing there.
TABLE OF THIS MKCCA PILGRIMAGE OF 1880.
Nationality of Pilgrims.
Arriving by
Sea.
Arriving by
Land.
Total of Mnssul-
man population
represented.
Ottoman subjects including pilgrims from
Syria and Irak, but not from Egypt or
Arabia proper
8,500
1,000
22,000,000
Egyptians
5,000
1,000
5,000,000
Mogrebbms ("people of the West"), that
is to say. Arabic-speaking Muasalmans
from the Barbary States. Tripoli, Tunis.
Algiers, and Morocco. These are always
classed together and are. pot easily distin
guishable from each other .
6,000
—
18,000,000
Arabs from Yemen
3,000
—
2,500,000
., „ Oman and Hadramuut
3,000
—
S.OOOiOOO
„ „ Nejd, Assir, and Hasa, most of
them Wahhabites .
—
5,000
4,000,000
„ „ Hejaz, of these perhaps 10.000
Meccane ....
22,000
2,000,000
Negroes from Soudan . ...
2,000
—
10,000,000 (?)
„ ,, Zanzibar .....
1,000
—
1,500,000
Malabari from the Cape of Good Hope .
150
—
Persians .......
«5,000
2,500
8,000,000
Indians (British subjects) .
Malays, chiefly from Java and Dutch subjects
15,000
12,000
—
40,000,000
30,000,000
Chinese .......
100
—
15,000,000
Mongols from the Khanates, included in the
Ottoman Haj
—
—
6,000,000
Lazis, Circassians, Tartars, Ac. (Russian
subjects), included in the Ottoman Haj
^-
—
5,000,000
Independent Afghans and Beluchis, included
in the Indian and Persian Haje .
— j —
3,000,000
Total of pilgrims present at Arafat
93,250.
Total Census of Islam
175,000,000
160
HAJJATU L-WADA.
HAJJATU 'L-WADA' (eUj
The last or farewell pilgrimage performed by
Mubp.mtnad, and which is taken as the model
of an orthodox hajj. It is called the Hajjv,
'l-AkhartOT Greater Pilgrimage, in the Qur'an,
Surah ix. 3. (See Mishkat, book xi. ch. lii.,
and Muir'a Life of ?rfalioJnet,} It is supposed
to have commenced February 23r A.D. 632.
HAJJ MABEtTR O^r* &*>• An
approved or accepted pilgiimage (frfishkUt,
book xi. en. i. pt 2). A pilgrirnmage to
Makkah pcrf'orp^ol .icrording to the 'condi
tions Of Mils'?!*. I',*
HAJtAM . (^). An arbitrator
appointed by a qazT to settle disputes. It is
not lawful to appoint either a slave or an
unbeliever or a slanderer, or an infant, as au
arbitrator, (ffid&vak, vol. ii. p 638.)
According to the Quran, Surah iv. 39,
domestic quarrels should be settled by an
arbitrator :— « if ye fear a breach between the
two (i.e. husband and wife) then appoint an
arbitrator from his people, ?.nd an arbitrator
from her people.*
Al-Hakam, the Ahitrator, is one of the
ninety-nine attributes of God, although it is
not so etn ployed in the Qur'sn.
HAKIM (>*W). « A just ruler/*
The' term Ahkamu 'l-Hdkimin, " the Most Just
of Rulers, is used i'or God, Qur'an, Surah
xcv. 8 j also, Khairu Jl-Hdkirnln^ i.e.. " Best of
Rulers," Surah vii. 86.
HAKIM •(,«&»), pL hukemti ; Heb.
Lit. " A wise person." (1) A
philosopher. (2) A doctor of medicine. ^3)
Al-Hakim, v'The Wise One." One of the
ninety-nine attributes of God It frequently
occurs in the Qur'an, e.g. Sfirah ii. 123 : " Thott
art the Mighty and the Wise ! "
HAL (J^)* A state, or condition.
A term used by the Sufi mystics for those
thoughts and conditions which come upon the
heart of man without his intention or desire,
such as sorrow, or fear, or pleasure, or desire,
or lust. If these conditions are stable and in-
transient, they are called molkah or maqam •
but if they are transient and fleeting, they
are called hdl, (Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dictionary
of Sufi Terms.}
A state of ecstasy induced by continued
contemplation of God. It is considered a
divine gift and a sure prognostication of
speedily arriving at « The Truth."
Professor Palmer says (Oriental Mysti
cism, p. 66), " This assiduous contemplation
of startling metaphysical theories is exceed
ingly attractive to an Oriental mind, and not
unfrequently- produces a state of mental
excitement akin to the phenomena observed
during the recent religious revivals. Such
ecstatic state IB considered a sure prognosti
cation of direct illumination of the heart by
God, and constitutes the 6fth stage (in the
mystic journey) called hdl or ecstasy."
HALAL (J2W). Lit. " That which
is untied or loosed.'* That vrhich is lawful,
AL-HAMD
as distinguished from /.laram, or that which is
unlawful.
AL-HALTM ^). " The Clement."
One of the ninety-nine attribute* of Got!. ^ It
occurs in the Qar'an, €,.17. Surah ii. 225 : " God
is forgiving and clement"
IIAMA'IL" (J*W). Lit "Things
suspended * An amulet or charm [AWDLUT.]
HAMALAH (8u-*). Compensa-
tion fonnanslaugbtcr or murder, called also
diuah. [DIYAH.]
'HAMALATU ^L-ARSH (U~+^
JJyJV). Lit. " Those who bear the
throns." Certain angels mentioned in ttit
Q.ur'aa, ISurah xl. 7 : " Those who bear the
throne (i.e. the Hamalatti *!- Ar.sh) and those
around it (i.e. the Karubm) celebrate the
praise of their Lord, and believe in Him, ami
ask pardon for those who believe/1
Al'Bagh&wI. the commentator, says they
are eight angels of the highest rank. They
are sc tall that their feet stand on Uie lowest
strata of the earth and their beads reach
the. highest heavens, the ujniverse does not
reach up t-o fcheir «Rvels> and it is a journey
of seven hundred years troi/i their ears to
their shoulders.' (Al Bat/hawi, Bombay
edition, vol. ii, p. 23.)
HAMAN (<.jU*.Ub), The prime
minister of Pharaoh. Mentioned ui fhe
Q.nr'an in three different chapters.
Surah xxviiL 7: "For sinners were Pha
raoh and Haman."
Surah xxix. 38 j " Korah (Qaruii) and Pha-
r.ioh and Haman S with proofs of his mission
did Moses coma to them and they behaved
proudly on tho earth."
Surah xi 88:—
| "And Pharaoh said, '0 Hainau, build for
me a tower that I may reach the avenues;
"'The avenues of the heavens, and may
mount to the God of Moses, for 1 verily deem
him a liar.* "
Some European critics think that Muliani-
mad has here made Haman the favourite of
Ahasuerus and the enemy of the Jews, the
vizier 'of Pharaoh. The Rabbins make this
vizier to have been Korah, J ethro, or Balaam.
(Midr. Jalkut on Ex. ch. 1, Sect. 162-168.)
In tho Mishkat (book iv. ch. i. pt. 3), there
is a tradition that Muhammad said he who
neglects prayers will be in hell with Korah,
Pharaoh, Ham an, and Ubaiy ibn Khali' (an in
fidel whem Muhammad slew with his own
hand at the battle of Uhud.J
AL-HAMD (*+*&}> the " Praise."
A title of the first chapter of r.he Qur'an*
According to Kitabu 'l-Ta/rifat, "praise"
(hamd) of God is of three kinds : —
(1) Al-hamdu ''l-Qauli, the praise of GoA
with the tongue, with those attributes
which He has 'made known Himself, (2) Ai>
ham<Jlu''l-Fitli,the praise of God with the bodj
according to tho will of God. (3) Al-kamd&
'l-Hali,ihe praise of God with the heart aiul
spirit.
AL-HAMID
HANIF
161
AL-HAMID Om^H). "The Laud-
able." The One worthy of praise. One of
the ninety-nine attributes of God. It fre
quently occurs in the Qur'an, e.g. Surah xi.
76, " Verily He is to be. praised"
HA MlM (<**• U). Seven Surahs
of the Qur'an begin with the letters £ A, f m,
and are called al-Hawamlm. They are the
XL, XLI, xiii, xuir, XLIV, XLV, and XLVI.
Various opinions are held by Muhammadan
commentators as to the meaning of these
mysterious letters. Jalalu 'd-din as-Suyufcl
in his ft<idn> says these letters are simply
initial letters, the meaning of which is known
only to God, but Ibn 'Abbas says the
letters ^ £, aad ^ in, stand for £jUl^M ar-
Jfahmdn, "the Merciful." one of the attributes
of God.
Mr. Rodwell, in his Introduction to the
Koran, says, " Posaibly the letters Ha, Mim,
which are prefixed to nunnrous successive
Suras were private marks, or initial letters,
attached by their proprietor to the copies
furnished to Said when effecting his recension
of the text under Othman. In the same way,
the letters prefixed to other Suras may be
monograms, or abbreviations, or initial letters
of the names of the persons to whom the
copies of the respective Suras belonged."
HAMBAU 'L-ASAD (jU3\ y*).
A village or small town, the scene of one of
Muhammad's expeditions against theQuraish.
Baring reached this spot he kindled five
hundred fires to make the Quraish believe
that the pursuing force was very large, and,
contenting himself with this demonstration,
he returned to al-Madinah, from which it was
about 60 miles. According to Burton, it is
the modern Wasitab.
" At Hnmra al Asad, Mahomet made pri
soner one of the enemy, the poet Abu Ozza,
who had loitered behind the rest. He had
been taken prisoner at Bedr, and, having five
daughters dependent on him, had been freely
released, on the promise that he would not
again bear arms in tho war against the,
Prophet. He now sought for mercy : ' 0
Mahomet ! ' be prayed, * forgive me of thy
grace.' ' Nay, verily,' said the Prophet * a
believer may not be twice bitten from the
(same hole. Thou shalt never return to
Mecca, stroke thy beard and say, I have
again deceived Mahomet. Lead him forth to
execution 1 ' So saying, he motioned to ft
bystander, who with his sword struck ofi' the
captive's head." (Muir's Life of Afdkomtt,
new ed. p. 276.)
HAMZAH (S>4~). Muhammad B
uncle, who embraced Islam and hec&tne one
of its bravest champions. He was at the
battle of Uhud and slew «Usman, one of the
leaders of the Quraisli, but waa soon after
wards himself killed by a wild negro named
Wahshi, and his dead body shamefully muti
lated. At his death Muhammad is recorded
to have gaid that Hamzah was u the lion of
God and of His Apostle/' The warlike deeds
of Hamzah are recorded in Persian poetry, in
which he is celebrated as Amir Hnmzah.
HAMZIYAH (%*^). A sect of
Muslims founded by Hamzah ibn Adrak, who
say that the children (infants) of infidels will
be consigned to the Fire of Hell, the general
belief of Muhammadans being that they will
have a special place in al-A'raf. (Kitdbu 't-
Trtrifat, in loco.)
HAN AFT (j**.), HANtl'I (o*~-).
A member of the sect of SunnTs founded by
the Imam Abu Hanlfah. [ABU HANIFAH.]
HANBAL. [IBN HANBAL.]
HANBAL1 (Ji^). A member of
the Hanbali sect of Sunuu Muslims. [IBN
HANBAX.]
HAND. Arabic yad (Ju->), pi.
ayddi. Heb. T-
(1) It is a rule wtfch Muslims to honour the
right hand above the left ; to use the right
hand for all honourable purposes, and the
left for actions which, though necessary, are
unclean. The hands must be washed before
prayers [ABLUTIONS] and before meala.
(2) The expreftsionyorfu 'lldh, the " hand of
God," occurs in the Qur'an : —
Surah v. 69 . " The Jews say, ' God's hand
is fettered ' ; their hands are fettered, for they
are cursed."
Surah xlviii. 10 : « God's hand is above
their hands,"
There ia a controversy between the ortho
dox Sunnis and the Wahhabis regarding the
expression, " God'a hand." The former main
taining that it is a figurative expression for
the power of God. the latter holding that it is
literal ; but that it is impossible to say in what
sense or manner God has a hand ; for as
the essence of God is not known, how can the
manner of His existence be understood ?
HANDKEECHIEFS. The custom
of keeping a handkerchief in the hand, as ia
frequently practised, is said to be abominable
(makruk}. Many, however, hold that it is al
lowable, if done from motives of necessity,
This, says Abu Hanifah, is approved ; for the
practice is abominable only when it is done
ostentatiously. (Hiddyah, vol. ; p. 95.)
HANIF CU^Jta.), pi. Hunafd\ Lit.
" One who is inclined/' (1) Anyone sincere
in his inclination to Islam. (2) One orthodox
in the faith (3) One who is of the religion
of Abraham. (See Mdjma'u 'l-Bihar, in loco.)
The word occurs ten times in the Qur'an.
I. — Six times for the religion of Abra
ham: —
Surah li. 129: '• They say, « Be ye Jews or
Christians *o shall ye be guided I Say : ' Not
so ! ' but the faith of Abraham, the Hani/,
he was not of the idolaters."
Surah iii. 60 : " Abraham was not a Jew
nor yet a Christian, but he was a Hanif re
signed, and not of the idolaters."
/dero, 89: " Follow the faith of Abraham,
a Jfanift who was not of the idolaters."
21
162
HAQIQAH
Surnh vi. 162 •• Tho faith ot Abraham.
the Hunlf. he was not of the idolaters."
$drah svi. 121 : •' Verily Abraham was tvn
Imam a tlanif. an«i -was not of the idolaters."
Surah vi. 79: (Abraham said) "1 have
turned my iace to Him who criginatcd the
heaven and the earth as a Hanif and I am
not of the idolaters. >r
II — AVur times /or OJQO sound iii the
faith —
SiiraJQ x. 105 : " Make steadfast thy face io
the religion as a Hanlj'. and be not at.
idolater.''
Sijrah xjdi. 32 : *; Avoid speakjuy falsely
being Hanifs to (jod;. not associating aught
with Him."
Surah xoTiii, \ : »< '-Being sincere in religion
unto Jliiu. us llmifs, atvl to be atcadffcsl \\\
prayor/
gurah xxx 29: "Set iliy face steadfast
low a I'd* the religion, as a. Hanif.*
III.-- The term was also applied in the
eariy stages of Islam, and before Mohammad
claimed tho position of an inspired prophov, to
those who had endeavoured to search for the
truth among the mass of con dieting dogmas
and superstitions af tho religions luai rxisted
in Arabia. Aocongst these Hamfs. were \Yo-
rgqaju. the Prophet's cousin, and Zaid ibu
•Atni, •surnamea tho Enquirer. 1 hey wore
knowji as Uaoifs. a word which originally
meant 4i inchning enc's steps toward any
thing," and therefore signified either a con
vert or a pervert. Muhammad appears train
the above verses (-when chronologically
arranged), to have first used U for the reli
gion oi Abraham, but altervvards for any
sincf re professor of Islam.
1IAQIQAII (*M»0. " Truth; sin-
cerity.''
(I) The essence of a thiog as meaning1 that
by being- -which a thing1 is what it ii. As
when \ve say tliat a rational animal is the
haqiqal of a huffiAtt being, (See Kilatiu 't~
Ta-rifal.)
("2) A Avord or phrase used in itn projxn'
cr oi'i^nial secae, as opposed to that ^, hich is
figurative. A speech without trope OY
'» i
(U) 1'he sixtii stage in tht* mystic jouruey
of the $ufi, wKen ho is supposed to receive
a re\ (\Luiou of the true nature of the Ood-
huad, and to have arrived at *• the Truth ''
AL - HAQIQATU 'L MUHAM-
MADIYAH (*»o^fe^J\ ^s^V). * Tie
essence of Muhauuniid, the Nar i-
i, 01 the Light uf Muhainmad,
which is "believed to have boon created before
al« things. (Kiiii'lj t- TariKi. in k>cu.,
Th« \Vahhabii do not beUeve in th<j pre-
exift ence of their Prophet, and the ductrine
is most, probably an invention of the Sufi
mystics in the otriy stages oi Islan^.
According to the hnarn ^astu'Jbini (Mu-
nalub-i-laduniya. vol. i p 12). at ia reiated bv
Jahiribn "Audi Huh ai-Apsari ttitit the Pro
phet said " The iirst thing created waa the
ught of your Pjohpet, which was created
HAQQU 'L-'ABD
from the light of God. This light of ttiine
roajned about wherever God willed, and when
the Almighty resotyed to make the world, ho
divided this light of Muhammad into four
portions; from the first he created the Pen
(0«/u»M); from the second, iho Tablet (laahj
from the third, the highoat heaven and the
throne of God (kursA) ; the fourth portion was
divided uuo four sections ; from th^ lirst were
created the Uaatalutu •l-'Ank, ox 'the eight
angola who .support the throne of God ; from
the .second, the hursi, or lower throne of Godj
from the third, tho angob; :*nd the fourth,
beitiy divided into four sulxiividions, from it
•wei*y civatod (1) the firmaments or seven hea-
vtnat, (2) ih»i earth, (3) the seven paradisos
and seven hells, (4) and again from a (otirth.
sectioii wore created (I) the 'ight of the
eyes, (2) tho light of the rniud, (S) the light
oi the love oi tho Unity of pod, (4) the re
niaining- -portion of creation."
The author of the Hayutu 'l-Qitiub, a iihi-ah
book of traditiom (St« Alerriek's transialion,
p. 4); says the tradationa respecting the crea
tions from this I^ght of Muhammad aix- nume
rous and discordant, but that the di^i-epan
ciea may possibly jic reconciled by -referring
the diverse dates to different eras in the pro
cess of creation "' Tfie holy light of Mu.
hummad." ho says "dwelt under the empy
rean seventy tiir«c thousand years, and the^
resided seventy thousand years in Paa'a
di&c. Afterwards it rested another period cl
seventy tiioxisand years under the celestial
U\>e called Sidrutu '/ Mitntahu, and, emi
grating ironi het\on to heaven, am red ut
lungtb in tho lowest 'of thuse colestiaj. man-
sioiib, where it remained until the Moat High
willed the creation, of Adam."
(A very Curious account of. the abaurd bo
Uef of the Shi'ahs on this subject will Uc
found in Mr. Meniek'a oditioii of iho Hiyjis.
'l-Qnlub; Bostou, I860.)
HAQIQ1 (^M-). "Literal/ as
opposed to that which is mftjazt or. i!gurs-
live.
i;IAQQ (^.). "Truth, juslico."
A ierm used in theology for that whicU-is
tine,ey. The word of God; religion. In law
it implies that which is due. A thing decreed ;
a claim. By the Sufi mystics U is aiway^
used for the Divine Essence j God.
Al-Haqq* " The Truth/' One of theniaety-
aino attributes of God.
Lit. "The
aureiy fuipciiding.v The title of the i.xixth
Surah of the ^ux'an, in which the word
occurs in the opeflini< verse : u The mevit-
i *ble ! (aL-Haqy tttu!\. What is the mevit-
ablo? " The word is understood by all com
rncntators to mean the Day of Resurrection
and Judgment It does not cccur in «nv
other portion of the Qur an.
HAQQTJ ' L-;ABD (***& '&Sj. " Tho
right of tho .slave (oi God^." In kw the right.
of- an. injured individual to demand redress
and justice.
HAQQU LLAIl
HAR1M
163
flAQQU'LLAH flUI &>.). "The
right of God." In Jaw, the retributive chas
tisement which it is the duty of a magistrate
to intlict for crime and offences Against mora-
l(iy and religion. In theology it moans
prayer, alms, fasting, pilgrimage, and other
religions duties.
HAQQU 'L-YAQlN (&*a<*\ &*).
" A conviction of tho truth." A term used
by the $ufl mystics for a state in which the
seeker after truth has in thought and reflec
tion a positive evidence of lus extinction and
of his being incorporated in the Essence of
Qod. [YAQIN.]
HAQQU ''N-NAS (^-Ul\ ^). "The
right of men." A term hi law implying <b«
same as Haqqu 'l-'Abd.
IJARAM r^), pi, Jfuram. 4i That
which is sacred. (1) ' Al-flaram. ihe aacr«>d
precincts of Makkah or al-Madinah. .(2)
2/ara/w, the apartments of women in a Mu
hammad an household. f~n \niM.l (3) II arum.
y). Lit. "prohibited."
That which is unlawful. The word is used
in both a good and a bad sense. e.g. Baitu >l
hardn}. tho sacred house; and J\f-dlu 'l-hara/tt,
unlawful possessions. Ibnu. 't-hardm, an ille
gitimate sou ; Shahru 'l-/iar4m, a sacred
month.
A thing is said to be hardm when it is for
bidden, as opposed to that which is fatal, 'or
lawful. A pilgrim is said to be hardm as soon
as he has put on. the pilgrim's garb.
Jfardmu 'lldfi Id ajf'a'in is a form of oath
that a man will not «lo a thing.
HARAMU 'L - MADINAH (rr--
jLo^). The sacred boundary of al'-
MadiuaH within which certain acts are un
lawful which arc lawful elsewhere, v The
Imam Abu Hanifah says that although it is
respectful to tho position oi the sacred city, as
tho birth pkiro of the Prophet, not to bear
arms, or kill, or out grass, &c., still it b not,
as in tho case of Makkah, an incumbent reli
gious duty. According to n. tradition by <Ali
ihn Abi Talib (Mahkdt, book xi. ch. xvi.),
the- JfudufJu V-/7«r</;«, or sacred limits of H!
Aludioah are from Jabal 'Air to Saur. Ac
cording to Burton, the diameter of tho rlar.-»m j
Ls froiu ten tc ; twelve miles. (El Medina it ,
a/id Meccah, voL i. p. :iC2.)
HARAMU MAKKAH (*SU rr).
The sacred boundary of Makkah within which
certain acts are unlawful which are lawful
elsewhere. It is not lawful to carry arms, or
to fight within its limits. Its thorns must |
not be broken, nor its game molested, nor j
must anything be taken up which has fallen !
.on the ground, unless it is done to restore it '
Lo it« owner. Tts fresh grass or even its !
dry gra«s must not be cut ; except the bog
rush (tztchir'), because it is used for black
smith's fires and for thatching houses. (A
tradition bv Ibn 'Abbas. Mithkaf. book xi.
ch. xv. pt. 1). 'Abdu i-Hnqq says that when
Abraham. " the friend of God," placed the
black stoiio at the time of the building of the
Ka'bah, its oast, west, north, and south
quarters became bright with light, and that
wherever the brightness extopdVd itself be
came the lladiidu 'l-J/urain, or tho limits of
the sacred city. Thoso h'miU are marked by
manors or pillars on ail sidca, cxi-t?pt on the
Jiddah and Jairanah roads, regarding wliich
there is some dispute*, as to the exact dis
tance.
HAREEM. [HARIM.J
HA RES. Arabic arnab, pi. ardnib.
Heb. niTjW. The flesh of the hare
is UwJoL for the Prophet ate it, ami com
manded his companions to do so (Uidttyah,
vol. iv. p. 75). A difference of opinion has in
all ages existed as to the value of the bare
as an article of food. The Greeks and
Romans ate it in spito of 'an opinion that pre
vailed that it was not wholesome. In tho
law of Moses, it is specified amongst tho un
clean animals fLev. xi. 6 ; Dout xjv. 7). The
Parseos do not oat hare's iiesh, nor do tho
Armenians.
HARF (^). (1) An extremity,
verge, or border. (2) A letter of tho alpha
bet. (3J A paxticle in grammar. (4) A
dialect ot Arabia, or a. mode of expression
peculiar to certain Arabs. The Qur'An is
said to have been revcaied in seven dialects
(sab-ul ahruf}. [QURAN.] (5) A term used by
tho Sufi mystics for the particle of any true
essence*
HARIM, or HAREEM Q*A). A
word used especially in Turkey, Egyjit, and
Syria, for the female apartments of *a Mu-
hammadan household. In Persia, Afghan
istan, and India, the terms haraitujah, mahult-
sardi and zandnuh are used for the same place.
The seclusion of women being enjoined in
the Qnr'an (Surah xxxiii 65), in all Muham-
madan countries it is the rule for respectable
'vomeii to remain sccJudod at homo, and not
Lo travel abroad unveiled, nor to associate
with men otliej than their husbands or such
male relatives as are forbidden in marriage
by reason of consanguinity. In consequence
of theso injunctions, which have all the iorce
of a divine enactment, the female portion of
a Muhammadan family always resides in
iipartments which are in an inclosed court
yard and excluded from pubb'c view. This
inclosure is called the Acrri/w, and sometimes
haram, or in Persian zandmih-, from xafl, a
•* woman "'). Mr. Lane in his Modem Kgyp-
tians, has given a full account of the Egyptian
hnjum. We are indebted to Mrs. Meer Ali
for the following very graphic and interesting
description of a Muhammadan zananah or
harim in Lucknow.
Mrs. Meer Ali was an English lady who
married a Muhainmadan gentleman, and re-
ided amongst the people of Lucknow for
twelve years. Upon the death of her hu«-
barid, she retnrne-l to England, and
164 HABIM
her Observations on the Musalmans of India,
whieh was dedicated, with permission, to
Queen Adelaide.
" The habitable buildings of a native Mu-
hammadan home are raised a few steps from
the court ; a line of pillars forms the front of
the building, which has no upper rooms ; the
roof is flat, and the sides ai»d back without
windows, or any aperture through which air
can be received. The sides and back are
merely high walls, forming an enclosure, a-nd
the only air is admitted from the fronts of
the dwelling-place facing the court-yard. The
apartments are divided into long halls, the
extreme corners haying small rooms or dark
'closets purposely built for the repository of
valuables or stores ; doors are fixed, to these
closets, which are the only places I have seen
with them in a zananah or mahall (house or
palace occupied by females) ; the floor is either
at beaten earth, bricks, or atones: boarded
floors are not yet introduced. As they have
neither doors nor windows to the halls, warmth
o* privacy is secured by means of thick wadded
curtains, made tt> fit e«ch opening between the
pillars. Some zananaks have two rows of
pillars in the halls with wadded curtains to
each, thus forming two distinct halls, as
occasion may serve, or greater warmth be
required ; this is a convenient arrangement
where the establishment of servants, slaves,
&c. is extensive.
" The wadded curtains are called pardahs ;
these are sometimes made of woollen cloth,
but more generally of coarse calico, of two
colours, in patchwork style, striped, van-
dyked, or in some other ingeniously contrived
and ornamented way, according to their indi
vidual taste.
" Besides the pardahs, tho openings between
the pillars have blinds neatly made of fine
bamboo strips, woven together with coloured
cords ; theso are called chicks. Many of them
are painted green , others are more gaudy,
both in colour and variety of patterns. These
blinds constitute a real comfort to everyone
in India, as they admit air when let down,
and at the same tiiue shut out flies and other
annoying insects ; besides which, the extreme
glare is shaded by them — a desirable object
to foreigners in particular.
" The floors of the halls are first matted
with the coarse date-leaf matting of the
country, over which are spread shajjranjis
(thick cotton carpets, peculiarly the manu
facture of the Upper Provinces of India, woven
in stripes of blue and white, or shades of
blue) j a white oalieo carpet covers the shafc-
raaji on which the females take their seat
" The bedsteads of the family are placed,
during the day, in lines at the back of the
halls, to be moved at pleasure to any chosen
spot for the night's repose; often into tb«
open court-yard, for the benefit of the pure
air. They are all formed on one principle,
differing only in size and quality ; they stand
about half a yard from the floor, the legs
round and broad at bottom, narrowing as
they rise towards the frame, which is laced
over with a thick cotton tape, made for the
HABIM
purpose, and plaited in ehecquers, and thus
rendered soft, or rather elastic, and very
pleasant to recline upon. The legs of these
bedsteads ar« in some instances gold and
silver gilt, or pure silver ; ethers have enamel
pakitinga on fine wood; the inferior grade*
have them merely of wood painted plain and
varnished. The servauts' bedsteads are of the
common mango- wood without ornament, the
lacing of these for the sacking being of elastic
string manufactured from the fibre of the
cocoa-nut.
" Such are the bedsteads of every class of
people. They seldom have mattresses : a
white quilt is spread on the lacing, over
which ti calico sheet, tied at each corner of
the bedstead with cords and tassels ; several
thin flat pillows of beaten cotton for the
head ; a muslin sheet for warm weather, and
a well wadded razai (coverlid) for winter is
all these children of Nature deem esaentia.1 to
their comfort in the way of sleeping-. They
have no idea of night-dresses ; the name suit
that adorns a lady, is retained both night and
day, until a change be needed. The single
ai-ticle exchanged at night is the dupatja (a
small shawl for the head), and that only
when it happens to be of silver tissue or em
broidery, for which a muslin or calico sheet
is substituted.
'• The very highest circles have the same
habits in common with the meanest, but
those who can afford shawls of Cashmere,
prefer them for sleeping in, when the cold
weather renders them bearahle Blankets
are never used except by the poorest pea
santry, who wear them in lieu of better gar
ments night and day in the winter season;
they are always black, the natural colour of
the wool. The quilts of the higher orders
are generally made of silk of the "brightest
hues, well wadded, and lined with dyed mus
lin of assimilating colour ; they are usually
bound with broad silver ribands, and some
times bordered with gold brocaded trim
mings. The middling classes, have fine
chintz quilts, and the servants and slaves
coarse ones of the same material ; but all are
on the same plan, whether for a queen or the
meanest of her slaves, differing only in the
quality of the material, The mistress of the
house is easily distinguished by her se&t of
honour in the hall of a zarsanah, a Tnasnadnoi
being allowed to any other person but the
lady of the mansion. The maenad carpet is
spread on the floor, if possible near to a
pillar about the centre of the hall, and is
made of many varieties of fabric — gold cloth,
quilled silk, brocaded silk, velvet, fine chintz,
or whatever n>ay suit the lady's taste, cir
cumetances, or convenience. It is about two
yards square, and generally bordered or
fringed, OE which is placed the all-important
masnad This article may be understood by
those who have seen a lace-maker's pillow in
England, excepting only that the masnad is
about twenty times the size of that useful
little article in the hands of our industrious
villagers. The masnad IB covered with gold
cloth, ailk, ^elvet, or calico, with square pil-
HABIM
Iowa to correspond, for the elbows, the
knees, Ac. This is the seat of honour, to be
invited to share which, with the lady-owner,
is a mark of favour to an equal or inferior :
when, a superior pays a visit of honour, the
prided seat is usually surrendered to her, mid
the lady of the house takes her place most
humbly* on the very edge of her own carpet.
Looking-glasses or ornamental furniture are
very rarely to be seen in the zananah, even of
the very richest females. Chairs and eofas
are produced when English visitors are ex
pected ; but the ladies of Hindustan prefer
the usual mode Of sitting and lounging on the
carpet; and as £or tables, I suppose not one
gentlewoman of the whole country has ever
been seated at one ; and very few, perhaps,
have any idea of their useful purposes, all
their meals being served on the floor, where
dastarkhwans (table-cloths we should call
them) are spread, but neither knives, forks,
spoona, glasses, nor napkins, ao essential to
the comfortable enjoyment of a meal amongst
Europeans. But those who never knew such
comforts have no desire for the indulgence,
nor taste to appreciate them.
«• On the several occasions, amongst native
society, of assembling in large parties, as at
births and marriages, the halls, although ex
tensive, would be inadequate to accommodate
the whole party. They then have awnings of
white calico, neatly nounced with mnslin,
supported on poles fixed in the court-yard,
and connecting the open space with the great
hall, by wooden platforms which are brought
to a line with the building, and covered with
sha^ranji, and white carpets to correspond
with the floor-furniture of the hall ; and here
the ladies sit by day and sleep by right very
comfortably, without feeling any great incon
venience from the absence of their bedsteads,
•vrhich could never be arranged for the accom
modation of so large an assemblage — nor is it
ever expected,
M The usually barren look of these almost
unfurnished hails, is on such occasions quite
changed, when the ladies are assembled in
their various dresses ; the brilliant display
of jewels, the glittering drapery of their
aress, the various expressions of countenance,
and different figures, the multitude of female
attendants and slaves, the children of all
ages and sixes hi their variously ornamental
dressed, are subjects to attract both the eye
and the mind of an observing visitor ; and the
hall, which when empty appeared desolate
and comfortless, thus filled, leaves nothing
wanting to render the scene attractive.
" The buzz of human voices, the happy
playfulness of the children, the chaste sing
ing of the domnlx fill up the animated pic
ture. I have sometimes passed an hour or
two in witnessing their innocent amusements,
without any feeling of regret for the brief
sacrifice of time I had made. I am free to
confess, however, that I have returned to my
tranquil home with increased delight after
having witnessed the bustle of a zananah
assembly. At first I pitied the apparent
monotony of their lives but this feeling has
HA.RIM
165
worn away by intimacy with the people, who
are thus precluded from mixing generally
with the world. They ai*e happy in their
confinement ; and never having felt the
iweets of liberty, would not know how to
•use the boon if it were to be granted them.
As the bird from the nest immured in a cage
is both cheerful «nd contented, so are these
females. They have not, it is true, many
intellectual resources, but they have natu
rally good understandings, and having learned
their duty they strive to fulfil it. So far
as I have had any opportunity of making
personal observations on their general cha
racter, they appear to me obedient wives,
dutiful daughters, affectionate mothers, kind
mistresses, sincere friends, and liberal bene
factresses to the distressed poor. These are
their moral qualifications, and in their reli
gious duties, they are zealous in performing
the several ordinances which they have been
instructed by their parents Or husbands to
observe. If there be any merit in obeying- the
injunctions of their law-giver, those whom I
have known most ultimately, deserve praise
since ' they are faithful in that they profess.*
" To ladies accustomed from infancy to con
finement, this kind of life is by no means irk
some : they have their employments and their
amusements, and though these are not exactly
to Our taste, nor suited to our mode of educa
tion, they are not. the less relished by those
for whom they were invented. They perhaps
wonder equally at some of our modes of dis
sipating time, and fancy we might spend it
more profitably. Be that as it may, the
Muslim ladies, with whom "I have been long
intimate, appear to me always happy, con
tented, and satisfied with the seclusion to
which they were born ; they desire no other,
and I have ceased to regret they cannot be
made partakers of that freedom of inter
course with the world we deem so essential
to our happiness, since their health suffers
nothing frora that confinement, by which they
are preserved from a variety of snares and
temptations : besides which, they would deeui
it disgraceful in the higbeet degree to mix
indiscriminately with men who are not rela
tions. They are educated from infancy for
retirement, and they can have no wish that
the custom should be changed, which keeps
them apart from the society of men who are
not very nearly related to them. Female
society is unlimited, and that they enjoy
without restraint.
" Those females who rank above peasants
or inferior servants, are disposed from prin
ciple to keep themselves strictly from obser
vation; all wbo have any regard for the
character or the honour of thejr house, se
clude themselves from the eye of strangers,
carefully instructing their young daughters
to a rigid observance of their own prudent
example. Little girls, when four years old,
are kept strictly behind the pardah (lit.
"curtain"), and when they move abroad it
is always in covered conveyances, and under
the guardianship of a faithful female domestic,
who is equally tenacious as the mother to
166
HAftIM
HAB1M
preserve the young lady's reputation unble
mished by concealing her from the gazo of
men.
"The ladies of zananah. life are not re
stricted from the society of their own BOX;
they are, as t have before remarked, extra
vagantly fond of company, and equally as
hospitable when entertained. To be alone is
a trial to which they are seldom exposed,
every lady having companions amongst her
dependants ; and according to her means the
number in her establishment is regulated.
Some ladies of rank have from two to ten
companions, independent of slaves and domes
tics : and there are some of the royal family
at Lucknow who entertain in their service'
fwo or three hundred female dependants, of
all classes. A well-filled zananah is a mark
of gentility ; and even the poorest lady in the
country will retain a number of slaves and
domestics, if she cannot afford companions ;
besides which they are miserable without
society, the habit of associating with numbers
having grown up with infancy to maturity :
to be alone,' is considered, with women .thus
situated, a real calamity.
" On occasions of assembling in large par
lies, each lady takes with her a companion
besides two or three slaves to attend upon
"her, no one expecting to be served by the
servants of the house at which they are
visiting. This swells the numbers to be pro
vided for ; and as the visit is always for threo
days and three nights (except on */rfs. when
the visit is confined to onet day), some fore
thought must be exercised by the lady of the
house, that all may be accommodated in
such^a manner an may secure to her the re
putation of hospitality.
"The kitchen and offices to tho zananah.
1 have remarked, occupy one side of the quad
rangle ; they face the great or centre hall
appropriated to the assembly. These kit
chens, however, are sufficiently distant to
prevent any great annoyance»from the smoke
-I say smoke, because chimneys have not
yet been introduced into the kitchens of the
natives,
" The lire-places aro all on tho ground,
something resembling stoves, each admitting
one saucepan, the Asiatic style of • cooking
requiring no other contrivance. Roast or
boUed joints are nevnr seen at the dinner of a
native; a leg of mutton or sirloin of beef
would place the hostess under all sorts of
difficulties, where knives and forks are not
understood to be amongst the useful appen
dages of a meal. The varieties of their dishes
are countless, but stews and curries are the
chief ; all the others are mere varieties. The
only thing inr the shape of roast meats are
small lean cutlets bruised, seasoned and ce
mented with pounded poppy seed. Several
being fastened together on skewers, they
are grilled or roasted over a charcoal fire
spread on the ground, and then called kabdbt
which wore4 ^niplies roast meat.
** The kitchen of a zananah would be ins
adequate to the business of cooking for a
large assembly; the most choice dishes only
(for the highly-favoured guests), are cookoc
by the. servants of the establishment Th«
needed abuudanfce required in entertaining i,
large party is provided by a" regular bazin
cook, several of whom establish tbomsoivet'
in native cities, or wherever there is a Mus
lim population. Orders being previous!}
given, the morning and evening dinners are
punctually forwarded at the appointed hours
in covered trays, each tray having portions of
the several good things ordered, so that there
is no confusion in serving put the feast on its
arrival at the mansion. The food thus pre
pared by the bazar cook (jidnbai, he is
called),: is plain boiled rice, sweet rice, kklr
(rice-milk), mutanjan (rice sweetened with
the addition of preserved fruits, raisins, <fec.,
coloured with saffron), solans (curries) ofi
many varieties, some cooked with vege
tables, others with unripe fruits with on
without meat; pufdos of many sorts, kabdbs,
preserves, pickles, chatnis, and many other >
things too tedious to admit of detail.
" The broad in general use amongst natives <
is chiefly unleavened: nothing in the likeness
of English bread is to be seen at their meals ;
and many object to its being fermented with
the intoxicating toddy (extracted from a tree), i
Most of the native broad is baked on iron
plates over a charcoal fire. They have many i
varieties, both plain and /ich, and some of i
the latter resembles our pastry, both in>!
quality and flavour.
" The dinners, 1 have said, are brought into
the zananah, ready dished in the native-
earthenware, on trays ; and as they neither
use spoons nor lorks, there is no great delay
in setting out the rneal where nothing is re
quired for display or effect, beyond the ex
cellent quality of the food and its being well
cooked. In a large assembly all cannot dine
at tho dastarkhwdn of the lady hostess, even
if privileged by their rank ; they are, there
fore, accommodated in groups of ten, fifteen,
or more, as may be convenient: each lady
haying her companion at the meal, and her
slaves to brush off the intruding flies with
a chauri, to hand water, or to fetch or carry
any article of delicacy from or to a neighbour*
ing group. The slaves and servants dine in
parties after their ladies have .finished, in
any retired corner of the court-yard - always
avoiding as much as possible the presence of
their superiors.
" Before anyone touches Ihe meal, water is
carried round for each lady co wash the hand
and rinso the mouth. It is deemed unclean
to eat without this form of ablution, and the
person neglecting it would be held unholy.
This done, the lady turns to her meal, saying.
" Bismillah ! " (In the namo or to the praise
of Godl), and with the right hand conveys
the food to her mouth (the left hand is never
used at meals) ; and although, they partake
of every variety of food placed before them i
with no other aid than their fingers, yet the j
mechanical habit is so perfect, that they
iittither drop a grain of rice, soil the dross, nor
retain any of the food on their fingers. The
custom must always be offensive to 9 foreign
IIARIM
eye, and the habit none wculd wish to copy;
vel everyone "who witnoasca must admire
the neat way in which eating is accomplished
by theae really 4 Children of Nature/
" The repast concluded, the lolu (vessel
with water;, and the la'jyan (to receive the
water in ai'tor rinsing the hands and mouth),
are passed round. To every person^ who.
having announced by the Ash -Shukru lillah ! '
(All thank* to God \) that she has finished,
the attendants presetu first the powdered
peas, called t>esan, which answers tho pur
pose of soap in removing grease, &c. jfrom the
fingers --and then the water in due course.
Soap has not even yet been brought into
fashion by the natives, except by the washer
men ; 1 have often been sui-prised that thoy
have not found the use of soap a necessary
article in the nursery, where the only sub
stitute I huvo ^een U the powdered pea.
• Lotas and iaggsuw are articles in use
with ^11 classes of p<x>plo ; they mnat bo poor
indeed who do not .bonst of one, at least, in
their family. They' are always of metal,
either braas, er copper lacuuered over, or
zinc ; hi aomo cases as with the nobility,
silver and even gold are cnovevted iulo these
useful anises oi native comfort.
•' China or glass i* comparatively but little
used : water is their only beverage, and ibis
is preferred, in tho Absence of metal basins,
out of' the comtnou red earthen katora (cop
shaped like a vase).
•• China disheo, bowU, and basins, are used
for serving many of the savoury articles of
food in : but it is as caramon in the privacy
•f the palace, as well as in the huts of the
peasantry, to see many choice things intro
duced at meals served up in the rude red
earthen plaitf-r ; many of the delicacies of
A&iuac cookery being esteemed more palat
able from the earthen flavour of tho new
vessel in which it io served.
•• China tea-sets are veiy rarely found in
tho Knnimah, tea being used by the -natives
more at» a medicine than a refreshment, ex
cept by such gentlemen UK have frequent
intercourse with tho " >?ahib Log " (English
gentry), among whom thoy acquire a taste
for this delightful beverage. The iadios,
however, must nave a severe cold to induce
them to partake o) the beverage even as a
remedy, but by no meana as a luxury. I
imagined that the inhabitants of u zananah
were badly deficient- in actual comforts, when
J found, upon my iirat arrival in India, that
there were no preparations for breakfast
going forward . everyone seemed engaged in
pan eating, and smoking tho huqqah, but no
break! UK t after the morning uamaz. 1 was,
however, soon satisfied that they i'elt no sort
of privation, I*B the early meal so common in
Europe bus never been introduced in Eastern
circles. Their first meal is agoou substantial
dinner, at ten, eleven, or twelve o clock , after
\*hiuh follows pan and the huqqah; io this
succeed a a sletip of two or three hours, pro
viding it does not impede tho duty of prayer
--the pioutf. I oujrht to remark, would give up
every indulgence which would prevent the
I1ABUT WA AlARUT
167
discharge of this duty. Tho second meal
follows in twelve hours from the iirst, and
consists of tn.' same substantial fare 5 after
which thoy usually sleep again nm.il the
dawn of day is near at hand
" The /ivy^a/t (pipe) is :iluj<jst in ^c-ueraiu3C
with females It is a common practice with
ihe lady of tho house to prenout the huqquii
she is smoking i-j hu1 favoured guest. Tnia
mark of attention i- always to bo duly ap
preciated ; but such is tho deference paid to
parents, that a son can ravely be persuaded
by an indulgent father or mother to smoke a
huqqah in their revered presence ; this praia«-
worthy feeling originates liot in fear, but rcul
genuine respect. Tbe parents entertain for
their son the most tender regard; and the
father makes him both his companion and
his Irieud ; yet tho most familiar t/nJcarmonts
do not lessen' tho feeling of rovcronce a good
son entertains for his father. This is om>
among Ihe many samples of patriarchal life,
and which I can never witness in real life,
without feeling respect for the persons who
follow up tue patterns 1 have been taught
to venerate in our Holy Scripture
•' Tbc huqqah (pipe) as an indulgence or a
privilege, is agr« at detinerof etiquette. In the
presence of tho king or reigning nawab. no
subject, however high he may rank in blood
or ruyftl favour, can presume to smoke. In
native courts, on ritatc occasions, hnqqalm are
presented only to the Governor- General, the
Coxnmander-in.f 'hiof, or the Resident at his
court, who are considered equal in rank, and
therefore entitled to the privilege of smoking
with him ; and they cannot consistently resist
the intended honour. Should they dislike
smoking, a hint is readily understood by tho
huqqah bardar to bring the huqqah, cliarged
with tho materials, with put the addition of
nre. Applications of the munhndl (mouth
piece) to tho mouth, indicates a sense of the.
honour conferred." {Observations on the Alu-
satmdns of fndta, voL i. p, 304.)
HAEIS (*&»^). A surname which
frequently occurs amongst " the Companions.^
In the Tnqrlbii 't~Ta*&ibt there are not fewer
that sixty-five persons of this name, of whom
short biogra]>hical notes are given.
Haris ibn Naufal ibn nl-Haris ihn 'Abdi '1-
Muttalib. was a Companion of .some conse
quence; he lived close to the house of tho
Prophet, and had frequently to make room
ab tho Prophet's Llarim extended itself
[HOUSES.]
• Hails ibn Hieham ibn al-Mughirah. i.«v
another Companion, who lived at Makkah.
IFaris sou of Suwaid ibu Sainit, tho poet,
was executed at Fl.md.
A sect of
Muslims founded by Abu '1-liaris, who in
! opposition to tho sc-et Abaziyah, said it was
; not correct to say tho acts ol men were not
, ih* acts of Go'l. (Kitdbu 't-T<erifdt..in loco.)
HARUN (^y^)- [ \ARON. ^
HAK.UT WA MAR0T (^ ^J;U
5)U). Two aii^cii inuationed in
168
HASAD
the Qar an. They are said to be two angels
who, in bonsequence 6f their compassion for
the frailties of mankind, were sent down to
earth to be tempted. They both sinned, and
being permitted to choose whether they wou Id
he ptmiahed now or hereafter, chose the
former, and are still suspended by the feet
at Babel in a rocky pit, where they are great
teachers of magic.
The account of these two angols in the
Qor'an, is given in Surah ii. 96 : —
"They (the Jews) followed what the devils
taught hi the reign of Solomon: not that Solo
mon was unbelieving, but the devils were un
believing. Sorcery did they teach to men,
and what had been revealed to the two
angols, Harut and Marut, at Babel. Yet no
man did these two teach until they had said,
' We are only a temptation. Be not then an
unbeliever.' From these two did men learn
bow to cause .division between man and wife:
but unless by leave of God, no man did they
harm thereby. They learned, indeed, what
would harm and not profit them ; and yet
they knew that he who bought that art should
have no part in the life to come ! And vile
the price for which they have sold themselves,
— if they had but known it 1 "
HASAD (J^). "Envy, malevo
lence, malice." It occurs twice in the Qur'an.
Surah ii. 103 : " Many of the people of the
Book (i.e. Jews and Christians) desire to
bring you back to unbelief after ye have be
lieved, out of seljish envy, even after the truth
hath been clearly shewn them."
Surah cxiii. 5 : " I seek refuge .... from
the enoy of the envious when he envies."
AL-HASAN (y *N). The fifth
Khalifah. The eldest son of Fatinaab, the
daughter of Muhammad,, by her husband the
Khalifah 'AH, 'Bom A.H, 3. Died A.H. 49.
H«* succeeded his father 'All as KhalJfah
A.H. 41, and reigned about six months. He
resigned the Caliphate in favour of Mu'a-
wiyah. and was eventually poisoned by his
wife Ja'dah, who was suborned to commit
the deed by Yazid, the son of Mu'awiyah, by
a promise of marrying herj which promise he
did not keep. Al-Hasan had twenty children,
fifteen sons and five daughters, from whom
are descended one aeotion of the great family
of Saiyids, or Xiords, the descendants of the
Prophet. The history of al-Hasan, together with
the tragical death of his brother ai-Husain,
form the plot of the miracle play of the Mu-
harram. [KUSAIN, MSJJSARRAM, SAIYJDD.]
HASHIM (,%-ALjfc). The great
grandfather of Muhammad. Born, according
to M. C. de Perceval, A.D. 464. Sprenger
places his birth in A,D. 442. He married Sal-
mah, by whoia he had a son, 'Abdu 1-Mutta-
lib» the father of 'Abdu 'llah, who was the
father of Muhammad. The authol1 of the
Qdmus says Hashim's original name WAS
'Amr, but he was surnamed Hashim on
account of his hospitality in distributing
bread (hashm, to break bread) to the pilgrims
atMakkah.
HAUZU *L-KAtJ8AR
H ASHR 0^) . Lit. " Going fort
from one place, and assembling in another
Hence the word is used hi the Qur'an in t*
senses, viz. an emigration and an assembl
e.g. Surah lix. 2 : "It was He who drove fort
from their homes those people of the boo
(i.e. Jews) who misbelieved, at the first em
gration." (Hence al-Hashr is the title of it
Lixth Surah of the 'Qur'an > Surah xxvi
17 : " And his hosts of the jinn and men a
birds were ass&nblecf for Solomon.*
The term Yaumv 'l-H&shr is therefo:
used for the Day of Resurrection, or the d«
when the dead sHall migrate from the:
graves and assemble for judgment. It occui
in this sense in the Qur'an, Surah 1. 42 : —
" Verily we cause to live, and we cause t
die. To us shall all return.
" On the day when the earth shall swiftl
cleave asunder over the dead, will this gath&
ing be easy to Us.
AL-HASIB («n.... ..,..» ft). "Th
Reckoner," in the Day of Judgment. One <
the ninety-nine attributes of God. The titl
occurs in the Qur'an three times.
Surah iv. 7: "God sufficeth for takin
account."
Idem, 88 1 *« God of all things takes a
account."
Surah xxxiiL 39 : " God is good enough a
reckoning up."
HASSAN (oL-^-e.) The son o
Sab'it. A celebrated poet hi the time of Mv
hammad, who einbraced Islam. He is sai
to have lived 120 years, 60 of which wei
passed in idolatry and (TO in Islam.
It ia related in the Traditions that the Pr(
phet on the day of battle with the Ban
Quraigah; cried out, "0 Hassan ibn Sabi
abuse the infidels in your verse, for veri
Gabriel helps you ! " (Mishkat> book xxl
ch. ix. pt. 1.) {[POETRY.]
HATIB IBN <AMK (^
An early convert to Islam, and one of tl
most trusted of Muhammad's followers. 1
distinguished himgelf at the taking of Makka'
HAULANU 'L-HAUL (J^t e V
" A complete year." A term used in Muhaxc
madan law for the period property must be i
possession before zakat is required of ij
(Hiddyah. vol. i. p, 2.)
HAUZU 'L-EAU§AB (/y3\ ^\
A pond or river in Paradise. According 1 1
Muhammad's sayings in the Tradition I
! (Afishkat, book xxiii. ch. xii.), it is more thai
a month's journey in circumference, its water I
are whiter than snow and sweeter than hone I
niix*id with, milk, and those who drink of ;]
shall never thirst. The word lcau$ar OCCUM
once in the Qur'an, namely in Surah cviiij
which derives therefrom its title, and wher]
its translation and meaning is doubtful
" Verily, we have given thee al-Kau$a,r" All
Baizawi, the commentator, says it eithe
means that whioh is good or abundant; oj
the pond al-Kau&ar which ia mentioned m tW
Traditions.
HAWA
HAWA OH*)' " Desire, love ;
hankering after A term used by the $ufi
inystios for lust, or unholy desire, flawd-i-
Naftdni, « the lust of the flesh " ; Ahl~i-Hpv)d,
" a sceptic, an unbeliever. '
HAWA JIM
''Assaults, shocks." A term used by the
Sufi mystics for those thoughts of the heart
which enter it without desire or intention.
('Abdu Y-Razzaq's Diet, of Sufi Terms.)
HAWAJIS ((>»V). "Thoughts/''
A term used by the Sufi mystics for the
worldly thoughts of the heart. ('Abda V-
Bazzaq's Diet, of Sufi Terms.)
JJAWALAE (*V). A legal term
signifying the removal or transfer of a debt
by way of security or corroboration from that
of the original debtor to that person to whom
it is transferred. (Hidayah, roL ii. p. 606.)
HAWAMlM (^V*)- A- tiiie Sivetl
to the seven chapters of the Qnr'§n which
begin with the letters 5 Ha * Mim, namely >
XL, Surata '1-Mu'min ; XLI, Suratu Fusailat ;
XLII, Suratn 'sh-Shur XLIU, Suratu 1-Zukh-
ruf; XLIV, Suratu d O.kh,an; xiv, Suratu
1- Jasjyah ; XLVI, Suratu '1-Ahqaf .
For an explanation of the letters H M at
the commencement of these Surahs, see
HA MIM.
It is related in the Traditions that a man
said to the Prophet, " I am old, and my
memory is imperfect, and my tongue is stiff ;"
and the Prophat replied , " Then repeat three
of the Surahs beginning with H& Mim."
(Mishkat, book viii. ch. i, pt, 3.)
HAWABI (w5;V)- The word used
in the Qur'an (Surahs iii. 45 ; Ixi. 14)
for the Apostlea of Jesus. Al-Baizawi, the
Mnhammadan commentator, says it is derived
from fruwar, " to be white," and was given to
the disciples of Jesus, either on account of
their purity of life and sincerity ; or because
they were respectable men and wore white
. garments. In the Traditions (Mishkat, book i.
ch. vi. pt. 1") it is used for the followers of
all tbe Prophets. The word ta&y be derived
from the JEthiopic hworyra, " to go, to be
Sent."
AL-MAWASSU 'L - IQJAMSAH
(kv-wsH^j^). [FIVE SENSES.]
HAWAZIN (<-sy). A great and
warlike tribe of Arabia in the days of Mu
hammad, who dwelt between Makkah and
aJj-Ta'if. Muhammad defeated them at the
battle of Hunain, A.H. 8. a victory which in
the Qnr'an, Sarah ix. 26, is ascribed to an
gelic aid. (See Muir's Life of Mahomet, new
ed. p. 432.)
HAWIYAH U. A division of
hell The bottomless pit for the hypocrites.
Qur'an, Sfcal ci. 6, " But as for him whoso
balance is light, his dwelling shall be
Bauoiyah "
AL-HAZABATU 'L-KHAMS 169
HAWK, The. Arabic ba'z (jVj), saqr
(/•»). It is lawful to hunt with
hawks provided they are trained. A hawk is
held to ho trained whoa she obeys the voice
of her master. [UUNTING.]
HAYA' (oL~). « Shame, pudency,
modesty." The word does not occur in the
Qur'au, but in the Traditions it is said, "Alluhu
hayiyun," i.e. " God acts with modesty." By
which is understood that God hates that which
is immodest or shameless. Muhammad is re
lated to have said, " Modesty (fay a') brings
nothing but good." (Mishkdt, book xxii.
ch. xix.)
HAYAT (Sj**). ''Life." The
word frequently occurs in the Qur'an, e.g.
Surah xviii. 44, " Wealth and children are an
adornment of the life of this world." Surah
ii. 25, " For you in retaliation is there life, O
ye possessors of mind ! "
Al-Haydtu 'd-dunyd, "the worldly life," is a
term used in the Qur'an for those things in
this world which prevent from attaining to
the eternal life of the next world.
Surah ii, 80: " Those who have bought
this worldly life with the future, the torment
shall not be lightened from them nor shall
they be helped."
HAYtfLA (Jr*-*)- "Matter."
The first principle of everything material.
It does not occur in cither the Qur'an or the
Hadig.
HAYZ (oW-^). Menses. [MEN
STRUATION.]
HAZAE ()**•)• According to
Arabic lexicons, the word means vigilance or
a cautious fear, but it only occurs twice in
the Qur'an. and in both instances it implies
terror.
Surah ii. 18: "They put their fingers in
their ears at the thunder-clap for fear of
death." (Jfazara V.Af*w#.) Jden, 244:
" Doet thou not look at those who left their
homes by thotfffclidf ./tor/fear of death,"
According to the
itdbu 't-Ta*rifat, al-hazardtv 'l-Kfiamsu 7-
Ilahiyah, or " the five divine existences," is a
term used by the Sufi mystics for the follow
ing:—
t. Hazrcttu 'l~ghaibi 7-tftM|taf, That ex
istence which 5s absolutely unknown, i.e.
God
2. ffaxrutu'sH-Bhahadati V-mut/aqah, Those
celosthhl -(ajrani) and terrestrial (ajsam) ex
istences which are evident to the senses.
i}. ffaxratu Calami fl anvah That existence
whiob. consist* of the spiritual -world of angels
and spirits.
4. fiazrutu lalatni V*msfo/, That existence,
which is "tli"! unseen world, where there TB the
true likeness of everything whioh exist* on
the earth.
6. Hazratu 'l-jamtah, The collective exis
tence of the four already mentioned.
22
170
HAZIR ZAMINI
HELL
HAZIR ZAMINI
Bail for tbe person, which, according to the
Iraam Abu Hanlfah, is lawfuL Bail for pro
perty is called nidi zaminl.
HAZRAH (V^)' J&&. " Presence."
This title of respect has no equivalent in
English, as it is employed in a variety of ac
ceptations. Applied to an officer of rank, it
would mean '-your honour " ; .to a clergyman,
" your reverence " ; to a king, " your majesty.'1
When' applied to the names of prophets,
apostles, or saints, it expresses the sacrednesa
of his office and character, i.e. our Saviour is
called flazratu (l$a, .and the Virgin Mary,
ffazratu Mwyam. The word is much used
in Persian theological works. It is seldom
used in this sense in Arabic books, ffazratu
Y/tfA, " the presence of God," is an Arabic
term in prayer.
HEAD. Arabic ra*«,ra« (<j*\)). Heb..
CJfcO. The author of the Raddu 'Z-
Muhtdr, vol. i. p. 670, says : " It is abominable
(makruli) to say the prayers with the head
uncovered, if it be done from laziness, but it
is of no consequence if a MusUui say INK
prayers with his head uncovered from a sense
of humility and nnworthiness. But still it is
better not to uncover the head, for humility
is a matter connected with the heart."
Amongst Muhammadans it is considered a
sign of disrespect to receive a visitor with
the head uncovered ; consequently on the
approach of a visitor the turban or cap is
immediately placed on the head.
There is no general custom as to shaving
the head or otherwise. In Afghanistan, Mu-
htttamadani generally shave the bead, but the
Baluchi* and many other Muslim tribes wear
long hair,
The 'Egyptians. ; have all the rest of the
hair, or leave only a small tuft (called
gk&tkak) upcn the crown of the head. Mr.
Lane says : This la.st custom (which is almost
universal among them) \& said to have ori
ginated in the fear that if tbe 31uslim should
fall into the hands of an infidel, and be slain,
the latter might cut off the head of his
victim, and finding no hair by which to hold
it, put his impure hand into the mouth, in
order to carry it, for the beard might not be
sufficiently long ; but was probably adopted
from the Turks, for it is generally neglected
by the BadawTs, and the custom of shaving
the head is of late origin among the Arabs in
general, and practised for the sake of cleanli
ness.
HEAVEN. Arabic Samtf
Persian A*muu (t)U-\) ; Heb.
which expresses the firmament as distin
guished from Firdaus. or Paradise, the abodes
of blisa. [PARADISE.] In the Qur'an it is
stated that there are seven paths, or stages,
in heaven. Surah xxiii. 17 : " And we have
created above you seven paths, nor are we
heedless of the creation." By which the com
mentators understand that they are paths of
the angels and of the celestial bodies. The
creation (A the heaven is declared to be for;
God's glory and not for His pastime. Surah;
xxi. 16 : " We created not the heaven and the
earth, and that which is between them, by
way of sport/'
It is the general belief th.it at the last day
the heavens will fall, but that they are now
upheld by God's power. Surah xxii. 64 : " Ho
holds up the heaven from falling on the earth
save at His bidding."
According to the traditions (Mixhkat< book
xxiv. ch. \ii._), Munainmad during the mi'raj,
or night journey, passed through these seven
heavens, and they are stated to be as fol
lows : (1) That which is of pure virgin silver
and which is Adam's residence; (2) of pure
gold, which is John the Baptist's and' Jesus';
(3) of pearls, which is Joseph's ; (4) of
white gold, which is Enoch's ; (5) of silver
which is Aaron's ; , (6) of ruby and garnet,
which is Moses'; (7) which is Abraham's.
These accounts are, however, most confused ;
for in some books and according to popular
tradition; the fourth and not the second
heaven is assigned to Jesus.
This ' view is in harmony with the seven
spheres of Ptolemy, the first of which is that*
of the moon, the second Mercury, the third
Venus, the fourth the Sun, the fifth Mars, the.
sixth Jupiter, the seventh Saturn; each ol
which orbs was supposed by the ancients to
revolve round the earth in its proper sphereJ
Muhammad aaid the distance between each!
heavenly region ia five hundred years' journoj J
(Mishkdt, book xxiv. ch. i. pt. 3).
The Rabbis spoke of two heavens (cf.l
Deut. x. 14), " The heaven and the heaven of <
heavens," or seven (OTTO, avpavavs ovsrtvfs
apiOfjioixTL KOT' fTravuftacriv, C/tf«*., Alex.
Strom., iv. 7, 63«). "Rescb Lakiseh dixit
Heptem esse coolos, quorum nomina sunt,
1. velum ; 2. expansum; 3. nubes ; 4. habita-
culum ; 5. habitatip ; 6. sedes fixa ; 7. Araboth.
(See Wetstein. 'ad. 2 Cor. xii. 2). St. Paul's
expression, " ecus rpirov ovpavov," 2 Cor.
xii. 2, has led to somo discussion, for Grotius
says the Jews divided the heaven into three
parts. (1) Nubiferum, the atmosphere; (2)|
Attriferum, the firmament ; and (3) Einpy-
reum, the abodo of God. But the statement,
however, does not seem to be supported by
any known llabbiuic authority.
HEBER. [HUD].
HEGIRA. [HIJRAH.]
HEIRS. Arabic wdris
waraf.dk. [INHERITANCE.]
HELL. The place of torment is
most frequently spoken of. in the Qur'an and
Traditions as an~Ndr, " the fire," but the
\\ordJuhvnnajn occurs about thirty times. It
is said to have seven portals or divisions.
Surah xv. 44: "Verily, hell (juhamicnn) is
promised to all together (who follow Satan).
It has seven portals, and at every door there is
a separate party of them/'
• The Persian word used for. hell in books of
theology is dozakh.
HELL
HEL1.
171
The seven divisions of hell are given by
14 nslim commentators at* follows : —
1. Jahannam (p*&*), yecwa, the purga-
ibrial hell for all Muhammadans. For accord-
ng to the Qur'an, all Muslims will pass
through the regions of heH. Surah xix. 72 :
'There is not one of you who will not go
lown to it (hell), that is settled and decided
ay thy Lord."
3. Laza (^^). Surah xpvii. 5 : " For Lazd,
ragging by the scalp, shall claim him who
urned his back and went away, and amassed
hoarded."
3. Al-HutamaJi (<UlO\). Surah civ. 4: —
"Nay I for verily he shall be flung into
il-Hutainah ;
And who shall teach thee what al-Huta-
nahis?
" It is God's kindled fire,
" Which shall mount above the hearts of
\e damned;
" It shall verily rise over them like a
ault,
"On outstretched columns."
4. -Sa'tr ( 7**—). Surah iv. 11 : " Those who
our the property of orphans unjustly, only
levonr into their bellies fire, and they broil in
a'ir."
(The word occurs in fourteen other places.)
5. Saqar (y*-). Surah liv. 47: "The
ers are in error and excitement. On the
,y when they shall be dragged into the fire
n their faces f Taste ye the touch of saqar 1 "
Surah lxxi\. 44 1 "What drove you intp
aqar f "
6. Al-Jaf,um (f+*^\). Surah ii. 113:
Thou shalt noj be questioned as to the fel-
ows of al-Jahlm " (Ashdbu 'l-Jahim).
(The word occurs in twenty other places).
7. Huwiyah (*Jj^*) Surah ci. 8: "As
or him whose balance is light, his dwelling
tiall be Hdwiyah."
The Muhammadan commentators, with that
tter» reckkstmess which so characterizes
leir writings, distribute these seven stations
follows (see al-Bayhatvi, ul-B<n~dwl, and
thers) : (1 ) Jahannam, the purgatorial hell
or Muslims. (2) Laid, a blazing fire for
hristians. (3) Al-Hutamah, an intense fire
or the Jewa. (4) Sa-ir, a flaming fire for tho
abians. (5) Saqar, a scorching fire for the
lagi. (6) Al-Jahlm, a huge hot fire for ido-
terH. (7) Hdwiyah, bottomless pit for the
ypocritos. A reference to the Qur'an will
rove that there is not the least reason for
ssigning these regions to their respective
enants beyond the sentence already quoted :
At each portal a separate party."
The teaching of the Q.ur'dn (which is chiefly
onfineJ to those Surahs which, chronologi-
ally arranged, are the earliest), is as fol-
owsr^—
Surah Ixxiv. 26-84 (generally held, to be the
econd Surah compo«ed by Muhammad, and
elating to al-Walid Ibn al-Mughirah, a person
f note amongst the. jinbelieving Makkans) : —
" We will Kurely cast him into Saqar.
'• And who shall teach thee what Saqar is ?
•" It leaveth nought, it spareth nought,
"Blackening the skin.
" Over it are nineteen angels.
" None but angels have we made guardians
of the fire (ushdbu '«-««?•) : nor have we made
this to be their number but to perplex the
unbelievers and that they who possess the
Scriptures may be certain of the Truth, and
that they who believe may increase their
faith ;
•'And that they to whom the Scriptures
have been given, and the believers, may not
doubt ;
" And that the infirm of heart and tho
unbelievers may say, What meaneth God by
this parable?
" Thus God misleadeth whom He will, and
whom lie will He doth guide aright : aiyl none
knoweth the armies of thy Lord but Himself :
and this is no other than a warning to man
kind."
Surah Ixxxviii. 1-7: —
" Hath the tidings of the day that shall
overshadow reached thee ?
" Downcast on that day shall be the coun
tenances of some,
" Travailing and worn,
" Burnt at the scorching fire,
" Made to drink from a fountain fiercely
boiling.
" No food shall they have but the fruit of
zari' (a bitter thorn),
•' Which shall not fatten nor appease then
hunger. "
Surah Ixxviii. 21-30 : —
" Hell (Jahannam) truly shall be a place
of snares,
" The home of transgressors,
" To abide therein ages ;
" No coolness shall they taste therein noi
any drink,
"Save boiling water and running soros ;
" Meet rocompence !
"For they looked not forward to their
account ;
"And they gave the lie to our signs
charging them with falsehood ;
" But we noted and wrote down all :
" • Taste this then : and we will give you
increase of nought but torment.'"
The above are all Madinah Surahs com
posed in the earlier stage of Muhammad s
mission. The allusions to hell in the Mak-
kan Surahs are brief and are in every case
directed against unbelievers in the Prophet' a
mission, and not against sin ; e.g. Surah ix.
6D, " God hath promised to the hypocrites
(i.e. dissemblers as far as Islam was concerned},
men and women, and unto the unbelievers
hell-fire to dwell therein for ever."
The teaching of Mu/iammad in the Tradi
tions is much more specific, but it is impos
sible to assign a date for these traditions,
even assuming them to bo authentic. They
are given on the authority of ai-Bukhurl and
Muslim (MishJcdt, book xxiii. ch. xv.):—
"'The fire of the world is one part of
seventy parts of hell fire.' It was said. • O
Prophet of God 1 verily the fire of the world
would be sufficient for punishing * The Pro-
172
HELL
phet replied, « Hell-fire has been made more
than the fire of the world by sixty-nine parts,
every part of "which i like the fire of the
world/"
" Verily, the easiest of the infernale in
punishment, is he who shall have both his
shoes and thongs of them of fire, by which
the brains of his head b'oil, like the boiling
of a copper furnace ; and he will not suppose
that anyone is more severely punished than
himself; whilst verily, he is tbo least so."
"On the Day of Resurrection, the most
luxurious of the world will be brought, and
dipped once into the fire ; after that it
will be said, «O child of Adam, did you
ever see any good, or did comfort ever pass
by you in the world ? ' He will say, ' I swear
by God I never saw any good, nor did com
fort ever come near me.' And a man of the
severest distresses and troubles in the world
will be brought into paradise ; and it will be
said to him, « O son of Adam, did you ever
see any trouble, and did distress ever como to
you in the world ? ' And he will say, « I swear
by God, O my Lord, I never suffered troubles
in the world, nor did I ever see hardship.' "
" There, are some of the infernals that will
be taken by the fire up to their ankles, and
some up to their knees, and some up to their
waist, and some up to their necks."
" Hell-fire burnt a thousand year* so that
it became rod, and burnt another thousand
years till it became white ; after that it burnt
a thousand years till it became black ; then
bell fire is black and dark, and never has any
light."
"Verily, hot water will be poured upon
the heads of the infernals, and will pene
trate into their bellies, and will cut to pieces
everything within them ; so that they will
come out at their feet : and this is the mean
ing of the word qf God, * Boiling water shall
be poured on their heads, and everything in
their bellies shall be dissolved thereby,' after
that, they will be made as they were."
" The infernals shall be drenched with
yellow water, draught after draught, and it
will be brought to their mouths and they will
be disgusted at it ; and when very near, it
will scorch their faces, and when they drink
it it will tear their entrails to pieces. God
says, < They who must dwell for ever in hell-
fire, will have the boiling water given them
to drink which shall burst their bowels ' ; and
God will say, 'If the infidels complain of
thirst, they shall be assisted with water like
molten copper, which will fry their faces ; it
will be a shocking beverage.' "
For most of these circumstances relating to
hell and the state of the damned, Muhammad
was in -all probability indebted to the Jews and,
in part, to the Magians, both of whom agree
in making seven distinct apartments in hell.
(Niskmat hayim, f. 32 / Gemar. Antbin,
f. 19; Zokar. a>d, Exod. xzvi. 8, <fec. and
Hyde de R&1. Vet. Pers., p. 245), though they
vary in other particulars.
The former place an angel as a guard
over each of these infernal apartments, and
suppose he will intercede for tho miserable
HELL
wretches there imprisoned, who will openly
acknowledge the justice of God in their con
demnation. (Midvash, Yalkut Slicmuni, pt. 11,
f. 116.) They also teach that the wicked
will suffer a diversity of punishments, and
that by intolerabl cold (Zohar. ad. Exod-
jpi>.) as well as heat, and that their faces
shall become black (Yaikut Shemuni, ubi
sup. f. 86) ; and believe those of their own
religion shall also be punished in hell here
after according to their crimes (for they hold
that few or none will be found exactly righ
teous as to deserve no punishment at all,)
but will soon bo delivered thence, when they
shall be sufficiently purged from their sins
by their father Abraham, or at the interces
sion of him or some other of the prophets,
(Nisktnat hayim , f. 82 ; Gemar. Aruoin, f. 19.)
The Magians allow btit one angel to pre
side over all the seven hells, who is named
by them Vanand Yaz&d, and, as they teach,
assigns punishments proportionate to each
person's crimes, restraining also the tyranny
and excessive cruelty of the devil, who would,
if left to himself, torment the damned be
yond their sentence, (ffyde, de Re4. Vet.
Pf.rs. p. 182.) Those of this religion do also
mention and describe various kinds of tor
ments -wherewith the wicked will be punished
in the next life ; among which, though they
reckon extreme cold to be one, yet they do
not admit fire, out of respect, as it seems, to
that element, which they take to be the re
presentation of the divine nature, and there
fore they rather choose to describe the
damned souls as suffering by other kinds of
punishment, such as an intolerable stink, the
stinging and biting of serpents and wild
beasts, the cutting and tearing of the flesh
by the devils, excessive hunger and thirst,
and the like. (See Eundem, ibid., p. 399;
Sale's Pre. Dis.)
The author of the SJiar]j.u, 'l-Mvwdqif,
p. 586, also says : " It is agreed amongst all
orthodox Muslims that all unbelievers, with
out exception, will be consigned to the fire for
ever, and that they will never be free from
torment." " But," he adds. " there are cer
tain heretics, who call themselves Muslims,
who deny the eternity of the torment? the
fire. For, they say, it is an essential property
of all things fleshly that they come to an end.
And, moreover, it is not possible for a thing
to exist which goes on burning for ever. But
to this we reply that God is all powerful
and can do as He likes."
The sect called as-Samamiyah, founded by
Samamah ibn Ashras an-Numairl, eay : " The
Jews, and Christians, and Majtisi, and Zana-
diqah, will, after the Day of Judgment,
return to dust, juat as the animals and the
little children of unbelievers do." (S/uirftu 7-
Muwaqif) p. 638.)
The same writer says (p. 687) : " Besides
those who are unbelievers, all those (Muslims)
who are sinners and have committed great
sins (kaba'ir), will go to hell; but they will
not remain there always, for it has been said
in the Qur'fin (Surah xcix, 7), " He who does
an atom of good shall see its reward."
HELPERS
HIBAH
173
With reference to the verso in the Qur'an,
rhich distinctly states that ail Muslims
shall enter hell (Surah xix. 78, " There is
lot one of you that shall -not go down to it "),
al-Kamalan, the commentators, say, that ac
cording to extant traditions, all Muslims will
enter hell, bat it will be cool and pleasant to
those who have not committed great sins ;
', according to some writers, they will
frimpiy pass along the bridge Sirdt, which is
>ver tho infernal regions.
HELPERS, The. [ANSAB.]
HERACLIUS. Arabic Hiraql
J*r*). The Roman Emperor to whom
Muhammad sent an embassy with a letter in
viting him to Islam, A.H. 7, A.D. 628
'In the autumn of this year (A..D. G'28), He
raclius fulfilled his vow of thanksgiving for the
wonderful success which had crowned his arms
in Persia) ; he performed on foot the pilgri
mage from Edeesa to Jerusalem, whore the
true cross,' recovered from the Persians, was
with solemnity and pomp restored to the
Holy Sepulchre. While preparing for this
ourney, or during the journey itaelf, an un-
:outh despatch in the Arabic character was
aid before Heraclius* It was forwarded by
.he Governor of Bcstra, into whose hands it
had been delivered by an Arab chief. The
jpistle was addressed to the Emperor him
self, from ' Mahomet the Apostle of God, the
e impression of whose seal could be de-
jiphered at the foot. In strange and simple
accents like those of the Prophets of old, it
summoned Heraclius to acknowledge tho mis
sion of Mahomet, to oast aside the idolatrous^
worship of Jesus and his Mother, and to re-
urn to the Catholic faith of the one only
Jed. The letter was probably cast aside, or
>r9served, it may be, as ti strange curiosity,
;ho effusion of some harmless fanatic."
'Muir's Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 383.)
Tradition, of course, has another story.
Now the Emperor was al this time at
lims, performing a pedestrian journey, in
Tilfilmont of the vow which ho had made,
hat, if the Romans overcame the Persians, he
would travel on foot from Constantinople to
Aolia (Jerusalem). So having read the
etter, he commanded his chief men to meet
lim in the royal camp at Hims. And thus
addressed them : — ' Ye chiefs of Rome !
[)o you desire safety and guidance, so that
your kingdom shall be firmly established,
md that ye may follow the commands of
Jesus, Son of Mary ? ' ' And what, O King 1
shall secure us this ? ' ' Even that ye follow
-tie Arabian Prophet/ said Heraclius, Where-
npon they all started aside like wild asses of
;he desert, each raising his cross and waving
t aloft in the air. Whereupon Heraclius.
despairing of their conversion, and unwilling
,o lose his kingdom, desisted, saying that he
lad only wished to test their constancy and
aith, and that ho waa now satisfied by this
display of firmness and devotion. The cour
iers bowed their beads, and so the Prophet's
despatch was rejected." (Katibu V- Wdqidi.
p. 50, quoted by Muir, in & note to the above
passage.)
The letter written by Muhammad to Hera
clius is, according to a tradition by Ibn
'Abbas, as follows : —
" In the name of God the Merciful, the
Compassionate. This letter is from Muham
mad the Messenger of God, to Hiraql, chief of
ar-Rum. Peace be upon whosoever has gone
on the straight road! After this, I say,
verily I call thee to Islam. Embrace Isliim
that ye may obtain peace. Embrace Islam
and God will give thee a double reward If
ye reject Islam, then on thee shall rest the
sins of thy subjects and followers. O ye
people of the Book (i.e. Christians) come
to a creed which is laid down plainly between
us and you, that we will not serve other
than God, nor associate aught with Him, nor
take each other for lords rather than God.
But if they tarn back, then say, * Bear wit
ness that we are Muslims.' " (Qur'an, iii. 57.)
(See Sahihu Muslim, p. 98.)
The Shl*ah traditions give the above letter
almost verbatim. (See Menick's Hayafu '/-
Quliib, p. 89.)
'; Not long after, another despatch, bearing
the same seal, and couched in similar tanas,
reached the court of Heraeliu*. It was ad
dressed to Harith "VTL, Prince of the Bani
Ghass&E, who forwarded it to tho Emperor,
with an address from himself, soliciting per
mission to chastise the audacious impostor.
But Heraclius regarding the ominous voice
from Arabia boneath hia notice, forbade the
expedition, and desired that Hatith should
be in attendance at Jerusalem, to swell the
imperial train at the approaching visitation
of the temple. Little did the Emperor
imagine that the kingdom which, unperceived.
by the world, this obscure Pretender wag
founding in Arabia* would in a few short
years wrest from his grasp that Holy City
and the fair provinces which, with so* much
toil and so rauch gloiy, he had just recovered
from the Persians ! *' (Muir's Lift of Afako-
met,p. 884.)
(For the Shi'ah account of the embassy to
Heraclius, see Merrick's tfccrito Y-Qtto,
p. 88.)
HERMAPHRODITE (Arabic J^-,
Khunsa) is a person who is possessed of
the organs of generation of both man and
woman, and for whose spiritual existence the
Muhammadan law legislates (vide Hiddyah,
vol. iv. p. 669). For example, it is a rule,
with respect to equivocal hermaphrodites,
that they are required to observe all the
more comprehensive points of the spiritual
law, but not those concerning the propriety
of ^vhich, in regard to them, any doubi exists
In public prayer thoy must, take tbeir station
between the men and tho women, but in other
respects observe the customs of women.
(Idem, p. 561.)
HIBAH (£*A). A legal term in
Muhammadan law, which signifies a deed of
gift, a transfer of property, made immediately
and without any exchange. [GIFTS ]
174
HIDAD
HID AD (*>\JL_^). "Mourning."
The stale of a widow who abstains from
scents, ornaments, &c., on account of the
death* of her husband. Hiddd must be ob
served for a period of four months and ten
days. (Hiddyah, voLi. p. 370.)
HID AYAH (*tj*). Lit. "Quid-
ance." The title of a well known book on
Sunnl law, and frequently quoted in the pre
sent work. There are many Muhammadan
works entitled al-Hiddyah, but this is called
Hiddyah /iY-/«H?, or "a guidance in parti
cular points. -It was composed by the
Shaikh Burhanu 'd-dm 'All, who was born at
Marghlnan in Transoxania about A.H. 530
(A.D. 1135), pod died A.H. 593.
There is ati English translation of the
Biddyak (omitting the chapters on Prayer
and Porification), by Charles Hamilton, four
•volsl, London-, A.D. 1791.
HIFZU 'L-'AHD (J**N M*). Lit.
"The guarding of the covenant." A term
used by the Sufi mystics for remaining firm
in that state in which God has brought them.
(« Abdu Jr-Razzaq's DicL of Sufi Terms.)
HIGHWAY ROBBERY Arabic
qat'u 't-tariq (&W j*k*). Persian
rahzani. Highway robbery is a very heinous
offence according to Muhammadan law, the
punishment of which has been fixed by tho
Qur'an (Surah v., 37): '" The recompense of
those who war against God and His apbstle,
and go about to enact violence on the earth,
is that* they be slain or crucified, or have
their alternate hands and feet out off, or be
banished the land." According to the Hidd
yah, highway robbers are of four kinds, viz.
(] ) Those who are seized before they have
.robbed or" murdered any person, or put any
person in fear. These are to be imprisoned
by the magistrate until their repentance is
evident. (2) Those who have robbed but have
not murdered. These are t.o have their right
havw and left foot struck off. (3) Those who
hmve'ccirimitted murder but have not robbed.
These are punished with death. (4) Those
who have committed both robbery and mur
der. These are punished according to the
option of the magistrate. If he please, he
can first cut off a hand and foot, and then
put them to death by the sword, or by cruci
fixion; or' he may kill them at once without
inflicting amputation. If any one among a
band of robbers be guilty of murder, the
punishment of death must be inflicted upon
the whole band,
HIJAB (v»^».). A partition or
curtain. Veiling or concealing.
(1) A term used for the seclusion of women
enjoined in the Quran, Surah xxxiii. 53 :
•* And when ye ask them (the Prophet's
wives) for an article, ask them from behind
a curtain : that is purer for your hearts and
for theirs."
(2). A ,term used by the Sufi mystics for
that which obscures the light of God in the
soul of man. ('Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Diet, of
Sufi Terms.}
HIJEAH
HIJAZ ( jW-). Lit. " A barrier ,or
anything similar by which two things are sepa
rated." The name al-ffijazis given to that tract
of country which separates Najd from Taha-
mah, and is an irregular parallelogram about
250 miles long and 150 miles wide. It may be
considered the holy land of the Muhainma-
dans, for within its limits are the sacred cities
of al-Madinah and Makkah, and most of its.
places are someway connected with the his
tory of Muhammad. It is a barren district
consisting of sandy plains towards the shore
and rocky hills in the interior; and 'so desti
tute of provisions as to depend, even for the
necessaries of life, on the supplies of other
countries. Among its fertile spots is Wadi *
Fatimah, which is well watered, and produces
grain and vegetables. Sajrah abounds in date
trees. At-Ta'if, seventy-two miles from Mak
kah, is celebrated for its gardens, and the
neighbourhood of al-Madmah has cultivated
fields. The towns on the coast are Jiddah
and Yambu', the former being considered the
port of Makkah, from which it is distant
about fifty-five miles, and the latter that of
al-Madinah. Al-Hijaz, is bounded eastward by
a lofty range of mountains, which,near at-T. a'if f
take the name of Jabalu '1-Qura. The scenery
there is occasionally beautiful and pictu
resque ; the small rivulets that descend from
the rocks afford nourishment to the plains
below, which are clothed with verdure and
shady trees. The vicinity of Makfcah is bleak
and bare; for several miles it is surrounded
with thousands of hills all nearly of one
height ; their dark and naked peaks rise one
behind another, appearing at a distance like
cocks of hay. The most celebrated of these
are as-Safa, 'Arafah and al-Marwah, which
have always been connected with the religious
rites of the Muhammadan pilgrimage.
HIJE (;^)- In its primitive sense
means interdiction or prevention.
(1) In the language of tb.6 law it signifies
an interdiction of action with respect to a
particular person, who is either an infant, an
idiot, or a slave. (Htddyah,\ol. iii. p. 468.)
(2) Al-Hijr is a territory in the. province of
al-Hijaz between al-Madinah and Syria, where
the tribe of Samud dwelt. It is the title of
the xvth Surah of the Qur'an, in the 80th
verse of which the word occurs : K The inha
bitants of al-Hijr likewise accused the mes
senger of God of imposture."
HLJRAH (S^*). Lit. '« migration."
(I) The departure of Muhammad from Mak
kah. (2) The Muslim' era. (3) The aat of
a Muslim leaving a country under infidel
rule. (4) Fleeing from sin.
The date of Muhammad's flight from Mak
kah was the fourth day of the first month of
Rabi', which by the calculation of M. Caus-
sin de Perceval was June 20th, A.D. 622.
The Hijrah, or the era of the " Hegira," was
instituted seventeen years later by the Khalifab
'Umar, which dates from the first day of the
first lunar month of the year, viz. Muharram,
which day in the year when the era was esta
blished fell on Thursday the 15tii of July
HIKMAH
A.D. 622. But although 'Uraar instituted the
official era, according to at-Tabarl, the cus
tom of referring to events as happening
oefore or after the Hijrah originated with
Muhammad himself.
Professor H. H, Wilson in his Glossary of
Terms gives the following method of ascer
taining the Muhammadan and Christian
years : —
Multiply the flijrah year by 2,977, the diffe
rence between 100 solar and as many lunar
Muhainmadau years ; divide the product by
100, and deduct the quotient from the Hijrah
year; add to the result' 021,569 (the decimal
being the equivalent of the 16th July, plus
! 12 days for the change of -the Kalendar) ; and
j the quotient will be the Christian year from
1 the date at which the Muhammadan year
1 begins; thus, Hij. 1269 x 2-977 = 3777-8, which
i; divided by 100 = 37-778 and 1209-37-778 =
j 1281-222; this + 621-669 - 1852-791, the
i decimals corresponding to 9 months and
15 days, i.e. the 15th of October, which
'is the commencement of the Hij. year 1269.
ii The reverse formula, for finding the corre-
u spending Hijrah year to a given Christian
i| year, is thus laid down : Subtract 622 from
,' the oiyi-ent year; multiply Uie result by
1 1-0^07 ; cut off two decimals and add -46 ;
' the sum will be the year, which, when it has
a surplus decimal, requires the addition of
1: thus, 1852-622 = 1230; 1230x1-0307 =
1267 -761 ; 1267-76 + -40^ 1268-22 ; add there-
Xcre 1, and we have the et^uivalent Hijrah year
1269.
The Persian era of Yezdogird commenced
on June 16th, A.D. 632, or ten years later
than the Hijrah.
HIKMAH (&-+-£.*). Al-hikmah,
"the wisdom," is a term used by the Sufi
mystics to express a knowledge of the
essence, attributes, specialities, and results
of things as they exist and are seen, with tho
study of their cause, effects, and uses. This-
ia said to be the wisdom mentioned in the
Qur'an, Surah ii. 272: "Ho (God) bringeth
the wisdom (al-hikmuh} unto whom He wil-
Eth."
The $iifls say there are four kinds of
wisdom expressed in the term al-tiikmuh : —
(1) Al-hikmatu 'f-Afantitqah, " spoken wis
dom," which is made known in the Qur'an.
or in the Tariqah " the Path *' (i.e. the Sufi
path).
(2) Al-hikmutu 'l-imtxkutuh, " unspoken
wisdom.'5 Such as understood ouly by Sufi
mysties, and not by the natural man.
(3) Al-hikmatu 1-majhulah. •'• unknown wis
dom," or those acts of the Creator the wisdom
of which is unknown to the creature, such as
the imliction^ of pain upon the e features of
God, the death of infants, or the eternal fire
of hell. Things which wo believe, but which
we do not understand.
(4) Al-biktnalu l-jdmi'oh, *• collective wis
dom," or the knowledge of the truth (kagq),
and acting upon it, and the perception of
error (6a/i7) and the rejection of it. ('Abdu
r-Razzaq's Diet, of Su/l Terms.)
HIRE 176
HILAL (JS^). The new inoon.
A term used for the first three days of the
month.
HILF (<-Ala*). An oath ; a vow.
An affidavit. Hilfndinnh, a written solemn
declaration, ffa/if, one who takes an oath.
HILFU 'L-FUZtfL (Jjj*n u^).
A confederacy formed by the descendants of
Hashim,. Zuhrah, and Taim, in the house of
'Abdu 'Hah ibn Jud'an at Makkah, for the
suppression of violence and injustice at the
restoration of peace after the Sacrilegious
| war. Muhammad was then a youth, and Sir
I William Muir says this confederacy " aroused
an enthusiasm in the mind of Mahomet,
which the exploit* of the sacrilegious war
failed to kindle."
HILM (^). Being mild, gentle,
clement. Restraining oneself at a time when
the spirit is roused to anger. Delaying in
punishing a tyrant. (Kitdbu 't-Ta'rl/dt.)
Hence a.l-IIalim, the Clement, is one of the
attributes of God.
HIMA G^). Lit. " guarded, for-
bidden." A portion of land reserved by the
ruler of a country as a grazing ground. (See
Mi&hkdt, book xii. ch. i. pt. i.) " Know ye
that every prince has a grazing ground which
is forbidden to the people, and know ye the
grazing place (hima) is the thing forbidden
by Him to men.
HIMMAH OUA). "Resolution.
strength, ability." A term used by the Suf-
mystics for a determination of the "heart to
incline itself entirely to God. ('Abdu 'r
Hazzaq's Diet, of Suf i Termx.)
HINJSTA' 0^). The Lawsonia
y or Eastern privet, used for dyeing-
the hands and feet on festive occasions,
[MARRIAGE.] Muhammad enjoined the use
of hinna', and approved of women staining
their hands and feet with it. He also dyed
his owji beard with it, and recommended" its
use for this purpose (Mmhkut, book xx. c. 4..)
It has therefore become a religious custom.
and \s-sunnuh.
HIQQAH (&^). A female camel
turned three years. The pmger age for a
camel to be given iu zalcdt, or legal alms, for
camels from forty-six to sixty in number.
H1RA' (.y.). The name of a
mountain near Makkah, said to have boon
the scene of the first revelation given to
Muhammad. [MUHAMMAD. ]
H1RAQL (Jiy*). Herachus the
Roman Emperor, to whom MuhammAd sout
an embassy, A.H. 7, A.I». 028.
HIKE. The Arabic tenn ijarah
} which means the use and en
joyment of property for a time, includes hire
176 HIBE
rental, and lease. The hirer is termed o;Vr,
or mu'jir. The person who receives the rent
ia the musta'jir.
The following are some of the chief points
in the Sunn! law vrith regard to ijarah, and
for further particulars the reader mast refer
in English to Hamilton's Hiddyah, v.ol. iii.
p 312, or in Arabic to such works as the
Dvrru 'l-Mukhtar, FatdwH'i-'Alamgiri, and the
Maddu 'l~Muhidr.m which works it is treated
in the Bdbu 'l-Ijarah.
A contract of hire, or rental, or lease, is
not ralid unless both the usufruct and the
hire be particularly known and specified,
because there is a traditional saying of the
Prophet, " If a pei-son hire another let him
first inform him of the wages he is to
receive."
A workman is not entitled to anything
until his work is finished, but the article
wrought upon may be detained until the
workman be paid his full wages, and the
workman is not responsible for any loss or
damage in the article during such detention.
If a person hire another to carry a letter to
al-Baarah and bring back an answer, and he
accordingly go to al-Baarah and there find
the person dead to whom the letter was ad
dressed, and come back, and return the
letter, he is not entitled to any wages what
ever I This strange ruling is according to
Abu Hanifah and two of his disciples, but
the Imam Muhammad says the messenger
fcught to be paid.
It is lewful to /(ire a house or shop for the
purpbs« of residence, although no mention bo
made of the business to bft followed in it. and
the lessee is at liberty to carry on any busi
ness he pleases, unless it be injurious to the
building. For example, a blacksmith or a
fuller must not reside in the house, unless it
is previously so agreed, since the exercise of
thoae trades would shake the building.
It is lawful to hire or lease land for the
purposes of cultivation, and in this case the
hirer is entitled to th© us of the road lead
ing to the land, and likewise the water (i.e.
his turn of water) although no mention of
these be made in the contract
A lease of land is not valid unless mention
is made of the article to be raised on it. not
only with a view to cultivation, but also for
other purposes, suchf as building, and so
forth, Or the leas«r of the land may make
declaration to the effect ; — " 1 Jet the land on
this occasion, that the lessee shall raise on
it whatever he pleases,''
II a person hire unoccupied laad for tho
purposes of building or planting, it is lawful,,
but on the term of the lease expiring it is
incumbent on the lessee to remove his build
ings and trees, and to restore the land to the
lessor in such a state as may leave him no
claim upon it, because houses or trees have
no specific limit of existence, and if they were
left on the land it might be injurious to the
proprietor. But it is otherwise when the
land is hired or leased for tbe purpose of
tillage, and the term oi the lease expires at
a time when the grain is yet unripe. In this
KIZANAH
case, the grain must ba suffered to remain
upon the ground at a proportionate rent,
until it is fit for reaping.
The hire of an aninial is lawful, either for
carriage, or for riding, or for any use to
which animals are applied. And if a person
hire an animal to carry a burden, and the
person who" lets it to hire specify the nature
and quantity of the article with which the
hirer ia to load the animal, the hirer is at
liberty to load the animal with an equal ':
quantity of any article not triore troublesome j)
or prejudicial in tbe carriage than wheat, •
such as barley, &c. The hirer is not at j
liberty to load the animal with a more pre- i
indicia! article than wheat (unless stipulated ;
beforehand), such as salt or iron. For a
hired animal perishing from ill-usage, the
hirer is responsible.
(For the sayings of Muhammad on the nub"
ject of hire and leases, refer to the Miskkdt,
£tabu 'Z-Ijdrah.)
HIES (u*^). "Avarice, greed,!
eagerness." Derivatives of tht> word occur
three times in the Qnr'an. Sura'h ii. 90:
" Thou wilt Snd them (the Jews) the greediest
of men foi- life." Surah iv. 128 : " And je may
not have it at all in your power to treat your
wives with equal justice, even though you be
anxious to do so," Surah xii. 104 : ' And yet
most men, though thou ardently desire sf, will
not believe.**
HISS (u^-). u "Understanding j
sense." Hiss hdtin, internal sense : hiss $dhtr,\
external sense; hiss mwhfariie, common sense.
HIZANAH (&U^). Al-htzdnah it
the right of a mother to the custody of her !
children. " The mother ia of all persons the
best entitled to the custody of her infant
children during the connubial relationship as
wall as after its dissolution/' (Fatawa-i-'Atam*
girl* vol. i. p. 728.)
When the children are no longer dependent
on the mother's care, the father ha* a right
to educate and take charge of them, and is
entitled to the guardianship of their person in
preference to the mother. Among the Ha-
nafiK, the mothw is entitled to the custody of
her daughter until she arrives at puberty ; ;
but according to tbe other three Sunn? sects,
the custody continues 0 nil I she is married.
There is difference of opinion as to the
extent of the period of the mother's custody \
over her male children. The Hanafls limit it 1
to the child's seventh year, but the Shaft' Is j
and Malakis allow the boy the option of re
maining under his mother's guardian/ship
until he has arrived at puberty. Among the
Shi'ahs, the mother is entitled to the custody j
of her children until they are weaned, a 1
period limited to two years. After the child
is weaned, its custody, if a male, devolves on '
the father, if a female, on the mother. The
mother's custody of the girl continues to the
seventh year.
The right of hizdna/i ia lost by the mother
if she is married to a stranger, or if she mis-
HOLY SPIRIT
HOUB8 OP PRAYER
177
HORSES. Arabic faras
iail ( J**>), pi. khuyul. Muhammad's
ffeetion for horses was very great, a,s was
natural to an Arabian. Anas says there was
lothing the Prophet was so fond of as women
nd horses. Abu Qatadah relates that Mu-
lamniad said : " The best horses are black
with white foreheads and having a white
pper. lip." But Abu Wahhab says the Pro-
ahet considered a bay horse with white fore-
tead, white fore and hind legs the best. An
nstance of the way in which the traditionists
ometimes contradict each other I ( AlisJJcut.
book xvii. c. ii.)
In the Hidayah (Arabic edition, vol. Mi.
432) it is said that horses are of four
:inds : (1) Birzaun. Burzun, a heavy draught
»orse brought from foreign countries. (2}
Atiq, a first blood horse of Arabia. (3)
5Tq;?n, a half-bred horse wnose mother is an
Arab and father a foreigner. (4) A half -bred
Conducts heraelf, or if ehe changes her domi- j
file so as to prevent the father or tutor from (
Dxercising the necessary supervision over the j
ahild.
Apostasy is also a bar to the exorcise of
the right of hizdnah. A woman, consequently,
who apostatizes from Islam, whether before
or after the right vests in her, is disentitled
from exercising or claiming the right of
kizdnafi in respect to a Muslim child.
The custody of illegitimate children ap
pertains exclusively to the mother and her
relations. (Personal Lato of Mvhanunadan* . j
by Synd Amir Ali, p. 214.) [QUARDIAK- |
3HIP.1
HOLY* SPIRIT. Arabic Ruhu 'I- \
Quds (y-Jtft c^)- The Holy Spirit is j
nentioued three times in the Qur'an. In the
•jfiralu *n-Nahl (xvith, 104), as the inspiring
igent of the Qur'an : " Say, The Holy Spirit
^Drought it down from thy Lord in truth."
Vnd twice in the Suratu 1-Baqarah (mid,
U and 254), as the divine power which aided
he Lord .fesus : " and We strengthened him by
[j he Holy Spirit " (in both verses).
) The Jalalan. al-Baizawi, and the Muslim
commentators in general, say this Holy Spirit
wan the angel Gabriel who sanctified Jesus, nnd
constantly aided Him. and who also brought
the Qur'an down from heaven and revealed
It to Muhammad.
I For a further consideration of the subject,
nee SPIRIT.
HOMICIDE. [MURDER.]
HONEY. Arabic '<udl ( J~*). In
he Qur'an it is specially mentioned as the
<if t of God. rfiirah xvi. 70: "Thy Lord in-
pired the bee. ' Take to houses in the moun- I
ains, and in the trees, and in the hives they
mild. Then eat from every fruit and walk
a the beaten paths of thy Lord/ There
eometh forth from her body a draught
varying in hue, in which is a cure for
nan."
horse whose father is an Arab and whose
mother is a foreigner.
In taking a share of plunder, a horseman
is entitled to a double share, but ho is not
entitled to any more if he keep more horses
than one.
HOSPITALITY. Arabic ziydfah
(&W*). It is related that Muhammad
said :—
" Whoever believes in God and in the Day
of Resurrection must respect his guest."
" If a Muslim be the guest of a peoplo and
he spends the whole night without being en
tertained, it shall be lawful for every Muslim
present to take money and grain necessary
for the entertainment of the man."
" It is according to my practice that the
host shall come out with his guest to the
door of his house." (Mishkdt, book xix.
oh. ii.)
Hospitality is enjoined its the Qur'an.
Surah iv. 40 : " Show kindness to your
parents, and to yonr kindred, and to orphans,
and to the poor, and to yonr neighbour who
is akin and to your neighbour who is a
stranger, and the companion who is strange,
and to the, son of the road.''
HOUR, The. Arabic
(£cLJ\). A term frequently used ID
the Qttr'an for the Day of Judgment.
iSurah vi. 81 : " When t/te hour comes sud
denly upon them.''
Surah vii. 186 : " They will adk you about
the hour for what time it is fixed."
Surah xv. 85: "Verily the hour ia surely
coming."
Surah xvi. 7i» : ki Nor is the matter of M«
hour aught but as the twinkling of an eye, or
nigher still."
Surah xxii. 1: "Vsrily the earthquake of
tl,*e hour is a mighty thing."
Surah liv. 46 : " Nay the hour is their pro
mised time J and the hour ia most aevere and
bitter."
HOUES OF PEAYEE. The
terms " Hours of Prayer " and " Canonical
Hours," being used in the Christian Church
(see Johnfton'g Engl. Cafions and Canons of
Cuthbert, ch. 15), we shall consider undw
this title the stated periods of MuTiammadan
prayer. [FRAYBB.] They are five : (1) fcgr
(^i), daybreak ; (2) %uhr ( j6^), when the
sun begins to decline at midday , (3) 'Asr
(y**)t midway between zuhr and mayfaib;
(4^ Maghrib \^»^), evening; (6) <Ishd
(oWLfi), when the night has closed in. Ac-
cording to the Traditions (Mishkdt, book
jcxiv. ch. vii. pt. 1). Muhammad professed to
have received his instructions to say prayer
five times a day during the Mi'raj, or the
celebrated night journey to heaven. He said,
God first ordered him to pray fifty times a
day, but that Moses advised him to get the
Almighty to reduce the number of canonical
hours to ftve, he himself having tried fifty
23
178
HOUSES
times for his own people with very ill
success!
tt 'is remarkable that there is but one
passage in the Qur'an, in which the stated
hours of prayer are enjoined, and tkat ii
jnetiiiona only four and not five periods
Suratu 'r-Rum, xxx. 16, 17 : " Glorify God when
it is AveaiBj? (TJWM*?), and at morning (fubft), •-
and to 'Him be praise in the heavens and in
the »avth, — and at afternoon (so*Ai), and at
noon-tick ($ukr).n But al-Jalalan, the eom-
meiuators say all a*e agreed that the term,
"when it is matff" (evening or night), in
cludes both auhset and after sunset, and
therefore both the nutghrib and «i*Aa' prayers
are* in eluded.
Three hours of prayer wara obeeived b^
thw Jews, David says, "Eveniog morning.
and at noon will I pray." (P<*. lv. 17.)
Daniel " kneeled upon his knees three
times u day." These three hours of the
Je?re seena to have been continued by the
Apostles (see Acts iii. 1), and were transmitted
to the early church in succeeding agoa, for
Tertullian speaks of "those common hours
which mark the divisions of the day, the
third, sixth, and ninth, which we observe
_ I
HOUSES
in scripture to be more solemn than the
rest." (/>« Orat., c. 25.) And Clement of
Alexandria says, " If same fix stated hours
of prayer, as the third, sixth, and ninth, the
man of knowledge prays to God throughout
his whole life.*1 (Stem. 1. viL c. 7, sect. 40.)
Jerome says, " There are three times in which
the knees are bent to God. Tradition assigns
the third, the aixtb, and the ninth hour."
(Com. »X Daw., c. vi. 10.)
In the third century there seems to have
been Jive stated periods of prayer, for Basil
of Cappadocia speaks of five hours as suit
able for monks, namely, the morning, the
third hour, the sixth, the ninth, and the
evening.- (jRegulcefusiu* Tract. Hegp. ad Qtt.,
37, sections 3--6.)
It is therefore probable that Muhammad
obtained his idea of five stated periods of
prayer daring his two journeys to Syria.
But he changed the time, as will be seen
from the table annexed, which was drawn up
by Mr. Laae at Cairo, and shows the times of
Muhammad an prayer with the apparent
European time of sunset, in or near the lati
tude of Cairo at the commencement of each
zodiacal month : —
Maghrib
Sunset,
'Iska
or
Nigbt.
Fajr
or
D&ybreak.
ZuHr
ov
Noon.
'A#r
or
Afternoon.
Muslim
Time
•"•; '•"•'
Tteft,
7 4 j».»f,
|6 58 „
<? 31 „
6 4 „
5 37 „
5 15 „
6 4 „
'Jtoe.1
Muslim
Timo.
MuaKm
1 -i t-.
Muslim
Time.
Jtuw
July 22
Aug. 23
Sept. 23
Oct. 23
Nov. 22
Dec.
»21
Hay 21
ApL 20
1
Ti»yi OA
21
JfJ
Ki
c *
[
1 34
1 30
1 22
1 18
1 18
1 22
1 24
8 6
8 30
9 24
10 24
11 18
11 59
12 15
4 56
5 7
5 29
5 66
*> 28
« 45
o 5S
8 13
8 43
9 4
9 24
9 35
f> 41
9 43
N.B. — Tke time of noon, according to Muhammad an reckoning, OH any particular day, sub
tracted from twelve, gives the apparent time of sunset on that day according to European
reckoning
HOUSES.
"bvy&t; dar (
pi
Arabic bait
*), pt di-wlr. d<~tr ;
In the time of Muhammad
the houses of the Arabs were made of
a framework of jarld, or palm-sticks, co
vered o^er with a cloth of caxiibfa hair, or
t curtain of a similar stuff, forming the door.
Those of the better class were made of walls
of unbaked bricks, and date-leaf roofs plas
tered over with inud and clay. Of this <**-
floriptioa were the abodes of Mnhair.i; •";•>,
family. (Burton. YO! i. p. 438.)
Sir "William Muir, translating fi-oia vhe
accouat given by the secretary of al-Waqidi
{Life of Mahomet, now ed., p. 646), says: —
« Abdaliftli ib i Yazfd relates, that he saw
the bouse in rcbieh the wives of the .Prophet
dwelt at tlw -iixna Trhen Qmar ibn fAbd) ftl*
taeti g«-feraer ol Medina (about A.H.
100) demolished them. They were built oft
ttnfeaiBt brick u and. had separate apartments
made of palm branches, daubed (or built up)
with x-iua ; ho comtted nine houses, each
having se^.tritte apartments in the space from
the hon.se of Aye^ha,and the gate of Mahomet
to the house of Aema, daughter of Hoseiu.
Observing the dwelling-place of Omm Sahna,
he questioned her grandson concerning it;
and be told him that when the Prophet w
absent on the expedition to Duma, Ora
Sainm built up an addition to her house wi
a wall of unburnt bricks. When Mahomet
returned, he went in to her, and asked what
new building this was. She replied, 'I pur-
poaed, O Prophet, to shut out the glances of
men thereby I ' Mahomet answered, * O Oruic
Salrna J verily the most unprofitable thing
that eateta up the wealth of a believer is
building/ A citizen of Medina present s*t
HOUSES
the time, confirmed this account, and added
that the curtains f Anglo -Indies, pur das) of
the doors were of black Lair cloth. He was
present, he said, when ths despatch of the
Caliph Abd al Malik (A.H. 86-88) was read
aloud, commanding that these houses should
be brought within the area of the Mosque,
and he never witnessed sorer woeping than
there was amongst the people that day. One
exclaimed, 'I wish, by the Lord! that they
would leave these houses alone thus as they
are ; then would those that spring up here
after in Medina, and strangers from the ends
of the earth, come and see what kind of
building sufficed for the Prophet's o^n abode,
and the sight thereof would deter men from
extravagance and prida
" There were four houses of ucbnrnt bricks,
the apartments being of palm-br»nches ; and
HOUSES
179
COCfi
HOOIH BOOM
««l
«,
£
THf OU7EK
A
Qb
COURT
%
m
Hi
••
**Mi
ROOM
•STOftf.
fvvi/
• c
|
THE HAR/M.
0
^
o
^
I
moot*
AOOM
ss
THB USUAL PLAN OF AN ORDDfABY HOCSB IN
CXNTRAL ASIA.
five houses made of palm-branches built up
with mud and without any separate apart
ments. Each was three Arabian yards in
length. Some say that they had leather cur
tains for the doors. One could reach the roof
with the hand. The house of Hftritha was
next to that of Mahomet. Now, whenever
Mahomet took to himself a new wife, he
added another house to the row, and Haritha
was obliged successively to remove his house
and build on the space beyond. A)) last this
was repeatfld so often, that the Prophet said
to those about him, ' Verily, it shaineth me
to turn Hftritha over and over again out of
his house.' "
The houses of the rural poor in all parts of
Islam, in Turkey, Egypt, Syria, Arabia.
Persia, Afghanistan, and India, are usually
bulit either of mud or of unburnt bricks. In
mounUinoas parts of Aghanistan they are
built of stones (collected from the bed* of
rivers) and tnnd. They are generally one
storey high, and of one apartment in which
the cattle are also housed. The roofs
are flat and are formed of mud and straw
laid upon branches of trees and rafters. The
windows are small apertures, high up in the
wall*, and sometimea grated with wood.
A MUHAMMABAN HOUSE IN PKBHAWUB.
There are no chimneys, but m the centre of
the roof there is an opening to emit the smoke,
the fire being lighted on the ground in the
centre of the room. In front of the house
there is an inclosure, either of thorns or a
mud wall, which secures privacy to the
dwelling. A separate building, called in Asia
a hujrah, or guest chamber, is provided for
male visitors or guests ; this chamber being
common property of the section of the vil
lage, except in the case of chiefs or wealthy
land-owners, who keep b^ujrahs of their own.
In towns the houses of the inferior kind do
not differ much from those in the villages,
except that there is sometimes an upper
storey. In some parts of Afghanistan and
Persia, it becomes necessary for each house
holder to protect his dwelling, in which case
a watoh tower, of mud, )s erected close tc th«
house.
180
HOUSES
The injunctions of Muhammad regarding
the seclusion of women have very greatly in
fluenced the plan and arrangement of Muham-
raadan dwelling-houses of the better class
throughout the world, all respectable houses
being so constructed as to seclude the female
apartments from public view. In cities such
as Cairo, Damascus, Delhi, Peshawur, and
Cabul, the prevailing plan of dwelling-houses
is an entrance through a blank wall, whose
mean appearance is usually relieved by a
handsome door-way and a few latticed win
dows. A respectable house usually consists
HOUSES
rate q&a/i described by Mr. Lane in his
Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 39, which is either
j on the ground or upper tioor. Within tho
j first enclosure will be the stables for horses
and cattle, and in its centre a raised dais
as seats for servants and attendants. It
should be noticed that thare are no special
bed-rooms in Eastern houses. Male visitors
and friends will sleep in the verandahs of tho
outer court, or on the diwan in the upper
court.
The harim or women's apartments in the
inner court is entered by a small door. It is
A MUHAMMADAN HOUSE IN CAIRO.
(Lane.}
of two courts, the first being that used by the
male visitors and guests, and the inner court
is*, tho barim or zananah reserved for the
female members of the family. Facing the
outer court ,will be an upper chamber,- or
bald kfranah as it is called hi Persian, the
VTTcpuJoVf or Upper room of the New Testa
ment, in which there will be a diwdn, or
raised seat or eofa, upon which tho inmates
can sit, eat, or eleep. This is the oisual re-
Oeptkm room In Asia, this balu khanah
seems to take the place of the more elabo-
INTERIOR- OF A MOHAMMADAN HOUSE IN
CAIRO. (Lane.)
a quadrangle with verandahs on each of the
four sides, formed by a row of pillars, the
apertures of which are usually closed by/
sliding shutters^ Tho back of the rooms
being without windows, the only ah- being
admitted from the front of . the dwelling'
place. The apartments are divided into long
rooms, usually four, the extreme corners
having small closets purposely built as store-
rooms. On festive occasions these verandah
rooms \yiH be spread with handsome carpets,
carpets and pillows being almost the only fur-
HOUSES
HUD
181
nituro of an Eastern dwelling, chairs being
a modern invention. The roofs of these rooms
are flat, and as the top is fenced in with a
barrier some four feet high, the female mem
bers of the household sleep on the top of the
house in the hot weather. [HAKIM.]
In no point do Oriental habits differ more
from European than in the nse of the roof.
Its Hat .surface, hi fine weather the usual
place of resort, is made useful for various
hausehold purposes, as drying corn, hanging
tip linen, and drying fruit.
Li the centre of the inner court or hariin.
there is usually a well, so that the female do
mestics are not obliged to leave the seclusion of
the harini for water-carrying. In a largo court,
of a wealthy person, there is usually a raised
dais of either stone or wood, on which car
pets are spread, and on which the ladios sit
or recline. In the better class of dwellings,
there are numerous courtyards, and special
ones are devoted to winter and summer uses.
la Peabawur, most respectable houses have
on underground room, called a taJji khdnah,
where the inmates in the hot weather sleep at
mid-day. These rooms are exceedingly cool
[ , and pleasant on hot sultry days.
Over the entrance door of a Muhammadan
i dwelling it is usual to put an inscription,
i either of the Kalimah, or Creed, or of some
I verse of the Qur'an.
We have only attempted to describe.
I briefly, the ordinary dwelling-houses of Mu-
j . hammadanb, which are common to all parts
I of the Eastern world ; but in large wealthy
I cities, such as Damascus, Cairo, Delhi, and
i Lucknow, there are very handsome houses,
i which would require a longer description
I than our space admits 6f. For Mrs. Meer
1 Ali's account of a Muhammadan harrm or
'. zanauah, sec IIARIM
HOUSES, Permission to enter.
I Arabic iaii'zdn (Q\±SX~\). To enter
I suddenly or abruptly into any person's
I house or apartments, is reckoned a great
I incivility in the East, and the law on this sub-
I ject is very distinctly laid down in both the
I Qur'an and the Traditions.
Surah xxiv, 27-29 >—
" 0 ye who believe 1 enter not into other
I houses than your own, until ye have asked
I leave, and have saluted its inmates. This
•will be best for you : haply ye will bear this
I in mind.
" And if ye find no one therein, then enter
I it not till leave bo given you ; and if it be
I said to you, * Go ye back,' then go ye back.
\ This will be more blameless in you, and God
knoweth what ye do.
" There shall be no hartn in your entering
houses in which no one d \\elloth, for the
supply of your needs : and God knoweth
wha,t ye do openly and what ye hide."
The trailitionistn record numerous injunc
tions of Muhammad on the subject. A man
asked the prophet, "Mast I ask leave to
go in to see my mother?" He said, " Yen."
Then the man said, •• Bat I stay iu the same
hou.se with her ! " The Prophet said : " But
you must usk pennission even if you stay in
the samo house/' Thnn the man said, ""But
I wait upon her ! " The Prophet said : " What !
\vouM you like to see her naked ? You must
ask permission."
The Khalifah -Umar .said it was according
to thp teaching of the Prophet that rf you
salam thr*o times and get no reply, you must
then go away from the house.
Abu Hura'irah says that the Prophet said :
'• When anyone .sends to call you then' you
can return with the messenger and enter the
house without pel-mission." (Mishkat, book
xxii. ch. ii. pt. 2.)
HIT, HUWA (y»). The personal
pronoun of tho third person, singular, mas
culine, HE, i.e. God, or He is. It occurs in
the Qur'an in this sense, e.tj. Surah iii. 1, &\
y& 3\ <ri\ 3 Alldhu id iidha ilia #««,-«, « God,
there is no god but HE," which sentence is
called the nafy wa isbdt (or that which is re
jected, '• there is no godr and that which is
affirmed, " but He.'' The word is often used
by Sufi myptics in this form : ^» U yfc U *£> \j
Jb ^\ yfc V* ^Jjo JJ yd hu. yd hu, yd man Id
•ya'lamu md hu illd hu, " 0 Ho (who is). 0 He
(who is), O He whom no one knows what He
Himself is but Himself." Some commentators
have' supposed the word f]u to stand for the
exalted name of God, the Ismu 'l-a'zam, which
Muslim doctors say is only known to God.
[JEHOVAH. ISMD 'I.-A'ZAM.]
HUBAL or HOBAL (J**). The
great image which stood over tho well or
hollow within tho Ka'bah. In the cavity be
neath were preserved the offerings and other
treasures of the temple. (At-faburt, p: 6,
quoted by Muir,) Tho idol was destroyed by
Muhammad at his final conquest of Makkah,
A.H. 8, A.]). 030. " Mounted on (his camel) Al
Caswa, ho proceeded to the Kaabah, reve
rently saluted with his staff the sacred stono
and made tho seven circuits of the temple.
Then pointing with, the staff one by one to the
numerous idols placed, around, he commanded
that they should be hewn down. The great
image of Hobal, reared as the tutelary deity
of Mecca, hi front of the Kaabah, shared the
common fate. ' Truth hath come,' exclaimed
.Mahomet, in words of the Goran, as it fell
with a crash to the ground, ' and falsehood
hath vanished; for falsehood is evanescent."*
(Surah xvii. 83). See Muir, Life of Mahomet,
new ed. p. 422. It is remarkable that there
is no distinct allusion to the idol in the whole
of the Qur'an
HUBS G^"*^). Any Request for
j pious purposes. A tonu used in Shfs»h law
for wnqf. Anything devoted to tho service
of God. (See Baillie's Jindtwca Cndc,
P. 2,-r.)
H"Ql> (>*)*)• A prophet said to
have 1'tjon sent to the tribe of 'Ad. Al-
182
HUB
HUJJAH
Bai?awi says he was, according to some, the
son of 'Abdn llah, the son of Rabah, the son
of Khalud, the son of 'Ad, the son of <Ans
the 8on of Iram, the son of Sam, son of Noah,
or, according to others, Hud was the son of
Shalah, son of Arfakhshad, son of Sam, son
of Noah. D'Herbelot thinks he must be the
Jleber of the Bible (Judges iv. 1.)
The following are the accounts given of
Jbini in the Qur'an, Surah vii 63-70 :—
" And to 'Ad we sent their brother Hud.
' O nay people, said ho, worship God: ye have
no other God than Him: will ye not then
fear Him ? ' Said the unbelieving chiefs among
his peopie, 'We certainly perceive that thon
art unsound of mind, and verily we deem
thee an impostor.' He replied, ' O my people !
there is no unsotmdness of mind in me, but I
am an apostle from the Lord of the worlds.
The messages of my Lord do I announce to
you, and I am your faithful counsellor. Mar
vel ye that a warning b^th come to you from
your Lord through one of yourselves that
He may wars you? But remember when He
made you . the stteoessora of the people of
Noah, and increase 1 you mtullness of stature.
Remember then ine favours of God ; happily
it shall be well with you.' They said, ' Art
thou come to us in order that tve may wor
ship one God only, and desert what our
fathers worshipped ? Then bring that upon
us with which thou threatenest its, if thou be
a man of ta*uth.* He replied, 'Vengeance
and wrath shall suddenly light on you from
your Lord- Do ye dispute with me about
names that you and your fathers have given
those idols, -and for which God hath sent yon
down no warranty ? Wait ye then, and I too
will wait with you.' And We delivered
him and those who were on his aide by our
mercy, and we cut off to the last man those
who had treated our signs as lies and who
were not believers."
Surah xi, 52-68:—
"And unto 'Ad We sent their brother Hfid.
He said, * 0 my people, worship God. Ye
have no God beside Hun. Lo, ye are only
devisers of a lie, 0 my people 1 T ask of
you no recompense for this ; verily my recom
pense is with Him only who bath made me.
Will ye not then understand ? And 0 my
people! ask pardon of yc.ur Lord; then
turn unto Him with penitence ! He will send
down the heavens upon you with copious
rains. And with strength in addition to your
strength will He increase you ; but turn not
back with deeds of evil.' They replied, ' O
Hud, thou hast not brought us proofs of thy
mission, and we are not the persons to aban
don our goda at thy word, and we believe
th&e not. We can only say that some of our
gods have smitten thee with evil,' He said,
'Now take I God to witness, and do ye also
witness, that I am innocent of that which ye
associate (in worship with God) beside him
self. Conspire then against me altogether
and delay me not; Lo, I trust in God, my
Lord and yours No moving creature is there.
which He holdeth not by its forelock. Right,
truly, is the way in which tay Lord goeth. So
if ye turn back, then 1 have already declared
to you that wherewith I was s.»at to you, and
my Lord will put another people in your
place, nor shall ye at all injure Him ; verily,
my Lord keepeth watch over all things.'
And when our doom came to be inflicted, We
rescued Hud and those who had like faith
with him, by our Special mercy ; and We
rescued them from the rigorous chastise
ment. And these men of 'Ad gainsaid the
signs of their Lord, and rebelled against His
messengers and followed the bidding of every
proud contumacious person ; followed there
fore were they in this world by a curse ; and
in the day of the Resurrection it shall be said
to them, ' Did not, verily, the people of 'Ad
disbelieve their Lord ? ' Was it not said,
' Away with 'Ad, the people of Hud ? * "
Surah xxvL 123-139 :
" The people of 'Ad treated the Sent Ones
as liars. When their brother Hud said 'to
them, 'Will ye not fear God? I truly am
your apostle, worthy of all credit ; fear God
then and obey me. I ask of you no reward
for this, for my reward i» of the Lord of the
worlds alone. Build ye a landmark on every
height, in pastime ? And raise ye structures
to be your lasting abodes? And when, ye pul
forth your power, do ye put it forth with
harshness ? Fear ye God, then, and obey me ;
and fear ye Hun who hath plentoously be
stowed oxt you, ye well know what ? Plen-
teously bestowed on you flocks and children,
and gardens and fountains. Indeed, I fear
for you the punishment of a great day/ They
said, ' It is the same to tts whether thou warn
or warn us not j verily this is but a creation
[tale] of the ancients, and we are not they
who shall be punished,' So they charged
him with imposture and We destroyed them.
Verily in this was a sign : yet most of them
believed not."
AL-rjKJDAIBIYAH (***»•#). Ai-
Hudaibiyah, a well on an open space on the
verge of the Haram or sacred territory, which
encircles Makkah. Celebrated as the scene of
a truce between Muhammad and the Quraish
known as the truce, of al-Hudaibiyah, when the
Prophet agreed not to 'enter Makkah that
year, but to defer his visit until the next,
when they should not enter it with any wea
pons save those of the traveller, namely, to
each a sheathed sword. (Muir, from Kdtibu
'/- Waqidi.)
The treaty is referred 'to in the Qur'an as
" a victory," in the XLvmth Surah, 1st verae :
" We have given they an obvious victory." A
chapter which is said to have been revealed
on this occasion and to have foretold the
final taking of Makkah, which happened two
years afterwards. (8ea at-Baizawl, ta
HUJJAH (***). « An argument ;
a proof." The word occurs in the Qur'an.
Surah ii. 145 : " Turn your faces towards it
(the Ka'bab.) that men may Kave no
HTJJJATU L-HAQQI
HtTKM
183
(against you, save only those of them who. arc
(unjust."
Surah vi 84: "These are our arguments
which we gavo to Abraham against bis ,
people."
Surah vi. 150 : " God's is the perfect argu-
(hujjatu 'l-baliyJiaJi).
HTTJJATTT 'L-HAQQI 'ALA 'L-
ALQ (^\ j* &JH VO- Lit.
" The demonstration of truth upon the crea
ture." A term used by the Sufi mystics for
the Insdnu Y-fcami/, or the *« perfect man;'
as Adam •was when he proceeded from the hand
of his Maker, and when he became a demon
stration of God's wisdom and power before
I the angels of heaven. As is stated in the
Qur'an, Surah ii. 20: "Thy Lord said lam
I about to place a vicegerent (^Ao/f/oA) in the
earth. («Abdn Y-Razzaq's Diet, of $&f\
Term*.)
HUJBAH («^). The "chamber "
in which Muhammad died and was buried,
which was originally the apartment allotted
to€*Ayishah, the Prophet's favourite wife. It
is situated behind the Masjidu 'n-Nabi, or
Prophet's mosque, at al-Madumh, and is an
irregular square of fifty-five feet, separated
from the mosque by a passage of a bo at
26 feet. Inside the Hujrah are supposed to
be the three tombs of Muhammad, Abu Bakr,
and 'Umar, facing the south, surrounded by
stone walls, without any aperture, or, as
others say, by strong planking. Whatever
this material may be, it is hung outside with
a curtain, somewhat like a four-post bed.
The outer railing is separated by a darker
passage from the inner, and is of iron filagree,
painted green and gold. This fence, wbich
connects the columns, forbids passage to all
men. It has four gates, the Babu 'l-Muwa-
jihoh (the Front Gate), the Babu Fafcimah
(the date of Fatfmah), the Babu 'ah-Sbam
(the Syrian Gate), and the Babu VTaubah
(the Gate of Repentance). The Syrian Gate
is the only one which is not kept closed, and
is the passage which admits the officers in
charge of the place. On the south prn side of
the fence there are three STUM!' v/in-lows
about a foot square, which nro sud to l>o
about three cubits from the head of the Pro
phet's tomb. Above the Hnjr -reen
dome, surmounted by a large yilfc crtncwnt,
springing from a series of globes. Within
the building are the tombs of Muhammad
Abu Bakr, and 'Umar, with a space reserved
for the grave of our Lord Jeaus Christ, whom
Muslims say will again visit the earth, and
die and be buried at al-Madinah. The grave
of Fafcimah, the Prophet** daughter, is sup
posed to be in a separate part of the build
ing, although some say she was buried in
Baqi«. The Prophet's body is said to be
stretched . full length on the right side, with
the right palm supporting the right cheek,
the face fronting Makkah, Close behind him
ia placed Abu Bakr, whose face fronts Mn-
Ijiamtoad's shoulder, and then 'Umar, who
occupies the same position with respect to
his predecessor. " Amongst Christian his
torians there was a popular .story to the
effect that Muhammadans believed the coffin
of their Prophet to be suspended in the air,
which has no foundation whatever in Muslim
literature, and Niobuhr thinks the story must
have arisen from the rude pictures Hold to
strangers. Captain Burton gives the an
nexed plan of the building.
1. Muhammad.
2. Abu' Bakr.
3. 'Umar.
4. The space for the tomb of Jesus
6. Fafcimah.
It is related tnai Muhammad prayed that
God would not allow his followers to make
his tomb an object of idolatrous adoration,
and consequently the adoration paid to the
tomb at al-Madinah has been condemned by
the Wahhabis and other Muslim reformers.
In A.D. 1804, when al-Madinah was taken
by the WahhttbJs, their chief, Sa'ud, stripped
the tomb of ail its valuables, and proclaimed
that all prayers and exclamations addressed
to it were idolatrous. (See Burton's Pitgri-
maqe, vol. ii; Burckhardt's Arabia and
WaMdbis.)
The garden annexed to the tomb is caller}
ar-JRcvfofi* which is a title also given by
some writers to the tomb itself.
Abft Da'ud relates that al-Qasim the grand
son of >bfi Bakr came to 'Aytsbah and said,
"0 Mother, lift up. the curtain of the Pro
phet's tomb and of his two friends, Abf» Bakx*
and 'Umar. ond she uncovered the graves,
which were neither high nor low, but about
one span in height, and were covered with
red gravel. (Afithkdt, book'v. ch. vi. pt. 2.)
A L. H U J TJ R A T (^Ij-^-^Jt).
«• Chambers." The title of the xuxth Surah
of the Qar'an, in which the word occurs.
HUKM (^), pi. ahkam. " Order ;
command ; rule ; sentence ; judgment, of
God, or of the prophets, or of a ruler or
judge." It occurs in different senses in the
Qar'an, e.g. :—
Surah u'i. 73 : " It beseemeth net a man,
that God should give him the Scriptures and
the Judgment and the Prophecy, and that
184
HULTTL
HUB
then he should say to his followers, « Bo ye
worshippers of me, as well as of God'; but
rather, « Be ye perfect in things pertaining to
God, since ye know the Scriptures and have
studied deep.' "
(Both Sale and Rodwell translate the word
al-liuLm, " the wisdom," but Palmer renders
it more correctly, " the judgment.")
Surah xii. 40 : " Judgment is God's alone :
He bids you worship only Him."
Surah xxi. 79 : " To each (David and Solo
mon) we gave judgment and knowledge."
Al-Iiukmu 'sh-Sfiarll, " the injunction of the
law," is a terra used for a command of God,
which relates to the lifo and conduct of an
adult Muslim. (Kitdbu 't-Tairlfdii in loco.)
HTJLtfL (J^). Lit. " descend
ing : alighting ; transmigration." A Sufi
term for the indwelling light in the soul of
man.
HUMAN SACRIFICES. There
is no trace in the Qur'ftn or Traditions of the
immolation of human beings to the Deity as a
religious rite. But M. C. de Percival (vol. ii.
p. 101) mentions a Ghassanide prince who was
sacrificed to Venus by Munzir, King of Hira'.
Infanticide Was common in ancient Arabia,
but it seems to have been done cither, as
amongst the Rajputs of India, from a feeling
of disappointment at the birth of female
children, or to avoid the expense arid
trouble of rearing them. The latter seems
to have been the ordinary reason ; foi- we
read in the Qur'an, Surah xvii. 38 : "Kill
not your children for fear of poverty."
("INFANTICIDE.]
AL-HUMAZAH (V*tt). " The
slanderer." The title of the civth Surah df
the Qur'an, so called because it commences
with the words : "• Woe unto every slanderer"
The passage is said to have been revealed
against al-Akhnas ibn Shariq', who had been
guilty of slandering the Prophet.
HUNAIN (c^~). The name of a
valley about three miles to the north-east of
Makkah, where in the eighth year of the
IJijrah a battle took place between Muham
mad and the Banu Hawazin, when the 'latter
were defeated. In the Qur'an, the victory of
Hunain is ascribed to angelic assistance.
Surah ix. 25: "Verily God hath assisted
you in many battle-fields and on the day of
Hunain."
HUNTING. Arabic said
Heb. -rig. There are special rules
laid down n Muslim law with regard to hunt
ing. (See Hamilton's Hidayaht vol. ivi p. 170.)
It is lawfiil to hunt with a trained dog. or a
panther (Arabic fahd, Persian yuz, which is
an animal of the lynx species, hooded Mid
trained like a hawk), or a hawk, or a
falcon.
The sign of a dog being trained is Ms
catching game three times without eating it.
A hawk is trained when she attends to the
call of her master. If the dog or panther
eat any part of the game it is unlawful, but
if a hawk eat of it, it ia lawful ; out
if the dog merely eat the blood and not the
flesh, it is lawful. If a hunter take game
alive which his dog has wounded, he must
slay it according to the law of Zabh, namely,
by cutting its throat, with the head turned
Makkah-wards, and reciting, " In the name of
the Great God I " The law is the same with
respect to game shot by an arrow.
If a sportsman let fly an arrow (or fire a
gun) at game, he must repeat the invocation,
" In the name of the Great God I "
And then the flesh becomes lawful if the
game is killed by the shot. But if only
wounded, the animal must be slain with the
invocation. Game hit by an arrow which has
not a sharp point is unlawful, and so is that
killed by throwing pebbles.
Oatne killed by a Magian, or an apostate,
or a worshipper of images is not lawful,
because they are not allowed to perform
zabfr. But that slam by a Christian or a Jew
is lawful.
Hunting is not allowed on the pilgrimage
nor within the limits of the sacred cities of
Makkah and al-Madlnah.
<AdI ibn Hatim (Mishkat, book xviii. ch. i.)
gives the following tradition on the subject of
hunting : —
" The Prophet said to me, « When you send
your dog in pursuit of game, repeat the name
of God, as at slaying an animal ; then if your
dog holds the game for you, and you find it
alive, then slay it ; but if you find your
dog has killed it, and not eaten of it, then eat
it ; but if the dog has eaten any of it, do not
you eat it, for then the dog has kept it for
himself. Then if you find another dog along
Avith yours, and the game is killed, do not
eat of it ; for verily you cannot know which
of the dogs killed it ; and if the other dog
killed it, it might so be that when he was let
loose after the game, the name of God might
not have been repeated. And when you
shoot an arrow at game, repeat the name of
God, the same as in slaying an animal ; then
if you lose sight of the game, and on finding
it perceive nothing but the impression of
your own arrow, then eat it if you wish ; but
if you find the game drowned, do not eat of
it, although the mark of your arrow should
be in it.'"
HUE (jyv), the -plural of haura.
.The women of Paradise described in the
Qur'an, e.g. Surah Iv. 66-78 j—
" Therein shall be the damsels with retiring
glances, whom nor man nor djinn hath
touched before them :
" Which then of the bounties of your Lord
will ye twain deny?
•< Like jacynths and pearls:
« Which, <fec.
" Shall the reward of good be aught but
good?
" Which, <fcc.
.AI-H0SAIN
"And bosido theso shall be two other
gardens :
«« Which, &c.
" Of SL dark green :
« Whicb, <tc.
" With gushing fountains m each :
«• Which, <fcc.
" la each fruits and the palm and the
pomegranate :
» Which, &c.
" Tn each, the fair, the beauteous ones :
"Whicb, &c.
" With large dark eyeballs, kept closo in
their pavilions :
« Which, Ac.
ki Whom man hath never touched, nor any
djinn :
'• Which, &c.
" Their spouses on soft green cushions and
on beautiful 'carpets shall recline:
" Which, &c.
•k Blessed be tho name of thy Juord, full of
roajesty and glory-"
AL».HfJSAIN
185
The second
eon of Fatiinah, the daughter of Muhammad,
by bor husband 'All, tht? fourth Khalifa b.
A brother to al-ffaaan, the fifth Khalifah.
According to the Shi'ahs, ho was the third
Khalifab. He was bora A.H. 4, and died »t
Karbala A.H. til, being cruelly .atom in hi«
conflict with YazTd, tho seventh Khali f ah,
according to the Sunnis.
The martyrdom of al-Husairi is celebrated
by the Shi'ahs every year during the first ton
dayg of the Muharram [MUHAKRAMJ ; nn
account of his tragic death is therefore
necessary for understanding; tho intensity of
feeling with which tho a^t^ea and incidents
of the last days of the "Irnam HuKain'' are
enacted in the " Miracle Play," a translation
of which has bef-n given in English by Sir
Lewis Pelly. Tho following account is
taken from the Preface to this work, p. xi
segq. • -
••Shortly after (Uo accession of Yo/acl
(Yassid). Hus.ain received at Mecca secret
messages from the people of Cufa (ftl-Kiifah).
entreating him to place him/Job? at tho htad
of the anny of the faithful in Babylonia,
Yezid, however, had full intimation ot the
intended revolt, and lone before Uusuin ••nukl
reach Cufa, tho too essj' governor of that
city had been replaced by Obaidallah {•Ubai
du llah ibit Ziyud^, the resolute ruier of Bus
bur.'ih (al- Basrah), who by his rapid measures
di. sconce rlod tho plans of the cojispiratorw, nnU
drove them to ft premature outbreak, und tht-
Mnrrondor of their leader Mabliin. Tbo latter
foresaw ihft ruiu which be had brousrht on
liui»ain ar<J shod bitter tearH ou tbat account
when captured. Bis bead was etruc-k off find
icnl to Yezid. On Husain arrivina: »t the
confines of Babylonia, he was met by liarro
(al Hurt), \vbo had been sent out by Qbaidal-
lah with a body of horaenlen to intercept
1 us approach. Uusain, adtlrts^int? them, Us
•erted his title to Jbe Califate, and invited •'
them to eabmit to him. Harro replied, « We |
are coinuunded as soon j».s we meet vou to
bring you directly to Cufa into the pros<-nco
of Obuidallah. the son of tfiyaa. llmain
answea-od, '[ would Hoonor di»' than submit
to that,' nnd gave the word to hi« mcr. to
ride on; hut ifaiTo wheeled about arid inter
cepted them. At tho namo time, ilarro said,
1 havu no commission to tigat v/itu von. but
I am coramaTide.l not to pirt with you until
T have condurtcd you into >ofa ' ; but he
bnd-> Husain to uhooso any road into that
city ' that did not go directly back to Mecca.'
and ^ do you,' Baid ho, 'write to Yezid or
Obaldaliah, and L will vrite to )baidallab,
and perhaps it may please God I may mm
with something that may bring rae off \vith«
out my home? forced to an extremity on your
account.' Th«n ho rntmarod Iii0 forcD a little
10 ullo\y llu/jaiu TO lead iho way towards
Cufa, and Hn«ain took tho i.oad that lends by
Adib and Cadisia. Tliis was on Thursdny
iho I«fc of MohTT^rum ( Muharram"), A.H. (il
(,v.f>. <>80j. When night came on, lie scill coo-
tiimcd his march all throi^h the nightr, As
he rode on ho nodded a little, and WKluue
again, said. 'Men travel by night, and Lh*
destinies travel toward them ; this I know
to be a message of death.'
"In the morning, after prayers were ovor,
be jnended his pace, and a1? he rode un there
came up a horseman, who took no notice cf
him, but saluted Uarro. and delivered to
him ?v letter, giving orders from Obaidal
lah to lead Husain and his men into « place
where was neither tcwn nor fortifications,
<md there leave them till the Svrian fo^ea
should surround them.
" This was on Friday tl»e 2ad of Mohurraui
The day after. Amer ('Umar ibn Sa'id) carac
upon them with four thousand rnon, who
were on their march to Dailam. They hod
Ixjcu onoamped without tbo waits of Cufa.
and when Obaidallab heard of IJusain's
coming, IK? commanded Amer to defer his
maroU to Daiiam and go against Husain.
But one and all d-)ssu;<dod him « licware
that you go nut against Hnsain, and rebel
against your Lord, and out off mercy from
you, for \ou had better be depi'ived of the
dominion of the whole world than meet yonr
Lord with the blood of Ha?;»in upon you.
Amer was t'aiu to acquiesce, but upon Obai
dallah renewing his i-omnaana with threats,
be uirtrohed against Husain, nod came up
with hiua, aa aforesaid, on Satxu-day tbo 3rd
df MohuiTum.
•'On Awer Keudinr? to inquire of Hnsair
what brought him thither, the latter replied
'The Cufans wroto to mo; but since they
reject me, I ain willing to return to Mecca.'
Amer wan glad when ho heard it, and said, • I
hopo to God I may ho excused from fight m^
againPt him.' Thon 1. a wrcte to this purpose
to ObaidaJlah; but Obaidallah sternly r£
plied, 'Get lu>t<A-een him and the river,' nud
Amor did so : und tho name of the place
wbero he cut Husain olT from tho Euphrates
was called K>rbela (Karbala): • Kerb (an
guish) and /«.'/<i (vexation), Troubl? p.nd
affliction.' said Husain when he heard it.
•l Then Husain nought a conference .witb
24
186
AL-HUSAIN
AL-HUSAIN
Amer, in which be proposed either to gc to
Yezid, to return to Mecca, or, as some add,
but others deny, to fight against the Turks.
Obaidallah was at first inclined to accede
to these conditions, until Shamer stood up
and swore that no terras should be made -with
Husain, adding significantly that be had been
informed of a. long conference between Husaiu
and Amer.
" Then Obaidallah sent Sha.ro er with orders
to Amer, that if Husain would surrender un
conditionally, he would be received ; if not,
Amer vraa to fall upon him aud his men, and
trample them under bis feet. Should he
refuse to do so, Shamer was to strike off
Amer's bead, and himself command the
attack against H visa in.
"Thus passed Sunday, Monday, Tuesday.
Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, the 4th,
6th, 8th; Yth, bth, and -9th of- Mohurrmn.
On the evening of the $tb, Amer drew up his
forces close to Hueain's camp, and himself
ro«ie up to Husain as he was sitting h? the
door of his tout ju&t after thw evening prayer,
and told him of th*> conditions offered by
Obaidaiiah. Husain desii-ed Atner to give
him time unt.il the next morning, when he
would make his answer.
" Iri the night his sister came weeping to
bis bedaide, end, awaking him, exclaimed,
£ Alas for the desolation of my family ! my
mother Fatiusa is deed and my father Ali.
and my brother H&gau. Alas for the destruc
tion that Is paat ! and aUs for the destruction
that is to come I ' « Sister,' Husain replied,
4 put year trust iu (rod, auji know that man
is born to die, and that the heavens shall not
remain ; everything shall pass away but th$
presence oi God, who created all things by
His power, and shall make them by His
power to pass away, and th*y shall return to
Him alone. My father was hotter thaa me,
and my mother was better than me ; and my
brother was better than me ; and they and
we and all Muslims have an example in the
Apost/le of God,' Then he told his men
that Obaidallah wanted uobody but him, and
that they should go away to their homes.
But they said, 'God forbid that we should
ever see the day wherein we survive you ! '
Then he commanded them to eord their tents
close together, and make a. line oi thcms so
as to keep out the enemy's horse. And he
digged a trench bellied his camp, which he
filled with wood to be sat on fire, eo that
he could, only be attacked in front. The rest
of the night he spent in prayer and supplica
tion, while the enemy 'H guard patrolled all
night long round ncd round his oamp.
'• The next morning both sides prepared for
the slaughter, Husain first washed and
anointed himself with musk, and several of
his chief men did the like; and one asking
them what it meant. Husain replied plea
santly, ' Alas ! there is nothing between us
and the black-eyed girls of Paradise but that
these troopers coiue down upon us and slay
us!' Then he mounted his horse, and set
the Coran before him, crying, *O God, Thou
art my confidence in every trouble and my
hope in every adversity!' and submitted him
self to the judgment of his companions before
the opened pages of the nacred volume. At
this his sisters and daughters began to weep,
when he cried out in bitter anguiab self-
reproachfully, -God reward th« eon of
Abbas,' hi allusion to advice which his
cousin, Abdullah ibn Abbas, had given him,
to leave the women behind in Mecca. At
tbis moment a party of the enemy's horse
wheeled about and came up to Iluaaiu, who
expected to be attacked by them. But it was
Harro,.who had quitted the ranks of the
Syrian army, and had cow come to die with
Hasahi, and te.stify his repentance before
men aud God. As Harro rode .into the
doomed <jamp. he shouted back to Arner,
* Alas for you ! ' Whereupon Amer com
manded his men to ' bring up the colours.'
As soon as they were set in front of the
troops, Shamer shot an arrow into the camp,
saying, ' liear witness that I Rhot the tirst
arvcw./ and so the fight began oa both sides
It raged, chiefly in a series of single combats,
until uoon-d&y, when boi-h sides retired to
prayer, Llusain adding to the usual office the
' Prayer of Fear,' never usetl but in ea&es
of extremity. When shortly afterwards the
fight was renewed, Husiiin was struck on th«
head by a sword, Faint with the loss of
blood, he sat down by his tent and took upon
his lap his little son Abdullah, who was ftt
once killed by a flyi.ug arrow. He placed the
little corpse upon the ground* crying out,
' We come from God and we return to Him.
O God, give me strength to bear these mis
fortunes.' Growing thirsty, he ran toward
the Bophratea, where, as he stooped to drink,
an arrow struck him in the mouth, Raising,
his hands, a 51 besmeared aad dripping with.
blood, to heaven, he stood for awhile and
prayed earnestly. Hia little nephew, a beau
tiful child, who went up to kiss him, had his
hand cut off with a sword, on which Husain
again wept, saying, ' Thy reward, dear child,
is -with thy forefathers in the realms of bliss.'
Hounded on by Shamer, the Syrian troops
how surrounded him; but Htisain, nothing
daunted, charged thexn righi arid left. In the
midst of the fighting, his nister came between
him and his slayers, crying cut to Aiuer,
hew he could stand by and see Husain slain.
Whereupon, with tears trickling down his
beard. Ainer turned his face away ; but
Shamer, with threats and curses, set on his
soldiers again, and at last one wounded
Husain upon the hand, and a second gashed
him on the neck, and a third thrust him
through the body with a spear. No sooner
had he fallesn to the ground than Shamer rode
a troop of horsemen over his corpse, back*
wards and forwards, over and over again,
until it was trampled into the very ground,
a scarcely recognisable muss of mangled flesh
and mud.
" Thus, twelve years after the. death of his
brother Hasan. Husain. the second son of
Ali, met his own death on the bloody plain
of Kerbela on Saturday the 10th day of
Mohumun. A.H. 61 (A.D 630;.°
HUSBAND
From al-Hasaiu and his brother al-Hasan
iare derived the descendants of the Prophet
'known throughout Islam as Saiyids. [SAI-
YTD, HASAN. ML'HARKAM.]
HUSBAND. Arabic zauj (6lj).
A husband is not guardian over his wife any
further than respects the rights of marriage,
inor does the provision for her rest upon him
iany further than wiih respect to food, cloth
ing, and lodging (Hidayaii, vol. i. 63), but he
'may be imprisoned for the maintenance of his
wife (Ibidem, vol. ii. p, 628) The evidence of
ij husband concerning his wife is not accepted
py tbe Sunnis. but it is allowed in Shrah law
!'/6., vol. ii. p. 685). The Muhammad-ait
aw demands that a Muslim husband shall
Bride equally with each of his wives, unless
iino ^ 'ie brstow hr*r rityht' upon another wife.
JY6..vol i. p. 184.)
tlUSNU 'L-KEULQ (jte*\&~*.).
f A good' His posit k>n."' Abu Harairah re-
ates that -.w of the Companions once asked
amuiHii, •< What is the best thing that
ias bee u <<i\«?ii to man?" and Muhammad
epliec, '" A good disposition." Muhammad is
Iso related to have said that the "heaviest
tiing which vrill be put in the scales Of a
flusliui in thus Day of Judgment is a good
Us position." (Mishkat. book xxii. ch. xix.
•t. 2.)
AJL-HUTA.MA.H (WO1). A divi-
ion of Hell, mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah
iv. : —
*' Woe to every backbiter.
*Who amaweth wealth and storeth it
gainst the future 1
"He thinketb surety that his wealth shall
•e with him for ever.
** Nay ! for verily h« shall be flung into al-
HYPOCRITES
187
" And who .shall teach thee what
ah is ?
" It ia God's kindled fire,
u Which shall mount above the hearts of
te damned ;
It shall verily rise over them like a
ault,
" On outstretched columns."
The Imam al-Baghawi says it is the divi-
ion of Hell specially reserved ior the Jews.
HUWAIRLS (^^). One of the
itizens of Makkah, who was excluded from
xe general amnesty on the taking of Makkah,
consequence of his having pursued Zainab.
uhammad's daughter, while endeavouring to
EFect her escape from Makkah- He wa*
fterward* seized and slain by 'All.
HTJZAIFAH (&aJ^). The *ou of
al-Yamun. He was a " aworn companion"
of the Prophet, one of the most eminent of
i the Ashab, ami it is recorded by Muslim the
Traditionist, that he was specially instructed
by the Prophet. His father, al- Yamau, also
called Hisf or Husail, was likewise a com
panion, who fell at Uhud. Huzaifah died
in the time of 'All's Khalifate, A.H. 36. (See
Taqribu 't-Tahztb. p. 61.) Sir William Muir
says he waa tho Companion who firat sug
gested to 'Usmiin the necessity of the recen
sion of the Qur'an, A.H. 33. (Life of Afahomtt.
new ed. p 556.)
" Hodzeifa, who bud warred both in
Armenia and Adzerbaijan, and had observed
the different readings of the Syrians, and of
tho men of Irac, was alarmed at the number
arid extent of the variations, and warned
Othtuan to interpose and ' stop the people
before they should differ regarding tbeir
scriptures, as did the Jews and Christians.'"
HU£AIL (JaJ*). The ancestor of
the Banu Huxail. a tribe distinguished in the
annals of war and poetry, and, as we learn
from Burckhardl, still occupying under the
j same name the environs of Makkab. (Traveln
in Arabia, vol. i. pp. 63, 66.)
HYPOCEISY. Arabic riyd
nifdq («3^), mahr (/^), muddhanai
(&AW). When there is an allusion
to hypocrisy in tho Qur'an, it refers to that
class of people known as al-Munafiqun, or
tho hypocrites of al-Madlnah, who in the
duya of the Prophet professed to follow him,
whilst secretly they opposed him fKUirA-
FIQUN], vide Surahs ii. 7; xxxiii. 47 ; tvii. 13.
But in the Tradition? we have the following
with reference to this sin. bfiishkat, book i.
ch. Hi. pt. 3) :—
'* The signs of hypocrisy eve throe : speak
ing falsely, promising and not performing, and
being perfidious when trusted."
•k There are four qualities, which being
possessed by anyone, constitute a complete
hypocrite ; and whoever has one of the four
has one hypocritical quality till he discard*
it: perfidy when trusted, the breaking of
agreements, speaking falsely, and prosecuting
hostility by treachery."
HYPOCRITES. Arabic
A term applied by
qun
Muhammad u> those residents of al-Ma-
dlnah who daring his first stay in that city
ostensibly joined Islam, but in secret were
dia affected.
188
TBAHTTAH
IBN MAJAH
I.
. A.- sect of
libertines who consider all things lawful.
IBAQ (jjM). The absconding of
slaves. Tbe fugitive slave being termed abiq,
or, if he be an infant. *«//, or tlic strayed
uue. The restorer oi H fugitive «lavo is en
titled to a reward of forty dirhama. hut no
reward' is given for the restoration of a
Atraved infant slave [SLAVERY.]
IBAZ1YAH (4**^), A sect of
Muslims founded by 'Abdn llab ibn Ibaz, who
said that if a man commit a kalnrak or great
sin, be is an infidel, and not a believer.
(Kitdbu 't-TrffifdtJn tdco.)
IBLTS (u~*l>V). [DEVIL.]
iBN 'ABBAS (u-We.t»V). 'AJ'du
ilah, the oldest son of 'Abbas, and a cousin of
Muhammad. One of tho most celebrated of
the Companions, am! the relator of numerous
traditions. It is said that the angel Gabriel
appeared to him, when he was only ten yoars
old, and revealed to him the ineanmg of the
Qur'an, which accounted for his intimate
acquaintance with the letter and meaning of
the book. He was called Twynmanu 'l-Q,nrdn<
or "the interpreter oi the Qur'an." He was
appointed Governor of al-Basrah by the
Khalifah *AH, which ofllco be held for some
time. He: retained to the Hijaz and died «t
at-TA'if A. ii. 68 (A.D. 687), aged 72 years,
IBN UANBAJL (J^- 0*\), The
Imam Abii 'Abdi 'Ilah Ahrnad ibn ftanbal,
the founder of the fourth orthodox sect of the
Soimift. was born at Baghdad A.II. 164, A.D. 780,
where he received bis education under Yazid
ibn, llariin and ^ahya ihn Sa;kl. On a*h-
Shafri coming to Baghdad (>.n, 1U5), Ibn
Hanbal attenuod the lectures delivered there
by that doctor, and was instructed by him in
1 lie traditions. In process of tune he acquired
a high reputation from his profound know
ledge of both the civil and spiritual law, and
particularly for the extent of his erudition
with respect to the precepts of tho Prophet;
of which it is said lhal he could repeat above
a million. His fame began to spread just at
the Limo -when the disputes ran highest con
cerning tho nature' of the Qxvr'an. which some
held to have existed from eternity, whilst
others maintained it to be created. Unfortu
nately tor Ibn Hanbal-the Kiuliiah ai-Mu'tasici
was of the latter opinion, to which this doctor
refusing to subscribe, be Wits imprisoned and
severely .scourged by the JS. ha hi ah 'a order.
For this hard usage, indeed, he afterwards
received som£ satisfaction from al-Muto-
wakkilj the sot* 'of al-Mn'casini, who, upon
succeeding to the throne, issued ,1 decree of
general toleration, leaving every person at
liberty to judge for himself upon tbl,j point-
Thia tolerant Khalifah set the persecuted
doctor at liberty, receiving him at his Court
-with the most honourable marks of distinction,
and oflbrinsf him a componsatoiy present of
L.OQO pieces of ^old, which, however, ho
refused to accept- After having attained tho
rank of Imam, he retired from the v\-orld%
and led a rocluse life for several years. He
died A.H 241 (A.u. 855), aged 75. He ob
tained so hi#h a reputation for .sanctity, that
hi* tuneral was attended by a train of 300,000
men and 60.000 women ; and it is asserted as
a kind of miracle, that on the clay of his
decease no fewo-- than 20X)00 Jews and
Christiana embraced the faith. Fox about a
century after bis death, tho sect of Ibn
llanbal wwo numerous and even powerful ; and
uniting to their zeal a large proportion oi
fanaticism, became at length so turbulent and
Ironblesomo as to require the strong &nn oi
Goverimwnt to keep th«>m hi order. Like
most other fanatical sects > they dwindled
I away in process of time, and are now to be
I met with only in a few parts of Arabia.
I Although orthodox in their other tenets?, there
was one point on which they differed from
j the rest of the Muslims ; for they asserted
that God had actually .set Muhammad upon
his throne, and constituted him his substitute
in the government of the Tini verse; an asser
tion which was regarded with horror, as au
impious blasphemy, and which brought them
into great disrepute. Thi*, however, did not
happen until many years after ibn Hanbal'f*
decease, aud i» hi no degree attributed to him.
fie published only two works ot note : one
entitled tho Hfusnad, which is said to contain
a bove iX),000 traditions selected from 750,000;
and another, a collection of apothegms, or
proverbs, containing uiany admirable prcooptsj
upon the government of the paBsions. He
had several eminent pupils, particularlv
Ismail aMJukhari and Muslim Ibn Du'iid.
His authority is "but seldom quoted by any of
the modern commentators on jurisprudence.
The modern "Wahhabis are supposed to
follow (to some extent) tho teachings of
Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
KHALIXKAN
The weli-knowu Mtihainoiaaan biographer.
He drew his descent from a family of Bulkb.
He was born at Arbelah. but resided at
Damascus, -where he filled the oih'co of chief
Qazi, and died A.H. 681 (A.D. 1282). Hir,
biographical dictionary has been translated
into English by Baron de Slane. (Paris 1843.)
Thb biographical notes in the present work
are chieft from Ibn Khallil? fin's work-
IBN MAJAH (^u &\). Abu
•Abdi 'Ilah Muhammad Ibn Yazid Ibn Majah
al'Qazwini was maulawi of the tribe of
Rabi'ah, and a celebrated Haifiz of theQur'an,
and in known as the compiler of the fcitdbu •*.
Swnan, or "Book of Traditions '' This work
IBN MAS'UD
IBRAHIM
189
U counted one of the six Sahib*, or authentic (
collections of Hadls Born A.H. 200 (A.D. 824). j
Died A.n. 273 (A.D. 88C).
IBN MAS'tJD (ay*-~ e?t). 'Abdu I
,'llah ibn Mas'ud, 4ia companion'' ol consider
able note. Ono of the illustrious ''ten"
('Asharah Mnbaahsliarah} to whom Muham
mad i»ave an assurance of Paradise. Me was ;
{present at the battle of Badr and subsequent j
t n^agementg. Died at al-Madlnah A.H. 32. j
iagod 60.
MTJUAM (*%A* &V). The
Muslim who slew the Khalifah 'AH. The
(author of the Haydiu 'LQultib (Merrick'f*
I Transition, p. 204) aays when 'All was
inaityred bv Ibn Muljarn his neJ.ostial likeness
(i.e. in the -Alamu 'l-Mi$dl) appeared woundod
lalco; wherefore angels visit tho similitude
i morning and livening and curse the name of
Ibn Muijam.
IBN SAIYAD OW &\). A rnys-
iteiious personage n">_>o liysd in the tuno of
MttluunTnad, nnd who wa=i mistaken by some
people for ad Dajjalu '1-Masih, or the Ant
ichrist. 'AbJu 'Mlaqq says some say ho was
a Jew of al-Madinah named ;Abdn 'llah.
Ibn 'CJmar relates that the Prophet went
to Ibn Saiyad, accompanied by & party of
his companions, and found him playing with
boys; and at this time he had nearly reached
puberty r and Ibn Saiyad had no intimation
of tho coating of the Prophet and the com
panions, till the Prophet struck him upon the
back, and said, " Do you bear witness that .1
am the Prophet of God ?'' Then Ibn Saiyad
looked at the Prophet find said, " I bear
witness that you are the Prophet of the
illiterate." After that he said to the Prophet.
" Do yon bear witness that I. am the Prophet
of God ? " Then the Prophet pressed him
with both his hands and said. " I believe in
God and His Prophets": and them said to
Ibn $aiyad. -What do you lock at?" He
said ••Sometimes a person comes to me
tolling the truth ; and sometimes another
pei-son telling lies ; like ap magicians, to
whom devils bring truth and falsehood." The
Pro]) he t said, iV The Devil couu-s to you. and
brings you m w«, false and true." After that,
the Prophet said, ; Verily, 1 ha-ve concealed a
revelation froin. you " (which wan the one in
^Yhic.b there is mention of the smoke; ; and
Ibn Saiyad *aid, "Is it the one with tho
smoke ? " Then the Prophet said, •' Begone !
you cannot .surpass your own ilegreo ! " Ibn
Umar .^aid. "0 Prophet of God! do YOU
permit me to strike off Ibn Saiyad's bead? "
He said. l IE Ibn Saiyad be Dajjal, you will
not be ublo lo lull bun . because Jesus will, he
his slayer : and if he is not Dajjal there can
be no good in your killing him.'' After this
the Prophet :;nd Ubaiv ibn Ka'b alAn»ari
weal towards some date trees belonging to
Ibn baiyiid and the Prophet hid himself
behind In branches, to listen to what he
would say before Ibn $aiyad discovered him.
Aiid at this time Ibn Sajyad WPS lying upon
hift bed, with H sheet over his fuco. talking to
himself; and his mother saw the Prophet
standing behind the branches of tho tree*,
and said to her son. " Muhamnvdis atandiug."
At thia he bocame silent ; and the Prophet
said. " Had not his mother informed him he
would have said ttoniethiiiji -o have disco vorad
what ho is." Thou the Prophet repeated,
" Prai.sed be God. by that which is worthy of
him"'; and then mentioned Dajjal and said,
a Verily. I fear for you from Dajjal; there is
no Prophet but he alarmed his people about
him. Verily, Noah frightened his people
about Dajjal ; but I will tell you a thiti^ to
the matter of Dajjal, which no one Prophet
ever Void his people : know that he is blind,
and that verily God in not blind."
Abu Sw'-id nl-Khudri says: ulbn S5aiyad
asked the Prophet about the earth ol Paradise :
and ho said. 'The earth of Paradise is iu
whiteness like flour twice sifted and in smell
liko puro musk.' And I accompanied Ibn
§aiyfid from al-Madmah to Makkah; and bo
said to me, 'What trouble I have experienced
from people's supposing me Dajjal I Have
yon not heard. 0 Ibn Saiyad. the Prophet
of God Fay, '• "Verily, Dajjal will have no
children" ? and I have ;. and verily, the Prophet
has Raid. u Dajjal ia an infidel," and 1 am a
Muslim': and the Prophet said, '' Dajjal will
neither enter al-Madinah nor Makkah " : and
verily, I am going from al-Madinah and intend
going to Makkah.' After that, Ibn $aiyad
said, in the latter part of his ?peech. ' Beware:
I swear by God. t know the place of Dajjal's
birth, and where he stays; and 1 know his
father and mother,' Then tbis made me
doubtfui ; and I said, v May the remainder of
your days be lost to you.' A person present
said to Ibn $aiyad, ; Would you like to be
Dajjal?'" Ho said, 'If 1 possessed what
Dajjftl i? described to have, such as the power
ol leading astray, 1 should uot dislike it.'
Ibn Umar says : ;' I mot Ibn Haiyad
he had swollen eyes, and I aidd. < 11 ow long
has this been ? ' lie said. * I do not know.'
I said. • Do not know, now that your eyes arc
iu your head ? ' He said. • If God pleased He
could create i>yes in your limbs, and they
would not know anything about it : in thia
manner also, man is so employed as to be
insensible to pains.' Then Ibn $aiyad made
a noise froi/i his nose, louder than tho braying
of an ass." (Jfo&Ew, book xsiii. ch. v.)
IBN 'TJMAK (f* &\\ Abxi
vAbdj "r Rahman -Alxlu ^ah, son yf Untar
the celebrated KhalU'ah, was one of the most
eminent of the " ompanions " of Muham
mad. He embraced Islam with his father
when he VMS only eight years old. For a
period of sixty yours he occupied the leading
position as a traditionbt. and al-Bukhan. the
collector of traditions says the most authentic
are those given on the authority of Ibii 'Umar.
He died at Makkuh A.H. 73 (A.D. 6^2). aged
d 1 ybars.
IBRAHIM (/***</) The patriarch
Abraham. [ABBAHAM.]
190
IBRAHIM
IBRAHIM (r**yV. The infant
son of Muhammad by his slave girl, Mary
the Copt. Born A.H. 8, died A.H. 10 (A.D.
631).
*TD 0^). [FESTIVAL.]
'IDAN (&\±**). The Dual of 'Id,
a festival. The two festivals, the 'Ida '1-
Fitr, and the 'Idu '1-Azha.
MDDAH (5J«). Lit. "Number."
The term of probation incumbent upon a
woman in consequence of a dissolution of
marriage, either by divorce or the death of
her huaband. After a divorce the period is
three months, and after the death of her
husband, four months and ten days, both
periods being enjoined by the Qur'an (Surah
Ixv. 4 ; ii. 234.)
'TDalH (aV&ufc). Lit. " A place of
festival." A Persian term for the musaUd, or
praying-place, set apart for the public prayers
said on the two chief festivals, viz. 'Idu 1-
Fifcr, and 'Idu '1-Azsha. ['IDAK.J
IDIOTS. Arabic majnun ( or^*).>
inty'anm. Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egypti
vol. i. p, 288, says :—
11 An idiot or a fool is vulgarly regarded by
them as a being whose mind is in heaven,
white his grosser part mingles among ordi
nary mortals ; consequently he is considered
an especial favourite of heavea. Whatever
enormities a reputed, saint may commit (and
there are many who are constantly infringing
precepts of their religion), such acts do not
affect his fame for sanctity; for they are
considered as the results of the abstraction
of his mind from worldly things ; his soul, or
reasoning faculties, being wholly absorbed in
devotion, so that his passions are left without
control. Lunatics who are dangerous to
society are kept in confinement ; but those
who are harmless are generally regarded as
saints. Most of the reputed saints of .Egypt
are either lunatics, or idiots, or impostors."
IDOLATRY. The word used in
the Qur'an for idolatry i* shirk (c£^fc) » and
for an idolater, munhrik '(.cd^i-»), pi. mushri-
ic&n. In theological works the word wa$um
is used for a.n idolater (was.an. an
.
gyptians,
idol), and 'ibddutu V-owfton
for idolatry.
In one of the earliest Svxrahs of the Qur'&n
(when, -chronologically arranged), lii. 35-43,
idolatry is condemned in the following lan
guage :—
"Were they created by nothing? or were
they the creators of themselves ?
"Created they the Heavens and Earth?
Nay, rather, they have no faith.
" Hold they thy Lord's treasures ? Bear
they the rule suprerr-e ?
"Have they7 a ladder for hearing the
angels? Let anyone who hath heard them
bring a clear proof of it.
"Hath God daughters and ye sons?
" Askest thou pay of them? They are
thi; aselves weighed down <rith debts.
IDOLATRY
" Have they such a knowledge of the secret
things that they can write them down ?
" Desire they to lay snares for thee ? But
the snared ones shall be they who do not
believe.
" Have they any God beside God ? • Glory
be to God above what they join with Him."
But r.hey are. in a later Surah (nearly the
In Rt), ix. 28, declared unclean, and forbidden
to enoei the sacred temple at Makkah. That
was after Muhammad had destroyed the
j idols in his last pilgrimage to the Sacred
House.
" 0 Believers I only they wno join gods
with God are unclean I Let them not, there
fore, after this their year, come near the
sacred temple. And if ye fear want, God, if
He please, will enrich yon of His abundance:
for God is Knowing, Wise."
In a Surah given about the same tiroe
(iv. 51, 116), idolatry is declared to be the un
pardonable sin : —
" Verily, God will not forgive the union of
other gods <vith Himself! But other than
this will H«^ forgive to whom He pleaseth.
And he who nniteh gods with God hath de
vised a great wickedness."
"God truly will not forgive the joining
other gods with Himself. Other sins He will
forgive to whom He will : but he who joineth
gods with God, hath erred with far-gone
error."
Nor is it lawful for Muslims to pray for the
souls of idolaters, as is evident /rom Surah
ix. 114 :—
." It Is not for the prophet or the faithful
to pray for the forgiveness of those, even
though they be of kin, who associate other
beings with God, after it hath been made
clear to them that they are to be the inmates
of Hell.
" For neither did. Abraham ask forgiveness
for his father, bnt in pursuance of a promise
which he had promised to him : but when it
was shewn him that he was an enemy te God,
he declared himself clear of him. Yet
Abraham was pitiful, kind.''
Sir William Muir says (Int. p. ccxii.) that
" Mahomet is related to have said that Amr
son of Lohai (the first Kbozaite king, A.D.
200) was the earliest who dared to change
the * pure religion of Ishmael.' and set up
idols brought from Syria. This, however, is.
a, mere Muslim conceit. The practice of
idolatry thickly overspread the whole penin
sula from a much more remote period."
From the chapters from the Qur'an, already
quoted, it will be seen that from the very
first Muhammad denounced idolatry. But the
weakness of his position compelled him to
move cautiously. The expressions contained
in the al-Madinab Surahs, given when Mu
hammad could not enter Makkah, are much
more restrained than those jn the Surahs
given after the capture of Makkah and the
Destruction of the idols of the Ka'bah.
At an early period (about the fifth year)
of his mission, Muhammad seems to have
contemplated a compromise and reconciliation
with Makkan idolatry. Sir William Moir
IDOLATRY
(quoting from af.-T^bartt pp. 140-142. and
Kdtibu '/- Waqidi, p. 40), says :—
" On a certain day, the chief men of
Mecca, assembled in a group beside theKaaba,
discuased, as waa their wont, tho affairs of
the city. Mahomet appeared, and. seating
himself by them in a friendly manner, began
to recite in their hearing Sura liii. The
chapter opens with a description of the first
visit of Gabriel to Mahomet, wad then un
folds a second vision of that angel, in which
certain heavenly mysteries were revealed.
It then proruxk : —
And sea ye not lAt and Ozza,
And Man fit tho third besides?
" When he had reached this verse, tbn
devil suggested to Mahomet an exm-ession of
thoughts which had long possessed bis soul,
and put into his mouth words o* reconcilia
tion and compromise, the re relation of such
as he had been yearning that God niisfht send
unto Lis people, namely: —
These are the exalted females,
And verily their intercession is to be ooped
for.
"• TheCoreifih were astonished and delighted
with this acknowledgment of their deities ;
and as Mahomet wound up the Sura with the
closing words, —
Wherefore bow down bofore God, and
serve Him,
the whole assembly prostrated themselves
with one accord on the ground and wor
shipped.. Walid alone, unable from the in
firmities of age to bow down, took a handful
of earth and worshipped, pressing it to his
forehead.
" And all the people were pleased at that
which Mahomet had spoken, and they began
to say, « Now we know that it is the Lord
alone that giveth life and taketh it away,
that createth and supporieth. And as for
these our goddesses, make intercession with'
Him for us ; wherefore, us thou hast con
ceded unto them a portion, wo are content to
follow thee.*
" But their words disquj'tued Mahomot, and
he retired to his house. Jn the evening
Gabriel visited him. and the Prophet (as was
his wont) recited the Sura unto him. And
Gabriel tsaid, ' What is this that thou hast
done? thou ha,sl repeated before tb^ people
words that I never gave ivat o thee." So Ma
homet grieved sore, and feared the Lord
grenVly; ami ho said, 'I have spoken of God
that which he hath not said.' But the Lord
comforted His Prophet, and restored his con
fidence, and cancelled the verse, and revenled
the true rending thereof (as it now stands),
namely :—
And see ye not Lat and Ozz»,
And Mauat the third besides ?
WhaV ! shall there bt» male progeny unto
you, and female unto him V
That weve indeed an unjust partition !
They are na,ught but names, which ye and
your fathers have invented, &c.
"Now, when the Coreish heard this, they
spoke among themselves, saving, * Mahomet
bath repented his favourable mention of the
IDOLS 191
rank of our goddesses with the Lord. He
hath changed the same, and brought other
words instead.' So the two Satanic vars**
were in the mouth of every one of the unbe
lievers, and they increased their malice, and
stirred them up to persecute the faifchfnl with
still greater severity." (Sir VV. Muirs Life
of Afrthomet, n«w ed. p. 86, seyfj.)
The Commentators do not rofer to this cir-
cuujstauco, and pious Muhammadur.s would
reject the whole .story, but, as Sir VV. Muir
says. "the authorities arc t .. irong to be
impugned."
These narratives of at-Tabari and the
secretary of al-Wtiqidi are fully borne out in
the facts of Muhammad's subsequent com
promise with the idolatrous feelings of the
people ; for whilst he removed the images
from the Ka'bah. he at the samo ri'ne retained
the black stone as an object of superstitious
reverence, and although fay destroyed fsafund
NtVilah, the deities of as-Safa and al-Mafwau,
h« still retained the "runnings to and fro,"
and the •' storings of the pillars/' as part of
tho sacred rites of what was intended to be a
purely theiatic and iconoclastic system. The
most singular feature in the fctichism of
Arabia was the adoration paid to tmshapen
stones, and Muhammad found it impossible
to construct his religion without some com
promise with the popular form of idolatry.
It is a curious circumstance that so much of
tuv, zeal and bigotry of the Wnhhnbi puri
tans is directed against the shirk, or idolatry,
of tho popular veneration for tombs and other
objects of adoration, and yet they see no ob
jection to the adoration of the black stone,
.and those other strange and peculiar customs
which form part of the rites of the Makkan
pilgrimage.
IDOLS. Arabic wasan (&)), pi.
a'ttsdn,. also sanam (/***), pi. afndm,
both words being used in the Qur'an. Ten of
the idols of ancient Arabia are mentioned by
uamo in the Quran, viz. : —
Surah iv. 52 •. " Hast thou n<>t observed
those to whom a part of the Scriptui es hath
been given? They believe in ttl-Jibt and
af-JTJg/tiif, and say of the infidels, < These are
raided in a better path than those who hold
the faith."'
Surah liii. 19 : " Have ye considered al-Ldt,
al-'Uzza. end Manat the third ? "
Surah Ixxi. 21 : ••« They have plotted a great
plot and Siiid. «' Yo shall surely not leave yonr
gods : ye snail surely neither leave Wadd, nor
Smca.1^ nor *yagjiii$, nor Yn'Ttij, nor Nti/ir, and
they led a stray many."
Al-Jibt and at-Tayhut (the latter also men
tioned in Surah ii. 257, 259) were, according to
Jalalu ?d-din, two idols of th« Quraish whom
certain renegade Jews honoured in order to
please the Quraish.
Al-Lat was tho chief idol of the Banu
Saqff at at Ta'if. The name appears to be
the feminine oi Allah, God.
AL-( Uzza has been identified with Venus, but
it was worshipped under the form o/ an acacia
tree, and was the deity of the Banu Gjh.at.afan
192
IDBIS
Manut was a largo sacrificial stone wor
shipped by the Bauu Khoza'ah and' Bum
Huzail,
The iivo idols, Wndd. £>*»<?, lagtuls,
Yfruq, rfad JVasr, the commentators say,
were originally tive persons of eminence in
the time of Adam, who after thoir deaths
were worshipped in the form of idols.
Wadd was worshipped by the JiuiiL Kalb
in the form of a man. and is said to have ro-
prosented heaven.
Smo& was H female deity of tho Bairn
Hstiudan.
Yaglius was a deity of the Bami Mazhij
*nd .in the form of a lion.
Yuhlg was an idol of the Bairn Murad in
tho shape of a horse.
Nasr waSi as its name impliefl, an irrtftge
oi' an eagiq, and worshipped by Himyar.
It is said (according 'to "Burkhardt, p 1£J4)
that at the time of Muhammad's suppression
of idol worship in tho M.tkkau t ample, there
were not fewer than <Jt>0 idols in existence.
The chief of the minor deities wua #tt6o7,
an. image of a mat,, and said to have been
originally brought from Syria, Other well-
Irnown idols were lta.fi an idol on Mount
as-Safa, -and Nailah. an image on Mount al-
Marwah, as part of thorites of the pilgrimage.
tho Prophet wty uH.tng able to divert entirely
the regard of. the people fer them,
Ifahhah was a large sacred stone on which
camels were sacrificed, and the Hajaru 'I-
Aswad, or Black Stone, was an object, a3 it
still is? of idolatrous worship. In the Ka bah
there were also images representing Abraham
and Ishmael, each with, divining arrows in his
The statement, made by some wtiters/taat
the image or picture of Jeau/* and Mary had
a place in the Ka'bah, seems to be without
any authority
Althongh Herodotus does not refer to the
Ka'bah. yet he mentions as one of the chief
"divinities of Arabia Alilai. which is strong
ayidence of the existence of an idol called
•j'l-Lat at that time as an object of '-worship.
(Herod. UL 8.)
I DBIS -(u-4)JU- • A. prophet men
tioned twice iu the Quran, about vrfioBe
identity there is some discussion.,
Surah xix. 57: :t Commemorate Jdrl& in
the Book ; verily he was a man oi .troth .and
a Prophet, and we raised him to & lofty
place.
Surah xxi. 85; ' And Ishnrnei and Idris,
ujid 7m 1 kifl -r all steadfast in patience."
Al-Baiza-vri says Idris was ox the posterity
ofSius(Sfith) and a forefatheVof Noah, and
lus name was Uhnu£h (Enoch, Heb *!p3n>
Consecrated) He was called Idris from dars,
».o instrnct. from his knowledge of divine
mysteries, and thirty portions of God's sacred
scriptures were r&vsaled to him. He waw
the first person who learned to writo, and
he was the inventor of the science of astro-
ucwuy and arithmetic.
says, •'• In the Jami'-u 'I- Usul, \\. is
li-AZBA
•written that Idris was bom one hundred,
yeara after the death of Adam."
The Jaialan say the meaning of the words
in tho Qur'tui, " we raised htm to a lofty place?
iy that he livoth either in the fourth heaven,
or iu the sixth or seventh heaven, or that he
was raised up from the dead and taken to !
Parp.dise.
The Kainalan say, «* In the book called the
Rauzatu *l-Ahbdb. Ibu Jarir relates that Idris
was the special friend of one of tho angels
of heaven, and that this angel took him up '
into tho hoavona, and wheoa they arrived in
the fourth heaven they met tb$. Angel of
Death. The angel asked the Angel oi Death
how many years there were remaining of the
life of Idris : and tho Angel of Death said,
( Where is Idris. for I have received order*
to bring death to him? ' Idris then remained
in the fourth heaven, and he died in the ^vingg
of his angel friend who had taken him from i
earth."
Some of the Commentators think Tdrie"and
Elijah (Ilvas) are the aam« persons But tho
accounts given seem to identify him with
Enoch.
'IDU 'L-AZHl (^^^Juft). Yulg.
•Id-i'Zttho. <; The f oast of sacrifice," Called i
also Yuwrnu 'n-JVa/if • Q.urbiin-*ld', Utiqarah-'ld
(i.e. tho co^w festival) ,- and in Turkey and
fegypt 'Idu Raitam. It is also called the '/</«
'Itiknbiry the great festival, as distinguished
from the ildu 'l-Filr* which ia called tho minor
festival, or at-' Idu 's-sagldr.
it in celebrated on the tenth day of Zu
'Ullijjah, and is part of the ritos of the
Makkan pilgrimage, although it is observed a.-*
well in all parts of Lslam both as a day of
sacrifice and as a great festival. It is founded
on an injunction in the Quran, Surah *xii.
33-38.
4< This do. And they -who rospeot the sym
bols, of GoU; perform 'an action which pro-
ceedctii Troui piety of heart;
" Y« may obtain advantages from the catlle
up fco thcj act limoybr siuyiftg them ; then, the
place for sacrificing them is at tho ancient
IJouse.
''And to every people hare wo appointed
symbols, that they may commemorate the
name of God over the brute, beasts which lie
liath provided for them. And your God is
the one GoiL To Him, therefore, surrender
yourselves: and bear thou good tidings1 to
those who humble themselves. —
"Whose hearts, when mention is made of
God. thrill with awe ; and to those who remain
steadfast under all that bcfalleth them; and
observe prayer., and give alms of that with
which we have .supplied them.
" And the ounei* haro we appointed you
for tbe sacrifice to God: much good have ye
i»i them. Make mention, therefore, of the
name of God over them when ye slay ihem, aa
they atand m a row ; and when they arc fal W
over on their sides, eat of them, and "feed him
who is content and asJcelh not. and him wha
asketh. Thus have We .subjected them l(| >
you. to tho intent ve should U» thankful,
'TDU 'L-AZHA
193
" By no means can their flesh roAob uutc
God, neither their blood ; but piaty en yor.r
part roacheth Him. Thus bath He subjected
them to you, that ye might magnify God for His
guidance: moreover, announce glad tidings to
those who do good deeds."
The institution of the sacrifice was as
follows : — A few months after tho Hijrah, or
flight from Makkah, Muhammad, dwelling in
•tl-Madinah, observed that the Jews kept, on
the tenth, day of the seventh month, the great
fast of the Atonement. A tradition records j
1 that the .Prophet asked them -why they kept J
tin:-- f-tst. Ho was informed fclutt it was n j
. memorial of the deliverance of Moses and the
, children of Israel from the hands of Pharaoh. I
»' Wo have a, greater right in Moses than j
. they." said Muhammad, so he fasted with the j
Jov/s and commanded his followers to fast ,
also. This was at the period of his mission '
j when Muhammad was friendly with the Jow.s i
of al-Miiuinah, who occasionally came to hoar j
him preach. The Prophet also occasionally
attended tho synagogue. Then came the
change of the Qiblah from Jerusalem to
Makkah, for the Jews wore not so 'ready to
change their creed as Muhammad had nt
first hoped. In the second year of the Hijrah,
Mnhammad and his followers did not partici-
j pate in the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now
, Instituted tho 4Idu '1-Azha. The idolatrous
I A»'nbs l:;id boen in the habit of making an
|j annual pilgrimage to Makkab at this .season
of the year. The offering of a7»imal.s in
sacrifice formed a part of the concluding
|( ceremony of that pilgrimage, That portion
i • — J.be sacrifice of animals — Muhammad
, adopted in the feast which now. at al-
Madlmh. be substituted for the Jewish fast.
This was well calculated to attract the at ten- j
lion ot the Makk:»n* and to gain tho goodwill •
of the Arabs. Muhammad could no,t then j
make the pilgrimage to Makkah, for as yet i
there was a hostile foe-ling between the in- !
habitants of the two cities: but on the tenth j
day of tbe month Zu 1-Hijjah, at the very !
lime when the Arabs at Makkah were engaged I
in sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth j
from hip bouse at al-Madinah, and assembling j
his followers instituted tho 'Ida '1-Azha. Two
young kids were brought before him. One
\te sacrificed and said : "O Lord ! I sacrifice.
, thi8 for my whole people, all those who bear
| witness to Thy unity and to my mission,
i 0 Lord ! this is- for Muhammad fcnd for the
family of Muhammad."
There it? nothing in the Qur'an to connect
!i this sacrifice with the history of Ishmael, but
it iii generally held by Muhammadans to have
been instituted in commemoration of Abra
ham's willingness to offer up his son as a
I; sacrifice. And Muhammadan writers gener
ally maintain that the son was Ishmael and
, not Isaac, and that the scone took place on
Mount Mina near Makkah, and not in the i
land of Moriah, as is stated in Genesis.
The following is the account given by Ma- j
: haurmadan writers: — " When Ibrahim (the i
j p«3ace of God be upon him) founded Makkah, I
| the Lord desired him to prepare a feast for <•
Him. Upon Ibrahim's (the friend of God)
requesting to know what He would have on
tho occasion, the Lord replied, * Offer up thy
son Israa'i!.' Agreeably to God's command
he took Isma'il to the Ka'lmh to sacrifice
him, and having laid him down, ho made
several ineffectual strokes on his throat with
a knife, on which Isma'Il observed, 'Your
eyes being uncovered, it is through pity and
coznpOMion for me you allow tho knife to
miss: it would bo better' if yon blindfolded
yourself with the end of your turban and
then sacrificed me.' Ibrahim acted upon his
son's suggestion and having repeated the
words * Bi-smi V/oAz, attdhu aLbar ' (i.e. ' In the
name of God! God 13 great!'), he drew
tbe knife across- his son's nock. Ta the mean
while, however, Gabriel had substituted a
broad-tailed sheep for tbe youth Isma'il, and
Ibrahim unfolding his eyes observed, to his
surprise, the sheep slain, and his son standing1
behind him." (See Qfyatm't-Ambivd'.)
It is a notable fact that whilst Muhammad
professed to abrogate the Jewish ritual, and
also ignored entirely the doctrine of the
Atonement as taught in the New Testament,
denying even tho very fact of our Saviour's
crucifixion, ho made the "day of sacrifice"
tho great central festival of his religion.
There is a very remarkable Hadis, related
by 'Ayishah, who states that Mnhammad
said, " Man hath not done anything on the
'ld.u'1-Azha more pleasing to God than spill
ing blood ; for verily the animal saci-ificed
will come, on tho day of resurrection, with
its horns, its hair, and its hoofs, and will
make the scale of his (good) notions heavy.
VTerily its blood reacheth the acceptance of
God, before it falleth opon the ground, there
fore b<? joyful in it." (Mishkat, book iv.
cb. xlii. soc. 2.)
Muhammad ha* ,thus become a witness to
the doctrine of the Christian faith that " with
out shedding of blood, there is no remission."
The animal sacrificed must be without blomish,
and of full age; but it may be either a goat,
a sheep, a cow, or a camel.
The religious part of tho festival is observed
us follows : — The people assemble iu the morn
ing for prayer, in tho 'Idgah, or place erected
outside the city for these special festival
prayers. Tbe whole congregation then stand
ing in the usual order, the Imam takes his
place in front of them and leads them in two
rak'ahs of prayer. After prayers the Imum
ascends the miinbar or pulpit and delivers a
Khutbah, or oration, on the subject of the
festival.
We are indebted to Mr. Sell for the fol
lowing specimen' of the Khutbah : —
"In the name of God, the Compassionate,
the Merciful
"God is Great. There is no God but God
God is Great ! God is Great and worthy of
rill praise. He is [foly. T>:iy and night we
{•hould praise Him. He. is without partner,
without equal. All praise be to Him. Holy
is He, Who makes tho rich generous. Who
provides the sacrifice for the wise. Ib> is
Great, without an equal. All praise he- to
194
SIDU 'L-AZHA
?L-PITB
Him. Listen ! I testify that there is no God
but G ud. He is alone, without partner. This
testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as
brilliant as the glorious feast day. Muham
mad is His servant who delivered His message.
On Muhammad, and on his family, and on his
Companions may the peace of God rest. On
you who are present. O Congregation of
Muslimm, may the mercy of God for ever
rest. O servants of God! our first duty is to
fear God and to be kind. God has said, ' I will
be with those who fear Me and are kind.'
"Know, O servants of God ! th'at to rejoice
on the feast day is the sign and mark of the
pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of
such in Paradise, especially on the day of
resurrection will they obtain dignity and
honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It
is no time for amusements and negligence.
This is the day on which to utter the praises
of God. Read the Kalimah, the Takbir and
the Tamhid. This is a high festival season
and the feast of sacrifice. Read now the
Takbiru 't-Tashrlq. God is great! God is
great ! There is no God but God ! God is
great ! God is great ! All praise be to Him !
From the morning of the 'Arafah, after every
farz rak'ak, it is good for a person to repeat
the Takbiru 't-Tashriq. The woman before
whom is a man as Imam, and the traveller
whose Imiim. is a permanent resident, should
also repeat this Takbir. It should be said at
each Namaz until the Salatu '!-' Asr of the
Feast day (10th). Some, however, say that
it should be recited every day till the after
noon of the thirteenth day, as these are the
days of the Tashriq. If the Imam forgets
to recite, let not the worshipper forget.
Know, 0 believers, that every free man who
is a Sahib-i-Nisab should offer sacrifice on
this day, provided that this sum is exclusive
of his horse, his clothes, his tools, and his
household goods and slaves. It is wajib for
everyone to offer sacrifice for himself, but it
is not a wajib order that he should do it for
his children. A goat, a ram, or a cow, should
be offered in sacrifice for every seven persons.
The victim must not be one-eyed, blind, lame,
or very thin.
'* If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve
you well, and carry you across the Sir at.
0 Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom
be the mercy and peace of God, ' Sacrifice
the victim with your own hands, this was the
Sunnah of Ibrahim^ on whom be peace.'
"In the Kitabu Zadi 't-Taqwa it is said
that, on the 'tdu '1-Fifcr and the 'Idu '1-Azha,
four nafl rak'ahs should be said after the far?;
Namaz of the 'Id. In the first rak-'ah after
the Suratu '1-Fatihah recite the Suratu '1-A'la
(Surah Ixxvii) ; in -the second, the Suratu 'sh-
Sharns (Surah xei.) ; in the third, the Suratn
V?uha (Surah xciii.) ; in the fourth, the
Surfttu 'l-Ikhlas (cxii.),
"0 Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon
the sins of fifty years which are past and of
fifty years to come. The reading of these
Surahs is equal, as an act of merit, to the
reading of all the books God has sent by His
prophets.
" May God include us amongst those who
are accepted by Him, who act according to
the Law, whose desire will be granted at the
Last Day. To all such there will be no fear
in the Day of Resurrection ; no sorrow in the
examination at the Day of Judgment. The
best of all books IK the Qur'an. O believers!
May God give to us and to you a Messing for
ever, by the grace of the Noble Qur'an. May
its verses be our gxiide, and may its wise
mention of God direct us aright. I desire
that God may pardon all believers, male and
female, the Muslimm and the Muslimat.
0 believers, also seek for pardon. Truly God
is the Forgiver,, the Merciful, the Eternal
King, the Compassionate, the Clement. O be
lievers, the Khultbah is over. Let all desire
that on Muhammad Mustafa the mercy and
peace of God may rest."
The Khu^bah being ended, the people all
return to their homes. The head of the
family then takes a sheep, or a cow, or a
goat, or camel, and turning its head towards
Makkah says :
"In the name of the great God.
" Verily, my prayers, my sacrifice, my life^
my death, belong to God, the Lord of the
worlds. He has no partner : that is what I
am bidden : for I am first of those who are
Muslim (i.«. resigned)/'
And then he slays the animal. The flesh of
the animal is then divided into three portions,
one third being given to relations, one third
to the poor, and the remaining third reserved
for the family. Quite apart from its religious
ceremonies, the festival is observed as a great
time of rejoicing, and the holiday is kept for
two or three days in a similar way to that of
the minor festival or the 'Idu 1-Fitr. [HAJJ,
ISHMAEL, 8AOEIFICB.]
*). Lit.
iking of the Fast."
It is called also 'Idu JRaniazdri, the "Idu,
's-Sadaqah (Feast of Alms), and the 'Idu >-
saghir (Minor Festival). It commences as
soon as the month's fast in Ramazan is
over, and consequently on the first day of the
month of ShawwaL It is specially a feast of
alms-giving. "Bring out your alms," said
Ibn 'Abbas, ".for the Prophet has ordained
this as a divine 'institution, one Sa' of barley
or dates, or a half $a* of wheat : this is for
every person, free or bond, man or woman,
old or young, to purify thy fast (i.e. the
month's fast juafr concluded) of any obscene
language, 'and to give victuals to the poor."
(Mishkat. book vi. ch. iii.)
On. this festival the people, having pro'-
viously distributed the alms which are called
the Sadaqatu 7-/Y{[rf assemble in the vajit
assembly outside the city in the i'dgah, and,
being led by the Imam, recite two rak'ahs
of prayer. After prayers the Imam ascends
tbe.im'mbar. or pulpit, and delivers the khut-
bah, or oration. We are indebted to Mr. Sell
for the following specimen of one of these
sermons : —
" In the name of God, the Compassionate,
the Merciful.
<IDU 'L-FITB O-*-n
" The Festival of the Breakins
'IDU 'L-FITR
" Holy is God who has opened the door of
mercy for those who fast, and in mercy and
kindness has granted them the right of en-
Irance into heaven. God is greater than all.
There is no God .save Him. God is great '
God is great I and worthy of praise. It is of
His grace and favour that He rewards those
'ho keep the fast. He has said: 'I will
give in the future world houses and palaces,
and many excellent blessings to those who
fast. God is great ! God i« great ! Holy is
He who certainly sent the Qur'an to our Pro
phet in the month of Ram a* an, and who sends
angels to grant peace to all troe believers..
God is great I and worthy of all praise. We
praise and thank Him for the 'Idn 1-Fitr,
that great blessing ; and we testify that be-
ride Him there is no God. He is alone. He
bts no partner. This witness which we give
to Hi« Unity will be a cause of our safety
here, and finally gain us an entrance to. Para
dise. Muhammatf (on whom be the mercy
and peace of God) and all famous prophets
are Hi* slaves. He is the Lord of genii and
of men. From Him comes mercy and peace
upon Muhammad and his family, so long as
the world shall last. God is greater than all.
Thern is none beside Him. God is great!
God is great I and worthy of all praise. O
sompany of Believers, O congregation of
Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on
pou. He says that this Feast day is a bless
ing" to you, and a curse to the unbelievers.
Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your
prayers will be stayed in their flight to hea
ven until you have given the $adaqah. 0 con-
jregation of Believers, to give alms is to. you
a wajib duty. Give to the poor some mea
sures of grain or its money equivalent. Your
duty in Ramazan was to say the TarawTh
prayers, to make supplication to God, to sit
md meditate (i'tilcaf) and to read the Qur'an.
The religious duties of the first ten days of
tlamazan gain the mercy of God, those of the
second ten merit His pardon ; whilst those of
-he last ten save those who do them from
ihe punishment of hell. God has declared
ihat Ramazan is a noble month, for is not one
of its nights, the Lailatu '1-Qadr, better than a
thousand months? On that night Gabriel
and the angels descended from heaven: till
the morning breaks it is full of blessing. Its
eloquent interpreter, and its clearest proof is
;he Qur'au, the Word of God, most Gracious.
floly is God who says in the Qur'an : « This
at a guide for men, u distinguisher between
right and wrong.' O Believers, in such a
month be present, obey the order of your
God, and fast ; but let the sick and the tra
vellers substitute some other days on which
fast, so that no days be lost, and say : ' God
B great,! ' and praise Him. God has made
;he fast easy for yon. O Believers, God will
alesa you and us by the grace of the Holy
Qur'an. Kvery verse of it is a benefit to us
and fills us with wisdom. God is the Be-
itower, the Holy King, the Munificent, the
Kind, the Nourishes, the iMerciful, the Cle
ment."
The Ktjutbah being ended, the whole con-
'IDU 'L-FITR
195
gregation raise their hands and offer a mtnd-
jdt for the remission of sins, the recovery of
the sick, increase of rain, abundance of corn,
preservation from misfortune, and freedom
from debt. The Imam then descends to the
ground, and makes further supplication for
the people, the congregation saying " Amln "
at the end of each supplication. At the close
of the service the members of the congrega
tion salute and embrace eac*h other, and offer
mutual congratulations, and then return to
their homes, and spend the rest of the day in.
feasting and merriment.
Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali, in her Observation*
on the Musalmans of Jndta, says : —
" The assemblies of the ladies on this fes
tival are marked by all the amusements and
indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy
in their secluded state. Some receiving,
others paying visits in covered conveyances ;
all doing honour to the day by wearing their
best jewellery and most splendid dress. The
Zananah rings with festive songs and loud
music, the cheerful meeting of friends, the
distribution of presents to dependants, and re
membrances to the poor; all is life and joy,
cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy
day of festival, when the good lady of the
mansion sits in state to receive presents from
inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to
others."
Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptian*. voL ii.
p. 238, thus describes the 'Idu '1-Fitr, as
kept in Egypt :—
" Soon after sunrise on the first day, the
people having all dressed in new, or in their
best clothes, the men assemble in the
mosques, and perform the prayers of two
rek'ahs, a Soonneh ordinance of the 'eed ;
after which, the Khateeb delivers an exhorta
tion. Friends, meeting in the mosque, or in
the street, or in each other's houses, congra
tulate and embrace and kiss each other. They
generally visit each other for this purpose.
Rome, even of the lower classes, dress them*
selves entirely in a new suit of clothes, and
almost everyone wears something new, if it be
only a pair of shoes. The servant is presented
with at least one new article of clothing by
the master, and receives a few piasters from
each of his master's friends, if they visit the
house ; or even goes to those friends to con
gratulate them, and receives his present ; if
he have served a former master, he also visits
him, and is in like manner rewarded for his
trouble ; and sometimes he brings a present
of a dish of sweet cakea, and obtains, in re
turn, money of twice the value, or more. On
the days of this 'eed, most of the people of
Cairo eat salted fish, and thin, folded pan
cakes, and a kind of bun. Some families also
prepare a dish consisting of stewed meat/,
with onions, and a quantity of treacle, vine
gar, and coarse flour; and the master usually
procures dried fruits, such as nuts, raisins,
Ac., for his family. Most of the shops in thn
metropolis are closed, except those at which
eatables and sherbet are sold ; but the street?
present a gay appearance, from the crowds
of passengers in their holiday clothes
196
'TPTT 'L-F.TTB
;< On, one or more days of this festival, somo
or all of the members of most families, but
chiefly the -women, visit the tombs of their
relatives. This they also do on the occasion
of the other grand festival. [<JDU 'I/-AZHA.]
The visitors, or their servants, carry pnlrn
branches, and sometimes sweet basil, to lay
upon the tomb which they go to visit. The
palm-branch is broken into several pieces,
and these, or the leaves only, are placed on
the tomb.
"Numerous groups of women are seen on
these occasions, bearing1 palm-branches, on
their -way to tbe cemeteries in the neighbour
hood of the metropolis. They are also pro
vided, according to their circumstances, with
cakes, bread, dates, or some oth-^r kind of
food, to distribute to the poor who resort to
the burial-ground on tbese days. Sometimes
tents are pitched for thon-< : the tents sur
round the tomb which, is the' object of tbe
visit- The visitors vecite the Fat'hhah, or,
if they can afford it, employ a. person to recite
first the Soorat Ya'-F?oen, or a larger portion
of the Kuran. Often a kkutmeh (or recital of
the whole of the Quran) in performed at the
tomb, or in tLe house, by several fickees.
Then men generally return immediately after
these rites have been performed, and the frag
ments or leav"; of ti»e palm-branch laid on
the tomb : the wonirn usually go lo the tomb
early in the morning, and do not return until
the afternoon ; some of them (but these are
not generally esteemed women of correct
conduct), if they h.ave a tent, pass the night
in it, and remain until the end of the festi
val, or until the afternoon of* the following
Friday; so, too, do the women of a family
possessed of a private, enclosed, burial-
ground, with a house within it. for there are
many such enclosures, and not a few with
houses for the accommodation of the females
in the midst of the public cemeteries of
Cairo. Intrigues are said to be not uncom
mon with the females who spend the night in
tents among the tombs. The great cemetery
.of Bab eri-Nusr, in the desert tract imme
diately on the north of the metropolis-, pre
sents a remarkable scene on the two 'eeds.
In a part next ;1 he city-gate from which the
burial-ground takes its name, many swings
nnd whirligigs avo erected, and several large
nents, in some of which dancers, reciters of
Aboo-Xeycl. ivrid other performers, amuse a
denso crowd of spectators : and throughout
the burial-ground are seen numerous tents
for the reception of the visitors of the tombs.
About two or three days after the 'eed above
described, the ' Kisweb,' or covering of the
Kaaheh. which IP sent annually with the
great caravan of pilgrims, .is conveyed in pro
cession from the citadel of the metropolis,
where it is manufactured at the Sooltan's
expen.se> to the mesquo of the Hbasaneyn,
to be sewed together u«d lined, preparatively
to the approaching pilgrimage." [KTSWAIL]
The visiting of tombs on the occasion of
the two festivals is net a custom in India.
II is generally done in the Mnharram, both
bv ihp Sv WM'S and tbe *Sbi'nbs
IH8AN
'1FFAH (&*). "Chastity, conti
nence, purity." Ahlu 'iffhh, "those who ar«-
chaste,''
'IFRTT («>»/c). A demon, or class
of demons, mentioned in the Quran (Surah
xxvii. 81'). They are said to be giants, and
very malicious. The ghosts of the wicked
dead are .sometimes called by this name.
[GESH]
IFTAR (j^\). it*. "Breaking."
Breaking the month's fast 'on the evening of
the ;ldu "l-Fitr, that is, at the first sight oi
the new inoon, after sunset. It is also used
for breaking the fast overy evening after sun
set during the month of Ilainazan. It is, ac
cording to the example of the Prophet, to
brea,k the fast by eating either dates or suit.
IHDAD (^^.). The period of
mourning observed by a widow for her hus
band, namely, four months and ten d;iys.
[MOURNING.]
IHLAL ( JJM). Lit. " Raising the
voice." A term used for the Talbiyah.
[TA1.BIYAH.]
IHRAM (f%yt). Lit. "Prohibit-
ing." The pilgrim's dress, and also the state
in which the pilgrim is held to be from tho
time he assumes this distinctive garb until
he lays it aside. It consists of two new
white cotton cloths, each six feet long by
three a»d a half broad. One of these sheets,
termed ridff is thrown over the back, and,
exposing the arm and shoulder, is knotted at
the right side in the style called wisftu.fr.
The other, called war. is wrapped round the
loins from the waist to the knee, and knotted
or tucked in at the middle.
In the state of ihram, the pilgrim is for
bidden the following actions : connection with
or kissing women^ covering the face, per
fumes hunting or slaying animals, anoint
ing the head with oil, cutting the beard or
shaving the head, colouring the clothes, wash
ing the bead or beard with marsh mallows,
cutting the nails, plucking a blade of grass,
cutting a green tree. But although the pil
grim is not allowed to hunt or elay animals,
he may killjthe following noxious creatures:
: a lion, a biting dog, a snake or scorpion, a
crew, a kite, and a rat. For each offence
against the rules of ihram, special sacrifices
are ordained, according to the offence.
[JIA.JJ ]
IHSAN (el~*A). Lit. "To confer
favours, or to perform an action in a perfect
manner."' A term used in the Traditions for
the sincere worship of God. Muhammad
said Ihsdn was "both to worship God a? if
thou sawest Him, and to remember that God
seest thee," (Miskkat, book i. eh. i. pt. 1.)
The word is used in this sense by the §ufi
mystics. ('Abdu V-RazzaqV Diet, of Sufi
Terms.)
IHSAN (0U^). Lit " Keeping a
wife secluded ' A legal term for a married
man tHidowl vol. ii. p. 49,)
THSABU 'L-HAJJ
'L-HA.JJ (s^ jl~t). The
hindering of the Pilgrimage. For example :
If a pilgrim be stopped on his way by any
unforjtirteen circumstance, such as sickness or
accident, he is required to send an animal to
be sacrificed at the Sacred City.- (Hidayah,
Arabic ed., voL i. p. 184.) This injunction is
founded upon tbe teaching of the Qur'fni,
Surah ii. 102. •' And if he be prevented, then
sond whatever offering shall be easiest: and
shave not your heads \mtil tbe oft'oring reach
the place of sacrifice. But whoever amoug
you is sick, or hath an ailment of the head,
must r.-xpiato by fasting, or alms, 'or a victim
for sacrifice. And when ye are secure (from
Kindrances) then he who delights in ihe visi
tation (•Umruli) of the holy place until the
Pilgrimage, shall bring whatever offering shall
be the easiest. But he who hath nothing to
offer shall fast three days in the Pilgrimage
and seven days when yc return : they shall
be ken days in all."
Hoarding up
grain with the object of raising the price.
Used for monopoly of all kinds. Abu Hani-
fah restricts its rise to a monopoly of tho
necessaries of life. It is strictly forbidden
by Muhammad, who is related to have said:
" Whoever monopoliseth is a "inner " : •'* Those
who bring grain to a city to sell at a cheap"
rate are blessed, and they who keep it back
in order to spll at a high rate are cursed."
(Mishkat, book xii. ch, viii.)
IHTTLAM (r^t). Pollvtin nor-
tnrna ; after which ghusl, or legal bathing, is
absolutely necessary. [PURIFICATION.]
1HTIMAM (rUx&\). "Superin
tendence ; care." The trust or jurisdiction of
a landowner over certain portions of hi ml'.'
IliYAU 'L-MAWAT («>^ .W).
Ut. "The rovival of dead lands." A legal
term for the cultivation of wastes.
IHZAR (j^-^). .A summons citing
to appear before a QazI or Judge.
TJAB (s^VJ). 'The first proposal
made by one of the parties in negotiating 01
concluding a bargain. [MARRIAGE.]
IJARAH (3»W\). Price, hire, wages,
rent, profit* emolument, according to the su«»
ject to which it applies. [HIKE.]
IJMA< (£W\). The third founda
tion of Islam. It literally means " collecting,"
or "assembling," .and in Muslim divinity it
expresses the unanimous consent of the Muj-
tahidun (learned doctors) ; or, as we should
call H. " the unanimous consent of the
Fathers." A Mujtabid is a Muslim divine of
I he highest degree of learning, a title usually
conferred by Muslim rulers. [MU.TTAHITX]
There are three foundations of [jma* : (1}
/V<(/<7<y-j-CJ«ie/t, unanimous consent expressed
in doclaration of opinion ; (2) [ttifo-^-i-F^li
expressed in unanimity ef/rocnipe; (3)
TJTTHAD 197
| i~Su/xtft, when tho majority of the Mujtahidtin
signitie-l their tacit assent to the opinions of
tbe Tiiinority by " nlpni-f. " or non-intei-forencr..
Tlji- Mujtahidun capable of m«kin;f Ijmn
must be '* rnen of learning and piety, not
heretics, nor fool«, but men of judgment/'
There is great diversity of opinion as to up
to what pori'»d in the history of Islam Ijma:
can be accepted. Some doctors assert that
only tiio ////*</• of the Mujtahidun who were
Af>hfi'h (companions^ ; others, that of those
who wore not only '• companions " but •' de
scendants" of the ''Prophet." can be ar-
''eptod: whilst others accept tho Jjwa" of tbe
Ansar& (lielpers). »nd of tne ''Afn/iaiirun (fugi-
tivos). \vlio were dwellers in al-Madinab with
Miilunamad. The majority of learned Muslim
divines, ho svever. appear to think that /;>/i^>
may be collected in every age, although thf-y
admit that, owing to the numerous divisions
whicb hnvo arisen amongst Muhamniadans,
it lid.* net been possible since the days of -the
'J't'-bti'it 'i-Tabr:n (jf.e. the followers cf tb-.-
followers of tlie Companions).
The following is considered to be the rela
tive value of '/jw a" : —
That of tho A?li'~tl> (companions) is equal
to Ifwlls Miiiawatir. That which was de
cided afterwards, but in accordance with tho
unanimous opinion of the Ashab, is equal to
ffadls - i - Khabar -i - Mcukkttr, and thai upon
which there was diversity of opinion amongst
tho Ashdb, but has since beon deci-lod by the
later Mujtahidfm ia equal to Jfadl$-i-K]i(ibar'i*
\Vrihid. (See Synd Ahmad Khan's Essay "1
Some European writers confuse the term
.//out' with l/'tihatl But Ijtihdd is the de
duction made by a single Mujtahid, whilst
Jjmn' is the collective opinion of a council of
Mnjtfthidfin, or enlightened doctors.
Amoogat the ShiSihs there are still Muj
tahidun whose lima* i.s accepted, but the
tSuntiif. have four oi*thodox schools of in
terpretation, named after their -respective
founders — Hanafi, Shafa'i, Malaki, and Ham-
bali. The Wahhabl-s for -the most part rejoc<
//V//<2' collected after the death of "tho
Companions,"
It will be easily understood what a fruittul
source of religious dissension and secUriaf.
strife this third foundation of tbe rul« o{
faith is. Divided as the Christian Church is
by its numerous sects, it will compaie fa
vourably with Muhammadanism even in this
respont." Muhammad, it is related, prophesied
that, as the Jewish Church had been divided
into seventy-one sects I and the Christiana
into seventy -two ! so his followers would be
divided into seventy-throe sects 1 But every
Muslim historian is obliged to admit that
they have far exceeded the limits of Mu
hammad's prophecy ; for, according to 'Abdu
'l-Qadir aUJilani, there are at least 160.
[JTIHAD {A«j6*t);. Lit. "Exer-
tion." Tho logical deduction on a legal or
theological question by a Mnjtahid or learned
and enlightened doctor, as distinguished from
fjnitr, which in the collective opinion of a
council of divines.
198
IJTIHAD
This method of attaining to a certain degree
of authority in searching into the principles
of jurisprudence is sanctioned by the Tra.-
ditions :—
" The Prophet wished to send a man named
Mu*az to al- Yaman to receive some money col
lected for alms, which he was then to distri
bute to the poor. On appointing him he said :
'OMu'iiz, by what rule will you act?' He
replied,. 'By the Law of the Qur'an.' ' But
it you find no direction therein?1 'Then I
will act according to the Sunnah of the
Prophet.' ' But what if that fails ? ' • Then
I will make an Ijtihdd, and act on that.' The
Prophet raised his hands and said, * Praise
be to God who guides the messenger of His
Prophet in what He pleases.'4'
The growth of this system of divinity is
traced by a Sunni writer, Mirza Qasim Beg,
Professor in the University of St. Petersburg
(extracts from which are given in Sell1!? Faith
of Islam), as follows : —
1. God. the only legislator, has snown the
way of felicity to the people whom He has
chosen, and in order to enable them to walk
in that way He has shown to them the pre
cepts which are found partly in the eternal
Quran, and partly in the sayings of the
Prophet transmitted to posterity by the Com
panions and preserved in the Sucnah. That
way is called the Shari'ah (law). The rules
thereof are called Ahkam (commandments).
2. The Qur'an and the Sunnah, which since
their manifestation are the primitive sources
of the orders of the Law, form two branches
of study, viz. 'Ihn-i-TafsIr, or the interpreta
tion of the Qnr'an,- and 'Ihn-i-Hadis, or the
study of Tradition.
3. * All the orders of the Law have regard
either to the actions (Din), or to the belief
(Iman) of the faithful (Mukallif).
4. As the Qur'an and the Sunuah are. the
principal sotirceg from whence the precepts
of the Shari'ah have been drawn, so the rules
recognised as the principal elements of actual
jurisprudence aria the subject of 'Hm-i-Fiqh,
or the science of Law.
Piqh in its root signifies " conception, com-
pi*ehension." Thus Muhammad prayed- for
Ibn Mas'ud: "May God make him compre
hend (Faqqaka4u?L and make him know the
interpretation of the Qur'an." Muhammad in
his quality of Judge and chief of the Believers
decided, .without appeal or contradiction, all
the aft'airg of the people.- His sayings served
as a guide to the Companions. After the
death of the Prophet the first ^halifahs acted
on the authority of the Traditions. Mean
while the Qur'an and the. Sunnah, the principal
elements of religion and legislation, became
little by little the subject of controversy.
It was then that men applied themselves
vigorously to the task of learning by heart
the Qur'an and the Traditions, and then that
jurisprudence became a separate science. No
science had as yet been systematically taught,
and the early Musalmans did not possess
hooks which would serve for such teaching.
A change soon, however, took place. In the
year in which the great jurisconsult of Syria.
IJTIHAD
died (A.H. 80), Nu'man ibn Sabit, snrnamed
Abu Jtlanifah, waff born. He is the most
celebrated of the founders of the schools of
jurisprudence, a science which ranks first in
all Muslim seats of learning. Until that time
and for thirty years later the learned doctors
had all their knowledge by heart, and those
who posses sred good memories "were highly
esteemed. Many of them knew by heart the
whole Qur'an with the comments made on it
by the Prophet and by the Companions ; they
also knew the Traditions and their explana
tions, and all the commands which proceed
from the Qur'an and the Sunnah. Such xmen
enjoyed the right of Mnjtahidun. They
transmitted their knowledge to their scholars
orally. It w/as not till towards the middle of
the second century of the Hijrah that treatises
on the different branches of the Law were
written, after which six schools (Muzhabs) of
jurisprudence were formed. The founders (all
Emams of the first class) were Abu Hanifah,
the Imaniu, '1-A'zam or greatest Imam (A.H.
150), Sufyan as-Sanrl (A.H. 161), Malik (A.H.
179), ash-Shafi'i (A.H. 204), Ibn Hanbal (A.H.
241), and the Imam Dawud az-gahiri (AJff.
270). The two sects founded by as-S.auri and
a?-Zahiri became extinct in the eighth cen
tury oif the Hijrah, The other four still remain.
These men venerated one another. The
younger ones speak with great respect of the
elder. Thus ash-Shafi'i £ays: "No one in
the world was so well versed in jurisprudence
as Abu Hanifah was, and he who has read
I neither his works nor those of his disciples
knows nothing of jurisprudence." IbnHaubaf,
when sick, wore a shirt which had' belonged to
ash-Shafi'I, in order that he might be cured
of his malady ; but all this did not prevent
them starting schools of their own, for the
right of Ijtihdd is granted to those who are
real Mujtahidun.
There are three degrees of Ijtihdd:
1. IjtihadfVsh-Shai*! absolute independence
in legislation.
2. Ijtihdd ft 'l-Mazhab, authority in the ju
dicial systems founded by the Mujtahidun of
the first class.
3. Ijtihad fVl'Masffil,, authority in cases
which have not been decided by the authors
of the four systems of jurisprudence.
The first is called a complete and absolute
authority, the second relative, the third
special.
(1; Ijtihdd fVsh-Skar'.
Absolute independence in legislation is the
gift of God. He to whom it is given when
seeking to discover the meaning of the Divine
Law is not bound to follow any other teacher.
He can use his own judgment. This gift was
bestowed on the jurisconsults of the first, and
to some; of the second and third centuries.
The Companions, however, who were closely
connected with the Prophet, having trans
mitted immediately to their posterity the
treasures of legislation, are looked upon as
Mujtahidun of much higher authority than
those of the second and third cenfcoriep. Thus
Abu Hanifah says ;' " That which comes to us
IJTIHAD
from the Companions is on our head and eyes
(i.e. to be received with respect): as to that
which comes from the Tftbi'un, they are men
and we are men."
Since the time of the Tabi'un this degree
of Mujtahid has only been conferred on the
six gre^t Imams before mentioned. Theoreti
cally any Muslim can attain to this degree, but
i it is one of the principles of jurisprudence
that the confirmation of this rank is depen
dent on many conditions, and so no one now
gain* the honour. These conditions are : —
1. The knowledge of the Qur'an and all
that is related to it ; that is to say, a com
plete knowledge of Arabic literature, a pro
found acquaintance with the orders of the
Qur'an and all their sub-divisions, their
i relationship to each other and their connec-
> tion with the orders of the Sunnah. The
candidate should know when and why each
verse of the Qur'an was written, he should
have a perfect acquaintance with the literal
meaning of the words, the speciality or gene
rality of each clause, the abrogating and
abrogated sentences. He should be able to
make clear the meaning of the " obscure "
• passages (Mvtashalih\ to discriminate be-
| tween the literal and the allegorical, the
universal and the particular.
2. He must know the Qur'an by heart with
all the Traditions and explanations.
3. He must have a perfect knowledge of
the Traditions, or at least of three thousand
of them.
He must know their source, history, ob-
| ject, and their connection with the laws of the
Qur'an. He should know by heart the most
important Traditions.
4. A pious and austere life.
6. A profound knowledge of all the sciences
of the Law.
Should anyone now aspire to such A
degree another condition would be added,
viz. : —
6. A complete knowledge of the four schools
of jurisprudence.
The obstacles, then, are almost insurmount
able. On the one hand, there is the severity
of the 'Ulatna', which requires from the can
didate things almost impossible ; on the other,
there is the attachment of the 'Ulama' to their
own Imams, for should such a man arise no
one is bound now to listen to him. The Imam
Ibn Hanbal said : " Draw your knowledge
from whence the Imams drew theirs, and do
not content yourself with following others, for
that is certainly blindness of sight* Thus
the schools of the four Imams remain intact
after a thousand years have passed, ;m<l ,sc
the 'Ulama' recognise since the time of these
Imams no Mujtahid of the first degree, Ibn
Hanbal wan the last.
The rights of the man who attained to this
degree were very important. He. was not
bound to be a disciple of another, he was a
mediator between the Law and his followers,
for whom he established a system of legisla
tion, without anyone having the right to
make any objection. He had the right to
explain the Qur'an, the Suuuah, and the
IKHLAS
199
Ijma', according as he understood them. He
used the Prophet's words, whilst his disciples
only used his. Should a disciple find some
discrepancy between a decision of his o\vn
Imam and the Qur'an or Traditions, he must
abide by the decision of the Imam. The Law
does not permit him to interpret after his own
fashion. When once the disciple has entered
the sect of one Imam he cannot leave it and
join another. He loses the right of private
judgment, for only a Mujtahid of the first
class can dispute the decision of one of the
Imams. Theoretically, such Mujtahidun may
still arise; but, as we have already shown,
practically they do not.
(2.) Tjtihadfl 'l-Afazhab.
This degree has been granted to the imme
diate disciples of the great Imams who have
elaborated the systems of their masters. They
enjoyed the special consideration of the con
temporary 'Ulama', and of their, respective
Imams who in some cases have allowed them
to retain their own opinion. The moat famous
of these men are the two disciples of Abu
Hamfah, Abu Yiisuf, and Muhammad ibn
al- Hasan, In a secondary matter their opinion
carries great weight. It, IB laid down as a
rule that a Mufti .may follow the unanimous
opinion of these two even when H goes against
that of Abu Hamfah.
(8.) Ijtihadfl 'l-Ma»ffil.
This is the degree of special independence,
The candidates for it should have a perfect
knowledge of all the branches of jurispru
dence according to the four schools of the
Arabic language and literature. They can
solve cases which come before them, giving
reasons for their judgment, or decide on cases
which have riot been settled by previous Muj
tahidun ; but in either case their decisions
must always be in absolute accordance with
the opinions of the Mujtahidun of the first and
second classes, and with the principles which
guided them. Many of these men attained great
celebrity during their lifetime, but to most
of them this rank is not accorded till after
their death. Since their Imam Qazi Khan died
(A.H. 592), no one has been recognised by the
Sunnis as a Mujtahid even of the third class.
There are three other inferior classes of
jurists, called Muqalliduu, or followers of the
Mujtahidun ; but all that the highest in rank
amongst them can do is to explain obscure
passages in the writings of the older juriscon
sults. By some of the 'Ulama' they are con
sidered to be equal to the Mujtahid un of the
third class, if there are several conflicting
le^a.1 opinions on any point, they 'can select
one opinion on which to base their decision.
This a meie Qazi cannot' do. In such a case
he would have to reier to these inon or to
their writings for guidance. They seem to
have written oorumentaries on the legal sys
tems without originating anything new. The
author of the fftdayah, who lived at the end
of the sixth century, was a Muqallid.
Ut. "Sincerity."
(1) A theological term, implying that a Mus-
200
IKRAH
firm performs his religious acts in the sight of
God alone, and not to bo seen of men. (2)
Al-Ckhlas, the title of the cxiith Surah of the
Qur'an. A chapter which occurs in the daily
prayer, and reads thus : —
'• Say, ' Ho is God alone !
God the Eternall
He begets not, and is not begotten !
Nor is* there anyone like unto him ! ' "
Professor Prflmer says • this chapter is
generally known as a?-fkKt-a$, " clearing one
self," t.e. of belief in an but one God.
IKRAH
COMPULSION.
'1KEIMAH (&<•]&). Lit. " A hen
pigeon."5 The son of Abu Jahl ibn Hisham.
A " companion " of the Prophet. He em
braced fslam after the final taking of Mak-
kah. For some years he and his father,
Abu Jahl, were determined opponents of
is lain. He was one of the heroes of the
Q.iiraish at the battle of Badr, and com
manded the left wing of the Quraish army
at Uhud. He opposed the Prophet's advance
on Makkah, and on defeat fled to Jiddah,
intending to escape to Africa, but he was
brought back by his wife to Makkah, and
received pardon from Muhammad, and em
braced Islam. lie became one of Abu Bakrs
generals, and died in his reign.
'IKBIMAH (**/*). Abu 'Abdi
'Hah 'Ikrimah ibn vVbdi 'llah, was a slave
Belonging to Jbn 'Abbas. His master took
great pains to leach him the Qur'an and the
Traditions, and consequently he i* known as
;i traditionist of some note. His master, Ibn
•\bbas, died without giving him his liberty.
and -All the son of Ibn 'Abfeas sold him to
FChalirl ibn Yazid for four thousand 'dinars.
Bat 'Ikrhnah wont to 'All and said, " You
have sold your fathers learning for four thou
sand dinars ! " Upon this, 'AH, being ashamed,
obtained Khalid's consent to annul tho bargain,
and ho granted 'Ikrimah his liberty. He died
4.H. 107 (X.D. 725), aged 84.
ILA' (»!M). A form of divorce io
which a man makes a vow that he will not
have connection with his wife for not less
than four months and observes it invio
late. The divorce is thereby effected ipso
/acto, without a decree of separation from the
judge. Sec Quran, Suratu U-Baqarah, ii. 226 :
'••' Those who swear off from their women,
they must wait four months ; but if they
break their -vow, God is forgiving and merci
ful."
Sulaiman ibn Yasar says : i; I was in com
pany with about ten of the Prophet's Com-
panions, and every one said, 'A man who
swears that he will not go near his wife for
four months shall be imprisoned until he
return to her, or he shall divorce her.'"
(Afishkat, book xiii. ch. xiii.)
ILAHI (<j*\). From Ildh, "God."
(I) That which is divine, e.g. ad-dlnu 'l-Ildhi,
the divine religion. (2) Ildhl is also used for
the era instituted by tho Emperor Akbar,
commencing with the lirst year of his reign,
A.H. 963, A.D. 155G. Although found on the
coins of Akbar and his immediate suc
cessors, it never obtained currency, and is
now obsolete.
PLAN (o^). Publishing the
notice of marriage by sending messengers to
the houses of friends. A custom which ia
founded upon the express injunction of tJhe
Prophet, as reported by 'Ayishah: "Give
iioticeof marriages, perform them in mosques,
and boat drums for them." (Mishkat. book
xiii. ch. iv. pt. 2.)
1LHAM
1 LAH (<dl). An object of worship
or adoration ; i.e. a god. or deity. The term
/!//«/(, "God," fceing liah with tho definite
article J\ «/, i e. oMfah < the God."
[INSPIRATION.]
AL-ILHAMU 'R-RABBANI
(<^5*y\ f^iSK). [INSPIRATION.]
ILI/EGITIMATB CHILDREN.
AIJ illegitimate child, Arabic waladu "z-zinS
(»UJ\ <-'^5)» hfts ^egaliy n° father, and a pu
tative father is, therefore, excluded from the
custody of such a child. The child only in
herits from its mother and the mother's
relations, who hi return inherit from him
(Ttigore Law Lectures, 1873t pp. 123, 488.)
•TLLIYUN (tpale). The seventh
stage of eelestial bliss. . Also the register iu
which the good deeds of Muslims are said to
be written. See Suratu 't-Tatf If , Ixxxiii. 1 8 :
" The register of the righteous is in 'Illiyim."
Sec also Jfta£feil,book v. ch. iii. pt. 3: *» The
nngels follow it (the soul) through each
heaven, and the angels of ono region pass it
on to the next until it reaches the seventh
heaven, when God says, ' Write the name of
iny servant in '///iya/i, and return. him to the
earth, that is. to his body which is buried in
the earth."
<ILM (fl*). Lit. "To know;
knowledge." In Muslim theology, the word !
'.///« is always used for religious knowledge.
f Abrlu '1-Haqq says it is the knowledge of re
ligion as expressed in "the Book " (Qnr'an) and
the " Sunnah " (Traditions), aiid is of twd
kinds, '•llmu 'l-Mabadl, elementary knowledge,
or that relating to the v-ords and sentences
of the Qnr'an and Hadis ; and '7///m 'l-Ma-
ydstd, perfected knowledge, or .that relating
to faith and works, as taught in the Qur'an
nnd JiadiB. There is also '///«« 'l-Muka-
i/tdfah, revealed knowledge, or that secret
knowledge, or light, which shines into the
heart of the pious Muslim, whereby he be
comes enlightened as to the truths of religion.
This spiritual knowledge is also called '//;««/
'l-Haqiqak, or tho knowledge of the truth. It
is related (Mi#hkdt, book ii. ch. i. Arabic ed.)
that the Prophet said 'llm is of three kinds,
&unnatu Y-QoYm, and
Farizat-a 'l-'Adil, and that whatever is be
yond these three is not necessary. The
learned doctors explain these terms as fol-
'L-APAB
1 1 Iowa: Aydtu 'l-Muhkain, fh« estiibhsued text
f | or vprses of the Quran; Sv.m.n/tt "f-^tftm,
• the correct Ahadis ov Tmdifions : and f-ai't.-
ffl zatit 'l-^Adit, the lawful interpretation of the
j Quran und the Traditions.
'The acquisition nnd the imparting of rob-
I gions knowledge is very highJy rormnondod
• t)y MuhamniHd (see Mishkniu '/-Ma-sir/rifi. j»
|| /ocr>) • -
*« The deviro of knowh;d£e is a divine conn-
|! rnnnduient for every Mnslim. ami to instruct
I in knowledge those vho »ro ujiworthy of it.
I i* like putting pearls, jewel*. and ^roM on tlu-
oeck.s of *wine."
"Whoever is asked about lh<» fcno»*ied»f,
I which he hath, and conoealeth it, will be
1 1 reined with a bridle of Hi-o oi» thw Day of
|i Resurrection."
'•• Thovo arc two avaricious porsons i but y ve
• never satisfied : one of them in knowledge, -tbf
I aiore he attains the more, lie desires ; the
I oilier of 1ho world, vrith the things »>f which
i In: is Mpver'j-.Mti.sn'ad."
• That person who will pursue the road of
I knowledge, Ghxt u'ill direct him to the road of
li Paradise ; and verily tho angels spread their
I arms to receive him that seokoth. utter know-
| Icu^c ; aud every|hing iu heaven and
\/ill ask sfi-ace ifoi him. Verily ^he
riority of a learned man ov-er a ^v
U like that of the full mc-oii over all the- stars.1
H..MIJ
HADJS
201
ILMfJ 'L-ADAB (**»& ^). The
science of Philology. In tfajji KM /ah,
wMtfcon, vol. i p. 215, 'quoted by Lano, it is
'*<he science by which OHO guards against
erroc in the language of the Ai'a.hb, with
respoci lii words and v^itii respect to writing
The a«ienot> o( polite writing is cla>si?d
under iweltro head.! : \Juyltah, lexicology ; 'f<
s«ff aoeidence ; M, ishtiqdq. derivation : -',
nu.hu>, syntax ; 5. •ma.'dni, sense or weaning; 0,
fayon; loquoiH'f : 7. '</ruir, prosody; 8, qdj iyahi
rttyrne; '•),f(f$mt/ V -'khntt. oaligraphy; 10, -/«r2
v.ih-slnii , vcr&ificJtion ; 11, ii^ho'u 'n-nai-r.
pro=ie coin)»ositioxi : 12. inuhdsarnti, dictatiou.
These soctionv arc regarded o s distinct sciences.
11LMU 'L-AKHLAQ (^^ r*^)-
Ethics; morals. The beat-known works on
the siiliject are the Persian works --the
Akktnq* i - Jtilali, l»y Faqfr Jam Muhain-
mud, A.U, 1)08. which has been translated
into luijflish. with references and notes, by
W. F. Thompson, En*,. (Loudon, 1^39); the
AMtjfufj -t-Nnitri, by Nas'iru M-di'n a.t-Tusi,
K..H /i72 ; xnd the AtcMaq-i- Muhfiiu by the
Mnulrtw? llusaiji a|-K;:shifi (Husain the coi»-
rnejitolor), A.M. i>!0.
TLMTJ 'L-AKTA.F (v^L^^ ,^lc).
The science of divining1 hy the suoulder-
bladps oi bhe»?p. It was live Mistom of the
ancient Aisbs vo plo.ce the shoulder-bond ef
» ilipcp in the sun, and to eKarnine it, and
*o divine by i'S inaikv futui-e events, in the
same way p* by the srieuc'; at palmistry.
(Ktiskfu 'z Zunirn, in loco.)
'ILMU 'I
[VJLMU 'r.-K(S.LAM.j
'ILMU/L- ASM A' (^^-S\ ^). The
km.'wledj^of tl.i« nnnips. littr-s. or iittribuies
0( God. (OOD, /.IK.R. MJFIIMM.J
'ILMU 'J, BATJN (^U*, ^). The
rnv^lu st-iiMice : tho iam« \»? Tnsawwnf.
ILMU 'L-FALAK
•!<'.iunco of Avlionorny. According to tho Mu
tho e.vrlh is i ho ctMitre of the
syr;lem. The s<-v"eu plauot^
called t)ie nujtimL 's-saiytiritl a»'
^an«lciihi«f pt.iix-. u« dis'tin^uiKh(>d froiir lixed
stars, arc 1. Ojmnur. Moon. 2, ' (J I arid, "Mri1
cnry •. 3. Xnhrab, Vftnns •, 4, .SAftms, Sun : ;j
MirriM, Mars ; G. Mm/it«n, Jupiter : ?, ^T»A/i/
Saturn
TliR Arahj^n arrangement of the ptancts is
i hat of Ptolemy, who placed the earth in the
centre of the universe, and nearest io it thf
moon, whoso synodic revolution i« th.^ shortesl
of all, being {•eriormod in 29 J (ia/s. .Vesct to
the itioon he placed Morcury. who returns to
ma -jouju notions in llf> vlayn. Alter Mercury
followed Venue, who.-^ ]>eriotlirt tjnift i.« 584-
ifiys. Beyond Venn* he placed tho aim, then
Mars, next Jupiter, and lastly hJttturn, uev
nrhich are the iitfed stars.
The sigiw of me /.odiac
are called : I , Mamu-L Kaxn ; 2. ^"''r Bull .
'J, Juuzo', Twins : 4, Suralan, Crah ; 5. Asud
Lion ; t", StsrtbcUah (fit. an eaiv^f cum), Virgin;
T. Mflzan, Scales ; S. \ijntb. Scorpion j 9, -ftflf«j
^bo^r ). Archer : 10, Judy (he-joat), Capricorn \
II, Dalw (watcri.iuT-pot). Aquarius ; 12. //«/,
Fish
The law of inheritance |i.Nii£iuTANrre. j
MLMU'L~F1QO (**& ^\ Juris-
prudence ; and the knowledge of <»|l sabiects
roMUftcffd with practical Jflioum hi the first
place, 1'iqli deals with the (iv? pillars of
ptaciical religion . 1, the recital of the creed ;
2. prayer; 2, fasting ; 4, uikut or alui'.^tviug •.
!>, A«if// or pilgrimnj/c ; and in tho second pl*< t-
"ith all questjons of jarispnulcnce sut-h a»>
marriage, divorce, inheritance, «<»1«>. evidonce.
f- la very. pHHnership, vrnrture, Ac. &c.
f he c-hief Sunni works on t he .••.nh)ec>.i are ;
Of the tlanafi sect, the ffiduya/t, the Fntawti
i-'Afamtfiii. tbt /^'//vy 'l-.\i>ilrhhlor, and RmlJv
'l-Mvhtar\ of the ^hafi'T au«.l Malaki sect.".
the JK.itdbv'1-A nwar, the 3/u/u/m/r, and tho
fkhtilafv. '(-A 'tau/utft. Tho best- known Shrah
on juriaprudenco :ire the Sharu&v'l-
tho Mnti'nt'i. and«- Mir .h'mti'-v 'v/r
MLMU "L-JlADtS
The seidncH of the Traditions . /.<:. the various
canons vehich have bdcu established for ascer
taining the authenticity »nd ^enuinenoss of
tho Hadis or Traditions. The Nukhbatu
7 Fikui . w;th itfj cY.uitnontary tha Nuzhatu
'(i-Nurar by Shalihbu 'd-diu Ahraa<i al-
•Asqalimi (Loe's t-i. Oalcnua. IWH>, is a well-
known work on the snl |<-ct
26
202 'TLMIT 'L-HANDASAH
'ILMU 'L-HANDASAH
<Cju$N). The science of Geometry.
'ILMU 'L-HIKMAH
Also <Hmu 'i-Falsafah
[PHILOSOPHY.]
'ILMU 'L-HISAB (
Arithmetic.
A knowledge of divinity. [THEOLOGY.]
'ILMU'L-INSHA' (.U»S\ ^Ic). The
art of literary composition. [INSHA'.]
'ILMU'L-JABK
Algebra.
'ILMU 'L-KAFF (<-&\ ^). The
science of palmistry said to tiavo V.oert
practised by Daniel.
'ILMU*'L-KALAM (?M\ ,*-!-*).
Scholastic theology. It is also known as
^Ilmu^Aqffid^ the science of the articles of
belief. The author of the Kashfn 'z-Zunun
defines it as "the science whereby we are
able to bring forward proofs of onr religious
belief," and it includes the discussion of the
nature of the existence and the attributes of
God.
V//M?M 'l-JKa/ain is the discussion of all sub
jects connected with the six articles of the
Muslim Creed: 1, the Unity of God; 2, the
Angels : 3, the Books ; 4, the Prophets ;
5, the Day of Judgment ; <i, the Decrees of
God, as distinguished from al-Fiqh, which is
an exposition of the five foundations of
practical religion— 1, recital of the Creed :
2, prayer ; 3, fasting : 4, zakat ; 5, hajj.
The most celebrated works on the subject
of 'Aqa'id or 'Ilmu '1-Kalam are: Sharku
'l-*Aqffi'l, by the Maulawi Mas'ud Sa-du
'd-dm at-Taftazani, A.H. 792 ; the Sharfiu \
'l-Muwdqif, by Saiyid Sharif Jurjarii.
'ILMU 'L-LUGBAH (WR ,*JL*).
Lexicography. [ARABIC LEXICONS.]
'ILMU 'L-MANTIQ
Logical science. [LOGIC.]
Mensuration.
'ILMU 'L-MILAHAH (r 1 p
<v ..... r>X* l\). The nautical art. The
science of making and navigating ships.
'ILMU 'L-MUSIQA
The science of Music. [MUSIC.]
'ILMU 'L-USUL (Jr« f4ft). The
science of the *' roots," or fundamentals of the
religion of Muhammad, namely, of the
Qur'an, Ahadis, IjmaS and Qiyas. The
science of exegesis, or the rules of interpre
tation of these four roots of Islam. An ex
planation of the methods of this science will
be found in the article on QCR'AN, Sect, viii.,
the same principles applying to the other
three fundamentals.
The best known works on the 'Ihwu '1-
Uau are the Manar, by 'Abdu 'Hah ibn
TLQA
Ahmad an-Nasafi, AH. 710, and its com
mentary, the Niiru '/-Anwar' also at-Tcmqifr,
by 'Ubaidu llah ibn Mas' fid, A.H. 747, with
its commentary, at-Tauzift, by the same
author, and a super-commentary, the Tal~
wihu 't-Tauzih, by Sa'du 'd-din Mas'ud ibn
'Uinar at-Taftazani, A.H. 792.
AL-'ILMU 'L.YAQIN (^\ ^Wt).
Certain knowledge ; demonstration ; a reli
gious life ; a knowledge of the truth.
'ILMTJ'N-NABATAT (<*>\s^\ ^).
Botany. The knowledge of the use of herbs.
'ILMU 'N-NUJCTM (fjV'N <*-*-*)>
Astrologjf. "The science by which are dis
covered the events both of the present and of
the future by means of the position of the
stars." (Kashfu 'z-Xumtn^ in loco.} [ASTRO
LOGY.]
TLMU 'K-RAML (J— jr-N f~*-*).
Goomancy. A pretended divination by means
of lines on the sand (raml). It is said to have
been practised as a miracle by six prophets,
viz. Adam, Idris, Luqman, Armiya (Jere
miah), Sha^ya' (IsaialTj, Daniel. (See Kashfn
'z-Zttnun, in loco. ,
'ILMU 'E-RIYA/AH (&tty\ ^).
Mathematics. The author of the Kashfu
Jz-Zunun says the science of Riyazah is
divided into four sections : 1, handasaht
geometry ; 2, hfah, astronomy ; 3. frisdb,
ai'ithmetic ; 4, muslqd^ music.
'ILMU 'SH-SHI'R
[POBTRY.]
'ILMU 'S-SIHE (^\ fte). The
science of magic. [MAGIC, j
'ILMU 'S-SIMIYA' (>WJ^
Natural magic, chiromancy, palmistry.
Natural philosophy.
'ILMU 'T-TAJWID
called also 'Ilmu 'l-Qjrffah. Tfie science of
reading the Qur'an correctly. The most popu
lar work on the subject is td-Muqaddamatv
'l-Jazariyah, by the Shaikh Muhammad ibn
Muhammad al-Jazarl (A.H. 833).
'ILMU 'T-TAS5AWWUF (^JL*
4_*y*xl\). The mystic or contemplative
science. [HUFHSM.]
'ILMU 'T-TASHftlH
The science of anatomy.
'ILMU 'T-TAWAElKH
e^ytt), or 'Ilmu 't-Ta'rtkk. Chrono-
logy, history. For a complete list of Muham-
madan histories of an early date, see Kaskju
".r Zuniin in loco. -
ILMU T-TIBB (^y\ ^ic). The
ucience of Medicine. For a list of medical
books of an early dato. see Kashfu 'z-Zunun,
in loco.
ILQA' («^\). Lit, ;< Injecting;
infusing." A theological term used for the
IMAGES
teaching of the heart by the power of God
Inspiration of soul in that which is good.
IMAGES. It, is unlawful for a
Mahammadan to have an image of any kind
in his house. (Miahkdt, book xx. ch v )
[PICTUBE8, IDOLS.]
IMAM r>Ut). One whose leader-
ship or example is to be followed. A pat
tern ; a model ; an example of evil. The
term is used in the Qur'an in these senses
Surah ii. 118: "Verily I have set thee
(Abraham) as an Imam (or a leader) for
mankind."
Surah xvii. 73: "The day when we will
call ail men by their Imam (or leader) "
Surah xxxvi. 11: « Everything we have
set down in a dear model."
Surah xv. 79: "They (Sodoin and Midian)
are an obvious example."
Surah xxv 74; "Make us a model to the
D10UH "
IMAM
203
_ Muhammadans use the term in the follow-
(1) The Imam or Khallfah, of the Muslim
people The author of the Hidayah says, by
the rightful Imam is understood a person in
whom all the qualities essential to magi'
tracy are united, such as Islamism, freedom
samty of intellect, and maturity of age, and
who has been elected into his office by a]
tribe of Muslims with their general consent^
whose view and intention is the advance
ment of the true religion, and the strengthen
mg of the Muslims, and under whom th*
.slims enjoy security in person and pro
perty; one who levies title and tribute ac-
coiding to law; who, out of the public trea
sury pays what is due to learned men
preachers, qazis, muftis, philosophers, public
teachers, and so forth; and who is just in
all his dealings with Muslims ; for whoever
does not answer this description is not the
right Imam, whence it is not incumbent to
support such a ono, but rather it ia incum-
THE IMAM LEADJNG PKAYER8 AND RECITING THE FATIHAH OR FfBST 8UBAII OF THE QUR*AK.
(JE
•ent to oppose him, and make war upon
Q until such time as he either adopt a
Toper mode of conduct, or be slain; as is
nttenin^the Ma'dinu 'l-jfagffiq, copied from
ie tawaid. (Itiddyah, vol. ii. p. 248.)
Form discussion of this meaning of the title,
' the article on KUALIFAH, which is the
TV? mS$ Im*m cf the SunnT Mu8lim«-
, Ine Shi aha apply the term Imam to
e twelve leaders of their sect whom they
B true Imams [BHI'AH], and not using
e term Kjmhfah for this office as the Sunnis
Ihe Shi'ah traditions are very wild on
e subject of the Imamate, and contrast un-
vourablywith those of the Sunnis.
^•ffayitu 'l-Quiub (Merrick's edition,
^^ .), Muhammad is said to have related •
Un the night of the ascension, the Most
Jgh commanded me to inquire of the past
rophets for what reason they were exalted
LI that rank, and they all testified, We were
raised up on account of your prophetical
office, and the Imamate of 'AH ibn AM Talib,
and of the Imams of your posterity. A divine
voice then commanded, • Look on the right
8ide of the empyrean.' I looked and saw the
similitude of <Ali and ul-Hasan, and al-
Husain, and 'AH ibn al-Husain (alias Zainu '1-
'Abidin), and Muhammad al-Baqir, and J&'far
as-Sadiq, and Musa al-Kazim, and <AH ibn
Musa ar-Riza, and Muhammad at-Jaqi, and
4 All an-Naql, and ai Hasan al-'Askari, and al-
Mahdi, all performing prayers in a sea of
light. These, said the Most High, are my
proofs, vicegerents, and friends, and the last
of them will take vengeance on my enemies.''
(3) The Imam, or leader, of any system of
theology or law. Abu Hanif ah and the other
three doctors of the Sunnis are called Imams
and so «i»: other leading doctors of divinity.
204
JM/U/I-BAHAK
IMAN
The term »> still ns^d for o religious lender.
J or example. the hefcd of the Wahhibis on
Hie North- West frontier of India is called
the fiaum and so is the chief of Naj<).
(I) Tb£ Lmatii or loader of prayers in any
Masjfd. Mr. S*le says it answers 10 the
Latin Anftsiex. twteh tuoMjae. how*T8i
*mall. has its Jrnatn, or priest, who is sup
ported by endowments. The office- i& not in
an/ sense a sa-ee.rd.ntal onfi, the Imam, not
being set apart with any ceremony, ns in the
case o! a Christian -presbyter, nor the oflica
being' hereditary, a? in the case of ihe Hindu
Brahmins The position. »f J»>aifi in thi*
sense is net unlike the *heltiuh,.or Iwjrtt.m, of
fbe Jf'winh *yflaj»o£ue.. wb<> aetfd aR the dele
gate of the congregation. -md was. 1 he chief
reader of prayers in thoJr name* Bur quite,
independent of the duly appointed minister
of a- mosque, vho is responsible for its ser
vices. a,n<l receives its revenues » no congre
gation of Muslim vvc»r>*hippers eaU astwnjblo
without one of the party taking the lend in
liip prayers by standing in froul, and who in
fl»fr| ••' /o «cf as 7-wtf/w " for the assembly
Tht> rule* 'la-id diiwn on this subject, 4s
^iven in the Traditions, «irO as fr.Uows ( Afisfi-
teat book iv. eh. *xvii,. xxviii j : —
Abu Said al-Khudri says the rVophefc
,suid : '• When there are. tliiee persons, one of
I hew must »et as Imam and the other two
follow hioo, and tht rnottt worthy of tbcrji to
act as such is h« whr. repeats the Qni'an
best."
-AbQ Ma'sud n\ -Ansan ».iy» the TVophet
aaid : " Let him act -.'s Imam to a, oou^rcgH-
<ion who knows tb^ Qur'an Ihoronj^hly : ami
if all -pre Kent should be fijiifll »' thai, respect.
then let liim perform "who is best; informed in
the rules of prayer ; and if tiify are equal in
this re.spoct aiso, Jet him aet as Imum who
has *led for the sake of Islam and if equal »»
this iikewiio, let th»»t person n.c1 who is
aldesi ; but the governed innsJ not aei as
imam to lh« governor"
Abu Hutauah relates that the P/pphot
said : " Wlien any of you acts as Imhrn to
other.v ht» Qlust he eonciif- in J.iis prayers. b«-
causo there iire d*crepH, agoH, <in«l sick pci'-
.sens amongst them, and when any one of jrcu
says his prayers nlone. lje,*in»y be as prolix
»s he pleases [ >s *s.i i u. |
1M AM-BARAII (^>M);. A build-
ing in which the festival of the. Muhariam
H celebrated, and service held iu comioeuio-
Cation of thedoafhs of "AU and his sons, al-
Hfisan and aJ-Husain. At other times, the
ltizitts% 01 sb»JnH5, are preseived in it ; some
Um PS it is uf>f\ »s the mauKoleuni ol llio
founder of tJie family. | MTHJARJ<AM.|
IMAM TV AH (<y-Ut).. LtY. "The
f,oUo"sv«Ts »>f the Imiun.'' TlK> chief sect of the
Slil'a-i, n:»uielyr those' v»ho acknowledge Ihe
'. *v el >e Tin;»ms. f smr AIT, ]
IMAM MOBlJSI (e^^ rU). "TLc
clear prototype «r model.' The exprebsion
in the Qur'an, Surah x^xvi, II,
we »lo sni. -lowu m ;i t-|ynr pioto-
typo" (/x Jwnfnin Mvhtnin} Here it appears
to be used for the Qur'ao as an inspired.
.record. Siirah xv 79, u Verily they became
hoth^ yodotn and Miriian, a clear example
(labi, - Inia.'um MvHrtiin). Mnhanrmadati
teachers use the word for the Lahwu I-
Mahfuz. or the Tablet *if lltjcrees.
AL- J MAM U 'L- MA H DJ
V). J;ii!. "The well-guided
r.eader ' 17mm Salmah relates that the Pro
phet .said, " Strife and disputations will be
created among men when a Khali/ah shall die
and this shall be iu the last days. And u man
>>\ the people o/ al-Madiuah will com« forth
,-iml will Hee from al Madiaahto Makkah, and
the uien of Makkab wijl come and try to
ui^ike h?Ti. hnani by flattery, but be will not
be pleaded. Then men shall acknowledge
him as Imam. Then un army front Syria
shall advance against him., arid this army
shall be, enpulphed in an e»rthiiiutke at
llada'ab, between Wakkah and - al-Mwdinah.
Tlion when the people shall see thiii the Abdul,
i-.*t the *>ubstitMtes or good people fy4iu>Ai ].
will come, from Syria . and a multitude from
al-'Iraq. And after that a man shall be born
of the CJuraish, of the tribe. -of Kalb, who will
aho send an army against him i.tf. al-Mahdi :
but he shall be victorious. Then he will rule
people according to the laws of Mubnmnjad,
and will give strength to Islam upon the earth.
'and he v-it( remain on the eavfh $»?vea years.
Then will he die, and Muslims will sav prayera
in his behalf."
The SUiahs believe that al-Mahdii l»ae
aheady coine and is still concealed in "omR
part of the earth. For they suppose him
to be the List of the Lwelve Imams, named
Muhammad 'Abdn 1-Qasim [sm-Aiisj, who
will again appear in the last days.' The
Shi-ahs 3a<r that Muhammad snid, "0 y<?
people. J AID the Prophet and All is my heir-
and from us wil) descend al Mahdi, the seal
ol the imam1;, wlu> »vill coaquer all religions
and' will take vepgcanee on the wicied . "
( Hnrj<tt>i / -Qiii.uk, p.
THAN, rMAjVT (v\*$). "Paitli,
which, affording to the Mahiuiuiadan doctors.
is the bf.-i;fe| of thf hour*, and tie confession of
the lips to. the ttuth of the Mu&lim religion.
Fait]) i.«x of two kinds : Vnxm Muynud* or the
-imple expression of fai?h in the teaching of
'he. Qar'an nnd the Ahadl$. 01- Traditions;
and I' man Muja.<?*al, or a formal declaration
«f boiiet in the nix. articles oi Hie Musluw
C'reod: 1. in Gtodj 2, tlie Angels oi bod:
3, the fiooks o/ God; i. tho Prophets oi
God : 5. the Day of Judgment; 6\ Predestina
tion to good and evil. In the Traditions.
Vmani inuiadea prat-lice (lAntal), and all that
belongs to tb« religious bfe of iho Musliir?.
ft is relate^ (Mhhkat, book i. ek i) that
Mnhjimmad ;^id, » That person has tasted
r.be .sweets or faith who ia pleased with Got!
as ois; iiordi with Isl«1ta as his religion,
And \vjlh Muhamuiad as the Prophet of God. '
And again ,'-./>.), 'i TLc most excellent faith-
is fo io nijr who love? (iofl. .mi to hat*
IMLIQ
hint who hatr* Gad, to keep the long no
employed m repeatim,; the nan; e of God [ZIKK].
ami to do unto men us you would wish tin: in
to do unto you, and to reject for others what
yon would reject ior yourself."
Salvation by faith without* works is clearly
taught (Mishktlf, l»ook i. ch. i.) by Muhammad,
c.y. •• When anyone of yon shall have believed
truly and ^ncer^U. I ben -whatever good action
that person may do will be rewarded from
ton to seven hundred fold, and every sin be
may commit will be expiated one by one
hefore lie dies." Good works*, however, are
the test of faith. A m^n asked tbo Prophet
what was the SIRU whereby he might know
tb<: reality of his faitb. tie said, •• If thou
dost detrve pleasure from the good that thou
ha*t dene, and art grieved for th<< evil which
thou hast committed, then thou art a true
heliovw '' (Alis/Jr-at) book 5. rh. i.). Some of
tb« Prophet ? friends e«me to biui mud said,
••.Verily, vre find in our minds such wicked
propensities, that v;o. think it even a sin to
epeak of them.' The Prophet said, "Do
you find them really bad? " They said-
k< Yes." Me said, " This is c!U evidence of
faith. " By which he meant, if the -,nnu had
nol Jaith he -would not bn,ve felt the wicked
ness of his heait
' IMLIQ (jfeUc). The grandson ot
Shorn, the son of Noah. The progenitor of
the ArufUiqrth. the Amalehites of Scripture.
They at* ^aid to ho some, of the earliest
inhabitants of Makkah and a! Madman.
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION
of the Virgin Mary. This doctrine was asserted
by Muhammad (MtslifurJ, book i, ch. m. pt. i).
Hie Prophet said, " There i« not of the sons
of Adam, except Mary and her Sun, on#> born
but i.s touched by the Devil at the timP. of hi*
birtb, and the child makes a loud noise from
the touch,"
When or -wheto the doctnm\ of the ln»
maculate Conception was first taught is quite
arknown. PPrronc says tbat some writers
have ascribed it*, origin tc Frame, and l*<
I'inisdj »» f<f opinion thai it cnrnf from th(
/£//«/. and war> recognized in Naples in tin-
ninth century. (B! mil's Dictionary of Dot
l.rinaJ ttnd Historical Tocology, in loco.}
The dortrine cf ihc Immaculate Conception
was filially imposed as an A.Tlicjo of Faith m
tho Romish Church, by Pius IX.. Dec. 8th,
1864
IMMODESTY. [MODESTY,]
IMPOSTURE. The Quraisli
charged Muhammad, at the early period of
his preaching, with imposture. The follow
ing ouiahs wer<* yivon -in -answer to thcsu
charges : —
Siirah xxv., 5-7 :" Those who misbelieve say.
' This is nothing but a lie which, he has fwged.
anil ao9ther people hath helped biro at it';
but they have wrought an injustice and a
falsehood. And they say. ' 'They arc old f olk>
-'vhich he has got. written dowm while
ar» dictated to bim n>f>rn»n!y nnd
1MPHJSONMKNT 205
Say He *enl it down wno knows tbc secrets
of heaven ,ind enrth "
Surnb IXJK. 40-4;i ;- Voiily it i.s U»e s'ppftfb
of a noble Apos^e. and it is not Ihe * perch of
a poet —little is it ye bebiwe I
•• Arid it is not tbe speech of a sontbsnyei'
—little is it that ye mind ! Jt ib a reveUtion
Jroiu tlu; Lord, the Lord iJ all tbe worlds. :
IMPOTENOY. Arabic 'Ainimuh
(iL>U-c)? 'Inmnah (^u-^-r). l>oth ac-
cording to Sunni and Shi'ah Ja\v it cancels
the marriage contmet, but tbe decree of th«
Qa/.i is He.ce-ssary before ir c;tn take effect.
[ OIVORCE.]
IMPKISONMBNT. Aiubic >'////
(i^*-)r Hobs. (Lr— *~s>). According
to tho Uaiiin school of jnrisprudencp. tbe
person upon whom punishment or retaliation
is claimed, must not be imprisoned until
evidence be given, either by two people of
unknown character (that is, of whom it u.
not known whether tb,vy bo just or unjust),
or by one just man who Js known to the.
Qazi ; 'because ihe imprisonment, in this
case, is founded on suspicion, and suspicion
cannot be confirmed but by the ovidem;* of
two men of nnkr own character, or of one
just man. It is otherwise hi • imprisonment
fin account of property : because the dp
fondant . iu that instance, cannot be impi isoned
but -upon the evidence, of two just rnc-n , for
imprisonment on sucb an account is a grievous
oppression, ond, therefore, reqiutes to be
grounded on complete proof. ID the Mubsul
under the bead of duties of the Qaai. it is
mentioned that, according to the two disciples,
tin. 'defendant, in a case of punishment for
"il^nder, or of retaliation, is cot to be im
prisoned on tbe evidence of one just mafc,
because^ as the oxaction of bail is m .such
ease (m their opinion) lawful, bail is. Ybere
for*; to be taker; froiu hire. When r< claimau"
establishes bis right before the Qti/i., and
dainand.s ot him the impiisomnent of hi»>
debtor, the Q»wi must not precipitatclv '-.irn
pjy, but ranet first order the debtor to rendm-
the right; after which, if he should attempt
to deUy. the Qazi may imprison him. If ;i
defendant, after the decree of the Qazi against
htm, delay the payment in a case where the
debt d ae was -contracted for some equivalent
(a^, in the ease o/ goods purchased foi a
price, or of money, or of goods borrowed on
promise of a return), the Qazi must immedi
ately imprison him, because the- property he
received is a proof of his being possessed of
wealth. In the same manner, tbe Qazi must,
imprison a refractory defendant who has
undertaken an obligation in virtue of some
couffU-l, sucb as marriagt) or bail, because
bis voluntary engagement in an obligation is
an argument of his possession of wealth
since no one i& supposed to undertake what
he is not competent to fulfil.
A husband may be imprisoned for th<?
maintenance of his wife, because in with
holding it be is guilty of oppression ; but ?
father cannot br itnpnennM for a debt due to
206
INFANT SALVATION
his son, because imprisonment is a species of
severity which a son has no right to be the
cause of inflicting on his father ; in the same
manner as in cases of retaliation or punish
ment. If, however, a father withhold main
tenance from an infant son, who has no
property of his own, he must he imprisoned ;
because this tends to preserve the life of the
child. (Hiddyah, vol. ii.)
'IMBAN (qV**). According to
Muhammadan writers the name of two diffe
rent persons. The one the father of Moses and
Aaron, and the other the father of the Virgin
Mary. Christian writers imagine that the
Qur'an confounds Mary, the mother of Jesus,
with 'Mary or Mary am, the sister of Moses
and Aaron. The verses are as follows : —
Surah iii. 30: " Verily, above all human
beings did God choose Adam and Noah, and the
family of 'Imran, iLu une (he posterity of the
other ; and God heareth and knoweth. Re
member when the wife of 'Imran said, '0 my
Lord, I vow to Thee what is in my womb, for
Thy special service. . . . And I have named
her Mary, and I, commend her and her off
spring to Thy special protection/ "
Surah Ixvi. 12 : " And Mary the daughter
of 'Imran, ever virgin, and into whose womh
We breathed Our spirit."
Surah xix. 29: "«O sister of Aaron! thy
father was not a wicked man, nor unchaste
thy mother.' And she made H sign unto them
pointing tow^arda the babe '
Al-BaizawI the commentator, says the
'Imran first mentioned in Sitrah iii. is the
father of Moses, and the second the father of
Mary the Virgin. He attempts to explain
the anachronism in Surah xix. by stating
that (1) Mary is called the sister of Aaron by
way of comparison ; (2) or because she was
of the Levitical race ; (3) or, as some have
said, there was a man of the name of Aaron,
renowned either for piety or wickedness, who
liyed at the time, and she is said, by way
of derision, to he like him ?
IMSAK (dU-t). Lit. "Keeping
back." The word occurs only once in the
Qur'an, Surah ii. 228 : " Divorce (may happen)
twice; then, keep them in reason or let them go
in kindness. ''
The word is used in theological works for
being miserly in charity, and in giving in
God's service, in opposition t'. Infdq.
IN'AM (i^\). A gift; a bene
faction in general. A gift by a superior to
an inferior. In India, the term is especially
applied to grants of land held rent-free, and
in hereditary and pemetual. occupation ; the
tenure came in time to be qualified by the
reservation of a portion of Ihe assessable
revenue, or by the exaction of all proceeds
exceeding the intended value of the original
assignment; the term also vaguely applied
to giants of rent-free land -without reference
to perpetuity or any specified conditions. The
grants are also distinguishable by their origin
from the ruling authorities, or from the village
communities, fend are n^ain distinguishable
by peculiar reservations, or by their being
applicable to different objects.
Sanad-i-In'avn is a grant emanating from
the ruling power of the time of the grant,
free from all Government exactions, in per
petuity, and validified by a Sanad, or official
deed of grant ; it usually comprises land
included in the village area, but which is
uncultivated, or has been abandoned; and
it is subject to the village functionaries.
Nisbat-i-In'am (from nisbah, " a portion "j,
are lands granted rent-free by the village out
of its own lands ; the loss or deduction thence
accruing to the Government, assessment being
made good by the village community. (Wil
son's Glossary of Indian Terms.)
INCANTATION. [DA'WAH, MAGIC.]
INCENSE, Arabic Bakh,nr (^.),
Luboin (0M).' Heb. roil*?* in Isaiah
xliii. 23, &c.. The use of incense forms no
part of the religious customs of the Muslim,
although its use as a perfume for a corpse
is permitted by the Traditions, it is, how
ever, much used as an offering at the shrined
of tho Muhammadan saints, and forms an
important item in the so-called science of
DaSvah. [DA'WAH.]
INFANTS, The Keiigioii of. The
general rule is that the religion of an infant
is the same as that of its parents. Bat
where one of the parents is a Muhammadan*
and the other of a different persuasion (as a
Jew or a Christian), the infant must be
accounted a Muhammadan, on the principle
that -where the reasons are equally balanced,
the preference is to be givon to that religion.
(Hidoyah, vol. i. p. 177. Sharif iyah. Ap
pendix No 7 J . Baillio's Inheritance, p. 28.)
INFANT SALVATION. The
author of Durru t-Alukhtdr, vol. i. p. 891,
says : Abu Hanifah gave no answer to the
question whether the infants of mushrikvn
(those who associate another with God) will
have to answer for themselves in the Day of
Judgment or not ; or whether they will in
herit the Fire (i.e. Hell), or go to Paradise
(Jannah) or not. But Ibn al-Humam has
said, the learned are not agreed upon these
questions, and it is evident that Abu Hani
fah and others are at a loss to answer
them ; and, moreover, there are contradictory
traditions recorded regarding them. So it
is evident that in the matter of salvation,
they (the infants) will be committed to God,
and we are not able to say anything regard
ing this matter. Muhammad ibn al-flasan
(the disciple of Abu Hanifah), has 'said,
" I am certain God will not commit anyone
to the punishment (of hell) until he has com
mitted sin." And Ibn Abi Sharif (a disciple
of Ibn al-Hasan, says the Companions were
silent regarding the question of the future
of infants; but it is related by the Imam
Nawawi (commentator on the $abik Muslim)
that there are three views regarding the sal
vation of infants. Some say they will go to
hell, some do not venture an opinion on the
INFAQ
subject, and some s«y they will enter Para
dise ; and the last view ho considers the cor
rect one; in accordance with the tradition
which says, " Everv child is born according
to the law of God."'
INFJLQ • (jl*rt). Lit. "Giving
forth ; expending." Tho word occurs once
in the Qur'an, Surah xvii. 102 : " Did ye con
trol the treasuries of the mercy of my Lord,
then ye would hold them through fear of
expending (infdq), for man is ever niggardly/'
The word is used for giving in charity and
in God's service, in opposition to imsdk.
INFIDEL. There are several
words used for those in a state of infidelity :
\ikdfir (r^)» one who hides or denies the
truth ; 2, mushrik (^y***), one who gives
companions to God; 3, mulhid (<^s^*), one
who has deviated from the truth ; 4, zandlq
(c?2*^j), an infidel or a zend- worshipper ;
5, mundfiq ^<3iU**)9 one who secretly dis
believes in the mission of Muhammad; G,
murtadd (•**/•), an apostate from Islam: 7,
dahri (^jyfco), an atheist; 8, wasamy (or**j)»
pagan or idolater.
AL-INFITAR (jUa-A-iM). "The
cleaving asunder " The title of the Lxxxiind
Surah of the Qur'an, in which the word
occurs. Zamakhshar'i , according to Savary,
sja, ys that " the Muslims who shall recite this
chapter shall receive a divine favour for every
drop of water that drops from the clouds,
and another for each grave on the face of the
rth."
INHERITANCE. Arabic Fani'iz
), Mir as (*±>W). The law of
ritance is called 'iimu 'l-farffiz, or 'ilm-i-
The verses in the Qur'an upon
which the law -of inheritance is founded are
called Aydtu 'l-Mawarig, the Verses of Inhe
ritance ; they begin at the 12th verse of Suratu
'n-Nisa', or the jvth chapter of tho Qur'an.
and are as followw :—
" With regard to your children, God com-
raandeth you to give the male the portion of
I wo females ; and if they be females more
than two, then they shall have two-thirds of
that which their father hath left : but if she
be an only daughter, she shall have the half ;
and the father and mother of the deceased
shall each of them have a sixth part of what
he hath left, if he bave a child ; but if he
have no child, and his parents be his heirs,
then his mother shall havre the third; and if
he have brethren, his mother shall have the
sixth, after paying the bequests he shall have
bequeathed, and his debts. As to your
fathers, or your children, ye know not which
of them is the most advantageous to you.
This is the law of God. Verily. God is
Knowing, Wise !
"Half of what your wives leave shall be
yours, if they have no issue ; but if they
have issue, then a fourth of what they leave
shall be yours, after paying the bequests
they shall bequeath, and debts.
INHERITANCE
207
" And your wives shall have a fourth part
of what ye leave, if ye have no issue ; but if
ye have issue, then they shall have an eighth
part of what ye leave/ after paying the be-
quests ye shall bequeath, and debts.
•' If a man or woman make a distant rela
tion their heir, and he or she have a brother
or a sister, each of these two shall have a
sixth ; but if there are more than this, then
shall they be sharers in a third, after pay
ment of the bequests he shall have bequeathed,
and debts,
" Without loss to any one. This is the ordi
nance of God, and God is Knowing, Gracious 1 "
Tho earliest authority in the Traditions on
the subject of inheritance is Zaid ibn Sfibit,
and the present law is chiefly collected from
his sayings, as recorded in the Hadis. There
are no very important differences between
the Sunni and Shia'h law with reference to
this question. The highest authority amongst
Jhe former is the book as-Sirdjiyah* by Siraju
'd-din Muhammad, A.H. 600, which has been
published with a commentary entitled Mam-
zuj, by Sir W. Jones, Calcutta, 1792
TheShi'ah law of inheritance will be found
in the Mafdtlh. and the Jdmi*u Jsh-Sftatdt.
The property of a deceased Muslim is ap
plicable, in the first place, to the payment of
his funeral expenses ; secondly, to the dis
charge of his debts ; and, thirdly, to the pay
ment of legacies as far as one-third of the
residue. The remaining two-thirds, with so
much of the third as .is not absorbed by
legacies are the patrimony of the heirs. A
Muhamrnadan is therefore disabled from dis
posing of more than a third of his property
by will. (See As-Sirajiyah.}
The clear residue of the estate after the
payment of funeral expenses, debts, and lega
cies, descends to the heirs • arid among these
the first are pers'ons for whom the law has pro
vided certain specific shares or portions, and
who are thence denominated Sharers, or zawu
'l-furiiz.
In most cases there must be a residue after
the shares have been satisfied ; and this
passes to another class of persons who from
that circumstance may be termed Residuarie$t
or 'asabah.
It can seldom happen that the deceased
should h».ve no individual connected with him
who would fall under these two classes ; but to
guard against this possible contingency, the
law has provided another class of persons,
who, though many of them may be nearly re
lated to the deceased, by reason of their re
mote position with respect to the inheritance,
have been denor inated Uistant kindred, or
zawu 'l-arham.
;; As a general rule," ways Mr. Ameer Ali,
u the law of succession, both among the Shiahs
(Shi'ahs) and the Sunnis, proceeds on the as
sumption of intestacy. During his lifetime a
Mussulman has absolute power over his pro
perty, whether it is ancestral or self -acquired,
or whether it is real or personal. He may
dispose of it in whatever way he likes. But
such dispositions in order to be valid and
effective are required to have operation given
208
INHERITANCE
to them during the lifetime ot (he owner, Ir
a gift be made, the subject matter of Mie
gift- must be made over to the donee during
the lifetime of the donor : IIP must, in fact.
divest himself of all proprietary rigats in it,
and place the donee in possession. To make
the operation of the gjfl dependent upon the
donor's death, would invalidate tho donation.
S<? also in the case of endowments /or than-,
(abie w religions purposes. A disposition in
t'jivyor of u charjty. in order It) btj valid,
should bo accompanied by 1h> complete
divestment of all proprietary rights. As re
gards testamentary dispositions, the power is
limited to one -third qf the property, provided
it is not in favour of one who is entitled to
-»bare in the inheritance. For example, the
proprietor may de?ise ty will one third of his
property tf> a .stranger; should the .devise,
•however, relate to more than one-third, o?
should ?t he in favour of an heir, it would be
invalid
" This restriction on the te^taincutaiy
powers of. a Mussulman, which is not without
analogy in some of the Wester a systems, leads
to the consequence that, HS far as the major
portion of the estate and effects of a deceased
propositus is concerned. Ib ottis in tmtion taker
place as if he had died mtestato.
:« 'Intestacy is accordingly the general rule
among the Mussulmans ; and as almost in
every case there are more aeirs than one
entitled to share in the inheritance of the de
ceased, it is important 1o bear in mind the
point:* ot contact as well as of divsrgimc*' be-
•weeu tne Shiah and the Punni schools.
" As regards the points ot contact, it may
be stated generally that both the Snuuia and
the Shiahs are agreed on the principle by
which the individuals who are entitled to an
inheritance in the estate of the deceased can
Ixj distinguished from those, who have no
right. For example, a Mussulman upon his !
death, may leave behind him •» numerous -
body oi relations. In the abseiu-e of certain
determinate rules, it would he extremely dif-
licult to distinguish hotwf-sn the inheriting
and the Bon-inheriting relations, .In -order to
obviate this difficulty arid to render it easy
to distinguish betwe-m 1he two classes of
heirs, it is reeogni/.eu by both the schools as
a' general rule, and one capable of universal
application, that when a deceased Mussulman
leaves behind him two relations, one cf whom
is connected with him through the other,
the former .shall not succeed whilst the in
termediate person is alive. For example, if
a person On his death leave behind him \-v
von and that son's son, this latter will not
succeed to his grandfather's .estate while his
lather is alive. The other rale, •which js also
framed with the object of discovering1 the
heirs of a deceased individual, is adopted
with some modih'catioii by the two schools.
For example, on the succession of male
agnates, the Sumiis prefer the nearer in
degree to the more remote, whilst the
Shiahs apply the rule of nearness or propin
quity to* all eases, without distinction, of class
or sex If a person die leaving behind bias
INHERITANCE
a brother'* son, and a brother5*? grandson, and
his own daughter's son, among the Sunnis. the
brother's, sou being a, male f.giiyte a ad a ear in
to the dfic-pased than the brother's grandson,
tikes the inheritance in preference to tko
others, whilst among the Shiahs. the daugh
ter's son, being- nearer in blood> would exclude
the others." (Personal Laio. by Aia*> T Ali.
P. 4i.y.
The law of inheritance, even according to
Muslim doctors of law. is Acknowledged to l»o
an exceedingly Difficult object of study : it will,
therefore, W impossible to follow it ont in all
Us intricacies* but we give a carefully -drawn
table by Mr. A, Ramsey, on the Sunnl law.
and t\. more simple or.o on .StnHh inherit-an™
by Mr. Ameer Ali.
I.—SHABERS,
* Are nJvrays entitled, to SIOTUO shaj^s.
t Are liable to exclusion b.y others wlio are nearei'
>\ Denotes tho«»t who benefit by the return.
*. 1° FATHER, (a). — As mere dut-rer, when
a son or a son's son, how low soever, he takes.
£. (p)- — As mere. /(si<1uaitj. when no suc
cessor hnt himself, he takes the vholer or
with a sfu»ror, not a child or eon's child, how
low soever, he takes what is left by «mch
siiarer. (/). — As sharer and residuary, as
when there are daughters and son's daughter,
but no son or son's son, he, as sharer, takes
£ i daughter takes £, or two -or more daugh
ters. 5 : son's daughter £; and father the re
mainder as residuary.
t 2° TRUE GHANDF&IHER. i.e. father's
father, his father and so forth, into whose
lint* of relationship to deceased no mother
tutors, is excluded by hither, and excludes
brother? and sisters : come* into father's
place when no fa.ther, but does not. like father
reduce mofcher'u share to -^ of residue, nor en
lively es.cindo paternal ^randmother.
f 5° HALF EKOJHEH^ KV SAME MOTHER
take, in the absence of children, or sou's dt>
scendatit.s, ,iml father and true grandfather.
<;ne ^ two or more between them £-. R
* 4° I)ATK;niKRs: when no sous, take, one
$ : two. or more. ^- between them : with.sonw
become ressduaries and take each half a so»;'s
share. R
+ , 5° SON'S DAUGHTERS ; take as daughters,
when there is no child; take nothing when
there is a son or more daughters than one :
1 ako £ when only one daughter ; are made
residnaries by brother or male cousin how low
soever, ft
* G° MOTHEK : takes |, wh«n there is a
child or son's child, how lo\v soever, o:r cwo
or more brothers or fustera of whole or halt
blood; takes «, when none of these: when
husband or wife and both parents, takes £ ot
remainder niter deducting their shares, the
residue going to /ather : if no father, In^
grandfather, takes ^ of the whole. R
f 7° TRUE GBAXDMOTHHR, i.e.. father's or
mother's mother, hov high soever ; when no
mother, takes £ : if more than one, £ between
them. Paternal grandmother is excluded by
both lather and mother ; tnatemal grand
mother by mother only. R
ENHERITANCE
f 8° FULL SISTERS, take as daughters
when no children, son's children, how low
soever, father, true grandfather or full bro
ther; with full brother, take half share o
male : wheti daughters or son's daughters, ho
low soever, but neither sons, nor sons' sons
nortather, nor true grandfather, nor brothers
the full sisters take as residuaries what re
mains after daughter or son's daughter have
had their share. R
•f 9° HALF SISTERS BY SAME FATHER: a»
full sisters, when there «re none: with one
full sister, take £ ; when twofuJl sisters, take
nothing, unless they have a brother who
makes them residuaries, and then tliey take
half a male's share. R
t 10° HALF SISTERS BY MOTHER ONLY :
when no children or son's children how low
soever, or father or true grandfather, .take,
one £ ; two or more £ between them. R
* 11* HOSCAND : if no child or son's child,
how low soever, takes £; otherwise £.
* 12° WIFE : if no child or son's child, how
low soever, takes J : if otherwise. J. Several
widows share equally
COROLLARY. — All brothers and sisters are
excluded by son, son's son, how lo\r soever,
father or true grandfather. Half brothers
and sisters, on father's side, are excluded by
these and also by full brother. Half brothers
and sisters on mother's side are excluded by
any child or son's child, by father and true
grandfather.
IL^-RESJDUARIES.
A. — RESIDUARIES IN THEIR OWN RIGHT, being
males into whose line of relationship to
the deceased no female enters.
(a.) Descendants.
L Son.
2. Son's son.
& Son's son's son.
4. SOD of No. 3.
4A. Son of No. 4.
4B. And so on, how low soever.
(6) Ascendant f.
5. Father.
6. Father's father..
7. Father of No. 6.
8. Father of No. 7.
8A. Father of No. 8.
8B. And so on, how high soever.
(e.) Collatfrah.
9. Full brother.
10. Half brother by father.
11. Son of No. 9-
12. Son. of No. 10.
'HA. Son of No. 11.
12A. Son of No. 12.
11B. Son of No. 11 A.
12B. Son of No. 12A,
• And so on, how loir soever.
13. Full paternal .uncle by father.
14. Half paternal trade by father.
15. Son of No. 13. '
16. Son of No. 14.
15 A. Son of No. 15.
16 A. Son of No. 16.
And so on, how low soever
INHERITANCE
209
17. Father's full paternal uncle by father'.*
side.
18. 'Father's half paternal uncle hy father's
side.
19. Son of No. 17.
20. Son of No. 18.
19 A. Son of No. 19,
20A. Son of No. 20.
And so on, how low soever.
21. Grandfather's full paternal mvle by
father's side.
22. Grandfather's half paternal uncle hy
father's side.
23. Son of No. 21.
24. Son of No. 22.
23A. Son of No. 23.
24 A. Son of No. 24.
And so on, how low soever.
N.ti. — a. A nearer Residuary in the above
Table is preferred to and excludes a more
remote.
P. Where several Residuaries are in the
sain* degree, th^y take per capita, not per
stirpes, i.e. they share equally.
y. The whole blood is preferred to and ex
cludes the half blood at each stage.
B.— RESIDUAKIES IN ANOTHER'S RIGHT,
being certain females, who are made residua-
ries by males parallel to them ; tut who. in
the absence of such males, are only entitled
to -legal shares. These femate Residuaries
take each half as much as the parallel male
who makes them Residuaries.
1. Daughter made Residuary by son.
2. Son's daughter made Residuary by son's
son.
3 Full sister made Residuary by full
brother.
4. Half sister by father made Residuary by
her brother.
C. RESIDUARY ATITH ANOTHER, being cer
tain females who becotne residuaries with
other females.
1. Full sisters \?ith d a u^hters or daughters'
MM.
2. Half sisters by father.
N,B. — When there are several Kesiduariea
of different kinds or classes, e.g. reaiduaries
in their own right and residuaries with
another, propinquity to deceased gives a pre
ference : so. that the residuary with another,
when nearer to the deceased thun the reei-
duary in himself, is the first.
If there be Residuarifls and no Sharers, the
Residuaries take all the property.
It there be Sharers, aud.no Residiidnes, the
Sharers take all the property by the doctrine
of the " Return." Seven persons are entitled
to the Return. ]«*, mother; 2nd, grand
mother; $rd. daughter ; 4th, son's daughter;
Bth, full sister; Of A, half sister by father;
1th, half brother of sister by mother
A posthumous child inherits. There is no
^resumption as to commorients, who are sup
posed to die at the • same time unless there
se proof otherwise.
tf there be neither Sharers nor Residuaries,
« property will go to the following class
(Distant Kindred)
27
210
INHERITANCE
INHERITANCE
III.— DISTANT KINDRED.
Comprising all relatives, who are neither
Shares nor Residuaries.
CLASS 1.
Descendants-. Children of .daughters and
son's daughters.
1. Daughters son.
2. Daughter's daughter.
8. Son of No. 1.
4. Daughter of No. 1.
5 Son of No. 2.
6. Danghter of No. 2, and so on, how low
Koever, and whether male or female.
7. Son's daughters son.
8. Son's daughter's daughter,
9. Son of No. 7.
10. Daughter of No. 7.
11. Son of No. 8.
12. Daughter of No. 8, and so on, how low
soever, and whether male or female.
N. B.~- (a)--Distant kindred of the first
class take accoi-ding to proximity of degree :
but, when equal in this respect, those who
claim through a,ii heir, i.e. sharer or residuary,
have a preference over those who claim
through one not an heir.
(/?) — When the sexes of their ancestors
differ, distribution is made having regard to
such difference of sex, e.g. daughter of daugh
ter's son gets a portion double that of son
of daughter's daughter, and when the claim
ants are equal in degree, but different in sex,
males take twice as much as females.
CLASS 2.
Ascendants : False grandfathers and false
grandmothers.
13. Maternal grandfather.
14. Father of No. 13, father of No. 14, and
so on, how high soever (i.e. all false grand
fathers).
15. Maternal grandfather's mother.
16. Mother of No. 15, and so on, how high
soever (i.e. all false grandmothers).
N.B. —Rules (a) and (/?), applicable to
class 1, apply also to class 2. Further (y)
when the sides of relation differ, the claimant
by the paternal side gets twice as much as the
claimant by the maternal side.
CLASS 3.
Parents' Descendants.
17. Full brother's daughter and her de
scendants.
18. Full (sister's son.
19. Full sister's daughters and their de
scendants, how low soever.
20. Daughter of half brother by father, and
her descendants.
21. Son of half sister by father.
22. Daughter of half sister by father, and
their descendants, how low soever.
23. Son of half brother by mother.
24. Daughter of half brother by mother
and their descendants, how low soever.
25. Son of half sister by mother.
26. Daughter of half sister by mother, and
their descendants, how low soever.
iV.JS.— Rules (a) and (/?) applicable to
class I, apply also to class 3. Further (£)
when two claimants are equal in respect of
proximity, one who claims through a resi
duary is preferred to one who cannot so
claim.
CLASS 4.
Descendants of the two grandfathers and the
two grandmothers.
27. Full paternal aunt and her descen
dants.*
28. Half paternal aunt and her descen
dants.*
29. Father's half brother by mother and
his descendants.*
30. Father's half sister by mother and her
descendants.*
31. Maternal uncle and his descendants.*
32. Maternal aunt and her descendants.*
* Male or Female, and how low soever.
N.B. (c) — The sides of relation being equal,
uncles and aunts of the whole blood are pre
ferred to those of the half, and those con
nected by same father only, whether males pr
female?, are preferred to those connected by
the same mother only. (17) Where sides of
relation differ, the claimant by paternal rela
tion gets twice as much as the claimant by
maternal relation. (0) Where sides and
strength of relation are equal, the dale gets
twice as ranch as the female.
GENERAL RULE. — Each of these classes ex
cludes the next following class.
IV. — SUCCESSOR BY CONTRACT OB MUTUAJ,
FRIENDSHIP.
V. — SUCCESSOR OF ACKNOWLEDGED KIN-
DKED.
VI. —UNIVERSAL LEGATEE.
VII. — PUBLIC TREASURY.
A SYNOPTICAL TABLE OP SHI'AH INHERITANCE.
I. — Consanguinity, or Nasab
First Class. Second
!
Class. Third
Class
i
! i
(1) Immediate (2) Lineal descendants,
ascendants, viz. sons and daughters
father and mother. and grandchildren.
(I) Paternal uncles
and aunts and
their children.
(2) Material uncles
and annts and
their children.
(1) Ascendants of second and third degrees
vie grand -parents and their parents.
J
(2) Brothers and sisters and their
children.
INHIBITION
INJIL
211
II. -Special Cause, or Sahab.
Matrimony.
Husband or Wife.
Wala'.
I
(1) Emancipation. (2) Suretyship. (3) Spiritual Headship.
[For the Muhamimidan law of inheritance
in English, refer to Sir William Jones' trans
lation of the Sirdjlyah (Calcutta, A.D. 1792),
reprinted by Mr. Almaric Ramsey, A.D. 1869.
The Muhumnutdan Law of rnkeritanc*, by
Mr. N. B. E. Baillie, A.D. 1832 ; by Mr. S. O.
Grady, A.D. 1869; also Personal IMW of the
Aluttammafians, by Mr. Ameer Ali, 1880. The
Arabic -works on the subject are : For Sunni
law, as-Sirdjiyuh't ash- Sharif ~t yah, ffiddyah,
Duaru H-Mukhtdr j for Shi'ah law, Jdmi'u 'M-
Shatdt, Afajatih, ShareTHu 'I Islam, Irskad-t-
Alldmah.]
INHIBITION. Arabic kljr ( ^),
which, in its primitive sense, means " interdic-
tion or prevention." In the language of the
law it signifies an interdiction of action with
respect to a particular person ; the causes of
inhibition being three : infancy, insanity, and
servitude.
The acts oi an infant, i.e. one under puberty,
are unlawful, unless sanctioned by his guar
dian, The acts of a lunatic who has no lucid
intervals are not at all lawful; and so are
those of a male or female slave.
iii. p. 468.)
INITIAL LETTERS of the Qur'an.
INJIL (J*-^-J\). Gr. EuayyoW.
Evangel. Injll is used in t.he Qur'an, and in
tbe Traditions, and in all Muhammadau
theological works of an early date, for the
revelations made by Gtfd to Jesus. But in
recent works it is applied by Muhammadans
to tLe New Testament. The word occurs
twelve times in the Qur'an, as in the following
Surahs, which we bnve arranged chrunoloyi
cnliy, and not as they occur in the Qur'an.
(It will be seen that the expression InjlL is
not mentioned in the earlier Surahs. See
chronological table of Surahs in article
QUR'AW.)
Surah vii. 1 56 : « Who follow the Apostle
— the illiterate Prophet, whom they find
written down with them in the Law (Taurtit")
and the Gospel (l»jil).n
Surah iii. 2 : " He has sent, tbee a book
(i.e. the Quran) confirming what was before
it, and has revealed the Law. and the Gotpei
before, for the guidance of men."
Surah iii. 43 : " He will teach him. the Book
and Wisdom, and the Law and the Gospet."
Surah iii. 58 : '• Why do ye dispute about
Abraham, when the Law and the Gospel were
not revealed until after him."
Surah Ivii. 27 : " We gave him (Jesus) the
Go&pel, and we placed in the hearts of those
who followed him kindness and compassion."
Surah xlviii. 29: " Their marks are in
their faces from the effects of adoration:
that is their similitude in the Law, and their
similitude in the Gospel"
Surah i*.. 112: "Promised in truth in the
Law, in the Gospel, and in the Qur'an."
Surah v. 60 : "We brought him (Jesus) the
Gospel"
Surah v. 51: "Then let the people of the
Gospel judge by what is revealed therein."
Surah v. 70: "And were they steadfast in
the Law and in the Gospel? "
Surah v. 72 : " Ye rest on nought until ye
stand fast by the Law and the Gospel and
what is revealed to you from your Lord."
Surah v. 110: "When I taught thee the
Book, and Wisdom, and the Law, and the
Gospel."
There are also allusions to the Christian
Scriptures in the following verses : —
Surah xix. 31. (The infant Jesus said,)
" Verily, I am the servant of God : He hath
given me the book, and He hath made me a
prophet."
Muhammad was much more indebted to
Judaism than Christianity for the teaching he
received, which enabled him to overthrow
Arabian idolatry and to establish the worship
of the One True'God [CHRISTIANITY, JUDAISM],
and consequently we find more irequent allu
sions to the Law of Moses than to the Gospel
of Christ; and, as it has been already stated.
the references to the Gospel as a revelation
nre in the later Surahs. But in all references
to the Injll as an inspired record, there is not
one single statement to the effect that the
Christians of Muhammad's day did not
possess the genuine Scriptures. In Surah iv,
169, (which is an al-Madlnah Surah), the
Christians are charged ™ith eztraoagance, or
error in doctrine, but not with not possessing
the true Grospels : —
"Ye people of the Book ! commit not
extravagance in your religion ; and say not of
God other than the truth. For verily the
Messiah, Jesus, the son of Mary, in an apostle
of God, and His word which He placed in
Mary, and a spirit from Him. Wherefore,
believe in God, and in His npoatle; and say
not,-— 'the Trinity'; — refrain; it will be
better for you. For verily God h one God ;
far exalted is He above the possibility that
there should be unto Him progeny i to Him
belongetb whatever i* in the heavens and in
the earth, and He suificeth as a guardian."
In Surah Ixi. G, there is an appeal to the
Gospel in support of Muhammad's mission,
and the appeal is made without any doubt
that he was referring to a genuine saying of
Christ, well known to the Christians of that
day. Tbe verse is as follows : —
'•' When Jesu% the son of Mary, said ;
' O children of Israel ! verily, I am the apostle
of God to you, verifying the law that wa#
212
IHJIU
befor* me, and giving you glad tidings of an
apostle who shall come1 after lfie> whose name
shall be Ahmed!' But nh*n he did come to
them with manifest signs, they. said. This is
manifest sorcery ! "
The allusion is to the premise of the Para
clete in Jorjn KVJ. 7, the Muslims declaring
that the word vu.paK)crfTof has been substi
luted for the Greek TreptK\vTO?t the word
Ahmad, which is equivalent to Muhammad,
meaning «» Praised." The charge which
modern Muslims bring against the Christians
of having either lost, or changed the original
Scriptures, is treated of under the head of
CORRUPTION OP THE SCRIPTURES', but some
cmious statements on the- subject will he
found in art article in the Kashfu 'z-guntin. It
is a Bibliographical Dictionary, compiled by
Hajji Rhallfah about 200 years ago. The
statements in its article on INJIL are such a
strange', mixture of fact and fiction that we
translate the article from the Arabic in ex-
teaso : —
" The injil is H boofc which God revealed to
'?.sa ibu Maryam In the work entitled al-
Mitu>ahib (by Shihabu 'd-DIn Ahmad al-
Qastalani. died A.H. 923), it is recorded that
the Jnjll was first revealed in the Syriac
tongue, and has since been translated into
seventeen languages. But in the Sahihu
*t-Bukhari (A.H. 256), in the story of Wasaqah
ibn Naufal, it is related that the Injil was
revealed in Hebrew. According to VVahb ibn
Aluriabbih, as quott-cl by Zamakhaha-ri (A.H.
538) in the Kas/ishdf, the fnjil was revealed
to Jesus on the 13th day of the month Rama-
zan, although some say it was on tho J8th
day of that month J 200 years after the reve
lation of the Zabur (Psahns) to Moses.
It is a disputed question whether or not
the Injil abrogates the Law of Moses (Taurdt).
Some say that Jesus was not a Sdhibu"sh-
Sfifiri'a/i (s law-giver); for it ift said in the
'
r -fc
j,
"J anr not come to abrogate (tabdil) the Law
ot Moses, but !o fuiilJ Ji (takmlf).*
" But al Baizawi (A.H, 685). in his com
mentary the Aitwuru 't-Tanzil, seems to prove
that the Law of Jesus doe's abrogate the
Law .of Moses (Shur'a A/Jso), for there are
certain things revealed to Jesus' which were
not revealed to Moses.
"At the commencement of tlio Injil is
inscribed ^^ tf*^ } s->'^ ^, < In the
name of the Father and of the Son,1 dc.
And the Injil. which is now in the hands of
the Christians, is merely 0 history of the
Christ (Slratu Y-A/asZA). collected by his
four companions Matta, Lu(ja, Marcjus and
* Jfl the book entitled the Tuhfatu yt-Adib
fi BaddHala Ahii 's-Sahb, or 'A refutation
of the servants of the Cross' (written by
-Abdullah, a pervert from Christianity so
Islam, A.H, 823), it is said that these four
Companions are they who corrupted the
INJIL
religion of Jesus, and have added to it. And
that they were not of the Ha&ariyun, or
Apostles, mentioned in theQur'an. Matta did
not see Jesus until the year he was taken up
to heaven'^ and after the Ascension of Jesus
he wrote in the city of Alexandria, with his
own hand, his Irrjfl, in which he jjives an
account of the birth and life of Jesus, men
tioning several circumstances which are Dot
mentioned by others. Luqa also did not
see Jesus, but he was converted to Chris
tianity by one Butts (Paul), who was an
Israelite, who himself had not seen Jesus,
but was converted by Andniyo. (Ananias).
Marqus also did not see Jesus at all, but was
Converted to Christianity, after the Ascension
of Jesua, by the Apostle Bit™, and received
the lnji.1 (Gospel) from that Apostle in the
city of Rome And his Gospel in many
respects contradicts the statements of the
other three Yu.hanna was the son of the
sister of Maryam, the mother of Jesus, and
the Christiana assert that Je»u& was present
at the marriage of Yuhanna, when Jesus
changed the water into wine. It was the first
miracle performed by Jesus.
"When Yuhanna saw the miracle, he was
converted to Christianity, and i*?ft his wife
and followed Jesus. He was the writer of
tbe fourth Injil (Gospel). It was written in
Greek, in tbo city of Ephesua. These are
the four persons who altered and changed tbe
true /0;7/,for there was only one Jnjll revealed
to Jesus, in which there was no contradiction
or discrepancy. These people have invented
lies concerning Cod and His Prophet Jesus,
upon whom be peace • as it is a well known
fict, although the Christians (A'flfftrra) deny
it. For example, Marqus has, written in
the first chapter o'f his Gospel that in the
book of the t'rgphet isaiah it is said by God,
* 1 have sent an imgel before thy face, namely,
before the face of Jesus whereas the words
are not in tbe book uf Isaiah but in that of
Malachi. [See Mark i. 2. In the Received
Version the words are "in the Prophets";
but in the Revised Version we have "in
Iseiah the prophet.'*J
" Again, it is related hv Matta, in the first
or rather thirteenth haprer vof his Gespe]
[sic ; see, however, Matt, xii, 4\f], that- Jesus
said, * My. body will remain in the belly of
the earth three days and three nights after
my death, just as Jonas was in the whale's
belly -/and it is evident it WHS not true, for
ivJatU agrees with the throe other \vrhera of
the Goapela that Jesus died in the sixth hour
on Friday,. and v«as buried 'in the first hour
yf the night on Saturday 'and rose from the
dead earlv on Sunday morning, so that he
remained in the belly of the earth one day
and two nights. So there remains no. doubt
that the writers of the Gospels toid the un
truth. For neither' Jesus said of himself nt>r
did God in his /njtl say of him, that Jesus
will be killed or buried in the earth, for God
has said (i.e. in the Qur'an, Surah iv. 156),
They slew him not, for certain! Nay, God
raised him up unto Himself For this cause
there wers various divisions amongst the
AL-1NSAN
Christians. Other circumstances similar to
these are mentioned in the Tuhfatu H-Adlb.
Thdn there are the fundamental rules and
doctrines (al-Qftwaid'), upon which the Chris
tians are, with very few exreptiuns^ universally
agreed, namely: /(I) At'Tagktis (Baptism);
'2) Faith iu t'he Tan/is, or Trinity ; (8) the
Inearnation of the Uqnum (i.e. the essence) of
the Son in the womb of Mary ; (4) a belief
Jn the FitraJt (i.e. the Holy Communion) ;
(5) the Confession of all sins to the PHest
(ihs is). These live foundations also are full
of falsehood, corruption, and ignorance."
u In the work entitled aJ-fn.ianu 'l-Kanril
f written by the Sbaikji Abdu'l-Karim ibn
Ibrahim al-Jili, lived A.H. 7(57~oTl) it ,is said
thet ^whwn the Christians feu&d that there
was at the commencement of the Injil th?
superseription ^^\ ^ ^^ ^V*, i.e. ' in the
nam.3 of the Father and .Son/ (hey took the
words in their natural meaning, and [think
ing it ought to be Ab. father, (7mm, mother,
and Ibn, son] understood by A 6, the Spirit,
byUmm, Maryland by Ibn, Jesus ; aud on this
account they said, §(itistt $tt/«,sa/fV», i.e. ' (God
is) the third of' three.' (Surah v. 77.) Bat
they did not understand that by Ab is meant
God Most High, by Ummt the Malnyatu V-
Haqa'iq, or ' Essence of Truth " (Quidditan
veritatum), and by Ibn, the Book of God,
which is called the Wujudu 'l-.Wutlaq, or
' Absolute Existence/ being an, emanation of
the Essence of Truth, as it is implied in the
*rord& of the Qur'an, Surah xiii. 9 : ' And with
him is the Ummu 'l-Kitab, or the Mother of
the Book.' "
AL-INSAN (0V-W). " Man." The
title of the Lxxvith-Surah of the Qur'an, called
a)so SOratu 'd-Dahr, both words occurring in
the first rerse : "Did there not pass over
man (insdn) a long space of time (dahr)
during which he was a thing not worthy of
remembrance,"
Some take these words to be spoken of
Adam, -whose body, according to tradition,
waa first a figure of clay, and was loft for
forty years to dry, before God breathed into
it ; but others understand them of man in
general and of the tiuie he lies in the womb.
fSee a/-2&f«at0c,'fji hco.)
AL-1NSANU 'L-KAMIL foV-rtt
J-W). "The perfect man." A
term used by the $ufl mystics for one in
whom are combined all the attributes of
divinity arid of humanity. (Kitabit 't-Tccrifat,
in loco). Also title of a mystic work by
4Abdu '1-K.ariro ibn Ibrahim al-Jili (lived
A.H. 767-811).
INSHA («U>\). Lib. "Construc
ting ; raising-up." The term is particularly
applied to literary compositions and forms of
letter-writing.
Mr. Lane, \n Uis Mude?n Egypt ian*t vol. t.
p. 272, mentions the Shaikh of the great
Mosque, the A/Jiar, as th« author of ft coi-
lectiorj of Arabic letters on various subjects,
which are intended as modela of epistolary
siylo, such a collection beins called an Ir-sha
INSPIRATION
213
J\»s AlN). "If it should please God
Almighty." A very frequent ejaculation
amongst Muslims. [isriStf A'.]
AL-INSHIRAH
panding." The title of the xcivth Surah of
the Qur'an, which opens with the words
" Have we not expanded thy breast." It is
supposed to allude to the opening of Muham
mad's heart in his infancy, when it is said to
have been taken out and cleansed of original
ein. (See at- Btizauri^ in loco.)
INSOLVENCY of a debtor is esta-
'bushed by a judicial decree; and after such
a declaration a bequest by such a peraon is
void. If, however, the creditors relinquish
their elaiin, the bequest is then valid. (Hi-
daynh, iv. p. 475.)
INSPIRATION. Arabic uafo
(^))- According to the 'Nuru, V-
Anwdriby Shaikh Jiwan Ahmad (A.H. 1130),
inspiration is of two kinds. Wa{\y jo/itr,
external inspiration, or Wahy butin, internal
inspiration.
I. — External Inspiration is of three kinds : —
(1) Wahyu Qnr>dn, or that which was re
ceived from the mouth of the angel Gabriel,
and reached the ear of the Prophet, after he
knew beyond doubt that it was the angel
who spoke to him. This is the only kind of
inspiration admitted to be in the Qur'an. It
is sometimes called the Wahy matlu.
(2^) Isharatu 'l-Malak, or that which WAS
received from the angel but not, by word of
month, as when the Prophet said, "the Holy
Ghost has breathed into mj- heart."
(3) llham or Wafryu qalb; or that which
was made known to the Prophet by the
" light of \prophccy." This kind of inspira
tion is said to be possessed by~ Wnt'ts qr
saints, in which case it may be ^i^her true or
false.
IT. — Internal. Inspiration is that which the
Prophet obtained by thought and analogical
reasoning, just as the MujtaJadun, or en
lightened doctors o! the law obtain it. It is
the belief of 9\\ orthodox Muslims that their
Prophet always spoke on matter* of religion
by the low^r forms of inspirution(/>. Jsfiaratu
l-Malak) /Ma/7/,, or Watiyu 70/6); and; con
sequently a Hadis. is ht-ld to be inspired 'in as
great a degree, although not iu the .same
manner as thf Qur'in itself. Tb* inspiration
of the Hadis is called the Wnhy Qhair
nwtlu (Sec Nuru V Amoar, p. ISl; Mish-
hit, book i. ch. vi. pt. 2.)
Suratu 'n-Nfljm, liii. 2 . •' Your lord ($ahify
erreth not, nor is he led astray, neither
speaketh he from impulse."
According to tho strict Muhanunadan doc
trine, e^'^ry syll;ib!^ of the C^ur'au is of n
directly divine origiu. although wild rhapso
dical Surahs first composed by Muh.itcuiad
(as xci , e., cii., ciii). do not at all bear roarke
of such an assumption, and were not pro
bably intended to be clothed in the dress of
a message from the Most High, which cha-
214
INTELLECT
racterizes the rest of the Qur'an. But when
Muhammad's die was cast (the turning point
in his career) of assuming that Great Name
as the speaker of His revelations, then these
earlier Surahs also came to be regarded as
emanating directly from the Deity. Hence it
arises that Muhammadans rigidly include
every word of the Quran, at whatever stage
delivered , in the category of Qdla *lldhuy or
" Thus saith the Lord," and it is one of their
arguments against our Christian scriptures
that they are not entirely cast in the same
mould — not exclusively oracles from the
mouth, and spoken in the person of God.
(Muir's Life of Mahomet.}
The following is a description of inspiration
as given by Ibn Khaldun, " The sign that a
man is inspired," he says, " is, that he is at
times completely absent, though in the .society
of others. His respiration is stentorious and
he seems to be in a cataleptic fit, or in a
swoon. This, however, is merely apparent ;
for in reality such an ecstasis is an absorp
tion into the invisible world ; a.nd he has
within his grasp what he alone is able to con
ceive, which is above the conception of
others. Subsequently these spiritual visions
descend and become perceptible to the facul
ties of man. They are either whispered to
him in a, low tone, or an angel appears to him
in human shape and tells him what he brings
from God. Then the ecstasis ceases, and the
prophet remembers what he has heard."
INTELLECT. Arabic <aql
fatim (,*>i), idrak (^\^\).
The Faqir Jam Muhammad ibii As*ad, in
his work tb.e Akhldq-i Jaldli, says : " The rea
sonable mind has two powers. (1) the power of
perceiving, and (2) the power of impelling ; and
each of these powers has two divisions : in the
percipient power, 1st, an observative, intellect.
which is -the source of impression from the
celestial sources, by the reception of those
ideas which are the materials of knowledge :
2nd, an active intellect, which, through
thought and reflection, is the remote source
of motion to the body in its separate actions.
Combined with the appetent and vindictive
powers, this division originates the occur
rence of many states productive of action or
impact, as shame, laughing, crying; in its
operation on- imgination and supposition, it
leads to the accession of ideas and arts in the
partial state ; and in its relation with the ob-
servative sense and the connection maintained
between them, it is the means of originating
general ideas relating to actions, as the
beauty of truth, the odiousness of falsehood,
and the like. The impelling power has like
wise two division^ : 1st, the vindictive power,
which is the source of forcibly repelling
what is disagreeable; 2nd, the appefent poioer,
which is the source of acquiring what is agree
able." (Thompson's ed. p. 52.)
INTEKCALATION of the Year.
Arabic nas£'. The privilege of commuting
the last of the three continuous sacred months
for the one succeeding it, the month Safar,
INTERCESSION
in which case Atufyurram became secular, and
Safar sacred. M. Caussin de Perceval supposes
that this innovation was introduced by Qusaiy,
an ancestor sixth in ascent from Muham
mad, who lived in the middle of the frith cen
tury. Dr. Sprenger thinks that intercalation
in the ordinary sense of the word was not
practised at Makkah, and that the Arab year
was a purely lunar one, performing its cycle
regularly, and losing one year in every thirty-
three.
The custom of nasf was abolished by
Muhammad, at the farewell pilgrimage,
A.H. 10, as is stated in the Qur'an, Surah «.
36, 37:—
"Twelve months is the number of months
with God, according to God's book, since the
day when He created the heavens and the
earth: of these four are sacred; this is the
right usage. But wrong not yourselves
therein; attack those who join gods with
God in all, as they attack you in all : and
know that God is with those who fear Him.
" To carry over a sacred month to another,
is only a growth of infidelity. The Infidel*
are led into error by it. They allow it one
year, and forbid u another, that fchey may
make good the number of months which God
bath hallowed, and they allow that which
God hath prohibited."
INTERCESSION. Arabic Sha-
fd'ah (*fcU*)t There is a general
belief amongst Muhammadans that their
Prophet is a living intercessor for them at
the throne of God ; but the Wahhabls state
that the intercession of their Prophet will only
be by the pel-mission (l$n} of God at the last
day, and that there is no intercession for sins
until the Day of Judgment The teaching of
the Qur'an and tha Traditions seems to be in
favour of this view.
Surah ii. 256 : " Who is he that can inter
cede with Him but by His own permission ? "*
Surah xix. 90: ''None shall meet (in the
Day of Judgment) with intercession save he
who hath entered into covenant with the God
of mercy/
Surah xx. 108 : " No intercession shall
avail on that day, save his whom the .Mer
ciful shall allow, and whose words He shall
approve.''
Surah xxxiv. 22 : " No intercession shall
avail with him but that which He Himself
alloweth."
Surah xxxix. 45: "Intercession is wholly
with God."
Surah Ixxviii. 38: « On the day whereon
the spirit (Ri/h) and the angels shall stand
ranged in order they shall - not utter a word,
save he whom the God of mercy permits, and
who shall say what is right.'*
The statements of Muhammad, as contained!
in the Traditions, are as follows : —
" He is most fortunate in my intercession
in the Day of Judgment, who shall have saidi
from his heart, without any mixture of hypo
crisy, ' There is no deity but God.' "
" I will intercede for those who shall have!
committed great sins.**
INTERMEDIATE STATE
IRON
216
" Three classes will intercede on the Day
of Judgment, the Prophets, the Learned, the
Martyrs." (Mishkat, book xxxiii ch. xii.)
The author of the Sharltri-Muwdqif says
(p, 588) : According to the Sunnis, the inter
cession of Muhammad is specially for those
who have committed great sins (-.ihlu 'J-
leabairy^ for the purpose of removing punish
ment ; for Muhammad has said, "My inter
cession is for those who have committed
great sins." Bat the Mu'tazilahs say the
intercession of Muhammad is for the increase
of merit, and not for the prevention of
punishment ; for it is said in the Qur'an,
Surah ii. 45 : " Fear the day wherein no soul
shall pay recompense for another soul. Nor
shall intercession be accepted for it, nor shall
Compensation be taken from it. nor shall they
be helped."
INTERMEDIATE STATE The
state of the soul between the time of death
and the resurrection is generally expressed
by the term lAlum-i -Barzakh. for an explana
tion of which refer to the article BAKZAKH
SiifT writers use the term 'AlfUH-i-Arw&k,
" The world of spirits."
From the Traditions it would appear that
Muhammad taught that the intermediate
state is not one of unconsciousness. To the
wicked it is certainly not : hut inasmuch as
the Muslim is encouraged to " sleep like the
brid«yroowt" it may be inferred that the in
termediate static of the Muslim is held to be
one of absolute repose." f PUNISHMENTS OF
THB GRAVE.]
1NZAR (jteJ\). Listening or lend
ing an ear to the bankrupt's statement or
petition.
INZI'AJ (fetejrt). Lit. " Being dis
turbed and uiovei from its place." A term
used by the Sufi mystics for the movement
and exoitement of the heart, in the direction
-if Uod, through the effect, either of a sermon,
or of music and sinking. ('Ahdu Y-Razzaq's
Viet, offfufi Term».\
. "Cancelling/' In
w, the cancelling or dissolution of sale, or
any other contract.
IQAMAH (&«Vil). Lit. "Causing
to stand." A recitation at the commence
ment of the stated prayers wber s*id in a
congregation, after the worshippers have
taken up their position. It is the same as
the I'zan, v/ith the addition of the sentence.
** Verily prayers are'now ready" ( Qfld qdmali
>-£«/«*). The sentences are, howe/er, recited
singly by all the sects except the Han*fls who
give it exactly as the T'aan. It is not recited
by the Imam, but by the person who stands
behind him, wro is called the Mur/tadi, or
" follower." In large rnosques it is usual for
the Mu'azzin, or caller to prayer, to take
this office. But in his absence the person
who happens to be behind the Imam recites
the Iqumuh. [IMAM.]
IQRAR GV^)- Acknowledgment ;
confession.
(1) A legal term used for the avowal of the
right of another upon one's self in sales, con
tracts, and divorce. (2) A theological term
used for a confession of the Muslim faith, or
H confession of sin. (3) Igrdr-ndmah, a legal
deed of acknowledgment. (4) Iqrdr-namah
s/ildfti, a deed of arbitration by a third party.
(5) Iqrdru Y-crga;>t, a confession of guilt by a
prisoner. (8) Jqrur '«?/?;«, a public acknow
ledgment.
IQTI53A (olA^it). Lit. " Demanding."
A term used inJhe exegesis of the Qur'an for
sentences which demand certain conditions,
e.g. Surah iv. 04: "Whoso killeth a Mu'min
(a believer) by mischance shall be bound to
free a slave." Here the condition demanded
is that the slave shall bo the property of the
' person who frees him, and if he have not a
slave to free, then some other expiation is
required.
IRADAlf (S^V). Purpose, will,
invention. (1) A word used for the intention,
or will of man. (2) Iradatu 'flah, the will of
God. (3) According to the Sufi mystics, it
is " a flame of love in the heart which desires
God and longs to be united with Him. (4Abdu
V-Razzaq's Diet, of Qufl Terms.)
TRAM (f^). A place mentioned
i in the Qur'an, Surah Ixxxix. 6 : " Irani of the
! columns, the like of which has not. been
j created in these lands.*'
It is related that ash-Sbaddad, the son of
I *Ad, ordered the construction of a terrestial
j paradise in the desert of 'Adan, ostensibly
I to rival the celestial one, and to be called
Iram after his great grandfather. On going
i.o take possession of it, he and all his
people were struck dead by a noise from
heaver, and the paradise disappeared.
AL-'IRAQ (oV^)- Lit- "A "ide,
or shore." A country frequently »nentioned
in the Traditions, which extends from 'Ab-
badan to al-Mausil in length, and from al-
QadisTyah to Hal wan in breadth. Said to be
so named becausp it was on the " shore " of
the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Its prin
cipal cities were el-Basrah and al-Kufah. and
were called oJ-'lruqan. or the Two'Iraqs.
'tRBAN (tf^). Earnest-money
paid in any legal transaction.
IRHAS O^). Lit. " Laying the
Foundation." A term use«l for any wander
wrought in behalf of a Prophet before he
assumes the prophetic office : for example, the
existence of a light on the forehead of Mu
hammad's ancestors is an Irhus. (Kitabu 'f-
i IRON. Arabic al-Hadid
The title ot Surah Ivii. in the Qur'an, in the
25th verse of which it is said : " We (God) sent
down . ron, in which are both keen violence and
advantages to men." JCamakhshari says that
i Adam brought down with him from Paradise
216
IRTIDAD
five things made of iron, viz. an anvil, a pair
of tongs, two hammers, .a greater -and lesser,
and % needle.
IRTIDAD (^^). [APOSTASY.]
'ISA (^r-*0). Tbe name given to
Jesus io the Qur'an and all. Muharumadau
writings {JESUS CHRIST/}
ISAAC. Arabic Ishdq (
The eon of Abraham. He is mentioned in
the Qur'an as specially the child of promise,
and a gift from God to Abraham ; and also
as an inspired prophet.
S0rah xxi. 72: "And We (God) gave hina
(Abraham) Isaac and Jacob as a farther gift ;
and we made them all righteous."
Surah xix. 50:
" And when he bad separated himself from
them and that -which they -worshipped beside
God, we best.owed on him Isaac and Jacob;
and each of them we made a prophet.
" And we bestowed gifts on them in oar
mercy, and gave them the Ictfty tongue of
truth."
The birth of Isaac as a child of promise to
Abraham is related in Surah xl 72-77 ; —
"And our messengers came foroierly to
Abraham with glad tidings. 'Peace,' said
they. He said, * Peace,' and he tarried not,
but brought a roasted calf,
u And when he saw that their hands
touched it not, he mislikeil them, and grew
fearful of them. They said, 'Fear not, for
we are sent to the p.eopio of Lot.'
" His wife was standing by and laughed ;
and we announced Isaac to h*M* ; and after
Ixaaf, Jacob.
" She said, • Ah, woe is me ! shall I bear a
goo when I am old, and when this my husband
is an 'old man? This truly would be a mar
vellous thing.'
'* They said, ' Marvellest. thou at the. com
mand of God ? God's mercy and blessing be
upon you, O people of this house ; praise and
glory "are His due?'
"And when Abraham's faar had passed
away, and these glad tidings had reached him,
he pleaded with os for tho people of Lot.
Verily, Abraham was right kind, pitiful.
relenting."
Abraham's willingness to offer up his son
is told in the Qur'an, and from the text
there would seem little doubt but Isaac was
intended, although al-BaizawI and .many com
mentators declare it was Ishraael. The ac
count runs thus (Surah xxxvii. 97- 11 3; :—
" And he said, * 'Verily, 1 repair to my Lord
who will guide me.
'"0 Lord give me a son, of the righteons,
"We announced to him a youth of meek
ness.
" And when he became a full-grown youth,
"His father said to him, { My son, I have
seen in a dream that I should sacrifice thee;
therefore, consider -what thou seest n'<?$f '
'• He said, "« My father, do what thou art
bidden ; of the patient, if God pleas*, shalt
thou find me/
4i Aad whoa they bad surrendered them to
ISHMAEL
the will of God, he laid him dawn upon hie
forehead,
** We cried unto bins, ' 0 Abraham f
"*Now haat thou satisfied the vision.
See bow we recompense the righteous.
This was Indeed a deeisive test.
*<And we ransomed his son with a costly
victim.
*• And, we left this fot-htm among posterity,
" * PEACE BE ON ABRAHAM J '
" Thus do we reward the well-doers,
" For he was of our believing servants.
" And we Announced Isaac to* him — a
righteous prophet —
"And -on him and oh Isaac we bestowed
our blessing. And among, their offspring
were well-doers, and others, to their own
hurt undoubted sinners."
TUa feast of sacrifice, the 'Idu 'l-A?ha,is
said to have been instituted in commemora
tion of this event ['IDU 'L-AZUA.]
Syud Ahmad Khan Bahadur, in his Estuys
on Arabia, remarks that learned Mufcam-
rnadan theologians distinctly say it was Isaac
and not Ishinael who was to have been
offered up; but our researches scarcely con
firm the learned Syud's statement. Ismli'Il
al-Bukhari, no mean authority, says it was
Ishmael, and so does al-Bai?awi
The weight of traditional authority seems
to be in favour of Tsaac, and so does the text
of the Qur'dn, which we have explained fu the
account of Ishmael; and yet amongst both the
SunnTa and the &hi<ahs the opinion is now
almost universal that it was lahmael,
[ISHMAEL.J
ISAIAH. Arabic Sha'ya' («****>),
The oarae is not mentioned in the Qar'an, but
al-Baizawi, the commentator, in remarking on
3«ratu 'l-Mi*raj, xvii. 4 :— " We decreed to
the children of Isra'H in the Book, < Ye* shall
verily do evil in the sarth twice/ "—says the
(wo sins committed by yie Israelites were
first the murder of Sha'ya ibn AmsiyaL (i,e,
Isaiah, son of Amoz) or Armiya (i.e. Jere
miah) ; and the second, the murder of Zakaria
and John the Baptist, and the intention of
killing Jesus.
1'SAB t^>\). Honouring another
above oneself. Thinking of another's gain
rather than one's own, The highest form of
human friendship.
'1SHA' (.Uft). The Night Prayer.
Tha liturgical prayer recited after tJlie night
has well sot in. [PRAYER.]
ISHAQ (jC-0 [ISAAC.J
ISHAQTYAH (MW^). A Shi'ah
sect founded by a person pamed Tshaq, who
held that the Spirit of God existed in the
Khalifah 'AH.
ISHARATU 'L-MALAK
ISHMAEL. Arabic Ism&'H
rtoV4-\). The eldest son of Abriu
m, by bis «» tei/e" Hagar
ISHMAEL
(1) The progenitor of the Arabian race,
ana, according to the Qur'tin, an inspired
prophet. Surah xix. 55 : —
" And commemorate Jshmael in ' the Book ; '
for he was true to his promise, and was an
Apostle, a prophet;
"And he enjoined prayer and almsgiving
on his people, and was well-pleasing to his
Lord."
(2) Said to have assisted his father in
the conntruction of the Ka'bah. Surah ii.
119, 121 :—
" And remember when we appointed the
Holy House as man's resort and safe retreat,
and said, ' Take ye the station of Abraham
for a place of prayer.' And we commanded
Abraham and Ishmael, ' Purify my house for
those who shall go in procession round it, and
those who shall abide there for devotion, and
those who shall bow down and prostrate
themselves.'
* * » * #
" And when Abraham, with Jshmael, raised
the foundations of the House, they said.
1 0 our Lord J accept it from us ; for Thou
art the Hearer, the Knower.' "
(3) Also mentioned in six other places.
Surah ii. 134 : " Do ye say that Abraham
and Jshmael, and Isaac and Jacob, and the
Tribes were Jews, or Christians ? "
Surah iii. 78 : " And what was revealed to
Abraham and Jshmael and Isaac and Jacob
and the Tribes."
Surah iv. 1G1 : " And we inspired Abraham
and Jshmael, and Jacob and the Tribes."
Surah vi. 8G; "And Jshmael and Elisha,
and Jonah, and Lot."
Surah xxi. 85 : " And Jshmael, and Idris,
and Zu '1-Kifl, all these were of the patient."
Surah xxxviii. 48 : " And remember Ishmael,
and Elisha, and Zu 1-Kifl, for each was
righteous."
(4) According to the Old Testament, Ishmael
had twelve sons, and Muhammadan tradition
also agrees with this : —
Genesis xxv. 12 : " Now these are the
generations of Ishmael, Abraham's son, whom
Hagar the Egyptian. Sarah's handmaid, bare
unto Abraham. And these are the names
of the sons of Ishmael, according to their
generations: the first-born of Ishmael, Ne-
bajoth ; and Kedar, and Adbeel, and Mibsam,
and Mishma, and Dumah, and Massa, and
Hadar, and Tema, and Jetur, and Naphish,
and Kedemah. These are the sons of Ishmsel,
and these are their names by their castles,
twelve princes according to their nations."
The names of these sons of Ishmael can
still be distinguished amongst the tribes, the
names of which occur in Muhammadan
history : Nebajoth (Nabayus), the founder of
the Nabathean nation, who succeeded the
Idumeans in Arabia, and were an important
people in Northern Arabia. Kedar (Qaufar)
was also a famous tribe, so famous that the
Badawis of the desert applied the name to
all Jews. Dumah is still preserved in the
name Dumatu '1-Jandal. Tema corresponds
with Taimah, and Jetur with the Jadur of
modern Arabia. Muhammad is said to have
ISHMAEL
217
been descended from lehmael's second Bon
Kedar (Qaidar), through one named 'Adnan.
The period between 'Adnan and Ishmaol is
doubtful. Some reckon forty generations,
others only four. Umm Salmah, one of the
Prophet's wives, said 'Adnan was the eon of
'Adad, the son of Humaisa, son of Nabat, son
of Ishmael. (See Abu 'l-Flda1, p. 62.) Muslim
historians, however, admit that the pedigree
of Muhammad beyond 'Adnan is uncertain ;
but they are unanimous in tracing his descent
to 'Adnan in the following line : (1} Muham
mad, (2) 'Abdu 'llah, (3) Abu Mnjttalib, (4)
Hasbim. (5) 'Abdu Manaf, (6) Qusaiy, (7)
Kilab, (8) Hurrah, (9) Ka'b, (10) Luwaiy.
(U)Ghalib,(12) Fihr, (13) Malik, (14) An-
Nazr, (15) Kinanah, (16) Khuzaimah, (17)
Mudrikah, (18) Al-Ya\ (19) Muzar, (20)
Nizar, (21) Ma'add, (22) 'Adnun.
Syud Ahmad Khan Bahadur, traces the
descent of Muhammad to Kedar, the son
of Ishmael, and the view is one in accordance
with that of most Muslim writers. In the
time of Isaiah the two chief Arabian tribes
seem to have been the descendants of Nebajoth
and Kedar. (See Isaiah Ix. 7.) "All the flocks
of Kedar shall be gathered unto thee, the
rams of Nebajoth shall minister unto thee."
(5) The account of Hagar leaving Abra
ham's home is given in numerous traditions.
But there are two traditions given by Ibn
'Abbas, and recorded in the Sahlh of al-
Bukhari, which are the foundation of Muham
madan history on the subject. We give them
u« they have been translated by Syud Ahmad
Khan, and afterwards append the Scripture
narrative, which can bo compared with the
traditions of Islam : —
Tradition I.
For reasons known only to Abraham and
his wife, Sarah, the former took Ishmael, his
son, and the boy's mother (Hagar), and left
his country.
And they had with them a skin full of
water.
Ishmael's mother drank from out the skin,
suckling her child.
Upon her arriving at the place where Mecca
now stands, she placed the child under a
bush.
Then Abraham returned to come back to
his wife, and the mother of Ishmael followed
him,
Until she reached Keda.
And she called out, " 0 Abraham, with
whom leavest thou me ? "
He answered, « With God."
She replied, " I am satisfied with my God."
Then she returned, and commenced drink
ing out of the skin, and suckled her infant
until the water was consumed.
And she thought that if she went and
looked around, she might, perhaps, see some
one ; and she went.
She ascended Mount Safa, and looked
around to see whether or not there was
anyone in sight ; then hastily returning
through the wilderness, she ascended the
mountain of Marva.
28
218
ISHMAEL
I8HMABL
Then she said, " I must now go and see
how my child is." And she went, and saw
that he was at the point of death ; but nol
being able to compose her rnind, she said,
*' If 1 go and look around, peradventure I
may see someone." And accordingly she
ascended the mountain of Safa, but could
descry no one.
And this she repeated seven times.
She then said, "It will be better for me
to go and see wy child." But she suddenly
heard a voice.
And she replied, " Kindly assist me, if you
have any compassion "
The angel was Gabriel.
Tho narrator of the tradition, stamping {lie
earth with his foot, said, this was exactly
what the angel did, and that water issued
from the spot ; and she began to widen the
hole
It is related by Ibn 'Abbas, that the Prophet
said that had she (Hagar) allowed the water
to remain in its former state, the water would
then ha ve continued issuing forth for ever.
She used to drink that water and suckle
her child.
Tradition IL
Abraham brought with him his wife (Hagar)
and his son (Ishmael),
Whom she (Hagar) suckled.
And they both placed the child close by the
spot where the Kaaba now stands under a
bush.
Near the well of Zamzem, near the lofty
side of the temple — and in those days Mecca
•was uninhabited and without water — and they
deposited the child in the above place.
And Abraham placed beside them a bag
full of dates,
And a skin full of water.
Then returned Abraham, and Ishmael 's
- mother ran after him,
And said, " Abraham, whither goest thou,
and wherefore leavest thou me here ?
"In this wilderness, where there ia no one
to pity me, neither is there anything to eat ? "
This she repeated several times, but Abraham
hearkened not unto her. Then she asked
him, " Has God commanded thee to do this ? "
He answered, " Yes."
" Then," said she, " God will cause no harm
to come unto me."
Thereupon she returned back.
And Abraham went away, and when he
reached Saneoa, he could not see those he
had left behind him.
Then be turned towards .Mecca, and prayed
thus: "'OLord, I have caused some of my
offspring to settle in an unfruitful valley,
near thy holy house, O Lord, that they, may
be constant in prayer. Grant, therefore,'that
the hearts of some men may be affected
with kindness towards them ; and do tbou
bestow on them all sorts of fruits, that they
may give thanks."
And the mother of Ishmael began to suckle
her child, and to drink water out of the skin
until it was emptied.
And she and her son felt thirsty. And when
she saw that her child was suffering from
thirst, she could not bear to see it in such a
plight, and retired, and reached the mountain
of Safa, that was near, and ascending it,
looked at the plain, in the hope of seeing
someone ; but, not perceiving anyone, she
came down from the mountain.
When she reached the desert, she girded
up her loins and ran as one mad, until she
crossed the desert, and ascended Mount
Marva; but she could not see anyone.
She repeated the same seven times.
It is related by Ibn 'Abbas, that the Prophet
said that this was the origin of the custom of
I true believers running between these moun
tains during the Haj.
And when she ascended the Marva mountain,
she heard a voice.
She was startled thereat : and upon hearing
it again, she said, " Wherefore callest thou on
me ? Assist me if thou canst.*'
She then saw an angel near the Zamzem.
He (the angel) made a hollow place, either
by his foot or with his wing, and the water
issued forth ; and the mother of Tshmael com
menced widening it.
She filled the skin with water, which came
out of, it as from a fountain.
It is related by Ibn 'Abbas that the Prophet
said, "May God bless the mother of Ishmael.
Had she left the Zamzem as it was, or had
she not filled her skin with water, then the
Zamzem would always have remained an
overflowing fountain."
Then she drank the water, and suckled
her child.
The account as given in the Bible, Genesis
xxii. 9, is as follows : —
" And Sarah saw the son of Hagar the
Egyptian, which she had borne unto Abraham,
mocking. Wherefore she said unto Abraham,
Cast out this bondwoman and her son ; for
the son of this bondwoman shall not he heir
with my son, even with Isaac. And this
thing was very grievous in Abraham's sight,
because of his son. And God said unto
Abraham, Let it not be grievous in thy sight
because of the lad, and because of thy bond
woman ; in all that Sarah hath said unto thee,
hearken unto her voice ; for in Isaac shall
thy seed be called. And also of the son of
the bondwoman will I make a nation, because
he is thy seed. And Abraham rose up early
in the morning, and took bread, and a bottle
of water, and gave it unto Hagar, putting it
on her shoulder, and the child, and sent her
away ; and she departed, and wandered in
the wilderness of Beersheba. And the water
was spent in the bottle, and she cast the
child under one of the shrubs. And she
went, and set her down over against him, a
good way off, as it were a bow shot ; for she
said, Let me not see the death of the child.
And she sat over against him, and lifted np
her voice, and wept And God heard the voice
of the lad, and the angel of God called to
Hagar out of heaven, and safd unto her,
ISHMAEL
What aileth thee, Hagar ? Fear not ; for God
hatb heard the voice of the lad where he is.
Arise, lift up the lad. and hold him in thine
hand, for I will make him a great nation.
And God opened her eyes, and she saw a well
of water ; and she went, and filled the bottle
with water, and gave the lad drink. And
God was with the lad ; and he grew, and
dwelt in the wilderness, and became an archer.
And he dwelt in the wilderness of Paran ; and
his mother took him a wife out of the land of
Egypt."
With reference to the above account, as
given in Holy Scripture, Syiid Ahmad Khan
remarks : —
"Notwithstanding the perfect coincidence
of the facts taken from the Scriptures with
those from the Koran, as above shown, there
are. nevertheless, three very important ques
tions which suggest themselves respecting
ishmael's settlement.
" First. Where did Abraham leave Ishmael
and his mother after expelling them from his
home ?
'* Secondly. Where did Ishmael and Hagar
settle after their wanderings in the desert ?
:- Thirdly. Was it in the very spot where
they had rested for the first time, or in some
other place ?
** The Koran mentions nothing on the sub
ject ; but there are some local traditions, and
»lso a few Hadeeses, which treat of it, the
latter, however, by reason of their not pos
sessing sufficient authority, and from their
not being traced up to the Prophet, are as
Uttle to be relied on as the former. The local
traditions being deemed unworthy of credit,
from their mixing up together occurrences
that had happened on various and different
occasions, we do not think it necessary to dwell
on the first question more than has been
done by the Scriptures themselves, which say
that ' He (Abraham) sent her (Hagar) away ;
and she departed, and wandered in the wilder
ness of Beersheba.'
" AB for tho two remaining questions, al
though the language of Scripture is not very
clear— since, in one place it says, "And he
(Isbmael) grew, and dwelt in the wilderness.
and became an archer ' (Gen. xxi. 20), and
in another, ' He (Ishmael) dwelt in the wil
derness of Parau' (Gen. xxi. 21), passages
which would certainly lead us to infer that
Ishmaei had changed the place of his abode ;
vet, as no Christian commentator represents
him as having removed from one place to
another, and as, moreover, neither the reli
gious nor the local traditions of the Moham
medans in any way confirm the above, it may
be safely asserted that Ishmael and his mother
did not change the place where they dwelt,
and that by the word { wilderness ' alone the
sacred writer meant the wilderness of Paran.
The solving of the whole question depends,
therefore, upon ascertaining and fixing the
position of the said wilderness of Paran,
where Ishmael is said to have settled.
" Oriental geographers mention three places
as known by the appellation of Paran. First,
that wilderness wherein the citv of Mecca
ISHMAEL
219
now stands, and the mountains in its vicinity ;
secondly, those mountains and a village which
are situated in Eastern Egypt, or Arabia
Petnea; and thirdly, a district in the pro
vince of Samarcand."
(6) Al-BaizawI says it was Ishmael, and not
Isaac, whom Abraham was willing to offer up
as a sacrifice ; but this view is neither sup
ported by the text of the Qur'an nor by the
preponderance of traditional testimony. If
we compare Surah xi. 74 : " And We announced
Isaac (as the child of promise) to her," with
Surah xxxvii. 99: "We announced (as a
child of promise) to him a youth of meekness ;
and when he became a full-grown youth, his
father said to him, * My son, I have seen in a
dream that I should sacrifice thee '"-—there
can be no doubt in any candid mind that, as
far as the Qur'an is concerned, Isaac and
not Isbjnael is intended. [ISAAC.]
The two commentators al-Kamalan quote
a number of traditions on the subject. They
say Ibn ;Umar, Ibn * Abbas, Haaan, and 'Abdu
'Hah ibn Ahmad, relate that it was Isaac :
whilst Ibn Mas'ud, Mtijahid, 'Ikrimah, Qata-
dah, and Ibn Ishaq say it was Ishmael. But
whatever may be the real facts of the case, it
is certain that popular tradition amongst both
Sunnis and Shi'ahs assigns the honour to
Ishmael, and believe the great Festival of
Sacrifice, the 'Idu '1- A/ha, to have been estab-
blished to commemorate the event. ['IDU 'L-
AZHA.]
The author of the Shl'ah work, the Haydtu
'I'Qulub (Merrick's ed. p. 28) says: "On a
certain occasion when this illustrious father
(Abraham) was performing the rites of the
pilgrimage at Mecca, Abraham said to his
beloved child, ' I dreamed that I must sacrifice
you ; now consider what is to be done with
reference to such an admonition.' Ishmael
replied, 'Do as you shall be commanded of
God. Verify your dream. You will find ine
endure patiently.' But when Abraham was
about to sacrifice Ishmael, the Most High
God made a black and white sheep his sub
stitute, a sheep which had been pasturing
forty years in Paradise, and was created by
the direct power of God for this event. Now
every sheep offered on Mount Miua, until the
Day of Judgment is a substitute, or a com
memoration of the substitute for IshmaeL"
The idea is universal amongst Muhamma-
dans that the incident took place on Mount
Miua near Makkab, and not in the " land of
Moriah," as stated in Genesis xxii. 3. (For a
discussion on the site of Mount Moriah, see
Mr. Geerge Grove's article in Smith's Diet, of
the Bible.")
Sir William Mnir says {Life of Mahomet ,
new ed. p. xvii.): "By a summary adjust
ment, the story of Palestrae became the story
of the Hejaz. The precincts of the Kaaba
were hallowed as the scene of Hagar's distress,
and the sacred well Zamzem as the source
of her relief. The pilgrims hasted to and
fro between Safa and Marwo in memory of
her hurried steps in search of water. It was
Abraham and Ishmael who built the (Meccan)
temple, placed in it the black stone, and
220
JSNA-'ISHARIYAH
established for all mankind the pilgrimage to
Arafat. In imitation of him it was that
stones were flung by pilgrims at Satan ; and
sacrifices were offered at Minam remembrance
of the vicarious sacrifice by Abraham instead
of his son. And thus, although the indige
nous rites may have been little if at all
altered, by the adoption of the Abrahamic
legends, they came to be viewed in a totally
different light, and to be connected in the
Arub imagination with something of the
sanctity of Abraham, the Friend of God.
The gulf between the gross idolatry of
Arabia and the pure theism of the Jews was
bridged over. Upon this common ground
Mahomet took his stand, and proclaimed to
his people a new and a spiritual system, in
accents to which all Arabia could respond.
The rites of the Kaaba were retained, bat
stripped by him of every idolatrous tendency :
and they still hang, a strange unmeaning
shroud, around the living theism of Islam."
<ISHQ (i5*«). " Love." A word
used by mystic writers to express a divine
love. The word, however, preferred by or
thodox Muslim writers for the love of
God, or love to God, is hubb
ISLAM (fA~\). Resignation to
the will of God. The word generally used by
Mnhainmadans themselves for their religion.
'Abdu '1-Haqq says it implies submission to
the divine will ; and Muhammad explained it
to mean the observance of the five duties :
(1) Bearing witness that there is but one
God; (2) Reciting .the daily prayers; (3)
Giving the legal alms ; (4) Observing the
Ramazan or month's fast ; (5) Making the
pilgrimage to Makkah once in a lifetime.
In the Qur'an the word is used for doing
homage to God. Islam is said to bo the reli
gion of all the prophets from the time of
Abraham, as will appear from the following
verses (Surah iiL 78, 79) :— " SAT : We believe
in God and in what hath been sent down to
Abraham, and Ishmael, and Isaac, and Jacob,
and the Tribes, and in what was given to
Moses, and Jesus and the Prophets from their
Lord. We make no difference between them,
and to Him are we resigned (i.e. Muslims).
Whoso desireth any other religion than Islam,
that religion shall never be accepted of Him,
and in the next world he shall be lost."
There are three words used by Muham-
madan writers for religion, namely Din,
Millah, and Mazhab ; and in the Kitabu V-
Ta'-rlfdt, the difference implied in these words
is said to be as follows : — Din, as it stands in
its relation to God, e.g. Dlnu 'llah, the religion
of God ; Millah, as it stands in relation to a
prophet or lawgiver, e.g. MiUatu Ibrahim,
the religion of Abraham ; and Mazhab, as it
Stands in relation to the divines of Islam, e.y.
Mazhab ffanaji, the religion or religious
teaching of AbuHanlfah. The expression Din,
however, is of general application. [RELIGION.]
Those who profess the religion of Islam are
called TVIusalmans, Muslims; or Mu'mins.
Akht 'l-Kitdb, " the people of the Book," is
used for Muhammadans, Jews, and Chris
tiana.
ISM (f»J\). A sin ; anything for-
bidden by the law.
'ISMAH (&~*). Lit. "Keeping
back from sin." The continence and freedom
from sin which Muhammadans say was the
state of each Prophet, and which is that of
nfant children.
ISMA'IL (J**U-\). [ISHMAEL.]
ISMA'IL <J«JU-t). The name of
the angel who is said to have accompanied
the angel Gabriel in his last visit to the
Prophet on his death-bed. He is said to
command one hundred thousand angels.
(Mishkat, book xxiv. ch. x. pt. 3.)
ISMA'ILIYAH (*.JUr.U^). A
Shi'ah sect who said that Ismu'il ibn Ja'far
as-§adiq was the true Imam and not Musa
al-Ka^im, and who held that God was neither
existent jnor non-existent, nor intelligent nor
unintelligent, nor powerful nor helpless, &c. ;
for, they said, it is not possible for any thing
or attribute to be associated with God, for
He is the maker of all things, even of names
and attributes. (Kitabu 't-Tafrifdt, in loco.)
ISM-I-JA.LALI (J** r.\). Any
of the attributes of God which express His
power and greatness, e.g. al-Hdkim, the
Judge ; al-Adil, the Just ; al-Kablr, the
Great. [GOD.]
ISM-I-JAMALI ( JW H)- **y
of the attributes of God which express His
mercy or condescension, e.g. ar-JRahim, the
Compassionate ; as-iSamr, the Hearer ; al-
Hafiz, the Guardian.
ISM-I-SIFAH (&• r*\). Name of
a divine attribute.
AL-ISMU 'L-A/ZAM
The exalted nair ; of God, which is generally
believed to bo • ,aown only to the Prophets.
Muhammad related to have said that it
occurs ineiuierthe Suratu'l-Baqarab,ii/256 :
" God (AJah) there is no God but He (Hu),
the Living '(al-Ha-iy). the Self-subsistent
(td-Q/tttmnt)"] or in -the Suratu 'Ali 'Imran.
iii. 1,' which contains the same words ; or in
the Suratu Ta Ha, xx. 110: " Faces shall be
humbled before the Living (al-H<riy) and the
Self-subsistent (al- Qaiyurii}"
It is therefore generally held to be either
Allah, oT-ffu, or al-Jfaiyt or al-Qjuiyum
It is very probable that the mysterious
title of the Divine Being refers to the great
name of Jehovah, the superstitious reverence
for which on the part of the Jews must have
been well known to Muhammad.
ISMU 'Z-ZAT O\otf ^\) Name
of the Divine Essence : the essential name of
God, i.e. Allah, or JHii, as distinguished from
His attributes. [ALLAH.]
ISNA-'ISHABIYAH (V*^)-
Lit. " The twelve cans." Those Shrahs who
acknowledge the tw«lvA Imams. [SB? AH.]
tSQAT
ISQAT (tUut). [ABORTION.]
ISRA foV-t)- [MI'BAJ.]
ISTIKHARAH
221
ISEAEL. Arabic Isra'il ( JaSV-1).
The surname of Ya'qiib (Jacob). Al-Baizawi
says tho meaning of Isra'il in Hebrew is
Sufwatu '/Idh, i.e. " the sincere friend of
God "; or, as some say, lAbdu 'ttdh, " the ser
vant of God. Banu Is, all, "the children of
Israel," is a term that frequently occurs in
the Qur'an. The xvntb chapter of the Qur'an,
known as the Suratu 7.-Afilrdj\ is also called
the Suratu Barii Isrffll.
- Lit. "Wasting."
Extravagance in religions duties, i.e. doing
mere than is required by the law.
ISRAFIL (J**W). The Arch-
angel who will sound the trumpet at the Day
of Resurrection. His name, however, does
not occur in either the Qur'an, or the Tradi-
i lions.
ISRAR (jVc\). A word used by
the Arabs for a horse pricking up his ears,
and not obeying the rein. A term in Muham-
madan theology for persisting in any sin,
and being determined to commit the sin in
future.
ISSUE OF BLOOD. Arabic Isti-
hdzah (&>V^&«\). [MUSTAHA.ZAH.]
ISTI'ANAB (&U*~1). Lit. " Seek-
ing aid." Imploring help from God. The
word occurs in the Suratu '1-Fatihah, or the
first chapter of the Qur'an, which is part of
the liturgical prayer: ty**~~J *^^j wa-
iydkn fitista'in •* Of Thee only do we seek
help."
ISTIBRA* (*\j<s~\). The purifica
tion of the womb. The period of probation,
of one menses, to be observed after the pur
chase of a female slave (or in the case of a
virgin under age), the period of one month
before she is taken to her master's bed.
ISTIBSAR QW-t). A Book of
iluhammadau traditions, received by the
ShI'ahs, compiled by Shaikh Nasiru 'd-BIn
Abu Ja'far Muhammad at-Tusi, A. EL. 072.
ISTIDLAL (JSJu^). A term used
in the science of exegesis for those sentences
which require certain proofs. [QUR'AN.]
IST1DRAJ (sVxU). Lit. "Pro
moting by degrees, step by step " The word
occurs in the Qur'an for an unbeliever being
brought by degrees to hell and destruction.
Surah vii, 181: " They who say our signs
are lies, Wo (God) will bring them down step
by step from whence they know not."
Surah Ixviii. 44 : "We (God) will surely
bring them down step by step from whence they
do not know, and I (God) will let them have
their way ; for My device is sure."
(7» this verse the sudden transition from the
.first person plural to fhe. first person singular,
for the Almighty, is peculiar •, it is, however, of
frequent occurrence in the Qur'an.')
ISTIGHFAR GU*U). Seeking
forgiveness of God. It is related of Muham
mad that he said : —
" I swear by God that I ask pardon of God,
and repent before Him more than seventy
times daily.
u 0 men, repent and turn to God, for verily
I repent before Him one hundred times a
day." (Mishkat, book x. ch. iii.)
ISTIHAZAH (£*y^). The issue
of blood of women ; during which time they
are ceremonially unclean. ( Vide Mishkdt,
book iii. ch. xvi.)
ISTIHSAN (y\~**-\). Lit. "Ap
proving." A term used in the exegesis of the
Qur'an and of the Hadis. It implies th«»
rejection of Qiyas [QII-AS], and the admission
of the law of expediency.
For example, it is a law of Islam that
everything that is washed must be squeezed
like a cloth ; but, as it is impossible to squeeze
a vessel, it is evident that it must be cleansed
without squeezing. (Nuru 'I- Anwar, p. 208.)
ISTIKHARAH (S;WU). Lit.
"Asking favours." A prayer for special
favours and blessings, consisting of the recital
of two rak'ak prayers. (Mishkdt, book iv.
ch. xl.)
Jabir says : " The Prophet taught the /«<»'-
khdrah, as he also did a chapter of the
Qur'an ; and he said, ' When anyone of you
intends doing a thing, he must perform two
rak(ah prayers expressly for Istikhdrah, and
afterwards recite the following supplication :
0 God, I supplicate Thy help, in Thy great
wisdom ; and I pray for ability through Thy
power. I ask a thing of Thy bounty. Thou
knowest all, but I do not. Thou art powerful,
and I am not. Thou knoweet the secrets of
men. 0 God I if the matter I am about to
undertake is good for my faith, my life, and
my futurity, then make it easy for me, and
give me success in it. But if it is bad for my
faith, my life, and my futurity, then put it
I away from me, and show me what is good, and
I satisfy me. And the person praying shall
mention in his prayer the business which he
has in hand.' "
This very simple and commendable injunc
tion has, however, been perverted to super
stitious uses.
Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, says : —
" Some persons have recourse to the Qur'an
for an answer to their doubts. This they call
making an " istikhdrah? or application for
the favour of Heaven, or for direction in the
right course. Repeating three times the open
ing chapter, the ]J2th chapter, and the fifty-
eighth verse of the sixth chapter, they let
the book fall open, or open it at random, and,
from the seventh line of the right -hand page,
draw their answer.
" The words often will not convey a
direct answer, but are taken as affirmative 01
negative according as their general tenour i*
good or bad, promising a blessing, or do
nouncing H threat, &o. Instead of readinj
222
I8TILAD
the seventh line of this page, some count the
number of letters kha and sheen -which occur
in the whole page ; and if the Lha's predomi
nate, the inference is favourable. Kha repre
sents kheyr, or good\ sheen, shur, or evil.
There is another mode of istikharah ; which
is, to take hold of any two points of a sebhhah
(or rosary), after reciting the Fat'hhah three
limes, and then to cX>unt the beads between
' these two points, saving, in passing the first
bead through the fingers, ; [I assert] the
absolute glory of God ; ' in passing the second,
1 Praise be to 'God ; ' in passing the third,
* There is no deity but God ; ' and repeating
these expressions in the same order, to the
last .bead. If the first expression fall to the
last bead, the answer is affirmative and fa
vourable ; if the second, indifferent ; if the
last, negative. This is practised by many
persons.
•' Some, again, in similar cases, on lying
down to sleep at night, beg of God to direct
them by a dream; by causing them to see
something white or green, or water, if the
action which they contemplate be approved,
or if they are to expect approaching good
fortune ; and if not, by causing them to see
something black or red, or fire ; they then
recite the Fat'hhah- ten times, and continue
to repeat these words : 'O God, favour
our lord Mohammad!' — until they fall
fcdfrep." (Modern Egyptians, vol. i. 338.)
Amongst pious Muslims In ^sia it is usual
w> recite the two rah ah prayers before retiring
fttf rest, in the hope that God will reveal His
will in a dream during the night.
Pkim of off-
spring. A legal term signifying the act of a
Muslim, having a child born to him of a female
slavey which he acknowledges as his own,
whereby the slave becomes free. (Hidayuhi
vol. i. pi 478.)
ISTILAH (t&*\), pi. ItfildMt. A
phrase ; a term ; idiom. A theological terra.
The author of the &t&*'t*T(frifSt says
it is the agreement of a tribe, or sect, or
party, bo give a special meaning to a word,
ever and above that which it has in its literal
sense, but which is in accordance with it.
ISTINJA' (.WjauQ. Abstersion;
concerning which there are most minute in
structions in the Traditions and in other
books of Muslim divinity. Such acts of
cleansing must be performed ^rith the left
hand, with not less than three handluls of
water, or with three of dry earth. (Mish-
kdt, book ii. 1.)
ISTINSHAQ (v3U^\). The act
of throwing water up into the nostrils, which
is part of the religious ablution, or wazu.
[ABLUTION.]
ISTIQAMAH (£-~L5x^). Lit.
"Standing erect." A term (1) used by the
Sufi mystics for rectitude of life, purity of
life ; (2) being constant in religion according
to the rules of the Qur'an.
'IZRA'IL
IST1QBAL ( JW&U.1). Lit. « Going
forth to meet." (1) A custom amongst Ori
entals of going out to meet a friend or guest
on his arrival ; (2) turning the face towards
Makkah for prayer; (3) a coming era or
period ; the future.
ISTIRJA4 fcWy^). Lit. "Re-
turning." A term used for the act of appeal
ing to God for help in the time of affliction by
repeating the following ejaculation from the
Qur'an, Surah ii. 150: Innd li'Udki wa innd
ilaihi raji'un, "Verily, we belong to God,
and verily we shall return to God" This
formula is Used by Muhammadans in any
danger or sudden calamity, especially in the
presence of death.
ISTISHAB (s-A*^). A law or
injunction contained in a previous revelation
(e.g. the Law of Moses) and not abrogated by
the succeeding law-giver.
ISTI§NA' (»U^). Lit. "Ex
cepting or excluding." A term used for the
custom of exclaiming, " If God will." It is
in accordance with the injunctions of the
Qur'an, Surah xviii. 28 : " And never say of
anything, 'Verily, I am going to do that to
morrow,' without, 'If God will'" (Compare
James iv. 15: "For ye ought to say, If
the Lord will.")
ISTISQA' (»Uuju-\)t Prayers for
rain, consisting of Ivrorak'ah prayers. (Misk-
kdt> book iv. ch. liii.)
I'TAQ (jM). Lit. " Setting free."
The manumission of slaves. [SLATERT.]
ITFIR G«&V). [POTIPHAE.J
I'TIKAF (^&*\). Seeking retire
ment in a mosqoe during the last ten days of
the Fast of Ramazan ; during which time the
worshipper does not leave the place, except for
necessary purposes. The time is spent in
reciting the Qur'an and in performing the
ceremony of Zikr, or the recital of the names
and praises of the Deity.
TTQ (<J^). " Being free/' In the
language of the law it signifies the power
given to a person by the extinction of bondage.
Hence the emancipation of slaves. fHidayah,
vol. i. p. 413.)
ITTIHAD (dUrt). Union; con-
cord ; intimate friendship. A term used by
the Sufi mystics for "seeing the existence of
alt things visible as only existing in God."
('Abdu'r-Raaizaq's Diet, of Sufi Terms.)
IZN (e^V). Permission. [INTEB-
CT5S8IOH.]
'IZRA'IL (J*V)« The AnSel of
Death, or the Malnku Jl-Maut, who comes to
a man at the hour of death to carry his sou!
away from the body. See Qur'an, Surah
xxxii. 11 : " The Angel of Death shall take you
away, he who is given charge of you. Then
unto your Lord shall ye return."
JABALU MUSA
JADD
223
Muhammad is related to have said that
when the Angel of Death approaches a believer
he sits at his head and says, " O pore soul,
ooxne forth to God's pardon and pleasure ! "
And then the soul comes out as gontly as
water from a bag. But, in the case of an
infidel, the Angel of Death sits at his head and
says, " 0 impure soul, come forth to th»
wrath of God 1 " And then the Angel of Death
draws it out as a hot spit is drawn out of wet
wool. (Mtskkat, book v. ch. Hi.) *
J.
JABALU MOSA (^^J^-). The
Mount of Moses ; Mount Sinai. It is called
in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 60, at-Tur, "The
Mountain."
AL-JABARIYAH (4^)- Lii-
"The Necessitarians." A sect of Muhamrna-
dans who deny free agency in man.
They take their denomination from Jabr,
which signifies "necessity or compulsion;"
because they hold man to be necessarily and
inevitably constrained to act as he does by
force of God's eternal and immutable decree.
This sect is distinguished into two species,
some being more rigid and extreme in their
opinion, who are thence called pure Jabari-
yahs ; and others, more moderate, who are
therefore called middle Jabariyahs. Tho
former will not, allow men to be said either to
a«t, or to have any power at all, either opera-
•tive or acqxu'ring. asserting that man can do
! nothing, but produces all his actions by
necessity, having neither power, nor will, nor
choice, any more than an inanimate agent.
They also declare that rewarding and punish
ing are also the effects of necessity and the
samo they say of the imposing of commands.
This wa-s the doctrine of the Jahmryahs, the
followers of Jahin ibn Sufwfm, who likewise
held that Paradise and Hell will vanish, or be
annihilated, after those who are destined
thereto respectively shall have entered them,
to that at last there will remain no existing
being besides God, supposing those words of
the Qnr'ah which declare that the inhabitants
of Paradise and of Hell shall remain therein
for ever to behyperbe cal only, and intended
for corroboration, and no to denote an eternal
duration in reality. The moderate Jabariyahs
are they who ascribe some power to man, but
such a power as bath no influence on the
action ; for as to those who grant the power
of man to have a certain influence on the
action, which influence is called Acquisition,
some will not admit them to be called Ja-
barlyahs, though others reckon those also to
be called middle Jabaiiyahs. and to contend
for the middle opinion between absolute
necessity and absolute liberty, who attribute
to man acquisition, or concurrence, in pro
ducing the action, whereby he gaineth com
mendation or blame (yet without admitting it
to have any influence on the action), and,
therefore, make the Asbarians a branch of
this sect. (Sale's Kontn^ Introd.)
JABAKUT (±>»*). The posses
sion of power, of omnipotence. One of the
mystic stages of the Sufi. [surnSM.J
JABBAB (jW). Omnipotent ; an
absolute sovereign. Al-Jabbdr, "'The Ab
solute." One of the ninety-nine names or
attributes of God.
Surah lix. 28: "The King, the Holy, the
Peaceful, the Faithful, the Protector, the
Mighty, the Absolute, the Great.
JABlL ( J«^). The Angel of the
Mountains ; mentioned in the Shi'ah work,
tluydtu 'l-Qutob. (Merrick's ed. p. 128.)
JABIK (>*W). The son of a poor
Citizen of al-Madmah, slain at Uhud. He
embraced Islam and accompanied Muham
mad in numerous battles. He lived to a
great age, for he died at al-Mediuah A.H. 78,
aged 94 years.
JABR (j*^). A Christian servant
of a family from Hazramaut — a convert to
Islam — accused by the Quraish with having
instructed. the Prophet.
Surah xvi. 105 : " We knew thrft they said,
4 It is only some mortal that teaches him.'
The tongue of him they incline towards is
barbarous, this is plain Arabic."
Husain says Jabr was one of the Ahlu*
'l-Kitdb, and was well read hi the Taurdt and
Injil, and Muhammad used to hear him read
these books as he passed by his house.
JACOB. Arabic Ya'qub (v*i*»).
The son of Isaac ; an inspired prophet. There
are frequent but brief allusions to the Patriarch
Jacob in the Qur'an in connection with Abra
ham and Isaac. The story of his journey
to Egypt will be found in the account of
Joseph as given in the xiith Surah of the
Qur'an. [JOSEPH.]
A brief reference to his death is made in
Surah ii. ch. 127:—
" Were ye present when Jacob was at the
point of death? when he said to his sons,
' Whom will ye worship when I am gone ? '
They said, ' We will worship thy God and the
God of thy fathers Abraham and Isinael and
Isaac, one God, and to Him are we surrendered
(Muslims).' That people have now passed
away ; they have the reward of their deeds
and ye shall have the meed of yours : but of
their doings y* shall not be questioned. They
say, moreover, ' Become Jews or Christians
that ye may have the true guidance.' Say :
Nay ! the religion of Abraham, th« sound in
faith, und not one of those who join gods with
God ! »
JADD (•*-), A term used in Mu-
hamrnadan law for either a paternal or
224
JA'FAR
a maternal grandfather. The word has also
the meaning greatness, majesty, as in Surah
laxii. 3 : " May the Majesty of our Lord be
exalted." [GRANDFATHER.]
JA'FAR (jr***). A son of Abu
Talib and a cousin to Muhammad. He was a
great friend to the poor, and was called by
Muhammad Abu 'l-Masakin, "the father of
the poor." He fell bravely at the battle of
Mu'tah, A.H. a
JA'FARU 'S-SADIQ
Abu 'Abdi'llah Ja'far ibn Muhammad ibn
<AH ibn al-Husain ibn 'AH ibn AM Talib,
was one of the twelve persons who, according
to the Shi'ahs, are considered the rightful
Imams [SHI' AH]. He was surnamed as-Sadiq,
" The Veracious," on account of his upright-
ness of character. He was a learned man, and
his pupil, Abu Miisa, is said to have composed
a work of two thousand pages containing the
problems of his master Ja'faru 's-Sadiq.
Ja'far was born A.H 80, and died A.H. 148,
and was buried in the cemetery al-Baki' at
al-Madinah.
JAGIK G**V). Persian Jd, "A
place ; " Gir, " Occupying." A tenure common
under the Muhammadan Government, in which
the public revenues of a given tract of land
were made over to a servant of the State,
together with the powers requisite to enable
him to collect and appropriate such revenue,
nnd administer tbo general government of the
district. The assignment was either condi
tional or unconditional ; in the former case.
some public service, as tho levy and main
tenance of troops, or other specified duty, was
engaged for ; the latter was left to the entire
disposal of the grantee. The assignment was
either for a stated term, ors more usually, for
the lifetime of the holder, lapsing, on his
death, to the State, although not unusually
renewed to his heir, on payment of a nazardna
or fine, and sometimes specified to be a here
ditary assignment, without which specification
it was held to be a life-tonure only. (Ben.
Reg. xxxvii. 1723, cL J5.) A Jagir was also
liable to forfeiture on failure of performance
of the conditions on which it was granted, or
on the holder's incurring the displeasure of
the Emperor. On the other hand, in the
inability of the State to vindicate its rights,
a Jagir was sometimes converted into a per
petual and transferable estate ; and the same
consequence has resulted from the recognition
of sundry Jilgir as hereditary by the British
Government after the extinction of the Native
Governments by which they were originally
granted ; so that they have now come to be
considered as family properties, of which the
holders could not be rightfully dispossessed,
and to which their legal heirs succeed, as a
matter of course, without fine or nazardna.
such having been silently dispensed with.
(Wilson's Glossary of Indian Terms.)
JAHANNAM
JA-I-NAMAZ
JAHL(Je^). "Ignorance." A term
used by theologians for an ignorance of reli
gious truths, which they say is of two kinds :
Jahl-i-Basit, simple ignorance ; and Jahl-i'
Muralclcab, or complicated ignorance, or con
firmed error.
JAIFAE (y^). A king of 'Timlin
to whom Muhammad sent a despatch inviting
him to Islam, which event led eventually to
the conversion of that province.
"On his return from the siege of Tayif,
towards the close of the eighth year of the
Hegira, Mahomet sent Arnru with a despatch
to Jeyfar, King of Oman, sximmoning him and
his brother to make profession of the true
faith. At first they gave answer 'that they
would be the weakest among the Arabs, if
they made another man possessor of their
property/ But as Amru was about to depart,
they repented, and, calling him back, embraced
Islam. The people followed their example,
and without demur paid their tithes to Amru,
who continued till the Prophet's death to be
his representative in Oman." (Muir's Life of
Mahomet, new ed. p. 471.)
JAlHtTN
Jihon, or Bactrus, said to be one of the rivers
of Eden. [EDEN.]
JA'-I-NAMAZ (jU ^W). Persian.
'•' The place of prayer." A term used in Asia
for the small mat or carpet on which a Muslim
prays. It is called in Arabic Sujjadah and
Mn^alla.
The carpet is about five- feet in length, and
has a point or" Qjblalt worked in the pattern
tr *nark the place for prostration,
A JA-I-NAMAZ, OR PRAYER CARPET, AS
IN PESHAWAR.
JAIYID
JA1YID (A-^). Pure money ; our-
fen( coin. A tfini used >n Muslwi Uw.
i. vol. iii. p. 152.)
JANNAH
225
JALAL (J^>). Being glorious or
mighty. Zi'f-Jalal. uThe Glorious One," is
an attribute of God. S«e Quran. Surah lv.
78 : ul Blessed be tlio name of thy Lord who
is possessed cf ylory uiid hononr.
4/ •/"/«/ is a term used by $ufi mystics to
expirsM that state of the Almighty which
place* Him beyond the understanding of Hi«
creatures. (-Abdu Y-Raz/aq'a Dictionary of
Sir ft Terms.)
two Jalalu." A term given to two commen
tators of the name of Jalalu 'd-din, uhnse
joint work is called the Tafsiru *l-Jalalain\
the first half of which was compiled by the
Shaikh JalMtf d-din al-M*halli. died A.M. 864,
and the rest by J.ilalu M-din a«;-Snyiiti, died
A. u. 911.
Jalalu 'd-diu a.s-Suvuti wax a prolific author.
GmrniuAi, rhetoric, dogmatical antl practical
theology, history, criticism, medicine. and
anatomy, coniprisp some oi the subjects on
which ho wrote. His Itqdn, which is an ex
plauatory work on the Qur'an, has been put
lished by tho Asiatic Society cf Bengal, and
edited by Dr Sprouter (A.D. 1857), and his
History nf the Temple of Jtnualem has been
translated by the Rev. James Reynolds for
the Oriental Translation Society (A.D. 1836).
C JERUSALEM.)
JA'LU 'L-JAUF (^r*K >*)• AD-
other name for Dfurv.tu '1-Jandal, a plai-c
near fabuk. | IM.MAH. j
JALUT O^Wj. [GOLIATH.)
JAMRAH (i^). Lit. «» ^ravei,
or small prhbles." (I) The thise pillars M
Mini, iit Avbi«h tho Makkan pilgrirr.P lhro\v
^evoo pebbles. They are known as al-Ulu, tho
ll»s» ; al \V"u«i«, t)'c nn'ddk-: and al-'Aqibah,
the last. According t<> Btusliin Avritf.ro thesr-
pil|-irs mark the successive spots where the
Devil, in th" slMpe of <m old ^twikh. appeared
to Ailam Al . rahjuu. and Isbranel, :ind wu .
driven ;\*ay by the simple process whic:
Qabnel ia.n^lii them of throwing s^veii small
oobblcK Tho .famratu 'l-'Aqihak, i» known as
the Sfwittinv '/-Xof/tr, or <ho •• Great Drvil."
Captain Burton, in his El Meitirv/h natt
Mtcta, vol. if. 227, says: —
" The • S/Ktitir/tu -l-Kahtf is A «lwarf ' ui
tress of rude mvsonry, abont e«v{ht feet lii«h
by (wo And a half broad, placed against a
rough wall of stOne«, ot the Meccan entrance
to Mima. As the ceremony of • Rainy.' or
Lajiitlfttion. must be performed on the ftrsl
day by all pilgrims between sunrise nud sun
set, and as the fiend was malicious enowg-h to
appear in a rug<rcd pass. the crowd makes the
place danjfcrous. On one ^ido of tl»« void,
which is not forty feet broad, stood » row of
shops, belonging principally to barbers. On
the other side- >a the nigged w.tll of the pillar,
with a itievnn </«• /nseoi Dcdouhii? and naked
boys. The narrow space was crowded *«tb
pil^iirns. all struggling like drowning nion 10
approach as near as possible to the Devil."
rue btt -\iTAKb- 'L-KAWK. (Burton)
(2) Jainrah also meann a •' Irve coal," and i&
an astronomical or meteorological term used
to signify the infusion of vital heat into th«»
elements in spring, or rather, at the end of
winter. According to this theory there are
three Jamarut : one, the ^fusion cf heut into
the air. occurs thirty days before the vernal
equinox ; the s»«.rond. unVcting tLo wntci-s,
seven days later ; an-1 the third, vivifying the
earth, sixteen days before the equinox,
(Catafago'8 Dictionary, in /ocw.)
JAM'U'L-JAM* (*+^\&+). Lit,
" The p^aral of a plural. A term used by
the Siit'1 mystics for tha high position of the
Perfect Man or a/-Jnnunu 7-A'«/«i7
. "Majesty." Aternt
of respect used in India in addi*essin^a person
of rank or office, whether Native or European
,Janab-i-'ali, '4 Your high eminence."
JANABAJi <A?W). A state of
one leaning. Tha Niddofi, or separation, of
JLev.'ticus xii •">. The wcn&es, coitus, ehild-
Ifiitl-. pollutio nocturnu. contact with rh<*
dead. o« Laving peiiormed the ofBcos of
nnturc, place tlic por-*on in fl stati* of Junnbbh
JANAZAH. JINAZAH (SjU>). A
lei m used both for the bier, and fnr the/^/tfro/
service of a Muslim, ai*o for the corpse ilself.
BURIAL]
JJlNN
Jimi. .n.N
Tbe father of the
JAuNNAH (Xkv). pi. Jatinat. Lit.
- A garden.'' (1) A term used for the regions
of celestial bliss [PARADISE.] (2) A term
used by Sufi mystics to express different
stages of the spiritual life tunnatu't-Aj'rt.
the paradise of works, or »hat enjoyment
which is derived from sensual ploasnrro, such
r>s eating, drinking, Ac. ; Janitnfti 7- Wirdyilt,
\\\c> paradiM of inberitance, which i* a dispo
sition like that of the saints and prophets ,
Jnnnatu >--&Y/V/f, the p.Tnu'iae rtf atlribiites,
becoming like OoU ; Juniwtv'z Zul, (i\*> para
dise of essence, briny united wiih CJod (».e
absorption into the divine essence). (%Alxto
Y-Razznq*s Dictionuty of Sift Ttr**.}
29
226
JANNATU 'ADN
JEHOVAH
. JAKNATU <ADN (<$** «t>W).
The Gardens of Eden. (Surah ix. 73, et alias.)
[PARADISE.]
JANNATU 'L-FIRDAUS (u»W
u-jjy^). The Gardens of Paradise.
(Surah xviii. 107.) [PARADISE.]
JANNATU' L-KHULD
The Garden of Eternity. (Surah xxv. 16.)
[PARADISE.]
JANNATU 'L-MA'WA («>U*
tSjUtt). The Gardens of Refuge.
(Surah xxxii. 19.) [PARADISE.]
JANNATU 'N-NA>lMUa«*N «>W).
The Gardens of Delight. (Surah v. 70.)
[PARADISE.]
JAR MULASIQ («j^^- jW). "A
next-door neighbour." A term used in Mu
hammad an law for a joint proprietor in a
house, or room or wall of the house. (Hi-
dayah, vol. iii. p. 565.)
JARR(^). "Dragging.5* Adegree
of chastisement practised according to Mu-
hammadan law. namely, by dragging the
offender to the door and exposing him to
scorn. (Hamilton's Hiddyah. vol. ii. p. 76.)
AL-JASIYAH (*a$WN). Lit. " The
Kneeling." A title given to the XLVth Surah
of the Qur'an, in which the expression occurs
(verse 26) :—
" And God's is the kingdom of the Heavens
and of the Earth ; and on the .day when the
Hour shall arrive, on that day shall the do-
spisers perish. And thou shalt see every
nation kneeling ; to its own book shall every
nation be summoned : — ' This day shall ye be
repaid as ye have wrought/ "
JASULlQ (<5*kV). AnArabicized
word from the Greek Ka#o\iKOS. The Ca-
tholicos, oi" Primate of the Christians. In the
Gfliydfiu *l-Lughah he is said to be the chief of
the Christians, and under him is the Mitrdn
(Metropolitan), and then the Usquf. (Bishop),
and then Qasls (Presbyter), and then S/iammds
(Deacon)."
Mr. Lane, in his Dictionary, gives the Order
of Bifrdq (Patriarch) as under the Jd^iiHg,
which term we understand to mean, in Mu-
hammadan works, none other than the
Patriarch, e.g. of Jerusalem, or Antioch, <fec.
JAWAMPU 'L-KALIM (^y
*J^5\). Lit. " Comprehending many
significations." A title given to the Qur'an
and to certain traditions, because it is related
that the Prophet said that has been revealed
to me which comprehends many significations.
(Kashfu V- fstiidhdt* in loco.)
JAg'AH (£eJ^). A female camel
in her fifth year. The proper age for a camel
given in zakat or legal alms for camels from
sixty-one to seventy-five in number, [ZAKAT.]
JAZBAH (****). " Attraction." A
term used by the Sufi mystics to express a
yearning after the Divine Being. The 'nearer
approach of man to his Maker through God's
grace. ('Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dictionary of Sufi
Terms.)
JEDDAH. Arabic Jiddah
The principal seaport of Arabia, and one of the
Mlqdt or stages where the Makkan pilgrims
put on the IJirdm or pilgrim's robe. It is
also celebrated as the place of Eve's sepulchre.
She is said to measure 120 paces from head
to waist, and 80 paces from waist to heel.
(Burton.)
JEHOVAH. Heb.rnrP- In the
Old Testament it is usually with the vowel
points of Vj'TN ? but when the twft occur
-r — :
together, the former ig pointed rtirP' tnat
is, with the vowels of
i. 1 ; Heb. iii. 19. The LX5t. generally render
it by Kvpios, the vulgate by Dominus ; and in
this respect they have been followed by the
A.V. where it is translated "The Lord."
The true pronunciation of this name, by which
God was known to the Hebrews, has been
entirely lost, the Jews themselves scrupu
lously avoiding every mention of it, and
substituting in its stead one or other of the
words with whose proper vowel-points it may
happen to be written. This custom, which
had its origin in reverence, and has almost
degenerated into a superstition, was founded
upon an erroneotis rendering of Lev. xxiv. 16,
" He that blasphemeth the name of God shall
surely bo put to death " ; from which it was
inferred that the mere utterance of the name
constituted a capital offence. In the Rab
binical writings it is distinguished by various
euphemistic expressions ; as simply " the
name," or "the name of four letters" (the
Greek tetragramniaton) ; "the great and
terrible name"; "the peculiar name," t.e.
appropriated to God alone : " the separate
name," i.e. either the name which is separated
or removed from human knowledge, or, as
some render, " the name which has been
interpreted or revealed.0 (Professor W. A.
Wright, M.A., Smith's Dictionary of the Bible,
in loco.)
This superstitious reverence for the word
Jehovah must have been the origin of the
Ismu 'l-A.'?am, or " exalted name," which
Muhammad is related to have said was
known only to God and His prophets ; but
which, he said, occurs in one of three verses j
in the Qur'an, namely : Suratu '1-Baqarah ii. ,
256 : " God ! (Allah) there is no God but He!
(Hu) the Living One (al-JIaiy), the Self-i
Subsisting One (al- Qaiyum) " ; or, in the
Suratu Ali 'Imrau iii. 1, which contains the!
same words ; or, in the Suratu Ta Ha xx. 110:j
" Faces shall be humbled before the Living
One (al-Haiy), the Self-Subsistent One (a/-j
Qaiyum)."
JBBEMIAH
Some European scholars (see Catafago's
Arafnc Dictionary) have fancied the Yahuh
mrr*' or Yahovah of the Hebrews, is iden
tical with the ejaculation of the Muslim
devote, Yd Hit, « 0 He ! » (i.e. God). Al-
Baizawi says the word Hit (better Huwa), i.e.
HE (God), may be the Ismu 'l-A'zam, or Ex
alte*? Name cf the Almighty, especially as it
occurs in iw« of the verses of the Qur'an in
dicated by Muhammad, namely, Suratys ii. 256,
iii. 1. [HUWA, GOD.]
JEREMIAH. Arabic Armiyd(\**}\).
The prophet is not mentioned in the Qur'an,
but Muslim historians say he was contem
porary with Ma'add, the son of 'Admin, the
renowned ancestor of Muhammad. The Kd-
tibti 'I- Wdqidi says : u God watched over
•Adnan's son Ma'add, who was by the command
of the Lord taken by Armiya and Abrakha
(Jeremiah and Baruch) into the land of Har-
ram and nurtured safely." According to the
Qhfyafu 'l-Lughah, he is the same as al-
Kki'gr.
JERUSALEM
227
JERUSALEM. Arabic al-Baitu
'LAfuqadda* (u*j&A\ C*~*H), "the Holy
House," or Baitu 'l-Maqdis ({J*nA\ ^***0,
the House of the Sanctuary " ; Aurashalim
thy a' (oW^), i.e. Aelia Capita-
In the Qur'an Jerusalem is never men
tioned by name, and in the Traditions and
other Muslim works, it is always called al-
Baitu n-Muqaddas, "the Holy House," as
referring to the Temple of Jerusalem, or
lliyd\ The allusions to it in the Qur'an, are
as follows : —
Surah ii. 55 (where Uod, after giving the
manna and quails, is represented as say
ing to «he children of Israel)- *' Enter the
city and eat therefrom as plentifuJly as ye
wish." Al-Baizawi the commentator says this
city was the the Baitu 'l-Maqdis (Jerusalem),
or Arihd (Jericho).
Surah ii. 261 : -Like him who passed by a
city when it was desolate, and as he walked
over its roofs said, ' How will God revive this
after its destruction ? " Commentators say
Elias or a/-AT£i>r visited the city of Jeru
salem after its destruction by Nebuchad
nezzar.
xxx. opens with a reference to tho
Persians conquering Syria and taking Jeru
salem.
In Surah xvii. 1, Muhammad is represented
as having taken his flight from Makkah to
Jerusalem.. " Celebrated be the praises of
Him who by night took his servant from the
Masjidu 'I-JJardm (the Sacred Mosque) to
the Masjidu 'l-A;j*d (the Remote Mosque),
the precinct of which we have blessed."
And in Surah 1. 40, one of the signs of the
approach of the last day will be : " The crier
(to prayer) shall cry from a near place " (i.e.
a place from which all men shall hearV
Husain says this " near place " is the Tempt*
at Jerusalem.
A curious account of Jerusalem and Us
temple, the Masjidu IrAqsa, or Distant
Mosque (so called because it is a distant
object of pilgrimage), has been written by
Jalalu 'd-din as-Suyuti, one of the commen
tators on the Qur'an, known a* the Jalalan.
It was written in the year A.H. 848, A.D. 1444,
and the special object of the book appears to
be to exalt the merits of Jerusalem as a place
of prayer and pilgrimage. [For an account
of the Temple, see MASJIDU 'L-AQBA.J He says
Jerusalem is specially honoured us being the
scene of tho repentance of David and Solo
mon. The place where God sent His angel to
Solomon, announced glad tidings to Zacharias
and John, showed David a plan of the Temple,
and put all tho beasts of the earth and fowls
of the air^in subjection to him. It was at Jeru
salem that the prophets sacrificed ; that Jesus
was born and spoke in his cradle; and it
was at Jerusalem that Jesus ascended to
heaven ; and it will be there that He will again
descend. Gog and Magog shall subdue every
place on the earth but Jerusalem, and it will
be there that God Almighty will destroy
them. It is in the holy land of Jerusalem
that Adam and Abraham, and Isaac and
Mary, are buried. And in the last days
there will be a general flight to Jerusalem,
and the Ark and the Shechinah will be again
restored to the Temple. There will all man
kind be gathered at the Resurrection for
judgment, and God will enter, surrounded by
His angels, into the Holy Temple, when He
comes to judge the earth. (See Reynolds'
Translation, p. 16.)
The peculiar reference paid to the Sacred
Rock (aS'Sakhrah} seems to be one of the
many instances of afterthought and addition
to Islam since the time of Muhammad.
Mu'awiyaL seems to have encouraged it in
order to direct the affections and fanaticism
of his subjects into a new channel, and to
withdraw their exclusive, attention from Mak-r
kah and al-Madinah, where the rival family
of 'All resided.
In the same book there is a desultory
account of the taking of Jerusalem by the
Khalifah 'Umar.
After tho conclusion of the battle of \ar-
muk (Hieromax), the whple army of the
Muslims marched into the territory of Pales
tine and Jordan. Then they closely besieged
the city. The conquest was attended with
difficulty until the arrival of the Khalifah
•Umar with four thousand horse. He came
upon the holy place on the eastern side, and
then encircled the city. They fought for a
long time, until at last the inhabitants sent a
party to tho walls with a flag of truce, asking
for a parley. The Patriarch (Sophronius^
then demanded the safe conduct of a mes
senger to 'Umar. Tho envoy came without
hindrance and requested '\ mar to make
peace and to accept tribute.
Jalalu din gives a oopy of the treaty
which the Muslims compelled the people of
Jerusalem to tign. It reads as follows : —
* In the name of God. the Merciful and
Com passionate f Thisis the writing from the
Christiana of the Holy City to 'Umax ibn «1-
228
JERUSALEM
JERUSALEM
Khafctib, the Commander of the Faithful.
When you cnjoe down upon us. we asked of
you a capitulation for ourselves and our pos
sessions, and our children, and the people of
our religion : and "we have stipulated with
you, that ive shall not be polluted by inter
ruption in our places of worship, or whatever
chapels, or churches, or cells, or monasteries
of monks, may be therein; and' that no one
shall live therein who may have the imprest"
of Muslims (by long residence), and that we
will not prohibit the Muslims from entering
them, by night or by day ; and that we will
open the gates wide to passenger* and to tra
vellers; and if any Muslim passing by shall
take up hie lodging -with us throe nights, we
shall give him food, and not entertain in our
churches a spy, nor conceal, him unknown to
the Muslims ; antf nut leach our children the
Qur'an: and not piuiicly exhibit the .A aso
cial Jug or Christian religion, and not beg any
one to embrace it • and not hinder anyone oi
ynr relations from entering the Muslim reli
gion, if he VfiH. jtnd that we should honour
rho JVfualiuis and make much of them, and
place them in our assemblies, if anyone of
them will, and give them the chief seals, and
not imitate them in our dress, neither in
girdle*, not in the turban, nor the slipper, noi
the parting of t|i<> hair, and never write in
their language, nor call out selves by f heir sur
names; and that wo should never ride upon
great saddles, nor &uspo«d our hwords by
belts, and never accept arms (the bo1*,
sword, and club), nor carry them with us .-
and th«t we should never engrave upon our
;>ignet- lings In thfl Arabic language ; and tbar
we should not sell vine, and that v e should
^have the front of cur heads, and tie up OUT
dress, wherever we may be. and not wear
wide girdles at our waist ; aad that \ve should
never publicly exhibit the cross upon our
churches, nor expose, our crosses, nor ever
inscribe them in the path of the Muslims
nor in their market places, and never strike
our bells the (quick) stroke, nor raise our
voices over the dead, nor publicly expose the
light*, or ^uytUing1 else, in the roads and
markets of the Muslims, and never come near
them. v>ith ov.tr dead, and never receive any
slave who has drawn upon himself familiarity
with Muslims, and never look upon them in
their houses."
We learn moreover, from fhe s*m« autho
rity, as follows :—
" Whet: 'Umar ratified the tr^afy.. he added
thereto, — ' And that we >v»ll not strike any
one of the Muslims. We stipulate this witfc
you for ourselves and the people cf cur reli
gion ; and we ngcept these terms of capitula
tion : and if we subsequently violate a point
of that which wo have stipulated, upon out
lives be H. and kt there be no faith with us
and may it be allowed yo»s to do to us what
ever is lawful against rebellious :»n<l revolt
ing subjects/" (Hint, of J trust IVJH, by Jalalu
d-dm, Reynolds' Translation.)
There \vere within the city 12,000 (Jr«eks
Anil 50000 nntivps. an<l th» &hatif ai 'Umai
Mial all lb« Greeks depart within
jthree days, and that, the natives should paj
tribute. Five dinars were imposed upon thle
rich, four upon the middle classes, and thre«
upon the lower classes ; very old and verv
young persons paid nothing.
When *Umar entered the Hcly City. hi«
first object was to find the Sacred Rock (at*
Sakhrak}, the site of tho Masjidu '1-Aqsa, tc
which Muhammad said he was carried on
Burkq on tho night of the Mi 'raj [MIIIAJ], and
he therefore requested the Patriarch to direct
him to tho spot. They first went to th<
Church of the Resurrection, and the Patriarch
said, " This is the Mosque ol David/' Bu1
'Umar said, " Thou hast spoken falsely, foj
ihe Apostle of God ("Muhammad) describee
the place to me. sind it was not like this.
They then went to the church on Zion. and
the Patriarch said, "• This is the Mosque ol
David." But 'Umar said, •• Thou hast spoken
falsely/' And in this manner the Patriarch
fcook 'Umar to every «hurrh in the city. A<
last Uiey came to a gate, which is now called
Bdbv, '/- Muhammad or the Gate of Muham
mad, ami clearing away the filth on the *teps
tbpy came to a narrow pas&agn. and tbo Kb a
lifah, creeping on his knee*, cams to tfle
central sewer. Here, standing up *Urnat
looked afc the rock (a$-£bMra4), and then
exclaimed, " By Him in whose hand is mj
life, this is the place which the Apostle oJ
God (upon whom be peaca aud blessing) dc
scribed to us." 'Umar toon ordered a mosqu*
t« be built thereon. And <Abdu '1-Malik Jbi
Mar wan bnilt the mostjue of the Baitu '!•
MttquddM (uow known iis the JMo&cju? oi
*Umar). He spent upon it the produce o1
sevftri years' tax upon Egypt. He Itegan il
in A,H, 69 and iira^hed it in A.H. 72.
Some authority qx;oted by Jalulu 'd-dic
says ihe Holy City did not cease to ba in ih/
hands of tbc Muslims from its surrender tc
*Urnar until the year A.if. 491, when it waf
taken by the Pranks, who killed therein t
vast number of Muslims in the space ol sever
days. In the Masjidu '1-Aqsa alone, thcj
killed 70,000, and they took from as-Sakhrafr
the vessels of gold and silver and the wealtl
which was preserved in strong boxes. " But,'
he adds, " Salahu 'd-dm (Saladin) was raiscc
up tor the complete deliverance of the Holy
City ; for he was the most i unowned of Lions
and the very brightness of Fire/'
(For a further account of the taking of th«
city by Saladin. see Reynolds' translation oi
Jalalu 'el-din's History of the Tewple. of Jeru
salem, p. 199.)
A brief tutiine nj lite History oj Jerusalem
front the Time oj Christ
33- The crucifixion, death resurrection,
and ascension of Jesus Christ at
Jerusalem.
4-3. St. Paul's first visit to JerusaJein aftyi
his <'onver,sicn to Christianity.
«». Taken by Titus.
136. Tho Emperor H.tdhan bestows on tht
<Mty Hie name of Aolia C
JERUSALEM
JESUS CiIRIST
v.D.
38fi.
614.
621.
62&.
687.
(Thi.8 name is used by Jalalu rd-din
in his book, A.D. 1444.)
Jerusalem under Christian rule, the
Martynon and the Church of the
Resurrection bv.ilt.
The city invested ard taken by the
Persians under Chosioe* II. fSee
Qur'an, Surah xxx.)
The era of the flight of Muham
mad.
The Emperor HenielJus enters Jeru
salem in triumph.
The patriarch Sophromus surrenders
the Holy City to the Khalifah 'TJmar.
Liberty of worship secured to the
Christians in churches v/hich already
existed, but they are prohibited
the erection of uew churches. A
rnosque built on the reputed site of
Jacob's vision, now known as ttK
mosque of 'Umar. Said to be on the
site uf the tornple called by Muslims
Masjidu 1-Aqsd, the Remote Mosque,
or as-Sakhi ah, !he Rock.
Ambassadors sent by the Emperor
Charlemagne to distribute alms hj
tho Holy City. The Khalifah Harun
ar Rashid sends back ;is a present
to the Eunperor the keys r.f Calrary
and the Holy Sepulchre
Held for a time by the rebel chief
Tarn urn Abu Har.-.
"alls into the hands of the Katimilc
Khalifah Mu'iaz. Ti^ CL.irch of
the Holy Sepulchre ournt.
The pilgrimage of Ilobcrt of Nor
800.
820.
JOS5.
1054 Th« pilgrimage of L:ctliort o< Cam-
bray.
1UG5. The pilgrimage of the German
1077.
1084
10&6.
109t)
Ilb7.
1210.
1231).
1243.
1244.
1277
1617.
1542.
Jorusaiom pillagrd by the army of
Mfc'ik Shah.
i ho Turkoman ebiei Urtok becomes
rulrr of the Holy City. '1 he Chris
tuns suffer.
E'hc city r.Ukpn by the Fatimate
Khalilah.
10,000 Crusader'* appear before its
walls. The oily taken by the Cru
sadcrs, 10,000 Muslim* slain. God
«rey of Bouillon \>::>d^ King. (For
eighty yoars the city remained in
the hands of the Christians.)
Ketaken by Saladin i'S.M&hu 'd-din),
tho Muslim general.
Coded to flie Christians by virtue ot a
treaty with the lOmperor Frederick
II.
Taken by tho Muslims
Again "eded to Ihc Cbrivtiuns.
The Christiiiut- dclftatod al Oar.a,
and Jcrufialeut ocrupiea by the
1832. Muhammad -AH Pasha of Egypt takoa
the city.
1840. Restored tc the Sultan of
[A8-8AKlinAH. MASJIDU 'L-AQfiA.]
JESUS CHRIST. Arabic 'Isd 'l-
Mustli (c^^^ (^*«c)- I" 1ho Qur'an, the
Lord Jesus Clirist is spoken of \inder the fol
lowing namub and titles: —
(1) '/«« (o—*^). "Jesus." AMiaiziiwi
«ays it is the same as the Hebrew f*/iu\
(£)*£), and derived from <tl-'ay'ts, •• white
mingled with rod." without. however, explain
mg this derivation.
(2) '/;?« ibn Marya-a (
•• Jesus the .son of Mary," f"u:> v.- .,
born by tho power o*" G«u!.
(o) ALMtU* (c*— *J^.i, '-tKo
Surah iii. 40 : " His name .ihall bo .Messiah
Jesus." Al-Kamalau, tho commentators, >4,y
lie is called al-Ma&ih either because he v.;. -
both blessed an;l anointed by tho sage]
Gabriel, cr bet.Ta.~e whomsoever Josus touched
-,vas
(4) Kxlunalu 7/«A (6&\ JUii'j, ;- the Word of
Goil." Siirah iv, UJ9 : "His word." Husain
says by this expi-esfiou is meant ho who wa.°
born at the express fiat of God. (Surah \ix.
5(5 : '• Ho says only to it Bi •] nnd it is.")
(5) QfivJu 7-J9aff (&^\ Jji). - Thf
Word of Truth.'" Surah six. 35. Some
comment i tors take the -.'xpression tjuulv '/
^.799 asrelerving lo the statement m.'id'j boin?
ki the vpord cf trutti." whilst others take it at,
veferring to Christ Hini^elf. •- The \N ord of
Ta-uth."
(t>) Ruhun mi n Allah (^> &• C»), '•• A Spirit
from God/' Surah iv. 16''.): "A Spirit from
Uim." Al-Baizuwi says it is ii si:'uil which
proceedoth from Cod. The lille />///»/ 'Hat is
the special Kaliinab fftr .J«su« Christ, fi-no-
PtlKTS-j
(7) faxuln :Hak (t&\ J;^,), •• The Mos-
sengcr of God." Surah ^y. 169. It is tho
sair.c titl^ :is Mvihauirnnd at- sinned for him
self, i.e. the Prophet, or Apostlo, or 5Ic«;-
seugor of God
(8) >Abdu 'Hah (M\ J^). M Tho Sorvnnt ot
God.'" Siirah xix. ;)l : '• Vrrily, lam the ser
vant of God/'
Nominally annexed to the kingdom <»f
Sicily.
Become* part of the Kmpno of the
Ottoman Sultan Setim I.
SultHu Snlaiman I. builds itie present
(9) X<il.iy*Wth (^ (j^). "Tho PrcphoJ
of God." ^itrah xix. ol : " II*1 hath mad<;
me a Piopbet."
(10) Wmthun / t 'J-ttu>n/<r wu 'l-afrfiirak
(fyjHj{jM\ cs* i-s^). ••Illustrious iii this
world and in the next,' namely, aa al-Ba:?uwi
explains it, " in this v.-orld a,s u Prophet, in
tho next us an Inirreossor." Surah iii. 40.
Li order to pre&eiri liir aoxu6whAtinoohw*ot
iiiiirativc of tho Qui'tin in a systematic form^
we shall arrange its hi«it< ry of the Lore
Jesus into f\} The Annum ialion of th«; Virgin,
(2) The Birth of JONUS. (3; His Miracles. (4) Hu
Mission, (5) His Crucifixion, ("ft) Hi* Divinity
nnd 5SinleKci»esf.,(7) The Trinity, (8) His Socond
Coming (;<* taught in Mio Traditions), •'{»} His
Ex.iltaliou in H<»,iveti From a uoi ui-4 or
230 JESUS CHRIST
these selections it will be'seen that Muhammad
taught that Jesus was miraculously born of
the Virgin Mary, who was sister of Aaron
and Ihe daughter of 'Imran, near the trunk
of a palm tree. That the Jews charged the
Virgin with being unchaste; but the babe,
Speaking in his cradle, vindicated his mother's
honour. That Jesus performed miracles,
giving life to a clay figure of a bird, healing
the blind, curing the leper, quickening
the dead, and bringing down a table from
heaven " as a festiral and a sign." That he
(Jesus) was specially commissioned as the
Apostle or Prophet of God to confirm the
Law and to reveal the Gospel. That he pro
claimed his mission with many manifest
signs, being strengthened by the Holy Spirit.
That he foretold the advent of another
Prophet, whose name should be Ahmad.
That the Jews intended to crucify him, but
God deceived them, for they did not crucify
Jesus, but only his likeness. That he is
now in one of the stages of celestial bliss.
That after he left this earth his disciples
disputed amongst themselves, some calling
him a God, and making him one of a Trinity
of the " Father, the Mother, and the Son."
That he will come again at the last day, and
will slay Antichrist, kill all the swine, break
the Cross, remove the poll-tax from the
infidels. That he will reign aa a just king
foi t<Hty-five years, marry, and have children,
and die and be buried near Muhammad at al-
Madinah, between the graves of Abu Bakr
and *Umar.
1, — The Annunciation of the Virgin.
Sm?ah hi. 37-43: "And remember when
the angels said, f 0 Mary ! verily hath God
chosen thee, and purified thee, and chosen
tbjee above fche women of the worlds L 0 Mary !
be devout towards thy Lord, and prostrate
thyswi and bow down with those who bow.'
This is one of the announcements of things
unseen bv thee : To thee, 0 Muhammad! do
wife reveal it; for thou wast not with them
when they cast fets with reeds which of
them should rear Mary : nor wast thou with
them when they disputed about it. Remember
when tie angel said, <O Mary! Verily God
annosinceth to thee the Word from Him : His
name, shall &e, Messiah Jejsus the son of Mary,
ilrftsttioifc in this -world, and in the next, and
orie of those who hate near access to God;
and he shall speak to men alike when in the
cradle and when g£owh up ; and he shall be
one of .the just.' She said, .'How, O niy
Lor<33 shall I have a son, when man hath not
touched, me?' He said, 'Thus: God will
create what He will; when He decreeth a
thing; He only saith, " Be," and it is.' And
He will teach him ±he Bobk, and the Wisdom,
and ' the Law, and the Evangel: and he shall
bfe an.apostfe to the chilren of Israel."
Surah xix. 16 21 ; " And make mention in
thre Book, ol Mury, when she went apart from
her family, eastward, and took a veil to shroud
It&setf from than : and We sent Our spirit to
her, ana he took before her the form of a
perfect man. She said : • 1 ily for refuge
JESUS CHRIST
from thee to the God of Mercy I If thou
fearest Him, begone from me? He said : ' I
am only a messenger of thy Lord, that I may
bestow on thee a holy son.' She said : ' How
shall I have a son, when man hath never
touched me? and I am not unchaste.' He
said : « So shall it be. Thy Lord hath said :
" Easy is this with me : and we will make
him a sign to mankind, and a mercy from ue.
For it is a thing decreed." '
[In the earlier part of Surah iii. the Yirgin
Mary is spoken of as the daughter of 'Imran,
Commentators say that 'Imran died before
Mary was born. In the traditions it is stated
" that the only two persons born into the
world who have not been touched of the Devil
are Mary and her son Jesus." Thus teaching
not only the Immaculate Conception of Mary,
but also of her mother. " When she went
eastward" ; Husain says, she went out of her
house in an eastward direction, in order to
perform her ablutions, when Gabriel appeared
to her.]
II — The Birth of Jesns.
Surah xix. 22-34 : " And she conceived him,
and retired with him to a far-off place. And i
the throes came upon her by the trunk of a .
palm. She said : ' Oh, would that I had died i
ere this, and been a thing forgotten, forgotten •
quite I ' And one cried to her from below
her : ' Grieve not thou, thy Lord hath pro
vided a streamlet at thy feet : — And shake
the trunk of the palm-tree toward thee : it *
will drop fresh ripe dates upon thee. Eat!
then and drink, and be of cheerful eye : and I
shouldst thou see a man, say, — Verily, I have
vowed abstinence to the God of mercy. — To <
no one will I speak this day.' Then came she
with the babe' to her people, bearing Mm,
They said, ' 0 Mary ! now hast tnou done a •
strange thing! 0 sister of Aaron! Thy
father was not a man of wickedness, nor un
chaste thy mother.' And she made a sign to <
them, pointing towards the babe. They said,
' How shall we speak with him who is in the
cradle, an infant ? ' It said, « Verily, I am (
the servant of God ; He hath given me the «
Book, and He hath made me m prophet ; and He *
hath made me blessed wherever I may be, .
and hath enjoined me prayer and almsgiving ,
so long as I shall live ; and to be dutiful to
her that bare me : and he hath not made me j
proud, depraved. And the peace of God was i|
on me the day I was born, and will be the j
day I shall die, and the day I shall be raised
to life,"
Surah xxiii. 52: "And we appointed the
Son and his Mother for a sign ; and we pro- j
pared an abode in a lofty spot, quiet and
watered with spi-ings."
[Professor Wahl understands this last verse
to .refer to Paradise, but the Muslim commen
tators all refer it to the place of abode ; and
al-Baixawi and Hus»m say it was either in
Jerusalem, or Damascus, or Ramleh ! llusain.
saya Jesus was born in Bethlehem. The ex- \
pression, " O tister of Aaron" as applied to j|
the Virgin Nary, suggests an anachronism
JESUS CHEIST
JESUS CHEIST
231
of some consequence, but the commentators
get over the difficulty. The Kamalar say it
is a figurative expression implying that she
was pare and righteous like n sister of Aaron.
But al-Baizawi says it means that she was of
the tribe of Aaron. European authors suggest
that there was a confusion between Miriam
the Virgin and Miriam the sister of Moses
Al-Baizawi says : " The palm to which she
fled, that she might lean on it in her travail,
was a withered trunk, without any head or
verdure ; and this happened in the winter
season, notwithstanding which, it miraculously
gtfpplied her with fruits for her refi'eshment,
as is mentioned immediately." Mr. Sale
says : " It has been observed, that the Mo
hammedan account of the delivery of the
Virgin Mary very much resembles that of
Latona, as described by the poets, not only
in this circumstance of their laying hold on a
palm-tree (though some say Latona embraced
an olive-tree, or an olive and a palm, or else
two laurels), but also in that of their infants
speaking ; which Apollo is fabled to have
done in the womb." (See Homer, Hymn, in
Apoll. ; Callimach, Hymn, in Deium.)
11 L— The Miracles of Jesus.
Surah iii. 43-46 : " And He will teach him
the Book, and the Wisdom, and the Law, and
the Evangel ; and he shall be an apostle to
the children of Israel * Now have I come,'
he will gay, ' to you with a sign from your
Lord : Out of clay will I make for yon, as it
were, the figure of a bird : and I will breathe
into it. and it shall become, by God's leave,
a bird. And I will heal the blind, and the
leper : and by God's leave will I quicken the
dead ; and I will tell you what ye eat, and
what ye store up' in your houses I Truly in
this will "be a sign for yon, if ye are believers.'
And when Jesus perceived unbelief on their
part, He said, ' Who my helpers with God? '
The apostles said, ' We will be God's helpers !
We believe in God, and bear thou witness that
we are 'Muslims. O our Lord I we believe in
what thou hast sent down, and we follow the
apostle; write us up, then, with those who
bear witness to him.1 "
[The commentators al-Jalaian say Jesus
made for his disciples a bat, for it is the most
perfect of birds in make, and it flew while they
looked at it ; but when it had gone out of
their sight, it fell down dead. That he cured
in one day fifty thousand persons, and that he
raised Lazarus ('Azar) from the dead ; also
Shem, the son of Noah, who had been dead
4,000 years, but he died immediately ; also
the son of an old woman, and the daughter of
a tax-collector.]
Surah v. 112-115 : "Remember when the
Apostles said : « O Jesus, Sou of Mary ! is
thy Lord able to send down a furnished
table to us out of Heaven ? ' He said :
* Fear God if ye be believers.' They said :
' We desire to eat therefrom, and to have our
hearts assured ; and to know that thou hast
indeed spoken truth to us, and to be witnesses
thereof. Jesus, Son of Mary, said : ' 0 God,
our Lord ! send down a table to us out of
Heaven, that it may become a recurring fes
tival to us, to the first of us and to the last
of UB, and a sign from thee ; and do thou
nourish us, for thou art the best of nourishers*.'
And God said : * Verily, I will cause it t«
descend unto you ; but whoever among you
after that shall disbelieve, I will surely chastise
him with a chastisement wherewith I will
not chastise any other croatnro.' "
[Mr. Sale, in his commentary on this
miracle, says (quoting from al-Baizawi) : —
" This miracle is thus related by the com
mentators. Jesus having, at the request of
his followers, asked it of God, a red table
immediately descended in their sight, between
two clouds, and was set before them. Where
upon he rose up, and having made the ablu
tion, prayed, and then took off the cloth
which covered the table, saying, ' In the name
of God, the best provider of food!' What
the provisions were, with which this table
was furnished, is a matter wherein the ex
positors are not agreed. One will have theip
to be nine cakes of bread and nine fishes ;
another, bread and flesh ; another, all sorts of
food, except flesh ; another, all sorts of food,
except bread and flesh ; another, all except
bread and fish ; another, one fish, which had
the taste of all manner of food ; and another,
fruits of paradise ; but the most received
tradition is, that when the table was uncovered,
there appeared a fish ready dressed, without
scales or prickly tins, dropping with fat,
having salt placed at its head, and vinegar at
its tail, and round it all sorts of herbs, except
leeks, and five loaves of bread, on one of
which there were olives; on the second, honey ;
on the third, butter; on the fourth, cheese;
and on the fifth, dried flesh. They add, that
Jesus, at the request of the apostles, showed
thorn another miracle, by restoring the fish
to life, and causing its scales and fins to return
to it ; at which the standers - by, being
affrighted, he caused it to become as it wag
before : that one thousand three hundred men
and women, all afflicted with bodily infirmities
or poverty, ate of these provisions, and were
satisfied, the fish remaining whole as it was
at first ; that then the table flew up to heaven
in the sight of all ; and everyone who had
partaken of this food were delivered from
their infirmities and misfortunes ; and that it
continued to descend for forty days together,
at dinner-time, and stood on the ground till
the sun declined, and was then taken up into
the clouds. - Some of the Mohammedan
writers are of opinion that this table did not
really descend, but that it was only a parable;
but most think the words of the Koran are
plain to the contrary. A further tradition is,
that several men were changed into swine for
disbelieving this miracle, and attributing it to
magic art ; or, as others pretend, for stealing
some of the victuals from off it."]
/ V. — The Mission of Jesus.
Surah Ivii. 26, 27 : " And of old sent we Noah
and Abraham, and on their seed conferred th»'
282
JESUS CHRIST
.TBS US CURIS'J
xift oi prophecy, and the Book ; and some of
them we guided aright ; but many were evil
doers. Then we caused oitr apostles to follow
in their footsteps ; and we caused Jesus the
gon cf Mary to follow them; and we gave
him tbe Evangel and we put into the hearts
of those who followed him kindness and
compassion : but as to the monastic life, they
invented it themselves. The desire only of
pleasing God did we prescribe to them, and
this they observed not as it ought to have
been observed : but to such of them as be
lieved gave we their reward, though mauy of
them were perverse."
Surah v, 50, 51 : » And in the footsteps of
the prophets caused we Je&us .; the son of ICorjr.
to follow, confirming the law which was before
him : and we gave him the Evangel with its
guidance and light, conlinnalory of the pre
ceding Law; a guidance and warning to those
who tear Gad ; — And that the people of the
Evangel may judge according to what God
hath «ont down therein. And whoso will not
judge by what God hath sent down- -su^h are
the perverse.'1
Surah ii. 81: "Moreover, to Moses gave
we * the Book/ and we raised up apostles
after him ; and to Jesus, son of Mary, gave
we clear proofs of his mission tw\d strengthened
him by the Holy Spirit. So o(t then as an
apostle ccrneth to ycu with that which your
souls desire not, swell ye with pride, and
treat sonic as impostors, and slay others ? "
Surah ii. 254 : ** Some of the apostles we
have endowed more highly than others : Those
to whom God hath spoken. He hath raised to
the loftiest grade, and to Jesus the Son of
Mary we gave manifest signs, and we strength
ened him with the Holy Spirit. And if God
had pleased, they wbo came after them would
not have wrangled, after the clear signs hatl
reached them, But into disputes they fell .
some of them believed, and some wer^ infidels :
yet if God had pleased, they would not have
thus wrangled } but God dplh what be
Surah Ixi. (» : " A.nd remember when Jesus
the son of Mary said, « O children of Israel !
of a truth I ana God's apostle to you to con
firm the law which was given before me, and
to announce an apostle that shall come a M e i
me whose nnme shall be Ahmad ! ' But when
he (Ahmad) presented himself with clear
proofs of his mission, they J»aid. 'This is
manifest soreery ! ' ''
Surah vi. 85: "And Zachartttit, John, Jesus,
und Hlias : all were just persons.''
Surah iv 157: " And there shall not be
one of the people of the Book but shall
believe in him (Josus) before his death, and
in the day of judgment he shall be a wtnet
against them."
Surah iii- M • '* And 1 have come to attest
the law which was before me ; and to allow
you pa ft of that which had been forbidden
vou ; and £ come to you with a sign frtm
your Lord : Fear God. then, and obey me ; of
a truth God is my Lord, and your Lord :
Therefore wcrship Him, This is a right
way."
K— • The Crucifixion of Jesus.
Surah iii. 47-50 : " And the Jews plotted,
and God plotted • But cf thoae who plot is God
the best. Remember when God said, ' 0
Jesus ! verily 1 will cause thee to die, and
will take thee up to myself and deliver thee
from those who believe not ; and I will place
those who follow thee above those who
believe not, until the Day of Resurrection.
Then, to me is your return, and wherein
ye differ will I decide between you. And as to
those who believe not, L will chastise them
with a terrible chastisement in this world and
in the next ; and none shall they have to help
them.' But as to those who believe, and do
the things that are right, He will pay them
their recompon.se. God lovetb. not the doei's
of evil/'
Surah iv. 165, 156 • '• And for their unbelief
[are the Jews cnrsedj — and for their having
spoken against Mary a grievous calumny, —
And for their saying' * Verily we have slaiu
the Messiah, Jeans the son of Mary, an
Apostle of God.' Yet they slew him. not. 3,nd
they crucified him not, but they had only his
likeness. And they who differed about him
were in doubt concerning him : No euro know
ledge had they about him, but followed cnly
au opinion, and they really did not sUy iritn,
but God took him up to Himself. Aud God
is Mighty, Wise!"
(Sale, in his notes on the Quran, sayi>
" The person crucified some will have to be a
spy that was sent to entrap him ; others that
it was one Titian, who by the direction of
Judas entered in at a window of the house
where Jesus was, to kill him; and others
that it was Judas himself, who agreed with
the rulers of the Jews to betray h to far
thirty pieces of silver, and led those who
were sent to take hiui. They add , that Jesus,
after his crucifixion in effigy, was sent down
seam to tbe earth to comfort hi* mother and
disciples and acquaint them how the Jew*
were deceived, and was then taken up a
second time into he riven. It is supposed by
several that this story was an original in-
vention of Mohammad's ; bat they are cei
tainly mistaken : for several sectaries held
tlu> same opinion iontr before his litno. The
Basilidians, in the very beginning of Chris
tianity, denied that Ohrhst himself suffered, bu»
[asserted] that Simon the Cirenean was cruci
fied in his plafe. The Corinthians before
them, and the Oarpocratians next jto name
no more of those who affirmed Jesus to have
been a mere man), did believe the same thin??,
that it was not himself, but one of his followers,,
very like him, that was crufittled. Photius
tells us thai he read a book pntitled The
Jovmeys of the Apostles, relating the acts of
Pelpr. John Andrew, Thomas, and Paul; and
among oilier things contained therein this
was one, that Christ wns riot crucified, bul:
another in his stead, nnd that therefore he
laughed at his crucian's, or those who thought
they had crucified him." The " Cross of
Christ " is the missing link in the Muslim's
creed , for we have in Islam the
JBSUS CHRIST
anomaly o: A religion which reject* the
<loctrino of a $u«riliee for sin, whilst irx »^reut
central feast i(« a Fetrxt of Sucnjicf. It is
related by the Muslim historian al Waqidi.
that Muhammad had such repugnance to the
sign of the cross that ho destroyed every
thing brought to his hun.se with thai figure
upon it.J
VI. -Divinity a»tl Sunn/tip of Christ, ///it/ //j'.v
JESUS CHttlfST
233
Surah xix. 35, i'.fi : '• That is Jesus the son
of Mary, the word of truth ('inulu '/-JTbfo),
whereon ye do dispute ! God could not take
to Himself :\ son ! Celebrated be His praise !
When He doereet » matter He only says to it.
'BE,' and it is; and verily God is my I»orU
and your Lord, so worship Him : this J* the
right way. Rut the sects have differed
among themselves."
Surah iii. 51, 52 : - These signs, and thin
wise warning do we rehearse to thee. Verily,
Josus is as Adam in the sight of God. He
created Him of dust : Hr then said to him.
» Be ' — and he wns.'%
Surah xliii. 57-0") : "And wjioii the Son oi
Mavy was set forth as an instance of divine
p4Wi \ lo ! thy people eried out for joy
theieat : And they said, ' Are our gods or is
he the better? ' They put this forth to thee
only in the spirit of dispute. Yea, they arc.
a contentions people. Jesus is no inoi'e than
a servant whom we favoured, and proposed
a* an instance of dirt 'tie power to the children
of Israel ; and if we pleased, we could from
yourselves bring: forth Angels to succeed you
on earth ; and he shall be a sign of the 'tint
hour : doubt not then of it, and follow ye me :
this is the right way ; and let not Satan turn
yon aside from it, for he is your manifest foe.
And when Je-ms came with manifest proofs.
he said, • Now am I come to you with wisdom ;
and a part of those things about which ye
are at variance J will clear op to you ; fear
ye God, therefore, «nd obey inc. Verily, God
is my Lord and your Lord : Avherefore, wor
ship ye him : this is a right way.' But the
difl'erent parties fell into disputes among
themselves ; but woe to those who thus trans
gressed, because of the punishment of an
afflictive day! "
Surah ix. 30: '" The Jews say Ezra is the
*«m of God ; and the Christians Bay that the
Messiah i« the Son of God : that is what
they say with their months imitating the
sayings of those who misbebeved before —
Cod fight them !— How they lie ! "
Surah iii. 72, 78 : " And some truly are there
among them who torture the Scriptures with
their tongues, in order that ye may suppose
H to be from the Scripture, yet it is not from
the Scripture. And they say, - This is from
God r ; yet it is not from God : nnd they utter a
lie against God, and they know they do so.
It beseemeth not a man, that God should give
him the Scriptures and the Wisdom, aud the
gift oi prophecy, nnd that then he should say
to his folio we i ••-. 'Be ye worshippers of me.
as well as of God ' ; but rather, ' Be ye
perfect in things pertaining to God, since ye
know the Scripture*, nnd h.-ive studied
deep/ "
Surah v. 19 : *• Infidels now ui«- they who
say, ' Verily God is the Messiah Ibn Mnryam
(son of Mary)! SAY : And who could aufjhl
obtain from (jod, if he chase to destroy the
Messiah Ibn Mary urn, and hi* mother, nnd all
who are on the earth together?"'
There is a remarkable Hadls reUtod by
Anas, which inadvertently proves that, whilst
Muhammad admitted his own sinfulnesK, as
well as that of other projihuts, Le could not
charge our Lord with sin. It is U.H follows :
" Tbu Prophet of God said. • In the Day c,f
Resurrection Muslims will not be able to
.move, and they will be greatly distressed,
and will say, " Would t» God that we had
asked Him to create ,.ome one to intercede for
us that we might be taken from this place,
and be delivered from tribulation and sorrow ? "
Then these men will go to Adam, and will
say, "Thou art the father of all men. Uo<\
created thee with His hand, and made thee n
dweller in Paradise, and ordered His am/rls
to prostrate themselves before thee, ami
taught thee the names of all things. Ask
grace for us we pray thee ! " And Adam will
say, "I am not of that degree of eminence
you suppose, for I committed a f»in in eating
of the grain which was forbidden. Go to
Noah, the Prophet, he was the first who was
sent by God to th« unbelievers on the face of
the earth." Then they will go to Noah and
ask for intercession, and ho will say, " I am
not of that degree which UP suppose.** And
he will remember the sin which he committed
in asking the T,,>r<l for the deliverance of his
son (Hud), not knowing whether il was a
right request or not; and he will say, •' Go
to Abraham, who is the Friend of Gm\.'
Then they will go to Abraliam, and he will
say. *• T am not of that degree which \v snp
pose." And he will remember the throe
occasions upon which he told lies in ta<-
world ; and ho will say, " Go to Moses, who
is the servant to whom God gave His law.
and whom He allowed to converse -with Him."
And they will go to MOHCS, and MOSOK will
say, " I am not of that degree which ye
suppose." And he will roiaemt*>i the sin
which he committed in slaying a man, and h»-
will say, -'Go to Jesus, He in the servant uf
God, the Apostle of God, the Spirit of God,
and the Word of God." Then they will go to
Jesus, and He will say, " Go to Muhammad
who is a servant, whose sins God hat forgiven
both rlrst and last." Then the Muslims will
come to mo, and I will ask permission to go
into God's presence and intercede for them.' "
(Mi*hkat, book xxiii. ch. xii.)
[In dealing with Muhammadans the Chris
tian missionary must not treat their system
as though the teachings of Islam were pre
cisely those of the modem Socinians (we
speak of the modern Socinianw, for both the
Socini, uncle and nephew, admitted the mi
raculous conception of*0)hrist, and said he
ought to be worshipped.} Islam admits ol
the mu-aculou* conception oi Christ, and that
H« is the "irw which God - oon?oye«l
30
234
JESUS CHRIST
JESUS CHRIST
into Mary"; and -whilst the other five
great prophets are but " the chosen," " the
preacher," " the friend," " the oonverser
with," and "the messenger of" God, Jesus
is admitted to be the " Spirit of God." He
is the greatest miracle worker of all the
prophets ; and whilst Muhammad is dead and
buried, and saw corruption, all Muslim divines
admit that Jesus " saw no corruption," and
still lives with a human body in Paradise.
Moreover, it is aaid in the Hadis that the
Haqlqatu'l-Mukammadiyah or the Nur-i-Mn-
jiammad, " the essence, or light of Muhammad."
was created before all things which were
made by God. The pre-existence of the
divine " Word which was made flesh and
dwelt amongst us " is not, therefore, an idea
foreign to the Muslim mind.]
VIL—The Trinity.
Surah v. 76-79 : " They misbelieve who say,
• Verily, God is the Messiah, the son of Mary ' ;
but the Messiah said, ' 0 children of Israel !
worship God, my Lord and your Lord ; verily,
he who associates aught with God, God hath
forbidden him Paradise, and his resort is the
Fire, and the unjuat shall have none to help
them. They misbelieve who say. * Verily,
God is the third of three, for there is no God
but one ; and if they do not desist from what
Uaey aay, there shall touch those who mis
believe amongst them grievous woe. Will
they not turn again towards God and ask
pardon of Him ? for God is forgiving and
merciful.' The Messiah, the son of Mary, is
only a prophet I Prophets before him have
passed away ; and his mother was a confessor ;
they used both to eat food. See how we
explain to them the signs, yet see how they
turn aside ! "
Surah iv. 169 : " 0 ye people of the Book !
overstep not bounds in your religion ; and of
God, speak only truth. The Messiah, Jesus,
son of Mary, is only an apostle of God, and
His Word which he conveyed into Mary, and
a Spirit from Him. Believe, therefore, in God
and His apostles, and say not, ( Three * :
(i.e. there is a Trinity) — Forbear- — it will be
better for you. God is only one God 1 Far
be it from His glory that He should have a
son ! His, whatever is in the Heavens, and
whatever is in the Earth ! And God is a
sufficient Guardian."
Surah v. 1 16, 117 : " And when God shall say
— ' 0 Jesus, Son of Mary : hast thou said unto
mankind — " Take me and my mother as two
Gods, beside God ? " ' He shall say—* Glory
be unto Thee I it is not for me to say that
which I know to be not the truth ; had I said
that, verily thou wouldest have known it :
Thou knowest what is in me, but I know not
what is in Thee ; for Thou well knowest
things unseen ! I spake not to them aught
bat that which thou didst bid me—4' Worship
God, my Lord and your Lord " ; and I was
a witness against them so long as I was
amongst them : but when Thou didst take me
away to Thyself Thou wert the watcher over
them, for Thou art witness over all.' "
[From the text of the Qur'an it appears
that Muhammad thought the Holy Trinity of
the Christians consisted of the Father, the
Son, and the Virgin ; and historians tell us
that there existed in Arabia a sect called
Collyridians, who considered the Virgin Mary
a divine person, and offered in worship to her
a cake called Collyris; it, is, therefore, not
improbable that Muhammad obtained his
perverted notion of the Holy Trinity from
the existence of this sect. From the ex
pression " they both ate food," we must
conclude that Muhammad had but a sensuous
idea of the Trinity in Unity, and had never
been instructed in the orthodox faith with
reference to this dogma.
Al-Baizawi (A.H. 685), in his commentary
on Surah iv. 169, says : " Say not there are
Three," that is, " Do not say there are three
Gods," namely, A lldh and al-Ma$i(i undMaryam ;
or " Do not say God is Three," meaning that
there are Three Aqdnim (^iVirt) or Essences
—Ab (Father), Ibn (Son), and Ruhu'l-Quda
(Holy Spirit), and interpreting it thus : Ab,
the Zdt or Essence ; Ibn, the llbn or Know
ledge ; and Ruhu 'l-Qud, the Hayat or Life of
God.
Husain (A.H. 900) quotes al-Baizawi, and
offers no opinion of his own.
The Jalalan (A.H. 911) say " Three" means.
Allah and 'Isa and his Mother.
The word generally used by Muhammadan
writers for the Trinity is at-Ta$li$ (^aUsH).
[TRINITY]
VII L— The Second Coming of Jesus.
The Qur'an has no definite teaching on the
subject, but the Traditions have. See Mish-,
kdtu 'l-Masdbllt, book xxiii. ch. vi.)
Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet
said, " I swear by God, it is near, when Jesus,
son of Mary, will descend from the heavens
upon your people, a just king, and he will
break the cross, and will kill the swine, and will
remove the poll-tax from the unenfranchised ;
and there will be great wealth in hia time, so
much that nobody will accept of it ; and in
that time, one prostration in prayer will b«
better than the world and everything in it."
And Abu Hurairah said, " If ye doubt
about this coming to pass, then read this
verse (Surah iv. 157), and there shall not be
one of those who have received the Scrip
tures who shall not believe in Him (Jesus)
before His death."
Abu Hurairah again relates that the Prophet
said, "'I swear by God, Jesus son of Mary
will come down, a just king ; he will kill the
swine, and break the cross, and remove the
poll-tax from the unenfranchised ; and camels
will not be rode in his time on account of the
immensity of wealth, and man's being in want
of nothing ; and verily enmity, hatred and
malice will go from man ; and verily, Jesus
will call people to wealth, and nobody will
take it."
Jabir relates that the Prophet said : « A sec
tion of my people will always fight for the
true religion, and will be victorious, unto the
resurrection. Then Jesus son of Mary win
JBTHRO
JEWS
235
come down ; and the prince of my people will
g«y to him, 4 Come in front, and say prayers
for as.' And he will say to him, • I shall not
act as Imam, because some of you are princes
over others.' And Jesus will say this from
respect to my people."
'Abdullah ibn « Amr relates that the Prophet
said: "Jesus will come down to the earth,
and will marry and have . children, and will
atay on the earth forty-five years, and then
die, and he buried in my place of burial ; and
I and Jesus shall rise up from one place,
between Abu-Bakr and 'Umar." [HUJBAH.]
IX. — His Exaltation in Heaven.
There is some difference of opinion as to
where Jesus Christ now is. All Muslim
divines agree that "he saw no corruption/'
but they differ as to the exact stage of
celestial bliaa in which he resides in the body.
According to a tradition by Qatadah (Mish-
kat, book xxiv. ch. vii.), Muhammad said, on
the night of the Mr raj or celestial journey,
he saw John and Jesus in the second heaven.
The Jalalan agree with this tradition. But
in the comments *y known as the Jami'u 7-
Baydn (vol. i. K5«) it is said be is in the third
region of bliss ; whilst some say he is in the
fourth.
X.—The Disciples of Jesus.
The disciples of Jesus are called in the
Qur'an .al-ffdwdrlyitn, a word which seems to
be derived from an Ethiopic root, signifying
'" to send," but which al-Baizawi says means
" white ones," and that it was given to the
disciples of Jesus either because they were
holy and sincere men or because they wore
white clothes. It is noticeable that not one
of the twelve apostles is mentioned by name
in the Qur'an. In the story told of disciples
visiting the city (of Antioch), three disciples
are mentioned, and commentators say they
were John, Jude and Simon. [See Surah
XXXVL 13, 19 — HABIB TUB CABPENTBB.J John
the Baptist and his father Zachanas are
mentioned. (Surahs xix. 7, xxi. 90.)
JETHRQ. [SHU'AJB.]
JEWELS. Arabic /awAar (y*j*),pl.
Jawahir. According to the Hiddyah
a thief is liable to suffer amputation of the
hand for stealing jewels, such as a ring set
with emerald, ruby, or chrysolite, as such are
rare articles, and are not held to be of an
indifferent nature, neither are they undesirable.
(Vol. ii. p. 93.)
A ttiltim. sale [SIIJLIM], or a sale in trust, of
jewels and marine shells, is not lawful, because
the unities of these vary in their value.
(VoL ii p. 539.) In the partition of property,
jevela must not be divided by the Qazi, but
by mutual arrangement in the family, because
of the great difference in the actual value of
jewels. (VoL iv. 13.)
JEWS, JUDAISM. The Jews
are mentioned in the Qur'an and Traditions
under the namoe of Yahudl (^ J^) , pi Yahud,
and Banu IsrffU \.\ , "Children of
Israel." No distinction is n ado between Jews
and Israelites. They arc acknowledged to be
a people in possession of a divine book , and are
called A hlu 'l-Kitab, or " people of the book."
Moses is their special law-giver (Abraham
not having been a Jew, but a "J/anif Muslim") ;
they are a people highly-favoured of God,
but are said to have perverted t he meaning of
Scripture, and to have called Ezra " the Son
of God/' They have an intense hatred of all
true Muslims ; and, as a punishment for their
ains, some of them in times past had been
changed into apes and swine, and others
will have their hands tied to their nocks
and be cast into the Fire at the Day of
Judgment.
The following are the selections from the
Qur'an relating to the Jews : —
Surah ii. 116: "0 children of Israeli
remember my favour wherewith I have
favoured you, and that high above all man
kind have I raised you."
Surah v. 48, 49 : " Verily, we have sent down
the law (Taurdf) wherein are guidance and
light. By it did the prophets who professed
Islam judge the Jews ; and the doctors and
the teachers judged by that portion of the
Book of God, of which they were the keepers
and the witnesses. Therefore, 0 Jews\ fear
not men but fear Me ; and barter not away
my signs for a mean price ! And whoso will
not judge by what God hath sent down — such
are the Infidels. And therein have we enacted
for them, ' Life for life, an eye for eye, and
nose for nose, and ear for ear, and tooth for
tooth, and for wounds retaliation ' : — Whoso
shall compromise it as alms shall have therein
the expiation of his sin ; and whoso will not
judge by what God hath sent down — such are
the transgressors."
Surah iii. 60 : " Abraham was not a Jew,
nor yet a Christian. He was a Hanif Muslim,
and not an idolater."
Surah ix. 30 : " The Jews say, ' Ezra
(^Uzair) is a son of God'; and the Christians
say, « The Messiah is a son of God.' Such
the saying in their mouths I They resemble
the saying of the Infidels of old'! God do
battle with them ! How are they misguided! "
Surah vi. 147 : " To the Jews did we forbid
every beast having an entire hoof, and of both
bullocks and sheep we forbade them the fat,
save what might be on their backs, or their
entrails, and the fat attached to the bone.
With this have we recompensed them, because
of their transgression : and verily, we are
indeed equitable."
Surah iv. 48, 49 : " Among the Jews are those
who displace the words of their Scriptures,
and say, ' We have heard, and we have not
obeyed. Hear thou, but as one that heareth
not ; and LOOK AT us ' ; perplexing with their
tongues, and wounding the Faith by their
revilings. But if they would say, • We have
heard, and we obey ; hear thou, and BEOABD
us'; it were better for them, aud more right.
But God hath cursed them for their unbelief.
Few only of them are believers ! "
Surah ii. 70-78 : " Desire ye then that for
your sakes the Jew* should believe ? Yet a
236 JEWS
purl >jf them heard the word of God, and then,
after they had understood it, perverted it,
and knew that they did so. And when they
:"all in with the faithful, they say, * We
believe ' : but when they are apart one with
another, they say, * Will ye acquaint thorn
with what God hath revealed to you, that
they may dispute with you about it in the
presence of your Lord ? ' Understand ye
their aim ? Know they not tiiat God knowetu
xvhat they hide, as well as what they bring to
light ? But there are illiterates among them
who are not acquainted with the Book, but
v.'tth lies only, and hare but vague fancies.
Woe to th«se who with their own hands tran
scribe the Book corruptly, ami then say.
• This is from God," that they may sell it for
some mean price ! Woe then to them for that
which their hands have written! and, Woe to
them for the gains which they have made ! "
Surah v. 04-89* "SAY: O people of the
Book ! do ye not disavow us only because we
believe in God, and in what He hath sent down
lo us, and in what He hath sent down afore
time, and because most of you are doers of ill ?
SAV: Can I announce to you any retribution
worse than that which awaiteih them with
God ? They whom God hath cursed and with
whom He hath been angry— some of them
hath He changed into apes and swine; and
they who worship fftgut are in evil plight,
and have gone far astray from the right path !
Wlien they presented themselves to you they
said, • We believe ' ; but Infidels they came in
unto you. and Infidels they went forth ! God
well knew what they concealed. Many of
them fclialt thou see hastening together to
wickedness and malice, and to eat unlawful
things. Shame on them for what they have
done ! Had not their doctors and teachers
forbidden their uttering wickedness, and their
eating unlawful food, bad indeed would have
been their doings ! ' The hand of God,' say
Ihe Jewa, *is chained up.' Their own hands
shall be drained up — and for that which they
have said shall they be cursed. Nay ! out-
Stretched are both His hands 1 At His own
pleasure does He bestow gifts. That which
bath been sent down to thee from thy Lore*
will surely increase the rebellion and unbelief
<«f many of them : and we have put enmity
Ami hatred between them that shall last till
Ihe day of the Resurrection. Oft as they
kindle n beacon fire for war shall God quench
it ! and their aim will be tq abet disorder on
the earth i but God loveth not the abettors of
disorder/'
Nearly ail the leading scripture characters
Connected svith Old Testament history are
either mentioned by name in the Qur'an or
are referred to in the Traditions and com
mentaries
(a) In the Qur'an we have Adam (Adam),
Abel (/-/aft?/). Cain (Qo6iQ, Enoch (Idris\
Noah (Niih\ Abraham (/6raAun), Lot (Liit),
Isaac (7*/i(i</), Ishxuael (ffimd'if), Jacob
(Ycfqilni Joseph (Yusuf), Job (Aiyuit),
Moses ( J/ttsoT), Aaron (//«/ »m),Korah (tyaiun),
Pharaoh (fVaiin), Hainan (Jf««a*), David
). Goliath (JMSt), Solomon
JEWS
Saul (7 «/«/;. Jonah (Yunas), Blisha (/!/•
(/>) In the Traditions and in the earliest
commentaries on the Qur'an, are mentioned :
Eve. (JF/atPtta'), Hagar (Hdjar), Nebuchad
nezzar (.7i*khtn«*$ar), Joshu? (Yusfuf), Jere
miah (Armiyd), Isaiah (Ska'yff), Benjamin
(JS*my«w«w),Ezekiel (ffizqif), Baalarn (B>.il'am),
t)aniel (Danigal}, Sarah (Sora/i), and many
others. But it is remarkable that after Solo
mon. there is no mention of the Kings of
Israel and Judah.
(<•) The chief incidents of Jewish history
are recorded in the Qur'an with a strange and
curious admixture of Rabbinical fable. The
creation of the world, the formation of Adam
and Eve, the fall, the expulsion from Eden,
Cain's and Abel's sacrifices, the death of Abel:
Noah's preaching. Hie Ark built, the deluge,
the tower of Babel ; Abraham, the friend cf
God. his call from idolatry, Isaac the son of
promise, Sarah's incredulity, Hagar and'
Ishmael, the willingness of Abraham to sacri
fice his son, Lot and the cities of the plain ;
Jacob and the tribes, Joseph sold into Egypt.
Potiphar's wife. Joseph tempted, the dreams
f>t the baker and butler, and of the king ;
Moses, his preservation in infancy, kills an
Egyptian, flies to Midian, works miracles in
the presence of Pharaoh, manna from heaven,
the giving of the law, Aaron's rod, the golden
calf, the passage of the Red Sea ; Job's
patience ; Balaam cursing the Israelites ;
David's psalms, his sin and repentance :
Solomon's wisdom, the Queen of Sheba, the
building of the temple ; Jonah's preaching,
his escape from the fish : these and many
other incidents, evidently taken from the Old
Testament, and worked up into a narrative
with the assistance of Talmudic interpreta
tions, form the chief historical portion of the
Qur'an,
(c?) Many of the doctrines and social pre
cepts of the Qur'an are also from Judaism.
The Unity of God, the ministry of angels.
the inspired law, the law of marriage and
divorce, domestic slavery, the day of Sacri
fice, prayer and ablution, tho lex talionis, the
degree? of affinity, the stoning of the adul
terer, and many other injunctions, are pre
cisely those of the Mosaic code, with some
modifications to meet the requirements of
Arabian social life.
Whilst, therefore, Muhammad took little of
his religious system from Christianity, he was
vastly indebted to Judaism both for his his
torical narratives and his doctrines and pre
cepts. Islam is nothing more nor less than
Judaism plus the Apostleship of Muhammad.
The teachings of Jesus form no part of his
religious system. [CHRISTIANIT*.]
(V?) The Qurai&h charged Muhammad with
want of originality in his revelations. For
even at the end of his career, and when he
was uttering his latest Surahs, " they said,
as our verses were rehearsed to them —
* This is nothing but tales of yore.' " (Surah
viii. 31.) " And when it was said to them,
What is it your Lord sent down? They said,
• OM folk's tales.''* (Surah xvi, 25.) Tho
JEWS
Qnraish evon charged him with having ob-
taiaod assistance, •* They said it is only some
mortal who teaches him'." And Muhammad
admits there was someone who might be sus
pected of helping him, for ho replies, "The
tongue of him whom they lean towards is
barbarous and this (Qur'an) is plain Arabic.''
(Surah xvi. 105.) Husain, the commentator,
in remarking upon this verse, says, "It is
related that thero was a slave belonging to
'Amr ibn 'Abdi 'llah al-Hazrami, named Jabr
(and according to some a second slave named
Yafiiir), who used to rnad the La^ and the
<Joppcl. «nd Muhammad used, whon hr
passed, to R^and anu listen."
And the whole construction of the Qur'an
bears out the supposition that its subject
matter was received orally and worked into
poetical Arabic by a man of genius. What
ever he may have heard from the readings of
Jabr and Yasar of the text of the Old and
Xew Testament scriptures, it is very evident
that ho obtained his eiplaiiations from one
well versed in TaJmudic lore. A Jewish
Rabbi, Abraham Geiger, in A.D. 1833, wrote
a prize essay in answer to the question put by
the university : « Inqoiratur in fontos Alco-
rani seu logis Muhammedicae eos, qui ex
Jadacismo derivandi sunt." His essay in reply
is entitled, "-Was hat Mohammed aus dein
Judenthume aufgenotuinen ? " In this trea
tise it is clearly demonstrated how much the
whole system of Islam is indebted to Tal-
mudic Judaism for its teachings. Its nar
ratives, its doctrines, and its theological
terms, ar<; chiefly derived from those of the
Talmud.
The works of Geiger, J. M. Arnold, Her-
shom, McCaul, Bishop Barclay, DeuUch.
Lightfoot, Schottgeu, Ugolini, Meuscheu
(which pending a complete translation of
the Talmud, can bo consulted), will, upon
comparison with the teachings of the Qnr'an.
reveal how entirely Muhammad constructed
his religious system on the lines of Taknudic
Judaism. We are indebted to the late Dr.
J. M. Arnold's Islam and Christianity, for the
following review of the subject, he having
largely ;ivniled himself of the facts given in
Geiger's celebrated essay, already referred
to.
The seven heavens and the seven earths
•fc'hich are held in the Talmud, have found
their way into the Qur'an.1 During the
creation, God's glorious throne was placed hi
the air upon the water.2 According to the
Talmud, « tho world is the sixtieth part of
the garden, the garden is the sixtieth part of
Eden''; and Muhammad states that tho
breadth of the garden is that of heaven and
earth.3 Both in the Qur'an and Talmud we
find seven hells as the appointed abode for
the daiaued, and each hell has seven gates in
both documents.4 The entrance of Jahan-
1 Chaeiga, ix tt.
" Hashi on Gen. i. 2 ; and Suraha ri. 9 ; xxvii. 26 ;
nlii.117 Ixxxv. 15.
^ Thaanith, x. ; PesaBhhn, xciv. ; and Surah iiL
« Talmud Eurbin, xix. 1 : MiOrash on T*. xi ; aad
Mtaxh xv. 44.
JEWS
237
nam is marked, according to tho Sukkah by
two date-trees, between which smoke t*s«e* .
.
and the Qur'an speaks of a tree ii, holl
[ZAQ<4UM] of which the damned are to eat
and of which many terrible things are related.'
[n tho Talmud the prince of hell dumanda
supply for his domain, and a similar request
is made in the Qur'an.2 Between the seven
heavens and the seven hells is an intermediate
place [A'RAFJ, for those who are too good to
bo cast into holl and too imperfect to be
admitted into heaven.3 This intermediate
abode is, however, so narrow, that tho con
versations of the blessed and the damned on
either side may be overheard. Again, th«
happiness of Paradiso [PARADISE] is similarly
described in both Talmud and Qur'un ;4 al«o
tho difficulty of attaining it. The Talmud
declares that it is as easy for au elephant to
enter through the eye of a needle; the
Qur'uu substituting a camel for an elephant*
That the dead live in the sight of God is
stated in both documents in the same terms,
and that there is no admission to tho actual
presence of the Almighty before the Day of
Judgment and the resurrection of the dead.8
The signs of the last day as given hi tho
Qor'an are borrowed equally from the Scrip
tures aad the Talmud.' [RBSDRKECTIOH.]
The lengthened descriptions in the Qur'au
of the future resurrection and judgment arc
also tinged with a Talmudical colouring.
That tha several members cf the human body
shall bear witnosa against the damned, and
{hat idols shall share in tho punishment of their
worshippers, is stated in both the Talmud
and Qur'an.8 The time of the last judgment
Muhammad declined to fix, I'esting upon the
Jewish or Scriptural sentence, that " one day
with God is like a thousand." * The Jews, iii
speaking of the resurrection of the dead,
allude to the sending down of rain; the
Qur'an also affirms that this moans of
quickening the dead will be employed.10
Further still, the Talmudical idea tha't the
dead will rise in the garments in which they
were buried, likewise has been adopted by
Islam.11 The Jewish opinion was that •• aH
the prophets saw in a dark, but Moses in a
clear mirror." I2 In the Qur'au, God sends
down His angelic messenger, Gabriel, as " the
Holy Ghost," with revelations ; and this rery
1 Sukkah xju?ii. ; and Surahs xxxvii. 60; xhr
* OtbiotL uy Eabbi Akiba, viii. 1 ; oud Suroi (.
Mklruali 02 Akscks. vu. 14: anu Surah vii. 44-
47.
ALutii, iv. 17; aud Sdr»u« ix. 38
* Stmui vii. :".-
• Surahs Lxxv. 23 ; iixxix. 27
7 BOrahs xxi. 104; xxxix. 67; xliT. V; x*iL «•:
ixi. 98; jcxii. 2j xxvii. By. Compared with If*.
jcxxiv. 4 ; Ezok. sxxviii., xxxix.
6 Chagltra, xxvi. ; Th lauith xi. ; and Sftrahe xxiv
24; xxxvi. 65; xli. 19; Snkkah, xiix. . and Sdrab
xxi. 98.
9 Fs. xc. 4; feanhedrin, rev. 2; and Sarah xxii.
46; xxxii. 4 : 2?ek. xxxvii. 13; and Surah c. 9.
10 Thaauith, at the beginning ; and Sarahs rl % ;
xtx. 49: xxxvi. 33; xli 39; xliU. 10.
11 Sanhedrin. xc. 2 ; Khethnbhoth, «;xi. '2.
li JebhauiotL, xlu. , aud Surah xliii. JO.
238 JEWS
notion of Gabriel being considered the Spirit
of God seems to be borrowed from the Jews.1
Again, the demonology of the Qur'an is
chiefly taken from the Talmud. Three pro
perties the demons have in common with
angels, and three with men — they have wings
like angels, they can fly from one end of the
world to the other, and know things to come.
But do they know future events? No, but
they listen behind the veil. The three
•properties in common with men are : they eat
and drink, indulge in physical love, and die.2
This Jewish idea was adopted in the Qur'an,
and spun out ad libitum ; for instance, whilst
listening once to the angelic conversations,
they were hunted away with stones. Their
presence in places of worship is admitted both
in the Talmud and the Quran; thus it
happened that " when the servant of God
stood up to invoke Him, the Jinns all but
pressed on him in the crowd."3 [GENII.]
Amongst the moral precepts which are
borrowed from the Talmud, we may mention
that children are not to obey their parents
when the latter demand that which is evil*
Prayer may be performed standing, walking,
or even riding ;6 devotions may be shortened
in urgent cases, without aommitting sin;6
drunken persons are not to engage in acts of
worship-,7 ablutions before prayer are in
special cases enforced, but generally required
both in the Talmud and the Qur'an ;8 each per
mit the use of sand instead of water [TAITAM-
MUM], when the latter is not to be procured.0
The Talmud prohibits loud and noisy prayers,
and Muhammad gives this short injunction: —
" Cry not in your prayers " ; 10 in addition to
this secret prayer, public worship is equally
commended. The Shema prayer of the Jews
is to be performed " when one is able to dis
tinguish a blue from a white thread," and
this is precisely the criterion of the com
mencement of the fast in the Qur'an.11
[BAMAZAN.]
The following social precepts are likewise
copied from Judaism : a divorced woman
must wait three months before marrying
again13 [DIVORCE] ; mothers are to nurse theii
children two full years ; and the degrees of
affinity within which marriages are lawful.13
[MARRIAGE.] The historical incidents which
Muhammad borrowed from Judaism are
embodied, regardless of the sources from
which he gleaned them, and indifferent to all
order or system. Ignorant of Jewish history,
Muhammad appropriates none of the historical
1 1 Kings xxii. 21.
a Chagiga xvi. 1 : and Surahs xv. 17, 34 ; xxxvii.
78- Ixxxl 24; Ixvii. 5; xxxvii. 7; Ixxii.
* Sfirah Ixxii. 19.
* Jebhamoth, vi. ; and Surah xxix. 7.
8 Berachoth, x.; and Sarahs ii. 230; iii. 188; x.
13
« Mishuah Beraehoth, iv. 4 ; and Surah iv. 102.
^ Berachoth, xxxi. 2 ; aud SQrah iv. 46.
s Mijshnah Beraehoth, iii. 4 ; and Surahs iv. 46 ;
v 9
» Berachoth, xlvi. ; and Surah v. 8.
i0 Beracb<ytL xxxi. 2 ; and Snrah xrii. 110.
" Mishnah Berachoth, i. 2 ; and Surah ii. 183.
»* Mishnah Jebhamoth, iv. 10; and Surah ii. 228.
18 Talmud Kethttboth, lx. 1 ; and Sarahs ii. 233 ;
xxxi. IS i xxiv. 31 ; Joseph., Avtiq. ii. 9.
JfiWS
way-marks which determine the great epoch*
recorded in the Old Testament, but confines
himself to certain occurrences in the lives oJ
single individuals. At the head of the ante
diluvian patriarchs stands the primogenitor
of the human race. In Surah, ii. 28-33 we read;
" When thy Lord said to the angels, Verily I am
going to place a substitute on earth, they said
Wilt thou place there one who will do evil
therein and shed blood ? but we celebrate Thy
praise and sanctify Thee. God answered,
Verily I know that which ye know not ; and
He taught Adam the names of all things, and
then proposed them to the angels, and said,
Declare unto me the names of these things
if ye say truth. They answered, Praise be
unto Thee, we have no knowledge but what
Thou teachest us, for Thou art knowing and
wise. God said, 0, Adam, tell them their
names. And when he had told them their
names, God said, Did I not tell you that I
know the secrets of heaven and earth, and
know that which ye discover, and that which
ye conceal ? '* Let us examine whence the
Qur'an obtained this information. " When
God intended to create man, He advised with
the angels and said unto them, We will make
man in our own image (Gen. i. 26). Then
said they. What is man, that Thou remom-
berest him (Psalm viii. 5), what shall
be his peculiarity ? He answered. His wis
dom is superior to yours. Then brought He
before them cattle, animals, and birds, and
asked for their names, but they knew it not.
After man was created . He caused them to
pass before Him, and asked for their names
and he answered, This is an ox, that an
ass, this a horse, and that a camel.
But what is thy name ? To me it becomes
to be called ' earthly,' for from ' earth, f I
am created." l To this may be added the
fable that God commanded the angels to wor
ship Adam,2 which is likewise appropriated
from Talmudic writings. Some Jewish fables
record that the angels contemplated wor
shipping man, but were prevented by God ;
others precisely agree with the Qur'an,3 that
God commanded the angels to worship man,
and that they obeyed with the exception of
Satan.
The Sunnab informs us that Adam was
sixty yards high, and Rabinnioal fables make
him extend from one end of the world to the
other ; but upon the angels esteeming him a
second deity, God put His hand upon him and
reduced him to a thousand yards ! 4 [ADAM.]
The account given in the Qur'an of Cain's
murder is borrowed from the Bible, and his
conversation with Abel, before he slew him,6
is the same as that in the Targum of
Jerusalem, generally called pseudo-Jonathan.
After the murder, Cain sees a raven burying
1 Midrash ftabhah on Leviticus, Parashah xix, ;
and Genesis, Parashah viii, ; and Sanhedrin,
xxxviii.
» Surahs vii. 10-26; xv. 28-44; xvi. 63-0)} xriii.
48: xx. 115; xxxvii. 71-86.
Midrash of Babbi Moses, examined by Zunz,
* Eiseuuieuger, Jitdenihum, vol. i. JH 365.
5 Surah v. 30.
JEWS
.TEWS
another, and from this sight gains the idea of
interring Abel. The Jewish fable differs
only in ascribing the interment to the parents :
" Adam and his wife sat weeping and lament
ing him, not knowing what to do with the
body, as they wore unacquainted with burying.
Then came a raven, whoso fellow was dead :
he took and buried it in the earth, hiding it
before their eyes. Thon said Adam, I shall
do like this ravon, and, taking Abel's corpse,
be dug in the earth and hid it." l The sen
tence following in the Qurfin — "Wherefore
we commanded the children of Israel, that he
who slayeth a soul, not by way of retaliation,
or because he doeth corruptly in the earth,
shall be as if he had slain all mankind : but
he who saveth a soul alive shall be as if he
saved all souls alive," would have no connec
tion with what precedes or follows, were it
not for the Targum of Onkelos, in the para
phrase of Gen. iv. 10, where it is said that
the blood of Cain's brother cried to God from
the earth, thus implying that Abel's posterity
were also cut off. And in the Mishnah San
hedrin, we find the very words which the
Qur'an attaches to the murder, apparently
with sense or connection.2 [ABEL, CAIN.]
Noah stands forth as the preacher of righ
teousness, builds the ark, and is saved, with
bis family ; 3 his character is, however, drawn
more from Rabbinical than Biblical sources,
The conversations of Noah with the people,
and the words with which they mocked him
whilst building the ark.4 are the same in Tal-
mndical writings as in the Qur'au ; and both
declare that the generation of the flood was
punished with boiling water.8 [NOAH.]
The next patriarch after the flood is Hud,
who is none other than Eber ; another sample
of the ignorance of Muhammad. In the days
of Hud the tower is constructed ; the " ob
stinate hero," probably Nimrod, takes the
lead ; the sin of idolatry is abounding ; an
idol is contemplated as the crowning of the
tower ; but the building is overthrown, the
tribes are dispersed, and punished in this
world and in the world to come.6 These par
ticulars arc evidently borrowed from scrip
ture and Rabbinical writings. In the Qur'an,
however, the dispersion is caused by a poi
sonous wind, and not by the confusion of
tongues. The significance which the Qur'an
gives to Hud is again in perfect accordance
with Rabbinical Judaism : «' Eber was a great
prophet, for he prophetically called his son
Peleg (dispersion), by the help of the Holy
Ghost, because the earth was to be dispersed."?
Among all the patriarchs, Abraham was most
esteemed by Muhammad, as being neither
Jew nor Christian, but a Muslim. That ho
wrote books is also the belief of the Jewish
1 Pirke Babbi Elieser, xxi. ; and Surah v. 84.
a Mishnah Sauhedrin, iv. 5.
• Gteiger'a Essay, p. 109; and Sarahs vii. 57 ; x.
72; xxii. 43; xxiii. 23; xxv. 39; xxvi. 106; xxix.
13: xxxvii. 73; liv. 9; Ixxi. 1.
4 Sauhedrin, cviii.
•" Roah Hasbanab, xvi. 2; Sanhedrin, cviii. : and
Sfcrahs xi. 42 ; xxiii. 27.
8 Mishnah Sanhedrin, x. 3 ; and Surah xi. 63.
' Seder Olain, quoted Midrash Jalkut, 1*1..
doctors.1 His attaining the knowledge of the
true faith, his zeal to convert his generation ;
his destruction of the idols; the fury of the
people; their insisting on his being burned,
and hia marvellous deliverance: all these
particulars iu the life of Abraham, as given
by the Qur'au, are minutely copied from
Jewish fictions.2 [HUD, ABRAHAM.]
The Qur'an states that the angels whom
Abraham received appeared as ordinary
Arabs, and he was astonished when they de
clined to eat. According to the Talmud, they
also " appeared to him no more than Arabs:"3
but another passage adds : " The angels de
scended and did eat. A ro they, then, said to
have really eaten? No! but they appeared
as if they did eat and drink." As a proof of
Muhammad's uncertainty respecting the his
tory of Abraham, we add, that the doubt re
garding their having a son in their old age is
expressed in the Qur'an by Abraham instead
of Sarah, and she is made to laugh at the
promise of a son, before it was given. Again,
the command to offer his son is given to
Abraham before Isaac is born or promised,
so that the son who was to be offered up
could be none other than Ishmael, who was
spoken of immediately before as the " meek
youth ! " Muhammadan divines are, however,
not agreed whether Ishmael was to be offered
up, although it is reported by some that the
horns of the ram, which was sacrificed in
his stead, were preserved at Makkah, his
dwelling-place ! [ISHMAEL.] We may ac
count for Muhammad's reckoning Ishmael
among the prophets and patriarchs, from hia
being considered the patriarch of the Arabs
and the founder of the Ka'bah.
Among the sons of Jacob, Joseph occupies
the pre-eminence. His history is mainly the
same as in the Bible, embellished with the
fabulous tradition of the Jews. Among these
is the assumption that Joseph <k would have
sinned had he not seen the evident demon
stration of his Lord." That this is borrowed
is clear from the following fable : Rabbi
Jochanan saith, " Both intended to commit
sin : seizing him by the garment, she said. Lie
with me. . . . Thou appeared to him the form
of hia father at the window, who called to
him, Joseph ! Joseph ! the names of thy
brothers shall be engraven upon the stones of
the Ephod, also thine own : wilt thou that it
shall be erased ? " 4 This is almost literally
repeated by a Muslim commentary to the
Surah xii. 24. The fable of Potiphar'e wife
inviting the Egyptian ladies to a feast, to see
Joseph, because they had laughed at her. and
of their being so overcome with admiration
of Joseph,5 that they accidentally cut their
hands iu eating fruit, is exactly so related in
a very ancient Hebrew book, from which Mu
hammad doubtless derived it. The story
about the garment being rent, and the setting
The .Iowa ascribe to him tbe Sephtr .le-ir*h
Midrash Kabbah on Genesis, Pariah, xvii.
Kiddushin, iii.
Sotah. ixxvi. :».
Surah xii. 2l> , and the Commentary of »1 ParrAr
242
JEWS
JEWS
vagant : " Joseph buried three treasures in
Egypt, one of which became known to Korak
Riches are turned to destruction to him that
possesses them (Er.ctes. v. 12), and this may
well he applied to Korab. The keys to the
treasures of Koran made a burden for 300
white mules."1
The accusation from which God cleared
hie servant Moses, of which the Qur'an makes
mention, was occasioned by Korah. " Abu
Aliah says it refers to Korah hiring a harlot
to reproach Moses before all the people, upon
which God struck her dumb, and destroyed
Korah, which cleared Moses from the
charge." 2 This is unquestionably an ampli
fication of the following passage: "Moses
heard, and fell on his face. What was it he
heard? That they Accused him of having
to do with another man's wife."3 Others
conceive the unjust charge from which Moses
was cleared, to have beon that of murdering
Aaron on Mount Hor, because he and Eleaaar
only were present when Aaron died 1 That
they had recourse to Jewish tradition, will
appeal* fi'om the subjoined extract : ik The
whole congregation saw that Aaron was
dead j and when MOSOB and Eleazar came
down from the mountain, the whole congrega
tion gathered together, asking, Where is
Aaron ? But they said, He is dead. How
can the Angel of Death touch a man, by
whom he was resisted and restrained, as it is
said, He stood between the dead and the living,
and the plague was stayed ? If yo bring him,
it is well : if not, we will stone you. Moses
prayed, Lord of the World, romovo from me
this suspicion ! Then God opened and showed
them Aaron's body." And to this the pas-
na^e applies : " The whole congregation saw/'
&c. (Numb. xx. 29, 75.) [MOSES.]
The time of the Judgos is passed over un
noticed, and from the manner in which the
election of a king is introduced,4 it would ap
pear that Muhammad was ignorant of the long
interval between Moses and Saul.5 [SAUL.]
Of David's history, only his victory over
Goliath and his fall through Bathsheba are
recorded. [DAVIP.J The Traditions make
mention of the brevity of his slumbers, and
commentators of the Qur'an affirm the same :
4i The Apostle of God said David slept half the
night ; he then rose for a .third part, and
slept again a sixth part." This is derived
from the Rabbis, who assert that the king
slept only for the term of " sixty breathings."6
Of the wisdom of Solomon, the Qur'an makes
particular mention; and to support the state
ment, adds, that ho understood the language
of birds : this vras also the opinion of the
Jewish doctors. The winds, or, more pro
bable, spirits, obeyed him ; and demons,
birds, and beasts, fonued part of his standing
J Pirke Eabbi Elieser. xlv.
•'• A!-Farrar on Surah xxxiii. 69.
» Pirko Rabbi Elieser. xlv.
4 Surab ii. 247 : " J_>ost thou not look at a crowd
of the Children of Israel after Moses' time, when
they said to a prophot of theirs. Raise up for us »
Viiig, and we will light in God's way."
5 iVluIuunraad ascribes to Saul what the Scrip
tures vebte of Gideon. Judges vii. 5.
r> Set> Bor^hoth.
army.-1 Jewish commentators record that
•' demons of various kinds, and evil spirits
were subject to him." 2 Tho story of the
Queen of Sheba, and the adventure** of the
lapwing,3 are only abridgments from Jewis-h
traditions. With rogard to the fable, that
demons assisted Solomon in the building of
the Temple, and, being deceived, continued it
after Ids death, we may here add that Mu
hammad borrowed it directly from tho Jews.4
When Solomon became haughty, one of hie
many demons ruled in his stead, till he re
pented. The Sanhedrin a too refers to this de
gradation : •*< In the beginning Solomon reigned
also over the upper worlds"; an 'it is said,
" Solomon sat on the throne of God "; after that
only over his staff, as it is said, " What pro
fit hath a man of all his labour?" and ntiil
later, " This is my portion of all my labour," s
On repenting, he maimed his horses, consider-
ing them a useless luxury. In the Talmud
and the Scriptures, we find allusion to hi*
obtaining them as well as to their being pro
hibited.6 [SOLOMON.]
Elijah is among the few characters which
Muhammad notices after Solomon ; nothing,
indeed, is mentioned of his rapture to heaven,
yet he is considered a great prophet.7 Among
the Jews, Elijah appears in human form to
the pious OR earth, he visits them in their
places of worship, and communicates revela
tions from God to eminent Rabbis. In this
charater Elijah also appears in Muslim divi
nity. [ELIJAH.] Jonab is the "'man of the
fish";9 Muhammad relaten his history in his
usual style, not omitting his journey to Ni
neveh, or the gourd which afforded him
shade. [JONAH.] Job, too, with his suffer
ing and cure is noticed * [JOB] ; also the three.
men who were cast into a burning fiery fur
nace10 (Dan. iii. 8) ; the turning back of the
shadow of degrees on the occasion of Heza-
kiah's recovery.1'
('Ren Arnold's Islam and (Jhrixtianil if , Long
mans, London, 1874; p. 110, seqq. Dr. J. M.
Arnold gives in many instances the original
Hebrew of his quotations from the Talmud.)
In the Qur'an there are several Hebrew
and Talmudic terms which seem to indicate
that its author had become familiar with
Talmudic teaching. The following are the
most noticeable : —
(I)" Tho Qur'an, <y», from^-arc', " to read,"
Heb. fcOp> and equivalent to fc$1pD> " read~
ing." See Neb. viii. 8 : " And caused them
to understand the reading"
1 Suraha xxi. 81; xxvii/15; xxxiv. 11; x*xviii.
35.
" The second Targura on Esther i. 2.
3 Dr. J. M. Arnold gives a translation of the
story from the Tartfum. (See Islam and Chris
tianity, p. 116.)
* Gittin, Ixviii. ; and Surah xxxiv.
5 Sanhedria, xx. ; also Mid. Rab. on Numbers,
Par ash. xi.
0 Sanhedrin. xxi. ; und Surah xxxviii. 29.
7 Stirah vi, 85 ; jocxvii. 123, 130.
H Surah vi. 85 j x. 98 ; x*i. 87 ; Ixviii. 48
s Surah xxi. 83 ; xxxviii. 40.
10 Surah Uuocv. 4.
11 Surah xxv/47; and 2 Kin^s xx. 9.
II BRA IL
JIHAD
243
(2) e atani, *, " repettous,
Sux-ah xv. 86, which is the Taimudic,
(3) The Taurdt, &^jt used for the Books
uf Moses, the Hob. n^W of the OId Tcs-
T
lament.
(4) Tho Shechinah, or Xak'mah, &-?£*•,
Surah ii. 249 : " The sign of bis kingdom is
that there shall come to you the AUK
(Tabut\ and SHECHINA (Sakmali) iu it
from ihe Lord;" Heb. n^JUJ. A term not
a?ed in the Bible, but used by the Rabbinical
writers to express the visible presence of
Uod between the Cherubim on the Mercy
seat of the Tabernacle.
(5) The Ark, T&but, wffi. In Surah ii
249, for the Ark oi the Covenant, and in
Surah xx. 39, for Noah's Ark. The Heb.
n!H/1 (which is use<d in the Bible for Noah's
T ••
Ark and the ark of bulrushes), and not the
Heb. V"'" ] the former being Rabbinical.
(G) Angel, Malak, ««XU, Heb.
angel or messenger of God.
(7) Spirit, ftvn, t)}} Heb. pf!p, A term
used both for the angel Gabriel and for Jesus
Christ.
(8) Tho Sabbath, Sabt,
164 ; ii. 62.
Surah vii.
(9) Jatiannam, yea, hell, /*-;^- The
Rabbinical D3rO> an(1 no- thc VlNtt?' of
the Old Testament. Tho final letter r* proves
that it was adopted from the Taimudic
Hebrew and not from the Greek.
JIBKA'lL (Jk*VO- The angel
Gabriel. [GABRIEL.]
JIBT (^^). An idol of the j
l^urai'sh mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah iv. j
54 : " They (certain renegade Jews) beiiove
in Jibt and Tayhvi, aud say of the infidels, j
Theae are guided in a better path than those j
*ho hold the f&ith." The Jalalan say cer
tain Jews used to do homage to these idols j
in order to please the Qnraish.
JIHAD (oV^). Lit. "An effort,
or a striving." A religious war with those !
who arc unbelievers in the mission of Mu
hammad. It is an incumbent religious dutv.
established in the Qur'an and in tlu> Tradi
tions as a divine institution, and enjoined
specially for the purpose of advancing IslSm
and of repelling evil from Muslims.
When an infidel's country is conquered by j
a Muslim ruler, its inhabitants are offered
three alternatives: —
(1) The reception of Islam, in which case tho :
conquered become enfranchised citizeos of the '
Muslim state.
(2) TV pay))u>nl of (i poii -tar (JixyaK), by
which unbelievers in Islam obtain protection,
and become Zitwnis, provided they are not
the idolaters of Arabia.
(3) Death by thc sword, to tho«e who will
not pay the poll tax.
Sufi writers say that there are two Jihads :
<t'-J<'/td'Jii 'l-Akbar, or "'the greater warfare."
which is against one's own lustn ; and al~
Jifiudu 'l-Asyhur, or •' the lesser wnrfare,"
against infidels.
The duty of religious war (which all com
mentators agree i.« a duty extending to all
time) is laid down in tho Qur'an ia the fol
lowing verses, and it is remarkable that all
the verses occur in the al-Madinnh Surahs,
being those given .after Muhammad had esta
blished himself as a paramount ruler, and
was in a position to dictate terms to his
enemies.
Surah ix. 5,6:" And when the sacred months
are passed, kill those who join other gods
with God wherever ye shall find them; and
seize them, besiege them, and lay wait for
them with every kind of ambush: but if they
shall convert, and observe prayer, and pay
the obligatory alms, then let them go their
way, for God is Gracious, Merciful. If any
one of those who joiu gods with God ask an
asylum of tb.ee, grant him an asylum, that he
may hear the Word of God, and then let him
reach his place of safety. This. for that th«y
ure people devoid of knowledge."
Surah ix. 29: '"Make war upon such of
those l/o whom the Scriptures havo been given
as believe not in God, or in the last dav, and
\vhu forbid not that which God and His
Apostle have forbidden, and \vho profess not
the profession of thc truth, until they pay
tribute {jizy<di) out of hand, and they be
humbled."
Surah iv. 7G-7y : '• Let those then light on
the path of God, who exchange this present
life for that which is to come; for whoever
tighteth on Gort'n p;ith. whether he be slain
or conquer, we will in the end give him a
great reward. But whot hath come to you
that yo fight not on the path of God, and for
the weak among men, women, and children,
who say, 'O our Lord! bring us forth from
this city whoso inhabitants are oppressors;
give us a champion from 'J hy piv.-HMice ; and
give us from thy presence a defender.' They
who believe, fight on the path of God ; and
they who believe not, fight on the path of
Tagut: Fight therefore against the friends of
Satan. Verily the craft of Satan shall bo
powerless! Lfast thou not marked those to
whom it was said, • Withhold your hands
awhile front tc-nr\ and observe prayer, and
pay the stated aims.' But wht-ii war i.; <-<>m-
manded them, Jo ! ft purtion'of thorn fear men
as with the iVnr of God. or with a yet greater
fear. :ind say : k O our Lord ! why hast Thou
commanded us v»ar ? Couldst thou not have
given us respite till our not di.sLant • -u«J '.'
SAV: Small the fruition of thia w«<rl«i ; but
the next life is the Lme good for h?in >vno
leartth God ! and yo shall not be wrouj/co :,o
much as thc skin of u dhtc-.ituue "
J>'ural»ii. 2U,yi5: " They will ask thcc con
244
JIHAD
JIHAD
cerning war in the Sacred Month. SAY : To
war therein is bad, but to turn aside from the
cause of God, and to have no faith in Him,
and in the Sacred Temple, and to drive out
its people, is worse in the sight cf God ; and
civil strife is worse than bloodshed. They
will not cease to war against yoxi until they
turn you from yonr religion, if they be able :
but whoever of you shall turn from his reli
gion and die an infidel, their works shall be
fruitless in this world, and in the next : they
shall be consigned to the fire ; therein to
abide for aye. But they who believe, and
who tly their country, and fight in the cause
of God may hope for God's mercy : and God
is Gracious. Merciful.
Surah vii'i. 39-42 : " SAY to the infidels : If
they desist from their unbelief, what is now
past shall be forgiven them ; bxit if they return
to it, they have already before them the
doom of tho ancients ! Fight then against
them till strife bo at an end, and the religion
be all of it God's. If they desist, verily
God beholdeth what they do : but if they turn
their back, know yo that God is your pro
tector : Excellent protector ! excellent helper !
And know ye, that when ye have taken any
booty, a fifth part belongeth to God and to
the Apostle, and to the near of kin, and to
orphans, and to the poor, and to the wayfarer.
Long chapters in the Traditions are de
voted to the subject of Jihad (see Sahiliu '/-
Bukhdrl and Sahihu Muslim, Arabic editions,
Babu '1-Jihad), from which the following are
quotations of the sayings cf the Prophet : —
" God is sponsor for him who goeth forth
to fight on the road of God (Sabilu V/aA). If
he be not killed, he shall return to his house
with rewards and booty, but if he be slain, he
shall be taken to Paradise."
" 7. swear by God I should like to be killed
on the road of God, then be killed and brought
to life again, then killed again and then
brought to life again, so that I may obtain
jiew rewards every tiin? ?5
Guarding the frontiers of Islam for even
one day is worth more than the whole world
and all that is in it."
•• The fire of hell shall not touch the legs
of him who shall be covered with the dust of
battle in the road of God."
"He who assists another with arms to
tight in the way of God, is as the champion,
and is a sharer of the rewards. And he who
stayeth behind to take charge of the f atnjly
of a warrior is even as a champion in war."
" This religion will ever be established,
even to the Day of Resurrection, as long as
Muslims fight for it."
'•' In the last day the wounds of those who
have been wounded in the way of God will
be evident, and will drop with blood, but
their smell will be as the perfume of musk."
•' Being killed in the road of God covers all
sins, but the sin of debt."
"He who dies and has not fought for the
religion of Islam, nor has even said in his
heart, ' Would to God I were a champion that
could die in the road of God,' is even as a
hypocrite."
" Fighting in the road of God, or resolving
to do so, is a divine duty. When your Imam
orders you to go forth to fight, then obey
him."
The following is the teaching of tho Hanafi
school of Sunnis on the subject of Jihad, as
given in the Hiddyah, vol. ii. p. 140 : —
"The sacred injunction concerning war is
sufficiently observed when it is carried on by
any one party or tribe of Muslims, and it is
then no longer of any force with respect to the
rest. It is established as a divine ordinance,
by the word of God, who said in the Qur'an,
* Slay the infidels,* and also by a saying of
the Prophet, 'War is permanently established
until the Day of Judgment ' (meaning the or
dinance respecting war). The observance,
however, in the degree above mentioned, suf
fices, because war is not a positive injunction,
as it is in its nature murderous and destruc
tive, and is enjoined only for the purpose of
advancing the true faith or repelling evil from
the servants of God; and when this end is
answered by any single tribe or party of
Muslims making war, the obligation is no
longer binding upon the rest, in the same
manner as in the prayers for the dead — (if,
however, no one Muslim were to make war,
the whole of the Muslim, would incur the
criminality of neglecting it) — and also because
if the injunction were positive, the whole of
the Muslims must consequently engage in war,
in which case the materials for war (such as
horses, armour, and so forth) could not be
procured. Thus it appears that the obser
vance of war as aforesaid suffices, except
where there is a general summons (that is,
where the infidels invade a Muslim territory,
and the Imam for the time being issues ft
general proclamation requiring all persons to
go forth to fight), for in this case war becomes
a positive injunction with respect to the whole
of the inhabitants, whether men or women,
and whether the Imatn be a just or an un
just person; and if the people of that terri
tory be unable to repulse the infidels, then
war becomes a positive injunction with respect
to all in that neighbourhood ; and if these
also do not suffice it, then comes a positive
injunction with respect to the next neighbours;
and in same manner with respect to all the
Muslims from east to west.
" The destruction of tho sword is incurred
by infidels, although they be not the first
aggressors, as appears fram various passages
in the traditions which are generally received
to this effect.
" It is not incumbent upon infants to make
war, as they are objects of compassion ;
neither is it incumbent upon slaves or women,
as tho rights of the master, or of the husband,
have precedence ; nor is it BO upon the blind,
the maimed, or the decrepid, as such are in
capable. If, however, the infidels make an
attack upon a city or territory, in this case
the repulsion of them is incumbent upon all
Muslims, insomuch that a wife may go forth
without the consent of her husband, and a
slave without the leave of his master, because
war then becomes a positive injunction ; .and
JIHAD
JIHAD
245
possession, either by bondage or by marriage,
cannot come in competition with a positive
injunction, as in prayer (for instance) or fast
ing. This is supposing a general summons ;
for without that it is not lawful for a woman
or slave to go forth to make war without the
consent of the husband or master, as there is
in this case no necessity for their assistance,
since others suffice, and hence no reason
exists for destroying the right of the husband
or master on that account. If there be any
fund in the public treasury, so long as the
fund lasts any extraordinary exaction for
the support of the warriors is abominable,
because such exaction resembles a hire for
that which is a service of God as much as
prayer or fasting, and, hire being forbidden in
these instances, so is it in that which re
sembles them. In this case, moreover, there
is no occasion for any extraordinary exac
tions, since the funds of the public treasury
are prepared to answer all emergencies of the
Muslims, such as war, and so forth. If, how
ever, there be no funds in the public treasury,
in this case the Imam need not hesitate to
levy contributions for the better support of
the warriors, because in levying a contribution
the greater evil (namely, the destruction of
the person) is repelled, and the contribution
is the smaller evil, and the imposition of a
smaller evil to remedy a greater is of no con
sequence. A confirmation of this is found in
what is related of the Prophet, that he took
various articles of armour, and so forth, from
Safwan and 'Umar; in the same manner also
he took property from married men, and be
stowed it upon the unmarried, in order to en
courage them and enable them to go forth to
tight -with cheerfulness ; and he also used to
take the horses from those who remained at
home, and bestowed them upon those who
went forth to fight on- foot. When the Mus
lims enter the enemy's country and besiege
the cities or strongholds of the infidels, it ia
necessary to invite them to embrace the
faith, because Ibn 'Abbas relates of the Pro
phet that he never destroyed any without
previously inviting them to embrace the faith.
If, therefore, they embrace the faith, it is
unnecessary to war with them, because that
which was the design of the war is then ob
tained without war. The Prophet, moreover,
has said we are directed to make war upon
men only until such time as they shall con
fess, ' There is no God but one God.' But
when they repeat this creed, theif persons
and propei*ties are in protection (amdri). If
they do not accept the call to the faith, they
must then be called upon to pay jisyah,
or capitation tax, because the Prophet
directed the commanders of his armies so to
do, and also because by submitting to this tax
war is forbidden and terminated upon the
authority of the Qur'an. (This call to pay
capitation tax, however, respects only those
from whom the capitation tax is acceptable,
for, as to apostates and tke idolaters of Arabia,
to call upon them to pay the tax is useless,
since nothing is accepted from them but em
bracing the faith, as, it is thus commanded in
the Qur'an). If those who are called upon to
pay capitation tax consent to do so, they
then become entitled to the same protection
and subject to the same rules as Muwlims, be
cause 'AH has declared infidels agree to a
capitation tax only in order to render their
blood the name as Muslims' blood, and their
property the same as Muslims' property.
" It is not lawful to make war upon any
people who have never before been called to
the faith, without previously requiring them
to embrace it, because the Prophet so in
structed his commanders, directing them to
call the infidels to the faith, and also because
the people will hence perceive that they are
attacked for the sake of religion, and not for
the sake of taking their property, or making
slaves of their children, and on this considera
tion it is possible th.-<l they may be induced to
agree to the call, in order to save themselves
from the troubles of war.
" If a Muslim attack infidels without pre
viously calling them to the faith, ho is an
offender, because this is forbidden ; but yet if
he do attack them before thus inviting them
and slay them, and take their property,
neither fine, expiation, nor atonement are due,
because that which protects (namely, Islum)
does not exist in them, nor are they under
?rotection by place (namely, the Dam \E-
s/dm, or Muslim territory), and the mere
prohibition of the act is not sufficient to sanc
tion the exaction either of fine or of atone
ment for property ; in the same manner as the
slaying of the women or infant children of
infidels is forbidden, but if, notwithstanding.
a person were to slay such, he ia not liable to
a fine. It ia laudable to call to the faith a
people to whom a call has already come, in
order that they may have the more full and
ample warning ; but yet this is not incum
bent, as it appears in the Traditions that the
Prophet plundered and despoiled the tribe of
al-Mustaliq by surprise, and he also agreed
with Asamah to make a predatory attack
upon Qubna at an early hour, and to set
It on fire, and such attacks are not preceded
by a call. (Qubna is a place in Syria : some
assert it is the name of a tribe).
" If the infidels, upon receiving the call,
neither consent to it nor agree to pay capita
tion tax, it is then incumbent on the Muslims
to call upon God for assistance, and to make
war upon them, because God is the assistant
of those who serve Him, and the destroyer of
His enemies, the infidels, and it is necessary
to implore His aid upon every occasion ; the
Prophet, moreover, commands us so to do.
And having so done, the Muslims must then
with Clod's assistance attack the infidels with
all manner of warlike engines (as the Pro
phet did by the people of Tu'if), and inaut
also set fire to their habitations (in the same
manner as the Prophet tired Baweora), and
must inundate them with water and tear up
their plantations and tread down their grain
because by these means they will become
weakened, and their resolution will fail and
their force be broken; these means are, there
fore, all sanctified by the law.
246
JIHAD
'* It is no objection to shooting arrows or j
other missiles against the infidels that there j
aiay chance to be among them a Muslim in I
the way either of bondage or of -traffic, be- I
cause the shooting of arrows and so forth •
among the infidels remedies a general evil in i
the repulsion thereof from the whole body of |
Muslims, whereas the slaying of a Muslim
slave or trader is only a particular ovii, and
so repel a general evil a particular evil must
bo adopted, and also because it seldom hap
pens that tho strongholds of tho infidels are
t estitute of Muslims, since it is most probable
that there are Muslims residing in them,
either in the way of bondage or of traffic, and
hence, if the use of missile weapons were pro -
hibited on account of those Muslims, war
would be obstructed. If t'fie infidels in time
of battle should make shields of Muslim, chil
dren,, or of Muslims, who are prisoners in
fcheir hands, yet there is no need on that
account to refrain from the use of missile
weapors, for the reason already mentioned.
It is requisite, however, that the Muslims in
using such weapons aim at the infidels, and
not at the children or the Muslim captives,
because, as it is impossible in shooting to dis-
tinjLfuish precisely between them and the in
fidels, the person who discharges the weapon
must make this distinction in his intention
and design by aiming at the infidels, and not
at the others, since thus much is practicable,
arid the distinction must be made as far as
is practicable.
•' There is also neither tine nor expiation
upon the warriors on account of such of their
arrows or other missiles as happen to hit the
children or the Muslims, becau.se the war is
in observance of a divine ordinance, a-nd |
atonement is not due for anything which may j
happen in the fulfilment of a divine ordinance, j
for otherwise men would neglect the fulfil
ment of the ordinance from an apprehension !
of becoming liable to atonement. It is other- |
wise in the case of a person eating the bread j
of another when perishing for hunger, as In {
thai instance atonement is due: although eat
ing the bread of other people, in such a j
hitna,tion. be a divine ordinance, because a j
person perishing for hunger will not refrain j
from eating the provision of another, from !
the apprehension of atonement, since hi* life |
depends upon it ; whereas war is attended with j
fctouble and dangerous to life, whence men I
would be deterred, by apprehension of atone- j
ment,from engaging in it. There is no objection
to the warriors carrying their Qur'a.ns and their |
women along with them, where the Muslim force ;
is considerable, to such a degree as to afford a j
protection from the enemy, and not to admit j
of any apprehension from them, because in
that c.c$e safely is roost probable, and a thing
which is most probable stands aud is ac
counted as a thing certain. If the force of
the warriors be small (such as is termed
a Sun '< t/a/i), so as not to afford security from
tKe enemy, in this case their carrying their
women or Qur'iin.s along with them is repro
bated, because in Such a situation taking
those with t em i.> *xposing them to dis-
JIHAD
honour ; and taking the Qur'an with them, in
particular, is exposing it to contempt, since
infidel K scoff at the Qur'an, with a view of in
sulting the Muslims : and this is the true
meaning of the naying of the Prophet,
Carry not the Qur'an along with you into
the territory of the enemy' (that is, of the in
fidels). If a Muslim go into an infidel camp
under a protection, there is no objection to
his taking his Qur'an along with him, pro
vided these infidels be such as observe their
engagements, because from these no violence
is to be apprehended.
" It is lawful for aged women bo accompany
an anuy, for the performance of such bust
ness as suits them, such as di-essing victuals,
administering water, and preparing medicines
for the sick and wounded ; but with respect
to young women, it is better that they stay
at home, as this may prevent perplexity or
disturbance. Tho women, however, must not/
engage in fight, as this argues weakness in
the Muslims. Women, therefore, must not
take any personal concern in battle unless in
a case of absolute necessity ; and it is not
laudable to carry young women along with
the army, either for the purpose of carnal
gratification, or for service ; if, however, the
necessity be very urgent, female slaves may
be taken, but not wives. A wife must not
engage in ft fight but with tho consent of her
husband, nor a slave but with the consent
of his owner (according to what was already
stated, that the right of the husband and the
master has precedence), unless from neces
sity where an attack is made by the enemy.
';It dooe not become Muslims to break
treaties or to act unfairly with respect to
plunder or to disfigure people (by cutting off
their ears and noses, and so forth) ; for as to
what is related of the Prophet, that he dis
figured the Oorneans, it is abrogated by sub
sequent prohibitions. In the same manner it
doois not become Muslims to slay women or
children, or men aged, bedridden, or blind,
because opposition and lighting are the only
occasions which niak^ slaughter allowable
(according to our doctors), and such persons
are incapable of these. For the same reason
also the paralytic are not to be slain, nor
those who are dismembered of the right
hand, or of the right hand und loft foot. Ash-
Shafr! maintains that aged men, or persons
bedridden or blind, may bo slain, because
(according to him) infidelity is an occasion of
slaughter being allowable, and this appears
in these persons. What was before observed,
however, that the paralytic or dismembered
are not to be slain. i,s in proof against him, as
infidelity appears in these also, yet still they
are not slain, whence it is evident that mere
infidelity is not a justifiable occasion of
slaughter. The Prophet, moreover, forbade
the slaying of infants or single persons, and
once, when the Prophet saw a woman who
was slain, he said, ' Alas ! this woman did not
tight, why, therefore, was she slain ? ' But yet.
if auy of these persons be killed in war, or if
a woman be a queen or chief, in this case it
is allowable to slay them, they being qualified
JFHAD
to molest the servants of God. So, also, if
such persona as the above should attempt to
fight, they may be slain, for the purpose of
removing ovi), and because fighting renders
slaying allowable.
" A. lunatic must not be slain unless he
fight, as such a person is., not responsible for
his faith, but yet where he is found fighting
it is necessary, to slay him, for the removal
of evil. It is also to bo observed that infants
or lunatics may be slain so long as they are
Actually engaged in fight, but it is not allowed
to kill them after thc-y are taken prisoners,
contrary to the case of others, who may be
slam even after they are taken, as they are
liable to punishraent because they are re
sponsible for their faith.
" A person who is insane occasionally
stands, during his lucid intervals, in the same
predicament is a sane person.
<f It is abominable ia a Muslim to begin
'fighting, with his father, who happens to be
;imong the Infidels, nor must he slay him, bo-
CHUSO God has said in the Qur'an. Honour
thy father and thy mother/ and also because
the preservation of the father's life in incum
bent upon the son, according to all the
'ior'ors, and the permission to fight with Mm
•/v"'.iiiJ be repugnant to that sentiment. If, also,
the son should rind the father, he must not
wlay him himself, but must hold him in view
uriil some -other come and slay him; for thus
the end is answered without the son slaying
his father, which is an off once,
"If. however, the father attempt to slay
the son, insomuch that the son is unable to
r^pel l.itn but by killing him. in this case the
son need not hesitate to slay him. because
the design of the son is merely to repel him,
which is lawful : for if a. Muslim were to draw
his sword with a design of killing his son, in
such a way that the son is unable to repel
him but by killing him, it is then lawful for
the son to slay his father, because his design
is tneroly repulsion. In a case, therefore,
vjhere tbe father is an infidel, and attempts
to slny his son, if. ia lawful for the son to
slay the father in self-defence <* fortiori.
•' If the Imam make peace with aliens, or
with, any particnl.-ir tribe or body of them
ami perceive it to be eligible fur the Muslims,
tbnru need be no hesitation, because it is said
in the Qur'an : ' If the intidfiU be inclined to
peace do ye likewise consent thereto,' and
also bf cause tbe Prophet in the year of the
punishment of Eubfi/i, mode a peace between
the ~ Muslim j and. the people of Mecca for
the space of t«n years ; peace, moreover is
war in effect wbere the interest of the Mus
lims requires it, since the design of wa is
the removal of evil, and this is obtained by
means of peace : contrary to where pe.ace is
not to the interest of the Muslims, for it is
not in that case lawful, as this would be
abandoning war both apparently and in effect.
It i$ beve, however, proper to observe that it
w not absolutely necessary to restrict a peace
to the term above recorded (namely, ten
years), because the tuid for winch peace is
made may be sometime* more effectually
JIHAD
'247
; obtained by extending it to a longer term, if
j the Imam make peace with the aliens for a
i single term (namely, ten years;, and after-
i wards perceive that it is most advantageous
J for the Muslim's intere&t to break it, he may
in that case lawfully renew the war after
I giving them due notice, becauso, upon ;.
| change of the circumstances which rendercc,
i peace advisable, the breach of peace is war
j and the observance of it a desertion of \\-?.v
both in appearance and also in effect, ano
war is an ordinance, of Ood, and tbe forsaking
of it is not becoming (to Muslims). It is to
be observed that. giving duo notice to the
j enemy is in this case'indispen-iably requi-it^
; in such a manner that treachery may not be
induced, since this is forbidden, ft is also
j requisite that such a deley bo mad.-> in renow-
j ing the war with them, as mny allow iuldli-
j genco .of the peace .being brr-kf-n off to be
1 universally received among them, and for
this such a time suffices as may admit of the
j king or chief of the enemy communicating
I the samo to the different" parts of their
i dominion, smce by such a delay the charge of
; treachery ia avoidivj.
" If the infidels get with perfidy in a
! peace, it is in such case lawful for the rmam
j to attack them without any previous notice,
i since the breach of treaty in this instance
' originates with thorn, whence there is no
i occasion to commence the war on the part of
I the Muslims by giving them notice. It would
; bo otherwise, however, if only a smell party
! of them were to violate the treaty by euteriug
j the Muslim territory and their- ^cmmittinjr
robberies upon the Muslims, shieo this does
not amount to a breach of treaty. If, more-
| overrthis party be in farce so as to be capable
of opposition, and openly fight with the Mus-
' lims, this is a breach of treaty with respect
i to that party only, but not with respect to
i the rest of theii nation or tribe, because, as
\ this party have violated the treaty without
i any permission from their prince, the rest are
I not answerable for their act ; whereas if they
i made their attack by permission of their
i prince, the breach of treaty would be re
garded as by the whole all bein^ virtually
hnr>)ica4*d in it.
'• If the imam makepeace with the aliens in
rot urn for properly, there is no ocruple ;
because since peace may bo lawfully made
without any such gratification, it is also law
ful in return for a gratification. This, how
ever, is only where the Muslims stand in
noed of the property thus to be acquired ; for
if they be not in necessity, making pence for
property irf not lawful, since pence i-j a deser
tion of war both in appearance and in effe< t.
It is to be observed t)m if tbe Imam receive
this property by sending u messenger and
making peace without the Muslim troops
entering the enemy rs territory, the object uf
disbursement of it is the same as that of
jiziiah or capitation-tax that is, it is to be
expended upou the warriors and not upon the
poor. If, however, the property be taken
after the Muslims have invaded the enemy,
in this case it is as plunder, ono-fifth j,roing to
248
JIBAZ
JOB
the Imam and the remainder to be divided
amou£ the troops, as the property has in fact
been taken by force in this instance. It is
incumbent on tho Imam to keep peace with
apostates, and not to make w,«r upon them, in
order that they may hawe time to consider
their situation, since it is to be hoped that
they may again return to the faith. It is.
therefore, lawful to delay fighting with them
in a hope that they may again embrace
Islam ; but it is1 noC lawful to take property
irom them. If, however, the Imam should
take property from them, it is not incumbent
upon him to return it, as such property is not
in protection. If infidels harft?s the Muslims,
and offer them peace in return for property.
the Imam must not accede thereto, as this
would be » degradation of the Muslim honour.
and disgrace would be attached ro all the
parties concerned in it ; this, therefore, is not
lawful except where destruction is to be ap
prehended, in which case the purchasing a
peace vrith property is lawful, because it is a
duty to repel destruction in every possible
mode."
[For Khallfah "'Umar's treatment of the
garrison of Jerusalem when captured, see the
treaty given in the article JERUSALEM.]
JIHAZ (jl*.). (1) The wedding
trousseau of a Mtihamraadan wife. Those
vestments and furniture which a bride brings
to her husband's house, and which ever re
main the property of the wife. (Hid'Jyuh,
rol iii. p. 100.) (2) The word is al*o used
for the shroud of a dead Muslim.
Jirjls was at Damascus in the time of
Mu'awiyah the KhalTfah. [AL-KHIZR. ]
JIZYAH
JINAYA H (* W), pi. Jintiyut. The
legal term for all offence? committed against
the person, such as murder, wounding, drown
ing, Sec.
JINN (&*). [OBIWI.J
JIRAN (tfV>)- "Neighbours."
*• If a person make a bequest to his neigh
bours (jiran) it includes, according to sonia
doctors, all those houses which sr<* within
forty cubits of aia house in every direction.
Some say it is forty houses on either side of
his." (See Bailhe's Diyest of fmamiyak Law,
pp. 210. 2i6) [NEIGHBOURS.]
JIRJIS (^-«^}. George. St.
George of England. The author of the
Cjnyiit.u, t-Lughah says that, " Jirgis Baqiya is
the name of a prophet who was on several
occasious killed by his people, aixl wa>> again
raiser! to life by God; and over and over again
instructed and preached the wjy of God. He
is called Baqiya on account of hii being raised
up Irom the dead." This seems to be a wild
aflrt exaggerated account of the story of
George of Cappadocia. who suffered death in
the first year of the reign of Julian. It is a
mystery how this George ever wa-s admitted
into the Christian Calendar at all,. and .still
more marvellous how he became a Muham-
madan prophet as well as the patron saint
of England. Jalatu Vl-din as-Suyuti. in his
of the Temple of Jerusalem, says
The capitation
tax. which is levied by Muhammadan rulers
upon subjects who are of a different faith?
but claim protection (utnan). It is founded
upon a direct injunction of the Qur'an .
" Make war upon such of those, to whom tho
Scriptures hare been given, as believe not in
God or in the last day, and forbid not that
which God and his Apostles have forbidden.
and who profess not the profession of truth.
until they pay tribute (jizyah} out of then
hand, and they be humble*!."
According to the Hidayah (vol. ii p. 211).
jizyah is of two kinds ; that winch is esta
blished voluntarily, and that which is en
forced. The usual rate is one diuar for
every male person, females and children
being exempt according to AJbct Ham-
fab. but included by Ash Sbafl-i. It
should bo imposed upon Jews, And Chris
tians, and Marians, but it shoiii;! not be
accepted from the Arabian idolatora»
or from apostates, who should he killed.
But from idolaters of other cmmtcies than
Arabia it may be accepted. It should not be
levied upon monks, or hermits, or paupers.
or slaves. He who pays the caprtatiou tax
and obtains protection from the Muhamma
dan state is culled a zimml.
JOB. Arabic Aiyul (*-^) Men
tioned in the Qnrlin as a prophet end an
example of patience.
Surah xxi. 83, 81 : "And rmembtr Job : >heu
he cri£d to his. Lord, ' Truly evil hath touched
me : hut Thou art the mo«t merciful of those
who show mercy.- So we heard himv and
lightened the burden of his woe: and we gave
him back his f -unity, and as many more *ith
them. — a mercy from tis. and a memorial for
those who serve us,"
£iirnh xxxviii 40-44 : •' And remember our
servant Job when he cried to .his Lord.
' Verily, Satan hath laid on me disease aud
pain/ * Stamp/ said we. ' with thy foot.
This is to wash with; cool, and to drink.' And
we gave him back his family- and as many
more with them in our mercy; and for a
monition to men of judgment. And we svid,
1 Take in thine hand a rod. and strike with it,
nor break thine oath.' Verily we found him
patieut ! How excellent a serrant, one who
turned to us. was he ! "
Surah iv. 161: "And we hare inspired
thee as we inspired .... Jesus and Job
and Jonah, and Aarun, and Solomon. '
Surah vi. 84 : '• Ahd we have guided ....
David and Solomon, aod Job, and Joseph."1
JWr. Sale, following the commentator?
al-Jalalan and al-Baizawi, says : •« The Mu-
hararua'Jan writers tell us that Job was of
the ra*e of Esau, and was blessed with a
numerous family and abundant riches , but
that God proved him by taking away all thai
be had, even his children, who were killed by
the fall of a house : notwithstanding which
he continued to serve God and to return Him
JOHN BAPTIST
thanks as usual; that he was then, struck
with a filthy disease, his body being fall of
worms and so offensive that as he lay on the
dunghill none could bear to come near him :
that his wife, however (whom some call
Rabmeh the daughter of Ephraim the son of
Joseph, and others Makhir the daughter of
Manasses), attended him with great patience,
supporting him with what she earned by her
labour ; but that the devil appearing to her
one day, after having reminded her of her
past prosperity, promised her that if she
would worship him he would restore all
they had lost: whereupon she asked her
husband's consent, who was so angry at the
proposal, that he swore, if he recovered, to
give his wife a hundred stripes ; and that
after his affliction his wealth increased, his
wife also becoming young and handsome
again, and bearing him twenty-six sons.
Some, to express the great riches which were
bestowed on Job after his sufferings, say he
had two threshing-floors, one for wheat and
the other for barley, and that God sent two
clouds, which rained gold en the one and
silver on the other till they ran over. The
traditions differ as to the continuance of Job's
calamities: one will have it to be eighteen
years : another, thirteen ; another, three ;
and another, exactly seven years seven
months and seven hours.
JOHN BAPTIST. Arabic Yakya
(ijir*^ ' Mentioned three times in the Qur'an.
The xixth Surah opens with an account of
the Birth of John the Baptist:—
" A recital of thy Lord's mercy to his
servant Zacharias ; when he called upon his
Lord with secret calling, and said : * O Lord,
verily my bones are weakened, and the hoar
hairs glisten on my head, and never, Lord,
have I prayed to Thee with ill success. But
now I have fears for my kindred after me ;
and my wife is ban-en : give me, then, a suc
cessor as Thy special gift, who shall be my
heir and an heir of the family of Jacob : and
make him, Lord, well pleasing to Thee. « 0
Zacharias 1 verily we announce to thee a
son, — his name John: that name We have
given to none before him.' He said : * 0 my
Lord 1 how when my wife is barren shall I
have a son, and when I have now reached old
age, failing in my powers ? ' He said : ' So
shall it be. Thy Lord hath said, Easy is this
to me, for I created thee aforetime when thou
wast nothing.' He said : < Vouchsafe me, O
my Lord I a sign.' He said : « Thy sign shall
be that for three nights, though sound in
health, thou speakest not to man.' And he
came forth from the sanctuary to his people,
and made signs to them to sing praises morn
and even. We said: ' 0 John I receive the
Book with purpose of heart ' : — and We be
stowed on him wisdom while yot a child ; and
mercifulness from Ourself, and purity ; and
pious was he, and duteous to his parents ;
and not proud, rebellious. And peace was on
him on the day he was born, and the day of
his death, and shall be on the day when he
shall be raided to life I "
JONAH
249
Surah xxi. 89 : " And Zacharias ; when he
called upon his Lord saying, 4 0 my Lord,
leave me not childless : but there is no better
heir than Thyself.' So we heard him, and
gave him Joun, and we made his wife fit for
child-bearing. Verily, these vied in good
ness, and called upon us with love and fear,
and humbled themselves before us."
Surah vi. 85 : " And we guided ....
Zacharias, and John, and Jesus, and Elias,
all righteous ones."
JOKING. Arabic Mizah (c)y). It
is said Muhammad was fond of jesting, but Ibn
'Abbas relates that the Prophet said, "Do
not joke with your brother Muslim to hurt
him."
Anas relates that the Prophet said to an old
woman, " No old woman will enter Paradise."
The old woman said " Why ? " And the Pro-
phet said, " Because it is written in the
Qur'an (Surah Ivi. 35) ( We have made them
virgins.' There will be no old women in
heaven.". (Mishkat, book xxii. ch. xii.)
JONAH. Arabic Yunvs (t/-*«i).
Mentioned in the Qur'an as a prophet, and as
Sdtiibu H-Hut and Zu 'n-Nun. "He of the
Fish."
Surah xxx vii. 139-148 : " Jonas, too, was one
of the Apostles (m«rsa/m), when he fled unto
the laden ship, and lots were cast, and he was
doomed, and the fish, swallowed him, foi he
was blameworthy. But had he not been of
those who praise Us, in its belly had ha
surely remained, till tho day of resurrection
And we cast him on the bare shcre — and he
was sick ; — and we caused a gourd-plant to
grow up over him, and we sent him to a
hundred thousand persons, or oven more, and
because they believed, we continued their
enjoyments for a season."
Surah Ixviii. 48-50 : " Patiently then await
the judgment of thy Lord, and be not like
him who was in the fish (Sdftilm 't-Hut),
when in deep distress he cried to God. Had
not favour from his Lord reached him, cast
forth would he havo been on the naked shore,
overwhelmed with shame : but his Lord chose
him and made him of the just."
Surah x. 98 (called the Siiratu Yunua):
" Verily they against whom the decree of thy
Lord is pronounced, shall not believe, even
though every kind of sign come unto them,
till they behold the dolorous torment ! Were
it otherwise, any city, had it believod, might
have found its safety in its faith. But it was
so, only with the people of Jonas. When
they believed, we delivered them from the
penalty of shame in this world, and provided
for them for a -time. But if thy Lord had
pleased, verily ail who are in the earth would
have believed together. What 1 wilt thou
compel men to become believers ? "
Surah vi. 86 : " We guided ..... Ishmael
and Elisha, and Jonah, and Lot."
Surah xxi. 87: "And Zu WVtm (he of
the fish), when he went on his way in anger,
and thought that we had no power over him.'
But in the darkness he cried, « There is no
32
250
JORDAN
JOSEPH
God but Thou : Glory be unto Thee ! Verily,
I have been one of the evil doers': so we
heard him and rescued him from misery : for
thus rescue we the faithful."
[Sale, in his Notes on the Qur'dn, quoting
from al-Jalalan and al-Baizawi,says ; " When
Jonah first began to exhort the people to re
pentance, instead of hearkening to him, they
used him very ill, so that he was obliged to
leave the city, threatening them at his de
parture that they should be destroyed within
three days, or, as others say, within forty.
But when the time drew near, and they saw
the heavens overcast with a black cloud
which shot forth fire and filled the air with
smoke a.nd hung directly over the city, they
were in a terrible consternation, and getting
into the fields, with their families and cattle,
they put on sackcloth and humbled them
selves before God, calling aloud for pardon
and sincerely repenting of their past wicked
ness. Whereupon God was pleased to forgive
them, and the storm blew over. It is said
that the fish, after it had swallowed Jonah,
swam after the ship with its head above water,
that the prophet might breathe ; who con
tinued to praise God till the fish came to land
and vomited him out. Some imagine Jonah's
plant to have boon a fig; and others, the moz
(or banana), which bears very large leaves
and excellent fruit, and that this plant
withered the next morning, and that Jonah
being much concerned at it God made a re
monstrance to him in behalf of the Ninevites,
agreeably to what is recorded in Scripture."]
JORDAN. Arabic Ardan, Urdunn
(0^). Referring to Surah iii. 39, the
legend is that the priests threw lots, by
casting arrows into the nver Jordan, as to
which should take charge of the Virgin Mary
after the Annunciation. " Thou wevt not by
them when they threw their lots which of
them should take care of Mary, nor wcrt
thou by them when they did dispute."
JOSEPH. Arabic Yusuf
The son of Jacob, and, according to the Quran,
an inspired prophet. (Surahs vi. 84: xl.
36.)
The account of Joseph occupies a whole
chapter in the Qur'an, entitled the Chapter of
Yusuf (Surah xii.). Al-Baixawi says that
certain Jews mstigated the Quraish to inquire
of Muhammad the story of Joseph and his
family going into Egypt, and that in order to
prove the truth of his mission, God sent Mu
hammad this chapter, the Surcrtu Y'iisuf, from
heaven. The same writer sa}Te it is a most
meritorious chapter, for whosoever shall read
it and teach it to others shall have an easy
death. (See al-Baizawi in loco.}
The story of Yusuf wa Zutailcfuili is one of
the most popular love songs in the East. It
was produced in Persian verse by Nuru 'd-
din 'Abdu 'r-Rahman ibn Ahmad Jami, A.H.
898. And the Shaikh Hamdu 'llah ibn Shatnsi
'd-dm Muhammad (A.H. 909), rendered it into
Turk! verse.
The author of the Akhldg-i-JalcUi says :
"We have it amongst the sayings of Muham
mad that women should be forbidden to read
or listen to the history of Joseph (as Laid in
the Qur'an), lest it lead to their swerving
from the rule of chastity." (Thompson's
edition.,)
We give the account as told in the Qur'au,
with the commentators' remarks in italics, as
rendered by Mr. Lane in his Selections from
the Kuran (new ed. by Mr. S, Lane Poole), the
account of Joseph's temptation, which Mr.
Lane omits, being added from RodweK's
translation of th« Qur'an : —
" Remember, when Joseph said unto his
father, 0 my father, verily I saw in sleep eleven
stars and the sun and the moon : I saw them
making obeisance unto me. He replied, Otny
child, relate not thy vision to thy bretaren.
lest they contrive a plot against thee, know
ing its interpretation to be that they are the
stars and that lh? sun in thy mother and the
mocn thy father for the devil is unto man a
manifest enfttiy And thus, as thou sawe&tt
thy Lord will choose thee, and teach theft the
interpretation of events, or dreams, and will
accomplish his favour upon thee by the gift of
prophecy, and upon ths family of Jacob, as He
accomplished it upon thy fathers before.
Abraham and Isaac; for thy Lord is knowing
and wise. — Verily in ihe. history of Joseph and
his • brethren are signs to the mquirers,~-
When they (ihe brethren of Jo,ie/)h} said, one
to another. Verily Joseph and bi:> brother H?ft
janin are dearer unto our iatht'r than we. and
we are a number of men ; rctily OUT father is
in a manifest error; slay ye Joseph, or drive
him away into a distant land; so the faep of
3'our father shall be directed alone unto vou,
regarding no other, and ye shall be after it a.
just people: — a speaker among them, naws'.y.
Judah, said, Slay not Joseph, but threw aim
tc the bottom of the well ; then some of the
• travellers may light upon him, if ye de this.
And they were satisfied therewith. They sa,id;
0 our father, wherefore dost thou uot intrust
us with Joseph, when verily we are faithful
unto him ? Send him with us to-morrow
into the plain, that he may divert himself a.nd
sport ; and we will surely take care of him.
— He replied, Verily your taking him away
will grieve me, and 1 fear lest the wolf de
vour him while ye are heedless of him. They
said, Surely if the wolf devour him, wheu we
are a number of men, we shall in that case "be
indeed weak. So he sent him with them. And
when they went away with him, and pgrecd
to put him at the bottom of the well, thet/ did
so. They pulled off his shirt, after they hud
beaten him, and had treated him 'with contempt
and had desired to slay him ; and they let him
down ; and when he haa arrived half -aw y down
the well they let htm fall, that he might die ,-
and he fell into the water. He then betook
himself to a mass of rock ,- and they caUed to
him ; so he answered them, imagining that thfy
would have mercy upon him. 'They however fie •
sired to crunk him with a piece of rori • i«/
Judak prevented them. And We said unto hini
by revelation, white he was in the well (and he
was seventeen years of age> or less), to quiet
JOSEPH
hia heart, Tboa shall assuredly declare unto
them this their action, and they shall not know
tkee at the time. And they carne to their
father at nightfall weeping. They said. 0
our father, we went Lo run races, and left
Joseph with our clothes, and the wolf de
voured him ; and thou wilt not believe
us, though we speak truth. And they
brought false blood upon his shirt. Jacob
said unto them, Nay. your minds have made a
thing seem pleasant unto you, and ye have
done it; but patience is seemly, and God's
assistance i,s implored with respect to that
which ye relate.
"And travellers came OH their way from
Midi fin l.o Egypt, and alighted near the well ;
and they sent their drawer of water, and he
lot down his bucket into the well: so Joseph
caught hold upon it, and the man drew him
forth ; and ichen he saw him, he said, O good
news ! This is a young man I — And his
brethren thereupon knew his case : wherefore
they came unto him. and they concealed his
case, making him as a piece of merchandise ;
for . they said. He in our slave who hath
absconded. And Joseph was silent, fearing lest
they should slay him. And God know that
which they did. And they sold him for a
mean price, [for] some dirhems counted
down, twenty, or two-ana-twenty; and they
were indifferent to him. The travellers then
brought him to Egypt, o,nd he who had bought
him sold him for twenty deendrs and a pair of
shoes and two yarmtnts. And the Egyptian
who 'bought him, namely, Kitfeer (Qitfiror
Itfir), said unto his wife Zeleekha (Zallkha),
Treat him hospitably ; peradventure he may
be advantageous to us or we may adopt
him as a son. For he was childless. And
thus We prepared an establishment for
Joseph in the land of Egypt, to teach him
the interpretation of events, or drean>$ ;
for God is well able to effect His purpose :
but the greater number of men, namely,
the unbe/ierers* know not this. And when he
had attained his age of strength (thirty yea s,
or three-and- thirty), We bestowed on him
wisdom and knowledge in mailers of religion,
before he wa's sent an a prophet ; /or thus do
We recompense the well-doers." (ISurah xii.
4-22.J
•' And she in whose house he was, conceived
a passion 'f or him, and she shut the doors suid
said, • Come hither.' He said, ' God keep me I
Verily, my lord hath given me a good home :
and the injurious shall not prosper.'
u But she longed for him : and h'o had
longed for her had he not seen a token from
his Lord. Thus we averted evil and defile
ment from him, for he was one of our sincere
servants.
•' And they both made for the door, and she
rent hid shirt behind ; and at the door they
wether lord. ' What,' said she, ' shall be the-
recompense of him who would do evil to thy
family, but a prison or ft soro punishment ? '
'" He said. * She solicited me to evil ' And
a witness <wt of her own family witnessed
li his shirt be rent in front she
truth, and he i& a liar
JOSEPH 251
" ' But if his shirt be ront behind, she lieth
and he is true.'
" And when his lord saw his shirt torn be
hind, he said, ' This is one of your devices !
verily your devices are great !
"'Joseph! leave this affair. And thou, 0
wife, ask pardon for thy crime, for thou hast
sinned^
"And in Uie city, the women said, 'The
wife of the Prince hath aolicited her servant :
he hath fired her with his love: but we
d mrly see her manifest error.'
" And when she heard of their cabal, she
sent to them and got ready a banquet for
them, and gave each one of them a knife, and
said, ' Joseph shew thyself to them.' And
when they saw him they were amazed at him,
and cut their hands, and said, « God keep us 1
This is no man ! This is no other than a
noble angel ! '
"She said, 'This is he about whom ye
blamed me. I wished him to yield to my de
sires, but he stood firm. But if he obey not
my command, he shall surely be cast into
prison, and hocome one of the despised.'
" He said, * 0 my Lord ! I prefer the prison
to compliance with their bidding • but unless
thou turn away their snares from me, I shall
play the youth with them, and become one oi
the unwise.'
" And his Lord heard him and turned aside
their snares from him : for He is the Hearer,
the Knower." (Rod well, Surah xii. 23-34.)
" Then it seemed good unto them, after
they had seen the signs of his innocence, to
imprison him. They will assuredly imprison him
for a time, until the talk of the people, respect
ing him cease. 6b they imprisoned him. And
there entered with him into the prison two
young men, servants of the king, one of whom
icas his cup-bearer and the other was his ric-
tualla'. And they found that he interpreted
dreams ; wherefore one of them, namely, the
cup-bearer, said. J dreamed that I was press
ing grapes : and the other said, I dreamed
that I was carrying upon my head some
bread, whereof the birds did eat : acquaint us
with the interpretation thereof ; for we see
thee to be one of the beneficent. — He replied.
There shall not come unto you any food
wherewith ye shall be led in a dream, but I
will acquaint you with the interpretation
thereof when ye arc awake, before the inter
pretation of it come unto you. This is a part
of that which my Lord hath taught me.
Verily I have abandoned the religion of a
people who believe not in God and who dis
believe in the world to come: and I follow
the religion of my fathers, Abraham and
Isaac and Jacob. It is noljit for us to asso
ciate anything with God. This knoiulfdye of
the unity h&th been given us of the bounty of
God towards u.-^ and towards mankind: bul
the greater number of men are not thankful
O yo two companions (or m*//afc>) of the pn
son, are sundry lords better, or is God, the
One, the Almighty 'i Ye worship not, beside
Him, aught s*ve names which ye and yon)
father* have given Lo idols, concerning which
God hath not sent down any convincing
252
JOSEPH
proof. Judgment belongeth not [unto any]
save unto God alone. He hath commanded
that ye worship not any but Him This is
tho right religion ; but the greater number of
men know not. O ye two companions of the
prison, as to one of you, namely, the cup
bearer* he will serve wine unto hia lord as
formerly; and as to the other, he will be cru
cified, and the birds will eat from off his
head.— Upon this they said, We dreamed not
aught. He replied, The thing ia decreed con
cerning which ye [did] ask a determination,
whether ye have spoken truth or have lied.
And he said unto him whom he judged to be
the person who should escape of them two,
namely the cup-bearer, Mention me unto thy
lord, and say unto him, Jn the prison is a young
man imprisoned unjustly, — And he went fortn.
But the devil caused him to forget to men
tion Joseph unto his lord : so he remained in
the prison some years : it is said, seven ; and
it is said, twelve.
" And the king of Egypt, Er Reiydn
the son of El- Weleed (Raiydn iln al~ Walld
al-'Imliqi] said, Verily I saw in a dream
seven fat kine which seven lean kine devoured,
and seven green ears of corn and seven other
ears dried up. 0 ye nobles, explain unto me
my dream, if ye interpret a dream. — They re
plied, These are confused dreams, and we
know not the interpretation of dreams. And
• he who had escaped, of the two young men,
namely the cttp-bearer, said (for he remembered
after a time the condition of Joseph}^ I will
acquaint you with the interpretation thereof ;
wherefore send me. So they sent him ; and he
came unto Joseph, and said, 0 Joseph, 0 thou
of great veracity, give us an explanation
respecting seven fat kine which seven lean
kine devoured, and seven green ears of corn
and other seven dried up, that I may return
unto the men (the king and his companions'),
that they may know the interpretation thereof.
He replied, Ye shall sow seven years as
usual : (this is the interpretation of the seven
fat kine :) and what ye reap do ye leave in
its ear, lest it spoil; except a little, whfereof
ye shall eat. Then there shall come, after
that, seven grievous [years! : (this is the in*
interjjretation of the seven lean kine:) they
fiball consume what ye shall have provided
for them, of the grain sown in the seven years
of plenty, except a little which ye shall have
kept. Then there shall come, after that, a
year wherein men shall be aided with rain,
and wherein they shall press gropes and other
fruits. — And the king said, when the mes
senger came unto him and acquainted him with
the interpretation of the dream, Bring unto me
him who hath interpreted tfc" (Surah, xii.
35-50.)
" And when the messenger came to Joseph,
he said, ' Go back to thy lord, and ask him
what meant the women who cut their hands,
verily nay lord knoweth the snare they laid/
Then, said the Pnnce to the women, * What
was your purpose when ye solicited Joseph ? '
They sawl, * God keep us ! we know not
any ill of him/ The wife of the Prince said,
4 Now doth the truth appear. It was I who
JOSEPH
would have led him into unlawful loye, and
he is assuredly one of the truthful.' « This,1
said Joseph, * that my lord may learn that I
did not in his absence play him false, and
that God guideth not the machinations of
deceivers. Yet do I not absolve myself :
verily the heart is prone to evil, save those
on which my Lord haa mercy. Lo ! my
Lord is Gracious, Forgiving, Merciful.' And
the King said, ' Bring him to me : I will take
him for my special service.'" (Rodwell,
Surah xJL 50-54.)
" And when he had spoken unto him, he
said unto him, Thou art this day firmly esta~
blished with us, and intrusted with our
affairs. What then seest thou fit for us to do?
— He answered, Collect provision, and sow
abundant seed in these plentiful years, and
store up the grain in its ear : then the people will
come unto thee that they may obtain provision from
thee. The king said, And who wilt act for me
in this affair ? Joseph said, Set mo over the
granaries of the land ; for I am careful and
knowing. — Thus did We prepare an establish
ment for Joseph in tho land, that he might
take for himself a dwelling therein wherever
he pleased. — And it is related tftat the kinff
crowned him, and put a ring on his finger* ana
instated him in the place of Kitfeer, whom he
dismissed from his office; after which, Kitfeer
died, and thereupon the king married him to
his wife Zeleekha, and she bore him two sons.
We bestow Our mercy on whom We please,
and We cause not tho reward of the well
doers to perish : aud certainly the reward of
the world to come is better for those who
have believed and have feared.
"And the years of scarcity began, and
afflicted the land of Canaan and Syria, and the
brethren of Joseph came, except Benjamin, to
procure provision, having heard that the governor
of Egypt gave food for its price. And they
went iw unto him, and he knew them; but
they knew him not ; and they spake unto him
in the Hebrew language ; whereupon he saidf as
one who distrusted them, What hath brought
you to my country 1 So they answered, For
corn. But he said, Perhaps ye are spies.
They replied, God preserve us from being spies I
He said, Then whence are ye ? They answered,
From the land of Canaan, and our father is
Jacob the prophet of God. He said, And hatii
he sons beside you ? They answered, Yea : we
were twelve ; but the youngest of us went away,
and perished in the desert, and he was the
dearest of us unto him; and his uterine brother
remained, and he retained him that he might
console himself thereby for the loss of the other*
And Joteph gave oracrs to fody« t/tem, and to
treat them generously. And when he had fur
nished them with their provision, and ytven
them their full measure, he said, Bring me your
brother from your father, namely* Benjamin^
that I may know your veracity in that ye have
said, Do ye not see that I give full measure,
and that I am the most hospitable of tho re
ceivers of guests ? But if ye bring him not,
there shall be no measuring of corn for you
from me. nor shall ye approach me. — They
replied, We will solicit his father for him, and
JOSEPH
we will surely perform that. And he said
unto his young men, Put their money, which
they brought as the price of the corn, iu their
sacks, that they may know it when they have
returned to their family : peradventure they
will return to us; for they will not deem it
lawful to keep it. — And when they returned to
their father, they said, 0 our father, the mea
suring of corn is denied us if thou send not our
brother unto him ; therefore send with us our
brother, that we may obtain measure ; and we
will surely take care of him. He said, Shall
I iatmst you with him otherwise than as I in
trusted you with his brother Joseph before ? But
God is the best guardian, and He is the most
merciful of those who show mercy, — And
when they opened their goods, they found their
money had been returned unto them. They
said, 0 our father, what desire we of the gene
rosity of the. king greater than this ? This our
money hath been returned unto us ; and we
will provide corn for our family, and will take
oare of our brother, and shall receive a camel-
load more,/or our brother. This is a quantity
easy unto the king^ by reason of his munificence.
—He said, I will by no means send him with
you until ye give me a solemn promise by
God that ye will assuredly bring him back
unto me unless an inevitable and insuperable
impediment encompass you. And they complied
with this his desire. And when they had
given him their solemn promise, he Said, God
is witness of what we say. And he sent him
with them ; and he said, 0 my sons, enter not
the city of Misr by one gate ; but enter by
different gates; lest the evil eye fall upon
you. But I shall not avert from you, % my
saying this, anything decreed to befall you from
God : / only say this from a feeling of com
passion. Judgment belongeth not unto any
save unto God alone. On Him do I rely, and
on Him let those rely who rely.
"And when they entered as their father
had commanded them, separately, it did not
avert from them anything decreed to befall
them from God, but only satisfied a desire in
the soul of Jacob, which he accomplished;
that its, the desire of averting the evil eye,
arising from a feeling of compassion: and he
was endowed with knowledge, because We
had taught him : but the greater number of
men, namely the unbelievers, know not God's
inspiration of his saints. And when they went
in unto Joseph, he received unto him (or
pressed unto him} his brother. He said,
Verily, I am thy brother: therefore be not
sorrowful for that which they did from envy
to us. And he commanded him that he should
not inform them, and agree with him thai he
should employ a stratagem to retain him with
him. And when he had furnished them with
their provision, he put the cup, which was a
measure made of gold set with jewels, in the
sack of his brother Benjamin. Then a crier
cried, after they had gone forth from the
chamber of Joseph, O company of travellers,
yo are surely thieves. They said (and turned
unto them), What is it that ye miss ? They
answered, We miss the king's measure ; and
to him who shall bring it shall be given a
JOSEPH
253
camel-load of com, and I am surety for it,
namely the load. They replied, By God I ye
well know that we have not come to act cor
ruptly in the land, and we have not been
thieves. The crier and his companions said,
Then what shall be the recompense of him
who hath stolen it, if ye bo liars in your saying ^
We have not been thieves, — and it be found
among you f They answered, His recompense
shall be that he in whose sack it shall bo
found shall be made a slave: he, the thief,
shall bo compensation for it; namely, for
the thing stolen. Such was the usage of the
fami/H of Jacob. Thus do We recompense the
offenders who are guilty of theft. — So they
turned towards Joseph, that he might search
their sacks. And he began with their sacks,
and searched them before the sack of hie
brother Benjamin, lest he should be suspected.
Then he took it forth (namely the measure)
from the sack of his brother. Thus, faith
God, did We contrive a stratagem for Joseph.
It was not lawful for him to taka his bro
ther 05 a slave for theft by the law of the
king of Egypt (for his recompense by his law
was' beating, and a Jim of twice the value of
the thing stolen; not the being made a slave},
unless God had pleased, by inspiring him to
inquire of his brethren and inspiring them to
reply according to their usage. We exalt unto
degrees of knowledge and honour whom We
please, as Joseph ; and there is who is know
ing about everyone else endowed with know
ledge.— They said, If he steal, a brother of
his hath stolen before ; namely, Joseph ; for
he stole an idol of gold belonging to the father
of his mother, and broke ft, that he might not
worship it. And Joseph concealed it in his
mind, and did not discover it to them. He
said within himself, Ye are in a worse condi
tion than Joseph and his brother, by reason of
your having stolen your brother from your father
and your having treated him unjustly ; and God
well knoweth what ye state concerning him. —
They said, 0 prince, verily he hath & father,
a very old man, who loveth him more than us,
and consoleth himself by him for the loss of his
son who hath perished, and the separation of
him grieveth him,- therefore take one of us
as a slave in his stead ; for we see thee [to be
one] of the beneficent. He replied, God pre
serve us from taking [any] save him in
whose possession we found our property ; for
then (if we took another} , we [should be] un
just.
And when they despaired of obtaining kirn,
they retired to confer privately together. The
chief of them in age (namely, Reuben, or in
judgment, namely, JttdbA),said, Do ye not know-
that your father hath obtained of you a
solemn promise in the name of God, with
respect of your brother, and how ye formerly
failed of yoar duty with respect to Joseph ?
Therefore I will by no means depart from the
land of Egypt until my father give "me per
mission to return to him, or God decide for me
by the delivery of my brother; and He is the
best, the most just, of those who decide. Re
turn ye to your father, and say, 0 our father
verily thy son hath committed theft, and wo
254
JOSEPH
bore not testimony against him save according
to that which we knew of o certainty, by our
seeing the cup in his sack; and we were npt
acquainted with what was unseen by us when
we gave the solemn promise : had toe known that
fie would commit theft, we had not taken htm.
And send than, and.ask the people of the city
in which we hare been (namely, Misr) and the
Company of travellers with whom we have
arrived (who were a people of Canaun) : and
we are surely speakers of truth.— -fio they re
turned to him, and said unto hirn those words.
lie replied, Nay. your minda have innde a
thing seem pleasant unto you, and ye have
done it (he suspected them, on account of their
farmer conduct in the case of Joseph) : but pa
tience is seemly : perad venture God will bring
them back (namely, Joseph and his brother)
unto. me, together; for He is the Knowing
with respect to my case, the Wise in His act*.
And he turned from them, and said, 0 I my
sorrow for Joseph 1 And his eyes became
white in consequence of mourning, and he
was oppressed with silent grief. They said, By
Ood,thou wilt not cease to think upon Joseph
until thou be at the point of death, or be of the
number of the dead. He replied, I only com
plain of my great and unconcea la ble grief and
iny sorrow unto God ; not unto any beside Him;
for He it is unto whom complaint is made with
advantage; and I know by rey elation from
God what ye know not ; namely, that the dream
of Joseph was true, and that he is living. Then
he said, 0 my sons, go and seek news of
Joseph and his brother; and despair not of
the mercy of God ; for none despaireth of the
mercy of God except the unbelieving people.
" So they departed towards Egypt, unto
Joseph ; and when they went in unto him,
they said, 0 Prince, distress (that is, hunger)
hath affected us and our family, and we have
come with paltry money (it was base money,
or some other sort): yet give us full measure,
and be charitable to us, by excusing the bad-
nesti oj our money ; for God recompenaeth
those who act charitably. And he had pity
upon them, and compassion affected him, and he
lifted up the curium that was between him and
them : then he said unto them in reproach, Do ye
know what ye did unto Joseph, in beating and
selfitiq find other actions, and his brother, by
your injurious conduct to htm after the separa
tion of liis brother, when ye were ignorant of
what would be the result of the. case of Joseph?
They replied, after they fuid recognised him
(desiring confirmation). Art thou indeed
Joseph? He answered. I am Joseph, and
this is ray brother. God hath been gracious
unto us, by bringing us together ; for whoso
ever feareth God and if* patient [will be re
warded] : God will not suffer the reward of
the well-doers to perish. They replied, By
God, verily God hath preferred thee above
{is. and we have been indeed sinners. He
said, There shall be no reproach cast on you
this day: God forgive you; for He is the
luost merciful of those that show mercy.
A ftrf he asked them rejecting his father : so
llu.y an*tae.r«t{< His eyes are gone. And ht said,
Ci«> ye with this my shirt (t( teas the shirt of
JOSEPH
Abraham, which he wore, when lie was cast into
the fire : it was on his, that is, Joseph's neck,
appended as an amulet, in the wall; and it was
from paradise :- Gabriel commanded him to send
it, and said, In it is its odour, that is, the
odour of paradise, and it shall not be cast upon
any one afflicted with a disease but he shall be
restored to health), and cast it, said Joseph,
upon the face of my father : he shall recover
his sight ; and bring unto me all your family.
— And when the company of travellers had
gone forth from El-'Areesh of Egypt, their
father said, unto those who were present of his
offspring, Verily 1 perceive the smell of Joseph
(for the zephyr had conveyed it to him, by per
mission of Hint whose name be exaiied, from
the distance of three days' journey, or eight, or
more) : were it not that ye think I dote, ytt
would believe me. They replied, By God, thou
art surely in thine old error. And when the
messenger of good tidings (namely, Judah)
came with tla shirt (and he had borne the
bloody s flirt ; wherefore he desired to rejoice
him, as he had grieved hint), he cast it
upon his face, and he recovered his sight
Thereupon Jacob said, Did I not say unto
you. i know, from God, what ye know not ?
They said, O our father, ask pardon of our
crimes for us ; for we have been sinners. He
replied. I will ask pardon for you of my
Lord ; for He is the Very forgiving, the Mer
ciful. — He delayed doing so until the first ap~
pearance of the aawn, that the prayer might be
more likely to be ansivered; or, as some say,
until the night of [that is, preceding] Friday.
'• They then repaired to Egypt, and Joseph and
the great men came forth to meet them : and when
they went in unto Joseph, in his pavilion or tent,
he received unto him (or pressed unto him) his
parents (his father and his mother and hi*
maternal aunt), and said unto them, Enter ye
Misr, if God please, in safety. So they en
tered; and Joseph seated himself upon his
couch, and he caused his parents to ascend
upon the seat of state, and they (that is, his
parents and his brethren) fell down, bowing
themselves unto him (bending, but not putting
the forehead) upon the ground : such being
their mode of obeisance in that. time. And he
said, O my father, thie is the interpretation
of my dream of former times : my Lord hath
made it true ; and He hath shown favour
unto me, since He took me forth from the
prison (he said not, from the well,— from a
motive of generosity , that Iris brethren might not
be. abashed}, and hath brought you from the
desert, after that the devil had excited dis-
coj-d between me and my brethren ; for my
Lord is gracious unto whom He pleaseth ; for
He is the Knowing, the Wise.— And his father
resided with him four and twenty years, or
seventeen ; and the -period of his separation was
eighteen, or forty, or eighty years. And death
cume unto him; and thereupon he charged
Joseph that he should carry him and bury fani
by his fathers. So he went himself and buried
him. Then he returned to Egypt and remained
after him three and twenty years ; and when his
case was ended, and he knew that he should not
last upon earth, and his soul desired the lasting
JOSHUA
possession, Af stiid, 0 my Lord, Thou haf,t
given me dominion, and taught me the inter
pretation of events (or dreams} Creator of
the heavens and the earth Thou art my
guardian in this world and in the world to
come. Make mo to die a Muslim, and join
me with the righteous among my forefathers.
And lie lived after that a week, or more, and
ved after
\dre.d and
died a Hundred and twenty years old. And tht
Egyptians disputed concerning .his buriut: so
they put him in a chest of marble, ana buried
him in the upper part of the /VYA?,' thai the
blessing mtvlttngfrom htm minitt be qentrul to
the tracts on each side of it. Extolled be the.
perfection of Him to whose dominion there ii no
end! (Surah xii. 54 to the end.;
For the Talmudic origin of this account,
see JUDAISM.
JOSHUA. Arabic Yu8futf(&£). Son
of Nun. Not mentioned by name in the Qur'an,
but is most probably "the servant" men
tioned in Surah xviii. 51) : lt When Moses said
to his servant, 'I will not slop until I reach
the confluence of the two seas, or for years I
will journey on.'" ( Vide al-Baizawi in loco.)
Some say he is the Zu 'l-Kifl of Surah xxi.
85, [zu 'L-KTFJ,.")
JUBAIR (;-*). Jubair ibn Mu-
t'ioi an-Nanfali. One of the Companions.
and acknowledged as a traditionist by al-
BukharT and Muslim. He was one of the
most learned of the Quraish chiefs. Died at
Makkah A.II. 54. Ibn Jubair, his son, was an
Imam of great renown, he died A.H.- 99.
JUBBU 'L-HUZN (vy4\ s-»).
"The pit of sorrow," which Muhammad said
was a desert in hell, fronj which holl itself
calls for protection, and which is reserved
for readers of the Qur'an who are haughty iu
their behaviour. (Mishkdt, book ii. ch. iii.^
JUDGE. Arabic Qdzl (^U). A
magistrate or judge appointed by the ruler of
a Muhammadan country. He should be an
adult, a freo man, a Muslim, sane, and un-
convicted of slnnder (yazf). It becomes a
Muslim not to covet the appointment of Qa/i,
for the Prophet has said : " Whoever seeks
the appointment of QazT shall be left alone,
bat to him who accepts the office on compul
sion, an..angel shall descend and guide him."
(Mifthkat, book xvi. ch. iii.)
The Qazi must exercise his office in some
public place, the chief mosque being recom
mended, or. if in his own house, he should
see that the public have free access.. He must
not accept any presents except from relatives
and old friends, nor should he attend feasts
and entertainments given by others than his
relatives and friends. In addition to his
duties as magistrate, it is his duty to attend
funerals and weddings, and when present it is
his right and office to perform the ceremonies.
A woman may exercise the office of a Qazi,
except in the administration of punishment
(AoeW) or retaliation (yi; so$). (HiddyaA, vol.
ii. p. 613.)
JUSTIFIABLE HOMICIDE 255
JUDGMENT-DAY. Arabic Qiy,,.
mah (i*Ui). [RESURRECTION.]
AL-JtTDl (cSJj^N). Mount Ararat,
upon which the ark of Noah rested. Men
tioned in the Qur'an, Surah xi. 46 : " And it
(the ark) settled on al-Judi."
JudI is a corruption apparently for Mount
Giordi, the Qordyoei of the Greeks, situated
between Armenia and Mesopotamia.
Ainsworth, in his Travels in tht 'I rack of
the Ten Thousand, says tradition still points
to Jabal Judi as the sceno of t.lv» ovuiil, and
maintains the belief that fragments of the ark
exist on its summit
Whinton, in his History of Armenia, p. 361.
says Araratia is tba name of a province and
not of a mountain in Armenia.
JU'L (J*^). The hire or reward
of labour. An extraordinary pay or dona
tion. In the language of the law. a reward
for bringing back a fugitive slave.
JUMADA 'L-UKHRA (^U»
<^5y£.3\). The sixth month of the
Muhammadan year. [MONTHS.')
JUMADA 'L-QLA (J,W ^W).
The filth month of the Muhammadan year.
[MONTHS.]
JUM'AH (W,.). [FRIDAY.]
JUNUB (^r^). Lit. " One who is
separated." The unclean. A person who is
in a state of uncleanness [JANABAU] whereby
he or she cannot perform any religious act.
or join in religious assemblies. [rt.-RiFiCA-
TION.]
JURF (ui^.). Lit. "A wasted
river-bank." A place three miles from al-
Madinah, celebrated in Muhamrnadaii history.
JUSTIFIABLE HOMICIDE The
Muhammadan law on the subject is as fol-
•lowa: —
" If any person draw a sword upon a Mus
lim he (the Muslim) is at liberty to kill him
in self-defence, because the Prophet has
said, ' He who draws a sword upon j« Muslim
renders his blood liable to be shed with im
punity ' ; and also, because a person who thus
draws a sword is a rebel, and guilty of sedi
tion ; and it is lawful to slay such, God having
said, in the Qur'an, * Slay those who are
guilty of sedition, to the end that it may
be prevented.' Besides, it is indispensably
requisite that a man repel murder from
himself and as, in the present instance,
there is no method of effecting this but
by slaying the person, it is consequently
lawful so to do. If however, it be possible
to effect the self-defence without slaying
the person, it is not lawful to stay him. Ii
is written in the Jama, brighter (a.l-J<itnilu
*s-Saghir). that if a person strike at another
with a sword, during either night or day. or
lift a club against another in the night in a
city, or in the day-time in tho highway out of
the city ; and the person so threatened kill
256
JUWAIRIYAH
him who thus strikes -with the sword, or lifts
.the club, nothing is incurred; because, &B
striking with a sword affords no room for
delay or deliberation, it is in this case neces
sary to kill the person in order to repel him ;
and although, in the case of a club, there be
more room for deliberation, yet in the night
time assistance cannot be obtained, and hence
the person threatened is in a manner forced, in
repelling the other's attack, to kill him. (And
80 likewise where the attack is made during
the day-time in the highway, as there assist
ance cannot readily be obtained). Where,
therefore, a person thus slays another, the
blood of the slain is of no account. If a
lunatic draw a sword upon a person, and the
person slay him, the fine of blood is due from
his property, and does not fall upon his Akilas
(Aqilafi). As-Shafi'i maintains that nothing
whatever is incurred in this • instance. In
the same manner, also, if an infant draw a
sword and make an attack upon a person,
or if an animal attack anyone, and the per
son so attacked slay the infant, cr the animal,
a fine is due on account of the infant, or the
value on account of the auimal, according to
Abu Hanifah, but not according to ash-Shafi'L
"If a person draw a sword upon another,
and strike him, and then go away, and the
person struck, or any other, afterwards kill
this person, he is liable to retaliation. This
is where the striker retires in such a way as
indicates that he will not strike again, for as,
upon his so retiring, he no longer continues
an assailant, and the protection of his blood
(which had been forfeited by tbo assault)
reverts, retaliation is consequently incurred
by killing him.
" If a person come in the night to a stranger,
and carry off bis goods by theft, and the owner
of the goods follow and slay him, nothing
whatever is incurred, the Prophet having
eaid, « Ye may kill in preservation of your
property.' It is to be observed, however, that
this is only where the owner cannot recover
his property but by killing the thief ; for if
he know that upon his calling out the thief
would relinquish the goods, and he notwith
standing neglect calling out, and slay him, re-
KA'BAH
taliation is incurred upon him, since he in this
case slnys the person unrighteously." (Hidii-
yah, vol. iv. p. 291.)
JUWAIRIYAH (^). One of
Muhammad's wives. She was the daughter
of the chief of the Bam '1-Musfcaliq. She
survived the Prophet some years.
Sir William Muir writes (Life of Mahfnnntt
new ed. p. 309} : " The captives of the Bani
Mustalick having been carried to Medina with
the rest of the booty, men from their tribe
aoon arrived to make terms for their release.
One of them was Juweiria, a damsel about
twenty years of age, full of grace and beauty,
the daughter of a chief, and married to one i
of her own tribe. She fell to the lot of a ]
citizen, who, taking advantage of her rank
and comeliness, fixed her ransom at nine
ounces of gold. Despairing to raise so large
a sum, she ventured into the presence of j
the Prophet, while seated in the apartment <
of Ayesha, and pleaded for some remission of
the heavy price demanded for her freedom.
Ayeflb-a no sooner saw that she was fair to
look upon, and of a sprightly winning carriage, ;
than her jealousy prognosticated what was i
about to come to pass. Mahomet listened to
her supplications. 'Wilt thou hearken,' he i
said, * to something better than that thou \
askest of me?' Surprised by his gentle !
accents, she inquired what that might be: j
' Even that I should pay thy ransom, and •
marry thee myself ! ' The damsel forth- |
with expressed her consent, the ransom
was paid, and Mahomet, taking her at once
to wife, built a seventh house for her recep- i
tion. As soon as the marriage was noised j
abroad, the people said that the Bani Musta- i
lick having now become their relatives, they i
would let the rest of the prisoners go free as j
Juweiria's dower; 'and thus no woman,' said j
Ayesha, telling the story in after days, ' was
ever a greater blessing to her people than this
Juweiria.'"
JTFZ' (*)*). One of the thirty por
tions into which the Qur'an is divided.
[SIFABA.]
K.
KA'BAH (&**$). Lit. "A cube."
The cube-like building in the centre of the
moeque at Makkah, which contains the Ha-
jaru '1-Aswad, or black stone.
L A Description of the Jfc'a(bah,—Ii is, ac
cording to Burckhardt and Burton, an oblong
massive structure, 18 paces in length, 14 in
breadth, and about 35 feet in height. It is
constructed of grey Makkan stone, in large
blocks of different sizes, joined together in a
very rough manner, with cement. (Burton
says it is excellent mortar, like Roman
cement.) The Ka'bah stands upon a base
two feet in height, which presents a sharp
inclined plane ; its roof being flat, it haa: at
a distance, the appearance of a perfect cube.
The only door which affords entrance, and
which is opened but two or three times in the
year (Burton says it can be entered by pil
grims, by paying the guardian a liberal fee),
is on the east side, and about seven feet above
the ground. At the south-eaet corner of the
Ka'bah, near the door, is the famous black
stone [HAJARU 'L-ASWAD], which forms a
part of the sharp angle of the building, at
four or-fiTe feet above the ground The black
stone is an irregular oval, about seven inches
in diameter, with an undulating surface,
KA'BAH
composed of about a dozen smaller stones of
different shapes and sizes. It is surrounded
on all sides by a border of reddish brown
cement, both the, stone and the border being
encircled by a band of a massive arch of gold
or silver gilt, the aperture of the stone
being one span and three fingers broad. In
the corner facing the south, there is another
stono about five feet from the ground. It is
one foot and a half in length, and two inches
in breadth, placed upright, and of common
Makkun stone. According to the rites of the
pilgrimage, this stone, which is called ar-
Ruknu '1-Yamanij or Yaman pillar, should
only be touched with the right band as the
pilgrim passes it, but Captain Burton says he
frequently saw it kissed by the pilgrims.
Just by the door of the Ka'bah, and close to
the wall, is a alight hollow in the ground,
lined with marble and sufficiently large to
admit of three persons sitting, which is called
al-Mi'jan, and supposed to be the place whero
Abraham and his son Ishmael kneaded the
KA'BAH
257
THE KA'BAH. (From a Photograph.}
chalk and mud which they used to build the
Ka'bah. Here it is thought meritorious to
pray. On the basis of the Ka'bah, just Above
the Mi'jan, is an ancient Kufie inscription,
which neither Burckhardt nor Burton were
able to decipher or to copy. On the north
west side of tbe Ka'bah, about two feet below
its summit, is the water-spout, which is called
the Mi'zabu' r-Rahmah, or the water-spout of
mercy. This spout is of gold, and was sent
hither from Constantinople in A.H. 981. It
carries rain from the roof, and discharges it
upon Ishmael's grave. There are two large
green marble slabs, which are said to have
been presents from Cairo, A.H. 241, which are
supposed to mark the graves of Hagar and
Ishmael. The pavement round the Ka'bah
consists of a very handsome mosaic of
various coloured stones, and is said to have
been laid down A.H. 826, On one side of the
Ka'bah is a semicircular wall, the extremities
of which are m a line with the sides of the
Ka'bah, and distant about six feet leaving an
opening which leads to the grave of Ishmael.
The wall is called al-Hatiro, "the broken,"
and the enclosed area al-Hijr, " the enclo
sure." The Ka'bah is covered with a coargo
tissue of mixed silk and cotton, being of &
brilliant black colour, and with a gold band
round it, upon which is inscribed the ninetieth
verse of the third chapter of the Qu'ran :
" Verily the first home founded for mankind
was surely that at Bakkah, for a blessing
and a guidance to mankind." The inscription
being in large Kufic characters. For a fur
ther account of this cover, see KISWAH.
(Burton.)
II. The History of the Ka'bah, is embraced
in the history of the Baitu Hah or MASJIDU
'L-HABAM.
According to the Traditions and the inven-
tivje genius of Muslim writers, the Ka'bah was
first constructed in heaven {'where a model
of it still remains, called the Baitu'l-Ma'Tnur)
two thousand years before the creation of the
world. Adam erected the Ka'bah on earth
exactly below the spot its perfect model
occupies in heaven, and selected the stones
from the five sacred mountains, Sinai, al-Judi,
Hira', Olivet, and Lebanon. Ten thousand
angols were appointed to guard the structure,
but, as Burckhardt remarks, they appear to
have been often most remiss in their duty I
At the Delugo the Sacred House was destroyed.
But the Almighty is said to hava instructed
Abraham to rebuild it. In its reconstruction
Abraham was assisted by his son Ishmael,
who with his mother Hagar were at the time
residents of Makkah, Abraham having jour
neyed from Syria in order to obey the com
mands of God.
Upon digging they found tiie original foun
dations of the building. But waTrtcng a stone
to mark the corner of the building, Ishmael
started in search of one, and us he vas going
in the direction of Jabal Qnhais, the angel
Gabriel mot him. and gave him the famous
black otone. Ibn 'Abbas relates thnt the
Prophet said, the black stone when it c&mo
dewn from Paradise was whiter than milk,
bu* that il ha«j become black from the Bins of
those who have touched it. (Mifhktlt, book
xi. ch. iv. pb. 2.)
Upon the death •>/ Ishmael, the K»'b»h
fell into the possession of the Banfi Jurhum,
33
258
KA'BAH
KA'BAH
and remained in their hands for a thousand
years. It then became the property of the
Banu Khuza'ah, who held it for three hun
dred years. But being constantly exposed to
torrents, it was destroyed, and was rebuilt by
Qusaiy ibn Kilab, who put a top to it. Up
to this time it is said to have been open at
the roof.
It is said, by Muhaminadan historians, that
* Anjr ibn Luhaiy was the first who introduced
idolatry into Arabia, and that he brought the
great idol Hubal from Hait in Mesopotamia
and placed it- in the sacred house. It then
became a Pantheon common to all the tribes.
[IDOLS.] The tribe of Qjusaiy were the first
who built dwelling-houses round the Ka'bah.
The successors of the Banu Qusaiy were the
Quraish. Soon after they came into posses
sion, the Ka'bah was destroyed by fire, and
they rebuilt it of wood and of a smaller size,
than it had been in the time of the Banu
Qusaiy. The roof was supported within by
six pillars, and the statne of Hubal was placed
over a wall then existing within the Ka'bah.
This took place during the youth of Muham
mad. Al-Azraqi, quoted by Burckhardt, says
that the figure of the Virgin Mary and the
infant Jesus was sculptured as a deity upon
one of the six pillars nearest the gate.
The grandfather of Muhammad, 'Alxta '1-
Mutjalib, the son of Hashim, became tbe cus
todian of the Sacred House ; and during his
time, the Ka'bah being considered too low in
its structure, the Quraish wished to raise it ; so
they demolished it and then they rebuilt till
the work reached the place of the black
stone. Each tribe wishing to have the honour
of raising the black stone inte its place, they
quarrelled amongst themselves. But they
at last agreed that the first man who should
enter the gate of the enclosure should be um
pire. Muhammad was the first to enter, and
he was appointed umpire. He thereupon or
dered them to place the stone upon a cloth
and each tribe by its representative to take
hold of the cloth and lift it into its place.
The dispute was thus ended, and when the
.stone had reached its proper place, Muham
mad fixed it in its situation with his own
hand.
At the commencement of Muhammad's
mission, it is remarkable that there is scarcely
an allusion to the Ka'bah, and this fact, taken
with the circumstance that the earliest Qib-
lah or direction for prayer, was Jerusalem.
and not the Ka'bah, seems to imply that Mu
hammad's strong iconoclastic tendencies did
not incline his sympathies to this ancient idol
temple with its superstitious ceremonies.
Had the Jews favourably received the new
prophet as one who taught the religion of
Abraham, to the abrogation of that of Moses
and Jesus, Jerusalem and not Makkah would
have been the sacred city, and the ancient
Rock [SAKHRAHJ and not the Ka'bah would
have been the object of superstitious reve
rence.
Taking tbe Surahs chronologically, the
earliest reference in tbe Qur'an to the Ka'bah
occurs in Surah Hi 4, where the Prophet
swears by the frequented house (al'Baitu V-
3/a'nrar), but commentators are not agreed
whether it refers to the Ka'bah in Makkah,
or its heavenly model above, which is said to
be frequented by the angels. We then come to
Surah xviu 1, where' Muhammad refers to his
celebrated night dream of his journey from
the Sacred Mosque (al-Masjidu V-Haram) at
Makkah to the Remote Mosque (al-Masfidu 'l-
Aq$a) at Jerusalem. And in this verse we
find the Rock at Jerusalem spoken of as " the
precinct of which We (God) have blessed, to
show him (Muhammad) of our signs," prov
ing that even then the Prophet of Arabia had
his heart fixed on Mount Zion. and not on the
Ka'bah.
When Muhammad found himself established
in al-Madmah, with a very good prospect of
his obtaining possession of Makkah, and its
historic associations, he seems to have with
drawn his thoughts from Jerusalem, and its
Sacred Rock and to fix them on the house at
Bakkah as the home founded for mankind, —
Blessed, and a guidance to all creatures.
(Surah iii. 90). The Jews proving obdurate,
and there being little chance of his succeed
ing in establishing his claim as their prophet
spoken of by Moses, he changes the Qiblah,
or direction for prayer, from Jerusalem to
Makkah. The house at Makkah is made " a
place of resort unto men and a sanctuary "
(Surah ii. 119).
The Qiblah is changed by an express com
mand of the Almighty, and the whSle passage
is remarkable as exhibiting a decided conces
sion on the part of Muhammad to the claims
of the Ka'bah as a central object of adoration.
(Surah iii. 138-145.)
" We appointed the Qiblah which thou for
merly hadst, only that we might know him
who followeth the apostle, from him who
turneth on his heels : The change is a dif
ficulty, but not to those whom God hath
guided. But God will not let your faith be
fruitless ; for unto man is God Merciful, Gra
cious. We have seen thee turning thy face
towards every part of Heaven ; but we will
have thee turn to a Qiblah which shall please
thee. Turn then thy face towards the sacred
Mosque, and wherever ye be, turn your faces
towards that part. They, verily,, to whom
' the Book ' hath been given, know this to be
the truth from their Lord: and God is not
regardless of what ye do. Even though thou
shouldest bring every kind of sign to those
who have received the Scrip tures. yet thy
Qiblah they will not adopt ; nor shalt thou
adopt their Qiblah ; nor will one part of them
adopt the Qiblah of the other. And if, after
the knowledge which hath come to thee, thou
follow their wishes, verily then wilt thou be
come of the unrighteous. They to whom we
have given the Scriptures know him — the
apostle — even as they know their own chil
dren : but truly a part of them do conceal
the truth, though acquainted with it. The
truth is from thy Lord. Be not then of those
who doubt. All have a quarter of the Hea
vens to which they turn them ; but wherever
ye be, hasten emulously after good : God will
KA'B IBN MALIK
one day bring you all together ; verily, God
U all-powerful. And from whatever place
thou comest forth, turn thy lace toward the
sacred. Mosque; for this is the truth from
thy Lord ; and God is not inattentive to your
doings* And from whatever place thou
comest forth, turn thy face toward the
sacred Mosque ; and wherever ye be, to that
part turn your faces, lest men have cause of
dispute agaia«t you : but as for the impious
among them, fear them not ; but fear me, that
I may perfect my favours on you, and that
ye may be guided aright."
The verses of the second Surah of the
Qur'an are, according to Jalalu 'd din and
other commentators, not in their chronological
order. It is therefore difficult to fix the pre
cise date of the following verse : —
Surah ii. 108: "Who is more unjust than
he who prohibits God's mosqiies, tuat His
name should not be worshipped there, and
who strives to ruin them."
According to al-fiaizawT, the verse either
refers to the sacking of Jerusalem by Titus,
or to the Q"urai»h who, at al-Hudaibiyah, had
prevented the Prophet from enterinafMakkah
until the following year.
in the seventh year of the Hijrah, Muham
mad was, according to the treaty with the
Quraish at al-Hudaibiyah in the previous
year, allowed to enter Makkah, and perform
the circuit of the Ka'bah. Hubal and the
other idols of the Arabian pantheon were
still within the sacred building, but, as Mu
hammad's visit was limited to three days,
he confined himself to the ordinary rites. o;
•the lUmrahi or visitation, without interfering
with the idolatrous arrangement of the Ka'bah
jtself. Before he left, at the hour of midday
prayer, Bilul ascended the holy house, and
from its summit gave the first -call to Mus
lim prayers, which weiw afterwards led by the
Prophet in the usual form.
The following, year Muhammad occupied
Makkah by force of arms. The idols in the
Ka'bah were destroyed, and tho rites of the
pilgrimage were established as by divino
enactment. From this time the history of
the Ka'bah becomes part of the history of
Islam.
The Kh>llfah 'Umar first built a mosque
round the Ka'bah, A.H. 17.
For a history of the sacred mosque at
Makkah, see MASJIDU 'L-HAKAM.
KAFIR
KA'B LBN MALIK (^
A companion of the Prophet
and one of tho Ansars of the tribe of Khazraj.
He WAS celebrated as a poet, and embraced
Islam after the second pledge of 'Akabah.
He was one of the three companions who re
fused to accompany Muhammad on tho expe
dition to Tabuk (Hilaf and Mararah being
the other two), and who are referred to in
the Qur'an, Surah ix. 118, 119: « Verily He
ift kind to them, unto the three who were
left behind." For a time Muhammad was
displeased with them, but he afterwards be
came reconciled. Ka'b became a companion
of soul*} note, and died during the reign oi 'AH
259
AL-KABIR (p&\). "The Great
One." One of the. ninety -nine attributes of
God, Surah xxxiv. 22 : " He is the High
(al-*AK) and the Great (al-Kabir)."
KABIRAH (V^> The fern, of
kablr, " great." A term used in theological
books for Gunah-i-Kabira/t. "a great sin";
namely, that sin which is clearly forbidden in
the law, and for which punishment has been
ordained of God. [SIM.]
KA'BIYAH (C*). A sect of
Muslims founded by Abu Qftaim Muhammad
ibn al-Ka'bi, who was a Mn't.azili of Bagdad,
who said the aete of God were without pur
pose, will, or desire.
KACHKUL (J>V)- Persian
(vulg. kachkot). The begging bowl of a reli
gion* mendicant. [
KAFAJLAH (flVtf). [BAIL.J
KAFAN (tftf). T/he shroud for
the dead. It usually consists of three pieces
of cloth for a man and five for a woman.
Those for a man : 1, An tzar, or piece of
cloth, reaching from the navel to the knees
or ankle joints ; 2. A qami?, or shirt, from the
neck to tin* knees ; 3, A sheet to cover the
whole corpse. For a vyoman there are
also a breast band and head band. The
whole being of white. [BURIAL.]
KAFFARAH ftUT), from Jcafr,
« to bide." Heb. Dn- Lit. " Co
verings ; atonements ; expiation."
The word occurs four times in the
Qur'an : —
Surah v. 49 : " Whoso remitteth it as alms
shall have expiation for his sins,"
Surah v. 91: "Its expiation shall I* to
feed ten persons." " This is the expiation for
your oaths."
Surah v. 96: -In expiation thereof sbalJ.yn
feed the poor."
The other word used is fidyak [PIOYAH].
The expression kajfaratu 'z-iunub, " atone
ment for sina," is used for expiation by
prayer, alms, fasting, and pilgrimage. [&x •
FIATION.]
AL-KAFI (o*.^)- "The 8uf-
ficient One." An attribute of God mentioned
in the Qur'an, Sarah xxxix. 37 : " Is rtot God
sufficient for His servant."
AL-KAFl (or^saV). The title of a
collection of traditions by Abu Ja'fai Muhaui-
mad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulfm (A.H. 328) received
by the Shl'ahs.
KAFIR (/tf), pi- 'kafirun.. Lit.
" The coverer. One who hide* or covers up
the truth.
The word is generally used by Muham
mad a ns to define one who is an unbeliever
in the ministry of Muhammad and his Qur'an,
and in this sense it seems to have been used
by Muhammad himself. Surah ii. 37:
'< Tho»e who misbelieve (wa'flasina kafaru),
260
KAFUR
and call our signs lies, they are fellows of the
Fire, they shall dwell within for ever."
It is also used for. those who believe in the
Divinity of the Lord Jesus, and the Holy
Trinity. Surah v. 76 : " They indeed are in
fldels (la-qad kafara 'llazina), who say God
is al-Masihu ibn Maryam. . , . Verily him
u-ho associates anything with God, hath God
verbidden Paradise, and his resort is the Fire."
Surah v. 77 : « They are infidels who say
Verily God is the third of three."
[On this passage the Kamalan say it re
fers to the Nestorians and to the Malaka'iyah,
who believe that God is one of three, the
other two being the mother and son.]
According to the Raddu 'l-Muhtdr (vol.
iii. p. 442), there are five classes ot kafira or
infidels : (1) Those who do not believe in the
Great First Cause; (2) Those who do not
believe in the Unity of God, as the Sanawi-
yah who belie\e in the two eternal principles
of light and darkness ; (3) Those who be
lieve in the Unity of God, but do not believe
\D a revelation ; (4) Those who are idolaters ;
(6) Those who believe in God and in a reve
lation, but do not believe in the general mis
sion of Muhammad to the whole of mankind,
as the Christiana, a sect of the Jews (sic).
Saiyid Sharif Jurjani says : " Mankind
are divided into two parties, namely, those
who acknowledge the mission of Muhammad,
ar those who do not believe in it. Those
who do not believe in his mission are either
those who reject it and jet believe in the in
spiration and divine mission of other pro
phets, as the Jews or Christians, and also
the Mamsl (Fire Worshippers) ; or those who
do not believe in any revelation of God's
will. Those who do not believe in any reve
lation from God, are either those who ac
knowledge the existence of God, s-s the
Brahma (Buddhists ?), or those who deny the
existence of a Supreme Ruler, as th« L>ahr\.
or Atheists/'
" Those who do not acknowledge Muham
mad as an inspired prophet are either those
who do it wilfully and from mere enmity, or
those who do not acknowledge it from rejec
tion and due ^tudy of the subject. For the
former is eternal punishment, and for the
latter that punishment which is not eternal.
There are also those who, whilst they are
Muslims, are not orthodox hi their belief;
these are heretics, but they are not kafirs.
Those who are orthodox are an-Naji or the
Salvationists." (Sharfru 'l-Muwdqif, p. 697.)
KAF0B Oy*). The unthankful,
or ungrateful. Condemned in the Qur'an,
Surah xxji. 30: "God loveth not the false,
the unthankful"
KAFtTR (jytf). LU. " Camphor."
A fountain in Paradise mentioned in the
Qur'an (Surah Ixxvi. 5) as the fountain where
of the servants of the Lord shall drink. But
al-Baizavri, the commentator, takes it for an
appellative, aud believes that the wine of Para
dise, will be mixed with camphor because of
its agreeable coolness and smell.
KALAMU 'LLAH
AL-KAHF («-*««*). "The Cave.
The title of the xvmth chapter of the Qur fcn,
in which is related the story of the Seven
Sleepers of Ephesus, known as the AsJiubu
KAHTN (($*&), pi. kakanah and
kuhhdn. A soothsayer, or augur. The word
occurs only twice in the Qur'au ; and in both
instances it is used for " a soothsayer."
Surah Iii. 29 : •« For thou (Muhammad), by
the favour of thy Lord, art neither a sooth
sayer (kahin), nor one possessed (majnuti)"
Surah Ixix. 42 : " Neither is it (the Qur'an)
the word of a soothsayer (kdhiri)."
The word is used in the Traditions in the
same sense only : —
MisltkM, book iv. chap. i. : " The Prophet
said, believe in Islam, and put not your trust
in soothsayers (kahanah)"
Mishkdt, book xxi. ch. ii. : " 'Ayislian re
lates that the Prophet wad asked about
kahanah.. fortune-tellers, and he said, ' You
must not believe anything they say.' It was
then said, <O Prophet, why do they then
sometimes tell lies ? ' And the Prophet said :
' Because one of the jinn steals away the
truth and carries it to the magician's ear, and
the magicians- (kuhhdn} mix a hundred lies
with it.' "
The Hebrew Kohain, Upevs, is
applied in the Old, Testament not only to the
Jewish priests, but also to Melchizedek
(Gen. xiv. IB), Polipber (Gen. xli. 45; see
marginal reading m our English version), and
to Jethro (Ex. ii. 10).
KAHRUBA (Vtjtf ) . Lit. " Attract-
ing Straws." Electricity, or the power of
attraction. A Sufi term.
KAIFIYAH (W). "Detailed
circumstances." A term used in Muhammadan
books for a statement or account of any-
kniflynt-\
moveable or accidental quality."
KA'LAH (fltf). A kind of sale
which is prohibited. Mishkdt, book xii. ch.
v. pt. 2 : " The Prophet has forbidden selling
on credit for credit."
'Abda '1-Haqq explains it thus : " If 'Amr
owe Zaid a piece of cloth, and Bakr ten dir*
hains, and Zaid say to Bakr, I have sold you
the piece of cloth, which is with 'Amr for ten
dirhatns "—this sale is forbidden.
KALAM (r^). " A word ; speech."
'//TTCM 'l-kalam, " scholastic theology ; fasihu
•l-kaldm, " eloquent " ; muha?$alu 'l-fcaldm,
"the substance of a discourse."
KALAMU 'LLAH (6^ ^). "The
Word of God." A. titla §fiven to the Qur'an.
Surah ii. 70 : " Already a sect of them have
heart! the Word of God"
KALIMAfl
KALIMAH (**K). Lit. "The
Word." The Greed of the Muslim.
din j^ JL*.^. 5^ !K AN 3
La lldha ilia 'lldhu : Muhammadun Rasulu
'Oak.
" There is no <Jeity but God : Muhammad is
fcho Apostle of God."
The whole sentence n.s it stands does not
occur in the Qur'an ; but fhe first part of the
creed, "There is no deity but God/' is in
the Siiratu Muhammad, or XLViith chapter of
the Qur'an, verse 21 ; and the second part,
•'Muhammad is the Apostle of God," is in the
Suratu '1-Fath, or XLvmth chapter, verse 29.
The first sentence is known as the Nafy and
the I$bdt, or the rejection (there is no deity}
and the affirmation (but God), and is recited
often as a religious office by the Sufi
faqirs.
The whole creod frequently occurs in the
Traditions, and is an oft-recurring clause in
the daily prayer.
This Kalimah occupies a similar place in
the Muslim religion to the *« Shvma' Israil" of
the Hebrew Bible in the Jews' religion. The
Shema1 (« Hear ") is the fourth verse -of Deut.
vi. : " Hear, O Israil, Jehovah our Elohlm is
one Jehovah" i which is frequently used in
daily morning and evening service of the
Jews. From the Traditions (Mislikat, book
xi. ch. 2, pt. J ) it appears that a something
similar to this well known symbol of the
Muslim creed, was in use amongst the ancient
Arabians, and is still recited by Muslims,
amongst whom it ia known as the J'albiyah :
" I stand up for Thy service, O God ! There
is no partner with Thee." [TALBIYAH.]
Tho recital of the kalimah is the first of
the five foundations or pillars of practice,
and, according to the Fawffidu 'sh-Shari'ak,
every Muslim should recite it aloud at least
once in his lifetime, and he should understand
its meaning. [BECITAI. OF THE CREED.]
KALIMATU 'L-HA£RAH (UK
tett). The fiat of God when He
said "Be," and it was created. The word
0& Join, is therefore called the KdUmatu V-
ffazrah. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah
xxxvi. 82: " Hia bidding is only when He
desires anything to say to it « BE,' and it is.*
And in about eleven other places.
KALIMATU 'SH-SHAHADAT
($oV^\ £*tf). "The word of testi
mony." The following expression of belief ;
" I bear witness that there is no deity but
God, and that Muhammad is His Apostle/'
[PRAYER.J
KALIMU 'LLAH (dlt ^). "The
Converser with God." A title given to the
Prophet Moses (vide Mishkat, book xxii. ch.
xu.). It is also referred to in the Qur'an. Surah
iv. 162: "Moses did God speak to— con
versing."
KALISAH, KILISAH (*~~tf)- A
Christian Church, 'E^A^ata- The word is
used in books of Muhammadan law for both.
KATIBU 'L-WAQIDI 261
Christian and Jewish places of worship. The
word kanisah is also used. [KAJUBAH.]
KAMIL (J-tf). "Perfect; coin-
plote." Al-Insdnu 'l-Kdm*/, " the perfect man."
A mystic term. [INSANU 'L-KAMIL.J
KAHILI YAH (A^Utf). A sect of
Shl'ah Muslims founded by Abu '1-Kamil, who
yaid the Asahib, or Companions of the Pro
phet, were infidels, because they rejected the
house of 'AH in forming the Khalifate, and
he even called the Khalifah 'All an infidel
because he did not claim his rights when Mu
hammad died. (Kitdbu 't-Ta'rlfdt, in loco.)
AN (eU^ ). « Canaan."
Not mentioned by name in the Qur'an. The
Commentators al-Baizawi and Jalalu M-din,
say he was the sou of Noah ; but the author of
the Qamus dictionary saya he was the son of
Shem, (According to the Old Testament, he
was the son of Ham. Gen. x. 6: 1 Chron
i. 8.)
He is said to be that son of Noah who was
drowned, through unbelief, in the deluge. See
Qur'an, Surah xi. 44. [NOAH.]
KAN1SAH
A Christian
ohurch, a Jewish synagogue, or a pagan
temple. It is used in the Hiddyah (voL ii
p. 219) for a synagogue. [CHUBCHES.]
AL-KANZU 'L-MAKBFI (yO\
J**^^. Lit. " The Secret Treasure."
A term used by the Sufis for the essence and
personality of God.
Persian. "A
caravan." The Arabic term, is Qdftlah. A
party of merchants proceeding on a journey
under the direction of a leader who is called
a Qafilah Bdshl.
KAEBALA' (*V)> or MASH-
HADU \L-HUSAIN. A city in al-'Iraq, cele
brated as the scene of the martyrdom of al-
Husain [AL-HUSAIN] and the place of his sepul
chre. It is fifty miles south-west of Baghdad,
and about six miles west of the Euphrates.
AL-KAKIM O/H). "The Gene-
rous One." One of the ninety-nine attributes
of God.
KARUBIN (^^/ ). [CHEBUBIM.]
KASHF («-AJ^). The uncovering
of anything covered; manifestation, A
mystic term used for a revelation of any
secret truth to the mind of man, by the grace
and power of God.
KAT1B (s-?tf). An Amanuensis ;
a clerk ; a secretary. In the latter sense it
is used for Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Man!'
az-Zuhri, the secretary to al-Waqidi. [KA
TIBU 'L-WAQIDI.J
KATIBU 'L - WAQIDI (s-M
tS^VO- The secretary of al-Waqidi.
A Mnslim historian, largely quoted by Sir
William Muir in his Life of Afahitmet, and
262
AL-KAUSAR
KHADIJAH
also by Sprenger, and of ten given as an autho
rity in the present work.
Mr. Ameer AH in his Life of Muhammad
(London, 1873), couples the name of Kdtibu
I- Waqidl with that of at- Wat]idl himself, as
regarded by " the Muliammadan as the least
trustworthy and roost careless biographers of
Muhammad," and quotes Ibn Khallikan in
Support of his opinion, .ft is quite true that
Ibn lihallikan does apeak of the traditions
received by al-Waqidl as "of feeble a utbo-
rity,*' but he bears testimony to the trust
worthiness ol al-Waqidis secretary in the
strongest terms, as will be seen in the fol
lowing quotation, and it ia manifestly unfair
of Mr. Ameer Ali to couple the two names
together in his preface : —
" Abu Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Saad
Ion IVfaa) az-Zuhri, was a man of the highest
talents, merit, and eminence. He lived for
some time with al-Wakidi [WAQIDI] in the
character of a secretary, and for this reason
he became known by the appellation of Kati-
bu-l-Wakidi. Amongst the masters, under
whom he studied was Sofyan Ibn Oyaina.
Traditional information was delivered on his
own authority by Abu Bakr Ibn Abid-
Puny& and Abd Muhammad al-H&rith Ibn
Abi Osama at-Tamiiui. He composed an ex
cellent work, in fifteen volumes, on the dif
ferent classes (iabakaf) of Muhammad's com
panions and of the Tabie. It contains also a
history of the khalifs brought down to his
own time. He left also & smaller TabaknL
His cliarar.ter as a veracious and trustworthy
historian is universally admitted. It is said
that the complete collection of al-Wakidi's
works remained in the possession of four
persons, the flrat of whom was his secretary,
Mnhaunmad ibn Saad. This distinguished
writer displayed great acquirements in the
sciences, the traditions, and traditional lite
rature ; most of hia books treat of the tradi
tions and law. The Khatib Abu Bakr, author
of the history of Baghdad, speaks of him in
these terms : ' We consider Muhammad ibn
Saad as a man of unimpeached integrity > and*
the Traditions which he delivered ore a" proof
of his veracity, for in the greater part of the
information handed down by him, we tind
him discussing it, passage by passage.' He
was a mawla (slave) to al-Husain Iba Abd
Allah Ibn Obaid Allah Ibn al- Abbas Ibn Abd
«l-Muttalib. He died at Baghdad on Sunday
the 4th of the hitter Jornada, A.H. 208 (De
cember, A.». 818), at the age of sixty-two
years, and was interred in the cemetery out
side the Damascus gato (Bab as-Sham.)"—
(Ibn Khallikan, Biog. Diet., in /oca)
AL-KAU8AR (/y^). Lit. " Abun
dance/' A pond in Muhammad's paradise
known as the Hanzu ft~Kau$ar, or " The
Pond of Abundance."'
The word occurs once in the Our'an. Surah
cviii. 1-3:— ,
Truly we have given thee an abun
dance (i.e. al-Kau£ar) •
Pray therefore to the Lord, and slay the
victims.
« Verily whoso hateth thee shall be child
less."
But it is not clear whether the pond is in
tended in this verse. Al-BaizawI thinks it
refers to abundance of blessings and not to
the poud.
Anas relates that the Prophet said the pro
phet saw the pond al-Kaugar in the night of
his Mi'raj or heavenly journey [MI'RAJ] and
that it " was a river of wa'ter on each side of
which ^here were domes, each formed of a
hollow pearl."
Abdu Hah ibti 'Amr relates that the Pro
phet said "the circumference of al-Kau^ar
is a month's journey, and it is a square, its
water whiter than milk, its smell sweeter
than musk, and its cnps for drinking sparklo
like the stars of heaven. He who drinks ot
its waters shall never thirst." (Mishlcat,
book xxiii. ch. xii.)
I^ABAR-I-WAHID
A terra used in the Traditions for a tradition
related by one person find handed down by
one chain of narrators, [TRADITION/]
f£fJABAR MUTAWATIR (^
yV*'*)' A- term used for a tra
dition which is handed down by very many
distinct chains of narrators, and which has
been always accepted as authentic and ge
nuine, no doubt over having been raised
against it.
Syud Ahmad Khan says all learned Mus
lims of every period have declared the Qur'an
is the only Hadig Mutavratir, but some have
declared certain Abadis also to be Muta-
watir, the number of such not exceeding five.
(Essay on the Traditions, $. 15.) [TRADI
TIONS.]
KHABlg (*~#&). "Impure;
base; wicked."
Quran viii. 33 : " That God may distin
guish the vile from the good, and may put
the vile one on the top of the other, and
heap all up together, and put them into hell."
KBADlJAH (**>..*.). Known as
Khadijafu 'l-Kubra, "Khadijah the Great."
The first wife of Muhammad, and the first
convert to a belief in his mission.
She was a Quraiah lady of good fortune,
the. daughter of Khawailid, who was the
great grandson of QUA aiy. Before she mar
ried Muhammad, she was a widow who had
been twice married, and had "borne two sons
and a daughter. Upon her marriage with
Muhammad, she had attained her fortieth
year, whilst he was only twenty-five years of
age. She continued to be his only wife until
the day of her death. She died December,
A.U. 619, aged 65; having been his coun
sellor and support-fbr five-and-twenty years.
She had borne Muhammad two sons and four
daughters; al-Qaaim, and 'Abdu 'Ilah. also
called ak-Taiyib and aj;-Tahir, Zainab, Ku^
qaiyah, Fatmiah, and Umm Kulsum. . Of
those, only Fatimah survived the Prophet,
and from her aod her husband 'Ali are de
scended that posterity of Saiyids who ate
KHAPI
the subjects of such frequent petitions in th
kljutbabs and the liturgical prayers in a
parts of the Muhammadan world.
Muhammad ever retained his affection fo
KJiadljah. 'Ayishah said : " I was never s
jealous of any one of the Prophet's wives a
I was of Khadtjah, although I uaver saw her
The Prophet was always talking of her, and h
would very often slay goats and cut them up
and send pieces of them as presents to Kha
dljah'a female friends. I often said to him
• On* might suppose there had not been sue!
another woman as Khadijah in the world !
And the Prophet would then praise hor and
say sho was so and so, and I had children by
her." (Miskkat, book xxix. ch. xxii.)
According to a traditional saying of Mu
hammad, Khadijah, Fajimah, the Virgin
Mary, and Asiyah the wife of Pharaoh, were
tbe four perfect women. (Miskkdt, book
xxiv. ch. xxix. pt. 2.) [MUHAMMAD.]
KHAFI (j*). "Hidden." A
term used in works on exegeais for that
which is hidden in its meaning, as compared
with that which is obvious. [QURAN.]
I3JAIBAR (^). A rich and
populous valley, eight stages from al-
Madlnah, inhabited by Jews. It is cele
brated in tbe history of Islam as the scene
of one of Muhammad's expeditions, A.n. 7,
when the chief Kinanah was slain and the
whole valley conquered. (See Mnir's Life of
Ma/tomet, new od., p. 388, «???.)
Here the Prophet instituted mut'ah, or
temporary marriage. [MUT'AH.] Here were
the special orders regarding clean and unclean
animals promulgated. Hare Muhammad
married Safiyah, the widow of the chief of
Khaibar. Here Zainab, the sister of the
warrior Marbab, who had lost her husband,
her father, and her brother in battle, tried
ko poison the Prophet with a poisoned kid.
The campaign of Khaibar, therefore, marks
an epoch in the Prophet's historv.
HAD.]
KHALIPAH
263
The plural
P* £%otr. " Charity ; good deeds." The
word occurs in the Qur'ftn in its singular
'orm (kkair), but in modern theological works
t is more frequently used in its plural
'orm.
KHAIRU 'L-QUR0N (gjjJt «*).
The best generations. A term used for the
Irtt three generations of Muslims from the
ime of the Prophet. Muhammad is related
o have said there would be three virtuous
[operations, the one in which he lived and
he two following it.
KBALFIYAH (*^). A *>ct of
•fuslims founded by Khalfu rl-Khariji, who
laintflined, contrary to the general belief,
bat the children of idolaters will be eter-
ally damned.
KHALID (AJW.). Son of al-Walid.
'he famous Muhammadan general. He
.night against Muhammad at Uhod and de-
feated the Muslim army. Tho Prophet mar-
nod Maimunah, who was an aunt to Khalid
a lady fifty-one years of age, and soon after
wards Khalid himself embraced Islam and
became ono of its most powerful champions.
He led the Bedouin converts in the advance
on Makkah, and was present as one of the
chief leaders of the Muslim army at the
battle of Hunain, and subsequent expeditions
In the i reign of Abu Bakr, he murdered
MaLk Ibu Nuwairah, an eminent Arab chief
and married hia widow. The murder greatly
displeased the Khallfah Abu Bakr, and he
would have ordered Khalid to be put to
death, but 'Umar interceded for him He
afterwards took the lead in various expedi
tions. He invaded al-'Iraq and Syria, took
Bustrah, defeated the Christians at Ajnadin,
commanded the Muslim army at Yarmuk, and
subdued the country as far as the Euphrates.
After the taking of Damascus, he was recalled
by 'Umar, and sent to Hhns and Ba'labakk
He died at Hima A.H. 18, A.D. 639.
^= — — •• \^j J) pJ. Ot. r±fi'-i*'Mi,t
Everlasting." A term used to express the
everlasting character of tne joys of heaven
and the torments of hell It is used fifty
times in the Qur'an in this sense. [ETERNAL
PUNISHMENT.]
KHALlFAH (&Jk), pi. Khulafa',
from khalf, "to leave behind. "~~Anglic<>,
"Caliph." A successor; a lieutenant; a
vicegerent, or deputy. The word is used in
the Quran for Adam, as the vicegerent of the
Almighty on earth.
Surah ii. 28 : " And when thy Lord said
to the angels, ' I am about to place a vice
gerent (ktutlifa/i) on the earth,' they said,
' Wilt Thou placo therein one who will do
evil therein and shod blood ? ' "
And also for David :—
Surah xxxviii. 25: "0 David! verily We
have made thee a vicegerent (£//«///«/<) ;
judge then between men with truth/"
In Mulyammadanism it is the title giveu
to the successor of Muhammad, who is vested
with absolute authority in all matters of
state, both civil and religions, as long aa he
rules in conformity with the law of the Qur'an
and Hadis. Tho word more frequently used
for the office in Muhammadan works of ju-
isprudence, is Imam (leader), or al-fmamn
l-A'zam (the great leader). It is held to be
an essential principle in the establishment of
he office, that there shall be only one Kha 1 if ah
at the same time; for the Prophet said:
' When two Khalifahs have been set up, put
;he last to death and preserve the other, for
he last is a rebel." (Mishkat, book xvi
h. i.)
According to all SunnI Muhamniadan
)ooks, it is absolutely necessary that .the
Chalifah be " a man, an adult, a sane person,
free man, a learned divine, a powerful ruler,
just person, and one of the Quraish (i.e. of
;ho tribe to which the Prophet himself be-
ouged).
The Shrahs hold that he should be one of
ie descendants f>f th» Prophet's own family ;
264
KHALIFAH
but this is rejected by the Sunnis and Wah-
habis.
The condition that the Khalif ah should be
of the Quraish is very important, for thereby
the present Ottoman Sultans fail to establish
their claims to the Khalifate (Arabic Khildfati).
The f oxir immediate successors of Muhammad
are entitled the Khnlafffu 'r-Rdshidun, or " the
well-directed Khalifahs," According to -the
Baghyatu V-jftatW, only the first five Khail-
fahs, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Usman, 'All, and al-
Hasan, are entitled to the distinction of Kha-
iifah, the others being merely Amirsi or
Governors. After the deaths of the first five
Khallfahs, the Khalifate, which is allowed by
all parties to be elective and not hereditary,
passed successively to the Umayades (Banu
t/wawoA), The first Khalifah of this dynasty
WAS Mu'awiyah, the grandson of Umaiyah of
the Quraish tribe, who received the Khalifate
from al-Hasan. Of the Umayades, there
were fourteen Khallfahs who reigned at
Damascus, extending over a period from A.H.
41 to A.H. 132 (A.D. 661 to A.D. 750). The
title then passed to Abu 1-' Abbas, the fourth
in descent from al-' Abbas, the uncle of Mti-
hammad, arid the Abbaside Khalifahs, thirty-
seven- in number, who reigned at Baghdad
from A.H. 132 to A.H. 656 (A.D. 750 to A.D.
1258).
The temporal power of tha Abbaside Kha
llfahs was overthrown byllaiak Khan, grand
son of the celebrated Chenjiz Kkan, A.D.
1258 ; but for three centuries, certain de
scendants of the Abbaside, or Baghdad
Khal if ahs, resided in Egypt, and asserted their
claim to the spiritual power. The founder
of the present dynasty of Turkish Sultans
was 'Usman (Othman), a chieftain descended
f-rom the Orghuz Turks (born at Sakut, A.D.
1259), who was at first the ruler of a small ter
ritory in Bithynia, bat who in 1299 invaded the
whole country of Makkah,.and subsequently
extended his conquests to the Black , Sea,
and whose successor, Salim (ninth in descent),
obtained the title of Khalifah from one of
the Abbaside Khalifahs in Egypt- About
the year A.D. 1515 (A.H. 921), Salim I., ruler
of the Ottoman Turks and Emperor of Con
stantinople, finding himself the most powerful
prince of his day in Islam, and wishing still
further to consolidate his rule, conceived the
idea of reviving in his own person the ex
tinct glories of the Khallfato. He had more
than one claim to be considered their cham-1
pion by orthodox Muhamiuadans, for be was
the grandson of that Muhammad Ii, who had
finally extinguished the Roman Empire of
the East ; and he had himself just ended a
successful campaign against the heretical
Shah of Persia. His only rivals among Sunm
princes "were the Muslim Emperors in India,
the Emperor of Morocco, and the Mameluke
rnlor of Egypt, then known to the world aa
par excellence, "' the Sultan." With the two
former, as rulers of what were remote lands
of Islam, Salim seems to have troubled him
self tittle, but he made war on Egypt. In
A.D. 1516 he invaded Syria, its outlying pro
vince, and hi A.D. 1617 he entered Cairo.
KHALIFAH
There he made prisoner the reigning Mame
luke. Qansau 'l-£5hauri, and had him publicly
beheaded.
He then, in virtue of a very doubtful ces
sion, made to him of his rights by one Mu-
tawakkil Ibn 'Arnri '1-Hakim, a descendant
of the house of al-' Abbas, whom he found
living as titular Khalifah in Cairo, took to
himself, the following style and title : Sultdnu
's-Saldtin wa Hdkimu 'l-Hdkimln, Maliku 'l-
Bahrain wa Hdrnlyu 'l-Barrain, Khallfatu
'r-Rasuf.t 'lldh, Amlru '/-.Mtt'iHtmn, wa SvJ-tan,
wa Khdn ; that is : " King of kings and Ruler
of rulers, Monarch of the two seas (the Me
diterranean and the Red Sea) and Protector
of the two lands (al-Hijaz and Syria, the
holy lands of Islam), Successor (Khalifah) of
the Apostle of God, Ruler of the Faithful,
King and Chief." It is said that he first had
the satisfaction of hearing his name men
tioned in the public prayers as Khalffah
when he visited the Great Mosque of Zacha-
rias at Aleppo, on his return northwards in
1519.
Such are the titles still claimed by the
Ottoman Sultans, who arrogate to themselves
the position of Khalif ahs and Successors to
the Prophet. It is, however, a mere asser
tion ; for the title and office being elective
and not hereditary, it was not iu the power
of any Khalifah to transfer it to another.
Force of circumstances alone has compelled
the ruier of the Ottoman Empire to assume
the position, and has Induced his subjects to
acquiesce in the usurpation. We have not
seen a single work of authority, nor n;ot
with a single man of learning, attempting to
prove that the Sultans of Turkey are rightful
Khalif ahe -, for the assumption of the title by
anyone who is not of the Quraiah tribe is
undoubtedly illegal and heretical, as wil3 be
seen from the following authorities*. —
Mishtcatu *l-Masdbihy book Jtxiv. cb. xii. :
*' Ibn *Amr relates that the Prophet of God
said : • The Khalifah shall foe in the Quraish
tribe as long as there are two persons iu it,
one 10 rule and another to serve.' ''
Sharhu 'l-Muwaqif, p. 606, Arabic edition,
Egypt; " It is a condition that the Khalifah
(Iinam) be of the Quraish tribe. All admit!
this except the KJbajvarij and certain MYrtft-
zilsihs. We all say with tho Prophet : i L*t the<
Khalifah be of the Quraiab ' ; and it is cer
tain that the Companions acted upon this in-
junction, for Abu Bakr urged it as an nutho->
rity upon the Ansars, on the day [of Sakhil'ub.
when the Companions were present an«L
agreed. It is, therefore, for a certainty]
established that the Khalifah must be of thai
Quraish."
The Hujjatu 'Udhi 'I- Baldyhfih, p. 336.
Arabic edition, Delhi : •< It is a necessary
condition that the Khalifah (Imam) be' «
the Quraish tribe."
The Kastfhdfn V fftildhdt ; A Dif.tionar\
of Technical Ter ns.- Edited by Colonel tf
Lees, in loco : »* The Khalifah (Imam) must
be a Quraish,"
It is a matter of history that the Wahhabif
regarded the Turkish Sultan as a usurper
KHALIFA H
KriAUFAH
266
when Sa'ud took MakkaU and al-Madiaah in
1804; and to the present day, in countries
not under Turkish rule, the khutbah is re
cited in behalf of the Amir, or ruler of the
Muslim state, instead of the Ottoman Sulfcan,
which would not be the case if he were ac
knowledged as a lawful Kballfah. In a col
lection of khutbahs, entitled the Mujina'u
Kfrutah, the nanm of the Sultan of Turkey
does not once occur, although '"his collection
ts much uHod in Muhamraadan states. We
have seen it stated that tho Sulfcun is prayed
for in Hyderabad and Bengal; bat wo be
lieve it will he found, upon careful inquiry,
tluit he was not mentioned by name, until
very recently, in any of the rnosques of India,
khutbahs, in which there are prayers for the
Ottoman Sultan by name, have been im-
p'»rted from Constantinople.
According to Mr. W. S. Blunt, the chief
arguments of the Hanifite 'Ulama' in sup
port of the claims of the present Ottoman
dynasty are :--
(1) The right of the Sword. — The Khallfate
being a necessity (and this all Muslims
admit), it was also a necessity that the de
facto holder of the title should be recognised
until a claimant with i; better title should
appear. Now, the firs' qualification of a
claimant was, that h? ^hculd make the claim,
and tho second, that he should be supported
by u party: and Salim had both claimed the
Khallfate and supported his pretensions at
the head of an army. He challenged the
•world to produce a rival, and no rival had
been found.
(2) Election, that is, the sanction of a legal
body of elders. It was argued that, as the
akin -n'/tJ (or r.ouncil), had been removed
from al-Madinah to Damascus, and from
Damascus to Baghdad, and from Baghdad
to Cairo, so it had been once more legally
removed from Cairo to Constantinople.
Salim had brought with him to St. Sophia's
some of the 'Ulama' (learned men) of the
Azhar mo«que in Cairo, and those in conjunc
tion with the Turkish -Ulauia had elected
him or ratified his election. A form of elec
tion is to tho present da.y observed at Con
stantinople in token of thiy right, and each
new Sultan of the house <»f 'Usman, as he
succeeds to tbe temporal sovereignty of
Turkey, must wait before being recognised
as TChalifah till he has received the sword of
cilice at the hands of the 'Ulama'. This cere
mony it i.s customary to perform in the
mo.sque of A.yfib.
(3) Nomination, — Sultan Salim, aa hae boen
already (sjiid, obtained from Mtitawakkil, u
descendant ot the Abbasidus, and hi.nself
titularly Kii-iUfob, a full cession of all the
Khalifah rights of that family. The fact, as
fares it goes, is historical, and the only flaw
in the argument would seem to be that Mu-
tawukkil had no right thus to dispu.se of a
title to an alien, wliioh was his own only in
virtue of hit-' birth. As a prccodout for nomi
nation, they cito the act of Abu Bakr, who
on his death-bed recommended 'Umar as his
successor in the Khallfate.
(4> The. Guardianship of the Tn><>
(//on/man), that ia to say, of Makkah aud
Jerusalem, but especially of Makkah. It has
been asserted by some of the 'Ulama , aud it
is certainly a common opinion at the present
day. that the sovereignty of al-Hijuz is in
itself sufficient title to tbe Khallfate. It
seems certainly to have benn so considered
in the first age of Islutn, and iuan . a bloody
WMT was then fought for the right of protect
ing the Baitv 'Huh, but. the connection of a!-
Hijaz with the empire of the Khalifa h.s liaa
been too "tten broker to make this a very
tenuhl^ argument. In tbe tenth century,
Makkah * is held by the Karuiathian here
tics, in the thirteenth by the Imams of §an'a\
and for sevtm years in the present century by
tbe WahhabTs. StilJ the dt facto sovereignty
of the Haramain, or two sbrir^s, was one of
Salim'u pleas: and it is one whicfi h.-vs reap
peared in modern arguments respecting the
Khalifal rights of his descendants,
(5) Possession, uf ike Amdnat, or sacred
relics. This last is a plea addressed to the
vulgar rather thai to tho learned; but it is
one which cannot be passed by unnoticed
here, tor it exercises a powerful influence at
tho present day over the ignorant mass of
Muslims. It was asserted, and is still a pious
belief, that from the sack of Baghdad in
A.D. 1268, certain relicts of the Piophet and
his Companions were saved and brought to
Cairo, and thence transferred by Saliin to
Constantinople. These wore represented as
constituting' the imperial insignia of office, and
their possession as giving a title to the suc
cession. They consisted of the cloak of the
Prophet, borne by his .soldiers as a standard,
of some hairs of the Prophet's beard, and of
the sword oi 'Umar. The vulgar still believe
them to be preserved in the mosque of Aiyub
at Constantinople. (See The Future of Islam,
by Wilirid Scawen. Blunt, London, 1862,
p. 66.J)
On th« general question as iu whether or
not an Imam, or Khalifah, is necessary for
Islam, the author of the Sharfm '/.-Mutrdqif
says, •* The appointment of an Imam (/.'•.
Khalifah) is incumbent upon the united body
of Muslims, according to the orthodox IHK of
the Sunnis, although the Mu-ta/.ilalis and
Zaidiyahs say it in merely expedient, but not
ordered by the law, whilst the IflbmaiHyahs
and the Imamiyahs say God will Himself ap
point an Imam for the establishment of sound
doctrine. Some say the appointment of an
Imam is oily necessary when Muslims ar«
at peace amongst themselves and united, and
nol when they are in a state of rebellion.
The arguments in favour of the absolnt«
necessity of an luufxm, or Kballfah, being
, are that in the time of Abu Bakr,
the first Khalifah, it was established by
general consent; and Abu Bakr, in Ins first
khufcbah after the death of Muhammad, said :
" Beware! Muhammad is certainly d^nd, and
it is necessary for this religion that some
one should be appointed for its protection."
And all tho Muslims at that time consented
to tins saymg of Abu Bakr, and consequently
34
266
KHALIFAS
in all ages Muslims have had an Imam. And
it is well known that without such an officer
Islam cannot be protected from evil, for
without him it is impossible to maintain the
orders of the Muslim law, such as marriage,
Jihad, punishment, and the various ordinances
of Islam. (Sharhu 'l-Muwaqif, p. 603.)
The following are some of the injunctions
of Muhammad regarding the Imam or Kha-
lif ah :—
" When two Khalifahs have been set- up,
put the last of them to death and preserve
the other, for the second is a rebel."
"He who acknowledges an Imam must
obey him as far as he can, and if a pretender
comes, kill him."
" Whomever God appoints as Imam, and he
does not protect his people, shall never smell
the smells of paradise."
"It is indispensable for every Muslim to
listen to, and approve the orders of the Imam,
whether he likes or dislikes, so long as he is
not ordered to sin arid act contrary to law ;
then when he is ordered to sin, he must
neither attend to it nor obey it."
" Whoever quits obedience to the Imam
and divides a body of Muslims, dies like the
people in ignorance: and whoever takes a part
in an affray, without knowing the true from
the false, does not fight to show his religion,
but to aid oppression ; and if he is slain, then
he dies as the people of ignorance ; and that
person who shall draw his sword upon my
people, and kill the virtuous and the vicious,
and not fear the killing of Muslims or those
protected by them, is not of me nor am I of
him."
" The Companions said. ' 0 Prophet ! when
they are cur enemies and we theirs, may
we not light with them?' He said, 'No,
so long as they keep on foot the prayers
amongst you ' ; this he repeated, * Beware !
he who shall be constituted your prince, see
if he does anything in disobedience to God ;
and if he does, hold it in displeasure, but do
not withdraw yourselves from his obedience."
" He who forsakes obedience to the Imam,
will come before God on the Day of Remirrec-
tion without a proof of his faith : and he
who dies without having professed to the
Imam, dies as the people of ignorance."
" Prophets were the governors of the chil
dren of Israel; when one died, another supplied
his place; and verily there is no prophet
after me, and the time is near when there
will be after me a great many Khalifahs.
The Companions said, * Then what do you
order us ? ' The Prophet said, ' Obey the
Khallfah, and give him his due; for verily
God will ask about the duty of the subject.' "
u Beware ! you are all guardians, and you
will all be asked about your subjects ; then
the Imam is the guardian of the subject, and
he will be asked respecting tho subject j and
a man is as a shepherd to htfi own family,
rtnd will be asked how they behaved, and his
conduct to them : and a wife is a guardian
to her husband's house and children, and
>vill be interrogated about them ; and a slave
is a shepherd to his master's property, and
KHALIFAH
will be asked about it whether he took good
care of it or not."
" God never sent any prophet, nor ever
made any Khalifah, but had two counsellors
with him ; one of them directing lawful
deeds, and that is an angel, and the other,
in sin, and that is the devil ; and he ia guarded
from sin whom God has guarded." (Alishkdt,
book xvi. ch. i.)
I. — The Khalifahs of the Sunnis> from the
death of Muhammad to the present time.
(1) The four rightly directed Khalifahs,
and al-Hasan (at Makkah) : —
1. Abu Bakr, A.H. 11 (A.D. 632).
(Collected the Qur'an into one volume.)
2. 'Umar, A.H. 13 (A.D. 634).
(Conquered Egypt, Syria, and Persia.)
3. 'Uwman, A.H. 23 (A.D. 643).
(Invades Cyprus ; revolt at ai-Kufah.)
4. 'Ali, A.H. 35 (A.D. 655).
(Revolt of Mu'awiyah: 'All assas
sinated.)
5. Al-Hasan, A.H. 40 (A.D. 660).
(Resigns; poisoned.)
(2) Umaiyade dynasty. The Banu Umai-
yah (at Damascus) : —
1. Mu'awiyah I., A.H. 41 (A.D. 661).
(Siege of Constantinople ; makes Da
mascus the capital.)
2. Yazid I., A.H. 60 (A.D. 679).
(Destruction of al-Husain's party and
his death.)
3. Mu'awiyah H., A.H. 64. (A.D. 683).
(Deposed.)
4. Marwan I., A.H. 64 (A.D. 683).
(Poisoned.)
5. <Abdu '1-Malik, A.H. 65 (A.D. 684).
(Arabian money first coined.)
6. Al-Walid I., A.H. 86 (A.D. 705).
(Conquest of Africa, Spain, Bukharah.)
7. Sulaiman, A.H. »<> (A.D. 715).
(Defeated before Constantinople; dies
of grief.)
8. 'Uniar (Omer). A.H. 99 (A.D. 717).
(Poisoned.)
9. Yazid II., A.H. 101 (A.D. 720).
(His generals successful in war.)
10. Hisham, A.H. 105 (A.D. 724).
(Charles M&rtel cheeks the conquest of
the Arabs in the West; rise of the
Abbasides.)
11. Al-Walid 11., A.H. 125 (A.D. 743>
(Slain by conspirators.)
12. Yazid JIL, A.H. 120 (A.D. 744).
(Died of the plague.)
13. Ibrahim, A.H. 126 (A.D. 744).
(Deposed.)
Ik Marwan, A.H. 127 (A.D. 744).
(Defeated by the Abbasides, pursued
to Ej^ypt, and slain on the banks of the
Nile.)
The end of the Uinayah dynasty, A.H. 132
(A.D. 749).
(3) The Abbaside dynasty. Ad-Daulatu 'l-
'AbbasTyah (at Baghdad and Saumara).
1. Aba V Abbas as-Saff ah, A.H. 132(A.D. 750).
(Resides at al-Kfifah.)
2. Al-Mansur, A.H. 136 (A.D. 754).
(A bdu Y-Rahman, the TJmaiyah Kha-
Hfah seizes Spain ; Baghdad founded).
KHALIFAH
8. Al-Mahdl, A.H. 158 (A.D. 775).
(Conquers Nicomedia on Sea of Mar
mora, making the Empress Irene pay
tribute.)
4. Al-HadI, A.H, 169 (A.D. 785).
5. Harunu 'r-Rashld, A.H. 170 (A.H. 786).
(The hero of Arabian Nights ; a flou
rishing period of Arabian literature.)
6. Al-Amln, A.H. 193 (A.D. 809).
7. Al-Ma'mun, A.H. 198 (A.D. 813).
(The Augustan period of Arabian
letters.)
8. Al-Mu'tagim, A.H. 218 (A. D. 833).
(Makes the city of Saumara his
capital ; decline of the Khali fate.)
9. Al-Waaiq, A.H. 227 (A.D. 841).
10. Al-Mutawakkil, A.n. 232 (A.D. 847).
(A persecutor of the Jews and Chris
tians ; murdered.)
11. Al-Muntasir, A H. 247 (A.D. 861).
12. Al-Muata'In, A.H. 248 (A.D. 8«2).
18. Al-Mu'tazz, A.H. 252 (A.D. 8GO).
14. Al-Muhtadi, A.A. 255 (A.D. 869).
15. Al-Mu'tamid, A.H. 256 (A.D. 870).
(Re-establishes the capital at Baghdad.)
16. Mu'tazid, A.H. 279 (A.D. 892)
(Conquers Persia; Ismail Samain
seizes Turkistan from the Khalifah.)
17. Al-Muktafi I., A.H. 289 (A.D. 902).
(Ismail Samain seizes Persia from the
Khalifah.)
18. Al-Muqtadir, A.H. 295 (A.D. DOS).
(The Faljimites in Egypt.)
19. Al-Qahir, A.H. 320 (A.D. 932),
(Blinded and deposed.)
20. Ar-Razi, A.H. 322 (A.D. 934).
(The last of the Khalifahs who ever
recited the khutbah.)
21. Al-Muttaqi, A.H. 329 (A.D. 940).
(Decline of the Abbasides.)
22. Al-Mustakfi, A.H. 333 (A.D. 944).
23. Al-Mutr, A.H. 334 (A.D. 945).
(The Fatimate Khalifahs seize all
North Africa and Egypt.)
24. AtrTai', A.H. 363 (A.D. 974).
(Deposed.)
25. Al-Qadir, A.H. 381 (A.D. 991).
(Mahmud of Qliazni conquers India.)
26. Al-Qa'im, A.H. 422 (A.D. 1031).
(Rise of the Seljukian Turks.)
27. Al-Muqtadi, A.H. 467 (A.D. 1075).
(The first crusade; rise of Hasan
Jubah, and his followers the Assassins.)
28. Al-Musta'zir, A.H. 487 (A.D. 1094).
(Jerusalem taken by the Fatimites.j
29. Al-Mustarshid,A.H. 512 (A.D. 1118).
(Murdered by the Assassins.)
30. Ar-Rashid, A.H. 529 (A.D. 1186).
(Murdered by the Assassins.)
81. Al-MuktafI II., A.H. 630 (A.D. 1136).
(Defeated by the Turks ; second
crusade, A.D. 1146.)
82. Al-Mustanjid, A.H. 555 (A.D. 1160).
^Disorders in Persia.)
33. Al-Mustahdl, A.H. 566 (A.D. 1170).
(Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt, con
quers Syria.)
34. An-Naair, A.H. 575 (A.D. 1180).
(Conquests of Jengiz Khan ; third
crusade, A.D. 1189.)
KHALIFAH
267
35. Arfahir, A.H. 622 (A.D. 1226).
36. Al-Mustansir, A.H. 623 (A.D. 1226).
(Persia subject to the Moghula.)
37. Al-Musta'sim, A.H. 640 (A.D. 1240).
(Halaku, the Turk, a grandson of
Jengiz Khan, takes Baghdad and puts
the Khalifah to death, A.H. 656 (A.D. 1258).
The uncle of the last Khalifah goes to
E#ypt» while the Khalifcite continues
only as a spiritual power.
(4) The 'ITsman, or Turk Dynasty (at
Constantinople).
1. 'Usman I. (Othman), A.D. 1299.
2. Urkjjan, A.D. 1326.
3. Muvad (Arnurath), A.D. 1360.
4. Bayazld I., AD. 1889.
5. Sulaiman I., A.D. 1402.
6. Mfisa, A.D. 1410.
7. Muhammad I., A.D. 1413.
8. Murad II., A.D. 1421.
9. Muhammad II., A.D. 1451.
10. Bayazld II., A.D. 1481.
11. Salim I. (Selim), A.D. 1512.
(Assumes the title of Khalifah.)
12. Sulaiman II., A.D. 1520.
13. Salmi II., A.D. 1566.
14. Murad III., A.D. 1574.
15. Muhammad III.. A.D. 1595.
16. Ahmad L, A.D. 1603.
17. Mustafa L, A.D. 1617.
(Deposed in favour of his nephew.)
18. 'Usman II., A.D. 1618.
19. Mustafa I , A.D. 1622.
(Restored and again deposed.)
20. Murad IV., A.D. 1623.
21. Ibrahim, A.D. 1640.
22. Muhammad IV., A.D. 1649.
•23. Sulaiman HI., A.D. 1687.
24. Ahmad II., A.D. 1691.
25. Mustafa II., A.D. 1695.
26. Ahmad III, A.D. 1703.
27. Mahmud L, A.D. 1730.
28. 'Uwinan IIL, A D. 1754.
29. Musfcafa HI., A.D. 1757.
30. 'Abdu 'i-Hamld L, 1774.
31. Salim nil, A.D 1788.
32. Mustafa IV., A.D. 1807.
33. Mahmud II., 1808.
34. 'Abdu '1-MajId, A.D. 1839.
35. 'Abdu VAziz, A.D. 1861.
36. Murad V., A.D. 1870.
37. 'Abdu 'I-Harnid, A.D. 1876.
II. — The ShVahs only regard those as
rightful Imams (they do not use the word
Khalifah} who are descended from 'All (the
son-in-law of the Prophet) and his wifo Fi-
tiinah. the Prophet's daughter. According
to their traditions, Muhammad distinctly
nominated 'All as his succoj;.sor when ho waa
returning from his farewell pilgrimage. They
say, that on his way to al-Madinah, the Pro
phet, with 'All and certain other of the Com
panions stayed at ji place called Qhadin-i-
Khum. And that it was here revealed by
Gabriel that he should nominate 'All a» his
successor. He is related to have said, «• O
ye people, I am your Prophet and 'All !H my
successor. From us (i.e. 'All and my
daughter) shall descend al-Muhdi, the seal
268
KHALIFAH
KHALIFAH
of the Imams." (Bee Hayuiu. 7-Qw/«6, p.
334.)
According to. the Shi'ahs, there have only
been twelve Uwftii Imams .—
1. 'Ali, son-in-law of Muhammad,
2. A I -H asan, eldest son of ' All and Fathnah.
3. Al~Hnsain, the second son of <AIi and
Fatimah.
, 4. Zainu VAWdln, son of ai-Husain.
5. Muhammad ai-Baqir, son of Zainu '1-
'Abidiu
6. Ja'faru 'n-Sadiq. son of Muhammad al-
Bftqiiv
7. Musa 'l-KJigim, son of Ja'far.
8. 'All ar-U»5(;a. son of Milga.
9. Muhammad at-Taqi, sou of <Ah ar Raza
10 'All an-Naqi, soa ot at-Ta.|7.
11. Al-Hasan al-'Askari, son ol 'All.
12. Muhtuuinad, son of al- Askari, or the
Imam MafulT, who is supposed to be still
alive, alih >ugh he has withdrawn himself
from the world, and that he will appear
again as al-Mahdi, the Director, in the last
days. [<i U-MAMDI. ]
TheKmgs of Persia havo never claimed to be
in any aeuSe Uie successors of the Prophet.
Sultan Mahmud 'Abdu 'Hah (A.H. 70<», A.D.
1306), was the lirst monarch of Persia who
proclaimed himself a Shrah.
111.— The Fatiniidf Khcdifahs were a dy
nasty who claimed the Khalifate in the reign
of the Abbaside Khali/ah Muqtadir, their
founder, 'Lfbaidu 'Hah, pretending to be al-
Mahdi, -( The Director,'' and a descendant of
Fatimah, the daughter '»f the Prophet. They
reigned over Egypt and North Africa from
A.D. 910 to A.D. 1171, and were in all fourteen
Khallfahs.
1. 'TJhaidu 'Hah. A.U. 91.0.
(Ravaged the coasts of iKly and
invaded Egypt several times.)
2. Al-Qa'im,A.D. 93o.
3. Al-Manaur, A.D. 940.
4. Al-Mu'izz, A.I>. »5n
(Establislied the Khalifate of the Fa-
tiinides in Egypt : defeated in Spain ;
took Sicily ; founded Cairo ; conquered
Syria and Palestine.;
5. Al-;Az"u, A.D. 978.
(Married a Christian woman, whose
brothel's he made Patriarchs of Alexan
dria arid Jerusalem. xi
<], Al-Hakiun, A.D. 996,
(Persecuted Jews and Christians.)
7. Az-^ahir, A.D. 1021.
(The power of the Fatiinides declines.)
8. Al-Mustanair, A.D. 1037.
(The rise of the Turk a.)
9. Al-Musta'li, A.I>. 1094.
(Defeated by the Crusaders. )
10. Al-Amir. A.D. 1101..
11. AI-Hatiz, A.D. 1129.
12. Az-Zafn. A,D. 1149.
13. Al-Faiz, A.D. 1154.
14. Al-Azid, A.D. 1160.
('The last of the Fathnide Kjinlifahs.
His Wazijf, Nuru .'d-din. on the death of
his mastpr, submits to the Abbaside
Kbalifah Mustahdi, A.D. 1J7J.)
[F ATI Mir AH ]
IV, — The, Khalifate oj Cordova in Spain
wa« founded by a descendant of the deposed
Umaiyah dynasty, 'Abdu 'r Bahinao »bn
Mu;awiyah. Muslim Amirs had ruled at
Cordova from A.I>. 711, when Tarik and Musft
came over froui Africa aud invaded iSpain.
But 'Abdu 'r-Rahtnan was the first to assume
the title of Khali'fah.
The following is a list of the J&hallfahs of
Cordova and Granada from A.D. 755 to tbe
fall of Granada, A.D. 1492 :-»
1. lAbdu T-Rahpianl ., A.D. 755
(Cordova embellished and the Mazquita
erected.)
2. Hiftham I., A.D. 786.
3. 'Abdu 'r-Eahman II., A.D. 786.
4. Ai-llakam L, A.D. 796.
(Surnamed (t The Cruel."Jl
5. (Abdu 'r -Rahman 111., A.D. 82.1.
(Christians persecuted.)
C. Muhammad I., A.D. 862.
(Alfonso the Great obtains victories.)
7. Al-Munayyir, A.D. &<(>.
8. 'Abdu '11 ab. AD. 888,
(Flourishing period of literature acd
science at Cordova.)
9. 'Abdu V-Rahrmln IV., A.D. 912.
(fhc heroic age of Spain.)
10. Al-Hakam ll., A.D. i^i.'
11. Hi sham II.. A.D. 976.
12. Sulairafin, A.D. 1012.
' Defeated and executed by 'Ah.)
J3. 'AIT, A.D. 1016.
14. 'Abdu r-Kahiuan V., A.D, 1017.
16. Al-Qasun, A.U. 1018.
1G. 'Abdn 'r- Rahman VI.. A.D. 1023
17 Muhajnmad II., A.D. 10^.
18. Hisliam III., A.D. 1026.
(Esteemed for his equitable and hu
mane government.)
19. JawShir, A.D. 1081.
20. Muhammad IH., A.D. 1044.
21. Muhammad F?., A.U. 10M.
22. Muhammad V., A.J>. 10*59.
(Siog-e of Toledo, A.D. 1082.)
23. Yftsuf I., A.D. 1094.
24 'AIT. A.O. 1107.
25. Tashifln, A.D. lilt.
2fi. 'Abdu '1-Mnn'iui, A.D. 1147.
?;/. Yudui 11., jL.it. 1103.
28. Ya-qub 1., A.O. 1 178.
29. Muhammad VI., A.I>. UqO.
30. Ya'qub 11., A.D. 1213.
31. Abu Ya'qub, A.r>. 1213.
32. Abu Malik. A.D. 1223.
33. Al-Ma'nim, A.D 1225.
(Died in Morocco.)
34. Abu 'Ali, A.D. 1226.
(Cordova surprised by Ferdinand ol
Leon and Castile, and Taken. The i:aJl
of tbe Khalifate of Cordova. A.D. 1236.
A Khalifate established by the Moors- at
Granada.)
The K.hyt~ifah^i or /Saftdns of Granada,
85 MuhamiJtiad I., A a
(Encourages literaiun-.'.;
3G. Muhtaxmiad II., A.O. 1273.
37. Muhammad III, A.D.
KHALILU 'LLAH
38. An-Nasir, A.IX IK09.
89. Ljirm'il I., A.D. 1313.
40. Muhammad IV., A.D. 1325.
41. Yusnf I., A.'). 133:4.
42. Muhammad V., A.D. 1864.
43. Isma-il II., A.D. 1359.
44. Abu Sa'id, A.D. liJGO.
45. Ytisnf IL, A.D. 1301.
46. Muhammad VI., A.D. 1396.
47. Yumif UJ., A.D. 140».
48. Muhammad Vll., A.D. 1428.
49. MuhmnmRrf VIIL., A.D. 1427.
50. Matummad VII. (restored), A.D. 1429.
M. Yfla'ttf IV.. A.D. 1432.
52. Muhammad VII. (again restored), A.D.
1432.
58. MiiWmnad IX., A.D. 1445.
')4. Mnhaummd X., A.D. 1454.
5V AH, A.D. 14fi3.
60. Atiii -\bdi 'llfih, A.D. 1488.
57 -Abdu "Ilah uz-ZaggaL A.D! 1484.
(The fall nf Granada, and the conso
lidation of the Spanish Monarchy, A.D.
1492.)
Thu>,, amidst the acelammationsi of Chris
tendom, Ferdinand and Isabella planted the
sy)?ib-..J of Christian i'nith on the walls of
Granada, and proclaimed t-li* destruction of
IfnhaiumadaD rule in bp.'»in.
KHALIU7 'LLAH (tti\ JaU)..
'• Th<> friend of G«d. A title given to
Abialiam in the (^.ur'un, Surah iv. 124: "For
God took Abraham as his friend."
With regard to this verse, al-Baizawi
say* : ff Abraham in u time of dearth sent tp
« trif-nd of his in .Kgypt for a supply of corn :
bnt Uie friend denied him, saying, in his ex-
cu*v, that though th«re was a famine in their
country also, jret. had it been for Abraham's
ovvii tamily, he would have sent what he de
sired, but he knew ho wanted it only to
entertain his guests, and give away to the
poor, according to his usual hospitality. The
servants wiu-m Abraham had sent on this
. f\ hein-' ;i -'hatned to return empty, to
conceal tho matter from their neighbours,
filled their sucks with fine white sand, which
in the bast pretty much resembles uaeal.
Abraham being informed j.y his servants on
their return of their ill success, the concern
he WHS under threw him into a sleep , and in
the meantime Sarah, knowing nothing .of
what had happened, opening one of the
sacks, found good flour in it, and immediately
86t to making- bread. Abraham awaking, and
smelling the new bread, asked her whence
she bad the Hour. k Why,' says she, 'from
your friend in Egypt.' ' Nay.' replied the
patriarch, ' it moat have come irom no other
than mi/ fric-ml. Cud Almighty." " [ABRAHAM.]
(;-*^j. The word used
for wiue or anything that m-
in the
Surah ii. 210: "They will ask tbee about
wine (/.-/< /w/-), g.nd <;?.mos of chanco: say in
both is sin and profit to mon, but the sin of
both is greater thnn the proJit of thi; same.'"
Bv the orthodox, the term khuinr is geoe-
KHASHYAH 269
rally held to include not only alcoholic drink?,
but opium and other narcotics. Some under
stand it to include tobacco ; hence the de
struction of tobacco pipes in the streets of
Makkab by the Wahhabls. [WAHUAin.J
TQffAN (0U). Persian. " A ruler;
a, chief." A cerm used for thr supreme ruler
of small countries or provinces. The Khan
of the Tartars. It is also one of the titles
ui the SulJtan 01 Turkey. It is also used for
a caravansary or inn, being a corruption of
the Persian khtinah, •' a home.
AL-KHAJSTNAS (oJuuteN). A demon
mentioned in the Qur'un, Surah cxiv. (the
last chapter) : —
" SAY : I betake me for ret'nge to the Lord
of men,
" The King of men,
" The God of men,
" Against the mischief of tne e
withdrawing whisperer (al-khannus),
" Who whispereth in man's breast —
" Against genii and men."
IOJANZAB (s*y«-). A demon who
casts doubt at the time of prayer. 'Usman
ibn Abl M-'AsT relates that he '•auie to the
Prophet and romplained that he was dis
turbed by the devil during prayers. The
Prophet said. " This is a demon called Khan-
zab who disturbs prayer. When you are
awiire of any such disturbance, seek pro
tection of God and spit over your left shoulder
three times." -Usrnan did BO, and all doubt
and perplexity was dispelled.
K^ARABAT (^V>). "A wine-
shop or tavern." A mystfc turin for thn
society of the Mursliid, or inspired teacher.
See Diwan-i-Hajiz (Bic knell's edition, p.
212):-
" Within the Magian's house of wi** oui*
Makers light I see."
" Behold this marvel, what a light and
where that sight I see."
KHARAJ (eVO- A tax, or tribute
on land. This was originally applied to a
land tribute from non-Muslim tribes (HiJnynk,
vol. ii. p. 204), but it is now used for a tax,
or land-rent due to the State. La-khurfij is
a term used for lands exempt from any such
payment.
XBARQU 'L-'ADAH (SoUJ\ j^).
Lit. " The splitting of Nature." That which
is contrary to the usual course of nature. A
term use for miracles. Either (1) Mn'jizah.
miracles worked by Prophets ; or (2) Karu-
rnufi, wonders performed by ivall? or saints ;
or (3) Ittidrdj, wonders worked by the power
of Satan. [MIRACLES.]
KKASHYAH (A-.,-*-*). « Pear."
Khashyutu 'llah, " The fear of God," is an
expression which occurs in the Qur'an.
Surah ii. 09 : •' There are some that fail
down for fear of God."
Surah iv. 79: "A portion of them fear
men as with the fear of God, or with a yet
greater fear."
270
KHASR
JOJASR (^). Lit. " The middle
or waist."' An act forbidden in prayer, as
related by Abu Hurairah, who said : " The
Prophet f orba de Khas r in prayer. " (Mishkdt,
book iv, ch. xx.) It is generally held to be
the act of holding the waist with the hands
to relieve the sensation of fatigue experienced
in the position of standing. Some divines
believe it to be a prohibition to lean on a
mikhsarah, or staff, in prayer, whilst others
give ti it the sense of cutting short the
verb;i.l f omifi of prayer, or remaining too short
A time in the prescribed attitude. (Shaikh
-Abdu
. "Special "as distin
guished from < Amm, " general." A term fre
quently used by Mnhammadan writers and in
treatisss on exegesis.
KHATIMU 'N-NABIY1N (^^-^
&«*&). " The seal of the Prophets."
A title assumed by Muhammad in the Quran.
Surah xxxiii. 40: " He is the Apostle of God
and the seal of the Prophets" By which is
meant, that he is the last of the Prophets.
KHATIMU 'N-NABCJWAH
&y**\). " The seal of prophecy." A
term used for the large mole or fleshy pro
tuberance on Muhammad's back, which is
said to have been a divine sign of his pro
phetic office.
' Abdu 'llah ibn Sarjis describes it as being
as large as his closed fist, with moles round
about it. Abu Ramsah wanted to remove
it, but Muhammad refused saying, "The
Physician thereof is He who placed it there."
KHATIB, (r^^)- " Mind; con
science." *A term used by mystic teachers.
Khdtir is said to be of four kinds : Al-KMtiru
'r-Rabbdnli " conscience inspired of God " ;
ul-Khdtiru 'l-Mafaki, " conscience inspired by
angels"; al-Khdtiru'n-Nafsdni;" a conscience
inspired by the flesh"; al-Khatiru 's/i-Shai-
tdni, " a conscience inspired by the devil."
(Kitdbu 't-Ta'rifdt, in loco.)
imATMAH (<U^). An epilogue,
but more generally a recitation of the whole
of the Qur'an. (Khatm, " concluding.")
Mr. Lane in his Arabian Nights (voL i.
p. 382), says the most approved and common
mode of entertaining guests at modern pri
vate festivities, is by a khatmah, which is the
recitation of the whole of the Qur'an. Their
•mode of recitation ia a peculiar chanting.
KHATN (tJ^.). A legal term for
the husbands of female relations within the
prohibited degrees. It likewise includes all
the relations of these husbands. (Hiddyah,
vol. iv. p. 518.)
KHATNAH
KHATT (U). A line ; a letter of
the alphabet : an epistle. (1) A figure drawn
by exorcists making an incantation. (2)
Kfatt-i-Sharlf, " royal letters; a diploma."
KHII/AH
(3) 'Abdu 'llah ibn 'Abbas says a khaU, or
" letter," is the language of the hand, and its
divine origin is stated in the Qur'an, Surah
xcvi. 4: " Who hath taught ua the use of the
pen." It is said Adam first wrote with his
linger in the dust, but others say it was
Idrls. The same traditionist says the first
who invented the Arabic character, were
three persons of the tribe of Bulan of the
race of Banu Taiy.
Ibn Ishaq says there are four classes of
Arabic writing : the Makkl, the Madam, the
Basri, and the Kufi ; and the first who wrote
the Qur'an in a clear and elegant writing,
was Khalid ibn Abl '1-Haiyaj, and that he
was set to the work by Sa'd, who employed
him as a caligrapnist for the Khaiifah Walid
ibn 'Abdi '1-Malik, A.H. 8G, and that Khalid
wrote it in what is now called the Kufic cha
racter. (Khashfu 'z-Zunun, Flugel's ed , vol.
iii. p. 149.)
;KHAUF MJ-O. "Fear." Gene
rally used for the fear of God. 'Abdu 'llah
ibn Mas'ud relates that Muhammad said :
"There is no Muslim whose eyes shed tears,
although they be as small as the head of a
ny, from fear of God, but shall escape hell
fire." (Mislikdt, book xxii. ch. xxix. pt. 3.)
KHAWARIJ (sjV-). Lit. "The
Revolters." A sect of Muslims who affirm
that any man may be promoted to the dignity
of Khaiifah, even though he be not of the
Quraish tribe, provided he be elected by the
Muhamniadan nation. The first who were
so-called were the 12,000 men who revolted
from 'AH after they had fought under him at
the battle of Siffin, and took offence at hia
submitting the decision of his right to the
Khalifate to the arbitration of men when,
in their opinion, it ought to have been sub
mitted to the judgment of God They affirmed
that a man might be appointed Kharllfah, no
matter of what tribe or nation, provided he
were a just and pious person, and that if the
Khaiifah turned away from the truth, he
might be put to death or deposed. They
also held that there was no absolute necessity
for a Khaiifah at all. In A~H. 38, large num
bers of this sect were killed, but a few
escaped, and propagated their schism in dif
ferent parts of the world. [KHALIFAH.]
KHAZRAJ (BJ)-*-). An Arabic
tribe who, at an early period of Muhammad's
mission, submitted to his authority. They
are supposed to have settled in al-Madinah
early in the fourth century.
KHIBEAH (8^*.)., A proof; an
experiment. Practical knowledge. Ahlu V-
Khibrah) persons practically acquainted with
any subject.
KHILAFAH "(&U). The office
of Khaiifah. [KHALIFAH.]
KHIL'AH or KHIL'AT (*..« 1 *).
A dress ot honour presented by a ruler to
an inferior, as a mark of distinction. A com
plete kjtil-ah may include arms, or a horse, or
au elephant.
KHILWAH
KHITBAH
271
. "Privacy; re-
tirement." A term used by the Sufis for re
tirement from the world for the purposes of
worship and meditation.
KHIBQAH (ii^.). The robe of
the faqir or ascetic. A religious habit made
of shreds and patches, worn by darvoshes.
— —^ v -• — /• "Betrothal."
Oallod in Hindustani munynL No religious
ceremony is enjoined by Muhammudan law
but it is usual for the Maulawi or Qazi to be
invited to be present to offer up a prayer for
a blessing on the proceeding.
The ceremony is usuallv accompanied with
great rejoicings. The following is Mrs. Mcer
Hassan Ali's account of a betrothal in the
neighbourhood of Lucknow :
" A very intimate friend of mine was seek
ing for a suitable match for her son, and
being much in her confidence, I was initiated
n all the mysteries and arrangements (accord
ing to Musalman rule) of the affair, pending
the marriage of her son.
M The young lady to be sought (wooed we
have it), had been described as amiable and
pretty— advantages as much esteemed as hei
rank ; fortune she had none worth mention
ing, but it was what is termed in Indiar
society a good and equal match. The over
ture was, therefore, to be made from the
youth s family in the following manner :
" On a silver tray covered with goid bro
cade, and fringed with silver, was laid the
youth's pedigree, traced by a neat writer in
tho Persian character, on richly embossed
paper, ornamented and emblazoned with gold
figures. The youth being a Saiyid, his pedi
gree was traced up to, Muhammad, in both
paternal and maternal lines, and many a hero
and begum of their noble blood filled up the
space from tho Prophet down to the youthful
Mir Muhammad, my friend's sou.
" On the tray, with the pedigree, was laid
a nazr, or offering of five gold mohurs, and
twenty-one (the lucky number) rupees; a
brocaded cover, fringed with silver, was
spread over the whole, and this was conveyed
by the male agent to the young begum's
father. Tho tray and its contents are re
tained for ever, if the proposal is accepted ;
f rejected, the parties return the whole with
out delay, which is received us a tacit proof
that the suitor is rejected : no further expla
nation is over given or required.
" In the present instance the tray was do- I
taincd, and in a few day* after a female from !
their family was sent to my friend's house, ,
to make a general scrutiny of the zana'nah
and its inmates. This female was pressed to f
stay a day or two, and in that time many im- i
portant subjects under went discussion. " The i
youth was introduced, and, everything accord- j
inj? with the views entertained by both par- i
ties, tho fathers met, and the marriage, it was
decided, should take place within a twelve- i
month, when the youn- lady would have ac
complished her thirteenth year.
' * Do you decide on having inunynl per- i
formed i is the question proposed by the
father of the youth to the father of the young
maiden. In the present case it wa« chosen
and great were the preparations of my friend
o do all possible honour to the future bride
of her son.
'• Munynl is the first contract, by whi.-h
the pai ties are bound to fulfil their engage
ment at an appointed tune.
" The dress for a bride differs in one mate
rial point from the general style of Hindu
stani costume : a sort of gown is worn, made
liver tissue, or some equally expensive
article, about the walking length of an English
dress ; the skirt is open in front, and contains
about twenty breadths Of the material, a
tight body, and long sleeves. The whole
dress is trimmed very richly with embroi
dered trimming and silver riband ; the deput-
tah (drapery) is made to correspond. This
style of dress is the original Hindoo fashion,
and was worn at the Court of Delhi for many
centuries ; but of late years it has been OMd
only on marriage festivals amongst the better
sort of people in Hindustan, except kings or
nawabs sending khillauts to females, when
this dress, called a jhammah, is invariably
one of the articles.
" The costly dresses for the present mangni
my friend prepared at great expense, and
with much good taste; to which wcie added
a ruby ring of great value, large gold ear
rings offerings of money, the flower-garlands
for the head, neck, wrists, and ancles, formed
of the sweet-scented jessamine ; choice ron-
ctionery set out in trays with the pawns and
fruits ; the whole conveyed under an escort of
soldiers arid servants, with a band of musiY,
from the residence of Mir Muhammad to that
of his bride elect, accompanied by many friends
of tne family. These offerings from the
youth bind the contract with the young l-,dv
who wears his ring from that dav to tho em!
of her life.
"The poorer sort of people perform rnnngni
by the youth simply sending a rupee in a silk
band, to be tied on the girl's arm.
Being curious to know the whole business
of a wedding ceremony amongst the Musal-
man people, I was allowed to perform the
part ot • officiating friend' on this occasion of
celebrating the mangni. The parent* of the
young lady having been consulted, my visit
was a source of solicitude to tho whole
family, who made every possible preparation
to receive me with becoming respect. I went
just in time to reach- the gate at the moment
the parade arrived. I was handed to the
door of the zaminah by the girl's father, and
was soon surrounded by the young members
of the family, together with many lady
visitors, slaves, and women-servants of the
establishment. They had never before -seen
an English woman, and the novelty, 1 f;i)iov
surprised tho whole group; they examined
my dross, my complexion, hair, 'hands, &c
and looked the wonder they could not exproM
in words. Tho young begum was not amongst
the gazing throng ; some preliminary customs
detained her behind the purdah, where if
272
KHITBAH
may be supposed she endured aJl the agony
of suspense and curiosity by her compliance
with the prescribed juuins
'• The lady of the mansion waited my ap
proach to the great hall, with all dup «ii-
quette, standing to receive and embrace me
ou ray advancing towards her. This cere
mony performed. I was invited to take a seat
or> the carpet with her on the ground ; a
chair had been provided for me, but I cho^e
to rasped the lady's preference, and the seat
on the floor suited me for the time without
much inconvenience.
" Alter some time had been passed in con
versation or. such subjects as suited the
tastes of tho lady of the house. 1 was sur
prised at the servants entering with trays,
which they placed immediately before me,
containing o i all-dress suit in the, costume of
Hindustan; The hostess told me she had
prepared this dress for me, and I must con
descend to wear it. I would have declined
the gaudy array, but one of her friends whis
pered me.. ' The custom is of long1 standing ,
when the lace of a stranger is in si seen, a
drees is always presented ; I should displease
Sum dun Begum by my refusal ; beaMeff, it
would be deemed an ill omen at tho mangnl
of the young Bohur Begrum if I did not put
on the native dress before T saw the face of
the bride elert.' These I found to be weighty
arguments, and felt constrained to quiet. their
apprehensions of ilJ-lnck by compliance ; I
therefore forced tho gold dress and the glit
tering drapery over iny other clothes, at the
expense of some suffering from the heat, for it
was ah the very hottest season of the year,
and the hall was crowded with visitors.
" This important point conceded to them, I
was led to a side hall, where the little girl
vvas seated on her carpet of rich era broidery,
her face resting on her knees in apparent
bashi'ulness. I could not directly ascertain
whether she was plain, or pretty, as the
female agent had represented. I was allowed
the privilege of decorating the young lady
with the sweet jessamine guinahs, and placing
the ring on the fore-finger of the right hand :
after which, the ear-rings, the gold-tissue
dress, the deputtah, were all in their turn put
ou, the offering of money presented, and then
J had thft first embrace before her mother;
Hhe looked very pretty, just turned twelve,
If I could have prevailed on. her to be cheer
ful, I should have been much gratified to
have extended my visit in her apartment, but
the poov child seemed ready to sink with
timidity ; and out of compassion to thfe dear
girl, I hurried away from the hall, to relieve
her from the burden my presence seemed to
.infJict, tho moment T. had accomplished my
la si unty. >.vhieh was to feed her with my
own bunds, giving her severs pieces of .sugar-
candy • seven, on this occasion, is the lucky
n.;i')i:.ei, I presauie, as I was particularly cau
tioned to feed her with exactly that number
of piece?-.
"• Returning to the assembly in the dul-
h»i»fi - T -wr.uid have gladly taken leave, but
WMS yet ona other custom to be ob-
AL-KH1ZR
•served to secure a happy omen to the young
people's union. Once again seated on the
musmid with Sumduri Begun:', the female
slaves entered with sherbert in silver basins.
Each person taking sherbort is expected to
deposit, gold or silver coins in the tray; the
sherbert-money at this house, is collected for
the bride ; and when, during the three days'
performance of the marriage ceremony at the
bridegroom's house, sherbert in presented to
the guests, the money collected there is re
served foi; him. The produce of the two
houses is afterwards compared, and conclu
sions drawn as to tho greatest portion of
respect paid ^y the friends on either side.
The poor people rind the shyii-erl-monoy a
useful fund to help them to keep house ; but
with the rich it is a mere matter to boast of,
that so much money was collected in con
sequence ox the number ot visitors who
attended the nuptials." (Mrs. M*er iiasan
Ali's Indian Musalmans. vol. i. p. 30? }
KHIYANAH (&W*-). Breach of
trust. Amputation is not incurred by a
breach of trust, as in the case of ordinary
theft, according to a saying of the Prophet
recorded in the Hiddyah (vol. ii. p. 93).
KHIYAE QU^). "Option." A
term used to express a certain period after
the conclusion of a bargain, daring which either
of the parties may cancel it. According to
'Abdu '1-Haqq, it is of live kinds : (1) K_hi-
yaru s/i-Sharf:, optional condition •. where one
of the parties stipulates for a period of three
days or less. (2) Kliiijdiu 7-L4V/; option
from defect; the option of dissolving the
contract on discovery of defect. (3) Kmyant
'r~Ru''yaht option of inspection; the option of
rejecting the thing pui chased after sight.
(4) KMt/dru'i-Tafytn. option il determination ;
where a person, having purchased two or
three things of the same kind, stipulates a
period to make his selection. (5) KHyaru
'I- Majlis, the option of withdrawing from the
contract as long as the meeting of the par
ties continues. The Hanafiyah doctors do not
accept the last, but it is allowed by the other
sects.
KHIZLAN (v^j. "Abandon-
aient." The abandonment of a Muslim by
God. The word occurs once in. the Quran,
Surah iii. 15 • • " If then God help you, none
shall overcome you, but if He abandon you.
who is he that shall help you.'
Used by a Christian, it wonid imply the
state of a person fallen from grace.
AL-KHIZR 0*telt). Lit. ••The
green one." The Maulsuvi Muhammad Tahir
says the learned are not agreed as to whether
le is a prophet or not. His real name is, accord-
ng to al-Baizawi, Balya ibn Mulkan. Some say
le lived in the time of Abraham, and that he is
still alive in. the flesh, and most of the reli-
^iouvS and Bufi mystics are agreed upon this
joint, and some have declared that they
mve f<een him- .incl they say he is still
o bo seen in sacred places, such as Makkah
AL-KHIZR
KUTTDAI
273
or Jerusalem. Soine few traditionists deny
his existence. Others say he IB of the famih
of Noah, and the son of a kintr. (Afajnia'u Y
Bihar, p. 250.;
His iittixie does not occur in the Qur'an, but
Husain, Jaliilu 'd-dm, al-Baizawi, and nearly
all the commentators, believe thai al-Khizr
is the mysterious individual referred to in the
following narrative in the QurVin :—
Surah xviii. 59-81 : " Heiiie.mber when
Moses said to his servant, ' I will not stop
till I reach the confluence of the tvro seas
(i.e. the sea of Greece and the sea of Persia),
or for years will I journey on. But when
they reached their confluence, they forgot
their fish, and it took its way in th* flea at
will. Arid when ihay had paswed on, said
Moses to his servant. < "Bring ns our morning
uieal ; lor now have we incurred weariness
frorn this journey/ He suiu. • What thinkest
thou ? When wo repaired to the rook for
rp«!t> I forgot the tish: and none but Satan
made me forget it, so as not to mention it;
and it hath taken its way in the sea in a won
drous sort.' Re said, •' It is this we were in
quest of.' Am! they both wont bank re
tracing their footsteps. Theu found they one
of our servants to whom w« hau vouchsafed
our mercy, and whom we had instructed with
our knowledge. And Moses said to him,
' Shall I follow thee that thou teach me, for
guidance, of that which thou too hast been
taught ? ' He said, ' Verily, t.h<»u canst not
have patience with me; how canst thou be
patient in matters whose m^nnin^ thou com-
prehendest not ? ' He said, ' Thou ahalt find
toy patient if God please, nor will I. disobey
l.liy bidding.' He said, ' Then, if thou follow
me, ask me not of aught until [ have given
thee an account thereot.' !So they both wenr
on till they embarked in a ship. »nd he (the
unknown) staved it in. 'What!' spid Mr>m>s,
• hast thou staved it in that thou .mayest
drown its crew? a strange thing now hast
thou <lone ! ' lie said, » Did I not tell thee
that thou couldst not have patience with me ? '
He said. ' Chide uio not that I forgat, nor lay
on me a hard command.' Then went they on
till they met a youth, and he slew him. Said
Moftos, • Hast thou slain him who is free from
guilt of blood ? Now hast thou wrought a
grievous thing!' He said, 'Did I not tell
thee that thou couldft not have patience with
Hie ? Mo^f , -.aid. ' Tf after this I ask tKe
aught, then let me be thy comrade no longer ;
but now hast thou my excuse/ They went
on till they came to the people of a city. Of
this people they asked food, but they refused
them for guests. And they found in it H wall
that uas about to fall, and he set it upright.
Said Moses, • If thou hadst wished, for this
thou mightest have obtained pay/ He said
' This is the parting point between me ano
tbee. But 1 will first tell thee the meaning
of that which thou eouldst not await with
patience. As to the vessel, it belonged ti
poor men who toiled upon the sea, and I wa^-
minded to damage it, for in their rear -was »
king who seized every ship by force. As t
the youth, his parents were believers, and we
fe:ired lest he hhould trouble them by error
and infidelity. VuH we desired ilu.t th*-Ji
Lord might ^ive them in his place * < mid.
better than ho in virtue, mid. nenrer to lili.il
piety. And as to the wall, it belonged to two
orphan youths in the city, uud iiwieath it WAX
their treasure: and their futner «-'s :i nj if
eous man : and thy Lorn desired that they
should reach the u^o of Ktivn^Ui, and i.iki,
forth their treasure through the mercy of thy
Lord. And not oi mine own will have 1
done this. This is the interpretation of that
vshich thou couldst not boar with patience
In some Muslim book* L« e>eem« to be con
founded with Elias, and in otheis with St.
George, the patron saint, of England. In tu*
above quotation he is represented «» tbe
companion of Moses, und the commentator
Uusuin say.s he was a general in the army of
Zii '1-Qarnain (Alexander the Great). But a*
al-Khixr is supposed to have discovered and
drunk oi tiie fountain of life, he may be con
temporary "with any ag^ !
KHUBAB or l^ABBAB (^>\*±).
The son of al-Arass, the blacksmith. A.
slave converted in the early history of Islam,
ind one who suffered much persecution from
t/he Quraish on account of his religious
opinions.
When 'Umarwas Khalifah, KJiuMb itm ul
Arass showed him the scars of the stripes he
had received from tne unbelieving Makkuim
twenty or thirty years before, 'Uma; scared
him upon his maenad, saying that there was
but one man who was more worthy of thirf
favour than Klmbab. namely, Bilal, who had
also been sorely persecuted by the unbe
lievers. But Khubab replied; "Why is he
more worthy than I nin ? He had his friends
.imong the idolaters, whom the Lord raised
up to help him. But I had none to help me.
Aud 1 well remember one day tiiej look me
and kindled a fire for me, and threw me
therein upon my back, and a man stamped
with his foot upon ruy chest, zny l>ark being
towards the ground. And when they uncovered
my back, lo ! it was blistered and white."
< Kdttbit 7- Wwiidl* quoted by ^i<- W Muir.)
KHUBAIB (v-et*-). Son of 'Ada.
One of the early martyrs of Islam. Being
perfidiously sold to the Quraish, he was by
them put to death in a most cruel manner,
being mutilated and impaled. When at the
stake and in tbe midst of his tortures, he was
asked whether he did not wish Muhammad
was in his place, and he answered, •• I would
not wish to be with my tamily, my substaiu-'-.
and mv children, on condition that Muhain
mud was otily prick <:d with n thorn." When
bound to the stake, uts enemies said, (> N;»w
abjure Islam, and we will let you go." Jle
replied, kt Not for the wholf world "
Sir William Muir pays: "I »eo no reason
to doubt the main url» oi th-j .story." (LiJ<
of Al(t!nniit'[, new ed. p. ^H<>. )
EHUDi
also
From the Pursia.n
35
274
KHITDAWAND
KHUTBAH
"self," and ^ di, "coming." The
Supreme Being; the Self-Existing God.
[GOD ] Khudd-parast, " a God worshipper " ;
Khudd-tars, "a God fearer"; Kkudd-skinds,
"a God knower"; Khudd-faroshdn, "God
sellers," i.e. hypocrites.
KHTJDAWAND O^). A Per-
sian word, signifying, <; lord," " prince,"
"master." A possessor : a man of authority.
It is used as a title of the Deity, and by
Christian missionaries in India it is gene-
.rally employed as a translation of the Greek
Kvptos, " Lord." In the Ghiydsu 'l-Lughah,
it is derived from Khudd, '' God " ; and icand,
" like " ; i.e. one like unto God.
KHTJL' (£-^)- An agreement
entered into for the purpose of dissolving
marriage. The release from the marriage
tie obtained by a wife upon payment of a
compensation or consideration. In the Hidd-
yah it is said : " Whenever enmity takes
place between husband and wife, and they
both see reason to apprehend the ends of
marriage are not likely to be answered by a
continuance of their union, the woman need
not scruple to release herself from the power
of her husband, by offering such a compen
sation as may induce him to liberate her."
In the event of a woman desiring this form
of divorce, she is not entitled to the repay
ment of- her dower. This law is laid down
in the Qur'ari : " If ye fear that they cannot
observe the ordinances of God, then no blame
shall attach to either of you for what the
wife shall herself give for her redemption."
(Surah ii. 229.)
AL-KHTJLAFA'U 'K-RASHIDUN
r^jatyt AaUJt). « The well-directed
Khalifahs." A title given to the first four
successors of Muhammad — Abu Bakr, 'Umai
(Omar), 'Usrnan, and 'AH. It is generally held
by the Sunms that after these four reigns,
Islam became corrupted, and the succession in
the office of Khalifah uncertain. [KHAWFAH.]
KHULQ (v3^). " Disposition ;
temper; nature." Qur'an, Surah Ixviii. 4:
'• Verily thou art of a noble nature."
KHULTlN (c^jU*-). An infusion
of dates and raisins, boiled together until
they ferment and become spirituous, but of
which a Muslim can drink without impro
priety or sin. This is grounded on a circum
stance relative to Ibn Ziyad, which is thus
related by himself : " 'Abdu 'llah, the son of
'Umar, having given me some sherbet to
drink, I became intoxicated to such a degree
that 1 knew not my own house. I went to I
him next morning, and, having informed him of j
the circumstance, he acquainted me that he
had given me nothing but a drink composed
of dates and raisins. Now this was certainly
khultin, which had undergone the operation of
boilmg ; because it is elsewhere related by
'Uroar that it is unlawful in its crudo state."
(Hiddyah, vol. iv. p. 161.)
KHULUD (JjU). " Eternity."
[KTEKNAL PUNISHMENT.]
KHUMS (u~*O. " A fif fch." The
fifth of property which is given to the Bait u
'1-Mal, or public treasury.
KHUNSA Ojr^). [HERMAPHRO
DITE.]
KHUSUF (u^). [ECLIPSE or
THE MOON.]
KHUTBAH (&£*). The sermon
or oration delivered on Fridays at the time of
zuhr, or meridian prayer. It is also recited
on tho two great festivals in the morning
after sunrise, ['iuo 'L-FITK, 'IDU X-AZHA.]
The Friday prayer and sermon are estab
lished by an injunction in the Qur'au, Surah
Ixii. 9 : " O ye who believe ! when the call to
prayer is made upon tho congregation day
(yaumu 'l-jum'ak), then hasten to the remem
brance of God, and leave off traffic." By the
words "remembrance of God," most com
mentators understand the khutbah or ser
mon.
From the Traditions, it appears that Mu
hammad used frequently to deliver a khut
bah, and that it was not the studied and
formal oration which it has become in more
recent times.
Jabir says : "' When the Prophet delivered
the klrutbah, his eyes used to be red, and his
voice high, and his anger raged so that you
would say he was warning a tribe of the ap
proach of a hostile army, and frightening them
with apprehensions of its arrival thus : It is at
hand ! In the evening or morning it will
come down upon you and plunder you ! And
the Prophet would say, I have been sent, and
the Resurrection is like these two fingers,
and he xised to join his fore- finger with the
next to it, as an explanation of- tho semblance
that the Resurrection was not farther off
than the difference of length in the two fin
gers." (Mishkat, book iv. ch. xlvi.)
On Fridays, after the usual ablutions, the
four Sunnah prayers are recited, and the
preacher, or khaftb^ then seats himself on the
pulpit, or mimbar, whilst the Mu'azziu pro
claims azan ; after which he stands up on the
second step and delivers the khufcbah. It
must be in Arabic, and must include prayers
for Muhammad, the Companions, and the
king, bat its composition and general struc
ture is left to the discretion of the preacher.
In some countries, Egypt for example
(Lane's Egyptians , vol. i. p. 107), the khatib
holds a wooden sword in his hand, whilst he
delivers the exhortation. The khuljbah is
divided into two sections, the khutbatu Y-ww's,
and the khutbatu 'n-ntf'£. supplications being
made between the two sections. The fol
lowing js a translation of a khutbah, as deli
vered in India in the present day, from which
the name and titles of the reigning monarch
are omitted It is the third of a series of
sermons published at Lucknow in u volume
entitled Majmcrn Khntnb ; —
KHUTBAH
•• In the name of God, the Compassionate,
the Merciful
"Praised be God. Praised bo that God
who hath shown us the way in this religion.
If He had not guided us into the path we
should not have found it.
" I bear witness that there is no deity but
God. He is one. He has no associate. I
bear witness that Muhammad is, of a truth,
His servant and His Apostlo. May God have
mercy upon him, and upon his descendants,
and upon his companions, and give them
peace.
" Fear God, 0 ye people, and fear that
day, the Day of Judgment, 'when a father will
not be able to answer for his son, nor the son
for the father. Of a truth God's promises are
true. Let not this present life mako you
proud. Let not the deceiver (Satan) lead you
astray.
" 0 yo people who have believed, turn ye
to God, as Nasuh* did turn to God. Verily
God doth forgive all sin, verily He is the
merciful, the forgiver of sins. Verily He is
the most munificent, and bountiful, the King.
the Holy One. the Clement, the Most Mer
ciful."
(The preacher then descends from the pulpit*
find sitting on the jloor of the mosque, offers up
a silent prayer. He then again ascends the
wimhar, as before, and proceeds.}
u In the name of God, the Compassionate,
the Merciful.
" Praised be God. We praise Him. We
seek help from Him. We ask forgiveness of
sins. We trust in Him. We seek refuge in
Him from evil desires and from former sin
ful actions. He who has God for His guide
is never lost ; and whomsoever He leadeth
aside none can guide into the right path.
" We bear witness that there is no deity
but God. He is one. He hath no partner.
" Verily wo bear witness that Muhammad
is the servant and apostle of God, and may
God have mercy upon him, who is more ex
alted than any being. May God have mercy
upon his descendants, and upon his com
panions ! May God give them peace !
Especially upon Amiru '1-Mu'minin Abu
Bakr ae-Siddiq (may God be pleased with
him). And upon him who was the most
temperate of the ' friends,' Amiru '1-Mu'minm
•Urnar Ibn al-Khattab (may God be pleased
with him). And upon him whose modesty
and faith were perfect, Am,iru '1-Mxi'minin
'Usman (may God be pleased with him). And
upon the Lion of the powerful God, Amiru '1-
Mu'minm 'All ibn Abi-Talib (may God be
pleased with him). And upon the two In:ams,
the holy ones, the two martyrs, Amiru '1-
Mu'minln Abu Muhammad al-Hasan and Abu
'Abdi 'llah al-IIusain (may God be pleased
with both of them). And upon the mother of
these two persons, the chief of women, Fati-
matu 'z-Zuhra' (may God be pleased with
* N<iRu.h, is a word which, occurs in the eighth
verse of the Sfcratu 't-Tahnm (Ixvi.) in the Qur'an ;
it is translate! "true repentance" by Sale and
Bodwell, but it is supposed to be a person's name
by several commentators.
KHUTBAH
275
her). And upon his (Muhammad's) two
uncles, Hamzah and al-' Abbas (may God be
pleased with them). And upon the rest of
the * companions.' and upon the « followers '
(may God be pleased with all of them). Of
Thy mercy, 0 most merciful of all merciful
ones, 0 God, torgive all Muslim men and
Muslim womeiQ all male believers and .ill
female believers. Of a truth Thou art Ho
who wilt receive our prayers.
" O God, help those who help the religion
of Muhammad. May we also exert ourselvrH
to help those who help Islam. Make those
weak, who weaken the religion of Muham
mad.
" O God, bless the ruler of the age, and
make him kind and favourable to the people.
"O servants of God, may God have mercy
upon you. Verih , God enjoineth justice and
the doing of good, and gifts to kindred ; and
He forbiddeth wickedness, and wrong, and
oppression. He warneth you that haply ye
may be mindful. (Surah cxvi. 92.)
" 0 ye people, remember the great and
exalted God. He will also remember you.
He will answer your prayers. The remem
brance of God is great, and good, and honour
able, and noble, and meritorious, and worthy,
and sublime."
A more eloquent and strikingly charac
teristic khutbah has been translated by Mr.
Lane in his Modern Egyptians (voL i. p. 107).
It is a New Year's Day sermon, delivered in
the great mosque at Cairo, on the first
Friday in the year, on the occasion of Mr.
Lane's first visit, and is as follows : —
" In the name of God, the Compassionate,
the Merciful.
"Praise be to God, the Renewer of Years,
and the Multiplier of favours, and the Creator
of months and days, according to the most
perfect wisdom and most admirable regula
tion ; who hath dignined the months of the
Arabs above all other months, and hath pro
nounced that among the more excellent of
them is al-Muharram the Sacred, and hath
commenced with it the year, as He hath
closed it with Zu '1-Hijjah. How propitious
is the beginning, and how good is the end !
I extol His perfection, exempting Him from
the association of any other deity with Him
He hath well considered what He hath
formed and established what He hath
contrived, and He alone hath the power to
create and to annihilate. I praise Him, ex
tolling His perfection, and exalting His name
for the knowledge and inspiration wluch IJk-
hath graciously vouchsafed; and I tostit\
that there is no deity but God alone ; Hi-h:>th
no companion; He is the Most Holy King;
the God of Peace; and I testify that our lord
and our Prophet and our friend Muhauima»i
is His servant and UIK Apostle, aivl Hi-
elect, and His friend, the Guiilo -;i iiu- Way.
and the lamp of the dark. O (!c»d. bless and
save and beautify this nublo Prophet, and
chief and excellent apostle, the merciful-
hearted, our Lord Muhammad, and his f iimily
and his companions, and his wives, and his
posterity, and the people «>f his bouse, the
276
KHUTBAH
noble persons, and srrtuit. them ample salva
tion.
i4 0 servants oi God. your live,-; have been
gradually curtailed, and year after year Jiath
passed away, and ye are sleepiiig on the bed
of indolence, and on the pillow of iniquity.
Ye pass by the tombs of your predecessors,
and fear not the assault of destiny and de
struction, as il" others departed from the
world and ye must ol necessity remain -in it.
Ye rejoice at the arrival of new years, as if
they brought an increase to the term of life,
and swim in the seas of desires, and enlarge
your hopes, and in every way exceed other
people in presumption : and ye are sluggish
in doing good. O how great a calamity is
this I (rod teacheth by an allegory. Know
ye not that in the curtailment of time by in
dolence and sleep there is very great trouble ?
Know ye not that in tht, cutting short of
lives by the terminal ion oi years is a very
great warning ? Know ye not that the night
and day divide the lives of numerous souls ?
Know ye not that health and capacity are
two blessings coveted by many men? But
the truth hath become manifest to him who
huth pyps. Ye are now between two years :
one year hath passed away, and come to an
end, with its evils ; and ye have entered
upon another year, in whK-h, if it please
God, mankind shall ba relieved. lb any of
you determining upon diligence in doing good
in the year to come? or repenting <ji his
failings in the times that are passed? The
happy one is he who maketh amends for the
time past in the time to come ; and tLe
miserable one is he whose days pass away
and he is cureless of his time. This new year
hath arrived, and the sacred month of God
hath come with blessings to you, the first
of tLe months of the year, and of the four
sacred months, as hath been said, and the
most worthy of preference and honour and
reverence. Its fast is the most excellent of
fa^ts after that which is obligatory, and the
doing of good in it is among the most excel
lent of the objects of desire. Whosoever de-
sireth to reap advantage from it, let him fast
the ninth and tenth days', looking for aid.
Abstain not from the fast through indolence.
jnd esteeming it a hardship: .but comply
with it, in the best manner, and honour it with
the best of honoTtrs, and improve your time
by the worship of God morning and evening.
Turn unto God with repentance, before the
assault of death : He is the God who oc«
cepteth repentance of Hi.s ^ervaiitw, and par-
donoth sins. The Apostle of God (God bless
and wave him) halh said. ' The most excel
lent prayer, after the prescribed, is the prayer
that is said in the last third of the night :
and the most excellent fast, after Ramadan, is
that of the month of God, al-Muharaiui.'
(The kfija.fi?>, having concluded his exhorta
tion, says to tke coni/rewitiim. •• Supplicate
God.'' He th<*n fits down and prays privately {
and each fnemher of tke cnnyregation, at the
•a me tim* offers itr> some private ji&ttttfm, us
after the ordinary prayers, holding his hands
t kirr (Looking at Ik* jtolm^j, and Men
KHUTBAH
drawing them down his face. The khatib then
rises again, and recites the following ) : —
"Praise be to God, abundant praise, as He
hath commanded. I testify that there is no
deity but God alone : He hath no companion:
affirming His supremacy, and condemning
him who denieth and disbelieveth : and I tes
tify that our Lord and our Prophet Muham
mad is His servant and His apostle, the
lord of mankind, the intercessor, the accepted
intercessor, on the Day of Assembling : God
bless him and his family as long as the eye
seeth and the ear heareth. 0 people, reve
rence God by doing what He hath com
manded, «nd abstain from that which He
hath forbidden and prohibited. The happy
uiie is ne who obeyeth, and the miserable
one is he who opposeth and sinneth. Know
that tiio present world is a transitory abode,
and that the world to come is a lusting
abode. Make provision, therefore, in your
transitory state for your lasting state, and
prepare lor your reckoning and standing
before .your Lord : for know that ye shall to
morrow be placed before f»od, and reckoned
with according to your deeds : and before the
Lord of Might ye shall be present, ' and those
who acted" unjustly shall know with what an
overthrowalthey shall be overthrown.' Know
that God. whose perfection I extol, and whose
name be exalted, hath said and ceaseth not
to say wisely, and to command judiciously,
warning you, and teaching, and honouring the
dignity of your Prophet, extolling and mag
nify iug him. Verily, God and His angels
bless the Prophet: 'O ye who believe, bless
him, and greet him- with a salutation.' O
God bless Muhammad and the family of
Muhammad, as Thou blessedst Ibrahim
and the family of Ibrahim among all crea
tures, for Thou art praiseworthy and
glorious. O God, do Thou also be well
pleased with the four Khalifahs. the ortho
dox lords, of high dignity and illustrious
honour', Abu Bakr, as-Siddiq, and 'Urnni.%
and 'Usman. and 'Ali: and be Thou well
pleased, 0 God. wiiL the six who remained
of the ten noble and just persons who swore
allegiance to Thy Prophet Muhammad (God
bless him and save him) under the tree (for
Thou art the Lord of piety and the Lord of
pardon); those persons of excellence and
clemency, and rectitude and prosperity, Tal-
bah, and Zubair, and SaM, and Sa'Id, and
'Abdu 'r-Rahuian ibn'Auf, and Abu 'Ubaidah
Amir ibn al-Jarrah : and with ail the Com
panions of the Apostle of God (Qod bless and
save him): and he Tbou well pleased, O
God, with the two martyred descendants, the
two bright moons, the ' two lords of the
youths of the people of Paradise in Paradise,
the t'wo sweet-smelling flowers x>f the Pro
phet of this nation. Abu Muhammad al-
Hasan and Abu 'Abdi 'Hah al-Huaain : and
be Thou well pleased, 0 God, with their
mother, the daughter of tho Apostle of God
(God bless and save him), Fafcimatu 'z-Zahra',
and with their grandmother Khadijah al-
Kubra, and with "Ayishah, the mother of the
faithful, and with the rest of the pure wives,
KHUTBAH
A.L-KIMIYA
277
and with the Keneralion which surue-. d d
the Companions, M!id ^iib ihe generation
which succeeded that, with hon*1 licence t<»
the Day of Judgment. O God, pardon the
believing men and the believing wonif»n,
and the Muslim men and. the Muslim
women, those who are living, and thf dead;
for Thou art a hearer near, an une>\\eiw rf
prayers, O Lord, of the beings oi the whole
world. O God. akl Islam, and strengtueu i{,->
pillars, and make iniidelity to tremble, and
destroy its might, by the preservation of Thy
servant, and the son of Thy servant, the
submissive to the Might of Thy Majesty
and Glory, -whom God hath aided, by the
care of the Adored King, our master the
Sultan, son of tho Sulfcan. the Suljan Mah-
miid Khan ; may God assist him, and prolong
("his reign]. O God, assist him, and assist
hig armies. 0 Thou Lord of the religion, and
the world pre.seiit, and tho world to come, 0
Lord of the beings of the wholo world.
"0 God, assist the forces of the Muslims,
and the armies of the Unitarians. 0 God,
frustrate the infidelB and polytheists, thine
enemies, the enemies of tho religion 0 God,
invert their banners, and ruin their habitations,
and give them and their wealth as booty to
the Muslims. 0 God, unloose the captivity
of the captives, and annul iLe dobt.s of the
debtors; and make this town to be safe and
secure, and blessed with wealth and plenty,
and all the towns of the Muslims, 0 Lord
of the beings of the whole world. And
decree safety and health, to us and to all
travellers, and pilgrims, and warriors, and
wanderers, upon Thy earth, and upon Thy
SCR. nuch as are Muslims, 0 L«ord of the
bemga of the whole world
• ' 0 Lord, we aave acted unjustly towards
our own souls, and if Thou do not forgive
us and bo merciful unto us, vvo shall surely
Dt- <jf those who perish.' 1 bog of God, the
Great, that lie may forgive mo and you. ;md
all. the people of Muhammad, the serv.ni>'
God. ' Verily God c-omrnandeth ]u?t,ic,p, ana
the doing1 of good, and giving what in d\'^ \*i
kindred : and forbiddetu v.'iokednesb, and
iniquity, and oppression: He »dmomsiieth
you that y& icay reflect. Remember Qod ;
He will remember you : and thank. Him : Ho
will increase to you your blessings. Praise
be to God, the Lord of' the beings of the whole
world ! •'
Tne khutbah being ended, the khafcib 'ben
descends from the pulpit, aud, if be officiate
as Imam, takes his position and leads ihe
people in a two-rak-ah T»r*'vor. The kbalib,
however, doe«j not always oineiate as .Imam.
The Prophet is rplatod ro have said tuaf the
length o. ;> wri's grayer* aid the shortness
ot his Bermon, are signs or a man's common
sense.
According to the best authorities, the name
of the reigning Khalifah ought to be Doited
in the kbutbah, and the fact, that, it i.-* not so
recited in independent MuhammnH.ivn king
doms, but the name of the Sultan or Amir
is substituted for the Khalifah, has its stg
nificimce, lor it is a ijucsUou whether the
of Turkey, lias any real claim fo the
iipiritn:il headship cf Mam ("KHALIFAH. |
In Indiit 1 be n.rme of the king is omitted
find the expression Ruler of the Age" is
used
Jn Iwlja, the recital oi the khutbuh Serves
to remind every Muhammad *tn piinflt. uu
toiiat <j;i<v ;i week, that he is in a Darn I-
7/ttr6, " a land of enmity." Still the fact
that he can recite his khufcbali »t *ll in u
• •oti'Ury noi under Muslim rule, mart- also
assure him that he is in a Du.ru 'l-Amdn, or
•' land of protection."
KHUTBATU 'L-WAQFAH
&*^V)- The u sermon ot!
The sermon or oration recited on Mount
'Arafnt at the mid-day prayer on the ninth
day of the pilgrimage. (Burton's Pilgrimage.,
vol. ii. p. 21 i>.) [KHMTBAH.J
KBUZA'AH (fcj**). Lit. "A win-
nant.'' A part of the Banu "l-A/d who were
Icfl behind wheu the tribe migrated, and who
eettl*d down permanently near Makkah.
Tiiey were from the first friendly to Muhum-
mad. and made a treaty with him soon after
th:if "f u i lludnibiyah. They were an im
portant portion of the army which marched
to IVinkknh with the Prophet.
KHUZAIM A H (A^A). An Arabian
tribe were expelled by the Yaiuan tribes and
afterwards settled in the Hiju,/, where they
bore a prominent part in opposing the army
of Muh:iimuu.d.
KHUZAIMAH IBNSABIT
c^»>v> c.1^)- A (JoiD.pa.uion oi
renown. He WH.^ pie.^ent at the battle of
Badr. He ,vas killed at tho same time as
•-.he Khuhiali AH. A.H. 87.
K'HWAJ'AH (A>^) Persian. A
rich or respectable man ; a gentleman. An
opulent merchant.
KIBK (j^). "Pride; haughti
ness." With regard to mortal man, it is con-
-?iderert a vice, but with regard to the In
finite- God, it is held to be one of Hin attri
butes. A/-Ifabir, " the Great f*n* "
AL-KIMIYA' (>\s+su\). «» Alch«niy."
The word is supposed to be derived from the
Greek yv/to?, which signifies "juice/ and to
be properly confined to the study of extracts
and tjuseiioHfl ot plants. It is now, however,
applied more especially to a pretended
science, which had for its object the ix-ans-
mutatiou of the baser materials into gold or
silver, or the discovery of a panacea or
universal remedy for diseases. Although
this no-called science has now fallen into de-
:;ery;d contempt, it was held in high repute,
and niU'.-h cultivated from the U>th to tho
; i -rnrtury, ospeciully amongst the Sara
cens. The firrft Miuslim of reputtttioi, who
is said to have giYou. his ntlenti-in U> th-. >nh-
jeft was Khftlid. a son of the Kjvilifab
Y;,/.u-i (/v.i>, K^'6), and the first who wrote on
the subject was Jabir ibn A.bbun as -Sufi, whu
! was a disciple of Khaiid.
278 KINANAH
Haji Khalfah, tho celebrated author of
the Kashfu 'z-Zunvn, says " the word
Ktmiyah comes from the Hebrew, klm
and yah and means ' from God.' There is
some discussion regarding this science. Many
people do not believe in its existence, amongst
others the celebrated philosopher Shaikh
'Ali ibn Sma', who wrote again.st it in his
book, tho Kiiabn 'sh-Shafff : also Ya'qub al-
Kiztdi, and many others. But, on the other
hand, mariy learned men have believed in its
existence; for example, Imam Fakhru 'd-dln
ar-Razi, and Shaikh Najrnu 'd-dm al-Bagh-
dadi." (Kashfu *z-Zunun, in loco.~)
'Ahlu Klmiyd\ is a term used not only for
mi alohymist, but for a deceiver, and also a
lover.
Al-Kimiyau 'l-Akbar, the philosopher's
stone, or some celebrated tincture.
Klmiyd.u '/-Ma'am, the chemistry of mean
ings, that is. the study of truth.
II. — Amongst the Sufi mystics, the term
ul-KlmiyS is used for being satisfied with the
things ill possession, and not yearning after
things which we do not possess. Kimiyffu 7-
"Aimtin, the alchymistry of the ordinary
people', is the exchange of spiritual things for
the things which perish. Kimiyau 'l-'Khawdss ,
the alchymistry of special people, is the
emptying' of the heart of everything except
God. Kimiyau 's-Swddah, the alchymistry of
felicity, is the purification of one's heart
from all things that are evil by the attain
ment of special graces. ('Abdu 'r-Razzaq's
Diet, of Sufi Tvms.)
KINANAH (&Vrf). (1) The name
of the ancestor and founder of the Arabian
tribe, the JBanii Kinanah, the father of an-
Nazr, the grandfather of Fihr, who was sur-
namecl Quraish. [QURAISH.]
(2) The name of the Jewish chief of Khai-
bar who defende'd the fortress of Qamus
against Muhammad. He was slain by order
of tho Prophet, who afterwards took- Kina-
nah's bride, Safiyah, to his home and married
her. [SAFIYAH.]
KINAYAH (ty*). " A metaphor."
A word used in the science of exegesis, e.g.
" Thoa art separated," by which may be meant.
•4 Thou art divorced," which is called faldqu
'1-K.indyah, or a divorce in metaphor.
KINDAH (sooT). A tribe of al-Ya-
man, and the descendants of Hirnyar. They
are admitted to be one of the noblest of tho
Arab tribes. One of the remarkable descen
dants of this tribe was al-Kindi the philoso
pher. [KINDL]
AL-KINDI (v5Ju*3t), the philoso
pher. Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ishaq ibn as-
Sabbah al-Kindi. who flourished at tho court
of the Khalifah Ma'mum, A.D. 833, and who
translated numerous classical and philoso
phical works for tho Abbaside Government.
I)e Slane say 5 his father Ishaq was Amir of
al-Kiifah, and hie great grandfather was one
of the Prophet's Companions. It was at one
KIRAMAH
time supposed he was a Jew or a convert to
the Jewish religion, while others tried to iden
tify him with the author of an Apology for
Christianity, entitled Risdlatu 'Abdi '/-
Maslh ibn Ishdq al-Kindi, in which the
writer explains to a Muslim friend his reasons
for holding the Christian faith, in preference
to Islam, whose acceptance the latter had
pressed upon him. But it has been proved
that al-Kindi, the philosopher, and al-Kindi,
the author of the said treatise, are two dis
tinct persons, although both living at the court
of al-Ma'mun and belonging to the same tribe.
Dr. J. M. Arnold, in his Islam and Chris
tianity, p. 372. says the Risdlah, or treatise
of al-Kindi, "is quoted as a genuine produc
tion by the celebrated historian, Muhammad
ibn Ahmad al-BIruni (died A.H. 4-30), in one
of his works in confirmation of his statement
that there were human sacrifices offered up
in Arabia prior to the time of Muhammad.
The Apology of al-Kindi has been rendered
into English by Sir William Muir, from an
edition in Arabic published by the Turkish
Missions Aid Society.
KINDRED. [INHERITANCE, MAR
RIAGE.]
KING. The term used in tho
Qur'an for a king is generally malik
Heb. TT7Ej> e-9' when the Israelites "said to
prophet' of theirs, « Raise up for ua a king.' "
(Surah ii. 246.)
(1) The word malik is now merely used in
Arabia and in Central Asia for a petty chief.
(2) Sukdn occurs in the Qur'an for " autho
rity," or " power," and not for a king. Surah
Ixix. 29, " My authority has perished from
nie." But it is now the title assumed by the
Emperor of Turkey.
(3) Padshah and Shaft are Persian words,
the ruler of Persia having assumed the title
of Shah or King. The word Pddshdh is de
rived from pad, " a throne," and shdh, " a lord
or possessor," i.e. "the lord of the throne."
In Hindustani it is Bddshah.
(4) Wall, is a title assumed by Muham-
madan rulers, the title being held by the
Barakzai rulers of Afghanistan in all legal
documents. The word simply means a pos
sessor, or one in authority.
(5) Amir has a similar meaning to Wc/i,
and is a title which is assumed by Muslim
rulers, as the Amirs of Bukharah and of
Kabul. It is derived from lamr, " to rule."
(6) Saiyid. " a lord," is a title given to the
descendants of Muhammad, and is a regal
title assumed by the ruler of Zanzibar.
(7) Imam, " a leader," is the legal title of thf>
head of the Muslims, and it is that given to
the successors of Muhammad, who are so
called in the Traditions and in Muhanimadan
works of law. [IMAM.J
(8) Khalifah, « a vicegerent." Khalifah,
or Caliph, is used for the same regal perso
nage as Imam. [KHALIFAH, KDLBRS.J
KIRAMAH (*M/)- The miracles
of any saint other than a Prophet, >s dit>-
KIBAMIYAH
tinguished from muyizah, which is always
used for the miracles of an apostlo or prophet
[MIRACLES.]
KIKAMIYAH (^/). A sect of
Muslims founded by Muhammad ibn Karim
and called also the Mujasslyah, or Corpo-
realists, because they admitted not only a
resemblance between God and created beings
but declared him to be corporeal in substance
" Ihe more sober among them, indeed
whfn they applied the word body to God,
* oul.l be understood to moan that He is a
self-subsisting being, which with them is the
definition of body; but yet some of them
affirmed him to bo finite, and circumscribed
'ither on all sides, or on some only (as be
neath, for example;, according to different
opinions ; and others allowed that He might
be felt by the hand, and seen by the eye
.Nay, one David al-Jawari went so far as to
say that His deity was a body composed of
nosh and blood, and that He had members,
as hands, feet, a head, a tongue, 'eyes, and
ears ; but that he was a body, however, not
bke other bodies, neither was he like to any
created being. He is also said, further, to have
affirmed that from the crown of the head to
the breast he wa3 hollow, and from the breast
downward solid, and that He had black
curled hair. These most blasphemous and
monstrous notions were the consequence of
the literal acceptation of those passages in
the Koran (Surahs xl. 10; xx. 4; ii. 109),
which figuratively attribute corporeal actions
to God, and of the words of Muhammad,
when he said that God created man in His
own image, and that he himself had felt the
fingers of God, which He laid on his back, to
be cold ; besides which, this sect are charged
with fathering on their Prophet a great
number of spurious and forged traditions to
support their opinion, the greater part whereof
they borrowed from the Jews, who are ac
cused as naturally prone to assimilate God to
men, so that they describe Him as weeping for
Noah s flood till His eyes were sore." (Sale.)
KIBAMTJN KATIBCN (A*-*
OpX). Lit. "Illustrious writers."
The two recording angels who are said to be
with every man, one on the right hand to
record his good deeds, and one on his left to
record the evil deeds. They are mentioned in
the Qur'an, Siiratu '1-Iuiitar (Ixxxii.) : " Yet
truly there are guardians over you, illustrious
recorders (kiraman kdtibln) cognizant of vour
actions."
It is related that the Prophet enjoined his
people not to spit in front, or on the right
but on the left, as cm that side stands the
recording angel of evil. (Mishknt, book iv.
ch. viii. pt. 1.)
As these angels are supposed to be changed
every day. they are called the mu'ayqrhat, or
those who succeed each other.
KISRA (c5r~0, pi. Akasirah. The
Chosroes, or Cyrus, a name given to almost
every king of Persia of the Sassanian dynasty
(like Caesar among the Romans and Pharaoh
KISWAH
279
umoug the Egyptians). The kings of
prior to Islam, according to Arab historians
:>niposed four dynasties, namely, the Pesh-
j dadians, the chronology of which is unknown •
the Kayumans, which ended B.C. 331, when
Persia was conquered by Alexander ihe
>/no Ash£amans> which terminated
i^j and the Sassanians, the last of
whom was overcome by the Arabs, A.D. 630.
From the Qur'an, Surah xxx. 1, it appears
that after the taking of Jerusalem by CW
roes the sympathies of Muhammad were all
enlisted on the side of the Casar, and ho fore
tells his ultimate victory over the kimr of
Persia : —
"The Greeks have been conquered in the
neighbouring coast, but in a few years after
their defeat they shall again be victorious"
In the sixth year of the Hijrah, Muham
mad sent a despatch to Chosroes, inviting
h m to Islam. Sir William Muir says (Lft
oj Mahomet, new ed. p. 384) :_
"The despatch for the King of Persia
reached the Court probably some months
after the accession of Siroes. It wa« deli
vered to the Monarch, .who, on hearing the
contents tore it in pieces. When this was
reported to Mahomet, he prayed and said •
•Even thus, 0 Lord! rend Thou his km^
dom from him.' Connected with the courtoJ
I ers,a, but of date somewhat earlier than the
despatch sent to it, is a remarkable incident
which was followed by results of considerable'
importance.
"A few mouths before his overthrow the
Chosroes, receiving strange reports of the pro
phetical claims of Mahomet, and of the de
predations committed on the Syrian border by
his marauding bands, sent order to Badzan,
the Persian Governor of Yemen, to despatch
two trusty men to Medina, and procure for
him certain information regarding the Pre
tender. Badzan obeyed, and with the mes
sengers sent a courteous despatch to Maho
met. By the time they arrived at Medina
tidings had reached the Prophet of the depo
sition and death of Chosroes. When the
despatch, therefore, was read before him he
smiled at its contents, and summoned th« am
bassadors to embrace Islam. Ho then ap
prised them of the murder of the Chosroe-'
and the accession of his eon. « Go,' said he
' inform your master of this, and require him
to tender his submission to the Prophet of
the Lord The glory of Persia had now de
parted. She had long ago relaxed her grasp
upon Arabia ; and the Governor of Yemen was
free to chouse a protectorate more congenial
to his people. Badzan, therefore, gladly re
cognised the rising fortunes of Islam, and aijr-
miied his adhesion to the Prophet From the
distance of this province, its allegiance was
at the first little more than nominal- but
the accession served as a point for further
action, and meonwhile added new prestige to
the Prophet's name."
KISWAH (V^). Lit. •• A robe "
The covering of the Ka'abah, or cube-like
bmldjng, at Makkak [KA-BAH.J
280
KTSWAH
TUTMAN
When Captain Burton visited Makkab in
1853, he found it. to be a, coarse tissue of
mixed silk and cotton, and of eight pieces,
two' for each face of the building, the seams
being concealed by the broad gilt band called
the affam. It i<? lined with white calico, and
has cotton ropes to secure the covering to
metal rings at the basement. But on the
occasion of Captain Burton's visit, the kis
wah was tucked up by ropes from the rooL
The whole is of a brilliant black, with -the gold
band running round it.
The 6tm/"',or veil,' is a curtain huug before
the door of the Ka'bah, also of black bro
cade, embroidered with inscriptions, in Jeitei-b
of gold, of verses from the Qur'an, and lined
with green silk.
According to Burton, the inscription on the
gold band of the kiflwah is the ninetieth verse
of the third Surah of the Quran: •• Verily,
the first House founded for mankind was
purely that at Bakkah, for a blessing and
a guidance to the worlds." The whole of the
kiswHh i« covered with seven Surahs of the
Qur'an, namely, xviuth, xixth. uird. ixth,
xxtti, xxxixth, and ] xvnth (i.e. ai-Kahf,
Maryam. Alu. -Imran, at-Taubaii, Ta H§. ¥a
Sin, and al-Mulk). The character is the
ancient Kufic, and legible from a considerable
distance.
Mr, Lane says that the kiswah is made of
a mixture of silk and cotton, because the
Prophet expressly forbade silk as an article
of dress.
The kiswah and burqa- are now manu
factured at Cairo, at a manufactory called
the Khurunfish, and is made by a family
who possess the hereditary right, and who
are called the Baitu Js-Sa(d. When they are
completed, they are taken to the mosque
known as the Sultan Hasan, and there kept
until they are sent off with a caravan of pil
grims to Makkak This usually takes place
a few days after the 'Idu '1-Fitr, generally
about the 6th day of the month of Shawwal,
and two or three weeks before the departure
of the regal canopy or Mahmal. [MAHMAL.]
The procession of the kiswah is similar to
that of the Mahmal, and therefore requires
no separate description.
According to Muslim historians, the Ka'bah
was first dressed with a kiswah or robe by a
Himyarite chief, named Tubba-'u 'i-Arqan
From the time of Qusaiy it was veiled by
subscriptions collected from Pagan Arabs,
until Abu Rabiyah ibn al-Mughirah ibn
'Abdi 'ilah provided the covering, whereby
he obtained the title . of al-'Adf, " the Just."
When Muhammad obtained possession, he
ordered it to be covered with fine Yamani
cloth, and ordered the expense to be defrayed
from the public treasury. The Khalifab
•Umar chose Egyptian linen, and ordered the
robe to be renewed every year. Khalifah
«• Usman. being a man of eminent piety ordered
it to be clothed twice a year. For the winter
it had a robe of brocade silk, and in the
summer a suit of fine Ihvni. Mu'awiyah, the
Utnaiyah Khalifah. was the first to establish
tne prevent kiswah of silk and Ihifvn tis
but being reminded of the Prophet's well-
known dislike to silken robes he changed it
again 10 the more orthodox covering of 'fa-
mam cloth. The Khalifah Ma'mun (A.B. 813)
orrlfred the dress to be changed three times
a year, <he fine YamanT cloth on tTie lai of
Raiab. white brocade on the 1st of bhuwwal,
lor the pilgrimage two months later, and
rich red brocade on the 10th of Mnharram.
The KhalifAli al-Mutawakkil (A.I>. 847) sent
a new robe every two months. During the
Abbaside dynasty, the investing of the Ka'-
bah with the kiswah was regarded as a sign
of sovereignty over the holy, places. The
Iwier KhaHfabs of Baghdad are said to have
sent a kiswah of green and gold. The Fati-
mide KhalTfalu made the kiswah at Cairo of
black brocade of mixed silk and cotton; and
when Sultan Salim assumed the power of the
Khallfate (>.i>. 1512), the kiswah still con
tinued to be supplied from Cairo, as is now
the case under the Ottoman rule.
(Burckhardt's Arabia, Lane's £ffypticaiti
Ali Boy's Pilgr image, Builon's Afer.ca. and
Medina.} [KA'BAH.'MASJIDU 'L-HAUAALJ
AL-KITAB *(^\&\). « The Book."
A term used for the Quran.- and extended to
all inspired books of the Jews and Christians,
who are called A Idu 'l-Kitdb. oc believer^ in
the book.
KITABI (^Us ). A term used for
one of tbft Ahlv 'l-Kitdb, " tlie ]>eople of the
Book,v or thost, in possession of the inspired
word of God. as JPWS or Christians.
ETTABTYAH (l*\*\ Fern, of
Kitnbi. A female of the Ahlu 'I- Kit alt. or
those who possess an inspired book, Jews
or Christians.
KITABTJ 'L-A'MAL
'L-A'MAL.]
AL-K1TAB0 'L-HUKMI (
^^+£a*$\). A letter transmissible from
one Qazi to another when the defendant in a
suit resides at a distance. Such letter must
be a transcript of real evidence.
AL-KITABU 'L-MUBlN (
i£a*d\). Lit. "The Manifest or clear
book." The term is used in [ho Qm'im
both for the Tablet of Decrees (Ltiuhu '/-
Mu/t/'iiz. and for the Qui 'an itself.
Surah vi. 59: ' • V.> loaf falleth but He
kuowethit; neither is there a grain in the
darkness of the earth, nor a green 'bing or
sere, but it is noted in the clear book."
Sfirah iv. 18: " Now hath a light and a
clear book roiue to you from God."
KITM AJN (e?U^ ) . ' " Conceal n^ ;
keeping s-°; "ot." Tho iniimction of the
Qur'-'in \s : " fftdf> not the tnit.}' whilp ye
know it'': «nd yet the ' art of concealing
proftine reljujous beliefs has been a special
charuotenstic of the J^astern mystics.
KNEELING
KNEELING. Tho attitude of
kneeling amongst Muhammadans consists of
placing tho two knees on the ground and sitting
on tl.e feet behind. Knoeling as practised by
Christians in tho present day, does not exist
amongst Muslims ns an attidude of worship.
The word/J.«Z, which occurs in the Qurfm,
Sftrah xlv. 27 : '• And thuu shall see each
nation kneeling (jagt^ofan), each nation sum
moned to tho be ok," expresses an attitude of
fear arid not of worship
KNOWLEDGE. ['ILM.J
KORAH. Arabic Qdrfm (<^U).
Heb. rn. The sou of Yasliar
(Ivshar), sor of Qahis (Kohath), son of Lawi
(Levi). The leader of the rebellion against
Moses. > am. xvi. 1; Jude 11 (where he is
coupled with Cain and Balaam). He is'nien-
tioned .hree times in the Qur'an.
Sin ah xl. 24. L'.~> : >% Moreover we had sent
Mosos of old, with our .*igns and with clear
aut' ority, to Pharaoh, and Haman, and
r -rah; and they said, ' Sorcerer, impostor.' "
Surah xxix. 08 : " And Korah and Pharaoh
and Haman. With proofs of his mission did
Moses come to them, and they behaved
proudly on the earth; but us they could not
outstrip ; for every one of them did we seize
in his sin. Against some of them did we send
i stone -chargf-d wind ; some of them did tho
terrible cry of Gabriel surprise ; for some of
tiiem we cleaved the earth ; and some of
them we.drowuod.'"
Surah xxviii. 76-82: -'Now Korah was of
the people of Moses : but he behaved
haughtily toward them; for we had given
him such treasure that its keys Vould have
•burdened a company of men of strength,
When his people said to friin, ' Esult not', for
God loveth nol those who exult ; but seek by
means of what God hath given thee, to attain
1 he future Mansion; and neglect not thy part
in this wprld, but be bounteous to others as
God hnth been bounteoun to thee. and seek
not to commit excesses on the earth ; for God
loveth not those who commit excesses : ' he
said, * It hath been given me only on account
of the knowledge that is in me.' Did he not
know that God had destroyed before him
generations that wen mightier than he in
strength and had amassed more abundant
wealth y But the wicked shall not be asked
of their crimes. And Korah went forth to
his people in his pomp. Those who were
greedy lor this present life said, « Oh that wo
h#d the like of that which hath been be
stowed on Korah! Truly he-i^-possessed of
great good fortune.' But they to whom
Knowledge lm<i been given said, ' Woe to
you 1 the reward of God is better for him
who bolieveth and worketh. righteousness,
and none shall win it but those who have
patiently endured.' And wo clave the earth for
him and for his palace, and he had no forces,
in the place of God, to help him, nor was he
among those who are succoured. And in the
morning those who the day before had coveted
281
his lot said, , « Aha ! God enlargeth supplies
to whom He plenscth of His servants, or h
sparing. Had not God been gracious to UH.
He had caused it to cleave for us. Alia ! th-
ungrateful car. never prosper."
Al-Baizuwi sayg Korah brought a fals»
accusation of immorality against Moses, and
Moses complained to God, and God directed
Kim to command the earth what he pleased,
and it should, obey him; whereupon he said,
"O earth, swallow them up"; and imme
diately the earth opened under Korah and bis
confederates, and swallowed them up, with
his palace and all his riches.— There is a tra
dition that as Kornh sank gr;i dually into the
ground, first to bin knees, then to hid waist,
then to his nock, he cried out four several
times, "0 Moses, have mercy on me!" but
that Moses continued to say. " O earth,
swallow thorn up ! " till at last he wholly dis
appeared : upon which God said to Moseft,
" Thou hadst no mercy on Korah. though hp
asked pardon of the« four times ; but I would
have had compassion on him if he had asked
pardon of Me but once."
He is represented by JaUln 'd-din as tb>
most beautiful of the Israelites of hia time.
His opulence and avarice have become »
proverb for those who amass wealth without
giving away in alms and charity.
In tho Talmud it is said that '• Joseph con
cealed three treasures in Egypt, one of which
became known to Korah .... the kets of
Korah's treasure chambers were a burden
for 300- white mules." Midr. Jalhtt on Eccl.
^k 12 : " Riches kept for the owners thereof
to their hurt," — which may have furnished
Muhammad with the nucleus of this story.
Compare also Tract. Psftchim, foJ.
AL-KUFAH (*y3t)- A city on
the west bank of the river Euphrates, about
four days march from Baghdad, but which
has now entirely disappeared.
The city of al-Kufah was founded soon
after the Arabs conquered Persia, A.I>. 630,
and in the reign of the Khalifah 'Umrfr. It
was built opposite the ancient town of Ma-
dain, on the other side of the river. The
first Abbaside K.halifah, Abu '!-' Abbas, A.D.
750, made it his capital, and it was then a
flourishihg city, but when tho Khalifah al-
Mansur built Baghdad, al-Kufah decreased
in importance, and gradually fell into decay.
It was much famed for ita learned men, and
especially for its grammarians. Two sects
of rival grammarians were named respectively
from al-Basrah and al-Kufah, and the more
ancient characters of Arabic writing are
called Kufl or Kufic, after this seat uf learn
ing. The Kuiic-Arabic letters resemble the
Syria?, being square and heavy. The
ancient copies of the Qur'an are written hi
Kufi>.
KUFR (ytf). Lit. "That which
ftovers the truth." Infidelity; blasphemy.
Disbelieving in the Qur'an or iu any of the
tenets of tin- Muslim ivlii^um. I KAFIK. I
bo
•282
KULAH
LAILATTT f.-QADR
KULAH ( <&$'). The Persian fora « f^11 H their laj or crown, and it is one
cap, or cowl, especially worn by Muh«tnmadan j of the distinguishing marks of their
faqirs or darwesbes.* The faqirs generally • order.
. „
KULAHS. !
KULSUM (ft»*K). .Kulsum ibn
Hatiam. the name of a hospitable but blind
chief, with whom MuhammacL stayed at Quba'
upon hifi arrival iu that place after his flight
from Makkah. It was whilst be was staying
with Kulsum that Muhammad built bis first
mosque at Quba'. Kulsum died soon after
wards.
KURZ IBN JABT.B (^W ^ )/ V A
Qaraish chieftain who committed H raid near
al-Madmah, and carried off som« of the Hocks
and herds of the Muslims. He was afterwards
converted to Islam, aud fell under JChalid at
the taking- of Makkah.
KUSUF 0-^~* ). [ECLIPSE OP THE
SUN.]
L.
LAADRIYAH (Vu)- A sect of
heretics who say it is impossible for mortal
man to be certain of any fact, even of man's
own identity.
LABBAIKA («sX«5). [TAI.BIYAH."]
LABID (J*4). The son of Babi'ah
ibn Ja'far al-'Amiri, a celebrated poet in the
time of Muhammad who embraced Islam, and
who is said to have died at al-Kufah at the
advanced age of 157 years. The Prophet is
related to have said, "The truest words ever
uttered by a poet are those of Labld, —
' Know that everything is vanity but C4od.' "
(Mishkat, book xxxii. . ch. x. pt. 1.)
LAHD (J^). The hoilow made
in a grave on the Qiblah side, in which the
corpse is placed. It is made the same length
as the grave, and is as high as would allow
a person to sit up in it.
LAHUT (s^yfc^). Lit. " Extinc
tion " or " absorption." (1) The last stage of
the mystic journey. (2) Divinity. (3) Life
penetrating all things. [SDFIISM.]
LAHYAN (0W). A branoh of
the Huzail tribe, which inhabited, in the days
of Muhammad, as they still do, the vicinity
of Makkah. Muhammad formed an expedi
tion against them, A.H. t>, on account of their
treacherous attack on a small party of Mug
Urns at Rajl.
LAILATU 'L - BAR A' AH
[SHAB-I-BABA.'AH.]
AL-LAILATU 'L-MUBARAKAH
(Kj^\ JMn. Lit. "The Blessed
Night." [LAJT.ATU 'U-
LAILATU 'L-QADR (;^ &LJ).
'" The night of power." A mysterious night,
in the month of Ramazan, the precise date of
which is said to have been known only to the
Prophet and a few of the Companions. The
following is the allusion to it in the Qur'an.
Suratu 1-Qadr (xcvii.) : —
"Verily we have caused it (the Qur'an } to
descend on the Lailatu 'l~Q,ac/r.
'' Who shall teach thee what the Lailatu 'I-
Qadr is ?
"The Lailatu '1-Qadr excelleth a thousand
months :
" Therein descend the angels, and the
spirit by permission
'• Of their Lord in every ma/tter ;
" And all is peace until the breaking of the
dawn."
This night must not be confounded, as it
often is, with the Shab-i-Bara'ah, which is
generally called Shab-i-Qadr. or the night of
power, but which occurs on the 15th of
Sha'ban. [SUAB-I-BARA'AH.]
The excellences of the Lailatu '1-Qadr are
said to bo innumerable, and it is believed that
during its rfoleran hours the whole animal
LAILATU 1R-KAOHA;IB
and vegetable creation bow down in humble
adoration to the Almighty.
LAILATU 'R-RAGHA'IB (*LI
v^V^). The Anight of supereroga
tory devotions." A festival observed on the
Friday in the month Rajab, by cer
tain mystic leaders who affirm that it was
established by run Prophet; but it is gene
rally rejected by orthodox Sumil*. (See
Raddn '(-Mit/itar, vol. i. p. 717.)
LALS (>A~)). An Arabic tribe de
scended from Kinanah. Al-Bju»5wi says
they thought it vulawful for a man to eat
Alone, mill -*,»re tho cause of the verse in
the Quran, Sfuab xsiv. ,60: "There is no
ciime ir. you, whether ye eat together or
separately."
LAMENTATION. [BUKA'.]
LA'NAH. (JoJ). "Imprecation;
cursr; amith.vnx" A word used thirteen
titties m the Qur'fm, e.g. Surah ii. 83 : « The
cur*e of God is on th« infidel;?. "
LAND. Arabic arz (^), balad
), mulk (ValU).
The following are some of the principal
rules of Muslim law relating to land;—
0) Tithes or Zakat ou land?.— Upon every
thing produced from the ground there is due
a tenth, or 'fakir, <ushr (Heb ^^^),
whether the soil be watered by the "annual
overflow of great livers, cr by periodical
rams : excepting upon articles of wood, bam
boos, and grass, which are not subject to
:ithn. Land watered by means of buckets or
machinery, such as Persian wheels, or bv
watering camels, are subject to only W/~
tithes. (Uidayak, vol. i. p. 44.)
(2) Conquered lands become the property of
the state. Those of idolaters remain so
Ihose belonging to Jews, Christians, or Fire
worshippers, are secured to the owners on
payment of tribute. Those who afterwards
embrace Islam recover their property, ac
cording to a$h-Shaft% but not according to
the Hamfah school. Upon the Muslim army
evacuating an enemy's country, it becomes
unlawful for the troops to feed their cattle
on the land without due payment. (Hiddyah,
vol. ii. p. 170.)
^Appropriation, for religion* uses. — Land
may be so appropriated; but if a person
appropriate land for such a purpose and it
should afterwards be discovered that an in- j
^finite portion of it was the property of !
another person, the appropriation is void with
respect to the remainder also. The appro- I
pnation must also be of a />rrpetttal and not i
i temporary u.iture, (Hiduvah. vol. ii !
p. 840.jr
0) She sale of land is lawfal. In <»uch j
*ales the tree* upon the land are included in '
w Bate, whether specified or not; but neither
the grain growing on the ground, nor the
it growing on the trees, are 'included,
unless specified. But in the rasa of the fruit
LA J1 WING
283
or corn being purchased with the la ad it
must be gathered or cleared away at once.
In the sale of ground, the seed Jwn in the
ground is not included. Land may be refold
PnrchU'S t0 8ei55in.orP°88eMi°n> by the first
the Imam Muhammad says it is 'unVwfaJ.
s and vifenumi**. are not inc|uded -n
(5) Claims ayaimt land must be made bv
leplamtiff defining the four boundaries and
specifymg ho names of each possessor, and
the Demand for the land must bo made in ex
plicit terms. And if the land has bceu resold,
a decree must be given either for or against
the last possessor, according to some doctors
(fttdayah, vol. m. p. 65.)
(6) Land can be lent, *nd the bonder can
build upon H but when the lender receives
back his land, he can compel the borrower to
remove his houses and trees. Land lent for
llUfr« cannot be resumed by the lender until
tbe crops sown have been reaped. Abu
Hamfah maintains that when land is lent to
another, the contract should be in these words,
;»??-»* given me to eat of this land"
, vol. iii. p. 284, 288. ;
gift of land which is uncultivated
cannot be retracted after houses have been
built on it or trees planted. If the donee
sell half of the granted land, the donor in
that case may. if he wiahes, resume the other
It. If a person make a gift of land to hi8
relative within the prohibited degrees it is not
lawful for him to resume it. (Bidayahy vol.
MI. p. 302.)
(83 The Ijarnh, or rental of land, is /awful
but tbe period must be specified, otherwise
the rent. may be demanded from day to day.
.But a lease of land is not Jawii;! unless men-
.tion is made of the article to be raised upon
it, and at the expiration of the ]«ase the land
must be restored in its original .Mate. A,
hirer of land is not responsible for -iccidents ;
for example, if in burning off the bubble b«
happen to born other property, he is not
responsible for loss incurred^ (Ifvteyuh, vol
iii. p. 314, d'(O
(») The c^Uwatim of waste and uncbimfd
(and* is lawfid, when it i< done with the
permission of the ruler of the country, and
the not of cultivation invest? ihf cultivator
j vvith a right of property in them. But if the
Iftnrl bo not cnltivated for thr-e year.i after it
: has been allotted, it may again be ol»iT.ied by
! the state. (f/ijfiy<ih, vol. iv. p. 126.)
j (J(>; If « p»r*w be Main on tands belonging
to aiiyonr, and situated ne«r a village, and
the proprietor of the land be not an inhabi
tant of the village, be is responsible for tbo
murder,, as the r«»;;u!«ition and protrrtion of
those lands rest upon him. (HidmiwJi vol
iv p. 447.)
LAF>IDATfON [STONING, j
LAPWING. Arabic hudhud ( A*O*).
The name in the Qur'an, Sftrah xxvil. JO, for
tho bird which o* cried the loiter fmni King
284
LAQAB
Solomon to the Queen of Sheba. [SOLOMON.J
it is the /"lO^D^ of tne ^ Testament,
Lev. xi. 19, Dent. xiv. 18. Greek Irroi^.
The modern Hoopoe.
The commentators al-Jalalan and al-
Baizawl say that Solomon, having finished
the temple of Jerusalem, went in pilgrimage
to Makkah, whence, having stayed as long
as he pleased, he proceeded towards al-
Yaman ; leaving Makkah in the morning, he
arrived by noon at San'a', and being ex
tremely delighted with the country, rested
there. But wanting water to make the ablu
tion, he looked among the birds for the lap
wing, whose business it was to find it; for it
ist pretended she was sagacious or sharp-
sighted to discover water underground, which
the devils used to draw, after she had marked
the place by digging with her bill. They add
that this bird was then taking a tour in the
air, whence, seeing one of her companions
alighting, she descended also, and having
had a description given her by the other of
the city of Saba', whence she was just ar
rived, they both went together to take a view
of the place, and returned soon after Solomon
had made the inquiry given in the Qur'an :
" He reviewed the birds and said. ; How is it
I do not see al-Hudhud? Is he, then, aciongsi
the absent? ""
LAQAB (s-tf). A surname. Either
a title of honour or a nickname; e.y. Al-
Hu^aiu >bn Masnid al-Fana. "the tanner";
Abu Sa-id . Triju 'l-Mnliik. ki the crown of
kings " ; Ibn Muhammad at- Tuybtal>'>, " of the
tribo of Taghlab." [NAMES.]
LAQlT (M), in its primitive
sense, signifies anything lifted from thegi'ound,
but in the language of the law it .signifies a
child abandoned by those to whom it pro
perly belongs. The person who finds the
child is termrd the nntltayit, or the taker up.
[FOUNDLING.]
LARCENY. A-rMcsariqah (&;~).
In the language oi the law, sarfr/ah signifies
the taking away the property of anothei in a
Secret maunw, at a . time when such pro-
perty is in custody. Custody ia of two kinds :
1st, by place, for example, a house or a shop ;
and, 2nd, by personal guard, which is by
means of a personal watch over the property.
If an adult ( of sound understanding steal out
of undoubted custody ten dirhams, or property
to the value of ten dirhams, the Muhammadan
law a'wards the amputation of a hand, for it
is said in the Qur'an, Surah v. 42 : " If a man
or woman steal, cut off their hands."
With regard to the amount of the value
which constitutes a theft, there is some dif
ference of opinion. According to Abu Hani-
fah, it is ten dirhams ; according to ash-Shafi'I,
it is the fourth of a dinar, or twelve dirhams ;
whilst Malik holds that the sum is three
dirhams.
The freeman and tiio slave are on equal
footing with respect to pnnisliment for theft,
and the hand of the slave is to be struck off
in the same manner as the hand of a free
Muslim.
The theft must be established upon the testi
mony of two witnesses, but the magistrate
must examine the witnesses as to the manner,
time, and place of the theft. The thief must
also be held in confinement, or suspicion, until
the witnesses be fully examined.
If a party commit a theft, and each of the
paily receive teu dirhams, the hand of each is
to be cut off ; bxit if they receive less than
j ten dirhams each, they are not liable to ampu-
j tation.
Amputation is not incurred by the theft of
anything of a trifling nature, such as wood,
bamboos, grass, fish, fowls, and garden stuff.
Amputation is not incuri-ed by the thef{< ol
such things as quickly decay and spoil, such
as milk or fruit, nor for stealing fruit whilst
upon the tree, or grain which has not bt>en
reaped, these not being considered as in cus
tody.
The hand of a thief is not struck off foi
stealing any fermented liquor, because be
may explain his intention in' taking it, by
saying. " I took it witJi a view to spill it " ;
and also because some fermented liquors are
not lawful property.
The hand is not to be cut off for stealing a
guitar or tabor, these "being of use merely at
idle amusements.
Amputation is not incurred by stealing a
Qur'an, although ash-Shafi'i maintains that
it is.
There is no amputation for stealing the
door of a mosque. Nor is the hand struck off
for stealing a crucifix or a chess board, as it
is in the thief's power to excuse himself by
saying, " I took them with a vinw to break
and destroy them, as things prohibited." It
is otherwise with a coin bearing the impres
sion of an idol, by the theft of which amputa
tion is incurred ; because the money is not ac
object of worship.
The hand is not to be struck off for stealing ;i
free-born infant, although there be ornaments'
upon it, because a free person is not property .
but ampiitation is incurred by stealing an
infant slave, although the stealing of an adult
slave does not incur amputation, as such an
AL-LAT
act docs not come under the description of
theft, being an usurpation or :i fraud.
Amputation is not incurred for stealing a
book, because the object of th* thief can only
befits contents and not the property.
The hand is not cut off for stealing a cur-
dog, because such an animal is common pro
perty ; nor for stealing utensils made of wood.
There is no amputation for stealing- from
the public treasury, because everything there
is the common property of all Muslims, and
in which the thief, an a member of the com
munity has n share. And if a person st.-al
from property of which he is in part owner,
•imputation is not inflicted. Nor it a creditor
steal from his debt is the hand cut off.
The right hand r.f the thief is to be cut off
at the joint of the wrist and the stump after
wards cauterised, and for the second theft
the left foot, and for any theft beyond that h<>
must suffer imprisonment.
AJ.-LAT («»N\). The name of an
idol worshipped by the ancient Arabians,
probably the Alt'/at of Herodotus. The idol
Lat is mentioned in the Qur'an in conjunction
with!the two other idols, ul-*Uzza and Manat
See Surah liii. 19 : "What think ye, then, of
al-Lat and al-'U/za, and Manat. the third
idol besides ? "
In connection with this verse there is an
interesting discussion. (See Muir, new ed.
p. 80.) Al-Waqidi and at-Tabari both re
late that, on a certain day, the chief men of
Makkah assembled in a group 'beside th*
Ka'buh, discussed, ;is was their wont, the
affairs of the city, when tho Prophet ap
peared, and seating himself by them in a
friendly manner, U-gan to recite the 53rd
chapter of the Qur'an; and when he had
reached the verse " What think ye then of
al-Lat, and al-'Uzza, and Manat," the third
idol besides?" the Devil suggested words of
reconciliation and compromise with idolatry,
namely, - These arc exalted females. },nd
verily their intercession is to be hoped for."
vords, however, which were received
by the idolaters with great delight, were
afterwards disavowed by the Prophet, for
Gabriel revealed to him tho true reading
;ly, " What think ye tbjen of al-Lat, and
al-'Uzza, and Manat, the third idol besides ?
Shall ye have male progeny and God female ?
This, then, were an unjust partition ! Verily.
these arc more names which ye and •
fathers have given them."
The narrative1 thus related by al-W't<;Mi
and at-Tabari is given as an explanation of
surah xxii. 51: " N'or have we sent any
•le or prophet before thee into \vh
'X* Satan Lath not inject^ so^ie wi
TAW 285
' the .soul, derived from God, wb,cn baai
; amy ;.,-;„„, effect on the heart that mortal
I man cannot express it in langna*,.. j,,si
u taste in tho moutb cann, t be -xactlv
W*"6* h>' th<; tongue. (AiVJAM •g.'RtnfS,
LAUGHING. Arabic zabk,
AL-LATIF (cAJciM;. -Th* Mys-
teriousor the Subtle One." One of tho nim'ty-
mne attributes of God. Surah vi. K);; : « For
He is the Subtle- («/-£«/?/), the All-informed
(fu-Khabir).
LATIFAH (fcsU). A term us,-,]
by Sufi mystics for any sign or influence in
n$. (Geu.xviii.ly,
Immoderate laughing is generally condeinne,.
hy Miilmunimdaii teachers, for 'Ayishah r,-
»te« that MuhammAd •• never lau-h^d a fuM
augh so that tho inside of his mouth could
be ftcen; he only smiled." (Ati,J,l at/ book
XMI. ch. vii.)
AL-LAUHU 'L-MAHFQ^
*>yW^). « The preserved tablet.
In the Hadis and in thoo!ogiritl works it
s used to denote the tablet on which tho
decrees of God were recorded with reference
to mankind. In the Qur'an it only occurs
once when it refers to tho Qur'an itself.
Surah Ixxxv. 21, 22 : « It is a glorious Qur'an
written on the prcserccd table." The plural
alwah occurs in Surah vii. 142. for the table-
of the law given to Moses.
LAW, The. The words used by
Musbms to express - the law," are ash-Shari^h
(*-»^) and aslt.Ma* (ftAJ\), the meaning
of which is « the way." The compiler of the
(i&yda* :f^fhah defines it as « tho way or roaH
in tho religion of Muhammad, which (,-,d has
ostabhshed for the guidance of His people >.oth
for the worship of God and for tho duties of
life. The term a*A-SMart>a* occurs once in
the Quran, Surah xlv. 17: "We (Ood) put
tbee (Muhammad) in the right. n:<n, concern
ing the affair." The term a*li-'&n<<nh is
almost obsolete in books on Muslim theology
it occurs once in the Qur'an, Sftrah T.
oJ: <* Io every one havn we eiven " »///,/
way."
In the Traditions and theological works,
the word tuk-Shu* is generally used to ox-
the law of Muhammad. " The Hebrew
pnln 'WCOTK in the Qur'au ..s Ttiwdt, and
ii always UNerl for the l.-iw of Mo.so^
[XAUBAT.]
According to Muslim doctors, ath.S/mr*, or
•• ino Law, may bo divided into five .sections:
ffi&Kt, "belief"; Adah, -moralities";
•llmdnt, "devotions"; M***talatt ;> transac-
' ; MA'Vqubtit, "punish tu.'nls."
(1) V-/?V«''«^,t-'mbracofi all that is contained
m the six articles of the Muslim faith, namely,
K L m'/(" rG°(]; & Hi? 8n^ts CO H?8
Books; (,/) JJ18 Prophets; (e) Tho Day of
Judgment ; (/) The Decrees of God. thi*
"ion ol Muslim law is termed «//ww V.
r, '/«;«» or. "The Science of tho Articles of
Bel"*, and includes all brnnchcn of scho
lastic theology. The books chieflv consulted
on this sub/ect in the present work are the
Mar** l-Muw(lqtj\ by Saiyid Sharif-al-Jur-
J«m and the Sharfr V-^t^W. by Mas'ud
ba'du d-dui at-raftazani.
(2) AMI, embraces the consideration of all
286 D/LW
those moral excellences which are enjoined
tion"; Q/ufru 'I-' Aw I. "keeping down one's
expectation"; Zuhdfi 'd-aunyd, " renunciation
of the world "'; Napihah, " giving good counsel
and advice": Q/anffah, "contentment;"
Rakh'dwah, " liberality ; " Jfubb, " love to God
and suan " ; >Sabr, " patience "' ; Arc. (See
Majma'u H-Bihar, TO!, ii. p. 422 )
(?,) '/haddt, includes all acts of devotion to
God, such «s are included in the five pillars
of practice: (a) Recital of the Creed; (6)
Prayer: (?) Xakat, or "legal alms'4; (d)
Sawn, or "fasting"; (c) The pilgrimage to
Makkah. It will also embrace such reli
gious acts as Jihad, or warfare for the propa
gation of the religion of Islam.
(4-j Mu'u.nialdi. includes such duties as are
required between man and man, and is
divided into Mukkdyarndt, "altercations";
Munakahdt, "nuptials"; Amdndt, "securi
ties " Under those three heads are embraced
all the various sections of civil jurispru
dence such a.-» barter, sale, agency, larceny,
marriage, divorce, dower, partnership, claims,
&c.
(5) Uqubdt, denotes the punishments
instituted in the Qur'an and Traditions,
namely, (a) Q?'.?«s, " retaliation" ; (6) Haddu
's-sariqah, punishment for theft by the loss
of a hand ; (c) Haddu 'z-zina , punishment
for fornication and adultery, stoning for
ft married person and one hundred lashes for
an unmarried person ; (e) Haddu 'l-qazf, or
punishment, of eighty lashes for slander ;
Ifadfht 'r-riddah. or punishment by death
for apostasy ; Haddu 'sh-shurb. or punish-
jjipot with eighty laches for wine-drinking.
The two common divisions of Muhamiuadan
taw are II mu V- K a/dm, or 'Ayd'id, embracing
all matters of faith ; and llhnu 'l-Fiqh, which
includes all matters of practice as distin
guished from articles of faith.
Muslim law is also divided into two great
distinctions of Masliric, " lawful," and Ghairu
'!-i)ias/n-u\ unlawful." or. as it is expressed in
Persian, Rawa and jV5rawfl.
That which is lawful is graded into five
plasses. (1) Farz, that which is proved be
yond all doubt to have been enjoined either in
the Qur'an or in a tradition of undoubted
fttithority, and the denial or disobedience of
which Js positive infidelity. (2> Wdjib.
Hi at which is obligatory, brt of which
there is some doubt whethw or not it
wa.8 enjoined in the Qvir'an ov in »i tradition
of undoubted authority, (8) &vnnah. that
which was practised by Muhammad; (4)
'Alustaltabh, that which Muhammad and bia
Companions sometimes did and sometimes
omitted ; (f5") Muliiih, that which is desirable,
lint wlih'h may bo omitted without tear of sin.
Things which are unlawful are graded
into three classes: (I) Mufsid, that which is
most vicious and corrupting, a mortal siu ;
C2) Hartlm, that which is distincMv forbidden ;
(b\ Mtikruh, that which is generally bold to
be unclean.
LAW
These distinctions of lawful and unlawful
with their various subdivisions, apply to all
branches of Muslim law, whether it relate to
ordinary duties of life, or of devotion to God.
It will be seen how important a place the
example, practices, and sayings of Muham
mad occupy in the moral law of Islam.
This branch of Muslim law is called as
Sunnah, or the custom of Muhammad, and
is distinguished as —
j (1) Snnnatu 'l-(Jili, that which Muham
mad himself did.
(2) Sunhatu 't-qauli, that which Muham
mad said should be practised.
(3) Sunnatu 'f-taqriri, thai which was done
in the presence of Muhammad, and which he
appears to have sanctioned.
Jt is therefore a serious mistake to sup
pose that the Qur'an contains all that is
esteemed necessary for faith and practice in
Islam ; the example of Muhammad is us, bind
ing upon the Muslim as any injunction con
tained in the Qur'an itself, for neither that
which is Farz nor that which is Suuiiah can
bo emitted without sin.
The true origin and fountain of all law is
the Qur'an and the Traditions, and no Muslim
school of theology has ever rejected the Tra
ditions. They are binding upon Sunm, and
Shl'ah, and Wahhabi : the only difference
between the Sunm and Shi' ah being that
they receive different collections of Traditions.
The Wahhabis receive those of the Sunms,
and call themselves fifuhaddipin, or tradi-
tionists.
In addition to the Qur'an and Hadls (or
Traditions), both Sunm and, Shi'ah Muslims
acknowledge the concurrence of the learned,
called 7/7/ia', the Shi'ahs believing that they
still pessess Mujtahids capable of giving an
infallible interpretation of the law ; the
Sunms, on the other hand, confessing that.
since the days of the four great doctors (Abn
Hamfah, Malik, ash-Shafi'i, and Ibn Hanbal).
ijmd- has not been possible ; whilst the Wah
habis accept oolv the Ijwd1 of those who con
versed with the Prophet himself. The fourth
foundation of orthodoxy in both Sunnl and
Shi'ah schools is the system of interpretation
called Qiyds, or ratiocination.
I. The &unnls all receive the same collec
tions of traditions, especially those which are
known as the " six correct books/* the
Safchu H-BukJitiri, the Sahihu Muslim, the
Sunanu 't-Tirmizl, Sunanu Abl Dd'ud, Sunqnu
an-Nasafi, and Sunanu Ibn Mojdh. The
compilation by the Imam Malik, which is
first in order of date, is also a collection of
traditions of very great authority. [XSADI-
These different .sects of Sunms do not
differ in Usul, or fundamentals of religious
belief, but in minor rules of practice, and in
certain legal interpretations ; but being of dif
ferent opinions and broaching in some re
spects separate doctrines, four schools of
jurisprudence have been established, known
as Hanafi, Shaft! } Hanbo Ii, and Moliki.
The differences amongst these four Sunni
.schools are based either upon different tradi-
LAW
dons or upon different interpretations of the
same traditions, also upon the various ways
in which the liberty of qiyds, or ratiocination,
has been exercised. Consequently the number
of works which have appeared on the sub
jects of scholastic science and jurisprudence,
has been very great indeed.
We are indebted to Mr. Shama Churun
Sircar, the learned and able Tagore Professor
of Law in Calcutta, for the following rteum?
of the principal Sunni writings on ash-Shir.
•' The chief works that treat generally of
the doctrines of the foni principal sects of
the Sunni's, are mentioned by Haji Khali f ah
to be the Jdmi-nl-Ma-dhib '(Jdmi'u 'l-Mazd-
A»6),the Majma(i,-ul-Khildfiyat,t\\Q Yandbiya-
nl-Ahkdm ( YandbVu 7-^UwomX the Uyum, and
the Zubdat-ul-Alikdm. The Kanz-ud-JJakdik
(Kanzu \l-I)(iqd'iq\ by An-Nasafi, is a book
of great reputation, principally derived from
the Wdfi\ and containing questions and de
cisions according to the doctrines of Abu-
Hanifah, Abii-Yusuf. Imam Muhammad,
Zufar, Shafii, Malik, and others. Many com
mentaries have been written on the last men
tioned work ; the most famous-of them is the
Buhr-ur-Rd'ik (al-Bahrti 'r-Raiq}, which may,
indeed, almost be said to have superseded its
•original, at least in India. The Bahr-v^fidik
is by Zainu-ul-Aabidfn Bin Nujaim-ul Misri"
(Ibn Najim), A.H. 970. The Mu/laka-al-
Abhdr (Multacjd 'l-Ahhdr),by Shaikh Ibrahim
Bin Muhammad al-Halabi, who died A.H. 95G,
is a universal code of Muhammadan law. It
gives the different opinions or doctrines -of
Abii Haui'fah. Malik. Shafii, and Hanbal, the
chief Mujtahid Imams and the founders of
Ihe four great sects of Sunni's, and illustrates
them by those of the principal jurisconsults
of the school of Abu Hamfah. It is more
frequently referred to as an authority through
out Turkey, than any other treatise on juris-
piudence.
"The digests inculcating exclusively the
doctrines of each of the said four great sects
are, indeed, numerous, though a very few of
them which maintain the doctrines of the
Maliki, or Suafii, or Haubaii sects are used
in India. Digests written bv Malik or any
of his followers are scarcely found in India.
" Of the digests maintaining the Maliki'
doctrines, two have lately appeared in France
(by M. Vincent, 1842; M. Perron, 1843).
The first work of Shafii'. pntitled the Usiil
[&*«/), or fundamentals, which contains the
principles pf the Muhammadan civil and canon
law, may be classed as a digest. The Mukh-
tasar^ the Manxiir. tho Jt(ixd'il-ul-Muatabirah
Ur-JfoMY/u 'l-Mu'tabarati), and the Kitdb-
ui-Wnndik, are amongst the other works
written by Abii Ibrahim Bin Yahiya-al-
Muzani, a distinguished discipie of Shafii,
and a native of Egypt (A.H. 2G4), and are
according to the doctrines of Shafii. The
works by Ibnu Hambal and his followers are
few in number, and rare.
" The followers of the Hanifi sect, winch
obtains most commonly amongst the Muham-
madans of India, have, like others, divided
their law into two general branches or parts.
287
respectively called the Fikah (law, religious
and socujar), and Farai'z (the succession to,
and division of, inheritance).
•' The wonts which are on Fikah (Fiqh), and
which are considered as the chief authorities
of the Hanifi sect, are the following :— Abii
Hani'fah's own digest of law, entitled th<>
t ikuh-ul-Akbar (al-Fiqhu >l-Akl<ir). This is the
first in rank, and has been commented upon
by various writers, many of whom are men
tioned by Haji Khalifah. The doctrines of
that great lawyer, however, are sometimes
qualified or dissented from by his two
famous pupils, Abu Yusuf and Ima'm Muham
mad. The work entitled Adab-vl-Kdzi. which
treats of the duties of a magistrate, is krown
to have been written by Abti Yusuf. have
and except -this, no other work appears to
I have been composed by him. He, however.
: is said to have supplied bis notes to his pupil
Imam Muhammad, who made use of them in
i the composition of 'his own works. The
I works of Imam Muhammad are six in num
ber, five of which are, in common, entitled
the Zdhir-ur-Ratvuydt (Zuhiru r-ltuwdudi ,
conspicuous traditions d leports). They
are: 1. The Jdmi-ul-Knbir (nf-Jiuai-u Y-
ATafor); 2. Jnini-us-Sagltir (ut-Jdmi'u V
bayhir} ; 3. Mabsut fi Fm-ii-nl-HaniJiydt ; 4.
Ziydddt fi Faru-ul-Hanf/iydt ; and 5. Sivar
al-Kabir wa Saykfr. The Nawddir, the sixth
and last of the known compositions of Imam
Muhammad, though not so highly esteemed
as the others, is still greatly respected as an
authority.
" The next authorities among the Hanafis,
after the founder of their sect and his two
disciples, are the Imam Zufar Bin al-Hasi'l
who was chief judge at Basrah, where he
died (A.H. 158), and Hasan Bin Ziyad. These
lawyers are said to have been contemporaries
friends, aud scholars of Abti-Hamfah, and
their works are quoted here as authorities for
Abii Hani'fah's doctrines, more esoecialiy
when the two disciples are silent. The most
celebrated of the several treatises known bv
the name of Addb-ul A.Vz«'was written by Abu
Bal;r Ahmad Bin <Unr,*r ul-Khassaf' (A.H
2G1). An abridgement of the Hanaff doc-
trinea, called the MMteuar itt-Tahavi, was
written by Abii Jaatar Alimad Bin Muham
mad at Tahavi (A.H. 331), who wrote also «
commentary on the .land ux-Sdt/hir of Imam
Muhammad.
"The Muklilnxar lil-Kuduri, b> Abu' ul-
Husain Ahmad Bin Muhamnia.! al-Kudun
(A.H. 228) is among the most esteemed of
the works which follow the doctrines of Abu
Hanifuh. There is a wull-kii;>\»n commen
tary on the Mvkkttuar Hl-Kuduri, entitled
Al-JmAarat un-X<tyyimh. which is some
times called Al-Jaukarat ul-Munirdh. The
digest, entitle<l th- M.ibatit («l-M,ib*iii), was
composed by Sh;ims-ul-A'numah Alui Biiki
Muliaiuiiiiid as-Sarakhsi u'nilst in prison
at U'zjand. This in a work of great extent
and authority. lie was als,. th* autbor
of the most celebrated work entitled At
Afu/iit (ul-.Mitfiif ), which i« derived in ;i
measure fi-.nn the A/t/A.w/V. thr
288
LAW
LAW
the Nawddir of Itndm Muhammad. The
work entitled the Muhit. by Burhan-ud-din
Mahmiid BID Ahmad, already spoken of. ig
not so greatly esteemed as tho Muhit ax-
Sarakhst (Muhitu '$-Sarokhsi). A eornpen-
dium of Al-Kuduri's Mukhtasar, -which he
entitled the Tiihfat-ul-Fukahd (Tuhfatu '/-
Fuqahff}, was composed by Shaikh Ala-ud-din
Muhammad as.-Samarkandi. The work of Ala-
ud-din was commented upon by his pupil Abu
Bakr Bin,Masuud.
"There are several Arabic works on phi
losophical and theological subjects which
bear the name of Al-IIiddyah (the guide).
The work, entitled Al-Hiddyah ft'-al-Faru, or
the guide in particular -points, is a digest of
law according to the doctrines of Abu Hanffah
and his disciples Abu Yusuf and Imam Mu
hammad. The author of this work is Shaikh
Burfian-ud-din All (A.H. 593), whose reputa
tion as a lawyer was beyond that of all his
contemporaries.' This Hiddyah is a commen
tary on the Baddya-vl-Mubtadd, an introduc
tion to the study of law, written by the same
author in a style exceedingly concise and
close. In praise of the Hiddynh, Haji Khali-
fah says, ' It has been declared, like the
Kurdnlto have superseded all previous books
on the law; that all persons should remember
the niles prescribed in it, and that it should
be followed as a guide through life.' The
Hiddyah has, besides the Kifdyah, many
other ..commentaries, as a work of so great
Celebrity and authority is expected, to have.
The principal ones are the Indyah ('Indyah),
the Nihdyah, and the Fath-ul-Jiabir.
" The name tndyah, however, is given to
two commentaries on the Hiddyah. Of these,
the one composed by Shaikh Kamal-ud-dfn
Muhammad Bin Mahmiid, who died A.H. 786,
is highly esteemed and useful! Supplying by
way of innuendoes what was omitted «»r left
to implication, also expressing what was un
derstood in the Hiddyah* &n<\. explaining the
words and expounding the passages of the
original bv the insertion oi explanatory
phrases, the author of the Tndyah has rendered
vu« work such as to be considered of itself one
<">f his own principal works, with citations of
passage^ from the Hiddyah
"The fcih'lyah is composed by Husain-ud-
rh'n Husain Bin All. who is said to have -been
a pupil of Burhan-ud-di'n All. This is snid to
be tiie first noramentary Composed on the
Hiddyah : and it is important for having added
the law of inheritance to the Hiddyah. which
i real s only of the Fikah. The commentary,
•entitled the Kifdynh. is by Imam-ud-din Amir
Katib Bin Ainu- Uraar, who had pi-eviously
written another explanatory gloss of the same
work.- and entitled it the 'Ghdyat-ul-JBoydn-
The Kifdyah was finished A.H. 747, and,
besides the author's own observations, it gives
concisely the substance of other commenta
ries.
'« The Fath-ul-Kabtr lil-Adji~ ul-Fakif, b}
Kam&l-ud-diri Muhammad as-Siwasi, com
monly called Ibnu Hammam, who died A.H
801. is the most comprehensive of all the
comments on the Hiddyah. and includes a col
lection of decisions which render it extremely
useful. The short commentary entitled the
Fawdidi written by Hamfd-ud-din Alf, Al-
Bukhari, who died A.H. G67, IB said to be. -the
first of all the commentaries on the Hiddyah.
The Wdfi, by Abif-ul-Barakat Abd ullah Bin
Ahmad, commonly called Ha"fiz-ud-dm an-
Nasafi, and its commentary the Kdfi, by the
same author, are works of -authority. An-
Xasafi died A.H, 710.
•' The Vikdyah (al- WiqayaK), which was
written in the seventh century of the Hijrah
by Burhan ash-Shariyat Mahmud, is an
elementary work to enable the student to
study and understand the Hiddyah. The
Vikdyah is printed, arid invariably studied,
with its celebrated commentary, the Shark ul-
Vikdyah. written by Ubaidullah Bin Masmid,
who died A.H. 745. The Sharh-ul- Vikdyah
contains the text of the Vikdyah, with a gloss
most perspicuously explanatory and illustra
tive ; so much so, that those' chaptern of it
which treat of jmarriage, dower, and divorce,
are studied in the Madrassahs of India in
preference to tho Hiddyah itself. There are
also other commentaries on the Vikdyah, but
not so useful' as the above. On the &harh-Un
Vikdyah. again, there is an excellent com
mentary, entitled the Chalpi, written by Akhi
Yusuf Bin Junid, who was one of the then
eight professors at Constantinople. This work ,
was commenced to be written about A.H.
891, and completed A.H. 901 ; and the whole of
it was published in Calcutta A.H. '1245. and
extracts therefrom have been printed.
" The Nikdyah (an-NiqayaK)t another ele
mentary law book, is the work of the
author of the Sharh-ul- Vikdyah. It is some
times called the Mukhtusar ul-V'ikriyah, being,'
in fact, an abridgment of that work. Three
comments on the Nikayah are much esteemed ;
they were written respectively by Abu ul-'
Makarim Bin Abd-ullah (A.H." 907), Abu Ah'
Bin Muhammad al-Birjindi (A.H. 935), and.
Shams ud-dm Muhammad al-Khurasani'Al-
Kohistani (A.H. 941). Tho last commentary
is entitled the Jdi»ii-nr-Rumuz (./«/?«'« V-
Riuimz}, whirh is the fullest and the clearest
of the lot, as well as one of the most useful
law book?.
• " Tho Ashhah iva. an-Nazdir (nl-Aahldh pit
*irl-N<zga>ir) is also an elementary work of
great reputation. It was composed by Zain-
al-Aabidin, the author of the Bahr-ur-Rd'ik
already npentioned. Haji Khah'fah speaks of
this \\rork in high terms, and enumerates
several appendices to it that have been com
posed at different times. The treatise on'
exegesis entitled the Nur-ul-Amvdr ft SharaJt
\il-Mandr(Nurn '/-Anwar flSharhi 'l-Mandr).
by Shaikh Jun Bin Abu Sayyid Al-Makki
(Shaikh Jiwan ibn Abu Sa'id). was printed in
Calcutta (A.D. 1819), and is frequently re
ferred to as a book of authority^ A small
tract on the soxirces of the Sharaa, entitled
the Usi'd-ush-Shrishi, together with an expla
natory commentary, was printed in litho
graphy, at Delhi, in the yean* A.D. 1847.
" The Tunvirrul-Absdr (Tanwlru 'l-Abtfar),
composed by Shaikh Shams-ud-din Muhazfl
LAW
ruad Bin Abd,ullah-al-Ghazzi (A.H. 995), is
one of the most celebrated and useful books
according to the Hanffi doctrines. This work
has many commentaries. One of them, en
titled the Manh-ul-Ghaffdr (Manhu 'l-Ghaf-
fdr), which is written by the author himself.
i« a work of considerable extent.
" The Durr-id-Mukhtdr, which is another
commentary on the Tanvir-ul~Absur, is a work
of great celebrity. This work was written
(A.H. 1071) by Muhammad Ala-ud-Dfn Bin
Shaikh All al-Hiskafi. Though a commen
tary, it is virtually a digest, which of itself
has several commentaries, the most, cele
brated of them is the Tahtdvt'. a work used
in India. Another commentary on the Durr-
ul-Mukhtdr is the Radd-ul-Muhtdr. This is
a very copious work, comprising an immense
number of cases and decisions illustrative of
the principles contained in the principal work.
The Dumr-ul-Mukhtdr treats not only of the
Fikah but also of the Faraiz. It is used by
the followers of the Hanifi doctrines where-
ever they are, but it is most highly esteemed
in Arabia, where it is studied and referred to
in preference to other books of law.
*• Many works have been written according
to the doctrines of Abu Hamfah in the
Turkish Empire, and are received there as
authorities. The most celebrated of those
is the Multaka-ul-AUtdr, by Shaikh Ibrahim
Bin Muhammad al-Halabfj the Durr-ul-Huk-
kdm, by Mullah Khusni, Kdnun-ndmai-Jazd,
a tract on penal laws, &c.
" The treatises on the laws of inheritance,
according to the doctrines of Shtffii, are
the Fardiz-ul-Mut'awattt, by Abti Sayid
Abd-ur-Rahmun Bin Mamun-ul-Mutawalli
(who died A.H. 478), the Fardiz-ul-Mukvd-
daai, by Abii-ul-Fazl Abd-ul-Malik Bin
Ibrahim al-Hamadam' Al-Mukuddasi, and
Abu Munsiir Abd-ul-Kahir Al- Baghdad! (who
died respectively A.H. 489 and 429); Al-
Faraiz-ul-Fazdri, by Burhan-ud-din Abu Ishaq
Al-Fazari, commonly called Ibnu Firkah (who
died in A.H. 729), and Al-Fardiz ul-Farikiyah,
by Shams-ud-din Muhammad * Bin Killayi
(who died A.H. 777).
"Of the books on the law of inheritance
according to the Hanifi doctrines, the most
celel>rated, and the one invariably consulted '
in India, is the Sirdjiyyah (ax-SirajiyaK), which
is also called the Fardlz-us-Sajdwandi, being,
as it is, composed by Siraj-ud-Di'n Muham
mad bin Abd-ur-Rashid as-Sajawandi. This
work has been commented upon by a vast
number of writers, upwards of forty being
enumerated in the Ka*hf-uz-Zv*un by Haji
Khah'fah. The most celebrated of these com
mentaries, and the mo&t generally used to ex
plain the text of the Sfrajiyytth, 'is the Shari-
fiyyah (ash-Sharif lyah), by Sayyid Sharif Ali
Bin Muhammad Al-Jurjani (\\ho died A.U. 814).
*'• There is another 'kind of digest which
treats of the Ilm-ul- Fatdwd (the science of
decisions). The works of this nature are also
very numerous, and are, for the most part,
called Fatdwd (decisions), with the names of
their authors; and, though called Fatdwd,
mogt of them contain also the rules of law
LAW 289
as well as legal decisions. Of those .rain
some treat of the Fikah alone, others of the
Paraiz (inheritance) also; gome of them
moreover, treat of the decisions of particular
lawyers, or those found in particular books •
others treat of those .which tend to illnstrate
the doctrines of the several sects ; whilst the
rest of them are devoted to recording tho
opinions of learned jurists.
" There are sev-eral collections of decisions
according to the doctrines of Shalii. The
one most esteemed seems to be the Fatdwd Ibu
w-Sa/dh, by Abii Amru-Uaman Bin Abd-ur
Rahman ash-Shahraziiri, commonly called
Ibn us-Salah, who died in A.H. 642. Ibnu
Firkah, the author of the Favdlz-ul-Fazdri
(a treatise on inheritance), also made a col
lection of decisions according to the same
doctrines, which is called, after his name, the
Fatdwd-t-Ibm Firkah.
« Of the Fatawas of the Hanifi doctrines
the following are generally known in India.
The Khuldsat ul-Fatdivd (Khuld$atu V-
Fataiva), by Imam Iftikhar-ud-Dm Tahir Bin
Ahmad Al-Bukhari, who died A.H 542, is a
select collection of decisions of great autho
rity. The Zakhrrat-ul-Fatdiod tgaktfrafu Y-
Fatdwd}, sometimes called the Zakhirat-ul-
Burhdmyah, by Burhan-ud-Dfn Bin Mazah al-
BukhaVi, the author of the Muhit-uI-Burhdni,
is also a celebrated, though not a large, col
lection of decisions, principally taken from
the Muhit. The Fatdwd-i-Kdzi Khdn by
Imam Fakhr-ud-Dfn Hasan Bin Mansur al-
U'zjandi al-Farghani, commonly called Kazi
Khan, who died A.H. 592, is a work held in
very high authority. It is replete with cases
of common occurence, and is, therefore, of
great practical utility, more especially as
many of the decisions are illustrated by
proofs and reasoning on which they are
founded. The two works entitled the fW-
ul-IsturushisindFuguf-yl-Imddifi/i, were incor
porated in a collection entitled the Jdmi-ul-
Fusulain, which is a work of some celebrity.
It was compiled by Badr-ud-Din Muhummad,
known by the name of Ibn-ul-Kuzl Sirnawa-
nah (A.H. 828). The Fatdwd az-Zahiriy«lt,
which contains decisions collected partly
from the Khizdnat-ul- Wdkiydt, was written by
Jahir-ud-Din Abii Bakr . Muhammad Bin
Ahmad al-Bukhan (A.H. 619). The Kvniyat-
ul-Muniyat is a collection of decisions of con-
sidprable authority by Mukhtar Bin Mahmiid
Bin Muhammad as-Zahidi Abii-ur-Rija al-
Ghazmini. surnamed Najin-ud-Dl'n, who di*»d
A.H. 658. An-Navavi, the author of the bio
graphical dictionary entitled the Tafcib-ul-
Afiind (Tahzlbu '1-AsmiF), who died A.H. 4517,
made a collection of decisions of some note,
which is called the Fatdtvd an-Navavf. He
also composed a smaller work of the same
nature, entitled al - Masd'il - ul - Muhimtnnt
(• (Jyun al-Masffili 'l-Muhimmah^ an-an^ed in
the manner of question and answer. The
Khizdnat-ul- Mu ft iyin, by Imam Husain Bin
Muhammad as-Samaani, who completed his
work in A.H. 740, contains A large collection
of decisions, and is a book of some authority
in India. The Khizdnat-ul- Fatdwd^ by Ahmttd
37
9,90
•LAW
LAW
Bin Muhammad Abu Bakr al-Hanafi, is a col
lection of decisions made towards the end of
the eighth century of the Hijrah, and com
prises questions of rare occurrence. Tlie
Faidwd Tdtdr-Khdniyah was originally a
large collection of Fatawjis, in several volumes,
by Imam AaJim Bin Ala al-Hanafi, taken from
the Muhit-ttl-Burham, the Zakhrrat. the
Khaniyah, and the Zahiriyah. Afterwards,
however, a selection was made troni these
decisions by Imam Ibrahim Bin'Muhammad
al-Halabi", who died A.H 956, and an epitome
was thus formed, which is in one volume, and
still retains the title of Tdtdr~J£kdmyah. The
Fatdutu-i-Ahl-us Samarkand, is a collection of
the decisions of those learned men of the city
of Samarkand who are omitttul, or lightly
passed over, in the Faidwd- Tatar Khdniyah
and the J ami-id- Fusul«iK, to both of which
works it, may be considered a supplement.
The Fatdwd az-Zainiyah contains decisions
by Zdin. ul-Aabidin Ibrahim Bin Nujaim al-
Misri, tb« author of tho B<iiiT~ur-Rdrk and
the AshtftJi wu-an-Nazdir. They were col
lected bv b- • son A.hmad (about A.H. 970).
The Faidwd ai-Ankiravf, a collection of deci
sions of al-Ankiravi by Shaikh-ul-Islam Mu-
hamuiad Bin al-Husain. who died A.H. 1098,
is a work of authority. The Fatdwd Ham-
mddiyah, though it seems to be a modern
compilation, is a woi'k of considerable autho-
rity.
u Tipti Sultan ordered a collection of Fata-
was to be made in Persian by a society or
the learned of Mysore. It comprises three
hundred and thirteen chapters, and is entitled
the Futdwd-i Muhamtnadi.
"Mr. Harrington, in his analysis (vol. i. 2nd
ed.), mentions a few other books of Fatawa,
\iz. the Fatdwd Bazdziah, the Fatdwd
Nafahbandiyah, the Mukhtdr-ul-Fat(iwd, and
the Fatdivd KardkhanL The last of these he
desci'ibes to be a Persian compilation, the ca^es
included in which were collected by Mullah
Sadar-ud-Din Bin Yak lib, and arranged some
years after his death by .Kara Khan, in the
reign of Sultan Ala-ud-Din.
" The following works of the present class,
published at Constantinople, and containing
decisions according to the doctrines of Abu
Hani f ah, may be noticed. A collection of
Fatwas in the Turkish and Arabic languages,
entitled the Kitab fi al-Fikah af-Kadusi, com
posed by ffafiz Muhnmmad Bin Ahmad al-
Kadusi A.H. 1226. The Fatdwa-i-Abd-ur-
Jiahim Effendi, is a collection of judgments
pronounced at variou.s times in Turkey, ^and
collected by the Mufti Abd ur Rahi'm. It
was printed in the year 1827. Dabag^adeh
Nuaman Effendi is the author of a collection
of six hundred and seventy decisions, which
is entitled the Tuhfat us-Sukiik. and was
published in the year. 1832.
••' The Jdmi-ul-Ijdratin (Jamru 'l-ljardt) is a
collection of decisions relating to the law of
farming and the tenure of land, by Muhammad
Aarif. It was printed in the year 183G.
" A collection of Fatwas relating to leases
was published at Constantinople by M.
D Adelbourg, in the year 1838. Prefixed to
this collection are the principles of the law of
lease, according to the Myltaku ; and it is fol
lowed by an analytical table, facilitating re
ference to the various decisions.
"Of the Fatwas which treat both of th»
Fikah and Farai'z,, two are most generally
used in India. These are the Fatdwd Stra-
jiyyah and Fatdwd Alamqiri. The Faidwa
Sirdjiyt/ah, with some principles, contains a
collection of decisions en cases which do not
generally occur in other books. The Fatdwti
Alawgiri, with opinions and precepts of law^
contains an immense number of law cases.
This work, from its comprehensive nature, is
applicable to almost every case that arises
involving points of the Hanifj doctrines.
Although opinions of modern compilers are
not esteemed as of equal authority with those
of -the older writers on jurisprudence, yet
being' composed by a great number of the
most learned lawyeis of the age, and by
order- of the then greatest person of the
realm, the Emperor Aurungzeb Alamgir (by
wiiose name the book is designated), the
Fat^wo Aiamgiri.is esteemed ts a very rigu
authority in India ; anil containing, as it does,
decisions on cases of any shape based apon
unquestionable authorities, this book is here
referred to more frequently than any other
work of a similar nature, and has not up to
this day been surpassed by any work, except
perhaps, by the Radd-ul-Muhtm-, alreacy
spoken of During the long rule of the Mu-
hammadans in India, the Faidwd Alamgin
alone appears to have been translated into
Persian, by order of Zeb-un-nisa, daughter of
the' Emperor Arungzeb Alamgir. Since the
establishment of the British Government in
India, the books of Jinayah and Hudud from
the Fatdwd Al'imgiri were translated into
Persian, under the direction of the Council ol
the College of Fort William in Calcutta, by
the then Kazi'-ul-Kuzzut, Muhammad Najm
ud-Dfn Khan, and were published in the year
1813, together with a Persian treatise on
Tdzirat) by the same author.
" In the same year the book on T^ztrat
from the Durr-ul-Mukhtdr was translated,
printed, and published, by Moulavi Muham
mad Khali'l-ud-Din, under +he orders of Mr.
Harrington, the then Chief Judge of the late
Sudder Dewany Adawlut.
" Th&J3idd/jah*wa,s translated into Persian by
four of the most learned Moulavis of that time
and of this country (India). Unfortunately,
however, the learned translators have, in the
body of the book, inserted many things by way
of explanatory remarks and illustrative expo
sitions, instead of subjoining them in the form
of notes. Furthermore, they have, in a con-
siderable dogree, deviated from the original.
.For all these reasons, we are warranted to
say, that the Persian version of the Hidayah
does not represent a true picture of the
original.
" Macnaghterrs Principles oj Mu/iuinmadan
Law were translated into Urdu and litho
graphed, many years ago, in Dehli. Another
translation of the same work was made and
published in Calcutta a few years ago.
LAW
LAW
A the --a*,
ANMutakannah, which is a tract treating
of Zaids system of Faraiz, was translated
•no English by Sir William Jones. A trans-
ation i of the Sirdjiyyah also was made by
Sir William Jones, who at the same time made
an abstract translation of its celebrated com
mentary (the,SAan/%aA), with the addition of
illustrations and exemplifications from his own
brain and pen. A translation of the selected
portions from the two books of the Fat awn i-
Alamgin, which comprise the subject of sale
was published by Mr. Neil Baillie.
"The Persian version of the ffidaunl,,
already noticed, was. by order of Warren
Hastings, commenced to be translated into
English by Mr. James Anderson, but shortly
after, he being engaged in an important
foreign employment, the translation was
inislied, and revised by hi? colleague, Mr
Ubarles Hamilton. It is a matter of regret
thai the translation in question was not
executed from the original Hiddyah itself,
instead of from its Persian translation, which
contains frequent explanatory remarks and
illustrative expositions interpolated in the
291
in English according to the doctrines of the
e
book itself, instead of being subjoined by way
»f notes. Added to this, the Persian trans
lators have, in a considerable degree, deviated
from the original.
'• 01' the digests of Muhammadan law in
fcngluih, the first appears to be the chapter
or criminal law of the Muhammadans as
modified by regulations. This is incorporated
n Harrington's Arnlyris of Bengal Remda-
hons. An abstract of Muhammadan law
vrmch is from the pen of Lieutenant-Colonel
Vans Kennedy, will be found in the Journal of
i W*! Asiatic Society. < This work,' says
Mr. Morley, < is well worthy the attention of
the student,' The work entitled the Principles
a*d Precedents of Mudarnmadan Law, written
by Mr. (afterwards Sir) William Hay Mac-
naghten, is the clearest or easiest, if not the
amplest or sufficient, work on that law
hitherto written in English. Mr. Neil Baillie's
muhnmrnadan Law of Inheritance, according
to Abu Han/faii and his followers, with ap
pendix containing authorities from the original
Arabic, is an excellent work of the kind
e treatise on inheritance, gift, will, sale, and
ortgage, cempiled by Mr. F E. Elberling, a
Danish judge at Serampore, in the year 1844
mtains principles of Muharamadan law, with
these of the other laws, as used in India
"In the year 186'5, Mr. Neil Baillie, the
author of the -work already mentioned,
completed and published a digest of Mttham-
madan law on all the subjects to which the
luhammadaii law is usually applied by the
British Courts of Justice in India. It gives
ranslafcions of almost all the principles and
iome of the cases contained in the Fatdwd
\lnmgiri the great digest of Muhammad an
twin India, and quotes occasionally other
^liable authorities. Being generally close
•o the original, and fully dealing with the
objects it treats of, this work must be said
5 authentic, as well as the amplest of the
ugests 01 Muhairiraadau law Mtherto written
oi v WJUTS jsaw J^ectures,
3V bhama Ohuran Sircar : Thacker,
J>pmk ft Co., Calcutta.)
— The Shi* ah*, although they are dividad
wbTn}f?fl- rm3Clve8 int° ™**™* ««ct«
which differ from each other in various points
of religious belief, are unanimous in rejecting
the collections ui Traditions of the Sunnis The
.ms arrogate to themselves the title of Tra-
ditionists, but this does not i;71p>y that th«
Shi-ahs do not receive the Hadis, hut merely
they reject the « six correct books" of
their opponents.
The work« on Hadls compiled by the
hi'ahs are very numerous, and they main
tain that they havo earlier and more authentic
collections than those of the Sunnis. The"
say that in the time of al-Hasan and al-
SB?Ivj * J£J*V? Person who was grandfather
to 'Abdu ?llah ibn «Ali ibn Abl Shu' bah al
JjlaJabi, collected traditions and gave tlwra to
BIS grandson for careful record. This record
was verified and corrected by Imam Ja'far
as-Sadiq. The Sunn! doctor, Abu Hanifah,
was a pupil of this distinguished personage
10 his earlier days, but afterwards separated
from him and established a school of his own
Lyre are four bocks of traditions, known as
the Kutub-i-Arba'ah, which seem to be held in
the same estimation by the Sbi'ah*, as the
six Souths of the Sttnnfs. They are entitled
the 7^6, the Istibfdr, the Raft, and Man
la Yastafarah al-Faqlh. [TRADITIONS.]
j Mr. Shama Ohttrun Sircar. Tagore Pro
fessor of Law. has also reviewed the Shi'ah
or Imamlyah, law books, and we are indebted
to him for the following resume" i-~
"One of the oarlidat work? cu civil and
criminal laws was written by Abdullah Bin
All ai Halabf. But it does not appear that
any of his legal compositions are extant.
" A number of law-treatises of the present
class was composed by Yunas Bin Abd nr-
Rahman (already spoken of as a writer on
traditions). The most famous of these trea
tises is entitled the Jdmi-ul-K'ibir.
" Several work? on law were written by
Abu al-Hasan All Bin al-Hasan al-Kumi'
commonly called Ibnn Babaraih. one of which
works is entitled the Kitdbu nsh-tikardy«k.
The Maknaa ft al-Fikah {Maqiia1 fi '1-F^tnK}
is the best known of the law books of the
present class composed by Abu Jaafar.
"Abu Abdullah Miihammad an-Nuamam',
surnamed the Shaikh Mun'd, and Ibnu Mual-
liin, a renowned Shi'ah lawyer, is stated to
have written two hundred works, amongst
which one called the frs/idd is well known.
When Shaikh Muffd is quoted in conjunction
with Abu Jaafar at-Tusi, they also are spoken
of as < the two Shaikhs ' (Shaikhain).
" The chief works on law, wrhtcn by Abu
Jaafar Muhammad at-Ttlsf (Abu Ja'far Mu
hammad at-Tusi), are the Mabsdt. the Khildf,
the Nihdyahi and the Aft/frit. These works *re
held in gi-eat estimation, and he is considered
one of the highest authorities in law The
Risdldt-i-Jaafariijah ia likewise a legal trea •
tijre by at-Tu^f, which ii frequently quoted.
LAW
LEGACY
'• The Shardya ul- Islam, written by Shaikh
N'ajm ud-din Abii ul-Kasim Jaafar Bill Mu-
ayyid al-Hilli . commonly called Shaikh Mnay-
yid, is a work of the highest authority, at
least in India, and is niore universally referred
lo than any other Shiah law book, and is the
chief authority for the law of the Shiahs in
India. A copious and valuable commentary
upon the Shardya ul-2sldm, entitled the Ma-
xdlik ul-Afhdm, was written by Zayin-ud-din
All as-Sailf, commonly called the ' Shahid-i-
Sam, (second martyr). There are two other
Commentaries on the Shardya ul-Jsldrn, re
spectively entitled the Maddr ul-Ahkdm and
.fawdhir ul-Kaldm, the latter of which was
written by Shaikh Muhammad Hasan an-
Xajafi.
" Of the works on jurisprudence written by
Yahiyah Bin Ahmad al-Hilli, who was cele
brated for his knowledge of traditions, and is
well known amongst the Imamiyah sects for
his works, the Jdini ash-Shardya and the
Mudkhal dar Usiil-i-Fikah are held in the
greatest repute.
" Of the numerous law books written by
Shaikh Allamah Jainal-ud-din Hasan Bin
Yusuf Bin ai-Mutahhir al-Hilli, who is called
the chief of the lawyers of Hilliah, and whose
works are frequently referred to as authori
ties of undisputed merit, the most famous are
the Talkhis vl-Mardm, the Ghdyit ul-Ahkdm,
and the Tahrir ul-Ahkdm t which last is a
justly celebrated work. The Mukhtalaf-mh~
Shiah is also a well-known composition of this
great lawyer, irad his Irshdd nl-Azhdn is con
stantly quoted as an authority under the name
of the Irshdd-i-Alldmdh.
" The Jdmi-ul-Abbdsi is a concise and com
prehensive treatise on Shiah law, in twenty
books or chapters. It is generally considered
as the work of Baharud-dfn Muhammad
Aamili, who died A.H. 1031.
•' The Mafatih. by Muhammad Bin Mur-
taza, surnamed Muhsan. and the commentary
on the book by his nephew, who was of the
same name, but surnamed Hadi, are modern
works deserving of notice.
*' The Rouzat ui-Ahkdm, written in Persian
by the third Mujtahid of Oudh, consists of
fuur chapters. The first of these is on Inhe
ritance, which is treated of therein most fully
»nd perspicuously. .This work was litho
graphed at. Lucknow, first in A.H. 1257, and
again in A.H. 1264.
" A general digest of the Imamiyah law in
temporal matters was compiled under the
superintendence of Sir William Jones. This
book is composed of extracts from the work
called'the- Kdft, which is a commentary on the
Majdiih, as well as from the Shardya ul-
Isldm. The manuscript of this digest still
remains^in the possession of the High Court
of Judicature at Calcutta.
"TKe earliest treatises on the Faraiz, or
Inheritance, of 4the Shiahs 'appear to have
been written by Abdul Aziz Bin Ahmad al-
Aza'di", and Abu Muhammad al-Kindi, the
latter of whom is said to have lived in the
-eign of Hanin ur-Rashid.
" A work on tho law of inheritance, entitled
the al-Ijaz fi al-Faraiz has been left by Abii
Jaafar Muhammad at-Ttisi in addition to his
general works on the Kuran, the Hadfs and
jurisprudence.
" The best known and most esteemed works
on the law of inheritance are the Ihtijdj nsh-
Shiah, by Saad Bin Abd-ullah al-Ashafi, the
Kitdb ul-Mawdris; by Abii . al-Hasan All
Babavaih; the Hamal ul-Fard'iz and the
Faraiz ush-Shariyah, by Shaikh Mufid. The
Shardya ul-Isldm, which, as already stated, is
one of the highest authorities on the Shiah
law. contains also a chapter on Inheritance.
Of all the above-mentioned books on civil
and criminal laws, those that are commonly
referred to in India are the following: The
Shardya ul-Isldm, Rouzat>-ul-Ahkdm, Sharak-i-
Lumd, Mafdtih, Tahrir, and Irshdd ul-
Azhdn.
" Of the books on this branch of Muham-
mudan law, only that part of the Shardyak ul-
Isldm which treats of the forensic law has
been translated, though not fully, by Mr.
Neil Baillie. A considerable part of the
digest compiled under the superintendence of
Sir William Jones (as already noticed) wa«
translated by Colonel Baillie, out of which
the chapter on Inheritance has bften printed
by Mr. Neil Baillie at the end of the second
part of his digest of Muhammadan law. Al
though the chapter above alluded to is
copious, yet it must be remarked . that it is
noi so clear and useful as the Shardya-itl-
Isldm and Rouzat ul-Ahkdm." (See Tagore.
Law Lectures. 1874, the Imamiyah Code, by
Shama Churun • Sircar ; Thacker, Spink and
Co., Calcutta.)
LAZA (J4). "Fire, flame." A
division, or stage hi hell, mentioned in the
Qur'an, Surah Ixx. 16. Al-Bagfeawi, the
commentator, says it is that portion of hell
which is reserved for the Christiana who have
not believed in Muhammad. [HELL.]
LAZARUS. Arabic al-'Azar
Not mentioned by .name in the Qur'an, but
Jalalu 'd-din, in remarking on Surah iii. 43:
" i will bring the dead* to life by God's per
mission," says, amongst those whom Jesus
raised from the dead was al-'Azar, who was
his special friend and companion. The
account given by the commentators al-Ka-
malan of the raising of Lazarus, is very
similar to that given in the New Testament.
LEASE. Arabic ijdrah
[ton,]
LEBANON.
Not mentioned in the Qur'an, but tradition
has it that Ishmael collected the stonee for
the Ka'bah from five sacred mountains, one
of which was Mount Libanus. The followers
of Isma'ilu 'd-Darazi, known as th« Druses,
a fanatical sect of Muslims, reside on the
southern range of the Lebanon chain.
[DRCBBS.]
LEGACY. [WILLS.]
LI'AN
293
LEGITIMACY. Waladu 'Lhalal
*y» "a 'legitimate child";
waladu 'z-zind' (»U^J\ jJ^), " an illegiti
mate child."
The Muhammadan law, unlike the law of
England, makes legitimacy depend, not
merely upon the fact of the child being born
in "lawful wedlock," hut also conceived after
lawful marriage.
According to the Sunnis ami Shi'ahs, ana
according to the teaching of the Qur'an itself,
the shortest period of gestation recognised by
law is six months, and consequently a child
born any time after six months from the
date of marriage has a claim to legitimacy.
Amongst the Sunnis. a simple denial of the
paternity of the child so born would not take
away its status of legitimacy. But the
ShI'aUs hold that if a man get a woman with
child and then marry her, and she give birth
to the child within six months after marriage,
legitimacy is not established.
As to the longest period of pregnancy, there
are some strange rulings in Muslim lav,
The Shia'hs, upon the basis of a decision
pronounced by 'All, rocogruso ten lunnr
months as the longest period of gestation,
and this is now regarded as the longest legal
period by both Shl'ahn and Sunnis. But Abu
Hanifah and his two disciples, upon _the
authority of a tradition reported by *Ayi-
shah, regard two years as the longest period
of gestation, and the Imam ash-Shafrl ex
tended it to four, and the Imam Malik to
five and even seven years! It is said these
Snnni doctors based their opinions on 'the
legendary birth of Zuhak Tazi and others,
who were born, so it is related, in the fourth
year of conception I But Muslim divines
say that the old jurisconsults of the SunnI
school were actuated by a sentiment of hu
manity, and not by any indifference as to the
laws of nature, their chief desire being to
prevent an abuse of the provisions 01 the
law regarding divorce and the disavowal of
children. The general concensus of Muslim
doctors points to ten months as the longest
period of pregnancy which can be recognised
by any court of justice.
[Under the old Roman law, it was ten
months. In the Code Napoleon, article 312,
it is three hundred days. Under the Jewish
law, the husband had the absolute right of
disavowal. See Code Rabbinifjue, voL ii.
p. 63.]
The Muhammadan law, like the English
law, does not recognise the legitimation of
antenuptial children. Whereas, according to
French and Scotch law, such children are
legitimated by the subseqn*1!!'' marriage of
the parents.
In SunnI law, an invalid marriage does not
affect the legitimacy of child/ on born from it,
Nor does it in Shi'ah law ; but the Shi'ah law
demands proof that such a marriage was a
bonajidt one, whilst the Hanafi code is not
strict on this point.
In the case of a divorce by /»'on [UL'AII],
the waiadtt 'l-mul&anah, or " child of impre-
cation," is eat off from hie right of inheritance
from his father.
(See Syud Ameer Ali's Personal Law of
Mukammartaiuf,j>. 160; Fatdwd-i-'Atamg&ri,
p. 210 ; Skarai'u 7-/4&N, p. 301.) [PAREH-
TAOK.]
LETTERS. The letters of Mus
lims are distinguished by several peculiari
ties, dictated by the rule of politeness. " The
paper is thick, white, and highly polished:
sometimes it is ornamented with flowers oi
gold ; and the edges are always cut straight
with scissors. The upper half is generally
left blank ; and the writing never occupies
any portion of the second side. The name of
the person to whom the letter is addressed,
when the writer is an inferior or an equal,
and even in some other cases, commonly
occurs in the first sentence, preceded by
several titles of honour : and is often written
a little above the line to which it appertains,
the space beneath it in that line being left
blank : sometimes it is written in letters of
gold, or red ink. A king, writing to a subject,
or a great man to a dependant, usually places
his name and seal at the head of his letter.
The seal is the impression of a signet (gene
rally a ring, worn on the little finger, of the
right hand), upon which is engraved the name
of the person, commonly accompanied by the
word ' His (i.e. God's) servant,' or some other
words expressive of trust in God, &c. Its
impression i* considered more valid than the
sign-manual, ami is indispensable to give
authority to the letter. It is made by dab
bing some ink on the surface pf the signet,
and pressing this upon the paper : the place
which is to be stamped being first moistened,
by touching the tongue with a finger of the
right hand, and .then gently rubbing the part
with that finger. A person writing to a
superior, or to an equal, or even An inferior
to whom he wishes to show respect, signs his
name at the bottom of his letter, next the
left side or corner, and places the seal imme
diately to the .right of this ; but if he parti
cularly desire to testify bid humility, he
places it beneath his name, or even partly
over the lower edge of the paper, which con
sequently does not receive, the whole of the
impression.*' (Lane's Arabian Niohi.s, vol i.
p. 23.)
LI' AM (<^*J)« Lit. "Mutual
cursing." A form of divorce which taken
place under the following circumstances.
" If a man accuses his wife of adultery, and
does not prove it by four -'witnesses, bo must
swear before 'God that he is the teller of
truth four times, and then add: • If I am a
liar, may God curse me.' The wife then says
four times, « I swear before God that my hus
band lies ' ; and then . adds : « May God's
anger be upon ire if this .man be a teller 01
truth.' After this a divorce takes place iu*o
facto,'' (See Suratti *h-Nur, xxiv. 6- Mishkat^
book xiii. ch. xv.).
In the case of Lran, as m tha other forms
of divorce, the woman can claim her dower.
294
LIBAS
Li' an is not allowed in four cases, viz. a
Christian woman married to a Muslim, a
Jewess married to a Muslim, a free woman
married to a slave, and a slave girl married
to a free man.
The children of a woman divorced by Li' an
are i] legitimate.
LIBAS (u-M). [APPAREL.]
LIBERALITY. Arabic sakhrwoaJi
(SjW-), " hospitality "; infaq (j,W),
"general liberality in everything."
Liberality is specially commended by Mu
hammad iu the Traditions : —
" The liberal man is near to God, near to
Paradise, near to men, and distant from hell.
The miser is far from God, far from Para
dise, far from man, and near the fire. Truly
an ignorant but liberal man is more beloved
by God, than a miser who is a worshipper of
God/'
" Three people will not enter Paradise ; a
deceiver, a miser, and one who reproaches
others -with obligation after giving."
"Every morning God sends two angels, and
atie of them says, ' 0 God, give to the liberal
man something in lie a of that which lie has
given away!' and the other says. ' 0 God,
ruin the property of the miser 1 ' "
" The miser and the iibei-al man are like
two men. dressed in coats of -mail, their arms
ghied to their breasts and collar bones, on
account of the tightness of the coats of mai!.
The liberal man stands up when giving aims
and the coat of mail expands for him. The
miser stands up when intending alms ; the coat
of nisil becomes tight, and every ring of it
sticks fast to its place."
LIHYAH (*a«J). [BEARD.]
LISAmr 'L-HAQQ (<3^ <^~J).
Lit. "The language of truth." The Insanu
'l-Kdmil, or "perfect man-." in -which the
secret influences of al-Mutakallizn. " the
Speaker " (i.e. God), are evident.
LITERATURE, MUSLIM.
Arabic 'Ilmu 'l-Adab (s^N rOc). The
oldest specimens of Arabic literature now
extant were composed in the century which
preceded the birth of Muhammad, They
consist of short extemporaneous elegies, ifter-
wards committed to writing, or narratives of
combats of hostile tribes written in rhyth
mical prose, similar to that which we find
in the Qur'an.
Baron jDe Slane sayi the Ifatndsaft, the
Kiidbu Y»j4(//t«w, ami the Amall of Abu'AKyu
M-Kali, furnish a copious supply of examples,
which prove that the art of composing in
rhythmical prose not only existed before
Muhammad's time, but was even then gene
rally practised, an-1 had been brought to a
high degree of perfection. The variety of its
inflections, the regularity of its syntax, and
ihe harmony of its prosody, furnish in them
selves a proot of the high degree of culture
v.-hicb the language of the pre-Islamic Ara-
biuns had attained. ,The annual meetings of
ta« poets at the fair of *Ukaz encouraged
LITERATURE
literature, and tended to gire regularity of
formation und elegance of style to these early
poetic effusions.
The appearance of the Qm-'an brought
about a gradual, but remarkable change in
tone and spirit of Arabic literature. An ex
traordinary admixture of falsehood and truth,
it was given to the world by its author as the
uncreated and Eternal Word, and as a standing
miracle not only of sound doctrine. but of lite
rary style and language. This strange asser
tion, of course, deterred nearly every attempt
at imitation, although it is related that Ibn al-
Muqaffa', al-Mutanabbi. and a few others, of
a sceptical turn of mind, essayed in some of
their wiitings to aui'pass the style of the
Qur'an. But as the Muslims in all ages
have drawn their principles of grammar and
rhetoric from the Qur'an itself, we need not
be surprised that these and every other
attempt to surpass its excellences have been
considered failures.
One circumstance in the earliest history of
Islam was of it«elf instrumental in giving
i-ise to a most extensive literature of a special
class. The Qur'an (unlike the Pentateuch
and New Testament) was not a narrative of
the life of its author. And yet, at the same
time, Muhammad had left very special inj unc
tions as cc the transmission of his precepts
and actions. [TKADITION.] The study of
these traditional sayings, together with that
of the Qnr'an, gave rise to all the branches of
Arabic learning.
The Ahddig, or " the sayings of Muhaui-
mad," were considered by his followers as
the result of divine inspiration, and they were
therefore treasured up in the memories of
his followers with the same care which
they had taken in learning by heart the
chapters of the Qur'an. They recorded not
only what the Prophet said and did, but also
what he refrained from saying and doing, his
•very silence (sunnatu 's-sukut) on questions of
doctrine or ruls of Hie being also regarded
as the result of divine guidance.- It therefore
became of paramount importance, to those
who were incere followers of Muhammad,
that they should be in possession of his pre
cepts and practices, and even of the mosb
trifling circumstances of his daily life. The
mass of traditions ^increased rapidly, and be
came £0 great that it was quite impossible
for any one single person to recollect them.
According to Jaialu 'd-din as-Suyutl, the
first who wrote down the traditional sayings
of the Prophet was Ibn Shihab az-Zuhri.
during the reign of the Khalifah 'Umar II.
ibn;Abdi' l-«Aziz (A.H. 99-101) , but the Imam
Malik (A.H. 95-179), the compiler of the
book known as al-Muwattd is generally held
to be the author of the earliest collection of
Traditions. (See Kashfu 'z-£unun, in loco.)
So rapidly did this branch of Muslim
learning increase, that when al-Bukhari (A.H,
194-25G) determined to make a careful colla
tion of trustworthy traditions, he found not
fewer than 300,000 extant, from which he
selected 7.275.
Tho necessity of distinguishing the genuine
LITERATURE
traditions from the false gave rise to new
branches of literature. A just n pprecintion
of the credit to which each ci-mlitirmist was
entitled, could only be formed from a know
ledge of the details of his histox-y, and of the
morf>: ;:a,iracter of his life. Henco numerous
biographical works, arranged in chronological
order, "containing short accounts of the prin
cipal persons connected with the early history
of Islam, were compiled. The necessity for
tracing the places of their birth and th« race
from which they sprang, lod Muslim critics
to the study of genealogy and geography
The sense of the Qur'an, with its casual
references to contemporaneous as well as
to pa<?t history, was felt to be difficult and
obscure, in many places . and this led the
learned Muslims lo r,t'-iuy not only the tradi
tional sayings of Muhammad already alluded
to, but any historical or geographical works
which -vould help fbom in understanding the
text of " the Book."
In the early days of Islam, general history
was regarded with little favour as a subject
for study, and many orthodox doctors of
Muslim law were led by religious ccruples to
condemn the study of secular history : and
the works of Grecian and Latin poets, philo
logists, grammarians, and historians, only re
ceived their approval in so f»r as they served
to explain the text of the Qur'an and the tra
ditional records of Muhammad's followers.
The real attitude of the leaders of Islam
was decidedly hostile towards all literature
which wan not in strict harmony with the
teachings of their religion. If in succeeding
ages the Saracens became, as thoy undoubtedly
did, the liberal patrons of literature and
science, there cannot bo a doubt that in the
earliest ages of Islam, in the days of the four
" well-directed1' IQialifahs, not merely the
greatest indifference, hut the roost bigoted
opposition wan shoAvn to all literary effort
which had not emanated from the fountain
of Islam itself. And consequently the wild
uncivilized conquerors of Jerusalem, Gaesarea,
Damascus, and Alexandria, viewed the de
struction of the literary lore of ages which
was stored up in those ancient cjties with in
difference, if not \vith unmitigated satisfac
tion. Everything, science, history, and reli
gion, must bo brought down to the level and
standard of the teaching of the Qur'an and
the life of the Prophet of, Arabio, and what
ever differed therefrom was from the Devil
himself, and deserved the pious condemnation
| of every true child of the faith.
But the possession of power and riches
g*vs ri.se to new feelings, and the pious aver
sion to intellectual pursuits gradually relaxed
in proportion as their empire extended itself.
The possession of those countries, which had
for so long been the seaH of ancient literature
and art, naturally introduced among the Mus
lims a spirit of refinement, and the love of
I learning. But it was not the outcome of
their religious belief, it was the result of the
peculiar circumstances which surrounded
their unparalleled conquest of a civilized
world . Their stern fanaticism yielded to the
LITERATURE
295
unld influence of letters, and, «• by & singnjar
anomaly," says Andrew Criobton, «*iu the
history of nations, Europe became indebted
to the implacable enemies of her religion and
ber libei-ties for her most valuable lessons in
science and arta " In this they present &
marked contrast to the Goths and Huns ; and
wh:it is most remarkable is, not that sno-
cesfui conquerors should encourage literature,
but that, within a single century, a race of
religionists should jpa«s from a pr-ricd of the
deepest barbarism to that of the universal
diffusion of science. Iti A.TX 641. the Kha-
Kfah 'Umar ip said to have destroyed the
Alexandrian library In A.D. 750, the Khali*
fabs of Baghdad, the munificent patrons of
literature, mounted the throne. Eight centu
ries elapsed from the foundation of Rome to
the age of Augustus, whilst one century
alone marks the transition from the wild
barbarism of the Khalifahs of Makkah to
the intellectual refinement of the Khalifahs
of u Kufah and Baghdad. The Saracens,
when they conquered the cities of the Wo<t,
c&oie into possession of the richest legacies
of Intellectual -wealth, and they used these
legacies in such a manner as to earn for
themselves the most prominent place hi the
ps /e of history as patrons of learning. But
thr truth is, the literature of .the great By
zantine empire exercised a kind of patronage
over Haracenic kings. If the Saracens pro
duced not many original works on science,
philosophy, or art. they had the energy and
good sense to translate those of Greece and
Rome. (See the list of Arabio works in the
Kaskfu • g-Zunun.)
Under the Uniaiyah Khalifahs, the gentug
of Greece began to obtain an influence over
the minds of the Muslims.
'Abdn '1-Malik, the fifth Khslffuh of the
Umalyah dynasty (A.H. 66 ), was himself a
poet, and assembled around him at his court
the moat distinguished poets of his time.
Even the C:iristjV,n poet, al-A.k_htal took his
place in the front rank of the literary favo
rites of the Court.
But it was especially under al-Maneur, the
Abbasside Khallfah (A.H. 136), that the
golden age of Arabian literature in the East
commenced. Accident brought him acquainted
with a Greek physician named George, who
was invited to court, and to wLom the Sara
cens are indebted for the study of medicine.
The celebrated Harunu 'r-Rashid, the hero
of the Arabian Nights, was specially the
patron of learning. He was always surrounded
by learned men, and whenever he erected a
mosqtie he always established and endowed a
school of learning in connection with it. It
is related that amongst the presents he sent
to the Emporoi Chnrleuiaguo was an hy
draulic; clock. The head of his schools and
the chief dir-'.-tor of the education of his
empire, was John »bn Masbiiu, a Nestorian
Christian of Damascus.
The reign of Ma'mun (A.H. 198) has been
called the Augustan period of Arabian lite
rature. The Khalit'ah Ma'mun himself wa-v
a scholar, and he selected for his companions
296
LITEBATTOB
LITERATURE
tho most eminent' scholars from the East and
West. Baghdad became the resort of poets,
philosophers, historians, and mathematicians
from every country and every creed. Amongst
the scholars of his court was al-Kindi, the
Christian author of a remarkahle treatise in
defence of Christianity against Islam, side
by aide with al-Kindi, the philosopher, who
translated numerous classical and philo
sophical works for his munificent and gene
rous patron, and wrote a letter to refute the
doctrine of the Trinity. [Kijn>!.] It is said
that in the time of Ma'mvm, *' literar}- relics
of conquered provinces, which his generals
amassed with infinite care, were brought to
the foot of the throne as the most' precious
tribute be could demand. Hundreds of camels
might bo seen entering the gates of Baghdad,
laden with no other freight than volumes of
Grcok, Hebrew, and Persian literature."
Masters, instructors, translators, end com
mentators, formed the court of Baghdad,
which appeared rather to be a learned aca
demy than the capital of u great nation of
conquerors. When a treaty of peace was
concluded with the Grecian Emperor Michael
III., it was stipulated that a large and valu
able collection of books should be sent to
Baghdad from the libraries of Constanti
nople, which wero translated by tho savawt
of his court into the Arabic tongue ; and it is
stated thai tho original manuscripts were
destroyed, in order that the learning of the
world might be retained in the " divine
language ui the Prophet ! "
7rhe Khallfuh al-Wasiq (A.H. 227), whose
residence had been removed by his prede
cessor, al-Mu'tasixu, from Baghdad to Sau-
mara, was also a patron of letter?. He
especially patronised poetry and music.
Under al-Mu'tamid (4.H. 256), Baghdad
again became the seat of learning.
Al-Mttataiuir (A.H. 623), tho last but one
of the Abbaaiide Khalifahs, adorned Baghdad
by erpctint* a mosque and college, which bore
his name, nml which historians tell us had
no equal in tif Muslim world. Whilst the
city of Baghdad, in tlic- time' of tho Abbaside
dynasty, was tb<? great Centre of learning, al-
Basrah and al-Kufah almost equalled th*
capita) itsolf in reputation, and in tho number
of celebrated authors and treatises which
they produced. Damascus, Aleppo, Balkh,
Ispahan, and Samarcand, also became re
nowned as scats of learning. It is said that
a certain doctor of science was once obliged
to decline an invitation to settl« in the
city of Samarcand, because the. transport
of his books would have required 400
camels I
Under the Fafciinide Khahfahs (A.D. 1)10
to 1160), Egypt became for the second time
the asylum of literature. Alexandria had
more than twnnty schools of learning, and
Cairo, which wan founded by al-Mu'izz (A.D.
i)f>5), soon possw'Hsod a royal library of
100,000 manuscripts, A 7>«rw 7-/?&»MM, or
school of science, was founded 1-y the Khali
fah al-Hakim (A.D. 90C), in th'e Jtty of "Chiro,
with an annual revenue of 2,570 dinars, The
institution combined all the advantages of f
free school and a free library.
But it was in Spain (Arabic Andalus) thai
Arabian literature continued to flourish to n
later period than in the schools of Cairo and
Baghdad. The cities of Cordova, Seville
and Granada, which were under Muslim
rule for several centuries (Cordova, from
A.D. 755 to 1236; Granada, to A.D. 1484)
rivalled each other in the magnificence o1
their academies, colleges, and libraries,
Muslim historians say that Cordova alon<
has produced not fewer than 170 eminent
men, and its library, founded by al-Hakam II
(A.D. 961), contained 400,000 volumes ; and
the Khalifah himself was so eminent «
scholar, that he had carefully examined eaeb
of these books himself, and with his own
hand had written in each book ttte genealo
gies, births and deaths of their respective
authors.
Muhammad, the first Khalifah of Granada,
was a patron of literature, and the cele
brated academy of that city was long under
the direction of Shamsu 'd-din of Murcia, so
famous among the Arabs for his skill in
polite literature. Kasiri has recorded the
names of 120 authors whoso talents conferred
dignity and fame on the Muslim University of
Granada.
So universal was the patronage of -litera
ture in Spain, that in the cities of the An-
dalusian kingdom, there wero as many as
seventy free libraries open to the public, a«
well as seventeen distinguished colleges wf
learning.
(For an interesting account of the* state of
literature in Spain under the Moors, the
English reader can refer to Pascual de
Gayango's translation of al-Makkari'a History
of the Muhammadan Dynasties in Spam.
London, 1840.)
History, which was so neglected amongst
the ancient Arabs, was cultivated with assi
duity by the Muslim. There in extant an
immense number of works in this department
of literature. The compiler of the Biblio
graphical Dictionary, the Kashfu 'z-Zunin,
gives a list of the names and titles of 1,300
works of history, comprising annaley chro
nicles, and memoirs. As might be expected,
the earliest Muslim histories wero compiled j
with tho special object of giving to the world)
the history of. the Prophet of Arabia an£ hi«
immediate successors. The earliest historian)
of whom we have any extensive remcins in
Ibn Ishaq, who died A.H. 131, or fifteen
years after the overthrow of tho Umaiynbj
dynasty. He was succeeded by Ibu His ham I
who died A.U. 213, and who made the labour.]
of Ibn Ishaq the basis of his history. Ao«.>ibe»|
celebrated Muslim historian is Ibn Sa'd, wUij
is generally known ><R Katibu 'I- \\aqidi, oil
al-Waqidi'p secret ••-'..• y, and is supposed w
have even wurpasxeJ his master in historical
accuracy
Abu Ja'far ibn Jarir at-T,abari liounslnw! i
in the latter part of the third century of thl
Muslin; era, and has been styled b.y Oibboi} I
" the Livy of the Arabians," lie flourish^ \
LITERATURE
in the city of Baghdad, where he died A.H.
310. At-Tabarl compiled not only armftlg of
Muhammad's life, but bi» wrote ft history of
the progress of Islam, under the earlier Kha-
LITEBATORE
297
!if;th.s. Abu '!-Faraj. a Christian physicum
of Malatia in Armenia. Abfi '1-fida, Prince of
Harnah, and Ibn Ks.t.ib ,,f Granada, arc
amongst the oelebrat-d historians ,,f lat^r
times. The writings <,i Ibn Husain of Cor
dova are said to contain 100.000 pages I
Biographical works, arid memoirs of men
ipecially distinguished for their achievements,
were innomera Ido. Th« most notable work of
the kind is An KtalUkan'sBfoliographical Dic
tionary, which has been translated into English
by De SlariH (Paii*, iSi3> The Dictionary of
the Science? by Muhammad Abu «AWi 'Huh
of Granada is an elaborate work. Tho
Bibliographical Dictionary, entitled the Kaahfu
z-Zunun (often quoted in the present \\Mrk),
i* ;; laborious compilation, giving th^ names
of several thousands of well-known book*
and authors in every department of literature.
'Abdu '1-Munvar of Valencia wrote a genea
logical history of celebrated horses,' and
another celebrity wrote one of camels. The
encyclopapdians, gazetteers, and other similar
compilations, are very numerous.
Arabic lexicons have been compiled in
regular succession from the first appearance
of the work supposed to have beon compiled
by Ehalil ibn Ahmad, entitled Kitdbu 'l-*Aynt
which must have been written about A.H. 170,
t-j the most recent publications which have
issued from the presses of Lucknow, Bom
bay, and Cairo. [ARABIG LEXICONS.]
Poetry was, of old, a favourite occupation of
the Arab people, and was, after the introduc
tion of learning by the Khaiifahs of Baghdad,
cultivated with enthusiasm. Al-MutanabbI
of al-Kufah, Klialil ibn Ahmad, and others,
are poets of note in the time of the Abbasside
Kb* If fain. So great was the number of
Arabic poets, that an abridgement, or dic
tionary, of the lives of the most celebrated of
Uiem, compiled by Abu V Abbas, son of the
ghalifahal-Mu'tasirn, contains notices of 130
With Numismatics the Saracens of Spain
were well aoquainted, and Maqrl/i and Namari
wrote histories of Arabian money. The
Study of geography was not neglected. The
library of Cairo had two massive globes, aijd
the Sharif Idrlsi of Cordova made a silver
globe for Roger II., King of Sicily. Ibn
Itashld, a distinguished geographer, journeyed
through Africa, Egypt, and Syria, in the inte-
psts of geographical science. But to recon
cile some of the yiatemonts of . Muhammadan
tradition with geographical discoveries must
have required a strong effort of the imagina
tion. [QAF.]
To the study of medicine the Arabs paid
particular attention, Ahmy of Our modern
pharmaceutical terms, such as camphor, jalap,
and syrup, are of Arabian origin. Tho Chris
tian physician, George, introduced the study
f medicine at the court of Khalifah al-
Mansur. [MEDICINE.]
The superstitious feeling of the Muslim as
to the pollmcJ touch of the dead, debarred
the orthodox from attempting the study of
anatomy. 1'ho doctrine that even at death
the soul does not depart from the body, and
the popular belief that both soul and body
tapp,ar entire to undergo the examina
by Mnnkar and Nukir ia the grave, were
eient reasons why the dissection of thr
dead body .should not be attempted.
Operation for cataract in the oye was an
Arabian practice, and the celebrated philo
jopfaer, Arioenna (Abu ' All ibn Sina') wrote is.
lefence of depression instead of exij-action
which he considered a dangerous experiment*
Botany, as- subsidiary to medicine, wa*
studied by the Saracens; and it is said th*»
Arabian botanists disco ver.-rt several herbal
remedies, which were not known to the
Greeks. Ibn al-Baitar, H native of Malaga,
who died at Damawiu A.D. 1248, was the
most distinguished Arabian botanist A.1-
Birnni, who died A.D. 04 L, resided in India
for nearly forty years in order to study
botany and chemistry.
The first great Arabic chemist was Jabir, a
native of Harran in Mesopotamia. He lived
in the eighth century, and only some 150
years after the flight of Muhammad. He is
Credited with the discovery of sulphuric acid
nitric acid, ami aqua regia. D'Herbelot states
that he wrote 500 works on chemistry. The
nomenclature of science demonstrates how
much it owes to the Arabs—alcohol, alembic,
alkali, and other similar terms, being derived
from tho Saracens.
The science of astronomy, insomuch as it
was necessary for the study of the occult
Mienoa of astrology, was cultivated with great
zeal. The palifah Ma'mun was himself
devoted to this study Under his patronage,
the astronomers of Baghdad and al-Kufah
accurately measured a degree of the great
circle of the earth, and determined at 24,000
miles the entire circumference of the globe.
(Hee A!w '1-FideP and 2bn Khallllcan.) The
obliquity of the ecliptic was calculated at
about twenty-three degree* p.nd -\ hulf, « but,"
as Andrew Crichton remarks, "'not a single
step was made towards the discovery of the
solar system beyond the hypothesis of Pto
lemy." Modern astronomy is indebted to the
Saraceni for the introduction of observatories.
The celebrated astronomer and mathemati
cian Jiibir (A.D. 1196), erected one at Seville,
whioh may still be seen. Bailly, in his Hist.
de ? Astronomic, affirms that Kepler drew the
ideas that led to his discovery of the ellip
tical orbits of planets from the Saracen, Nfirn
'd-din, whose treatise on the sphere is pre
served in the Escurial library.
Algebra, though not the invention of the
Arabs, received valuable accessions fron-
their talents, and Ibn Musa and Jabir com
posed original works on spherical trigono
metry. Al-Kindi translated Autolycna' Dt
Sphasra Mofa, and wrote a treatise of his own
t Srx Quantitatibt*.
Architecture was an nrt in which the
Saracens excelled, but their building.-; were
erected on the wrecks of cities, castles, and
38
298
LITERATURE
LOGIC
fortresses, which they had destroyed, and the
Saracenic style is merely a copy of the Byzan
tine. [ARCHITECTURE.]
To the early Muslims, pictures and sculp
ture were considered impious and contrary to
divine law, and it is to these strong religious,
feelings that we owe t.h« introduction of that
peculiar style of embellishment which is called
the Arabesque, which rejects all representa
tions of human and animal figure?.
In caligraphy or ornamental writing, the
Muslims excel even to the present day.
although it ie to the Chinese that they are
indebted for the purity and elegance of then
paper.
Music is generally understood to have- been
forbidden in the Muhamrnadan religion, but
both at Baghdad and Cordova were esta
blished schools for the cultivation of this art.
[MUSIC.]
Much more might be written on the sub
ject of Muslim or Saracenic literature, but it
would exceed the limits of our present work.
Enough has been said to show that, notwith
standing their barbarous origin, they in due
time became the patrons of literature and
Science. They cannot, however, claim a high
rank as inventors and discoverers, for many
of their best and most useful works were but
translations from the Greek. Too much has
been made of the debt which the Western
world owes, or is- supposed to owe, to its
Saracen conquerors for their patronage of
literature, It would have been strange if a
race of conquerors, who came Suddenly and
rapidly into possession of some of the moat
cultivated and refined regions of the earth,
had not kindled new lights at those ancient
beacons of literature and science which
smouldered beneath their fe«t
In the Kashfu 'g-gvnun, it is related that
when Sa'd ibn Abu Waqqae conquered Per
sia, he wrote to the Khalifah 'Umar and
asked him what he should do with the phi
losophical works which they had found in
the libraries of the cities of Persia, whether
be should keep them or send them to Mak-
kah ; then 'Urnar replied, " Cast ,heni into
the riyers, for if in these books chere is a
guidance (of life), then we have a still better
guidance in the book of God (the Qur'an),
and if, on the contrary, there is in them that
which will lead us astray, then God protect
us from them " ; so, according to these instruc
tions, Sa'd cast some into the rivers and some
into the fire. So was lost to us the Philo
sophy of Persia ! ^Kashfu 'z-Z-unun, p. 341.)
Such was the spirit in which the early
Muslims regarded the literature of the coun
tries they conquered, and which gave rise
to the frequently repeated story that 'Umar
ordered the destruction of the libraries of
Alexandria, Csesarea, and Ispahan, while even
the enlightened Ma'mfin is said to bav^ com
mitted to thd flames the Greek and Latin
originals of the books he caused to be trans
lated. It therefore seems probable that the
world of literature lost quite as much as it
gained by the Saracen conquest of the West.
What the attitude of the Muslim world now
is towards science and literature, tho condi
tion of the Muslim in North Africa, in Tur
key, in Afghanistan, and in India, will de
clare. A condition <A things arising from
peculiarities of religious belief. It' we study
carefully the peculiar structure of Islam as a.
religious system, and become acquainted with
the actual state of things amongst Muham
mad an nations now existing, we shall feel
compelled to admit that the patronage of
li-erafcure by r,he Muslim Khalifahs of Cor
dova, Cairo, and Baghdad, must have been
the outcome of impulses derived from other
sources than the example and precept of the
Arabian legislator or the teachings of the
Qur'an.
(See Ibn KhallikSn's Biographical Diet.;
Crichton's^r<z6/V<; D'Herbelot's Bibl. Orient.;
Al-Makkari's Mnltammadan Dynasties in
Spain : Pocock ; Muir's Mahomet ; Abu '!•
Fida* ; Toderini's Lit. des Tares ; Kashfu 'z-
Zunun ; Sir William Jones's Asiatic lies. ;
Scbnurrer's Kibl. Arab,; Ibn al-Jazwfs
Talqify; M. de Sacey; Tabaqatu 'sh-Shii
frlyln.)
.LITURGY. fpBAYEB.)
LIWA* 0V). A banner ; a stan
dard. [STAKDAKIJ9.J
LOCUSTS (Arabic jarad, ^) are
lawful food for Muslims without being killed
by 2o»& [FOOD. ]
LOGIC. Arabic 'Ilmu 'l-mantiq
(,jLiJ\ jjc), " the science of rational
speech," from tiataq, "to speak*'; '//m«
Y-mf*/7« (0^4,i\ ^ic), "the science of weigh
ing " (evidence), from mizdn, " scales."
The author of the AkMaq-i-Jalidi says
"the ancient sages, whose wisdotn had bor
rowed its lustre from the loop-hole of pro
phecy, always directed the seeker after ex
cellence to cultivate first 'Jlnm "l-aJchlaqt ( the
science of moral culture,' then 'Ilmu 'l-mantiq,
• the science of logic,' then 'Ilmu '1-riyaziy^
• mathematics,' then I2lmu '{-hiknut/t, 'phy
sics,' and, lastly, 'limit 'l-lldhi, ' theology.'
But Hakirn Abu 'All al-MasqawI (A.D. 10),
would place mathematics before logic, which
seems the preferable course. This will ex
plain the inscription placed by Plato over the
door of his house, ' He who knows not geo
metry, let him not enter here,' " ('•See Thomp
son's ed. p. 31.)
The Arabs, being suddenly called from the
desert of Arabia to all the duties and dig
nities of civilized life, .were at first much
pressed to reconcile the simplicity of the
precepts of their Prophet with the surround
ings of their new state of existence ; and con
sequently the multitude of distinctions, both
in morals and jurisprudence, they were
obliged to adopt, gave the study of dialectics
an importance in the religion of Islam which
it never lost. The Imam Malik said of the
great teacher Abu Hanlfah, that he was such
a master of logic, that if he were to assert
that a pillar of wood was made of gold, he
would prove it to you by the rules of logic,
LORD S SUPPER
The first Muslim of note who gave his at
tention to the study of logic was Khalid ibn
Yazid (A.H. 60), who is reported to have been
a man of great learning, and who ordered
certain Greek works on logic to be trans
lated into Arabia The Khalifah Ma'inun
(A.H. 198} gave great attention to this and to
every other branch of learning, and ordered
the translation of several Greek books of
logio, brought from the library of Constan
tinople, into the Arabic tongue. Mulla Katib
Chalpi gives a long list of those who have
translated works on logic. Stephen, named
Istifanu %l-QndIm, translated a book fci
Khalid ibn Yazid. Batrlq did one for the Kha
lifah al-Manaur. Ibn Yahya rendered a Per
sian book on logic into Arabic, for the KhaUfah
al-Ma'muu, also Ibn Na imah ' Abdu '1-Masih (a
Christian), Husain bin Bahrlq, Hilal ibn Abl
Hilal of Him?, and many others translated
books on logic from the Persian. Mnsa and
Yusuf, two sons of Khalid, and Hasan ibn
Sahl are mentioned as having translated from
the language of Hind (India) into Arabic.
Amongst the philosophers who rendered
Greek books on logic into Arabic are men
tioned Hunain, Abu '1-Faraj, Abu '1-Sulaiman
as-Sanjari, Yahya an-Nahwi, Ya'qub ibn
Ishaq al-Kindi, Abu Zaid Ahmad ibn Sahl
al-Balkhi, Ibn Sma' (Avicenna), and very
many others.
An Arabic treatise of logic has been trans
lated into English by the Bengal Asiatic Society.
LORD'S SUPPER. • [EUCHARIST,]
LOT. Arabic Lut(\>f). Heb. g^.
Held by Muhammadans as k a righteous
man," specially seut as a prophet to the city
of Sodom.
The commentator, al-Buizawi, says_that
Lot was the son of Haran, the son of Azar, I
or Tarah, and consequently Abraham's nephew, j
who brought him with him from Chaldea into j
Palestine, where, they say, he was sent by j
God, to reclaim the inhabitants of Sodom and j
the other neighbouring cities, which were I
overthrown with it, from the unnatural vice
to which they were addicted. And this Mu-
bammadan tradition seems to be countenanced
by the words of the apostle, that this righteous
uian dwelling among them, in seeing and hear
ing, " vexed his righteous soul from day to
day with their unlawful deeds," whence it is
probable that he omitted no opportunity of
endeavouring their reformation. His name
frequently occurs in the Qur'an, as will be seen
from the following selections .
Surah vii. 72-82 : " We also sent Lot, when j
he said to his people. Commit ye this filthy '
deed in which no creature hath gone before
you? Come ye to men, instead of women, j
lustfully ? Ye are indeed a people given up j
to excess. But the only answer of his people
was to say, < Ttu-n them out of your city, for |
they are men who vaunt them pure.' And we !
delivered him and his family, except his wife ; i
she was of those who lingered : and we rained
a rain upon them : and see what was the end i
of the wicked ! "
Surah xxi. 74, 75 ." And unto Lot we gave I
LOTS
299
wisdom and knowledge ; and we rescued him
from the city which wrought filthincss ; for
they were a people, evil, perverse ; and we
caused him to enter into our mercy, for he
was of the righteous."
Surah xxix. 27-*t : « Wt sent also Lot:
when ha said to his people, • Proceed ye to a
filthineas in which no people in the world
hath ever gone before you? Proceed ye even
to men? attack yo them on th* highway?
and proceed ye to the crime in your assem
blies ?' But the only answer of his people
was to say, ' Bring (iod's chastisement upon
us, if thou art a man of truth.' He cried :
My Lord ! help me against tuis polluted
people. And when our messengers caine to
Abraham with the tidings of q son, they said,
* Of a truth we will destroy the in-dwellera in
this city, for its in-dweilers are evil doers.'
He said, « Lot is therein.' They said, • We
know full well who -therein is. Him and his
family will we save, except his wife; she will
be of thos-j who linger.' And when our mes
sengers came to Lot, he was troubled for
them, and his arm was too weak to protect
thfra : and they said, ' Fear not, and distress
not thyself, for thee and thy family will we
save, except thy wife ; she will be of those
who linger. We will surely bring down upon
the dwellers in this eity vengeance from hea
ven for the excesses they have committed.'
And in what we have left of it is a clear sign
to men of understanding."
Surah xxvi. 160-175 : « The people of Lot
treated their apostles as liars, when their
brother Lot said to them, « Will ye not fear
God? I am your Apostle worthy of all
credit: fear God, then, and obey me. For
this I ask you no reward : my reward is of
the Lord of the worlds alone. What ! with
men, of all creatures, will ye have commerce ?
And leave ye your wivt.s whom your Lord
hath created for you ? Ah ! ye are an erring
people ! ' They said, ' 0 Lot, if thou desist
not, one of the banished shalt thou surely be.'
He said, ' I utterly abhor your doiugs : My
Lord ! deliver me and my family from what
they do.' So we delivered him and his whole
family — save an aged one among those who
tarried — then we destroyed the rest — and w«
rained a rain upon them, and fatal was the rain
to those whom we had warned. In this truly
was a sign ; but most of them did not believe,
But thy Lord! He is the Powerful, tho
Merciful ! "
Surah xxvii. 55-69 : " And Lot, when he
said to his people, ' What ! proceed ye to such
iilthmess svitii your eyes open ? What ! come
ye with lust unto men rather than to womep ?
Surely yo are an iguoraut people.' And tit
answer of his people was but to say, ' Cast
out the family yf Lot from your city : they .
forsooth, are men of purity ! ' So we rescued
him and his family : but as for his wife, wo
decreed her to be of them that lingered : and
we rained a rain upon them, and fatal was
the rain to those who had had their warning."
LOTS, Drawing of. There are two
words used to express drawing of lota—
300
LOVE
TiOVE
rnasr /*-i^ an rptr'aA. The former
is used for games of chance, which are con
demned in the Qur'an (Surahs ii. .2.16 ; v. 92) ;
the latter the casting of lots in the division of
land or property. (Hidaydh^ vol. iv. p. 17.)
LOVE. The words used in the
Qur'an for love and its synonyms are wudd
(«3j), fiubb (*v-e-), mq/iabbak (4*fe*»), and
MOW a ddah ( '*> -V* ) -
(!) WuilH. Surah xix. 9G: " Verily, those
who believe and act aright, to them the- Mer
ciful One will give love.'*
(2) Hnbb. Surah v. 5tt : " God will bring a
people v/horrt He will love, and who will love
him."
Surah ii. 160 : " They love them (idols) as
they should /owe God. whilst those who believe
love God more/'
Surah Ixxxix. 21 : •' Ye /owe wealth -with
:.i complete /ov?,"
Surah xii. 30: "He (Joseph) has infatuated
her (Znlaikhah) with love"
(3) Mahvbbah. Surah xx. 39: "For on
thee (Moses) have I (God) cast my love."
(4) Mawttddah. Surah iv. 75: "As though
there were no friendship between yon and
him."
Siirah v. 85 : " Thou will find the nearest in
friendship to those who believe to be those
who say We are Christians."
Surah xxix. 24 . " Verity, ye take idols be
side God through mutual friendship in the
•\ if airs of this «orld.>:
Surah xxx. 20 : " He has caused between
y m affection and pity."
oiirah xli. 22: "Say! I do not ask, for it
hire, only the affection of xny kinsfolk.'1
Surah Ix. 1 : " 0 ye who believe ! take net
rny enemy and your enemy for patrons on-
countering them with affection."
Surah b?. 7: "'Mayhap Gnd will plaoo
affection between you.';
From, the above quotations, il vdll be seen
that in the Qur'an, the word mamaditah is used
ior friendship and affection only, but that the
otLer term;? are synonymous, and are used
for both divine and human love.
In the traditions, hubb is also used for both
kinds of love («ee Mishkdt^ book xxii. eh.
xvi.), and a, section of the Hadis is devoted to
the consideration of " Brotherly love for God's
pleasure."
'Ayishah relates that the Prophet said,
"Souls were at the first collected together (in
the spirit world) like asaembled armies, and
then they were dispersed and sent into bodies ;
and that consequently those who had been
acquainted with each other in the spirit
world, became so in this, and those who had
been stranger? there vror.ld be stranger,0-
here."
The author of the A Ichjuq-i-Jaldll distin
guishes between anintcd love and spiritual
love. Animal love, he says, takes its rise
from excess of appetite. But spiritual love.
which arises from haitnony of souls, is not to
be reckoned a vice, but, on the con'/rary. o
Species of virtue : —
•• Let love bo thy master, all masters
above.
For the . good and the great are all
prentice to love."
Tho cause of love; h»? says, is excessive
eagerness either for pleasure or for good; the
tirst is animal love, and is culpable: the
second is spiritual love* and is a, praiseworthy
virtue. (See Thompson's ed., pp. 227-234.)
The term more generally used in Oriental
writings for the passion of love is 'Ishy (-JH^),
a word which as-'Zamakhshari, in his work the
Asas (quoted by Lane), says is derived from
the word G-l-tashai'/f.ik> a species of ivy which
twines upon trees and cleaves to them. But
it seems not improbable that it is connected
with the Hebrew ^11^5^ "<a woman/' or* is
T '
TSee Deut.
vii. 7 : " The Lord hath set his lave upon
thee ''; and Ps. xei. 14 : " Because he hath set
his Love upon me.") The philosopher Ibn Sina'
( Aviceuna), in a treatise on al-'Iskq (regarding,
it a>s the passion of the natural propensities),
says it is a passion not merely peculiar to the
human species, but that a pervades all exist
ing things, both in heaven and earth, in the
animal, the vegetable, and even in the mineral
kingdom ; and that its meaning' is not perceived
or known, and is rendered all the more obscure
by the explanation thereof. (l-Jee To jv,' I-' A run.
by Saiyid Murtada.)
Mir Abu '1-Baqa, in his work entitled the
Kulliyat, thus defines tLs various degrees of
love, which are supposed ,o repress* not
only iiiteiibity ni natural love between man
and woman, but also the Sufiistic or divine
love, which is the subject of so many mystic
works: — First, hawa, the inclining of the soul
or mind to the object of love ; then, ''Ilaqah>,
love cleaving to the heart ; then, kalttf,
violent ard intense love, accompanied by
perplexity; then liskq, amorous desire, ac
companied by melancholy ; then, ahaghaj\
ardour of love, accompanied 'by pleasure;
then, jawat inward lov^ accompanied by
amorous desire, or grief and sorrow ; then,
taiayum, a state of enslavement; then, tab},
love sickness ; then. ivala/> distinction, accom
panied with loss of reason; and, Jastiy.
huydm. overpowering Iov-\ wi+b wandering
about at random
In Professor Palmer's little work on
Oriental mysticism, founded on a Persian
MS. by 'Aziz ibn Muhammad an-Nafsanl. and
entitled the Maksad i A if it (Maq$(id-i*A.qfa)t
or the '• Remotest Aim," we read, "Man sets
hi? face towards this world, and is entangled
in the love of wealth and dignity, until the
grace of God steps in and turns his heart
towards God, The tendency which proceeds
from. God if? called Attraction: thitt which
proceeds from man is called' Inclination,
Desire, and LOVE. As the inclination in
creases its name changes, and it causes the
Traveller to renounce everything else bnt
God (who becomes his Qibla)^ and thus set
ting his face God-wards, and forgetting every
thing but God, it is developed into LOVE."
LOVE
This is by no means the last and ultimate
stage of the journey, ^ut most men are said
to be content to pass their lives thmviu and
to leave the world withoiif making any fur
ther pv^rc'ss therein [SUFITBM]. Such a
person tho Sufis call Majziib, or. Attracted.
And it is in thn state that 'fsby, or spiritnnl
love, becomes the subject of religion
templation just as it is in the Song of Solo
mon. " Let him kiss mo vith 1 he kisses of
his mouth, for thy love is better than wine/'
But whilst the lover in the Song of Solomon
is supposed to represent the Almighty God.
and the loved one the Church, in Eastern
Sufi poetr}* the 'dshiq, or lover, is man, and
the rnasf'^uq, or the Beloved One, .is God.
The Sufi poet Jumi, in his Salomon and
Absal, thus writes of the joy of Divine love ;
and liia prologue to the Deity, as rendered
into English, will illustrate the mystic concep
tion of
•• Time it is
To unfold Thy perfect beauty. 1 would
be
Thy lover, and Thine only — 1, mine* eyes
Sealed in the li#ht of Thee, to ail but
Theo,
Yea, in the revelation of Thyself
Self-lost, atnl conscience-quit of good and
evil,
Thou movest under all the forms of truth,
Under the forms of all created things ;
Look whence I will, still nothing I discern
But Thee in all the universe, in which
Thyself Thou dost invest, and through the
eyes
Of man, the subtle censor scrutinize.
To thy Uarim Dividuality.
No entrance finds — no word cf tins and
that ;
Do Thou my separate and derived scit
Make one with Thy essential ! Leave me
room
On that iiiuun ^.SO!H) which leaves no room
for tw> :
Lest, like the nhnplo Kara 01 \vnom they
tan,
I prow perpiext, O God, Vw'st 'T' fir.d
' Thou.'
If ' 1 ' — this dignity and wisdom whence?
If ' Thou ' — then what i-"> tins abject im
potence ? "
[Tne faMe of the Kurd. wJbich is also told
e, is this. A Kurd left the solitude t,f
LUQMAN
301
the desert for the bu.4"*
--usy city.
Being tired of the commotion around him, he
lay down to sleep. Bat fearing ho
not know himself when he arow<, in the midst
of so much coMmotion, ho lied a pumpkin
round his foot. A knave, who heard him
deliberating about the difficulty of knowing
u^r.in. iock the pumpkin off tin-
foot, and ti«d it round his own. \Yher»
the Kurd awok.*, he ;»:\A b^ ••• • :;•.! Trd. nnd ex
claimed —
" Whether I be I or no,
If i — the pumpkin -why on yon?
If you — then where am I, and who ? "]
For further information on the subject of
mystic love, see
LDuB (s-ij. 'The heart or soul of
man. That faculty of the mind which i« en
lightened and purified by the Holy Light.
i.e. Nit)ti 'l~Q,uds (the Light of God). (Kitabu
'f-Ttfrlfdt, in foco.)
LUDD (jJ). A small town in
Palestine, where it is said Jefmn will find ad-
Dajjalu '1-MusIh, and will kill him. (Mishkdt,
book xxiii. ch. iv.) The ancient Lydda, niny
miles from Joppa. (See Acts ix. 32. 38.) It
is the modern DiospoliS, which in Jerome's
time was an episcopal see. The remains of
the ancient church are still seen. It is said
to be the native town of St.
LUNATIC. The Arabic majntm
(oy^^*) includes all mad persons.
whether born idiots, or persons who have
become ineane. According to Muhammad an
law, a lunatic is not liable to punishment for
robbery, or to retaliation for murder. Zakdt
(legal alms) is not to be taken from him, nor
is he to bo Hlain in war. The aposta.sy of a
lunatic does not amount to a change of
faith, as iu all matters, both civil and reli
gious, lie is not to be held responmble to
either God or man. An idiot or fool is gene
rally regarded iu the East by the common
people, as an inspired. being. Mr. Lane, in his
Modern Egyptians, says, " Moat cf the reputed
saints of Egypt are oither lunatics, or idiots,
or impostors/' A rerqark which will equally
apply tp India and Central Asia.
LUQMAN (0Ud). A person of
eminence, known as Lvqmdnu Y-//a£t/w, or
Luqman the Philosopher, mentioned in the
Qur'an as one upon whom God hnd beetowod
wisdom.
Surah xxxi. 11-19: "Of old we bestowed
wisdom upon Luqman, and taught him thus —
' Be thankful to God : for whoever is thankful,
is thankful to his O\VB behoof ; and if any shall
be thankless. . . . God truly is aelf- sufficient,
worthy of all praise 1 ' And bear in mind
when Lucjrnaii said to bis son by way of
warning, '0 my son! join not other gods
with God, for the joining gods with God
is the great impiety. 0 my son ! observe
prayer, and enjoin -the .rLrht aud forbid
the wrong, and be patient, under wb:>tHvrr
shall betide thee : for this is a bovuden duty
And distort not thy face at men; not wnll:
them loftily on tbe- earth ; for God lo\eth no
arrogant vain-glorious one. But let tuy pa^e
be middling; and lower thy voice: for the
least pleasing of voices is surely the voice of
asses.' S«e ye not how that Gc -i lirfth A ut,
under you all thnt is in the heavens
that is on the earth, and halh been boiu
to yon of his? /nvo'.;r>. '>';th for .-•.*ul ;IM<;
Bat (?ome are there vho dispute of Got!
out knowlpd^o. .m
aol . • i.- vueU'f-r
is an inspired proph.-i <•". j,.it
Hus-ani «:iys most of the learned think ho vra<<
a philo^opbcr, and not a pi-oi;hor Som? any
he was the ,-ion of Ba'ui. aiid i nephew r.f
302
LUQTAH
MABNA 'T-TASAWWAF
Job, being his sister's son ; others that he was
a nephew of Abraham; others that he was
born in the time of King David, and lived
until the time of Jonah, being one thousand
years of age. Others, that he was an African
slave and a shepherd amongst the Israelites.
Some say he was a tailor, others a carpenter.
He is admitted by all Arabian historians to
have been a fabulist and a writer of proverbs,
and consequently European authors have con
cluded that he must be the same person whom
the Greeks, not knowing his real name, have
called 2Esop, i.e. ^Bthiops.
Mr. Sale says : " The commentators men
tion several quick repartees of Luqman, which
(together with the circumstances above men
tioned) agrees so well with what Maximus
Planudes has written of .ZEsop, that from
thence, and from the fables attributed to Luq-
111 an by the Orientals, the latter has been
generally thought to be no other than the
/Esop of the Greeks. However that be (for
I think the matter will bear a dispute), I am
of opinion that Planudes borrowed a great
part of his life of JEsop from the traditions
he met with in the East concerning Luqman,
concluding them to have been the same per
son, because they were both slaves, and sup
posed to be the writers of those fables which
go under their respective names, and bear a
great resemblance to one another ; for it has
long since been observed by learaed men,
that the greater part of that monk's perform
ance is an absurd romance, and suported by
no evidence of the ancient writers."
Dr. Spenger thinks Luqman is identical
with the Ehcai .of the Ebionites (Das Lcben
nnd die Lehre des Mohammad, vol. i. p. 34).
j Luqm5n is the title of the xxist Surah of
the- Qur'an.
LUQTAH (M). "Troves." Pro-
perty which a person finds and takes away
to preserve it in trust. In English law, trover
(from the French trouver) is an action which
a man has against another who has found or
obtained possession of his goods, and refuses
J to deliver them on demand. (Se Blackstone.)
According to Muhammadan law, the finder of
lost property is obliged to advertise it for the
space of a year before he can claim it as his
own. If the finder be a wealthy person, he
should give it to the poor. (Hidayah, vol. ii.
j p. 277.) [TROVES.]
LtTT OjJ). [LOT.]
LUXUKY. Arabic tana"um (^).
In the training of children, the author of the
Akhlaq-i-Jalali condemns luxury. He says,
" Sleeping in the day and sleeping overmuch
at night should be prohibited. Soft clothing
and all uses of luxury, such as cool retreats
in the hot weather, and fires and furs in the
cold, they should be taught to abstain from.
They should be inured to exercise, foot- walk
ing, horse-riding, and all other appropriate
accomplishments." (Akhldq-i-JatdK, p. 280.)
LYING-. Arabic Mzzab{^\^}. A
pretty general infirmity of nature in the East,
which still remains unconnected by the modern
influences of Islam. But Muhammad is re
lated to have said : " When a servant of God
tells a lie, his guardian angels move away from
Mm to the distance of amiie.becauseot the bad
ness of its smell." (Mishkat, book xxii. ch- ii.)
M.
MA'AQIL (J3U-). The fines for
murder, manslaughter, >fec. (Hidayah, vol. iv.
p. 448.; fDiYAU.J
AL-MA'ABIJ (t;U*rt). Lit. " The
Ascents." The title of the Lxxth chapter of
the Qur'an, in the second verse of "which
occurs the sentence, " God, the possessor of
the Ascents (or Steps) by which the angels
ascend unto Him, and the Spirit (i.e. Gabriel,'* ,
in H day whose space is fifty thousand
years."
Sale, translating from al-tUizawi and Za-
ma.kjjsb.ari) says : " This is supposed to be
tho space which would be required for their
ascent from the lowest part of the creation
to the throne ol God. if it were to be mea
sured, or the time which it would take a man
to perform a journey ; and this is not contra
dictory to what is said elsewhere (if it be to
be interpreted of the ascent of the angels),
that the Length of the day whereon they
ascend is 1,000 years, because that is meant
only of their ascent from earth to the lower
heaven, including also the time of their
descent.
" But the commentators, generally taking
the day spoken of in both tber a passages to
be the Day of Judgment, have recourse to
several expedients to reconcile them, and as
both passages soem to contradict what Mu-
harnman doctors teach, that God will judge
all creatures in the space of half-a-day, they
suppose those large numbers of years are
designed to express the time of the previous
attendance of those who are to be judged, or
else to the space wherein God will judge the
unbelieving nations, of which, they say, there
will be fifty, the trial of each nation taking
up 1,000 years, though that of the true be
lievers will be over in the short space above
mentioned.''
MABNA 'T-TASAWWUF (^^
*J^\). Lit. "The Foundation of
Sufiism." A terra used by the Sufis to em
brace the three principles of their system.
(1) The choice of the ascetie life; (2) The
AT.-MADTWAH
intention to bestow freely upon oil UTS ; (3)
Tho giving up of one's own will and desires,
and desiring only the will of God. (See
<Abdu Y-Ra77aq'8 / >.W. of Siifl Tew*.}
AL-MADlNAH (&z.ufy. Lit. " The
city.' 1'he city celebrated a* the i>'ir.»:
place of Muhammad. It was called Yasrib
(see Qur'an, Surah xxxiii. 13), but was dis
tinguished as al-Madinah, '; tbe city," and
Madinatu 'n-Nabi, " the city of the Prophet,'1
after it had become famous by giving shelter
to Muhammad. It is esteemed only second
to Makkah in point of sanctity. Muhammad is
related to have said, "• There are angels guard
ing the roads to al-Madlnah, on account of
•which neither plague, or the Dujjal (Anti
christ; can enter it." "I was ordered," he
said, - to flee to a city which shall eat up
(conquer) all other cities, and its name is now
at'McidliKih (the city) ; verily she puts away
evil from man, like as the forge purities
iron." " God has made the name of al-
Madlnah both tabak and irtiyibah." i.e. both
good and odoriferous.
Al-Madinah is built on the elevated plain
of Arabia, not far from tho eastern base of
the ridge of mountains which divide the
table-land from the lower country between
it and the Red Sea. The town stands on the
lowest part, on the plain whore the water
courses unite, which produce in the rainy
season numerous pools of stagnant water,
and lender the climate unhealthy. Gardens
find date-plantations, interspersed, with fields,
inclo,=«»» the town on three sides; on tho side
towards Makkah the rocky nature of the soil
renders cultivation impossible. The city
forms au oval about 2,800 paces in circuit,
ending in a point. The castle is built at the
point on a small rocky elevation. The whole
is inclosed by a thick wall of stono, between
36 and 40 feet high, flanked by about 30
towers and surrounded by a ditch. Three
well-built gates lead into the town. The
houses are well built of stone, and generally
two stories high. As this stone is of a dark
colour, the streets have a gloomy aspect, and
are for the most part very narrow, often only
two or three paces across ; a few of the
principal streets are • paved with stono.
There are only two large streets which contain
shops. The principal buildings within the city
are the great mosque containing the tomb of
Muhammad, two fino colleges, and the castle,
standing nt the western extremity of the
citv, which is surrounded by strong walls
and several high and solid towers, and con
tains a deep well of good water.
The town is well supplied with sweet water
by a subterraneouH canal which runs from
the village of Quba', about three-quarters of
a mile distant in a southern direction. In
several parts of the town stops are made
down to tbe canal, where the inhabitants
supply themselves with water which, how
ever, contains nitre, and produces indigestion
in persons not accustomed to it. There are
also many wellfl scattered over the town ;
every garden has one by which it is irri-
MAtlK
303
! gated; :ir,.l when ^iG ground is bored to the
clopth of t \vv.-iily-flve or thirty foet, water is
found in plenty. During the rainy season.
t"i r--''t - d( ••••. d h om the higher
::'••> nuts t'. !•:.• I v.i i 1 >.. i ssion m which al-
"•i«liii.l' \a built, and part of the city is
ijiiu,.*. .!/•<'. Thi. j.'fMitii'.il siif.j.ly <.f water
made this sito a •• uiderftblf ....•t.tliini^nt <>t
.\,jli- ion •. before it bccuni-i sacred among
the Mnhaniinadans. Ly t*'fi llight, residence,
and death of the I'ruphci, to which it owes
its naiuo of Madinatu 'n-Nabi, or the City of
the Prophet. fSoo r.urckltanlt'n Travel* in
Arabia.)
An account of the Prophet's mosque is
given under MASJJDI: 'N-VABI, and of the
burinl ohai;;bf>r of Muhammad under nu.r&AH.
MADRASAH
A school.
MADYAN (c$?A«). Mulian. The
descendants of Million, the son of Abraham
and Ketivrah, and a city and district bearing
his name, situated on the Red Sea. south
east of Mount Sinai.
Mentioned in tho Qur'an, S?urah vii. 83 :
" \Ve aenc to Madyan their brother Shirxib."
MAFQCD (a^). A legal t«>rm
for a poi-son who is lost, and of whom no in
formation can be obtained. He is not con
sidered legally dead until the period expire*
when he would be ninatv voars oM.
MAGIANS. [MAJUS.]
MAGIC. Arabic eihr (^-). A
bt>Uef iu the magical art is entertained by
almost allMuharnmarlans, and there isalartfe
number of pert-ons who study it.
Although magic (us-sihr) is condemiied in
the Qui-'an (Sfirah ii. 96) ami in the Tradi
tions (Jfuftbot, book xxi. ch. iii. pt. 1), there
are still ninny superstitious practices resem
bling this occult science, which are clearly
permitted according to the sayings of Mu
hammad.
Anas says, •• The Prophet permitted a spell
(ru<jyah} being used to counteract the ill
effects uf the evil eye ; and on those bitten
bv snakes or scorpions*" (Sa/ii/tu Muslim,
p. 233.)
Uium Salmah relates " that the Prophet
allowed a spell to bo used for the removal
of yellowness in tho eye, which, he said, pro
ceeded from the malignant eve." 'W/i/u
'l-Bu^/wri, p. 8.">.f.)
'Auf ibn Malik, says "the fiophot said
i.herfl is nothing wrong in using spolbi, pro-
\iiletl the uso-of them does not associate any
thing with'Go:t." (Mishkdt. book xxi. ch. i.;
The terms used to express the magical
arts are. da-tra/t, lit. " an invitation of the
spirits," exorcism; 'azlmah, an incantation.
kika*ak, divination, or fortune-telling:
ruqyah, a spell ; and sihr, magic.
T h« term da-tcah is held to imply a lawful
incantation, in which only the assistance of
God is- invited by the use of either the Ismv
Y-J'?<wH. or great and unknown name of Ood.
804
MAGIC
MAGIC
or the recital of the ninoty-nine names or
attributes of the Almighty. As-Sifrr, or the
magical use of evil spirits : and kihdnah^ for
tune-telling, are held to bo strictly unlawful.
Incantation -and exorcism as practised by
Muhaminadans is treated of in the article on
DA'WAH.
Mr. Lane, -in his annotated edition of the
Arabian Nights, says : —
There are two descriptions of magic, one is
spiritual, regarded by all but freethinkers as
true ; the other, natural, and denounced by the
more religious and enlightened as deceptive.
I. Spiritual magic, which it termed " er
Roohanee '' (fir-rufalnf), chiefly depends upon
the virtues of certain names of God, and pas
wages from the Kuran, and the agency of
angels, and jinn, or genii. It is of two
kinds, Divine and Satanic (" Rahmanee," i.e.
relating to " the Compassionate " [who i.s
God], and " Sheytanee," relating to the
Devil.)
1. Divine magic- is regarded as a sublime
science, and is studied only by good men, and
practised only for good purposes. Perfection
in this branch of magic consists in the know
ledge of the most great name of God [ISMU 'L-
AZAM] ; but this knowledge is imparted to
none but the peculiar favourites of heaven.
By virtue of this name, which was engraved on
his seal ring, Solomon subjected to his domi
nion the jinn and the birds and the winds. By
pronouncing it, his minister Asaf (Asaf), also,
transported in an instant, to the presence of
his sovereign, in Jerusalem, the throne of the
Queen of Sheba. But this was a small mi
racle to effect by such means, for, by uttering
this name, a man may even raise the dead.
Other names of the Deity, commonly known,
are believed to have particular efficacies when
uttered or written ; as also are the names of
the Prophet, and angels and good jinn are
said to be rendered subservient to the pur
poses of divine magic by means of certain in
vocations. Of such names and invocations,
together with words unintelligible to the un
initiated in this science, passages from the
Kuran, mysterious combinations of numbers,
and peculiar diagrams and figures, are chiefly
composed written charms employed for good
purposes. Enchantment, when used for bene
volent purposes, is regarded by the vulgar as
a branch of lawful or divine magic ; but not
so by the learned, and the same remark
applies to the science of divination.
2. Satanic magic, as its name implies, is a
science depending on the agency of the Devil
and the inferior evil jinn, whose services are
obtained by means similar to those which
propitiate, or render subservient, the good
jinn. It is condemned by the Prophet and
all good Muslims, and only practised for bad
purposes. Es sehr (as-Sihr), or enchantment,
is almost universally acknowledged to be a
branch of Satanic magic, but some few per
sons assert (agreeably with several tales in
the Arabian Nig/its'), that it may be, and by
some has been, studied with good intentions,
and practised by the aid of good jinn ; 'con
sequently, that there is such a science aa
good enchantment, wnich is to be regarded
as a branch of divine or lawful magic. The
metamorphoses are said to be generally
effected by means of spells, or invocations to
jinn, accompanied by the sprinkling of water
or dust, &c., on the object to be transformed.
Persons are said to be enchanted in various
ways ; some paralyzed, or even deprived of
life, others, affected with irresistible passion
for certain objects, others, again, rendered
demoniacs, and some, transformed into brutes,
birds, &c. Tho evil eye is believed to en
chant in a very powerful and distressing
manner. This was acknowledged even by the
Prophet. Diseases and death are often at
tributed to its influence. Amulets are worn
by many Muslims with the view of counter
acting or preserving from enchantment ; and
for the same purpose many ridiculous cere
monies ere practised. Divination, which is
termed Ei-Kihaneh (al-Kihdnak\ is pro
nounced on the highest authority to be a
branch of Satanic magic ; though not be
lieved to be so by all Muslims. According to
an assertion of the Prophet, what a fortune
teller says may sometimes be true ; be
cause one of the jinn steals away the truth,
and carries it to the magician's ear ; for the
angels come down to the region next the
earth (the lowest heavon), and mention the
works that have been pre-ordained in hea
ven; and the devils (or evil jinn) listen to
what the angels say, and hear the orders pre
destined in heaven, and carry them to the
fortune-tellers. It is on such occasions that
shooting stars are hurled at the devils. It is
said that, *' the diviner obtains the services of
the Sheytan (Shaitari) by magic arts, and by
names invoked, and by the burning of perfumes,
and he informs him of secret things ; for the
devils, before the mission of the Apostle of
God, it is added, used to ascend to heaven,
and hear words by stealth. That the evil
jinn are believed still to ascend sufficiently
near to the lowest heaven to hear the con
versation of the angels, and so to assist ma
gicians, appears from the former quotation,
and is asserted by ail Muslims. The disco
very of hidden; treasxires is one of the objects
for which divination is most studied. The
mode of divination called " Darb-el-"Mendel "
(Zarbu 'l-Mandafy, is by some supposed to
be effected by the aid of evil jinn; but
the more enlightened of the Muslims regard it
as a branch of natural magic. Some curious
performances of this kind, by means of a
fluid mirror of ink, have been described in
the Account of the Manners and Customs of
the Modern Egyptians, and in No. 117 of the
Quarterly Review.
There are certain modes of divination which
cannot properly be classed under the head of
spiritual magic, but require a place between
the account of this science and that of natural
magic. The most important of these branches
of Kihaneh is Astrology, which is called 1 bn en
Nujoom (^llmu 'n- JVw/uw). This is studied by
many Muslims in the present day, and its pro
fessors are often employed by the Arabs to
determine a fortunate period for laying the
MAGISTRATES
MAHJUtt
305
foundation of A building, commencing a jour
ney. Arc. ; but more frequently by the Per
sians and Turks. The Prophet pronounced
Astrology to be a branch of magic. Another
branch of Kihaneh is Geomancy, called
w Darb erRamal" (Zarbu /?«;/</); a iccle of
divination from certain marks made on sand
(whence its appellation), or on paper; and
said to be chiefly founded on astrology. The
science called " ez Zijr,'' or "el Eyafeh" (al-
*rydfafi), is a third branch of Kihaneh', being
divination or auguration. chiefly from the
motions and positions, or postures, of birds, or
of gazelles and other beasts of the chase.
Thus what was termed a " Saneh " (/S'cmt'A;,
that is, such an animal standing or passing
with its right side towards the spectator, was
esteemed among the Arabs as of good omen ;
and a '-.Bareh '' (Bdrih), or an nniinai of this
kinc;. with its' left side towards the spectator,
was Laid as inauspicious. " El Kiyafeh'' (a/-
gryq/aA), under which term are included
Chiromancy and its kindred sciences, is a
fourth branch of Kihaneh, "El Tpf»nl" (<it-
Tafawicitl), or tl.e taking a:i omen, particu
larly a good one, from a name or words acci
dentally heard or seen, or chosen from a book
belonging to the same science. The taking a
" fril." or omen, f'-ona the Kur<ln. is generally
held to.be lawful/ Various trifling events are
conoidered as ominous. For instance, a Sul
tan quitting his palace with his troops, a
-tamlard happened to strike a "thureiya"
l$t>niyya* a cluster of lamps so called from
resomblrig the Pleiades), and broke them:
he drew from this an evil omen, and would
hive relinquished the expedition; but one of
his cbieJ officers said to him, "0 our Lord,
thy standard has reached the Pleiades," and j
being relieved by this remark, he proceeded,
and returned victorious.
(See Th* Thousand and One Nigkts, a new
translation, witn copious notes, by Edward
W. Lnne; new ed. by E. S. Poole.vol. i. u. 60.)
MAGISTRATES. [QAZI.J
MAGPIE. Arabic 'atfaQ (&**).
According to AbG Uanifah, the flesh of the
imagpie is inubdh. or indifferent ; but the
llmam Yfisuf held it to be makrvh,
bated, because it frequently feed^
ibodies. (Hidayah, vol. iv. p^ 74.)
AL-MAHDI (^J4*iV). Lit. 'The
^Directed One," hence, « who is fit to direct
|ipthers, Guide, Leader." A ruler wh<.. shall
in the last days appear upon the earth.
According to the Shl'ahs, he has already ap-
oearod in the person of Muhammad Abu '1-
3asim, the twelfth Imam, who is believed to
oe concealed in some secret plat?e until the.
lay of his manifestation before the end of the
(vorld. But the Sunms say he Las not yet
ippeared. In tho history of Muhammadan-
sm, there arenumei-ous instances of impostors
laving assumed tho character of this myste-
•ious personage, iimongst others, Saiyid
^.hrnad, who fought against the Sikhs on the
forth-West frontier of the Pnujab, A.D. 1826,
i^.ill more recently, the Muhammadan
r repro
on dead
who has claimed to be al-Matili in the Sudan
in Egyrt.
The sayings of the Prophet on the oubject.
according to al-Bukhaii and other tradi-
tionists, are as foi^y* : —
" The world will not come to an end until
a man of my tribe and of ray name shall be
master of Arabia."
" When you see blacK ensigns coining
fiom the directiou jf Kb_oros6u, then join
them, for 'he Imam of God will be with the
standards, whofle narcp is al-Makdi."
" Tho Mahdl will be descended from me, he
will be a man with an open countenance and
with a high nose. He will /HI the earth with
squity and iastice. even as it has been n'lled
with tyranny and oppression, and be will
reign over the earth seven years."
" Quarrelling and disputation shall exist
amongst men, and then shall a man of the
people of al-Madinah come forth, and shall
go from al-Madjnah to Makkah, and the
people of Makkah shall maku him Imain.
Then shall the ruler of Syria send ap army
against the Mahdi, but the Syrian aimy shall
perish by an earthquake near Bnda', bet-veen
al-Madinah and Makkah. And when the
people shall see this, the Abdul [ABDAL] will
come from Syria, and also a niultitudo from
al-'Iraq. After this an enemy to tho Mahitt
shall arise from the Quraifch tribe,, whose
uncles shall be of the tribe, of Kalb, and thia
man shall send an army against the Mahdi.
The Mahdi shall rule according to the example
of your Prophet, and shall give strength and
stability to Islam. He shall reign for seven
years, and then die."
" There shall be rnuci* rain in the days of
the MaJidi and the inhabitants both cl' hea
ven and earth shall be pleased with him.
Men's lives shall pas." so pleasantly, that they
will wish even the dea-1 were alive again."
(Mis}ikatu''{-Ala?<ib?Ji, book xxiii. oh. 3.)
According to Shrub traditions. Muhammad
is related to have said : U0 ye people! I am
the Prophet ;inu 'All i? my heir, jind from us
will descend al-Maldl, tli" seal (i.e. the lust)
of tho Imams, -who will conquer al! religions,
and take vengeance ou the wicked He will
take fortresses and will destro}* them and
«lay every tribe of idolaters, and he will
avenge the deaths of the inartyra of Uod.
He will be the champion of tba Faith, and a
drawer of water at the fountain of divine
knowledge. He will reward merit and re
quite every fool according to his folly. He
will be the approved and chosen of God, an<3
the heir of all knowledge. He will be the
valiant in duing right, and one to whom thw
. 'ijrh ha? entrusted Islam. ... 0 ye
people, I have explained to you, and 'All also
will moke you understand it." (Hiyatu 7-
fy /:i'.<, MeTrick'a ed., p. 342.;
It i.s probable that it is from these tradi
tions that the opinion became current amongst
^•> Christians t-hat the Muhamnjudans ex
aedfrd t-hcir Prophet would rise agulr.
MAHJUR (j^*^). A slavp in
hibited by tb(» rcler from exercising any
oinc« or agency. • Hulnyuh. vol. ill. 5.)
39
306
MAHMAL
MAHMAL
MAHMAL, MAHMTli
A covered litter borne on a came), both from
Cairo and from IMmusuia, to Makkab. as an
emblem of royalty at the time of the pilgri
mage.
It is said that Snlun Az-Zaliir Beylbars,
lung of Egypt » was the first who sent a inah-
mal v/ith the caravan of pilgrims to Makkah
m A..D- 12 7 1', but that it had its origin a few
yearn before his accession to the throne,
under the following circumstances : —
Bhaghni 'd-Darr, a beautiful Turkish
THE MAIIMAL. (From an Original Picture.*)
female slave, who became the favourite wiit
of Sultan as-Salihs Najmu 'd-din. and wh'o on
the death of his son (with whom terminated
the dynasty of Aiyub) caused herself to be
acknowledged Queen of Egypt, performed the
hajj in a, magnificent litter borne by a camel.
And for successive years her empty litter was
sent yearly to Makkah, as an emblem of
state. After her death, a similar litter -was
sent each year with the caravan of pilgrims
MAHMAL
AL-MA IDAH
307
from Cairo and Damascus, and is called mufi-
mal or mahmil, a vrord dignifying that by
which anything is supported.
Mr. Lane, in his Modern fif/t/pti'tns, vol. ii.
p. 162, thus describes the mahmal : —
14 It is a square skeleton frame of wood witb
a pyramidal top, and has R covering of black
brocade richly worked wi»h 'nscriptions and
oroa mental ombroiderv in ^°kl» in some parts
upon a ground of greon or red silk, and bor-
fiered with a fringe of silk, with tassels, anr
mounted by silver balls. Its covering is not
always made ifter the same pattern with re
gard to the decorations ; but in every cover
tlint T have seen, I hovf remarked or. the
upper part of the front ?. view nf tho Temple
of Makkah, worked in gold, and over it the
Sultan's cipher. It contains nothing : but has
two copies of the Kuran. ons «v.i a small
scroll, and the other in the usual form of a
book, also small, each inclosed in a case of
Captain Burton saw both tho Egyptian ami
j the Damascus mahmals on tho plain below
Arafnh at the time of the
THE MAHMAL. (Lfine.)
•jilt silver, attached externally at the top.
The five balls witb crescents, whirh orna
ment the mahmal, are of gilt silver. The
mahmal is borne by a fine tall camel, which
is generally indulged with exemption from
every kind of labour during the remainder of
its life."
Eastern travellers often confuse the mini
mal with tho kiswah, or covering for the
Ka'bah, which is a totally distinct thing,
although it is made in Cairo and sent at the
same time as the mahmal. [KISWAH.]
The Wahhabts prohibited the mahmal H*
an object of vain pomp, and on one occasion
intercepted the caravan which escorted it.
MAHMUDiYAH (*>**»*•). A
Sbi'ah sect founded by Mir Sharif, who in
th* reign of Akbar held a military appoint-
inent hi I'.r-riLcal. ltd was a disciple of Mah-
mud 01 Uusakjiwun, the founder of th*» Nuq-
taWiyah sect. Mahmud lived in the i-p'ign of
Timur, and professed 10 ho al-Mahdi. He
also called himself the Shakhs-i- Wahid— the
Individual one. Flo used to quote the verse,
" It may be that ;hy Lord will raise thee up
to a glorious (in'tJnn'ttl) station" fSihrftf
xvii. 81). From this he argued that the
body of man had been advancing in purity
since the creation, and that on its reaching to
a certain degree, one Mahmud fglori<>us^
would arise, and that then the dispensation
of Muhammad would come to au end. fie
claimed to be tho Mahmud. He also taught
the doctrine of transmigration, and that the
beginning of everything was the earth atom
(nuqtuA). It is on this account that they are
called in Persian the Nuqtawiyah sect. They
are also known by the names Mahniiidiy;ib
and WahTdlyah. Shah 'Abbas, King of Per
sia, expelled them from hi<? dominions, but
A.kbar received the fugitives kindly, and pro
moted some amongst thorn to high offices of
Bute.
MAKE
Heb.
The
dower or settlement of money or property on
the wife, without which a marriage is not
lec'il. for an explanation of which see the
article on DOWER.
The Hebrew word occurs three times in
the old Testament, viz. '4en. xxxiv. 12; Ex.
xxii. 17: 1 Sam. xviii. 25. .[DOWEK and
MARRIAGE.]
MAHKAM (?**•). Lit. •• [Julaw-
ful." A near relhtive witb whom it is un
lawful to marry. Muhammad enjoined that
every woman performing pilgrimage should
ha^ve a inahram with her night and day, to
prevent scandal. ( \fisth knt. bonk xi. ch. i.)
AL-MA'U)AH (iu»cu)l ). Lit. « The
table." The title of the vth Surah of the Qur'an,
inthelHth verse of which the word occurs :"0
Jesus, son of Mary ! is thy Lord able ta tfend
down to us a tahlc ' ''
41 Thi* miracle is thus related iiy the com
mentators. Jesus having at the request of
his followers asked it of God, p rod »nble
immediately descended, in their fisfht, between
two clouds, and was set before them ; where
upon he ro^c up, and, having made the ablu
tion, prayed. And then took off the cloth which
covered the table, raying. ' In the name of
God, tho beat provider of food ! ' What the
provisions* were witb which this table was
furnished, ia a matter wharein the expositor*
are not agreed. One will have them to be
nine cak.es of bread and nine fishes ; another.
bread and He.sh : .another, all sorts uf food ex
cept flesb ; another, all sorts of food except
308
MAINTENANCE
bread and flesh ; another, all except bread and
fish ; another, one fish which had the taste of
all manner of food ; and another, fruits of
paradise , but the most received tradition is
that vfhen. the table ~*«n uncovered, there ap
peared a fish read1/ dressed, without scales or
prickly fins, dropping -with fat, having salt
placed at its head and vinegar at. its tail, and
round it ell sorts of herbs except leeks, and
fine loaves of bread, on one of which there
were olives, on the second Loney. ou the third
butter, on the fourth cheese, and on the fifth
dried flesh.. They add that .Jesus, at the re
quest oi" the A-postles. showed them another
miracle, by restoring the fish to life, and
causing its scales and fins to return to it, at
which the bianders-by being affrighted, he
causwd it to become as it was before ; that
one thousand three hundred men and women.
all afflicted -with bodily infirmities or poverty.
ate of these provisions, and were satisfied,
the fish remaining whole as it was at first.;
that then the table flew up to heaven in the
sight of all : arid every one who had partaken
of this food were delivered from their infir
mities and misfortunes ; and that it continued
to descend for forty days together, at dinner
time, tmd stood on the ground till the sun
declined, and was then taken up into the
clouds. Some of the Muhammadau writers
are of opinion that this table did hot really
descend, but that it was only a parable; but
most think the words of the Quran are
plain to the contrary. A further tradition is
that several men were changed into swme for
disbelieving this miracle, and attributing it
to magic art; or. as others pretend, for steal
ing some of the victuals from off it. Several
other fabulous circumstances are also told,
which are scarce worth transcribing. Some
say the table descended on a Sunday, which
wag the reason cf the Christian? observing
that day as sacred. Others pretend that this
day ia still kept among" them as a vwy great
festival, and it seems as if the story nad its
rise troui an iraperf^-l notion of Chrnt's last
.sappei atid tho institution oi the Eucharist "
(Sale's Qur'an.)
The last
v>f Muhammad';-; \vivts A. sister to Uumiu
1-Fazl, the wife of al- Abbas. <md conse
quently related to the Prophet. She WHS a
widow, 51. years of age. when. Muhammad.
married her, Sho survived him and died at
the ago of 81, being buried on the very spot
on which she had celebrated her marriage.
( Muir's Life, of Mahomet, now rii. p. 403")
MAINTENANCE Arabic nafogah
(ftflii ), which, in the language of the
Uw, signifies all those things v/hich are neces-
j>arv to the support of lite, surh as food,
clothes, and lodging-, although many con tine
i4- solely to food, (Durru 'J-A/w&Afar, p. 283.)
There are three causes of maiatemnce
eat bli.shed bylaw. (1) Marriage: (2)Rel«-
ionship (3J Property (i.e. in rase of a
A. husband is bound to give proper main
tenance to his wife or wives, provided she or
they have not become refractory or rebel
lions, but have surrendered herself or them
selves to th.p custody of their husband
Maintenance may be decreed out of the
property of an absent husband, whether it be
held in trust, or deposit, or muzdrabak for
him.
If the husband become poor to such- a de
gree as to be rumble to provide his wife her
maintenance; still they are not to be sepa
rated on this account, but the Qazi shall
direct the 'woman to procure necessaries for
herself upon her husband's credit, the amount
remaining a debt upon him.
A divorced wife is entitled to lood, cloth
ing, and lodging during the period of her
'idda'hi and until her delivery, if she be preg
nant. No maintenance is, b< wever, due to a
woman, whether pregnant or not, for the
'idfJa/t observed upon the death of her hus
band No maintenance is due to a woman
upon separation caused by her own fault.
A father i* bound to support his infant
children ; and no one shares the obligation
with him.
A mother, who is a married wife, cannot bp
compelled to suckle her infant, except where
* nurse cannot be procured, or the child re
fuses to take the rniik of any other than of
the aiother, who in that case is bound to
snckle it, unless incapacitated for want of
health, or other surHcient cause.
If neither the father nor the child has any
property, the mother may be compelled to
suckle it.
The maintenance of an infant child is in
cumbent upon the father, although he be 01
a different religion; and. in the same manner,
the maintenance of a wife is incumbent upt»n
her husband, notwithstanding this circum
stance.
Maintenance of children beuumes, however,
incumbent upon the father only where they
possess no independent property.
When the father is poor and the child's
paternal grandfather is .rich, and the child's
own property is unavailable, the grandfather
may be directed to maintain him, and the
amount will be a, debt due to him from the
father, for which the grandfather may have
recourse against hum ; after which the father
may reimburse himself by having recourse
agamst the child's property, if there is
any.
When the father is infirm and the child has
no property of his own, the paternal grand
father may be ordered to maintain him, with
out right of recourse against anyone \ und, ni
like manner, if the child's mother be- rich, or
the grandmother rich, while its father is poor,
sh*1 may be ordered U> maintain the child,
and the maintenance will be a debt against
the child if be be not infirm, but if he be so,
he is not liable.
If the fa the. i.-> poor and the mother ia
rich, and the young child has also a rich
grandfather, tha mother should be ordered to
maintain the child out of her own property,
MAINTENANCE
with a right of recourse against the Mhor urnl
the grandfather is not to be tailed upon to do
so. >\heu the father is poor, and has a rich
brot'iei . lie may be ordered to maintain the
child, with right of recourse against the
father.
When male children nave f-trenjjth enough
to \vorl: for thoir livelihood, though not
actually adult, the lather may set them to
work for their own maintenance, or hire them
out, and maintain them out of thc'ir wages ;
but he hag no power to hire females out for
work or service.
A father miwt maintain his female children
absolutely until they are married, wheu they
hare no property of I heir own. But ho is not
obliged to maintain hi? adult male children
•ii'lcss they are disabled by mtirmily or
disease.
It is also incumbent on a father to maintain
his soil's \vife, when the ?ou is young, poor,
or infirm.
The maintenance to an adult daughter, or
to an adnlt son win- is disabled, rests upon
the parent- in tLu-« e<tual parts, toy- thirds
being furnished by the father, and one -third
by the mothrr
A. child in cmy circumstanoes may bt com
pelled to maintain his poor parents, wht.thej
they be Muslim or not, or whether by their
own indusd-y they be able to earn anything
for subsistence yi not.
Where there ate male and female children,
or childi-en only of the male sex, or only of
the female sex. the muiiitenauce of both
parents is alike incumbent upon theni.
Where there is a mixture of male and
female children, tho maintenance of both
t>a rents is incumbent on them alike
When a niothei is poor, her son is bound
o maintain her. though he be in straitened
circumstanced himself, and she not ii'iirm.
Whet) a son is able to maintain only ono of
his parvm?. the mother has the better right ;
ami if ho h.tve both parents and a miner son,
aud is able to maintain only one of them, the
son has the preferable right. Whun he has
both parents, and cannot afford maintenance to
either of them, he -should take them to live
with him. that tlioy may participate in what,
food he has for himself. When the son.
though paor. is canting- ?ometliing. and his-
father is infirm, the son should allow thf
fa the i to shnro his food with him.
As of a father and mother, so the mainte
nance of grandfathers and grandmothers if
they be mdigenr,, is incumbent upon their
faraadcbildren, though the former b«- nf
different religion.
It is u man's duty to provide maintenance
for all his infant male ifUti<>n> vvithiu pvo-
hibitH degrees who -u-e m poverty ; and
also to .ill female relation?, within the same
degrees, whether infants or rukilt.,, whore
they sire in necessity: and -ilso to all adult
male relations within the S:».IIH; 'leprees who
are poor, -lisabled, or blind; hut the >Mi:(,-
lion dvus !K)i extend beyond those rela
tions
No adult male, if m health, is entitled t.o
AL-MAISIR,
309
maintenance, though he is poor : but a person
is obliged to maintain his adult female rela
tives, though in h^lth of l.o'ly. if they re
quire it. The maintenance of a mere relative
is not incumbent on ar/ poor person; con
trary to the mnintnwn.M> «t a wife and child
Jor whom poor and rith are equally liable.
Wlic-M a poor person has a father and a
son's son, both in eatn, circumstances, the
father is liable for his maintenance; and
when there is a daughter and a .son's son.
the daughter ouly is liable, though they both
livide the inheritance between them.* So
also, when there is a daughter's daughter. 'or
daughter's ttun, and «* full brother, the child
of the daughter, whether malo or female, is
liable, though the brother is entitled to the
inheritance. When a person has a parent
and a child, both in easy circumstances, the
latter is liable, though both are equally hear
to him. Hxit if he have R grandfather and a
*on's son. they are liable for his maintenance
in proportion to their shares in the inherit
ance, that is. the grandfather for a sixth, and
the son's .<»«•• a for the remainder. If n poor
person has a Christian son and a Muslim
brother, both in easy circumstances, the son
is liable for <he maintenance, though the
brother wouM take the inheritance ft" he
has a mother and grand t'other, they are both
liable in proportion to their shores as heir1*,
that is, the mother in one third, and the
grandfather in two-third* Ss<> «lso when
with the mother there is a full brother, or the
son of a full brother, or a full paternal nnrle,
or any other of the *u*uhnli 01 ie.iiduaries
the raaintenanri« i : on th^m by '.hirds accord
ing to the rule-* of inheritance When there
is a iiiaturiial uncle, and the son of a full
paternal uncle, the liability lor maintenance
is on the .'ornior, though tue latter would
iave the inheritance: because tho Condition
of liability is wanting on the lattnr. who is not
within the forbidden degrees.
if a man have a paternal uncle nnd aunt,
tnd a maternal aunt, his maintenance is on
the uncle: and if the uncle »>»• in straitened
circumstances, it is on both the others. The
principle in this cas« is that when a person
who takes the whole 01 the inheritance is in
shaitenod circumstances, his inability is the
sums as death, and being as it wore dead, the
maintenance is cast on the remaining rplativp*
in the same proportions /is they w^uld he en
titled to i-u the inheritance of the person to
be maintained, if the other were not in
existence; and that when one who takes only
1 part of the inheritance is in straitened cir
cumstanctts, r>e is to be treated as if he were
dead, ami *hr> maintenance is cast on the
others, according 10 the shares -of the inhe
ritance to whi^h they \v,)Uld be entitl.'.l ii
they should succeed to.^-.t her with him. (See
dr, Biihu n-'
J.L-MA1SIR (r^+U). A game of
ch.uice forbidden in the Qur'an ofirtba ii
•^16: \. D^, 93 It signifies a game per-
fortn*'d with arrows, arid much in use with
pagan AraVv But the term aJ-maisar IB
310
MAJBDB
now understood to include all games of chance |
or hazard.
i
MA.JBLTB (v^***;. A complete
eunuch, as distinguished from kkasl. or one
who is simply castrated. (Hiddyah, vol. i.
p. 356. )
"The Glo-
rions One." One of the ninety-nine names or
attributes of God. It occurs in the Qur'an.
Surah xi. 76: "Verily He is to be praised
and glorified ?
MAJORITY.
MAJUJ
[PUBERTY.]
. [YAJUJ.]
AL-MAJtJS (u-yj^Vi, pi. of MajuA.
The Magians. Mentioned in the Qur'an only
tmce, Surah xxii. 17 : " As to those who be
lieve, and the Jews, and the Sabeites, and
xhe Christians, and the Magians. and those
who join other gods with God, of a trut^
God shall decide between them on the Day of
Resurrection: for God is witness of all
things."
Most Muharumadau writers (especially
amongst the Shrahs) believe them to hare
formerly possessed a revelation from God
which they have since lodt.
The Magians were a sect of ancient philo
sophers which arose in the East at a very \
early period, devoting much of their time to
the study of the heavenly bodies. They
were the learned men of their time and we
find Daniel the Prophet promoted to the
bead of this sect in ChaMea. (Dan v. li.)
They are supposed to have worshipped the
Deity under the emblem of fire ; whilst the
Sabians, to whom they were opposed, wor
shipped the heavenly bodies They held in
the greatest abhorrence the worship of images,
and considered flre the purest symbol of the
Divine Being. This religious sect was re
formed by Zoroaster in the sixth century
before Christ, arid it was the national religion
of Persia until it was supplanted by Muham
madanism. The Magians are now known in
Persia as Gabrs, and in India as Pdrsis. Their
sacred book is the Zend Avesta, an English
translation of which has been published by
Mr. A. H. Bleeck (Hertford, 1864), from Pro
fessor Spiegel's German translation. There
is an able refutation of the Parsi religion by
the late Rev. John Wilson. D.D. ( Bom bay.
1B43).
MAJZUB (vjV«). Lit. "At-
tracted." A term used by the Sufis for a per
son whom God has chosen for Himself, for a
manifestation of Hist love, and who is thus
enabled to attain to all the stages of Sufiism
without any effort or trouble. (See ('Abdu
'r-Razzaq'$ Diet, of (&fi Terms.)
MARK AH (***); The capital of
Arabia, and 'the most sacred city of the Mus
lims It is celebrated as the birth-place of
Muhammad, and M the site of the Ka hah,
MAKKAH
or Sacred Cube, building. Muhammad is re
lated to have said of Makkah, "What a
splendid oity thyu art! If I bad not been
driven out of thee by my tribe,! wonld d^el1
in no other place but in tbee." "It is cot
man bnt God who bis made Makkah sacred."
•' My people will be always safe in this world
and the next as long as they respect Makkah."
(Mishkat, book xl. ch. xv.,
Makkah (the ancient name of which was
Bakkah) is situated in about 21° 30' NT. lat ,
40' 20' E. long., and 70 mi lei from the Red
Sea. in a sandy valley running north and
south, and from 100 to 70 paces broad. The
chief part of the city is placed where the
valley is widest. In the narrower part there
are single rows of houses only, or detached
shops. The town itself covers a space of
about 3,500 paces in length, but the whole
extent of ground comprehended under thf de
nomination of Makkah, amounts to .^500
paces m length. The surrounding rocky
hills are from 200 to 500 feet i" height,
barren, and destitute of trees. Most of the
town is situated in the vailev itself, but there
are some parts built on the sides of the hills.
The streets are in general broader than those
of Eastern cities, for the purpose of accommo
dating the vast number of pilgrims w_ho re
sort to it. The houses are lofty and of stone,
and the numerous windows that face the
streets give to these quite a European aspect.
Many of the houses are three stories high.
The only public place in the body of the
town is the large square of the great mosque,
which is enlivened during the Hajj (Pilgri-
uiage) by a great number of well-stored shops.
The streets are all unpaved, and iu summer
the sand and dust are as great a nuisance as
the mud is in the rainy season, during which
they are dcarrely passable after a storm.
Makkab is badly provided with water. There
are a few cisterns for receiving rain, and the
well-water is brackish. The famous well of
Zamzam, in the great mosque, is indeed copious
enougn to supply the whole town, but the water
is not well tasted. The best water is brought
by an aqueduct from the vicinity of ' Araf ah, six
or seven miles distant. There are two places
in the interior of the city, where the aque
duct runs above ground, and in these pa-rte
it is let off into small channels or fountains,
at which some slaves of the Sharif (the ruler
of the city) are stationed to exact a toll from
persons who fill their water-skins.
All the houses in Makkah except those of
the principal and richest inhabitants, are con
structed for the accommodation of lodgers,
and divided into numerous separate apart
ments, each consisting of a sitting-room and
a small kitchen. Except four or five houses
belonging to the Sharif, two colleges, and the
sacred mosque, Makkah has no public edi
fices of any importance.
The inhabitants of Makkah, with few ex
ceptions, are Arabians. They have two
kinds of employment, trade and the service
of the temple. Daring the Hajj, Makkah be
comes one of the largest fairs in the Bast,
and certainly the most interesting, from the
MAKRT7H
MALAKtf L-MAOT
311
variety of nations -which frequent it. The
merchants of the place make large profits
during this time by their ^erchandise. They
hare also a consul fM-nblo trade with the Be-
duiiis aud with other-part* oi Arahin. The
greatest pro tit. however, is derived from
supplying food for 60.000 pilgrims and 20.000
camels. The only articles of manufacture
are some pottery and beads : there are a few
dyeing- honges in the city.
Makkah is governed by a Sharif, who is
chosen from the Saiyids (or descendants of
tho Prophet) settled in the Hijaz, who were
once numerous, but are now reduced to a few
families in Makkah. Although he obtains his
wfiice by the choice of his people, or by force,
he holds his authority from the Turkish
Snltan.
Makkah was the seat of government
luring the reigns of the first five Rhalifahs.
(For an account of the sacred temple, «ee
the article on MASJIDU L-IJAEAM.)
Lane- Pool f's edition of Lnnr's
MAKKAH. (From
MAKRUH 0;^). Lit. "That
which is hateful and unbecoming." A term
used in the religious, civil, and ceremonial
law of Islam, for an act the unlawfulness of
which is not absolutely certain, but which is
nsidered improper and unbecoming.
The author of the Hidayak remarks that
the doctors of the Hanafi sect have disagreed
to the extent to -ivbioh the t*rm can be
ved
The Imam Muhammad is of opinion that
"" is unhrvful, but as he could not draw
iny convincing rrgnment in favour of his
ppmion from either the Qur'an or Traditions,
renounced the gejieral application of " un-
wfulness" with respect to such things or
U, and classed them under those which are
•nerely improper.
The Imams Abu Hanifah and Abu Yusul
that the term applies to that which in
ts qualities nearly approaches to unlawful.
without it being actually so. [Hiilayah, vol.
iv. p. 86.)
In the Kitdbu 't-Ta'rifdt, that which is
nuikruh IB divided into mukriih tahrimi, " that
which is nearly unlawful M: and makruh tan-
zlhl, i( that which approaches the lawful."
In all works on Mnhammadan law, a sec
tion is devoted to the consideration of things
which are hold to be makriih.
AL-MALA'IKAH (AtfM). Lit.
'•The Angels." The title of the xxxvth
Chapter of the Qur'an In the first verse of
which the word occurs : — " Who employeth
the annels as envoys." It is also called Suratv
'l-Fntir, the "Chapter of the Originator."
MALAK r«sXU). [ANGEL.]
MALAKU 'L-MAUT (^\ «OU).
" The Angel of Death." See Qur'an, Surah
rxdi. 11: " The angel of death who is charged
312
MALANC
with you shall cause you to die: then ye
shall be returned to your Lord." He is also
called 'Izrfftf.
MALANG- (*££--x-L^). An order
of Muharnmadan faqirs or darveshes, who
are the descendants and followers of Jaman
Juti, a follower of Zindu Shah Madar. They
usually wear the hair of the head very full
and matted and formed into a knot behind.
The order is a very oounnon one in India.
(Herkiot's Mu&almans^ p. 290.)
AL-MALIK («UUtt). "The Pos-
sessor, lord, ruler." One of the ninety-nine
names or attributes of God. It frequently
occurs in the Qur'an, e.g. in the first Sirrah,
" Ruler of the Day of Judgment/'
MALIK f«a\iU). Lit, " One in an-
thority, a possessor." The angel who is said
to preside over hell, find superintend the
torments of the damned. He is mentioned in
the Quran, Surah xliii. 77: '•' And they shall
cry out, 0 Malik ! let thy Lord make an enc.
of us ; he shall say. "Verily, tarry here." Per
haps the satue as "T^TO Moleck, the tire-god
and tutelary deity of the children of Aimnou
MALIK. («sAH*). The founder of a
sect of Sunm Muslims.
The Imam Abu 'Abdi Tlah Malik ibn Anas,
the founder of one of the four orthodox sects
of Sumus, was born at ql-Mudlnah. A.H. 94
(A.D. 716). He lived in tho same place and
received h..s earliest impressions of Islam
from Sahl ibn Sa'd, the almost sole survivor
of the Companions of th& Prophet. He was
considered to be the most learner! man of hif-
time, and his self-denial and sastinence were
such that he usually fasted four davs in tho
week. He enjoyed the advantages oi a per-
sona-1 acquaintance and familiar intercourse
•with the Imnm Abu Hanifah. although dif
fering from him on many important question?
regarding the authority of the Traditions.
His pride, however, was at least equal vo hie
literary endowment!. L'I proof of this, it is
related of him that whtn the great Khalifah
Harunu 'r-Rashld came to ai-Madinah to visit
the DomL ui the Prophet, Malik ha ring gone
forth to meet him, the Khalifah -addressed
him, '• 0 Malik ! I entreat as a fa v our that
you will oomr ?ver.y day to me and my two
sons, Amm and Ma'mun. and instruct us in
traditional knowledge." To which the sage
haughtily replied, "0 Khalifah., science it of
a dignified nature, and instead of going to
any person, requires that all should come to
it." The story further days that the sovereign.
wi.th much liumility, asked his pardon, ac
knowledged the truth of his remark, and sent
botn his -sons to Malik, who seated them
among his other scholars without any distinc
tion.
With regard to the Traditions, his autho
rity is generally quoted as decisive ; in
fact, he considered them as altogether supei -
jfeding the judgment oi a man, and on his
death-bed severely condemned himself for the
many decisions he had presumed to give on
the mere suggestion of his "wn reasou. The
Qur'an Ik act the Sunnah excepted, the only
study to which he applied himself in his
latter days, was. the contemplation of the
Deity ; and his mind was at length so much
absorbed in the immensity of the Divine at
tributes and perfections, as to lose sight of
all more insignificant objects ! Hence he
gradually withdrew hiuiself from the world,
became indifferent to its concerns, .arid after
some years of complete retirement, died at al-
Madlnah, A.H. 179 (A.D. 795). His authority
is at present chiefly received in Barbary and
the other northern states of Africa. Of his
works, the only one upon record is one of
tradition, known as the Muwattd. His prin
cipal pupil was as'h-Shan'i, who afterwards
himself gave the name to a sect.
MALIKU 'L-MITL& («sJJU3J «sUU).
;iThe Lord of the Kingdom." One of the
ninety-nine names or attributes of Grod. It
occurs once in tire Qur'an, Surah iii. 25 : '• Say.
0 God, Lord of the. Kingdom, Thou givest the
kingdom to whomsoever Thou oleasest, and
"»trjppest the kingdom from whomsoever
Thou pleasest.''
MIL ZAMINI (^t> JU). Bail
for property. A legal term. (Hidayah, vol.
ii. p. 668). Bail for *he person is kUnr
zdmirn.
MAMAT (v^W). "-Death"; e.g.
Surah vi. 163: ;i My prayers, my sacrifice,
my life, and my death, belong: to God."
[MAUT.]
iVlAMLtJK (*£>**•), pi. mamdllk.
'' A i^lave/' A term used in .Muslim iaw for <*
bond-slave, the word 'abd signifying both**?;,
slave " and " a servant of God."' It occurs only
once in the Qur'an. Surah xvi. 77 : " God pro-
puiuidj- a comparison between a slave fymm-
t'vk) and tlie property of his master."
This word }-.ins become historic in the
Mum/ukvs, or tnat military body of slaves whu
for a long tiin 5 ruled Egypt. These military
slaves were first organized by Malik as-Salib.
who purchased many thousands of slaves in
the, markets of Asia, and brought them to
Egypt in the 13th ceatury. They were by
him embodied into a corps of 12,000 men,
but hi A;D. 1254. they revolted, and killed
Turan Shah, the last prince of the Aiyub
dynasty. They then raised to the throne of
Egypt al-Mu'izz, who was mmself a Turko
man slave. The Mamlukes continued the
ruling power in Egypt till A.D. 1517, when
Salim I, defeated them and pur to leath
Tuniaun Bey, the last of the Mamluke
.lynasty. They were, however, maintained
m Egypt as a military aristocracy, and were
a powerfu! body at the time of the French
invasion. Muhammad ;x\.li Pasha of Egypt
destroyed their power and influence by mur
dering many of them in A.D. 181.1.
MA'MUDIYAH (far***). A word
used by the commentator al-Baiza"wi for
Christian Baptism In remarking on Surah
MANAHAH
(T. 182, '-the baptism of God" (Sibghufv
ttdh), he says. u The Nazarenes used to din
theh children in yellow water, and they
called ii Aftfmudiydh ; and they said, wnoever
wa« dipped in .Ma'nuahyaft "w*8 purified, and
that it was a sia^n of hi» baaomuiK a Nazn-
313
MANARAH (*^).. Anglice wit-
From manor, " a place were a tiro is
lit, lighthouse, piUar," The lofty turret of a
moeque. from which the Mu'azzin* oV '• caller
to prayer," invites the people to prayer. In
the early days of Islam there were no mina
rets to the mosques, those ar Quba' aud al-
M&dlnah being erected by 'Umar ibn 'Abdi '1-
Aziz, A.H. 86. [MOSQUE.]
MANASIK (uiUU*). From ma.n-
#i>, ua piece of eacriiice." The sacred rites
attending the pilgrimage.
MAN IT (uy>u«> An idol men
tioned in th» Quran, Surah liii. 19, 20: < What
think ye, then, of al-Lat and al-'Uvza., and
Mauat, the third idol baaides.''
According to Hu^ain, it was an idol of the
tribes of Huzaii and Khaza'ah. For a dis-
rassion of the subject, see the article on
LAT.
AL-MANI' (*^). "The With-
holder." Une of me ninety-nine names or
attributes of CJod. It does not ouctir in the
Qui'au, but is given in the Hadis.
MAM^AH (*****). A legal
term for a camel lent, with permission to use
its milk, its hair, and its young, but on condi
tion of returning the camel itself. Such an
animal cannot be sacrificed. (Mishkdt, book
IT. ch. 50.)
MANLA 0^). A learned man.
A Muhamniadau priest. The Egyptian form
of Maulavi or Mulla.
MAN-LA-YASTAHZIRAHU JL-
PAQlH(^6r4*x^i^). A book
ol Shi'ah traditions connMled by Saiyid Razi,
A.H. 406.
MANNA. Arabic nuinn (er*) ; Heb.
|p man j Greek udWa. The giving of
manna to the children of Israel is mentioned
three -times hi the Qur'an.
Sui*ah ii. J>4 : " And we overshadowed them
with rile cloud, and sent, down manna and the
quails.
Surah xx 82 r •' We caused the rnaima and
the quails to descend upon you."
Surah vii. 160 : " We caused clouds to
overshadow them, and senv down upon them
the manna and the quails."
A.bdu 'l-«Aziz, in hia commentary, says it
waa like white sugai.
MANSLAUGHTER [MUBDEE.]
Arabic 'Itq
[SLAVERY.]
MARfi-IAGB
MAQAM MAJHMOD (rv
J»4«^»). " A glorious station," or
place in heaven, said to ho reherved for Mu
hammad. It is raentiojied in tho xvuth
v^hapter of -the Qur'an, verse 81 ; " It may be
that thy Lord will raise thee to a gtoiion*
Religious Muslims always pray that God
will grant the Afaqdm Muhmud to their
Prophet, when they hear the Azan refitod
At AQAMU IBRAHIM
Men
•' The place or station of Abra
tioned twice in the Qur'an.
Surah iii. 91 : " In it (Makkab) are eTident
signs, even thejo/ace of Abraham."
Surah iL 119: "Take ve the gtaticn of
Abraham for a place of prayer."
It is a place at Makkuh within the Masjid
boundary, supposed to have the impression
of the foot-marks of Abraham. Burokhardt
says this is u small building, supported by
six pitlars about eight feet high, four of wllieh
are surrounded froin the top to bottom by a
fine iron railing, while they leave the space
behind the two hind pillars open. Within the
railing is a frame about five f,et square, ter
minating in a pyramidal top, and said to con
tain the sacred stone upon which Abraham
stood when -he built the Kajbah.
MAQStTKAH («»-«•.). A closet or
place of retirement. A place set apart in
mosques, enclosed with curtains, rwhere de
vout men recite their supererogatory pr.'tyors,
and perform %ikr. [ZTJKJR.]
MARIYATU 'L-QIBTlYAH
l£*i&\Y [MARY THE COPT.]
MARRIAGE. The celebration of
the marriage contract is called nikdh (vJ&\t
The festive rejoicings '«r* ((j-^c) : Persian
&hadi}. Marriage is enjoined upon every
Muslim, and celibacy is frequently condemned
by Muhammad. It is related in the Tradition*
that Muhammad aaid : " When the servant of
God marries. he perfects half ot hie religion;"
and that " on one occasion Muhammad
asked a man if he was married, and being
answered in the negative, he *aid, ' Art thon
sound and health^?' Upon the man reply
ing that he was, Muhammad said, ' Thenthou
art one of the brothers of the devil'" (Mishi-dt,
book ziii. ch, i.) Consequently in Islam,
even the ascetic orders are rather married
than single.
It i« related that one of the Companion*,
named 'Us. man ibn Maz'uu, wished to lead a
life of celibacy, but Muhammad forbad
him.
The following are some of the sayingi of
Muhammad on the subject of marriago (see
Mishkdtu Y-A/(mi6/A, book xiii.) : —
" The best wedding u that upon which the
least trouble and expense is bestowed.''
" The worat of feasts are murriago feasts,
to which the rich are inviUxi aud the poor
left out, und he who abandons the
40
314
MABBIAOS
tion of *n invitation, than verity disoboys Ood
and Bis Prophet.*
« MttiTirnoziial alliances (between two fami-
lies or tribes) increase friendship moro than
anything else.**
" Marry woman who will love their hus
bands and be very prolific, for I wish you to
be more numerous than any other people,"
"When anyone demanda your daughter in
marriage, and you are pleased with his dis
position and his faith, then give her to him:
for if you do not so, then there will he atrite
and contention in the v7orld.M
" A -woman may be married either for her ]
money, her reputation, her beauty, or her j
religion ; then look out for a re%U>n.i woman,
for if you do marry other than a religions
woman, inav vour hands be rubbed with
dirt."
" All young jueu. who Uare arrived »*• one
age of puberty should marry, Jar marriage
preverxtfi sins. He who cannot irrirry should
fast/*
" When sk Muslim marries he perfects halt
his religion, and he should practise absti-
nonco for the icmainhur half."
"Beware! make not large settlements
upon women j because, if groat settlements
were a ozvuss of greatness in the world and
of righteousness before Goct, surely it would
be most proper for the Prophet -of God tc
make thetn."
" Whou, any of you wishes to demand a
woman in marriage, ii he can arrange it, let
him see her first."
" A woman ripe ia years shall have hex
consent askad hi marriage, acd if she remain
silent lier silence is har consent, aud if she
refuse she shall not be married by force."
** A "widovr shall not bo married until she
be consulted, nor shall a virgin be uiArried
until her consent be asked/' The Compa
nions said, " I«i what manner is the permission
of a virgin? " Re replied. '* Her consent is by
her sHaice."
•« If a woman marries without the consent
of her guardian, her marriage is null and
void, is null and void, is nuU and void : thjens
if her marriage bath been consummated, the
woman aha" take her dower: if her guar
dian? dfoputo about her marriage, then the
king- is h«r guardian."
The subject of Muslim marriages will now
be treated in the present article tinder the
headings — I. The Yalidity of Marjiage; IL
The Legal Dis&btitifts to Marriage ; HI. The
Religious Ceremony : IV. The Marriage Fes
tivities.
f.~ The Validity of Marriage.
Muslims are permitted to marry four free
woman, and to have as many slaves for con
cubines as they may have acqiiired. See
Qur'an, Sarah iv. 8 : "Of women who seem
good in ycur syea, marry two. or thre«j or
four; and if ye still fear that ye shall not
act equitably, then one only; or the sHvos
whom ye have acquired." [WITBS.J
Usufuietory or temporary marriages woij
siLncticaicd hy the Prophet, but this lav i ?
said by the Sunnis to have been ahrogated.
although it is allowed by the Shi'ahs, and is
practised hi Persia in the present day,
[KCTAH/J These temporary marriages are
undoubtedly the greatest blot in Muhammad's
moral legislation, and admit of no satisfac
tory apology.
Marriage, according to Mu^ammadan law,
la fiiraply a civil contract, and its validity
does not depend upon any religious ooremony.
Though the civil contract ie not positively
proscribed to be reduced to writing, its vali
dity depends upon the consent of the parties,
which is called Ijab and qabitl, " deckration "
-and *•" acceptance " ; the presence of two malo
witnesses (or one m&lo and two female wit-
nesaes) ; and a doweir of not lesa than tea
dirhams, to be settled upon tho woman. The
omission of the settlement does not, however,
invalidate" the contract, for under any oir-
(ninistaHCCF, the woman becomea entitled to
her dower of ten dirb.ara& or inoirc, (A dower
suit&bid to tho position of the woman id
called Mahru tl-nri$l.')
Liberty is allowed a woman who has
reached the age of puberty, to marry or re
fuse to marry a particular man, independent
of her guardian, who has no power to dispose
of her in marriage without her consent or
against her will ; while the objection is re
served for the girl, married by her guardian
durinar her infancy, to i-atify or dissolve the
contract immediately on reaching her majo
rity. When a woman, adolt aud sane, elect
to bo married* through an agent (wafat), she
empowers him, i& the presence of conjpeteot
-witnesses, to convey her consent to the bride
groom. The agent, if a etr&nger, need not
see her, and it is sufitatent- that the wit
nesses, who see her, satisfy him that she,
expressly or impl*t-dtyt consents to the propo
sition of which he la the bearer. The law
respects the modeaty of the sex, and allows
the expression of consent von the part of tho
lady by indirect ways, even without words.
Witn a virgin., silence ia taken as consent,
and so is a smile or l&ngh.
Mr. Syed Ameer AH says :— -
" The validity of a marriage under the Mu
hantmadan law depends on two conditions :
Arst, on the capacity of the parties to marry
each other; secondly, on the celebration of
the marriage according to the forms pre
scribed in the plaoe where the marriage is
oelebr ted? or whien are recognised as legal
by the customary law of the Hussalmans.
It is a recognised principle that the capacity
of each ol the parties to a marriage is to be
j judged of by their respective lex ciomidlii
I * If they are each, whether belonging to tho
j same country or to different countries, ca*
' p&ble according to their lex drfjnitilii of mar
riage with the other, they have the capacity
. ^quired by the ride under consideration. In
3, ->rt, as in other contracts, so in that of
marriage, personal capacity snnat depend on
the law of domiciL*
f The capacity of a Mussalmaa domiciled in
England will be regulated by the English law,
but ihs capacity of one who is domiciled in th«
MARRIAGB
».*, a Muhammadau country),
by the provisions of the Mugsalman law. It
is, therefore, important to consider what the
requisite conditions are to vest in an indi
vidual the capacity to enter into a vaBd con
tract of marriage. As a general rule, it may
be remarked, that under the Islamic law, the
capacity to contract a valid marriage refets
on the same basia as the capacity to enter
into any other contract. * Among the condi-r
lions which are requisite for the validity of
a contract of marriage (says the Fat&tua-i-
Alamffirt,p. 377), are understanding, puberty,
and freedom, in the contracting parties, with
this difference, that whilst the first requisite
is essentially necessary for the validity oi the
marriage, as a marriage cannot t»e contracted
by a majnun (non compos mentis), or a bey
without 'understanding, the other two condi
tions are required only to give operation to
the contract, as fhe marriage contracted by a
(minor) boy (po >SQS8ed) of understanding is
dependent for its operation on the consent of
his guardian.' Puberty and discretion son-
Btitute, accordingly, the essential conditions
of the capacity to enter into a valid contract
of marriage. A- person who is an infant in
the eya of the law is disqualified from enter
ing into any l^gal transactions (tassarufdt-i-
6fariy^~ta$arntfai-i-$hariahy, and is conse
quently incoicpetant to contract a marriage,
Like the English common law, however, the
Muhamraadan Law makes a distinction be
tween a contract made by a minor possessed
of discretion or understanding and one made
by a child who doe& not possess understand
ing. A marriage contracted by a minor who
has not arrived at the age of discretion, or
who does not posaes? understanding, or. who
cannot comprehend the consequences of the
act, ia a mere nullity*
« The Mohammedan law fixes no particular
age when discretion should be presumed.
Under the English law, however, the age of
seven marks tb» dia'erease between want of
understanding in children and capacity to
comprehend the legal eifecte oi' particular
acts. The Indian Penal Cod* also has fixed
the age of seven aa the period when the
1' ability for offences should commence. It
may be aeeumed, perhaps not without some
reason, that the* same principle ought to
govern oases tinder tho Muhanunadan law,
that is, when a,contraot> of marriage is entered
into by a child under the ago of seven, it
wxQ be regarded as a nullity. It is otherwise,
botfnvor, in the case of a marriage con
tracted by a person of undemanding. ' It
is valid, says the Fatdwa, * though depen
dent (or its operation on the consent of the
guardian.
" A contract eotored into by a person who is
insane is uuil and void, unless it is made
daring a moid interval. A slave cannot enter
into a contract of marriage without tho con
sent of hiss master. The Mussaiman lawyers,
therefore, add freedom (hurriyeQ *B one of
the condition? to the capacity for marriage.
" Majority is presumed, among tue Hacafis
and the Shia'us, on the completion of th« fif-
MARBIAGE
315
teenth year, in the case of both malas and
females, unless there ia any evidence to show
that puberty was attained earlier.
" Besides puberty and discretion, the capa
city to marry requires that there ahould be
no legal disability or bar to the union of the
parties ; that in fact they should not be within
the prohibited degrees, or so related to or
connected with each other as to make their
union unlawful" (See Syed Ameer Ali'e Per-
sonal Law of tke Mvhamniadans, p. 216.)
With regurd to the consent of the woman,
Mr. Syed Ameer Aii remarks : —
•< Ho contract can be said to be complete
unless the contracting parties understand its
nature and mutually consent to it. A con
tract of marriage also implies mutual con*
sent, and when the parties see ono another,
and of their own accord agree to bind them
selves, both having the capacity (o do so,
there is no doubt as to the validity of the
marriage. Owing, however, to the privacy
in which Eastern women generally live, and
the difficulties under which they labour in the
exercise of their own choice in matrimonial
matters the Mohammad an law, with some
what wearying particularity, lays down the
principle by which they may not only pro
tect themselves from the cupidity of their
iitttura guardians, but may also have a
certa scope in the selection of their hus
bands.
" For example, when a marriage in c.cn-
tractod on bafealf of an adult person of either
sex, it is an essential condition to its validity
that such person should consent thereto, or,
in other words, marriage contracted, without
bis or her authority or consent is null, by
whomsoever it may have been entered into.
'« Among the Hanafis and the Shiahs, the
capacity cf a woman, who is adult and sane,
to contract herself in marriage is absolute.
The Shiah law is most explicit on this points
It expressly declares that, hi the marriage of
a discreet female (raahidah) who is adult, no
guardian is required. The Hidaga holds
the same opinion. A woman (it savs) who i*
adult and of sound mind, may be married by
virtue of her own consent, although tho con
tract may not have been made or acceded to
by her guardians, and this whether she be a
virgin or saibbah. Among the Shafaia and the
Malikis, although the consent of the adult
virgin is an essential to the validity of a con
tract oi marriage entered into on her behalf,
as among the Hana&s and the Shiah*, she
cannot contract herself hi marriage without
the intervention of * wo/*. (H^nilton1*
Biduycui, vol. i. p. 95.)
•< Among the Shftfais, a woman cannot per
sonally consent to the marriage. The pre
sence oi the w?a/t, or guardian, is essentially
necessary to give validity to the contract
Thfi waft's intervention is required by the
Shatais and the Mtdikis to supplement the
presumed incapacity of the woman to under-
stan the nature of the contract, to ^settle
the terms and other matters oi a similar
import, and to guard the girl irom Seing Tic
timisac' by an unscrupulous ^venturer, or
316
MARRIAGE
from marrying a person morally or socially
unfitted for her. It is owing to the impor
tance and multifariousness of the duties with
which a watt is charged, that the Sunni law
ih particular in ascertaining the order in which
the right of guardianship is possessed by the
different individuals who may be entitled to
it. The schools are not in accord with refe
rence to the order. The Hanafis entrust the
office first to the agnates in the order of suc
cession ; then to the mother, the sister, the
relatives on the mother's side, and lastly to
the Kazi. The Shafais adopt, the following
order: The father, the father's father, the
eon (by a previous marriage), the full bro
ther, the cousanguinous brother, the nephew,
tho uncle, the cousin, the tutor, and lastly
the Kazi ; thus entirely excluding the female
relaiiona from the wilayet. The Malikife
agree with the Shafais in confiding the office
of guardian only to men, but they adopt an
order slightly different. They assign the
first rank to the sons of the woman (by a
former marriage), the second to the father:
and then successively to the full brother,
nephew, paternal grandfather, paternal uncle,
cousin, manumittor, and lastly to the Kazi.
Among the Malikis and the Shafais, where
the presence of the guardian at a marriage
is always necessary, the question has given
birth to two different systems. The first of
these considers the guardian to derive his
powers entirely from the lav«r; It conse
quently insists, not only on his presence at
tne marriage, but on his actual participation
in giving the consent. According to this view,
not only is a marriage contracted through a
more distant guardian in valid, whilst one
more no&rly connected is present, but the
latter cannot validate a marriage contracted
at the time without his consent, by according
his consent subsequently. This harsh doc
trine, however, does not appear to be forced
in any community following the Malik i or
Shafai touets, The eeaond system is din-
metrieaJly opposed to ths first, inri sectaa to
have boon enunciated by Shaikn Ziad as^the
doctrine taught by Malik. According to Uiia
system the right of the guardian, though no
doubt a creation of the law, is exercised onK
in virtue of the power or special authorisation
granted by the woman ; for the woman once
emancipated from the patria pote&tas is mis
tress of her OWB actions. She is not ou!v
entitled to consult her own interests in matri
mony, but caii appoint whomsoever she
chooses to represent her and protect her le-
guiiaata interests, If she think the nearer
guardian inhnically inclined towards her, she
may appoint one more remote to set for hor
during her tiamage. Under this view of
the l&vr, the guardian acts as an attorney
behalf of the woman, deriving All his
powers from her and .acting solely for hor
benefit.. This doctrine haf bsen adopted by
AI-Karkhi, IVm al-K&K-im, and Xbn-i-Salainun,
and has been formally enunciated by the
Algerian Masts in several consecutive judg
ments. "When tihe wait preierentially entitled
to net js absent, and his whereabouts uii-
MABBIAGB
known, when he is a prisoner or has been
reduced to slavery, or is absent more than
ten days' journey from the place where the
woman is residing, or is insane or an infant,
then the wflayet passes to the person next in
order to him. The Hanafis hold that the
woman is always entitled to give her con-
sent without the intervention of a guardian.
"When a guardian is employed and found
acting, on her behalf, he is presumed to derive
his power solely from her, so that he cannot
act in any 'circumstances in contravention of
his authority or instructions. When the
woman has authorised hor guardian to marry
her to a particular individual, or has cou-
sented to a marriago proposed to her by a
speckle person, the guardian has 110 power to
marry her to another. Under the Shiah law,
a woman who is ' aciult and discreet,' is i
herself competent to outer into a contract of
marriage. She requires no representative or
intermediary, through whom to give her con
sent. ' If her guardians,' says the*£%araya,
' refuse to marry her to an equal when de
sired by her to do so, there is no doubt that
she is entitled to contract uereelf, even;
against their wish.' The Skiahs agree with <
the Hanafis in giving to females the power
of representing others in matrimonial con
tracts. In a contract of marriage, full re
gard is to be pajd. to ths words of a female
who is adult and sane, t!iat is, possessed ef
sound understanding; &b,e is, accordingly, not'
only qualified to contract herself, but also
to act as the agent of another in giving ex
pression wither to the declaration or to thei
consent. The Mafatih. and the Jama-ttsh'.
Shattai, also declare * that it is not requisite-
that the parties through whom a contract is-'
entered into should both be males, since with i
us (the'Shiahs) a contract made through (the<
&gency or intermediation of) a female is<
valid.' To recapitulate- Under the Maliki
and Shafai law, the marriage of an adult girl
is uot valid unless her consent is obtained to
It, but such consent must be given through a
legally Authorised u.ati who would act as her
representative. Under the Hanafi and Shiah
law, the woman can oonsent to her own
marriage, either with or without a guardian'
or agent." (Personal Law- of the Muhamina-
ctans, p. 238.)
11. — The Legal Disabilities to Marriage.
There are nine prohibitions to marriage,
namely :-~
1. GaiuangwMtyt which includes mother,
grandmother, sister, niece, aunt, &c.
2. Affinity, which includes mother-in-law,
step-grandmother, daughter-in-law, step-
3. Fosterage. A man cannot marry his
foster mother, nor fo$ter sister, unless -the
foster brother and sister were nursed by the.
name mother, at inter va is widely separated.
But a man may. marry the mother of his foster
sister, or the foster mother of his KHter.
4. A juar, may not marry his \vi£e'<« sister
during hie wtfe's lifetime^ unie-a«. she be
divorced.
MARRIAGE
5. A man married Lo a fre* woman cannot
marry a slave.
6. It is not lawful for a man to marry the
wife or mvftaddak of another, whether the
'iddah he on account of repudiation or death.
That ie, he cannot marry until the expiration
of the woman's 'idda/t, or period oi t>roba-
tion.
7. A Muslim cannot many a polytheist, or
Ma ju sly ah. But he may murry a Jewess, or
a Christian, or A Sabeau.
8. A woman is prohibited by reason of pro
perty. For example, it is not lawful f ov a man
to marry his owr* slave, or a woman her
bondsman.
9. A we man is prohibited by repudiation or
divorce. If a man pronounces three divorces
upon a wife who is free, or two upon H slave,
flho is not lawful to him until she shall have
been regularly espoused by another man, who
having duly consummate*} the marriage,
after wards divorces her, or dies, and her
'iddah from him btj accomplished,
Mr. Syed Ameer All says t — •
" The prohibitions may be divided into four
heads, viz. relative or absolute, prohibitive or
directory, They arise in the first place from
legitimate and illegitimate relationship of
blood (consanguinity) ; secondly, from alliance
or 3.{Rr.ity (*u~mu$dbarctt) ; thirdly, from fos
terage (ar-rizd1); and, fourthly, from com
pletion of nurabei (i.e. four). The ancient
Arabs permitted the union of step-mothers
and inofciiers-m-JAw on one side, and step-sons
and sons-ia-law on the other. The • Kuran
expres&iy forbids this eusix>m ; ' Marry not
women whom your fathers have had to wife
(except what is already past), for this is an
unoleanhness and u.boinination, and an. evil
way.' (Surah iv. 26.) Then come the more
definite, prohibitions in. the next ^ersc : ' Ye
are forbidden to marry ycmr mothers, your
daughters, your sitters, and your aunts, both
on the father's and on the mother's side ; your
brothers' daughters and your sister's daugh
ters .; your mothers who have given you suck
and your foster-sisters ; your wives' mothers,
your daughtere-ic'law, born of your wive?
with whom ye have cohabited. Ye are also
prohibited to tako \ •••; v.1f«? two sisters (except
what is already past)., nor to marry women
who arc already married.1 ^Siirah if. 27.)
'• The prohibitions founded on consanguinity
(/a&riwm n-nasab) are the same among the
Sunnir as among the Shiaiis. No marriage
can be contracted with the ascendants, with
the descendants, with relations of the second
rank, auch as brothers and sisters or their da
scendants, with paternal and maternal unelot?
and aunts. Nor can a marriage be contracted
with a natural offspring or his or her de
scendants. Among the Shiaas, marriage is
forbidden for fosterage in tb.w same order us
w the cajfe of nasah. The £onnis, however,
permit marriage in apiiw ot i'osteiage in the
following cases: The isarriA^o of tee father
of the child with the mother of ms chiTdV.
foster-mother, or with her daughter ; the mivr-
riage of the foster-mother with ibt> brithar
of the cnild whoir *be has fostered + the
MAEE1AGE
317
riage with the foster-mother of au uncle or
aunt. The relationship by fosterage arises
among the Shiahs when the child has been
really nourished at the breast of the foster-
mother. Among the Sunnis, it is required
that the child should have been suckled at
ft/tcer. times, or at lea«rt a dav and
Among the Hanalis, it is enough if it
have been suckled only once. Among the
Shafais it is necessary that it should have
been suckled four times. There is no dif
ference among the Sunnis and the Shiahs re
garding the prohibitions arismgfrom alliance.
Under the Shiah law, a woraan against whom
a proceeding by iadn (Wan) has taken place on
the ground of her adullei-y , and who is thereby
divorced from nor hosband. cannot under any
circumstance re-marry Lam, Tho Shafaia
and Malikis agree in this opiiacn with the
Shia'us. The Ilanafis, however, allow a re
marriage with a woman divorced by ifidn.
The Shiahs as well as the Shalais, Maliki*,
and Hanbalis, hold that a marriage with a
woman who is already pregnant (by another)
is absolutely illegal." According to the
Hid&ya, howovw, it would appear that Abu
Hanifah aTid his disciple Muhammad were of
opinion that such a marriage wa^ allowable.
The practice among the XnJian Hioifie is
variable. But generally speaking, such mar
riages are regarded with extreme disappro
bation. Among the Shalais, Malik is and
Hanbalis, marriages are prohibited during
the state of ihr.drn (pilgrimage to Makkah),
so that when a marriage is contracted by two
persons, either of whom is a follower of the
doctrines of the above-mentioned aohoola
whilut on the pilgrimage, it is illegal. The
Henalie regard euch marriages to be legal.
With the Shiahs, though a marriage in a state
of ihrdm is, in any case, illegal, the woman is
not prohibited to the man always, unless he
was aware of the illegality of the uniou. All
the schools prohibit contemporaneous mar
riages with two women so related to each
other that, supposing either of them to be a
male a marriage between them would be
illegal. Illicit intercourse between a man
and a woman, according to the Hanalis and
Shiahd. prohibits the man from marrying the
woman's mother as well as her daughter.
The observant student of the law of the two
principal sects woich divide the world of
Islam, cannot fail to iiotica the distinctive
peculiarity existing between them in respect
to their attitude to outside people. The
nations who adopted the Shiah doctrines
never seem to have come into contact with
the Christian races of the West to any marked
extent ; whilst their relations with the M&go-
Zoroastrians of the £at*t were both mlimate
and lasting. The Sunnis, on the other hand,
seeui always to have been more or less in
ftuencod by the Western nations. In conse
quence of the different positions which the
followers of the sect* occupied towards non-
Mualiins, a wide divergence exists between
the Shifth aud Surini schools ..f law regarding
intermarriages between Muslims and uon-
Muslims- It b(vt* nlready beeu pointed out
318
MARRIAGE
that the Ku.T&n, for political reasons, forbade
all unions between Mussalmans and idolaters.
It said in explicit terms, *• Marry not a
woman of the Polytheists (Mwhrikin) until
she embraces Islam.' But it ftleo declared
that * such women as are mtihsinas (of chaste
reputation) belonging to the scriptural sects,'
or believing in a revealed or moral religion,
' are lawful to Muslims/
" From these and similar directions, two
somewhat divergent conclusions have been
drawn by the lawyers of the two schools.
The Sunnis recognise as legal and valid &
maTriage contracted between a Muslim on ono
side, and a Hebrew or a Christian woman on
the other. They hold, however, that a mar
riage between a Mu&sabnan ar^d a M&gian or
a Hindu woman is invalid. The Akhbaii
Shiahs and the Mutazala* agree with the
Sunni doctors. The TJsuli Shiahs do not re
cognise as legal a. permanent contract of mar
riage between Muslims and the followers of
any other creed. They allow, however. teciT
porary contracts extending over a term of
years, or a certain specified period, with a
Christian, Jew, or a Magiaa 'female. Abu
Hanifah permits a Mussahuan to marry a
Sabean woman, but Abu Yusuf and Muham
mad and the other Suiuii Im&uis, hold such
unions illegal
" A female Muslim cannot under any cir
cumstances marry a non-Muslim. Both schools
prohibit a Muhammadan from marrying an
idolatrous female, or one who worships the
stars or any kind of fetish whatsoever.
" These prohibitions are relative in their
nature and in their effect. They do .not
imply the absolute nullity of the jmarriage.
For example, when a Muhaimnadan marries
a Hindu woman in a place where the laws of
Islam are in force, -the marriage only is in
valid, and does not affect the status of legi
timacy of the offspring." (vSee Personal IMW
of the Mtti&mmadans, p. 2iJO.;
[II. — Thf Religious Ceremony.
The Muhammadan. law appoints no specific
religious ceremony, nor are any religious rites
necessary for the contraction of a valid mar
riage. Legally, a marriage contracted between
two persons possessing the capacity to euter
into tb.e contract, m valid and binding, if en
tered into by mutual consent in the presence
of witnesses. And the Shi'ah law even dis
penses with witnesses.
In. India there is little difference between
the rites that are practised at the marriage
ceremonies of the Shi'ahs and Sunni?.
In all cases the religious ceremony is loft
entirely to the discretion of the Qa?i or per
son who performs the ceremony, and conse
quently there is no uniformity of ritual.
Some Qazis merely recite the Fdtiftah (.the
iirst chapter of the Qur'an), a»d the durwi, or
blessing. The following is the more common
order of performing the service. The Qazi,
the bridegroom, aod the bride's attorney, with
the witnesses, having assembled in some con
venient place (but not in a mosque), arrange
ments are made as to fc|ae amount of dower or
MARRIAGE
The bridegroom then repeats after
the Qazi the following ;~
1. The Istighfdr. "I -desire forgiveness
from God."
2. The four Qpk. The four chapters of
the Qur'an commencing with the word i: Qyl*
(cix., cxil, cptiii, cxiv.). These chapters
have nothing in them connected with the sub
ject of marriage, and appear to be selected
on account of their brevity.
3. The jKafono/k, or Creed. "There u
no Deity but God, and Muhammad w the
Prophet oi (rod.**
4. The Sifwatu ^Ivutm. A profession ef
belief in God, the Angela, the Scriptures, the
Prophets, the Resurrection, and the Absolute
.Decree of good and evil.
The Qa«i then requests the bride's at*
tomey to take the hand of the bridegroom,
and to say, *< Such. an one's daughter, by the
agency of her attorney and by the testimony
of two witnesses, has, in your marriage with .f
her. had such a dower settled upon her ;> do
you consent to it?" To which the bride
groom replies, " With my whole heart and ,
soul, to my marriage with this woman, as I
well as to the dower already settled upon her,
I consent, I consent, I consent.'
After this the Qazi raises hia hands and
offers the following prayer: "O great God 1
grant that mutual love may reign between this :\
couple, as it existed between Adam and EV«JH
Abraham and Sarah, Joseph and Zaii^bJt,
Moses and Zipporah, his highnews AluJiam*
mad and 'Ayishah. and bis highness 'All air
Murtaxa and Fafcimatu *«-Zahra,*'
The ceremony being over, the bridegrooms
embraces his friends and receives their cen*-
gratulations.
According to the ZVwrru 'l-Muk&tar, p. 19w
ancl all BchooLj of Muslim law, the bridegrooai
is entitled to see his wife before the marriage!
but Eastern customs very rarely allow thi
exercise of this right, and the husband, genel
rally speaking, sees his wife for the firnj
lime when leading her to the nuptial!
chamber.
IV* — The Marriage Festivities.
Nikab is preceded and followed by festivJ
rejoicings which have been variously da]
scribed by Oriental travellers, but they an
not parts of either the civil or religious, cere
monies.
The following account ot a dutdi or wed
ding In Hindustan is abridged (with somJ
correction) from Mra, Meer Hasan All's
Musabnasts of India.
The marriage ceremony usually occupied
three days and three nights. The clay being]
iixed. the mother of the bride actively eni4
ploye the intervening time in finishing her
preparations for the young lady's doparturJ
from the paternal roof with suitable E. tides]
which might prove the bride was not sen!
forth to her new family without proper pro«l
vision : A silver-gilt bedstead with the neces-j
sary furniture ; a silver pawn-dan, shaped!
very like an EngSish spice-box ; a chillumchi]
or wash-hand bacin ; & lota or water- jug, reJ
MARRIAGE
MARRIAGE
319
anbling an old-fashioaed coffeo-p<rt ; a silver |
iggun, or epittoon ; a enrai, or water-bottle ; j
Iver basins for water : several do sous of
>ppex pots, plates, and spoons for cooking ;
Ishes: plates and platter* in endless variety ;
nd numerous other article needful f or house-
eoping, including a looking-glass for the
[tide's toilette, masnads, cushions, and
arpets,
On the first day the ladies' apartments o?
•oth houaea are completely filled with viei^
ors of all grades, from the vives and
.nothers of noblemen, down to the humblest;
•cquaintancB of the family , and to <3o hononr
iO the hoeteBS. the guests appear in their host
littire and most valuable ornaments. The poor
bride is kept in strict conflneiuent in «• dark
tploeet or room during the whole three days'*
(merriment, whilst the happy bridegroom is
the moat prominent perapn in the assembly
|pi the males, where amusements are <wia-
mvftd. to please and divert him, the whole
P&rty v;?ing ifl' personal attentions to biro,
•The ladies are occupied in conversations and
nacrrim«nt. and amused with native songs
snd music of the doznnis, smoking the hacjqa,
eating1 pawn, dinner, &Q, Compaay is their
delight and timo passes pleasantly vnth them
in such an assembly.
Tho second day us one of bustle and pre
paration in the bride's home; it is apent hi
arranging the various articles that are -to
accompany the bride's wayricli or hinnd1 (the
Lawsonia inermis), which is forwarded in the
evening to the bridegroom's house with, great
parade. The herb mayndi or kinna is in
general request amongst the natives of India,
for the purpose of dyoing the hands and feel ;
and is considered by then; an indwpensalsle
article to their comfort,, keeping those mem
bers cool, and a groat ornament to the person.
Long established custom oblige* the brido to
send mayndi on the second night of the irun-
tials to the bridegroom : and to make the
evoul more conspicuous, prtssouts proportioned
to tho means of the party accompany the
trays of prepared inayndi.
Tho female friends of the bride's family
attend the procession in covered conveyances f
and tUe malt) guests on horses, elephants, and
in paikics ; trains of servants and bands of
music swell the procession (amongst persons
of distinction) to a magmiude ineuncoivable
to those who have not- viaited the large native
cities of India.
Amongst the bride's presents with mayndi
may be noticed everything requisite for a
full-dress suit for the bridegroom, and the j
etcetraa of his toilette ; oonfectionoiy, dried i
fruits> preserves, the prepared pawns, and a '
multitude of tnfl.es too tedious to eriumeralo,
but which are nevertheless esteemed luxu
ries with the native young people, and are
considered essential to the occasion, Ojje
thing I roust not omit, the sugar candy,
which iorms the sourc« of amusement >¥b.en
the bridegroom is under the dominion of the
females in his mother' * zananih. The fire
works sent with the presents are concealed
Ui flowers formed of the transparent uberuck ;
these flowers arc set out in frames, and re
present beds of flowers in their varied forma
and colours ; these^ in their number and gay
appearance have a protty effect in the pro
cession, interspersed -with the trays contain
ing the dresees, &c. All the trays are first
covered wiih. baaketwork raised in domes,
and over these are thrown draperies of broad
cloth, gold cloth, and brocade, neatly fringed
in brighi; colours.
The muyndi procession having reached the
bridegroom's house, bustle and excitement
pervade through every department of the
roansion. The gentlemen are introduced to
the father's hall ; the ladies to the youth's
mother > who in all possible state is prepared
to rtioetyo the bride's friends.
Tlie. ladies crowd into tho centre hall to
v/ltnemSj through the blinds of bambco, the
importers! process, of. dressing the bride? oom
>n hu bridd's presents. The centre purdah is
let down, ^n which are openings to admit the
hsnda ar.u feet ; and close to this purdah a
low stool is placed. When all these prelimi
nary preparations are made, and the ladies
securely under cover, notice is sent te the
male assembly that uthe bridegroom ta
wanted ° t and he th«in enters the zananah
courtyard, amidst the doafoning sounds of
trumpets and drums from without, and a
serenade from the ioiualo singers within. He
seats himself on tho stool placed for him
close to the purdah, and obeys the several
corumajfcds he receives from the hidden
females, with childlike docility. The moist
ma-i/nd* is then tied on with bandages by
bands* he cannot see and, if time admits, cme
hour ie requisite to fix the dye bxight and
permanent on tho hands and feet During
this delay, the hour ie passed in lively dia
logues with tbo soveral pnrdAhed dames, who
have- all the advantages of seeing though
themselves unseen; the singers occasionally
lauding his praise in extempore strains, after
describing the lovetfhass of his bride (whom
they know nothing- about), and foretelling the
aap'piness wnteK awaits him in kis marriage,
but which, in the lottery, may perhaps prove
a blank. Tbe sugar-candy, broken into small
iumpr., is presented by the ladios whilst hia
hands and feet are fast bound in tho bandages
of /Ticymiy; but as he cannot help himself,
aad it is an omen of good to eat the bride's
sweets at this ceremony, they are sure he will
try to catch the morsels which they present
to his month and then draw back, teasing the
vouth with their banternvjs. until at last he
may successfully swap al the candy, and seize
the finger* also with the dainty, to the
general amusement of the whole paily and
thfc V uth"B entire satisfaction.
The mayndi supposed to have done its duty
the bandages are removed, the old nurse of
his infancy (always retained for life), aasiets
him with water to wash off the leaves,' driea
his feet and hands, rubs him with perfumes,
and robes him hi his brido's presents. Thus
attired, he takes leavo of his tormoutors,
sends respectful messages to MB bride's
family, and bows his way from their guar-
320
MAEBIAGE
MARBIAGE
Aiarship to the male apartment, where ho is
greeted by a flourish of trumpets and thft con
gratulations of the guests,, many of whom
make him presents and embrace him cor
dially.
The dinner is introduced at twelve, amongst
the bridegroom's guests, and the night passed
in good-humoured conviviality, although the
strongest beverage at the feast consists of
sugar and water sherbet. The dancing-
women's performances, the displays of fire
works, the dinner, pawn, and huqqah, form
the chief amusements of the night, and they
break up only wher the dawn of morning
approaches.
The bride's female friends take sherbet and
pawn after the bridegroom's departure from
thezananah, after which they hasten away
to the bride's assembly, to detail the whole
business of their jaaission.
BRINGING HOME THE BKIDE IK AFGHANISTAN (A. F, Hole.}
The third day, the eventful barat, arrives
to awaken in the heart of a tender mother
all the good feelings of fond affection ; she ifl,
perhaps, about to part with the great solace
of her life tinder many domestic trials; at
any late, she transfers her beloved child to
another protection. All marriages are not
equally happy m ?heir termination; it is a
lottery, a fate, in the good mother's calcula
tion. Her darling «aild may be ths favoured
of Hcaveii, lor which she prays ; she may be
ho v; ever, the miserable first wife of a licen
tious pluralist ; nothing is certain, but she
will strive to trust in God's mercy, that the
event pro^e a happy one to her dearly-loved
girl.
Th'o young bride is in close cor*ima;meui
during the days of celebrating her nuptials {
on Hie third, she is tormented With the prepa
rations for her departure. The inayndi must
MARRIAGE
be applied to her hands and feet, the formid
able operations of bathing, drying her hair,
oiling and dressing her head, dyeing her lips*
gums, and teeth witli antimony, fixing on her
the wedding: ornament*, the nose-ring pre
sented by her husband's family ; the many
rings to be placed on her fingers and toes,
the rings flxod In her ears, are all ac many
new trials i/o her, which though f4 complica
tion of inconvenience she cannot venture to
murmur at, and therefore submits to with the
passive weakness of a lamb.
Towards the close of the evening, all these
preparations being fulfilled, the marriage por
tion is sev in order to accompany the bride.
Tto gueste make their own aintisomeuta for
the day : the mother is too muoh occupied
with her daughter's affairs to give much of
her titce or attention to them ; nor do thay
expert it, tor they al! know by experience
tb»j nature of a mother's duties at such aa
interesting period.
The bridegroom's honse is nearly in the
same state of bustle as the bride's, though of
a very different description, as the preparing
for the reception of a. bride is an event of vast
importance in the opinion of a MuKalman.
The gentlemen assemble in the evening, and
are regaled with sherbet and the hugqah, and
entertained with the naueA-sjnging and fire
works, until the appointed horn' for setting
out in the procession to fetch the bride to
her new home.
The procession is on a ifrand scale ; every
friend or acquaintance, togothor with then
elephants, are pressed into the service of the
bridegroom on this night of Bavat. The
young man himself is mount e-i on a handsome
ohiii'ger, the legs, tail, and mane of which
Itro dyed with Mayndi, whilst the ornamental
furniture of I he aorae is splendid with span
gles and embroidery. The dress of the bijde-
groon;. is of gold cloth, richly trimmed, with
a turbflu fo correspond, to the -top of which
is fastened aw immense bunch of silver trim
tnintf, tuRt fails over his t'swie to his waist,
and answers tLe purpose or a veil (this is in
atri.it keeping1 v/i1.-h the Hindu custom at
their i-ndniage processions). A select few of
the females from the'' bridegroom's house
attend in bis train to bring home tne bride,
accompanied by innumerable torches, with
bauds or" mnsie, soidiorSj and servants, fco give
Hit'cat to the procession. On their arrival at
the gato of the bride's residence, the gentl«-
men Are introduced to the father's apartments,
whero flre-works, music, ai;d singing, occupy
tbeiM time and attention until the hour for
departure arrives.
The- marriage coremony is performed in the
presence of witnesses, although the bride u
not seen by any of the males at the time, not
even by her husband, until they have been
1 wfully united according to tho common form.
The Maula\v\ commences by calling on the
young maideu by name, to answer to his de
mand, ' U it by your own consent this mar
riage takes ptace with ?" naming the
person who is the bridegroom; the bride
answers, '• It is by my consent." The Maulawj
MARRIAGE
321
then explain* the law of Muhammad, and
reads a certain chapter from that portion of
the Qur'an which binds the parties in holy
wedlock. He then turns to the young man,
and asjks. him to name the sum he proposes
as_his wife's dowry. The bridegroom thus
called open, p.ainfts ton, twenty, or, perhaps,
a hundred lacs ot rupees ; the Maulawi re
peats to all prase lit the amount proponed, and
the*} prays that the voting couple tibms united
may bo blessed in tuis w«rld and in eternity.
A lit he gentlemen then retire except the bride
groom, who is delayed entering the hall until
the bride's gvnjat* have retreated into the side
rooms ; a* soon as this is accomplished he is
introduced into t'ue presence of his mother -
lu-law sad her daughter by the women ser
vants. He studiously avoids looking up^ as
he enters the hail. Denanae, according to the
custom of ihit! people, be must first see his
wife's fa&e in u looking--gl8S8, which is placed
before the young eoxxple, when be ts seated on
the masnr.d by his bride. Happy for him- if
h& then behob.ig a face that bespeaks the
gentle being h& hopes Fate has destined to
make him happy. If otn^rwise, he must sub
mit ; there is ao untying the sacred contract.
Many absurd customs follow this first in
troduction ot the bride and bridegroom. When
the procession is all formed, the goods and
chattels of fcho bride are loaded on the
heads of the carriers ; the bridegroom con
veys his young wife in his arms to the
covered palankeen, which is in readiness
within' the cotirt, and the procession moves
off in grand style, with a perpetual din of
noisy music, until they arrive at the bride
groom's mansion.
The poor mother has. perhaps, had many
struggles with her own heart to save her
daughter's feelings during the preparation for
departure; but when the separation taken
place, the scene i? affectiog beyond descrip
tion. I never witnessed anything equal to it
in other societies ; indeed, so powerfully ar«
the feelings of the mother excited, that she
rarelv acquires her usual composure until
her ofaugbtor ijj allowed to revisit her, which
ia generally within a week after her marriage.
(Sfte Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali's Indian MuBal~
7«ana, Tol. L p. 46.)
The above description of a wedding in India
has been selected as representative of such
ceremonies ; bat there is no unif onu custom of
celebrating Muslim nuptials, the nuptial
ceremonies in Afghanistan being much more
simple ic their character, as will be $een by
the illustration given on the preceding page.
Mr. Lane, in hifl Modern Eyypiians, gives
the following interesting accooat of a wedding
in Egypt:—
" Marriages in Cairo ate generally eon-
ducted, in the ease of a virgin, hi the follow
ing manner: buk in the* »f a widow, or a
divorced woman, *»ith little ceremony. Most
commonly, the mother, or some other near
female relation, of f.Ue youth or man who U
doeirous of obtaining a wife, describes to him
the pertonal and other qualifications of the
young \vomen with trhorn she is acquainted,
41
322
MAERXAGE
and directs his choice; or be employs a
'khafbeh,' or 'khatibeh' (khatibah), a
woman whose regular business it is ta assist
men in such cases. Sometimes two or more
women of this profession are employed. A
uiiat'beh gives her report confidentially, de
scribing one girl as being like a gazelle,
pretty and elegant and young; and another
as not pretty, but rich, and so forth. If the
man have a mother and othor near female
relations, two or three of these r anally "go
with a khat'boh to pav viaits to several
hareenifij to which ahe has access in her pro
fessional character of a mateu-maker ; fgr she
is -employed as much by the women s,s the
men. She sometimes, also, exercises the
trade of a 'deflate)!' (or broker\ for the
sale of ornaments, elating, <fce,, which pro
cures her admission into almost every
haxeom The women woh accompany her in
search of a wife for their relation, are intro
duced to the different hareems merely as
ordinary vis/tors ; and as such, if disappointed
they soon take their leave, though the object
of their visit is, ofooura* well .understood' by
the erfherpartyi bat if they find among the
females ol e Jamily"and they are sure to see all
>vho are marriageable a girl or young woman
having the necessnry personal qualiloations,
they siate the motives of their visit, and ask,
if the proposed match be not at once dis
approved of, what property, ornaments, Ac,,
the objects of their wishes may possess. If the
"father of the intended bride be dead, she may
peehap» poss ess one or more houaeft shops, &c. ;
and;, m ahnoctevciycase,« marriageable girl
of the middle or higher ranks has a set of
ornaments of gold and jewels. The women
visitors having" asked these and other ques
tions ,/br ing their report to the expectant
youth or man. If satisfied with their report,
he gives a present to the khat'beh, and ^onds
her again to the family of his intended wife,
to make known to them his wishes. She
generally gives an exaggerated description of
his personal attractions, wealth, &c. For
instance, she will say of a very ordinary
young man, of scarcely any property, and
of whose disposition she knows nothing.
;My daughter, the. youth whe wishes to
marry yon is young, graceful, elegant, beard-,
less, has plenty of money, dresses hand
somely, is fond of delicacies, but cannot enjoy
his luxuries alone ; he wants you as his com
panion; he will give you everything that
money can procure ; he is a stayer at home,
and will spend his whole time with you,
caressing and fondling yon.'
" The parents may betroth their daughter
to whom they please, and marry her to him
without her Consent, if she be not arrived at
the age of puberty -r but after ahe has attained
that age, she xuay choose a husband for
herself, and appoint any man to arrange and
effect her marriage. In the former case how
ever, the khat'beh and the relations of a girl
sought in marriage usually endeavour to
obtain her consent *o the proposed union.
Very often a father objects to giving a
daughter in marriage, to a man who is not of
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the same profession or trade as himself ; and
to marrying a younger daughter before an
elder! The bridegroom can scarcely ever
obtain even a surreptitious glance at- the fea
tures of his bride, until he finds her in his
absolute possession, unless she belong to the
lower classes of society; in which case it is
easy enough for him to- see her face.
**When a female is about to marry,- she
should have a « wekeel' (u)akil, or deputy)
to settle the compact and conclude the 'con
tract, for her, with her proposed husband.
If she be under the age of puberty, this is
absolute! v .necessary; and in thitf case, her
father, if living, or (if he be dead) her,nearest
adult male relation, or a guardian appointed
by will, or by the Kadee, performs the ofice
of wekeel ; but if she be of a^e* the appoints
her own wekeel, or may even make the con-,
tract herself; though this is seldom .done.
" Alter a youth or man has made choice of
a ieinaie to demand in marriage, onth*, reuor*
of lib female relations, or thafc of the khat'
be, and, by prosy, made the preliminary
aerangements before described with her and
her relations in the hareem, he repairs with
two or three of his friends to her wekeel.
Having obtained the wekeel'a consent to the
union, if the intended bride be under age, he
asks what is the amount of the required
makr (or dowry).
" The giving of a dowry is indispensable.
The usual amount of the dowry, if the par
ties be in possession of a moderately good in-
eome. is about a thousand rivals (or twenty-
two pounds ten shillings) : or, sometimes, noi
more than half that sum. The vealthy cal
culate the dowry in purses, of five hundred
piasters (about five pounds sterling) each ;
and fix its amount at ten purses or more.
4< It must be borne hi mind that we are con
sidering the case of a virgin bride; the dowry
of a widow or divorced woman is much less,
In settling the amount of the dowry, as in
other pecuniary transactions, a little haggling
frequently takes place ; if a thousand riyals
be demanded through the wekeel, the party
of the intended bridegroom will probably
make an offer of six hundred: tho former
party then gradually lowering the demand,
and the other increasing the offer, they at
length agree to fix it at eight hundred. It ift
generally ctipulated that two-thirds of the
dowry shall be paid immediately before the
marriage-contract is made ; and the remain
ing third held m reserve, to be paid to the
wife in case of divorcing her against her own
consent, or in case of the husband's death.
"This affair being settled, and confirmed by
all persons present reciting the opening chapter
of the Kuran (the Fafhah), an early day (per
haps the day next following) is appointed for
paying the money, and performing the cere
mony of the marriage- contract, which *i§ pro
perly called • akd en~nikah ' ('aqdu 'a-nika&).
The -making this contract is commonly called
keib el-kitab ' (katbu 'l-kitdb, or the writing
of the writ) ; but it is very seldom the case
that any document is written to confirm the
marriage, unlesa the bridegroom is about to
MARRIAGE
MAEEIAOB
323
travel to another place, and feara ,'hat he
may have occasion to prove his marriage
where witnesses of .the contract cannot bo
procured. Sometimes the marriage -contract
18 concluded immediately after the arrange
ment respecting the dowry, but more generally
a day or two after.
" On the day appointed for this ceremony,
the bridegroom, again accompanied by two or
three of his friends, goes to the house of his
bride, usually about noon, taking with him
that portion of the dowry which he has pro
mised to pay on this oooaoiun. He and his
companions are received by the bride's
wt>kael, and two or more friends of the latter
ire usually present. It is necessary thai
there be two witnesses (and those mast be
Muslims) to the marriage-contract, unless r
a situation where witnesses cannot be pro
cured. All persons present recite the Fat'-
hah . and the bridegroom then pays the
money. After this, the marriage-contract is
performed. It is very simple. The bride
groom and the bride's wekeel sit upon the
ground, face to face, with one knee upon the
ground, and grasp each other's right hand,
raising toe thumbs, and pressing them against
each other. A : f fckoeh * (faq$i) is generally
employed to instruct them what they are to
say. Having placed a handkerchief over their
joined hands. be usually prefaces the words of
the contract with a khutbeh (kfiutbah'), consist
ing of a few words of exhortation and prayer,
with quotations from theKnran and Traditions,
on tho excellence and advantages of marriage.
H» then desires the bride's wekeel to say, * I
betroth (01 marry) to thee my daughter (or
the female who has appointed me her wekeel),
such a one (naming the bride), the virgin [or
the adult], for a dowry of such an amount.'
(The words 'for a dowry,' Ac., are sometimes
omit- ) The bride's wekeei haying said
tbrra the bridegroom says, ' I accept from
thee her betrothal [or marriage] to myself,
ind take nor under my care, and myself to
afford her my protection; and ye who are
present bear witness of this.' The wekeel
addresses tho bridegroom in the same manner
a second and a third time; and each time,
the latter replies as before. Both then gene
rally add, * And bleesiug be on the Apostles -.
and praise be to God, the Lord of the being?
of the iwLole world. Amen.' After which all
present again repeat the Fat'hah. It >* not
always the same form of khutbeh that k re
cited on those occasions : any form may be
used, and it may be repeated by any person
it is not even necessary, and is often altogether
omitted.
"The contract concluded, the bridegroom
sometimes (but seldom, unless he be a person
of the iowu. orders) kisses the hands of
his friend!* ana others there presout ; and they
are presented with sharbat, and generally re
main to dinner. Each of them receives an
embroidered handkerchief, provided by the
family of the bride ; except the fekeeh, who
receives a similar handkerchief, with a smoil
gold coib tied up in it, from the bridegroom.
Before the persons assembled on this occa
sion, disperse, they settle when the ' leylet
ed-dakhleh ' is to be. This is the night when
the bride is brought to the house of the
bridegroom, and the latter, tor the first time,
visits her.
" The bridegroom should receive his bride
on the eve of Friday, or that of Monday ; but
the former is generally esteemed tho more
fortunate period. Let us say, for instance,
that the bride is to be conducted to him on
the eve of Friday.
" Daring two or three or more preceding
nights, the street or quarter in which the bride
groom lives is illuminated with chandeliers and
lanterns* or with lanterns and small Hmpe,
some suspend od from oordu drawn across from
the bridegroom's and several other houses on
each nide to the houses opposite ; and several
small silk flags, each of two colours, gene
rally red and green, are attached to these or
oth^er cords.
" An entertainment is also given on each of
these nights, particularly on the last night
bof ore that on which the wedding is concluded,
at the bridegroom's house. On these occa
sions, it is customary for the persons invited,
and for all intimate friends, to send presents
to his house, a day or two before the feast
which they purpose or expect to attend.
They generally send sugar, coffee, rice, wax
candles, or a lamb. The former articles are
usually placed upon a tray of copper or wood,
and covered with a silk or embroidered ker
chief. The guests are entertained on these
occasions by musicians and male or female
singers, by dancing girls, or by the perform
ance of a ' khatmeh ' (£AafcnoA), or a * rikr *
"The customs which I am now about to
describe are observed by thbse classes that
compose the main bulk of the population of
Cairo.
" On the preceding Wednesday (or on the
Saturday if the wedding be to conclude on
the eve of Monday), at about the hour of
noou, or a little later, the bride goes in state
to the bath. The procession to the bath is
called 'Zeffet el-Eaxnmazn> It is headed
by a party of musicians, with a hautboy er
two, and drums of different kinds. Some*
times at the head of the bride's party, are
two men, who carry the utensils and linmj
used in the bnth, upon two round trays, each
of which is covered with an embroidered or
a plain silk kerchief; also a sakka (faggd) who
gives water to any of the passengers, if asked ;
and two other persons, one of whom bears a
* kamkarn,' or bottle, of plain or gilt silver,
or of china, containing rose-water, or
orange-flower water, which he occasionally
sprinkles on the passengers; and the other,
a « mibkharah ' (or perfuming vessel) of
silver, with aloes-wood, or come other odori
ferous substance, burning in it; but it is
seldom that the procession i? thus attended.
In general, the first persons amonvj the bride's
party are severai of her roari'i'vJ female
relations and friends, walkiog ui pairs ; and
next, a number of young virgiue. The for
mer are dressed in the usual manner, covered
324
MARRIAGE
MARRIAGE
she black silk fcabarah-; the latter have
silkhabarahs, or shawls. Then follows
the bride, walking under a canopy of silk, of
some gay colour, as pink, rose-ooloTir, cr
yellow ; or of two coioisre, composing wide
stripes, often raae-colonr and yellow. It is
carried by four men, by ines.ns of a pole at
each corner, and is open only in front ; and at
the top of each of the four poles is attached
an embroidered handkerchief.
A BJSIDAL PKOOESSiON i» CAIRO. (From Law's " Egyptian* ")
"The dreaa of th« bride, during this pro
cession, entirely conceals her person. She is
generally covered trom head to. foot with a
r«d kmfhmtre shawi: or with a white or
yellow «bawl, though rar«ly. Upon "her head
is placed a small pasteboard cap* or crown
The shawl is placed over this, and conceals
from the view'of the public the richer articles
of her «res&, her face, and hw jewels, <
except one or two kussahs -' ^and sometimea
MABRlAflK
other ornaments), generally of diamonds and
emeralds, attached to that part of the shawl
which covers her forehead.
"She is accompanied by two or three of
her female relations within the canopy ; and
of ton, when m hot wenther, a woman, walk
ing backwards before her, is constantly em
ployed in fanning her, with a large fan of
black ostrich-f sat hern, the lower pan of the
front of which is aerially ornamented with a
piece of looking-glass. Sometimes oae zeffeh,
with a single canopy, series for two brides,
who walk side by side. The procession
movoH very slowly, and generally parttuaa a
circuitous route, for the sake of greater dia-
plfry. Ou leaving the house, it turns to the
right. It is closed by a second party of mu
sicians similar to the firit, or by two or three
drummers.
'• In the bridal processions of the lower
Orders, which are often conducted in the name
manner as that above described, the woman
of the party frequently utter, at intervals,
those shrill r.ries of joy called ' zaghareet ' :
and females c>i the poorer claafsos. when
merely spectators of a zeft'ab, often do the
&une. The whoia bath is sometimes hired for
th,d bride and her party exclusively.
" They pass several hours, or seldom it-ss
than two, occupied in washing, sporting, aud
feasting ; and frequently * 'aVmehs.' or
female singers, are hired "to amuse them in
the bath ; they then return in the same ordwr
in which they came
" The expense of tne ?.effeh fails on the rela
tions of the bride, but the feast that follow*
it is supplied by the bridegroom^
"Having returned iron; the bath to the
House of her family, the brid* and her com
panions sup together. If 'aimehs have con
tributed oo the festivity in the bath, they,
also, return with the bnde, to renew their
ooncort. Their songs are always on the sub
ject of love, aud of the joyous event which
occasions their presence. After the company
havo been thus entertained, a large quant
of honntv having been prepared, mixed into a
paste, the bride takes a, kunp of it iu her
hand, and receives contributions (called l nu-
koot ') from her guests ; each of them sticks
a coin (uatially of gold) in the henna which
•he holds upon her band > and when the lump
is closely stuck with these coins, she scrapes
it off her hand upon the edge of a baaiii of
water. Having collected h\ thii? manner from
all her gueete, some more Ivor nti it applied to
her hands and I'eet, which are then bound
with pieces of linen ; and in .his state they
remain until the next morning, when they are
found to be sufficiently dyed with its deep
orange red tint Her guests mako use of tee
remainder of the dye for their own hands
This night ie called <Leylet el-HennaY or,
• the Night of the Henn£.'
•'It in on this night, and sometime? also
during the latter half of the preceding day,
that the bridegroom gives his chief entertain
ment
" Mohebhftzeen "" (er lew f^rce-playera)
often perform ou this occasion before the
MARRIAGE
325
house, or, if it be large enough, in the court.
The other and more common performances by
which the guests are amused, have boon before
mentioned.
" On the following day, the bride goes in
procession to the house of tiie. bridegroom.
Tho procession before described is called ' the
zeffeh of the bath," to distinguish it from
this, vrhich is the more important, and which
is therefore particularly called ' Zaffei al-
'Arooaeii,' or « the Zsffeh of the Bride ' In
some cases, to diminish the expense-* of the
marriage ceremonies, the bride is conducted
privately to the bath, and only honoured
with a zeffeh to the bridogroom's house. This
procession is exactly similai to the former.
The bride and her party, after breakfasting
together, generally set out a little after midday.
" They proceed m the same order, and at
the same slow pace, as in the zeffeh of the
bath ; and. if the house of the bridegroom i«
near, they follow a circuitous route, through
several principal streets, for the saHe of dis
play, rhe ceremony usually occupies three
or more hours.
** Sometimes, before bridal . processions of
thiti kind, two swordsmen, clad in nothing
but their drawers, engage each other in a
mock combat ; or two peasants cudgel each
other with nebboots or long staves. In the
procession of a bride of a wealthy family, nay
person who hn« the art uf performing sonic
extraordinary feat to amuse the spectators is
almost «ure of being & welcome* assistant, and
of receiving a handsome present. Whon the
Seyvid Omar, the Nakeel el-Ashraf (or chief
Of the descendants of the Prophet), who wae
the main instrument of advancing Mohaminnd
Alee to the dignity of Daaha of Bgypt, mar
ried a daugnter about forty-tive years since,
there walkod before tha procession G. young
tnan who bad made an incision in his abdo
men, and drawn out- a large j>ortu»rr of hit;
inte6tin.es, wluch he cnrrioo before hmi on a
silver tray. After the procession ho i*ostorod
them to their prorer place, and remained it
bed many days before ht» recovered from the
effects ol this foolish and disgusting act.
Another man, ou the same occasion, ran it
swere through hia arms before the crowding
spectators, and thon bound over the wound,
without withdrawing the sword, several hand
kerchiefs, which were soaked with the blood.
These facts were described to me by an eye
witness. A spectacle of a more singular and
uiuro diftguftting nature used, to be not us*
commou on similnr occaaions, but is now
very sejaoiu witnessed. Sometimes, also,
'hawee*' (or conjurors and sleight- of hand
pert .-Miners) exhibit a variety of trick* on thes*
oeo&sions. Bui tlie most common of all the
tverformanoes here mentioned are the mooL
nghtb. Similar exhibitions are also sometimeo
witnessed on the occasion ol a circumcision
Grand zeffehs aw sometimes accompanied by
R numt^rs of cars, bai'h hearing a group of
persona of jome manufacture or trade, per
forming the usual work of their craft; even
auch as buiidon*, whitowashere.d'c., including
memner« of all, or almost aH, the arts and
326
MARRIAGE
manufactures practised in the metropolis. In
one car there ?u%e generally some men making
coffee, which they occasionally present to
spectators; in another, instrumental musi
cians, and in another,- 'al'mehs (or female
singers).
" The bride, in zeffebs of this kind, is some
times conveyed in a close European carriage,
but more frequently, she and her female rela
tions and friends are mounted on high- saddled
asses, and, with musicians and female singers,
before and behind them, close the proces
sion.
" The bride and her party, baring arrived at
the bridegroom's house, sit down to a repast.
Her friends shortly after take their departure,
leaving with her only her mother and sister,
or other near female relations, and one or two
other women; usually the bellaneh. The
ensuing night is called 'Ley let od-Dakhleh,'
or ' the Night of the Entrance.'
" The bridegroom sits below. Before sunset
he goes to the bath, and there changes his
clothes, or ho merely does the latter at home ,
and, after having supped with a party of his
frionds, waits till a little be/ore the night
prayer, or until the third or fourth hour of
the night, when, according to general custom,
he should repair to some celebrated mosqxie,
and there say lus prayers. If young, he is
generally honoured with a zetfeh on this occa
sion. In this case he goes to the mosque
preceded by musicians with drum? and a
liautboy or two, and accompanied by a numr
ber of friends, and by several men bearing
' maahals ' (masJi'als). The mashals are a kind
of cresset, that is, a staff with a cylindrical
frame of iron at the top, filled with flaming
wood, or having two, three, four, or five of thase
receptacles for fire. The party usoallj pro
ceeds to the mosque with a quick pace, and
without much order. A second group of
musicians, with the same instruments, or with
drums only, closes the procession.
" The bridegroom is generally dressed in a
kuftan with red stripes, and a red gibbeh,
with a kashmere shawi of the same colour for
his turban, and walks between two friends
similarly dressed. The prayers are commonly
performed merely as a matter of ceremony,
and it is frequently the case that the bride
groom does not pray at all. or prays without
having previously pei formed the wudco, like
memlooks, who say their prayers only because
they fear their master. The" procession re-
tnrns from the mosque with more order and
display, and very slowly ; pejhaps because it
"Would be considered unbecoming in the bride
groom to hasten home to take possession of
his bride. It IB headed, as before, by musi
cians, and two or more bearers of mashals.
These are generally followed by two men,
bearing, by means of a pole resting horizon
tally upon their shoulders, a hanging frame,
tfrVfhich are attached about sixty or more
small lamps, in four circles, one above another,
the uppermost of which circles is .made .to
revolve, being turned round occasionally by
one of the two bearers. These numerous
lamps , end several mashals besides, ihoev
MARRIAGE
before mentioned, brilliantly illuraine the
streets through which the procession passes,
and produce a remarkably picturesque effect.
The bridegroom and his friends and other
attendants follow, advancing in the form of
an oblong ring, all facing the interior of the
ting, and each bearing in hie hand one or
innrc wnx candles, and sometimes a sprig of
henna or some other flower, except the bride
groom and the friend on either side of him.
These tbree form the latter part of the ring,
which generally consists of twenty or more
persons.
" AT frequent intervals, the party stops for
a fow minutes, a.nd during each of the pauses,
a boy or a man, one of the persons who com
pose the ring, flings a few words of an cpitha-
lamium. The sounds of the drums, and the
shrill notes of the hautbov (which the bride
hears half an hour or more before the proces
sion arrives at the house), cease during these
songs. The train is closed, as- in the former
case (when on the way to the mosque) by a
second group of musicians.
•' In the manner above described, the bride
groom's zeffeh is most commonly conducted ;
but there is another mode that is more re
spectable, called ' zeffeh sadsitee,' which sig
nifies the • gentlemen's zeffeh.' In this, the
bridegroom is accompanied by his friends in
the manner described above, and attended
and preceded by man bearing mashals, but
not by musicians ; in the place of these are
about six or eight men, who, from their being
employed as singers on occasions of this kind,
arc called ' wilad el-layalee,' or ' sons of the
nights.' Thus attended, he goes to the
mosque ; and while he returns slowly thence
to his house, the singers above mentioned
chant, or rather sing, * muweshshahs ' (lyric
odes) in praise of the Prophet. Having re
turned to the house, these same persons chant
portions of the Kuran, one after another, for
the amusement of the guests ; then, all to
gether, recite the opening chapter (the
Fat'hab); after which, one of them sings a
4 kaseeiieh ' (or short poetn), in praise of the
Prophet : lastly, all of them again sing xmt-
weshshaho. After having thus performed,
they receive ' nukoot ' (or contributions of
money) from the bridegroom and his friends.
u Soon after his return from the mosque,
the bridegroom leaves his friends in a lower
apartment, enjoying their pipes and coffee
and sharbat. The bride's mother and sister,
or Avhstever other female relations vrere left
with her, are above, and the bride herself and
the bellaneh, in a separate apartment. If
the bridegroom is a youth or young man, it
is considered proper that he as well as the
brido should exhibit some degree of baahful-
ness; one of his friends, therefore, carries
him a part of the way up to the hareexn.
Sometimes, when the parties are persons of
wealth, the bride is displayed before the
bridegroom in different dresses, to the num
ber of BCV en •- but generally he finds her with
the bellaneh alone, and on entering the apart
ment he gives a present to this attendant,
and she at once retires.
MARRIAGE
** The bride baa a- shawl thrown over her
head, and the bridegroom must give her a
present of money, which is called s the price
of the uncovering* of the face, before he at
tempts to remove this, which she doeo not
allow him to do without somo apparent re
luctance, if not violent resistance, in order to
show her maiden modesty. On removing
the covering^ he says, « In the name of God,
the Compassionate, the Merciful/ and then
greets her with this compliment : * The nig^ht
be blessed,' or « is blessed,' to which
she replies, if timidity do not choke her
utterance, 'God bless thee.' The bride
groom now, in most cases, sees the face of
his bride for the first time, and generally
finds her nearly what he has been led to ex
pect. Often, but not always, a curious cere
mony is then performed.
" The bridegroom takes off every article of
the bride's clothing except her shirt, seats
her upon a mattress orbed, the head of which
ia turned towards the direction of Makkah,
placing her so that her back is also turned in
that direction, and draws forward and spreads
upon the bed, the lower part of the front of
her shirt ; having done this, he stand* at the
distance of rather less than ohree feet before
her, and performs the prayers of two rak'ahs .
laying his head and hands in prostration upor
the part of her shirt that is extended bef cit
her lap. He remains with her but a few
minutes longer. Having satisfied his curiosity
respecting her personal charms, he calls to
the women (who generally collect at the door,
where they wait in anxious suspense) to
raisu their cries of joy, or zaghareet, and the
shrill sounds make known to the persons below
and in the neighbourhood , and often, responded
to by other women, spread still further the
news that he has acknowledged himself satis
fied with bis bride. He 'soon after descends to
rejoin his friends, and remains with them an
hour, before he returns to his wife. It very
seldom happens that the husband, if disap
pointed in his bride, immediately disgraces
and divorces her ; in general, he retains her
in this case a week or more.
" Marriages, among theEgyptians, are aome-
times conducted without any pomp or cere
mony, even in the case of virgins, by mutual
consent of the bridegroom aiul the bride's
family, or the bride herself : and widows and
divorced women are never honoured with a
zeffeh on marrying again. The mere sentence,
•I give myself up to thee,' uttered by a
female, to a man who proposes to become her
husband (even without the presence of wit
nesses, if none can easily be procured), ren
ders her his legal wife, if arrived at puberty ;
and marriages with widows and divorced
women, among the Muslims of Egypt, and
other Arabs, are sometimes concluded in this
simple manner. The tlo\vry of widows and
divorced women is generally ono quarter or
third or half the amount of that of a
yirgin.
** In Cairo, among- persons not of tht? lowest
order, thovgb in very humble life, the mar
riage ceremonies are conducted in the same
MARTYR
827
manner as among the middlo orders. But
when the expenses of such zoffoba as I have
described cannot by any means be paid, the
bride is paraded in a very simple manner,
covered with a shawl (generally red), and
surrounded by a group of her female relation*
and friends, dressed in their best, or in bor
rowed clothes, and enlivened by no other
sounds of joy than their zagha,reet, which
they repeat at frequent intervals." (Lane's
Modern Egyptians.)
(For the law of marriage in HanafI law,
see Fatdwd-i-'Atamgtrt', *>. 377; Fatdvrd-i-
Qrtzi Shan, p. 380; Hamilton's IfidayaA,
vol. L p. 89 ; Durru 'l-Mukhfur, p. 1%. In
Slii'ah law, Jami'u 'sh-$hattdt ; Shara'i'u '/•
Islam, p. 260. For marriage ceremonies,
Lane's Egyptians; Horklott's Muaalmans;
Mrs. Meer Hasan AK's Musalmans ; M. 0. de
Perceval, Hist, des Arabes.)
MAE§ITAH (*•*/•). A funeral
elegy. Especially applied to those sung
during the Muharram in commemoration of
al -Hasan and al-Husain.
MAETYB. The Arabic word for
"martyr" in the Qur'an, and in Muslim theo
logy, is shdhid (jubVA)^ pi. shuhudj or shahld
(Jk^e*), pi. shuhadff, the literal meaning of
which is " present as a witness." It implies
all that ia understood by the Greek fuxprvs,
| and the English martyr ;*but it ia also a much
i more comprehensive term, fot, according to
• Muhammad an law, not on^.y those who die in
j witness of, or in defence of the faith, are
i martyrs, but all those who die such deaths as
| are calculated to excite the compassion and
j pity of their fellow men.
The word occurs ia the Qur'an, Surah iv.
71: "Whoso obey* God and th« Apostle,
those are with those with whom uk»d has
IK-HII well pleased — with prophets (/taiiyw),
and confessors (fiddlgin), and martyrs (ahu-
hado?}, and the righteous (^o/tAm): a fair
company are they."
A perfect martyr, or ash-shahidu 'Mortal, is
one who has either been slain in a religious
war, or who has been killed unjustly. But
the schools of divinitv are not agreed as to
whether it is necessary, or not, that such per
sons should bo in a etate of ccremon;*,! purity
at the time of their death>Tto entitle them to
such a high rank.
A tipecual blessing is promised to those who
die in a jihwl, or religious war, see Quran,
Surah iii. 163: "Count not thoue who are
killed in tho way of God as dead, but living
with their Lord." And, according to Muslim
law, all persons who have died in defence
of the faith, or have been slain unjustly, are
entitled to Muslim burial without the usual
ablution or am change of clothes, such as are
ruv'snitrv in the oan9 of ordinary persons,
the iank of martyrdom being such as to
roiider the corpse legally pure.
But in addition to these two classes of per
sons, namely those who are slain in religious
war, and those who have been killed unjuatly.
the rank of shahld ia given, hi a figurative
328
MARUT
sense, io any who die in such a manner as so
excite the sympathy and pity of mankind,
such as by sudden death, er from some malig^
nant disease, or in childbirth, or in the
acquirement of knowledge, or -A stranger in
a foreign country, or dving on Thursday
night. These persons are entitled to the rank
of martyr^ but not to the honour of being
buried witKout legal washing and purification.
(See Radfa 'l-Mithtar, >oL 3. p. 952 ; Kash-
»haf IftUdhdto, 7-Fwmfa, vol i p. 747;
Qhiyasu V.-Lughah^ in loco.)
MARtJT (
MABWAH
Makkah. connected Vith the rites of the pil
grimage. According to Burton, it meftns
«« hard, white flints, full of nmv [*u Jff ]
MAEYAM (^/*). ( MAES.]
MARY THE VIRGIN. Arabic
jfvryvm (f*f), Heb.
mother of Jesus. According to Muhamm*-
deu tradition, and the Qur'an. she was the
daughter of 'Imran and his wife Hannah, and
the sister of Aaron.
The account of her birth as given in the
Qur'an ia in Surah iii. 81. :-~
" Remember when the 'wife of loaran fcaid,
' O my Lord ! I vow to Thee what is hi my
womb, for. thy special <jervice= Acc'ept it
from me, for Thou Haarest, Knowest. 1 " And
when she had given birth to it, she said, - 0
my Lord ! Verily 1 have brought forth a
female/ — God knew what she had brought
forth t a male is not as a female — ' and T have
named- hex Mary, and I take refrge with Thee
for her and for her off spring, from Satan the
stoned- So with goodly acceptance did her
Lord accept her, ajid with good! v growth did
he i&ake her grow. Zacbaria* reared her.
So oft as ZachariAS want in to Mary at the
sanctuary, li* found her supplied with food.
Oh Mary !' said lie. * Whence hast them this ? *
She said, It !s from Gt?d ; for God stipplieth
whom He will, without reckoning ! ' "
IB Burah six. 28, is tbo story of her giving
birth to Jesus, [j'fisus OHRSST.] And when
she .brought the child to the people, they ex
claimed, •"' 0 sifter of Aaron I Thy father was
not a bad man, nor was thy mother a harlot."
Christian critics have H.s&urr<Qd. nnd not
wittitmt .jaach reason, that Muhftinira^ has;
Confused ii>e Mary of the New Testament
with the Miriam of the Old, by representing
her as t.b* daughter of ^Itn-rsn and the sister
of Aaron. It is certainly a cause of some
perplexity to the commentators. Al-BaizawI
says she w«s called " slater of Aaron" because
she was of the Levitical race ; but Husatn
says that the Aaron mentioned in the verse is
not the same person as the brother of Moses.
Muhammad is related to have said that
" no child in born bat the devil hath touched
it, except Mary and her son Jesus/'
MARY THE COPT. Arabic
Mdriyatu *l-Qfb&yah (*JU&\ %U) . A
concubi'ue of Muhauitnad's, and the mother
AL-MASIHU P-DAJJAL
of his son Ibrnhims who died in fnfatioy. She
was & Chriatism slav« gjrl prssenl^d i6 Mu-
haminad by the Roman governor ol Egypt,
[MUHAMM4P.]
MASAI! (?->•), The act of touch-
ing the boots or the turban for pnxriilcation, by
drawing the three central fingers orer the
boot or turbaa at oace, whereby they becorao
cereroouiaily clean. (JMishkat^ book fi. oh>
vii. ; book ill oh. x,)
AL-MASANI (,JU*R}* From
Ma$nat ** two-aiid-tvro.*' A title given tc the
Qurfau cni account of its numerous repetitions.
AL-MASIH ^**-*SU. Ao evident
corruption of the Heb.
' ""hi ch answer*
I to the X/»tcrro? of the New Testament, and
our English Christ, tc OUCUTS seven thnes m
the Qur'ftn fts the s?mxafm<» of
Bai/awfthe comraen'tator says, "It is origi
nally A Hebrew word, *igm£ymg 'the bieaBO-cl
one, although some have (erreneotsly as ae
thinks) held it to 'cothe from Musah% to
anoint either because Jesus healed people
with his touch, or because he bad been
anointed by Gabriel as a prophet,"
jWx*V). "The lying Christ." The Anti
christ whioh Muhaunnad said wonld appear
before tb e Day of Resxir reccion. H& is gsnarally
called ad-DaJjal. but ia the Traditions ha is
called al-JMdfiku'tL&qyal&ntii verymany have
been the speoulfe-tions as to why he is, called
al-Marih. The compfi«r &f the Qdmw: say.9
there havfe been atleasi tifty reafions assigned
for hift being called rjl-Moxih, Soioe say ft
is because "he will have his eyes tonohed
(rrmsah) and be rendered blind ; othera> thai
the word was originally '•fKunJskt a if monster.1*
(Sp» H-ayaju 'I- Kaiim/th, p, 401.) Sale, in
the preface to his translation of the Qor'a.n.
aays JVlualim writers st^ e i»hat tbo Jews will
give aim th« name of cd Masiit, becaose ther
will mistake him for the trae Messiah, wrio has
come to restors the kingdom of Israe'i totbero.
Regai-ding sbi» personage Abii Hurairnh
relates) that Mtihaimnad t^aid . —
<cThs Resurrection will not h« ontil the
Greoiana shall attack 'Amai) and Dabiq
Then an army will come out t'row ai-MadTnal
against t hem, the best of men oit that day
and whon the line*! of battle Bhall be drawn
up, th« Grecians will say, ' Vacate a plaoo
betweea us end those who triads* captives a.
tribe of oure ' (and their design «yiU be to
separate the Musalinans). And tha
salinans will say, By God ! -we will not c.leur
a plaoe between you ftnct our brother Musal-
mans.' And the Mnsalmaiis will fight the
Grecians and a third ot tbo MuMalmans will
be defeated : and Goo will not a,ce«pi their
repentance And a third cj the Musalmens
will be slain, and they wrli be the "beet of
martyrs before God. Aud a third of them
will conquer the countries of Greece 5 after
which they will be thrown into commotions,
and Constantinople vrill be taken. And whilst
tlw Musalmiins snail be dividing the plunder,
MA8JID
SCA8JID
329
having hungup the?rswor<Uupontheolivetree.
all on a sudden the Qevil will call oat, ' Verily,
Dftjja! has attacked your wires and children
in your absence.' Then, on hearing this, the
Musalmans will come out of the city; and this
information of devils will be false, but when
hey enter Syria, Dajjal will come out, and
whilst the Musalmino shall be preparing
their implements of war, and dressing their
ranks, all on a sudden prayers will begin, and
Jesus Son of Mary will, come down, and aci
c« Imam to them. And when Dajjal. this
enemy of God, shall seo Jetms, he will fear
lo be near, dissolving away like salt in water.
And if Jesus lets him alert;, verily he will
melt and perish, and God will kill him «y
the hand of Jesus, who] will show to the
people the blood of Dajjal upon his lance."
(Mishkat, book xxiii. ch. ii.)
In other traditions. Muhammad is related tc»
have said that ad-Dajjal will be a young man
with long hair and blind in the one eye, and
on his forehead will be the three letters
K F R, signifying kajir or infidel. He will
first appear midway between Syria and 'Iraq,
and will do many wonders and perform many
miracles, and will eventually be slam by Jesus,
MASJID (A*—). Lit. "The
place of prostration." The mosque! or place
of public prayer. Mosques are generally
built of stone or brick, in the form of a square,
in the centre of which is an open court-yard,
surrounded with cloisters for students. In
the oentre of the wall facing Makkah \s the
nibrab or niche, which marks the direction of
the Ka-bab at Makkah, and to the right of
this niche is the mimbar or pulpit, from which
the Jchutbah,or Friday oration, is recited In
the centre of the open court-yard there is
usually a large tank, in which the worshippers
perform their ablations (wazu'), and adjoining
the mosque are latrines, in which the legal
washings (ahusl) can be performed. Along
the front within the- doorway h a low barrier,
a few inches uigh, which denotes the sacred
part of the mosque.
The mosques in India and Central Asia are
generally constructed on the following plan :-»
Mihrab.
<**>
_J
Affrotar.
O O O O
§
L*
trine
The mosques in Turkey, Syria, and
are often covered buildings, not unlike Ons-
tian churches.
The first mosque' erected by Muhammad
was at Quba'.noar al-Madmah. It wa* with
out cupola niche, or minaret, these being
added by al Wnlid about eighty years after
wards, nor were there arches supported by
pillars, nor cloisters. An ordinary mosque in
an Afghan Tillage is still of this description.
The Muslim as he enters the mosque stops
at the barrier and takes off bia shoos, carries
them in his loft baud, *ole to sole, and puts
his right foot first as he passes into the
square devoted to prayer. If he have not
previously performed toe ablution, bo repairs
rNTEKIOB OF A MOSQUB IK CAIRO.
(£•**)
at once to the tank or well to perform the
necessary duty, and before he commences his
prayers be place* his shoes and bis sword
and pistol, il he be thus armed; a little before
the spot where his head will touch the ground
»& he prostrates ; his shoes must be puk one
upon the other, sole to wole.
The chief officer of a mosque is th« imam,
c i leader of prayera. but there are generally
Maulftwis, or learned men, attached to
mosques for the instruction of the students.
Sometimes the Imam and Maolawi are com
bined in one, and sometimes a learned Maul-
awi will possess the mosque., but pay an
Imam an bis curate to say the stated prayers.
There is also a Af*Wl*n, «r "caller to
42
330
MASJID
MASJID
pray ei*,'1 whose duty it is to give the Azau
The trustee or superintendent or a mosque is
called imttaioalfi..
Although mosques are esteemed sacred build
ings, they are also places of general resort, und
persons may be aseori in them lounging and
chattering together on secular topics, and
eating and sleeping, although such things
were forbidden by Munamtaad. They are, in
all parts of Islam, used as rust-houses for
strangers and travellers.
The Imam, or priest, of the mosque, is sup
ported by endowments or offerings, the
Maulavns, or professors of divinity by fees,
or offerings, and the students of a mosque
are supported either by endowments, or the
benefactions of the people. In towns and vil
lages there is a parish allotted to ench
mosque, and the people within the b >ctiou of
the parish claim the services of the Imam at
their marriages and funerals, and they pay
to him the usual offerings made on the two
festivals.
In a large mosque, known as the Masjidu
7- ./ami', where the khutbah, or Friday ora
tion is delivered, a person known as the
khafcib (also khatib), or preacher, is appointed,
whose duty it is to lead the Friday prayer and
to preach the sermon.
Muhammad did not forbid wouien to atteuu
public prayers in a mosque, but it is pro
nounced better for them to pray in private.
The following injunctions are given in the
Q.ur'an regarding mosques : —
Surah vii. 20 : '•' 0 children of Adam ! wear
your goodly apparel when ye repair to anv
mobque."
Surah ix. 18 : •• lie only should visit the
Mab'jids of God who believeth in God and
the last day. and observetk prayer, and
oayeth the legal alms, arid dreadeth none but
THE JAMA' MASJID AT lo,L,HI. (A. F.
Muhammad's injunctions regarding mosques,
es handed down in the Traditions, are as
follows : —
f« When you enter a Masjid, you must say,
*0 Creator! open on us the doors of Thy
compassion ' ; and when you leave th^ Mas
jid, say, '0 Lord! we supplicate tliy muni
ficence.' "
lf It is a sin to spit in a, IrL^jioi, and the
removal of the siu is to coyer it over."
i' Whoever buall enter a, Masjid. let him
entci it for a good object, namely, to learn
something himseli or to teach others. For he
ranks as an equal with him who fights in
the cause of God, who thus enters * Masjid ;
but he who enters a Masjid on any other
account, is liko unto a man who covets the
property of another. Verily, a time will
come when men will attend to worldly matters
in a Masjid. But sit ye not with such."
*' Do not prevent your women from coming
to The Masjids, but their homes arc better
for them."
Do not read poetry in ii Masjid, and do
not buy and sell there, nor sit in a circle
talking before prayers on a Friday."
" The prayers of a man in his 'own house
are equal to the reward of one prayer, bu'
prayers "in a Masjid near his home are equa1
to twenty-five prayers, and in a .T^mi' (or cen
tral moSque), they are equal to five hundred
prayers, and in Jerusalem to fifty thousand, and.
in my Masjid (at al-Madlnah) fifty thousand,
and at the Ka'bah, one hundred thousand."
The Muslim law regarding the erection and
endowment (wa</f) &f Masjids , as contained in
MASJ ID
VTASJli)
331
Sunni and Shl'ab works, is »» follows. Ac
cording to the Sunnis : —
When a person has erected a Masjid, hi-j
right therein dees not ce:iBe until Vie has
separated both the area occupied by the
Masjit! and also the road ana entrance there
unto from his own private property.
If a person build a Masjid, his right of
property in it does not cease sc long as he
does not separate it from his private pro
perty, and give general permission to the
people to come and worship in it. But as
soon UP he separates it from his property a ad
allows even a single person to say his prayers
in it, his right lo the property devoted to
God as it mosque ceases.
When a trustee or superintendent (ntuta-
KY///O nag been appointed for a Mn.sjid.and
delivery of the property has tieen made to
him the Masjid teases to be private pro
perty. Su, also, when delivery of it if tuaiie
to the QazI, or his deputy.
If a person appropriate ground for the pur-
prjse of erecting a Masjid, he cannot after
wards resume or j»ell it, neither cau it be
claimed by his heirs and inherited, because this
ground is altogether alienated from the right of
the individual, and appertains solely to God.
When a man has an unoccupied space of
ground fit for building upon, aud "has directed
* body of persons to assemble ou it for
prayers, the spaco beconios a Masjid. if the
permission were given expressly to pray on
it forever; or, m absolute terms, intending
that it should be for ever; and the property
does not go to his heirs at his death. But if
the permission were given for a day, or a
mouth, or a year, the space would not become
a Masjid. and on hip death it would be the
property of his heirfc'.
<r>- -v •TI -.•» -",:-« ~ '-. --^%-
A, MogQUK IN AFGHANISTAN. (/I. F. Hl^l't
L a man during his sickness has made his
own house a, Masjid, and died, and it neither
rails within a third of his property nor is
allowed by his heirs, the whole of it is heri
tage, a,nd"the act of making it a Masjid is
void, because, the heirs having n right in it,
there has been no separation from the rights
of mankind, and an undefined portion has
been made a Masjid, which is void. In the
same way as if he should make his land a
Masjid, and anothei person should establisti
an undefined right, in which case the remainder
would revert to the property of the appro-
priator; contrary to the case of a person
making a bequest that a third of his residence
shall be made a Masjid, which would be
yftlid ; for in sach a case there is a separa
tion, a* thp house maybe divided and a, third
.,f it converted into a Masjid. (A third of «
man's property being the extent to which he
can bequeath to other than hia heirs.) ^
When a man has made his land a Masjkl, and
stipulated for something out of it for himself,
it is not valid, according to all the jurists.
It is also generally agreed that if a man
make a Masjid on condition that he shall
have an option, the waqf is lawful and the
condition ia void.
When a man has built a Masjid and called
nersons to witness that he shall have the
power to cancel end sell it, the condition is
void, and the Masjid is as if he had erected
a Masjid for the people or the street, saying.
" It is for this street especially.'' when !t
would, notwithstanding. \v* for others as wo!l
as for them to worship in.
332
MASJID
When a Masjid has fallen into decay and is
no longer used for prayers, oor required
by the people, it does not revert to the ap-
propriator °or bis heirs, «md cannot be sold
according to the moat correct opinions.
When of two Masjida one is old and gone
MASJID
to decay the people cannot use its materials
to repair the roore recent one, according to
either the Imam Muhammad or Imam Abu
Yusof. Because though tha former thought
that the materials may be so appUsd, ho bold
th&t it is tbe original appropriator cr his
INTERIOR OF A MOSQUE AT CAIRO- (Dr,
heirs, te whom the property reverts, that
can so apply them, and because Abu Yiisuf
was of opinion that the property in a Masiid
never reverts to the original appropriator,
though it should fall te rain and be no longer
used by the people,
If a man appropriate his land for the
benefit of a Masjid, and to provide for its
repairs and necessaries, such as oil. <frc., and
when nothing more is required lor the Mas-
jid, to apply what remains to poor Muslims
the appropriation » lawful.
AL-MASJIDU L-AQSA
If a man has appropriated his land for the
benefit of a Maejid, without any ultimate des
tination for the poor, the appropriation is
lawful, according to a-ll opinions.
If a man gives money for the repairs of a
Masjid, also for its maintenance and for its
benefit, it is valid. For if it cannot operate
AS a waqf, it operates as a transfer by way of
gift to tbe Masjid, and the establishing of
property in this manner to a Masjid is valid,
being completed by taking possession.
If a person should say, " I have bequeathed
a third of my property to the Masjid," it
would not Be lawful, unless he say " to ex
pend on the Masjid." So if he were to say,
" I have bequeathed a third of my property to
the lamps of the Masjid," it would not be
lawful unless he say, " to give light wfth it in
the Masjid." If he say, "1 have given my
house for a Maejid,* it it valid as a transfer,
requiring delivery. (Fatdwd-i^ AlamgiTi, vol
ii. p. 546 ; Hidawh, vol ii. p. 356 ; Baillie's
Divest, pp. 504-605.)
The Shl'ah law regarding the endowment
of Maajuls, or land for the benefit of Mas
jid s, does not differ in any important parti
cular from that of the Sunnis, But there is
a provision in the Shi'ah law regarding the
sale of an endowment which is important
If dissensions arise among the persons in
whose favour the waqf ia made, and Iboro is
apprehension of the property being destroyed,
while on the other hand the sale thereof is
productive of benefit, then, in ttmt case, its
sale is lawful.
If a house belonging to «• waqf should fall
into ruins, the space would not cease* to be
ivnqf, nor would its sale be lawful. If, how
ever, dissensions should arise amonjs the
persons for whom it was appropriated, inso-
moch as to gi?e room for apprehension that
it will be destroyed, it 8 »*'* would be
lawful.
And even if there should be no such dif
ference, nor any room for sncb apprehensions,
but tbe sale would be more for the advantage
of the parties interested, some are of opinion
that tho sale would be lawful ; but the ap
proved doctrine is to forbid it. (Mofatin \
Skorffi'u 'l-Islam, p. 239.)
AL-MASJIDU 'L-AQSl (A*~*«
i*-*M> Lit "The Most Distant
Mosque." .The temple at Jerusalem erected
by Solomon, called also al-Baitu'l-Muqadda#,
or " the Holy House." Known also in MTJ-
hamroadan literature as a^-^akhrafi, " th-
Rock.'1 from which it is believed Muhammad
aacendou to herven *>n the occasion pf his
celestial jonrney. (See Qui'an, burah xvil)
Jalalu VI -din op-Suyuty has devoted a
whole volume to the consideration of the
superabundant merits existing in the Ma«-
jidu '1-Aqstt, ^which work has been translated
into English by the Rev. James Reynolds
(Oriental Translation Fund, 1836). He aays
U is called al~Aq$d, because it is the most dis
tant mosqxie to which pilgrimage ia directed.
[JERUSALEM, A&-SAKHRAH.J
MABJIDTT GRAHAM 333
MASJIDU 'L-HARAM (*+~.
"The Sacred Mosque."
temple at Makkah which contains the
Ka'bah, or Cohe-house, in which is p/acwi
the ffajaru 'f-Asu>ad, or " Bl*ck Stone."
The tenm Baitu V/oA, or « House of Gotf," is
applied to th« >vnolo enclosure, although it
more specially denotes the Ka'bah itself.
The following graphic account 01 this c*U-
brated building 19 given by th« traveller
Burckhawit, -who visited it in A.D. 1814. Cap
tain R. Burton, who visited the iemple thirty,
eight years later, tosti files to the great
accuracy of Btirokhardt's description, and
quotes hia description in extenxo. The account
by Burckhardt is givan in the present article,
whh some slight corrections.
The Ka'bah st&nda in an oblong square,
two hundred and fifty pa-ccs long, snd two
hundred bread, none of the sides of which
runs quite in a straight line, though a!, rir*t
sight the whole appeal to bo of a regular
shape. This open square ia enclosed on the
eastern side by ft colonnade ; the pillars stand
in ft quadruple row; they are threo deepxm
the other sides, and united by pointed arches,
every four of which support a small dc sue,
plastered and whitpaed on th* outside. Thane
domes, according to Qufcbu 'd-dTn, are one
hundred and fifty two In number. Along tho
whole colonnade, on the four sides, lamps ere
suspended from the archas Some are lighted
every night, and all during the nights of
Bnin&z&n. Tho pillar* are abc^j rwerity f&»H
in height and generally from one foot anil *.
half to one foot and three quarters in dia
meter ; bui little regularity has been observed
in regard to them. Sons* ar* Of while
marble, granite, or porphyry, bat the greater
number are of common stnoo of the Makkuh
mountains. Fasy states the whole at five
hundred and eighty-nine, and Hays they «r»
all of mai*ble excepting one hundred and
twenty-six, which are of common stone, «nd
three of composition. Qatbu rf-din reckon*
five hundred and fifty. five, of which, accord
ing to him, three hundred and eleven aro of
marble, and the rest of stcns taken from the
neighbouring mouataios : but neither of these
anchors lived to see the latest repairs of the
moequev after the destruction occasioned by a
torrent, in A.D. 1628. Between every three or
four column* stands an octagonal one, about
fonr ieot in thickness. On tho east side are
two shafts of reddish gray granite, in one
piece, and one fine gray porphyry column
with slabs of white feWspath. On tho north
side in one red granite rolonm, and one of fine
grained red porphyry ; these are probably
the columns whioh Qut:bu 'd-d?u states to
have been brought from Egypt, ind princi-
pally from Akhinmv (Panof^h's), when the
ohief Mahdf enlarged the mosque, in A.H. 168
Among the fonr hundred and fifty or tivo
hundred columns, whioh form tbe enclosure,
I found not anv two capitals or baseb exactly
alike. The capitals are of coarse Saracenic
workmanship; some of them, which had
served for former buildings, by the ignorance
MASJIDU 'L-HARAM
335
THE MAS.III>TJ 'L-HAKAM.
R«fERENC£8 TO THE PLAN AND VIEW.
1 Tht KSlak.
k Th* ICwwah.or sitt; coverirui with
12 Xd-Darflj or Staircase /or the
a The Black Stone.
the golden band .
Ka'bol.
h Rufeni/ 'l-Yamani.
2 PriZars suspending lamp*.
13 Qubbatu VSa'b
c RuAmi 'sli-Shdmi.
3 & 4 Outer and. Inner steps.
14 Qubbattt 'l-'^lWws.
d ToiiJi* of I»m»'tt and /«*
5 Building over the Well Zamzam.
1 1 Ptfl'^d CatlSfiX.il)>:. (iff.
motho .
6 Prayniy station, or M<iq>tnt'i 'I-
m ui Graoel^J *j)<t^*.
' eTfceMi'zdb.
Ibr&him of the Shu-fi'lf.
15 3finaret o/BJ6n 's-JS'a{<lin.
f T7i,e WaLlofHafnn.
7 Maqdmu'l-Hanafi.
16 „ „ J*iAu 'At\.
g Ruknu 'l-Irak.
S Mnqamu 'l-Malnki.
17 ,, „ Bob* 'f-H'aJd1.
h Spof called Jfc'jan.
9 Maqffmu 'l-TJanball.
18 „ ,. JJofcwM.'I/nii-aTi.
i Door.
10 ATimbar IT PuljNt.
19 ,, ,, B«&u /-i?»yi'riflh.
j Stair cos* f*1 Roo/.
11 B«b« '*S,il«* or Sfcntor.
23 ,, ,, Madrasah Am't iiey.
21 8Jl,u -,-,S,Fdra.
28Ba6u'r.pJ^r
35 7?ahw '?-.4tiJf.
22 , n-Nabt.
29 „ 'l-Jiy&d.
,^ft .. i .i(U7i or B'Ibu 'UBa«-
23 , ?-'.4^'?,.
30 „ 'I-DjWnor BdJu'sh-S/tart''
^r/f..'i.
24 , All <JT J?j)»i l/ashim.
31 „ 'l-Um-m Hani.
37 ,, /4»</»(h».
25 , z-Zatt or Bdbv 'l-M«/iroJi.
•<2 ,, 'l-Wado'.
38 „ 't-Ziyddnh or S<?li« Jl-
26 , l-Baqblah.
33 „ ArdJiiJrt or the Tailors,
.Vij-fw^oh.
27 ^ 'y-Sof*
34 „ jBtni Sfl/t<mj. or /iniv *f-
30 „ Paraibah.
'l/wrah.
338 MASJJDU 'L-HARAM
MAS/ID rj 'L-HARAM
of the workmen have been placed upside down
upon the shafts. I observed about half-a-
dozen marble bases of good Grecian workman
ship. A. few of the marble columaa bear
Arabic or Cnfic inscriptions, in which I read
ths dates A.IL 863 and A.H. 78S. A column
on the east side exhibits a "very ancient Cufic
inscription, somewhat defaced, which I could
neither read nor copy. Those shafts, formed
of the Makkan stone, cut principally from
the side of the mountain near the Shabaikah
quarter, are mostly in three pieces; but the
majr*bis shafts ar« in on© piece.
Some of the columns are strengthened with
broad iron rings or bands, as in m&ny other
Saracen buildings of the East ; they were first
employed here by Ura Dhaher Berkouk, King
of Egypt, in rebuilding the mosque, which
had baen de»streyed by fire in A,H. 802.
Tiii* tample has been so often ruined and
repaired, that no traces of remote antiquity,
are to be foar.d about it. On the inside of
the great -wall which encloses the colonnades,
a. single Arabic inscription is seen, in large
characters, but containing merely Hhe names
of Muhammad and his immediate successors,
Abu Baki*, eUmar? *Ugman, and *AIu The
Kama of Allah, m large characters, occurs
also ia several places On the outside, ever
the gates, are long mscriptionSv in the Sulusi
character, commemorating the names «f those
by whom the gates were built, long and
fismute details of which ara given by the his
torians of M&kkah.
Ths inscription on the south' side, over
Babu Ibrahim ; is most conspicuous : all that
side was rebuilt by las Egyptian Sultan al-
fibaw". A H. 906. 0?er tae Babu All and
B&bu l-'AbbSs is a Jong Inscription, also in
the Sulusi character, placed there by Sultan
Murud ibB Sttlainr?anf A.H. 084, alter ha had j
repaired the whoie building. Qujibu *d-din
has given this inscription at length ; it occu
pies several pages ra iste history, and is a.
monuineriv of the Sultan's vanity. This side
of the mosque baring escaped destruction
in A.X>. 162$, the inscription remains unin
jured*
Som^ parts of thf wails and arches are
gaudily painted, in stripe? of yellow, red, and
blue, as are also the minarets. Paintings of
flowers, iu the usual Muslim style, are no
where seen ; the floors of fche colonnades are
paved with Urge stones badly cemented to
gether.
Seven pa^ed c&usevf&ys tead from -the
colonnades towards the E&b&b, or holy
house, in the centre. They are- o! sufOcient
breadth to admit four or Sve persons to walk
abreast, and they are elevated about nine
inches above the ground. Between these
causeways, which are covered with fine gravel
or sand, grass appears growing in several
places, pf odncad by the zamzam water oozing
out of the Jars, which are placed in the
ground in long rows during the day.. The
whols area of the mosque is upon a lower
level thac any of the streets surround
ing it. There is a descent of eight or ten
sieps from the gates on lha north side into
the pUtform of the colonnade, and of three
or four steps from the gates, on the south side.
Towards the middle of this area stands the
Ka'bah ; it is one hundred and fifteen paces
from the north colonnade, and eighty-eight
from the south.
For this want of symmetry we may readily
account, the Ka'bah having existed prior to
the mosque, which was built around it, and
enlarged at different periods.
The Ka'bah is an oblong massive structure,
eighteen paces in length, fourteen in breadth,
and from thirty-five to forty feet in height. I
took the bearing of one of its longest sides,
and found it to be N.N.W £ W. It ie con
structed of the grey Makkan Rtone, in large
blocks of different sizes, joined together in a
very rough manner, and with bad cement.
It was entirely rebuilt AS it now stands in
A.D. 1627 : the torrent, in the preceding year,
had thrown down three of its sides ; and, prepa
ratory to its. re-erection, the fourth side was,
according to Assam!, pulled down, after the
'Ulama', of learned divines, had been con
sulted on the question, whether mortals
might be permitted to destroy any part of
the holy edifice without incurring the charge
of sacrilege and infidelity.
The Ka'bah stands upon a base two feat
in height, which presents a sharp inclined
plane ; its roof being flat, it bos at a distance
the appearance of a perfect cube, The only
door which affords entrance, and whicn is
opened but two or three tiroes in the year,
is on the north side, and about seven feet
above the ground In entering it, therefore,
wooden steps are used ; of them I shall speak
hereafter. In the first periods of Islam, how
ever, when it was rebuilt in A.H. 64, by Ibn
Zabair, Chief of Makkah, the nephew of
4Ayishah, it had two doors even with the
ground-floor of the mosque. The present
door (which, according to Azraqi, was brought
hither from Constantinople in A.D. 1633), is
wholly coated with -silver, and has several
gilt ornaments. Upon its threshold are
placed every night various small lighted wax
candles, and perfuming pans, filled with
musk, aloe- wood, &c.
At the north-east corner of -the Ka'bah,
near the door, is the famous "Black Stono * ;
it forms a part cf the sharp angle of the
building, at four or five feet above the ground,
It is an irregular oval, about seven inches in
diameter, with an undulated surface, com*
posed of about a doeen smaller stones of dif
ferent sizes and shapes, well jomed together
with a small quantity of cement, ahd per
fectly smoothed ; it looks as if the whole had
been broken into many pieces by a violent
blow, and then united again. It is very dif
ficult to determine accurately the quality of
this stone, which has been worn to its pre
sent surface by the millions of touches and
kisses it has received. It appeared to me
like a laya, containing several small extra
neoue particles, of a whitish and of- a yellow
ish substance. Its colour is now a d«ep red
dish brown, approaching to black ; it is sur
rounded on all sides by a border, composed
M ASJIDU 'L-HABAM
of a substance which I took to be a close
cement of pitcb and gravel, of a similar, bat
not quite the same brownish colour. This
border sorves to support, its detached pieces";
it is two of three inches in breadth, and rises
a little above the curface of the stone. Both
the border and the stone itself are encircled
by a silver band, broader below than above
and on the two fiides, with a considerable
swelling below, as if a part of the stone were
hidden tinder It. The lower part of the
border is atudded with silver nails.
In the south-east corner uf the Ka'bah, or,
as the Arabs call it, Ruknu 1-Yamani. there
is another stone, about five feet from the
ground : it is one foot and a half in letfgth,
and two inches in breadth, placed upright
and of the common Makkah atone. This the
people walking round tfee Ka'bah touch only
with the right hand ; they do not kiss it.
On the north side of the Ka-bah jast by its
door, *nd close to the wall, is a slight hollow
in the ground, lined with marble, and suf
ficiently large to admit of three persons
sitting. Here it is thought meritorious to
pray. The spot ia called Mi'jan, and sup-
Eosed to be that where Abraham and hisr son
ihmael kneaded the chalk and mud which
they used in building the Ka'bah; and near
this Mi'jan the former is said to have placed
the large stone upon which he stood while
working at the masonry. On the basis of
the Ka'bah, just over £he Mi'jan, is ao ancient
Cuf«e inscription, but this I was unable to
decipher, and bad no opportunity of copying
iV I do not find it mentioned by any of the
historians.
On the west side of the Ka'bah, abont two-
feet holow its summit, is the famous Mi'zab^
or water-spout, throiigh which the rain-water
collected on the root of the building is dis
charged so as to fall upon the ground It
is about tour feet in length, and six inches
in breadth, as well as I could judge from
below, with borders equal in height to its
brt»aath. At (be mouth hangs what is called
the beard of the Mi'zab, a gilt board, over
which the water fails. This spout was sent
hither from Constantinople in A.H. 981, and is
reported to be of pure gold. The pavement
round the Ka'bah, below the Mi'zab, was laid
down in A.H. 820, and oonsiata of various
coloured atone*, forming a very handsome
specimen of mosaic. There are two large
slabs of fine verde-antico in the centre, which,
according to Makrizi, wore sent thither as
presents from Cairo in A.U. 241. This is the
spot where, according to Mubammadan tra
dition, Ishmael, the son of Abraham, end his
mother Hagar, are buried; and here it is
meritorious for the pilgrim to recite a prayer
of two rak'ahs.
On this west side is a semi-circular wall,
the two extremities of which are in a line with
the sides of the Ka'bah, and distant from it
three or four fest, leaving an opening which
leads to the burying-place of Ishmael. The
wall bears the name of Ha&nn, and the area
which it encloses is called Kijr, or Hijru
Jsma'il,cn account of its being " separated "
MASJTDTJ L-HARAWL
337
from the Ka'bah; the wall itself, also, is
sometimes so called ; and the name Hatim is
given by the historians to the apace of ground
between the Kabbah and the wall on one side,
and the Bi'ru 'z-Zamzam and Maqamu Ibra
him on the other. The present Makkans,
however, apply th« name HatTm to the wall
only.
Tradition says that the Ka'bah once ex
tended os far as the HaJIm, and that this
side having fallen down just at the time of
the Hajj, tho expenses of repairing it were
demanded from the pilgrims, under a pre
tence that the revenues of government were
not acquired in a manner sufficiently pure to
admit of their application towards a pur
pose so sacred, whilst the money of the pil
grims wouJd possess the requisite sanctity.
The sum, howeverr, obtained from them,
proved very inadequate: all that could be
done, therefore, was to raise a wall, which
marked the space formerly occupied by th«
Ka'bah. This tradition, although current
among the Makkans, is at variance with his
tory, which declare* that the Hijr was built
by the Banu Quraish, who contracted $he
dimensions of the Ka'bah, that it was united
to the building by Hajj&j, and again sepa
rated from it by Ibn Zubair.
It is asserted by Fasy, that a part of th»
Hijr. aa it now stands, was never compre
hended within the Ka'bah. The law regards
it as a portion of the Ka'bah, inasmuch as it
is esteemed equally meritorious to pray in the
Hijr as in the Ka'bah itself ; and the pilgrims
who have not an opportunity of entering th«
latter, are permitted to affirm upon oath that
they have prayed in the Ka'bah, although
they may have only prostrated thomseivea
within the enclosure of the Hailm. The wall-
is built of solid stone, about live feet i»
height, and four in thickness, cased all over
with white marble, and-inscribed with prayers
and invocations, neatly sculptured upon the
stone in modern characters. These and the
caning aro the work of al-GJjauri, the Egyp
tian Sultan, m A*K. 917, aa we learn from
Qufcbu 'd-din.
The walk round the Ka'bah is performed
on the outside of the wall — the nearer to it
the better. The four aides of the Ka'bah are
covered with ft black silk stuff, hanging down,
and leaving the roof bare. This curtain or
veil, is called kiswah, and renewed annually
at the time of the HAJJ, being brought from
Cairo, where it is manufactured at the
Sultan's expense, On it are various prayers,
iwtsrwovon in tha same colour as the stuff,
and it is, therafore, extremely difficult to
road them. A little above the middle, and
running round the whole building, is a line cf
similar inscriptions, worked in gold thread.
That part of th«»*kiswah which covers the
door is richly embroidered with silver. Open
ings arfe left for the black stone, and the otber
in the south-east corner, which thus ramair
uncovered
The kiawah is always of the sam* form
and pattern ; that which I saw on my first
visit to the mosque was in a decayed stats.
43
338 MASJIBU 'l.-BABAM
and full of holes. On the 25th. of the month
gii 1-Qadah. the old one is taken away, and
the Ka'bah continues without a oov«r for
fifteen days. -It ia then said that "The
Ka'bah has assumed the ftrfim" which lasts
until the tenth of Zu :l-Hijjab. the clay of the
return of the pilgrims irom -Arafah to WSdi
Mina, when thenewkiswah is put on, "During
the first days, the new covering is tucked up
by cords fastened on the roof, PO as to leave
the lower part of thn building exposed :
having remained thus lr>r many days, it is let
down, and covers the whole structure, being
then tied. TO strong brass wings in the basis
of the Ka'bah. The removal of- the okl kis-
wah was performed in a very indecorous
manner : and ft contest ensued among toe
pilgrims and the people of Makkab, both
young and old, about a few rags of it. The
pilgrims even collect the dust winch sHr-k-f
to the walls of the Ka'bab, under the kinwah,
and sell it, on their return. a» * sacred
relic. [KISWAH.J
At the moment the building is uncovered
and completely bare ('urydn). a crowd of
women assemble round it, rejoicing with crie?
called wahcalah.
The black colour of the kiswan, covering
a large cube in the midst of a vast square
gives to the Ka'bah, at first sight, a very
.singular and imposing appearance: a« it is
not fastened 'down tightly, thr slightest
breeze causes it to move in slow undulations,
which are hailed with prayers by th<p congre
gation assembled round the building, as a
sign of the presence of itg guardian angels,
whose wings,. by their motion, are supposed
to be the cause of the waving of the covering.
Seventy thousand angels have the Ka'bah in
their holy care, and are ordered to transport
it to Paradise, when the trumpet of the Last
Judgment shall be sounded.
The clothing ot the Ka'bab wns *n ancient
custom of the Pagan Arabs. The first kis-
wah, says AzraqT, was put on by Asad
Tubba', one of the Himyarlte kings of Yaman,
befoi? Islirn, it had two coverings, one for
winter and the other for summer. In the
early ages of Islam, it was sometimes white
and sometimes red, and consisted of the richest
brocade. In subsequent times it was fur
nished by the different Sultans of Baghdad,
Egypt, or Yaman, according to their respec
tive influence over Makkah prevailed? for
the clothing of the Ka'bah appears to hare
always been considered as a proof of sove
reignty over the Ilijaz. Kalaun, Sultan of
Egypt, assumed to himself «»nu successors
the exclusive right, and irom them the Sul
tans «t Constantinople have inheiited it,
Kalaua appropriated the revenue of the two
hige tillages, Bisaus and Sandabair. in
Lower Egypt, to the expense of the kiawah.
4iid Sultan Sulaimaa ibn Sallm subsequently
Hrlded several others ; but th" Ka>bah hat-
long been deprived of this res<MfTP
Hound thfc Ka'bau is u good pavement of
auvrble, about eight inches below the level 01
tb* great square ; it was Jaid in A ji. V)81 , by
oruer ot blif Suit flu, ar-d • degciib** nn in-e-
L-HARAM
gular oval-, it is Surrounded by thirty-two
alender gilt piilara, or rather poles, between
every two of which aie suspended seven giaas
lamps, always lighted after sunset Beyond
the poi^s is a sei'oim paveuic.ut* about eight
paces Diuad. soroewbat elevated above the
6 rut. but ol coarser wmK.; i/iit^c another. ?ix
inches hjgn^r, and eighteen paces rn-oad.,upon
which stand several small Duiltliags ; beyond
this is the gravelled, ground, so that two
broad steps may he said to lead from the
squat*;- clown to the Ka'bah. The small
buildings just mentioned, which surround the
K'iM>a.a, are the five Maqams, with the well
of Xam7'-tm, tne arch called Bubu 's-Sala.m
(rhe (rnte 01 reace;, and the muti bar j; pulpit).
Opposite the four sides of the Ka'hah stand
four other ?vv<t\\ buiidingR. where the Imams
of t'ae tour oi-thodox Muharnmudan sects, the
HanaiL Shafi'i. Hanbah, aud . Malaki, take
their station,, ami guide ine congregation in
then praytrs. The Maqamu 'i-Mftlaki, on
the south, arid that oi Haubali, opposite the
Black Stone, are small pavilions, open on ali
sides and supporteJ by four slender pillars,
vritn n light sloping roof, terminating in a
point, exactly in the style of Indian pagodas.
The Maqamu 'l-Harjafi, which is the largest.
being fifteen paces by eteht. is open on all
side.H, and supported by twelve small pillars,
it has an upper storey, also open, where the
Mu'azaui, who calls to prayers, takes his
stand. This wag first built in A..H 923. by
Sultan Salim I.; it was. afterwards rebuilt
by Khushgildl, Governor of Jiddah, in. A.H.
947 ; but all the four Maqams, as- they now
stand, were built in A.H. 1074, Toe Maa>"itnu
'sh-^hafi'i is over the well Zatnzam, to which
it serves as an upper chamber,
Near their resp^clive Waqams. tne adhe
rents of the t'o-ar different sects seat, them-
seiyef! for prayers. During my s*a.v at Mak
kah, the Hanafis always began their praver
first : hut, according to Muslim custom, the
-ihufi'Ts should pray tirst in the mosque, then
the Hanatis, Malakit.;, and ^Tnnballs. The
evening prayer is an exception, which they
are all enjoined to un er together. T h;-
Maqamu 1-Hanbali is the place where tae
or^ivrs of goveimuent and other great people
are ?ettted during prayers : herf the PafiUa
and tb^ Sharil .ire placed, and, in their
absence the eunuchs of the temple. These
fill the apace under this Maqam in front, and
l/uiaind it the lemate pilgrims whr' visit the
t^mwle have their places assigned, TO. which
they repair principally for the tw6 evening
fusyers, lev* «f tiieuj being seen in the mosque
at tue three other daily prayers. They also
perform the tawaL or walk round the Ka-bab.
but geuerallv at night, though it is not un
common to see them walking in the daytime
among the men.
The present building which encloses Zam-
zam, ptauds cio<5» hv the Maqiomi 1-Hanbali.
and was erected in A.H. 1072 ; it is of a square
shnpc, and ot massive construct ion. with an
entrance to the north, orwniug into the room
whicli contains the well. This room is beau-
tiiullv crnaniented with inai-bles oj various
MASJIDU'L-HARAM
MASJJDU 'L-HAftAM 339
colours j and adjoining to it, but having
separate floor, is a small room with a
reservoir, which IB always full of Zamzam
water; this the pilgrims ^et to drink by
pasatn^ their hand with u cup tiirough an
iron gj-Htiftfl >petii>i£, which *mve0 as a win
dow, into the reservoir, without entering thf
room.
The month of the well id surrounded by a
wall five feet in height, and about ten feet in
diameter. Upon this the people stand who
Iraw up the water, in leathern buckets, an
iron mi ling1 being so placed a« to prevent
fh«ii falling in. lii I'asy's' time, there weie !
eight- marble basins in this room for the pnr- I
pose of ablutiop
From before dawn to near midnight, the !
well-room is constantly crowded with visitors !
Everyone is ut liberty to draw up the water for i
himself, but the labour is generally performed
by persona placed there on purpose, and paid
by thomosque; they expect also a trifle froir>
those who come to drink, though they dare not
demand it. I have been more than once in
the room a quarter oi an hour before I could
get a draught of water, so great was the ;
crowd. .'3evout pilgrims sometimes mount
the wall and draw the bucket for several hours
in the hope ot thus expiating their «vjl deeds.
Before the Wauhabi invasion, the well Z;un-
zam belonged to the Sharif, and the water
becoming thus a monopoly, was only to be
purchased at a high price: but one of Sa'ud's
rirst orders, on his arrival at Makkali. wa,«»
to abolish this trafrk.and the holy water is
now dispensed jjiatis. The Turks consulei1 It
n iiiii.-.c.lp that the water of thi? well novf-'/
diininiaiie^, notwithstanding the confcinnal
draught from it. There is certainly no dimi
nution in its depth, for, by an accurate inspec
tion of the rope f>v wiiich the buckets avf-
drawn up, I fouud that the same length wa.c
required hdth at morning and evening, to
reach Uie suna-'c •-•"•' the water. Tfpoii iA-
qniry, 1 leaiued ir'jui one of the persons who
had descended in tue nine ut tne Wahbabis to
repair the masonry, thattne water was flowing
it. the bottom, and that the well is therefore
supplier i»y a subterraneous riv"M. The
water is heavy to tue taste, and sometimes in
its coloui iHbOiuUes milk ; but it. is perfectly
sweet, ana diners very much frein that of the
brackish wells dispersed over the town.
When first drawn up. it iv slightly tepid, re-
Mtnbliugj in this respect, many othot toun-
taim of th< Flijaz
Zamzrmi supplies wie wimle town, aud there
is scarcely one family that does noi. daily
fill .t jxi *it,h tbf water. Thih only serves,
however, for clrmkiujf or for ablution as il is
thought impious to employ water so ««,erer1
lor cnhnary uurpuses or on common ycoa
sioiis. Almost every pilgrim when be repair*
to tht ruosque lor evening prayer, has a jar
of the water placed before him by those who
earn their livelihood by performing this
serrice.
The water i* distributed in the masque to
all who are thirsty for a trifling feo, by water-
carriers, with large jarS npou their backs ;
these men are also paid by charitable pilgrims
for supplying the poorer one?* with this holy
beverage immediately before or after prayers
The water is regarded as an uifalliMe cure
for all diseases : and the devotees believe that
the more they drink of it, the betUi their
health will bo, and their prayers the more
acceptable to the Deity. I have seen some of
them at the well swallowing such a quantity
of it, as I should hardly have thought yos
sible. A man who lived in the same hcuse
with me, and was ill of an "intermittent fever,
repaired every evening to Zamzaun, and drank
of the water till he was almost fainting; after
which he lay for several hours extended upon
his back, on the pavement near the Ka'bab,
and then returned to renew his draught. When
by this practice he was brought te the verge
of death, he declared himself fully convmced
that the increase of bin illness proceeded
wholly from hia being unable to swallow a
sufficient quantity of the water. Many pil-
srirnj?, nofc content with drinking it merely,
atrip themselves iu the room, and ha.ve
buckets of it thrown over them, by which
*hey believe that he heart is purified as well
is the outer I'f-dy
Pew pilgrims quit Makkah witheut carry-
m? away some of this water in copper or tin
bottles, either for the purpose of making pre
sents, or for their ov-n use in case of illness,
when thoy drink it. or for ablution after
death. I curried away four small bottles,
with the intention of offering them as pre
sorts to the Muhammadan kings in the black
couutiies. I have seen it sold *t Suez by
pilgrims* returning from Makkah, at the rate
of one piastre for the quantity that filled a
coffee-cup.
The cfiief of Zamzaiii is one of the prin
cipal *LT1 am a' of Makkah. I need not re
mind the reader that Zatiuain is supposed to
be the spring found in Ihe wilderness by
Hagar, at the moment when her infant ;«on
Lslunael was dying of thirst. It seeing pro
bable that the town of Makkah owe^ its
origin to this well. For many mile* round, no
tweet «rater is found, nor is there found in any
pa/t of th« adjacent country <*o copious a
supply.
On the north-east side of Zamzam stand two
small bnildiiiR?, one behind the other, called
ftlrQubtalMAj they are covered by domes
painted in the same manner as the mosque, aud
in them are kept water-jars, lamps, carpets
mats, brooms, and other Articles used in the
fery mosque. These two ugly buildings are
injurious to the interior appearance of the
building, their heavy forms and • structure
bein^ vet) dirfudvRntageously contrasted with
the light and airy shape of the Maqauis. I
'icard some pilgrims from Greece, men of
better taste than the Arabs, express their
regret that the Qubbatain should be allowed
to disfigure the mosque. Their contents might
be deposited in some of the buildings adjoin
ing the mosque, of which they form no essen
till part, no religious importance being
attached! to them. They were built by
Kjiushgildi, Governor of Jiddah. A.H 947
340 MASJIDU 'L-HATUM
AfASJJDU L-HABAM
one is called Qubbatu V Abbas, from having
been pUcod on the site of a small tank, said
to have been formed by al-'Abbas, the uncle
of Muhammad.
A few paces west of Zarazam, and directly
opposite to the door of the Ka'bah, stands a
ladder or staircase, which is moved tip to the
wall of the Ka'bah., on the days when that-
building is opened, and by which the visitors
ascend to the door; it is of wood, with some
carved ornaments, moves ort low wheels, and
is sufficiently broad to admit of four persons
ascending e breast. The first ladder was sent
hither from Cairo in A,M, 818, by Mu'yad Abu
'n-Nasir, King of Egypt ; for in the Hijaz, it
seems, there has always been 90 great: a want
of artizana, that whenever the mosque re
quired any work it wag necessary to have
mechanics brought from Cairo, and even
sometime 9 from Constantinople.
In the same line with the ladder, and close
by it stands a lightly-built, insulated, and
circular arch, about fifteen feet wide and
eighteen feet high, called Babu VSalarn,
which must not be confounded with the great
gate of the mosque bearing the same name.
Those who enter the Baitu 'Hah for the first
time, are enjoined to do so by the outer and
inner Babu 's-Salam ; in passing under the
latter, they are to exclaim, " O God, may it
be a happy entrance!" I do not know by
whom this arch was built, but it appears to
be modern.
Nearly in front of tne Babu 's-Salam and
nearer to the Ka'bah thau any of the othar
surrounding buildings, stands the Maqamu
Ibrahim. This is a small building, supported
by six pillars about eight feet high, four of
which are surrounded from top to bottom by
a fine iron railing, which thus leaves the
space beyond the two hind pillars open ;
within the railing is a frame about five feet
square, terminating in a pyramidal top, and
said to contain the sacred stone upon which
Abraham stood when he built the Ka'bah,
and Which, with the help of his son Ishmael,
he had removed from hence to the place
called Mi'jan, already mentioned. The stone
is said to na 70 yielded under the weight of
the Patriarch-, and to preserve the impres
sion of his foot still visible upon it; but no
pilgrim has ever seen it, as the frame is
always entirely covered with a brocade of red
silk riobly embroidered. Persons are con
stantly seen before the railing, invoking the
good offices of Abraham, and a short prayer
must be uttered by the aide of the Maqaxn,
after the walk round the Ka'bah is com
pleted. It is said that many of the Compa
nions, or first adherents of Muhammad, were
interred in the open space between this,,
Maqam and ' Zamzam, from which circum
stance it is one of the most favourite places
of prayer in the mosque. In this part of the
area, the Khalifah Sulaiman ibn «Abdi '1-
MaliV, brother of al-Walid, built a fine reser
voir, in A.H. 97, which was filled from a spring
east of *Arafat; but the Makkans destroyed
it after his death, on the pretence that the
vratei* of Zamzam was preferable
On the side of Maqamu Ibrahim, facing the
middle part of the front «f the Ka'bah, stands
the Mimbar, or pulpit, of the moaque ; it is
elegantly formed of fine white" marble, with
many sculptured ornaments, and was sent as
a present to the mosque in A.H. $69, by Sul
tan Sulaiman ibn Salim. A straight narrow
staircase leads up to the post of the khatib,
or preacher, which is surmounted by a gilt
polygonal pointed steeple, resembling an obe
lisk. Here a sermon is preached on Fridays,
snd on certain festivals ; these, like the Fri
day sermons of all raosques in the Muham-
madan countries, are usually of the same
tenour, with some slight alterations upon
extraordinary occasions. Before the Wah-
habis invaded Makkah, prayers wers added
for the Sultim and the Sharif; but these
were forbidden by SfVud. Since the Turkish
conquest, however, the ancient custom has
.been restored. The right of preaching in the
MiniBar is vested in several of the first
{iriam&' inMakkah they are always elderly
persons, and officiate in rotation. In ancient
times Muhammad himself, his successors, and
the Kijalf fans, whenever they came to Makkah,'
mounted the pnlpit, and preached to the
people.
The khajtlbj cr preacher, appears in the
Mimb&r wrapped in a white cloak, which
covers his head and body, and with a stick
in hand ; a practice observed also in Egypt
and Syria, in memory of tli« first age of Islam,
when the preachers found it necessary to be
armed, from fear of being surprised. As in
other mosques, two green flags are placed on
each side of him.
About the Mimbar, tbe visitors of the
Ka'bah deposit their shoes ; as it is neither
permitted to walk round the Ka'bab with
covered feet, nor thought decent to carry the
shoos in the hand, as is done in other mosques.
Several persons keep watch over the shoes,
for which they expect a small present ; but
the vicinity of the holy temple doss cot inti
midate the dishonest, for I lost successively
from this spot three nsw pair£ of shoes; and
the same thing happens to many pilgrim*.
I have now described all the buildings
within the enclosure of the temple.
The gravel-ground, and patfc of fche adjoin-
ing outer pavement of the Ka'bah is covered,
at the time of evening prayers, with carpets
of from eixty to eighty feet in length, and tour
feet in breadth, of Egyptian manufacture,
•which are rolled up after prayers The
greater part of the pilgrims bring their own
carpets with them. The more distant parts
of the area, and the fioor under the colon
nade, are spread with mats brought from
Sowakin ; the latter situation being the usual
place for the performance of the mid-day
and afternoon prayers. Many of these mats
are presented to the mosque by the pilgrims,
for which they hava in return the satisfaction
of seeing their names inscribed on them in
large characters.
At sunset, srreat numbers assemble for the
first evening prayer; tboy form thematives
info several wide circles, sometimes as many
&JASJIDU 'L-HARAM
MASJIDU L-HARAM
341
astwenty, around the Ka'bah, as a common
centre before which every person makes his
prostration ; and tlius, ns the Muhaiumadan
doctors observe, Makkah is the only spot
throughout the world in which the true be
liever can. with propriety, turn during his
prayers towards any point of the compass.
The Imam takes his post near the gate of the
Ka'bah, and hi a genuflexions are imitated by
the whole assembled multitude. The effect
of the joint prostrations of six or eight thou
sand persons, added to the recollection of the
distance and various quarters from whence
they come, or for what -purpose, cannot fail
to impress the most cool-minded spectator
with some degree of awe. At night, when
tbo lamps are lighted, and numbers of devo
tees are performing the Tawaf round the
Ka*bah, the sight of the busy crowds,
the voices oi the Mutawwifs, intent upon
making themselves heard by those to whom
they recite their prayers, the loud conversa
tion of many idle persons, the running, play
ing, and laughing of boys, giv» tc the whole
a very diiferont appearance, and one more
resembling that of a place of public amuse
ment. The crowd, however, leaves the mosque
about nine o'clock, when it again becomes
the place of silent meditation and prayer to
the few visitors -A ho are led to the spot by
sincere piety, and not worldly motives or
fashion.
There is an opinion prevalent at'Makkah,
founded on holy tradition, that the mosque
will contain any number of the faithful; and
that if even the whole Muhammadan com
munity were to enter at once, they would all
find room in it to pray. The guardian angels,
it is said, would invisibly extend vhe dimen
sions of the building, and diminish the size
of each individual. The fact is, that during
tr* most numerous pilgrimages, the mosque,
which can contain, I believe, about tbirty-fiv«
thousand persons in the act of pray«r; is
never half -Si led. Even on Fridays, the
greater p&i»t of the Makkc-ns, contrary to the
injunctions oi the law, p»"'',v at home, if at
all, and many pilgrims follow tueir exkmpte.
I could never count more than ten thousand
individuals in the mosque at on« time, even
after the return from 'Arafat, when the whoio
bodv ot pilgrims was collected for a f«w days
in and about the city.
At every hour of the day persons may be
wen under the colonnade, occupied in read
ing the Qar'an and othar religious bocks ;
and hero many poor Indians, or negroas,
spread their mats, and pass the hole period
of their residence at. Makkah. Here they
both eat and sleep ; bat cooking is not allowed.
Daring the hours of noon, many persons come
to repoae berieath the coof shade of the
vaulted roof of the colonnade: a custom
•which not only accounts for the mode of con
struction observed m the old Muhammadiin
temples of Egypt and Arabia, but for that
also of the ancient Egyptian temples the
immense porticoes of which were probably
left pen to the idolatrous natives, whose
mud-built houses could afford them but
an imperfect refuge against the mid-day
hoatri.
It i» only during the hours of prayer that
the great mosques of theso countries partake
of the sanctity of prayer, or tn any degree
Seem to be regarded as consecrated placet.
In aJ-Azhar, the first mosque at Cairo, I have
aeen boys crying pancakes for sale, barbers
shaving their customers, and many of the
lower orders eating their dinners, where,
during prayers, not the slightest motion, nor
even whisper, divortu the attention of the
congregation. Not «, sound but the voice of
the Iiaam, is heard during prayers in the
great mosque at Makkah. which at other
timo<? is thd place of meeting for men of busi
ness to converse on their affairs, and ia some
times so fnJl of poor pilgrims, or of diseased
persons lying about under the colonnade, in
midst of their miserable baggage, as to have
the appearance of a hospital rather than a
temple Boys play in the great square, and
servants carry luggage across it, to pass
by the nearest route from one part of the
town to the other. In these respects, the
temple of Makkah resembles the other great
mosquea of the East But the holy Ka'bah
is rendered the scene of such indecencies ana
criminal acts, aa cannot with propriety he
more particularly noticed* They are. not
only practised here with impunity/ but, it may
be said, almost publicly; and my indignation
has often been excited, on witnessing abomi
nations which called forth from other passing
spectators nothing moro than a laugh or a
slight reprimand.
In several parts of the colonnade, public
schools are held, whera youug children are
taught to spell and read ; they ore most noisy
groups, and tho schoolm^btor's slick IB in
constant action. Some learned men of Mak-
kfth deliver lectures on religious subjects
every afternoon under the colonnade, bu£thc
auditors art* seldom numerous. On Friua.ya,
after prayer, some Turkish 'TJlama' explain
to their countrymen assembled around thf m
a few chapters of the Q.ur'an, after -which
each of the audience kisses the band of the
expositor, aud drops money into his cap.
particularly admired the iiuency of apeoch of
one of these 'TJlaraa', although I did not un
derstand him, the lecture being delivered in
the Turkish tanguago. His gesticulation*,
and the inflexions of his voice, wore moev
expressive ; but, like an actor on. tb& htagc,
be? \vould laugb and cry ic the same minute,
and adapt his featnres to his purpose in the
most skilful manner. He was a native of
Bnwfo, and amassed a considerable sum. of
money.
Near the gate of the mosque called Babu
VSalam, a few Arab shaikhs daily take their
seat, *ith tl«.ir inkstand and paper, ready to
write, for any applicant, letters, account*,
contracts, or any similar document.
They also deal in written charms, like those
current in the Black countries, such as amu
lets, iove-receipts, Ac. They are principally
employed by Bedouias, and demand an exor
bitant remuneration.
342
MA.SJIDU L-HABAM
MA8JIDU L-HARAM
Winding sheets (Jfafan) and other linen
washed in the waters of Zanuarn, are con
stantly seen hanging to dry between the
columns. Many pilgrims purchase at, Mak-
kah the shvoucl in which they wish be be
buried, awd wash it themselves at the vvell of
Zamzarn, supposing that, if the corpse be
wrapped in linen which has been wett-xl with
this holy water, the peace, of the soul after
death will he more effectually secured. Some
pilgrims make this linen an article of tiaffic.
Makkah gena rally, but the mosque in par
ticular, abounds in flocks of wild pigeons,
which are coiisidejed to he the inviolable
piopert-y of the temple, and are called the
prgeons of the Baitu 'Hah, Nobody dares to
kill any of them, even when they enter the
private houses. In the square of the mosque.
Several small stone basins are regularly filled
with water tor their use; here, also, Arab
womeu expose For sale, upon small straw
mats, corn and duiruh, which the pilgrims
purchase, and throw to the pigeon*. 1 have
seen some of the public women take this
mode of e^hibiring themselves and of bar
gaining with the pilgrims, under pretence of
selling them corn for the sacred pigeons.
The gates of the mosque are nineteen .in
number, and are distributed about it. with
out any order 01 symmetry. The principal
of these gates are ; or the north side. Babu
's Snlain. by which every pilgrim enters the
mosque : Babu -'i-' Abbas ; Babu 'n-NaKi, by
which Muhammad is said to hiive always
entered the mosque; Balm ''AH, On the
ea^t side: Babu Zai. or Babu 'l-'Ashrah.
through wh>ch the ten flrst adherents of Mu
hammad used to enter: Babti V&afa: two
gates called Bibanu 'sh-Sharif. opposite the
palaces of the Sharif. On the south side:
Babu Ibrahim, where the colonnade projects
beyond the straight line of the columns, and
forms, a small square Babu l-'Uinrah,
through which it is necessary 10 pass, on
•visiting the ' Urnrah. On the west side •
B»bn z-Zr/adah, forming a projecting square
similar to that a I Babu Ibrahim, but larger.
Most of these ^ates have bigh-nointed
arched, H'U a few round arches are seen
among tbem, wnu-h. like all the arches or'
t|ii* kiud in the Hijaz. are nearly semicircular.
They die without any ornament, except the
inscivptiou on the exterior, which commemo
rates the name of the builder; and they are
all vosterior in date to the fourteenth cen
tury As each gate consists of two or three
arches, or divisions, .separated by narrow
wall?, these divisions are counted in the
enumeration of the gates leading into the
ka'bah.and thus make up the number thirty-
nine.
There being no doors, to the gates, the
mosque is Consequently open at ail times. I
have crossed at every hour of the night, pnd
always found people there, either at prayers
or walking' about
The outside walls of the mosque are those
oi the houses which surround it on all sides,
These houses belonged originally to the
mosque , the greater part are now the pro
perty of individuals, who have purchased
them. They are let out to the richest pil
grirna, at very high prices, as much as five
hundred piastres being given, during the -pil
grimage, for a good apartment, with windows
opening into the mosque. Windows have, in
consequence, been opeuen in , many parts o/
the wails, on a level with the street, and above
that of the floor of the colonnades. Pilgriiau
living in these apartments are allowed^ to
perform the Friday's prayers at home., be
cause, liaving the Kft'bab in view from the
windows, they are supposed to bo in the
mosque itself, and to join in prayer those
assembled within the temple. Upon a level
with the ground 'floor of the colonnades, and
opening into them, are small apartments
formed im the walls, having the appearance of
dungeons , these have remained the property
of the mosque, while the houses above them
belong to private individuals. They are let
out to watermen, who deposit in them the
Zamzam jars, or to less opulent pilgrims who
wish to live in the mosque.. Some of the
surrounding houses still belong to the moaque,
and were originally intended for public schools,
as their name of Madrasah implies •. they are
now all let out to pilgrims, in une. of the
largest .of them, Muhammad 'All Pasha
lived ; in another Hasan Pasha.
Close to Babu Ibrahim is a lanre madra
sah, now the property of Saiyid Ageyl, one of
the principal merchants of ttie town, whose
warehouse opens into the mosque. This
person, who is aged, has the reputation of
great sanctity ; and it ifl said that the hand
of the Sharif Ghalib, when once hi the act ol
collaring him for refusing to advance soiue
money, wa* momentarily struck with palsy
He has evening assemblies in his house, where
theological books are read, and religious
topics discussed.
Among other buildings forming the enclo
sure of the mosque, is the Hihkauf, or house
of justice, close by the Babu 's-JSiyadah ; it
is a fme; n'rmly-built structure, with lofty
arches in the interior, and has a row of bigfh
windows looking into the mosque. It is in
habited by the Qazi. Adjoining to it stands
a large Madrasah, enclosing a sqnare, known
by the name of Madrasah Sulairaan, built by
Sultan Sulaimaii and his son Salira II., iu
A.H. 973. It is always well filled with Turkish
pilgrims, the friends of the Qazi. who dis
poses of the- lodgings.
The exterior of the mosque is adorned with
seven minarets, irregularly distributed: 1.
Minaret of Babu 'l-'Umrah ; 2. of Biibu 's-
Saiam ; 8. of Babu 'Ali ; 4. of Babu fl-Wadaf • 5
(if Maclra$ah Kail Beg ; 6. of Babu V-Ziyadah ;
7. of Manvasah Sultan Sulaiman. They are
qu.'idrnnguiar or round steeples, in no way
differing from other minarets. The entrance
to them is from the different buildings round
the mosque, which they adjoin. A beautiful
view of the busy crowd below is obtained t>y
asconding the most northern one.- ("Taken,
with slight alterations, chiefly in the Spelling
of Arabic 'words and names, frou.; E'irck-
hardt's Tsavek in Arabia vol. i. p
MASJIDU 'L HARAW
MAflJIDU N-NABI
34B
Mr Sale says: "The temple of
was a place of worship, and iu singular vene
ration witli the Arabs troin great antiquity.
and inany centime.* beion* MuhftQU&Ad
Though it was mast j»n>l>*lilv vte.i:< nK'd ;tt
first tu an idolatrous use, yrt the Mnharnma
dans are generally persuaded that the Kwbflh
is almost coeval with the world : for they say
that Adam, alter Ins expulsion from Paiadi'V,
begged of God that he might erect a Imild
ing like that he had seen there, called Baitu '•-
Ma*mur,or the frequented liouae,and al Durah.
towards which ho might direct his prayera
and which he might compass, as HIP an»el,s
do the celestial oue. Whereupon God let
down a representation of t tint house in curtains
of light, ami set if in Mecca, perpendicu
larly under its original, ordering the patriarch
to t'irn towards it when he prayed, and t-j
••umpass it by way of devotion. After
Adam's death, his son l-jflth built a house in
Die same foi-m,of stone and clay, which being
destroyed by the Deluge, w*s rebuilt by Abra-
dam and Ishmael »t Ood s oommarid, in the
pl«ce wherw the former had stood, and alter
the same model, they being directed therein.
\iy revelation.
" After this edifice had undergone several
reparations, it was, a few years after the
birth of Muhammad, rebuilt by the Quraish
on the old foundation. ?iud afterwards re
paired by Abdulmh Ibn Zwbftir, the Khalif
of Mecca ; and at length again rebuilt by
Yusuf, surnamed a! Hija; Ibn Yusuf, in the
seventy-fourth year of the Hijrab, with Pome
alterations, in the form wherein it now re-
maJns. Some years after, however, the
Khalif Harun al Rashid (or, a3 others write,
his father a I Mahdi, or his grandfather al
Maupur'i intended again to Change what had
been altered by al Hijftj, and to reduce the
Ka'bab to the old form HI which it was left
by Abdullah, but was dissunded from med
dling with it. !esi so holy a place should
become the sport of princes, and oemg new
modelled alter everyone's fancy, snould lose
tliflt revnrericp which wa«- justly paid it. But
notwithstanding the antiquity a net holiness of
this huikiinir, they have a prophecy by uadi-
tfon from Muhammad, that in the last times
the Ethiopians snail COMU- anil utterly demo
lish it, artcr winch »t will nol be rebuilt again
for ever. (t^rfl. /;».«., y ^;
The following «re the references bo the
tiiicred Mosque in tne Qur'an ; —
Surah li. 144. 145 : '< From whatever place
i-ftuu juiuest forth, then turn your face to-
vtarda uie S«cr^d Mosque : for this is a duty
enjoined by thy Lord; :md God is not inat
teutive to youi doings. And lioiii whatever
placa thou comesf forth, then turn thy face
toward the r>acie.i Iv.osqiu-: and wherever ye
be, to thnt part tuiu your faces, that men
have n<- oaii.M1 of dis]»ute against you "
Sri^jh v. 2: " 0 Believers ! violate neither
th^ ritpt of God, nor the sacred month, noi*
the offering, nor its ornaments, nor those who
press on to the Sacred Mosque, seeking favour
from their Lord and H»s good pleasure in them."
Surah viii. 33-35 But God chose not to
chastise them while thou wast with them noi
woulu God chastise them when they gued for
pardon. Uut because they debarred thef&ithfu'
from tlio Sacred Mosque, albeit they are not
its gnardmis, nothing 13 there on ttif;ir part
why Ood Mh'tuld not chastise them. The
God-tearing only aro its iruarrlian.. , out most
of them know it not \nd their prayer al
the hou.^ i<5 no other than whistling through
tho lingers ^mi citijijuug of the hands —
4 Taste then the. toraient, for tbat ye have
been unbeliever*
Surah ix. 7: "How shall they who add
gods to r?od he in lengue with Ood and with
Ri< Apostle, save those with whom ye made
a league at the Sacred Mosque ': fc>o long as
tiiey «i'e true to you, be ye true to thorn : for
God loveth those who lenr Liui,
Sfirnti jjc. '£$ •. •' 0 Believers ! only they who
join gods with Uod are unclean ! Let theui
not. therefore, after this their year, come near
the Sacred Mo«qnp. And if ye feat want,
God, it He please, will enrich you of His
abundance • i'or God is Knowing Wise."
Surah xvii. 1 : " Glory he to Him who ear
ned his iervant by night from the Sacred
Mosque to the temple that is more remote
(i.e. Jerusalem;, whose precinct we hare
bloSBed, that we might show him of our signs •
for He is the Hen.ier. the Seer.''
Surah xxii. 26: "• From the Sacred Mosque
which we have appointed to all men, alike
for those who abide therein, and for the
•strung*"- "
Snrah xlviii. 25 : «« These are they who be
lieved riot, arid kept you away from the
Sacred Mosque, as well as the offering which
•was prevented from reaching the place of
Surah xlviii. 27 : " Now hath God in truth
made good to His Apostle the dream in which
he xaid, ' Ye shall surely enter tbo Sacred
Mosque, if God will, in full .security, having
your heads shaved and your hair cut : ye
shall not fear ; for He knoweth what ye know
not,- and He hath ordained you. beside this,
a speedy victory."
AL-MASJiDU '
^»W\). Lit. u The collecting mosque.*'
A title given to the chief mosque of any city
in which people assemble for the Friday
prayer and khatbah. [KHUTBAH.]
MASJIDU 'L-KHAIF (A-* __ -
.wjx*5aJ\^. A mosque at Mina, three
miles from Makkah. Here, according to the
Arabs. A.dam is buried, "bis head being at
one end of a long wall, and his feet at another,
whilst the dome cuvers his erophalic region."
(Burton's Pilgrimage, vol. ii. p. 20S.)
MASJIDU 'N-NAB'I \^\ J^— ).
'• The Prophet's Mosque" at al-Madlnah. It
)S held to be the second mosque in Islam in
point of seniority, and the same, or, accord
ing to others the first, in dignity, ranking
with the Sacred Mosque at Makkah.
The following ia Captain R. F. BurtoiA
its historv .- —
344
M^SJIDU N-KAB]
" Muhammad ordered to erect a place of
worship there, sent for the youths to whom
it belonged and certain Ansar, or auxiliaries,
their guardians ; the ground was offered to
him in free gift, but he insisted upon pur
chasing it, paying more than its value.
Having caused the soil to be levelled and the
trees to be felled, he laid the foundation of
the first mosque.
11 In those times of primitive simplicity its
walls were made of rough stone and unbaked
bricks, and trunks of date-trees supported a
palm-stick roof, concerning which the Arch
angel Gabriel delivered an order that it should
not be higher than seven cubits, the eleva
tion of Solomon's temple. All ornament was
strictly forbicSdeo. The Annar, or men of
Medmah, and the Muhaiirin, or fugitives from
Mecca, carried the building materials in their
arms from tho cemetery Baki*, near the well
N-NAB1
of Aiyub, north of the spot where Ibrahim1*
mosque now stands, and the Prophet was to
be seen aiding them in their labours, and re-
ci ng for their encouragement :
* 0 Allah I there is no good but the good of
futurity ;
Then have mercy upon my Ansar and
Muhttjirm,"
"The length of this naosque was fifty-foar
cubits from north to south, and eixty-thred
in breadth, and it was hemmed in by houses
on all sides save the western. Till the seven
teenth month of the new ora, the congrega
tion faced towards the northern wall. After
that time a fresh 'revelation' turned them
in the direction of Makkah — southwards ; on
which occasion the Archangel Gabriel de
scended and miraculously opened through
the hills and wilds a view of the Ka'bah., that
M ASJIDU .Vr-RABZ. AT AL-
(Captain R. Burton.}
there might be no dUTiculty in ascertaining
its true position.
'« After the capture of Kbjaibar in A.H. 7,
the Prophet and his first three successors
restored the mosque, but Muslim historians
do not consider this a second foundation.
Muhammad laid the first brick, and Abu-
Hurayrah declares that he saw him carry
heaps of building material piled rip to his
breast. The Khalifabs, eaeb in the turn of
his succession, placed a brick close to that
laid by the Prophet, and aided him in raising
the walls. Tabrani relates that one of the
Ansar had a house adjacent, which Muham
mad wished to make part of the place of
prayer; the proprietor was offered in ex
change for it a borne in Paradise, which he
gently rejected, pleading poverty. His ex
cuse was admitted, and 'Ugmin, after pur
chasing the place for 10,000 dirhams, gave it
to the Prophet on the long credit originally
offered, The mosque was * square of 100
cubits. Like the former building, it had three
doors : one on the south side, where the
Mihrabu 'n-N&batui, or th^ « Prophet's niche,"
,' is, another in the p]aoA of the present
V Rahmak, end the third at the Botnt
n, now called the " Gate of Gabriel."
Instead of a mihrah or prayer niche, a iarge
block ot atontt, <?ir«e*«d the congregation. At
nrct it was pi* cad against tho northern Wail
of the moaque. and it was removed to the
southern when Makkab became the Qiblr.il.
In the beginning the Prophet, whilst pr«acn-
ing the khutUah or Friday sermon, leaned,
when fatigued, against a post. The mimbar,
or pulpit, WAS the invention of a Madinah
man of the Banii Najjir. It was a wooden
frame, two cubit? long by one broad, with
three steps, each one span high ; on the top-
MASJTD7T N-NABI
MASJIDU N-NABI
345
mo«t of these the Prophet sat when ho re
quired rest. The pulpit assumed its present
form about A.H. 90, during the artistic reign
of Walld.
" 'n this mosque Muhammad soent Hie
greater part of the clay with IIJ'H companions,
conversing, instructing, and comforting the
poor. Hard by were the abodes of hi* -wives,
his family, and his principal friends, llore
he prayed, hearkening to the Azan, or devo
tion call, from the roof. Here be received
worldly envoys and embassies, and the ne.i-
venly messages conyeyed by the Archangel
Gabriel. And within a few yards of the hal
lowed spot, he died, and found, it is supposed.
a grave.
" The theatre of events so important to
Islam, could not be allowed— especially ns no
divine decree forbade the change — to remain
in its pristine lowliness.. The first fClmllfah
contented himself -with merely restoring some
ofthe palm pillars, which had fallen to biie
ground. ;Umar, the second successor, sur
rounded the Hujrah, or 'Ayisbah's chamber
in which the Prophet was buried, with a, mud
wall, and in A.H. 17. he enlarged the mosque
to 140 cnbits by 120, taking in ground on all
sides except the eastern, where stood the
abodes of the ' Mothers of the Moslems '
(Ummu'i-Miiiiiinln). Outside tne northern
wall he erected a suffah, called Batha — a
raised bench of wood, earth, or stone, upon
which the people might recreate themselves
with conversation and quoting poetry, for the
mosque was now becoming a place of peculiar
reverence to men.
* The second Masjid was erected A.H. 29
by the third Khallfah, cUsman, who, regard
less of the clamours of the people, overthrew
the old one, and extended the building greatly
towards the north, and a little towards the
west; but he did not remove the utUteru limit
on account of the private houses. He mad-
the roof of Indian teak, and erected walls oi
hewn and carved stone. These innovations
caused some excitement, which uc allayed by
quoting a tradition of the Prophet, with onf-
of which he appears perpetually to have been
prepared. The saying in question was, ac
cording to some, ' Were this my mosque ex
tended to Safa, h verily would still be my
mosque : according to others, Were the
Prophet's mosque extended to Zii l-Hnlafa! it,
would still be his,' But 'Usman's skill in the
quotation of tradition did not prevent fchr
new building being in pail a cause of his
death. It was finished on the IstMuharram.
A.H 30.
•' At icugth, Islam, grown splendid aud
powerful, determined to surpass other nations
in the magnificence of its public build ings
In A.H. 38, al-Walid the First. twelfth Khalifa!
of the Bam Umayau mce. after buiiuintr th--
uoble Jauii'-Maajid of the Ommiade-g at Da
magcus, determined to display his liberality
at ai-Madinah. The governor of the place.
' Unaar ibn ' Abdu 1- Aziz, was directed to buy foi
7,000 dinars all the hovels of raw brick tha
hedged in the eastern side of the old mosque
Thoy were inhabited by descendants of the
Prophet and of the early Khalita-hs, and in
more than one case, the ejection of me holy
tenantry was effected with considerable dif
ficulty. Some of the women (ever the moat
obstinate on such occasions') refusal
money, and Umar wss forced to xne
tionable measure of turning them out oi doors
with exposed faces in full 'lay. The (Jreek
Plmperor, applied to by the «iapnifif»eTit Khn
lifah, Kent immense presents, silver lamp
chains, valuable curiosities, forty load* of
small cut stone* for pietra -<lura, and a sum
of .80,000 dinar*, or, a.i others sav. 40,<)00
mishkals of gold. He also despatched forty
Coptic and forty Greek artist* to c^va the
oiarble pillars and the casings of th* walls,
and to superintend the gilding and the uioaaic
work.
U0ne of these Christians was beheaded fur
sculpturing a hog on the Omlah wall, and
another, in an attempt to detlie the roof, fell
to the ground, and his braina wer« dashed
out The remainder apostatized, but this did
not prevent tho older Arabs umrmmlug that
their uiosque had been turned into a Kaniaah
(or Church). The Hujrah, or chamber, where,
by Muhammad's permission, 'i/ra'il, the Angel
of Death, separated his soul from hia body,
whilst his head was lying in the lap of Ayishah,
his favourite wife, was now fcr the first timr
taken into the mosque. The raw brick eu
oeinte which surrounded the three graves wa£
exchanged for cue of carved stone, enclosed
by an outer precinct with a narrow passage
between. These double walls were either
without a <toor, or had only a small blocked-
up wicket, on the northern side, and from that
day /'A.H. 90), no one has been able to approach
the sepulchre. A minaret was erected at eacl>
corner of the mosque. The building was en
larged to 200 cubits by 167, and was finished
in A.H. 91. When Walld, the Tpaliiah,
visited it in State, he inquired of his lieute
nant why greater magnificence iiad not bet- n
displayed in the erection; upon which 'Uraar
informed him, to his astonishment, that th(
walls alone had cost 45,000 dinars
" The fourth mosque was erected in A.H. 191
by al-Mahdl, third prince of the Banu -Abba?
or Baghdad Khalifahs— celebrated in, history
only for spending* enormous aunis upon a pil
grimage. He enlarged the building by adding
ten handsome pillars of curved mnrble. with
gilt capitals, on the northern side. In A.B.
202. al-Ma'uiun made further additions to this
mosque.
" It was from al-Mahdi's Masjid that Hakim
ibn Amri 'Hah. the third Fatimite Khalifah of
Egypt, and the deity oi the Druae sect, de
termined to steal the bodies of the Prophet
and his two companions. About A.H. 412, he
sent emissaries to ;»J.MadinRh; the attempt,
hov/ever, failed, and the would be violator?
ot the tomb lo«t their lives. It is generally
supposed that Hakim's object was to transfer
the vu.itation to his own capital ; but in one
so manifestly insane it is difficult to discover
the spring of action. Two Christians, habited
like Maghrahi pilgrims, in A.H. 550, dug a
mine from a neigbbouiiug house into the
44
346 MASJIDU T-TAQWA
temple. They were discovered, beheaded-,
and "burned to ashes. In relating these events,
the Muslim historians mix up many foolish
preternaturalisms with credible matter. At
last, to prevent a recurrence of such sacrile
gious attempts, Maliku 'l-'AdilNuru.'d-dm, of
the Baharite Mamluk Sultans, or, according
to others. Sultan Nuru 'd-din Shahid Mahmud
bin Zengi, who, warned by a vision of the
Prophet, had started for alrMadiuah only in
time to discover the two Christians, sur
rounded the holy place with a deep trench,
filled with molten lead. By this means Abu
JBakr and 'Umar, who had run considerable
risks of their own, have ever since been
enabled to occupy their last home undisturbed.
" In A.JI. 654. the fifth mosque was erected
in consequence of a fire, which some authors
attribute to a volcano that broke out close to
the town in terrible eruption; others, with
more fanaticism and less -probability, to the
schismatic Banu Husain, then the guardians
of the tomb. On this occasion the Hujrah
was saved, together with the old and vener
able copies of the Qur'an there deposited,
especially the Cufic MSS., written by Unman,
the third" Khallfah. The piety of three sove
reigns, Musta'sim (last KhallfaL of Baghdad)
Mux>aifir Shems-ud-din-Yusuf, chief of Ya-
man, and Zahir Beybars, Baharite Sultan of
Egypt, completed the work in A.H. 688.
This building was enlarged and beautified by
the princes of Egypt, and lasted upwards of
200 years.
''The sixth mosque was built, almost as it
now stands, by Raid Bey, nineteenth Sultan
of the Circasian Mamluk kings of Egypt, in
A.H. 888. Musta'fii'm's mosque had been struck
by lightning during a storm ; thirteen men
were killed at prayers, and the destroying
element spared nothing but the interior of the
Hujrah. The railing and dome were restored ;
niches and a pulpit were sent -Irom Cairo,
and the gates and miriarets were distributed
as they are now. Npt content with this, K&id
Bey established ' waqf ' (bequests) and ptu-
sions, and introduced order among the atten
dants on the tomb. In the tenth century,
Sultan Sulaiman the Magnificent paved with
fine white marble the Rauzah 01 garden,
which. Kaid Bey, not daring to alter, had
left of earth, and erected the fine minaret
that bears his name. During the dominion
of the later Sultans and of Mohammad Ali, A
few trifling presents of lamps, carpets, wax
candles, and chandeliers, and.- a few immate^
rial alterations have been made." (See Per-
snnal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El Medi-
nah and Meccah, by Richard F. Burton, 2nd
edition, vol. i. p. 345.)
MASJIDU 'T-TAQWA (A-^.^
«3j«aN). Lit. "The Mosque of Piety."
The mosque at Quba', a place about three
miios south-east of al-Madinah. It was here
that it is said that the Prophet's camel, al-
Qaswa rested on its way from Makkah to al-
Mfldinah, on the occasion of the Flight^ And
when Muhammad desired the Companions to
meaat the camel, Abu Bakr and 'T^mar did so,
MATJLID
but she still remained on the ground ; but
when 'AH obeyed the order, she arose. Here
the Prophet decided to erect a place for
prayer. It was the first mosque erected in
Islam. Muhammad laid the first brick, and
with an iron javelin marked out the direction
for prayer. Tho Prophet, during his resi
dence at al-Madinah, used to visit it once a
week on foot, and he always made a point of
praying there the morning prayer on the 17th
of Ramazan. A prayer in the mosque of Quba'
is said to be «qual in merit to a Lesser Pil
grimage to Makkah andtheplaco itself bears
rank after the mosques of Makkeh and al-
Madinah and before that of Jerusalem, It
was originally a square building of very
small size, but the Khalifah 'Usman enlarged
it, Sultan 'Abdu 1-Hamid rebuilt Ihe place,
but it bas no pretensions to grandeur. (Soe
Burtort-s Pilgrimage, vol. i. p. 3'Jfr.)
MASNUN (gj*—.). That which is
founded upon the precept or practice of Mu
hammad.
. "Tho Strong"
(as a fortification is strong). One of the
ninety -nine names or attributes of God. It
occurs in the Qur'an, Surah li. 58 ; " God is
the provider, endowed with power, the Strong."
MATiST (<$•*•). The text of a book.
The notes, or' commentary upon the text are
called the shark. A word frequently u&ed by
Muhammadans in theological books.
MA'UDAH (»-yy)' From wa'ad,
" to bury alive." A damsel buried alive. A
custom which existed before the time of
hammad in ancient Arabia, but which
forbidden by him. Surah xvii. 33 : " Bali not
your children from fear of Want." See also
Surahs xvi. Gl ; Ixxxi. 8
MAUL A (Jy*), pi. mawall. A
term used in Muslim law for a slave, but in
the Quv'an for " a protector or helper." i.e.
God Almighty.
Surah viii. 41 : " Kaow ye that God is ycrar
protector"
Surah ii 386 ; " Thou (God) art our pro-
tector.'*
Surah xlviL. 12: "God is the protector cf
those who believe,"
The plural form occurs in the Qur'an.
Surah iv. 37, where it is translated by Palmer
thus: " To] everyone have we appointed
kinsfolk " (mawttlt).
MAITLAWI (&}y) Fr°111 *Mml&,
" a lord or master." A term generally used
for a learned man.
MAULID (4r). The birthday,
especially of a prophet or saint. The birth
day of Muhammad, which is known as Mau-
lidu 'n-Nabi, is celebrated on the 12th of
Rabl% '1-Awwal. It is a day observed in
Turkey and Egypt and in some parts
of Hindustan, but not in Central Asia, by the
recital of numerous zikrs, and by distribution
of alms.
MA*U 'L-QUDS.
Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians^ vol. h
p. 171, gives the following specimen of a sik
recited in the Maulidu 'n-Nabi : " 0 God
bless our lord Muhammad among the latter
generations ; and bless our lord Muhammax
in every time and period, and bless GUI' lor<
Muhammad among the most exalted princes
unto the Day of Judgment ; and bless all the
propbetH and apostles among the inhabitants
of the heavens, and of the earth, and ma}
God (whose name be blessed and exalted) be
well pleased with our lordr and our masters
those persons of illustrior s estimation, Abu
Bakr, and 'Umar, and 'Usuan, and 'All, and
with all the other favourites of God. God is
our sufficiency, excellent is the Guardian.
And there is no strength nor power but m
God, the Sigh, tho Great O God, 0 our
Lord, 0 Thou liberal of pardon, 0 Thou most
bountiful of the most bountiful, 0 God.
Am In."
MA'U 'L-QUDS (u-Jdt *U). Lit.
" Water of Holiness." A term used by the
Sufis for sv'ch holy influences on the soul of
jnan as enable him to overcome the lusts of
the flesh, and to become holy. (See 'Abdu'r-
Raazaq'n Diet, of Sufi Terms.}
AL-MA< QN (0J0UH ). Lit. " Neces
saries." The title of the cnith Surahxof the
Qur'an, in the last Terse of which the word
occurs.
MAUT «y). "Death." Heb.
The word is always useJ. in
the Qur'an in its literal sense, meaniug the
departure of the spirie from the body, e.g.
Purah ii4 182- "Every .-ioul uiut>t taste of
deafy." But amongst the Sufis it is employed
W a figurative sense, e.g. ql-mantu '1-abyaz+oT
" the white death','" is hold to mean abstinence
from food, or that feeling of hunger which
purifies the soul. A person who frequently
abstains from food i& said to have entered
this state of death. Al'jnnutv 'l~akkzar, " the
green death," the wearing of old Clothes in a
stqte oi voluntary poverty. When a person
has tfiven up soaring purple and fine linen,
anc lias chosen the garments of poverty, he is
said to have entered this .state of death.
Al-mnvtv 'l-a&wad. k< the black death," the
voluntary taking up of trouble, and submit
ting to be eviLspoket of for the truth's sake.
When a Muslim has learnt to submit to such
troubles and persecutions, bo is said to have
ontered into ttiia state of death. (See kAbdu
Y-Rafczaq^ Diet, of Sufi Terms.) [MAMAT.]
MA'ZCTN (oriU)'. A licensed or'
privileged slave. A slave who has received
ft remission of alltbe inhibitions attending his
state of bondage.
MEAT, [FOOD.]
MECCA. [KAKXAH.]
MEDICINE. Arabic dawa' (\^).
The only medicine recommonded in the Qn'ran
is honey. See Surah xvi. 71 : '• From its
(the bee's) belly couieth f«.rth a duid of vary
ing hues, which yiel<icth medicine to njan,'?
MEBOT
MEDINA. [AL-MADINAH.J
MEDITATION.
347
MENSTEUATION. Arabic mahif
((jA-^*). The catamenia, or menses, is
termed hayz. The woman in this condition is
called hffiz. or hffifaJi. All books of Muhazu-
madan tneoiogy contain a- chapter devoted to
the treatment of women in this condition.
During the period ol menstruation, women are
not permitted to aay their prayers, or to touch
or read the Qur'an, or enter a mosque, and
are forbidden to their husbands. But it is
related in the traditions that Muhammad
abrogated the tew of Moses which set a men-
struous *oinan enti^ly. apart for seven day*.
(Leviticus xv. 19). And Anas says that
when the Jews heard this they said, "This
man opposes our customs in everything."
(Se« Qur'an, Surah ii. 222; Mithkatu V-
Ma$abikt Hamilton's ed. voL i. p. 121 ;
Arabic ed. Bdbu 'i-Haiz^
Wnen the period of menaes ceases, bathing
must be p«rf ormed and prayer said.
MEBCY. Arabic Rahmah
Heb.
The attribute of mercy
is specially mentioned in the Qur'an as one
which characterizes the Divine Being ; each
chapter of that bqok ( \vith the exception of
the rxth), beginning with the superscription,
Bismiliaki 'r^jRafanani V-.Ra£im, «• In the name
oi God the Merciful, the Compassionate." In
the Tafsn-i-Raufi it is said that ar-Rahmtn
is only applicable to God, whilst ar~Rafcm
may be applied to the creature as well as to
Go.d; but the Jala Ian say the two terms are
.synonymous, and on this uooount they arc
used together. Al-Baizawi remarks that tho
attribute oi mercy expresses •' softness of
heart " (riqgutu V-gatb), a^d " a turning with
kindness and favour towards a person," and
in this way it expresses God's sympathy with
mankind, although the terms are not strictly
applicable to an unchangeable Being. In the
Qur'an. Job ip described as speaking of God
a3 "the most merciful of merciful ones."
(Surah xxi. 83), And the acgels who beai
the throne, and those around it who celebrate
God's praises, cry out : •' Our Lord ! thou dost
embrace all things in mercy and knowledge i "
(Surah xl. 7.) The " Treasuries of the mer
cies of the Lord," are often referred to in the
Qur'an"(e.0. Surahp xvil 102 ; xviii. SI). Tha
word Rahmah, " a mercy," is a term used for
a divine book ; it is frequently applied to the
Qur'au, which is called " a mercy and a guid
ance " (Surahs x. 68 ; xvii. 84), and also to tho
books of Mosea (Surahs xi. 20; xii. 111). In
onej)Jaee it is used for Paradise, " They aro in
God's ruorc.Y " (SuraL lii. 103) The bounty
of God's mercy is the constant frheme both of
;he Qur'an and the Traditions ; e.g. Surah vii.
.55 : '* Aiy uiorcy embracetli everyihhig." To
despair of God's mercy is a cardinal sin.
Sinnh xxxix. 54 : "Be not in desnuip of the
mercy of God ; verily, God forgives sins, ail
of them." Surah xv. 56 r " Only those who
err despair of tbc mercy of their Lord."
348
MICHAEL
MILLAH
In the Traditions, Muhammad is related to
have said: •' When God created the world He
wrote * book, which is with Him on the
exalted throne, and therein is written, ' Verily
my mercy overcomes my anger.'" And.
again, "Verily, God has one hnndred mer
cies ; one mercy hath he sent .down to men
and genii, but Ho hath reserved ninety-nine
mercies, by which He will be gracious to His
people." (Mishkdt, book x. ch. 4.;
The Lvth Surah of the Qur'an is entitled
the Suratv 'r- Rahman, or the "Chapter of the
Merciful," in which are set forth the * boun
ties of the Lord." It is a chapter which is
sadly marred by its concluding- description of
the sensual enjoyments of Muhammad's para
dise.
The Christians are spoken of in the Qur'an,
Surah Ivii 27, as those in whose hearts God
" placed .mercy (rahmah) and compassion
MICHAEL. In ftiubainmadan
Works general!/, the Archangel Jlichael is
called MikSll (J*rL<^)> Heb.
but in the Qur'an, in which his name once
occurs., he is called Milcai (jVJLy-). Al-
BaizawT says that a Jew namod 'Abdu 'llab
ibn Suriya', objected to Muhammad's asser
tion that the Archangel Gabriel revealed the
Qur'an to him, because he w us an avenging
angel and said that it it bad been sent by
Michael, their own guardian angel (Daniel
xfi. 1 .), they might have believed. This asser
tion called forth the following verses4 froa
Muhammad in Surah ii. 92 : —
" Whoso is the enemy of Gabriel — For he
it is who by God's leave hath caused the
Qw'dn to descend on thy heart, the confirma
tion of previous revelations, and guidance, and
good tidings to the faithful — Whoso is an
enemy to God or his angels, or to Gabriel, or
to Michael, shall have God as his *,iemy: for
•verily God is an enemy to tht> infidels.
Moreover, clear signs have we sent down to
thee and none will disbelieve them but the
perverse."
MIDIAN. [MAPTAH.]
MIFTAHU 'L-JANNAH (cVa-*—
&*J1). " The Key of Paradise." A
term used by Muhammad for prayer. (Mish-
kdtt book iii. ch. i.)
MIHJAN (o***). A hook-headed
Stick about four feet long, which, it is said,
the -Prophet always carried; now carried by
men of religious pretensions.
MIHRAB M^)- A niche in
the centre of a wall of a mosque, which
marks the direction of Makkah, and before
which the Imam takes his position when he
leads the congregation in prayer. In the
Masjidu 1n-NabI, or Prophet's mosque at al-
M&dinah, a large black stone, placed against j
the northern wall, facing Jerusalem, directed
the ongregation, hut it was removed to the
Southern side when the Qihlah was changed
to Makkab.
The Mibrab, as it now exists, dates from
the days of al-Walid (A.H. 90), and it seems
probable that the Khalifah borrowed the idea
A MIIIRAB.
A MIHRAB. (W.S. Chadvnck.)
from the Hindus, such a niche being a peeu
liarly Hindu feature in sacred buildings.
Tho word occurs four times in the Qur'an,
where it is used for a chamber (Surahs iii
32. 33 ; xix. 12 ; xxxviii. 20), and its plural.
mahdrib, once (Surah xxxiv. 12).
MIKA'IL (J«a**-). [MICHAEL.]
MILLAH (AU). A word which
occurs in the Qur'an fifteen times. Eight
times /or the religion of Abraham (Surahs ii.
124, 129; iii. 89; iv. 124; vi, 162; xii. 38;
xvi. 124 ; xxii. 77) ; twice for. the religion of
former prophets (Surahs xiv. 16; xxxviii. 6);
once for the religion of the seven children of
the cave (aurab xviii. 19); three times lor
idolatrous religions (burahs xii. 37 , vii. 86,
87); find once lor the religion of Jews and
Christians (Surah n. 114). The word is used
in the Traditions for the religion of Abraham
(Mishkdt ^ book x. ch. vA
According to the Kitdbu 't-Ttfrifct, it is
expressive of religion as it stands in relation
to the prophets, as distiuguisnod from Din
(^•^)» which signifies religion as it stands tn
relation to God, or from Mazhal (v*^),
which Signifies religion with reference to the
MILK
MINBAR
349
learned doctors. ^RisuaioK.] Spren^er and
-Doutsoh have invested the origin and mean
ing of this word with a cortaJn amount of
mystery, which is interesting.
Dr Sprenger say.s (Dna Lab* H mid di? f^ekre
des Mohammad, vol. ii. p. 270 n) :— '• When
Mohammad speaks of the religion of Abra
ham, he generally uses the -word Milla
(Mi Hah) and not Din. Arabian philologists
have tried to trace the meaning of the "word
from their mother tongue, thus, Malta
(MaUah} signifies fir* or hot as/tee in Arabic
and Zaggag says (Thdlaby, vol. ii. p. 114),
that religion is called Milla because of the
impression which it makes, and which may
he compared to that which fire makes upon
the bread baked in ashes. Since tho Arabs
are unable to give a better explanation, we
uju.n presume that milia is a foreign word,
imported by the teachers of the ( Milla of
Abraham" in the Hijaz. Philo considered
Abraham the chief promoter of the doctrine
of thp Unity of God. and doubtless, even
before Philo, Jewish thought, in tracing the
doctrine of the tru» religion, not only as far
back as Moses, but even to the father of their
nation, emancipated the indispen« ability of the
lornj 01 the law. and so prepared the road to
Essaism and Christianity.''
Mr Emanuel Deutsch, in his article on
Islam (Literary Remains, p 130), savs : " The i
word used in the Quran for the religion of
Abrahaui is generally Milla Spvenger, after
ridiculing tho indeed absurd attempts made to
derive it frum an Arabic root, concludes that
it mast be a foreign word introduced by tho
teachers of the ' Milla of Abraham ' into the
Hijaz. He is perfectly right. Milla — Memra
= Logos, are identical; being the Hebrew,
Chaldee (Targum, Pashito in slightly varied
spelling), and Greek terms respectively for
the ' Word,' that surrogato for the Divine
uaine used by the Targum. by Philo. by St.
John. This Milla or < Word.' which Abraham
proclaimed, he, ' who was not an astrologer
but a prophet,' teaches according to the H&g-
gadah, first of allj the existence of one God,
the Creator of the Universe, who rules this
universe with mercy and lovingkindnessr "
MILK. Arabic laban (^). The
sale of milk in the udder is unlawful (liida-
yah, vol. ii. p. 433). In the Qui'an it is men
tioned as one of God's special gifts. "'•Verily.
ye have m cattle a lesson : we give you to
drink from that "which is in their bellies be
twixt chyme and blood — pure milk — easy to
swallow for those who drink." (Surah xvi.
68.)
MINA (cr^). Lit. " A wish." A
sacred valley near Makkah, in which part of
the Pilgrimage ceremonies take place. Ac
cording to 'Abdu 'I-Haqq. it was so called
because Adam wished for paradise in this
valley.
MINARET. [MANABAH]
MINBAR. Generally pronounced
mimbai (j!J^). The pulpit in a
mosque from which the khutbah (or sermon') ,
is recited. It consists of three steps, and is
sometimes a moveable ^ooueri structure, and
sometime*, a rixture of brick or stone built
against t bo -wall. Muhammad, in addressing
the congregation, stood on tho uppermost
A M1MBAB IN AJ* (HUlAM MOSQU£
IF S-
step, Abu Bakr on tho second, and Um.ir uu
the third or lowest. 'Usman fixed upon the
middle step, and since then it has been the
custom to preach from that step The
Shrahs have four steps to their mhnbars.
The mimbars in tho mosques oi Oairo are
4 MI.VBAR IN AN EGYPTIAN' MOSQUE.
(IF ,<5. CI'Miluii'ck.j
elevatod structures, but in Asia they are of a
more primitive character.
Burton says : u In the beginning the Pro
phet leaned, uhen fatigued, against a post,
whilst preaching the khutbab or Fridav scr
350
mon. The mimhar, or pulpit, was .im inven
tion of a Hadinah man of the Bami Najjar.
It was a wooden frame, two cubits long by
one broad, with three steps, eaeu ue span
high; on the topmost of these the. Prophet
sat when he required rest. The pulpit as
sumed its present form abotit A.H. 90, daring
the artistic reign of El Walid."
A MIMBAR IK MOBQUBS AT PESHAWAR.
MINES. Arabic 'ma'din (&***),
pi. ma'adin. In 2akat, mines are subject to
a payment of one fifth, (Hidayah, vol. i.
39.^
MINHAH (Jw*). A legal term
for a portion of camel's or sheep's milk which
another is allowed to draw* but afterwards
to restore the animal to its original owner.
MINORITY* [PUBERTY.]
MlQAT Otea*). Lit. "A stated
time, or place." The stations at which Mak-
kan pilgrims assume the ijiram or " pilgrim's
garment." Five of these stations were esta
blished by Muhammad (MisMcdt, book xi.
ch. i. pt. 1), and the sixth has been added
since to suit the convenience of travellers
irom the East. They are as follows: (1)
Zu 'l-Hu taj d\ for the pilgrims from al-Madl-
iiah; (2) JuJifak, for Syria; (3) Qjarnu V-
Manazil, for Najd ; (4) Ytiulamlam, for Ya-
man; (5) Zat-i^Irq, for 'Iraq:- (6) Jbrahim
Mursia, for those who arrive by soa from
India and the east.
The putting on of tne ihram at Jerusalem
is highly meritorious, according to a tradition,
which says, v* The Prophet said, Whoever wears
the ihram for hajj or 'unxrali, from the Mas-
jidu '1-Aqsa (i.e. the Temple at Jerusalem)
to the Masjidul-Haram, shall be forgiven for
all his past and future sins." (MishTcdt^ book
xi. ch. i. pt. 2.)
MIR (x*). A title of respect used
for the descendants of celebrated Muhamma-
dan saints. More generally used for Saiyids,
or descendants of Fat.iinah, the Prophet's
daughter.
MIRACLES. Supernatural powers
given to men are spoken. of by Muslim lexico
graphers as khdriqu 'l-fdd<it .(SoUft Ji^),
or -'things contrary to custom." In Muslim
theology, they are expressed by eight terms :
(I) Ayah ('&*), pi. dydt," a sign"; the only
word used in the Qur'an tor a n tirade (see
Sarahs xiii. 27; xxix. 4i); Hv. 2). (2)
, pi. nMjixat, •• making weak
MIBACtES
or feeble,1* or that which render* 1»he adver
saries to the^truth weak and feeble ; a term
used only for miracles prf ormed by prophets.
(3) Irhd* ((j>^\), 1)1. irhatdt. 7«t " laying a
foundation"; used for any miracle. performed
by a prophet before his assumption of the
prophetical office. (4) 'Alamah (&*$ws), pi.
'alamdt , " a sign," the same as ayah, and used
tor the signs of the coming Resurrection. (5)
Karamah (X*\^), pi karam<it>Ut; "benefi
cence"; wonders wrought by saints for the
good of the people as well as in proof of their
own saintship. (6) Ma'vwh (&yt*), pi
mcfwandt, lit. "help or assistance;" used
also for the wonders wrought by saints.
(7) Istidraj (g^JO^^). lit. 'promoting by
degrees"; a term employed to express the
miracles wrought by the assistance of the
Devil with the permission of God. (8) lhabah
(£Vfc^), pi. ihdndt, Hi. " contempt " ; miiwclea
wrought by the assistance of the Devil, but
when they" turn out to the disdain and con
tempt of. the worker.
T* does not appear frons the Qur'an that
Muhammad ever claimed the power of work
ing miracles, but. ontha contrary, he asserted
that it was not his mission to work signs
ana wonders in proof of his apostleship. This
seeme to be evident from the following verses
in the Qur'an : —
Surah xxix. 49 : " They say, Why are not
signs (dydty sent down to him from his Jbord?
Say : Signs are in the power of God alone,
and I am only, an open warner."
Surah xiii. 27-30: "And they who believe
not say. \ftiy is not a sign (dya,h) sent down to
him from his Lord? Say: Ood truly mis-
leadeth whom He will, and guideth to Him
self him who turneth to Him. . . . If there
were a Qur'an by which tho, mountains would
be set in motion, or the eartii cleft by it, or
the dead be addressed by it, they would, not
believe."
Surah xvii. 92-97 : u And they say. By no
means will we believe on theft till thou- cause
a fountain to gush forth for us from tho earth,
or till thou have a garden of palm. t roes and
grapes* and thou cause gushing rivers jo gush
forth in its midst, or till fchou make heaven
to fall upon us, as thou hast given cCut in
pieces ; or thou bring God and the angels to
vtmch for thee ; or thou have- fl house of God,
or thou mount up into heaven; nor will we
believe in thy mounting up until thou send
us down a book which we may read. Say :
Praise be to my Lord I Am I more than a
man, and an apostle? And what hindereth
men from believing, wbon the guidance hath
come to them, but that they say, -Hath Gtpd
sent a mere man as an apostle ? Say : Did
angels walk the earth as its familiars, we
had surely sent them an angel-apostle out of
heaven.''
But notwithstanding these positive asser
tions on the part of their Prophet against bis
ability to work miracles, there are at least
four places in the Qxir'an There- the Muham-
madans believe that miracles are referred to
J. The clef ting of the moon (Surah liv. 1, 2):
MIBACLBS
" The hour hath approached, and the moon
hath been cleft. Bat if the unbelievers see
a sign (ayah}, they turn aside and say, Magic !
that shall pas* away 1 "
. Al-BflizawL aays, in bis commentary on this
verse, " Sonic say that thft unbelievers de
manded this sign of the Prophet^ and the
moon was cleft in two ; but others tt&j it
rofdrs to a sign of the coming Resurrection,
the words ' will be cleft ' being expressed in
the prophetic preterite."
Rodwoll rendars it •' hath been cleft," as he
thinks Muhammad may possibly allude to
some meteor or comet which he fancied to
be part of the moon.
2. The assistance given to the Muslims at
the battle oi Badr. Surah iii. 120, 121 :
u When thou diddt say to the /aithiul : •' Is it
not enough for you that your Lord aideth
you with three thousand angelH sent down
from on high ? ' Nay ; but if ye be steadfast,
and ienr Ood, and the foe come upon you in
hoc haste, your Lord will help you with five
thousand angels with their distinguishing
marks."
These " distinguishing marks," say the
commentators, were when the angels rede on
black and white horses, and had ou their
beads white and yellow turbans, the ends of
which hung down between their shoulders.
li. Th« celebrated night journey. Surah
xvii. 1 : " We declare the glory of Him who
transports his servant by night from the
Masjidu '1-Haram to the Masjidu '1-Aqsa (i.e.
from Makkah. to Jerusalem)."
4. Tim Qur'an itself, whioh. the Muhamma-
dons 8ay is the great miracle of Islam, the
like -of which* has not been created, nor ever
will be, by the power i>f man. In proof of
this they quore Surah xxix. 48 : " It is a
clear sign (oiiqfi) in the hearts of whom the
knowledge b*tb reached."
Although these very doubtful assertions in
the Qar'&n fail to establish tne miraculous
powers of the Prophet, the Traditions re
cord numerous occasions when he worked
miracles in the presence of his people
Tfce f ollomug are recorded in the traditions
of al-Bu]^Hri and Mushm: —
(l)0n iho flight from Makkah, Suraqah being
curse1*! by the Prophet, his horse sank np to
"rtfc belly in the hard ground.
(2) The Prophet marked out at Badr the
exact bpot on which each of the idolaters
should be slain, and Anas says not one of
them passed alive beyond tha spot marked by
the i*ropbef
(8) He cured the broken leg of 'AJbdu 'Hah
ibn Atiq by a touch.
(4) He converted hard ground into a heap
of sand by one stroke of an axe.
(5) He fed a I thousand people apon one
kia and a ?dl of barley.
(6) He gave a miraculous supply of water
at the battle of nl-Hudaibiyab
(7) Two trees miraculously movecl to form
a shade for the Prophet.
(8) He made Jabir a good hot-neman by
his prayers.
(9) A wooden pillar wept to svtfb an extent
MI'RAJ
351
that it nearly rent in two parts, because the
Prophet desisted from leaning against it.
(16) A sluggish horse became swift from
being ridden by the Prophet.
(11) Seventy or eighty people miraculously
fed on a fow barley loaves and a little butter.
(V2) Three hundred men fed from a single
cake
The following art recorded by various
writers : —
(1) The Prophet was saluted by the hills
and tree« near Makkah, with the salutation,
" Peace be lt> thee, 0 Messenger of God ! "
(2) A tree moved from its place to the
shade when fcho Prophet slept under it.
(3) Tho Prophet cured a maniacal boy by
saying. " Come out of him,"
(4) A wolf was made to speak by thd
Prophet.
(For further information, see Kitabu 'i-
Mtfjizdt, Sdhihu 'l-Bukhdri, Mtshkdtu V-
Ma$abih Sahiku MusHm.)
MI'RAJ (e^) Lit- " An ascent."
Muhammad's supposed jonrndy to heaven;
called nl«o f.srd (^y*\), "the noctm-nal
journey." Jt is said to have taken place in
the twelfth year of the Prophet's mission, in
the month of Rabili '1-Awwal.
According to * Abdu *KHaqq, tnere are some
divines who have regarded this miraculous
event as a mere vision, but, he adds, the
majority hold it to be a literal journey.
The .only mention of the vision in the
Qur'an is contained ir Surah xvii. 1 : " Praise
be to Him who carried His servant by night
from the Masjidu 1-Haram (i.e. the Makkan
temple) to theMasjidu '1-Aqsa (i.e. the Tempte
of Jerusalem)/'
The following is the description of the
supposed journey given in the Mislikdtu 'l-Ma-
fdoiti. Muhammad is related to have said : —
" Whilst I was sleeping upon my side, ue
(Gabriel) came to me, and cut me open from
my breast to below my navel, and took out
my heart, and washed the cavity with Zam-
za,m waiter, and then filled my heart with
Faith anH Science. After this, a white
animal was brought foi iae to rldo upon. Its
Bisre was between that of a mule and an aw.
atid it stretched as .far as the eye- could see.
The name of the animal was Buraq. Then I
mounted the animal, and ascended until we
arrived at the lowest heaveu, and Gabriel de
manded that the door should be opened. And
it was asked, ' Who is it ? ' and he said, ' I am
Gabriel.' And they then said, 'Who is with
yon?' and ho answered, • It is Muoammad.'
They said, • Has Muhammad been calloa to
the office of a prophet ? ' He said, • Yes.'
They said, ' Welcome Mnhammmad . his
coming is well.' Th«n the door was opened ;
and when I arrived in the first heaven, be
hold, I saw Adam. And Gabriel said to me,
' This is your father Adam, salute him.'
Then 1 salutod Adam, and he answered it,
and said, ' You are -waicome, 0 good son, and
good Prophet I ' After thp Gabriel took me
j»uovo? and we reached the second heaven ;
and he a«ked the doer to be opened, and it
352
MI' RAJ
MIB2ABAU
was said -Who is it?' He said, <I am
Gabriel' It wns snid, * Who is with your
He said, ' Muhammad ' It was said, 'Was
he called?' He said, 'Yes.' It was said,
'Welcome Muhammad: his coining is well.'
Then the door was opened : and when 1
arrived in the second region, behold, i saw
John and Je&us (sisters sous;. And Gabriel
said, ' This is John, and this "is- Jesus . sainte
both of them.' Then I saluted them, arid they
returned it. After that they said, 'Welcome
good brother and Prophet." After that we
went up to the third heaven, and asked the
door to be opened; and it was said, -Who is
it?' Gabriel said, - I am Gabriel/ They
said. ' Who is with you ? ' He said, ' Muham
mad.' They said, 4 Was he called?' Gabriel
said, 'Yes.1 They said, f Welcome Muham
mad ; his coming is well.' Then the door wafl
opened : and when I entered the third heaven,
behold, 1 saw Joseph. And Gabriel said.
£ This is Joseph, salute him.' Tben I did so.
and he answered it, and said, ' Welcome, good
brother and. good Prophet.' After that (J-a-
briel took me to the fourth heaven, and asked
tue door T.O be opened; it was said. ' Who is
that •* He said, ' I am Gabriel.' It was said
* Who is with you?' He said, • Muhammad.
It was said, 'Was be called? He said.
f Yes.' They said, ' Welcome Muhammad ; hit-
coming his well.' And the door was opened -
and when I entered the fourth heaven, behold.
I saw Enoch. And Gabriel said,' This *u Enoch,
salute him.' And I did so, and he answered
it and said, * Welcome, good brother and Pro
phet " After that Gabriel took me to the
fifth heaven, and asked the door to be opened;
and it was said. 'Who is there?' He said,
'I am Gabriel.' It was said. 'Who is with
yen? * He said, • Muhammad.' They said,
'Was he called r ' He said, 'Yes.'' They
said, ' Welcome Muhammad : his coming is
well.' Then the door was opened: and
when \ arrived in the fifth region, behold. I
:»aw Aaron And Gabriel said, •' This is
Aaron, sahtte him/' And I did so, and he re
turned it, and <?0id, Welcome, good brother
and Prophet.' After that Gabriel took me to
the aixMi he«ven, and asked the door to be
opened, and they said 'Who is there?' He
said, ' I am Gabriel.' They said. ' And who is
with YOU?' He Said, * Muhammad.' They
said. 'Is he called?' Ife said, 'Yes.' They
said 'Welcome Muhammad: his coming 'is
well.' Then the door way opened *, aud when
I entered r,he sixth heaven, behold, I saw
Moses And Gabriel said. 'This is Moses.
salut-e him.' And I did so; and he refiirnf.d.
it, and '^id. « Welcome, good, brother and Pro-
fhet,? And when I passed him, he wept,. And
said to, him, ' What makes you weep ? ' He
said, "Because one is r,ent after me. of whose
people more will en tor Paradise than oi mine,
After that Gabriel took me up to the seventh
heaven, aud asked the door to be opened ;
audit was said, * Who is it ?' He said, j
a ui Gabriel.' Aud it was said, 'Who is with
you?' He said, 'Muhammad.' They said
Was he called ? ' He said ' Yes r They
said, 'Welcome Muhammad; his coming is I
well.' Then I entered the seventh heaven,
and Dchold, I %aw Abraham. And Gabrifl
said. < This is Abraham, your father, salute
him ; which I did, and he returned it, ami
said, ' We J oo in e good son and frood Prophet.'
After that I was taken up to the tree called
Siirat.H 'l-Muntaha ; and behold it/a fruits were
like -water-pots, and its leaves like elephant's
oaii- And Gabriel said, * This is Ridrat.ii J
Minitaha." And I saw four rivers there -, two
of them hidden, and two manliest. I rmid to
Gabriel, • What are these ? ' He said, ' These
two concealed rivers are in Paradise ; and the
two manifest are the Nile and the Euphrates.'
After that. I was showu the Baitu -1-M'aiiifir:
Aft<*i that, a vessel full of wine, another
full of milk, and another oi honey, were
brought fro me ; and I took the milk and
drank it/. And Gabriel said Milk in reli
gion ; you and your people will be of it."
After that the divine orders for prayers were
fifty every day. 'Then I re turned, and passed
by Mones ; and he said, ' What have you been
ordered '( ' I said, * Fiity prayers every day/
Then Moses said, • Verily, your people will
not be able to perform fifty prayers every
day ; and verily, I swear by God, I tried men
before you ; f applied » remedy to the sonfl
of Israel, but it had not the desired effect.
Then return ro your Lord, and ask your
people to h* released from that. And I re
turned; au>l ten prayers were taken off. Then
I went to Moses, and he said as before ; and
1. returned to God'a court, and teu prayers
more were curtailed. Then I retuned to
Moses, and he said as before; then I. re
turned to God's court, and ten more were
taken oft". And I went to Moses, and he said
as before ; then I returned to God, and ten
more were lessened. Then I went to Mosfia,
and he said as before ; then I went to God's
court, and was ordered five prayers every
day. Then I went to Moses, and he said.
' How many have you been ordered ?' I. said,
'Five prayers everyday.' He said, ' Verily,
your people will not be able to perform five
prayers every day ; for, verily, I tried men
before y on, and applied the severest remedy
to the sons of Israel. Then return to your
Lord, ami ask them to be lightened.' I said,
• I have asked Him till I am quite ashamed 5
I cannot return to Him again. But I am
satisfied, and resign the work of my people to
God.' Then, when I parsed from that place
a crier called 6ut, 'I have e»tabli«hed My
divine commandments, and have made them
easy to My servants."
Suratu 1-Mi'raj is a title of the xvntb
chapter of the Qu^an, in the first verse of
which there is a reference to tbenight journey
of Muhammad, It is called also the Sufatu
Ban! Israel, or the Chapter of the Children of
Israel
MIRAS (^uv^t [INHERITANCE,]
MIEZA (Jj^.). A. titJe of respect
given to persons of good family.
A clod-crusher" The iron hammer wit
M1SAQ
which the dead are beaten who cannot reply
satisfactorily to the questions put to them by
Munkar and Nakir. Called also Mitraqat
[PUNISHMENTS OF TUB dRAYH.}
^). "A covenant." A
word used in the Qur'an for God's covenant
with his people. [COVENANT.]
MISHKATU 'L-MASABTH
£*t<»a+ft). A well-known book of
tradition, much used by SunnI Muslims in
India, and frequently quoted in the present
work. It was originally compiled by the
Irnwm Husain al-BaghawJ, the celebrated
rommentator, who died A..H. 510 or 5U>, and
called the Masahihu '«-£rtttmoA,orth6 " Lamps
of the Traditions." in the year A.H. 737,
Shaikh Waliyu 'd-dni revised the work of
al-Baghawi, adding an additional chapter to
each section, arid called it the MiawHtu V-
Afasdfjip., or the •' Niche lor lamps." hi the
time of the Emperor Akbar, Shaikh 'Abdu '1-
Haqq translated the work into Persian,, and
added a commentary. (See Kashfu 'z-Zumur>.
in toco.)
MISKIN (t>^— ). " A poor per
son." Hen. Ecclep. ix. 15, J?PO,
According to Muslim law, a person who has no
property whatever, as distinguished from a
Jaqir f v-jii), or a person who possesses a little
property, but is poor. (Hiduyah> vol. i. p. 54.)
MTSQAL (JV«-). An Arabic
weight, which frequently occurs in Muham
mad an law books. Richardson gives it at a
dram and three-sevenths. It is also used for
a gold coin of that weight. [MONEY.]
M.I9K (/*.). [EGYPT.]
inSWAK (&}-*). (1) A tooth.
cleaner made of wood, about a span long.
Tt ia preferred when made of a wood which
has a biHer Mavour. The Salvadora Indica
is the tree, the wood of which is used in India.
(2) The act of cleaning the teeth, which
H a religious ceremony founded upon the
example of Muhammad, and forms the first
part of the wazu^ or u ablution before prayer."
The Prophet was particularly careful in
the observance of miswdk (see Mishktit, book
iii. oh. * ) It is amongst those things which
are called Jifr ah (y.v.).
M1T&AQAH (&>•). The iron
"hammei or mace with which the infidels will
be 8111 it lea in their graves by the angels
'Mniiknr Hud Na-kir. Persian gurz. [PUNISH-
MFNTS Of THE. GRAVE. ~1
MTV AN (<$*•). A Persian word,
used as a title of respect for the descendants
of celebrated Mutyammadan saints.
MlZAN (^)~*— •), pi. mowdzm.
Heb. pi. DIJJND. /"*'*. " A balance."
(1) The law contained in the Qur'an, Surah
xlii. 16 : " Qod is He who hath sent down
the Book with truth and the balance."
(2) The scales in which the actions of all men
MIZAN
353
shall be weighed. Surah xxi 47 : " Just
balances will be set up for the Day of the
lietiurrectjoji neither shnll any eoul be
wronged in aught; though, were a work but
the. woignt of a grain of mustard seed, we
would bring it forth to be weighed*, and our
rei-kouing will suffice. "
Muhammad is related by -Abdu 'Hah ibn
' A.mr to have said: "Verily, God will bring
a Alu»iiui into the presence of all men on the
Day of Judgment, and will show him ninety-
nine large books, and each book «s long as
the eye can reach. Then bod will say to
him, 'Do you deny anything in tn*»«e books?
Have my writers injured you '< ' And the
Muslim will say, ' 0 my Lord, f deny nothing
that is in them.' Then God will say, 4 tlave
you any .excuse ? ' And he will say, l No.'
Then God will say, ' I have good news for
you, for there is no oppression in this day,'
Then God will bring forth a piece of paper,
on which is written: *I bear witness that
there is no deity but God, and 1 bear witness
that Muhammad is His servant and apostle/
And God will say, ' Go and weigh your
actions.' And the Muslim will say, ' What is
this hit of paper compared with those large
books?' And God will srcy, 'This bit of
paper is heavy, weigh it.' Then the books
will be put iu the scale, and the bit of paper
in the other, and the books containing the
actions will be light, and the bit of paper
whereon is written the creed of tne Muslim,
will be heavy.' (See Collection of Hadis by
at-Tirmizi.;
The commentators say that the scales will
be held by the angel Gabriel, and that they
are of so vast a size, one hangs over Paradise,
and the other over Hell, and they are <japa
clous enough to contain both heavon aud
earth. Though some are willing to under
stand what is said in the Traditions concern
ing this balance «illegoricaily, and only as a
figurative representation of God's equity, yet
the more ancient and orthodox opinion is that
it is tu be taken literally ; and since wovus
and actions, being mere accidents, a*'e not
capable of being 'hemselves weighed, they
Say that the book.s wherein they are written
will be thrown into tht» scales, and accord
ing as those wherein the good or the evil
actions are recorded shall preponderate, sen
tence will be given; those whose balances
laden with their good works shall be heavy
will be saved ; but those whose balances ar<
light, will be condemned. Nor will anyone
have cause to complain that God suffers any
good actions to pass unrewarded, because the
wicked obtain rewards for the good they do
in the present life, and therefore can expect
no favour in th« next
The old Jewish writers make mention of the
books to b«» produced at the Last Day, wherein
men's actions are registered, as of the balance
wherein they shall be weighed, and the Bible
itself seems to have given the first nation 01
both. But what the Persian Magi believe o!
the balance comes nearest to the Muhaujuaa-
dan opiuiou. They hold that on the Day oi
Judgment, two augels, named Mihr and
45
354
MODERATION
MONTH
Sornsh will stand on the bridge between
heaven and hell, and examine every person
as he passes ; that the former, who represents
the divine mercy, will hold a balance in his
hand, to weigh the actions of men; that, ac
cording to the report he shall make thereof to
0*od, sentence will be pronounced, and those
whose good works are found more ponderous,
if they turn the scale bnt by the weight of a
hair, will be permitted to pass forward to
Paradise ; bnt those whose good works shall
be found light, will be, by the other angel,
who represents God's justice, precipitated
from the bridge into hell.
MODERATION". Arabic iqtisaj
(JUsst). According to Muhammad's
teaching, moderation in all religious matters
is better than excessive piety, and a chapter
in the Traditions is devoted to the subject.
He is related to have said :—
*« The best act in God's sight is that which
is constantly attended to, although in a small
degree."
" Do what you ar«r able conveniently ; be-
oauso God will not be tired of rewarding as
le&g as you are not tired of doing."
<s You most continue at your prayers as
long as it is agreeable to you. and when yo-a
are tired sit down,"
" Verily, religion ia easy, therefore hold it
firm." (See Mithkat. Babu %Iqti?ad.}
MODESTY (Arabic Kaytf *W)
is frequently commended in the traditional
snyings of Muhammad, who is related to have
said :~-
u Modesty is & branch cf faith.*'
" Verily, modesty and faith are joined to
gether." (Mi9hkdtt book audi. ch. xiz.)
MOKASTICISM (Arabic rahba-
niyah 2**W»)) was forbidden by Mu
hammad, It \& related ir the Traditions
that ;Usman JOB Maz'un came to the Prophet
with the request thai he might retire from
aocietr and become a monk (rahib\ The
I^rophet replied, ' ' The retirement which be
comes my people ia t<* sit in the corner of a
mosque 'vixl wait for the time ef prayer."
(Iftt/Uwf, book iv. ch. 8.)
In the Qnr'arjj the Christians are charged
with inventing the monastic life. Surah Ivii
27 { " We gave them the Gospel, and we put
into the hearts of those who follow him,
kindness und compassion; but as to the
monastic life, they invented tt themselves."
According to the Hidayah (vo!. ii. p. 215),
capitation 4&x is not to be imposed upon
Rahibe, whether ChnshSli or Pagan, but this
IP s matter of dispute.
MONEY, There are tbree coins
mentioned in the Qur'an, (1) Qintar ( .VLtf)
(2) Dinar (jusS), (3) Dirkam f+A^), pi!
Darakim.
(1) Qintar. Surah iii. 68: "Among the
Seople of the Book are those to one of whom,
you entrust a qintar, h* will restore it*"
In the Qamus, it is said that a gintar was
a gold coin of the value of 200 dinars, but
Muhammad Tahir, the author of th« Majmcfu
'l-Bifrdr (p. 178), says it implies a very con
siderable sum of money, as much gold as will
go into the hide of a cow. It is generally
translated talent.
(2) JXfiar. Surah iii. 68: '"There are
those to whom, if thou entrust a dinar, they
will not restore it to thee.w It was the dena
rius., or a small gold coin,
(8) J&irham. Sfirah xii. 20 : " And they
sold him for a mean price, dirh&ms c<vuntftd
out." A silver drachma. [QINTAR, DINAR.
T>lJKHABi, WEIGHTS.]
Mr. Prinsep says : " The silver rupee
(rnpyct< silver piece), now current in Muslim
countries, was introduced, according tc Abul-
fa'zel, by Sher Shah, who usurped the throne
of Delhi from Humayoon in the year 1542.
Previous to his tiroo, the Arah'.Otttrhitn (silver
drachma), thei.gold dinar (de*izr-,ug awi^ and
the copper fuloos (JbtHf), iorrned the cur
rency of the Moghul dominions, Sher Shah's
rupee had on one side ch«* Muhammadan
creed, on the other the eaiperors aamo and
the date in Persian, both encircled in an an
nular Hindee inscription, Bince 'the seme
coin was revived and made more p^ire,' m
Akber's reipn, we may assume the oitginai
weight of ih» rupee, from Abuifazei's state
ment, to have been 11^ mashas. Amber's
squara rupee, called from its inacn jrt-ioo the
Jilaly, was of the same weight and Value.
This coil} was aiao called the chah'ir-yaree,
from the four friends of the Prophet, Abu-
bekr, Omar, Osman, Ali, whose names are
inscribed on the margin. This rupee is sup
posed by the vulgar to have talismanic power.**
MONOGAMY. Although poly
gamy is sanctioned in the Qur'an, the words,
** and if ye fear that ye cannot be- equitable,
then only one " (Surah iv. 3), would seem to
imply a leaning to monogamy, aa the safest
ar-d most discreet form of matrimony. The
author of the Akhldci-i^JaJah says : ^Except
ing, indeed, in the case of kings, who marry
to multiply offspring, and 1ro wards whom the
wife has no alternative buk obedience, plu
rality of wives is not defensiole. E^en in
their. case it were better to be cautious; for
husband and wife are like heart and body,
and like as one heart cannot supply life to
two bodies, one man can hardly provide for
the management of two homes." ('Thompson's
English Translation, p. 266.)
MONOPOLY Arabic ihtiledr
(jlXx^l). A monopoly of the neces
saries of life (as, for example, the hoarding
up of grain with the object of raising its
price) is forbidden in Muhanlmadan law. F*or
the Prophet has said :~
"Whoever monopolizeth is «, sinner."
"Whosoever keepeth back grain forty
days, in order to increase its price, is both a
foraaker of God, and is forsaken of God.*
(Mishkdt, book xii. ch. x. ; Riddyah, vol. iv.
p. 1H.)
MONTH. Arabic sJiahr (j«*), pi.
The months of the Muhammadan year
MONTH
are lunar, and the first of the month is reckoned
from the sunset immediately succeeding the ap
pearance of the new moon (At7£/). The names
of the months are : (I) Muharram p^,« ; (2)
§afar yu ; (3) Rabi'u'l A wwal J.fl ^ ; (4;
Rabi-u '1 Akhjr ^\ ^ , (5) Jumada 1-011
^50 W: (6) Jumada '1-Ukhra <^W
; (7) Rajab S-OM ; (8) Sha'ban <.)U*A ;
(9) Rama/un (.jU^ ; (lO)Shawwal jV^a»; (11)
Zu '1-Qa-dah $j*d\ . j ; (12) Zu
Four of these months are held to be sacred,
namely, Muharrdin. Rajab, Zu'1-Qa'dah, Zu '1-
Hijjah,. ati»l according to the teaching of the
Qiir'au (Surah ix. 86), it is not lawful for Mus
lims to fight during these months, except when
they attack those l' who join other gods. 'with
God, even as tbev attack yon one arid all."
The names of the mouths seem to have been
given at a time -when t-he intercalary year
was in force, althbugU Muslim writers assume
that the names "were meraly givon to the
months AS they then stood at the time when
they were so named. For a discussion of the
formation of the Mnhamrnadan year, the
reader is referred to that article. [YEAJK.J
(1) Muharram is the first month in the
Muhammad an calendar, and is so called be
cause, both in the pagan age and in the time
of Muhammad, it was held unlawful (#ardw»)
to go to war in this month. It is considered
a most auspicious month, and Muhammad
is related to have saidv " Whosoever shall
fast on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday
tn this month, shall' be removed from hell
fire a distance of se?.en hundred years
joutney ; and that he who shall keep awake
the first night of this month, shall be for
given all the sins of th& pa at year ; and he who
shall fast the whole of the first day, shall be
kept from sin for the next two years." (£T«-
nisu V- Waizin. p. 1,54.) The first ten days of
this mouth are observed in commemoration of
the martyrdom o.f al-Hu&ain, and the tenth
day is the 'Ashura' fast.
(2) So/hr, the second uioiitii, is supposed
to derive- its name from tafir, " empty," either
because in it the Arabians wont ferth to war
and left their homes empty, or, according to
Rubeh, because thoy left whom they attacked
empty. According to some writers, it was so
named from fufdr, 4< yellowness," because
when it was first so called, it was autumn,
when the leaves bore a yellowish tint. ( Vide.
Lane's Arabic Diet. ; Qhiydgu 'l-JLuyfazk.) ' It
is .held to be the most unlucky and inauspi
cious month in the wiole year, for in it, it is
said, Adam was turned out of Eden/ (See
Hanisu V- Waizin.) It was during this month
that the Prophet was taken ill, but his partial
recorery took placo on the last Wednesday.
(3) RabVu V- Awwal, and (4) Rcb^u 'I-
Aifeiry the first and second spring months,
are said to have been so named when the
calendar was first formed, and when those
months occurred in the spring. Muhammad
died on the 12th day of the Rabl'u 1-Awwal.
(5) Jumdda '1-Wa. and (6) Jumdd* V
', are the fifth and sixth months
MONTH 365
which there is some discussion «is to the
origin of the name. Mr. Lane, in his Die-
tionary, says the. two mouths to which the
name Jantada (freezing) is applied, are said
to be so called because, when they were so
named, they fell in the season of freezing
water ; but this derivation seems to have been
invented when the two months thus named
had fallen back into, or beyond, the winter,
for when they received this- appellation, the
former of them evidently commenced in
March, and the latter end«d in May. There
fore, I hold the opinion of M. Oaussin de Per
ceval, that they were thus called, because
falling in a period when the earth had become
dry and hard, by reason of r auoity of rain,
jamdd being an epithet appLed to land upon
which rain has not fallen, which opinion is
confirmed by the obvious derivation of thtt
names oi other months. (See Lane's Arabic
Diet, in lo$o.)
(7) Rajabtthe " honoured " month, so called
because of the honour in which the month
waa held in the Times of Ignorance, inasmuch
as war was not permitted during thie month.
The Prophet is related to have said that the
month Rajab was like a snowy white foun
tain flowing from, heaven itself, and that he
who fasts on this month will drmk of the
waters of life. It is called Jtaiab-i-Muxar,
because the Mu?ar tribe held it in high
esteem. It is usual for religious Muslims to
spend the first Friday night (i.e. our Thurs
day night) of this month in prayer.
(8) Sha'bdn, the month of separation
(called also the Shahru 'n-Nabi, "the Pro
phet's month"), is so called because the
ancient Arabians useu tc separate, or disperse
themselves, in this month in search of water
(for when the months wore regulated by the
solar year, this month corresponded partly to
June and partly to July), or, as some Bay,
for predatory expeditions. On the fifteenth
day of this month is the Shub-i-Bardt, or
" Night of Record," upon which it is said that
God registers annually all the actions of man
kind which they are to perform during the
year^and upon which Muhammad enjoined
his followers to keep awake the whold night
and to repeat one hundred rak'ah prayers.
[8HAB-I-BARAT.J
(9) JRamuzdn, the ninth month of the
Muhammadan year, js that which is observed
as a strict fast. The word is derived from
ram?, "to bum," because it is said that, when
the month waa first uamod, it occurred in the
hot aeaxon; or because the month's fast is
supposed to burn away the sins of men.
(See (ihitjd§u 'l-Luyjinh.) The excellence of
this month is much extolled by Muhammad,
who said that during Inn month the gates of
Paradise are opened, and the gates of Hell
shut. (Miahkcitj book vii. chap. i. sec. 1.)
(10) Shawwat, lit. 4<a tail," is the tenth
month of the lunar year, and, according to
Arabic lexicons (&eo Qbiydnu 'l~Lughah.
Q,drHutc &c.), it is so called because, when
first namod, it coincided with the season
when the aha-carr.els, being aoven or eight
356
MORTGAGE
MOSES
months gone with young, raise.! them .tails
or. because it was the month for hunting.
The Arabs used to say that it was an ^in-
lucky month in which l.o make marriage
contracts, but the Ptophet ignored t-lieit thus
auguring, a nd married "A yi shah iathis month.
The *Idu 'l-Fitr, or "the Feast, of . Breaking
the Fast," occurs on the first of this month.
(11) Zu H-Qfl^dak^ or the month of truce,
is the eleventh month, and so called by the
ancient Arabs, because it was a month in
Avhich warfare was not conducted, and in
which the peopl" were eugaged in . peaceful
occupations
(12) Zu Y-7/tjfcA, the month ef the Pil
grimage, is the last month of the Muham-
madau calendar. It is the month in which
the pilgrimage to Makkah must be made, a
visit to the sacred city at another time having1
in no way the merits of a pilgrimage. The
Hajj, O.T "Pilgrimage/' is performed upon
the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth of this
month. The (Idv. l-Aiha, or "Feast of
Sacrifice," is held on the tenth. .[HAJJ.]
MORTGAGE. [IJARAH.]
MOON Arabic qatnar (j+*). The
moon is frequently mentioned in the Qur'an
Muhammad on three occasions swears by it
(Surahs Ixxiv. 35; Ixxxiv. 18; xci. 2), and it
Is said to have been set in the heavens for a.
light (Surahs x. 5; Ixxi 15), to run to its
appointed goal (Surahs xxxv. 14; xxxix. 7\
and that it will be eclipsed at the Day of
Judgment (Surah Ixxv. 8). The Livth Surah
of the Qur'an, which is entitled the Suratu, '/-
QcrTRor, begins with a reference to the split
ting of the moon, which is a matter of con
troversy. It reads- "The hour draws nigh
and the moon is split, asunder. But if they
see a sign, they turn aside and say tuagie
continues."
ALBai^awj refers it to a, miracle, and says
the unbelievers having asked Muhammad for
a sign, the moon appeared to be cloven in
twain. But the most natural explanation of
the passage is, thai the expression refers to
one of the signs of the Resurrection.
At an eclipse of tke moon, a devout
Muslim is expected to recite a two rak'ah
prayer.
MOOES. The name given to the
Muhaiumadan conquerors of Spain, on account
of their having come from the ancient Mauri,
or Mauretania, now known as the Empire of
Morocco. The word Mauri is supposed to
have been derived from the Alexandrian word
f«xvpot, "blacks." (See Smith's Diet, of
Greek and Roman Geography : Mwtretanict.}
MOSES. AxabicMM (err)- Heb.
ntt?D« According to Muhainmadanism, he is
••
one of the six great prophets who founded
dispensations, and to whom the Taurdt was
revealed. His special title, or kalhnah, is
Kafanu Y/<fA, " One who conversed with God."
A lengthy account, is giveii of his intercourse
with Pharaoh and his dealings with the Chil
dren of Israel in the Qur'an, which we take
from Mr. Lane's Detections, together with tht
remarks of the Jalalan, al-Baizuwi, and other
commentators, in italics. (Stanley Lane
Pooled new ed. of Lane's Selections, p. 97.)
We will rehearse unto thee of the history
of Mo«*es and Pharaoh with truth, for the sake
of people who believe Verily Pharaoh ex
alted himself hi the land oj Egypt, and
divided its inhabitants into parties to serre
Mm. He rendered weak one class of them,
namely the children of Israel, slaughtering
their male children, and preserving alive their
females, because one of the diviners said unto
him, A child will be horn amonq ike children
of Israel^ who will be the meant of the loss of
thy^ kingdom ; — for he was one of the corrupt
doors. And We desired to be gracious unto
those who bad been deemed weak in the land,
and to make them models of religion, and to
make them the heirs of the possessions of
Pharaoh, and to establish them in the land of
Egypt,, and in &ynat and to show Pharaoh
and Haman and their forces what they feared
from them. And We said, by revelation,
unto the mother of Moses, the child above
mentioned, of whose birth none knew save his
sister, buckle bim ; and when thou fearest lor
him cast him in the river Nile, aud fear not
his being drowned, nor mourn. /or his separa
tion : for We will restore him unto thee, and
will make him one of the apostles. So s/>e
&uclckd him three months, during whieh he wept
not,, and then she feared for him whertfurt: she
put him into an ark pitched within and furnished
with, a bed for him. and she closed it and cast :ii
in the river Nile by niyht. And the family of
Pharaoh lighted upon him in the ark on the mor
row of that night ; so they put it before him,ayid it
was opened, andMofes was taken forth from it,
sucking milk from Ms thumb : that life might be
uuto them eventually an eueury a-nti an aftlic
tion: tor Pharaoh and Haman (Ms Wezeer)
and their forces were sinner* , wherefore ilicy
were punished by his hand. And the wife of
Pharaoh said, when he and his servants had pro
posed to kill him, He is delight of the eye unto
we and unto t.hee : do not ye kill him : per-
adventure he may be serviceable unto us, or
we may adopt him as a son. And they com
plied with her desire ; and they knew not the
consequence.
"And the Heart of the mother of Moses.
when she knew of hits having been lighted upon
became disquieted ; aud she had almost made
him known to be her «w, had We not fortitied
her heart with pafcience, that she might bo
one of the believers in Our promise, Aiwi
she said unto his sister Maryam (Mary),
Trace him, that thou mayest knotv kin case
And she watched him from a distance, while
they fcnew not that she was his sister and that
she was watching him. And We forbade him
the breasts, preventing him from taking the
breast of any nurse except his mother, before
his restoration to her ; so his sister said, Shall
I direct you unto the people of a house who
will nurse him for you, and who will be
faithful unto him ? And her offer Mas
accepted , thtrcjort she brought his mother, and
Jie took her breast : 30 she returned with ktm ttt
MOSES
her house, as GodhaUi said^—Aad We restored
hiru to his mother, that her eye might bo cheer
ful rrnd that she might not grieve, and that she
might know that the promise of God to restore
him unto her was true : but the greater unmber
of tli em (that ist of mankind) know not this.
And it appeared not that this was his sister
and this fits mother. ; and he remained with her
until she had weaned him ; and her hire was
paid her, for every day a dcenar, which she
look because it was the wealth of a hostile per
son. She then brought, him unto Pharaoh, and
he was brought up in his abode, as God ftath
related of him in the Chapter of the Poets ;Surah
xxvi. 17), where Pharaoh said unto Moses ,
Have we not brought thee up among u$ a child,
and hast thou not dwelt among us tliirtv years
of thy life?
" And when he hud attained his age of
strength (thirty years or thirty and lhree\ and
lad become of full age (forty yearn), We be
stowed on him wisdom and knowledge in rdi-
yion, before he was sent as a prophet ,• and thus
do We reward the well-doers. And he entered
/he city, of Pharaoh, which was Munf [Mem
phis], after he had been absent from him a
while, at a time when its inhabitants were in
advertent, at the hour of the noon-sleep, and he
found therein two men fighting , this being of
his party (namely an Israelite), and this of his
inemies, <in Egyptian, who was compelling the
Israelite to carry firewood to the kitchen of
9/taraoh without pay : and he who was oi his
>arty begged him to aid him against him
who was of his enemies. So Motes said
unto the latter, Let him go. Andit is said that
te replied to Moses, 1 have a mind to put the
wrden on thee. And Moses struck him with
his fist, and killed him. But he intended not
to kill him ; and he buried him in the sand. He
aid, This is of the work of the devil, who
ex-cited my anger, for he is an enemy
MOSES
357
unto the son of Adam, a manifest misleader of
9 aaid, tn repentance, O my Lord,
'erily I have acted injuriously unto mine own
oul, by killing him; therefore forgive me.
So He forgave him : for He is the Very tTor-
Diving, the Merciful.— He said, 0 my Lord,
»y tbo favours with which Thou hast fa-
roured me, defend me, and I will by no mr ans
e an assistant to the sinners after this,—
Vnd the next morning he was afraid in the
ity, watching for what might liappen unto
im on account of the slain man ,• and lo, he
who hud begged his assistance the day before
ras crying out to him for aid against another
Egyptian... Moses said unto him, Verily thou
rt a person manifestly in error, becuuse of
hat which thou, hast done yesterday and to-day.
tot when he was about to lay violent hands
pon him who was an enemy unto them both
namely unto Moses and him who begged Ins
id), the latter said, imagining that he would
ay violent hands upon him, because of that
which ht had said unto him, O Moses, doat
hou desire to kill me, as thou killedst a soul
esterday ? Thou desirest not a ugbt but to be
n oppressor iu the land, and thou desirest not
o be [one] of the reconcilers. — And the Egyp-
'an heard that . so he knew that the killer was
Moses ; wherefore he departed imto Pharaoh
and acquainted him t/tcreunth, and Pharaoh
commanded the executioners to slay Moses, and
they betook themse/t** ro seek toW But a man
MtoWfJ a believer, of the family of Phnraoh
came lYnui the furthest part of the city, mr,
ning oy a way thnt »;;os nearer Man the um,
by which +f>*y hud come: he said. 0 Moses
verily the chiefs of the people of Pharaoli are
oonaulting respecting thee, to slay thee;
therefore go forth from the city : verily 1 am
unto tbee one of the admonishere. *So he
went forth? from it in fear, watching en fear
of pursuer, or for the aid of God. He said, 0
my Lordj deliver me from the unjust people
of Pharaoh J
"And when be wa.s journeying- towards
Medyen, which was the city of Sho'eyL
(Shu'aib). eight days journey from Misr (named
after Medyen [Madyan] tht son of Abraham)
and he knew not the way unto it, be aaid, Per
adventure my Lord will direct me umo the
right wa>,or the middle way. And God sent,
unto him an augd, having in kis hand a short,
spear ; and he went with film thidier. And
when he came unto the water (or well) of
Medyen, he found in it a company of men
watering their animals : and he found besides
t/hem two womnu keeping away itieir sheep
from flue water. He said unto' t/iem (nomelrj
the IMU women), What in the matter with you
tl>n'. ye water not ? They answered We ahall
not water umil the pastors shall have driven
away their animals ; and our father is a very
old man, who cannot water the sheep. And he
watered for them fro.n another weti mar unto
them, from which he lifted a stun* that none
could lift but ten persons. Thou he retired to
the shade of an Egyptian. Mom- tree on zccoun*.
of the violent* of the heat of tkv sun and he
was hungry, and he said, (J my Lord, verily I
am in need of the good provision which Tnou
shalt send down unto me. And t/te iu-o lotrmw
relumed unto their father in Ufa time thun they
were accustomed to do : so he asked them the
reason thereof und th<\< informed him of the
person who had watered for ttom whereupon
ht said unto one of them, Call him unto me
" And one of them came unto him, walking
bashfully, with the vleevr ofhtr shijl over her
/ore, 6y reason, of her abash/new -it him: she
said, My father calletb ther, that he may re-
oompense thee with the rev»ard of thy having
watered for us. And he assented to her colt
dislih'na. in his mind the receiving of thr rt-
ward; but it seetneth that sht intended (he
compensation if he were of such as desired z'C,
And she walked before him ; and the wind bleat
her garment, and her leys were discovered so
he said unto her, Walk behind me and direct
me in the way. And she did so, until she came
unto her father, who was Sho'eyb, on whom be
peace J and with him was prepared a supper.
Be said unto him, Sit and sup. But he re
plied, I fear lest it he a compensation -for my
having watered for them, and we are a family
who seek not a compensation for doing oood.
He said, Nay, it is my eastern and hath been
the custom of my fathers to entertain the guest
and to yive food. So Ht att} and acquainted
358
MOSES
him with his case. And when he had come
unto bim, and had related to him the story of
kit having killed the Egyptian, and their Men
tion to kill him and his fear of Pharaoh, he
replied, Fear not: them hast escaped from
the unjust people. (For Pharaoh had no
dominion over Medyen.} One of them [namely
of the women] said (and she was the one who
had been sent), 0 my father, hire him to tend
our sheep «»' *w stead; for the best whom
lbou canst hire is the strong, the trustworthy.
So he asked her respecting him, and she
acquainted him with what hath been above re-
lated,Ms lifting up the stone of the well, and
his saying unto her, Walk behind me ;—and
moreover, " that when she had come unto himi
and he knew of her presence, he hung down his
head and raised it not. He therefor* said,
Verily I desire to marry thee unto one of
these my two daughters, on the condition that
thou shalt be a hired servant to me, to tend
my sheep, eight years ; and if thou fulfil ten
years, it shall be of thine own will ; and I desire
not to lay a difficulty upon thee by imposing
as a condition the ten years . thou shalt find
me, .if God, please, one of the just, who, are
faithful to their covenants. He replied, This
be the covenant between me and thee ; which
ever of the two terms I fulfil',* there shall be
no injustice against me by demanding an addi
tion thereto ; and God is witness of what we
say. And the "marriage-contract was concluded
according to thisj and Sho'eyb ordered his
daughter to give unto Moses d rod w&erewith
to arive away the wild beasts from his sheep :
end the rods of the prophets were in his posses
sion ; and the rod of Adam, of the myrtle of
paradise, fell into her handj and Moses took it,
wi th the knowledge of Sho'eyb. (Surah xxviii
21-28.)
"Hath the history of Moses been related
to thee ? when he saw fire, during, hts journey
from Medyen on his way to Egypt ^ and said
unto his family, or his wife. Tarry ye here ;
for I bare seen fjre : perhaps I may bring
you a brand from it, or find at the fire a
guide to direct me in the way. For he had
missed the way in consequence of the darkness
of the night. And when he came unto ft (and
it was a bramble bush"), he was called to by a
voice saying, O Moses, verily I am -thy Lord;
therefore pull ..off thy shoes ; for thon art in
the holy valley of Tuwa. And I have chosen
thee/rom among thy people? .wherefore hearken
attentively unto that which is revealed unto
thee by Me. Verily I am God : there is no
Deity except Me ; therefore worship Me, and
perform prayer in remembrance of Me. Verily
the hour is coming : I will manifest it unto
mankind, and its nearness shall appear unto
them by its -signs, that every soul may be re
compensed therein for its good and evil work .-
. therefore let not him who believeth not in
it,' and followeth h,i& lust, hinder thee from
believing in it, lest thou perish. And what is
that in thy right hand, 0 Moses ?— He ari-
•wercd, It is my rod, whereon I lean and
wherewith I beat down leaves for my sheep
thai they may eat them; and I have other
uses for it, <w the carrying of provision and the
MOSES
water-skin, and the driving away of reptile*-
He said, Oast it down, O Moses, So he cait
it down : and lo, it was a serpent running
along. 'God said, Take it, and faar it not:
w« will restore it to its former state. And he
put his hand into its mouth ; whereupon it be-
came again a rod. And God 3aid, And put
thy right hand to thy left arm-pit, and take it
forth; it shall come forth white, without
evil,(Maf 'is without leprosy; shining like the
rays of the sun, dazzling tte sight,) as another
sign, that We may show thee the greatest of
our signs of thine apostleship. (And when he
desired to restore his hand -to its -fast state, he
put it. as before described, and drew it forth!)
Go as an upostle unto Pharaoh and those who
are' with him; for he hath acted with exceed
ing )ja piety hy arrogating to himself divinity <~*
jMoses said, O my L6rd,-dilate my baeom that
it may bear the message, and make iny affair
easy unto me, and loose the knot of my
tongue (this had arisen from his having been
burned in his mouth by a live coal when ne toot
a child), ih&t they may understand my speech
when f deliver the message. And appoint unto
me a We?e«r of my family, namely Aaron
IHaroon] my brother. Strengthen xay ba$k
by him, and make him a colleague in my
affair, that we may glorify Thee much, ana
remember Thee much ; for Thou knowert
us.
" God replied, Thou hast obtained thy pe-
tition, 0 Moaes, and We have been gracious
unto thee another time : forasmuch as We
revealed untc thy mother what was revealed,
when she gave birth to thee and feared that
Pharaoh would Kill thee among the others that
were born, sayingyCaat him intp the ark, and
then cast him, in the ark, into tie river Nile,
and the river shall throw him on the shore;
then an enemy nuto He and an eneiny tmto j
him (namely Pharaoh) shall take him. And 1
bestowed on thee, after he had taken thee,
love from Me, that thou mightest be loved ty
men, so that Pharaoh and all that saw tw \
loved thee ; and that thou raightest be bred up i
in Mine eye. Also forasmuch a,s thy sister ]
Maryam went that she might learn what became {
of thee, after they had brought nurses and thou •
hadst refused to take the breast of any one of J
them, and she said, Shall Indirect- you unto I
one who will nurse him ? (whereupon her pro
posal was accepted, and she brought his mother); \
so We restored thee to thy mother that herej« >
might become cheerful and that she might .not f
grieve. And thou sleweat a soul, namely tht •
Copt in Egypt, and wast sorry for his siaugh* '
ter, on account of Pharaoh, and We delivered ;
thee from sorrow; and We tried thee with
other trial, and delivered thee from it. And;
thou stayedst ten y&ars among the. people of ;
Medyen, sifter thou hadst come thither from ''
Egypt, at the abode ofSho eyb the prophet, and \
he married thee to his daughter. Then thofl j
earnest according to My decree, a* to th ;
time of thy mission, when, thou hadst attained,
the age of forty years, 0 Moses ; and I have |
chosen thee for Myself. Go thou and thy
brother unto the people^ with My nine signi, :
and cease ye not to remember* Me, Go ye'
MOSES
into Pharaoh ; for he hath acted with exeeed-
jig impiety, by arrogating to himself divinity >
and speak unto him with gentle speech, ex
horting him to relinquish that conduct : perad-
venture he will consider^ or will fear God,
and repent. (The [m«re] hope with respect to
the two [result is expressed] because of God's
knowledge that he would not repent.) — They re-,
plied, 0 our Lord, verily we fear that he may
be precipitately violent against, as, hastening
to punish us, or that he may a'ct with exceed
ing injustice towards us. He said, Fear ye
not ; for I am with you : I will hear and will
see. Therefore go ye unto him. and say,
Verily we are th$ apostles oi thy Lord :
therefore send with us the children of Israel
unto Syria, and de not afflict them, but cease
to employ then in thy difficult works, such as
digging and building, and carrying the heavy
burden. We have corne unto thee with a sign
from thy Lord, attesting our veracity in assert
ing ourselves apostles . and peace be on him
1 wiio folleweth the right direction : — that is, he
shall be secure from punishment. Verily it
hath been revealed unto ua ihat punishment
[shall be inflicted] upon him who chargetb
! with falsehood that wherewith we havtcome.
and turneth away from it. (Surah x.x. 8-50.-)
"Then We sent after them, namely the
, apostles before mentioned [who were Sho'eyb
and his predecessors], Moses, with Our signs
unto Pharaoh and his nobles, snd thoy acted
unjustly with respect to them, disbelieving in
the signs: but s^e what was the end of the
corrupt doers. And Moeea said, 0 Pharaoh,
verily I am an apostle from the Lord of the
world unto thee. But he Charged him with false
hood: so he said, 1 am right not to say of God
aught but the truth, i have come unto you
with f, proof from your Lord : therefore send
with me to Syria 'the children of Israel. —
Pharaoh said unto him, If thou hast como
with a sign confirmatory of thy pretension,
produce it, if thou be of those who apeak
truth. So he cast down his rod; a«d lof it
was a manifest serpent. And he drew forth
his h&tiAfrora his bosom j and lo, it was white
| and radiant naif the beholders. The nobles
| of the people of Pharaoh said, Verily this is
; a knowing enchanter : he desireth to expel
you from your land. What then Hn y$ com
mand? — They answered. Put oif for a time
him and his brother, and send unto the cities
collectors [of the inhabitants], that they may
bring unto tbee every knowing enchanter.
And the enchanters came unto Pharaoh.
They said, Bhail wo surely have a reward if
we be the party who overcome ? He ans-
, we red. Yea , and verily ye shall be of those
who are admitted near unto my person.
They said, 0 Mos«sf either do thou cast down
thy rod, or we will east down what we have
with us. He replied, Cast ye. And when
j they cast down their cords and their rods, ihey
enchanted the eyes of the men. diverting them
from the true perception of thejR ; and ih«y terri-
; fled them ; for t/tey imagined them to be ser
pents running ; and they performed a great en
chantment. And We spak* by revelation
unto Mosea, [paying,] Cast down thy rod.
MOSES
359
And lo, it swallowed up what they had
caused to appear changed. So the truth
was confirmed, and that which they had
wrought became vain ; and they were over
come there, and were rendered contemptible.
And the enchanters cast themselves down
prostrate : they said, We believe in the
Lord of the worlds, the Lord - of Moses
and Aaron. Pharaoh said, Have ye believed-
in Him before. I have given you permis
sion? Verily this is a plot that ye hare
contrived hi the city, that ye may cause its
inhabitants to go forth !rom it. But ye shall
know what shall happen unto you at my hand.
I will" assuredly cut off your hand? and your
feet on the opposite sides — the right hand of
each and his left foot : then I will crucify you
all — They replied. Verily unto our Lord
shall we return, after our death, of tcfiatever
kind it be ; and thou dost not take vengeance
on as but because we believed in the signs
of our Lord when they came unto us. O our
Lord, pour upon us patience, ai\d cause us to
die Muslims I (Surah vii. 101-123).
" And Pharaoh said, L,et me alone that I
may kill Moses, (for they had- diverted him
from ktllina him,) and let him call upon his
Lord to defend him from me. Verily I fear
lest he change your religion, and prevent your
worshipping me, or that he may ca.use cor
ruption to appear in the earth (that it,
slaughter, and other offences'). — And Moses aaid
unto his people, having heard this, Verily, I
have recourse for defence unto my Lord
and your Lord from every proud person
who believetb not in the day of account. And
a mau who was a believer, of the family of .
Pharaoh (it 'is said that he was the son of hit
paternal uncle,) who concealed his faith, said,
Will ye kill a man because he saith, My Lord
is God, — when be hath come unto you with
evident proofs from your Lord? And if he
ba a liar, on him [will be] the evil constqnmce
of his lie; but if he be a speaker of truth,
somewhat of that punishment with which he
threatenetb you will befall you speedily. Verity
God directeth not him who is a tmnsgreggor,
or polytheist, [and] a liar. O my people, ye
have the dominion to-day, being overcome™
in the land of jEgypt ; but who will defend us
from the punishment of «God if ye kill his
favourite servants, if it come unto us?— Pha
raoh said, I will not advise you to do [aught]
save what I see to be advisable, whifh is, lo
kill Moses ; and I will not direct you save into
the right way. And he who had believed
said, 0 my people, verily I fear for you the
like of the day of the confederates, the like of
the condition of the people of Noah, And 'A'd
and Thamood and those who have lived
after them: and God willeth not injustice
unto His servants. And, 0 my people, verily
I fear for you the day of nailing (that is, the
day of resurrection, when the people of Para-
due and thoqe of Hell shall often call one to
another). On the ~day when ye «hall turn
back from the place of reckoning unto htli. y£,
shall have no protector against God. And
he whom God shall cause to err shall have
no director. Moreover, Joseph (who was
360
MOSES
MOSES
the .son of Jacob rewording to one
opinion, and who lived unto tfut time of Moses ;
and Joseph the son of Abraham the .son of
Joseph the son of Jacob, according to another
opinion) came unto you before Moses , with
evident mhaeutous proofs ; but ye ceased not
to be in doubt respecting that wherewith he
earae unto you, until, when he died, ye said
without proof God -will by no means send an
apostie after him. Thus God oauseth to err
him who is a transgressor, or polytheist, [and)
a Sceptic. They who dispute respecting the
signs oi God, without any coa/iocing proof
having come unto them, their dtKpitttnais very
hateful with God and with those ^ho hav*»
belioved. Thus Giod sealeth every heart (o/
ttie whole heart} of a proud contumacious
person.
"And Pharaoh said. O Hainan, build foi
me a tower, that i may reach the avenues
the avenues oi tiie heavens, and ascend unto
the God of Moses . but verily I think him,
namely Moses, a liar in his assertion thai he
hath any cjod but myself. And thus the wicked
ness of hi" Heed wa^ made to seera comely
vmto Pharaoh, and be was tnrned away fronc
the path of rectitude ; and the artifice oi
Pharaoh [ended] not save in loss. And he
who had believed said. 0 my people. follo<v
rne : I will direct you into the right way 0
my people, this present life is only a tem
porary enjoyment ; out t,tie world to couie is
the mansion of 'firm continuance. Whosoever
doeth evil, he shall not be recompensed save
with the like of it; and wuo«oevev doeth
good whether male or female, and is a be
liever, these shall enter Paradise ; they shall
be provided tor therein without reckoning.
And, 0 my people, how is it that 1 invite
you unto salvation, and ye invite me unto
the Fire ? Ye invite me to deny God, and
to associate with Him that of which t have
uo knowledge, but 1 invite you unto the
Mighty, the "Veiy Forgiving. [There is'i no
doubt but that the false gods to the worship
of which ye invite me are not to Ue invoked in
this world, nor in the world to come, and that
onr return [shall be] unto C*o<l, and that the
transgressors shall be the companions of the
Fire. And ye shall remember, when ye see
the punishment, what I say unto you; and 1
commit my case unto God; for God seeth
His servants. — Thh he sarid luhen they threa
tened him for opposing their religion. Therefore
God preserved him from the evils which they
had artfully devised (namely s/auc/hter)t and a
most evil punishment encompassfidthe people
of Pharaoh, with Pharaoh himself (namely the
drowning) ; then they shall be exposed to the
Fire morning and evening ; and on the day
when1 the hour [of judgment] shall come, it
shall be said unto the angel*, Introduce the
people of Pharaoh into the most severe
punishment. (Surah xl 27-49.)
And the nobles of the people of Pharaoh
said unto htm, Will thou let Moses and his
people go that they may act corruptly in the
earth, by inviting to disobey thee> and leave
thee and thy gods ? (For he had made for
them little idols for them to worship^ andhesaid*
I am yottr Lordunrl their Lord; — and therefoit
he scctd, I atTi yvur Lord the Most High,) He
answered, We will slaughter their male chil
dren and will suffer their females to live : and
verily we shall prevail over them. And thvs
they did unto them ; wherefore the children of
Israel, complained, and MOKOS said unto his
people, Seek aid of God, and be patient: for
the earth belongeth unto God : He oauseth
whomsoever He will of His servants to inherit
it; and the prosperous end is for those who
fear God. They replied, We have been
afflicted before thou >amest unto us and since
thou hast com* nuto us. He eaid, Perhaps
your Lord will destroy your enemv and cause
you to succeed [him] in the e»rth. and He
will see how ye will act therein. — And We
h*d punished the family of Pharaoh with
dearth and -vith scarcity of fruits, that they
•might be admonished and might believe. But
when good betidecl them, they said, This is
ours ; — that is, we deserve it; — and they were,
not grateful for , it ; and if evil befell them,
they ascribed it to the ill luck ot Moses anu
those believers who were with him. Nay, their
ill-luck *va* only with God, He brought it
vpon them : but the greater number of them
know not t/iis. And they said unto Moses,
Whatsoever sign thou bring unto us, to en
chant us therewith, we will not believe in
thee. So he uttered an imprecation upon them,
and We sent upon them the flood, which eu-
tererf their houses and reached to the throats of
the persons sittina, seven days, and the locusts,
which ate i heir corn and their fruits, and the
kummal. or ym.bs'f or a kind of tick, which
sought after what the locusts had /<?/>, *r»tl the
frogs, which filled their houses and their food.
and the blood in t/ieir voters ; diftinet signs •.
but they were proud, refusing to believe in
them, and were a wicked people. And when
the punishment fell upon them, they said, 0
Moses, supplicate for us thy Lord, according
to that which He hath covenanted with thee.
namely, that He will withdraw from vs the
punishment if we believe: verily, if thou
remove from us the punishment, we
will assuredly believe thee, and we will
assuredly send with thee the children of
Israel. But when We removed from them
the punishment until a period at which they
should arrive, lo, they brake their promise.
Wherefore we took vengeance on them, and
drowned them in the sea, because they
charged our signs with falsehood and were
heedless of them. And We caused the people
who had been rendered weak, by being en
slaved, to inherit the eastern, parts of the
earth and its western parts, which we blessed
with water and trees, (namely Syria) ; and the
gracious word of thy Lord was fulfilled on
the children of Israel, because they had been
patient ; and We destroyed the structures
which Pharaoh and bis people had built and
what thev bad erected."" (Surah vii. 124-
133.)
" We brought the children of Israel across
the sea, and Pharaoh and hie troops pursued
chem with violence and hostility, until, whun
drowning overtook him, he said, I believe
MOSES
MOSKS
that there if no deity bui He iu whom t-he
children of lsn»ol bcliov.;,:ind I am -me of I)K<
Muslims. But Gabriel thninf into iiix mouth.
gome of the. mire of the sea, lest mercy should
bf, grunted him, and said, Now thou be/iei't at,
and thou ii»=t. beon rebellious hitherto, and
wast [one] of the corrupters. But to-day we
will raise tbeo with thy lif oless body from the
tea, that thou inayest be a sign unto those
who shall coroe after thee. (It in re/ate-/, on
the authority of fbn-' Abbas, that so me 'of the
children of Israel doubted his death ; where/ore
he wax brouijht forth to them that they might
ft*, him.) But verily many men aro heedless
of Our signs. (Surah x. 90-92.)
" And We brought the children of Israel
across the sea : and they came unto a people
who gave themselves up to the worship of
idols belonging to them ; [whereupon] they
said, O Moses, make for us a god (an idol for
us to worship), like as they havo gods. He
replied, Verily ye are a people who are ig
norant, since ye have requited God'* favour
towards you torth that which ye have said ; for
that [religion] in which these, are [occupied
shall be] destroyed, and vain is that which
they do. He said, Shall I seek, for you any
other deity than God, when He hath preferred
you above the peoples of your time. TSurab
vii. 134-136.)
" And We caused tne thin clouds to shade
you from the heat of the sun in the desert, and
caused the manna and the quails to descend
npon you, and said, Eat of the good things
which We have given you for food, and store
not up. — Hut the.?/ were uni) fateful for the bene
fit, and atortd tip ; ivkrrefore it was cut off from
them. And they injured not Us thereby; but
they did injure their own souls." (Surah
ii. 54.)
•' Remember, 0 children of Israel, when ye
said. O Moses, we will not bear patiently the
having one kind of food, the manna and the
quail* f therefore supplicate for us thy Lord.
that He may produce for us somewhat of thai,
which the earth bringeth forth, of its herbs
and its cucumbers and its wheat and' its len
tils and its onions :--h<> <aid unto them, Will
ye take in exchange that which is worse far
that which is better? — But they refused to
recede ; therefore he supplicated God. and He
*aid, Get ye down into a groat city; for ye
shall have therein what ye have asked. — And
tke mark* of abjection and poverty were
stamped npon them : so thru? characteristics
necessarily ?>elony to them, aw if they are rich,
as ntccsisarii'y as the fi'impcd coin be/onoeth to
it$ diet and they returned with indignation
from God. This was because they did dis
believe in the signs of God, jind slay the pro
phets («.<? Xtchariuh and John^ unjustly : this
was because they rebelled and did transgress. '
(Surah ii. 58.)
" And re>ncmber when Moses asked driuk
for his p.-ople, who had become thirsty in tht
desert, and We said, Strike with thy VoiJ the
atone, (/t was the stone thut fled a fray trith
his garment : it toas light, square, like the. head
of a man. marble or IcedkakmCl Accurdiiu/ty
he struck it ; and there gushed out from it
twelve fountains. a<*w-;iina to fie number of
th<: iribr$. a 14 men (fir.h (rib* of tUnn* know
ing their drini-.irix'-}>]-i''e. An-? We *aid unto
them, Eat ye au<! driuk of tlu- supi.lv o; God,
and commit not evil in the earth, itctiny cor
ruptly. (Surah ii. f»7.)
" ltf>m>'mbfr also when We obtained your
bond that i/e would do acrordint/ to that which
is contained in th;> Luir, and £a<? lifted np ovgr
you the mountain, namely Mount Sinai,
pulled it np by the .-oofs and raited it nvrr you
when ye had refund to accept thf Laic, and We
said, Re'ce-ive that which "We have ^iveu vow,
with resolution, and remember that trfateb is
contained in it. to ih according thrrfto .• perad-
venture ye will fear the t\'rc,or acts i>j itis-
obedienre. — Then ye turned back nil or that ;
j and had it not been for the grace of God to
wards you and llis mercy, ye had certainly
been of those who perish. And ye know
those of you who transgressed on the Sab
bath, bij catchiny fish, when \Ve. had forbiuden
them to do .so, and they were the people of Ei/ieh,
and We said unto them, Be ye apes, driven
away from the sqcioty of men — Thereupon
they became, such, and t/iey perished after three
days. — Aud We made it (nnme/y that punish
ment) an example unto those who wore con
temporary with them and those who came
after thorn, and a warning to the pious
' (Surah ii. 00-B2.)
" And We appointed unto Moses thirty
nights, at the expiration of which We. would
np^fith to hint, on the <:i»i<iit!on of hix f anting
durmq 'hem ; anil they tuerf ("the nights of the
! month of] Dkn-l-Kaaifek ; and he fasted
i during them : bat, when they iverv ended, he dis-
! liked the smell of his breath . so he used a
j tooth -stick ; whercitpnn (rod commanded hi IH to
j fast ten other niyht*, that HA miykt apeak to
\ Him with the odour of hi ft breath, as He ichns*
j nmne be exalted hath mud, and \Ve completed
! them by adding ten niyhts of Dhu-l-Hijj< h
so the stated time of his Lord was completed,
forty nights. And Moses said unto his bro
ther Aaron, at his departure tn thr mountain
for the private col/ocuticn, Bo thou my deputy
among my people, and act rightly, and fol
low not the way of the oorraptdoen bymgnt*
iny with them in act* of disobedience. And
I when Moses came at Our appointed time,
I and his Lord spake unto him ivithout an in-
j ter median/, he said. O my Lord, show me
I Thyselj, "that 1 may see Thee, lie replied,
I Thou shalt not see Me : but look at the moun
tain, which, is stronger than thou ; and if it
remain fi'-rn in its place, then shalt tliou see
Me. And when his Lord displayed Himself
to the mountain (that is, u-lim there ti\>j»<i,-< </,
of Hi." light, halt of (he tip of His liHii ftmji,i\
a.s- re/a'ed in a tradition which E!-Hrikim hath
i'erijled)* He reduced it to powder, /-wet/ing it
even with the ground around it ; and Moses
fell down in a swoon. And when he reco
vered, he said, Extolled -be Thy perfection !
I turn unto Thee repenting, und 1 am Ihe
first of the b«!iever* m »»/ timr. — God said
unto him. O Moses, 1 have chosen thee above
the people of thy time by honouring thee. by
My commissions and by M_y speakinsr unto
362
MOSES
MOSES
t/teej theiefere recei^o what I. have given
thee, and be of those vli" ;-.re grateful. And
We wrote for him upor: . b^ tables ofth^ JLaw
(which were of i'-.i: fate-rree of Paradise, or of
chrysolite, or of emerald; in number »et)en, or
ten) an admonition concerning every requisite
matter of religion, ami a distinct explanation
of everything ; und* said. Therefore receive
it with resolution, and command thy people
to act according to the most excellent [pre
cepts] thereof. (Surah vii. 138-142.)
• And the people of "Moses, after it {that is,
after his departure for the private collocation),
made of their ornaments (which they had bor~
rou'edofthejjcOfife of Pharaoh), a corporeal calf
which Bt-Stfmtre* cast for them, and which
loved ; for he had the faculty of doing so in ••'w-
fKqucnce of their having put into its mouth some
dust taken from beneath the hoof of the horse of
Gabriel ; and th'.y took it as a god. Did they
not see that it spake not to them, nor directed
them in the way ? They took it as a god, and
w«re. offenders. But when they repented,
and saw that they had errtid. which was after
the return of Moses, they said, Verily if our
Lord do not have mercy upon us and for
give ns, we shall assuredly be of those who
perish. (Surah vii. 146-148.)
" And Moses returned unto his people en
raged against them, exceedingly sorrowful.
He said, C my people, did not youi Lord
promise you a. good true promise, tkat He
would give you iheJLaic? But did the time of
my absence se«m tedious to you, or did ye
desire that indignation from your Lord should
befall you, and therefore did ye break your
promise to me, and abstain from coming after
me'l — Tfcey answered. We did not break our
promise to thee of our own authority; but
we were made to carry loads cf thti ornaments
of the people of Pharaoh (which ihe children
of Israel had borrowed of them under pre-
tfnce of [requiring- them for] a wedding, and
which remained in thtir possession}, and wr
cast them into the fire, by order of Es-Sa-
miie^ And ?u like manner also Es-iSamiree
cast their ornaments which he had, and some of
the dust which he had taken from the traces of
the hoofs of the horse of Gabriel ; and he pro
duced unto them i» corporeal calf , of flesh and
blood, which lowed, by reason of ihe dust, the
property of which is to give life to that into
whirh it is put f and he had put it, after he had
moulded Ike m(f, into its mouth. And they
(namely Et-jSfMtiree and his folloiffrs) eaid,
This it your god, and the god of Moses; but
be haili forgotten his lord here, and gone to
stf./c him. God saith. But die? they not see
that it returned them not an answer, nor was
able to r-flu$e them hurt or profit? And
Aaron haxi satfl unto them, before the return
of'Mosrjs, O rpv peo-uJe: yo are on.y tried by
it; and verily your Lord is the Compas
sionate; therefore follow me, by worshipping
Sim, and obey ray command. They replied.
We will by no raenns cease to bo devoted to
the ujorship nfjt until Moses reiurij umo us.
Moses said after his return, 0 Aaron, what
hindered thee, when thou rawest that they
bad gone astray, from following me? Hast
then: then been disobedient to my command
by remaining among them who worshipped one
ther than ^ d? — He answered, 0 eon of my
mother, .< ;xa me not by uiy beard (for he
had taken Hold of his beard with his left hand),
nor by [the hair otj my bead (for ht
had taken hold of his hair with his right hand,
in anger^. Verily I feared lest if I followed thee
(/£>>• a company of those who worshipped th<t
caff n'ou/d inevitably have followed me) ttvou
shouldst say, Thou hast made a division
amosg tho children of Israel, and hast not
waited for my sentence Moses said, And
what was thy motive for doing as thou haft,.
0 Samiree ? He answered, I sa^r that which
they saw not : tneref ore I took a handful of
dvfit from the foot-marks of the horse oi the
apostle Gabriel, and cast it into the molten
calf; and thus my soul allured me /.'' inke a
kci!>i(f(il -:.f ihe dust above-mend'oafd. nnd tit
cast it 'upon that which had no lift, that it
mif/ht h ive life ; and 1 saw that thy people had
dewandtd of thee that them wouldst make them
a god,' so my soul suggested to me that this
calf should be their god. Moses paid unto him,
Then get thee gone from among us. and [the
punishment j for tb.ee during the period of thy
life [shall be], that thou shalt say unto whom*
soeuert~t-.au shalt see, Touch we not; — (so he used
to wanJc: about the desert, and when he touched
anyone, r>r anyone touched him, they both be
came ajfected with a burning fever :) and.
verily for thee is a threat which Lhou ehalt
by no means- find to be false. And look at
thy god, to the worship of which tbcu hast
3ontimied devoted. We will assuredly burn
it : then we will assuredly reduce it to pow
der and scatter it in the sea. (And Moses,
after he had slaughtered it, did this.) Your
deity is God only^ except whom there is no
deity. He comprehendeth all things by His
knowledge. — Thus, O Mohammad, do We re
late unto thee accounts of what hath hap
pened heretofore; and We have given the-*1.
T era Us, an admonition; namely the K-ur-un.
(Sui -.h xx. 88-99.)
•• and they were made to drink down the
cuif into their hearts (that is, the love of it
mingled with their hearts as drink mingteth,)
because of their unbelief. (Surah ii. 8?')
" Remember, O children of Israel, when
Moses said unto his people who worshipped,
the calf, O my people, verily re have injxired
your own souls by your taking to yourselves
the calf as a god ; therefore turn with repen
tance unto your Creator from the wotship of it.
and slay one another: (thai is > kt. the innocent
among you slay the criminal :) this will be best
for you -in the estimation of your Creator.
And he aided you to do that, sending upon
you a- black cloud, lest one of you should sec.
another and have compassion on him, until there
were slain of you about seventy thousand. And
thereupon He became propitious towards you,
accepting your repentance ; for He is the Very
Propitious, tne Merciful (Surah ii. 51.)
:i Remember, also, 0 children of Israel,
when ye said, having gone forth with MOSPK
to bey pardon of God for your worship of the
calf\ und having h*or$ **'$ •&*?<?*. O Moses, we
MOSES
•will not believe tbee until we see God mani
festly : — -wbereupur; the vehement sound as
sailed, you- am i yf died, while ye beheL1 what
happened to you. Then We raised you to life
after ye bad been dead, that perad venture ye
might givp thanks. (Sura a H. 52, 53.)
"And Moses chose y'row his people seventy
men, of Chose who /tad not worshipped the calj, ay
the command of God, at the time appointed by
Us for theii* coming to ask pardon for th.tir
companions' worship of the calf; and he want
forth with them ; and when the convulsion
(the violent eovthgmoJod) took them away (fe-
canse, sa.ith .fun- Abb as, they did not separate
f hem wives from their people when the latter
worshipped' the calf), Moses said, 0 nay Lord,
if Thou hadst pleased, Thou hadst destroyed
them before my yoiny forth with them, that the
children of Israel Might have, beheld it and
Wight not .-inspect me; and me [also]. Wilt
Thou destroy us for that which the foolish
among us have done ? It is naught but Thy
trial: Thou -wilt cause to err thereby whom
Thou pleas<?st, and Thou wilt /ightly guide
when; Tkuupleasest. Thou art our guardian;
and do Thou forgive us and have mercy
upon us : for Thou art the best of those who
forgive : nnd appoint lor 'is in this world
what is good, ana in t-ho worl.l tc come ; for
uuto Thee have we turned with repentance.
— GW replied, 1 will afflict with My punish
ment whom I please, and Myraerey extendeth
orer everything in the world; and I will ap
point it, in the world to come, for those who
fear and give the legal alms, and those who
believe on Oar signs, who shall follow the
apostle, the illiterate prophet. Mohammad,
whom they shall f\rA written down with them
in the Pentateuch and the Gospel, by his name
and, his dercriptiun. He will command them
that which is right, and forbid, them that
which is cvii; and will allow them as lawful
the good things among those forbidden in their
law, and prohibit, them the impure, as carrion
and othsr things, and will take off from them
fcneir burden arid the yokes that wore upon
them, «s the slaying of a soul [for an atone
ment] m repentance. . and the cutting ojf ofthf
nark left by impurity. And those who shall
behove HL him and honour him and assist
him and follow the light which shall le sent
down with ban, ntvmfly the Kur-dn, these shall
be the prosperous. (Surah vii. 154-156.)
"And remember when Moses said unto his
people, U my people, remember the favour
cf God towards you, since He hath appointed
prophets from among you. and made you
princes (mutters of servants and other atten
dants], and given you what He hath not given
any [other] of the peoples (as tht manna and
i/'t- quails and other things}. 0 my people.
<•! ier the Holy Land which God hath decreed
'.-.' you (namely Syria), and turn not back,
lv ye turn losers. — They replied, O Mose.«,
verily there is in it a gigantic people, of the
re-mwns of the tribe of 'A'd, and we will not
enter it until tboy go forth from it ; but if
they go forth from it, then we will enter.
— Thereupon two men, of those who feared to
disobey God, namely Joshua and Caleb, of the
MOSES
363
chiefs whom Moses sent to discover the circum
stances of the, giants, and upon whom God had
conferred favour, and who had concealed what
they had seen of the state of the giants, except
ing from Moses, wherefore the other chiefs be
came cowardly, said unto them, Enter ye upon
them through the gate of the city, and fear
them not ,- for they are bodies without heuris ;
and when ye outer it, ye overcome ; and upon
God place voar dependence, if ye be believers
—But they said, 0 Moses, we will never enter
it while they remain therein. Therefore go
thou and thy Lord, and fight : for we remain
here. — Then Moses aftid, 0 my Lord, verily I
am not master of any but myself aud my
brother: therefore distinguish between us
and the unrighteous people, — God replied,
Verily it. (namely the Holt/ Land} shall be for
bidden them forty years ; they shall wander
in perplexity in the land : <ind be not thoa
solicitous for the unrighteous people- — The
j land through which they wandered wt$ only
j nine leagues in extent. They v$*>d tr> journey
i during tht, night with diligence; but in the
morning they found themselves in the place
\ whence they had set forth ; and they journeyed.
* during the day in like manner. Thus they 'did
until all of them had become extinct, excepting
those who had not attained the age of twenty
years; and it is said that they were fix hun
dred thousand, Aaron and Moses died in the
j desert; and mercy was their lot: but punish-
! ment was the lot of those. And Moses begged
j his Lord, when he was about to die, that He
! would bring him as near as a stone's throw to
I the Holy Land :. wherefore He did so. And
\ Joshua was made a prophet after the forty
I [years], and he gave orders to fight against
I the giants. So he went with those who were
' with him, and fought against them : and it was
j Friday: and the s>w xtood still for hint awhile,
until fie had made an end of Jighting auainsi
them. (Surah v, 23-29.)
" Karoon [or Korah] was of the people of
j Moses (he was the son of his paternal vncle,
I and the son of his maternal aunt, and he be
lieved in him}; but he behaved insolently
! towards them; for Wo had bestowed upon
; him such treasmet that their keys were
heavy burdens for a company of men endowed
with strength. In number, as some $a.yt seventy ;
and some, forty; and some, ten; and sovie^
another number. Remember when his people
(the believers among the children of Israel} said
unto him, Rejoice not exulting ly in the abun
dance of thy wealth ; for God loveth nofc those
who so rejoice ; but seek to attain, by means
j of the wealth which God hath given thee, the
latter abode [of Paradise], by expanding thy
wealth in the service of God : and neglect cot
thy part in this world, to work therein for the
icorld. to come; but bo beneficent unto man
kind, by bestowing alms, as God hath been
beneficent unto tneo ; and seek not to act
corruptly in the earth ; for God loveth not
the corro.pt doers. He replied, I have only
been given it on account of the knowledge
that 1 possess. For he was the most learned
of the children of Israel in the Law, after
Motet find Aaron. God saith, Did he not
364
MOSES
MOSES
know that Gcd had destroyed before him, of
the generations, those .that were mightier
th^n he in strength, and who had amassed
more abuadancs of wealth ? And the wicked
sh.ill not be asked respecting their sins, be
cause God lawtvetk tii>-n> • therefore t/iry -thail
b° sent into the Fire without a reckoning. And
Kiirovn went forth uu'o hia people in his
pomp, with his many (fcpGMantf niomited,
adorned with garments of gold nnd silk, upon
decked horses and mnles. Those who desired
the present h'fe said, 0 would that we had
the like of that which bath been bestowed on
Karoon in this world! Verily he is possessed
oi great good fortune ! — But those unto whom
Knowledge of whnt God hath promised in the
world to come had been gh'eu. said unto them,
Woe to you! The reward of God in the world
to come (w/U'dk ix -Paradise) is better for him
<vho belie vet-h and worketh righteousness
than thai -which hath been bestowed on Kdruon
in the present, world; and none shall receive it
but the patient in the service of God. And
We caused the earth to cleave asunder and
swallow up him and his mansion, and he had
no forces to defend him. in the place of God,
nor was he of the [number of the j saved.
And the next morning, those who had wished
for his place the day before said, Aha! God
enlargeth provision ur.to whom He pleaaeth
of Hii> servants, and is sparing of it unto whom
He pleaseth! Had not God beon gracious
unto us, He bar! caused [the earth] to cleave
asunder ami swallow up us! Aha! the un
grateful for His benefits do not prosper !
(Surah x*viii. 70-82.)
" Remember, when Moses said unto his
people (when one of them had been slain, whose
murderer was not known, and they asked him
to beg God that He would discover him to them,
wherefore h». HtppKcated Him), Verily God
commandeth you to sacrifice a cow. They
said, Dost thru make a jest of us? He said,
I beg God to preserve nit> from being one of
the foolish. £o whci they knew that he de
cidedly intended what he had ordered, they
said. Supplicate for us thy Lord, that He
may manifest to us what she is { that is, what
is her aye. JMoses replied, He saith, She is a
cow neither old nor young ; out of a middle
age, between those two : therefore do as ye
are comiuandod. They said, Supplicate for
us thy Lord, that He may manifest to us
what is her colour. He replied, He saith, She
is a red cow : her colour is very bright : she
rejoireth the beholders. They said. Suppli
cate for us thy Lord, that He may manifest
to us what she is, whether she be a pasturing
or a working cow; for cows of Ik", description
mentioned are to us like one another ; and we,
if God pioase, shall indeed be rightly directed
to ner. (fit a tradition it is said, Had they
noi said, ' If God please,' — she had not ever
been manifested to them.} He replied, He
saith, She is a cow not subdued by work that
}>'.ou0rh».'th the ground, nor doth she watpr the.
field : [.she uVJ free /r.ow defects ut'.d the markf*
of work ; there is no colour in her different
from lite rest n/ her colour. The}' said, Now
tbou hast brcu4jl.; llio truth. A/u/ they sought
her, and found her in the possession of the
young man who acted piously towards his
mother, and tJity bought her for as much gold
an her hide would contain. Then, they sacri
ficed her ; but they were near to leaving it
undone, on account of the greatness of far
price. (And in o- tradition it is said, Uo.d
they sacrificed any c->ic whatever, He had satis
fied fhem : but they acted hardly towards them
selves ; so God acted hardly towards them.)
And v.-hen ye slew & soul, and contended to
gether respecting it, (and God brought forth
[to light] that which ye did conceal — this »*
the beginning of the story [and waa me occa
sion of the order to sacrifice this particular
cow,]) We said, Strike him (that is. the slain
person) with part of her. So he waft struck
with her tongue, or the root oj her tail, or, as
some saifjWith her right t.hiyh; whereupon he
came to life, and said, $uch+a-one and such-a.-
one slew me,^-t<> the two .softs of his «/«</.;.
And he died. They two [the murderers") toert
therefore deprived oj thu irt!te>itvnce> and werf
slain. TLus God raiaetn to life tire dead, and
showeth you !fi^ siyns (the proof of His
power}, that peradvtintureyomay understand,
and know that He who is able to raise to life
one soul is able to raixi-: to life many souls.
Then your hearts became hard, 0 ye Jew*, .vo
as nr>t to accept th* truth, after that, and they
[were] as stones, or more hard : for of atones
there are indeed some from which rivers gush
forth ; and of them there are indeed some
that cleave asunder and water issueth from
them; and of them there are indeed some
that fall down through fear of God ; whereas
your hearts are no! impressed, nor do they gww
wft, nor do they bccom humble. But Goals
not heedless of that which ye do : He only
reserveth you unto your time. (Surah ii. 63-
69.)
•• Remember when Moses fc-aid to his young
man Joshua the ton of Nun, who served him
and acquired knotclti'Jye from him, I vd«l not
cease to go forward uuti^ "I reach the piacc
wher* 'ciio two aoas (tht 3ea of Greece and the
Sea of Persia) meet, or Travel' for a long space
of time. And when they reached the place
where they (the two seats} o*et they forgot
their fish : Joshua forget to takf. it up, »n ttr-ir
departure: and Moses forgot t<> remind. him;
ana it made its way in the seiv by a hollow
passage, God withholding' the water from it.
And when they had passed beyond that place,
and proceeded until the time of the morning*
meal on the following any, [MosesJ said unto
his young man, Bring U:' our morning -meal1:
we have experienced fatigue from this our
journey. He replied, \Vhaj: ihinke«t thou?
When we repaired to the rock to resfaf that
place, I forgot the fish, and none made me
forget to mention it but the Devil; and it
made its way in the sea in a wonderful
manner. — Moses said, That (namely our fas*
of the Jiah) is what we were desiring for it
is a sign unto us of our finding him whom we'
seek. And they returned by the way .that
they had come, following the -footsteps, and
came to the rock. And they found one of Our
servants (namely fil- KJtidr) unto whom We
HOSES
had granted mercy from (Ja (that is, the
gift of prophecy in the opinion of some, and the
rank of a taint according if another opinion,
which -most <4/' the, learned hold}, and whom
We bad taught knowledge from Us f^pecting
things unseen. — •£'.-Bukhfoee hath reified a
tradition that .Moses performed tl*. office. •>/' a
preacher among t^e children of Israel, and was
asked who was ike most knowing of men ; to
which he answered. I : — whereupon Qodblttmed
him for thin, Afcau.se he did not refer the know-
kdge thereof lo Him. And God said unto him
by revelation. Verity I have a servant at the
place -a; fare the two seas meet, and he is more
knowing than thou. Moses said, 0 my f^ord,
and how shall 1 meet with him. f lie answered,
Thou shaft take with thee a fish, and put it
into a measuring vessel, and where thou shalt
lose the fish, there is iw. So he look a .fish,
and put it into a vessel. Then he departed, and
Joshua the son of Nun departed with him, until
they came to the ruck, where they laid down
their heads and slept. And the jish. became
agitated in the vessel, and escaped from it, and
fell into the sea, and it made its way in the aea
by a hollow -passage, GW withholding the water
frvin (He fifth so tnnf it became like n vault over
it : and when Moses' companion awoke, -he for
got to in i or m him of the fish.
"Moses said unto him [namely El -Tvhidr].
Shall I follow thee. that thou mayest leach
me [part} of that which thou hast been
taught, fora direction unto me'f He answered.
Verily thou canst not have patience with me.
For how canst thou be patient with respect
to that whereot thou comprehondest not the
knowledge? — He replied, Thou shalt find me
if God please, patient ;. aad I will not disobejT
any command of thine. He said, Then if
thou follow me, ask me not respecting any
thing : but be patient until I give thee an
acccuni thereof. And Moses assented to his
condition. And they departed. walJdny alony
the shore of the sea, until, wiien they em-
barked in the ship that passed by them. he.
£ I' Khidr, made a hole in it, by puf/iny out a
plank or tico planks from it on tke outride 'by
means of an axe when it readied the middle of
the sea. Moses said unto him, Hast thou
made a hole in ifc that thou mayest drown its
people ? Thou hast done a grievous thing. —
(But it is related that the water entered not the
hole.") Ho replied, Did I not say that thou
eouklst not have patience with rne ? [Moses]
said, Chastise ine not for my forgetfulness.
nor impose on me a difficulty in my case. —
And they departed, after they had gviie forth
from the vessel, walking on, until, when they
found a boy who had not attained the age of
knowing right and wrong, playing with other
children, and he was the ntost bw.utiful of them
in countenance, and he (EI-Ki>i.dr) slew him.
Moses said unto him, Hast thou slain an inno
cent soul, without his having slain a soul?
Thou hast done an iniquitous thing. — lie re
plied, Did J not say that thou couldst nut have
patience -A-i thine? [Moses] said, If lask thee
eoocenimg anything after tlxis tim?., suffer
me not to accompany thee. Now hast thou
from vie an; excuse for thy separating
MOSES
365
thyself from me. — And they departed [and
proceeded] until, when they came to the
peoplo oi a city (whieh we* Ant inch), 'bey
asked food of its people; but tnoyrefiuvJ to
entertain thorn: and they louud therein a
wall, ih? height whereof was a hundred cubits,
which was about to fall down ; wl^reupon ne
(M-KJtidr) yet it -upright uithhisi, ' Motet
said unto him. If thou wouldst, tb- .^lightest
bare obtained pay ior it. .y/nec ••/'. -y did i-ot
entert'f.in us, not withstanding our want of food,
El-Khidr said unto him, This shall be a sepa
ration between mo ;i ud thee ; but before my
separation from ihee, I will declare unto thee
the interpretation of that which thou couldst
not bear with patience.
" Ac. LU the vessel, it belonged to ten poor
men. who pursued their business on the sea:
and I desired to render it unsound ; for there
was behind them a king, un unbeliever,. who
took every sound vessel bv force. And as
to the boy, his parents were believers, and we
feared that he would transgress against them
rebelliously and impiously • for, according to
a tradition related by Muslim, he was consti
tuted by nature an unbeliever, and- had he lived
he had so acted ; wherefore we desired thac
their Lord should create for them a better
than he in virtue, and [one] more disposed
than he to filial piety. And God created J or
them a daughter, who Huurfutd a prophet, and
gave birth to a prophet, by weans of whom Gott
directed n people to the right ivay. .And as to
the wall, it belonged to two oi-phan youths
in the city, and beneath it was a treasure
buried, of gold and silver * belonging io ttie'm .
and their father *as a righteous man; und
thy Lord desired that they should attain
their age of strength and take forth their
treasure through the mercy of thy Lord.
And I did it not (namely what hath been men
tioned} of mine own *i!i. but by direction of
God. This is the interpretation of that which
thou couldst not bear with patience. (Surah
xviii. 50-81.)"
The following remarks are taken from
Sale's notes of ai Bauawi and ottier commen
tators : —
" There is ti tradition that Moses was H
very s \\.xrihy man: and that *vhen lie put his
hand into his bosom, and drew it out again,
it became extremely white and splendid, sur
passing the brig iitness of the sun.
'• Moses had 'in impodknent ift his speech,
which was occasioned by the following acci
dent. Pharaoh one day carrying him in hJs
arms when a child, he suddenly laid held c<
his beard and plucked it in n very rough
mauuer, which put Pharaoh intp sucl a pas
sion, that he ordered him to be put to death :
but A'siyeh, his wife, representing to him that
he-was but a child, who could not distinguish
between a burning coal and a ruby, he ordered
tho experiment to be made ; and a live coal
and a ruby being .set before Moses, he took,
the coal and put it iuio his mouth, and burnt
his tongue; and tUeroupon ue was pardoned.
— Thi.s is a ' Jewiifa story a little altered.
. .« It it; relatod that the midwife appointed
to attend tue Hebrew woman, terrified by a
366
MOSQUE
MUAZZIX
Jig-tit which appeared bet ween the eyes of Moses
at his birth, and touched with extraordinary
affection for the child, did not discover him
to the officers, so that her mother kept him
in her house, and nursed him three months ;
after which it was impossible for her to con
ceal hitn any longer, the king then giving
orders to make the searches more strictly.
" The commentators sav that the mother of
MOSCB made an ark of the papyrus, and
pitched it, nnd put in some cotton : snd
having laid t.h/i child therein, committed it
to the river, a. branch of which went into
Pharaoh's garden: that the stream earned
the srk rlnther iufco a fishpond, at the head of
which Pharaoh w«* then sitting with his w>fe
A'siyeb, the daughter of Muzahein ; and thai
tuo'kir.g, having oommandftd it to be takon
up and opened and finding in it a beautiful
child. too.K a fancy to it, and ordered it to be
brought up. Somo writers mention a mira-
raculous pi'eservation of Moses before he was
put into the wk; ;md tell us. that his mother
having hid him from Pharaoh's officers in ar
o?en, his sister, in 'her mother's absence,
kindled a large tire in the oven to heat it. noi
knowing the child was there ; but that be
was afterwards taken out unhurt.'1
MOSQUE. The Muhammadan
place of worship, which, in called in Arabic
masjid f^.^^ ). The term vi mosque " is found
in all European languages, and must have been
derived from the Arabic form of the word,
e.g. Spanish mwjuitet', Italian, mozchea ; Gor
man, Mosckremt French mosQuee-. English,
mosque, or mask.
For an acoormt of these buildings, see
M.ASJ1D.
MOTHER. (1) Kindness towards
a mother is enjoined i» the Qur'an. Surah
xlvi. 14 : " We have prescribed for man kind
ness towards his parent*. His mother bore
him with troabJi . , and "brought him forth with
trouble.1.
(2) Mothers cannot be compelled to nurse
their children.
(8) They .".re not. without their hu.-"i •.•:n\u's
permission, allowed to move them to a strange
place, (liidayah. voL i, pp. 3SG, 390.)
MOURNING Tilt period of
mourning tor the dead js restricted to three
days, during which time the friends and rela
tives are expected to visit the bereaved
family, and offer up prayers lor the departed
^fdtihah-. r.nd speak wr»i\is ot consolation
(tafziyai\}l But a widow must observe the
custom of mourning for a period, of four
months and ten days, which period is called
ik&fd. During these periods of mourning, it i".
the duty cf all concerned to abstain from the
use of perfumes and ornaments, and to wear
soiled garments. Lamentation, buka' (Heb.
bokhonj, for the dead is strictly forbidden by
the Prophet (Alithkal. bock v. ch. vii.), but
it is nevertheless a common custom in the
East, amongst all sects of Muhammad ans.
(See Arabian Nights; Lane's Modem Egyp
tians , Shaw's 7~}'ave''$ in.
MU'AHID (Afl>W). One who enters
into covenant (-a/a/} with another. Au infidel
who is permitted by a Muslim Government tc
enter its .towns and carry on traffic, ie. a
zimmi. f ZUIMI
Def error." One of the ninety-nine names or
attributes of Gcd. It dbes not occur in the
Qnr'an. but is given in the Hadis.
MU'ALLIM (/*!*•). A teacher in
a school or mosqiie. Al-Mu'allimu '/-
Awwal. " The first teacher," is a reran ased
by philosophers, for Aristotle. A.mokgst the
Sufis it is used for Adam, who is said to be
the first prophet. Mu'allimu 7-J/<zATihfca&,
" The teucher of angels," is also used by the
Sufis for Adam, because it is eaid In the
Qui'hii. Surah ii. 31: "O Adnrm. declare
unto them (the angels') their names:"
i MU'ANAQAH (&aV*w). Embrac-
ing, 01 throwing one«elf on die neok of one's
friend. A custom especially enjoined by
Mnhiunmad. (Mishkdl, book xxii. ch. iii.
Pt. £.)
AL-MU'AQQIBAT (^U**3\). Lit.
"l The succeeding ones." A title given to the
recording angels. PKIBAMU '
The sixth
Khallfah, and the founder of the Umaiyah
dynasty (the Ommiades} He was the son. of
Abu Sxtiyau, one of the leading Companions
of Muhammad, and became Khalffab on the
death of al-Hasan, and is regarded with great
iian-ed by the Shrahs. He died *.H GO. He
was th* first Khalifah who made the Khali-
fate hereditary
AL-iVnj'AWWIZAT (^VWt). Lit.
•'•The seekers of refuge." The two last
chapters of the Qur'ar.
Suratn 'i-Falaq (cxiii.), beginning witn,
•' Say . I fiee for rejujre to the Lord ci the
Daybreak.
Siiratu 'ij-Nas Ccxiv.) beginning, '*5>ay: i
fiee for refuge to the Lord of men,"
These chapters were ordered by Mohaiu
mad to b& recited after eac-h stated prayer.
(Mishkar, book IT. ch. six. pt. i;.
MU(AZ 1B]ST JABAL ( J^ c>? **~_ .
One of the most famous of the u Companions,''
He was of the Banii KKazraj, and was oul}
twenty ye:,r» of tge at the battle of Badr.
Being woll skilled in the Qui-'an, he was left
at Makkah to instruct the people in the
principles of Isiain. He was also sent as tin
head of a band of collectors of taxes to soutl
Arabia, and became Qazi of al-Yaman. Af to'.
Muh.ammad's death, he becaiuc: a leading
person in the counsels of Abu Bakr and 'Umar.
and was placed in charge of Syria by the
latter Khalifah, He died at Ta'un 'Amuwav.
The caller ot
the azan, or '• sximmons to prayer." In small
mosques, tne ajan is given by the Imam, bcf
I in the larger ones, an official is specially &p-
MUBAH
MUHAMMAD
367
pointed for the purpose. When the mosque
has a minaret, he calls from the top of it, but
in smaller places of worship, from the side of
the mosque The first niu'azzin was Bilal,
the son of au Abyssinian « lave- .:=:>], and Mu
hammad is related to have said, "The
callers to prayer may expect Paradise, and
whoever serves in the office for seven years
shall be saved from hell lire.'. (Mis/ikdft book
iv. ch. vi.J [AZAN 1
MUBAH (cV). Lit. "Allowed/1
A tern, used in the religious and ceremonial
law of Islam for an aotioii which a person
may do or let alone, being attended with
neither praise nor biauic?.
MUBAftA T (Sty***) . " Mut ual dis
charge." A term used in thf» law of divorce
when a man says to his wife. " I am dis
charged from the marriage between you and
me;' and she consents thereto. It is the
same Us khuk.
AL-MUBDI' (^MJij. "The Pro-
ducer or Beginner.5*- One of the ninety-nine
names or attributes of God. It does not
occur in the Qm'an, but the idea is expressed
in" Surah Ixxxv. 13: '* He produces and re-,
stores.''
MUBTADI1 (£«f"). Lit. "An
inventor." A heretic, or a broacher of new
opinions.
MILDABBAE. (^J-). A slave who
has received his freedom in consequence of
the master*? doath, in accordance with a pre
vious promise.
MUDDA'I (^j^). A plaintiff in
a law-suit.
MUDDA'PALAffl^^J^), A
defendant in a law-suit.
AL-MUDDASSIE (/ou^). Lit.
" The Enwrapped.'' " The title of the LXXivth
Surah of the Qur'an, iu the first verse of
•which the word occurs. " O Thou, enwrapped
in thy mantle, arise and preach." This is
considereu. by some to be the earliest Surah
in the Qur'an, but others think it was -the
xcvrthu [MOHAMMAD.]
MUFARRIHU 'L-AHZAN (c/*
fcV^)- *?*• " The "wing cheerful
under affliction/ A term used by pious Mus
lims for a spirit of resignation in affliction,
which, they isay, is to be produced by possess
ing faith with a firm boliof in the decrees
of fate. ('Abdu 'r-Razzaq'a Did. of Svfi
Terms.)
MUFSID (Juju). »«A pernicious
person." It occurs in the Qnr'an frequently,
«.y. Surah ii. 219: "'God knoweth the foul
dealer fmufsid} from the fair dealer
(mutlihy
MUFTI (<ja*). The officer who
expounds the law. He asmete the Qafci, or
judge, and supplies him with fatwds, or deci
sions. He must bo learned in the Qnr'an and
Hadis, and in the Muslim works of law.
AL-MUQHNI (<j*J\). " The En-
richer." One of the ninety-nine names or
attributes of GodL It is referred to in the
Qur'an, Surah iv. 129 : " God can mate both
independent (lit. ' enrich ') out of His abun
dance.''
MUHADASAH fffoW-). Lit
" Discoursing together." A term used by the
Sufis for the calling ci a person by God
through some outward means, as when,- ac
cording to the- Qor'au, Surah xxviii. 30, God
.4poke to Moses out of a tree. ('Abdti 'r-
's t/ict. of Sufi Terms.}
MUHADDIS (ct»j^-). (1) The
narrator of a Hadis or acts and words of
Muhammad. (2) One learned in the Tradi -
tions.
AL-MUHAIMIN ((^^^. '-The
Protector " One of t]io ninety-nine names
or attributes of God. It occurs 1n the Qur'an,
Surah lix. 23, i4 He is ... the PmtvrtorS
MUHAJIR (f****). From hijrah,
" flight." One who perfoT-ms hijraJi either by
(1) leaving Makkah in company with tb«
Prophet, or (2) leaving a country ruled by an
infidel power, or (3) by fleeing from what
G od has forbidden.
MUHAJIRtfN' (cj#*W*). The pi
ot Muha'jir. The exiles or refugees. A terra
used for all those converts to Islam who fled
with their Prophet from Makkah. Under
the title are ilso included all who from time
to time joined Muhammad at al-Madmah,
either from Makkah or from any other
quarter, up to the taking of Makkah in
A.H. 8. They rank lirst in order amongflt the
Companions of the Prophet.
MUKALLIL (JW-). Lit. "One
who makes lawful." The man who ruanies
a divorced wife in order to make her lawful
for her former husband if he wish to marry
her. [DIVORCE.]
MUHAMMAD (Ju^-). Lit. " The
Praised One." Sometimes spelt Mohammed.
Mahomed, or Mahomet.
Muhammad, the founder of the religion
generally known as Muhammadariism, but
called by its own adherents Islam [ISLAM j,
was the posthumous son of 'Abdu 'llah, by
his wife Aminah. 'Abdu 'llah belonged to
the family of Hashim, which was. the noblest
tribe of the Qurnish section of the Arabian
••ace, and said to be directly descended from
[shmael. The father of 'Abdu 'llah and the
grandfather of Muhammad, was 'Abdu 1-
Muttalib, who held the high office of custo
dian of the Ka'bah. [KA'BABL] The same
year which saw the destruction of the Abys
sinian invader, and formed an epoch in the
history of Arabia, known as the Era of the
Elephant, on account of the vast array of
elephants the invaders brought with th«rn,
witnessed the birth of Muhammad. Muham-
368
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
mad is said to have neon born about fifty-five
days after the attack of Abrahah, or or tr>«
12th day of the month KfUuu '!-Awwal of the
first year of the Era of tho i'.lephant. which
M. Caussin de Percevnl believes to have been
the fortieth year of the reign of Ohosroes the
Groat (Kasrn Anyihirwan), and calculates
the date to have been August 20th, A.r> 570
(see vol.i. pp. 282, 283). According- to Sprenger,
it was April 20th, A.D. 571 {Das Le.ben and
die Lcfirc. des Mohammad, vol. i. p, 138.)
Muhammad was born at Makkah. And
immediately upon his birth, his mother,
Amiuah, sent a special messenger to inform
'Abdu 'I-Muttalib of the news. The mes,-
senger reached the chief as he 3 at within
the sacred enclosure of the Ka'hah, in the
midst of his sons and principal men, and he
arose with joy and went to the house of
Aminah. He then took the child in his arms,
and went to the Ka'bah. and gave thanks to
God. The Quraish tribe begged the grand
father to name the child after some member
of the family, but *Abdu '1-Muttalib said, " I
desire that the God who has created the
child on e&rth may be glorified in heaven,
and he called him Muhammad, <* the praised
one/'
Al-Hafiz, on the authority of Makhzum
(quoted by Abu 'l-Fida', p. 59). says that on
the night that Muhammad was born, the
palace of Chosroes was shaken, and fourteen
of its turrets fell ; the fires of the Persians
were extinguished, which had not been extin
guished before for a thousand years : and tho
lake Sawah sank.
It was not the custom of the better class
of \vome:i amongst the Arabians to nurse
their children, and consequently tho infant,
«oon after his birth, was made over to Su-
waibah, a slave-girl of his uncle Abu Lahab.,
Suwaibah had a son, whose name was Mas-
ruh, whom she nursed at the same time, and
she had also mirsed Hamzah, Muhammad's
uncle, and Abu Saliraah; so that these threo
men were his foster-brothers. Saw ai hah only
suckled Muhnmmad for a few days, when the
child WHS made over to Halfmah. a woman of
the tribe of the Banu Sa-d. Halimah was the
daughter of 'Abdu 'Hah Abu Zu'aib. the son
of si Huris, and she took Muhammad to her
desert home, amongst tho Banu Sa'd, where
he i-emained fur a period of two yeai-s. The
foster-brother suckled by Halimah was ;Abdu
'llah, and his foster-sisters- Amsah and Hara-
mah.
The following story connected with Mu
hammad's, stay with Halimah is related by
Abu '1-Fids* (p. 64). When some time passed,
Muhammad and his foster-brother went out
to a distance from the house, when Hallcaah'a
son camo to his mother and said. "Two men
clothed in white raiments have taken hold of
th« Quraish boy. and have thrown him down
and have ripped open his belly." So Harl-
inah and her husband went to the place, where
the child was. but found him standing oh his
feet. And they said, " What has happened to
thee child?" And he answered and said,
44 Two men came to me, and threw me down
and ripped up my belly." Then Hahmah's
husband said to her. " I greatly fear that this
boy has got the _epileps3*." So they took him
to his mother Aminah. Arid Halimah said
to Aminah. " 1 am afraid he is possessed of a
devil." But Aminah 'said, "What in the
world can Satan have to do with my son that
he should be his enemy?"
This circumstance has been regarded as
tbf- miracle when Gabriel «ame and took out
the he.'u't of the child and washed it from the
stains of original sin. And some commenta
tors say the first verse of the xoivth Surah
of the Qur'an alludes to it : " Have we not
opened thy breast ? "
Muhammad ever retained a most grateful
recollection of the kindness he had received
from tho Banu Sa'd, and, in after years, he
used io say, "Verily I am the most perfect
Arab amongst you. My descent is from the
Qur&ish, and my speech is the tongue of the
Banu Sa'd."
In his sixth year, Muhammad was taken by
his mother to al-Madmah, but on tho return
journey she fell sick, and died at a place
called al-Abwa, where her body -was buried.
In subsequent years, Muhammad visited his
mother's tomb at al-Abwa,', and wept over it,
saying, "This is t,he grave of my mother;
the Lord hath permitted me to visit it. and I
sought leave to pray for her salvation, but it
was not granted. So I called my mother to
remembrance, and the tender memory of her
overcame mo, and I wept.'"
The little orphan was then carried oh to
MakkahbyUmm Aiman. who. although young
in years, became his faithful nurse and com
panion. The charge of Muhammad was now
undertaken by 'Abdu Jl-Muttalib, but the old
chief died two years afterwards, and the
child was committed to tho care of his pater
nal uncle, Abu Talib. When Muhammad
was twelve years old, he was taken, by his
uncle on a mercantile journey to Syria, and
proceeded as far as Busra. The expedition
lasted for some months. .According to the
Muslim historian. Abu 'l-Fida5, it was at
Busra that Muhammad met the Christian
monk Buhaira', Who is related to have said to
Abu Talib, «* Return with this youth, and
guard him from the hatred of tho Jews ; for
great dignity awaits this your brother's son."
It was on this journey that Muhammad was
brought in -contact with the profession of
Christianity in Syria, and had an opportunity
of obtaining some information as to the na
tional and social customs of Christians. He
xuu'st have also passed through many Jewish
settlements. It is, therefore, highly probable
that it was on the occasion of this journey
that Muhammad's mind became first im
pressed with tho absolute necessity of reform
ing, not only the gross idolatry of Makkah.
but the degrading social hnbitg of the Arabian
people.
After this journey, the youth of Muhammad
seems to have been passed uneventfully, bnt
all authorities agree in ascribing to him a. cor
rectness of manner, and a purity of morals,
'which were at that time rare amongst the
MUHAMMAD
people 'of Makkab. The fair character and
honourable bearing of the unobtrusive youth
won the approbation of the citizens of Mak
kah, and by common consent he received the
title of al-Amin, " The Faithful."
Between the years A.D. 580-590. the sacri
legious war broke out between the Quraish
and the Banu Hnwazin, which lasted for
nearly Urn years. In two of the contests,
Muhammad, though only a lad, accompanied
bis uncles in their local wars. They were
called "sacrilegious" because they were car
ried on during the sacred months, when fight
ing was forbidden.
The youth of Muhammad passed away
without any other incidents of interest. At
this period he was employed, like other lads,
in tending the sheep and goats of Makkah
upon the neighbouring hjlls and valleys. He
used afterwards to allude to his shepherd
life, and say it comported with his prophetic
office, oven as it did with that of Moses and
David; " Verily thore hath been no prophet
who hath not performed the work of a shep
herd."
When Muhammad had reached his twenty-
fifth year, on the recommendation of his
uncle, Abu Talib, he entered the service of
Khadijah, a rich widow of Makkah. She
was of the Quraish tribe, the daughter of
Khuwaih'd ibn AsaH. With Maisarah, her
servant, Muhammad. w;.is placed in charge of
the widow's merchandise, and ho again tra
velled the sameroxite which he had traversed
thirteen years before with his ancle. His
journey again extended as far as Basra, a
city about sixty miles to the east, of the river
Jordan. He visited Aleppo and Damascus,
and was doubtless brought in frequent con
tact with both Jews and Christiana, and had
another opportunity of obtaining that super
ficial acquaintance with the Jewish and
Christian faiths, which enabled him in after
years to embody so much of the teaching of
the Bible in the verses of the Qur'an. « The
mutual animosity of Jew towards Christian,"
says Mr. Stobart, u though they professed to
worship the true God, though they appealed
to the old Testament, and both equally ro-
vered the name of Abraham, and professed
to abhor that idolatry in which he had been
bred, may have led Muhammad to think that
possibly -more divine truth lay bid in both
these systems of belief, though covered and
concealed by human invention*, and may
have suggested to him the possibility of torm-
iug out of these conflicting elements one
single simple catholic creed, and of thus
uniting mankind in the worship and love of the
great Father of all." (Stobavt's Islam t p. 56.)
Muhammad having proved hiir:solf faithful
bl the commercial interests of bis mistress, was
8<x>c< rewarded with her hand in marriage.
When Muhammad married her she was a
vridow of forty years of age, and had been
already twice married, and had borne to her
former husbands, two sons and a daughter.
The house of Muhammad and Khadijah was
a bright and happy one, and their marriage
fortunate and fruitful. Two eons and four
MUHAMMAD
369
daughters were its issue. Their eldest son
was al-Qasim, who died at the age of
two years, whence 'Juhammad v.-a-s some
times called Abu 'l-Qdsini, or the father of
al-Qusim. The other soa, 'Abdu 'JUVh, sur-
nara'ed at-Tukir and at-Taivib, died in in
fancy. The four daughters were Zainab,
Ruqaiyah, Umm Qulsiun. and l-'atimah.
[FATIMAIL]
During her lifetime, Khadijah was Muham
mad's only 'wife, and he always looked back
to this period of hia life with fond remem
brance. When the world called him an im
postor and a cheat, Khadijah was the first to
acknowledge him to be the " Apostle of God."
Indeed, .so much-did he dwell upon the mutual
love of Khadijah and himself, that the envious
'Ayishah declared herself more jealous of this
rival, who was dead, than of all the living
rivals who contested with her the affection of
the Prophet.
As yet Muhammad waa almost a stranger
to the outside world, but be now obtained
some reputation among his fellow men, by
taking a prominent part in the resuscitation
of an old league, called the Federation of the
Fuaul [UILFU 'L-PUZUL], formed in ancient
times for the repression of acts of lawlessness
within the walls of Makkah. Anew compact
was formed between four or five of the chief
families of Makkah for the protection of the
weak and oppressed, and Muhammad was
one of the most prominent movers in this
federation, the revival of which resulted
mainly from his efforts.
In his thirty-tii'tb year, he settled by his
decision a grave difficulty, vrhich had sprung
up during the reconstruction of the Ka'bah,
regarding the placing of the sacred stone,
and which almost threatened to plunge the
whole of Arabia into another of their oft-
recurring wars
The Ka'bah was tou low in the building,
and the Quraish wished to raise it higher, and
so they demolished it. When it was rebuilt
as far as> the position of the Black Stone, the
question arose, who should be the honoured
instrument of raising the sacred relic into its
place, for each tribe claimed the honour.
Then the oldest citizen arose and said, •'• My
advice is that the man who firs*- entereth by
the gate of the Banu Shaibah. shall be
selected umpire in this difficult question, or
shall himself place the stone." The proposal
was agreed upon, and the first man who en
tered the gate was he who was known as al-
Amin, « The Faithful." Muhammad, the son of
'Abdu 'Hah. Muhammad decided upon an ex
pedient, which served to satisfy the contend
ing parties. The stone was placed on a cloth,
and each tribe shared in the honour of rais
ing it, by taking hole! of the cloth. The stone
being thus de-posited in its proper place, the
Quraiah built on without interruption, and
the great idol Hubal was placed in the. centre
of the sacred edifice, and around were ranged
the vaiious other idols of the Arabian people.
•' This circumstance," says Sir William Muir,
4< strikingly illustrates tho absence of any
paramount authority at Mecca at this time.
47
370
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
A c-^rious story is related of an attempt made
about this poviod to gain the rule of Mecca.
Tb* aspirant was Othm&n. first cousin of
Khadija's father. He was dissatisfied, as the
legend goes, with the idolatrous system of
Mecca, and travelled to the court of the
Roman Emperor, where he was honourably
entertained, and admitted to Christian bap
tism. He returned to Mecca, and on the
strength of j.n imperial grant, real or pre
tended, laid claim to the government of the
city. But his claim was rejected, and he fled
to Syria, where he found a refuge with the
Ghassanide prince. But emissaries from
Mecca, by the aid of gifts, counteracted his
authority with the prince, and at last pro
cured his deflth " — Muir's Life of Mahomet*
new ed. p. 31.x
Shortly after the rebuilding of the Ka'bah;
Muhammad adopted 'All, the son of his
friend and former guardian, Abu Talib. ;A1T
waa at this time only fix years old. About
this period he admitted to his closest intimacy
another person, unconnected with him by
family ties, but of more equal age. This was
Zaid, a slave-boy belonging to Khadfjuh, who,
to gratify her husband, made him a present
of the slave. Zoid was the son of Harisah,
of the Bi».Tiu Uznh. a tribe which occupied
the region of South Syria, and had boen taken
captive and sold to Khadij ah's grandfather as
a slave. When Harisah heard that Muham
mad possessed Zaid, he came to Makkah and
offered a large payment for his release. Mi:-
hanimad summoned Zaid, and gave him the
option to go or stay. Zaid elected to stay,
and Muhammad, dolightod \vuh his faithful
ness, gave him his liberty, and adopted him
as his son. The freed man was henceforth
known. ?is fiaid ibn Muhammad.
" Muhammad was now approaching Ins for
tieth year, md increased contemplation and
reflection engaged .hin mind. The idolatry
and moral debasement of his people pressed
heavilv upon him, and the dim and imperfect
shadows of Judaism and'Christianity excited
doubts without satisfying them ; and his
mind was perplexed with uncertainty as to
what was the true religion/' 'Muir's Life .of
Mahomet, new ed. p. 85.;
It is probable that it was at tnjs time Mu
hammad composed those Surahs of the Qur'an
which express the anxious yearning of an
inquirer rather than the more positive teach
ing of an Apostle, and we would assign to
this period the following verses of the Qur'an,
which, according te Mivhatmnadan commen-
trttrv, are admitted to be of a very early
dat( . (Sfe Jalalu 'd-dlnV/tyan.)
Suratu 'l-'Asr (ciii.) : —
" I swear by the declining day I
" Verily, man's lot is cast amid destruction,
" Save those who believe and do the things
which be right, and enjoin truth and enjoin
each other to be patient.''
Suratu VAdiyat (c.):—
" By the snorting chargers !
'' \nd those that dash off sparks of fire !
" A.nd those that scour to the attack at
morn !
" And stir therein the dust aloft ;
" And cleave therein their midway through
a host !
•'Truly, man is to his Lord ungrateful.
" And of this he is himself a witness :
'• And truly, he is vehement in the love of
this world's good.
" Ah 1 knoweth he not, that when that
which is in the graves shall be laid bare,
" And that which is in men's breasts shall
bo brought forth,
"Verily their Lord shall on that day be in
formed concerning them ? "
Suratu '1-Fatihah (i.) :—
" Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds,
" The compassionate, the merciful !
" King of the day of reckoning !
" Thee only do we worship, and to Thee do
we cry for help.
" Guide Thou us on the straight path,
"The path of those to whom Thou hast
been gracious ; — with whom tiaou art not
angry, and who go not astray.''
The latter Surah is the Fatihah, or initial
prayer, tfec., often recited in public worship
and it appears to contain, if not the very
worda, at all events the gist of she daily
prayer of an anxious and inquiring souL
These Surahs were most probably followed
by others of a similar character, being poeti
cal effusion* i -ft her than express enunciations
of any definite teaching. For example, Surahs
ci., xcv., civ., xcii., xci., cvi.
Muhammad seems to have employed him
self in such meditations as find expression in
these Surahs, some years before he assumed
the office of a divine teacher, for it was but
slowly and by degrees that he was led on to
believe that ho was really called of God, to
preach a reformation both to his own people
and to nil mankind.
Bewildered by his own speculations amidst
uncertain llickerings of spiritual light, Mu-
hamuiad spent some time in retirement, and
in the agonies of distress repeatedly medi
tated suicide. Perplexed with the myste
rious destiny of man and the failure of re
pealed revel-iti'-u.s. he would fall into ecstatic
i*everies, an-i n -.us during one of these sea
sons of retirement, in the cave of Hira', that
he believed an angel appeared to him in f
dream, and that the first revelation came
According to the traditions collected by al
Bakhari and Muslim (see Arabic edition, as
Matthe\v'e translation in the Mishkat is defec
tive IT sevi fvi very important particulars), the
first coi'j'iiuuifiitiou was made to Muhammad
in a_ dream.
'Ayishah rel-noc : k> The first revelations
wh?eh the Prophet of God received were in
true dreams. He never dreamed but it came
to pass as regularly as the dawn of day
After this tho Prophet went into retirement,
and he used to seclude himself in a cave in
Mount Hira', and worship there day and
rn'orht. .He would, whenever he wished, return
to his family at Makkah, and theu go baek
again. t»kin«f with him the necessaries of life.
Thus he continued to return to Khadrjah
from time to time, until one day ti'iu revcla
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
371
tion caine uown to him. and the angel (JM.atak)
came to him and said, ' Read' (iqra'y\ but the
| Prophet said, 'lam hot a reader.' And the
Prophet related that the angel took hold of
I him, and squeered him as much as he could
( bear, and then said again, ' Read ' : and the
|j Prophet said, ' I :;m not a render.' Then the
j angol took hold of him a second time, and
squeezed him as much as he could bear, and
then let him go, and said, ' Read ' : then the
Prophet said, CI am not a reader.' Then tLe
iangei again seized the Prophet, and squeezed
1 him, and said :—
' Read thou, in the name of thy Lord who
created ;—
' Created man out of clots of blood: —
* Read thou ! For thy Lord is the moKt
Beneficent,
* Who hath taught the use of the pen : —
' Hath taught man that which he knoweth
not/
(See Qur'an, Suratu 'l-'Alaq (xcvi.;,
the first five verses.)
Then the Prophet repeated the words with a.
trembling heart And he returned (».e. from
Hira to Makkah) "to Khadijah, and said,
' Wrap me up, wrap me up,? And the}* wrapped
hiro up in a garment until his fear was dis
pelled ; and he told Khadijah what had oc
curred, and he said to Khadijah, 'I was
afraid I should die.' Then Khadijah said,
No. it will not be so, I swear by God. He
will never make thee melancholy or sad.
For you are kind to your relatives, you
jfp^ak. the truth, you are faithful in trust, you
bear the afflictions of the people, you spend
in good works what you gain in trade, you
are hospitable, and you assist your fellow
raen,* After this Khadijah took the Prophet
to Waraqah, who was the son of her uncle,
and said to him, ' O son of my uncle, near
what your brother's son says to you.' Then
Waraqah said to the Prophet, ' 0 son of my
uncle, what do you see? ' Then the Prophet
tolA Waraqah what he had seen ;" and Wara
qah said, k This is the Ndmus [ISAMUS] which
God sont to Moses. 0 would to God I were
young ia this tuue ! and would to God I were
living at the time of your people turning you
out ! ' The Prophet said, ' Will my people
turn me out ? ' And Waraqah said. ; Yes.
No man has ever come as you have come,
aad not becu held in enmity; but if 1 vhoalc'i
live to that day, I will give you great help.'
Waraqah s*-on died, and after that the reve-
latign i-eased (i.e. for a time)."
The first vision was followed by a consi
derable period, during which no further
revelation was. given, and during which Mu
hammad suffered much mental depression
[FITRAH j
" During this period," al-Bukhari says, ;< the
Prophet was very sorrowful, HO much so that
he wished to throw himself from the top of a
lull to destroy himself."
lint after a lapse of time, as he was wrapped
up iu his garments and lay stretched upon his
carpet, the angel is said* to have again ad
dressed him, in the chapter which
(Surah Jxxiv,) —
'• 0 thou enwrapped in thy mantle,
Arise and preach I "
Muhammad then believed himself to be a
commissioned Apostle, the messenger and the
prophet of God, sent to reclaim a fallen
people to the knowledge and service of their
God. His icvolations were God's Book, and
his sayings the utterances of inspiration.
The first convert to Islam was his faithful
wife Khadijah, the two next, 'All and Zaid,
his adopted children, and afterwards his old
trusted friend,, Abu Bakr, " the True." Then
followed 'Usman. who was a grandson of kAbdu
'1-Miit.talib; T'alhah, the renowned warrior of
after days ; and '-Abdu 'r-Rahman, a merchant
of some consequence. The new converts
soon numbered some fifty souls, either
members of the Prophet's family or his
dearest friends.
An important change now occurred in the
relations of Muhammad with the citizens of
Makkah. Their hostility was aroused, and
the Muslims were- gubjectsd to some perse
cution and indignity. It was not, however,
until some three yours of his ministration had
elapsed that any general opposition was or
ganized. Hostility once excited soon showed
itself in acts of violence. Saki<l, a youthful
convert, was attacked whilst leading a part;/
of Muslims in prayer. Ho defended himself,
and struck one of his opponents with a camel
goad. It was, says Sir William Muir, *• the
first blood spilt in the cause of Islam.*'
In the fourth year of his mission, Muham
mad took possession of the houae of Arqatn
(a recent convert), and tiiere held meetings
for those who wished to know the teaching oi
the Prophet more perfectly.
The house of Arqam was in front of the
Ka'bah, and was therefore hi a convenient
position. So famous did it become as the
birth-place of believers, that it was after
wards styled th.> " House of Islam,"
Aft the number of believers increased, so
did the enmity uf the persecutor, aud in order
to escape the danger of perversion, Muham
mad i-ecommended such of his followers who
v\ere without protection to seek an asylum ic
.1 foreign lurid. Eleven men, accompanied
by their families, set out for the port of
Shueiba, wharr;, finding two vessels about to
sail, they embarked iu haste, and were con
veyed to Abyssinia,
Here they met wiui a kind reception frou)
ihe Negus, or king, a,nd their period of exile
was passed in peace aad comfort. This is
termed the first* hijrdh, or " flight/' to Abys
sinia, as distinguished from the later and more
extensive emigration to the same land. In
three months the refugees returned to Mak
kah.
About this time a strange episode occurred,
in which Muhammad sought a compromise
with his people, by admitting their gods into
his system as intercessors with the Supreme
Being. While the Qxirrdsh sat beneath the
Ka'bah, he recited the following Surah as arc
inspired message (liii.): —
" And see ye not Lat and 'Uzza,
And Man&t the third beside* ?
372
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
Tht&c are exalted females.
And verily iheir intercasiwt a.v to It-hoped
for."
The idolaters were reconciled, and bowed
before the God of Muhammad. But his heart
smote him, and not long ..a'ter the obnoxious
lines (those in italics) were said to be recalled
by Gabriel, as suggested by the Evil One, and
there was substituted the uncompromising
denunciation of idolatry, from which he never
after swerved: —
" What ! shall there be mule progeny unto
you, and females unto him ?
" That indeed -were an unjust partition.
" They are naught but names which ye and
yoar fathers have invented."
In I he. sixth year of his mission, the cause
of Muhammad was strengthened by the acces
sion of two powerful citizens, Hamzah and
*LTm-tr. Hamzah was the uncle and also the
foster-brother of the Prophet, a man of dis
tinguished bravery, whose heroism earned for
him the title of the •'' Lion of God." 'Umar
was a bold impulsive spirit, tho very man
needed to give strength to a cause, one who
in a remarkable manner left the impress of
his character upon the religious system he
embraced. He succeeded Abu Bakr in the
Khalifate, and left the stamp of his fierce
warlike spirit upon Islam. ftiMAB.]
Alarmed at the bold part which Muhammad
and his followers were now able to assume,
the Quraish formed a hostile confederacy, by
•which all intercourse with the Muslims and
their supporters was suspended. The seve
rity of the ban at last overreached its object,
for the sympathies <>i the peop'ie were enlt.sted
by their privation in favour of Muhammad
and his followers. The interdict was can
celled and the HashrmrUs restored to freedom.
In the beginning cf the tenth year of
his mission, and in the fiftieth of his life,
Muhammad lost his faithful and devoted wife
Khadijah. For twenty-five years she had
been his counsellor and support, and. his grief
at her dsath at first was inconsolable. She
was sixty-five jears old when she died. Abil
Talib, the Prophet's uncle and guardian, died
a few weeks afterwards. Hia conversion to
Islam is a mutter of uncertainty. Within two
months of the death of Khadrjah (who was
his only wife during her lifetime), the Prophet
married Saudah, the widow of one of the
Abyssinian emigrants, and also betrothed
himself to 'Ayishab, the daughter of his
friend Abu Bakr, then but a girl of seven
years.
Abu Talib. had hardly been buried a fort
night when Muhammad followed only by his
faithful attendants, set out on an adventurous
mission to at-Ta'if, a place sixty miles to the
east of Makkah. and the nearest city of im
portance. He went first to the three prin
cipal men of the city, and explained the
object of his mission, and invito-l them to the
honour of supporting him in sustaining the
new faith. But he failed in producing con~
viction. Muhaumiocl remained at at-Ta'if ten
days, bat with no success. The .mob, stirred j
up to hasten the departure of the unwelcome j
j visitor, heoted at him. in the streets, and
I pelted him Mith stones, and at last compelled
I him to flee out of the city. They chased
| him fully tv:o miles across the sandy plain,
i until wearied and mortified, he took refuge
for the night in a neighbouring garden, where
he spent sometime in earnest praver. (Muir,
2ud ed., p. 11 1.)
Reinvigorated by the rest, he sot forth on
the return journey to Makkah.
Kepuised from at-Ta'if, and utterly hope
less at home, the fortunes of Mnhammad
seemed dark, but hope dawned at last from
an unexpected quarter. At the yearly pil
grimage, a little group of worshippers from
al-Madinali was attracted and won over at
Mirm by the preaching of Islam, joined his
mission, and the following year they met Mu
hammad and took the oath of allegiance
which is known as the first Pledge of'Ayaba/i.
This little party consisted cf twelve men. ten
wore ot the Khazraj and two of the Aus
tribe. They plighted their faith to Muhammad
as follows ;«— ;t We will not worship any but
one God, we will not steal, neither will we
commit- adultery, nor will ^ve kill our chil
dren; we will not slander in anywise ; and we
will obey the Prophet in everything that is
just.*'
At al-Madinah the claims of the new Pro
phet found a ready response. A teacher was
deputed from Makkah to ul-MadlnaL, and
the new faith spread with marvellous rapi
dity.
The hopes of Muhammad wore new fixed
on al Mrs dlnab, visions of his journey north «
•ward.s doubtless flitted before Lis imagination
and the musing of the day, reappeared in his
midnight slumbers.
He dreamed thai he was swiftly carried
by Gabriel on a winged steed past al-Madinah
to .tUe Temple of Jerusalem, where he was
welcomed by the former Pr&phets all as
sembled in solemn couolave. From Jerusalem
be seemed to mount upwards, and to ascend
from one heaven to another, until ho found
hiruself in the awful presence of his Maker,
who dismissed him with the order that he
should command his followers to pray five
times a day. [MI'RAJ, BCBAQ.]
When the time of pilgrimage again arrived,
Muhammad found himself surrounded by an
enthusiastic band of seventy disciples from
al-Madinah, who in a secret defile at Mina
plighted their faith, the second Pledge of
Aqabah, whereby they promised to receive
and defend the Faith at the risk cf their own
lives. After this Muhammad determined to
quit Makkah, and the command was given,
4i Depart unto al-Madrnah, for the Lord hath
verily given you brethren in that city, and a
house iu which ye may find refuge." And so,
abandoning house and home, the Muslims set
out secretly in little parties for al-Madinah,
where the numbers soon reached to about
one hundred and fifty, counting .women and
children. Muhammad, with . Abu Bakr and
;A1J, with their families, were left almost
alone hi Mak&ah. The Quraish held a council,
and determined to slay Muhammad ; but
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
373
5 being warned of their designs, he escaped to
Mount Saur, near Makl< a, where he hid him-
' self three days in a cave, and after three
; more days he reached al-Madmah.
- The day of his flight, or hijrah, marks the
< Mnhanrtnadan era, or Hegira. The date of
the 'flight nas the 4th of Rabi'u '1-Awwal,
and by the calculations of M. Caussin do
i Perceval, the 20th of June, A.D. G22.
[HIJRAH.]
The flight to al-Madmah . changes the
i scene, and with it the character of the por
tions of the Quran revealed there. He who
at Makkah is the admonisher and persuader,
at al-Madlnah is the legislator and. the war
rior, and the verses of the Qur'an assume a
more didactic tone. Poetry makes way for
prose, rud he openly assumes the office of a
public warner and prophet.
The idolaters of Makkab disappear and
their place is taken by the hypocrites [MU-
NAFIQUN] of al-Madinah. Here at ai-Madlnali
there was no opposition to Muhammad and
his doctrines ; but, nevertheless, an under
current of disaffection prevailed. The head
of the party was 'Abdu Huh ibn Ubaiy, who,
but for the new turn in tho fortunes of the
city was on ihe point of being its chief.
These disaffected citizens, the munqfiqun,
or " hypocrites," as they are called, continued
to be the objects of bitter denunciation in the
Qur'au till near tho close of the Prophet'^
career. But before the success of Islam they
too vanish from the scene.
The first year of Muhammad's residence at
al-Madinah was chiefly occupied in building
the great mosque [MA.SJIDU ?N-:NABI], and in
providing houses for himself and his followers.
In a short time ho became the recognised
chief of the city. Tho mosque and the houses
were finished within seven months of Mu
hammad's arrival About the middle of the
winter he left the house of Abu Aiyiib, with
whom be had been staying, and installed
Sauiiuh ir> her new residence. Shortly after
wards he celebrated his nuptial^ with 'Ayi-
shah, who though she had been three yearn
affianced, was but a girl of ten yeruv.
Thus, at the age of fift^ -three. :t -now phase
commenced in the life of Muhammad. Hi
therto limiting himself to a single wife, he had
shunned the indulgence, but h o now surrounds
himself with the cares and discord, of poly
gamy. The unity of his family wus uow broken.'
never again to be restored. Thenceforward
his love was to be claimed, his attentions
shared by a plurality of wives, and his days
spent between their houses, for Muhammad
had ho separate apartments; of his own.
Those Muslims who had left Makki'b with
tho Prophet and settled in al-Madinuh, were
now known as tho Refugees [MOHAJIRUN]
whilst those who embraced the- faith ar, al-
Madinah, were designated tbe Assistants or
Allies [ANIJA.K]. Uot-ti these names in time
became titles of distinguished honour.
In the socond year of the Hi jrflb, Muhammad
commenced hostilities against the • Quraish,
and the first pitched battle took place at
Badr. With nn. arttiy of 305 followers, of
whom . two-third.? vrere citizens of al-M.idinah,
MnhaTBinad routed a force three times the
iiuuiber. The following graphic dosf-np:"::
of Ihe battle of B;;di- is srivni by Sir William
Muii . (New ed. p. 230.;"
" The valley of li.-.dr consists of a plain,
with steep hills to the north and east ; on tho
south is a low rocky range; and on thf wi:-*t
rise a succession of sandy hillocks A rivuicl,
rising in the inland mountains, runs thr«>"j*b
the valley, producing along its course aume
rous springs, which here and there WOT e du^r
into cisterns for the accommodation of tra
vellers. At the nearest of these springs, thf
army of Mahomet halted. Habal, a citizen
of Medina, advised him to proceed onwards
' Let us go,' ho said, 'to the farthest .spring,
on the side of the enemy. I know. a. never-
failing fountain of sweet water there ; let us
make that our reservoir, and destroy the
other wells.' The advice was good. It was
at once adopted, and the command o*f the
water thus secured.
"The night was drawing on. So they
hastily constructed naar the well 'a hut of
palm branches, in which Mahomet and; Abu
Bakr slept. Sad ibn Mn&dz (Sa-d ibn Mu'iiz)
kept watch bv the entrance with his drawn
sword. It rained during the ni^ht, but more
heavily towards the camp of the Coreish.
The Moslim army, wearied with its long
march, enjoyed sound and refreshing sleep.
The dreams of Mahomet turned upon his
enemies, and they were pictured to his ima
gination as a wetik and contemptible force.
'•In the morning he drew up his little
army, and, pointing with an arro\v s^iiich he
held, in his hand, arranged the ranks. The
previous day he had placed the chief banner
that of the Refugees, in the hands of Aliwol
who nobly proved his right- to the distinction
The Kha7.ro jite ensign was committed to
Hobab ; that of the liani Aus, to Sad ibu
Muadz.'
'; Meanwhile, dissension again broke out in
the camp of the Coreish, on the policy of
fighting against their kinsuiorr. Shaiba tuid
Otba ('Utbah), two chiefs of rank, influenced
it is said, by their slave Addas (the aflme \vho
comforted the Prophet on hi-, flight from
Tayif), strongly urged that «he 'attack should
be abandoned. Just then, Omeir, a diviner
by an-ows, having ridden hastily round the
valley, returned to report thy result of his
reconnaisance. k Ye Coreish,' he etiid, after
telling them his estimate of the enemy'f
number, 'calamities approach you, fraught
with destruction. inevitable death videth
upon the camels of Yathrob (Yasrib). It is «i
people that hath neither defence nor refuge
but in their swords. They aro dumb as the
grave; their tongues they put forth vvith tho
serpent's dnatlly aim. Not a. »an of them
shall we kill, but in his stead one of ourselves
also will be slam ; and when there shall ha,? €
been slaughtered amongst us a nutqb'jr c^nal
unto them, of what avail will life bo to ufc
aftm that? ' These words began to prortucv
a pacific effect, when Abu Jahl, as b«fore.
loudly opposed the proposals for peace Tttiv,
374
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
itjfc, to Aniir the Hadhrainite, he bade mm call
to mind the blood of his brother slain at
Nakhla. The flame was rekindled. Amir
threw off bia clothes, cast dust upon his
body, and began frantically to cry aloud his
brother's name, The deceased had been a
confederate of the family of Shaiba and Otba
('Utbah). . Their pride and honour were
affected. They saw that thoughts of peace
xoust now be scattered to the winds; and
thoy resolved signally to vindicate themselves
from thp imputation of cowardice cast on them
by Abu JahL The army was drawn up in
line. The three standards for the centre and
wing's were borne, according to ancient pri
vilege, by members of the hxmpe of A.b<l al
Oar. They moved forward bat friowly over
the intervening sand-hills, which the rain had
made heavy 'and f aligning. The same cause,
acting with less intensity, had rendered the
sfround hi front cf Mahomet lighter and more
6rm to walk upon. The Cornish laboured
under another disadvantage ; they had the
.'ising feun before them, while the army of
Medina faced the west.
" Mahomet had barely arrayed ms line of
battle, when the advanced column of tixe
enomy was discerned over the rising sand.- in
front. Their greatly superior numbers wor?
concealed by the fall of the ground behind,
and this imparted confidence to the Moaloms.
But Mahomet was fully alive to the critical
position. The rate of Islam hung upon the
issue of the approaching faattlo. Followed
by Abu Bakr, £• hastened for a moment into
the little hut, and raisins? his hands, psured
iorth these earnest petitions, W'O Lord, I be
seech Thee, forgot not Thy promise of assis
tance and of victory. 0 Lord ! if this little
band be vanquished, idolatry will prevail, and
tho pure worship of thee cease from off the
earth 1 ' ' The Lord,' said Abu Bakr,
comforting him, ' will surely cotae to thin*1
aid, and will lighten tbv countenance with the
joy of victory
*' The time for action had arrived. Maho
met a gam came forth. Tho tnemy was
already close; but the aimy of Medina
remained still. Mahomet bud no cavalry to
cover an advance, and before superior num
bers he must keep close his ranks. Accord
ingly the Prophet iuui strictly forbiJdcu his
followers to stir till he should give the -order
for advance : only they were to check uay
flank movement of the Coreish by the dis
charge of arrows. The cistern was guarded
as their palladium. Conain desperate -var-
riovs of the Core! si swore that they would,
dt'ink water from it. destroy it, or perish in
the attempt Scarcely one returned from the
rash enterprise. With signal gallantry,
Aswad advanced close to the brink, when a
blow from Harnza's sword fell upon his leg.
and nearly severed it from his body. Still
defending himself, he Brawled inwardf and
made good his vow; for ne drank of vhe
water, and with tiia remaining leg damoii&hed
part of the cistern before th»» sword of
Hainza put an end to his life.
"Already, after the fashion ol Arabian .
warfare, single combats had been fought at
various points, when the two brothers Shaiba
and Otba, and Walid the son of Otba, still
smarting from the words of Abu Jab.1, ad
vanced into the space between the armies,
and defied three champiotib from the army of
Mahomet to meet them singly. Three citi
zens of Medina stepped forward ; but Maho
met, unwilling either that the glory or the
burden of the opening conflict should rest
with his allies, called them bt-ck; and, turn
ing to his kinsmen said : ' Ye sons of Hashiin !
arise and fight, according to your right.
Then Obeida ('Ubaidah), Ramza, and Ali.
the uncle and cousins of the Prophet, went
forth. Hamza wore an ostrich feather in hi,?
breast, and a white plume distinguish^.:! the
! helmet of Ali. But their features were hid
by their armour. Otba, therefore, nofc. know-
I ing who his opponents might be. cried aloud,
' Speak, that we may recognise you! It jc
I be equals, we shall fight with you.' Hamza
; answered, 'I am the son of Abd al Muttalib
| — Hainza, the Lion of God, and the Liou of
| His Prophet.' ' A worthy foe,' exclaimed.
j Otba ; * but who are these • others with
tDee ? ' Hamza repeated their names. Otba
replied. ' Meet foes, every one ! *
" Then Otba called to his son Walid, » Arise
and tight.' So Wali'd stepped forth and Ali
came out agraiust him. They were the
youngest of the six. *Thf» qomhat was short*
Walid foil mortally wounded by the sword of
All. Eager to avenge his son's death, Otba
hastened forward, ar;d Hanisa advanced to
meet him. The swords gleamed quick, and
again the Coreishite wariior was slain by the
Moslim lion. Shaib:t alone remained of the
three champions of Mecca ; and Obeida, the
veteran of tho Moslems, threescore years arid
live, now drew near to tight with bin;. Both,
being well advanced in yeavt, the confJct was
less decisive than before. At last, bhaiba
dealt a sword-cut ou the leg of Obeida with
such force as to sever the tendon, mid bring
him to. the ground. Seeing this, Hainza. and
Ali both rushed on Shaiba and despatched
him. Oboida survived but for a. few days,
and was buried on the march back at Safra.
" Tho fate of their champions »vas ominous
for the Coroish, and their spiriis p.'mk. The
"anks began to close, with the battle-cry on
:he Moslem side of-, • Ye conquerors, strike !•*
md the fighting became general. But theiv
•vere frtiii many oi those scenes- ot individual
bravery which characterise the irregular war
fare of Asiatic armies, and often impart to
them a llonnric interest, Prodigies of va
lour v.-ere exhibited ou both sides; ^»i»t th<;
unny c-i ine Faithful was borne forward by
an 'enthusiasm, which the half-hearten Goreish
were unable to withstand.
" What part Mahomet aimseu to«k In me
"batue is not clear. Sorue traditions represent
him moving along tho ranks with & drawn
swmci. It is more Likely (according to other*
that he confuted himself with Jncitiw his
foJJcvrers by iho promise of divine assistance,
aud by holding out the prospect of Para<iisf
to those who i'eli The spirit of Omeir, A
MUHAMMAD
lad of but sixteen years, was kindled within
him as he listened to the Prophet's words.
Tradition delights to tell of the ardour with
which the stripling threw away a handful of
dates which he was eating. ' Is it these.' he
exclaimed, ' that hold me hack from Para
dise? "Verily I will taste no more of them
until I meet my Lord ! ' With such words,
he drew his sword, and, casting himself
upon the enemy, soon obtained the fate he
coveted.
" It was a stormy wintry day. A piercing
blast swept across the valley. 'That,' said
Mahomet, 'is Gabriel with a thousand
augels flying as a. whirlwind at our foe.'
Another, and yet another blast: — it was.
Michael, and after him, S^raphil, each with a
like angelic troop. The battle raged. The
Prophet stooped, ai"l lifrin^ a handful of
gravel, cast it Towards the Coreish, and
cried, ; Confusion sei?:e their faces ! ' The
action was ^ell timed. The line of the
Coreish hegdn to waver. Their movements
wore impeded by the heavy sands on which
they stood ; and, when the ranks gave way,
their numbers added but confusion. The
Moslems followed eagerly on their retreating
steps, slaying or taking captive all that fell
within their reach. Retreat soon turned into
ignominious flight. The Coreish, in their
haste to escape, cast away their armour and
abandonee] their beasts of burden with the
ramp and equipage. Forty-nine were killed,
jrul about the same number taken prisoners.
Mahomet lost only fourteen, of whom eight
vroro citizens of Medina, and six Refugees.
" Many of the principal men of the Coreish,
.•»nd some of Mahomet's bitterest opponents,
»vure slain. Chief amongst these was Abu
Jahl. Muadz brought him to the ground by
a blow which cut bis leg in two. Muadz, iu
his turn, was attacked by Ikrima ('Ikrimah),
the son of Abu Jahl. and his arm nearly
severed from his shoulder. As the mutilated
L'ub hanging by the skin impeded bis action,
Muadz put his foot upon it, pulled it off, and
went on his way fighting. Such were the
heroes of Bedr. Abu Jahi was yet breathing
whon Abdallah, Mahomet's servant, ran up,
and cutting off his huad, carried it to bis
master. ' The head of the enemy of God ! '
exclaimed Mahomet. ' God ! There is none
other God but He ! ' ' There is no other ! '
responded Abdallah, as he cast the bloody
head at the Prophet's feet. * It is more
acceptable to me,' cried Mahomet, ' than the
choicest camol in all Arabia,'
" But there were others whose death caused
no gratification to Mahomet. Abdul Bekh-
tari had shown him special kindness ut the
time when ho was shut up in the quarter of
Abu T.-xlib ; Mahomet, mindful of this favour,
had commanded that he should net be
harmed. Abdul Bokhtari had a companion
sooted on his camel behind him. A warrior,
riding up, told him of the quarter given by
Mahomet; but added, 'I cannot spare the
man behind Ihfse.' • The women of Mecca,
Abdul Bokhtari exclaimed. ' sh?ill never eay
that I abandoned my comrade through love
MUHAMMAD
375
of life. Do thy work upon us.' So they
were killed, both he and his companion.
|* After the battle was orer, some of the
prisoners were cruelly put to death. The fol-
' owing incident illustrates the savage spirit
already characteristic of the faith. Omoya
,bn Khaif and hi.^ son were unable to escape
with the fugitive Coreish. and. seeing
Abdal Rahman pass, ' implored that he
would make them his prisoners. Abdal
Rahman, mindful of an ancient friendship,
cast away the plunder he was carrying, nod,
making both hie prisoner?, wns proceeding
with them to the Moslirn camp. As the
party passed, Bilal espied his old enemy — for
Omeya had used to persecute him— and he
screamed aloud, ' Slay him. This man is the
head of the unbelievers. I am lost, ] am lost,
if he lives ! ' From all sides the infuriated
soldiers, hearing Bilal's appeal poured in
upon the wretched captives ; and Abdal Rah
man, finding resistance impossible, bade them
save their lires as best they could. Defence
was vain; and the two prisoners were imme
diately cut in pieces.
" When the enemy baa disappeared, the
army of Medina was for some time engaged
in gathering the spoil. Every man was
allowed to retain the plunder of anyone
whom he himself had slain. The rest* was
thrown into a common stock. The booty con-
siatfld of one hundred and fifteen camels,
fourteen horses, carpets and other articles of
fine 1 father, vestments, and much equipage
o,nd armour. A diversity of opinion arose
about the distribution. Those who had
hotly pursued the enemy and exposed their
livef< in securing the spoil, claimed the whole,
or at the least a superior porti«-c ; while
such as had remained behind upon the field
of battle for the safety of the Prophet and of
the camp, urged that they had equally with
the others fi%lfillod the part assigned to
them, and that, Laving been restrained by
duty from the pursuit, they were entitled to
a full share of the prey. The contention was
so sharp, that Mahomet interposed with a
message from heaven, and as.sumod posses
sion of the whole booty. It was God who
Lad given the victory, and to God the spoil
belonged: 'They will ask thee concerning
the prey. Say, the prey is God's and his
Prophet's. Wherefore fear God, and dispose
of the matter rightly among youselves ; and
be obedient unto God and His Prophet, if yo
be true Believers' — and so on in the same
strain. Shortly afterwards, the following
ordinance, which the Mussulman law of prize
recognises to the present day, was ^i- • :
forth : 'And know that whatsoever thing y*
plunder, verily one fifth thereof i.s for God
,tnd for the Pi-ophet, .ami for him that is of
kin (unto the Prophet), nnd for the orphans,
and the poor, and ibc wayfurer — if yo be they
that believe in Go:1.. :nvl ia that which We
.sent down to on** Ser\ ant on the Day of
Discrimination, the day on \\hich the twc
jinnies rnt*. ; .'.:u! 'n-d is over all things
powerful.' ;Se<; ^".u-'an. Surah viii/;
" In aecrr-iiujce with the divine command-
376
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
the booty was gathered together on the field,
and placed under a special officer, a citizen
of Medina. The next day it was divided,
near Safra, in equal allotments, among the
whole army, after the Prophet's fifth had
been set apart. All shared alike, excepting
that the horsemen received each two extra
portions for their horses. To the lot of every
man fell a camel, with its gear ; or two
camels unaccoutred : or a leathern couch, or
some such equivalent. Mahomet obtained
the famous camel of Abu Jahl. and a sword
known by the flame of Dzul Ficar (Zii 'I-
Fiqfir). The *word was selected by him
beyond his share, according to a custom
which allowed him, in virtue of the prophetic
dignity, to ehuose from the booty, before
division, whatever thing might please him
most
" The sun was now declining, so they hastily
dug a pit on the battle-field, and cast the
enemy's dead into it. Mahomet looked on, as
the bodies were brought up and cast in. Abn
Bakr, too, stood by. and, examining their
features, called aloud their names. 'Otba!
Shaiba 1 Omeyyal Abu Jahl!' exclaimed
Mahomet, as one by ono the corpses were,
without ceremony, thrown into the common
grave. ' Have ye now found that which
your Lord promised you tme? What my
Lord promised me, that, verily have I found
to be true. Woe unto this people ! Ye have
rejected me, your Prophet ! Ye cast me
forth, and others yave ine refuge; ye fought
against mo, and others came to my help ! '
' 0 Prophet ! ' paid the bystanders, « dost
thou speak unto the dead?' 'Yea, verily,'
replied Mahomet, 4 i or they well know that
the promise of their Lord -unto them hath
fully come to pass.'
11 At the moment when the corpse of Otba
was tossed into a pit, a look of disti-ess over
cast ihe countenance of his son, Abu Hodzeifa
(Abu Huzaifah). Mahomet turned kindly to
him, a.nd~Sftid, • Perhaps thou art distressed
for thy father's fate ? ' ; Not so, 0 Prophet
of the Lord ! I do not' doubt the justice of
my father's fate-; but T knew well his wise
and generous heart, and I had trusted that
the Lord would have led him to the faith.
But, now that. I see him slain, and my hope
destroyed, it in for that I grieve.' So the
Prophet comforted Abu Hodzeifa, and blessed
him, and said. ; It if? well.'
" The army of Medina, carrying their dead
and wounded, retired in the evening to the
valley of Otbeil, several miles from Bedr; and
there* Mahomet passed the night. On the
morrow the prisoners were brought up be
fore him. As he scrutinised each, his eye
fell fiercely on Nadav, son of Harish (al-Nazr
ibn al-Haris). ' There was death in that
glance,' whispered Nadhr, trembling, to a
bystander, ' Not so,' replied the other,
•' it is but thine own imagination.' The
unfortunate prisoner thought otherwise, and
besought Musab to intercede for him.
Musab reminded him that he had denied
the faitb and persecuted Believers. 'Ah!'
said Nadhv, • bad the Coreish made tbee
a prisoner, they would never have .put
thee to death ! ' ' Evea were it so,' Mnsab
scornfully replied, ' I am not as thou art ;
Islam hath rent all bonds asunder.' Micdad.
the captor, fearing lest the prisoner, and with
him the chance of a rich ransom, was about
to slip from his hands, cried out, * The pri
soner is mine!' But at this moment the
command to ' Strike off his head 1 ' was in
terposed by Mahomet, who had been watch-
tag what passed. ' And, O Lord ! ' he added,
do thou of tby bounty grant unto Micdad a
better prey than this.' Nadhr was forth
with beheaded by Ali.
" Two davs afterwards, about half-way to
Medina. Ocba, another prisoner- was ordered
out for execution. He ventured to expostu
late and demand why he should be treated
more rigorously than Iho other captives.
• Because of thv enmity to God and to His
Prophet/ replied Mahomet. » And my little
girl I' cried Ocba, in the bitterness of his
soul, ' who will take care of her?' * Holl-
fire ! ' exclaimed the heartless conqueror,
and on the instant his victim was hewn to the
ground. -Wretch that thou wast!' con
tinued Mahomet. 'and persecutor! unbeliever
in God, in His Prophet, and in His Book! I
give thanks unto the Lord that hath glain
thee, and comforted mine eyes thereby.'"
Such was the battle of Badr Insignificant
in numbers, but most memorable in HID
annals of Is lain on account of its important
results. It was at Badr that '• the Prophet "
first drew the sword in the assertion of hia
claim as a commissioned apostle of the- Most
High God, and the victory is attributed ia
the Qur'avi to the direct intervention of the
Almighty. See Surub iii. 11: —
:' Ye have already had a sign in the meet
ing of the two hosts. The one host fought
in the cause of God, and the other was
infidel To their own ej'e-sight, the infidels
saw yovi twice as many as themselves : And
God aided with His succour whom Ho would :
And in this truly was a lesson for men endued
with discernment."
Al-Baizawi, the commentator, says 3,000
angels fought for the Muslims on the battle
field of Badr.
Muhammad was received in triumph at al-
Madlnah, but his joy was interrupted by the
death of his daughter Kuqaiyah, the divorced
wife of 'Utbah ibn Lahab, but who had been
afterwards married to Usman ibn 'Affan. On
his return to al-Madinah (A.H. 3), Muhammad
tound his position much strengthened, and from
this time the Qur'au assumes a rude dictatorial
tone. He who at one time only spoke as a
Searcher after truth, now demands unhesi
tating obedience from the whole country of
Arabia.
The Jews, however, were still unimpressed
and were slow to acknowledge Muhammad,
although he claimed to be but the teacher of
the creed of Abraham. Muhammad sought
but a plausible excuse for a rupture with the
sons of Israel, and an opportunity soon pre
sented itself. A Muslim girl was .insulted by
a youth of a Jewish tribe, and, taking ad van-
MOHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
377
l.age of the circumstance, the whole tribe
was attacked, proscribed, and banished.
Their houses and lands were confiscated and
divided amongst the Faithfxil. In t,he course
of the same year, Ka'b ibn al-Ashrai, a Jew,
was assassinated because he annoyed the
Muslims with his verses. About this lime,
Muhammad married his fourth wife, Hafsah,
th« daughter of 'TJmar the Celebrated Khali
fa h. In the early part of the year, al-Hasan,
the son of Fatimah and 'All, was born.
The tidings of the defeat at Badr aroused
the bitterest feelings of the Quraish. They
advanced upon al-Madinah 3,000 strong. In
tea days the Makkan army reached Zu 'l-hal-
fah, four miles south of al-Madiuah. and then
moving northwards, they encamped at TJlmd,
an isolated mountain three miles north-east
of the city. Muhammad, clad in armour, led
out bis uriuy of 1,000 men, and halttd for
'the night: and at early dawn advanced on
Uhud. He was soon abandoned by -Abdu
Mlah, the chief of the Hypocrites [MONAFI-
QUN] with 300 of his followers.
Kbalid ibn al-Walid, a name afterwards
famous in Muslim history, commanding the
right wing of the Quraish, attacked the
Muslims, and raised the cry, '< Muhammad
> is slain ! " The confusion of the Faithful
was great, and defied all the efforts of Mu
hammad to rally them. The Prophet him
self was wounded in the face by two arrows.
The Muslims were completely defeated, but
the retreat was ably conducted by Abu Bakr,
'Umar, and 'Usman, and the victorious
Quraish did not attempt a pursuit.
Abu '1-Fida' gives the following quaint
account of the battle : —
•• When th^ two armies engaged and ap
proached each other, Hind, daughter ot
'Utbah. the wife of Aba Sufyan, arose with
the women that were with her, and they beat
upon the tabors as they followed the men to
battle. And Hind said. ' W«U done, yc sons,
of «Abdu 'd-Dar, well done? Strike ye with
every weapon ye possess." And Hamzah, the
Prophet's uncle, fought most valiantly that
day; and he slew Artah, the standard-bearer
of the unbelievers/'
" And Abu Kamiyah, the Laisite slew
Mus'ab, the standard-bearer of the Muslims,
and when Mus'ab was slain, the Prophet gave
the standard of Islam t.o 'All, the son of Abu
Talib. Now, the archers were too eager lor
the spoil, and. they left the position in v/hich
Muhammad had posted them. And Khalid,
the leader of the unbelievers, carne with the
cavalry to the rear of the Muslims, and raised
a cry that Muhammad was slain. So the
Muslims were overcome by the unbelievers,
and the Quraish gained the victory. The
number of martyrs in the cause of I^lam who
fell at Uhud was seventy. The number of
the slain amongst the unbelievers was twenty-
two. The enemy even struck Muhammad.
Th«*ir stone's hit him arid he fell. His fore
teeth were struck out, and he was wounded
in the fuce. Two nails of the helmet entered
the face of Muhammad. And Abu 'Ul>»ida~h
pulled one of the nails out of his face and
one tooth dropped out; and he pulled out
another nail and another tooth dropped out.
And when Abu 'Ubaidah was taking out the
teeth, Sunari Abu Sa^id sucked the blood
from Muhammad's faco and swallowed it.
Upon which the Prophet said, « Whosoever
toucheth my blood, him shall the fire of holl
never touch.'
" Then Hind and her companions fell on
the Muslims who were slain, and cut off their
noses and their ears. And Hind cut a slice
from Ham zah's liver and a,te i(. Then Abu
Sufyan, the husband of Hind, stuck his spear
into Hamzah'a body, and cried with a loud
voice, ' The fortunes of war are uncertain !
The day of Uhud for the day of Badr ! Let
the idol of Hubal be exalted 1 ' Then Mu
hammad sought for the body of his uncle.
and he found it lying on the ground with the*
belly ripped open and the ears and nose cut
off. And the Prophet said, * God hath re
vealed to rne concerning the Quraish. Verily,
retaliation shall be made on thirty of them
for the death of Hamzah, and verily Hamzah
is now in the seventh heaven.' Then Muham
mad prayed for Hamxah, and went to each of
the bodies of the slain and prayed for them.
Some of the Muslims wanted to carry their
dead to al -Madman, but the Prophet ?aid.
'Bury -them where they fell.'"
There is an allusion to the defeat at Uhu»i
in the third Surah of the Qur'an: "What
befell you when the two armies met by God's
permission. Count not those who are killed
in the way of God ps deed Th«y are living:
with their Lord,"
The fourth year of the Hrjrah (A..D. $25;
opened with the despatch of 500 Muslims
against the tribe of Aad, who were making
preparations to invade al-Madinah. The
enemy fled at the appearance of the Muslim
troops, and the place was sacked.
During this yaar there were several expedi
tions. Amongst others, one against the Jewish
tribe Banii Nazir, whose homes were spoiled.
and the people banished, because they would not
accept the mission of the "Apostle of God.?;
There is an allusion to this event in the second
Surah of the Qur'an. A second expedition
was also made to Badr, but there was no
fighting, although the event is known as th*
second battle of Badr ; for after waiting eight
days for an engagement with the Quraish, the
Muslims returned in triumph to al-Madlnah.
It was about this time that Muhammad
made two additions to bis haram, by marry
ing Zainab, the widow of 'Ubaid^h, who fell
at Badr, as his fifth wife, and Ummn Sali-
mah, the widow of Abu Salimah. who fell at
the battle of Ubud, for his sixth ; thus ex
ceeding the legal number of four wives, to
which he restricted his followers.
Muhammad being threatened by
ontiugeots of the Quraish, the Band (I
fan and the Jewish tribes of Nazir and Qu-
raizah, who advanced upon al-Madinab with
an army of 12,000 men. he, at the advice of a
Persian named Salman, caused a trench to be
dug round the city, «nd then issued forth to
defend it at the head of 3.000 Muslims. Both
48
378
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
sides remained inactive for nearly a month,
when, at last, the Quraisb and their allies
broke up the siege. This engagement is
known in Muslim history as Gazwatu V-
Khandaq, or the "Battle of the Ditch."
Special reference is made to this event in the
Qur'an. Surah xxxiii. 9, where tho success of
the Muslims is. attributed to the intervention
of God. " who sent a blast and a host that
were not seen."
The next expedition was against the Jewish
tribe, the Banu Quraizah* when Muhammad
led an . army of three thousand men with
thirty-six horse. The Jews sustained a siege
of some twenty-five days, but were- at last
compelled to capitulate. Their fate was left
to the decision -of the Prophet's companion,
Sa'd, whose sentence was that the male cap
tives should be slain, the female captives and
children sold into slavery, and the spoils
divided amongst the army. The Prophet
commended the cruel judgment of Sa'd, as a
decision according to the judgment &f God,
given on high from the seyen heavens : and
about 700 captives were deliberately be
headed, in parties in the presence of Muham
mad. One of the female captives, Rlhanah,
whose husband and male relatives had
perished in the massacre, the Prophet re
served for himself. This cruel massacre of
the Banu Quraizah is commended in the
xx-xinrd Surah of the Qur'an, verse 25.
Be/ore the close of this year, Muhammad
married bis cousin Zainab. The Prophet
lad previously given her in marriage to
Zaid ibn Harisah, his freed man and adopted
son. But upon visiting the house of Zaid,
and not finding him at home, the Prophet
accidentally cast his eyes on Zainab, and was
so smitten with her beauty, that ne ex
claimed, '* Praise belongeth unto God. who
turneth the hearts of men even as He will."
Zainab saw that she had made an impression
on the Prophet's heart, and when her hus
band returned, recounted the circumstances
to him. Zaid determined to part with her in
favour of his friend and benefactor, and
offered to divorce her. But the relations of
the Arabs to their adopted children were so
strict, that nothing but a revelation from
heaven could settle the difficulty. It was to
meet this domestic emergency thai the Pro
phet produced the following verses' of the
Qur'an, Surah xxxiii. 36-38, to sanction his
own heart's desire: —
" And it is not for a believer, man or woman,
to have any choice in their affairs, when God
and His Apostle have decreed a matter : and
whoever disobeyeth God and His Apostle,
erreth with palpable error. And, remember,
when thou saidst to him unto whom God had
shown favour, and to whom thou also hadst
shown favour, ' Keep thy wife to thyself, and
fear God ; ' ana thou didst hide in thy mind
what God would bring to light, and thou
didst fear man ; but more right had it been
to fear God. And when Zaid had settled
concerning her to divorce her, we married
her to thee, that it might not be a crime in
the faithful to marry the wives of their
adopted sons, when they have settled the
aiidir concerning them. And the behest of
God is to be performed. No blame attacheth'
to the Prophet where God hath given him a
permission. Such was the way of God with
those prophets who flourished before thee."
The scandal of the marriage was removed
by the pretended revelation, and according to
the Traditions, Zainab used to vaunt hwrself
us the. one wife of the Prophet's harim who
bad been given lu marriage by God Himself.
At all events, she exchanged a husband who
had a pug nose and was short and ill-favoured
for one who was the leading chief of Arabia !
Muhammad's numerous marriages (four
being the legal number — Surah iv. 3) were
likely to excite the jealousy and opposition of
less favoured Muslims, but an additional
chapter of the Qur'an Avoided complications,
and allowed the " Prophet of God ': greater
liberty in this respect ! See Surah xxxiii.
I 49 : "0 Prophet, we have allowed, thee thy
j wives, whom thou hast dowered, and the
I slaves whom thy right hand possesseth . . .
| and any believing woman who has given
herself up to the Prophet, if the Prophet
1 desiretb to wp.H her; a privilege for thee
j above the rest of the Faithful."
About this time certain injunctions were
! issued for the seclusion of women, and for the
j regulation of social and domestic intercourse
i (Surah xxv.). These rules were made more
I stringent in the case of the Prophet^ own
j wives, who. in the case of incontinence, are
threatened with double punishment (Surah
xxxiii.). The jealousy of the Prophet, who
was now getting old. was allayed by the
! Divine command, that his wives should, in the
I event of his death; never marry again. The
obligation devolving on believers, to consort
equally with their several wives, was also
relaxed specially in the Prophet's favour
(Surah xlviii.).
In the sixth year of the Hijrah several mili
tary expeditions were made. Amongst others,
to the Banu Quraizah and the Banu Lahyan."
On his return from the last expedition Mu
hammad stopped for a tew moments to visit
the grave of his uiuther. and desired to pray
for her soul. But a, verse irom the Qur'an,
alleged to have been revealed on this occa
sion, forbade his praying for the forgiveness
of one who died an infidel. Surah ix. 114,
115:—
"It, is not for the Prophet or the Faithfiil
to pray for the forgiveness of those, even
though they be of kin, who associate other
beings with God, after it hath been made
clear to them that they are to be the inmates
of Hell For neither did Abraham ask for
giveness for his father, but in pursuance of
a promise which he had promised to him
but wben it was shown him that he was an
enemy fro God, he declared himself clear of
him. Yet Abraham was pitiful, kind."
Muhammad inarched in person against the
Bixnu '1-Musfcaliq, and completely surprised
and routed them. One thousand camels,
five thousand shoep, and a great many
women and children, became the spoil of the
MOHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
379
Muslims. One of the female captives, namea
Juwairiyah, fell to the lot of Sabit ibn Uais.
who, as a meritorious act, offered to release
her and give her her liberty, for a certain
sum. On applying to Muhammad to help
her with the money to pay the ransom, he
readily agreed to do so, and when she wa?
freed h6 married her. Thereupon, the Mus
lims recognised the Banu '1-Mustaiiqas allies.
Juwairlyah survived Muhammad forty-live
At the last stage, returning from the cam
paign against the Banu 1-Muataliq, ' Ayisbah"s
tout and litter were b inadvertence ^
Away, while she wa^ for a moment absent,
and on her return she found herself in the
dark alone. Expecting the mistake r,o be
discovered, she sat down to await the issue,
when, pfter some delay, one of the followers
came up. and finding her in this plight, bade
her mount his namel, and so conducted her
to al MadinaL The citizens drew sinister
conclusions from the circumstance, and Mu
hammad himself became estranged from
'Ayishah, and she retired to her father's
dome. Several weeks elapsed, when, at
length, the Prophet was superuaturally in
formed of her innocence (Surah xxivA The
Jaw was then promulgated which requires
four eye-witnesses to establish the charge of
adultery, in default of which the imputation
la to be punished as a slander, with eighty
lashes. [QAZAF.] ;Ayishah was taken back
to her home^ and her accusers were beaten.
It was during the year A.H. 6, that Muham
mad conceived the idea of addressing foreign
sovereigns and princes, and of inviting them tc
embrace Islam. His letter to the Emperor
Heraclms has been handed down by Ibn
'Abbas (Mishkdt, book xvii, ch. civ.), and is
as follow :—
" In the name of God, the Compassionate.
the Merciful. Muhammad, who is the servant
of G?od, and His Apostle, to Haraql. the
Qaisar of Rum. Peace be on whoever has
fjone on the straight road. After this I say.
Verily, I call you to Islam. Embrace Islam
and God will reward you twofold. If you
turn away. from the offer of Islam, then on
you be the sins of your people. 0 people of
the Book (i.e. Christians), come towards a
deed which is fib both for us find for you.
It. is this, to worship none but God, and not
to associate anything with God, and not to
call other* Ood. Therefore, O ye people ol
the Book, if ye refuse, beware! We are Mus
lims, and our religion is Islam.
(Seal.)
•' MUHAMMAD, the Apostle of God."
The letter was sent to the Governor of
Busra that he might convey it to Caesar',
Jmt we have no record of a reply having been
received.
He aleo wrote to Kasra-Parwiz, King of
Persia, but Kasra tore the letter in pieced.
On hearing the fate of his letter, Muhammad
said, "Even no shall his kingdom be shattered
to pieces/' His third embassy was to Xaja-
sih, the King of Abyssinia, who received the
message with honour. The fourth was to
Jarih ibn Matta, the Muqauqia, or Governor,
of Egypt. .Taiih sent a polite reply, and
begged the Prophet's acceptance of two
beautiful Coptic slave girls. One of these,
Shirin, the Prophet gave to Hassan the poet,
but he reserved the other Mariyah. IV.r him
self. In due time, Mariyah presented the
Prophet with a son, who was named Ibra
him, the birth of which made thf> mother a
free woman, and placed her in the honourable
position of the wife. But the Prophet's ex
treme fondness for the recent addition to his
already extensive harim was i eaented by hie
numerous wives. 'Ayishah and Haftiah were
especially enraged, for the Prophet was in
the habit of visiting Mariyah on the day due
to one ol these ladies. Hafsah, who, being
ihe daughter of 'Uruar, wae a person of groat
political importance, took up the matter, and
in order to pacify her the Prophet swore
solemnly that he would never visit Mariyah
again, and enjoined Hafsah to keep the secret
from the rest of his wives. She, however,
revealed it in confidence to 'Ayishah 1 Mu
hammad wa* annoyed at finding his con
fidence betrayed, and separated himself for
a whole month from his wives, and spent his
time in Marly ah' s apartment. The -situation
was a difficult one not merely on account of
the complications caused in his own domestic
circle, but because 'Umar, the father of
l^afsah, was a most, important political per
sonage in those days. The only way out of
the difficulty was to produce a third direct
revelation from heaven, which appeared iu
the Suratu 't-Tahriin, or the " Chapter oi
Prohibition '' (Ixri.), of the Qur'an, and reada
as follows : —
" Why, 0 Prophet i dost thou hold that to
be forbidden which God hath made lawful to
thee, from a desire to please thy wives, since
God is Lenient, Merciful ? God hath allowed
you release from your oaths ; and God is
your master; and He is the Knowing, Wise.
When the Prophet told a recent occurrence as
»i secret to one of his wives (i.e. Hafsah). and
when she divulged it and God informed him
of this, he acquainted her with, part and with
held part. And when be had told her of It,
she said, 'Who told thee this?' He said,
' The Knowing, the Sage hath told it me. Tf
ye both be turned to God in penitence, (or now
have your hearts gone astray » . . but if ye
conspire against the Prophet, then know that
God is his Protector, and Gabriel, and every
just man among tb.2 faithful ; and the angel*
arc his helpers besides. Haply if he put you
both (i.?. IJgfsah and -Ayishah) away, his
Lord will give him in exchange other wives
better than you, Muslims, believers, devout.
penitent, obedient, observant of fasting, both
known of men and virgins.' "
In the Muharraui of A.H. 7. Muhammad
assembled a force of 1,600 men. and inarched
against ICUaihar. a fertile district inhabited
by the Jews, and situated about six days
march to the north-east of al-Madiuah. The
attack on Khaibar ta^ed both the energy and
skill of the 'Warrior Prophet, for it was de
fended by several fortresses The fort
380
MUHAMMAD
Qamus was defended by Kinanah, a powerful
Jewish chief, who claimed for himself the
title of " King of the Jews." Several assaults
were made and vigorously repulsed by the
besieged. Both Abu Bakr and 'Uinar were
equally unsuccessful in their attempts to take
the position, when the Prophet selected 'All
to lead a detachment of picked men. A
famous Jewish warrior named Marhab, now
presented himself, and challenged 'All to
single combat. The challenge wag accepted,
and 'All, armed with his famous sword
" Zu '1-Fiqar," given to him by the Prophet,
cleft the head of his adversary in twain, and
secured a, victory. In a few days all the
fortresses of the district were taken, and
Khaibar was subjugated to Islam.
Amongst the female captives was Saiijrah,
the widow of the chief Kinajmh, who had
fallen at Qamus. One of Muhammad's fol
lowers begged her far himself, but the Pro
phet, struck with her beauty, threw his
mantle over her, and took her to his haiim.
The booty taken at Khaibar was very con
siderable, and in order to secure the district
to Muslim rule, the Jews of the district were
exiled to the banks of the Jordan.
It was during the Khaibar expedition thai
Muhammad instituted Mut'ah, an abomin
able temporary marriage, to meet the de
mands of his army. This is an institution
still observed by the Shi'abs, but said by the
Sunnis to have been abolished by Muhammad.
[MTJT'AH.] It was at Khaibar that an at
tempt was made, by a Jewess named Zainab,
to poison Muhammad. She dresse'd a kid,
and having steeped it in deadly poison, placed
it before the Prophet, whc ate but a mouthful
of the poisoned kid when the deed was dis
covered. Zainab was immediately put to
death.
The subjugation of the Jewish districts of
Fadak, Wadi • 1-Qura and Tannah, on the
ceufines of- Syria, followed that of Khaibar.
This year, in the sacred month of Zu '1-
Qa'dah, Muhammad decided to perform the
'Umrah, or religious vistation of Makkah
['OMRAHj, and for this purpose he left al-
Madinah 'xiih a following of some 4.400 men.
When they were within two days' march of
Makkah, their advance was chocked by the
hostile Quraish, and Muhammad, turning to the
west from 'Usfan. encamped at al-Hudaibiyah,
within' seven miles of the sacred city. At this
spot a truce was made, which is known as the
treaty of al-Hudaibiyah.in which it was .stipu*
laied that all hostilities shonld cease for ten
years, and that for the future the Muslims
should have the privilege, unmolested, of
paying a yearly visit of threo . days to the
K&'bah.
After sacrificing the victims at al-Hudai
biyah, Muhammad and his followers returned
to al-Madmah.
The advent of the holy mouth Zu1I~Qa'dah,
of. the next year (A.H. 8), was eagerly expected
by Muhammad and bis followers, for thon,
according to the terms of the fcruce of al-
Hudaibiyah, they might, without molestation,
visit the holy city, and spend threB da/s in
MUHAMMAD
the performance of the accustomed rites. The
number of the faithful swelled on the approach
to nearly 2,000 men, and the Quraish thought
it best to retire with their forces to the
heights overlooking the valley. Seated on
his camel al-Qaswa, which eight years be
fore had borne him in his flight from the cave
of Saur a hunted fugitive, the Prophet, now
surrounded by joyous crowds of disciples, the
companions of his exile, approached and
saluted the holy shrine. Eagerly did he press
forward to the Ka'bah, touched with his
staff the Black Stone, seven times made the
circuit of the holy house, sevsn times jour
neyed between as-Safa and al-Marwah, sacri
ficed the victims, and fulfilled all the cere
monies of the leescr pilgrimage.
While at Makkah he negotiated an
alliance with Maimunah, his eleventh and last
wife. His marriage gained him two most
important converts — Khalid, the " Sword of
God," who before this had turned the tide of
battle at Uhud; and 'Amr, destined after-
wards to carry to foreign lands the victorious
standards of Islam.
The services of these two important con
verts were quickly utilised. Ail envoy from
Muhammad to the Christian Prince of Best™,
in Syria, having been slain by the chief of
Mutah — a village to the south-east of the
Dead Sea— a force of 3,000 men, under his
adopted son Zaid, was sent to exact retribu
tion, and to call the offending tribe to the
faith. On the northward march, though they
learnt that an overwhelming force of Arabs
and Romans — the latter of whom met the
Muslims for the first time— was assembling to
oppose them, they resolved resolutely to push
forward. The result was their disastrous
defeat and repulse. Zaid and Ja'far, a brother
of 'All, fell defending the white banner of the
Prophet. Khalid, by a series of manoeuvres,
succeeded m drawing off the army, and cohr
ducting it without further loss -to al-Matllnah.
A month later, however, 'Aior marched un
opposed through the lauds of the hostile
tribes, received their submission, and restored
the prestige of Islam on the Syrian frontier,
Muhammad deeply felt the loss of Zaid arid
Ja'far, and exhibited the tenderest sympathy
for their widows and orphans.
The defeat at Mutah was followed, in the
south, by events of the greatest moment to
Muhammad. Certain smouldering hostilities
between tribes inhabiting the neighbourhood
of Makkah broke forth about the end of the
year. These were judged to be infractions
of the treaty (some of these tribes being in
league with the Quraish), and were eagerly
seized upon by Muhammad, as justifying
those designs upon Makkah which the suc
cess of his arms, and the dominion he pos- .
aesscd over numberless tribes hi. the north, it)
the Hijaz, and Najd, now made it easy for him
to carry out.
Having, therefore, determined to attack his
native city, he announced his intention to his
followers, and directed his allies among the
Bedouin tribe, to join him on the march to
Makkah. Although he took evory precaution
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
381
to prevent his preparations becoming known,
the news reached the ears of the Quraish,
i who sent Abu Sufyan to deprecate his anger
and to ask him to abandon his purpose.
Humiliation and failure were the only result
of this mission.
On the 1st January, A.D. 680, Muhammad's
march commenced, and after eight days,
through unfrequented roads and defiles, the
army, swelled to the number of 10,000 men,
halted and lighted their camp fires on the
heights of Marru Vgahran, a day's march
from the sacred city. The Prophet had been
joined on his march by hi? uncle a (-'Abbas,
and on the night of his arrival Abu Sufydn
again presented nimself, and besought an
interview. On the morrow it was granted.
j| ''Has the time not yet; come. 0 Abu Sufyan,"
V cried Mahammnd, " for thec to acknowledge
that there is bat one God, and thai I am his
Apostle." He answered that his heart still
1 felt some hesitancy ; biu seeing the threaten
ing sword of <il-f Abbas, and knowing that
Makkah was at the inercy of the Prophet, he
< repeated the prescribed formula of belief, and
: was sent to prepare the city for his approach.
The Prophet made his public entry into
Makkah on his favourite camel, having Abu
&*kr on his right hand, Usaid on his left,
f and Usain&h walking behind him. On his
way he recited the XLvmth Surah of tho
Qur'an, known as the " Chapter of Victory."
He then entered the Sacrod Mosque and cir-
| cuited the Ka'bah seven times, touching the
Black Stone as he passed with hi* stick.
Observing several pictures of angels inside
the Ka'bah, lie ordered them to bo removed,
at the same time .crying out with a loud
I voice, "God is great! God is great!" He
I' then fixed the Qiblah [QIBLAH] at Makkah.
and ordered the destruction of the «JOO idols
which the Makkan temple contained, hiiuseli
destroying a wooden pigeon suspended from
the roof, and regarded as one of the deities of
the Quraish.
Ou the llth day oi the month of Ramazan,
i he repaired to Mount as-Safa, where all the
people of Makkah had been assembled in
order to take the oath of allegiance to him.
'Utnar, acting as his deputy, administered the
oath, whereby the people bound themselves
to obey Muhammad, to abstain from theft,
adultery, infanticide, lying, and backbiting.
During his stay at Makkah, Muhammad
; sent small detachments of troops into Ihe
district, who destroyed the temples of al-
'Uafca, Suwa', and Manat, the three famous
idol-temples of the neighbouring tribes. The
Prophet bad given strict orders that these
expeditions should be carried out in a peace
able manner, and that only in oases of neces
sity should force of arms be used. Klialid
ibn al-Walid, however, who commanded 350
men, found himself opposed by the Jazhnah
tribe, for instead of saying as they were com
manded, " Wo are Muslims," they said, " We
; are Sabians"; and. the impetuous general,
whose name afterward* became so celebrated
f in history, ordered the whole tribe to be slain.
Mubarnuiad, when he heard of this barbarity,
exclaimed, "Oli ! my God, I am innocent of
this " ; and lie despatched a large sum of money
for the. widows and orphans of the slain, arid
severely rebuked Khalid.
The Prophet left Makkah after a fortnight's
residence, and »t the head of 12,000 men
attacked the Bani Saqlf and the Bam Hawa
zin. Malik ibn Ans, the chief of the SaqiY,
made a bold stand, and the Prophet rallied
his forces with the utmost difficulty, but
having thrown a handful of dust in the direc
tion of the enemy as a signal of victory, the
Muslims renewed the charge, and 700 of the
tribe were left dead on the field. This victory
was followed immediately by one over the
Banii Hawazin, iu the valley of Aufcas. (See
Surah ix. 25, 26.)
The ninth year of the Hi j rah is known as
the year of deputations, as bmng the year in
which the various tribes of Arabia submitted
co the claim of the Prophet, and sent embas
sies of peace to him. It is also remarkable
for numerous minor expeditious.
Hearing that the Romans were nssembling
in large force on their frontier, Muhammad
determined to attack them at Tabuk (a city
between al-Madmah und Damascus). The
army sent to Tabuk was the largest employed
in the time of the Prophet, for it is said to
have numbered 20,000, ami 10,000 cavalry.
By the time the army had arrived at Tabuk,
the rumoured invasion bad been proved
unfounded. Muhammad, however, utilised a
portion of the force by sending it. under the
command of Khalid, to Diimah. where he re
«eived the submission of the Jewish an<i
Christian tribes. A treaty with John, th**
Christian Prince of Allah, was made, ami
Ukaidar, the Christian chief of Dunmh was
converted to Islam.
The gradual submission of Arabia, and the
acknowledgment of the spiritual and tem
poral supremacy of the Prophet throughout
the entire peninsula, followed. Indeed, in the
complex systeTD which he had established,
the spiritual arid secular function* wero inti
mately Wendell, atid invelved in each othur,
and whilst in his humble home at. al-Madinah
he retained still the simple manners of his
earlier years, which, at his time of life, he
had probably no inclination to alter, be exer
cised all those reg*l ami sacerdotal powers
which the victorious arms of his lieutenants,
or the voluntary sxxbmisaion. of the most
distant provinces of Arabia, had caused to be
universally acknowledged. Tux-collectors
wwe appointed to receive the prescribed
offering** or tithes, which generally amounted
to~ ••* a tenth part of the increase."
The city ot at.-Ta'if, trusting to its natural
strength, constituted itself a centre of disaf
fection j but at last, driven to extremities,
and seeing that all the neighbouring tribes
hud one by one submitted, its chief, after a
vain attempt to obtain some relaxation in the
rules of Islum, consented to the destruction
of the adored idol al-Lat, and adapted the
new faith.
It was during the time of the n«xt yearly
pilgrimage (March, A.D. 631), that Muhatn-
382
ttUHAMMAT)
MUHAMMAD
mad issued an important command, the
crowning stone of the system he bad raided,
which shows at once the power he wielded,
and the strong hold his doctrines had already
taken throughout Arabia., Refusing to be
present himself during the ceremonies of the
pilgrimage, he commissioned 'All to announce
to the assembled multitudes in the valley of
Mina, that, at the expiration of the four
sacred months, the Prophet would hold him
self absolved from every obligation or league
with idolaters; that after that yeaz; no un
believer would be allowed to perform the pil
grimage, or to visit the holy places ; and
further, he gave directions that either within
or vrithcwt the sacred territory, war was to
be waged with .them, that they were to be
killed, besieged, and laid in wait for " where
soever found." He ordains, however, that if
they repent and pay the legal alms, they are
to be dismissed freely : but as regards " those
unto whom the Scriptures have been deli
vered " (Jews and Christians, &c,), " they are
to be fought against until they pay tribute by
right of subjection, aad are reduced low."
" Such, then," says ISir William Muir, " i«
the declared mission of Isla«m, arrived at by
slow, though inevitable steps, and now im
printed unchangeably upon its banners. The
Jews and Christians, and perhaps the Ma-
gians, — 'people of the book' — are to be tole
rated, but held in subjection, and under
tribute : but for the rest, the Sword is not to
be sheathed till they are exterminated, or sub
mit to the faith which is to become ' superior
to every other religion.' "
About the middle of the year, a heavy
grtaf fell upon Muhammad, in the death of
his little son Ibrahim,
On the return of the sacred month (March,
A.D. 632), Muhammad, accompanied by all
his wiyes, selected his victims, assumed the
pilgrim garb, and set out on what is called
tfajjatu'l-Wadd', or " Tho Valedictory Pil
grimage," to the holy places, from which
every trace of the old superstition had been
removed, and which, in accordance with his
orders of the previous year, uo idolater was
to visit. Approach ing the Ka'bah by the gate
of the Banu Shaibah. he carefully performed
all the ceremonies of the "Umrah^ or "lesser
Pilgrimage," and then proceeded to consum
mate those of the greater. On the 8th of the
holy month Zu '1-Hijjab, he rode to the
Wadi Mina, some three miles east of Makkah,
and rested there for the night. Next day,
passing Muadalifah, the midway station, he
reached in the evening the valley in which
stands the granite hill of 'Arafah. From the
a summit he spoke to the pilgrims regarding
its sacred precincts, announced to them the
perfecting of their religion." offered up the
prescribed prayers, and hurried back to Muz-
dalifuh for the night. On the 10th, proceed
ing to Mina, he cast the accustomed stones,
slew the victims brought for sacrifice, had his
head shaved and his nails pared, ordering the
hair, &c., to be burnt ; and, the ceremonies
ended, laid aside the pilgrim garb. At Mina,
daring his three days' stay, he preached to
the pilgrims, called them to witness that he
had faithfully fulfilled his mission, and urged
them not to depart from the exact obser
vances of the religion which iie had appointed.
Returning to Makkah, he again went through
the ceremonies of the 'Umrah, made the cir
cuit of the temple, drank of the well Zamzam,
prayed in the Ka'bah, and thus, having rigo
rously performed all the ceremonies, that "his
example might serve as a model ior all suc
ceeding- time, he turned to al-Madlnah.
The excitement aud fatigue of his. journey
to the hply places told sensibly on his health)
which for some time had shown indications
of increasing infirmity. In the death of Ibra
him he had received a blow which weighed
down his spirit ; the poison of Khaibar still
rankled in his veins, afflicted him at times
with excruciating pain, and bowed him to
the grave. His life had been a hard and a
stirring one, aud now tne important attaire of
his spiritual and temporal kingdom, ana the
care& of his large domestic circle, denied him
that quiet and seclusion for which he longed.
The news of the Prophet's failing health
was soon noised abroad, and tended to encou
rage his rivals to increased energy of action.
Three different revolts, eachhe»,cl«dby a dan
gerous competitor, were now on the point of
breaking out. The first of these was led by
Musailiman, a rival prophet, wno now stated
that Muhammad had distinctly nominated
him as his successor [MUSAJLIMAH] : the
second, by Aswad. a wealthy and eloquent
rival, witi) a considerable following [ASWAD} ;
and the third, by Tulaihah. a famous warrior
of Najd, who claimed the prophetic office
In the Traditions it is related that Musai-
limah addressed a letter to Muhammad,
which i*an : —
" Musailimah, the Prophet of God, to Mu
hammad, the Prophet of God. Peace be to
you. I am your associate. Let the exercise
of authority be divided between us. Hah"
the earth is mine, and half belongs to the
Quraish. But the Quraish arc a greedy
people, and will not be satisfied with a fair
division."
To this presumptuous epistle Muhammad
replied : —
" Muhammad, the Prophet of God, to Mu
sailimah, the Liar. Peace be on those who
follow the straight road. The earth is God's,
and He giveth it to. whom He wilL Those
only prosper who fear the Lord."
The opposition of Musailunah was, how
ever, a formidable one, and after Muhammad's
death he was slain by Ehalid during the
reign of Abu Bakr.
The health of Muhammad grew wor.se, and
he now requested that he might be permitted
to remain in the home of 'Ayishah, his
beloved wife, an arrangement to which his
other wives assented.
The account we now give of the closing
scenes* of Muhammad's life, is from the
graphic pen 01 Sir William Muir {Life of
Mahomet, new ed., p, 501 et seq.\ and founded
on the traditional histpries of al-Waqidi'e
secretary, and Ion Hisham,
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
388
"On the night of Saturday (11 Rabi'u '1-
Awwal, Cth June, A.D. 632), the sickness
assumed a very serious aspect. The fever
rose to such a pitch that the hand cjould
hardly be kept upon his skin from its burn
ing heat. His body was racked with pain;
restless and moaning, he tossed about upon
hi* bed. Alarmed at a severe paroxysm of
the disease, Omm Salma, one of his wives,
screamed aloud. Mahomet rebuked her: —
'Quiet!' he said. 'No one crieth out thus
but an unbeliever.' Puringthe night. Ayesha
sought to comfort him, and suggested that
he should seek for consolation in the same
lessons he had so often taught to others when
in sickness : ' 0 Prophet ! ' she said, ' if one
of us had moaned thus, thou would'st surely
have found fault with it.' ' Yes,' he replied,
' but I burn with the fevor-heat of any two
of you together.' ' Th«n,' exclaimed one,
• thou shalt surely have a double reward.'
• Yes,' he answered, ' J swear by Him in whose
hands is my life, that there is not upon the
earth a believer afflicted with any calamity or
disease, but the Lord there by causeth his
sins tc fall from him. even as leaves arc shed
in autumn from a tree.' At anothei time he
said, ' Suffering is an expiation for sin.
Verily, if the believer suffer but the scratch
of -a thorn, the Lord raiseth his rank thereby,
and wipeth away from him a sin.' ' Believers,'
he would aitirm, l are tried according to their
faith. If a man's faith be strong, so are his
dufferimrs : if he be weak, they are propor
tioned thereunto. Yet in any ease, the suf
fering shall not be remitted until he walk
upon the earth without the guilt of a single
transgression driving unto him/
" Omar, approaching the bed;, placed his
hand on Mahomet's forehead, and suddenly
withdrew it, from the greatness of the heat :
• 0 Prophet ! ' he said. • how violent is the
fever on thee ! ' -Yea, verily,' veplied Ma
homet, 'but I have been during the night
season repeating in. praise of the Lord seventy
Suras, and among them the seven long
ones.' Omar answered : ' But the Lord hath
forgiv -n thee all thy sins, the former and the
latter: now, then, why not rest and take
thine ease?' 'Nay,1 replied Mahomet, 'for
wherefore should I'not be a faithful servant
unto Him? '
" An attendant, while Mahomet lay covered
up, put his hand below the sheet, and feel*
ing the excessive heat, made a remark simi
lar to that of Omar. Mahomet replied :
'Even asthi' affliction provaileth now against
me, so shall my reward hereafter be enhanced.'
'And who are they.' asked another, ' that suffer
the severest trials ? " ' The prophets and
the righteous,' said Mahomet: and then he
made mention of one prophet having bewn
destroyed by lice, and of another who was
tried with poverty, <o that he had but a rag
to cover hiy nakedness withal; 'yet each of
them rejoiced exceedingly in his affliction, even
as one of you in great spoil would rejoice.'
-' On the Sunday, Mahomot lay in a very
weak and helpless state. Osama, who had
delayed his departure to see what the issue of
the sickness might be, came in from Jorf to
visit him. Removing tne clothes from the
Prophet's face, he stooped down and kissed
him. but there was nc audible response.
Mahomci only raised his hands to heaven in
the attidude of blessing-, mA then placed them
upon Osama. So no returned to the camp.
" During some part of this day Mahomet
complained of pain in his side, and the fuf-
fering became so great, that he fell into a
state of unconsciousness. Omm Salma ad
vised that physic should be given him. Asma,
the sister of Meimuna, prepared a draught
after an Abyssinian recipe, and they forced it
into his mouth. Reviving from its effects, he
felt the unpleasant taste in his mouth, and
cried, • What is this that ye have, done to
me? Ye have even given me physic ! ' They
confessed that they had done so. and enume
rated the ingredients of which Asma had
compounded it. : Out upon youl ' he angrily
exclaimed ; ' this is a remedy for the pleurisy,
which she hath learned in the land of Abys
sinia ; hnt that is not a disease which the
Lord will suffer to attack me. Now shall ye
all partake of the same dose. Let not one
remain in the house without b sing physicked,
even as ye have physicked me, excepting
only niy uncle Abbas.' So all the women
arose, and they poured the physic, in presence
of the dying Prophet, into each other's mouths.
" After this, the conversation turning upon
Abyssinia, Omm Salma and Omm Habiba,
who had both been exiles there, spoke of the
beauty ol a cathedral in that country called
the Church of Maria, and of the wonderful
pictures on its walls, Mahomet listened
quietly to them, and then said, ' These verily,
are the people who. when a good man hath
lived amongst them, build over his touib a
place of worship, and they adorn it with their
pictures. These, iii the eyes of the Lord, are
the worst part of all the creation.' He stopped,
and covered himself with tht> bed-clothes ;
then casting them off in the restlessness and
oerbaps dulirium of the ifever, he said : ' The
Lord d&fftroy the Jews and Christians ! Let
His anger be kindled against those that tnni
the tombs of their prophets into places ol
worship. O Lord, let not lay tomb be au
object of worship. Let there not remain
any faith hut that of Islam throughout the
whole land of Arabia ! '
" About this time, recognising Omfcr and
so:ue other chief men in the room, he Called
out, ' Bring hither to mo ink and papar. that
I may record for yoi a writing which "hall
prevent your going astray for ever.' Omar
said, ' Ha wandereth in his namd. Is not the
Goran sufficient for us ? ' But the women
wished that the writing materials should be
broixght; and a discussion ensued. There
upon one said, * What is his oonditic-n at this
present moment ? Come, let us see whether
he speaketh deliriously or not.' So they
went and asked him what his wishes were
regarding the writing he had spoken of ; but
he no longer desirod to indite it. ' Leav<> me
thiu» alone,' he said, ' for my present state in
better than that ye call me to '
384
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
•* In the coarse of this day, Mahomet called
Ayesha to him, and said, ' Where is that gold
which I gave unto thes to keep?'- Ou her
replying that it was by her, he desired that
she should spend it at once in charity Then
he dozed off in a. half -conscious state; and
some time after asked if she had done as he
desired her. On her saying that she had not
yet done so, he called for the money (which
was apparently a portion of tho tithe income);
she placed it in his hand, and counted six
golden dinars. He directed that it should be
divided among certain indigent families ; and
then lying down, he said, *Now I am at
peace. Verily it would not have become me
to meet my Lord, and this gold in my pos
session."
" All Sunday night the illnoss of Mahomet
continued unabated. He was overueara pray
ing : one of the ejaculations was to this effect:
4 0 my soul ! Why seekest thon for refuge
elsewhere than in (loci alone ? ' The morning
brought some measure of relief. The fever
and the pain abated; and there was an appa
rent return of strength.
%t The dangerous crisis of the Prophet's
sickness on the preceding night having become
known throughout the city, the mosque was
crowded in the morning, at the hour of
prayer, by men and women, who came seek
ing anxiously for tidings. Abu Bakr, as
usual, If d the devotions ; as Imam he stood
in the pla^e of Mahomet before the congrega
tion, his back turned towards them. ' He had
ended the first Rakdat, or series of prostra
tions, and the people had stood up again for
a second, when the curtain of Ayesha'a doot
\to the left of the audience, and a little way
behind Abu Bakr) slowly moved aside, and
Mahomet himself appeared. As he entered
the assembly, he whispered in the ear of
Fadhl (Fazl), son of Abbas, who with a ser
vant supported him : ' The Lord verily hath
granted unto'me refreshment in prayer'; and
he looked around with a gladsome smile,
marked by all who at the moment caught' a
glimpse of his countenance. That smile no
doubt was the index of deep emotion in his
heart. What doubts or fears may have
crossed the mind of Mahomet, as he lay on
the bed of death, and felt that the time -was
drawing nigh when he must render an ac.count
to that God whose messenger he professed to
be, tradition affords us no grounds even to
conjecture. The rival claims of Aswad and
Mnseilama had, perhaps, suggested mis
givings, such as thostj which had long ago
distracted his soul. What if he, too) -were an
impostor, deceiving himself and deceiving
others also ! K any doubts and questionings
of this nature had arisen in his mind, the
sight of the great congregation, in attitude
devout and earnest, may have caused him
comfort and reassurance. That which brings
forth good fruit must itself be good. The
mission which had transferred gross and de
based idolaters into spiritual worshippers
such as these, resigning every faculty to the
service of the one great God ; and which,
wherever accepted and believed in. was daily
producing the same wonderful change, thai
mission must be divine, and the voice itom
within which prompted him to undertake it
must have been the voice of the Almighty,
revealed through His ministering spirit.
Perhaps it was a thought like this which
passed at the moment through the mind of
the Prophet, and lighted up his countenance
with that smile of joy, diffusing gladness
over the crowded courts of the mosque.
"Having paused thus for a raometu at the
door, Mahomet, supported as before, walked
softly to the front, where Abu Bakr stood.
The peoplft made way 1'or him, opening their
ranks as he advanced, Abu Bakr heard the
rustle (for he never when at prayer turned
himself or looked to the right hand or the
left;, and, apprehending the cause which
alone at that time could create so great sen
sation, stepped backwards to join ihe con*
gregation and vacate the place of leader for
Ihe Prophet. But Mahomet inptiorwd him to
resume the post, and taking nis hand, moved
forward to th& pulpit. There he sat on the
ground by the side of Abu Bakr, who re-
sumecf the service, and finished it in custo
mary form.
"When the prayers were ended, Abu Bakr
entered into conversation svifch Mahomet. He
rejoiced to find him to aJl appearance con
valescent. ' 0 ProphM/ he said, ' I perceive
that, by the grace of God, thou art better to
day, even as we desire to see thee. Now this
day is the turn of my wife, the daughter of
ECh&rija; shall I go and visit her?' Maho
met gave him permission. So he departed
to her house at Al Sunh, a suburb of the
upper city.
" Ma)ioinet then sat himself down for -a
MttUi while in the court-yard of the mosque,
near the door of Ayesha's apartment, and
addressed the people, who. overjoyed to find
him again in their midst, crowded round. He
apoke with emotion, and with » voice still so
powerful as to reach beyond the outer doors
of the mosque. 'By the Lord,* he said, ' as
for myself, verily, no man can lay hold of me
in any matter; I have not made lawful
anything excepting what God hath uiade
lawful; nor have I prohibited aught but that
which God in His book hath prohibited.'
Osama was there; when he came to bid fare
well (before starting on an expedition against
the Roman 'border), Mahomet said to him,
• Go forward with the Army; and the blessing
of the Lord be with thee ! ' Then turning to
the woui9n who sat close by, ' O Fatima ! ' he
exclaimed, 'my daughter, and Safia, my
aunt! Work ye both that which shall pro
cure you acceptance with the Lord , for verily
I have no power witi him to snve yon in
artywise. Haying «aid this, he arose and re-
entered the room of Ayosha.
"Mahomet, exhausted by the exertion he
had undergone, Uy down upon his bed ; and
Ayesha, seeing bim to be very weak, raised
his head from the pillow, and laid it tenderly
upon her bosom. At that moment one of her
relatives entered with a green tooth-pick in
bis hand. Ayesha observed that the eye of
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
385
Mahomet rested on it, and, knowing it to be
such as ho liked, a'sked whether he wished
to have it. He signified assent. Chewing it
c little to make it soft and pliable, she placed
it in his hand. This pleased him: for he
took up the tooth-pick and used it, I'ubbing
his teeth with his ordinary yigour; then he
put it down.
"Ilia strength now rapidly sank. He
seemed to be aware that death was drawing
near. He called for a pitcher of water, and,
wetting his face, prayed thus : '0 Lord, I be
seech - thee to assist me in the agonies of
death ! ' Then three times he ejaculated
earnestly. ' Gabriel, come close unto me I '
14 At this time he began to blow upon
himself, perhaps in the half-consciousness of
delirium, repeating the while an ejaculatory
form which he had been in the habit of pray-
| ing over persons who were very sick. When
he oeasod, from weakness, Ayesha took up
the task, and continued to blow upon him
and rocito the same prayer. Then, seeing
. that he was very low, she seized his right
hand and rubbed it (another practice of the
i. Prophet when visiting the sick), repeating all
the while the earnest invocation. But M»b'>-
I; met was loo far gone to bear even this. He
1 1 now wished to be in perfect quiet : ' Take off
i thy hand from -me,' he said, 'that cannot
benefit me now.' Aft^r a little he prayed in
o whisper, 'Lord grant me pardon: rmcl join
-' me to ths companionship on high ! ' Then at
intervals : * Eternity in Paradise ! ' ' Paro-m ! '
• * Yes ; the blessed companiouship on high ! '
• He stretched himself gently. Then all was
I still. His head grew heavy on the breast of
Ayesha. The Prophet of Arabia -was dead.
"Softly removing his head from her bosom,
Ayesha, placed it on the pillow, and rising up
joined the other women, who were beating
their faces in bitter lamentation.
" The suo had but shortly passed the meri
dian. It was only an hour or two since Ma-
hornet iiad entered tbe mosque cheerful, arid
seemingly convalescent. He nuw lay cold in
death."
As aoon as tiue intelligence of the Prophet's
death was published- a crowd of people as
sembled at the door of the house of "Ayishah,
exclaiming, " How can our Apostle bw dead ;
he who was to be our witness in the Day of
Judgment?" "No." said 'Umar, "he is not
dead; he has gone to visit his Lord as the
Prophet Moses did, when, after an absence of
forty days, bo reappeared to his people. Our
Prophet will be restored to us, and those are
traitors to the cause of Islam who say he is
dead. Ti they Fay so, let them be cut in
pieces." But Abu Bakr entered the house at
this juncture, and after viewing the body of
the Prophet with touching demonstrations of
affection, he appeared at the door and
addressed the crowd thus : " O Muslims, it
ye adore Muhammad, know that Muhammad
is dead. If ye adore tj!od, God is ulive, and
cannot die. Do ye forgot the verse in the
Qur'un . ' Muhammad is no more than an
apostle. Other apostles have already passed
before him?' (see Sural: iii. 13d). and also
the other verse, • Thou shalt surely die, O
Muhammad, and they also shall die?'" (see
Surah xxxlx. 31). 'Umar acknowledged his
error, and the crowd was satisfied ami dis
persed.
Al-'Abbiia presided at the preparations foi
the burial, and the body was duly washed
and' perfumed. There was some dispute
between the Quraish and the Ansar as to
the place of burial ; but Abu Bakr silenced
them, affirming that he had heard Muham
mad say that a prophet should be buried on
the spot where he died. A grave was accord
ingly dug m the ground within the house of
'Ayishah, and under the bed on which the
Prophet died. This spot is nuw known as
the Hujrah, or chamber, at al-Madlnah. The
last rites were performed by -Ali and the
two sons of al-'Abbsis. [HUJRA.H.]
The foregoing account of Muhammad's
denth is that, of Sunnl traditionists. The
Shi'ahs deny almost every word of it, and give-
the following as an authentic narrative of tbe
Prophet's death. The manifest object being
to establish the claim of ;A1I to be Muham
mad's successor. It is translated from the
Shi'ah book entitled the Hayatu 'l-Qvdub (see
Merrick's translation, p. 868) :—
" The Prophet returned to his house, and
in the space of three days bis sickness be
came ?evere. He then tied a bandage on his
hoad, a.nd leaning on the Commander of the
Faithful (i.e. -Ali) and Fazl-itm- Abbas, went
to the mesied and ascended the mimber (or
puipit), and, sitting down, addressed the
people rhua : ' The time is near when 1 shall
be concealed from you. Whoever has any
claim on me, let him now declare it. Verily,
none can claim fay our at th*5 hand- of God
but l«y obeying Him, apd none can expect, to be
:afe without good works, or to enjoy tbe favour
of God without obedience. Nothing but good
,works will deliver from divine wrath, and
verily, if I should sin, I should go to hell.
0 Lord, I have delivered thy message.' He
then came down from the mimber and per
formed short prayers with the people, and
returned Lo the house of Uinmsahnah,. where
he remained one or two days. That cursed
woman Auyeshah, having satisfied bis other
wives on the subject, came to the Prophet,
and iiidured him by entreaties to go to her
house, where Jus sickness became very op
pressive. At the hour for morning prayers
Biliil shouted the azan, but the Prophet, near
hi* departure to the holy w^rld. heard it riot.
Auycshah then sent to her father, Abubekr,
to go to the mesied, and l«ad the devotions of
the people, and IJafsah sent the same mes--
sage to Omar. As these two women were
conversing about the matter before the Pry
phet, not. seeming to suppose that he under
stood, them, ho interrupted them, saying.
Quit tjuch talk ; you are like the women that
tried to lead Yusuf astray.' Finding that,
contrary to his orders, Abubekr and Omar
were in the city with seditious designs, he
was very sorrowful : and oppressed as he was
with a severe disease, he rose, and leaning on
Aly and Fa/.l-biu -Abbas, with extreme dif-
49
386
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
ticulty went ta the inesjed, lest Abubekr or
Omar should perform prayers, and the people
'lottbt "who should be his successor. On ar-
riving^at the mesjed, he found that the cursed
Abubekr had occupied the place of the leader
of prayers, and already begun the devotions
with the people. The Prophet, with his
blessed hand, signed to Abuhekr to remove,
and he took his place, and from weakness sat
do v n to perform prayers, which he began anew,
regardless of Abubekr's commencement.
" On returning to his house M uhammad
summoned Abubekr, Omar, and some others.
and demanded if he had not ordered them
to depai't with the army of Asameh. They
replied that he had. Abubekr said that he
hod gone and returned again ; and Omar said
that he did not go, for he did not wish to hear
of the Prophet's sickness from another. Mu
hammad then told them to go with the army
of Asaraah, and three times pronounced a
curse on any who should disobey. His
exertions produced such exhaustion that he
swooned, on which the Musalmans present
and his wives and children wept and lamented
aloud. At length the Prophet opened his
blessed eyes, and said, ' Bring me an inkstand
and a sheep's shoulder-blade, that I may
write a direction which will prevent your
going astray.' One of the Companions of the
Prophet rose to bring what he had ordered.,
but Omar said, ' Come back, he speaks deli
riously; disease has ovei-come him, and the
book of God is sufficient for us.' It is. how
ever, a disputed matter whether Omar said
this. However. they said to the Propuet.
' Shall we bring what you ordered.' He re
plied, • Alter what 1 have heard from you I
do not need them, but I give you a dving
charge to treat my family well, and not turn
from them. [The compiler observes thfl-t this
tradition about the inkstand and shoulder-
blade is mentioned in several Sunnl books.]
" During the last sickness of the Prophet,
while he was lying with his bead in Aly's lap,
and Abbas was standing before him and
brushing a; way the flies with his cloak, he
opened his eyes and asked Abbas to becom«i
his executor, pay his debts, and support his
family. Abbas said he was an old man with
a large family, and could not do it. Muham
mad then preferred the same to Aly, who was
so much affected that he could not command
utterance for some time, but as soon as he could
speak, promised with the greatest devotion to
perform the Prophet's request. Mohammad,
after, being raised into a bitting posture, in
which he was supported by Aly; ordered Bilal
to bring his helmet, called Zoot-j&btt* (Zu V-
jabiri) ; his coat of mail, ZatuJ-Faz'ool (Zatv 'i-
Fuziil) : bis banner, Akab ; his sword, Zool-
fdkar (Zu 't-fiqdr')] his turbans, Sa/tdb and
Tahmeeah ; hi's two party-coloured garments.
his little staff, and his' walking cane, Mam-
shook.* In relating the story, Abbas remarked
that he had never before seen the party-
coloured scarf, which was so lustrou? as
nearly to blind the eyes. The Prophet now
addressed Aly, saying, ; Jibraeel brought me
this article and told me to put it into the
rings of my mail, and bind it OK me for a
girdle.' He then called for his two pairs of
Arab shoes, one pair of which had been
patched. Next he ordered the shirt he wore
m the night of the Maraj, or ascent to hea
ven, and the shirt he wore at the battle of
Ohod. He then called for his three cap?, one
of which he wore in journeying, another on
festivals, and the third when sitting among
his Companions. He then told Bilalto bring
his" two mules, Shahba and Duldui. his two
she-camels, Gnazb.fi, and Sahb§,, and his two
horses, Jinah and Khyrdam.
.'-' Jinah was kept at the door of the mesjet
for the use of a messenger, and Khyrdam wae
mounted by the Prophet at the battle of
Ohod, where Jibraeel cried, ' Advance, Khyr
dam.' Last, ho called for his ass Yafoor,
Muhammad now directed Abbas to take Aly'a
place, and support his back. He then .said,
k Rise. 0 Aly, and take tnese mv property,
while I yet live, that no one may quarrel
I with VQU about them after I am gone.'
u When 1 rose,' said Aly, * my feet were so
| cramped that it was with the utmost dif
ficulty that I could move. Having taken the
articles and animals to my house, I returned
and stood bpfore the Prophet, who on seeing
me took his ring from his right hand, point
ing the way of truth, and put it on my right
hand, the house being full of the Benu Hashim
and other Musulnmis, and while from weak
ness his head nodded to the right and left, he
cried -aloud. ' 0 company of Musulmans, Aly
is my brother, my successor, and Khaleefah
among my people arid sect, ho will pay niy
debts and cancel my engagements. 0 ye sons
of Hashim and Abdul-mutalib, and ye other
Musulmans,. be not hostile to Aly, and do not
oppose him, lest ye be led astray, and do not
envy him, nor incline from him to anotner,
lest ye become infidels. He then ordered
Abbas to give his place to Aly. Abbas re-
plied> 'Do you remove an old man to seat a
child in his place ? ' The Prophet repeated
liie order ; and the third time Abb&8 rose in
anger, and Aly took his place. Muhammad.
finding his uncle angry, said to mm. Do
nothing to cause me to leave the world
ori'en-ded with vou, and my wrath send you to
hell.5 On hearing this. Abbas went bac-k tc
his place, and Muhammad directed Aly to lay
him down.
" The Prophet said to Bilal, ' Bring my two
sons Hasan and Husain ' When they were
presented he pressed them to his bosom,
smelt and kissed those two riowers of the
garden of prophecy. Aly. fearing they would
trouble the Prophet, was'about to take them
away ; but he said, •' Let them be. that I may
smell them, and they smell me, and we pre
pare to meet each other ; for after I am gone
great calamities will befall them, but may
God curse those that cause them to fear and
do them injustice. 0-Lord, I commit themtc
Thee and to the worthy of the Faithful,
namely, Aly-bin-Abutalib. The Prophet then
dismissed the people and they went away, but
Abbas and his son Fazl, and Aly-Wn-Abu-
talib, and those belonging to the bouso-
MUHAMMAD
hold of the Prophet," remained. Abbas then
*aid to the Prophet, ' If the Kh*lafat (Kin-
lafali) is established umong us, the Benu
Hashim. assure us of it, that we may rejoice ;
but if you foresee that they will treat us. un
justly ami deprive us of the Khalafat. com
mit us to your Companions/ Muhammad
I replied, * After I am gone they will weaken
i and overcome you. at which declaration all
the family wept, and. moreover, uespeired of
the Prophet's life.
" Aly continued to attend Muhammad nigm
and day, never leaving him except from the
i most, imperative necessity. On one of these
i occasions, when Aly was absent, the Prophet
I said, ; Call my friend and brother.' Auyesbab
i and Hftfwh sent for their fathers, Abubekr
I and Omar, but he turned from them and
covered his face, on which they remarked.
: ' He does not want us, he wants Aly.5 whom
I Fa tiiu ah called ; and Muhammad pressed him
I to his hosoiu, and they mingled their perspi
ration tfigether, and the Prophet communi
cated to him a thousand chapters of know
ledge, each opening to a thousand more. One
: tradition declares that Muhanrmnci kept AJy
in his bed till his y»:ire spirit left his Jbody,
his arm meanwhile embracing Aly."
[Jn compiling this account of the life of
Muhammad, we must express our deep ohli-
| gatiotis to Sir William Muir's Life cf Mahomet
! (1st ed., 4vols. : 2r-d ed., I vol, ; Smith, Elder
i and Co., London), [n many cases we have
given the ipsissima verba of his narrative.
i with 'his Kind normission. The chief lit era*
! ture on me subject, in addition to Sir vVilliam
Muir's woik, is : Das Lebev and die Le/irc, det,
Muhammad. A. Sprenger, Berlin. 18G£: Sped-
' men HistonuB Arabum, E. Pooock. Oxon. 1650;
fsmaei Abidfeda De Vita et Rebus gestis Mo-
hatnedis, J. Gagnier, Oxon 1723; Life of
Mtt/io,nei, Washington Irving. London, 1850:
Li/t of Mahomed from Original Sources, A.
Sprenger. Allahabad, 1851 i Essays on the
Life of Muhammad. Syud Ahmad Khan,
C.S.I., London; A CriticqJ Examination
of the Life and Teachings of Ikfuhammad,
Syud Ameer Ali Moulla. LUD., London, 1873;
Islfwi and its Founder, S.P.C.K., 1878'; Ma-
hornet etle Cera*. T. Barthelemy de St. Hilarre.
1866 : The True Nature of the Iiflpouturt.
fW/y Explain, d, H. Prideaux, London, 1718 :
the first three volumes of the modern part of
An Universal History. London, 1770 (spe
cially recommended by Dr. Badger) ; Tareek-
• -Tabari. Zotenberg; Da$ Leben Mohammed's
;tach Ibn Inhak^ bearbeitet von Jbn Hischam. G.
Weil, 2 vols., ISiJl. The earliest biographers
whose works are extant in Arabic, arc Ibn
l*haq O,H. 151). Ibn Hisham (A.H. 218;, al-
Wiqidi (A.H. 207). at-Tabari (A.H. 3iO).]
Muhammad is referred tu by name in four
places in the Qur'an : —
Surah iii. 138: "Muhauiniiid is but «n
apostle : apostles have passed away before
his time; \vhat if he die, or is killed, will y«>
retreat upon your heels ? "
Siirah xxxiii. 40 : •' Muhammad is not the
/nth.er of any of youi men, but the Apostle of
God. and the Seal of the Prophets."
MOHAMMAD
387
Surah xlvii. 2 : " Those who believe and
do right and believe in what is revealed to
Muhammad, — and it is the truth from their
Lord, — t{e will cover for them tneir oiieuces
and set right their mind."
Surah xlviii. 29: "Muhammad is the
Apostle of God."
He is said to have been foretold by Jesus
under the name of Ahmad. Sui abT Ixi. 6 :
'• Giving you gUd tidings of an Apostle who
shall uume after me whose name shall be
Ahmad.'' [AHMAD.]
According to a tradition of Ibn 'Abbas, the
Prophet said: "My name in the Qur'an is
Muhammad, and in the Injil Ahmad, and in
the Taurat Ahyad (from the root j^a., " to
yhun "), and I am called Ahyad because I
shun h?ll-fire more than any of my people/'
(An-Nawaw't, WiUtenfeld's edition, p. 28.)
MWiALVlMAl), The Character at.
(1) Sir William Muir (Life of Mnhmnet. ne\\
ed. p 537 ei seqq.\ has carefully collated
from the tradition* embodied by the secre
tary oi al-Waqidi. an account of the person
and character of Muhammad " This account. "
as Sir William Muir remarks, " illu&tnteK v«-
nerally the style and contents of the Muslim
biographies or their Prophet"
" When Ayesha was questionea about Ma
homet she used to say : ' He was a man just
such as yuuist;i ves ; de laughed often 'and
smiled mucii. But how would he occupv
himself at hoiae 't * ' Even as any of yoa
occupy yourselves. He wouid inend bis
clothes, and cobble his shoes. He used t<
help me m my household duties ; but whfli
he did oitenest was to sew. If he had the
choice between two manors, he wouiu choose
the easiest, so as that no sin accrued there
from. He never took revenge excepting
where tne honour oi God was concerned
Vv'hen aiigry with anv person, he woulci say
" What hath taken such a one that he should
soil his forehead in the mud I ''
" His humility \vr«s shovrn by hlo riding
upon asses, by hi? accepting the invitation
even of slaves, and when mounted, by- his
taking another behind him. Ho would sav
' I sit at mealt as a servant doeth, and I eai
like a servant: for I really sm a servant'
and he would sit as one that was alwayf
ready to rise. He discouraged (supereroga
tory) fasting, and works of mortification
When seated with his followers, he would
remain long silent at a time. In the mosque
at Medina they xie-ed to repeat pieces of
poetry, and tell stories regarding the incidents
chat occurred in the ' days of ignorance,' and
laugh ; and Mahomet listening to them, would
smile at "what they said.
•• Mahomet hated nothing more than lying :
and whenever he knew that any of hi? fol
lowers had oi-red in this respect . h^ would
hold himself nloof from them uutil ho was
assured of their repentance.
" He did not speak rapidly, running his
words into one another, but enunciated <acU
388
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
syllable distinctly, 86 that what he said was
imprinted in the memory of every one who
heard him. When at public prayers, it might
be known from a distance that he was read
ing by the motion ,of his beard. He never
read in a singing or chanting style; but he
would draw out his voice, resting at certain
places. Thus, in the prefatory words of a
Sura, he would pause after bis-mil/uhi, after
al. Rahman, and again after f.l Rahim.
« Gait.
"He used to walk so rapidly that the
people half ran behind him, and could hardly
keep up with him.
" Habits in Eating.
" He never ate reclining, for Gabriel had
told him that such was the manner of kings ;
nor had he ever two men to walk behind
him. He used to eat with his thumb and his
two forefingers; and when he had done, he
would lick them, beginning with the middle
one. When offered by Gabriel the valley of
Mecca full of gold, be preferred to forego it :
saying that when he was hungry he would
come before the Lord lowly, and when full,
with praise.
•' Moderation.
''A servant-maid being once long in return-
big from an errand, Mahomet was annoyed,
and said ; < If it were not for the law of re
taliation, I should have punished you with
this tooth-pick' (i.e. with an inappreciably
light punishment).
" Customs at Prayer.
" He used to stand for such a length of
time at prayer that his legs would swell.
When remonstrated with, he said : • What !
shall I not behave as a thankful servant
should ? ' He never yawned at prayer. When
ha sneezed, he did so with a subdued voice,
covering his face. At funerals he never rode :
he would remain silent on such occasions, as
if conversing with himself, so that the people
used to think he was holding communication
with the dead.
" Refusal to make Personal Use of Tithes.
" While he accepted presents he refused to
use anything that had been offered as aim** ;
neither would he allow anyone in his family
to use what had been brought as alms ; * For,'
said he, ' alms are the impurity of mankind '
(i.e. that which cleanses their impurity). His
scruples on this point were so strong that he
would not eat even a date picked up on the
road, lest perchance it might have dropped
from a tithe load.
" Food Relished.
" Mahomet had a special liking for .sweet
meats and honey! He was also fond of
cucumbers and of undried dates. When a.
lamb or a kid was being cooked, Mahornet
would go to the potj take out the shoulder.
and eat it. He used to eat moist dates and
cooked food together. What he most relished
was a mess of bread cooked with meat, and a
dish of dates dressed with butter and milk.
" Mahomet used to have sweet (rain) water
kept for his use.
" Women and Scents.
• ." A great array of traditions are produced
to prove tha,t the Prophet was fond of women
and scents, and liked those of all things in the
world the beat, Ayesha used to say : * The
Prophet loved three things— women, scents,
and food ; he had his heart's desire of the
two .first, but not of the last.'
" Straitened means at Medina.
" Ayesha tells us that for months together
Mahomet did not get a full meal. * Months
us«d to pass,' she says again, « and no fire
would be lighted in Mahomet's house, either
for baking bread or cooking meat.' ' How,
then, did ye li ve ? ' ' By tho * two black
things " (dates and water), and by what the
citizens used to send unto us ; the Lord re
quite them ! Such of them as had milch
cattle would send us a little milk. The Pro
phet never enjoyed the luxury of two kinds
of food the same day; if he had flesh -there
was nothing else ; uud so if he had dates ; so
likewise if he had bread.'
"•* We possessed no sieves, but used to
bruise the grain and blow oft' the husks.'
" Appearance, Habits, $ o.
" He used to wear two garments. His izar
(under-garment) hung down three or four
inches below his knees. Hia mantle was not
wrapped round him so as to cover his bodyr
but he would draw the end of it under his
shoulder.
" He used to divide his time into three
parts : one was given to God, the second
allotted to his family, the third to himself.
When public business began to press upon
him, he gave up one. half of the latter portion
to the service of others.
" When he pointed he did so with his whole
hand ; and when he was astonished he turned
his hand over (with the palm upwards.). In
speaking with another, he brought his hand
near to the person addressed ; and he would
strike the palm of the left in the thumb of
the right hand. Angry, he would avert his
face ; joyful, he would look downwards. He
often smiled, and, when he laughed, his teeth
used to appear white as hailstones.
" In the interval allotted to others, he re
ceived all that came to him, listened to their
representations, and occupied himself in dis
posing of their business and in hearing what
they had to tell him. He would say on such
occasions : <Let those that are here give in
formation regarding that which passeth to
them that are absent ; and they that cannot
themselves appear lo make known - their
necessities, let others report them to me in
their stead; the Lord will establish the feet
of such hi the Day of Judgment.'
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
389
" Seal i>f Prophecy.
I " This, aays one, was a protuberance on the
•Prophet's back of the size and appearance of
la pigeon's egg. It is said to have been the
•divine seal which, according to the predictions
•of tho Scriptures, marked Mahomet as the
•last oc the Prophets. How far Mahomet
Ihiinself encouraged this idea it is impos-
Isible to say. From the traditions it would
•seem to have been nothing more than a mole
I of unusual size ; and the saying of Mahomet,
Jtbat * God had placed it there,' was probably
I the germ of supernatural associations which
grew up concerning it,
"Ho*.
" His hair used to be combed ; it was
neither curling nor smooth. He had, says
one, t'onr curled locks. His hair was ordi
narily parted, but he did not care If it was
not so. According to another tradition, 'The
Jews and Christians used to let their hair fall
down, while the heathen parted it. Now
Mahomet loved to follow the people of the
Book in matters concerning which he had no
express command, feo he used to let down
his hair without parting it. Subsequently,
however, he fell into tho habit of parting
" Moustache.
•" Mahomet used to clip his moustache. A
M&gian once came to him and said : ' You
otight fco clip your beard and allow your
mou€tacliee to grow.' *Nay,' said the Pro
phet, ' for my Lord hath commanded me to
clip the moustaches and allow the beard to
grow.'
" Various traditions are quoted on the dif
ferent colours he used to wear — white chiefly,
but also red, yeliew, and green. He some
times put on woollen clothes. Ayesha, it is
said exhibited a piece of woollen stuff in
vyhich she swore that Mahoroet died. She
adds that be emce hud a black woollen
dress , nnrt she still remembered, as she
spoke, the contrast between tho Prophet's
fair skin and the black cloth. l The odour of
it, however, becoming unpleasant, he cast it-
otf, for oe loved sweet odours.*
" He entered Mecca on the taking of the
city (some say) with a black turban. He
had also a black standard. The end of his
lurbari used to hang down between bin shoul
ders. He once received the present of a
scarf for a turban, which had a ligured or
spotted fringe ; and this ho cut off before
wearing it. He was very fond of striped
V'emen stuffs. Pie used to wrap his turban
oiany times round his head, and ' the lower
edge of it used to appear like the soiled
clothes of an oil-dealer.'
" He once prayed in a silken dress, and
then caat it aside with abhorrence, saying : j
4 Such stuff it doth not become the piou* t-o
wear." On another occasion, as he prayed in
a figured or spotted mantle, the Spots at
tracted his notice; when be had ended, he
said: 'Takeaway that ruantle, for verily it
hath distracted mo in my prayers, and bring
me a common ono.' His sleeve ended at the
wrist. ,The robes in which he was iu tho
habit of receiving embassies, and his fine
Hadhramaut mantle, remained with the Ca
liphs; when worn or rent, these garments
were mended with fresh cloth ; and in after
times, the Caliphs used to wear then) at the
festivals. When he put on new clothes
(either an under-garmont, a girdle, or a tur
ban), the Prophet would offer up a prayer
such as this : « Praise be to the Lord who
hath clothed me with that which shall hide
my nakedness and adorn me while I live. I
pray Thee for the good that is in this, and
the good that hath been made for it ; and I
seek refuge from the evil that is in the same,
and from the evil that hath been made for it,'
k' Shoes.
"His servant, Anas, had charge of his
shoes and of his water-pot. After his masters
death, Anas used to phew his shoes. They
were after the Hadhramaut pattern, with
two thongs, hi the year 100 or 110 A.H.J one
•went to buy shoes at Mecca, and teila us that
the shoemaker offered to make them exactly
after the model of Mahomet's, which ho said
he had &een in the possession of Fatima,
granddaughter of Abbas. His shoes used to
be cobbled. He was in the habit of praying
with his shoes oil. On one occasion, having
taken them off at prayers, all the people did
likewise, but Mahoinet told them there was
no necessity, for he had merely takon off
his own because Gabriel had apprised him
that there was some dirty substance attach
ing to them (cleanliness being required in all
the surroundings at prayer). The thongs <.i
his shoes once broke, and -they mended their
for him by adding a new piece ; after the ser
vice^ Mahomet desired his shoes to be takmi
away a,nd the thong* restored as they were ,
' For.' said he, ; I was distracted at prayer
thereby.1
" Tooth-nick.^,
" Ayesha tells us that MnJicuiet never lay
down, by night or by day, but on wakiug he
applied the tooth-pick to hi* teeth before he
performed ablution. He used it so much as
to wear away his gums. The tooth-pick was
always placed conveniently for him at night,
so that, v»'hen he got up in the night to pray,
he might use it before his lustrations. One
says that he saw him with the toothpick ic
his mouth, and that hf kept saying: aa. a*,
as if about to vomit. His tooth-picks were
made of the green wood of the puku-tree.
Ho never travelled without one.
" Articles of Toilet.
"He very frequently oiled his hair, poured
water on his beard, and applied antimony to
his eyes.
" Armour.
" Four sections are devoted to the descrip
tion of Mahomet's armour. — bisawords, coats
of mail, shields, lances, and bows.
390
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
•• The Prophet used to snuff siinsim (sesa-
mum), and wash his hands in a decoction of
the wild plum-tree. When he was afraid of
forgetting' anything, he would tie a thread or
his finger or his ring.
" Horse*.
" Th« first horse vrbi;:h Mahomet ever
possessed was one he purchased of the Bani
Fazara, for (en owckeas (ounces of silvai1) ;
and he called its name *<tk.b (running water),
from the easiness of its paces. Mahomet was
mounted on it at the battle of Ohod, when
there was but one other horse from Medina
on the field. He had also a horse called
Snbd/ta (Shew/ah ?) ; he raced it and it won.
and he was greatly rejoiced thereat, He had
a third horse, named Uwrfaji* (neighoi;.
•' Hiding (*<nneJ*.
•• Besides Al C-aswa (al-Uaswa), Mahomet
had a camel called AJbha (al-'Azba), which
in speed outsi ripped all others. Yet one
clu\ an Arab pasaed it \vhc-u ul its fleetest
pace. The Moslems were chagrined at this ;
but Mahomet reproved thuin, saying, • ft is
li 2 property of the Lord, that whensoever men
os silt anything, or softk fo exalt it. tb^-n the
Lord putteth down the same.
« Milch Came!,-.
" Mahomet had twenty milch catucij>, tLt,
isame that were plundered at Al Ghaba. Theii
milk was for the support of his family : every
evening they gave two large skinstul, Omm
Salman relates: "Our chief food when we
Hvod with Mahomet was milk. The camels
used to be brought from Al Ghiiba every
evenhig. I had one called Aris, and Ayesha
one called Al Samra. The herdmanfed them
at Al Juania. and brought them to our homes
in the evening. There was also one for Ma
homet.
•' Milch Flocks.
"Mahomet had seven goais which Omin
Ayman used to tend s^this probably refers to
an early period of bis residence at Medina).
His flocks grazed at Ohod and Himna alter
nately , and were brought back to the house
of that wife whose turn it was for Mahomet
to be in her abode. A favourite goat having
died, the Prophet desired its skin to be
tanned
;< Mahomet attached a peculiar blessing to
ihe possession of goats. ' There is no house/
he would say, ' possessing a goat, but a bles
sing abideth. thereon ; and there is no house
possessing three gents, but the angels pass
the night there playing for its inmates until
the morning.'
• Stroqnts
'• Fourteen or fiiteen persons are mentioned
who served the Prophet at various times.
His slaves he always freed.
" Houses.
*« Abdallah ibn Yazid relates that Ue saw
tbe houses in which the wives of the Prophet
dwelt, at the time when Omar ibn Al Aziz,
Governor of Medina (about A.H. 100} demo-
lished them. They were built ,of uuburnt
bricks, and had separate apartments made of
palm-branches, daubed (or built-up) with
mud; he counted nine houses, each having
separate apartments, in the space extending
from tbe house of Ayesha and the gate of
Mahomet to the house of Asma? daughter oi
Hosein. Observing the dwelling-place of
Omm Salma, he questioned her grandson con
cerning it, and he told him that when .the
Prophet was absent on the expedition to
i Duma, Omm Stilma built up ah addition to
! her house with a wall of unburnt bricks..
When Mahomet returned, he went in t"
her, and asked vvliat new building this
was. She repliM. <I purposed, O Prophet,
to shut out the glances of men thereby ! '
Mahomet answered : " U Omm Salma ! verily
the incst unprofitable thing that eatetl
up the wealth of the Believer is building.
A citizen of Medina present at ihe timp, con
firmed this account, and added that the cur
tains of the door were of black hair-cloth.
He was present, ho &a,id, when I ho despatch
of the Caliph Abd ai Malik f A.H. 8«-88) was
read aloud, commanding that liit^e. Louses
should be brought within the area of the
mosque, and he never witnessed sorer weeping
than there was amongst the people that day.
One exclaimed : 'I vrish, by the Lord! that
they would leave these houses alone thus
j',s» they are ; then would those that spring up
hereafter in Medina, and strangers from the
ends of the ear in, come aud see what kind of
building sufficed for the Propnet's own abode,
and the sight thereof would deter men from
extravagance and pride.'
'• There were four houses of unburnt bricks,
tbe apartments being of palm-braneb.es ; and
five houses made of palm- brunches built up
with laud aud without any .separate apart-
uieiith. Each was threw Aiabian yards in
length. Some say they had leather curtains
for the doors. One could reach the roof with
the hand.
" The house of Haritha (Hans ah) was next
to that of Mahomet, Now whenever Maho
met took to himself a new wife, he added,
another house to the row, and Haritha was
obliged successively to remove his hou.se, and
to build on the space beyond. .At last this
WHS repeated go often, that the Prophet said
to those about him : ' Verily, it shame-til me
to turn Haritha over and over again out of
his house.'
" Properties,
•' There were seven gardens which Mukhei-
rick the Jew left to Mahomet. Omar ibn Al
Aziz, the Caliph, said that, when Governor
of Medina, be ate of the fruit of these, and
never tasted sweeter dates. Others say that
these gardens formed a portion of the con
fiscated estates of the Bani Nadhir. They
were afterwards dedicated perpetually to
pious purposes,
•* Mahomet had three other properties : —
•• L The confiscated lands of i&e Baai
MU HAM MAP
MUHAMMAD
391
Nadhir. The produce of these was appro
priated to his own wants. One of the plots
was called Mashruba Omm Ibrahim, the
' summer garden of (Mary) the mother of
Ibrahim, 'where the Prophet used to visit her.
"II Fadflk ; tne fruits of this were reserved
as a fund for indigent travellers.
" III. The tifth share, and the lands received
by capitulation, in Khfiibar. This was divided
into throe parts. Two were devoted for the
benefit of the Moslems generally (i.e. for State
purposes) : the proceeds of the third, Maho
met assigned for the support of his own
family.; and what remained over ho added to
the fund for the use of the Moslems." (The
Life, of Mahomet, by William Muir, Esq..
London, 1861, vol. iv., p. 325.)
(2) Dr. A. Sprenger, Persian translator of
the Government of India, and Principal of the
Calcutta Madrasah, grses the following valu-
aole review of the character of Muhammad,
as regards hifl assumption of the prophetic
office : —
'• Up to his fortieth year, Mohammad de
voutly worshipped the gods of his fathers.
The predominance of his imaginative powers,
and his peculiar position, gave him a turn for
religious meditation. He annually spent the
month of Ramazan in seclusion in a cave of
Mount Hira'j where the Qorayhhites used to
devote themselves to ascetic exercises. In
this retreat he passed a certain number of
nights in prayers, fasted, fed the poor, and
gave himself up to meditation; and on his
return to Makkah he walked seven times
round the Ka'bah before he went to his own
fc.ouse.
" When he was forty years of age, the first
doubts concerning idolatry arose in his inind.
The true believers ascribe this crisis to a
divine revelation, and therefore carefully con
ceal the circumstances which may have given
the first impulse. It is likely that the eccen
tric Zaid, whom he must have met in Mount
Hira, first instilled purer notions respecting
God into his mind, and induced him to read the
Biblical history. To abjure the gods, from
whom he had hoped for salvation, caused a
great struggle to Mohammad, and' he becamt
dejected and fond of solitude. He spent the
greater part of his time in Hira, and came only
occasionally to Makkah for new provisions.
" Undisturbed meditation increased his
excitement, and. his overstrained brains
were, even in sleep, occupied with doubts and
speculations. In one of his visions he saw an
angel, who said to him, ' Read.' He answered,
' I am not reading.' The angel laid hold oi
him and squeezed him, until Mohammad suc
ceeded in making an effort. Then he released
him. and said again, ' Read.' Mohammad
answered, 'lam not reading.' This was re
peated three times ; and at length the angel
said, ' Read in the name of thy Lord, the
Creator, who has created man of congealed
blood : — read, for thy Lord is most beneficent.
It is He who has taught by the pen (has re
vealed the Scriptures) ; it is He who has
taught man what he does not know ' These
are the initial words nf n Surah of the Quran,
and the first revelation which Mohammad re
ceived. If thjs dream was as momentous as
authentic traditions make it, h must have
been the crisis, which caused Mohammad to
seek for truth in the books of the Jews and
Christians. The words oi the angel admit
hardly any other so-nse Alter much hesita
tion he detenninf-s to study the tenets of
another faith, which was hostile to that of
his fathers. > His resolve is sanctioned by »
vision, and he thanks the Creator, whom rfte
Qorayshites always considered the greatest
umong their gods, for having sent, a revela
tion to direct man.
" It is cei'tain, however, that no Musalmau
will admit the sense which I give to these
••;erses of the Quran ; and Mohammad himself ,
in the progress of his career, formally denied
having read any part of the Scriptures before
the Quran had been revealed to him. This,
however, can- only be true if he meant the
first verses of the Quran, that is to say, those
mentioned above ; for in the following revela
tions he introduces the names of most pro
phets, he holds up their history as an ex
ample to the Makkums, he borrows expres
sions from the Bible which he admired foi
their sublimity, he betrays his acquahitanct-
with the gospels by referring to an erro
neously translated verse of St. John, for a
proof of his mission, and he frequently al
ludes to the legends of the Rabbins and
Christians, Whence has the Prophet of the
Gentiles obtained -his. knowledge of the
Biblical history ? He answers the question
himself : It is God who has revealed it to me.
This assertion satisfies the believer, and is a
b'nt to the inquirer in tracing the sources of
lus information. He would hardly have
hazarded it had he not obtained his instruc
tion under considerable secresy. The spirit
of persecution at Makkah, which manifested
itself against Zaid, made caution necessary
for Mohammad, though originally he may
have had no ulterior views,jn making himself
acquainted with another faith. Yet with ali
his precautions, the Qorayshites knew enough
of his history to disprove his pretensions. He
himself confesses, in a Surah revealed at
Makkah (Surah xxv. 5), that they said that the
Quran was a tissue of falsehood ; that several
people had assisted him ; and that he preached
nothing more than what was contained in the
" Asatyr of the Ancients," which he used to
write, from the dictation of his teachers,
morning and evening. Who were the men
who instructed Mohammad ? It is not likeh
that he would have dared to declare before
them, that the doctrines which hu had re
ceived from them had been revealed to him :
nor is it likely that, had they been alive after
the new religion had become triumphant, they
vould have allowed him to take aii the credit
1 o himself. Those who exercised au influence
i pon Mohammad wero his disciples ; but wt
ind no instance in which he appeared to buy
secresy by submitting to the dictation of
others. I am inclined to think, therefore, th.-it
his instructors died during his early career ;
and this supposition enables us to ascertain
392
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
the names of some of them. The few speci
mens of the sayings of Zaid, which have been
preserved, prove that Mohammad borrowed
freely from him, not only his tenets, but oven
his expressions ; and Zaid did not long sur
vive Muhammad's assumption of his ofTie-j.
It is likely that Waraqah, the cousin of Kha-
dyiah, who. it would appear, brought abovit
her marriage with Mohammad, ^who was the
tim to declare that the Great. Law [NAMUS]
would be revalod to him, and who expressed
a wish to assist him • during the persecution?
(o which every prophet was subject, was one
of his teachers. Waraqahdied shortly before
the .time when he publicly proclaimed his
mission. The defence of the Prophet, that
the man, of whom his countrymen said- that
he assisted him in writing the Quran, was a
foreigner (Surah xvi. 105), and unable to.
write so pure Arabic as the language of the
Quran was, leads us to suspect that one
of his chief authorities for the Biblical legends
was 'Addas, a monk of Nineveh, who was
Hetilol a.t Makka-h. (See Tafsiru V-Baizawi
on Surah xxv. 6.) And tuoiv; can be no
doubt that the Rabbins of the Hijaz com
municated to Mohammad their legends. The
commentators upon the Qnran inform us fur
ther, that he used to listen to J?*br and Yasar.
two g word-manufacturers at Makkan, when
they read the scriptures j and Ibn Ishaq says.
that he had intercourse with 'Abdal-Rahman,
a Christian of Zamamah; but we must never
forger that the object of these authorities, in
sttch matters, is not to instruct their readei'st,
but to mislead them.
"It is certain, from the context, where the
expression occurs, and from the commenta
tors on the Quran, thai • Asdtvr of the
Ancitnts is the name jf a book j but w.?
have very little information as to its origin
and contents. (See the Commentaries of al-
Baizawi and the Jala Ian on Surah xxv.)
That dogmas were propounded in it., besides
Biblical legends, appears from /several pas
sages of the Quran, where it i<> said that it
contained the doctrine of the Resurrection.
(Surahs xxvii. 70. xlvi. 16.) It is also clear
thai, it was known at Makkah before Mo ham -x
mad; for the Qorayshiies told him that they
ond their fathers had been acquainted with it
before he taught it, and that all that he
taught was contained in it. (Siirah Ixviii. 15.)
Mohammad had, in all -likelihood, besides, a
version of portions of the scriptures, both of
the genuine and some of the apocryphal
works ; for he refers his audience to them
without reserve. Tabary informs us that
when Mohammad first entered on his office.
even his wife "Khadyjah had read the scrip
tures, and was acquainted -with the history of
the prophets, (See Bal'amy's translation of
Tabary in Persian.)
" In spite of three passages of the Quran
quoted above, the moaning of which they
clunr.sily pervert, almost all modorn Musa-1-
inan writers, and many of the old ones, deny
that Mohammad knew reading or writing.
Good authors, however, particularly among1 .
the Shiahs, ;>.dmit that he knew reading; but
they say -ha was not a skilful penman. The
only support of the opinion of the former is
one passage of the Quran, Surah vii. 156, in
which Mohammad says that he was the Pro
phet of the CTnmiis. and an Umini himself,
This word, they say, means illiterate : but
others say it means a man who is not skilful
in writing ;. and others suppose it to mean a
Makkian or an Arab. It is clear that they
merely guess, from tha context, at the mean
ing of the word, Umini is derived from
ummali, ' nation ' (Latin gtns, Greek etknos),
and on comparing the passages of the Quran,
in which it occurs, it appears that it means
yentile (Greek elhnicos). It is said in th«
Quran, that some Jaws are honest, but others
think there is no harm in wronging the
UmmLs. Iniam Sadiq observes (H'iy&tu V-
Quhib, vol ii. chapter G, p. 2) on this passage,
that the Arabs are meant under Umrnis, and
that they are called so, though they knew
writing, because God had revealo.l no book to
them, and had sent them no prophet. Several
instances in which Mohammad did read and
write are recorded by Bokhary, N«aay. and
others. It is, however, certain that he- wished
to appear ignorant, in order to raise the ele
gance of the composition of the Quran into a
miracle.
* * *• * •#
'• According to one record, the doubts, in
decision, and preparation of the Prophet for
his office.- lasted seven years; and so sincere
and intense were his meditations oh matters
of religion, that they brought him to the
brink of madness. La the Quran we can
trace three phases in the progress of the
mind of Mohammad from idolatry to the for
mation of a new creed. First, the religion of
the Kab:ah, hi which be sincerely believed,
seems to have formed the principal subject of
his meditations. The contemplation of nature,
probably assisted 'by instruction, led him to
the knowledge of the unity of God ; and there
is hardly a verse in the Quran which does not
shew how forcibly he was struck with this
truth. By satisfying the faith of his fathers,
he tried to reconcile it with -the belief in one
God: and for some time he considered the
idols round the Ka'bah daughters of God, who
intercede with Him for their worshippers.
But ho gave up this belief, chiefly because he
could not- reconcile himself to the idea that
God should have only- daughters, which was
ignominious in the eyes of an Arab ; and that
men should have sons, who reflect honour on
a family. Ho also connected the idolatrous
worship of the biaek stone, and the .ceremo
nies of. the Hajj, and almost all the other
pagan u>:a.^os :>/ the Haramites. with their
Abraham. This idea was not hi.s own. The
.sceptics who preceded him held the same
opinion; yet it was neither ancient nor gene
ral among the pagan Arabs. Wo iind no con
nexion between the tenets of Moses and those
of the Haramites; and though Biblical names
are very frequent among the Musalmans, wi
de not iind one instance of their occurrence
among the pagans ol the Hijas before Mo
hammad.
MCTHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
393
k< It hits been' mentioned that the vision in
•which he was ordered to read caused him
finally to renounce idolatry , we are told that
after this vision an intermission of revelation,
called fatrah, took place, which lasted up
wards of two years. The meaning of fatrah
is simpiy that, though this vision was a
revelation, he did ,not assume his onice for
two or three years. It is certain th.it he
compose*! many Surahs of the Quran during
this time ; and it must have been during tms
period Ihat the tenets of tlie Jews and Chris
tians seriously occupied his mind. Before
the vision he was an idolater ; and after the
fatrah be possessed the acquaintance with the,
scriptural history, which we find in the
Quran. Even after lie had declared himself
a prophet, he .shewed, during tne beginning
of his career, a strong leaning towards, and a
Hint-ore beliet in, the scriptures and Biblical
legends ; but in proportion to his success he
separated himself from the Bible.
'• This is the second phase in the progress
of the Prophet's mind. Hit> beliet in the
scriptures does not imply that he over be-
'.onsreol to the Christian or Jewish Church.
He never could reconcile his notions of God
•with the doctrine of the Trinity, and with the
Divinity of Christ, aud lie was disgusted with
the monkish institutions- and sectarian dis
putes of the Christians. His <:reed was :
* He is God alone, the Eternal God : He haw
not begotten, and is not begotten: and none
is His equal.' (See Surah cxii.) Nothing,
however, can be more erroneous than to
suppose that Mohammad was, at any period
of his early career, a deist. Faith, when
once extinct, cannot be revived; -and it was
his enthusiastic faith in inspiration that madt
him a prophet. Disappointed with the Jewish
and Christian religions, he began to form a
system of faith of his own; and this is the
third phase of the transition pei'iod. For
Home time, it seems, he had no intention to
preach il publicly, but circumstances, as well
as the warm conviction of the truth of his
creed, at length prevailed upon him to spread
it beyond the circle of hia family and mends.
'• The mental excitement of the Prophet
was much increased during the fatrah, and
like the ardent scholar in one ol Sehfllers
poems, who dared to lift- the veil of truth, he
was neariy annihilated bv the light whiah
broke in upon him, lie usually wandered
about in the hills near Makkah, and was so loug
absent, that on one occasion, hia wife being
afraid that he was lost, sent men in-seamh of
him. He Buffered from hallucinations of his
dense*, and, to hmsh hi? sufferings, he several
umes contemplated suicide by throwing him-
4elf down from A precipice. His friends were
alarmed at his state of mind. Some con-
aidered it as the eccentricities of a poetical
genius ; others thought that he was a kahin,
or soothsayer : but the majority took a less
charitable view (.see Surah ixii. 40, xx. 6),
aud declared that he was insane ; and. as
madness and melancholy vire ascribed to
supernatural influence in the JLast, they said
that lie was in the power oj[ Satan and his
agents, the jinn. They called in ^exorcists :
and he himself doubted the soundness of uis
mind. 'I. hear a sound ' he said to his wife,
' and see a lighL I am afraid there are jinn
in me.' And on. other occasions he said. * I
am airaid 1 ain a kahirt.' 'God wju never
allow tha.t such should befall thiee.' said Kha-
dyjah$ -'for thou keepe*t thy engagements,
and assistest thy relations.' According to
some accounts, ahe added, • Thou will bo the
prophet of thy nation.' And, in order lo re
move every doubt, she took him to her
cousin Waraqah and he said to her, • I seo
thou (i.e. thy explanation) art correct; the
cause of the excitement of thy husband i»
the coming to him of the great uomos, law>
which is like the nomos of Moses. If 1
should be alive when he receives his mission.
I would assist him ; for I bajhove in him.
After this Khadyjah went to the monk, 'Adda*,
and he confirmed what Waraqah had said
Waraqah died soon after, before Mohammad
entered on his mission.
".The words of Mohammad, * I am afraid I
am a kahin.' require some explanation. The
Arabs, previous to the promulgation of Islam,
believed in kahins, soothsayers ; and even in
our days they have greater faith in salute
and inspired persons than other equally un
civilized nations. Such a beliei is so neces
sary -a limitation of the personal freedom of
the Bedouins, which knows no other bounds
that I consider it as the oif spring of liberty.
Even the most refractory spirit Rbes no humi
liation in confessing his wrong-doings to a
helpless seer, and in submitting to his deci
sions ; and by doing so, if he has embroiled
himself, he can return to peace with hi in sell
and with society. We find, therefore, in the
ancient history of Arabia, that litigations
were frequently referred to celebrated kaUina
These, it would appear, were eccentric per
sons, of if real cunning, and not without genius-
The specimens which we have of their
oracles art: obscure, and usually in rhymed
prose aud incoherent sentences ; and they are
frequently preceded by a heavy oath to the
truth of vuluit they say, like, seme of the
Surahs of the Quran. It was believed that
they knew what was concealed from the
eves of the common mortals : but ihey were
looked upon with awe; for the Arabs con
ceived tho,t they were possessed by, or allied
with. Satan and the jinn. The evil apirita
used to approach the gates of heaven bv
stealth, to pry into the secrets which ^ere
being transacted between God and the angel*
and to convey them to the kuhiiiB. Existing
prejudices left no alternative to Mohammad
but to proclaim himself a prophet who was
inspired by God and His angels, or to be con
sidered * kabin possessed by Satan and his.
agents the jinn.
"Khadyj.ih and hei friends advised him to
adopt the toxiner course ; and, after some he
sitation, he followed their advice, ab it would
appear, with his own conviction His purer
notions of the Deity, his moral conduct, his
predilection for religious speculations, and
tys piety, were proofs sufficiently strong to
394
MtJHAMttAB
?gnYince an affectionate wife that the super
natural influence, under which he wa*, came
from heaven. But, as the pagan Arabs had
very imperfect notions of divine inspiration,
it was necessary for him to prove to them,
by. the history of the prophets, that some
seers were inspired by God ; and to this and,
he devoted more than two-thirds of the
Quran to Biblical legends, most o.f which he
has so well adapted to his own case, that if wo
substitute the name of Mohammad for Moses
and Abraham, we have his owu views, fate,
and tendency. And, in order to remove
every doubt as to the cause of uis excite
ment, Mohammad subsequently maintained,
that sinee he had assumed his office, heaven
WAS surrounded by a strong guard of angels ;
and if the jinn venture tc ascend to its pre
cincts, a flaming tJart, that is to say, a shoot
ing star* is thrown at them, and they are pre
cipitated to the lower regions; and. there-
lore, tne kahins ceased with tho commence
ment of his mission
" The declaration of Wuraqah, and of the
monk 'Addas, that the great nomOs would
descend upon him, and trus iuith of his wife,
neither conveyed full conviction nor gave
they cuffieieut courage to Mohammad to
declare himself publicly the messenger of
God , on the contrary, they increased the
morbid state of his mind. A fatalist, as he
was, it was a hallucination and a fit which
decided bio* to follow their advice. One day,
whilst he was wandering about in the hills
near Makkah. with the intention iu destroy
himself, he heard a voice; and, on raising
his head, he beheld Gabriel, between heavon
and earth ; and the angel assured him that
he was the prophet of God. This hallucina
tion is one of the few clearly stated miracles
to which lie appeals in tne Quran. Not
even an allusion is made, in that book, to his
fits, during which his followers believe that
he received the revelations. This bears out
the account of Wacjidy, which I have followed,
and proves that it was rather the exalted
state of his mind, than his fits, which caused
his friends to believe in his mission. Fright
ened by this apparition, he retuned home ;
and, feeling unwell, he called for covering.
He had a fit. and they poured cold water
upon him; and when he was recovering
from it, he received the revelation* * 0 thou
covered, arise and preach, and magnify thy
Lord, and cleanse thy garment^ and fly every
abomination * ; and henceforth, we are told,
he received revelations without intermission ;
that is to say, the fatrah was at an end* and
ha assumed his office. »
" This crisis of Mohammad's straggles
boars a strange resemblance to the opening
iicene of GoethVs Fans*: He paints, in that
admirable drama, the struggles of mind
which attend the transition, in men of genius,
from the ideal to the real — from youth to
manhood. B.oth in Mohammad and in Faust
the anguish of the mind, distracted by doubts,
is dispelled by the song of angels, which
rises from their own bosoms, aud is the voice
of the consciousness *f their sincerity and
MUHAMMAD
warmth in seeking for truth ; and in both,
after this crisis, the enthusiasm ebbs gra
dually down to cahn design, and they now
blasphemously sacrifice their faith in God f.o
self -aggrandisement. In this respect the re
semblance of the second part of Fausi to
Mohammad's career at Madinah is complete.
As th<* period of transition in the life oi
the Prophet has hitherto been completely \
unknown in Europe, Goethe's general picture
of this period, in the life of enthusiasts, is like
a prediction in reference to the individual
case of Mohammad,
"Some authors consider the fits of the
Prophet as the principal evidence of his mis
sion , and it is therefore necessary to say a
few . words on them. They were preceded
by a great depression of spirits; he was
despondent, and his face was clouded ; and
they were ushered in by coldness of the
extremities and shivering. He shook, as if
he were suffering of ague, and colled out tor
covering. His mind was in a most painfully
excited state. He heard a tinkling in his ears,
as If bells were ringing ; or a humming, as ii
bees were swarming round his head ; and his
lips quivered ; but this motion was under the
control of volition, If the attack proceeded
beyond this stage, his eyes becama fixed and
staling, and the motions of his head became
convulsive and automatic. At length, per*
spiratioa broke out, which covered his face
in largo drops; and with this ended the
attack. Sometimes, however, if he had a
violent fit, he fell' comatose to the ground,
like a person who is intoxicated ; and (at
least at a Latter period, of bis life) his face
was flushed, and his respiration stertorous,
and he rexn'aiced in that state for some time.
The bystanders, sprinkled water in his face ;
but he himself fancied that he would derive
a great benefit from being cupped en the
head. This is all the information which I
have been able to collect concerning the fits
of Mohammad. It will be observed that we
have no distinct account of a paroxysm be
tween the one which he had in his infancy,
and the one after which he assumed his
office. It is likely that up to his forty-fourth
year they were not habitual The alarm of
the nurse, under whose care he had been two
years before he had the former of these two
Jits, shews that it was the first, and the age and
circumstances. under, which he had it, render
it likely that it was solitary, and caused by
tho heat of the sun and gastric irritation.
The fit after which he assumed his office
was undoubtedly brought Qn by long-con
tinued and increasing mental excitement, and
by his ascetic exercises. We know that he
used frequently to fast, and that he some
times davoted the greater part of the night
to prayer. -The bias of the Musalmans is to
gloss over the 'aberration of mind, and the
intention to commit suicide, of their prophet
Most of his biographers "pass over the transi
tion period in silence. We may, therefore, be
justified in stretching the scanty information
which we oan glean from them to the utmost
; and in supposing that he was for
MUHAMMAD
MUHAMMAD
395
some time a complete mani&c ; and that the
fit after which he assumed his o£8oe was a
paroxysm of cataleptic insanity. This
i disease is sometimes accompanied by such
interesting psychical phenomena, that even
in modern time's it has given rise to many
superstitious opinions. After this paroxysm
i the fits became habitual, though the moral ex-
I citement cooled down, and they assumed more
and more an epileptic character." ( The Life
\ of Mohammad from Original 'Sources, by A.
i Spranger, M.D., part i., Allahabad, 1851,
p. 949.)
(3) T)r, Marcus Bodds, in bis Mohammed,
Buddha, and Ckritt," says : —
ft But is Mohammed in no sense a prophet ?
i Certainly be had two of the most important
characteristics of the prophetic order. He
Saw truth about God winch his fellow-men
did not see, and he had an irresistible inward
impulse to publish this truth. In respect of
this latter qualification, Mohammed may
stand comparison with the most courageous
of the heroic prophets of Israel. For the
truth's sake he risked his life, he suffered
daily persecution for years, and eventually
banishment, the loss of property, of the
goodwill of his fellow-citizens, and of the
confidence of his friends ; he suffered, in
Abort, as much as any man can suffer dhort
of death, which he only escaped by flight,
and yet he unflinchingly "proclaimed his mes
sage. No bribe, threat^ or inducement, could
silence him, f Though they array against
me the sun on the right-hand, .and the'moon
ou the left, I cannot renounce my purpose.'
And it was this persistency, this belief in his
call, to proclaim the unity of God, which was
the making of Islam.
ft Other meu have been raonotheists in the
midst of idolaters, but no other man has
founded a strong and enduring monotheistic
religion. The distinctioir in his case was his
resolution that other men should believe. If
we ask what it was that made Mohammed
aggressive and proselytizing, where other
men had been content to cherish a solitary
faith, we must answer that it was nothing
else than the depth and force of his own
conviction of the truth. To himself the dif
ference between one God and many, between
the unseen Creator and these ugly lumps of
stone or wood, was simply infinite. The one
creed was death and darkness to him, the
other life and light. It is useless seeking for
motives in mob. a case — for ends to serve and
selfish reasons for his speaking; the impossi
bility with Mohammed was to keep silence.
His acceptance of the office of teacher of his
people was anything but the ill-advised and
sudden impulse 'of a light-minded vanity or
ambition. His own convictions had been
reached only after long years of lonely mental
agony, and of s doubt an$ distraction bor
dering on madness. Who can doubt the
earaestnes? of that search after truth and the
Ibing God, that drove the affluent merchant
from his comfortable home and his fond wife,
to make his abode for months at & time in the
dismal cave on Mount Hira ?' If we respect
the shrinking of Isaiah or Jeremiah from the
heavy task of proclaiming unwelcome truth,
we must also respect the keon sensitiveness
of Mohammed, who was so burdened by this
same responsibility, and so persuaded of his
incornpetency for the task, that at, times he
thought his new feelings and thoughts were a
snare of the Devil, and at times he would fain
have rid himself of all further struggle by
casting himself from a friendly precipice.
His rolling his head in his mantle, the sound
of the ringing of bells in his ears, his sobbing
like a young camel, the sudden grey hairs
which he himself ascribed to the terrific
Suras — what were all these but so many
physical signs of nervous organization over
strained by anxiety and thought ?
" His giving himself out as a prophet of
God was, in the» first instance, not only sin
cere, but probably correct in the sense in
which he himself understood it. He felt that
he had thoughts of God which it deeply con
cerned all around him to receive, and he
knew that these thoughts were given him by
God, although not, as we shall see, a revela
tion strictly so called His mistake by no
means lay in his supposing himself to be
called upon by God to speak for dim and in*
troduce a better religion, but it lay in his gra
dually coming to insist quite as much on
men's accepting him as a prophet as on their
accepting the great truth he preached. He
was a prophet to his countrymen in so far
as he proclaimed the unity of God, but this
was no sufficient ground for his claiming to
be their guide in all matters at religion, still
less for his assuming the lordship over them
in all matters civil as well. The modesty
and humility apparent in him, so long as his
mind was possessed with objective truth, gra
dually gives way to the presumptuousness
and arrogance of a mind turned more to a
sense of its own importance. To put the
second article of the Mohammedan creed on
the same level as the first, to mako it as
essential that men should believe in the mis
sion of Mohammed as in the unity of God,
was an ignorant, incongruous, and false com,*
bination. Had Mohammed known his own
ignorance as well as his knowledge, the
world would h*ve had one religion the less,
and Christianity would have had one more
reformer." (Mohammed, .Buddha, and Ghri*tt
p. 17.)
(4) Thomas Carlyle, in his lecture, « The
Hero as Prophet," says >-;
"Mahomet himself, after all that can b«
said about him. was not a sensual man. We
shall err widely if we consider this man as a
common voluptuary, intent mainly ou base
enjoyments — nay. on enjoyments 'of any kind.
His household was of the frngalost, his com
mon diet barley-bread and water; sometimes
for months there was not a fire once lighted
on his hearth. They record with just pride
that he would mend bis own shoes, patch his
own cloak. A poor hard-toiling, ill- provided
man; careless of what vulgar men toil for.
Not a bad man. I should say; something
better in him than hunger of any sort — or
396
MUHAMMAD
these wild Arab men fighting and jostling !
three and twenty year* at his baud, in close
contact vrith him always, would not have
reverenced him so! These v?ere' wild me.n.
bursting ever and anou iuto quarrel, into all
kinds of fierce sincerity; without right, worth,
and manhood, ao aian could have commanded
them. They called him Prophbt.' you say?
Why, he stood there face to face with them;
bare, not enshrined- in any mystery, visiblv
clouting his own cloak, cobbling his own
shoes, fighting, counselling, ordering in the
midst of them, they must have seen what
kind of a man ho was, let him bo called what
you like ! No emperor -with his tiaras was
obeyed as tins man iu a cloak of his own
clouting Daring thres and twenty years of
rough actual trial. I Hud something of a veri
table Hero necessary for that of itself.
" His last words" are a prayer, broken
ejaculations of a heart struggling-up in trem
bling hope towards its Maker. We cannot
say his religion made him worse ; it made
him better ; good, not bad. Generous things
are recorded of him; when he lost his
daughter, the thing he answers is, in his own
dialect, everyway sincere, and yet equivalent
to that of Christians: 'The Loid giveth and
the Lord taketh away ; blessed be the name
of the Lord.' He answered in like manner of
Said, Lis emancipated well beloved slave, the
second of thu believers. Said had fallen in
the war of Tabuc, the first of Mahomet's
fightings with the Greeks. Mahomet said it
was well, Said had done his Master's work,
Said had now gone to his Master ; it was nil
woll with Said. Yet Said's daughter found
hmi weeping over the body ; the old gray-
haired man inching in tears ! What do I
see? said she. You sec a friend weeping over
his friend. He went out for tho last time
into the mosque two days before his death ;
asked. If he had injured auy man ? Let his own
hack bear the stripes. If he owed any man ?
A voice answered, ' Yes, rne ; three drachms,
borrowed ou such an occasion.' Mahomet
ordered them to be paid. ' Better be in shame
now, Raid he, ' than at the Day of Judgment.'
You remember Kadijah. and the * No by
Allah • ' Traits of his kind show us the
genuine man, the brother of us all, brought
visible through twelve cceturics, the veritable
son of our common Mother/' (Lectvres on
Heroes, p. (US.)
(5» The Rev. Dr: Badger remarks: —
"With respect to the private as distinct
from the public character of Muhammad,
from the time of his settlement, al al-JMadinah.
it does not appear to have deteriorated, except
in one particular, from what it had been prior
to the flight from Mecca. He was stiil frugal
iii his haoits. generous and liberal, faithful to
his associates, treasured up the loving me
mory of absent and. departed friends, and
awaited his last summons with fortitude and
submission. That ho entertained an exces
sive passion for women was lustful, if you
will, cannot be denied ; but the fourteen
wives whom from first to last he married,
and his eleven (? two: see MUHAMMAD':*
MIJHAMMAli
WIVES) concubines, .figure favourably by ho
side of David's six •wives and numerous con
cubines(2 Sun. v 13; 1 Chron. iii. i-9 ; xiv.
<$;, Solomon's 700 wive* and 300 concubines
(1 Kings xi. 3), and Reiioboanr's eighteen
wives and sixty concubines (2 Chron. xi. 21),
a plurality expressly forbidden to the sove
reign of Israel, who was' commanded not to
multiply wives to himself. (Deut. xvii, 17.)
"It is'not so much his polygamy, consider
ing all the circumstances ot the case, which
justly Uys Muhammad open to reproach, but
his having deliberately infringed one of his
own alleged divino revelations, which re
strictod the number of wives to ' four and no
more ' (Sura iv. 3) ; also, for having in the
first instance dallied with Zainab, the wife
of his freedman and adopted son Zaid-ib^-
Harilhflb. who complacently divorced her iu
order that she might espouse the Prophet
In this case, moreover, ns has already bnen
related, he adduced the authority of G-od as
sanctioning on his behoof first, and thence
forth in the behoof of all Muslims, the mar
riage of a man with the divorced wife of hia
adopted son, which up to that tune had been
considered incestuous. Whatever apology
may be adduced for Muhammad in this
matter of polygamy, there is no valid plea to
justify his improbity and impiety in the case
or Zainab.'
(6) Sir William Muir says :—
4i i would warn the reader against sceVfn?
to portray iu his mind a character in all it-
parts consistent with itself as the character
of Mahomet. The truth is, that the strangest
inconsistencies blended together (according to
the wont of human nature) throiighout the life
of the Prophet. The student of the history
will trace for himself how the pure and lofty
aspirations of Muhomefc were first tinged, and
then gradually debased by a half-unconscious
self-deception, and how in this process truth
merged into falsehood, sincerity into guile,
these opposite principles often co-existing
even as active agencies in his conduct. The
reader will observe that simultaneously with
the anxious desire to extinguish idolatry,
and to promote religion and virtue in the
world, there was nurtured by the Prophet in
his own heart, a licentious self-indulgence,
till in the end, assuming to' be the favourite
of Heaven, he justified himself by 'revela
tions ' from God in the most flagrant breaches
of morality, He will remark that while
Mahomet cherished a kind and tender dispo
sition. ' weeping with them that .wept,' and
binding to his person the hearts of his fol
lowers by the ready and self-denying offices
of love and friendship, he could yet take
pleasure in cruel and perfidious assassination,
could gloat over the massacre of an entire
tribe, and savagely consign the innocent babe
to the tires of hell. Inconsistencies such as
these continually present themselves from the
period of Mahomet's arrival at Medina, and
it is by the study of these inconsistencies
that his clutractei mnst be rightly compre
hended. The key to many difficulties of
this description may be found. I believe, in
MUHAMMAD
the chapter • on the belief of Manomet in his
own inspiration. When once he liaxl dared
to forge the name of the Most lliyti God as
^the seal and authority of his own words and
actions, the germ was laid from which the
orrors of his after life freely and fatally deve
loped themselves." (Life of Makomet, new
ed. p. 535.)
(7) Mr. Bosworth Smith, in his Mchamn&d
and Mohamiiuxutnisni* days :
" Mohammed did not, indeed, himself con
quer a world like Alexander, or Ctcsar, or
Napoleon. He did not himself weld together
into a homogeneous whole a. vast system ol
states like Charles the Great. He was not a
philosophic kiny like Marca? Aurelius, nor
philosopher like Aristotle or like Bucoiij ruling
by pure reason the world of thought for cen
turies with a more than kingly power ; he
was not a legislator for all mankind, nor oven
the highest part of it, like Justinian: nor
did he cheaply cam the title of the Great by
being the first among rulers to turn, like
Constantino, from ihe setting to the rising
sun. He was* not a universal philanthropist,
like the greatest of the Stoics.
" Nor was he the apostle of tht highest
form of religion and civilisation- combined,
like Gregory, or Boniface, like Leo or Alfred
the Great. Ho was less, indeed, than most of
these in one or two of the elements that go
to make up human greatness, but he was
also greater. Half Christian and hall Pagan,
half civilised and half barbarian, it was
given to him in a marvellous degree to unite
the peculiar excellences of the one with the
pccnliar excellences of the other. ; I have seen,'
said the ambassador sent by the triumphant
Quraish to the despised exile at Medina — 'I
have seen the Persian Chosroes and the
Greek Heraclius sitting upon their thrones :
but never did I see a man ruling his equals
as does Mohammed/
*' Head of tbo State as well as of the Church,
he wus Ca>sar and Pope in one ; but he was
Pope without the Pope's pretensions, Caesar
without the legions of Crcsar. Without a
standing army, without a body-guard, with
out a pakce. without a fixed revenue ; if ever
any man had the right to say that he ruled
hy a right divine, it was Mohammed, for he
had all the power without its instruments,
and without its supports.
* * * * *
"By -a fortune absolutely unique in his
tory. Mohammed is a three-fold founder — of
a nation, of an empire, and of a religion.
Illiterate himself, scarcely able to read or
write, he was yet the author of a book which
is a poem; a code of laws, a Book of Common
Prayer, and A I'ible in one, and is reverenced
to this day by a iiixth of the whole huinaa
race, as a inuacle of purity of style, cf wis
dom, and of truth. It was the tine miracle
claimed by Mohammed— bis standing miracle
ho called it : and a miracle indeed it is. But
looking at the circumstances of the time, at
the unbounded reverence of his followers, and
comparing him with the Fathers ol the
Church or with medieval saints, to tny mind
MUHAMMAD
397
the most miraculous thing about Mohammed
is, that he never claimed the power of work
ing miracles. Whatever h» had said he could
do, his disciples would straightway have seen
him do. They coald not help attributing to
him miraculous acts which he never did, and
which he always denied he could do What
more crowning proof of his sincerity is
needed:' Mohammed to the end of his life
claimed for himself that title only with which
be had besrun, and which the highest pbiio
sopliy and the truest Christianity will one
day. I venture to believe, agree in yielding to
him, that of a Prophet, a very Prophet of
Clod." (Mvkafaimd and Moluinun«kinisr».
p. 340.)
(8) .Major Robert Doric Oaborn, in hi*
Islam under tite Arabs, says : —
•'He (Muhammad) was brought face to
facts with the question which every spiritual
reformer has to meet and consider, against
which so many noble spirits have gone to
ruin, Will not the end justify the means?
4 Here am I a .faithful servant of God, eager
only to enthrone Him in the hearts of men.
and at the very goal and termination of my
labours I am thwarted by this incapacity to
work a miracle. It is true, as these inudels
allege, that the older prophets aid possess
this power, and I, unless the very reason and
purpose of my existence is to be made a
blank, must also do something wonderful.
But what kind of miracle V In his despair,
Muhammad declared that the Qur'an itself
was that constantly- recurring miracle thoy
were seeking after. Had they ever heard
these stories of Noah, Lot, Abraham. Joseph,
Zacharias, Jesus, and others? No; neither
had he. They were transcripts made from
the 'preserved Table/ that stood before the
throne of God. The archangel Gabriel had
revealed them to Muhammad, written in pure
Arabic, for the spiritual edification of the
Quraish. Thus in the twelfth Surah, where he
details at great length an exceedingly ridicu
lous history of Joseph, ho commences the
narrative with these words, as spoken by
God:—
' These are signs of the clear Book.
An Arabic Qur'an have we sent it down.
that ye might understand it.'
And at the close of tbe Surah, we are told:—
kThis is one of the secret histories which
we reveal unto thec. Thou wast not pre
sent with Joseph's brethren when they
conceived their design and laid their plot":
but the greater part of men, though thou
long for it, will not believe. Thou shall
not ask of them any recompense for this
message. It is simply an instruction for all
mankind.'
And, again, in the Lxvnth Surah, he declare*
respecting the Qur'an : —
' It is .1 missive from the Lord of the
worlds.
But if Muhammad had fabricated coo
corning us any sayings.
We had surely seized him by the right
Iwnd,
Aud had cut through the vein of hia neck.
398 MTTHAMMAD
"It would be easy to multiply extracts of
BJjnilar purport ; but the above will suffice
by way of illustration. There are modern
biographers of the Prophet who would have
us believe that he was not conscious of false
hood when making these assertions. He* was
under a hallucination, of course^bfit he be
lieved what he said. This to me ts incredible.
The legends in the Qur'an are derived chiefly
from Talmndie sources. Muhammad must
have learned, them from some Jew resident in
or near Mekka. To work them up into the
form of rhymed Surahs, to put his own pecu
liar doctrines in the mouth of Jewish pa
triarchs, the Virgin Mary, and the infant
Jesus (who talka Kke a S°od Moslem the
moment after his birth), must have required
time, thought, and labour. It is not possible
that the man who had done this could have
forgotten all-about it, and believed that these
legends had been brought to him ready pre
pared by an angelic visitor. Muhammad was
guilty of falsehood under circumstances
where he deemed the end justified the
means,11 (Islam under the Arabs, p. 2L)
(d) The character of Muhammad is a his
toric problem, and many have been the con
jectures as to his motives and designs. Was
he an impostor, a fanatic, or an honest man
—"a very prophet of God"? And the pro
blem might have for ever remained unsolved,
had not the Prophet himself appealed to theOld
and New Testaments in proof of his mission.
This is the crucial test, established by the
Prophet himself. He claims to be weighed
in the balance with the divine Jesus.
Objection has often been made to the
manner in which Christian divines have at
tacked the private character of Muhammad.
Why reject the prophetic mission of Muham
mad on account of his private vices, when you
receive as inspired the sayings of a Balaam,
a David, or a Solomon? Missionaries should
net, as a rule, attack the character of Mu
hammad in dealing with Islam; it rouses
opposition, and is an offensive line of argu
ment. Still, in forming an estimate of his
prophetic claims, we maintain that the cha
racter of Muhammad is an important consi
deration. We readily admit that bad men
have sometimes been, like Balaam and
others, the divinely appointed organs of inspi
ration; but in the case of Muhammad, bis
professed inspiration sanctioned and encou
raged his own vices. That which ought to
have been the fountain of purity was, in fact,
the cover of the Prophet's depravity. But
how different it is in the case of the true
prophet David, where, in the words of inspi
ration, he lays bare to public gaze the enor
mity of his own crimes. The deep contrition
of his inmost soul is manifest in every line —
*« I acknowledge my transgression, and my sin
is, ever before me: against Thee, Thee only,
have 1 sinned* and done this evil in Thy
sight."
The best defenders of the Arabian Pro
phet are obliged to admit that the matter of
Zainab, the wife of Zaid, and again, of Mary,
the Coptic slave, are "an indelible stain"
MUHAMMAD
upon his memory ; that " he is once or twicd
untrue to the kind and forgiving disposition of
his beat nature; that he is once or twice un
relenting in the punishment of his personal
enemies ; and that he is guilty even more
than once of conniving at the assassination
of inveterate opponents " j but they give no.
satisfactory explanation or apology for all this
Veing done under the supposed sanction oj Gaif
in the Qur'a&.
In forming an estimate of Muhammad's
prophetical pretensions, it must be remem
bered that he did not claim to be the foundet
of a new religion, but merely of a uew cove
nant. He. is the last and greatest of all
God's prophets. He is sent to convert thfli.
world to the one true religion which God
had before revealed to the five great law*
giversi — Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and
Jesus ! The creed of Muhammad, therefore,
claims to supersede that of the Lord Jesus.
And.it is here that we take our stand. We
give Muhammad credit as a warrior, as a legis
lator, a» a poet, a» a man of uncommon genius
raising- himself amidst great opposition to the
pinnacle of renown ; we admit that he is,
without doubt, one of thq greatest heroes the
world has ever seen ; but when wo consider
his claims to supersede the mission of the
divine Jesus, we *trip him of his borrowed
plumes, and reduce him to the condition ol
an impostor 1 For whilst he has adopted and
avowad his belief in the sacred books of the
Jew and the Christian, and has given them all
the stamp and currency which his authority
and influence could impart, he has attempted,
to rob Christianity of every distinctive truth
which it possesses-— its divine Saviour, its
Heavenly Comforter, its iwo Sacraments, its
pure cede of social morals, its spirit of love
and truth — and has written his own refutaV
tion and condemnation with his own hand, by
professing to confirm the divine oracles which
sap the very foundations of his religious
system. We follow the Prophet in his self-
asserted mission from the cave qf Hira* to
the closing scene, when he dies in the midst
of the lamentations of his harim, and the
contentions of his friends— the visions of
Gabriel, the period of mental depression, the
contemplated suicide, the assumption of the
prophetic office, his struggles with Makkan
unbelief, bis flight to al-Madinah, his trium
phant entry into Makkan — and whilst we
wonder at the genius . of the hero, we pause
at every stage and inquire, ""Is this the
Apostle of God, whose mission is to claim
universal dominion, to the suppression not
merely of idolatry, but of Christianity itself ? "
Then it is that the divine and holy cha
racter of Jesus, rises to our view, and the
inquiring mind sickens, at the thought of the
beloved, the pure, the lowly Jesus giving
place to that of the ambitious, the sensual,
the time-serving hero of Arabia. In the
study of Islam, the character of Muhammad
needs an apology or a defence at every
stage ; but in the contemplation of the Chris
tian system, whilst we everywhere read of
Jeans, and see the reflection of His image in
MUHAJWAI>
MUHAMMAD
399
w« read the heart revels in the
ontempiation, th« inner pulsations of our
pirifuaJ life bcnod wilhin us at the sfudy of
character AC, divine, so pure.
We are DOT. insensible to the beauties of the
tti'ao as a literary protlucilou (although
hey have, without doubt, been overrate J);
;k-j we admire its conceptions of the
}iviue nature, its deep *zid fervent trust in
he power of God, its frequent deep moral
arnestnessj, and its sententious wisdom, wo
ronld gladly rid ourselves of our recollec-
ions of the Prophet, his licentious hariro,
us sanguinary bax;le-fiel(is, his ambitious
loheroes ; whilst as we peruse the Christian
Scriptures, we tfud the tjrKud central charm
n the divine character of its Founder. It is
he divine character of 3*sn$ which givas
to His words ; it is the divine form
f Jesus which shines through all He saye or
.oes; it is the divine life of Jesus which is
he great central point in Gospel history
low. then, we ask can trie creed of Muham
the son of {Abdu '11 ab, supersede' and
abrogate that of Jesus, the Son of God ? And
t is a remarkable coincidence that, whilst the
ouucLcr oi Islam died feeling that he had but
imperfectly fulfilled his mission, the Founder
of Christianity died in the full consciousnes*
hat His work was done—" It is finished,"
was in professing to produce a revelation
which should supersede that of Jesus, that
Hnhammad set the seal oi his own remit-,-
,ion. (Hughes, Notes on Mvkammadanism.
MUHAMMAD (o***). The title
of the XLViith Surah of the Qujr'an, in the
second verse of which the word occurs
Believe in what hath been revealed to Mu
hammad,"
The name Muhammad occur* only tn three
more places in the Qor'an: —
Surah iii. 13H: "Muhammad is but an
apoaUe of God."
Surah xxxhi. <C: "Muhammad is i.ot the
father of any of your men, but the Apostle of
God, and the Seal of the Prophets."
Surah xlvii: 29: "Muhammad is the
Apostle of God."
MUHAMMAD, The Wives of.
Arabic al-azwaju fl-7nutahharci.t (&*fi\
ie>\jfc^\)^ i.e. " The pure wives." Ac-
cordinti to the Traditions, Mahaxmnad took
to biuuwl.t eleven lawful >vi.res, anci two con-
enhrtes. vSe»? M(I)HW!'JL 'l-Kihtu; p. 5ii3.)
.) Kkadijah (A^^jy^.). a Quraish lady, thy
dv.^ite: of KhuwaiUd ibn Asad. She was a
rich widow lady, who had been twice married.
She v;as married to Muhammad when he v/ .-.-
25 yeaj-s old, and she was 40 years, and re
mained his only wife for twonty-flve years
until she died (A.D. 619), aged 65, Muham
mad being 60 years old. She bore1 Mu
hammad two sons, al-Qasim and 'Abdu
'llah, flurnamcd aJ-Xahir aud at-Taiyib, and
four daughters, Zainab, Ruqaiyah, Fatimah,
and Ummu Kulsum. Of these children, only
F<4unah (^the wife of «Ali) survived Muham
mad.
(2) Saudnh ^2u*~»)v daughter of Zama<ah.
the widow of as-Sakran (a Quraish and one of
the Companions). Married about two months
after the death of Khadljab
(3) <Ayix/iak (idbaUJ, the .daughter of Abu
Bakr. She was betrothed when she was only
7 years old, and was married at 10, about the
ninth month after the flight to al-Madinah.
(4) Juwuiriyah (ijjyj.}, a widow, the
daughter cf ai-Haris ibn Abi Zirar, the chiof
of the Bauu Musfcaliq. Muhammad ransomed
her from * citizen who had fixed her ransom
at nine ounces of gold. It is related that
• Ayishah aaid, " No woman was ever a greater
blessing to her people than this Juwuiriyah."
(5) flaffah (3L^.),the daughter of *LTmar
She was the wiriow of Kjaunais, an early con
vert to Islam. Muhammad married her about
six months aft«»r her former husband's death.
(6) Zainab, the daughter of Khuzaimah
(<U^ «ju^> v^Oij), the widow of Muham
mad's cousin 'Ubaiciah, who was killed at the
battle of Badr. She was called the " Mother
of the Poor," Ummu 'l-Maxukin. on account of
her care of destitute converts. She died
before Muhammad,
(7) Urnmv Salimub (^.»Vi ^), the widow of
Abii Salimah, one of the Refugees, who was
wounded at toe battle of Uhud, and after
wards died of his wounds.
(8) JSninah the daughter of Jahsh (+T+-IJ
(jiXft^ts-^Vtho v ifc of Muhammad's adopted
son Zaid. 'Zaid divorced her to please the
Prophet. She va& (boing the wife of au
adopted son) unlawful to him, but Surah
xxxiii. 36 w&« produced to settle the dif-
hcuJty.
(9) frfiyah (^A«), daughter cf Hayi ibn
Ak^ab, the widow of Kiuanah, the Khaibar
chiaf, *-ho was cruolly put to death, ft was
M-if.t, Muhammad wished to divorce her,
but she begged that her turn might be given
t.o ' Aytehab.
(1.0) dmmu Hff^hak (^^ p\), the
daughtvi* of Abu Sufyan and the widow of
•Ubaidu liaii. one of the " Four EnquirerB,"
who, after emigrating ac a Muslim to Abys-
einia. bad embraced Christianity therej and
died in the profession of that faith
(11) Maimwtah (A>^»)> the daughter oi
ul-H.iii6 and widowed kinswoman of Munam-
road, and the sister-in-law of al-; Abbas, She
is srtlt1. to have been 51 years of age when she
married Muhammad.
Muhammad's concubine0 were: —
(1) Mary the Copt (A^kJ^ S^U). A
Christian^slave-girl sent to Muhammad by al-
Muqau'-ji^s the Roman Governor in Egypt.
She fcxjcaruo the mother of a «on by Muham
mad, named Ibrahim, wbo died young.
(2) Kiliancth (AiWrj), a Jewess, whose hus
band had perished in the massacre of the
Banu Quruizah. She declined the summons
to "onv-M-iiion, and contmued a Jew ; but it is
eaid she embraced Islam before her death.
400
MUHAMMAD
At the lime of Muhammad's death., he had
mile wives and two concubines living, (»Sa
hlku 'l-Buk/idri, p. 798), Khadijah and Zainab
bint Khuzaimah having died before hnn
According to the Shrahs. Muhammad had,
in all twenty-two wives. Eight of these
never consummated the marriage. Their
names are 'Allyah bint Zabyan. Fatilah bint
Qais, Fatirnah bint Zahhai", Asmi' bint
Kana'au, Mulaikah binl Suwaid, Lailah bint
Kha1iibvand Shabah bint Silah. Twelve were
duly married. Their names are Khadijah,
Saudan, Hind (or Uminu Salimab). Ayishah.
Hafsah, Zainab bint Jahsh. Rainalah bint
Abi Suiyan. (or Uinmu Habibah). Maiinuuab,
Zaiiiab bint -Uruais, Juwairiyau bint al-Haria
of the Banu Mu.staliq. Safiyah. Kluulah bint
Hakim, and Uumnaui. a • sister to -Ali Two
were bondwomen: Mariyatu '1-Qibtivah and
/See Jannutu ^l-Khulud, p."-1 *.)
'MUHAMMAD, The Children of,
According to the Majflia-u 'I- Bihar, p. 538,
Muhammad had seven children. Two sons
and four daughters by Khadijah, and one son >
dy Mary* his Coptic slave.
Tiie iv»o ao.na by Khadijah were al-Qasim' \
aud -Abdu 'flab (called also at-Tahir and at-
Taiyib) ; and the lour daughters were Zainab,
Ruqaiyah, Fatimah, and TJminu Kulsum.
The son by his bondwoman Mary was Ibra
him. All these children died before Muham
mad. with tho exception of Faiimah, who
married 'Ali, the fourth Khalifah, and from
whom are descended the Saiyids [SAJYIJD J
Zainab married *A.bii 1-'A$ bnu r-llabi*
Ruqaiy ah married 'Utbah ibn Abu Lahab. by
whom she was divorced. 5 She aiterwarcls
married 'Usman. the i-hird jjthalifab
MUHAMMAD'S GHAV E. i HU j-
RAH.]
MUHAMMADAN. Arabic Mu-
fyamrnddl (^sJ^aa^). A name seldom
used in Mu'hammtidau works for the followers
ol Muhammad, who call themselves cither
Mu'muiB, Muslim!?. o- Musalmans. It is,
however^ sometimes used in Indian papers
and other popular publications, and it is not,
as inariy European scholars suppose, an
ojffensive term to Muslims.
MUHAHMADANISM. The reli
gion of Muhammad is called by ii^ followers
al- Islam '(*Su»^)j a word which implies the
entire surrender of the will of man to God.
[ISLAM.] Its adherents speak oi themselves
as Muslim,, pi. Muslimun, or Mu'mw. pi.
Jl/u';»tnun ; a Mu'min being a ''believer.''
In Persian these terms are rendered by the
werd Musalmdn, pi. Musalmanan.
The principles of Islam were first enun
ciated ui portions of the Qur*$ua, as they were
revealed piecemeal by Muhammad, together
with such rerbal explanations as were given
by him to his followers; but when the final
recension of the Qur'an was produced by tho
Khalifah 'Usinan. about twenty-two years
alter Muhammad's death, th0 Muslims pos-
«e»sed a complete book, which they regarded
MUHAMMADANISM
as the inspired and infallible word of God.
[QUU'AN.] But as an interpretation of iU
precepts, and as a supplement tc its teach
ings, there also existed, side by side with the
Quv'an the sayings, and practice of Mnham-
mad. o-alled the A/iadis and Suanak. These
traditions of what the Prophet ^did ano
sard." gradually laid the foundations of wixat
is now called Islam. For whilst it is & vaaon
in Islam that nothing can be receivexl or
tanght which is contrary to the literal injune-
nons of tho Qur'an, it* is to the Traditions
rather than to Ihe Qur'an that we must refer
for Muhainniadari law on the subject of
faith: knowledge .purification, prayer, alms
giving, fasting, marriage, barter, inheritance,
puhijihmeiiU, fate, duties of magistrates reli
gious 'warfare, lawful food, death, Day of
Judgment Ac.,, and ^ach collection of tradi-
tions has .sections devoted to these subjects;
so that it is upcn thetie traditional sayings,
quite as much as upon the Qur'an ifcfelf. that
the religious and chil law of the Muslims is
based, both Shrah and Suimi appeaung alike
to Tradition in support of their views.
When the Prophet was alive, men could po
direct to him with their doubts and difhcul
ties : and an infallible authority was always
present to give " inspired " direttioua But
after the deaths of afi those who knew Mu
hammad personally, it became absolutely
nec-esisary to systematise' tne great mass of
traditional sayings then afloat amongst Mus
lims, and thub various schools of jurispru
dence were formed; the concurrent opinion
of those learned regarding matters of dispute
iu Muslim law heir.:, called Ijnia- [iJMA'J.
Upon tuis naturally followed the system of
analogical reasoning called Qjyas [QIYA*]^
thus constituting the foul •' pillars " or foun
dations of Islam, known as the Pjw'an. Hadis^
ljm&, and Qiyds.
Islam, whether it bo Shi'ah} Sumu, or Wah
habi, is founded upon these four authorities,
and it is not true, as is so frequently asserted,
that the Shraha reject the Traditions. They
merely accept different collections of Ahadls
to those received oy, tho Sunnla and Wahha-
bis. Nor do the AV ahhabis refeot Ijma4 and
Qiyas. but they assort that* IJM<? was only
possible in the earliest stages of Iblam.
A study of the present work will show
what an elaborate system of dogma Muham-
madtinism is. This system of dogma, toge-
thci with the htui'gical form of worship,
has b«eu formulated from the traditional say
ings ol Muhammad rather than from the
Qur'an itself. Foi example, the daily ritual,
with its purifications, which are such a pro
minent feature in Islam, is entirely founded
on the Traditions. [FKAYTEH.] Circumcision
is not once mentioned in tbt> Qur'au.
The Dm, or religion of tht Muslim, is
divided into /man, or * Faith." and 'Anwl or
" Practice "
.Faith consists in tk« acceptance of six
articles of belief :—
1. The Unity of God.
2. The Angels.
3 The Inspired Books.
MUHAMMADANISM
MUHAMMADAKISM
401
•k Th« Inspired Prophets
5. Tho Day of Judgment.
6. The Decrees .of God.
Practical ftelitrion consists in the obser
vance of —
1. The recital of the Creed—-" There i» no
deity but God, and Muhammad is the Prophet
of God."
2. The five stated periods of prayer.
3. The thirty dfiys fast in the month Ra
ni az an.
4. The payment of Zakiit, or the legH lamia.
5. The Hajj» or Pilgrimage to Makkuh.
A ht'liei in these six articles of faith, and
the observance of these five practical duties,
constitute Islam. He who thus believes and
acts is called a Mumin or " believer '' ; but ho
who rejects any article of faith or practice is
a Kujir, or ;- injidol."
Muhuuimadan theology, which is very ex
tensive, is divided into —
1. Tho Qur'au and its commentaries.
2. The Traditions find their commentaries.
3. U$ui, or expositions on the principles of
exegesis.
4. 'Aqtfid, or expositions of scholastic theo
logy founded on the six articles of faith.
5. Fiqh* or works on both civil and reli
gions law. [THEOLOGY.]
Muhamiaadanism is, therefore, a system
which affords a large field for patient study
and reb<-:Hrc'h, and much of its present energy
and vitality is to be nttributod to the fact
that, in all parts of Islam, there are in the
various mosques students who devote their
whole lives to the study of Muslim divinity.
The two leading principles of Islam arc
those expressed in its well-known creed, or
kalimuh. namely, a belief in the absolute
unity of the Divine Being, and in the mis
sion of Muhammad as the Messenger of the
Ahnighty. [KALIMAH.]
" The faith," says Gibbon, " which he (Mu
hammad) preached to his family and nation,
is compounded of an eternal truth and a
necessary fiction: That there is only one
God, and that Muhammad is the Apostle of
God." (Roman Empire, vol. vi. p. 222.)
" Mohammad's conception of God,'1 says
Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole, " has. I think, been
misunderstood, and its effect upuii the people
consequenoly under-estimated. The God of
Islam id commonly represented as a pitiless
tyrant, who plays with humanity aa oh a
chessboard, and works out his game without
rogard to the sacrifice of the pieces ; and then
is a certain truth hi the figure. There is
more in Islam of the potter who shapes' the
clay than of the father pitying hit* children.
Mohammad conceived of God a* the Semitic
mind has ulways preferred to think of Him r
his God is the All-Mighty, the All-Knowing,
the All-Just. Irresistible Power is the first
attribute he thinks of: the Lord of the
Worlds the Author of the Heavens and the
.Earth, who hath created Life and lX?uth in
whose hand is Dominion, who maketh the
D*wn to appear and causelh the Nighl lo
cover the Day. the Great, All- Powerful Lord
of the Glorious Throne ; Utue thunder pro-
j olaimeth His perfection, the whole earth is
His handful, and the heavens ahull hi- folded
together in His right hand. And with tho
Power He conceives the Knowledge thai
directs it to right ends. God is the Wise, tho
Just, the True, tho Swift in reckoning, who
knoweth every ant't weight of good aud of
ill that each IBHH hath done, aud -who Huf-
fereth not the reward of the faithful to
perish.
';'God! There is no God but He, the
Ever Living, the Ever-Subsisting. Slumber
seizeth Hi in not nor sleep. To Him belongoth
whtttsoaver is in the Heavens and whatsoever
is in the Earth. Who is he that shall inter
cede with Him, save by hif? permission ri He
knowoth the things that havo gone before
and the things that follow after, and men
shall not compass aught of His knowledge,
^ave what He willeth. His throne coin pro
hendeth the Heavens aud the Earth, and ihe
;are of them burdeneth Him not. And He is
the High, the Great.' — Kur-dn, ii. 266.
" But with this Power there is also the
gentldin-s* that belongs only to groat strength,
(rod is the Guardian over His servants, the
Shelterer of the orphan, the Guider of the
erring, the Deliverer from every ainiction ; in
His baud is Good, and He is the Generous
Lord, the Gracious, the Hearer, the Near-at-
Hand. Every soorah of the Kur-;in begins
with the words, ' In the Name of God, the
Compassionate. the Merciful,' and Mohammad
was never tired of telling the people how God
was Vory-Forgiving, that MJS love for man
was more tender than the mother-bird for her
young.
" It is too often forgotten now much there
ia in the Kur-an of the loving-kindness of
God. but it must be allowed that. these are
not the main thoughts in Mohammad's teach
ing. It is the doctrine of the Might of God
that most held his imagination, and that has
impressed itself most strongly upon Muslims
of all ages. The fear rather than the love of
God is the spur of Islam. There can .be no
question which is the higher incortivo to
good ; but it is nearly certain that the love
of God is an idea absolutely foreign to nioet
of the races that have accepted Ishuii. ana to
preach such a doctrine would have been lo
mistake the leaning of tho Semitic mind.
•' The leading doctrine ol Mohammad, then ,
is the belief in One All-Powerful God luhun
is tho self -surrender of t-very man to the will
of God. Its danger lies in the .stress laid on
the power of God wnich has brought about
the stilling effects of fatalism. Mohammad
taught the foreknowledge of God, hut he did
not lay down precisely the doctrine of Pre
destination. He found it, a* all have found
it, a stumbling -block in the way of man's
progress. It perplexed him. and ho sr-oke of
it, but often contradicted himself < and he
would become angry it the subject were
mooted in hid pftrMOM : ' Sit not with a dia-
puter about fate/ he said, • nor begin A con-
vevaation with him.' Mohammad va&uoly re
cognised that h'ttle margin of Free Will *rhich
makes Hffc not wholly mechanical
51
402
MUHAMMADANI8M
MUHAMMADANI6M
' This doctrine of ono Supreme C4ocL, to
whose will it is the duty of every man to
surrender himself, is the kernel of Islam, the
truth for which Mohammad lived and suf
fered and triumphed. But it was no new
teaching, as he himself was constantly say
ing. His was only the last of revelations.
Many prophets— Abraham, Moses, and Christ
— bad taught the same faith before j but
people had hearkened little to their words.
So Mohammad was sent, not different from
them, only a messenger, yet the last and
greatest of them, the * seal of prophecy,' the
* most excellent of the creation of G-od.' This
is the second dogma of Islam : Mohammad is
the Apostle of God. It is well worthy of
notice that it ia not said, ' Mohammad is the
only apostle of God./ Islam is more tolerant
in this matter than other religions. Its pro
phet is not the sole commissioner of the Most-
High, noris his teaching the only true teach
ing the world has ever received Many otaer
messengers had heen sent by God to guide
men to the right, and these taught the same
religion that was in the mouth of the proaxjiaer
of Islam. Hence Mti&lims reverence Moses
and Christ only next to Mohammad. All they
claim for their founder is that ao was the last
and best of the messengers of the one God."
(Introduction to Lane's Selections. 2nd ed,,
p. Jxxix. et stqq.)
Islatn does not profess to be a new religion,
formulated by Muhammad (nor indeed is rt)>
but a continuation of the religions principles
established by Adam, by Naob, by Abraham,
by Moses, and by Jesus, as well as by other
inspired teachers', for.it is said that* Gk>d sent
not fewer than 313 apostles into the world
to reclaim it from superstition and infidelity.
The revelation H of these great prophets are
generally supposed to. have been losfe, bat
God, it ie asserted, had retained all that is
necessary for man's guidance in the Qur'an,
although, as a matter of fact, a very large pro
portion of the ethical, devotional, and dog
matic teaching in Islam, comes from the tra
ditional sayings of Muhammad and not from
the Qur'an itself, [TRADITIOHR,]
In reading the different articles ia the pre
sent work, the reader cannot fail fco be struck
with the great indebtedness of Muhammad to
tbe Jewish religion for the chief elements of
Vis system. Mr. Emanuei Deutsch has truly
remarked "that Muhammadanisin owes more
to Judaism than either, to Heathenism or to
Christianity. It is not merely parallelisms,
reminiscences, Allusions, technical terms, and
the like of Judaism^ its lore and dogma and
ceremony, its ff'ila.cha, and its M&ggadah, its
Law and Legend, which -we find in the Qnr'an \
but we think Islam neither more nor less
than Judaism— as adapted to Arabia — plus
the Apbstleship ©f Jesufc a-act Muhammad.
Nay, we verily believe that a gre&t deal of
such Christianity as has found its way into
the Qur'an, hfcs found it through Jewish
channels." {Literary Remains, p. 64. ^
JLti, conception of God, it* prophets,
heavens and seven hells, its law of mar
riage and divorce,, it,* law of oaths, its puri
fication!! and ritual, its festivals, are all of
marked Jewish origin, and prove that Tai-
mudic Judaism forma the kernel of Muhain-
madanism, whioh even according to the
words of the founder, professed to be the
« religion of Abraham," See Surah iii. 60:
M Abraham was neither a Jew nor Christian,
but he was a -/fenf/, a Muslim." Neverthe
less, Muhammad, although he professed to
take his legislation from Abraham, incorpo
rated into his system a vast amount of the
law of Moses.
The sects of Islam have become numerous ;
indeed, the Prophet is related to have pre
dicted that his followers would be divided
into seventy- three. They have far exceeded
the limits of that prophecy, for, according to
'Abdu 1-Qadir al-Jilani, there are at least
160 The chief sect is the Sunni, which is
divided into four schools of interpretation,
known after their respective founders, Hanafi,
Shaft*!, Malaki, Hanball. The Shi'ahs who
separated from the so-called orthodox Sunnls
on the question, of the Khalifate, maintaining
that 'All and not Abu Bakr was the rightful
successor to Muhammad, are divided a-teo
into numerous sects. [SHJ'AB.] The Wah-
habis-are a comparatively modern sect, who
are the Puritans of Islam, maintaining that
Islam has very far departed from tbe original
teaching of Muhammad, &s expressed in the
Traditions. They consequently reject very
many of the so-called Ijtihad of the Sunms*
and take the literal meaning of the Tradi
tional sayings of the Prophet as the best
exposition of the Qur'aiu
The Shl'ah sect is almost entirely confined
to Persia, although there are a few thousand
ia Lueknow and other parts of India. Of the
Sunras, the Hanafis are found chiefiy in,
Tnrkey, Arabia, India., and Central Asia, the
Shafi'is in Egyps. and the Malakis in Mar-
rocco and Tunis The Hanball are a small
sect found in Arabia. Wahhablism, as will
be seen upon reference to the article on the
subject, is a principle of reform which has
extended itself to aD parts of Islam. It is
scarcely to be called a sect, but a school of
thought in Suirol Islam.
Otie hundred and seventy millions of the
kmmau race are said to profess the religion o'f
Muhammad ; and, according to the late Mr
Keith Johnstone's computations, they are dis
tributed ae i oilows :— -In Europe. 5,974,000;
in Africa, 50,416,000 ; in Asia, 112,739,000.
Mr. W. S. Blunt divides 175 millions as
follows : — Tin-key, Syriai, aad 'Iraq, 22 nail-
lipjvs; Egypt, 5 millions ; North Africa. 18
mflliona ; Arabia, H£ millions ; Central
Africa, \\\ millions 5 Persia, 8 mitllions ; India,
40 millions ; Malays (Java), 30 millions ;
China, 16 millions; Central Asia, 11 millions ;
Afghanistan, 8 millions. No census having
been taken of any of these countries, excopt
India, the numbers are merely an approxi
mation. Out of this supposed population of
Islam, 93,250 pilgrims were present at Mak-
krth m the year 1880. (Blunt's Future of
/slaw, p. lO.f
In some parts of the world — in Africa for
MUHAMMADANISM
MUHAMMADANI8M
403
example — Muh&mmadanism is spreading ;
and even in Borneo, and in other islands of
the Indian Archipelago, we are told that it
has supplanted Hinduism. In Central Asia,
within the last twenty years, numerous vil
lages of Sbiaposh Kafirs hare been forcibly
converted to Islam, and in Santalia and other
parts of India, tie converts to Islam from the
aboriginal tribes are not inconsiderable.
But, although Muhammadanism has, per
haps, gained in numerical strength within the
last few years, no candid Muslim will deny
that it has lost, and is fitill losing, its vital
power. Indeed, " this want of faith and de
cline in vitality " are regarded as the signs of
the last days by many a devout Muslim.
In no Muhammadan state is Muslim law
administered in its strict integrity, and
even in the Sultan's own dominion, some
of the most Bacrod principles of the Pro
phet's religion are set at naught by the
civil power ; and, as far as we can ascertain
(and wo speak after a good deal of personal
research), the prevalence of downright infide
lity amongst educated Muslims is unmistak
able. "No intelligent man belierve in the
teaching of the Muslim divines," said a highly
educated Muhammadan Egyptian tiet long
ago ; ** for our religion is not in keeping with
the progress oi thought." The truth is,
the Arabian Prophet over -legislated, and, as
we now see in Turkey, it is impossible for
civilised Muhammadans to be tied hand and
foot by law* and social customs which were
intended lor Arabian society as it existed
1,200 years ago; whilst, on the contrary,
Christianity legislates in spirit, and can there
fore be adapted to the spiritual and social
necessities of mankind in the various stages
of human thought and civilisation,
Mr. Palgrave, in his Central and Eastern
Arabia, remarks : —
" Islam is in its essence stationary, and was
framed thus to remain. Sterile like its God,
fifoiess like its' first principle and supreme
original in all that constitutes true life— for
Jife is love, participation, and progress, and of
these, the Coranic Deity has none—it justly
repudiates all change, all advance, all deve
lopment. To borrow the forcible* words of
Lord Hcughton, ihe * -jnritten book ' is there,
the 'dead roan's sand/ stiff and motionless ;
whatever savours of vitality is by that alone
convicted of heresy and defection.
** But Christianity with its living and loving
God, BegetteV and Begotten, Spirit and Move
ment, nay more, a Creator made creature,
the Maker and the made existing in One, a
Divinity communicating itself by uninterrupted
gradation and degree, from the most intimate
union far off to the faintest irradiation, through
all that it has made for love and governs in
love ; One who calls His creatures not slaves,
not servants, but friends, nay sons, nay gods
—to sum up, a religion in whose seal and
secret ' God in man is one with man in God,'
must also be necessarily a religion of vitality,
of progress, of advancement. The contrast
between it and Islam is that of movement
with fixedness, of participation with sterility.
of development with barrenness, of life with
petrifaction. The first vital principle and
the animating spirit of its birth must indeed
abide ever the same, but the. outer form must
change with the changing day», and now off
shoots of fresh sap and greenness be conti
nually thrown wut as witnesses to the vitality
within, else were the vine withered and the
branches dead.
" I have no intention here — it would
be extremely out of place — of entering
on the maze of controversy, er discussing
whether any dogmatic attempt to reproduce
the religious phase of a former age is likely
to succeed. I only say" that life supposes
movement and growth, and both imply
change ; that to censure a living thing for
growing and changing is absurd ; and that to
attempt to hinder it from so doing, by pin
ning it down on a written label > or nailing it
to a Procrustean framework, is tantamouut
to killing it altogether.
" Now Christianity is living, and because
living must grow, must advance, must
change, and was meant to do BO; onwards
and forwards is a condition of its very ex
istence; and I cannot but think that those
who do not recongnize this, show themselves
so far ignorant of its true nature and essence.
On the other hand, Islam is lifeless, and
because lifeless cannot grow, cannot advance^
cannot change, and was never iuiended so to
dd- 'Stand still* is its motto and its most
essential condition." (Central and Eastern
Arabia, vol. i. p. 372.)
Mr. Stanley LanePoole, in hia Introduction
to Lane's Selections, says : —
" Islim ia unfortunately ft social system as
well as a religion; and herein lies the great
difficulty of fairly estimating it« good and its
bad influence on the world. It is but in the
nature of things that the teacher who lays
dawn the law of the relation of man to God
should also endeavour to appoint the proper
relation between man and bin neighbour.
" Mohammad not only promulgated a reli
gion ; he laid down a complete social system,
containing minute regulation* for a man's
conduct In all circumstances of life, with due
rewards or penalties according to hie fulfil
ment of these rules. As a religion, Islam is
great: it has taught men to worship one God
with a pure worship who formerly worshipped
many gods impurely. As a social system,
Isl£m is a complete failure : it has misunder
stood the relations of the sexes, upon which
the whole character of a nation's life hangs,
and, by degrading women, has degraded each
successive generation of their children down
an increasing ^scale of infamy and corruption,
until it seems almost impossible to reach a
lower level of vice."
Mr. W. E. H. Leek y remarks:—
•' In the first place, then, it must be ob
served that the enthusiasm by which Maho-
metanbun conquered the world, was mainly a
military enthusiasm. Mon were drawn to tt
at once, and without conditions, by the splcn-
404
MUHAMMAD AN ISM
dour of the achievements of its disciples, and
it declared an absolute war against all the
religions it encountered. Its history, there
fore, exhibits nothing of the process ->f gra
dual absorption, persuasion, compromise, and
assimilation, thai are exhibited in the deal
ings of Christianity with the barbarians. In
the next place, one of the great characte
ristics of the Koran is the extreme care and
skill with which it labours to assist men in
realising the unseen. Descriptions, the most
minutely detailed, and at the same time the
most vivid, are mingled with powerful appeals
to those sensual passions by which the ima -
ginatioti in ull countries, but especially in
those in which Mahometanism has taken
root, is most forcibly influenced. In no other
religion that prohibits idols is the strain
upon the imagination so slight/' (Hisloi-y vj
the Ri$c "tnd Influent* of Rationalism, vol. i.
p. 223.)
" This great religion, which so long rivalled
the influence of Christianity, had indeed
spread the deepest and most justifiable panic-
through Christendom, Without any of those
aids to the imagination which pictures and
images can furnish, without any elaborate
sacerdotal organization, preaching the purest
Monotheism among ignorant and barbarous
men, and inculcating, on the whole, an ex
tremely high and noble system of morals, it
spread with a rapidity, and it acquired a hold
over the minds of its votaries, which it ia
probable that no other religion has altogether
equalled. It borrowed Irom Christianity that
doctrinu of salvation by belief, which is per
haps the most powerful impulse that can be
applied to the characters of masses of men,
and it elaborated so minutely the churms of
its wensual heavens and the terrors of its
material hell, as to cause the alternative to
appeal with unrivalled force to the gross
imaginations of the people. It possessed a
book which, however inferior to that of tho
opposing religion, has nevertheless been the
consolation ni»d the support of millions in
many ages. It taught a fatalism which, in
its tirst age, nerved its adherents with a
matchless military courage, and which,
though in later days it has often paralysed
their active energies, has also rarely failed
to support them under the pressure of inevi
table calamity. But. above all. it discovered
the great though fatal secret, of uniting in-
dissolubly the passion of the soldier with the
passion of the devotee. Making the conquest
of the infidel the first of duties, and proposing1
heaven as the certain reward of the valiant
soldier, it created a blended enthusiasm that
soon overpowered the divided counsels and
the voluptuous governments of the East, and
within a century of the death of Muhammad,
his followers had almost extirpated Chris
tianity from its original home; founded great
monarchies in Asia and Africa, planted a
noble, though transient and exotic, civilisa
tion in Spain, menaced the capital of the
Eastern empire, and but for the issue of a
single battle, they would probably have ex
tended their aceptre over the ancrgelic and
MUI1AMMADANISM
progressive races of Central Europe. The
wave was broken by Charles Martel, a£ the
battle of Poictiers, aad it is now useless to
speculate what inierht have been the conse
quences, had Muhaminadanism unfurled its
triumphant banner among those Teutonic
tribe*, who have so often changed their creed,
and on whom the course of civilisation has
so largely depended/' (Hist, of European
Morals, vol. ii. p. 26'<>.)
~ The influence of Chath6licisin was se
conded by Alubnmmatianism, which on this
(suicide,,, as on many other points, borrowed
its teaching from the Christian Church, and
oven inteusiiiod it ; for sruicido, which is never
expressly condemned in the Bible, is more
than once forbidden in the Quran, rind tho
Christian duty of resignation was exaggerated
by the Moslem into a complete fatalism.
Under the empire of Catholicism and Muham-
madanism, suicide, during many centuries,
almost absolutely ceased in all the civilised,
active and progressive part of mankind.
When we recollect how warmly it was ap
plauded, or how faintly it was condemned in
the civilisations of Greece and Rome, when
we remember, too, that there was scarcely a
barbarous tribe from Dennuuk to Spain who
did not habitually practise it, we may realise
the complete revolution which was effected
in this sphere by the influence of Chris
tianity," (Hist, of European Morals* vol. ii.
p. 56.)
Major Dnrie Osborn says- —
" When Islam penetrates to countries lower
in the scale of humanity than, were the
Arabs of Muhammad's day* it nuHices to ele
vate them. to that level. *But it does so at a
tremendous coat. It reproduces in its new
converts the characteristics of its first — their
impenetrable self -esteem, their unintelligent
scorn, and blind hatred of oil other creeds.
And thus the capacity for all further advance
is destroyed ; the mind if obdurately shut to
the entrance ol any purer light. But it is a
grievous error to .confound that transient
gleam of culture which illuminated Baghdad
under the first Abba side khalifs with the legi
timate fruits of Islam. When the Arabs
conquered Svria and Persia, they brought
with them no new knowledge to take the
place of that wliicb had preceded them.
Mere -Bedouins of the desert, they found
themselves all at once tho masters of vast
countries, with everything to learn. They
were compelled 1o put themselves, to school
under the very people they had vanquished.
Thus the Persians and Syiians.. conquered
though they were and tributary. Irom the
ignorance of their masters, retained in their
hands the control of the administrative ma
chinery. The Abbaside khalifs were borne
into power by means of A Persian revolution,
headed by a Persian slave. Then began the
endeavour to root the old Greek philosophy,
and the deep and beautiful thoughts of
Zoroaster, on the hard and barren soil of Mn-
hammadanism. It was an impossible attempt
to make a frail exotic flourish on uncongenial
soil. It hits imparted, indeed, a deceptive
MUHAMMAD ANISM
MCHAMMADANISM
405
lustre to this period of Muhaintnadan history ;
but the orthodox Aluhatnuiadans kuew that
their faith and the wisdom of the Greeks could
not amalgamate; and they fought fiercely
against the innovators. Successive storms of
barbarians sweeping down from the north of
Asia, tore up the fragile plant "by the roots.
and scattered its blossoms to the winds. The
new corners embraced the creed of the Koran
in its primitive simplicity ; they haled and
repudiated the refinements which the Per
iuit.-, would fain have engrafted on it. And
they won the clay. The present condition of
Central Asia is the legitimate fruit of Islam ;
not the glories of Baghdad, which were but
the afterglow of the thought ami culture
which aank with the fall of the Sassanides.
anc the expulsion of the Byzantine empe
rors So -ilso in Moorish Spain. The blossom
and the fruitage which Muhamuiadanism
seemed to put forth there were, in fact, due
to intiuencos alien to Islam — to the intimate
contact, namely, with Jewish and Christian
thought , for when the Moor* were driven
back into northern Africa, all that blossom
and fruitage withered a way, and Northern
Africa sank into the int<l tactual darkness and
political anarchy in which it. lies at the pre
sent time. There are to be found in Muham -
madan history all the elements of greatness
— faith, courage, endurance, self-sacrifice :
but, closed within the narrow walls of a rude
theoloyy and barbarous polity, from which
the capacity to grow and the liberty to
modify have been sternly cut ort\ they work
no deliverance upoji the earth. They arc strong
only for destruction When that work is
over, they either prey upon oach other, or
beat themselves to dcatii against the bars
of their prison-house No permanent dwell
iug- place can be erected on a foundation of
sand: and no durable or humanising polity
upon a foundation of fatalism, despotism,
polygam^ rnd slavery When Muhammadan
states cease to be racked by revolutions, they
succumb to the poison diffused by a corrupt
moral atmosphere. A Darwesh. ejaculating
Allah.!' and revolving in a series of rapid
gyrations until he drops senseless, is an exact
image of the course of their history." (Islam
under lite Arabs, p. 93.)
Lieutenant Colonel W. F. Butler. C.B.,
remarks : —
- The Goth might ravage Italy, but the
Goth came forth purified from the flames
which he himself had kindled. The
Saxon swept Britain, but the music of the
Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and
wooed him into lesa churlish habits. Visi
goth and Frank, llcruli and Vandal, blotted
out their verocity in the very light of the
civilisation they had striven to extinguish.
Even the IIuiij wildest Tartar from the
Scythian waste, was touched and softened in
his wicker encampment amid Panuonian
plains : but the/Turk — wherever his scymitur
reached - -degraded, defiled, and defamed ;
blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and
Latin civilisation, until, when all had gone, he
at down, satiated with savagery, to doze lo-
two hundred years into hopeless decrepi
tude." (Good ' JFon/« for September 1880.)
Literature on the gubjact of Muhamma
dan isui : —
MuJta/aedix Impost urce. W. Bed well.
London . . . . . .1615
A Lyidl 7'rcali/sc of tht Turkey Islw
culled Alcoran. \V. be Woidc. Lou-
don. No date.
Muh<*nct Unn>tt*kcd. W. Bed well.
London .... . 1642
The Alcoraji or M'Utonvt. Alex.
Itoss. London . ... 1642
Religion and Manner* of J/«/i :>nw-
lans. Joseph Pitts. Exon . . . 1 704
History of the Suraccns. S. Oekley.
London 1703
Four Treaties by ftelauJ and others.
London . . .1712
The True Nttlu/e of the Imposture.
Dean Prideairx. London . . .1718
Abulfed'jt- Translated into Latin.
J. Gagnior. London .... 1723
Muhammadani&m Explain eci J o s • • \, b
Morgan. London . . .1723
Life of Mahomet. Count BouUin-
viliUiis Translated. London . . 1731
Translation of Komn and Pnluui-
nary Discourse. (•>. Sale. London . 1734
Reflections on Mohainntedism (sic.)
Anon. London 1735
The Morality of tiie L<u>t. ext/ acted
from the Koran. Anon. London. . 1766
Roman Kmpire. K. Gibbon. London J776
The Koran. Translated. Savary . 1782
Bampton Lectures. Rov. J. While.
Oxford 1784
Tfie Hidayuli. Translaled by C.
Hanulton. London . . . .1791
The Rise of Mahoniet accounted for.
N. Alcock. London . . . .1706
Life of Mahomet. Anon. London . 1799
Tlut Mishkat. Translated by Mat
thews. Calcutta . . . 180i)
History of Muhammcdanisw C.
Mills. London 1M7
Christianity compared with Hinduism
Quid Mvhaniadanixm. London . . 1823
The Muhummedan System. Rev. W,
H. Mills . . v . . . . 1828
Mahome'wrisjn Unveiled. Rev. C.
Forster. London .... 1829
An Apoloyy for the Life of Aloham-
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A Reply to Uigqins. R. M. Bcverley.
Beverley ....... 1829
• Travel* in Arabia. J. 1^. Burekhardt.
London .... . 1829
Controversial Tracts. Rov. H. Martyn.
F4ited bv^S. Lee. No date or place.
Aniniodoersiom; on Hwyins. Kev.
P. lucbbnld. ' Doncastpr . . 1&30
Nutea on Bedouins and MTaAAa^M,
J. L. r.ur-jkhardt. London . . . 1830
Observation* on the Mwtuimatt. Mra
Meet Hasan AH. London . . 1832
Qjunoon-f.-l^lam. Dr. Herklots.
London » 1832
fits lory of Mtihantniffdunixm. W. C.
Tavlor. Luudou ..... 1834
406
MUHAMMADANISM
MUHAMMADANISM
History of the Wahhabics. Sir H. J.
Brydges. London ....
JMukatnmedan Dynasties in Spain.
Al Makkari. Translated. London ..
The Hf.ro as Prophet. Thomas Oar-
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Manners and Customs of the Modern
Egyptians. E. W. L&ne. London
Ibn Khattikan's Biographical Dic
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London .
Selections from tlie Kur~dn. E. W.
Lane. London .....
Life of Mohammed. Rev. George
Bash. New Tork .
The Relation of Islam to the Gospel.
Dr. J. A. Moehler. Translated by J. P.
Menge. Calcutta ....
Ltfe of Mahomet. Washington Ir-
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Life of Mohammed. By Abulfeda.
Translated by Rev. W. Murray. El?in.
No date.
Muhammadan Law of Sate. N. B. E.
Baillie. London .....
Life of Mohammad* A Sprenger,
Calcutta .
Islamism, its Rise and Progress. F. A.
Neale. London .....
Pilgrimage toElMedinah and Mecca.
R. F. Burton. London
Life of Mahomet. W. Muir. London
Mohammedan Religion Explained.
Rev. J, D. Maebride. London .
Ishmael. Rev. J. M. Arnold. Lon
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Arabian Nights with Note*. E. W.
Lane. London
Imposture instanced in the Life of
MahomeU Rev. G. Akehurst. London
Testimony borne by the Koran. W.
Muir. Atiahabfed ....
Religions of Syriat Rev. John Wor-
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Muhammedan Commentary on the
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Pilgrimage to Mecca. Begum of
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Our Indian Musuknans, W. W.
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1834
mo
1840
1842
1843
1843
1844
1847
1850
1850
1851
1864
1855
1858
1859
1850
1859
1859
I860
1860
1862
1865
1865
1865
1S67
On Dr. Hunter's "Indian Mu«ul-
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The Koran translated. Rev. J, M.
Rodwell. London
Easam on the Life of Muhammad.
Syed Ahmed Khan. London
Essays on Eastern Questions. W. G.
PalgrfcVe. London ....
Manual of Laws. J. B. S. Boyle.
Lahore . ....
Life of Muhammad, Syed Araeer
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Tagore Lectures. Shaina Churun
Sircar. Calcutta
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Sircar. Calcutta. . . .
Islam and Christianity. Rev, J. M.
Arnold. London
Mohammed and Mohummedanism. R ,
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Essay on Islam. Emanuel Deutech,
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Islam vnder the Arabs. R, D. Os-
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ffotes on Mahammadanism. Rev.
T. P. Hughes. London. 2nd od. .
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R. W. Stephens. London .
Islam and its Founder. J. W. H.
Stobart. London
Mohammed^ Buddhat and Christ,
Marcus Dods. London . .
I flam., its 0 riff in, Genius, and Mis-
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Islam under the Khalifs of Baghdad.
R. D. Osborn. I^ondon
Line's Selections from the Kurbn.
New ed. S. L. Poole. .London .
The Miracle Play of Hasan and
Husain. Sir Lewis Pelly. London
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Syed Ameer Ali. London .
The Faith of Islam. Rev. JE. SeJl
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The Future of Islam. W. S, Blunt.
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The Quran. Translated. 2 vols
Prof. E. H. Palmer. Oxford
Commentary on the Quran. Rev.
E. M, Wherry. London
Jleforms in Mohaminadan States.
Moulvie Cheragh Ali. Bombay ,
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1868
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1869
1869
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1869
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LeUres svr FHistoire den Arctbes
1870 i avant PIslamisme ,
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MUHARRAM
MUHARRAM
407
Die Geieterkhre der Mo$limen. Von
Hammer Purgatall. Wien . . . 1852
Geshicttte des Qvran*. T. Nbldeke . 1860
Da$ Leben Mohammed's nuch /bn
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by Weil 1864
Mahomet et te Coran. T B. de St.
HiJair*. Paris . . 1865
Geshichte dttr herrschenden Itleen de*
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Das Leben vnd die Lehre des Moham
mad. A, Sponger. Berlin . . 18G9
LJflamtsnu- d'opres le Coran, Gar-
ciudaTassy. Paris . . . 1874
E*st*i sur TRisioire de Plslamigtne.
R Dozy . 1879
MUHAJEtBAM (~r). Lit. "That
which is forbidden.'* Anything sacred. (1)
The first month of the Maharnmadan year
i [MONTHS.] (2) The first ten days of the
month, observed in commemoration of the
martyrdom rf al-Husain. the second sou of
Fatimah, the Prophet's daughter, by 'All.
[AI>HOSAIN.] These days of lamentation are
only observed by the Shi'ah Muslims, but
the tenth day of Muharram Js observed by
the Scufflis in commomoration of its having
been the day on which Adam and Eve,
heaven and hell, the pen, fate, life and death,
were created, f ASHUKA'.]
The ceremonies of the Muharram differ
much in different places and countries. The
following is a graphic description of the
observance of the Muharram at Ispahan in
the year 1811, which has been taken, with
some slight alterations from Morier's Second
Journey through Persia :— -
The tragical termination of al-HusHui's life,
commencing with his flight from al-Madlnah
and terminating with his death on the plain
of Kail'Kla', has been drawn up in the form
of A drama, consisting of several parts, of
which one is performed by actors on each
successive day of the mourning. The last
part, which is appointed for the Roz-i-Qatl,
comprises the events of the day on which he
m«t. bis death, and is acted with great pomp
h*tore the King, in the largest square of the
city, The subject, which is full of aftecting
incidents, would of itse4f excite great interest
m the breasts of a Christian audience ; but
allied as it is with all the religious and
national feelings of the Persians, it awakens
their strongest passions. Ai Husain would
i be a hero in our eyes ; in theirs he is a
» martyr. The vicissitudes of his life, his
dangers in the desert, bin fortitude, his in
vincible courage, and his devoted ness at the
hour of his death, are all circumstances upon
which the Persians dwell with rapture, and
which excite in them an enthusiasm not to be
: diminished by laps* of time. The celebra
tion of this mourning keeps up in their minds
the remembrance of those who destroyed
him, and consequently their hatred for all
MusalmauR who do not partake of their feel
ings. They execrate Yazid and ourse *TJmar
with such rancour, that itis necessary to have
witnessed the scenes that are exhibited in
their cities to judge of the degree oi fan*
tic-ism which possesses them at this time. 1
have seen some of the meat violent of them
as they vociferated, "O Husain 1 " walk about
the streets almost nakfd, with only iheir
loins covered, and their bodies streaming with
blood by the voluntary cuts which they have
given to themselves, either as acts of love,
anguish, or mortification. Such must have
been the cuttings of which we read in lioly
Writ, which were forbidden to the Israelites
by Moses (Lev. xix. 28, Deut,. xiv. 1), and
these extravagances, I conjecture, must re
semble the practices of the priests of Baal,
who oxied aloud and cut themselves after this
manner with knives and lancets, till the blood
gushed out upon them. 1 Kings xvjii. 28 ;
see also Jeremiah xvi. 5, 6, and 7.
The preparations which vere made
throughout the city consisted in erecting
large tents, that are there called tokiya/i, in
the streets and open places, in fitting them
up with black linen and furnishing them
with objects emblematical of the mourning.
These tents are erected either at the joint
expense of the district, or by men of conse
quence, as an act of devotion ; and all ranks
of people have a free access to them. The
expense of a takiyak consists in the hire of
a mulla. or priest, of actors and their clothes,
and in the purchase 01 lights. Many there
*.r« who seize this opportunity of atoning lor
past sins, or of rendering thanks to heaven
for some blessing, by adding charity to the
good act of erecting a takiyah, and distribute
gratuitous food to those who attend it.
Our neighbour. Muhammad Kb an had a
takiyoh in his house, to which all the peoplo
of the district flocked in great numbers.
During tne time of this assemblage we heard
a constant noise of drums, cymbals, and
trumpets. We remarked that besides the
takiyak in different open places and streets
of tho town, a wooden pulpit, without any ap
pendage, was erected, upon which a mulla, or
priest, was mounted, preaching to the people
who were collected around him. A European
ambassador, who is said to have intrigued
with Yazid in favour of al-Husain, was brought
forward to be an actor in one of the parts
of the tragedy, and the populace were in
consequence inclined to look favourably upon
Us. Notwithstanding the excitation of the
public mind, we did not cease to take our
usual rides, and we generally passed unmo
lested through the middle of congregations,
during the time of their devotions. Such
little scruples have they at our seeing their
religious ceremonies, that on the eighth night
of the Muharram the Grand Vizier invited
the whole of the embassy to attend his
takiyah. On entering the room we found a
large assembly of Persians clad in dark-
coloured clothes, which, accompanied with
their black caps, their black beards, and
their dismal faces, really loo"ked as if they
were afflicting their soula. They neither
wore their dagggers, nor any parts of their
dress -which they look upon as ornamental.
A mulla of high consideration sat next to the
408
MtJHAKTUM
MUHARRAM
Grand Vizier, and kopt him in senons con
versation, whilst the remaining part of the
society communicated with each other in
whispers. Alter we had sat some time, the
windows of the room in which we were
seated were thrown open, and we then die-
covered a priest placed on a high chair,
under the covering of a tent, surrounded by a
crowd of the populace ; the whole of the
scene being lighted up with candles. He
commenced by an exordium, in which he
reminded them of the great value of each
tear shed for the sake of the Imam al-
llusain, which would be an atonement for a
past life of wickedness ; and also informed
them with much solemnity, that whatsoever
soul it be that shall not be afflicted in the
same day, shall be cut of? from among the
people. He then began to read from a book,
with a sort of nasal chaunt, thai part of the
tragic history ol al-Husain appointed for the
day, which soon produced its affect upon his
audience, for he scarcely had turned over
three leaves, be/ore the Grand Vizier com
menced to shake bis head to and fro, to utter
in a most piteous voice the usual Persian
exclamation of grief , " Wakii-Wahi! Wahir
both of which acts were followed in a more
or less violent manner by the rest of the
audience. The chaunting of the umlla lasted
nearly an hour, and some parts of his story
were indeed pathetic, and well calculated to
rouse the feelings of a superstitious and lively
people. In one part of it, all the company
stood up, and I observed that the Grand
Vizier turned himself towards the wall, with
his hand extended before him, and prayed.
After the mulla had finished, a company of
actors appeared, some ' dressed as women.,
who chaunted forth their parts from slips of
paper, in a sort of recitative, that was not
unpleasing even tp our ears. In the very
tragical parts, most of them appeared to cry
very unaffectedly ; and as I sat near the
Grind Vizier, and to his neighbour the priest.
I was witness to many real tears that feD
from them. In some of these monrnful
assemblies, it is the custom for a mulla to
A MUHAJtBAM PKOCES&ION IN
go al>out to each person tit the height of his
grief, with a piece of cotton in his hand, with
which he carefully collectr, the falling tears,
and which he then 6<paeezee into a bottle,
preserving them with the greatest caution.
This practically illustrates that passage, in the
56th Psalm, verse 8, " Put than my tears into
tlxv bottle." Some Persians 'believe that in
Ihf agony of death, when all medicines have
failed, a drop of tears so collected, put into
the mouth of a dying man, has been known
to revive him ; and it is for such use, that
they arc collected.
On the Roz-i-Qatl. or day of martyrdom,
the tenth day. the Ambassador was invited by
the King to be present at the termination of
the ceremonies, in which the death of al-
Husain was to be represented. We set off
ait. or breakfast, and placed ourselves in a
small lent, that was pitched for our accbm-
rnodsttiou over an, arolied gateway, which was
situated clofe to the room in which His
Majesty was to be seated.
We looked ajxni the great square which is
(By a Native Artist.]
in front of the palace, at the entrance ol
which we perceived a circle of Cajars. or
people of the King's own tribe, who were
standing barefooted, and beating their breasts
in cadence to the chaunting of one who stood
in the centre, and with whom they now and
then joined their voices in chorus. Smiting
the breast is a universal act throughout tho
mourning : and the breast is made bare for
that purpose, by unbuttoning the top of the
fihirt. The King, in order to show his humi
lity, ordered the Cajars, among whom were
many of hi» own relation*?, to walk about
without either ,-thoos or stockings, to super
intend the order of the different ceremonies
about to be performed, and they were to be
seen stepping tenderly over the stones, with
sticks in their hands, doing the duties of
menials, hour keeping back a. crowd; then
dealing out blows with their sticks, and set
tling the order of the procession*.
Part of the square was partitioned oft by
an enclosure, which was to represent tlie
town of Ivaiinda'. near which al-Husain wa*
RfUHARRAM
MUHAJ2RAM
409
put to death ; and close to thi« were two
small tenta, which were to represent his en
campment in the desert with his family. A
wooden platform covered with carpets, upon
which the actors were to perform, completed
all the scenery used on the occasion.
A short time after we had reached pur
tent, the King appeared, and although we
Could Jiot see him, yet we were soen apprised
of his presence by all the people standing up,
and by the bowing of his officers. The pro-
oession then commenced as follows ; — First
oame a stout man, naked from the waist up
wards, balancing in his girdle a long thick
pole, surmounted by an ornament made of
tin, curiously wrought with devices from the
Qur'an, in height altogether about thirty feet.
Then.anothef , naked like the former, balanced
an ornamental pole in his girdle utill more
ponderous, though not so high, upon which
a young darveah resting his feet upon the
bearer's girdle had placed himself, channting
reraes with all his might in praise of tho
King. After him a person of more strength
and more nakedness, a water carrier, walked
forwards, bearing an immense leather sack
filled with water slung ovw his back. This
parsonage, we were told, w»s emblematical of
the great thirst wiiich al-Husain suffered in
the desert.
A litter in the shape of a sarcophagus,
which was called Qa6r-t-7/u*atn, or the
tomb of al-Husain (a T&ziyafi) succeeded,
borne on the shoulders of eight men. On its
front was a largo oval ornament entirely
covered with precious stones, and just above
it, a great diamond star. On a small projec
tion were two tapers placed on candlesticks
enriched with jewels. Tho top and sides
were covered with Cashmere shawls, and on
ItiJS, MUH ABEAM CKKEMONIEB Iff THE IMAMBAR.VH OR TAKUH IN JVDIA.
'By a. Nativ* Artist,}
tUe summit rested a turban, intended to re
present tn* head-dress of the Khallfah. On
eaoh side walked two men bearing poles,
from which e. variety of beautiful shawls
were auapendsd. At the top of which were
representations of ai-Busain's hand studded
with jewellery.
After this came four led horaes, caparisoned
in the richest manner. The fronts of their
heads were ornamented with plates, entirely
covered with diamonds, that emitted a thou
sand beautiful rays. Their bodies were
dressed with shawls and gold stuffs ; and on
their saddle* ware placed some objects emble
matical of the death of al-Husain. When all
these had passed, they arranged themselves
in a row to the right of the King's apart
ment.
After a short pan»a. a body of fierce-
looking men, with only a Iocs? wbite sheet
thrown over their naked bodies, marched
forwards. They were ajl begrimed with
blood ; and each brandishing a sword, they
sang a sort of a hymn, the tones of which
were very wild. Tiiese represented th«
sixty-two relations, or the Martyrs, as the*
Persians call them, *vho accompanied al-
Husain, and were slain in defending him.
Close after them was led a white horse,
covered with artificial wounds, with arrows
stuck all about him, and caparisoned in
black, representing the horse upon which al-
Husain was mounted when ho was killed. A
band of about fifty men, sinking two pieces
of wood together in their hands, completed
the procession. Tht.- arranged themselves
in rows before the King, and marshalled by a
naiire dn 6o/?ef, who stood in the middle to
regulate their movements, they performed a
dance e-lrpprog their hands in the best pos-
52
410
MUHARJUM
MUHARRAM
sible time. The maitre de ballet all this time
sang iu vAojt;i-tive, to which the dancers joined
at different intervals -with loud shouts \nd
reiterated clappingr of their pieces of wood.
MUHARJUM STAND \TIDS.
The two processions -were succeeded by
the tragedians. Al-Hu?ain came forward,
followed by his wives, sisters, and first
reio,tives. They performed many long and
teHtnr; acts: bm a*, our distance trom th*
sia^a v.as too great to hear tne inuny atfec;
ing things whicn they no doubt said to eacb
other, we will proceed y-x once to where tne
unfortunate al-H-usain lay extended on the
ground, ready to . receive the death-stroke
from a mflian dressed in armour, who acted
the part of executioner. At this moment a
burst of lamentation issued from the multi
tude, and heavy sobs and real tear? came
from almost rvery one of those who were
near enough to come under our inspection.
The indignation of the populace wanted some
object upon which to vent itself, and it fell
upon tho,<?e of the actors who had performed
the part of YazTd's soldiers. No sooner was
al-Husain killed, than they were driven of?
the ground by a volley of stones, followed by
shouts of abuse. We were informed that it-
is so difficult to procure performers to fill
these characters, that on the present occasion
a party of Russian prisoners were pressed
into the army of Yazid, and they made as
speedv an exit after the catastrophe as it was
in their r>ower
The seem-- termiiifited by the Burning of
Karbalu'. Several reed huts nad been con-
r-tru^ted behind tne enclosure before men
tioned, which ul a, sudden were set on fire.
The tomb of al-Husain was seen covered with
black cloth, and upon it sat a figure dis
guised m a timer's skin, which was intended
to represent the miraculous lion, recorded to
have kept watch over his remains after he
had been buried. The most extraordinary
part, of the whole exhibition was the repre
sentation of the dead bodies of tiic martyrs :
who having >»een decapitated, were all placed
in a row, each body with a bead close to it.
To effect this, several Persians buried them
selves alive, leavinp 'be head out just above
ground • whilst other» put their heads under
ground, leaving out the '»ody The heads
and bodies were nlaceci in such relative posi
tions to each other, as tc mak:e it appear that
they had been severed. This is done by way
of permnce : but in hot weather, the violence
of the exertion ha« been known to produce
death. The ^nle ceremony was terminated
by a khutbah, or oration, m praise of al-
Hu?*in. Ol oner's fr court Journey through
*
The martyrdom of Hasan and Husain
is celebrated by the bhiar.- all over India,
during the first ten clays of the month of Mo-
hurrum, Attached to every Hhiah's house is
an Imambarrah. a ha!l or inolosuro bnilt ex
pressly for the celebration of the anniversary
of the death of Husain. The enclosure is
generally arcaded along its side, and in most
instances it is -overed in with a domed ro'of.
•Vyamst the side of the Iraambarrah, directed
toward.' Mecca, is set the iabut — also culled
tozia (ltfziudk\ or model of the tombs at Ker-
bpia. In the houses uf the wealthier Shiahs,
these faouts are fixtures. «nd. are beautifully
fashioned of .silver ar.u erold. or ol ivorv and
•^riunv. emnellisned ali -v^r with inlaid woi'k.
The poorer Shiahs provide themselves with
a Ifflut mnrte tor the occasion of lath and
plithttr. Tricke^ f-ut jn mica atiu tinsel A
week be-fore the new moon ot the .Molmr-
rum, they enclose a £-,pa<?e. c-aUe<l the tabut
khwi. i?i which the tn'tut 19 prepared : and
MUHAREAM
the very moment the new moon is seen, a
spade is struck into the ground before -'the
enclosure of the tombs," where a pit is after
wards dug, in which a bonfire is Lighted, and
kept burning through all the ten days of the
Mohnrnun solemnities. Those who cannot
afford to erect a tnbut khan-;, or even to put
up a Jittle tabut or iaziah in their dweWng-
hous'!. always have a Mohurrum lire lighted,
if it consist only of a uigm -light floating at
the bottom of nn earthen pot or basin sunk
in the ground. It is doubtful whether this
custom refers to the trcncn of fire Huanin
HOT. bi.izinc Debind his camp, or is & survival
trora the older Aihura (ten days) festival,
which is said to cavp been instituted in com
memoration of the deliverance of t:io Hebrew
Araos from fharaon and his host ;i the Kea
•">ea ; or from :iie yet more ancient Bael fire.
But, in India, these M<iliurrum rires. ..'specially
among the more ignorant populace Eindna !
us well as Mohammedans, are regarded with
the mo1-! superstitious reverence, and have a
•jreater hold on them even than the tabuts.
All day long the passers by stop before the
MUHARRAM
411
A MUHABEAM TA.BUT. (A. F. Hole.}
fires and make their vows over them, and all
night long the crovsds fiance round them, and
leap through the flames and scatter about the
burning brands snatched from them. The
tabut is lighted up like an altar, with innu
merable gieonwax candles, and nothing can
be more brilliant than the appearance of an
Imambarrah of white stone, or polished white
stucco, picked out in green, lighted up with
glass chandeliers, sconces, and oil-lamps,
arranged along the leading architectural lines
of the building, with its tabut on one side,
dazzling to blindness. Before the tabut are
placed the "properties'* to be used by the
celebrants iu the " Passion Play." the
and arrows, the sword aud spear, and the
banners of Hnsain, &c. ; and in front of it
is set a movable pulpit, also made of the
richest materials, and Covered with rich bro
cades in green and gold. Suc-h is the theatre
in which twice daily during the m-st ten
days of i he month of Mchurrutu, the deaths
of the I'u-M martyrs of I^laui are } e:\rv- com-
nwnuTrtted in India. Each day ha? i:s $po--iai
solemnity, corresponding vith 11.
of events during the "en days thni Hussiu
was enoampod on the fatal ]>in'ii ..f Korbela ;
but the prescribed order of the services in the j
daily development of the g1
tioa of the Mohuinun wr.uld aiippur
be alwav* strictly observed in Bombay
(Pelly's 'Mtrarh Piny of Llasiin and /fitsaii:.
Preface, p. xvii.)
The drama, or "Miracle Play" which is
recit ,-d in Persia during the Muharrara, has
beeii rendered ii.to Eugiish by Col/.n.-l <i>
Lewis Pelly, K.C.B. (Allen A Co.. 1879). from
which we take the death scene of al-Hunnin
on the battlo-field of Karbala", a scene whii:L.
the historian Gibbon (Decline nnd Fill,
vol. ix. cU. 341) says, " in a distant age and
climate, will awaken the sympathy of the
coldest reader."
" Husmn. — I am sore uisiressed at the un
kind iru~ L^.'.it received at the hands of the
cruel heavens. Pitiful tyranny is exercised
towards me by a cruel, unbelieving army !
All the sorrows and troubles of this world
have overwhelmed me ! I am become a butt
for the arrow of affliction and trouble. I am
a holy bird stript of its quills and feathers
by the hand of the archer of tyranny, and am
become, 0 friends, utterly disabled, and un
able to fly to my sacred nest. They are going
to kill me mercilessly, for no other crime or
guilt except that I happen to be a propbcf's
grandson.
*• Shi mar (chalitnginq him). — 0 Husain, why
dost thou not appear in the field ? Why doit
not thy majesty show thy face in battle 'f
How long art thou going to sit still without
displaying thy valuur in war? Why dost
chou not put on thy robe of martyrdom and
come forth ? If thou art indeed so magnani
mous as not to fear death, if thou carest not
about the whistling sounds of the arrows
when let fly from the bow, mount thou,
quickly, thy swift horse named Zii'l janahy
:»nd deliver thy soul from so many troubles.
Yea, come to the field of battle, be it as it
may. Enter soon among thy Women, and
with tears bid them a last farewell : then
come forth to war, and show us thy great
lortitudo.
•• l/'.isain (talking to himself). — Although
the accursed fellow, Shimar, will put me to
death in an hour's time, yet the reproachful
language of the enemy seems to be worse
than destruction itself. It is better that the
foe should sever iny head cruelly from the
body, ih.au make mo hear these abusive word?.
What can I do ? I have no one loft to Lc-'lp
me, no Kasim to hold my stirrup foranijiuie
when about to mount All ra-egon*! Lowk
around if thou canst find anyone to defend
the descendant of Muhammad, the chosen of
God — if then canst see any ready to assist
the holy family of God's Prophet ! In this
land of trials there is no kind protector to
have compassion on the household of the
Apostle of God, and befriend then.
, — May I be offered for the sad
f thy vcice. dear brother ! Time bus
thrown on my bead the black earth of sorn. v,
grieved ir.e to the ^uiek. Wait, bro
ther, do ii.'t go till thy Kilsini arrives. Have
: ICQ for a minute, my 'All Akbar is
Iff.
•llufiin (/•• '(:>'p around). — L« there one
-.vac wishes to pka?o God. hi^ Maker? 1>
412
KTJHABRAM
MUHAHEAM
there any willing to behave faithfully towards
his roaHrienda? la there a person ready to
give up his life for our sake, to save us, to
defend us iu this dreadful stniggle of Rar-
baJa ?
" Zainab.—Q Lord, Zainab's brother has
no one to assist or support him 1 Occasions
ol bis sorrows are innumerable, without any
one to sympathise with him in the least?
Sad and desolate, he is leaning on his ttpear 1
He has bent his neok in a calamitous manner ;
he ha* no famous 'All Akbar, no renowned
'Abbas any morei
" Ilasain. — Is there anyone to pity our con
dition, to help us in this terrible conflict of
Karbala? Is there a kind soul to give us a
hand of assistance for God's sake ?
" Zuirwh. — Brave cavalier of Karbalti, it is
not fitting for thee to be so harried. Go a
little more slowly ; tnmblea will come quickly
enough. Didst thou ever say thou hadet a
Zainab in the tent ? Is not this poor creature
weeping and mourning for thee ?
" The Intam Husain.— Dear sister, thou
rest of my disquieted, broken heart, smite on
thy head and moxirn, thou thousand -noted
nightingale. To-day I shall be killed by tbe
ignoble Shimar. To-day shall tbe rose be
turned out of its delightful spot by tbe tyranny
of the thistle. Dear sister, if any du»f hap
pen to settle oa the rosy cheeks of my Ic-yely
daughter Bukainah, ha pleased to wa&fa it
away most tenderly with the rose-water of
thy tears? My daughter ha* been ftcouu-
turned to sit always in the daar lap of her
father whenever ebe witbed to rest j tor my
sake, receive and caress tier in thy bosom.
" Zttinah.—O thou intimate friend o£ this
assembly of poor aflHct^i strangers, tho
flaming effect of thy speech has left ao rest
in my mind. Tell me, what have we done
that thou ahouldest so reward us ? Who is
the criminal among us for whose sake we
must suffer thus ? Take us back, brother, to
Madman, to the sacred monument of our
noble grandfather ; let us go home, and live
like queens in our own country.
"Husain.— 0 my afflicted, distressed, tor
mented sister, would to God there were a way
of escape for me ! Notwithstanding they
have cruelly cut down the cypress-like stature
of my dear son 'Ali Akbar; notwithstanding
Kasim my loveiy nephew tinged himself with
hia own blood ; still they are intent to kill me
also They do not allow me to go back from
Irak, nor do they let me turn elsewhere.
They will ueither permit me to go to India,
nor the capital ci China, I cannot eet out
for the territory of Abyssinia, or take refuge
in Zanzibar,
" Zainab.-~ Oh, how am I vexed in my mind,
dear brother, on hearing these sad things!
May I die. rifcber than UfW& to such aflfect-
Ing words any more! What shall we, an
assembly of desolate -widows and orphans, do
after thou art gone? Oh! how can 'we
live V
•' Husain.—® miserable creature, weep not
now, nor be *o very much upset; tbtfu tba'H
'4V '»•'' ' #aftei, owing to the wic-ked-
ness of time. When the wicked Shimar shall
seyei my head from the body ; when thou
shall be made a captive prisoner, and forced
to ride on an unsaddled camel ; when my
body shall be trampled under foot by the
enemy's horses, and trodden ( under their
hoofs ; when my beloved Sakainah shall be
cruelly struct by Shimai-, juiy wicked mur
derer i when they shall lead thee away cap
tive from Karbala to Sham ; and when they
shall make thee and others live there in a
horrible, ruined place ; yea, wheu thou shalt
see all this then thon laayosfc, and verily wiH,
cry. But I admomsh thee, sister, since this
sad case has no remedy but patignee, to re
sign the whole matter? submissively, to the
Lord, the good Maker of ail 1 Mourn riot for
my misfortune, bnfc bear it patiently, without
giving occasion to the enemy to rejoice
triumphantly on this account, or spoak re
proachfully concerning us.
" KulsHim. — Thou struttest about gaily, O
Hiisain, thon beloved of my heart. Look a
little behind thee ; see how Kulaiim is dghing
after thee with tearful eyea J I am atrawing
pearls m thy way , precious jewels from the
sea of my eyesl Let me put my head on
the hoof of thy winged atead, 2Uii janab.
k* Husain,— Beloved sister, kindle not a firs
in my heart by so doing Take &7/-ay thy
head 'from under the hoof of ray steed. O
thousand-noted nightingale, sing not such &
sad-toned melody J a an going avay; b«
tbou thp kind keeper of my helpless ones.
*» AWs/foi.—Behold what the he«v^B» bate
at k-jigth trougai ou ma ! what they have
done also to aiy brother! Him they have
made to have parched rips through ihirfit,
find me tliev have oaused to melt into water,
and gush ont like tears frani the ejes !
Harsh severity ie uiingfled with tyrannotta
cruolty.
" Husain, — Trials, arRictioaa, fead pains,
the thicker thej foil on man, the b«tterv dear
sister, do they prepare hiii* for hie jonraoy
heaveriwurd. We rejcice in iribulations,
seeing they arc but temporary, and yat they
work out an eternal and blissful eud. Though
it is predestined that I ahotdd airffer manyr-
dom iu thi.s sliam^fuJ Tnannor, yet, tb« trea*
s.ury of eterlaetij'g happiness shall btf at any
disposal as a co«*eque«t reward. 'Fbou
must think of that, owe*. b« no longer sorry.
The dnat raised in the field «f sueb. battles
is as highly esteemed by mt>, 0 sister, AS the
philosopher's stone wa»> iu former tiiutb, by
the alchemists; and the soil of Karbala is
the Sure remedy of my inward pains,
" Kulsum. — May I be sacrificed for th«e!
Since this occurrence it* thus inevitable, I
pray thee describe to thy poor slater Kulsurn
her duty after tby death. Tell Kue, where
sbftit !' go, or in what direction set my faco?
What «*in 1 to do? and wiiirh of thy -orprtA-n
children am 3 to caress moat ?
u Husatfi:~ Show thy utmost kinduess, good
sister, to Si&!>m«,L<; wy dar}i-Q§ girl, for the
pain of being falh-ifttfari u< ••tttSi severely felt
by cbiidj-eu rou n»uch fon^ied by their
(> a rents, especially girii. I have regard to
MOHARRAM
all my children, to be sure, oat I Jove
Sukainah moat.
" An old Female Slave of Husuin's mother.
— Dignified master, I ain sick and weary in
heart at the bare idea of separation from
thee. Have a kind regard to mo, an old slave.
much stricken with age . Master, by thy
soul do 1 swear that I am altogether weary
of life. I have grown old in thy service ;
pardon me, please, all the faults ever com*
mitted by me.
" Husain. — Yes. thou hast served us, in
deed, for a very long time. Thou haat
shown mnch affection and lovo toward me
and my children. 0 handmaid of my deiu-
mother Fatirxxah ; thou hnat varily suffered
much iu our house : how often didst thon
grind corn with thine own hand ior my
mother ! Thou hast also dandled Uusain
most caressingly in thy arms. Thou an
black-faced, that is true, but thou hast, I
opine, a pure white heart, and art much
est^med by us. To- day I am about to leave
thee- owing thee, at the same .tinie, innu
merable thanks for the good services thou
hast performed ; but I beg thy pardon for all
inconsiderate actions on my part
"The JfaiW.— May I be a aacri/ic* for
thee, thou royal ruler of the capital of faith !
turn not my days? black, like my face, thon
benevolent master Truly J. have had many
troubles on thy behalf. Hew many nights
have I spent in watchfulness at thy cradle !
At one moment I would caress thee in my
arms, at another I would fondle thee in my
bo&om. I became prematurely old by my dili
gent service, 0 Hueain ! Is it proper now
that thou shouUidt put round my poor neck
the heavy chain of thy intolerable ubAbuco?
Is this, dear maatar. the reward of the wer-
vices I have done thee?
" llusain. — Thoxigh thy body, 0 maid, is
now broken down by age and infirmity, yet
thou hast served U8*ail the day« ol thy life
with sincerity and love; thou must know,
therefore, that thy diligence and vigilance
will never be disregarded by us Excuse me
to-day, when i am offering my body and soul
in the cunse of God. aud cannot help thee at
all ; buk be sure i will fully pay the reward
of thy services in the day of univereal
account.
•' Tfa Maid. -Boat thou remember, goo<i
sir, how many troubles I have suffered witi
U\ee for the dear sake of 'All Akbar, the
light ot thine eyes? Thougl I "have not
suckled him with my own breasts, to be sure,
yet 1 laboured hard for him till he renohed
the age of eighteen years and came here to
Karbala. But, alas.' dear flourishing Atf
AJkbar has been this day cruelly killed — >vbat
a pity 1 and I strove sr> much for Me sake,
yet all, as it were, in vain. Yea, what a sad
loss!
"JfttfOtn.— Speak not of my 'Ah' Akbar
any mote, O maiden, nor aet Gre to the
granarv of ray patience and make it flame.
(Turning to his awter.) Poor distressed
Zainab, have the goodness to be kind always
to my mother's 1>ld maid, for she has e*pe
MUHARRAM
413
rienced many troubles in our family ; she has
laboured hard iu training 'Ah' Akbar my
son.
•* (Jam Lailah (the mother vf'Ati Akbar). —
The elegant stature of my Akbar fell on the
ground; like as a b&uutiful cypress tre« it
was forcibly felled I Alas for the memory of
thy upright stature 1 Alu*, 0 my youthful
ton of handsome form an«3 appearance 1 Alas
my troubles at night-time for thee ! How
often did I walch tfcy bed, singing lullabies
for tiiee until the morning I How aweet is
the memory of thosu tiraH^ i yea, how plea
sant the very thought of those days ! Alas .
where art thou now', dear child? 0 thou
who art ever remembered by ir.e, come and
see thy mother s wretched condition, come i
" ffusnin. — 0 Lord, why is this mournful
voict, so affecting ? Methinks the owner of
it, the bemoaning person, has a name in her
heart. It resembles the doleful tone of a
lapwing whose wings ure burned 1 like as
when a miraculous lapwing, the companion of
Soiouiou the wise, the king of God's holy
people, received intelligence suddenly about
the dt»afch of its royal guardian 1
** Umut Lailah.— Again I am put in inind of
my dear Ron ! 0 ray heart, melted into blood,
pour thygelf forth ! Dear son, whiUt thou
wast alive, I had some honour and respect,
everybody had some regard for me; but
since thou art gone, I am altogether aban
doned. Wo'e be to me ! woe be to me ! I am
deepnsed and rejected. Woe unto me ! woe
unto me I
(< Husain. — Do not set fa're to the harve&i
of my soul any further. Hoaain is, before
God, greatly ashamed of his shortcomings
towards thee. Come out from the tent, for
it is the last meeting previous to separating
from one another for ever ; thy distress is an
additional weight to the heaw burden of uty
grief.
«7%* Mother of 'AU Akbar.— I humbly
state it, O glory of all ages, that i did not
expect from thy saintship that thon wouldest
disregard thy handmaid in such a way. Thou
dost show thy kind regard and favour to all
except me. Dost thou not remember my
sincere services done to thee ? Am I not by
birth a defendant of the glorious kings of
Persia, brought as a captive to Arabia when
the former empire fall and gave place to the
ne^-born monarchy of the latter kingdom ?
The Judge, the living Creator, was pleased to
grant me an offspring, whom, we called 'Ali
Akbm, this day iont to us for ever May 1
be offered l*r thee I WhUe ,'Ali Akbar my
Son wa» ulivo, I ))..! indeed a sort of esteetti
and credit with th? ; but now that my
cypresa, my nowly sprung- up cedar, is un
justly felled. I huve fallen iron: credit too.
aud mu«t therefore abed tears.
" Huscrin. — Bo it known unto the«, 0 thou
violet of the flower-garden of modesty, thai
thcu art altogether mistaken. I swear by the
holy enlightened dust of my mother Zahrnh's
fcivf>v that thou sirt more honourable and
d**r3rno^ rhan ever. I wpll remember th?
affectionate recommendation* of 'All Akbflr
414
MfTHAREAM
MUHARBAM
our son, concerning thee. Ho^v much he was
mindful of thee at the moment of bis parting 1
How tenderly he cared for thee, and spoke
noij earning thee to every one of hi«i family !
" "Ali Akbnr's Mother.*— O gracious Lord, I
adjure thee, by the merit of my son, 'Mi
Akhar. never to lessen tho shadow of Husain
from over my head. May KO one ever he in
my miserable condition —never be a desolate,
homeless woman, like mo !
"Husain. — 0 thou unfortunate Zaiuab, my
sister, the hour of separation is come 1 The
day of joy is gone for ever ! the night of
affliction bas drawn near! Drooping, wither
ing sister, yet most blest in thy temper, I
have a request from thee which 1 fear {<••
make known,
" Zainab. — M«.y I be a sacrifice for thy
hyart, thou moon-faced, glorious sun! there
is nobody here, if thou hast a private matter
to disclose to thy dster.
" Huaoin. — Dear unfortunate mister, who
art already severely vexed in heart, if I tell
thee what my request is, what will be thy
condition then ? Though I cannot restrain
myself from speaking, still I am in doubt as
1 o which is better, to speak, or to forbear.
" Zaiuab. — My breast is pierced ! My
heart boils within me like a Cauldron, owing
to this thy conversation. Thou soul of thy
sister, hold not back from Zainab what thou
hast in thy mind.
" Husain. — My poor sister, I am covered
with shame before thee, I cannot lift up my
'head. Though the request is a, trifle, yet I
kfcow it is grievous to thet« to grant. It is
this; bring mo an old, dirty, ragged garment
to put on. But do not ask me, 1 pray thee,
the reason why, until I myself think it proper
to tell thee.
•* Zainab. — I am now going to the tent to
fetch thee what thou seekest ; but I am
utterly astonished, brother. a» to why thou
dost want this loathsome thing. (Returning
with a tattered shirt.) Take it, here is the
ragged robe for which thou didst ask. I
wonder what thou wilt do with it.
44 Husain.~-Do not remain here, dear sister.
Go for awhile to thine own tent ; for if thou
see that which I am about to do, thou wilt be
grievously disturbed. Turn to thy tent, poor
miserable sister, listen to what I say. and
leave me. I pray thee, aione.
u Zainab (joint! away). — I am gone, but i
am sorry I cannot tell what this enigma
means. It is puzzling indeed ! Remain thou
with thy mysterious coat, 0 Husain ! May
all of us be offered ag a ransom for thee, dear
brother . Thou art without any to aasriet or
befriend theo ! Thcu art surrounded by the
vaclied enemy ! Yes, thy kind helper* 'have
all been Vailed by tha unbelieving nation!
" Hn&ain (putting on the garment).— -Tht
teriD of life "has no perpetual duration m
itself Who ever saw in a dower garden a
rose Without its thorn I I will put on -bis old
robe close to my skin, and place over it my
new apparel, though neither the old nor the
new of thi>s world can be depended ott. 1
hopa Zninab lias not been observing what 1
have been doing, ior. poor creature, she can
scarcely bear the sight of a-nv swb like
thing.
"Zainab. — Alas! I do not know what is
the matter with Husain, my brother. What
has an old garment to do with being a king ?
Dost thou. desire, 0 Husain, that the enemy
should come to know this thin^ and reproach
thy sister about it? Put off, I pray thee,
this old ragged garment o+borwiso I shall
pull off my head-dress, and uncover my head
for shame.
•' Hvsain. — Rend not tUy dress, modest
sister, nor pull off thy head-covering. There
is a mystery involved in my action. Know
that what Husain has done has a good mean-
iriir in it. His putting on an old garment is
uoi wiMiout its signification.
"Zainab. — What mystery can be in this
work, thou perfect high priest of faith? I
will never admit any until thou shalt have
fully explained the thing according to iny
capacity.
;' The Imam. — To-day, dear sistor, Shimai
will behave cruelly towards ina He will
sever my dear head from the body. His
dagger not cutting my throat, he will be
obliged to .^ever my head from behind. After
he has killed me, when he begins to strip me
of my slothes, he may perchance be ashamed
to take off this ragged robe and thereby leave
my body leaked on the ground.
" Zainab. — 0 Lord, have mercy on n>
distracted heart ! Thou alone art aware of
the state of my mind. Gracious Creator,
preserve the soul of Husain 1 Let not heaven
pull down my house over me !
" Sukainah. — Dear father, by our Lord it is
a painful thing to be fatherless ; a misery, a
great calamity to be helpless, bleeding in the
heart, and an outcast ! Dismount from the
saddle, and make me sit by thy side. To pass
over me or neglect me ».t such a time is very
distressing. Let me put my head on thy
dear lap, 0 father. It is sad thou sbpuldst
not be aware of thy dear child's conditiou.
*' Hvsain. — Bend not thy neck on one side,
thou my beloved child, nor weep so sadly,
like an orphan. Neither moan so melodiously,
like a disconsolate nightingale. Come, lay
thy dear head on 'my knses onee more, and
shed not so copiously a flood of tears from
thine eyes, thou spirit of my life.
" Sukainah. — Dear father, thou whose lot is
but grief, have mercy on me, mercy ! 0 thou
my physician in every pain and trouble, have
pity on me ! have pity on me ! Alas, my
heart, for the mention of the word separa
tion ! Alas,, rny grievance, for what is
unbearable!
•• Unsain. —Groan not, wail not, my dear
Sukaioah, ray poor oppressed, distressed girl,
Go to thy tent and sleep soundly in thy bed
until thy father gets rhoe some water to
drink.
" Zainab. — Alas ! >.'las ! woe to me I my
Husain is aoue from moi^ Alas! alas! the
arrow of cny heart is :;hot away from the
hand! Woe unto me, a thousand woo»f I
am to remain vifhout Husain! The wor-
MUHABRAM
MUHAHRAW
415
shipper of iruta is gond to meet his destined
rate with a blood-stained shrou'l !
" tfusaiti.—My disconsolate Zainab, be not
so impatient. My homeless sister, show not
thyself so fretful. Have patience, sister, the
reward of the patient believers is the best of
all. Reader God thanks, the crown of inter
cession is fitted for our hoad only. ,
"Zainab. — 0 my afflicted mother, thou best
of all women, pass a minute by those in Kar-
bala ! see thy daughters prisoners of sorrow !
behold them amidst strangers and foreigners.
Come out awhile from thy pavilion in Para
dise, 0 Futimah, and \ro<?p affectionately over
the state of tis, thy children!
" Husain. — I havo become friendless and
without any helper, in a most strange manner.
I have lost my troop and army in a wonderful
way. Where is Akbar my son? let him come
to me and hold the bridle of my horse, that I
may mount. Where is Ktisira my nephew ?
will he not help ine and get ready my stirrup
to make me cheerful? Why should I not
ahed much blood from mine eyes, seeing I
cannot behold 'Abbas my standard-bearer ?
A brother is for the day of misfortune and
calamity ! A brother is better than a hundred
diadems and thrones ! A brother is tho essence
of life in the world ! Ha who has a brother,
though he be old, yet is young, Who is there
to bring my horse for me ? there is none.
There is none even to weep for me in this
state of misery !
" Kulsum. — Because there is no 'All Akbar,
dear brother, to help tbee, Zainab, thy sister,
will hold the horse for thee ; " and seeing
'Abbas, thy brother, is uo longer to be found,
I myself will bear the standard before thy
winged steed instead of him.
" Zainab. — Let Zainab mourn Ditteriy for
her brother's desolation. Who ever saw a
woman, a gentlewoman, doing the duty of a
groom or servant ? Who can know, 0 Lord,
besides Thee, the sad state of Husaiu in Kar-
balii, where his people so deserted him that a
woman like myself is obliged to act as a ser
vant for him ?
" Kill sum. — I om a standard-bearer for
Husain, the martyr of Karbala, 0 Lord God.
I am the sister cf 'Abbas ; yea, the miserable
sister of both. 0 Iri'-nd.-:, ii being the tenth
day of MuhariMm, 1 am therefore assisting
Husain. I am bearing tlio ensign for him
ir^o.ud of 'Abbas iny brother, his standard-
bearer.
" Zainab. — L/nco/er your breasts a minute,
0 ye tear-shedding people, for it is time to
beat the drum, .;e,uug the king is going to
ride. 0 Solomon the Prophet, where is thy
glory? what has become of uiy fjompous
retinue? Where are I-UT- brothers, nephews,
and companions ?
u Husain. — There ...••> iK>r.o Ion to ne'p tne.
My siste, '-.ainab holds the bridle <->f tho h<jiae.
and walks before roe. Who over saw a ladv
aclhifJ tiiUS?
• /•'iinolj. — Thou ivn going all air-"° 1 Mv
the souis of all be a ransom for thee I ard
may thy departure make souls quit Lheir
bodies! A resurrection will be produced
m thy tent by the cry of orpin- ns and
widows.
" ff'iaain. — Si^tor, though it griVvv^ i>«e to
go, yet I do it ; peradventure 1 luay see the
face of Afihgar and tho countenance of Akbar,
those cypresses, those roses of Paradise.
•* Z'tinab. — Would to God Zainab had died
this very minute before thy face, in thy sight,
that phe might not behold such elegant
bodies, such beautiful forms, roiling in their
:>wn blood !
;: Husain. — 0 poor sister, if thou die here
in this land in that sudden way that thou
•lesircst, then who \v'll ride in thy stead, in
the city of Kufah, on the camel's back ?
" Zainab. — -Slight not my pain, dear bro
ther, for Zninab is somewhat alarmed as to
the import of thy speech. What shall 1 do
with thy family — with the poor widows and
young children ?
" IJusfij'i. — 0 afflicted one, it is decreed I
should be killed by means of dagger*; and
swords; henceforth, dear sister, thou shalt
not seo me. Behold, this is separation between
me and thee .
" The nephew of HuRain. — Dear uncle, thou
hast resolved to journey. Thou art going
once again to make me an orphan. To whom
else wilt thou entrust us ? Who is expected
to take care of us ? Thou vrast, d<»ar uncle,
instead of my father Hasan, a defence to this
helpless exiled creature.
4i Husain. — Sorrow not, thou faithful chiW,
thou shalt be killed too in this plain of trial*.
Return thou now to thy tent in peace, without
grieving my soul any further, poor orphan !
" The Dorwish from Kdbul.—Q Lord God,
therefore is the outward appearance of a
man of God usually without decorntiou or
ornament ? And why is the lap of the man
of this world generally full of gold am1 jewels ?
On what account is the pillow of this groat,
person the black dust of the road ? and for
what reason are the bed and the cushion of
the rebellious made of velvet and stuffed with
down ? Either Islam, the religion of peace
and charity, has no true foundation in the
world, or this young man, who is BO wounded
and suffers from thirst, is still an infidel.
" Husw'n. — Why are thine eyes pouring
down tears, young darwish ? Hast thom&lso
lost an Akbar in the prime of his rouch?
Thou art immersed, as a water-fowl, in thy
tears.. Has thine 'Abbas been slain, thirsting,
on the bank of the River Euphrates, thai
thou cryest so piteously ? But if thou art
sad only on account of my misfortune, then it
matters not. Let me know whence comest
thou. and whither is thy face set?
" The Dancish. — It happened, young man.
that last night I arrived in this valley, and
made my lodging there. \Vhen one-h-.ilf of
lh^ night had passed, of a sudden .1 great
difficulty befell me, for I heard a child be
moaning and com])l:iiiii;i;,' «f thirst, having
g^tui up altogether the idea of living any
longer in this wi>vM. Sometimes it would
It head and TV out for water; at other
times it appeared to fall on the ground, fuint-
td motionless. I Imve, therefore, brought
416
MUHA.RRAM
MUHAKBAM
some water in this cup for that poor child,
that it may- drink and be refreshed a little.
So I humbly beg thee, dew *?r. to direct me
io th« place where the young child may be
found, and tell me what is ite name.
" Husain. — 0 God, let no man be ever in
my pitif\il condition, nor any family in this
sad and deplorable state to which I am
reduced. 0 young man, the child mentioned
by theo is the peace of my troubled mind ; it
i« my poor, miserable little girl.
'• TbeDanoish. — May I bo offered fcr thse,
dear sir, and for thy tearful eyes! Why
should thy daughter be so sadly mourning and
complaining? My heart is overwhelmed with
grief for the abundance of tears running down
thy cheeks, Why should the daughter of one
like thee, a generous soul, suffer from
thirst ?
Husain, — Know, O young man, that we are
never in need of the water of this life. Thou
art qufta mistaken if thou hast supposed us
to be of this world, If I will* I crao make the
moon, or any other celestial orb, fall down on
the earth ; now much more can I get water
for my children. Look at the hollew made
in the ground with my spear ; water would
gush out. of it if I were to like. I voluntarily
die of thirst to obtain «, crown of glory from
God. I die parched, and offer ravself a
sacrifice for the sins of my people, that
they should be saved from the wrath to
come.
" The Darwisk. —What is thy narae, sir ?
I perceive that thou art one of the chief
saints of the most beneficent God. It is
evident to me that thou art the brightness of
the Lord's image, but I cannot tell to which
sacred garden iliy holy rose belongs.
" Swain. -O darwish, thou wilt sooto be
roformed of the whole matter, for thou shall
IT; a martyr thyself : for thy plans and the
rteult thereof have been revealed to me.
Tell ui e. 0 darwfsK, what is the end thou
hast in view in this thy hazardous enterprise ?
When thou shalt have told me that, I will
disclose to thee who I am.
" The Donetsk.-— I intend, noble sir, after I
have known the mystery of thy affairs, to set
•vut, if God wills, from Karbala to Najaf,
namely, to the place where 'Alf, the higlily
exalted king of religion, the sovereign lord of
the empire of existence, the supreme master
oi all the ,darwi8hes, is buried. Yea, I am
going to visit the tomb of 'Alf, the successor
of the chosen of God, the son-in-law of the
Prophet, the lion of the true Lord, the prince
of believers, Hairtar, the champion of faith.
•' Husain, — Be it known unto the. 0 dar
wish, that I, who am so sad and sorrowful,
am the rose of the garden of that prince. I
em of the family of the believers thou hast,
mentioned. I am Husain. the intercessor on
the Day of Resurrection, the rose of the
garden of glory.
" The Dartois/t. — May 1 bo offered a sacri
fice for thy blessed arrival ! Pardon me my
fault, and give me permission to fight the
battle oH»itb; ior I am weary of life. It is
better for me to be killed, and delivered at
once from so m&ny vexations of spirit.
Martyrdom is, in fact, one of the glories of
my faith.
" Hu*uw. — Go forth, O atom, which aspireat
to the glory of the sun; ge forth, thou hast
become at last worthy to know the hidden
mysteries of faith. He who is slain for thd
sake of Husain shall have an abundant
reward from God ; yea, he shall be raised to
life with 'A If Akbar tiro sweet son of
Hits a no.
" The Darwish (addressing ftusain's antago
nist*), — You cruel jpeople h*v» no religion at
all. You are fire-worshippers, ignorant of
God and His lavr- How long will you act
unjaetiy towards the offspring of the priest
hood ? Is the account of the Day of Resur
rection all falso?
" lt>K Sa'd (the general of YazW* army).—
O 'ye brave soldiers cf Yaaid, deprive this
fellow of his fund of life. Make his friends
ready to mourn for him.
" tiusain, — Is there anyone to help me?
is there any assistant to lend rne his aid?
"• Jit for (tfa fcwg of jinnst wtk his tr-oop3\
cotmftg to ffysavCs assistance). — 0 king of
men and jinns 0 Husaiu, peace be on thee!
0 judga of corporeal and spiritual beings,
peace be oa thee 1
" ffttsain. — On thee be peace, thou hand
some youth'! Who art thou, that salutest ua
at such a time / Though thine affairs are
not hidden from me at all, still it is advisable
to ask thy name.
"Jdfar. — O lord of men and firms, I am
the least of thy servants, and my name 1$
Ja'far, the chief paler of »H the tribes of
jinn£. To-day, wliiU* { was sitting on the
glorious throne of my majesty, easy in mind,
without any sad idea or thought what
ever. I suddenly heard thy vo»'<'««, W|,^T thou
didst sadly implore assistance ; and on hear-
iug tli">e I lost my patience and aenaea. And,
behold. 1 have come out with troops of iinns,
of various ttbihtiee and quali(!c«tiyr)s, to lead
thee help if necessary.
<f Htisain. — in tivw old abU>y of this perish-
abie kingdom, none can ever, O ./Vfar, attain
to immortality. What can I do with the
empire of the world, or its tempting glorias,
after my dear oues have all died and gone?
I«j it proper that I, an old man, should five,
and Akbar, a UJoomm^ youth, die in the
prime of age ? Return thou, Ja'far, to thy
hoinef and weep for me as much as thou canst
" Jfi'faf (returning}. — Alas for Httsain's
exile and helplessness ! Alaa for nig con
tinual groans and sighs !
"Husain (coining hack from the field, dis
mounts 7<»VAon»«?, and maktty a htcp of dvst.
lays his Aead on it). — 0 earth of Karbaia, do
thou assist mo, I pray I since i have no
mother, be thou to ine instead of cno.
" Ibn Sad orders the army to stoite ffutatn,
— 0 ye men of vajour, Husain the son of 'AM
has tumbled down from the winged horse ; if
I- be not mistaken, heaven has fallen to &arth]
It is batter for you to stone him most cruelly.
Diapatcb him soon, with stones, to his e-om>
pam'ons,
MUHARBA M
"ffusain. — Ah, woe to me! my forehead
is broken ; blood runs down my luminous face.
•« Ibn Sa'd.— Who is thai * brave soldier,
who, in order to show his gratitude to Yazid
his sovereign lord, will step forward and. wi+b
a blow of his scymetar, slay Hnsain the SOP
of 'Ah'?
" Shimar. — I am he whose dagger is famous
for bloodshed. My mother has borne me for
this work alone. I care not about the con
flict of the Day of Judgment; I am a
worshipper of Yazfd, and have no fear of
God. I can make the great throne of the
Lord to shake and tremble, I alone can
•ever from the body the head of Husain tbo
SOD of 'Att. I am he who has no share in
Islam. I will strike the cheat of Husain,
the ark. of God's knowledge, with my boots,
without any fear of punishment.
u ffusain. — Oh, liow wounds cauned by
arrows and daggers do smart ! O God. have
mercy in the Day of Judgment OP my people
for tny s&ko. The time of death has arrived,
tat I have not my Afcbar wifh ma Woul
to God my grandfather the Prophet w*ra now
nere to see me !
u The Prophet (appearing). — I>ear Husain,
thy grandfather the Jprophet of God has come
to see thee. I am here to behold the mortal
wounda of thy delicate body. Dear child,
thou haat at length suffered martyrdom by
the cruel hand of my owu people ! This was
the reward I expected from them ; thanks be
to God! Open thine eyes, dear eon, and
behold thy grandfather with dishevelled hair.
If thou hast any desire in thy heart, speak it
out to me.
" ffusain. — Dear grandfather, 1 abhor life ;
I would rathar go and Tisit my dear ones in
the next world. 1 earnestly desire to see my
companions and friends — above all. my dearly
beloved son 'Ah' Akbar,
*The Prophet. — Be not grieved that 'Ah'
Akbar thy son was killed, since it tends to
the good of my sinful people on the day of
universal gathering.
0 ffusain. — Seeing 'All Akbar'* martyrdom
contributes to the happiness of thy people,
seeing ray own sufferings give validity to thy
ofliee of mediation, and seeing thy rest con"-
sists in my being troubled in this way. I
would offer ray soul, not once or twice, but a
thousand times, for the salvation of thy
people I
" The Prophet.— Sorrow not, deaV grand
child ; thou shalt be a mediator, too, in that
day. At present thou art thirsty, but to
morrow thou shalt be the distributor of the
water of Al Kausar.
^ffusain. — 0 Lord God, benides Hnsain,
who has happened to be thus situated?
Every one when he dies has at least a mother
at his head. But my mother is not here to
rend her garments for me; she is not alive,
that she might close my eyes wheu I die.
" Fatimah, hi) mother (appearing). — 1 am
come to seo theeT my child, my child I May
I die another time, my child, my child ! How
shall I see thee slain, ruy son, my soa t Rolling
in thine own blood, my child, my child !
MT7HAYAT
417
ffusain. — Oome, dear mother, I am anxiously
waiting for fchee. Come, come f I have partly
to complain of thee. How is it that tbou
hast altogether forsaken thy sou ? How is
it thou earnest so late to visit me ?
" Fdtimah.— May I be offered for tby
wounded, defaced body I Tell me, what dost
thou wish thy mother to do now for thee ?
•* Hwain. — I am now, dear mother, at the
point of death. The ark of life is going to be
cast on shore, mother. It is time that my
eoul should leave the body. Come, mother,
close rny eyes with thy kind hand.
" Fdtimah.— O Lord, how difficult for a
mother to sen her dear child dying ! I am
Zahrah who am making this sad noise,
heca-oae I have to close the eyes of my son
Husain. who is on the point of death. Ob,
teil me if thou hast any desire long chenshad
in thy heart, for I am distressed in mind
owing to thv sad sighs I
" ffusain. — Go, mother, my soul is come
to my throat; go, 1 had no other desire
except one, with which I must rise in the
Day of Resurrection, namely, to see 'Ah
Akbar's weddiug.
"Shimar.. — Make i;hy confession, for I want
to sever thy head, and cause a perpetual
separation between it and the body.
" Zainub — 0 Shimar do not go beyond th?
limit , let ma bind something on my brother's
" ffusain.— Go to thy tent, sister, I am
already undone. Go away ; Zahrah my
mother has already closed my eyes. Show
to Sukainah my daughter always the tender
ness of a -mother. Be very kind to my child
alter me.
" Shimar {addressing ffusain). — Stretch
forth thy feet toward the holy Kiblah, the
sacred templo of Makkah. See how my
dagger waves over thee ! It is time to cut
thy throat
" ffueain. — O Lord, for the merit of me,
the dear child of thy Prophet ; 0 Lord, for
the sad groaning of my miserable sister ; 0
Lord, for the sake of young 'Abb* a rolling
in bis blood, even that young brother of mine
that w»* equal to my soul, t pray thee, in
the Day of Judgment, forgive, 0 merciful
Lord, the sins of my grandfather's people,
and grant me, bountifully, the key of the
treasure of intercession. (Die*.)" — (Polly's
Miracle Play. voL ii. p. 81 setrq.)
MUHARRAMAT OU^), pi. of
Muharramah. Those persons with whom it
is not lawful to contract marriage. [MAR-
BIAOB.J
MUHAYiT (ftiV'). A legal term
used- for tbe partition of 'usufruct. Accord
ing to the ffiddyah, vol. iv. 81: —
Partition of property is more effectual than
partition of usufruct in accomplishing the
emoyment of the uso; for which reason, if
one partner apply for a partition of property,
and another for a partition of usufruct, the
Qa>I must grant the request of the former.
and if a partition of usuiruet should have
ken place with respsrt to a thing capable
53
418
MUHAZABAH
MUJTAHIT)
of a pai*tition of property (such as a house
or a piece of ground), and afterwards one of
the partners apply fora partition of property,
the QazI must grant a partition of property
and annul the partition of usufruct.
MUHAZARAH (V^*)- Lit.
" Being present." A terra used by the Sufis
for presenting of the soul to God in the ser
vice of zikr in order to obtain all the spiritual
blessing possible from a contemplation of the
ninety-nine attributes and titles of God.
[7IKR, GOD.]
MUimiM (ft^). The pilgrim in
a state of Ihram.that is, after he has assumed
the pilgrim's dress. [PILGRIMAOE.]
AL-MUHSI («j-^*tt)« " The
Counter." One of the ninety-nine names or
attributes of God. " It is referred to in the
Qur'an, Surah xxxvi. II : " Verily We quicken
the dead and write down what they have
done before, and the traces which they leave
behind, and everything do We spt down (lit.
reckon up) in the clear BOOR of our decrees."
MUHTAKIR (/**-;. Lit. "A
forestaller." One who monopolises grain and
other necessaries of life, which is unlawful.
[MONOPOLY.]
MUHTASIB(V~^«). The public
censor of religion and morals, who .is ap
pointed by a Muslim ruler, to punish Mus
lims for neglecting the rites of their religion.
Sir Alexander Burnes. in his Trnvrf.it in
Bokhara (vol. i. p. 313), relates that lie saw
persons publicly scourged because they had
slept during prayer-tin^ ind smoked on
Friday. [DIRRAH.]
Burckhardt, in his account of the W.ihha-
bls (vol. ii. p. 140), says, the neglect of reli
gious duty is always severely punished. . . .
When Sa'ud took al-Madlnah, he ordered
some of his people after prayers in "he
mosque to call over the names of all the
grown up inhabitants of the town who were
to answer individually. He then commanded
them to attend prayers regularly ; and if any,
one absented himself two or three times.
Sa'ud sent some of his Arabs to beat the
man in his own house. At Makkah, when
the hour -of prayer arrived, he ordered the
people to patrol the streets, armed with large
sticks, and to drive all the inhabitants by
force into the mosque ; a harsh proceeding,
but justified by the notorious irretigion of the.
Makkana.
Dr. Bellew, in his Kashmir and Kctslgar
(p. 281), gives an animated account of Vhe
way in which the .Muhtanib performed his
duties in th^ streets of Kashgaf.
AL-MUHYI (<fSl&**\). ''The giver
of life." One of the ninety -run'} name1? or
attributes of God. It occurs twice in the
Qur'an : —
Surah xxx. 40: "Look then to the ves
tiges of Gud's mercy, how he quickens the
earth after its daath ; verily He is the
quickener of the dead."
Surah xli. 39: •' verity, he who quicker,
(the earth) will surely qvicken the dead."
AL-MU'lD (3*-utt). "The Be-
storer" (to life). One of the ninety -nine
names or attributes of God. The word does
not occur in the Quran, but the idea is ex
pressed in Surah Ixxxv. 13, and many other
places, " Verily He produces and restarts"
AL-MU'IZZ (>**N). "The One
who giveth honour." One of the m'nety-nine
names or attributes of God. The word does
not occur in the Qur'an, but the attribute is
referred to in Surah iii. 25 : " Thou honovrest
v:horn Thou pleasest."
AL-MUJADILAH (fljU^t). Lit.
"She wbo disputed." The title of the
Lvmth Surah of the Qur'an, in which the ex
pression occurs : " Now hath God heard the
speech of her who disputed with thee con
cerning her husband." Which refers to
Khaulah bint Sa'labah, the wife of Aus ibn
Samit, who being divorced by her husband
in the •' time of ignorance." came to ask
whether the divorce was lawful.
i MUJAHIB (Jjfcl^*). A warrior in
j tie cause of religion. [JIHAD.]
AL-MUJIB (s-***N). "The One
who answers to" (a prayer). One of the
•nnety-nine names or attributes of God. It
.'ccurs in the Qur'an. Surah xi. 04 : •' Verily
i»hy L^rd is nigh and (tnswers " (prayer).
MU'JIZAH (*>>*•). [MIRACLES.]
MUJTAHID 0**^.), pi. mitjtahi.
dun. Lit., " One who strives '' to attain to a
high position of scholarship and learning.
The highest degree amongst Muhammadan
divines which is conferred either by tbe
people or the ruler of a Muslim country upon
eminent persons. The four doctors of the
Sunnis and their disciples were of this degree,
but there are none of these enlightened
teachers amongst the Sunms of the present
day. They still exist in Persia, and are
appointed by the people, the appointment
being confirmed by the king. Malcolm, in
his account of Persia, says : —
" There are seldom more than three or fciir
priests ^f the dignity of Mujtahid in Persia.
Their conduct is expected to be exemplary,
and to show no wordly bias; neither must
•.heyconnect themselves with the king or the
officers of Government. They seldom depart
from that character to which they owe their
rank. The reason is obvious: the moment.
; hey deviate, the charm is broken which con
stitutes their power ; men no luiiger solicit
their advice or implore their protection ; nor
can they hope to see the monarch of th--
country courting popularity by walking iu
:-heir humble dwellings, and placing then; on
he seat of honour when they condescend t«:
visit his court. Vflien a Mujtahid dies. hi.s
successor is always a person o.f the most
eminent rank in the oefclesifffttical order; and,
though he may be pointed out to the p'opti-
MUKARI
lace by others of the samo class seeking aim
as an associate, it is rare to hear of ar.y
intrigues being employed to obtain thi;-: on-
viable dignity.
" The Mujtahids of Persia exorcise a great,
though iindefined, power ever the courts of
law, the judges of which constantly submit
cases 10 their superior knowledge ; and their
sentence is deemed irrevocable, unless by a
Mujtahiil whoso learning ano ^un-nity m'» <<*
acknowledged higher repute ihiui that >f till
person by whom judgment has been pro
nounced. But the benefits which the inhabi
tants of Persia derive from the influence of
thejo high priests, is not limited in their
occasional aid of tiie courts of justice. The
law i£ respected on account of the character
of its ministers ; kings fear to Attack the
decrees of tribunals over which they may be
said to preside, and frequently endeavour to
obtain popularity by referring cases to their
decision. The sovereign, when no others
dare approach him, cannot refuse to listen to
a revered Mujtahid when he .becomes an
intercessor for the guilty. The habitations of
this high order uf priesthood are deemed
sanctuaries for the oppressed; and the hcud
of despotic power is sometimes taken off a
city, because the monarch will not olYend a
Mujtahid who has cnosen it for his residence,
but who refuses to dwell amid violence and
injustice."
There is a commcu opinion that the title of
Mujtahid can only be gi'anted to those who
are masters of seventy sciences. For a full
account of the conditions of obtaining this
rank, as expressed by a modern Muslim writer,
will be found in the article on Ijma'. [IJMA'.]
MUKARI (cytf*). A legal term
/or a person who lets horses, camels, &c., to
hire. (Hidayah. vol. iii. p. 371.)
MUKATAB (s-?tf*»). A slave who
ransoms himself or herself, with the permis
sion of the owner. [SLAVERY.]
MUEEADDARAH &**•). A
legal term for a woman in a state of purity.
It is also used for a veiled woman, the word
being derived from khidr, a " curtain or veil."
MUIfflALATAH (*UW.;. Lit.
u Intermingling," or mixing together. A term
used for general intercourse, but specially
applied to intercouse with those who are
ceremonially unclean.
MULES. Arabic latjld (J*>), pi.
biylidl.
Muhammad forbade the breeding of mules,
for Ibn 'Abbas says the three special injunc
tions which he received were (1) to perform
the ablutions thoroughly, (2) not to take
alms, (3) not to breed mules. (MishLdt, book
tvii. ch. ii.)
The flesh of a mul«? is unlawful. (Hiddyak,
vol. iv. p. 74.)
Thev are not liable to takat. (Hfddyak,
vol. i. p. ]t;.)
MULHAQ(O^). Lit. "Joined."
\ term used by the. Sufis for the condition
MDNAY1Q.
419
of the human eonl when "it is absorbed into
the essence of God." (*.\bdu 'r-Razzii«i'*
Dictionary of Sitfi Terms.)
MULHID (A*U). Au infidel.
Lit. " One who has deviated, or turned aside
from i he truth,"
.iL-MULK (csXUtt). Lit. ".The
Kingdom." The title of the Lxvnth Suran
of the QurVin in the first verse of which the
woid occurs : k' Blessed is Ke in whose haad
is the kingdom"
MULL A (». A Persian form
used for the Arabic Maulawi, " a learned
man, a scholar."
Tu the UJiiydfiu 'l-Lugfa-h it i<? said that a
learned man is called a, Mulld because he is
*' filled" with knowledge; from mcda\ "to
fill."
MU'MIN (err*)» PL M*'™****
from Imon, '• faith." One who believes.
(1) A tenn generally used for Muhamnia-
dans in the Quran and in all Muslim books.
(2) Al-Mu'win. The title of the XLtL
Surah of the Qur'an, in the 29th verse of
which the word occurs: "A man of th<»
family of Pharaoh who was a believer, but
hid his faith."
(3) Al-Mu'min, "The Faithful." One of
the ninety-nine names or attributes of God.
It occurs 'in the Qur'an, Surah lix, 28: " H«
is ... the Faithful."
AL-MU'MINUN (Qy^yM). Lit.
"The Believers." The title of the xxiurrf
Surah of the Qur'an, in the first verse of
which the word occurs : •' Prosperous are the
believers:1
AL-MUMIT (^^\). "The
Killer." One of the ninety-nine names or at
tributes of God. It is referred to in the
Qur'an, Surah ii. 26 : " He will kill you and
then make you alive."
MUMSIK (cdU**). Lit. "One
wno withholds, a miser." Used for a miserly
person in contradistinction to munfiq, * a
liberal perscn." [MUNFIQ.]
AL - MUMTAHINAH (&j*^\).
Lit. " She who is tried." The title of the
LXth Surah of the Qur'an, from the expres
sion in the 10th verse : t; 0 believers ! when
believing women come over to you as re
fugees, then make trial of them."
Al-Baizawi says : " When such women
sought an asylum at al-Madinah, Muhammad
obligefl them to swear that they wore
prompted only bv a desire of embracing
Islam, and that hatred of their husbands, or
love of some Muslim, had not any influence on
their conduct."
MUNAFIQ GJ^*-), pl- '"i'""~V
•• Hypocrite." A iorui especially given to
thos*e who in the time of the Prophet, whilst
outwardly professing to belie vo in hi* mis
sion. -Wtoily denied the faith. Tlu>y form
the subject of the Lxmni Suruh of thp
420
AL-MTOAFIQUN
Qur'an, which henoe is termed the Suratu 'I
Munqfigtn.
AT, - MUNAFIQ0N
"The Hypocrites." Title of t
Surah of the Qur'an, whose opening verses
are>: —
" When the Hypocrites come to thee, they
say, '* We bear witness that thou art the Sent
One of God/ God knowotb. that tbon art His
Sent One: but God beareth witness that the
hypocrites do surely lie. Their faith have
they used as a cloak, and they turn aside
others from the way of God ! Evil are all
their doings. This, for that they believed,
then became unbelievers 1 Therefore hath a
seal been set upon their hearts, and they
understand not,"
MUNAJAT (SWU.). Lit. « Whis
pering to, confidential talk." Generally used
for the extempore prayer offered after tbe
usual liturgical form has been recited.
[PBAYEKS.]
MUNASSAF («JU*.;). Lit. "Be-
duced to one-half." A species of prohibited
liquor. The juice of grapes boiled until a
uantity less -than two-thirds evaporates.
, vol. iv. 158.)
MCJNF, MAOT1 («-**•). The
ancieut Memphis. Mentioned in the Com
mentary of the Jalalan on the Qur'an, Surah
xxviii. 14, as the city in which Mosos killed
the Egyptian.
MUOT1Q («J^). Lit. "One who
spends." A charitable person. Qur'an,
Surah iii. 15 : "' Upon the patient, the truth
ful, the de trout, the charitable, and those who
ask for pardon at tho dawn,"
MUKKAB and HAKIK (
«&). "The Unknown'' and "The
Repudiating." The two angels who are said
by Muhammad to visit the dead in their
graves and to interrogate them as to their
belief in the Prophet and his religion.
They are described »s two black angels
with blue eyes. (J/iM&af, book i ch. v.)
[PUNISHMENTS OF THE <SKAVB.]
AL-MUNTAQIM (f&***\). "The
Avenger." One of the ninety-nine names or
attributes of God, It is referred, to in the
Qur an, Surah stxxiL 22 : *« Verily We will
take vengeance on the sinners." Also Surahs
xliii. 40, and xliv. 15.
"The
Bringer-forward." One of the ninety-nine
name* dr attributes of God. It does not
occur in the Qur'an, but is given in the
Hadis.
MUQATJQIS (C~M-). TheEomau
Viceroy of Egypt ; al-Muqauqis being his
official title.
Muhammad. in the year A.M. 7 (A.D. 628),
MURDES
sent an embassy to this official, inviting him
to Isiani The Governor received the em
bassy kindly, and sent the following reply,
" I am aware- that a prophet is yet to arise ;
but I am of opinion he will appear in Syria.
Thy mBssfsBgei hath be«n received with
honour. I send for thine acceptance two
female slaves, who are much admired by the
Copts, and also & present oi raiment, and a
mule for thee to ride on/'
Mary, the fairest of the Coptic damsela,
Muhammad kept for himself, and gave the
other to Hassan the poet. [MOHAMMAD, MARY
THE COPT.]
MTJQAYA^AH (**U-). Exchang-
ing, bartering, giving an equivalent in any
thing but mouey (fftddyah, Arabic ed., vol.
iii. p. 8.)
AL - MCJQIT (o^utt). « The
Mighty or Guardian,"' One of the nmety-
nine names oi attributes of God. Surah iv.
88 : " Vorily God keepeth watch over every*
AL-MUQSIT (U*JUJ^). "The Equit
able." One of the ninety-nine names or attri
butes of God. It does not occur in the Qu'ran,
but is given in tha Hadis.
MUQTADA (0«^*). Lit. " Fol-
lowed, worthy to be followed." An exem
plary person, as being eminent for sanctity of
character.
MUQTADI («jJu**). « PoUower."
The person who stands behind the Imam in
the uaual prayers and recites the Iqamah,
AL.JVTUQTADIE ()&**&). "The
Powerful or Prevailing," One of the ninety-
nine names or attributes of God. It occurs
three times in the Qur'an : —
Surah xviii. 43 : " For God is powerful over
all."
Surah liv. 42; "As he only can punish,
who is the Mighty, the -Strong.1"
Surah v. 55 : '• With the powerful king.''
MUBABAHAH (^V). A legal
term for selling a thing for a profit, when the
seller distinctly states that he purchased it
for so much and sells it for so much.
MUBAHAQAH t'toy). Arriving
at Makkah when the ceremonies of the hay
are nearly flaiahed.
MUElHIQ (^y). A legal term
for a boy or girl who is near the age of
puberty.
MUBAQABAH (**V). Medita
tion; contemplation. An act of devotion
performed by the §ufis.
MUBDEB. Arabic qatl
Homicide of which Muhammadan law takes
cognisance is of five kind's : (1) Qattti '/-' Amd ;
MURDER
(2) Qfttishibhu *l-<Amd; (.3) Qatlu >t-£hatff ;
f4) Qfttl qffim inaqdma 'l-ghata' ; (5) Q,atl
to-Sabab.
(1) Qfltlu 'I-1 And .(jujdt Jii), or "wilful
murder," is where the perpetrator wilfully
kills a person with a weapon, or something
that servos for a weapon, such as a club, a
sharp stone, or fire. If a person commit wilful
murder, two points are established : first, that
the murderer is a sinner deserving of hell,
for it is written in the Qur'an (Surah iv. 96),
"Whosoever slayeth a believer purposely, hie
reward is hell"; .and secondly, that he is
liable to retaliation, because it is written in
the Qur'an (Surah ii. 173), " It is incumbent
on you to execute retaliation (Q»Vo>) for
murder." But although retaliation is the
punishment for wilful murder, still the heir
or next of kin can either forgive or com
pound the offence ; as the verse already
quoted continues — " Yot he who is pardoned
at all by his brother must be prosecuted in
reason, and made to pay with kjndn(t In
this respect Muhammad departed from the
Old Testament law, which made the retalia
tion compulsory on the next of kin.
One effect of wilful murder is that the
murderer is excluded from being heir to the
murdered person.
According to Abu Hanifah there is no
expiation for wilful murder but a.sh-Shafi-1
maintains that expiation \» incumpent as an
act of piety.
(2) Qail cfttMbt' l-Amd('***\ t+* Jtf),
or "manslaughter," or, as Hamilton more
correctly renders it, " A semblance of wilful
murder, is when tho perpetrator strike a man
•with something which is neither a weapon
nor serves as such."
The argument adduced by Abu flanlfah is a
•aying of the Prophet : " Killing with a rod
or stick ie not murder, but only manslaughter,
and the fine for it i* a hundred camels, pay
able within three years."
Manslaughter is held to be sinful and to
require expiation, and it excludes the man-
slayer from inheriting the property of the
slain,
(3; Qatlu 'I'jKhnta (lU^tt J*f)» or " homi
cide by misadventure," is of two kinds ; error
in intention, and error in the act. Error in
the act is where a person intends a parti
cular act, and another act is thereby occa
sioned ; as where, for instance, a person
shoots an arrow at a mark and it hits a man.
Error in intention, on the other hand, is
where the mistake occurs not in the act, but
with respect to the subject ; as where a per
son shoots an arrow at a man supposing him
to be game: or at a Muslim, dupposing
him to be a hostile infidel. The slayer by
misadventure is required to free a Muslim
slave, or fast two months successively, and
to pay a fine within three years. He is also
excluded from inheriting the property of the
slain.
(4) Qatl qd'im maqama 'l-Khata (^J\J J^i
\L£^ f»ta*)' or " homicide of a similar nature
to homicide by misadventure," is where, for
MTJBJIYAH
421
example, a person walking in his sleep falls
upon another, so as to kill him by the fall.
It is subject to the same rules with homicide
by misadventure.
(5) Qall bi-Sabab (s-x— * J*i), or, * homi
cide by intermediate cause," is where, for
instance, a man digs a well, or set* up a
stone, and another falls into the well, or over
the atone, and dies. In this case a fine must
be paid, but it does not exclude from iaherit-
anee, nor does it require expiation.
No special mention is made in either the
Qur'aa or in Muhamtnadan law books, of
taking the life by poison. (The same remark
applies to tba Mosaic law. See Smith's Dic
tionary of the Bible , Article "Murder.")
With regard to retaliation, a freeman is
slain for a freeman, and a slave for a slave ;
a freeman in also slain for the wilful murder
of a slave the property of another.
According to Abu Hanifah, a Muslim is put
to death for killing an unbeliever, but ash-
Sh&fi'i maintains otherwise, because tee Pro
phet said, •• A Muslim shall not suffer death
for an unbeliever."
A man is slain for a woman ; a father is not
slain for his child, but a child is slain for the
murder of his father ; a master is not slain
for the murder of his own slave, or for the
slave of his child,
If a person immerse another into water
whence it is imppssipie for him to escape by
swimming, according to Abu Uaaifah. reta
liation it* not incurred, but ash Shafi'r main
tains that the murderer should be drowned.
Al-Baizawi the commentator in vmting on
Surah ii. 174, " This is an alleviation from
Jour Lord and a mercy/' says that in the
ewish law retaliation for murder was com
pulsory, but in the law of Christ the Chris
tians were enjoined to forgive the murderer
whilst in the Qur'an the choice is given of
either retaliation or forgiveness.
MURlD (ajv-). Lit. " One who is
desirous or willing." A disciple of some
murshid, or leader, of a mystic order. Any
student of divinity. [SUFI.]
MUEJlYAH, MURjrAH (***/•)•
Lit. " The Procrastinators." A sect of Mus
lims who teach that the judgment of ever}' true
believer, who hath been guilty of A grievous
sin, will be deferred till the Resurrection ; for
which reason they pass no sentence on him
in this world, either of absolution or con
demnation. They also hold that disobedience
with faith hurtoth not, aad that, on the other
hand, obedience with infidelity protlteth not.
As to the reason of tnejr name the learned
differ, because of the different significations
of its root, each of which they accommodate
to some opinion of the sect. Some think them
so called because they postpone works to
intention, that is, esteem work* to be inferior
in degree to intention, and profession of the
faith ; others, because they allow hope, by
asserting that disobedience with faith hurteth
not, Ac. ; others take the reason of the name
to be, their deferring the aeutcnco of the het-
422
MUBSAL
MUSAILAMAH
nous siunertill tlie Resurrection ; and others,
their degrading of 'All, or removing him from
the first degree to the fourths for the Murji-
yahs in some points relating to the office of
Imam, agree with the Kharijiyahs. This sect
is divided into four classes, three cf which,
according as they happen to agree in parti
cular dogmas with the Kharijiyahs, the Qadi-
liyahs, or the JabarTyahs, are distinguished
as Murjiyab* of tho^ sects, and the fourth is
that of the pure Murjiyah,-.. which last class
is again subdivided into five others. The
opinions of Mukiitil and Bashar, both of a
sect of the Marjiyr>-hs called Saubanians,
Mioald not be omitted. The former asserted
that disobedience hurts not him who pro
logues the unity of God, and is endued with
faith: and that no true believer *haU be cast
into hell; he also thought thai/ God will
surely ioi'give all crimes except infidelity;
and *h"f a disobedient believer will be
punished at ihe Day of Resurrection, on the
bridge Sirat, laid over the midst of hell,
where the flames of hell-fire shall catch hold
on him, and torment him in proportion to his
disobedience, and that he shall then be ad
mitted into Paradise.
The latter held, that if God do cast the
believers guilty of grievous sins into hell,
yet they will be delivered thence after they
shall have been sufficiently punished; but
that it is. neither possible nor consistent with
justice that they should remain therein for
ever.
MURSAL (J-/*),pi. mursalun. A
messenger or apostle. A term frequently used
in the Qur'an for the prophets. It is only
applied to those who are said to bringers of
inspired books. [FROPHKT.]
AL-MUR8A.TAT («*:UJ\). Lit.
"Those who are 3ent."v The title of the
Lxxvmh -Surah ot the Quran, in the first
verse of which the word occurs. "By the
angels who are sent by God, following one
another."
MUESHID fJ*jf). A guide.
From ras/idd, "a straight road.'' The title
given to the .spiritual director of any religious
order.
HURT ADD 6*>). [APOSTATE.]
AL - MUSABBIHAT (w»W~*H).
" The Praisers." A title given to those
Surahs of the Quritu, which begin with
Subhdna (Glory to), or Sabbaka (he glori-'
fied), or Yusabbiku (he glorifies), or S'lbbt/.i
(glorify thou), viz. Surahs xviL. Ivii., lis,, Ixi.,
Ixii., Ixiv., Ixxxvii.
'Jrbaz ibn Sariyah relates that Muhammad
used to repent the Mutaboikat before going
to sleep, and that ho said. i; In them there
is a verse which is bettor than a thousand."
Most writers say tins verse is concealed like
the Loitaiu '1-QfiUr (the night of power), or
the Sa'o/u '1-JurrSah (the hour on Friday),
but 'Abdu 'l-H*qq says it ie most probably
either the last verse of the Suratu 'I-Hashr
(lix.), " He is G«xl, the Pardoner, the Maker,
the Fashioner I To him are ascribed excellent
titles," &c. Or, the first verse of the Suratu
'1-Hadid (Ivii.), " All that is in the Heavens
and in the Earth praiseth God." (See
Majma'u 'l-Bifrar, p. 86 ; Afishkat. book viii.
ch. i.)
MTJSADDIQ (j*-). The col-
lector o*f the zakdt and sadaqaJi, or legal
alms. In Muhammadan states he is ap
pointed by the state. This officer does not
now exist in Hindustan under British rule,
MUSAFAHAH (***U«). Taking
tbe hand. Joining or shaking hands. A
custom expressly enjoined by Muhammad,
who said, "If two Muslims meet and join
hands (i,e. shake hands), their sins will be
forgiven before they separate/' (Mishkat.
book xxii. ch. iii. pt. 2.)
MUSAILAMAH (<UU~~* ). An im-
postor who appeared in the tune of Muham
mad, ana claimed the Prophetic office, sur-
named Musailamatu 'l-Kazzdb, or, " Musai-
lamah the Liar." He headed an embassy
sent by his tribe to Muhammad in the ninth
year of the Hijrah, and professed himself a
Muslim ; but on his return home, considering
that he might possibly share with Muhammad
in his power, the next year he set up for a
prophet also, pretending to join with him hi
the commission to recall mankind from
idolatry to tbe worship of the true God ; and
he published written revelations, in imitation
of the Qur'an, of which Abu '1-Faraj has
preserved the following passage, viz. " Now
hath God been gracious unto her that was
with child, and hath brought forth from her
tbe soul which runneth between the r^rito-
ncBum and the bowels."
Musailamah, having formed a considerable
party, began to think himself upon equal
terms with Muhammad, and sent him a
letter, offering to go halves with him, in these
words : " From Musailamah, the Apostle of
Gad, to Muhammad, the Apostle of God. i
Now let the earth be half mine and half
thine.'' But Muhammad, thinking himself too
well established to need a partner, wrote him
this answer: " From Muhammad, the Apostle
of God, to Musailamah. the Liar. The earth
is God's ; He giveth the same for inheritance
unto such of His servants as Hepleaseth ; and
the happy issue shnll attend those who fear
Him."
During the few months which Muhammad
lived after this revolt. Musailaraah rather
gained than lo«t ground, and grew very for
midable ; but Abu Bakr, in the eleventh year
of the Hijrah, sent a great army against him,
under tha command of that consummate
general Khalid ibn al-Walid. who engaged
Musailamah in a bloody battle, wherein the
false prophet happening to be slain by Wah«
shi, the negro slave who had killed Hamzah
at Uhucl, and by the same lance, the Muslims
gained an entire victory, ten thousand of the
apostates being left dead on the spot, and the
rest returning to Muhamnaadanism
MriSALLA
MUSALLA (A—). The small mat,
cloth, or 'carpet on which a Muslim prays.
The term sajjadah is used in Egypt. In Persia
Jai-namaz,
MUSTALIQ
423
A MCSALLA.
MUSALLAS (*£-!£•). Lit. " Made
into three, or into a third.'' An aromatic win-
-•omposed of new wine boiled to ,a third part
.nd then mixed with sweet herb*. It i-.
'aid by Abu Hanlfah to be a lawful drink
(Hidayak, vol. iv. p. 162.)
MUSALMAN foUL-.). The Per-
sian form of the word Muslim. A Muham-
madan. [MUIIAMMADANISM.]
MUSAMARAH (if*~*). Lit.
" Holding night conversations." A torrn useu
by the Sufis for God's converse with the heart
of man. ('Abdu'r-Razzaq's Diet, of Sufi
Term*.,
MUSAQAT (SV*L~.). A compact
entered into by two persons, by which it is
agreed that the one shall deliver over to the
other his fruit trees, on condition that the
other shall take care of them, and whatever
is produced shall belong to them both, in the
proportions of one half, one third, or the like,
as may be stipulated. (Hidayah, vol. iv.,
p. 54.>
Fashioner." One of the ninety-nine names or
attributes of God. It occui's once in the
Quran, Surah lix. 24: "He is God, the
Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner''
MUSHABBIHAH (V^*). Lit.
"The Assimilators." A sect of Muham-
madans who allowed a resemblance between
God and Hi.s creatures, supposing Him to be
a figure composed of members or parts, and
capable of local motion. Some of the Shi'ahs
belong to this soot.
MUSHAHADAH (Sj^U*). A
vision or revelation. A Sufiislio expression
for spiritual enlightenment.
MUSHRIK (cdjju) ],1.
Those who gi^j companions to God. It is
vised by modern Muslims for both Christians
and idolaters, for those who believe in the
Holy Trinity as well as for those who wor-
ship idols. , The Wahhabis also call their
^ligious opponents Alushrikfm. because mey
pray to saints for assistance. In tho Qur'an
the term is always used for tho Makkau
idolaters, and the Imam al-Baghawi says, in
his commentary on Surah xcviii. 1, that the
term AhR* 't-Kitab is always used for -the
lews and Christians and Almhrikwn for those
vho worship idols.
MUSHROOMS. Arabic barf (^
pi. abmu', bam' ah. Abu Hurairab
relates that Muhammad said : '• Mushroom-
ire a kind of manna which God sent to
Moses, and its water is a cure for sore eve.'-
(Mishkdt, book xxi. ch. L)
MUSIC. Arabic musiqd (\s^y»)t
musiql (^s^-y.), which the author of
tho iihiyasu '1-LnghaJi says is a Syria c word.
It is generally held \,y Muhammadans to be
contrary to the teachings of the Prophet ; for
Nafi« relate* that when he was walking with
Ibii 'Umar on a road, they heard the music of
a pijfe, and that Ibn 'Umar put his lingers
into his ears, and went on another road.
Nan* then asked Ibn 'Umar why he did to
and he said, "I was with the Prophet, and'
when he heard the noise of a musical pipe,
he put his fingers into his ears ; and this hap
pened when I was a child." (Ahshhat, book
xxii, ch. ix.. pt. 3.)
Muhammadan doctors, uuuevei, are nut
agreed on the subject, for Abu Hanifah says,
<4 If a person break a lute or tabor, or pipe,
or cymbal belonging to a Muslim, he is re
sponsible, because the sale of stuch articles is
lawful." But his two disciples, Imams Muham
mad and Abu Yusuf, do not agree with 'him.
(Htdaygh, vol. iii. p. 558. N>
MUSLAH (&u). 'j.ilo luutilatioD
of the body, which, is forbidden by Mnslhr
law, except in the case of retaliation.
•Mishkiit, book xii. ch. ii.)
MUSLIM (',»!—•), from Lalom.
One who has received Islam. A Muhamma-
dan. LMc'liA.HWiAOAMSM, ISLAM.1
MUSLIM (rJL- ;. Abii 'J-Husajn
Muslim, son of al-Hajjaj al-Qushairi, tlie
ornpilei- of tho collection of the Tradition*
.nowu as the Safatnt Afus/im, \vas born at
'aishapur, A.IL 204, and died A.H. 261. His
: ook of traditions rants amougst the Sunnis
.» but second in authority to iho Xafa/tu 7.
Buk^cen. The two works* being styled the
^(ih'tnan, or the " two authontics." It is said
;o contain 3.000 authentic traditions. TTRA-
:)ino\s.J
MUSTAHAZAH (^i^_^. A
woiiiin who has an issue of blood (istihuzah),
independent of tho mouses or of tho cleanH-
in-.'N -iftiT p.iriurition. A niusta/tu^uh is not
oonsiuero'l jumtb, or uncli-an, but may Du
ller prayers and perform <h" other religious
offices, '.'-."nparo T..«vitic;i.s \\. ,".
MU^TALIQ (jik^). Bauu Mus-
ialio. An Ai'abian tribe in the time of Mu
hammad. He attacked the Bnnn iMustaliq
in A.H. f>, and look many of thcai prisoners.
424
MUSTA M1N
(Muir'e lAfe of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. 237).
They embraced Islam at an early period.
HUSTA'MIN (<^*~»). Lit.
who seeks security" One who, being a
foreigner* and not a Muslim, enters Muham-
madan territory, and claims safe conduct and
immunity from hostilities.
AX-MUTA'ALI (JU^J\). -The
Exalted." One of the ninety-nine names or
attributes of God. Ifc occurs in the Qur'an,
Surah xiiL 10 : « He knows the unseen, and
the visible,— the Great, the Lofty One,"
MU'TADDAH (&xa«*). A woman
in her 'iddah, or period of probation, after
the death of her husband , or after her
divorce.
MUT'AH (&u*). Lit. "Usufruct,
enjoyment." A marriage contracted for a
limited period, for a certain sum of money.
Such marriages are still legal amongst tha
Shi'ahs, and exist in Persia (Malcolm's Persia,
vol. ii. p. 591) to the present day, but they
are said to be unlawful by the Sunms. They
were permitted by the Arabian Prophet at
Autas, and are 'undoubtedly the greatest
stein upon his moral legislation; but the
Sunnis say that he afterwards prohibited a
muPah marriage at Khaibar. ( Vide Mishkiit,
book xiii. oh. iv. pt. 2.)
The Shi'ahs establish the legality of mufiah
not only upon the traditions, but also upon
the following verse in the Qur'an, the meaning
of which, according to the commentary Taf-
sir-i-Afaxhari, ia disputed. Surah iv. 28 :
'* Forbidden to you also are married women,
except those who are in your hands as slaves.
This is the law of God lor you. And it is
allowed you, beside Shis^ to seek out wives
by means of yonr wealth, with modest con
duct. and without, forrueation. And give
those with whom ye have cohabited their
dowry. This is the law. But it shaft be no
crime in you to make agreements over and
above the law. Verity, God is Knowing,
Wise ! "
According to the Imamiyah Cod« of Juris
prudence, the following are the conditions of
Mut'ah, or "temporary marriages." There
must be declaration and accepxanco, as in the
case of nikafa and the subject of the contract
must be either a Muslimah, a Christian, or a
Jewess, or (according to some) a Majujpi ; j»he
should be chaste, and due inquiries should be
made into her conduct, as it is abominable to
enter into contract with a woman addicted to
fornication, nor is it lawful to make such a
contract rvith a virgin who has no f&ther.
Some dower must be specified, and if there is
a failure in this respoct, the contract is void.
There must also be a fixed period, but its
extent, is left entirely to the parties : it rnsy
be a year, a month, or a day, only gome limit
must be distinctly specified, ao as to guard
the period from any extension or diminution.
The practice of <azl (extrahere ante emissionein
seminis) is lawful, but if, notwithstanding this
the woman becomes pregnant, the child is
AL-MTTTAKABBIR
the temporary husband's; but if he should
deny the child, the denial is sustained by the
Uw. Hut'ah marriages do not admit of
divorce or repudiation, but the parties be
come absolutely separated on the expiration
of the period. (Baillie's Digest.)
There is & curious account of a discus
sion at the Court of the Emperor Akbar
with reference to the subject of Mut'ah mar
riages in the 'Ain-i-Akbari (Translation by
H. Blochman, M.A., p. 173). At one of the
meetings for discussion, the Emperor asked
how many free-born women a man may
legally marry. The lawyers answered that
four was the limit fixed by the Prophet. Hw
'Majesty thereupon remarked that, from the
time he had come of age he had not restricted
himself to that number, and in Justice to big
wives, of whom he had a large number, both
free-born and slaves, he now wasted to know
what remedy the law provided for his case.
Most of the Maulawis' present expressed their
opinions, when the. Emperor remarked .that
Shaikh «Abdu 'n-Nabi had once told him that
one of the Mujtahids had" had as many as
nine wives. Some of those present said that
some learned men had allowed even eighteen
from a too literal translation of the second
veree of- Suratu 'n-Nisa1 in the Qur'an. [MAR
RIAGE.] After much discussion, the learned
men present, having collected every tradition
on the subject, decreed, first, that by mut'ah
a man mar marry any number of wives ; and,
secondly, 'that mvPah marriages were sanc
tioned by the Imam Malik ; but a copy of
the Mwvatta, of the Imam Malik was brought,
and a passage cited from thnt collection of
traditions against the legality of mut'ah
marriages.
The disputation was again revived at a. sub
sequent meeting, when at the request of the
Emperor. Badft'onI gava the following sum
mary of the discussion: "Imam Malik, and
the Shi'ahs are unanimous in looking upon
mut'ah marriages as legal ; Imam asb-Shari'i
and the great Imam Abu Hanifah look upon
mut'ah marriages as illegal. But should at
ajny time a Qazi of the Malaki sect decide
that mut'ah is legal, it is legal, according to
the common belief, even for Shafi'is and
Hanafw, Everv other opmion on this subject
is idle talk.'' This saying pleased the Em
peror, and he at once appointed a Qazi, who
gave a decree which made mitt'nh marriages
legal.
In permitting these usufructuary marriages
Muhammad appears but, to Viave given
Divine (?) sanction to one of the abominable
practices of ancient Arabia, for Burckhardt
(voL ii. p. 378) says, it was a custom of their
forefathers to assign to a traveller who became
their guest for the night, some female of the
family, most commonly the host's own wife 1
AL-MUTAKABBIRG^V). "Tiie
Great." (When used of a human being it im
plies haughtiness.) One of the ninety-nine
names or attributes of God, It occurs m the
Qur'un, Surmn Us. 23 :" He is ... the Great
One!"
MU'TAMIR
AL-MIT'Tr
425
ol the 'Umrah. [UMRAIL"]
A performer
MTJ'TAQ ( JP^»). An emancipated
slave. [SLAVERY.]
MUTAQADIM (^Ito.). Such a
distance of time as suffices to prevent punish
ment. It operates in a way somewhat simi- j
lar to the English statutary limitations.
MUTAWALLT (Jy*). Lit. "A \
person endowed with authority." A lagal
term used for a person entrusted with the
management of a religious foundation. [MAS-
Jfl).]
MU'TAZILAH (&/*<•). Lit "The
Soji n-atists." A sect of Muhainmadans
founded by Wfisil ibn 'At a', who separated
from the school of Hasan ai-Basri (A.H. 110).
The following are their chief tenets : (1) They
entirely reject all eternal attributes of God.
to avoid the distinction of persons made by
the Christians; saying that eternity is the
proper or formal attribute of his essence ;
that God knows by His essence, find not by
His knowledge : and thy same they affirm of
His other attributes (though all the Mu'ta
zilah s do not understand these words in one
sense). Henco this sect is also named Mu'at-
tili, from their divesting God of His attri
butes ; for thoy went so far as to say, thai
to affirm these af tributes .i.s the same thing as
to uinke more eternal? than one, and that the
unity of God is inconsistent with such an
opinion. This was the true doctrine of Wasil.
their master, who declared that whoever
.-i.ssfMM.ed an eternal attribute asserted there
wer-^ two «ods. This poiut of speculation
concerning < ho divine attributes was not ripe
tt tir«t, but was at length brought to matu-
nty by Waafl's followers, after thev had read
tho books of the philosophers. ('^) They be
lieve the word of God to havo been created
in sub tec to (as the schoolmen terra it), and to
consist of letters and sound ; copies thereof
being written in books, to express or imitate
the original. (3) They also go farther, and
affirm that whatever was created ir> ^nbjecto
is als.o an accident, :md hable to perish. They
deny absoluie predestination, holding that
God is. not the author of pviJ. but of good I
only; and that man is a ires agont; which |
is the opinion of the Qadariyah sect. On !
account of this tenet .and the first, the |
Mu-tazilahs look on themselves as the )
defenders of the unity and Justine of God. I
(4) They hold that if a professor of the true |
•Migion bo guilty of a grievoue sin. and die j
without repentance, he will be eternally i
turned, though his punishment will be {
lighter than that of the infidels. (5) They I
deny all .vision of God in Paradise by the ;
corporeal eye, and reject all comparison? or j
similitudes applied to God.
According to Shahrastani, the Mu'tazilah
hold :— -
" That God is eternal : an«l thnt eternity ia
r.he peculiar property of His essence: but they
deny the existence of any eternal
(aft distinct from Hi* nature). For thoy say.
He is Omniscient as to His nature : Living as
to His nature ; Almighty as tr. Hi* nature ;
but not through any knowledge, po\vcr or
life existing in Him at* eternal attributes;
for knowledge, power and ufo are p^rt of
His essence, otherwise, if tli^y arc fo be
looked upon as eternal attribute.? of tho
Deity, it will give ripe to a multiplicity of
eternal entities.
" They maintain that tho knowledge of God
is as much within the province of reason a,*
that of any other entity ; that He cannot b*
beheld with the corporeal sight : and. wjf-b
the exception of Himself, everything el? > in
liable to change or to suffer nxtinction,
They also maintain that Justice IH the
animating principle of h.iman actions : Jus
tice according to them "being the dictates of
Reason and the concordance of thu ultimate
results of this conduct of in^n with such
dictates.
" Again, they hold that there U no eternal
law as regards human actions , that the
divine oi'dinances which regulate tho conduct
of men nro the results of growth ami deve
lopment, thai God ha* commanded and for
bidden, promised and threatened by a law
which grow gradually. At fhu: same time,
say thoy, he W!K> works righteousness merits
rewards, and he who works evil deserves
punishment. Thoy also »av that all know
ledge is attained through reason, auc must
necessarily be so obtained. Thoy hold that
the cognition of good and evil is aleo within
the province of reason ; that nothing is known
to be right or wrong until reason has en
lightened us aa to the distinction ; and that
thankfulness for the blessings of the Bene
factor is made obligatory by reason, even
before the promulgation of any law upon tho
subject. They also maintain that man has
perfect freedom : Is the r.nthor of his ophinus
both good and ovil. ar.'d deserve reward or
nunishment boreafter accordingly.''
During the reigna of the Abbasidd Khali •
fohs al-Mn'muh, al-Mu'tasim. a ad bl-Wftfiq
(A.H. 198-228) at Baghdad, the Mu'tazilah
wor-j! in high favour. Mr Sye<i A moor AH
Moulvi, M.A., J/L..B.. hut he prelac* to his
book, The Personal L>tM of thf M.iiiommedans
(VV. II. Allen and Co.), claims to belonc to
"the little known, though uut iniiir.j ( I-IMI!
philosophical and legul .s'ubool of the Mvita
zak?," and he adds, *thc yuung gennr-ition
is tending unconsciously toward the Mutaza-
lito dcutrines."
According to the Shrtrka 't-Jfutoiqif, the
Mu'taxilah are divided into twenty sects, v}/. :
Wasiliyah, 'Umariyah. Hu/ailiyab, N"aza-
miyah, Aswfu-Iyah, Ask-uiiyah, .Tiifariy.'th.
Baahariyah, Mazdarlyah, Hishamiyari, ^ai-
hiyah, Habitlyah, Hadbiyah, ^la'mariyah,
SaraamTyab, Khaiyatlyah, Jahiziyah, Kn'bi-
yah, Jabu'iyah, and '^
" The Giver."
One uf the ninety-nine naniu^ or attributes of
God. It is referred to in tbe Qar'un, fclurali
54
426
MUTILATION
cviii. verse 1 : '* Verily we have given thee al-
Kausar."
MUTILATION. [THEFT.]
MTJ'TIQ ** The master who
emancipates a slave. [SLAVERY.]
MUWAHHID (A*y), pi. muwah-
bidjin. A believer in one God. A term often
need by Muslims to express their belief as
as Unitarians.
MUWATTA' 0V)- Lii- "That
which has been compiled." A title given to
the book of traditions compiled by the Imam
Malik (died A.H. 179). It is the earliest com
pilation of traditions, and is placed by some
amongst the Xutubti 's-Sittah, or the **• six
(correct) books." [TRADITIONS.}
MUZABANAH (Wy ). Lit. •' Re
pelling or poshing back." Selling without
measure, for example, selling green dates upon
trees in exchange for dry ones in the house,
and tne seller saying that the loss or gain
rests with him. This kind of sale is for
bidden. (MishTcat. book xii. cb, 5.)
MUZ ABA 'AH ffcjly). Giving
over land to the charge of another party
on condition of receiving a fixed proportion
of its produce,
MUZ ARAB AH (fyU.). In the
language of the law, Muzarabah signifies a
contract of copartnership, of which the one
party (namely fche proprietor) is entitled to
a profit on account of the stock, he being de
nominated Rabin* l-Malt or proprietor of the
stock (which ia termed Raw 'l-Mal\ and the
other party is entitled to a profit on account
of his labour, and this last is denominated
the »wz«n'& (or manager), inasmuch as he
derives a benefit from his own labour and
endeavours. A contract of musarabah there
fore, caunot be eatabhsned without a partici
pation in the profit, for if the whole of the
profit be stipulated to the proprietor of the
stock, then it is .considered as a biz&ah ; or,
if the whole be stipulated to the immediate
manager, it must be considered as a loan.
Afc-MUZILL (JA*«), "The One
•who abases." One of the ninety-nine names
or attributes of God ref erred to in the Qur'an.
Surah iii. 25 : " Thou honour-eat whom Thou
pleasest and ahosest whom Thou pleaaest."
AL-MUZZAMM1L (J-^). Lit.
" The Wrapped up." The title of the Lxxivth
Surah of the Qur'an, in the first verse of
which the word occurs. " 0 Thou, enwrapped,
arise to prayer." It is said the chapter was
MYSTICISM
revealed to Muhammad .when he was wrapped
up in a blanket at night.
MYSTICISM. The word mjsti-
cisrn is of a -vague signification, out it is
generally applied to all those tendencies in
religion which aspire to a direct communica
tion between man and his God. not through
the medium of the senses, but through the
inward perception of the mind. Consequently
the term is applied to the Pantheism of the
ancient Hindu, to the Gnosticism of the
ancient Greek, to the Quietism of Madame
Guyon and Fenelon, to the Pietism of Meli-
nos, to the doctrines of the Illuminati of Ger
many, to the visions of Swedenborg, as well
as to the peculiar manifestations of mystic
views amongst some modern Christian sects.
It is a form of error which mistakes the
operations of a merely human faculty for a
divine manifestation, although it is often but
a blind protest in behalf of what is highest
and best in human nature.
The earliest mystics known arQ those of
India, the best exposition of their system
being the Bhagavad-qita (see Wilkins* trans
lation). Sir William Jones says: —"A figu
rative mode of expressing the fervour of de
votion, the ardent love of created spirits,
toward their Beneficent Creator, has prevailed
from time immemorial in Asia ; particularly
among the Persian Thekte, both ancient
Hushangis and modern Sufis, who seem to
have borrowed it from, the Indian philosophers
of the Vedanta School* and their doctrines
are also believed to be the sourc;e of that
sublime but poetical theology which glows
and sparkles in the writings of the old Aca
demics. ' Plato -travelled into Italy and
Egypt," says Blande Fleury, * to learn the
Theology of the Pagans at its fountain head.'
ItP true fountain, however, was neither in
Italy nor in Egypt, though considerable
streams of it had been conducted thither by
Pythagoras, and by the family of Miara, but
in Persia or India, which the founder of the
Italic sect had visited with a similar design."
Almost the only religion in the world in
which we should hare concluded, before ex
amination, that the Pantheistic and mystic
spirit of Hinduism was impossible, is the
stern unbending religious system of Muham
mad and bis followers But even amongst
Muslims there have ever been those who
seek for divine intuition in individual soula,
to the partial or entire rejection of the de
mands of creeds and ceremonies. These
mystica are called Sufis, and have always
included the philosophers, the poets, and the
enthusiasts of Islam. For an account of
these Muslims, eee the article on SCHISM,
AN-NABA
NAJD
427
N.
AN-NABA' (Wt). " The informa-
jtion.' The title of the Lxxvmth Surah of the
Qur'an, in the second verse of which the word
ioccurs : " Of the mighty information whereon
'they do disp\ile."
NABALK1H ($W). A Persian
term used for a minor. [PUBERTY.]
NABBASH G>W*). A plunderer
or stripper of tue dead. According to the
Imams Abii Yusuf and aRh-Shafri, the hand
of a plunderer of the dead should be struck
off, but Abu Hanifah and the imam Muham
mad are of the contrary opinion, (ffiddyuhj
vol. ii. p. H.)
NABT (^). Heb. «m A pro-
phet. One -who has received direct inspira-
jtion (uYiAy) by means of an angei, or by the
inspiration of the heart (iUiam); or has seen
the things of God in a dream. (Vide Kitdbu
tt-Ta*rifdt.') A rasiil, or "messenger,' is one
who has received a book through the angel
Gabriel. [FRoruBfrg.]
NABIZ («W). A kind of wine
made from dates, which is lawiul. (ffiddyah,
vol. iv. p. 155.)
NAD-J-'ALJ (Jfi Jfc). Persian.
An amulet on -which is inscribed a prayer -to
'AIT. It is much used by the Shi'ahs, and
tons thus : —
" Cry aloud to 'AH. who is t.he possessor
of wonders 1
From him you will find help from
trouble t
He takes away very quickly all grief and
anxiety J
B\ the mission of Muhammad and his
own .sanctity ! "
NAFAQAH (* * ft >). [MAINTEN-
AJHCE.]
AN-NAFI' fe»Ufl) « The Profiler."
One of the ninety -nine names or attributes of
God. It does not occur in the Qur'an
NAFI' (£^). A slave belonging
to Ibn *l7mar. Many traditions have been
handed down by him, and his authority is
highly respected. Died. A.H. 117.
NAFKB (£*). "Blowing." The
blast on the Day of 'Judgment which will be
sounded by Israfil.
NAFL(J#). "A voluntary act."
A term applied to such acts of devotion as
are not enjoined by the teaching of Muham
mad or by his example. A work of supere
rogation [PRAYER.]
NAP (vi-fc). Blowing as a necro
mancer who making incantations.
(1) It occurs in this eanso in the Qur'an,
Suiah cxiii. 4: "I seek refuge . . . from the
evil of the blowers upon knot*." Referring
to those witches who make knots in * striug
and blow upon them, uttering aome incanta
tion,
(2) It is also used for the inspiration which
Muhammad professed to have received from
Gabriel. (Majma'tt 'l-Bifar, p. 876.)
NAFS (u-*). Animal life; soul;
substance ; desire. A word which occurs in
the Qur'an and the Traditions for the human
conscience. [CONSCIENCE.]
NAPS A' (pUAi). A woman in the
condition of nifds, or the period after child
birth,
NAHJU 'L-BALAQHAH
. ''The Road of Eloquence."
A celebrated book of Muhammad an tradi
tions compiled by ash-Sharif Abu '1-Qat.im
al-Muxfazu. A.H. 4(56, or bis brother ash-
Sharif ar-Razi al-Baghdadi. (See Kashfa. >-
#zmim, vol. vi. p. 406.)
AN-NAHL ( J*rd\). " The Bee."
The title of the xvith Surah of the Qur'an,
in tho 70th verse of which the word occurs :
" And thy Lord inspired the bee."
NAHR (/*>). The lawful slaugh
tering of a camel, niamely, by spearing it in
the' hollow of the threat, niear the breaat-
bone. (HidayaH, voi iv. p. 72.)
NA'IB (H^'^). A deputy, a lieute
nant. A KhaliJah is the nd ib, or lieutenant,
of Muhammad- It is Also used for the
Viceroy of Egypl*, who is the nffib, or deputy,
of the Sultan. (Lane's Arabian Nights,
Intro, p. 8.)
NAJASAH (*-y). A legal term
for an impurity of any kind.
NAJASHI (^V). Negus. The
King of Abyssinia, often mentioned in the
history of Muhammad. At-Tabari, in his
history, p. 127, say : " Now a just king was
there (Abyssinia) named an-NajashL It waa
a land where the Quraish used to do mer
chandise, because they found abundance of
food, protection, and good traffic." (Muir's
Life of Mahomet, vol. ii. p. 133.)
NAJD (•*%*). " High." The high
lands of Arabia. Th« name of the central
province of Arabia. On* of its citien, Riya?.
is celebrated as the seat of the Wahhabis.
(See Central and Eastern Arabia, by W. G.
Paigrave, London, 1866 ; Journey to the War
habet Capitol, by Colonel LeVisPeHy, Bom-
428
AN-NAJIYAIT
KAMA?
AN-NAJTYAH (***Utt). "The
Saved." A term given to the orthodox sect of
Aluhammadans, and consequently euch sect
arrogates to itself the title of an-Naiiyah, or
"the saved."
A^NAJJARIYAH (*jVH). A
sect of Muharnmadjms founded by Muham
mad ibn liustain an-Najjar, who apreed with
the Miru/Jlab in rejecting all eternal attri
butes of God. to avoid distinction of persons
as taught by the Christians, and rj holding
that the Word of God was Create I 'in wbjtctti
(as the schoolmen term it and to consist
of letters and sound, and that God will not
be seen in Paradise with the Corporeal eye ;
tut they did not receive the doctrines of that
sect with regard to tho decrees and predasr
tmation of God, but held the views of the
orthodox party on this subject. According
to tbe Sharhu 'l-Muu'tiqiJ\ they are divided
into three *ects, viz. : Burghiisryah, Za'fara-
nTyah, and Mustadrikah.
Ai^-NAJM (fi+M). "The Star."
The title of tho unrd Surah of the Qur'an.
which begins with the words. " By the star
when it falls."
NAJRAN (oW). A district be
tween Yaraan and isajd, inhabited by a Chris
tian tribe, whose endurance and constancy in .
their Christian belief are the subject of the
following verses in the Qur'an. Surah Ixxxv.
4-11. (The verses are said to have been re
vealed. at an early date, and indicate Muham
mad's kind feeling i'owards 1he Christians) :-—
•' Cursed be the diggers of the pit,
" Of the fuel-ted lire,
" When they sat around it
'« Witnesses of what, they inflicted OD the
believers !
" Nor 'did they torment them but for their
faith in God, the Mighty the Praisewerthy :
" His tae kingdom of the Heaven? and of
the Earth"; and God is- the witness of every
thing;.
u Veniy, those x«ho vexed the believers,
men and women, and repented not., doth the
torment of He 11, and the torment of the bu.ru ing,
await..
" But lor those who shall have believed
and done the things that br. right, are the
Gardens beneath whose shades the rivers
flow. This i? the immense bliss 1 "
Sir William Muir gives tho following
account of the persecution : —
"Dxu Nowas was a votary of Judaism,
which he is said to have embraced on a visit
to Medina. This orbed he supported with an
intolerant and proselytizing adherence, which
at last proved fatal to his kingdom. Hi?
bigotry WHS aroused by the prevalence and
surcees of Christianity in the neighbouring
province of Najrfm; and lie unraded.it with a
large army. The Christians offered a strenu
ous resistance but .yielded at length to the
tre&oheroirs promise that no ill would be done
to them, T.bc-y were offered the choice of
Judaism ur death, and those who remained
constant to the faith ot Jesus were cruelly
massacred. Deep trenches were dug and
tilled with combustible materials : the pule
was lighted, and the Christian martyrs cast
headlong into the flame. The number thuj,
miserably burned, or slain by the .gwnH. i«*
stated at no less than twenty thousand.
" However much the account of this m«-
lancholy carnage may have been exaggerated,
there can be no doubt of the cruel and bloody
character of the tyrant's admit* strati on in
Na j i-aa .
" News of the proceedings, reached the
Emperor Justin I., through his imibassadoi
at Hira, to which court Dxa Now&s bad
exultingly commxinicated tidings of his
trivunph. One of the intended victims, Dous
dzu Tholaban, also escaped to Constanti
nople, and holding up a half -burnt gospel.
invoked, in the name of outraged Christen
dom. retribution upon the oppressor. The
Emperor was moved, and indited a despatch
to the Najasiii, or Prince of the Abyssimans,
desiring him to take vengeance upon the bar
barous Nirnyarito. Immediate]}' an arma
ment wa$ set on foot, and in a- short time
seventy thousand -warriors embarked in thir
teen hundred merchant ships or transports,
crossed the narrow gnlph which separates
Yemen from Adulis. Dzu Nowas -wo* de
feated. In despair, he urged his horse into
the sea, and expiated in the waves the inhu
manities of his career. The Abyssinian
victory occurred in 525 A,D." (Life of MvJio-
mft, 1st ed., Intro., p. elxii.)
NAJSH (JV). "Exciting;
.stirring up." The practice of enhancing the
price of goods, by making a tender for them
without guy intention of buying, but merely
to incite others t^ offer a higher price, ft i«
forbifidon by Muhammadan law. (Hamil
ton's Ridayak, vol. ii. p. 46.)
NAIvH^ (c*J). Tho Banu '11-
Nakh'. aa Arabian tribe, the descendants of
Qablin, subdued by 4A1T during the lit>time
<»f Muharauuad, A.if. 10. Two hocdred of this
tribe cftme.to temlt>i' their alleiciancp to the
Prophet, it being the l?<st deputatirni received
by him. (Muir's Lifi of Makot&t, new ed .,
pi 477.)
N A.KHLAH (fe>). A TiJley about
midway between Makki-h i\nd at-Ta'il', famous
as the soeae of the first expedition planned
"by Muhamaud against Makkah in whicb
blood was shed. (See Muir'w Life of MufaA
met. new ed.. p. 2]G*ff seq.~)
NA.K1H (c^u). 'A legal term for
a juarried man t a manned woman is feigned
m«nkSAan (vVa.y^JU»), The legal torm for an
xuimarricd person is 'a tub (s^)-
NAKIR (?&). One of the angels
who interrogate the dead. [MUXKAR A«t»
NAKIK.j
NAMAZ (jU*). The .Persian and
Hlndustatii term for ?«/<£?< the Muhammadan
liturgical prayer, [PRAYER.]
XAMES
NAMES, SURNAMES. Arabic
The teaching of Muhammad very greatly in
fluenced tho nomenclature of bus followers,
as io* evident from tho chapter devoted to th?.
Traditions on the subject in the MishJcdtv. Y-
Mosubih, entitled " Babu '1-Asami," book
xxii. eh. vii\., from whtt'h tiro extracted the
following traditional sayings of AJnhair,-
mad:— '
'•The best names in the sight of Cod are
"Abdii 'lldh (the servant of Gudj, 'Abdu V-
Rahtndn (the servant of tho Merciful <>ne)."
•'• You must not name your slaves J astir
(abundance), Rabdh (gain;, Ncijih (prospe
rous j, AJtah (felicitous), because if you ask
&hei' one of these your domestic servants,
iind he be not present, the negative reply will
express that abundance, or gain, or prospe
rity, or felicity, are not in your dwelling."
•' The vilest name you can «ivo a human
bcin? is Maliku 'l-Amlak. or-' King oi Rings.'
because no one can be su.?h but God llirn-
self.''
"You must not say to your slaves, 'My
slave,' or ' My ^lave girl,' for all vour slaves
are Go J.'s, but say, '' My boy,' or ' My girl,' or
'My youth,' or - My la.ss," And a slave must
not say to hia master, Yd Rabbi! (/.<?. Alv
Lord!), but he may say to him Y'~t Sanftdi !
(My Chief !;."
" Call your children >iftc-r your PropheL \i.i:
Muhammad), but the niiiaes God lilies best
are 'Abrf.u VA/A (servant of God), 'Ab'k( Y-
Hnhuiun. arid the next best names ore Iliii-i^
(husbandman), and Hamum (high-minded).
The worst oi namos is Harb (enmity), or
Mvrmh (bitterness).'' [Hub. f
NAM US
421)
Shcu'ftih ihn Hani' relates that his father
came to tho Prophet with his tribe, aud tho
Propket hoard them calling him Abie V-
//t/A-ow. Wixon the Prophet said. " Why do
you cull 'him 30? Hdkntf^ -Puler.' 13 an
tiitribute of Gotl." Ativi \\\* Prophol ,;id«?red
liita to or, 1.1 himself 'Aftu Sftiouih. i.e. tlio
fat-ht>r -.>f Slna-aih, hi« eldest sou.
Motlifitd, sofnowhf.t;, by thesejujimi-tions of
tho Projihat, Muhauirnndan names hnve still
continued to be ordered amonxst leameU
Muslims aceordingr to the ancient custom of
Arabia, Persons arc: often iwmcd —
• (I) By - sin^Ui IKSIU^, as Muhammad, Musa
(Muses). Du'ud (David), Ibraiuin (Abraham),
, Ahmad.
'2') Ac the father or moth or of ee.rUin
, s.tj- Abu DtViid. the father of. David ;
or UniTiiu Saliuinb, tho mother of Saltmaii.
(S) AJ ii(e -on r»f n c'.'i'taiu one •'.// Ibii
'TJmaj , tlx? sou ol':Uiuar; Ibn*Abba»ftae o".a
of Abbus. <*rc
(4) J>v h ci>mbiiiai.jr»u oi- vi>rd^, e.g. zV »"//•/«
Maii$iir ol'HnUaj, Mansiir tlio dresser oi
C0tt«'tl.
(7) By the name of hi.s birth-place, e.y.
ctl baHari, tho native of Bukluirah.
These rulos, guiding tho nomeurdatura of
the Arabians, i<ive ». strange sound to western
oars in the names of celebrated author*. F«'»c
instance, the celebrated cooi_piier «»f the rhic-f
book of authentic traditions is known :*.« •• Abu
'Abdi 'lldh. Wuhan,",/,}. i(.,i fsinfrif »'Zw Ihriihim
ibn Mniilurah til-ji.(\ 1 1, >il- Bni-hiu t , y- biich n ,-ari.s
that his tifime i-1 Muhammad unn that hu :>
the father of a sen named 'Abdu *Dah, and
that his o\vu fathcr'K .name was Isma'il, the
son of Ibrahim, the r.on </t Mughiivih. ».f tLe
tribe of .lu'fi, and that he hinissif way bom ii.
Bukhuvfi.
Arabic names have undergone ^tr«T»j;v}
modifications when brought in cont'tct xvirh
vra.s1.ara lungua^es , r.r/. Avorroos, the phiJ«<
souuer. is a coriuptj^u of /£« Rai&fd; Avi
cenmi. cf ./^/i ,S'//?«-; Achmot, the SuJtun. c
Ahmad; Amurath, of W-3/urot/; Janladin, i.h
celebrated M-arriur of tho twuith century, o
the Arabic Sn/«/i'< W-</?7i, "the pf^ce of reli
_^_ ;J4.J^-). "The Ants."
Tho tille of the xxviitb Siu-Rb of the Qur'an,
in the -13th wrge of which fhe word occurs/
'•' Thcv i-Ririe upon the vailey of the ar>t3
NAMOS (y-^U). Tho angel,
spirk, or beinir. which \vai-aqah is cplfc^u t.<>
have said up^eareu to Moses, bee Sbkifa '<-'
Jlufchfiri, \,. J. where it is said, v.hen Muham
mad lold War.'tqah.'the Jew, vrbat he K;«.d SP«»
on Mount Hir.V, M'nraqaU evclaiuiMi.^ I' is
tho Ndmus v.hu appeared fruin <5oil to
Mosot*."
:Abda '1-Haq.q says' Nantiis mfc^.ns one ^Jw
can lake knowledge of the secret tluiUghtfl of
a jriHTi,-and is used ia cootra«UjrtittC*ioo to lhi»
Moi'd JdtUs. ''a spy," who seeks to know the
•nil doeds of anotlier.
A.ccortli«jr 10 the Kitabu 't-Ta'rifttt, if if?
tliw IHW of God.
Mr. Em«uuelDeaUchf«xy» : •* The niw.u* is a
hcriwaphrofiiie io words. It is Arabic and al$i>
Greek. Itis i'aluiudic. UiSjir'theflrstinatJinoe,
i"j/xoq. 'law.' that whirb bv 'custom ami
eomifion consent ' ha« become so. la T:«i
mudro phraseology -it Ha ads for the Th«>fab.
or Ruveakd Law. In Arabic it further
means ono who oommur-icvties a secret ij.^s-
; s;:-e. Aud all those different sbjnifleationj
i werecoipiTei?ed-by Warati^h to Mohammad.
i (Li'< rari/ Zitv/wJ;^', p. "o.j
Tho we vd I'dmvs ocours 5n the sthieaJ work
| known as t-ho AJdiid>i-i-J(ddii. hithfe folio winjf
i
"Servau' .-.{ Gyd."
(5y By a Micknam»: "f hxnuh-ss jfi^^fi'.:-'-
tiou, P-'J1 Abu l~l ui'dirct?' • "thfc kiit*?U'S
father "
(6; By the trade ^r pvo'cs.SiOi:. *,y. «•-
..
Tbn maintL".iMn;'e of equity, then, i« rea«
lived b Lhree things: (1) TLo Lol.y insiitxJte
•A GOT. ixi'x. The euoiUblc Pri'-e^, (3; Mon*»r.
or, as the old philosophers lui-.l u cluwji, tho.
foremost K>^.O? »* tbc Ins<-hiiT-.-; :
vo/x,09 is the Prince who o-:r.lorui.< to
(for i«*»ij;on and gOYcrranunt
); OIK] c!.;j itiiid i/oao? is money
430
MAQL SAHIH
NASAB
in their languagB meaning discipline and cor
rection). Thus the institute or greatest ar
bitrator is obeyed of all; to this even the
Prince or secondary arbitrator is bound to
conform. While the third arbitrator, which
is money, should be invariably under the
authority of the second, which is the Prince.
An intimation of this principle we have in
the Quran, Sura Ivii. 25 : " We have sent
down the book, and the balance along with
it, that man might stand by the right, and we
have sent down steel (kadid), wherein is
mighty power and advantages to man." The
book in this passage alludes to the institute ;
the balance to that which tests the quanti
ties of things, in fact any instrument for as
certaining the value of heterogeneeus objects
(money being such an one), and steel to the
sword, which is grasped by the might of the
wrathrexerting doom-pronouncing Prince."
(Akhlaq-i-JaLdll, Thompson's ed., p. 127.)
N AQL SAHIH (&#*<* J»). " Cor-
rect relation." A term used- for a Hadis^ or
tradition, related by a person of authority.
[TRADITIONS.]
An ascetic order of Faqlrs, the followers of
Khwajah Pir Muhammad Naqshband. They
are a very numerous sect, and perform the
Zikr-i-Kkifl* or silent religious devotion
described in the article on ZIKR.
NAQUS (u-yte). A thin oblong
piece of wood, which is beaten with a flexible
i-od called wabU (Jj^)* used by the Chris
tians of Muhammad's time to summon the
people to worship. At first " the Companions "
suggested either a lighted fire or the naqOs as
the call to prayer, but Muhammad decided
iipon the azan. (Mishkat, book iv. ch. v.
pt. i.) This method of calling Christian
people to prayer still exists in some Greek
monasteries, and was seen and illustrated by
tho Ho«. R. Curzon in 1833 (Visits to the
Monasteries of the Lavanf), It is called the
siinandro (<uw.ai/Spo) and is generally, beaten
by one of the monks. [A?AN.]
THE HAQUS AS USED IN A MONASTERY
AN-NAR (>tt), >< the fire," occurs
in the Qur'an very frequently for hell, e.g.
Surah ii. 22 : " Fear the fire whose fuel is men
and stones."
All Sunni commentators understand the
fire of hell in its literal sense. (See al-
Baizawi on the above verse,) But Sufi
writers understand it to tie merely figurative.
NAEAWA (VO- " Unlawful.'5
A Persian word for those things whioh are
expressly forbidden by the Qur'an and Hadis.
It corresponds with the Arabic Haram,
[LAW.]
AN-NAS (u-Utt)- « Mankind."
The title of the last Surah of the Quran.
The word occurs in this Surah, and is the
last word m the Qur'an, "from genii and
men?
NASA' (U*;. "To omit." A
torm used in the Quran for the system of
intercalation of the year practised by the
ancienfc Arabs, and which was abolished in
the Qur'an. (Surah ix. 37.) [INTEHCALATIOK
OF THE YKAE.]
NASAB (H— *-*). Family, race,
lineage. The term, in its legal sense, is
generally restricted to the descent of a child
from his father, but it is sometimes applied
to descent from the mother, and is generally
employed hi a larger sense to embrace otner
AN-NASA'I
relationships. (BailhVs Dig. Muh. Law*
p. 889.)
AN-NASA'l (^-jJ\). "Sunanu
'n-Nasa'i," or ai-Mujtaba (the selected), a
name given to the collection of traditions by
Abu 'Abdi V- Rahman Ahmad an-Nasa'I: Born
A.H. 2J.6, died A.H. 303. He firai compiled a large
collection of traditions called the Sunanu 'l-
Kvbra, but he afterwards revised the whole
and admitted only those traditions which
were of authority. This collection (Sunanu
'9-Sughrd) is one of the Kntubu V&ftoA, or
" six (correct) books "
NEHBMIAH
431
NASARA (o*A-0* pl- of Nasrdn
Nazarenes. The name given to professors
of the Christian faith, both in the Quran and
the Traditions, and also in the theological
works of the Muhammndans. Christians are
never called either 'laawi or Ma$ih~t> in Mu-
hanimadan books vritten before the existence
of modern missions ; these titles having been
applied to Christians by our own mi.ssion-
«ies.
NASIKH (£-U). "One who can
cels.'' A term used ior a verse or sentence
of the Qur'an or fladis, which abrogates a
previous one. The one abrogated being
called mansukh_.
NASR (j~5>. One of the idols of
ancient Arabia, mentioned in the Quran,
Surah ixxi. 23. It was an idol which, as its
name implies, was worshipped under the form
of an eagle.
AN-NASR (,-AH). "Kelp." The
title of the cxth Surah of the Qur'an, in the
first verse of which the word occurs : Ci Whan
there comes God's help and victory."
NASS ((». " A demonstration."
A legal term used for the express law of the
Qur'an or Hadis.
NASS-I-KARIM (pfu*). " Gra-
cious revelation." A title given to the
Qur'an.
NASUH (cy*) " Sincere in friend-
ship or repentance.' In the latter sense 4;he
word oceurtj once in the Qur'an, Surah Ixvi.
8 r " O Believers 1 turn to God with the turn
ing of true repentance.''
NASUTOj-U). "Human nature."
A term used by the Sufis to express the
natural state of every man before he enters
upon the mystic journey. They say the law
has been specially revealed for the guidance
of people in this condition, but that the Jaw is
not necessary for the higher states. [SUFI.]
NAUHAH (<w/) "Lamentations
for the dead." Thje employment of paid
mourners is forbidden by the Sunni law, for
Abu Sa-idu 'l-Khudrl says "The Prophet
cursed both the paid mourner and him that
listened to her lamentations." (Mishkat, book
v. ch viii. pt. 2-)
NATJ ROZ ()»y). "New Year's
Day.7' Chiefly ohserved amongst, the Per
sians. In Persia it iso day of great festivity.
It is observed the first day after the sun has
crossed tho vernal equinox, and the festivities
last for a week or more.
NAWA'IB (s-*V), P1 °* nd'ilah.
«' Adversities." A legal term used for any
special tax levied by the sovereign of a
country. The ruling of the Sunni law regard
ing it is as follows :— >
** If it extend -only to what is just (such as
exactions for digging a canal, for the wages
of safe guard*, tor ihe equipment of an army
to fight againsr the infidels, for the release of
Muslim captives, or for the digging of a ditch,
the mending of a fort, or the construction of
ci bridge;, the tax is lawful in the opinion of
the whole of our doctors. But if it extend
to exactions wrongfully imposed, that is, to
such as tyrants extort from their subjects, in
that oaee, concerning the validity of security
for it, there is a difference of opinion amongst
our modern doctors.'* (Hamilton's Hidayah^
vol. ii. p. 694.)
NAZARBNES. [NASARA.]
AN-NAZrAT (*Aft;Ut). "Those
who tear out." The title of the LXirxth
Surah ol fchrt Qur'an, which opens with the
verse, " By those who tear out violently,"
referring to the Angel of Death and hia
assistants, who tear away the souls of the
wicked violently, and gently release the soula
of th« good
AN-NA£tR (;*fN). A Jewish
tribe residing in the vicinity of al-Madlnah,
and known as the Bann 'n-Ne/ir, or Nadhir.
They are celebrated in Muhamraadan history,
as having accepted the Prophet's mission
after the battle of Badr. but when he met
with reverses at If hud they forsook him, hut
they were afterwards defeated by the Pro
phet flud exited, some to Khaibar, and some
to Hira'. They were the occasion of the
LJXth Siirah of tho Qur'an, known, afi the
Suratu 'l-Ha*hr, or u Chapter of Emigration."
(See al-Baizdwi in loco.)
NAZR WA NIYAZ (jW* ? j*).
" Vows and oblations " These are given in
the name of Ood, or in the name of the Pro
phet, or in the name of souae Muslim saint.
[VOW8.]
NEBUCHADNEZZAR. [BUKHT
NAS8AR.]
NECKLACE. Arabic qilddah
(S^). The wearing of necklaces
(among men) ip forbidden in the Hadis
(Mishkat, Arabic edition, vol. ii. 5), although
it is a custom verv common amongst the
Musalmans of India.
NEGrUS. j>AJASHI.]
NEliEMIAH Not mentioned in
the Qur'an or in Muslim commentaries. But
the following' legend given in the Qur'an
-432
NEIGHBOURS
NESTOR
.Sujran ii 26!,' seems to have its origin in the
circuit made by Nehemiab (Neh. ii. 13): —
" Hast thoii considered him who passed by
a city which had beon Jaid in ruins. ; How.'
said he, * snail God ^ive life to this city, after
she hath been Head ? ' And God caused him
to die for an hundred years, and then raised
him to life. And God said, ' II-.jw long hast
thou •waited?' He said, 'I have waited a
dayorpwt of a day.' He snid, ' Nay. thr.u
hast waited an hundred years. Look on thy
food and thy drink ; they are not corrupted:
and look on thine aw; tve would make vhee
a- sign unto men r And look on tiie hones of
Ifiine ass. how we will raise them, then clothe
them svith flesh.' And when this was shown
to him, h« paid, 'I Acknowledge that God
hath power to do all thing's."'
Tho-cumiuentators, al-Kainaliin, say it was
either Jereminh, or Khizr. cr Ezekiel.
NEIGHBOURS. Arabic jar (»,
pi. jiran. The Sunms hold that neighbours
are those who worship in the same mosque,
but some Shi'p.h doctors say that a neighbour
is anyone whc.se house is wirhin forty cubits,
whilst others maintain that the term extends
to all the occupants of forty houses on either
side. (Baillie's Digest, Swini Code, p. 579 ;
//». Code. p. 216.)
A neighbour has the next right of pre
emption to a partner in the sale and purchtise
of house.? and lands. (Ilidayak* vol. iii.
p. 562.)
The rights of a neighbour in case of the.
sale of property, are established by the Mu-
hazmnadan law, for the Prophet has said
that the neighbour of a house has a superior
right to the purchase of- that house (-i.e. next
to immediate relatives), and the neighbour of
lands has a prior claim to the purchase of
those lauds, and if he be. absent, the seller
must wait hie return. (JBidayak, vol. iv.
p. 5C2.)
Muslims are enjoined In the Qur'an (Surah
iv. 40) to be kind to their neighbours. In the
Traditions, it is said that Mohammad was
so frequently advised by. the nngel Gabriel
to order his people to be kind to their
neighbours, that he almost imagined that he
(the angel) wished to make 'neighbour* heirs
to each other. If is »lso related that the
Prophet said, " He is not a, perfect Muslim
who eats to his full and leaves his neighbour
hungry."
Abu Hur.-tirah says that a man onci* said to
the Prophet, "There is a woman who wor
ships God a great deal, but she is very abu
sive to her neighbours."- And the Prophet
said '• She will be in the fire." The man then
saiii. "But there is anothe^ woman who wor
ships little and gives but little in alms, but
she does not annoy her neighbours with her
tongue ? " The Prophet said, " She will be in
Pfrudise." ''(AJishkut. bonk xxii. ch. xv.;
NESTOR. Arabic Nas&r (^}.
A Christian monk who resided in Syria, who
is said to have borne witness to Muharamad.
The legend is not accepted by Suiuii writer*;,
and Sir William Mair (Life of Mafomet, new
ed., p. 2i), says it is to bt i ejected as a
puerile fabrication, ft is, however, behaved,
by tho Shi'ahs, and the following is the story
as given in the ShT-ah work entitled the
JElayatu 'i-Qalub, on the supposed authority
of Abu Talib, Muhammad's uncle :—
"As we approached Sham (Syria)," conti
nued AbiUhilib). I saw the houses of that coun
try in motion, and light above the brightness
of the sun beaming from them. The crowd
that collected to see Mohammed, thai Yusoof
of Misrec perfection, mado the Bazars im
passable wherever we went., and so loud were
exclamations at his beauty and excellence
altogether, that the sound reached the fron
tiers of Bham. Every monk and learned
m'titt came to see him. The wisest of the
wise among the people of the Rook, who was
called Nostoor. visited him, and for three
days v;as in his company without spiking a
word. At the close of the third day. appa
rently overwhelmed with mnotimj, he o.ume
near and walked -around, the Projihet, upon
which I said unto him, ' 0 monk what do yr*a
wp.nt of the child ? * He said, ' 1 wish to
know his name.' T told him it was Moham
med-bin- Abdullah. At the mention of the
name the monk's colour changed, and he
requested to be allowed to see the shouldet-s
of the Prophet. No sooner did he behold the
seal of prophecy [SEAL OF PROPHECY], than
he cast himself down, kissed it, and wept,
saying, ' Carry back this sun of prophecy
quickly to the place of his nativity. "Verily,
if you had known what enemies he has here,
you would not have brought him \\ith you.'
The learned man continued his .visit to the
Prophet, treated him with the greatest rere-
rence, and when we left the country gave
him a shirt as a memento of his friendship. I
carried Mohammed home with the £tmost
expedition, nnd when the news of our happy
return reached Mokkah? great and jwnaii
came out to welcome the Prophet, except
Abujahl, who was intoxwated and ignorant
of the event.*'
Other tradition* respecting this jotuney
into Syria inform us that many more
miracles attended ;t. Savage animals .and
birds of the air rendered the moBt obperjaious
hnnage to the Prapliot. And when the parly
reached the bazars of Busrii they met a-
company of monks, who iimnediately changed
colour, as if their faces had been rubbed over
with saffron, while their bodies shook as in an
ague. *• They besought us to visit their chief in
their great church. We replied. What have yon
to do with us ? On which they Paid , What harm
is there in your coming to our place of wor
ship ? Accordingly we went with them, they
supposing thac Mohammed was in our com-,
pany, and entered a very large and. lofty
church, whore we saw their great wise man
.•sitting among his disciples with a book in
hi& hand. After looking at the book and
scrutinizing us, he said to his people, *You
have accomplished nothing, tho object of our
inquiry is not here* He then asked who
we were, to which we replied that we were
Koraysh ! Of what farmij' of that trite V
NEW MOON
he further demanded. We answered that we
were of the Benee Abdnlahems. He then
demanded if there was no other person be
longing to our party besides those present.
We told him there was a youth of the Benee
Hashim belonging to our company, who was
called the orphan grandson of Abdulmutalib.'
On hearing this he shrieked, nearly spooned
»*vay, sprang up and cried. ' Alas ! alas J the
Nasaranee religion is ruined ! ' He then
leaned on his crosier and fell into profound
thought for a long time, with eight of his
patriarchs and disciples standing around
him. At last he said, * Can you show me that
youth ? ' We answered in the affirmative.
" He then accompanied us to the bazar,
where we found the Prophet, with light beam
ing from the radiant moon of his face, and
a groat crowd of people around him, who
had been attracted by his extraordinary
beauly, and were baying his goods at the
highest prices, while they sold their own to
him at the cheapest raio. With the view of
proving the knowledge of the wise man. we
pointed out another individual as the object
of his inquiry, but presently he recognised the
Prophet himself, and shouted, s By the truth
of the Lord Meseeh. I have found him ! ' and
overpowered with emotion, came and kiss«d
his blessed head, saying, ' Thou art holy ! '
He then asked Mohammed many things con
cerning himself, all of which he satisfactorily
answered. The wise man affirmed that if he
were to live in tho time of Mohammed's
prophecy, he would fight for him in the
cause of truth, declaring that whoever obeyed
him would gain everlasting life, and whoever
rejected him would die eternal death." (Mer-
rick's translation of Hayatu 'i-Q,ulub,-p. 64.)
NEW MOON. Arabic Hildl(^).
The term is used for the first three days of
the new moon.
NEW TESTAMENT. Arabic al-
'Ahdu 'l-Jadid (*A*n J*«H). There
is no evidence in the Qur'an, or in the Tradi
tions, that Muhammad had ever seen, or was
acquainted with, the New Testament. The
Christian scriptures are spoken of in the
Qur'an as the Innl, cvayye'Atov, " which was
given to Jesua ' ; by which Muham.mauans
understand a complete book somewhat similar
to the Qur'ttti. See Surah Ivii. 27; "We
caused our Apostles to follow in their foot
steps (i.e. of Noah and Abraham), and We
caused Jesus the son of Mary to follow them,
and We gave him the Injll, and We put into
the hearts of those who followed him kind
ness and compassion ; but as to the monastic
life, they invented it themselves." The only
New Testament characters mentioned by name
in the Qur'fui are Jesus, Mary, Zacharias, Jobn,
and Gabriel, and there is no direct reference
to the Sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's
Supper, nor to the miracles or parables of
Jesus. This is all the more remarkable,
because the Old Testament history and its
leading characters, arc frequently mentioned
in the Qur'an, [isjii,. CHKISTIANITT.]
N1MROD
433
j NEW YEAR. [NAUBOZ.]
NICKNAME. Arabic wibas
pi anbdz. The calling of ^nicknames is'fci •
bidden in the Qur'an, Surah xlix. 11: » O
| Believers, let not men laugh men to scorn who
haply may be better than themselves. Neither
let women iangh women to scorn, who haply
may be better than themselves. Neither de-
j fame one another, nor call one another by
! nicknames."
This 'verse is said to have been given when
Safiyah, one of the Prophet's -wives, com
plained that she had been taunted by ihe
other women with her Jewish origin. Muham
mad answered her, "Canst thou not say.
; Aaron is my father, Moses is my ancle, and
Muhammad is my husband.'" '(See al-Boizuwl.
in loco.')
NIFAQ foU>). Hypocrisy, or pro-
fossing- with the lips to believe "and hiding-
infidelity in one's heart. (Kitubit V- TVri/S/,
in !MO.)
NIFAS (u*to). Thn condition of a
woman after the birth of a child, during
which period she 'is unclean and is not per
mitted to perform the usual prayers. Ac
cording to the Sunnis, it is a period of forty
days, bnt according to the Shi'ahs, only ten.'
NIGHT JOURNEY OF MU
HAMMAD. [MI'BAJ,]
NIGHT PRAYERS. Arabic
saldtu 'l-layl ( J*i^ *^°), or salatu '/-
takajjud (•>*?&3\ $y-»). From eight
to twelve rak'ah prayers recited during the
night, in addition to the witr pravers, which
consist of an odd number of rak'ahs. These
prayers are Snnnah, i.e. established according
to the custom of the Prophet, but they aro
voluntary acts of devotion. (Mishkut, book
iv. ch. xs.xii.)
NIKAH (e^*). A word which, in
its literal sense signifies conjunction, but
which iu the language of the law implies the
marriage contract. [MAKRIAGE.J
NIMROD. Arabic Numriid (^;*>).
Heb. *"h*fip5» -^ Muhammadan com
mentators say he was the son of Canaan
(Kan'anj. and not, as stated in Genesis x. 8,
the son of Cush.
He is referred to in the Quran in the fol
lowing passage : —
Surah ii. 260: " Hast thou not thought on
him who disputed with Abraham about his
Lord, because God had given him the king
dom ? When Abraham said, ' My Lord is He
who rnaketh alive and causeth to die : ' He
said, ' It is I who make alive and cause to
diel' Abraham said, 'Since God bringeth
the sun from the East, do thou, then bring it
from the West.' The infidel was confounded :
for (jod guideth not the evil doors."
Surah xxi. 68, t>9: "They said: 'Burn
him, and come to the succour of your gods ;
if ye will do anything at alt,' We Said, ' O
55
434
NIMEOD
fire I be thou cold, and to Abraham a
safety!'"
The Rabbins make Nirarod to have been
the persecutor of Abraham (comp. Targ. Jon.
on Gon. xv. 7; Tr. Bava Baibra, fol. 91a. ;
Maimoa. More Nevochim, iii. 29; Weil, Le-
genden, p 74), and the Muharomadan com
mentators say, that by Nimrod's order a
large space was inclosed at Kuga, and filled
•with a vast quantity of wood, which being
eet on fire, burned so fiercely that none dared
to venture near it; then they bound Abra
ham, and putting him into an engine (which
some suppose to have been of the Devil's
invention), shot hirn into the midst of the
fire, from which ha was preserved by the
angel Gabriel, who was sent to his assistance,
the firo burning only the cords with which
he was bound. They add that the fire,
having miraculously lost its heat in respect
to Abraham, became an odoriferous air, and
that the piie changed to a pleasant nieadow,
though it raged so furiously otherwise, that,
according to some writers, about two thou
sand of the idolaters were consumed by it.
This story seems to have had no other
foundation than that passage of Moses, where
God is said to have brought Abraham out of
Ur of the Chaldeos, misunderstood \ which
word the Jews, the most trifling interpreters
of scripture, and some moderns who haVe fol
lowed them, have translated out of the fire
of the Ghaldeeg ; taking the word Ur, not for
the proper name of a, city, as it really is, but
for an appellative signifying " fire." However,
it is a fable of some antiquity, and credited
not only by the Jews, but by several of the
eastern Christians ; the twenty-fifth of the
second Kanun, or January, being set apart in
the Syrian calendar for the commemoration
of Abraham's being cast into the tire.
The Jews also mention some other perse
cutions which Abraham underwent on account
of his religion, particularly a ten years' im
prisonment, some saying he was imprisoned
by Nimrod, and others by his father Terah,
Some tell us that Nimrod, on seeing this
miraculous deliverance from bis palace, cried
out that he would make an offering to the
God of Abraham ; and that he accordingly
sacrificed four thousand kine. But if he ever
relented, he soon relapsed into his former in-
fidelitv, for he built a tower that he might
ascend to heaven to see Abraham's God,
which being overthrown, atill persisting in. his
design, he would be carried to heaven in a
chest borne by four monstrous birds : but
after wandering for some time- through the air,
he fell down on a mountain with snch force
that he made it shake, whereto (as some fancy)
a passage in the Quran alludes (Surah xiv,
47), which may be translated, "Although their
contrivances' be such as to make the moun
tains tremble," Nimrod. disappointed in his
design of making war with God, turns his
arms against Abraham, who being a great
prince, raised forces to defend himself; but
God. dividing Nimrod's subjects, and confound
ing their language, deprived him of the greater
part of his people, and plagued those who
NINEVEH.
Heb.
NOAH
adhered to him by swarms of gnats, which
destroyed almost all of them; and one of
those gnats having entered into the nostril, or
ear, of Nimrod, penetrated to one of the mem
branes of his brain, where growing bigger
every day, it gave him such intolerable pain
that he was obliged to cause his head to be
beaten with a mallet, in order to procure
some case, which torture he suffered four
hundred years ; Go'd being willing to punish
by one of the smallest of his creatures him
who insolently boasted himself to be lord of
all. A Syrian calendar places the death of
Niinrod, as .if the time were well known, on
the 8th of Tamuz, or July. (See Sale's*
Koran ; D'Herbelot's Bibl. Orient. ; al-Bai-
zawl's Com.)
NINA W A- (osy**). [NINEVEH,]
Arabic Ninawfr
, Not mentioned
by naixie in the Qur"&ri, But according to ftl-
Baiaawi it is the city of " a hundred thousand
persons, or even more," tx> whom Jonah was
sent. See Quf'an, Surah xxxvii. 147.
AN-^NISA (»UoJt). " Women."
The title of the ivth Surah of the Qur'an, in
the first verse of which the word occurs, and
which treats to a great extent the subject of
women.
NI^AB (v»W). An estate or pro-
perty for which ?o£<zf, or legal alms, must be
paid. [ZAKAT.J
N1YAH (*«0. A vow ; intention ;
purpose. A tarm used for the vow or decla
ration of tbe intention to perform prayers.
4 I have purposed to offer up to God only
with a sincere heart this morning (or, as the
case may boX with my face Qiblah-wards
two (or, as trie case may be) rak'ab prayers
fdrz (xunnah) naftt or witr).' It is also used by
a Muslim about to perform th« pilgrimage or
the month's fast. The formula is .necessary to
render an act of devotion acceptable. [PRATER.]
NIYAZ-I- ALLAH (aiR )V). A
Persian term tor offerings in the name of God.
NIYiZ-I-KAStfL (Jj-, jV). A
Persian term for offerings in the name of
the Prophet.
NOAH. Arabic Niih (cy). Heb.
IT'lji A prophet to whom Mubammadans
give the Kaliraah, or title, of Ndbiyu'llah,
«* the Prophet of God." He is not supposed
to have been the inspired author of " a Book*
The following ie the account given of him
and of the flood in the Qur'an (with Mr.
L/ane's annotations, in italics : see second
edition, by Mr. Stanley Lane-Poolo): —
" We formerly sent Noah unto his people,
saying, Verily I am unto you a plain admo-
nieher that ye worship not [any] but God.,
Verily I fearjfor.you, if ye worship any oMftr,
the punishment of an afflictive day in this\
world and the worM to come. — But the chief a 1
NOAH
NOAH
435
who disbelieved among his people replied,
We see tliee not to be other than a man,
like unto u» ; aud we see not atiy to have
folio-wed t.hee except the meanest of us,
«5 the weavers and the cof>f>lern, at first thought
(or rashly}, nor do wo see yon to have any
excellence above ns : n*iy, w« imagine you to
he liars i'w your claim to the apostolic commis
sion. Ho said, 0 my people, tell me, if I have
an evident proof from tny Lord and He hath
bestowed on me mercy (the yift of prophecy}
fromHimsolf which is hidden from you, shall
wo compel yon to receive it when ye are
averse thereto? We carmot do so. And, 0
my people, I ask .not of you any riches for
it ; namely, for delivering my message. My
reward is nut due from any but God ; and I
will not drive away those who have believed
as yc hfivf. fD'umanded me [because they are
poor people]. Verily they shall meet their
Lord at the resurrection, and H*- will recom
pense them, and wUl exact for them [repara
tion] from those who have treated them with
injustice, and driven .them a may. But I see
yon [to bej a people who are ignorant of the
end of your caste. And, O my people, who
•will defend ine against God if I drive them
away? "Will ye not then consider? And I
do not say unto you, I have the treasures of
God: nor [do I Hay], E know the things un
seen; nor do t say, Verily £ am an angel ;
nor do I say, of thos« whom yoar oyes con
temn, God will by no means bestow on them
good : (God beet knoweth what is in their
minda i) verily I should in that case be [one]
of the offenders. — They replied, 0 Noah, thou
hast disputed with us and multiplidd disputes
with ns: now bring upon us that punishment
wherewith thou threatenest us, if thou be of
those that speak truth. He said, Only God
will bring it upon you, if He ploase to hasten
it unto you ; for it it ffis affair, not mine :
and ye shall not escape God: nor will my
counsel profit you, if I desire to counsel you,
if God desire to lead you into error. He is
vonr Lord ; and unto Him shall ve be brought
hack." (Surah xi. 27-86.)
" And it was said by revelation unto Noah,
Verily there shall not believe of thy people
[any] but they who have already believed ;
therefore be not grieved for that which thoy
have done " (Surah xi. 38.)
" And he uttered an imprecation upon them,
toying, 0 my Lord, leave not upon the earth
any one of the unbelievers ; for if Thon leave
them, they will lead Thy servants into error,
and will not beget [any] but a wioked, un
grateful [offspring]. 0 my Lord, forgive ine
and my parents (for they were believers}, and
whomsoever entereth my house (my abode, or
ipy place of worship), "being a believer, aud
the believing men, and the believing women,
(to the day of resurrection,) and add not to the
offenders [aught] save destruction!.*' (Surah
Ixxi. 27-29.)
" And God arujwtred his- prayer, and said,
Construct the ark in our &ight and according
to OUT revelation, and speak not unto Me con
cerning those who have offended, to beg Me
not to destroy them ; for they [shall be]
drowned. And ho constructed the ark ; and
whenever a company of his people passed by
him, they derided him. He said, If ye de
ride us, we will deride you, like as ye deride,
when we are saved and ye art drowned, and ye
shall know on whom shall come a punishment
which shall render him vilo, and whom shall
befall a lasting punishment. [Thus he WHS
employed] until when Our decree for their
destruction came to pass, aud the baker's oven
overflowed with water (for this >oas a signal
unto Noah), We said, Carry into it (that if.
into the arlc) of every pair, mile and female,
f\f each of these descriptions, two (and it i»
related that Qvd atsfmofed fw NoaK the wild
beasts and the birds and other creatures, and he
j proceeded to put his hands upon each kind, and
I his right hand fell always upon the male, and
his hft upon the female, and he carried them
; into the ark), and thy family ^excepting him
upon whom the sentence of destruction n»th
already been pronounced, namely; Noah's
wife, and his &wi Canaan : but Shem and Ham
and Japheth and their thret wives he t.ook),
and those who-have believed ; but there be
lieved not with him save a few: they were six
men and their wives : and it is said that all who
were in the ark were eighty, halfofwhom were
men and half woman. And Nnan said, Knibark
ye therein. In the name of God The] 'l*
course and its mooring. Verily my Lord is
very forgiving [and] merciful. — Audit moyeri
along with them amid waves like mountains ,
and Noah called unto his son, Canaan, who
was apart from the. ark, 0 my child, embark
witb us, and be not with the unbelievers I
He replied, I will betake me to a mountain
which will secure me from the water. [Noah]
said, There is nought that will secure to-day
from the decree of Gcxi [any] but "him on
whom He hath itfercy. And tha waves inter
vened between them" ; so he became [one] ef
the drowned. And it was said, 0 earth
swallow up thy water (whereupon it drank i
up, except what had descf.aded from heaven,
which became rivers and seas), and, O heaven,
cease from raining; — and the water abated,
and trie decree was fulfilled, aud it (namely,
the ark), rested on El-Joodee (a mountain of
El Jfzeereh, near EI-M&siT) : and it was said,
Perdition to the offending people 1 " (Surah
xi. 39 46.)
'• And Noah called upon hie Lord, and
said, 0 my Lard, verily my son is of my
family, ind Thou hast promised me to save
them, and verily Thy promise is truo, ard
Thou art the most just of those who <Mier«
cise-judgi-ient. (rod replied, 0 Noah, verily
he is not of thy family who should he saved, or
of the people of thy religion Verily it (namely
thine asking Mt to save him) is not a righteous
act ; for he was an unbeliever, and inert it
no fdjfty for tie nnMievers ; therefore ask
not of Me that wherein thou hast no know
ledge. I admonish thce, lest tLou beeome
[one] of the ignorant. — Noah said, 0 ray
Lord, I beg Thee to preserve me from asking
Thee that wherein I have no knowledge : and
if Thou do not forgrre me and havo uierey
upon me, J shall be of those who suffer low*.
436
NOMOS
NTiZUL
— it -was s:ud,O JNoaii, descend from the ark.
with- peace from Us, and blessings, upon thee
and upon peoples [that shall proceed] from
those "who are ^vitb thec in the ark (that in.
their believing posterity} ; but peoples [that
shall proceed") from those, tvho are with, thec
We vvilj permil to eoajoy the provision* of this
wwlfl ; th«Mi A painful punishment shall be
fall them from Us. in the world to cone ; they
imir.<j unbelievers." (Surah xi. 47-50.)
The commentator, al-BiiixawT. H.-IVS bliac
X.'iah went into the ark on the tenth of Itijab,
and t-arti;- out of it or, the tenth of Muhttrvam ;
•which therefore bet time a fast; so that the
vhole time ofNoab.'s being1 in the ark, accord
ing to hiir.j >va.s six mouths: ar;d that Noah
\vas tv/o ve:-ir"s in building the ark, which was
framed of Indian plane-tree ; that it was
dnided into thrf>e stories. of which the lower
was 'desig&eci for the beasts, the middle one
for the men and -women, and the tipper for
the birds , and the men were separated fiom
the women by the body of Adam, which Noah
had taken into the ark.
KOMOS. Greek PO/AOS. [NAM us, j
NOSE, Cutting off. There is re
taliation for cutting off a nose: H nose for a
ai'PC. (Hidtiyttb. vol. i?. p. 294.)
NUBUWAH 0V)- -Prophecy."
The office or wore of a nabl or prophet.
[PKOPRET8.J
NUJI i-cy). j>OAH,j
A' («A«^). the pi of
Nojrh. *; The Excellent ones." According to
tho'^ufls. forty saintly charact-ern ^ho >il»v«ys
cx'st un earth for the ben^jii of its people.
{See Kaxi'iifhiifii. *l-Jst?{<thatin hcv.) [ABDAL.J
NU'MAN (<^U*i). The najni? of
several of the Kings of Uira*. Nirrnajj V. i.s
celebrated in Ihe annals of the history of
Arabis, because his reign «ppro&cked close
ujjon i'he rise of Igiam, an<l he was the patron
of several poets of renown, who have cele
brated his naino. (See Muir's Life of Ma ho-
met. 1st ed., Intro, p. clxxxi)
Nu'muti 13 also the popular title of the
Imam Abu Haulfah.
[NIMKOD.]
JSiTJMEUP
NUN (oy)« The letter JNT <$t which
or;tur#! at tliK conimencpuaeiit of the LA \rint1i
burfiii of the Qur'an. The meaning of which
ia acknowledged b/ ull ccrnrnentators fo He a,
inj«tery»
says it IB supposed, that nun
either means an inkstand, referring to the
pen of the first verse, or a fish, referring to
that which swallowed Jonah mentioned in
the 48th verse of this Stirah. tint be thinks it
is merely an initial letter, the meaning of
'which i.s unknown to mortal man.
NUPTIAL FEAST, [WALIMAH,
' (vUO\), the pi. of
** TUe Watchmen. M According <u
the Sufis, they are three hundred persons
who are ever to be found in the work], and
who are engaged in its enlightenment. (See
Kitdiu 'l-Ti'srijai, in ioco.} [.ABO«iL.j
NUQU'U 'Z-ZABIB
" Infusion of raisins/' A.Val^r in which raisins
arc steeped until it becomes sweet and i^
affected in its snbwtanoe. It is a prohibited,
liquor. (HamiHou's JEfr/ayoA, vol. iv. p. 15U.)
AN-NITK (;^). »'The Light,"
One of the 'ninety-nine names or attributes of
God. It occurs in the Qw'an, Siirah xxiv.
35:—
" God is the Liglit of the Heavens and of
the Earrh. His Light is like a niche in •which
is a lamp — the lamp encased in glass — the
glass, as it were, a glistening star. Kroin a
blessed tre*' is it lighted, the olive neither of
the East nor the West, whose oil -would
v/eil nigh shine out, even though lire touched
it r>ot I it is light upon ligbi. God guidet-h
whom He will to His light. «nd God geii.sth
forth para-hies to men. ''or God Kiioweth all
thins"
Persian for " Tl*p Tiight of MahaTninad.
oiiginal tssencp of Muhamuiad, known in
Arabic at- the Haqtqatu 'l-Mukamixadtyak,
under which title the i'li^iect is digcust-^d in
this dictionary. [HAQIQATU !L-MUHA KMA-
D1YAU.]
NUfiU 'L-ANWAK (&X ,y).
"•The Light of Lights." A title grv«n tc the
Divine Being. (See 'Abdu 'r-Kazzaq's Lief.
oj Sufi
(Jtf). "Descent." (I)
The portions of the Qurwji as they were d?-
clared by Sluhaininad to have descended
from heaven by the hand of Gabriel.
(2) Propurty w'iaich falls to the state from
default or heir, or which has been confis*
cated.
OATH
OATH
437
0.
OATH. Arabic yaiu7u (e**»), pJ.
yammdl, aiman. The teaching of the Qur'an
with reference to an oath, is expressed in the
folio wing vern's : —
Surah ii. 225 : " God -will not punish you
for an inconsiderate word in your oath, but
ne will punish you for that which your
hearts have assented to."
Stirah v. 01 : " God will not punish you for
an inconsiderate word in your oaths, but ho
will punish you in regard to an oath taken
seriously. Its expiation shall be to feed ten
poor persons with such moderate food as ye
feed your own families Avith, or to clothe
them ; or to set free a Captive. But he who
cannot fiud means shall fact three days."
JSfii-ah xvi. % : " Take not your oath.s be
tween you deceitfully."
The following is the teaching of iiuham-
nmd, as given in the Traditions : —
"Whoever swears to a thing and says, 'If
it please God,1 and acts contrary to hie oath,
it is no sin/'
" S\veur not by idols or by your own
fathers."
" Swear noi by God except it be to the
truth."
"• Whoever swears by thy prayers or by the
fast, or by f.he pilgrimage, is not a Muslim."
The Prophet used generally to- swear m
these words : •' No. by the Turner of Hea/t.v'
According to thu hidayuh (Hamilton's ed..
vol. ?«.. pp. 1, 2), yanun is constituted by the
i\se of the name of Almighty God, or by any
of thoRe appellations by which, the Deity is
generally known or undeiv-too'L
Fal3e oaths are of three kinds : —
(1) Af'Yamtnu 7-fVAaittti* (u-J*-*^ tfa**H).
A.M oath taken concerning a thing already
past, in which f.s conveyod an MftNfMM/ false ••
hood on the part of thi> swearer: such an oath
is highly sinful, the Prophet having declared
— * Whosoever sweareth fabely, the same shall
be condemned to heil.M
(2) Ai-Yatninv 'l-munfaqid (&-a-+ -c-^
illifcuK). Au oath taken concerning a matter
which is to come. Thus, n man swears
that he will do such a thing, o.r he will not
^c ruch a I hi/ig. and where be fails in this,
expiation is incumbent upon him, which ex
piation is established on the authority of the
sacred writings.
(3) Yamlmt 'l-Lnghw (j*^ (£*»*). An
oath taken concerning an incident or transac
tion already past, where the swearer believe?
tiiat the matter to which ho thua bears tes
timony arcords v.itb. wb».t he swears, though
it should happen to b<* actually otherwise ; in
•which case it may be ho^ed from the divine
mercy that the swearer will not be condemned
for sii'jh un oath.
The expiation, or kaffarah, is of no avail
for the Yamlnu 'l-Gh/nnus, but it is neces
sary for the Yitminu 'l-mutfaqid. It con
sists of either feeding or clothing ten poor
person?, or releasing a Muslim captive.
The Muslim law with regard to oaths is a
modification of the Talmudic law, for from
the Divine law the Jewish doctors deduced
many special cases of perjury, which are thus
classiBed: —
(1) Ju* juranduni pronassoriuw., a rash or
inconsiderate oath for the future, or a false
as-sertion respecting the past (Lev. v. 4).
(2 i Vanum, an absurd contradictory asser
tion.
(3) Depositi, breach of contract denied
(Lev. xix. 11).
(4) Textimomi, judicial perjury (Lev. v. 1).
(H. W. P. in Smith's Diet, of the Bible.)
The Mosaic law admitted expiation in the
case of rash or forgotten oaths, ride Lev. v.
4, but the Yamlnu 'l-mun'aqid of Aluhair.-
madan law allows a much greater latitude,
for it applies to all vows or oaths excepting
those intentionally false made with regard to
future events.
The teaching of Muhammadan jurists on
the subject of oaths and vows, exhibits that
rcservatro mentalis of Muhammadan morality
which is so similar to that of the Jewish
Rabbis, and which was condemned by Jesus
Christ in St. Matt, xxiii. 16
Sunni writers on jurisprudence tay that an
oath should be expressed by such attributes
of the Deity && are commonly used in swear
ing, such as the power, or the y^ry^ or the
•.night of God. because an oath is nsu&Jly ex-
pressed tinder one or other of those qualities ;
and the sense of //aw in, viz. " strength." is by
this means obtained, since as the swearer be
lieves iu the power, glory, and might, and
other attributes of the Deity, it follows that
the mention of these attributes only is suf
ficient to strengthen the resolution in the
performance of the act vowed, cr the avoid
ance theieof.
If a jaan swear "by the knowledge of
God," it does not constitute an oath, becrusr
rm oath expressed by the knowledge of God
is not in use; moreover, by "knowledge" is
frequently implied merely that which if
known ; and in this sense the word knowledge
is not expressive either of the name of God.
or of any of His attributes. In the sanrio
manner, should a person swear " by tlit-
wrath of God." or " by the merry of God," i!
doep not constitute an oath, bera'usc an onth
ia not commonly expressed by any of thc.sc
attributes ; moreover, by the word vuknut.;
is somotiinea untier stood •' rain," and " HPH
ven" is also occasionally -x pressed by that,
lertn; and by the word QJla^ \* understood
438
OATH
OATH
" punishment " : and nono of these are either
appellations or attributes of the Deity.
If a person swear by another name than
that of God,— -such as "the Prophet," or
'* the Holy Temple," this does not constitute
an oath, as the Prophet has said, " if any
man among you take an oath, he must swear
" by the name of God, or else his oath is
void." If a person swear by the Quran, it
does not constitute an oath, although the
Quran be the -word of God, because man do
not swear by the Qur'an. T^he compiler of
the Hidayak observes that this is where the
swearer only says, " by the Prophet," or " by
the Temple." or " by the Qur'an," but if the
swearer say^ " If I act contrary to what I
now say. may I be deprived ' of the Prophet,' "
or «* of the temple," or " of the Qur'an," this
constitutes an oath, because such privation
•would reduce the swearer to the state of an
infidel, and the suspension of inildelity upon
a condition amounts to yamln.
Abu Hamf ah alleges that if a man should
swear " by the truth of God," this does not con
stitute an oath, and in this Imam Muhammad
coincides. There are two opinions of Abu
Yusuf recorded on this point. According to
one, it is not an oath ; but according to the
other H is an oath, because truth is one of
the attributes of the Deity, signifying the
certainty of the divine existence, and hence it
is the same as if the swearer were to say, " by
God, the truth!7' and as oaths are common
under this mode of expression, so an oath is
hereby constituted. The argument of Imam
Muhammad and Abu Hamfah is that the
term " the truth," as here expressed, relates
merely to the identity of the godhead aa the
object of obedience, and hence an oath thus
expressed appears to be taken by that which
js neither an appellation nor an attribute of
God, The learned jurists, however, say that
if a person express himself thus, M by the
truth I will do so and so," this constitutes an
oath, because the truth is one of the appel
latives or proper names of God. But if a
person were to aay, "I will do this truly," it
does not amount to an oath, because the word
truly can only be taken, ia this case, as a
corroboration or confirmation of the promise
contained in the speech, being the same as
if he were to say, " I shaU do this indeed." If
a man say, " I swear/' or " I vow," or « I
testify," whether the words «' by Gjod" be
super a deled or not, it constitutes an o*ath> be
cause such words are commonly used in
swearing; the use of them in the present tense
is undisputed : and they are alao sometimes
used in the future tense, where the context,
admits of a construction in the present ; and
attestation amounts to an oath, as in that
sense it occurs in the sacred writings. Now
swearing " by the name of. God " is both cus
tomary and confoimable to the divine ordi
nances, but without the name of God it is
forbidden. When it ao occurs, therefore, it
must be construed irittc a lawful oath : hence
some say that intention is not requisite in it ;
others, however, allege that the intention is
essential, because the words here recited bear
the construction of a promise^ that is, they
admit of being received as applying to tht
future, and also of being taken as a vow
withput the name of God.
If a person, speaking in the Persian lan
guage, were to say, " I swear by God," it
amounts to an oath, because here the idiom'
confines the expression solely to the present ;
but if he were to say simply, " I swear,''
some allege that this does not constitute an
oath. If he were to say, " I swear by the
divorce of my wife," this is not an oath, as an
oath is not so expressed in practice.
If a man in swearing say " by the &ge " or
" the existence of God," it constitutes an oath,
because the age or existence of God signifies
his eternity, which is one of his attributes.
If a person should say, " If I do this may
I be a Jew, or a Christian, or an infidel/' it*
constitutes an oath ; because, as the swearer
has made the condition a sign of infidelity, it
follows that he is conscious of his obligation
to avoid the condition ; and this obligation is
possible, by making it an oath, in such a wayi
as to render unlawful to himself that which is
lawful. And if the oath relate to anything i
which he has done in the time past, as if he i
were to say, " If I have done so may I be a
Jew or an infidel/' and so forth, this is yami*
nit Y- GhayiuSf or " perjury." The swoarer i»
not, however, iu this case made a Jew or an
inMel, because the words " may I b«* an UK
fide!," and so forth, relate to some future in
definite period. Some, on the contrary, have
alleged that ho beoomes actually as an in
fidel/' because the penalty which the swearer
imprecates upon himself relates to the present
instant of his testimony, being the same as if
he were to say, "I am a Jew/' &o. But the
majority of doctors say, the swearer does not
become a Jew or infidel in either of the oases,
either in that of a vow with respect to the
future, or an oath regarding the past, provided
he consider this merely as a form of swear*
ing. But if he believe that by thus swearing
he fully subjects himself to the penalty ex
pressed, he suffers Accordingly, in either
instanoe, because he appears consenting to
infidelity, on account of having ventured upon
a thing by the commission of which he con
ceives that he may be rendered an infidel.
If a person say, "If J do this, may the
anger of God fall upon me," this does not
constitute a vow, as not being a customary
mode of expression for that purpose. And so
also, if a person, were to say, "May I be an
adulterer or a drunkard or an usurer," because
these are not generally understood or received
as forms of swearing.
The following are considered the meat
solemn and binding methods of taking an
oath-:—
1. Saying three times "by the Great
God."
2. Taking the Qnr an and saying, " by what
this contains of the word of God."
3. By placing a sword on the Qur'an.
4. By saying, "1 impose upon myself
divorcement."
Muhammad himself was rather given to
OATH
swearing, and the Qur'an \s full of wild oatha,
one of the most terrible of which, according
ito the Prophet's own words, is to " swear by
the setting stars." (Surah Ivi. 74.)
Burckhardt, in his notes on the Bedouin
Arabs, says that these children of the desert
often take hold of the middle of a tent pole
and ewear by the life of the tent and its
owners.
As might be expected, from the example
set them by their Prophet, MuHammadanf*
are commonly guilty of taking God's nam«
in rain by swearing upon every petty occa
sion. Like rhe-/xa Aia of the Greeks, the
word is hardly ever out of their mouths.
(For further information on the subject
IofOalhs, see Hamilton's tiiddyah, book vi. i
the Durrv 'l-Mukktdr, the Raddu 'l-Afuktdr,
and the Fatatoa-i-'Alamgiri, m /oco, in which
there are chapters devoted to the considera
tion of oaths and vows made under all cir-
cnmstances of life, e.<?. with respect to enter
ing places of residence ; with regard to
actions ; with respect to eating and drinking,
speaking and conversing ; of vows in manu
mission and divorce; with respect to buying
and selling, marriage, clothing, wearing orna
ments, striking, killing, the payment of
money, <fce. &q.]
OATH, The administration of an.
An oath in a court of justice is not worthy
j of credit unless it be taken in the name of
God, because Muhammad said, "Whosoever
j takes an oath otherwise than in the name
I of God, is most certainly a poiytheist-" It
I is incumbent upon the QazT, or judge, tc
request the swearer to corroborate his oath
by reciting aome of the attributes of God.
For example, " I swear by God, the Righ
teous, the Knower of Secrets/' <fec. A defen
dant must not be required to swear by divorce
or emancipation, as if he should say : " If it
be true my wife is divorced, or my slave is
free."
If an oath be administered to a Jew, he
should say, " I swear by God who revealed
the Taurat to Moses.*
If to a Christian, he should say, w I
swear by God who revealed the Infil to
Jesus."
If to a Majusi or fire- worshipper, he should
*ay, "I swear by God who created firft."
An oath cannot be administered to an idola
ter otherwise than in the name of God, in ac
cordance with this versa in the Qur'an, " If
ye ask of them who hath created you, verily
they will say God Almighty." (Surah xxxix.
39.)
An oath cannot be administered to infidels
in their places of worship, because the QazI is
not allowed to ecter «nch a place. This
applies to the plaoes of worship of the Jews
and Christian^ us well as of Idolaters. (Hi-
. dayah, \ol. ii. p. 77.)
Women are not in Muslim law (as in Jewish,
Mithna S&«6. iv. 1), forbidden to bear wit-
nose on oath.
OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD.
[JANAZAH.]
OLD TESTAMENT
439
OFFENCE AGAINST THE PER
SON. [J1NAY.AH.]
OFFERINGS. The Arabic word
naxr (;•*») is often used for an offer
ing" but in its strict theological meaning it
expresses a vow, Ithairat (vs.^^-)* pL of
Khnir, is used for ordinary acts of charity.
Sadnqdh. (4Ja«) also expresses the same
meaning. Niy&z (jW*^ ™ an offering to a
saint. Zafcat (8^5), the legal alms.
[For an account of these offerings refer to
the words.]
OHUD. [UHUD.]
OLD TESTAMENT. Al-'A1t<fa 'l-
'Atiq (jk**^ <A««tt.) Muhammad, in
his Qur'an, professes to receive all the in
spired books of the Old Testament. (See
Surah ii. 130 : " Wo believe in God, and what
has been revealed to us, and what has been re
vealed to Abraham,and Ishmael,and Isaac, *nd
Jacob, and the Tribes, and what was brrmqht
unto the Prophet* froth their Lord: and we
will not distinguish between any of them,
and unto Him are we resigned " (i.e. Muslims).
But there is no evidence that Muhammad
had ever seen the Jewish Scriptures, as now
received by both Jews and Christians. In the
Qur'an, he mentions the Taurdt of Moses,
the Zabur (Psalms) of David, and makes
several references to the historical portions
of the Old Testament ; but Jonah is the
only name amongst the writers of the proT
phetical books (either greater or minor), of
the Old Testament scriptures, mentioned in
the Qur'an.
Mulxammadan writers say there have been
124,000 prophets, but only eight of these
have been apostles to whom the Almighty
has revealed books, and that only one hun
dred portions, or suhuf, and four books, or
kutub, have been given to mankind. .Ten
portions to A-dam, the first of the prophets,
fifty to Seth (not once mentioned in the
Qur'an), thirty to Ldris or Enoch, and ten to
Abraham. One book to Moses, another to
David, another to Jesus, and the fourth to
Muhammad.
Six of the prophets are said to haye
brought in new laws which successively
abrogated the preceding, namely Adam,
Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Moham
mad.
It is impossible to read the Qar'an caretully
without arriving at the conclusion that Mu
hammad derived his knowledge of the events
of Old Testament scriptures rath«r from the
Rabbins- and their Tabuudic teaching, than
from the inspired text itself. Mr. Emanuei
Deutsch truly says : *' Judaism forms the
kernel of Muhammadanism, both general and
special. It seems as if he (Muhammad) had
breathed from his childhood almost the. air of
contemporary Judaism, such Judaism as is
found by us cry«tallised in the Talmud, the
Targum, and the Midras." (Literary Remains,
p. 89.)
440
OLD TESTAMENT
The following Old Testament characters
are mentioned by name in the Qur'an : —
Aaron, Hdrun; Abel, Hdbilj Cain, Qdbil-,
Abraham, Ibrahim; Adam, Adam ; Terah,
Azar; Korah, Qdrun ; David, D&ud; Goliath,
Jdlut\ En.och, Jdrls_; Elias; Ilyds ; Elijah
Alyasa1 (al- Yasa') ; Ezra, ' Uzair ; Gabriel,
Jibrll.\ Gog, YO/M/; Magog, Mdjuj ; ^Isaac,
Ishdq-, Ishmael, Ismd'Tl: Jacob, IV^uA ;
Joseph, Yusuf; Job, Aiyub', Jonah, Yunus ;
Joshua, Yiisha* ; Korah. Qarin ; Lot, Lut ;
Michael, Mikffil; Moses,' Musa; Noah, iVwA ;
Pharaoh, Firaun ; Solomon, Sulaimdn ; Saul,
The following incidents of. Old Testament
history are related in the Qur'an, with a
strange want of accuracy and a large admix
ture of Talmudic fable : —
Aaron makes a calf. Surah xx. 90.
Cain and AbeL Suvah v. 30.
Abraham visited by Angels. Surah xi. 72,
xv. 61.
Abraham ready to sacrifice his son. Surah
xxxvii. 10L
Adam, his fall. Surah vii. 18, ii. 34.
Korah and his company. Surah xxviii. 76,
xxix. 38, xl. 25.
Creation of the world. Surah xvi. 3; xiii.
3, xxxv. 1, 12.
David's praise of God. Surah xxxiv. 10.
Deluge. Surah liv. 9, Ixix. 11, xi. 42.
Jacob goes to Egypt. Surah xii. 100.
Jonah and the fish. Surah vi. 86, x. 98,
xxxvii. 139, Ixviii. 48.
Joseph's history. Surah vi. 84, xii. 1,
xl. 3(3.
Manna and ouails' given. Surah vii. 160,
xx. 82.
Moses strikes the rock. Surah vii. 160.
Noah's ark. Surah xi. 40.
Pharoah. Surah ii. 46, x. 76, xliii. 45,
xl. 36.
Solomon's judgment. Surah xxi. 78.
Queen of Sheba. Suran xxvii. 22.
The compiler of the Kashfu 'z-£unun
(od. Fliigel, voL ii. p. 458, article, Taurut)
attempts an account of tht Old Testament
scriptures.
He divides the whole iuto four sections, and
gives tne names of the books as follows : —
(1) The Taurdt, or the Five Books of
Moses.
(2) Yusha' (Joshua;.
Sifrv 'l-Hukkdm (Judges).
Shamu'li (Samuel;.
Sifru 'l-Muluk (Kings).
(3) Sha'yd (J.saiah\
frmiyd (Jeremiah).
Hiz(fil (Ezekiei).
Yunus (Jonab;.
(4) TaYikh. A history from Adam to the
building of the Temple.
Mazdmir (Psalms).
Aiyul) (Job).
A msdl (Proverbs).
Aht-dru 'l-Hukkam qabla H-Muluk
(EccksiaBtesj.
fiashaid li-Sulaimdn (Song of Solo-
won).
Jiilmah (Wisdom).
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
An-Nawd/i (Lamentations)^
Urdshcrir (Esther).
Ddnydl (Daniel).
' Uzair (Esdras).
[PHOPHETS, TAURAT, ZABUR.]
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
The testimony of the Qur'an to the. The rei
ferences in the Qur'an to the sacred scrip1
turea of the Jews and Christians are ver •'
many, and in all cases Muhammad refers t
these sacred writings with the highest respec'
and veneration. He acknowledges their in
spiration, admits the existence of such docu1
ments in his own day, and appeals to them ij!
support of his own mission.
The following verses of the Qur'an, ii!
which there are references to the Old anc
New Testament, have been placed in cim.ne
logical order, and tho translations giveu art'
for the most part from Sir William Muir'i'
Manual on " The Goran," published by th«
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge :—
Surah Ixxxrii. 18: "Verily this is in the
books of yore; the books of Abraham and
Moses."
Surah liii. 37-40: "Hath he not been told
of that which is in the pages of Moses, and
of Abraham who acted faithfully ? That a
burdened soul shall not bear another's bur
den, and that there shall bo nothing (imputed)
to a man, but that which he himself hath
wrought," <fec.
Surah xxxii. 23-25 : " And verily We gave
Moses the book : wherefore be not in doubt
as to the reception thereof, and We made it a
direction to the Israelites. And We made
Ti-om among them leaders who should direct
according to Our command, when they were
steadfast, and believed in Our signs. Verily
thy Lord, he will judge between; hem on the
Day of Resurrection as to that concerning
which they disagree."
Surah liv. 43: "Are your unbelievers (Ye
Makkans) better than those (i.e. of the days oj
Noah, Lot, Moses, #c., Just referred to;} or is
there an immunity for you in the Scrip
tures ? "
Surah xxxiv. 30: "And the unbelievers
say : — We will not believe in this Quran, nor
in that (which was revealed} before it."
Surah xii. 45 : " And verily We gave Moses
the book, and they fell to variance concern
ing it."
Surah xlv. 15, 16 : " And verily We gave the
children of Israel the book, and wisdom, and
prophecy, and We nourished them with plea
sant food, and We exaited them above the
rest of the world ; and We gave them plain
directions in the matter (of religion;) and
they fell not to variance until after divine
knowledge (or the Revelation,) nad come
unto them, out of jealousy among themselves.
Verily, thy Lord will decide between them
on the Day of Judgment, concerning that
about which they disagree."
Surah xxxvii. 34 : " Verily when it is said
unto them :— There is no God but the Lord ;
they arrogantly reply, — What ! shall we give
up our crods for a phrenzied poet? Nay, he
OLD AND NEW TUSTAHBNTg
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 441
jometh with the truth, and attesteth (the
Revetationa,) of the (former) apu?tles."
Surah xxxvii. 114 : " Aud verily we were
jraciousto Moses and Aaron, and saved them
ind tbeir people from great tribulation ; and
We brought them assistance, and they were
she. conquerors; and We -gave them the per
spicuous book, and directed them into the
:'i,srbt way."
1 Surah xxvi. 194 : " Verily it (the Qur'iu) is
i revelation from the Lord of creation ; the
Faithful Spirit hath caused it to descend on
thy heart, that thou inighteRt be one of the
Warners, in the plain Arabic' tongue. And
'verily it is in the former Scriptures. What !
is it not a sign unto them that the wise men
of the Children of Israel recognize it?"
f Surah xlvi. 12: "And when they refuse
to be guided thereby, they way ;— this is an
antiquated lie. Yet preceding it there is the
Book of Moses, a guide and a mercy ; and
this Qur'an is a book attesting (previous Rf re
lation), in the Arabic tongue, to warn the
transgressors, and glnd tiding* to the righ
teous."
Surah xlvi. 30: "And (call to mind) when
We caused a company of the Genii to turn
aside unto thee that they might hear the
Qur'in ; And, when they were present thereat,
they said, — Give ear. And when it was
ended, they returned to their people as
warners, they said, — Oh our people! verily
•ve have heard a book revealed after Moses,
attesting the revelation thaWprecedeth it ; it
le&deih to the truth, and unto the straight
path."
Surah xxxv. 25 : '; And if they reject thee,
verily ^thej who preceded them rejected
(their prophets), who brought them clear
signs, and writings, and the enlightening
book."
Surah xxxv. 81: '• And that which We have
revealed unto thee is the truth, attesting that
which precedeth it/'
Surah xix. 11: "Oh John! take th« book
(the Taurat) with power; — and We gave him
wisdom while a child."
Surah xix. 28, 29: "And she (Mary)
pointed to him (tlie infant Jfsim :) they said,
— How shall we speak with a child in the
cradle? (The infant Jesvs) said, — verily I
am the servant of God ; he hath given me
the book (i.e. ike Gospel), and made me a
prophet."
Surah xlii. 1 : " Thus doth. God, the glorious
and the wise, communicate inspiration unto
thee, as he did unto those that preceded thee."
Surah xlii. 12: " lie hath ordained unto
you the religion which he commanded unto
Noah, and which We have revealed unto
thee, and which We commanded unto Abra
ham, Moses, and Jesus; — saying, Maintain
the (true) religion, and be not at variance
therein."
Surah xlii. 14, 15: "And they did not
differ until after the knowledge (of Divine
Revdation) came unto them, rehelliously
among themselves : and unless the word had
gone forth from thy Lord (respiting them)
until a fixed time, verily the matter had been
decided between them. And veiily they that
have inherited the book after them are in a-
perplexing doubt respecting the flame. Where
fore invite (men unto the tnufttttty, and stand
fast as thou hast b^en cornxoanddd, and follow
not their de^ire.s. And say, I believe in what
ever books God hath revealed, aud I am com
manded to decide between you : God is our
Lord, and your Lord. To UK \yill (be reckmed)
our works- to you, yours. There i? no ground
of dispute between us and you. God will
gather us together, and to Him shall be the
return,"
Surah xl. 55, 56: "And verily We gave
unto Moses guidance, and We caused the
Children of Israel to inherit thn book, — a
guide and an admonition unto people of under
standing hearts. Wherefore bo patient, for
the promise of God i.s true, and ask pardon
for thy sin,'' Ac.
Surah xl. 72: "They who reject the book
and that which We have sent our messengers
with (the {)ld and Ntrf TV/a^uf). — they
shall know : when the collars ahull be on
their necks, and the chains bv which they
shall be dragged into hell: — then shall they
be burned in the h're."
Surah XKV. 36: -; And verily We gave
Mo^es the hook, and We appointed his bro
ther Aaron bis helper."
Sut-Hh xx. J32: •' And they (the Qv rat's/*)
say. — fc If he doth not briiig us a sign froro
his Lord (>vt will not bel ivory What ! hath
not an evident demonstration come unto them
in the former pages 't "
Surah xliii. 13: "And ask those of Our
Apostles -whom We havr* sent before thee,
•whether We have appowted any beside? the
Meruiful, us u God whom they sooutd wor
ship."
Surah xii. Ill: ;' It is not a story fabri
cated, but an attestation ol (the revelation)
which is before it. and an explanation of
every matter, a guide and a mercy to the
people that believe."
Surah xi. 17, 18: •' These are they for
whom there is no portion in the next life but
h're: anil that, which they have done shall
perish therein; vaw will that b« which they
have wrought. What ! {s/ial/ svck u one bf.
t'ijual finlo niw) who proceedeth upon a plain
direction from his Lord ; and a witness from
him (i.e.. from, the Lord) sittf-ndeth him, and
before him (or it) is the Book of Moses a
guide and :i mercy;"
Surah xi.B: "And verily We gave Moses
the book, and they fell to variance regarding
it. And had not the word gone forth from
thy Lord, surely the matter had boon decided
bfitwf>*--u them ; and verily they are in pcr-
plexing doubt concerning the .same."
Surah x. 37 : " And thi:« Qnr'an in not such
that it could Lave been fabricated by other
than God: but it is an attestation of that (is.
of tkofe Sonptttfit) which precede it, and an
explanation ct the book, — there is no doubt
therein, — from the Lord of creation. What !
will they say, be (Mit^tunnad) htvth forged
it ? Say, — then bring a Surah like unto it.'1
Surah x- 9J : u If thou art in doubt regard-
56
442 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
nig that which We have sent down unto thee,
then ask those -who read the book (revealed)
before thee. Verily the truth hath come
unto thee from thy Lord ; be not therefore
amongst those that doubt."
Surah vi. 20 : « Those to whom We have
given the book recognize him as they recog
nise their own sons. They that have destroyed
their own souls, these believe not."
Surah vi. 90 : " These are they to whom
We hare given the book, and wisdom, and
prophecy, and if these (the Quraish) disbelieve
the same, verily We have given it in trust
unto a people -who are not disbelievers there
in. These are they whom God hath guided ;
wherefore persevere in the guidance of
them."
Surah vi. H2 : " And they do not esti
mate God -with a just estimation, when they
say, — God hath not sent down — (i.e. rnveated,
anything to Man. Say, who sent down the
book, which Moses brought, a light and a
direction to mankind ? Ye (var. read, they)
make (or transcribe) it upon sheets of paper
which ' ye (or they) show, and ye (or they}
conceal much : and ye are taught that which
ye knew not, neither did your fathers. Say,
— God: then leave them to sport in their
follies."
Surah vi. 93 : « And this book We have
revealed. — blessed,- — certifying the truth of
that (revelation) which precedeth it, and that
thou mightest admonish the people of the
city (Makkah) and those around it."
Surah vi. 114; "He it is that hath sent
down to you the book, explaining (all
things ;) and those to whom We have given
the book know that it (the Qur'dn) hath been
sent down from thy Lord in truth. Wherefore,
be not thou (0 Muhammad) among those that
doubt."
Surah vi. 124 : " And when a verse cometh
unto them, they say, — We will not believe
until there is brought unto us (a revelation)
like uiiio that which the apostles of God
brought.
Surah vi. 154: " Then We gave Moses the
book complete as to whatever is excellent,
and an explanation of every matter, and a
direction and a mercy, if haply they might
believe in the meeting of their Lord/'
Surah vi. 155 : " And this book (the Onr'nn)
We have sent down, — blessed ; wherefore
follow it, and fear God, if haply ye may h'nd
mercy ; lest ye should say,— Verily the Scrip
ture hath been revealed to two people (the
Jews and Christians) before us, and we are
ignorant of their reading ; — or lest ye should
say, — If the Scripture bad been revealed to
na, we surely would have followed its direc
tion better than they ; and now verily a clear
exposition hath come unto you from your
Lord, a direction and mercy.'' &c.
Surah xxviii. 44 : " And verily We gavo
Moses the book, after that We had destroyed
.the former generations. — an enlightenment
unto mankind, and a direction, and a mercy,
if haply they might be admonished."
Surah xxviii. 47 : " And thou wert not on
the sido of Mount Sinai, when We called out
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
(to Moses;) but (thou art) a mercy from thy
Lord, that thou mayest admonish a people
unto whom no warner hath come before thee,
if perchance they may receive admonition •— »
and lest, if there befall them a calamity for
the evil works they have committed, they
should say, — Oh Lord ! if thpu hadst sent unto
us a prophet, w« had followed thy revela
tions, and been of the number of thebelieverj.
And now that the truth hath come unto them
from us, they say, — if there were to come (a
revelation) like unto that which came unto
Moses (we, shoulJ lelieve)^ What ! do they
not disbelieve in that which wa^s given unto
Moses heretofore : they say, — two impostures
that mutually assist one another; and they
say, — verily we reject them both. Say, —
bring a book from God that guideth more
aright than these two, if ye be true ; and if
they answer not," &c.
Surah xxviii. 53: "Those to whom We
have given the Scripture before it (i.e. before
the Qur'dn,) believe therein ; and whe.n it (the
Qur'dn) is read unto them, they say, — We be
lieve in it; verily it 'is the truth from our
Lord, surely we were Muslims from before."
Suritli xxiii. 25: "And verily We gave
Moses the book, if haply they might be di
rected; ami We made the son of Mary and
his mother a sign," &c.
Surah xxi. .7: "And We sent not before
thee (as Apostles) other than men whom
We inspired: ask, therefore, the people o'f
the Scripture, if-ye know it not.'1
Surah xxi. 49 : " And.verily We gave Moses
and Aaron the distinction (al-Furyan), and a
light, and an admonition to the pious, — those
who fear their Lord in secret, aud who
tremble for the hour (of Judgment), This
blessed admonition also We have sent down ;
will ye therefore deny it ? "
Surah xxi. 105: "And verily We have
written in the Psalms, after the Law, that.
1 my servants, the righteous, shall inherit the
earth."
Surah xvii. 2 : '• And Wo gave Moses tb«
book, and made it a direction to the Children
of Israel, (saying) — Take ye not ' other than
Me for a patron,"
Surah xvii. 4, 5, and 7: " And We declared
in the book, in respect of the Children of
Israel, — saying, Ye shall surely work cor
ruptly on the earth twice, and ye shall be
elated with great arrogance. And when the
threat of the first of these two (oisitatioM)
came to pass, We sent against you our ser
vants of terrible strength, &c., and when the
threat of the second (visitation) came to
pass," &c.
Surah xvii. 55 : " And verily We have be-;
stowed favour upon some of the prophets
more than upon others, and We gave David
the Psalms,'' &c.
Surah xvii. 108 : " Say,— Believe in it (the
Qur'dn), or believe not : — verily they unto
whom the knowledge (of Divine Revelation)
hath been given anterior to it, when they hear
it recited unto them, fall down upon their
faces worshipping: and they say, — Pi-aised
be our Lord ; verily the promise of our Lord
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 443
. s fulfilled. And they fall down on their
aces weeping, and it increaseth their humi-
Surah xvi. 43 : " And We have not sent
>efore thee other than men whom We have
nspired ; — wherefore ask the people of the
Scripture if ye know not. (We sent them)
vith. evident signs and books, and We have
lent down unto thee the revelation, that thou
nightest make known to mankind that which
lath been revealed to them, that haply they
night reflect"
Surah xiii. 45 : " And those who disbelieve
•ay, — Thou art not sent ;— say, — God sufficeth
or a witness between me and between you,
lud also he with whom is the knowledge of
;he book."
' Surah xxix. 27 : " And We gave to him
'i.e. to Abraham) Isaac and Jacob, and We
alaced among his descendants prophecy and
ihe book."
Sarah xxix. 46 : " And contend not with
the people of the book (Jews -and Christians)
but in a. generous manner, excepting those of
them who act wickedly ; and say,— We be
lieve in that which hath been revealed to
us, and in that which hath been revealed
to you : and your God and our God is one, and
we are to Him resigned."
^urah xxix. 47 : " And thus have We sent
down to thee the book (the Qur'dn,) and those
to whom We have given the Scripture believe
in it."
Surah vii. 158 : " And I will shortly write
down it (i.e. my mercy,) for those who fear the
Lord and give alms, and those who believe
in our signs : those who shall follow the
apostle, — the illiterate prophet, — whom they
shall find written (i.e. described) in the Pen
tateuch and in the Gospel among them : be
shall command them to do that which is
excellent," &c.
Surah vii. 168: " And (call to mind) when
I thy Lord commanded that there should cer
tainly be sent against them (i.e. the Jews)
I until the day of resurrection those .that would
I afflict them with grievous distress : — verily
I thy Lord is swift in vengeance, and he is
| Surely forgiving and merciful. And We dijr-
' persed them in the earth amongst the nations ;
I there are of them that are virtuous, and there
I are of them that are not so. And We proved
J them with blessings, and with adversities, if
t perchauce they might return. And there
< succeeded after them a generation that iube-
L1 rited the book, who receive the temporal
advantage of this world, and say, — It will be
f forgiven unto us. And if there come unto
them an advantage the like thereof, they
accept it. What ! hath there not been taken
from them the covenant of the book, that
they should not say of God other than the
truth, and they diligently study that which is
therein."
Surah Ixxiv. 30 : " Over it (Hdi) are nine
teen angels ; and We have not made the guar
dians of the fire other than' angels ; and We
have not expressed their number, except as a
trial to those who disbelieve, and in order
that those to whom We have given the book
may firmly believe, and that they who believe
may increase in faith ; and that those to whom
We have given the book may not doubt, nor
the believers,"
Surah ii. 1-5: '« This is the book in which
there is no doubt, — a guide to the pious ; —
they who believe in the Unseen, and observe
prayer, and spend out of that which we have
provided them with ; — and they who believe
in that which hath been revealed unto thee,
and that which hath been revealed before
thee, and have faith in the life to come.
These walk according to the direction of their
Lord, and these are the blessed."
Surah ii. 36 : « Oh Children of Israel ! re
member My favour wherewith I have favoured
you, and fulfil My covenant, — I likewise will
fulfil your covenant ; and fear Me, and believe
in that which I have revealed, attesting the
truth of the {Scripture) which is with you:
and be not the first to reject the same; and
sell not my revelation for a small price ; and
clothe not the truth with error, and do not
conceal the truth while ye know it."
Surah ii. 50 : " And when We gave Moses
the book and the distinction (between good and
evil, — Furqan,) — it haply ye might be di
rected."
Surah ii. 71 : " And when they (the Jews of
al-Madlnah^) meet the believers, they say.< —
We believe ; but when they retire privately
one with the other, they say,— Why do ye
acquaint them with what God hath revealed
to you, that they may therewith dispute with
you before your Lord ? What do ye not un
derstand ? Do they not know that God
knoweth what they 'conceal as well as that
which they make public."
Surah ii. 79 : " What do ye (the Jews) be
lieve in part of the book, and reject pert
thereof? But whosoever amongst you doeth
this, his reward shall be none other than dis
grace in the present life, and in the Day of
Judgment they shall be cast into a more
awful torment,"
Surah ii. 81 : " And verily We gave Moses
the Book, and caused prophets to arise after
him, and We gave to Jesus, the Son of Mary,
evident signs, and strengthened him with the
Holy Spirit"
Surah ii. 89: "And when a Book (i.e. the
Qur'an) came unto them from God. attesting
the truth of that (Scripture) which is with
them, (although they had from befoi'e been
praying for victory over those who disbe
lieve) ; yet when that came unto them which
they recognised, they rejected the same."
Surah ii. 83: " And when it is said nnto
them;— Believe in that which God hath
revealed; they say; — We believe in that
which hath been revealed unto us ; and
they reject that which (hath been revealed)
after it, although it be the truth attesting
that which is with them."
Surah li. 85 : " And verily Moses came
unto you with evident signs {or revelations) ;
then ye took the calf," &c.
Surah ii. 86 : « For he (Gabriel) hath caused
it (the Quran) to descend upon thy heart
by the command of God, attesting that
444 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
(ticripture) which is before it, and a direc
tion and good tidings to the believers,"
Surah ii. 95: " Anol when a prophet came
nnto them from God, attesting that (Scrip
ture) -which is -with them, a party of those
•who have received the Scripture cast the
Boofc of God behind their backs, as if they
knew it not."
Surah ii. 107 : " The Jews gay, the Chris
tians are not (founded) upon anything ; and
the Christiana say the Jews are not (founded}
upon anything ; and yet they read the Scrip
lure."
Surah ii. 130 (see also Surah iii. 79) 4t Say,
— We believe in God and in what hath been
revealed unto us, and in what hath been re
vealed unto Abraham, and tsbmael, and
Isaac, and Jacob, and the Trjbes ; and in
what hath been gi.ven unto Moses and unto
Jerfug and in what hath been given unto the
prophets from their Lord: we make no dis
tinction between any of them ; and unto Him
we are resigned."
Surah ii. 139; "Verily We saw thee him
fl.bottt thy face into the Heavens : wherefore
We will cause thee to turn towards a qiblah
that will please thee —turn thei-efore thy face
towards the holy temple : wheresoever thou
art, turn thy face towards it And verily
those to whom the Scripture hath been given,
they know that this is the truth from their
Lord, and God is not unmindful of tba,t which
they do. And if thou broughtest unto those
to whom the Scripture hath been given every
kind of sign, they would not follow thy qiblah,
nor wilt thou follow their qiblah," <$c.
Surah ii. 142 : " Those to whom We have
given the Scripture recognise him as they
recognise their own sons ; but verily a sec
tion of them hide the truth, although they
know it."
Surah ii. 169: "Verily they that conceal
the Scripture which God hath revealed, and
sell it for a small price; — these shall eat
nought but the fire in their bellie?, and God
Shall not speak unto them on the Day of
Judgment, neither shall He purify them ;
they shall have bitter torment These are,
they that have bought error at the, price of
direction, and punishment at the price of
pardon ; — how shall they endure the fire ! —
this because God hath sent down the Book
in truth ; and they that dispute regarding- the
Book are in a grievous error."
Surah ii. 209 : " Mankind was' one people,
and God sent prophets as preachers of good
tidings, and warners : and He sent down the
Scripture with them in truth, that it might
decide between men in that in which they
differed : — and they differed not therein, ex
cepting- those to whom it was given, after
there came to them clear demonstrations,
wickedly anaongat themselves ; and God
guided those that believed to the truth con
cerning which they disputed, by His will,"<fcc.
Surah ii 254 : " Of these prophets We have
preferred some above others. Some of them
hath God spoken unto, and He hath raised
some of them to nigh dignity. And We
gave unt,o Jesus, the Son of Mary, evident
signs, and We strengthened Him by the
Holy Spirit. And if God had pleased, those
that came after them. would not have con
tended with one another, after tbe evident
fsigns (or plain revelations) had come unto
them. Yet they fell to •variance. And
amongst them were those that believed : and
amongst them were those that disbelieved.
And if God had wished, they had not con
tended with one another ; but God dceth that
which pleaseth Him.''
Surah ii. 286 : ''The apostle believeth in
that which hath been revealed unto him from
his Lord : and the faithful, everyone of them,
believeth in God. and in His angels, and in
His books, and in His apostles ; we make no
distinction between any one of his apostles."
Surah ivii 18: "And those that believe in
God, and in His apostles, these are the
righteous, and the witnesses with their Lord j
they have their reward and their light ; but.
they that disbelieve, and accuse Our revela
tions of fatuehood, these are the companions
of bell-fire.-
Surah Ivii 25: "We have verily sent Our
apo.stles with evident demonstrations; and
We revealed unto them the Scripture, and
the Balance, that men might observe justice ;
and We revealed (the use of) Iron wherein is
great strength, and advantages to mankind,
and iu order that God might know who as-
sisteth him and his apostles in secret, — for
God i,s mighty and glorious- And verily We
sent Noah and Abraham ; *nd We placed
amongst their posterity, prophecy and the
Scripture : and amongst, them were those that
were rightly directed, but many of them were
evil-doers. Afterwards We caused Our
apostles to follow in their footsteps ; and We
caused Jesus, the Son of Mary, to succeed
them, and We gave him the Gospel: and We
put into the hearts of his followers compas
sion and mercy; and as? to Monasticism they
invented the same, — [We did not prescribe it
unto them,] — simply out of a desire to please
God, but they have not observed it with a
right observance. And We have given those
of them that believe, their reward, but many
of them are evil-doers. Oh ye that believe \
fear God, and believe in His prophet. He
will give you a double portion of His mercy,
and will create for you a Li^ht wherein ye
shall walk, and forgive you, for the Lord is
forgiving and merciful."
Surah xcviii. 1 : u The unbelievers from
stnongst the people of the Book, and the
idolaters, did not waver until there came unto
them a clear — a prophet from God reading
pure pages, containing right Scriptures. And
those to whom the Scriptures have beeugivon
did not fall to variance, until after a clear
(Revelation) bad coine unto them : and they
are nor, commanded (in their own Scriptures)
otherwise than that they should worship God,
rendermg unto Him the orthodox worship, and
that, they should observe prayer, and give
alma: and this is the right faith."
Surah IxiL 5 : " The likeness of those who
are charged with the Law (the Tourdt), and
do not discharge (the obligations of) it, is as
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 445
the likeness of the Ass laden with books.
Evil is the likeness of the people which >-e- j
jecteth the signs of God : and God doth not I
guide the unjust people."
Stirah xlviii. ?'J : " Muhammad is the pro- j
pbet of God : and those who follow him are
fierce against the unbelievers, V-ut compas
sionate among themselves. Thou mayest sec
them bowing down, prostrating themselves,
seeking the favour of God and bis pleasure.
Their signs are in their faces from the marks
of their prostration. This is the, likeness of
them in the Pentateuch and the likelier uf
them in the Gospel, — as a seed which putteth
; forth its stalk and streugtheneih it, and
j swelieth and riseth on its stem, and de-
lightelh the sowor thereat., — t)iat the unbe
lievers may i»e indignant thereat."
Surah Ixi. G: "Arid when Jesus, the Son
of Mary,, said : — 0 children of Israel, verily I
am an' Apostle of God unto you, attesting
1 that which is before rne of the Tourat, and
giving p(lad tidings of an apostle that shall
come after me, whose name is Ahmad (the
Praised)."
Surah iv. 48 : " IJast thou not seen those to
whom We have given a portion of the Scrip
ture? — they buy error, and desire that ye
may err from the way: and God host
, knoweth your enemies. God suificeth for a
patron, and God sufficeth for a helper. Of
i those who profess Judaism there are that
dislocate words from their places, aud pay —
' we have heard, —and, have disobeyed ' : and.
4 do thou hearken without hearing;' and,
1 look upon ua ; twisting with their tongues,
and reviling the faith. And if they had said,
* we have heard and obeyed ' ; and,' hearken';
and, « look upon us ' ; it had been better for
them and more upright : but God hath curbed
them for their unbelief, and they shall not
believe, excepting a few. 0 ye unto whom
the Scriptures have been given ! believe in
what We have revealed attesting that
(Scripture) which is, with you, before We
deface your countenances, and turn them
front backwards, or curse them as We cursed
those who (broke) the Sabbath : :iud the
command of the Lord was fulfilled.
Surah iv. 49 : " Hast thou not seen those
to whom a portion of the Scripture huth been
given? they believe in false gods and idols, |
and they say to the unbelievers, These arc
better directed in the way than those who
believe."
Surah iv. 52: "Do they euvy maukiixl
that which God hath given them of Hi-
bounty? And verily We gave to the childieii
of Abraham the book and wisdom, and We
gave them a mighty kingdom. Amongst
them are those that believe in Him nod those
also that turn away from Him."
Surah iv. 58 : >; Hast thou not seen those
who fancy that they bclieye in that which
hath been revealed unto tbee, and in that
which hath been revealed before thce ? They
desire to go for n mutual decision unto the
idol Jaghut ; yet verily they have been com
manded to disbelieve therein, and Satan de-
sireth to deceive them into a wide deception."
Surah iv 130 : •• To God belongs whatever
i« in the heavens and :a the earth, and verily
We commanded those to whom the Scripture
was given -before you, arid you likewise, —
Fear God, and. if ye disbelieve, verily to God
belbrigftli whatsoever is in the heavens and
in the earth."
Sfu-ah iv. 135 : '•* 0 y« that believe! beheve
in God and in lli$ prophet, and in the book
which He hath revealed to His prophet, and
in the book which H> revealed from before ;
and whoever disbelieves in God, and in Hi.s
angels, and in His books, and iu His propheU,
and in the last 'lay, verily he hath wandered
into a wide error/'
SYtrah iv. 149; "Verily they that reject
God aud His apostles, and seek to make a
distinction between God and His apotftlop ;
and aay, — We believe in a part, and we reject
a part: and seek to take H path between the
same j these are infidels in reality, and We
have prepared for the infidels au ignomi
nious punishment. But they tiiat believe in
Ood and in His apostles, and mako no dis
tinction between any of them, to these We
shall surely give their reward, and Gud ia
forgiving and merciful. The people of the
book will ask thee that thou cause a book to
descend upon them from the heavens, and
verily they asked Moses for a greater thing
than that," £c.
Surah iv. 161: "But those of tluin that
are grounded in knowledge, and the faithful,
believe in that wWch bath been revealed
unto thee, and in that which hath been re
vealed before thee. Ajid those that observe
prayer, and give alms, and the believers iu
God and in the last day, unto these shall We
give a great reward. Verily We have re
vealed our will unto thee, as W"e revealed our
will unto Abraham, and Ishmael. and Isaac,
and Jacob, and the Tribes, aud Jesus, and
Joo, and Jonas, a.nd Aaron and Solomon,
and Wft gave unto David the Psalms-, aad
Apostles, whom We have already made men
tion of unto thee : and Apostle*, uf whom We
have not made mention unto thee , and God
spake with Moses i» open discourse," <tc.
Surah iv. I6i) : •' Ye people of the hook !
commit not extravagance in vour religion ;
and say not of God other than the truth.
For verily the Messiah, Jesus, the Son of
Mary, is an apostle of God. and His word
which he placed in Mary, and a spirit from
Him. Wherefore believe in God. and in His
apostle; and say not,--" the Trinity"; — re
frain ; it will be better for you. For verily
God ia one God ; — far exalted is He above the
possibility that there sho'.ild be unto Him pro
geny ! to Him belougeth whatever i.^ in the
heavens and hi the earth, aad He Hufficeth as
a guardian."
Surah iii. 2: " God f there in no God
but lit-, th'- living, the eternal. He hath
caused to fiescend upon theo tbe Scripture
in truth, attesting tbafc *hicb ifi before it:
and He sent down the Tour>H and the Gospel
from before for the guidance of mankind :
and He s?nt down the Furqin. Verilj they
that reject the signs of God, to them shall be
446 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
a fearful punishment. And God is mighty, a
God of vengeance."
Surah iii. 19 : " And those to whom the book
was given, did not fall to variance until after
that the knowledge came unto them, wickedly
among themselves."
Surah iii 23: "Seest tbou not those to
whom a portion of the Scripture hath been
given? They were called unto the book of
God, that it might decide between them.
Then a party of them turned away, and went
aside. That was because they say, — the
fire shall not touch us, but for a limited
number of days. And that which they have
devised hath deceived them in their reli
gion."
Surah iii. 48: "And (God) shall teach
Him (Jesus') the Scripture, and wisdom, and
the Tourat, and the Gospel ; — and (shall send
Him as) an Apostle unto the Children of
Israel. (Jesus shall say) Verily I have come
unto you — . . . attesting the truth of that
which (Scripture revealed) before me in the
Tourat, and that I may make lawful unto
you a part of that which is forbidden unto
you,"
Surah iii. 64 : "0 ye people of the Book :
why do ye dispute concerning Abraham? —
seeing that neither the Tourat nor the Gospel
was revealed until after him; do ye not
understand ? Ah ! ye are they which dispute
concerning that of which ye have know
ledge : why, therefore, do ye dispute concern
ing that of which ye have no knowledge?
and God knoweth, but ye know not."
SGrahiii. 68: "A party of the People of
the Book desire to cause thee to go astray :
but they shall not cause (any) to go astray,
excepting their own souls, and they perceive
it not. Ob People of the Book ! why do ye
reject the signs of God, while ye bear testi
mony (thereto) ? O people of the Book 1 why do
ye clothe the truth with that which is false,
and hide the truth, while ye know (it)? and a
party of the people of the book say,— Believe
in that which is sent down unto those that
believe, in the early part of the day ; and re
ject (it, in) the latter part thereof; if haply
they may turn back: and, believe not (any)
excepting him that followeth your religion.
Say, — Verily the direction is the direction of
God, that there should be given unto one (i.e.
to Muhantmud, a revelation) like unto that
•which hath been given unto you. Or. will they
dispute with you before your Lord ? say, —
Verily favour is in the hand of God : He
giveth it unto whomsoever He pleaseth ; and
God is widely comprehensive (in His mercy)
and wise."
Surah iii. 77 : " And verily amongst them
is a party that twist their tongues in (read
ing) the book, that ye may think it is out of
the book, though it is not out of the book ;
and they say, — ' it is from God,' and it is not
from God ; and they speak a falsehood con
cerning God, knowingly."
Surah iii. 78: "It bepometh not a man
that God should give him a book, and wis^
dom, and prophecy, and that he should then
say to mankind, Be worshippers of me be
sides God : but rather, Be ye perfect, inas
much as ye know the book, and inasmuch as
ye study it.*'
Surah iii. 80: k< And (call to mind) when
God made a covenant \vitb the prophets,
(saying) This verily is the book and the wis
dom which I have given unto you ; thereafter
shall come an Apostle attesting the troth of
that (Scripture) which is with you ; ye shall
surely believe in him, and assist him."
Surah iii. 93 : *« Ail food was lawful to the
Children of Israel, excepting that which
Israel made unlawful to himself, beiere the
Tourat was revealed. Say, — Bring hither
the Tourat, and read it, if ye be true. And
whoever contriveth a lie concerning God after
that, surely they are the transgressors."
Surah iii. 99 : •• Say ; 0 ye People of the
Book 1 why do ye disbelieve in the signs of*
God; and God is witness of that which ye do ?
Say, O ye People of the Book ! why do ye
hinder from the way of God him that be-
lieveth, desiring to make it (the way of God)
crooked, while ye are witnesses ? "
Surah iii, 113: "They are not all alike.
Amongst the People of the Book there is an
upright race that read the signs (or revela
tions) of God in the night season, and they bow
down worshipping. They believe in God and
the last day, and command that which is just
and dissuade from that which is wicked, and
they make haste in doing good works. These
are the virtuous ones.'''
Surah iii. 119 : " Behold, ye are they that
love them (the JK^H) and they do not love
you, and ye believe in the entire Scrip
ture."
Surah iii. 184: '-They who say that God
hath made a covenant with us, to the effect
that wo should not believe on an apostle until
he cometh unto us with a sacrifice to be con
sumed by fire, — say. — Verily apostles have
come unto you before me, -with evident de
monstrations, and with that of which ye
speak. Why, therefore, have ye slain them,
if ye be true ? and if they accuse thee of im
posture, verily the apostles before thee have
been accused of imposture, who came with
evident demonstrations, and the Scriptures,
and the enlightening book."
Surah iii. 188; "And when God took a
covenant from those to whom the book was
given. — that they should unfold the same
to mankind, and that they should not
conceal it, and they threw it (the covenant)
behind their backs, and sold it for a small
price, and woeful is that which they have
sold it for ; think not that they who rejoice
in that which they have done, and desire to
be praised for that which they have not done,,
shall escape from punishment. To them
shall be a grievous pxmishment."
Surah iii. 199 : " And verily of the People
of the Book there are those who believe in
God, and in that which hath been revealed to
you, and in that which hath been revealed to
them, submissive unto God ; they sell not the
signs of God for a small price These are
they who have their reward with their Lord ;
for Gtod is swift in taking account."
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
Surah r. 14-16: " And for that they have
broken their covenant, We have cursed
them, and We have made their hearts hard ;
they dislocate the word from its place, and
they have forgotten a part of that whereby
they were admonished. Thou wilt not cease
to discover deceit in thorn, excepting a few
of them. But pardon them, and forgive, for
God loveth th« beneficent. A.a<i of those
that say, We are Christians, we have taken
^ covenant from them, and they have for
gotten a part of that whereby they were ad
monished Wherefore We have placed enmity
and hatred between them, until the Day of
Judgment; and God will surely then declare
unto them that which they hare wrought. .0
people of the Book ! verily our apostle hath
come unto you ; he shall make manifest unto
you much of that which ye have hidden of
the book, and he ."diall pass over much."
Surah v. 47: "0 thou apostle! let not
those grieve thee who make haste after infi
delity from amongst them that say, ' We
belie /e.' with their mouths, but their hearts
believe not. And from amongst the Jews
there are that spy out in order to tell a false
hood ; they spy out for another people that
come not unto thee. They dislocate the word
from out of its plane. They say, ; If this be
given yon, then receive it — but if it be not
given you, then beware.' "
Surah v. 50: "Ajid how will they make
thee their judge, since they have , beside
them the Tourat, in which is the command
of God ? Then they will turn their back after
that, aud these are not believers. Verily We
have revealed the Tourat; therein is guid
ance and light. The prophets that submitted
themselves to God judged thereby those that
were Jevrs ; and the doctors and priests (did
the same), in accordance with that which was
confided to their charge of the book of God,
and they were witnesses thereof. Wherefore
fear not man, but fear Me, and sell, nob thou
the signs of God for a small price. And he
that doth not judge by that which God hath
revealed, verily they are the unbelievers. And
We have written for them, — verily life for
life, and eye for eye, and nose for nose, and
ear for ear, and tooth for tooth; and for
wounding retaliation ; and he that reinitteth
the aame as alms it shall be an atonement
unto him. And he that judgeth not by that
which ftod hath sent down, they are the
transgressors. And We caused Jesus, the
Son, of Mary, to follow in their footsteps,
attesting the Scripture of the Tourat which
preceded it ; and We gave Him the Gospel,
wherein is guidance and light, which attests
the Tourat that preceded it, and a direction
and an admonition to the pious ; — that the
people of the Gospel might judge according
to that which God hath revealed therein, and
he that doth not judge according to that
which God hath revealed, verily they are the
flagitious ones. And We have revealed unto j
thee the book in truth, attesting that (Scrip
ture) which precedeth it, and a custodian (or
a witness) thereof. Wherefore judge between
them in accordance with that which God
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 447
hath revealed, and follow not their vain de
sires (by werviny) away from that which hath
come unto thee. To every one of you have
We given a law and a way; and if God had
plea.ned He had made you all of one faith ; —
but (Hn hath not dune so, in order) that H«
might try you in tbat which He hatb. given
you.''
Surah v. 68: " Sny.— O poopl* of the Book!
is there any other cause of your enmity
against us, but that we believe in God, and in
that which hath been revealed unto us, and
in that which hath been revealed fron»
before i — but the most of you are evil
doers."
Surah v. 77 : " Say :— 0 ye people of the
Book ! ye are not grounded upon anything,
until ye set up (or observe) tho Tourat and
the Gospel, and that which huth beon revealed
unto you from your. Lord."
Surah v. 91 : " Thou wilt surely find the
most bitter amongst mankind in their hatred
towards those that believe to be the Jews aud
the idolaters. And thou wilt surely find the
most friendly inclined amongst them towards
the believers, to be those who say, We are
Christians. That is because there are
amongst them Clergy and monks, and they
are not arrogant. When they henr that which
hath been revealed to the prophet, thou wilt
see their eyes flowing with tears because of
that which they recognise, of the truth. • They
eay»0 our Lord ! we believe ; write us down
with the witnesses ; and what should binder
us that we should not. believe in God, and in
that which hath come unto us of the truth ?
and we desire that our Lord should intro
duce us amongst the righteous. God hath
rewarded them for that which they have said,
with gardens through which flow rivulets.
They shall be for ever therein and that is the
reward ol the virtuoun."
Surah v. 119 : " And (call to mind) .when
God said, — 0 Jesus, Son of Mary ! remember
My favour towards thee, and towards thy
Mother, when I strengthened thee with the
Holy Spirit, that thou shouldest speak unto
man, in the cradle, and also in mature age ;
and I taught thee the Scriptures, and -wis
dom, and 'be Tonrat, and the Gospel; and
when thou madest of olay in the form of a bird
by My command, and thou blewest thereupon,
and it became a bird by Mv command ; and
thou healedst the blind and the l^per by My
command ; and when thou didst raise the
dead by My command. . . . And when 1 spake
by inspiration unto the apostles, saying. —
Believe in Me, and in My apostle (i.e. Mmtf)
they said, — We believe ; bear witness that we
are true believers." •
Surah Ixvi. 13 : " And Mary the daughter
of Imran, who preserved her virginity ; and
We breathed into her of Our spirit, and she
attested the words of her Lord and His
Scriptures, and was amongst the pioua."
Surah ix. 113 : " Verily, God hath bought
from the believers their selves and their
wealth, on the condition of paradise for them
if they fight in the ways of God :— rand whe
ther they slay or be slain, the promise of God
448 OMER
thereupon is iruo in the Tourat, and in the
Gospel, and in the Quran." [CHRISTIANITY,
JEWS,' JUDAISM.]
OMEE. OMAR.]
OMMIADES. Arabic Panu Umai-
yah (£*M y^), or ad-Daulaiu 7- Uma-
vnyah (ky^ &j^V The dynasty of
Khalifahs who reigned from A.H, 41 ( v.n,
661) to A.H. .132 (A.D. 750). descended from
Mu'iiwiyah, who was the grent grandson of
Umaiyah of the Quraish tribe. Mir'awiyah.
the son of Abu Sufyan, took possession of
the Khalifat e on the death of al-Hasan, and
established his capital at Damascus, The
dynasty includes the names of fourteen Kb all-
la!^.
1. Mn'awiyah, A.H. 41.
2. Yazid (son of Mu'awiyak), A.H. 60.
3. Mu'awiyah II. (son of Yazid), A.H. 64.
4. Marwfm I. (son of nl-Hakam), A.H. 64.
5. 'Abdu '1 Malik (son of Mai-wan). A.H. 65.
6. Al-Walid (son of 'Abdu '1-Malik), A.H.
86.
7. Suiaiman (son of 'Abdu 1-Malik), A.H.
96.
8. Umar II. (son of ;Abdu 'l-'Aziz, son of
Marwan). A.H. 99.
9. Yazid II. (son of 'Abdu '1-Malik), A.H.
101.
10. Hisham (son of 'Abdu 1-Malik), A.H.
105.
11. Al-Walid II. (son of Yazid), A.H. 125.
12. Yazid III. (son of al-Wnlld), A.II. 126.
13. Ibrahim (son of al-Walid). A.H. 126.
14. Ma rwan II, (son of Muhammad, son of
Marwair), A.H. 127-132.
The Abbasides conquered Khorasan under
the brothers Ibrahim and 'Abu 'l-'Abbas, and
refused to acknowledg-e MarwSn. Marwan
was afterwards defeated on the banks of the
Zab. and fled to Egypt, where he was again
defeated and slain, A.H 132 (A.D. 750), and
Abii ?l-' Abbas was proclaimed Khalifah.
[ifHALIFAH.]
OPTION. [KHIYAR.j
ORDINATION. There is no cere
mony in Islam corresponding to the Christian
ordination. Sometimes the Imam of a mosque
is appointed by the chief man of position
binding a turban round his head. In Central
Asia, Maulawif? of reputation certify aB to the
learning and ability of their disciples by bind
ing a turban on their heads and authorizing
them to teach. But it is not a custom of the
Muslim religion.
ORNAMENTS, Men are prohi
bited from the use of ornaments of gold, such
as rings and the like, because they are ex
pressly forbidden by the Prophet. Orna
ments of silver are likewise unlawful, but
exceptions are made with respect to signet
rings, girdles, or swords, which may be orna
mented with silver. (Hiddyth, vol. iv. p. 92).
Ibn Zubair says the Prophet condemned the
use of little bells as ornaments for children,
ORPHANS
for he ..said there was a devil in every bell.
Ibn Malik says the Prophet forbade the wear
ing of gold rings, and he considered it just
as bad to use gold ornaments*. (Miskkat,
book xx. ch. ii.)
The Wahhabis condemn the use of orna
ments and silk dresses.
ORPHANS. Arabic yatim
pi. yaiitma. In Muhammadan law, the term
is used for a child whose father is
dead.
Muhammad gave very special instructions
'in the Quran as to the treatment of orphans.
See Surah iv. 2-7 :—
"And give to the orphans their property
and substitute not worthless things of your
own lor their valuable ones, and enjoy not
their property in addition to your own ; verily
this is a great crime : and if ye are appre
hensive that ye shall not deal fairly with
orphans, then, of other women who seem
good in your eyes, marry but two, or three,
or four ; and if ye still fear that ye shall not
act equitably, then one only, or the slaves
whom ye have acquired; this will make
justice on your part easier. And give women
their dowry as a free gift ; but if of their
own free will they kindly give up aught
thereof to you, then enjoy it as convenient
and profitable. And entrust not to the inca
pable the substance which God hath placed
with you as a means of support, but main
tain them therewith ; and clothe them, and
speak to them with kindly speech. And
make trial of orphans until they reach the
age of marriage ; and if ye perceive in them
a sound judgment, then.hand over their sub
stance to them ; but consume ye it not pro
fusely and hastily. Only because they have
attained their majority. And let the rich
guardian not even touch it ; and let him who
is poor, then use it for his support with dis
cretion. And when ye make over their sub
stance to them, then take witnesses in their
presence. God also taketh a sufficient
account."
According to al-Baizawi and the Jalalan,
the Muslim commentators understand these
verses differently. Mr. Sale says the true
meaning seems to be: Muhammad, advising
his followers that if they found they should
wrong the female orphans under their care,
either by marrying them against their inclina
tions, for the sake of their riches or beauty, or
by not using or maintaining them so well as
they ought by reason of their having already-
several wives, they should rather choose fo
marry other women, to avoid all occasion of
Sin. Others say that when this passage was
revealed, many of the Arabians, fearing
trouble and temptation, refused to take upon
them the charge of orphans, and yet multi
plied wives to a great excess ond used them
ill or, as others write, gave themselves up to
foi'nication, which occasioned the passage.
And according bo these, its meaning must be
either that if they feared they could not act
justly towards orphaus, they had as great
reason to apprehend they could not deal
OTHMAN
equitably with so many wives, and therefore J
are commanded to marry but a certain
number; or else, that since fornication was a
crime as well as a wronging of orphans, they
ought to avoid that also by marrying accord
ing to their abilities.
PARADISE
OTHMAN. ['USMAN.J
449
OUTLAWS. (1) An Apostate, if
he escapes to another country, is an outlay
(2) A /ornicator should be expelled .Irom hi*
country and be an outlaw for a whole year.
P.
PAIGHAMBAR (^H). The
Persian and Hindustani translation of the
Arabic R<isiil (Jj~;), and Nnhi
[PROPHET. ]
PARACLETE.
PARADISE. The Mulaanirrwkn
Paradise is called al-Jannah (jL^\). " the
garden," pi. janndt, in Arabic ; and 'Lihix/tt
in Persian; the word at-Firdam
, or Paradise, being restricted to
one region iu the celestial abodes of bliss.
There are eight heavens or paradises men
tioned in the Quran, and Although they
appoai- to be but eight different names for
the place of blitfs, Muhammad an divines have
held them to be eight difl'erent stages.
They are as follows (soe Ghiyasu 'I-
1. Jannatu '1-Kliuld (Suratu 'l-Furq<ln,xxv.
16), The Garden of Eternity.
2. Daru 's-Salam (Suratu '1-An'ain, vi. 127),
The Dwelling of Peace.
3. Daru '1-Qarar (Suratu 'i-Mu'min, xl. 42;.
The Dwelling which abideth.
4. Jannatu 'l-'Adri (Suratu '1-Bara'ah, ix.
73), The Gardens »f Eden.
5. Jannatu '1-Ma'wa (Suratu 's-Sajdau,
xxxii. 19), The Gardens of Refuge.
6. Jannatu 'n-XivIm (Suratu 1-Ma'idah,
v. 70), The Gardens of Delight.
7. 'llliyun (Suratu VTatfif, Ixxxiii. 18).
8. Jannntu l-Firdruu* (Suratu '1-Kahf.
xviii. 107), The Gardens of Paradise.
These eight stages are spoken of as eight
doors in the Afis/ikiit, book ii. ch. i.)
The sensual delights of Muhammad's
Paradise are proverbial, and they must have
exercised a considerable iniluence upon the
minds of the people to whom he mado known
his mission. There are frequent allusions to
them in the Qur'an. The following are spe
cimen passages : —
Suratu 1-lnsitn (Ixxvi.), 12-22 : — " God
hath rewarded their constancy, with Paradise,
and silken robes, reclining therein on bridal
couches ; nought shall they know of sun or
piercing cold: its shades shall close over
them, and low ?hall its fruits hang down :
and vessels of silver and goblets like flagori3
aball be borne round among them : flagons of
silver whoso measure themselves shull mete.
And there shall they be given to drink of tho
cup tempered with zanjabil (ginger i from the
fount therein whose name is Salsabil (i.t.
bhe Softly flowing). Blooming youths go
round among them. When thou Jookest at
them, thou wouldst deem them scattered
pearls : and when Ihou seest this, thou
wilt see delight* and a vast kingdom : their
clothing green silk robes and rich brocade
with silver bracelets shall they be adorned .
and drink of a pure beverage shall their Lord
give them. This shall be your recom
pense."
Suratn 'l-W»qi'ah (Ivi.), J 2-39:. "In gar
dens of delight, a crowd of the former and a
few of the later generations; on inwrought
couches reclining on them face to face, bloom
ing youths go round about them with goblets
and ewers and a cap of flowing wine ; their
brows ache not from it, nor fails the sense :
and with such fruits as shall please them
best, and with flesh of such birds as they
shall long for; and theirs shall bo the Houris
(Arabic hur\ with large dark eyes, like pearls
hidden in their shells, in recompense for then-
labours pa.st. No vain discourse shall they
hear therein, nor charge of sin, but only cry
' Peace ! Peace !'.... Unfailing, unfor-
biddeti, and on lofty couches «nd of a rare crea
tion have we made the Houris, and we have
rnnde them ever virgin.s. dear to their spouses
and of equal nge. for the people of the right
hand, a crowd of the former, and a crowd of
the later generations.'1
Suratu 'r-Rahman (lv.), 54-56 : "On
couches with lining of brocade shall they
recline, and the fruit of the two gardens shall
be within their easy reach Therein
shall be the damsels with retiring, glances,
whom neither man nor jinn hath touched
before them."
Suratu T-Muhammad (xlvii.) 16, 17:
" Therein are rivers of water which corrupt
not : rivers of milk, whose ta.ste chaugeth
not: and rivers of wine, delicious to those
who quaff it ; and rivers of clarified honey:
and therein are all kinds of fruit for thorn
from their Lord.':
The descriptions of the celestial regions
and the enjoyments promised to the faithful
arc still more minutely given in the tradi
tional sayings of the Prophet ; see the Mish-
feat, book xxiii. ch. xiii.
Abu Musa relates that "the Apostle of
.God said, Verily there is a tent for «very
Muslim in Paradise, it ia made of one pearl.
ifcR interior empty, its breadth fJO kos, and in
eve.ry corner of it will be his wiv«s : and they
57
450
PARADISE
shall not see one another. The Muslim shall
love them alternately/' Ac.
Abu S»*id relates that " the Apostle of
God said, { He -who is least amongst the
people of Paradine, shall have eighty thou
sand slaves, and seventy-two women, and has
a tent pitched lor him of pearls, rubies, and
emeralds Those who die In the -world,
young or old, are made of thirty years of age:
and not more, when they enter Paradise.' "
Abu Sa'id alpo relates that " the Apostle
of God said, Verily a man in Paradis'e re
clines upon seventy cushions, before he turns
on his other side. Then a woman of Para-
difle comes to him and pats him on the shoul
der, and the man sees his face in her cheek,
which is brighter than a looking-glass, and
yerily her most inferior pearl brightens the
east and west. Then the woman makes a
saldm to him, which he returns ; and tjie
man says, " Who are you? " and she replies,
" I am of the number promised of God for
the virtuous." And verily she will have
Seventy garments, and the man's eyes will bo
fixed on them, till he will see the marrow of
the bones of her legs through the calves of
them, and she will have crowns on her head,
the meanest peari of which would give light
between the east and west.''*
One of the attractions of Paradise is the river
Kausar. [KAUSAK.] According to Anas, " the
Apostle of God said, it is a river which God
has given me in Paradise, its water is whiter
than milk, and sweeter than honey, and on
its waters are birds whose necks are like the
necks of camels,"
The following is an instance of the way in
which the Prophet endeavoured to suit his
paradise to the tastes of the people : —
Abu Aiyub says, * An Arab came to the
Prophet and eaid, f 0 Apostle of God ! I am
f ond of horses ; are there any in Paradise?'
The Prophet replied, « If you are taken into
Paradise, you will get a ruby horse, with two
wings, and you will mount him, and be will
carry you wherever you wish.' "
Abu Hurairah said, " Verily the Apostle of
God said, whon an Arab was sitting near
him, that a man of the people of Paradise will
ask permission of his Lord to cultivate land,
and God will gay, * Have you not e?erything
you could wish for? "What will you culti
vate ? ' The man will say, * Yes, everything
is present, but I am fond of cultivating.'
Then he will be permitted to cultivate, and
he will sow, and, quicker than the twinkling
of an eye, it will grow, become ripe, and be
reaped, and it will utand in sheaves like
mountains."
The apologists for Islam, Carlylo for ex
ample, have suggested that the sensual de
lights of Muhammad's paradise may, after all,
be taken in a 'figurative sense, as the Reve
lation of St. John or the bong of -Solomon.
It is, quite true that such an interpretation is
hinted at in the Akhldq-i-Jalall (Thompson's
translation, p. 102), aud Mr. Lane in his
Egyptians (vol. i. p. 84) says that a Muslim
of some learning considered the descriptions
PARADISE
of Paradise figurative, but such is not the
view held by Muhammadan doctors, whether
Sunni, Surah, or Wahhabi. They are all
agreed as to the literal interpretation of the
sensual enjoyments of the Muslim paradise,
and very many are the books written giving
minute particulars of the joys in store for
the faithful.
Islam, true to its anti-Christian character,
preaches n, sensual abode of bliss, in opposi-.
tion to the express teaching of our Lord in
Matt. xxii. 30 : " They neither marry nor are
given in marriage, but are as the angels of
God in heaven."
Were proof needed, to show that the Pro
phet taught a real and literal interpretation
of the sensual delights of the abodes of bliss},
a tradition of high authority is found in the
Safcliu Muslim (p. 379), vide also Mixhkdt,
book xxiii. ch, 13), in which the Prophet goes
to some trouble to explain the sanitary laws
of the heavenly kingdom, in the most literal
manner possible.
Sir William Muir says : " It is remarkable
that the notices in the Goran of this volup-;
tuous Paradise are almost entirely confined to
a time when, whatever the tendency of his
desires, Mahomet was living chaste aud tem
perate with a single wife of threescore years
of age. Gibbon characteristically observes
that ' Mahomet has not specified the male
companions of the female elect, lest he should
either alarm the jealousy of the former hus
bands, or disturb their felicity by the suspi
cion of an everlasting marriage.' The remark,
made in raillery, is pregnant with reason, a^id
aims* a fatal blow at the Paradise of Islam.
Faithful women will renew -their youth in
hea'ven as well as faithful men : why should
not their good works merit an equal and
analogous reward ? But Mahomet shrank
from this legitimate conclusion. It is note
worthy that in the Medina Suras— -that is in
all the voluminous revelations of the ton
ySars following the Hegira — women are only
twice referred to as one of the delights ot
Paradise ; and on both .occasions in thesu
simple words t—* and to them (believers) there
shall bo therein pnre wives.' (Surah ii. 23,
Surah iv. 60.) Was it that satiety had then
left no longings unfulfilled ; or that a closer
contact with Judaism had repressed the bud
ding pruriency of his revelation, and covered
with confusion the picture of a sensual Para
dise which had been drawn at Mecca ? "
(Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 82 and note.)
Sir W. Muir has omitted "a third passage,
Surah iii. 13, where " wonien of stainless
purity " are spoken of, but it is remarkable
how much more restrained are the Prophet's
descriptions of Paradise in his later revela
tions. For example, Surah xiii. 23, 24, 35 :—-
" Gardens of Eden — into which they shall
enter together with the just of their fathers,
and their wives and their descendants, and
the angels shall go in unto them at every
portal : Peace be .with you, *,&$ they, because
ye have endured all things .... The rivers
flow beneath its bowers; its food and its.
shades are perpetual."
PARDON FOE SIN
PARENTAGE
451
PARDON FOR SIN. The word?
used to express pardon for sins on the part
of the Almighty, are M/t» (yte), Mayhjirah
(LA**), and' Ghufrdn (y\/*) The net of
seeking pardon is Tstfgbfar (Aa*y.J).
The following is the teaching of the^iu'An
on the subject : — •
Surah Hii. 32, 33 : a God'x is what id in
the heavens and what is in the earth, that
He may reward tho8e who do evil with evil,
and those whc do ?ood with good. Those
who shun great sins and iniquities — all but
veniaJ sins. — verily thy Lord is of ample for
giveness."
Surah Ixvii. 12: "Verily those who fear
their Lord in secret, for them is forgiveness
and a great reward/'
Surah xxxiii. 71 : " He (God) will correct
you for your works and put-don you for your
iins : for he who obeys God and His Apostle
has attained a mighty happiness."
Surah xxxv. 8 : " Those who believe and
do right, for them is forgiveness." •
Siirah viii. 29: "O ye who believe! if ye
fear God, He will make for you a discrimi
nation, and will cover your offences and will
forsrive you ; for God is the Lord of mighty
.^race."
Repentance is expressed in the Qur'au by
the word Tavbafi (&J*), which the Imam an-
Nawawi says means "turning the heart from
sin." ( Commentary on $ahitiu Mvsltm, vol. il
p. 354.) The word frequently occurs in the
Qur'an. For example : —
Surah iv. 20: "If they repent and amend,
then let thorn he. Verily God relenteth. He
is merciful."
Surah xxv 71 : " Whoso hath repented
and hath done what is right, verily it is he
who turneth to God with a true conversion "
(matab)
The teaching of the traditions on the sub
ject of repentance and pardon for sin is in
some places exceedingly wild, as will be
seen from the following selections taken from
the sayings of the Prophet given iu the Muh-
kat, hook x. eh. iii r —
" There was a man of the children of
Israel, who killed ninety-nine people, after
which he came out, asking if his repentance
would be accepted; and having met 8 monk,
he asked him. « Is there acceptance for my
repentance?' The monk said, : No.' Then
the man killed the monk, and stood asking
people about the approval of his repentance.
And a man said to him, ' Coine to such a vil
lage.1 Then the signs of immediate death
were upon him, and he tried to reach the
village upon his knees, and died on the way.
Then the angels of mercy and punishment
disputed about him. Then God ordered the
village towards which the man had attempted
to go to be near to the corpse ; and the vil
lage which he had fled from to be far away
from him. Then God said to the angels,
'Compute, and measure the distauce between
the two villages ' And it was found that the
village towards which he was going was
nearer to him by one span. And he was mr-
doned."
1 An incessant sinner has not sinned that
has asked pardon, although he may have
sinned seventy time* a day, because asking
i>*idoti us HIR covererof sin."
"God has said, k Verily if you come before
We with sins equal to the dust of the earth,
tnd then come before Me without associating
mything with Me, verily I will come before
ypu with the pardon equal to the dust of the
earth/'
" Verily God accepts of the repentance of
His servant as long as is soul does not come
into his throat."
" I swear by God that verily I ask pardon
of God and repent before Him more than
seventy rimes daily."
" Verily my heart is veiled with melan
choly, and verily I a-sk pardon of God on*
hundred times a day."
" Verily, when a true believer commits a
sin, « black ppot is created in his heart ; and
if lie repents and asks pardon of God, the
black spot i.s rubbed off his heart ; but if he
increases his sins, the black spot increases,
so that it takes hold of the whole heart.
Then this spot is a rust which God has men
tioned in the Qur'an, ' th*»ir hearts bec'nme
rustv from their works.'"'
*' Verily there were two men of the chil
dren of Israel who had a friendship for each
other. One of them was a worshipper of God,
and the other a sinner. The worshipper of
God said to the sinner, * Give up sinning.'
He said, * Leave me to my Lord.' At length
he found him committing a very great sin,
aud said, * Give up sinning ' The sinner
said 'Leave me to my Lord. Were you
sent as a guard over me ? ' The worshipper
said, ' I swear by God He will not always
forgive your sins, nor will He bring you. into
Paradise.' Then God sent an angel to them,
who took both their souls, and they both ap
peared before (rod together. Aud God *aid
co the sinnpr. ' Come into Paradise.' And he
said to the other: 'What, can you prevent
My compassion on my servant ? ' He isid,
' I cannot, 0 my Lord.' And God said to the
angels, ' Carry him to the fire.' ''
PARENTAGE. The periods of
six months and of two years are fixed as the
shortest and longest periods of pi-egnancy,
and consequently any child born within those
periods is assumed to be the child of the
woman's husband, even though she be either
a widow or divorced. This strange ruling of
Muslim law is founded on a declaration of
'A vishnh, who is related to have said, " The
child does not remain in the womb of the
mother beyond two years."
The Imam ash-ShafH has said the longest
period of pregnancy extends to four years
(Hamilton's Hiddyati, vol. i. p. 383.)
If a person acknowledge the parentage of
a child who is able to give an account of
himself, aud the ages of the parties are such
as to admit of the one being the child of the
other, and the parentage of the child be not
452
PARENTS
PHILOSOPHY
well known to any person, and the child him- |
self verify the statement, the parentage is
established. (Ibid., vol. iii. p. 169.)
PARENTS, Duty to, is frequently
enjoined in the Qsir'an : for example, Surah
xvi*. 24,25: "Thy Lord hath decreed that
ye shall not serve other than Him, and that
ye shall be kind to your parents, whether
one or both of them reach old age with thee ;
and ye must not say, 'Fie!' (Ujf} nor
grumble a.t them, but speak to them a gene
rous speech. And lower to them the wing of
humility out of compassion, and say, ' 0 Lord !
have compassion on them, us they brought
me up when I was little ! ' "
PARISH. In connection with the
mosques of, cities and villages there are ap
pointed districts not unlike English parishes.
Within these districts the Imam of the
mosque is held responsible for the marriages
and burials of the people, and his services
can be claimed, for these ceremonies, for
which he receives customary fees. Any other
Manlawl performing marriages or burials, is
expected to obtain the permission of the
Imam of the parish. In fact, the position of
the Imam of a mosque is similar to that of a
beneaced clergyman. He receive? the mar
riage and burial fees, fees at the ceremony of
circumcision, thank offering? on the Jjirfch of
a child* or on recovery from sickness* presents
on the festival days, &c.« as well as the waqf>
or endowment, of the mosque
PAESI. [MAJTJS.]
PABTTJKITION. [NIFAS.]
PATIENCE. Arabic eabr O°), is
frequently enjoined in the Qur'an, e.g. Surah
ii. 148: "0 ye who believe! seek help
through patience and prayer: verily God is
with the patient/'
PAWNING. [RAHW.J
PEN, The, of Fate. [QALAM.]
PENTATEUCH. [TAURAT.]
PESTILENCE. Arabic t&'un
(^ycUr-)j u-aba («^). According to
the teaching of Muhammad in the traditions,
a pestilence is a punishment sent by God, it
is also an occasion of martyrdom, and that
Muslim who abides in the place where he is
at the time of H pestilence, and dies of it, is
admitted to the rank of a martyr. It is aUe
enjoined that Musalrnans shall not enter
a place where there is a pestilence raging,
but remain where they are until it ia passed.
(Mishkdt, book v. ch. 1.)
PHARAOH. Arabic Fir'avn
Tieb. ^ne Kin of
Egypt in, the time of Mo^es. Considered by
all Muharamadans to be the very personifica-
tiou of wickedness.
Al-Baizawi says Piraun was the common
title of the kings of Egypt, just as Cwsar
was that of the Roman Emperors, and that
the name of Pharaoh, according to some, wag
al-Walid ibn Mus'ab, und according to others
Mus'ab ibn Raiyain, and according to others
Qabiis, and that he lived 620 years. Abu'l-
fida' says that Mus'ab being 170 years old,
and having no child, whilst he kept his herds,
he saw a cow calf, and heard her say at the
same time, " 0 Mus'ab. be not grieved, thou
shalt have a son, a wicked son, who shall be
cast into hell," and that this son was the
wicked Fir'a-un of the time of Moses.
In the Qor'an, Surah xxxviii. 11, he is
surnamed Fir'aun Zru. 'l-Autud, or " Pharaoh
the master of the Stakes, who called the
Apostles liars." Some say the stakes refer
to the strength of his kingdom, others that
they were instruments of torture and death
which he used,
Pharaoh was drowned in the Red Sea, and
the commentators say that Gabriel would
not let his body pink, bat that it floated as a
sign and a warning to the children of Israel.
(See Qur'an, Siirah x. 90-92.)
A further account of Pharaoh, as given
in the Qur'au, will be found in the article on
Moses. The Pharaoh of Joseph's time is said
to be Radyan ibn al-W&lid al-'Amliqi. the an
cestor of the renowned Pharaoh in the time
of Moses. [MOSES. J
PHILOSOPHY, MUSLIM. Arabic
falsafah (&JLi), or 'ilmu 'l-hikmah
(&»&ifeft fjj*}. The following account
of Arabian philosophy is taken with permis
sion from Professor Ueberw«g\s History of
Philosophy,. translated by G, S. Morris, M.A.
(Hodder and Stcughton), vol. ,i. p. 4.05 :—
" The whole phils'nphy of the Arabians was
only a form of Aristotelianism, tempered
more or less with Neo-Platonic conceptions.
The medical and physical science of the
Greeks and Greek philosophy became known
to the Arabs especially under the rule of the
Abassidae (from A.D. 750 on), when medical,
and sifterward.s (from the time of the reign
of Almamun, in the first half of the ninth
century) philosophical works were translated
from Greek into Syriac and Arabic by Syriac
Christians. The tradition of Greek philo
sophy was associated with that combination
of Platonism and Aristotelianisrn which pre
vailed among the last philosophers of ariti-
quity, and with the study by Christian theo
logians of the Aristotelian logic as a formal
organon of dogmatics ; but in vipw of the
rigid monotheism of the Mohammedan reli
gion. it was necessary that the Aristotelian
metttphysics. and especially the Aristotelian
theology, should be rn ore fully adopted among
the Arabs than among the Neo-Platonists and
Christians, and that iii Consequence of the
union aonong the former of philosophical with
medical studies, the works of Aristotle on
natui-al science should be studied by them
with especial zeal.
(iOf the Arabian philosophers in the East.
the most important were Alkendi (al-KmdJ),
who was still more renowned as a mathema
tician and astrologer ; Alfarahi (al-Farabi),
who adopted the Neo-Platonic doctrine of
PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY
453
i imanation : Avicenna (Abu Sina), the rep re -
| jentative of a purer Aristotelianiswi and a
! ajan who for centuries, oven among the Chris
tian scholars of the later medieval centuries,
; jtood in the highest consideration as a philo
sopher, and, still more, as a teacher of medi
cine; and, finally, Algazel (al-Ghazzuli), -who
maintained a philosophical skepticism in the
» interest of theological orthodoxy.
rt The most importaut Arabian philosophers
in the West were Avempace (Ibn Bad ja), Abu-
tbacer (Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail), and Averroos
(Tbn Rashid). Avempace and Abubacer dwell
Jin their works on the idea of the independent
and jirudual development of man. Abubacer
(in his « Natural Man ') develops this idea in
Ija spirit of opposition to positive religion,
although he affirms that positive religion and
liphilosophical doctrine pursue the same end,
.namely, the union of the human intellect with
the divine. Averroes, the celebrated com
mentator of Aristotle, interprets the doctrine
I'of the latter respecting the active and the
passive intellect in a sense which is nearly
pantheistic and which exclude? the idea of
individual immortality. He admits the exist
ence ot only one active intellect, niid aitirms
that this belong!? in common to the whole
human race, that it becomes temporarily par-
(iticularized in individuals, but that each of
its emanations becomes finally re<tbsorbf;d in
(.the original whole, in which alone, therefore,
ithey possess immortality.
" The acquaintance of the Mohammedan
Arabs with the writings of Aristotle \va,s
'brought about through the agency of Syrian
j Christians. Before the time of Mohammed,
'many Ne.storian Syrians lived among the
Arabs as physicians. Mohammed also had
intercourse with NTestorian monks. Hareth
Ibn Calda, the friend and physician of the
Prophet, was a Nestoriau. It was not, how
ever, until after the extension of the Moham
medan rule over Syria and Persia, and
! chiefly after the Abassida^ had commenced
to reign (A.I>. 750), that foreign learning, ^spe
cially in medicine and philosophy, became gene
rally known among the Arabs. Philosophy
• had already been cultivated in those coun
tries during the last days of Nco-Platonism.
by David the Armenian about 500 A.IX : bis
Prolog, to Phifos. and to the Jtuyoye. and his
commentary on the Catey, in Bramiia' Collec
tion of Scholia to Arist. ; his works. Venice,
1823; on him c/i C. F. Neumann, Paris, 1829)
and afterwards by the Syrians, especially
Christian Syrians, translated Greek authors,
particularly medical, but afterward philoso
phical authors also, first iuto Syriac, and then
from Syriac into Arabic (or they, perhaps,
made use alg.o of .earlier fc>yriac translations
some of which are to-day extant).
'• During the roign and at the instance of
Almamun(A.o. 813-838), the first translations
of works of Aristctle iuto Arabic were made,
under the direction of Johannes Dm-ftl-Batrik
(i.e. the son of the Patriarch, who. according
to Kenan [1.1., p. 57], is to be distmg ui.shed
from JohautiAS Meaue, the physician), these
translations, in part still extant, were regarded
(according to Abulfavagiua, Jfistw. DvnasL.
p. 153 et «/.) as faithful but inelegant.
" A man more worthy of mention is Honein
Ibn Ishak (Johannitius), a Nostorian, who
flourished under Motewakkel, and died iu
876. Acquainted with the Syriac, Arabic,
and Greek languages, he was at the head of
a school of interpreters at Bagdad, to which
his son Ishak Ben Honoiu and hi* nephew
Hobeisch-el-Asam also belonged. The works
not only of Aristotle himself, but also of
several ancient Aristotelians (Alexander
AphrodisiensLs, Thcmistius, and also Noo-
Platonio exegetes, such as Porphyry and
Auimoiiius), and of Galenus and others, were
translated into (Syriac and) Arabic. Of
these translations, also, some of those iu
Arabic are still existing, but the Syriac
translations are all lost. (Honein's Arabic
translation of the Categories has been edited
by Jul. Theod. Zenker, Leips. 1840 ) In the
tenth century new translations, not only of
the works of Aristotle, but also of Theo-
phrastus, Alexander- of Aphrodisias, Theo-
mistiua, Syrianus, Ammonias, etc., were pro
duced by Syrian Christians, of whom the
moat important were the Nestorians, Aba
Baschar Mata and Jahja b«n Adi, the Tagri-
tan, as also Isa Ben Zaraa. The Syriac
translations (or revisions of earlier transla
tions) by these men have been lost, but the
Arabic translations were widely circulated
and have in large measure been preserved :
they were used by Alfarabi, Avicenna. Avor-
roes, and the other Arabian philos»ophors. The
Republic, Timccus, and Laws of Plato, were
also translated into Arabic. Averroos (in
Spain, about 1 150) possessed and paraphrased
the Hep., but he did not the Politics of Aris
totle ; the book existing in MS. at Paris,
entitled Swset (Siyasah), i.e. Politic*/, is the
spurious work L)e Jhyi urine Prj'ncipum s.
Secret-urn Secretonnn; the Politics of Aristotle
is not kuown to exist in Arabic. Farther, ex
tracts from the Nco-Platonists, especially from
Proclus, were translated into Arabic. The
Syrians were led, especially in consequence
of their contact with the Arabs, to extend
their studios beyond the Ore/anon : they began
to cultivate in the Arabic language all the
branches of philosophy on (he basis of Aris
totle's works, and iu this they were after
wards fullowed by fhn Arabs themselves, who
soon surpassed their Syrian ter.cbers. Alfa
rabi and Avicenna vrore the scholars of
Syrian and Christian physicians. The later
Syrian philosophy bear.-t the lypo of the
Arabian philosophy. The mos't important
reproseutativM of the farmer w*s Grcgorius
Barhebraeus or Abulfanigitis, tLc Jacobite,
who lived in the thirteenth centxuy, and wa.s
descended from Jewish parent*, ;>nd whose
compendium of th« Peripatetic philosophy
(Bfctynwt Rajjifiitiit) is still of u'l-v.t auilu-
rity among the Syri/ms.
" Alkendi (Abu Jusuf Jacul> Ibn Eshak al
Kendi. j.o. the father oC Joseph, .Jacob, son of
Isaac, Ihe Keudaean, of the district of Kcn-
dah) was born at P.usra, on the Porsisn Gulf,
where later, iu th*» tenth century, the
454
PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY
Brothers of Purity' or the ; Sincere
Brethren, who collected in an Encyclopedia
the learning then acceptable to the Arabians,
were located. . He lived during and after the
.first half of the ninth centnry, dying about
870. He was renowned an a mathematician,
astrologer, physician, and philosopher. He
composed commentaries on the logical writ
ings of Aristotle, and wrote also -on metaphy
sical problem.*?. In theology he was a rational
ist. His astrology was founded on the hypo
thesis that all things are so bound together
by harmonious causal relations, that each,
when completely conceived, must represent
as in a mirror the whole universe
" Alfarabi (Abu Nasi Mo'uarnmed ben Mo
hammed ben Tarkhan of Farab), born near
the end of the ninth century, received his
philosophical training mainly at Bagdad,
where he also b*gp.n to teach. Attached to
the mystical sect of the Sufi, which Said Abu!
Chair had founded about A.D. 820 (under the
unmistakable influence of Buddhism-, although
Tholuck [« Ssu/tsmvs." Berlin, 1821, and
Bluihentrtmmlung am drr Aforgenltitid. Mystik,
Berlin, 1825] assigns to it a purely Moham
medan origin), ATfarabi vent at a later epoch
to Aleppc and Damascus, where be died A.D.
&>0. In logic Alfarabi follows Aristotle
almost without exception. Whether logic is
to be regarded as a part of philosophy, or
not, depends, according to Alfarabi. on the
greater or less extension given to the concep
tion of philosophy, and is therefore a useless
question. Argumentation is the instrument
by which to develop the unknown from the
known ; it is employed by the utcns logicux ;
logica docens is the theory which relates to
this instrument, argumentation, or which
treats of it as its subject (fiitbjcctum). Yot,
logic also treats of single concepts (incom-
piexa) as elements of judgments and argu
mentations (according to Alfarabi, as reported
by Alberta* M., De Prwdicatil. L 2 seq., q/I
Prantl, Gfsch, der Log., ii. p. 302 seg,) Alfa
rabi defines the universal (see Alb M., De
Praed., ii. 5) as the «nwm de multiset in multis,
which definition is followed immediately by
the inference that the universal has no exist
ence apart from the individual (non habet esse
separatum a muUis). It is worthy of notice
that Alfarabi does not admit in its absolute
sense the aphorism : sinyulare sentitur, imiver-
sale intelligitur, but teaches that the singular,
although in its material aspect an object of
sensible perception, exists in its formal aspect
in the intellect, and, on the other hand, that
the universal, although as such belonging to
the intellect, exists also in sensu. in so far as
it exists bleuded witb the individual (Alb.,
An. post. i. I, 3). Among the contents of the
Metaphysics of Alfarabi, mention should be
made of his proof of th« existence of God,
which was employed by Albertus Magnus and
later philosophers. This proof is founded on
Plat., 7tm.tp. 28; ?£ ycro/AO'a) <£a/M€X VTT'
dm'ov nvbs avaywiv clvai yeve'cr&H, and
Arist., AfetapA.. xii. 7; «m rotw TI KOI
6 Kwet, etc., or on the principle that all
change and all development must have a
cause. Alfarabi distinguishes (Fonieff Qitoes-
tianum, ch. 3 seq.t in Schmolders Doc. Phil.
Ar., p. 44), between that which has a possible
and that which has a necessary existence- just
as Plato and Aristotle distinguish between
the changeable and the eternal). If the pos
sible is to exist in reality, a cause is neces
sary thereto. Tho world is composite, hence
it had a beginning or was caused (ch. 2). But
the series of causes and effects can neither
recede in infinitum, nor return like a circle
into itself : it must, therefore, depend upon
some necessary link, and this link. is the first
being (ens prinwm). This iirst being exists
necessarily ; the supposition of its uon»
existence involves a contradiction. It is un
caused, and needs in order to its existence no
cause external to itself. It is the cau.se of
all that exists. Its eternity implies its per
fection. It is free from all accidents. It i*
Simple and unchangeable.- As the absolutely
Good it is at once * bsolute thought, absolute
object of thought, and absolute thinking being
(intelUgentia, intelligible, intelliyens). It has
wisdom, life, insight, might, and will, beauty
excellence, brightness ; it enjoys the highest
happiness, is the first willing being and the first
object of will (desire) In the knowledge of
this being, Alfarabi (De rebus studio Arist.
phil. prc&mitt. Comm,t ch. 4. ap. Schmoldera,
Dot. ph. Arab., p. 22), sees the end of philo
sophy, and he defines the practical duty of
man as consisting in rising, so far as human
force permits it, into likeness with God. In
his teachings respecting that which is caused
by or derived from God (Fontes Qacest, ch.
6 seq,), Alfarabi follows the Neo-PlatonistS.
His fundamental conception is expressed by
the word emanation. The first created thing
was tlie Intellect, which came forth from the
first being (the Novs of Plotinus; this doc
trine was logically consistent only for Plo
tinus. not for Alfarabi, since the former re
presented his One as superior to all pre
dicates, while Alfarabi, in agreement with
Aristotle aud with religious dogmatics, recog
nized in his first being intelligence). Prom
this intellect flowed forth, as a new emana
tion, the Cosmical Soul, in the complication
and combination of whose ideas the basis of
corporeality is to be found. Emanation pro
ceeds from the higher or outer spheres to
the lower or inner ones. In bodies, matter
and form are necessarily combined with each
other. Terrestrial bodies are composed of
the four elements. The lower physical powers,
up to the potential intellect, are dependent on
matter. The potential intellect, through the
operation (in-beaming) of the active divine
intellect, is made actual (intellectvs in ttctu or
in ejfectu), and this actual intellect, as result
ing from development, may be called acquired
intellect (intellectus acquisitvs, after the doc
trine of Alexander of Aphrodisias, concerning
the POVS eTTticTTTTOs). The actual human in
tellect is free from matter, and is a simple
substance, which alone survives the death of
the body and remains indestructible. Evil is
a necessary condition, of good in a finite
PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY
455
urld. All things are imder divine guidance
fd are good, since all was created by God.
Hween the human understanding and the
iingB which it weeks to know there exists
p Alfarabi teaches, De Intel /'do et Jnfel-
t:tu, p. 48 scq.} a similarity of form, which
lises from their having both been formed by
<e same first being, and which makes know-
3ge possible.
"Avicenna (Abu All Al Hosain Abdallah
m Sinai was born at Afsemia, in the pro-
nce of Bokhara, in the year 980. His mind
A« early developed by the study of theology,
> iHosophy, and medicine, and in his youth he
id already written a scientific encyclopedia.
;e taught- medicine and philosophy in Ispa-
in. He died atHamadan in the Hfty-eighth
jar of hiK life. His medical Cttnon was em-
i '.oyed for centuries as- the basis of instruction
i philosophy he set out from the doctrines
i:r Alfarabi. but modified them by omitting
lUny Neo-Platoriio theorems and approxi-
iftting more nearly to the real doctrine of
t nstotle. The principle on which his logic
t as founded, and which Averroes adopted
I nd Albertu* Magnus often cites, was des-
ned to exert a great influence. It was
borded thus : Intellect*!* in formi* agit uni'
mnatitutew (Alb., De Prcedicub, ii. 3 and 0).
{'he genu&, as also the species, the difi'erentia
po aoeidons, and the propriuni. are in them-
I elves neither universal nor singular. But
.ho thinking mind, by comparing the similar
jipnns, forms the genus loyicwn, which answers
jio the definition of the genus, viz. : that it is
; »redicated of many objects specifically diffe-
ent, aud answers tho question,' What is it ? '
I'tells the quiditas). It is the genus naturale
:vhicli furuifhes the basis of comparison.
"Vhen the mind adds to the generic a-nd spe
cific the individual accidents1, the singular is
ormed (Avic., Log., Venice edition, 15U8, f.
2, rip. Prantl, Geschichte d?r Logik, ii. 847
1*9.) Only figuratively, according to Avi-
:enna, can the genus be called matter and the
specific difference form; such phraseology
;frequ(?nt in Aristotle) is not strictly cor
rect. Avicenna distinguishes several modes
|)f generic existence, viz. : ante res, in rebus,
.ind pout res. Genera are ant? re* in the mind
!>f God ; for all that exists is related to God
i3 a work of art is related to an artist ; it
existed in his wisdom and will before its en
trance into the world of manifold existence ;
in this sense, and only in this sense, is the
universal before the individual. Realized
with its accidents in matter, the genus con
stitutes the natural thing, res witurah's, in
which thd universal essence is immanent.
The third mode of the existence of the genus
is that which it has in being conceived by
the human intellect : when the latter abstracts
the form aud then compares it again with the
individual objects to which by one aud the
same definition it belongvS, in this compa
rison (respectus) ia contained tho universal
(Avic., Loy., f. 12 ; Mctaph., v. 1, 2, f. 87, in
Prantl, ii. p. 849). Our thought, which is
directed to things, contains nevertheless dis
positions which are peculiar to it<e!i \ when
things are thought, there is added in thought
something which does not exist outside of
thought. Thus universality as such, the
generic concept and the specific difference,
the subject and predicate, and other similar
elements, belong only to thought. Now it is
possible to direct the attention, not merely to
things, but also to the dispositions which are
pe"iiliar to thought, and this takes place in
logic (Jfefapfc, i. ? ; iii. 10, in Prantl, iL p. 820
segj. On this is based the distinction oi
* first ' aud ' second intentions.' The direction
of attention to things is the first intention
(iattntio prima) ; the second intention (»«-
tent i ft secundii) is directed to the dispositions
which are peculiar to our thinking ."concern
ing things. Since the universal as such I>e
lougs not to things, but to thought, it belongs
to the second intention. The principle of in
dividual plurality, according to Avicenna, is
matter, which he regards, not with Alfarabi
as an emanation from the Oosmical Soul, but
with Aristotle as eternal and uncreated ; all
potentiality is grounded in it, as actuality i*
in God. Nothing changeable cau coma forth
directly from the unchangeable first cause.
His first and only direct product is the intel-
liyentia prima (the vovs oi Plotinus, as with
Alfarabi) ; from it the chain of emanations
extends through the various celestial spheres
down to our earth. But the issuing of the
lower from the higher is to be conceived, not
as a single, temporal act, but as an eternal
act, in whifh cause and effect are synchro
nous. TU<» cause which ga>ve to things their
existence must continually maintain them
in existence; it is an error to imagine that
things once brought into existence continue
therein of themselves. Notwithstanding it*
dependence on God. the world has existed
from eternity. Time aud motion always were
(Avic. Mvtfiiih., vi. 2, et a/; cf. the account in
the Tractdtus de Mrroribus, a/>. Haureau, Ph.
tic., i. p. 808). Avicenna distinguishes a two
fold development of our potential understand
ing into actuality, the one common, depend
ing on instruction, the other rare,, and depen
dent on immediate divine illumination. Ac
cording to a report transmitted to OH bv
Avsrroe", ^yicenna, iu his Philosophic Or»Vn-
tftli*, whjrh hH'i not coine down to us, con
tradicted his Aristotelian principles, and con
ceived <TO«I as a heavenly body.
" Algazel (Abu Hamed Mohammed iou
Achmed Al-Ghazzali), born A.D. 1059 at
Ghazzaiah iii Khorasafi, taught first at Bag
dad, ami afterwards, having become a Sfifi,
resided in Syria. He died A.D. 1111 at Tus.
He was a sceptic in philosophy, but only
that his faith might bo nil the stronger in
the doctrines of theology. His course in this
respect marked a reaction of tho exclusively
religious principle of Mohammedanism against
philosophical speculation — *vhich in spito of
nil accommodation had not made itself fully
orthodox — and particularly against Ariatoto-
litmism ; between the mysticism of the Neo-
Platonists, on the contrary, and the Sulism
of Algazel, there existed an essential affinity.
Iu his Makacid aljiUusifa (Afaqdfidtt *l-F<ii<i-
456
PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY
The Aims of the Philosophers,' Alga-zel
sets forth the doctrines of philosophy follow
ing essentially Alfarabi and particularly Avi-
cenna. These doctrines are then subjected by
him to a hostile criticism in his Tehafot al
filasifa(Tahafutu'lrFala3ifali), 'Against the
Philosophers,' while in his * Fundamental
Principles of Faith,' he presents positively
his own views. Averroea wrote by way of
rejoinder his Destmctio Destruction's Phifafio-
phorum. Algazel exerted himself especially
to excite a fear of the chastisements of God,
since in his opinion the men of his times were
living in. too great assurance. Against the
philosophers he defended particularly the re
ligious dogmas of the creation of the world
in time and out of nothing, the reality of the
divine attributes, and the resurrection of the
body, as also the power of G.od to work mi
racles, in opposition to the supposed law of
cause and effect. In the Middle Ages, his
exposition of logic, metaphysics, and physics,
as given in the Makacid, was much read.
" The result of the scepticism of Algazel
was in the East the triumph of an unphilos6-
phical orthodoxy ; after hiin there arose in that
quarter no philosopher worthy of mention.
On the other hand, the Arabian philosophy
began to ilourish in Spain, where a succession
of thinkers cultivated its various branches.
"Avetnpace (Abu Bekr Mohammed ben
Jahja Ibn Badja), born at Saragossa near
the end of the eleventh century,' was cele
brated as a physician, mathematician, astro
nomer, and philosopher. About 1118 he
wrote, at Seville, a number of logical trea
tises. At a later period he Jived in Granada,
and afterwards also in Africa. He died at a
not very advanced age in 1188, without
having completed any extensive works ; yet
he wrote several smaller (mostly lost) trea
tises, among which, according to' Munk
(Melanges, p. 386), were Logical Tractate*
(still existing, according to Casiri, Biblioth.
Arabico-Hisp. JEscurialensis, i. p. 179, in the
library of the Escurial), a wort on the soul,
another on the conduct of the solitary (regime
du solitaire), also on the union of the universal
intellect with man, and a farewell letter ; to
these may be added commentaries oh the
Physics, Meteorology, and other works of
Aristotle relating to physical science. Munk-
gives the substance of the ' Conduct of the
Solitary,' as reported by a Jewish philoso
pher of the fourteenth century, Moses of Nar-
bonne (Jtfi?., pp. 389-409). This work treats
of the degrees by which the soul rises from
that instinctive life which it shares with the
lower animals, through gradual emancipation
from materiality and potentiality to the
acquired intellect (intellectus uctjuisitus)
which is an emanation from the active intel
lect or Deity. Avompace seems (according
to Averroes, De Anima, fol. 168x) to have
identified the intdlectus materialis with the
imaginative faculty. In the highest grade
of knowledge (in self-consciousness) thought
is identical with its object.
" Abubacer (Abu Bakr Mohammed ben
Abd al Malic Ibn Tophail al Keisi) was born
iu about the year J100, at Wadi-Asc:
(Guadix), in Andalusia, and died in 1 185, 1
Morocco. He was celebrated as a physiciar
mathematician, philosopher, and poet, an
pursued still further the path of specula tio
opened up by Ibn Badja. His chief work
that has come down to us. is entitle*
-ffaji Ibn Jukdhon (Haiyu, bnu Yagzan"
i.e. the Living One, the Son of the Wakin
One. The fundamental idea is the sara<
as in Ibn Badja's ' Conduct of the Solitary '
it is an exposition of the gradual deve
lopment of the capacities of man to th
point where his intellect becomes one wit
the Divine. But Ibn Tophail goes consider
ably farther than his predecessor in main,
taining the independence of man in oppositioi
to the institutions and opinions of huinai
society. In his theory he represents the indi
vidual as developing himself without externa
aid. That independence of thought and wil
which man now owes to the whole course p:
the previous history of the human race, is re
garded by him 'as existing in the natura
man, out of whom he makes an extra histo
rical ideal (like Rousseau in the eighteentl
century). Ibn Tophail regards positive reli
gion, with its law founded on reward ano
punishment, as only a necessary means ol
discipline for the multitude ; religious con-
ceptions are in his view only types or enve
lopes of that truth to the logical comprehen
sion of which the philosopher giaduallj
approaches.
"Averroes (Abul Walid Mohammed Ibr
Achmed Ibn Roschd), born A.D. 1126, at Cor
dova, where his grandfather and father filled
high judicial offices, studied first positive
theology and jurisprudence, and then medi
cine, mathematics, and philosophy. He ob
tained subsequently the office of judge al
Seville, and afterwards at Cordova. He was
a junior contemporary and friend of Ibn Top
hail, who presented him to Calif Abu Jacul
Jusnf. soon after the latter's ascent of the
throne (1163), and recommended him, in place
of himself, for the work of preparing ar
analysis of the works of Aristotle. Ibn
Roscbd won the favour of this prince, who
was quite familiar with the problems of phi
losophy, and at a later epoch he became his
physician in ordinary (1182). For a time
also he was in fa.vour with a son of the prince.
Jacub Almansur, who 'succeeded to his
father's rule»in 1184, and he was still honoured
by him in 1195. But soon after this date he
was accused of cultivating the philosophy
and science of antiquity to the prejudice of
the Mohammedan religion, and was robbed by
Ahnansur of his dignities and banished to
Elisana (Lucena) near Cordova; he was
afterwards tolerated in Morocco. A strict
prohibition was issued against the study of
Greek philosophy, and whatever works on
Jogic and metaphysics were discovered 'were
delivered to the flames. Averroes died in
1198, in his seventy-third year Soon after,
the rule of the Moors in Spain came to an
end. The Arabian philosophy was extin
guished, and liberal culture sunk under the
PHILOSOPHY
itclusive rule of the Koran and of dog-
\atics.
["Averrops shows for Aristotle, the mosi
nconditional reverence, going in this respect
bcli farther than Avicenna: he consider*
im, as the founders of religion are wont to
ie considered, as the man whom alone»ainon#
Jl men, God permitted to reach the highest
:lunmit of perfection. Aristotle was. in hit
'pinion, the founder and perfeoter of scientific
'nowledge. In logic. Averroes everywhere
mtts himself to merely annotating Aristotle
'he principle of Avic-enna : intellt.r.tnsin formi.
itrit tiniuf.rsol'tfiffm,n also his ( Avcrr.. be An.
8., r/'. Alb. M.. De 7 W/V«6., ii. ch. 6)
'eieace treats not of universal things, but
if individuals under thuir universal aspect,
l^bifih the understanding recognises after
'inking abstraction of their common nature
Oestr. destr. foJ. 17 : Scientia autein non est
•:ientiu ret vniwrs'ilis, sed vst scientia parti
ktbiriwn rnodo wiiverfiali, quern factt intell&Gtu
^ partintlarib'is. quum abstrnhlt <ib ris n<ttnraii
Jictui '•'jmrn.tfn'm, quif <ii»-i>>a t*t m materiis.
nhe forms, ii'l'jc/i arc developed through the. in
l.utrice of higher forms, and in t/te tost resot <
hrouqh the influence of Deity, are contained
tmbri/r>nirai}y in matter
" The most noticeable thing in his psycho-
o£y is the explanation which he gives of the
Aristotelian .distinction between the active
.nd the passive intellect (votk Tra^rucos and
roi7yrt«os). Thomas Aquinas, who opposes
he explanation, gives it in these words : In-
ellecturn substantiam esse ovmino abanima sepu
'atom. esseqve vnum in omnibus hffminibvs ; —
lec Detem facer -e posse quod sint plum* intel-
'ectus; but, he Ray«», Averroes r*dded : per m-
'iontm condudo dt necessitate quod tntelfectns
*st WT?MS numerotftnni1er tnrneji tene.o oppositum
ytr jidem. In his commentary to the twelfth
aook of the Metaphysics, Averroes compares
;he relation of the active reason to man with
>hat of the sun to vision ; as the sun. by its
.ight, brings about the act of seeing, so- the
active reason enables us to know: hereby
the rational capacity in man is developed into
actual reason, which is one with the active
reason. Averroes attempts to recognise two
opinions, the one of which he ascribes to
Alexander of Aphrodisias. and the other to
Thernistiua auxi the other cernmentators.
Alexander, be says, had held the passive in
tellect (VOL-V iraOrjriKOs) to be a mere ; di;;
position ' connected with the animal faculties.
and, in order that it might be able perfectly
to receive all ioruis, absolutely formless ; thib
disposition was iu us, but the active intellect
(vovs Trof.yrnKosj, was without us ; after our
death our individual intellects no longe;
existed, fhemistius, on the contrary, and
the other commentators, had regarded the
passive intellect not as a mere disposition
connected with the lower psychical powers.
but as inhering in the same substratum to
which the active intellect belonged : this sub
stratum, according to tbeui. was distinct from
those animal powers uf the soul which depend
on material organs, and «•> »t v/as immaterial.
PHILOSOPHY
457
nmncnrtality was to be predicated of the indi
vidual intellect inhering in it. Averroes, on
the other hand, held that the passive intel
lect (vovs 7ra0r/rtKOs) was. indeed, more than
a mere disposition, and assumed (with The
mistitis and most of the other Commentators,
except Alexander) that tue same substance
was passive and active intellect ^namely, the
former in so far as it received forms, the
tatter in so far -^s it roustructed forms); but
be denied that the same pubstance in itself
and iu its individual existence was both pas
sive and active, nssuniinp (with Alexander)
that there existed only one active intellect in
the world, and that man had only the ' dis»
position ' in virtue of which he could be
artected by the active intellect ; when the
actrve intellect came in contact with this
disposition, there arose in us the passive
or materfnl intellect, the one active intel
lect becoming on its entrance into the
plurality of souls particularized iu them,
just as light is decomposed into the diffe
rent colours in bodies. The passive intel
lect wus f»ccording to Muuk's translation) :
' Une chose composte de la disposition <jui exute
en nous et tfun intellect qui se joint a cette dtx*
position, et qui, en tant quit y eat joint, est un
intellect pr6$U$9S( (tn puissance) et non pas
un intellect en acte, /nais qui est intellect en
acte en tant qu'il n'est plus joint a In disposi
tion (from the Comtnentaire moyen sur le hatte
de I'Ame, in Monk's Mdl., p. 4-t7) ; the active
intellect worked first upon the passive, so as
to develop it into actual and acquired intel
lect, and then on this latter, which it absorbed
into itself, so that after our dea-th it could be
said that our vovs, mind, continued to exist —
though not as an individual substance, but
only as an element of the universal mind. But
Averroes did not identify this universal mind
(as Alexander of Aphrodisias identified the
i/ov? Troii/TiKCS) with the Deity himself
but conceived it (following in this the earhet
Arabian commentators and directly the Neo-
Platonisw) as an eraa:iation from the Deity,
and as the mover of the lowest of the celestial
circles, i.e. the sphere of the moon. This
doctrine was developed by Averroes, parti
cularly in his commentaries on the De Anima,
whereas, in the Paraphrase ( written earlier)
he had expressed himself in a more indivi
dualistic sen.se (Averr.. ap. Munk, Melanges.
p. 442 »<;</.). The psychological teaching ot
Averroes -resembled, therefore, in the cha
racter of its definitions, that of Themisrius.
but in its i-eal content that ot Alexuudei
Aphrodisiensis, since both Averroes and
Alexande limited the individual existence of
<he human intellect, (KOvO to the period pre
ceding death, and recognized the eternity
only of the ono nniversal active intellect
(yovs TTOirjTiKOs) . For this reason the dor-
trine "f the Alexandras and of the Aver-
roists were both condemned by the Catholic
Church.
" Averroes professed himself in no sense
hostile to religion, least of all to Mohauiuie
danism. which he regarded as tliH most p-rfe«
58
458
PHILOSOPHY
PLAGUES OF EGYPT
of all religions He demanded in the philo
sopher a grateful adherence to the religion ol
his people, the religion in which .he was
educated. But by this ' adherence ' he meant
only a skilful accommodation of his views
and life to the requirements of positive reli
gion — a course which could not but fail to
satisfy the real defenders of the religious
principle. Averroes considered religion as
containing philosophical truth under the veil
ot figurative representation ; by allegorical
interpretation one mighi advance to purer
knowledge, while the masses held to the
literal sense. The highest grade of intelli
gence was philosophica] knowledge; the pecu
liar religion of the philosopher consisted in
the deepening of his knowledge; for man
could offer to God no worthier oultus than
that of the knowledge of his works, through
which we attain to the knowlegs of God him
self in the fulness of His essence. (Averroes
hi the larger Commentary on the JMetaph., ap.
Mnnk, Melanges, p. 455 j^/.,
Dr. Marcus Bods remarks that " iu philoso
phy the attainments of the Arabians have
probably been overrated (see Lit. Hist, of
Middle Ages, by Berringtou, p. 445) rather
than depreciated. As middle-men or trans
mitters, indeed, their importance can scarcely
be too highly estimated. They were keen
students of Aristotle when the very language
in which he wrote was unknown in Roman
Christendom: and the commentaries of Aver
roes on the most exact of Greek philosophers
are said to be worth v of the text. It was at
the Mohammedan university in his native
city of Cordova, and from Arabian tear-h^vs,
that this precursor of Spinoza .derived those
genns of thought whose fruit may be seen in
the wnole history of scholastic theology.
And just before Averroes entered these
learned halls, a young man passed from them,
equipped with the same learning, and gifted
with genius and penetration of judgment
which have mado bis opinions final wher
ever the name of Memonides is known. Un
doubtedly these two fellow-citizens — the
Mohammedan Arab and the Arabic-speak
ing Jew — have left their mark deep -on all
subsequent Jewish and Christian learning.
And e\ en though it be doubted whether their
influence has been wholly benene,iai, thej u^ay
well be claimed as instances of the intellec
tual ardour which Mohammedan learning
could inspire or awaken. A recent writer of
great promise in the philosophy of religion
has assigned to the Arab thinkers the honour
able function of creating modern philosophy.
' Theology and philosophy became in the
hands ot the Moors fused and blended ; the
Greek scientific theory as to the origin of
things intenvound wttn the Hebrew faith in
a Creator. And so speculation became in a
new and higher sense theistic : and the inter
pretation of the universe, the explication of
God's relation to it and its relation to God.'
(Fairbairn's Studies, p. 398.) But specula
tion hed become tLoistic long before there
was an Arab philosophy. The aame ques
tions wh'oh. form the staple of modern philo
sophy were discussed at Alexandria three
centuries before Mohammed ; and there ts
scarcely a Christian thinker of the third 01-
fourth oentfury who tlo^ not write in pre
sence of the great problem of God's connection
with the world, the relation of the Infinite to
the finite, of the unseen intangible Spirit to
the crass material universe. What we have
here to do with, however, is not to ascertain
whether modern philosophy be truly the off
spring of the unexpected marriage of Aris
totle and the Koran, but whether the religion
promulgated ^n the latter is or is not obstruc
tive of intellectual effort and enlightenment.
And enough has been said to show that there
is nothing in the religion which necessarily.
and directly tends to obstruct either philo
sophy or science ; though when we consider
the history and achievements of that race
which has for six centuries been the leading
representative of Islam, we are inclined to
add that there is nothing in the religion which
necessarily lead.s on the mind to the highest
intellectual effort Voltaire, in his own ner
vous way, exclaims, ' I detest the Turks, as
the tyrants of their wives and the enemies of
the urta.' And the religion has shown an
affinity for such uncivilised races. It has not
iaken captive any race which possesses a rich
literature, nor has it given birth to any work
of which the world demands a translation ; and
precisely in so far as individuals have shown
themselves possessed of great speculative and
creative Ken'ti*. nave they departed from the
rigid orthocJoxv .of the Koran. We should
conclude, therefore, that the outburst of lite
rary and scientific enthusiasm in the eighth
century was dne, not directly to the influence
of the Mohammedan religion, but to the mental
awakening- and exultant consciousness oi
power and widened horizon that came to the
conquering Saracens. At first their newly-
awakened energy found scope in other fields
than that oi philosophy. l Marte undique ob-
strepenti, musis vtx 'rat focus.' But when the
din of war died down, the voice of the Muses
was heard, and tho same 'fervour which had
made me Sarncen arms irresistible, was spent
ka
tr> acqur
, tivddha,
and Christ, p. 113
PICTURES. Muhammad cursed
the painter or drawer of men an^ Hmmals
(Mithkat. book xii, ch. i. pt. 1). and conse
quently they are held to be unlawful.
PILGRIMAGES TO MAEKAH
are or two kinds : the Hajj or special pilgri
mage performed in the month of Zu '1-Hijjah.
and the '£7mraA. or visitation, which may be
performed at any time of the year. [HAJJ,
. [
PlR (,*»). The Persian word for
an elder. A term used for a nturshid, or
religious leader- [scFiibM.~]
PLAGUES OF EG^PT. The fol
lowing references occur to the ten plagues of
Egypt in the
PLAOTJES
EGYPT
POETS
459
Surah viii. 127-135 : »• Already had we
hsstised the people of Pharaoh with dearth
nd scarcity of fruits, that haply they might
ake warning : and when good fsll to their
they said, ' This is our due.' But if ill
efell them, they regarded Moses and his par-
rf as (the birds) of ill omen. Yet was
ot then evil omen from God ? Bat most of
lem knew it not. And they said, ; \\ hat-
ver sign thou bring us for our enchantment,
e will hot believe on the- \nd we sent
pon.them the flood and the locusts and the
iinma! (lice) and the froga and the blood.
ear signs — but they behaved proudly,
ad were a sinful people. And when any
ue fell upon them, they said, ' 0 Moses !
ray for us to thy Lord, according to that
hich he hath co /enanted with thee : Truly
thou take off the plague- from us, v/e will
irely believe thee, and will surely send the
aildren of Is'rael with thee.' But when we
id taken off the plague from them, and the
me which God had granted them had ex-
red, behold ! they broke their promise
herefore we took vengeance on them and
owned them in the sea, because they treated
nr signs .as falseuoous and were heedless of
icm. Ana we gave to the people who had
r*»n brought so low, the eastern and the
astern lands, which we had blessed as an
eritage: and the good word of thy Lord was
ilfillod uu the children of Israel because
ley had b'orne up with patience : and we
estroyed the works and the structures of
haraoh nnd his people: And we brought
16 children ot Israel across the sea, and they
ime to a people who gave themselves up to
leir idols. They said, ' 0 Moses ! make us
god, as they have gods.' He said, 'Verily,
eare an ignorant people: for the worship
ley practice will bo destroyed, and that
hich they do is vanity!'"
In the Surah xvii. 103-104, they are re-
irred to as " nine clear signs," which some
jmmentfttors understand to be the command-
lents of Moses.
" We heretofore gave to Moses nine clear
gns. Ask thou, therefore, the children of
n-awi how it was when he came unto them,
nd Pharaoh said to him ' Verily, I deem
aee, 0 Moses, a man enchanted "
* Said Moses, 'Thou knowest that none
ath sent down these clear signs but tho
•ord of the Heavens and of the Earth j and
surely deem thee, O Pharaoh, a person
>st.' "
Mr. Sale, translating from the Jala! an and
1-BaizawT, says: "These were, the chang-
ig hia rod into a serpent, the making' his
and white and shining, the producing locusts.
ce, frogs, and blood, the dividing of the Red
ea. the bringing water om of the rock, and
le shaking of Mount Sinai over the children
t Israel. Jn lien of the three last, ,«oroe reckon
ie inundation of the Nile, the blasting" of
ie corn and scarcity of the fruits of the
arth. These words, howover, are interpreted
y others not of nine miracles, hut of nine
jmmandment?, which Moses gave his people,
nd were thus numbered up by Muhammad
himself to a Jew, who asked him the ques
tion, viz. That they should not be guilty of
idolatry, nor steal, nor commit adultery or
murder, nor practise sorcery or usury, nor
accuse an innocent man to take away his life,
or a modest woman of whoredom, nor desert
the army, to which he added the observing of
the Sabbath as a tenth commandment, but
which peculiarly regarded the Jews, upon
which nnswer, it is said, the Jew kissed the
Prophet's hand and feet."
PLANETS. ' Arahvj as-soyyarah
(6;L*J\). According to Arabic writers,
there are seven planets, called ftn~Nqjiimu V
Sayyardt («t^»L~J\ p**^). or, collectively,
as-S<*yydrah, me wandering stars, as distin
guished from fixed shars, or un-Najutntt '$-
gawubit (±^\]&\ pj^jS(). These planets
are said to be situated in the seven firma-
meutn in the following order: (Vj^f-Qjamar,
Moon; (2) 'Utdrid, Mercury; (3) Zukrah^
Venus : (4) ash-Shams, Sun ; (5) al-Mirrikh,
Mars ; (6; al-Mushtorl, Jm*iter ; (1) Zuhal
Saturn. ( Vide Kathsfidf-z-Jftilatidt^m loco.}
It will be seen that the A.r;ibip.n arrange
ment of the planets is that of Ptolemy, who
placed the earth in the centre of viie universe,
and nearest to it tho moon, whose synodic
revolution is the shortest of all, being per-
formod in 29£ days. Next to the moon he
placed Mercury, who returns to his conjunc
tions in 116 days. After Mercury followed
Venus, whose periodic timo is 584 days.
Beyond Venus ho placed the Sun, then Mars,
next Jupiter, and lastly Saturn, beyond which
are the fixed stars.
PLUNDEK. Arabic <jhanlma1i
(&^), fay' (*J>). If the Imam, or
leader of the Muslim army, conquer a country
by force of arms, he is at liberty to leave
the land in possession of the original proprie
tors, provided they pay tribute, or he may
divide it amongst the Muslims: but with
regard to movable property, it is unlawful
for him to leave it in possession of the infi
dels, but he must bring it away with th^
army and divide it amongst the soldiers.
Four-iifths of the spoils belong to the troops
and the remaining one-fifth must he divideci
into three equal portions for the relief 01
orphans, the feeding of the poor, and the en
tertainment, of travellers. Captives form part
of the plunder. All cattle and baggage which
rannot be carried away upon a retreat, must
be destroyed (JJidayah, vol. ii.p. 159; Mislikat,
book xvii. ch. viii. pt. 1.)
POETS. Arabic eha'ir (y&\A), pi.
shu'ard*. Poetry, shi'r (;**). Mu--
hammad repudiated tho idea of being a poet.
See Quran.
Surah xxxri. 69; "V/e have not taught
him poetry, uor va.s it proper for him ; it ifl
but a reminder and a plain Qur'an."
Surah Ixix. 40, 41 ; " Verily it is the speech
of a nobie apostlfc ; and it is not the speech
of a poet."
The Quran being in manifest rhythm, and
460
POETS
POETS
in some places actual poetry/ the declaration
of (he Prophet, that he was not a poet has
much perplexed the commentators But the
Imam Fakbru 'd Din ar-Ra'zi, has hit upon
the following clevrr explanation of the dif
ficulty. He says, that in order to be a poet
it is absolutely necessary that the .poems
Should not be impromptu Terses, hut delibe
rately framed, and that, therefore, although
the Qur'an contains poetry (for example, in
Surah xciv., which begins thus : —
4fy CiU*
Airtm nashrah- faku sadraka
Wa waza'na 'anica wizraka.
" Have wo not opened thy breast for thee ?
And taken off from thee thy burden ? ")
it is not really poetry, because the writer did
not deliberately intend to produce the
rhythm !
The same excuse is urged for the lines
which Muhammad is related to have uttered
impromptu when his toe was wounded in
battle : —
Hal anti Hid ixba'im damiti?
Wafi s&bili 'lldhi ma laqiti.
u Art tiiou anything but a toe covered with
blood ?
" What has happened to thee has been in
the road of God ''
Arabic scholars (see Kashfu I§titaJiuti V-
Fwivn, i>i loco) divide the Arabic poets into
six periods : —
(1) Al-Jahitiyun, those in the time of iywo-
rance, or before Islam, such as the ancient
Arabic poets Zuhair, Tarafah, Imru 1-Qais,
'Amr ibri Kulsum, al-Haris, and -Aiitarah.
(2) Al-Mvkhzaramun (lit. ".spurious"),
those born in the time of ignorance, but who
embraced Islam, a? La bid and Hassan, whose
names occur in the tradition*,.
(3) Al-Mutaqaddimun (lit. " first '7, those
who were born in the time of Islam, of parents
who were converts to Islam, as Jarir and
Farazdaq.
(4) Al-Afuwalludun. those who were born
of true-born Muslims, as Baslwr.
(5) A2-Mvhdifiun, the third generation oi
Muslim poets, as Abu Tammain, and Bukhtari.
(6) Al'M-utcfokhkJiiriin (lit. " the 'last "), all
succeeding poets.
The MuUiqaddimuint the Muwalladiiu, and
the Mufidigun, correspond with the Afhal. the
TdbrOn, and the Tdbi «jFafct'im,-.or the three
first generations of Muslims.
There are seven poems of ancient Arabia,
who are known in history as the Mri-allaqat,
or "suspended," because they had been in
turn suspended on the. walls of the Makkan
temple. They are also known as Muzahhab&t,
or the " golden " poems, because they were
written in gold. The names of their authors
are Zuhair, Tarafah, Imru 1-Qais, 'Amru ibn
Kulsum, al-IIaris, Antarah and LaMd Tha
last of the seven embraced Islam. It is re
lated that Labidhad posted up in the Ka'bah
his poem, beginning : —
Ala Jful/a sha'm mfi tchala 'llaha bntitu.
' Know that everything is vanity but God."
But that when he saw the first verses of
the Suratu '1-Baqarah (ii.) of the Qur'an
posted up, he withdrew his verses and em
braced Islam. Muhammad repaid Labid with
the compliment that the words, " Know that
everything is vanity but God," were the truest
words ever uttered by a pcet. (Mishkdt, beok
xxii. ch. x.)
In the earlier part of his mission, Muhara
mad affected to despise the poets, and, in the
Qur'an we. find him saying (Suvah xxvi. 224),
'•Those who go astray follow the poets";
and in ,the Traditions, Mishkdt. book xxii
ch. x. : "A belly full of purulent matter is
better than a belly full of poetry." But
when Labid and Hassan embraced Islam, the
poets rise into favour, arid the Prophet utters
the wise but cautious saying, that u poetry ij a
kind of composition, which if it is good it is
good, and if it is bad it is bad." In the battle
with the Banii Qurar/ah, the Prophet called out
to Hassau the poet," Abuse the infidels in your
verse, for truly the Holy Spirit (in the Hadis
it is Gabriel) will help you." It is also re
lated that the Prophet used to say. " 0 Lord !
help Hassan the poet by the Holy Spirit (or
Gabriel)."
It is generally admitted by Arabic scholart
that the golden age of Arabic poetry was that
immediately preceding or contemporaneous
with Muhammad, and that from the time of
Muhammad there was a gradual decline. This
is not surprising, inasmuch as the Qur'an is con
sidered the most perfect model of composi
tion ever revealed to mankind, and to be
written in the language of Paradise.
Baron MacGuckinde Slane, in his Introduc
tion to Ibn KJaallikan's Dictionary, says ;—
"The oldest monuments of Arabic litera
ture which we still possess were composed
within the century which preceded the birth
of Muhammad. They consist in short pieces
of verse uttered on the spur of the moment,
narrations of combats between hostile tribes,
passages in rhythmical prone and kasidas
(qasidahs), or elegies. The study of these
remains reveals the existence of a language
perfect in its form and application, admirably
suited to express the various ideas which the
aspect of nature could suggest to a pastoral
people, and as equally adapted to portray the
fiercer passions of the mind. The variety of
its inflections, the regularity of its syntax,
and the harmony of its prosody, are not less
striking, and they furnish in themselves a
sufficient proof of the high degree of culture
which the language of the Arabic nation had
already attained. The superior merit of this
early literature was ever afterwards acknow
ledged by the Arabs themselves. It furnished
them not only with models, but ideas for1
their poetical productions, and its influence
POETS
POETS
461
has always continued perceptible in the Ka-
.sida, which still contains the satne thoughts,
the sauie allusions as of old, and drags its slow
Length along1 in monotonous dignity. . . . (p. xv.)
" The decline , of Arabic poetry can be'
easily traced down from the accession of the
Abbasides to the time of the Aiynbites : for
many centuries the patrons of the bellts-
lettres were of foreign extraction, and writers
who sought their favour were obliged to con
form their own judgment to that of persons
who were in general unable to appreciate the
true beauties of literary compositions. Works
which had obtained the patronage of the
prince could not fail to fix the attention of
other poets,- who took them as models which
they strove to imitate and to surpass. The
opinion held in the schools that the ancient
kasidus were masterpieces of art, contributed
also to the perversion- of good taste, their
plan and ideas were servilely copied, aiid it
was by refinement of expression alone that
writers could display their talent; verbal
quibbles, far-fetched allusions, thoughts bor
rowed from the old writers, and strained so
as to be hardly recognisable, such were the
means by which they strove to attain origi
nality ; sense was sacrificed to sound, the
most discordant ideas were linked together
for the futile advantage of obtaining a re
currence of words having a similar written
form or a similar pronunciation ; poets wrote
for the ear and the eye, hot for the mind, and
yet the high estimation in which their pro
ductions were held may be judged from the
readiness of Ibn Khallik'an to quote them.
His taste was that of the age in which he
lived, and the extracts which he gives enable
the reader to form an idea of the Arab mind
at the period of the Crusades. The same
feeling of impartiality which induces me to
express so severe a censure on the generality
of the Islamic poets, obliges me also to make
some exceptions. The kasidas of al-Muta-
nabbi are full of fire, daring originality, and
depth of thought ; he often reaches the sub
lime, and his style, though blemished by occa
sional faults, is very fine; al-Bohtori is re
markable for grace and elegance ; Abu-1-Ala
for dignity and beauty: but Ibn-al-Fand
seems superior to them all, his pieces teem
with sentiment and poetry, in his mystic reve
ries he soars towards the coniines of another
world pervaded with spiritual beauty, and
glides with the reader from one enchanting
scene to another ; the judgment is captivated
by the genius of the poet, and can hardly
perceive the traits ot false taste which dis
figure, from time to time, his admirable style.
Having pointed out the influence of the ka
sida, or elegy, it may not be amiss to sketch
the plan generally followed in this species of
composition. The poet, accompanied Jby two
friends, approaches, after a long journey
through the desert, to the place where he saw
his mistress the year before, and where he
hopes to meet her again. At his request,
they direct the camels on which they are
mounted towards the spot, but the ruins of
the rustic dwellings, the withered moss.
brushwood , and branches of trees, with which
were formed the frail abodes where th<; tribe
had passed the summer, the hearthstones
blackened by the fire, the solitary raven
hovering around in search of a scanty nourish
ment, every object be perceives strikes him
with the conviction that his beloved and her
family have removed to some other region
in the desert. Overcome with grief, heedless
of the consolations of his friends, who exhort
him to be firm, he long remains plunged in
silent affliction ; at length he .finds relief in &
torrent of tears, and, raising up his head, he
extemporizes a mournful elegy. He com
mences by mentioning the places which he
had already viaited in hopes of finding her
whom he loved, and calls to mind the dangers
which he had encountered in the desert. He
describes the camel which, though fatigued,
still full of ardour, had borne him into the
depths of the wilderness, he vaunts his own
courage and extols the glory of his tribe. An
adventure which happened on the previous
night then comes to his memory : a fire blaz
ing on a lofty hill, had attracted their atten
tion and guided them to the teat of a gene
rous Arab, where they found shelter and
hospitality. He then praises the charms of
his mistress, and complains of the pains of
love and absence, whilst his companions hurry
him away. He casts a parting look towards
the place where she bad resided, and lo 1 a
dark cloud, fringed with rain, and rent with
lightnings, overhangs the spot. This sight
fills his heart with joy! an abundant shower
is about to shed new life upon fche parched
soil, and thus ensure a rich herbage for the
flocks.; the family of his beloved will then
soon return, and settle again in their former
habitation.
" Such may he considered as the outline ot
the pastoral ka&ida. In these productions
the same ideas almost constantly recur,
and the same words frequently ?erv« to ex
press them. The eulogistic kasida, or poem
in praise of some great man, assumes also
the same form, with the sole difference that
in place of a mistress it is a generous patron
whom the poet goes to visit, or else, after
praising the object of his passion, he cele
brates the noble qualities of the mam who is
always ready, with abundant gifts, to bestow
consolation on the afflicted lever
"It results from this that a person familiar
with the mode of composition followed in the
kaaida. can often, from a single word in a
verse, perceive the drift of the poet, and dis
cover, almost intuitively, the thoughts which
are to follow. He has thus a means of deter
mining the true readings amidst the mass of
errors with which copyists usually disfigure
Arabic poetry knowing what the poet intends
to say, he feels no longer any difficulty in
disengaging the author's words from the
faults of a corrupted text. The same pecu -
liarity is frequently perceptible in pieces of a
few verses ; these generally reproduce some
of the ideas contained in the kasida, and for
this reason they are jnstly styled fragments
by Arabic writers.
462
POETS
POLYGAMY
" There exist, also, some compositions of an
original form : such are the diibait,or distich,
and the mawulia, both borrowed from the
.Persians, and the muwashshaha, invented in
Spain by Ibn Abd Rabbih. Pieces of this
kind became general favourites by the novelty
of their form and matter ; the mawalia was
adopted by the dervishes, and the muwash-
shaha was cultivated with pasaion and at
tained its perfection in Andalusia, whence it
was transported to the East. It cannot be
denied that the Moorish poets, with all their
extravagance of thought and expression, were
far superior in their perception of the beau
ties of nature and the delicacies of sentiment,
to their brethren of the East, and the Euro
pean reader will often discover in their poems,
with some surprise, the .same ideas, meta
phors, and systems of versitic.it ion. whirb
characterise the works of the troubadours and
the early Italian poets
" An idea borrowed trotn the ante-Islamic
poets, and of frequent recurrence in the kasi-
das of later authors, is the tuif nl-khiul(t<?iju
l~khiy<iT),d? phantom. The lover journeys with
a cara vaii through the desert ; f or ma nv nights
bis grief at being separated irom his beloved
prevents him from sleeping, but at length he
yi*»Hq +.0 f».ti<me and closes his eyes. A phantom
then approaches towards him, unseen by all
but himself, and ID it he reooguisat the image
of his mistress, come to visit and console him.
It was sent to him by the beloved, or rather
it is herself in spirit, who nas crossed the
dreary waste and Heeted towards his couch ;
she, too. had slept, but it was to go and see
her lover m her dreams. They thus meet
in spite of the foes and spies who always
surround the poet, ready to betray him if he
obtain an interview with the beloved, and
who are so jealous, that they hinder him from
sleeping, lest he should see her image in his
dream ; it is only when they slumber that he
dare close his eyes
" The figurative language of the Muslim
poets is often difficult to be understood. The
narcissus is the eye ; the feeble stem of that
plant bends languidly under its flower, and
thus recalls to mind the languor of the eyes.
Pearls signify both tears and teeth, the latter
are sometimes called hailstones, from their
whiteness and moisture ; the lips are corne
lians or rubies ; the gums a pomegranate
flower ; the daik foliage of the myrtle is
synonymous with the Mack hair of the be
loved, or with the first down which appears
on the cheeks of youths at the period of
puberty. The down itself is called the izdr
or head-stall of the bridle, and the curve of
the izar IB compared to the letters lam and
nu»t. Ringlets trace on the cheek or neck the
letter w&w ; they are al&o called scorpions,
either for their dark colour or their agitated
movements ; the eye is a sword ; the eyelids,
scabbards ; the whiteness of the cornplexfori,
camphor ; and a mole or beauty spot, musk,
which tei-m denotes also dark hair. A mole
is sometimes compared also to an ant creep
ing on the cheek towards the honey of the
mouth ; a handsome face is both a full-uiocn
and day ; black hair is night ; the waist is a
willow-branch, or a lance ; the water of the
face is self-respect ; a poet sells the water of
his face when he bestows mercenary praises
on a rich patron devoid of every noble
quality.
" Some of the verses in Arabic poetry (as
in all Eastern poetry) are of a nature such as
precludes translation. Had they been com
posed by a female on a youth whom she
loved, they would seldom offer anything ob
jectionable; but as the case is not so, they
are utterly repugnant to European readers.
. It mast not, however, be supposed that they
are always the produce of a degraded pas
sion ; in many cases they were the usual ex
pression of simple friendship and affection, or
of those platonic attachments which the
translated works of some Greek philosopher*
first taught the Moslims. Indeed, love and
friendship are so closely confounded by then; ,
that they designate both feelings by the sarn:
word, and it is not uncommon to meet epis
ties addressed by one aged doctor to another,
and containing sentiments of the strongest
kind, but which are the expression of friend
ship only It often happens, also, that a poet
describes his mistress under the attributes of
the other sex, lest he should offend that ex
cessive prudery of Oriental feelings which,
since the fourth century of Islamisni, scarcely
allows an allusion to women, and more parti
cularly in poetry, and this rigidness is still
carried so far. that at Cairo public singers
dare not amuse thoir auditors with a song iu
which the beloved is indicated as a female,
Some of those pieces have also a mystic im
port. as the commentators of Hafiz, Saadi,
and Shebisteri, have not failed to observe,''
( fb.. p. xxxiii. et seq.)
POLL-TAX.
POLYGAMY. In Muhammadan-
isui, polygamy has the express sanction of the
Qur'an, and is, therefore, held to be a divine
institution. Vide Siiratu 'n-Nisa', or Chapter
iv. 3:~
" But it ye cannot do justice between or
phans, then marry what sf>eir>s good to you of
women, by twos, or threes, or fours : and if
ye fear that ye cannot be equitable, then only
one, or what your right hand possesses " (i.e.
female slaves).
Compare this with the teaching of the Tal
mud : —
" A man may marry many wives, for Rabba
sflith it is lawful to do so, if he can provide
for them. Nevertheless, the wise men have
given good advice, that a man should not
marry more than four wive?." (Arbah.
Turin. Ev. Hazaer, 1.)
Rut although permission to indulge in po
lygamy is clear and unmistakable, the
opening verse of the Surah from which, the
above is taken, seems to imply some slight
leaning to monogamy as the highest form of
married life, for it reads thus :-—
" 0 ye men ! fear your Lord, who created
you from one. soul, and created there/i om its
POLYGAMY
POLYGAMY
463
mate, and diffused from them twain nume
rous men and women."
In the Ain-i-Akbari , it is related that a
certain Mujtahid. or enlightened doctor, mar
ried eighteen wives, for he rendered the
Arabic word ma$na, '• double," and read the
text already quoted, '• Marry whatever women
you like two arid two, three and thre«, and
four and four." And in the same work it is
said that another learned Maulawl married
eight wives, because ho read the verse — •' two
4 three + four = nine " !
AI-BaizawI. the Jalalan, and other Sunni
commentators, are all agreed that the true
reading of the verse limits the number of
lawful wives to four. The Shrahs also hold
the same opinion, but they sanction MuVoJi, or
** temporary marriages." [MU'TAH.]
In the face of the united testimony of Islam
founded upon the express injunctions of the
Qur'an, Syed Ameer AH has the audacity to
state in his Critical Er ami nation of the Life
and Teachings of Muhammnd, p. 223. that " the
greatest and most reprehensible mistake com
mitted by Christian writers, 5s to suppose that
Muhammad either adopted or legalised poly
gamy. The old idea of his having introduced
it — a sign only of the ignorance of those
who hold it — is by this time exploded, but
the opinion that he adopted and legalised the
custom is stiil maintained by the common
masses as by many learned in Christendom.
No belief can be more false" !
In his more recent work on the Personal
Law of th? Mufaunmadeuuj the same writer
remarks: —
" Muhammad restrained polygamy by limit
ing1 the maximum number of contpmpora-
neous marriages. an<-{ by making absolute
equity towai'i** all obligatory on the mm It
is worthy of note that the clause in tbt
Qaran, wr,ich contains the permission to con
tract foin contemporaneous marriages is im
mediately followed by a sentence which cuts
down the significance of the preceding pas
sage to its normal and legitimate dimensions.
The former passage says, • You may marry
twe, tkre°. or four wives, but not more. The
subsequent lines declare, ' but if you cannot
deal equitably and justlv with all vou shall
marry only one/ The extreme importance of
this proviso, bearing especially in mind the
meaning which is attached to the word
'equity' (*adl) in the Quranic teachings, has
not been lost sight of by the great thinkers
of the Moslem world. Even so early as the
third century of the era of the Hijra during
the reign of al-Mamun, the first Motaaalite
doctors taught that the developed Quranic
laws inculcated monogamy. And though .the
crnel persecutions of the uoad bigot. Mutaw-
wakil, prevented the general diffusion of their
teachings, the conviction is gradually forcing
itself on all sides, in all advanced Moslem
eomwj unities, that polygamy is as much op-
i io tho fslauiif laws as it is to the
general progress of civilised society and true
culture. In India especially, this idea is bo-
coming a -strong moral, if not a religion" «on-
victioa, and many extittaeous circumstances
in combination with this growing feeling are
tending to root out the existence of polygamy
from among the Mussulmans. A custom has
grown up in that country, whien is largely
followed by all classes of the community, of
drawing up a marriage deed containing a for
mal renunciation, ort the part of the future
hns-baihl, of any right or semblance of right
which no might possess or «'laim to possess
to contract, a second marriage uurinsr the
existence of the first. This custom serves as
a most efficacious check, upon the growth and
the perpetuation of the institution of poly
gamy. Fn India more than ninety-five per
cent, of Muhamrnadans are at the present
moment, either by conviction or nece«wty,
monogamists. Among the. educated classes,
versed in the history of their ancestors, and
able to compare it with the records of other
nations, the custom is regarded with disappro
bation, amounting almost t,--. disgust. In
Persia, according to Colonel ^lacgregor's
statement, only two per cent, of the popula
tion enjoy the questionable luxury of plura
lity of wives. It is earnestly to be hoped
that before long a general synod of Moslem
doctors will authoritatively declare that poly
gamy, like slavery, is abhorrent to the laws
of IsUin." (Personal Law o/ tiie Mu/iamma-
da.ns, p. 28.)
Syud Ahmad Khan Bahadur, in his essay,
Whether J.S/OIH has been henpfrinl or inju
rious to Society in general, on the contrary,
defends the institution of polygamy as divine,
and quotes John Milton, Mr. Davenport, and
Mr. liiggius/as Christian writ-era who defended
ti'io practice.
The Prophet claimed considerable indul
gence for himself in the matter, and ruairied
eleven wives. [VVIVISB OF THE PROPHET.]
The views ot Dr. Marcus Dods in mY Mo
hammed, Buddha, and Christ (p. 55), give an
able and interesting summary of the sub
ject : —
" The defence of polygamy nas been under
taken from various points of view, and with
varying degrees of insight and of t^miestness.
But one cannot detect much progress among
its defenders. F. W. Newman has nothing to
say in its favour which had not previously
been suggested by Voltaire : nothing, we may
aay, which does not occur to anyone who
wishes to present the aigument for a plura
lity of wives. It is somewhat late in tiie day
to be called upon to argue for monogamy as
abstractly right. Speculators like Aristotle
(Eeou. i. 2, 8), who have viewed the subject
both as statesmen having a regard to what is
practicable -and will conduce to social pros
perity, and a« philosophers reasoning from
b'rstf principles, have long ago demanded for
their ideal society, not only monogamy, but
also that mutual respect anJ love, and that
strict purity and modesty, which polygamy
kills. Let us say briefly that the only ground
conscience recognises as warranting' two per
sons to become one in desh is that they be,
first of all, one in spirit. That absolute sur
render of the person which •.•"nstttutes mar
riage is justified only by the circumstances
464
POI/YGAMT
that it is a surrender of the heart as well, and
that it is mutual. To an ideal love, poly
gamy is abhorrent and impossible. As Mo
hammed himself, .in another connection, and
with more than his usual profundity, said.
• God has not put two heail* in you.' This is
the grand law imbedded in our nature, and by
whidi it is secured that the children born
into the world he the fruit of the devoted sur
render of one human .spirit to another: by
which, in other words, it is secured that love,
the root principle of all hitman virtue and
duty, he transmitted to the child and horn in
it. This la the beneficent law expressed ir>
monogamy, and this law is traversed and
robbed of its effects precisely in so far as
even monogamous marriages are prompted
by fleshly or worldly rather than by spiritual
motives. The utilitarian argument Mr.
Lecky (Hist. European Morals, vol. ii. p. 295)
has summed up in three sentences : ' Nature,
by making ^he number of male.s and females
nearly equal, indicates it a* natural, in no
other form of marriage can the government
of the family, which is one of the chief ends
of marriage, be so happily sustained ; and in
no other does the woman assume the position
of the equal oi man.' But we have here
to do only with Mohammedan apologists, and
their reasonings are somewnat perplexing:
for they first maintain that nature intended
us to be polygamists (see Syud Ahmad's
Essay, p. b; Syud Arueor Alfs Crtt. Exam,.
p. 225). and then, secondly, declare that the
greatest and most reprehensible mistake com
mitted by Christian writers is to suppose that
Mohammed either adopted or legalised
polygamy." Probably the most tbnt -caui
be 'said for Mohammed in regard to this
matter, is that he restricted polygamy, and
that its abolition was impossible and unsuit
able to the population ne had to do with.
•' The allegation, however, thut Mohammed
confined polygamy within narrower limits
than the Arabs had previously recognised,
though true, is immaterial. For, iu the first
place, he restricted polygamy indeed in
others, but not in his own case : and thus
left upon the minds oi m's followers the ine
vitable impression that an unrestricted poly
gamy was the higher state of the two.
"In the second place, while he restricted
the number of lawful wives, he did not re
strict the number of sieve-concubines. In
the third place, his restriction was practically
of little value, because very few men could
afford to keep more than four wives. And.
lastly, as to the principle, he left it precisely
where it was, for as Mr. Freeman justly ob
serves (Lectures, p. 69) : ' This is one of
the oases in which the first s'tep is everything.
The difference between one wife and two is
everything : that between four and five thou
sand is comparatively nothing.
" And h. tbe principle be defended as at
least relatively good, nothing is to be urged
against this as matter of fact ; although the
circumstance has been overlooked, that al
ready very many thousands of Christian Arabs
hsd found it quite possible to live in mono-
PRAYEK
gamy. But that polygamy is not incom
patible with A sound, if not perfectly deve
loped, morality, and with the highest tone of
feeling, no one who has read the history of
Israel will be disposed to deny. That it may
suit a race iu a certain stage of its develop
ment, and may in that stage lead to purer
living and surer moral growth than its pro
hibition would, may be granted. But neces
sarily the religion which incorporates in its
code of morals such allowances, stamps itself
as something short of the final religion.
[MAKJUAGK, wurxH, WIVES. WOKEN.]
POTIPHAR. Arabic Qitfir ( ^Ai),
or It fir { j*&>\). The treasurer of
Egypt in the time of Joseph, and the husband
[ of Zulaikhfth. [JOSEPH.]
PRAYER. Arabic saldt (*/.). pi.
*alaw<it, Persian namvz (;U»). pi.
namdzfta.
Prayer is the second of the five founda
tions, or pillars, of pratical religion in Islam,
and is a devotional exercise which every
Muslim is required to render to God at least
five times a day, namely, at the «arly morn
ing, midday, afternoon, evening, and night
The general duty of prayer i frequently
enjoined in the Qur'un, but it is remarkable
that in no single passage are the five periods
mentioned.
See Suratu 'r-Rum (xxx.), 17 ; " Glorify
God when it is evening (ntctsff) and at morn
ing f$ubh}, — and to Him be praise in the
heavens and the earth,— and at afternoon
('«.«*Af), and at noon-tide (jtwAr).'" (But all
commentators are agreed that masa includes
both sunset and after sunset , and, therefore,
both the Maghrib and 'Ashtyah. prayers.)
Surah xi. 116: (< Observe prayer ab' early
morning, at the close of the day, and at the.
approach of night ; for the good deeds drive'
away the evil deeds.".
Surah xx. 130: "Put up then with what
they say ; and celebrate tbe praise of thy
Lord before the sunrise, and before its set
ting: and some time in the night do thou
praise Him, and in the extremes of the day,
that thou haply mayest please Him."
Surah *vii. 80 : " ObserveB prayer at sun
set, till tbe first darkening of the night, and
the daybreak reading — for the daybreak
reading hath its witnesses, and watch uuto
| it in the night: this shall be an excess in
service."
Surah ii. 42 : •'• Seek aid witb patienoe and
prayer."
Surah iv , 1-4 :." Wnen ye have fulfilled
your prayer, 'remember God standing and
sitting, and lying on your sides ; and when ye
are in safety, then be steadfast in prayer.
Verily prayer is for the believers prescribed
and timed."
According to the Traditions, Muhammad
professed to have received instructions to
recite prayers Jive times a day. during his
mi-ritj. or ascent to heaven. The tradition
runs thus.— -
" Tb« divine ininncttons ioi prayer vrere
PRAYER
PR.AYER
465
ti originally fifty times a day. And as I passed
j Moses (in hoaveii, during iny ascent), Mooes-
• Maid to toe, ' What hare you. been ordered? '
1 1 replied. 'Fifty times!' Then Moses said.
«* Verily your people will never he able to
| bear it, for I tried the children of Israel with
fifty times a day, but they could not manage
it.' Then I returned to the Lord and asked
for some remission. And ten prayers were
taken off. Then I pleaded again and ten
more were remitted. And so ou until at last
they were reduced to tive times. Then I
went to Moses, and he said, « And how many,
prayers have you been ordered ? '• And I re
plied ' Five.' And Mosee paid. * Verily I tried
the children of Israel with even five, but it
did not succeed. Return to your Lord, and
ask for a further remission.' Btvt I said. ' I
have asked until I am quite ashamed, and 1
cannot usk again.'"' (See tiahlfru Muslim.
vol. i. p. 91.)
This Saldt, or liturgical service, has thus
become one of the most prominent features
oi the Muhammadan religion, and very nume
rous are the injunctions regarding it v/bich
have been handed down in the traditions.
There are various minor differences amongst
the numerous sects of Islam regarding the
formula, but its main features are alike in all
countries.
We sball describe prayer according to the
Hanafi sect of Sunni Muslims.
Et is absolutely necessary that the service
should be performed in Arabic ; and that the
clothes and body of -the worshipper should
be clean, and that the praying-place should
be free from all impurity. It iriay be said
either privately, or in company, or in a
mosque — although services in a mosque are
more meritorious than those elsewheie.
The stated prayers are always preceded by
the ablution of the face, hands, and feet.
[ABLUTION.]
At the time of public prayer, the ffttt'oittn,
or " crier, ' ascends the minaret, or stands at
the side of the mosque nearest the public
thoroughfare, and gives -the azdn. or " call to
prayer," as follows :--
" God is great ! God is great ! God is
great ! God is great !
I bear witness that there is no god but
God?
I bear witness that there is no god but
God!
I bear witness that Muhammad is the
Apostle of God !
1 bear witness that Muhammad is the
Apostle of God I
Come to prayers ! Come to prayers 1
Come to salvation ! Come to salvation !
(The Shi'alis add " Come to yood
works ! ")
There is no other god but God ! '*
(The Shi'aJis recite the last sentenu.
twice.)
In the early morning; the following sen
tence is s»dded: *' Prayers are better than
sleep! "
TlTi
n -
THE Mtt AZ/iN <?\LL1NG THE JUAN FROM A
MINARET. (A. F. Hole.)
When, the prayers are said in a congrega
tion or in the mosque, they begin with the
Iqdmoh, which is a recitation of the same
words as the azdn, with the addition of the
sentence, " Prayers are uow ready ! " The
TUE N
r form of prayer then begins with the
which is 'said standing, with the
hands on either side : —
•'1 have purposed to offer up to Gou only
59
466
PRAYER
with a sincere heart this morning (or, IM the
ease may be), with my face i^blah-wards,
two (or. as the case ma,y ben rak'ah prayers
Far* (Swum*, or
PRAYER
the sr hands on either ride. In all the sects
the vomrn perform the Qiyam with their
hands on their breasts'), and the eyes looking
to the ground in self-abasement. During
which u said the Subhan (the ShfaJif .writ
or A-uzMUah, is then soul
THF. TAKBLR-I-TAHRIMA1L
Tien follows the Takb-*r-i-Taiirv*ah, said
with the thumbs touching the tooults of the
ears and the open hands on each side of the
/ace.—
" '-.. •. :'i .-.-: - :
THZ
The Qiyam. or standing position. 77ie riqht \
hand placed upon the if ft, below the ».
(the Shaftis, and the^two ether orthodox \
sects, place their hnnds on th*ir breasts.
us alto the Wahhabi*: >>.* Sti-ah* keep •
" Holiness to Thee, 0 God !
And prais*3 be to Thee !
Great ^ Thv name!
Great is Thy greatness I
There is no deit but Thee !
Thf r&aaw
as follows
"I seek refuge from God from cursed
Satan. ':
After which the TasniycSt is repeated : —
-in the name of God, the compassionate,
the merc-ina/
Then fcMows th? Fdiifsih, >-Jz, the first
chapter of the Qur'an : —
" Praise oe to God. Lord of all the worlds !
The com passionate, the merciful !
King of the day of reckoning !
Thee o&ly do we worship, and to Thee
oulj ao v e wy far neJp.
Gnide Thou ns m the straight path,
Trie ufitn of tho«e *<^ whom Thou hast
r>een eracions-,
With whom Thou art not angry.
And who ^o not astray. — Amen."
After this the worshipper can repent as m-rny
chapte~s of the Qpr'a* as fa may irish , He
shoutd. at least, recite one Lr>ng or tiro short
»«rse». '1'he jol/owtng waiter is **vati*
recited, namtlyrtke, Strata. 'l~2khiast or the
U2ih ?i*apter:
" Say : He is God alone :
God the Eternal !
He besreuetn nor,
And is not begotten ,
And there is none ILse unto Him.'*
TSE RCKU*.
The lukbir-i-RuJi-ir. said irf-ilst running a
inclination of the head and bodir '/n
placing the hands upon llm kntts,
mg Hie finger* a httfe.
•• God is grea-
PBATV*
PRAYER
467
The Tasbih-i- Ruk& . scud t>
jx>«-
"I fjxtol the holiness of my Loro the
CJreat !
(Tfo? Sfti'ahs here >i<id "and with His
praise." This is alsn added by the
Shi'ahs to the Tasbih-i-Sijdak.',
" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the
Great!
MI extol th? holiness of uiy Lord, the
Great ! *
1 The Qiyam-i-Samf' UUah or lasmi', satd
with the body erect, (tut, vnlike the former
, the hands letng placed an either
recitzd as -.he >uor shipper
puts first his note and then his forehead
to the ground.
THE TASMI*.
side. The Imam nuy. aloud (when tht
prayers are said by o person alone, ht
recites both sentences} : —
" God hears him who praises Him."
TTie people then respond in a low voice —
"0 Lord, Thou art pr&ised."
TAKBJRU 'S-SUDAM.
Takbiri-^jdoh, said as the worshipper
drops on nis knets.
•' Ood is great ! *
THP. fASBIH-I-SIIDAH.
" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High!
" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High!
" I extol the holiness 01 my Lord, the moHt
High!"
Then raising AJS h<uid and body and sinking
backward upon fas heels, and placing fat
hands upon his thighs, he says the Takbrr-
i-Jahah (tfo Sln'aJi* here omit the Takbir,
and say instead. " / rise and sit by the
power of God ! "
•• God is great ! "
TH« TAKBIR-I-JALSAH
Then, whilst prostrating 03 before, he says
the Takbir- i-Sijdab.
" God is great ! "
And then rfvn'n? the prostration the 1
i-Sijdah as before.
" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High ! "
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High I**
11 1 extoi the holiness of my Lord, the most
High ! "
Then, if at the dose of one rak'ah, he repeats
the Takbir standing, when it is rolled
Takbir- i-Qiy dm; but at the end of two
rak'ah*, ana ct the close of the prayer, he
repeats it sitting, when it is colled Takbir-
(The S/ii'aht hen. recite the
468
PKAYER
Takiir.— u God is urea*/" with the
thumbs touching the lobvles of the ear, and
add} *'/ seek forgiveness from God, my
Lord, and I reprnf before Him ! "
" God is great ! "
Here ends one ruk'-ah or font of-jtrayer. The
next rfik'uk begin* </>ith th* Fatikak or 1st
chapter of the Qjur'un. At the dose of
two rufcahs he. recites the Tuh'tyah,
THE TAHIYAH,
\uhich is said whilst kneeling upon the
ground. His left foot bent 'under him he
fits upon it, and places his hands upon his
knees and says (the Shi'ahs omit the Ta-
THE TASKAHHUD.
Then raisiny the first finger of the right hand
he recites the TashafihUd: —
" I testify that there is no deity but God
(the SJii'ahs add, " who has no partner1'); and
I testify that Muhammad is the servant of
God, and the messenger of God ! "
(Every two rak'ahs close uith the Tashah-
hud. The Dnrud is said whilst in the
same posture. )
11 The adorations of the tongue are for God,
and also the adorations of the body, and
alms-giving !
"Peace be on thee, 0 Prophet, with the
mercy of God and Hia blessing !
" Peace be upon us and upon God's righ- <
teous servants J "
PRAYER
" 0 God, have mercy on Muhammad and '
on his descendants (the Shrahs merely recite :
'"- God have mercy on Muhammad and his de- \
scendants"' : and ovftit the rest) , as Thou didst !
have mercy on Abraham and on his descend
ants. Thon art to be praised, and Thou art
great. 0 God, bless Muhammad and his
descendants, as Thou didst bless Abraham
and his descendants !
•• Thou art to be praised, and Thou art
great!"
Then the
" 0 God our Lord, give us the blessings
of tbis life, and aUo the blessings of life
everlasting. Save us from the torments of
fire."
(The Du'a' is omitted by th' Sk^nhs.. who
recite the following instead; " Peace be on tlieet
0 Prophet, with the mercy of God and If is
blessing!. Peace be upon us, ttud upon Godg
righteous servants ! *'
He then closes with the Snlam.
THE SAL AM.
Turning the head rovnd to the right; he
says : —
" The peace and mercy of God be with
you.**
THE SAfcAM.
Turning the head round to the left, he
says—
"The peace and mercy of God be with
you."
PRAYER
PRAYER
At the close of the whole set of prayers,
hat is of Farx, Surmak, Nafl, or \Vi1r •, tl>e
rorshipper raised his hands and offers up
, Munajtit, or u supplication." This usually
THE MUKAJAT.
consists of prayers selected from the Quran
or Hadig. They ought to be said in Arabic,
although they are frequently offered up in
the vernacular.
Such supplications were highly commended
by Muhammad, who is related to have
" Supplication is the marrow of worship.'1
" There is nothing better before God than
supplication."
" Supplicate Cud when ye are certain of
its approval, and know that God accepts not
the supplication of « negligent heart."
>c Verily your Lord is ashamed of his ser
vants when they raise up their hands to Him
in supplication to return them empty."
These daily prayers are either rory, Sun-
nah, Najl, or Witr. Farz, are those rak'ahs
(or form$ of prayer), said to be enjoined by
God. Snnnah, those founded on the practice
of Muhammad. JVo/f, the voluntary per
formance of two rak'ahs, or more, "which
may be omitted without sin. Witr, an odd
number of rak'ahs, either one, three, live, or
seven, gaJd after the night prayer. These
divisions of prayer are entirely distinct from
each other. They each begin afresh with the
Niyah, and. worshippers may rest for awhile
between them, but not converse on worldly
subjects. The Wahhabis think it correct to
Say the Sunnah prayers in their honses and
only the Farz prayers in the mosque
The five times of prayer are known as
%uhr. 'Axr, Maghrib, 'lnhcf, and Fqjr. There
are also three voluntary periods called Iskrdg,
Zvhd, and Tohajjud.
The following is a table showing the exact
number of rak'ahs to be performed at each
The Names of the Time of Prayer.
The Number of Hik'tths said.
6
Time.
II
| ;
5:
1
Arabic.
Persian.
Urdu.
il
_
1
1?
C 3
|| -
|j
9
i
00
CO
5
•
^
1
From dawn to
Salatu 1-
Namaz -i-.
Fajr KI
2
2
•
sunrise.
Fajr.
Subh.
Namaz.
s
S*
2
When the sun
Salatu V
Namaz-i-
guhr'Ki
4
4
2
2
o.
has begun to
fcuhr.
Peshiu.
Namaz.
O
decline.
1-
3
Midway between
Salatu 1-
Namaz-i-
•Asr Ki
4
4
O
a.
No. 2 and 4.
<Asr.
Digar.
Namaz.
c
4
A few minutes
Salatu ?1-
NaniHZ-i-
Maghrib
3
2
2
c;
after sunset.
Maghrib.
Sham.
KI Namaz.
,£!
5
When the night
Salatu '1-
Namaz-i-
'Isha' KI
4
4
2
2
7
has closed iu.
' 'Isha,
Khuftan.
Namaz.
|
1
When the sun
Salatu 1-
Namaz-i-
Ishraq KI
8
| £
has well risen.
'Ishraq. •
'Ishraq.
Namaz.
o» J$
'He
2
About 11 o'clock
Salatu 'z-
Namaz-i-
Zuha Ki
0
2 5
A.M
Zuha.
Chast.
Namuz.
I?"
$ S
8
After midnight.
Salatu %t-
Namhz-i-
Tahajjud
1
9 i
Tahajjud.
Tahajjud.
Ki Namaz.
H
!
470
PRAYER
PRAYER
According w the above table, a devout
Muslim recites the same lorm of prayer at
least seventy five times in the day.
'Abdu 'llah i,bn 'Umar relates that the
Prophet said, " The time for 'gulir prayers
begins from the inclination of the sun to
wards the west and closes at the time when
the shadow of a person shall be the length of
his own stature, which time marks the be
ginning of the lA$r prayers, and the time of
the 'Asr prayers is from that time till the sun
assumes a yellow appearance. The time of
Maghrib prayers is from sunset as long as
the red appearance in the horizon remains.
The timw of '/$/»/' prayers is from that time
till midnight And the time of the Fajr
prayers is from the break of day till the Sun
rises. Therefore, when the sun has risen you
must not recite the morning prayer, for the
suu rises between the horns of the devil.'
( Mi&kkat book iv. ch 'i- >
It is the ordinary custom of Muslims to say
their 'prayers with their feet uncovered, aut
strictly according to the Traditions it iff
lawful to cover the feet with boots or shoe?
during prayer, provided they are free from
impurity.
&haddarl ibn Aus relates tnat Mmiauuinad
said> " Act f.he reverse of the Jews in youi
prayer, for they do not pray in boots and
Shoes/'
Abu Sa'id aV-Khudri relates that "the
Prophet said prayers with his companions,
and all on a sndden took oil his shoes, and
put them down on his left side, and when the
pecple observed it, they took off theirs also ;
and when the Prophet had finished the
prayers, he said, 'What caused you to take
off your shoes? They replied, 'We did so
in order to follow your example. And the
Prophet said, ' Verily Gabriel caine to me and
told me there was a little filth upon my
shoes , therefore, when any one of you goes
into a Masjid, look well a* youv .shoes first :
and if yeu perceive any dirt, wipe it otf . and
then sa / your prayers in them, (Mishkdt
bock iv oh. ix. pt. 2.)
Any wandering of the eyes, or of the mind,
a coughing or the like, answering &. question,
or any action POI prescribed to be performed,
must be strictly avoided (unless ut is between
the Sunn ah prayers and the fa.fl* or be dif
ficult to avoid for it t& held allowable to
make three slight irregular motions, or de
viations from correct deportment) ; otherwise,
the worshipper must begin again and recite
his prayers with due reverence.
If a person arrive late, he merely recites
the Nlyah and Takbir, and then joins the
congreg-ation in that part of the service in
which they arc engaged.
The Muslim may say his five daily prayers
in his home, or shop, or in the street or
road, but there are said to be special bless
ings attending prayer recited in a congre
gation.
In addition to the daily prayers, the fol
lowing are special services for special occa
sions : —
Saldtu 7 Jum'afi. — "The Friday Prayer."
j [t consists of two rak'ahs after the daily
j meridian prayer.
Satdtu 'l-Afusaftr. — " Prayers lor a tra
veller." Two rak'ahs instead of the usual
number at the meridian, afternoon, and aisrht
prayers.
Salatu ^f-Kkauf — "The prayers of fear"
Said in time of war. They are two rak'ahs
recited first by one regiment or company and
then by the other.
Saldtu V-7Www>/>.--Twentyrak'ahfi recited I
every evening during tlm Ramazan, imme- '
diately after the fifth daily prayer.
Saldtu 'l-Istikfearah. — Prayers for success
or guidance, The person who is about to (
undertake any special business performs two ;
rak'ah prayers and then goes to sleep.
During his slumbers he may expect to have
•' ilhdm" or inspiration, as to the undertak*
ing for which he seeks guidance !
Saldtu 't-Khusuf — Two rak'ahs said at the \
time of an eclipse of the moon.
Saldtu. V-Kusuf. -Two rak'ah.s -said at the .
time of an eclipse of the sun.
Saldtu 'l-tstisqff. — Prayer iu time of j
drought, consisting of two rak'ahs.
Saldtu 'i-Jandzah.— Prayers at a funeral.
[JANAZAH.]
The liturgical service of the Muslim is not
given in the Qur'an, but is founded upon vory
minute instructions given by the Prophet,
and which are recorded in the Traditions,
and for which the Arabic scholar can refer
to Sohihu 'l-Bukhdri, vol. i. p. 50; Sahilvn
Muslim, vol. i. p. 164: Sunanu 't-Tirmizt,
p. 22 ; Sunanu Aim. Dd'ud, p. 5€, Swama
Muwatla'. p. 50 ; and the English readfir to
Matthew's Mishlcut, book iv.
The following are selections from the say
ings of Muhammad with reference to the
Liturgical prayers (vide Mishhdt, nook iv.) : —
" That which leads a creature iute infidelity
is neglect of prayers."
" Not one of you must say your prayers
in a garment without covering your whole
j body,"
" God accepts not the prayers of a woman
I arrived at puberty unless she covers her
j head."
" People must not lift up their eyes whilst.
j saving their prayers, or they will become
blind,"
" The prayers which are said iu congrega-
! tion increase the rewards of those said alone
b.y twenty seven degrees." [MOSQUE.]
I- > The five stated prayora erase, the sins
! which have been committed during the in
tervals between them, if they have .not been
mortal sins."
" That prayer preparatory to which tht
teeth shall have been cleaned with the Mis-
wa-k is more excellent than the prayer with
out Miswak by seventy ." [MISWAK ]
" The prayers of a person will not be ac
cepted who has broken his ablution until he
completes another ablution."
'- That person who leaves even one hair
witbont washing after undeanness, will he
punished in hell accordingly."
When any one ot you stands up for
PRATER
rayer, he must not smooth the ground
y wiping away pebbles, because the com-
assiou ot God descends upon him at that
:rne."
''Order your children to- say the stated
>rayers when they are seven years of age, and
:eat them if they do not do so when they are
en years old ; and when they reach ten years,
.ivide their beds.'"
41 When you stand up to prayer, spit aot m
ront, because you are then m God's pre-
pnce; neither spit on your right side, because
.n angel is there, bpit, therefore cither on
our left side or under yottr feet, and then
hrow earth over it."
'* Whoever says rweive rak'ahs of JSunnab
>rayers in the day and night, will have a
louse built for him in Paradise: four rak'ahs
Before the aoon-day prayer, nnd two rak'ahs
ifter 1 1, and two after auuset prayer, and two
•ak'ahs after evening prayer, and two before
norning prayer."
V Tell me if any one of you had a rivulet
Before his door ancl bathed five times a day
a it, whether any dirt -would remain -upon
his^ body.' The Companions said, -Nothing
would remain. The Prophet said. In this
manner will the five daily prayers as ordered
by God erase all httle sins.' ''
" When any one of you says his prayers,
he: must have something in front of him, but
if he cannot ilnd anything for that purpose,
he must put his walking-stick into the
ground ; but if the ground be hard, then let
him place it lengthways in front of him : but
if he has no staff, he must draw a line on the
gjound. after which there will be no detri
ment in the prayers from anyone passing in
front of it." [SUTKAH.]
" The best prayers for God were those of
David the prophet, aud the best fast are his
also. David used to sleep half the night and
would be woke, and in prayer a third part of
the night and would fast one day and eat
another."
The form of prayer, or rak'ahs. as given
above, admit of no variations whether they
are used in private or public, and consequently,
notwithstanding the beanty of ittf devotional
language, it is simply a superstitious act,
having very little in common with the Chris
tian idea of prayei.
*Ve translate the Arabic Su/dt. and the
Persian Nmndz by the English word prayer,
although this "second foundation " of the re-
lijriori of Muhammad n something quite dis
tinot from that prayer which the Christian
poet «(. well describes as the " fioul's sincere
desire uttered or unexpressed." it would be
more correct to speak of the Muhaninmdm.
$a/at as « wince: " prayer" being more cor-
rer.My rpnrtfred by t,he Arabic c/ird'. li<
Islam prayer is reduced to a mechanical act.
as distinct from a *n»ntal a>',t; and in judging
of the spiritual r-Laractfr of Muhaiuinadan-
ism, we must take into careful consideration
the precise character of that devotional ser
vice which every Muslim is required to
render to God at least .rive times a day; and
"which undoubtedly) exercises so great an in-
PRAYERS FOE THP! DEAD 471
fluence upon the character of the followers of
Muharniuad.
The devotions of Islam are osfienually
"vain repetitions,'' for they must be said in
the Arabic language, and admit of no change
or variety. The effect of such j; constant
round of devotional form*, which arw but the
service of the lips, on the vast majority of
Muhammadans, can be easily imagined. The
absence of anything like true devotion fron
these services, accounts for the fact that reli
gion and true piety stand so far apart in th»-
oraetiee of Islam.
The late 1-^an Stanley remarks (Eastern
Church, p. ^79). " The cerernoni-ii character
'A the religion of Musalrnans is, in spite of
its simplicity, carried to a pitch beyond
the utmost demands either of Rome or of
Russia. . . . "Prayer ia reduced to a rnecba-
uical act as distinct from a. mental act,
bey oiid any ritual observances in the West
It is .striking to see the iigures along the
banks of the Nile going through their pros
trations. at the rising of the sun, with the
uniformity and regularity of clockwork ; but
it resembles the worshjp of machines rathe?
than of reasonable heing'9."
PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD.
According to the teaching of Muhammad, it is
the. duty of all true Muslims to pray for the
dead. (Durru 'l-Mukhtar, p. 1.35.) See also
Mithkat . book v. chap, ill
"God ino^t ceuuinly exalts the degree ot
a virtuoun servant in Paradise, and the vir
tuous servant says, • O my Lord, from whence
is this exalted degree for me ? ' and trod says,
'It is on account uf your children asking
pardon for you."
*• The Prophet passed by graves in al-
Mndinah and turned his face towards them,
and said, * Peace be to you, 0 inhabitants of
the graves 1 may God forgive us and you. Ye
have passed on before us, and we are follow
ing you."
"A dead person in the grave is like one
over his head in water, who calls to somebody
LO take him by the hand. For he ban bop«
:hat his father or mother, or his brother, or
his friend ^vill pray for him. For when the
prayer reaches the dead person, it IK more
l esteemed by him than the whole world, and
all that is in it: aud verily God most cer
tainly gives to the dead, on account of the
prayers of the people of the «arth. rewards
like mountains, for verily the otYen'ngs of the
liviny for the dead are af»km<r forcnveness for
them. '
Surah ixxi. 20 : •• And Noah said, 0 uiy
God, forgive toe and my parents "
Surah ix. U4, 115 : " It is uot for the Pro
phet to prsty for the forgiveness of those,
who, even though they be near of kiu, asso
ciate other gods with God after it bath been
made clear to them that thev are to be the
inmates of hell. For neither did Abraham
asic forgiveness lor hi<? father, out m pur
suance ol u promise which be had promised
him, and when it. was shown him that he was
an enemy of God, he declared himself clear of
him : yet Abraham was pitiful and kinrt."
472
PREACHER
PPEDESTINATIOK
It is related in the Traditions that the \
Prophet visited his mother's grave, and wept j
in such a way as to cause those who were <
standing around him to weep also. And !
the Prophet said, *'I have asked my bene- '
factor permission to ask pardon for my ,
mother, which was not granted then. I
asked my Lord's permission' to visit her
grave and it was granted, therefore do ye
visit graves, because they remind v'6u of
death.1'
PREACHER. Preaching. There
are four words generally used for a preacher :
(iacU), and naxifr
Khatib is always applied to the official
who recites the khutbah. or oration, in the
Friday service. The other three terms are
applied generally to preachers.
In the present day, preaching seldom takes
place in a mosque except on Fridays, when
the khutbah is recited, although it is not for
bidden, and Muhammad was frequently in the
habit of addressing his people after the
prayers were over.
No Maulawi of reputation preaches in the
i^treet,. but paid preachers sometimes under
take the office.
PREDESTINATION. Arabic qa-
dar (;»^), the word generally used in
the Hadis; taqdlr (;>•**?), the word
usually employed in theological works. Ex
pressions which mean "measuring out," or
" preordering."
Taqdir. or the absolute decree of good and
evil, is the sixth article of the Muhammadan
creed, and the orthodox believe that whatever
has, or shall come to pass in this world,
whether it be good or bad, proceeds entirely
from the Divine Will, and has been irrevocably
fixed and recorded on a preserved tablet by
the pen of fate. The doctrine, which forms a
very important feature in the Muslim system,
is thus taught in the Qur'an : —
Siirah liv. 40: "All things have been
created after fixed decree" (qadar).
Surah iii. 189 :' " No one can die except by
God's permission according to the book that
fixeth the term of life. '
Surah Ixxxyii. 2 : " The Lord hath created
and balanced all things and hath fixed their
destinies and guided them."
Surah viir. 17: " God slew them, and those
shafts were God's, not thine."
Siirah ix. ol : " By no means can aught
befall ub but what God has destined for
us."
SuraLt xiii. 30 : "All sovereignty is in the
bauds of God."
Siirahxiv. 4: "God misleadeth whom He
Will, and whom He will He guideth."
Surah xviii. 101 : " The infidels whose eyes
were veiled from my -warning and had no
power to hear/'
The teaching of Muhammad, as given in j
the Traditions handed down by al-Bukhari I
and Muslim, is as follows : —
'• God created Adam, and touched hie back j
with his right hand, and brought forth from
it a family: and God said to Adam, ' I have
created this family for Paradise, and their
actions will be like unto those of the people
of Paradise.' Then God touched the back of
Adam, and brought forth another family, and
said, ' I have created this for hell, and their
actions will be like unto those of the people
of hell.' Then a man said to the Prophet,
4 Of what use will deeds of any kind be? ' He
said, ' When God createth His servant for
Paradise, bis actions will be deserving of it
until he die, when he will enter therein : and
when God createth one for the fire, his actions
will be like those of the people of hell till he
die, when he will enter therein.'"
" ' There is not one amongst you whose
place is not \vritten by God, whether in the
lire or in Paradise.' The Companions said,
' 0 Prophet I since God hath appointed our
places, may we confide in this and abandon
our religious and moral duties?' He said,
' No ; because the righteous will do good
works and the wicked will do bad works.'
After which the Prophet read this verse
from the Qur'an : < To him who giveth. alms,
and feareth God, and yieldeth assent to the
excellent creed, to him will we make easy the
path to happiness. But to him who is
worldly and is indifferent, and who does not
believe in the excellent creed, to him will we
make easy the path of misery.' "
" The first thing which God created was a
pen, and He said to it * Write ' : it said, « What
shall I write? ' And God said, ' Write down
the quantity of every individual thing to be
created,' and it wrote all that was and that
will be, to eternity."
" God hath p're-prdained five things on his
servants ; the duration of life, their actions,
their dwelling-places, their travels, and their
portions."
" When God. hath ordered a creature to die
in any particular place, he caaseth his wanfcs
to direct him to that."
"There is not one born but is created to
Islam, but it is their fathers and mothers
who make them Jews and Christians and
MajusL"
" It was said, « 0 Prophet of God ! inform
me respecting charms, and the medicines
which I swallow, and the shields which I
make use of for protection, whether they
prevent any of the decrees of God ? ' Muham
mad said, < These also are by the decree ct
God.'"
" Verily God created Adam from a handful
of earth, taken from all parts, and the chil
dren of Adam beeame different, like the
earth ; some of them red, some white, and
some black, some between red, white and
black, some gentle, and some sovere, some
impure and some pure,"
" The Prophet of God was asked about the
children of polytheists who might die in
their infancy, whether they would go to hea
ven or hell. He said, •' God knoweth best
wbat their actions would have been had they
lived ; it depends on this.'" '
" The Prophet of God came out of uis
PEEDESTINATION
house when the Companions were debating
about fate, and he was angry, and became
red in the face, to such a degree that you
would say the seeds of a pomegranate had
boon bruised on it. And he said, • Hath God
ordered you to debate of fate ? Was I sent to
you for this ? Your forefathers were de
stroyed for debating about fate and destiny ;
I adjure you not to argue on those points.'"
(See Akddizu 'l-Bukhdrj and Muslim, in
loco.) [PRESERVED TABLET.]
The doctrine is expressed in an Arabic
treatise on the subject, as follows : —
" Faith in the decrees of God, is that we
believe in our heart aud confess -with our
tongue that the Most High God hath decreed
all things; so that nothing can happen in the
world, whether it respects tho condit'ona and
operations of things, or good or evil, or obe
dience and disobedience, or faith and infidelity,
or sickness and health, or riches and poverty,
or life and death, that is not contained in. the
written tablat of the decrees of God. But
God hath so decreed good works, obedience,
and faith, that Ho ordaina and wills them,
and that they may be under His decree, .His
salutary direction, His good pleasure and
command. On the contrary, God hath de
creed, and does ordain and determine evil,
disobedience kud infidelity ; yet without His
salutary direction, good pleasure, and com
mand ; but being only by way of seduction,
indignation, and prohibition. But whosoever
shall say that God is not delighted with, good
faith, or that God hath not an indignation
against evil and unbelief, he is certainly an
inftdel."
Tho Rev. E. Sell, in his Faith of Islam,
page 173, says : —
"There are three well-defined schools of
thought on tho subject.
"First. — The Jabrians (Jabariyvn), so
called from the word "jabr n compulsion,
deny all free agency in mac and say that
man is necessarily constrained by the force
of God's eternal and immutable decree to act
as ht does. They hold that as God is the
absolute Lord, He can, if He so wills, admit
all men into Paradise, or cast all into hell.
This sect is one of the branches of the Ash'a-
rians with whom on most points they agree.
" Secondly.— The Qadrians (QcMfarfyui),
who deny Al-Qadr, or God's absolute decree,
say that evil and injustice ought, not to be
attributed to God but to man, who is alto
gether a free agent. God has given him the
power to do or not to do an act. This sect
is generally considered to be a branch of the
MutaziUte body (Mtt'tazila/i), though in rea
lity it existed before \Va"eil quitted the school
of his master Hasan. As W&sil, however,
followed the opinions of M&bad-al-Johni, the
leading Qadrian divine, the Mutazilites and
Qadrians are practically one and the same,
" Thirdly.— The Ash'arians maintain that
God has one eternal will which ia applied to
whatsoever He willeth, both of His own
actions and those. of men; that He willeth
that which He knoweth and what is written
on the preserved table .- that fie willeth both
PREDESTINATION
473
good and evil. So far they agree with the
Jabrfans ; but then they seem to allow some
power to man. Tho orthodox, or Sunnf belief
is theoretically \sh'arian, but practically the
Sunnf 3 are confirmed Jabrians. The Mota-
zilite doctrines are looked upon as quite
heretical.
" No subject has been more warmly dis
cussed in Islam than that of predestination.
The following abstract of some lengthy discus
sions will present the points of difference.
"The Ash'arians. who in this matter re
present in the main orthodox riewg, formu
late their objections to the Mutazilite system
thus : —
"(i.) If man ifi the causer of an action by
the force of his own will, then he should also
have the power of controlling the result of
that action.
" (il) If it be granted that man has tho
power to originate an aet, it is necessary that
he bhould knew all acts, because a creator
should be independent in act and choice. In
tention must be conditioned by knowledge.
To this the Mutazilites well reply that a
man need not know the length of a road be
fore he walks, or the structure of the throat
before he talks.
" (iii.) Suppose a man wills to move his
body and God at the same time wills it to be
steady, then if both intentions come to pass
there will be a collection of opposites ; if
neither, a removal of opposites ; if the exal
tation of the first, an unreasonable prefer
ence.
*« (iv.) If man can create an act, some of
his works will be better than some of tha
works cf God, e.g. a man determines to have
faith: now faith' is a better thing than rep
tiles, -which are created by God.
tt (V.) If man is free to act, why oan he not
make at once a human body ; why does h-
need to thank God for grace and faith ?
<; (vi) But better far than all argument, the
orthedox say, is the testimony of the Book.
'All things have wo created under a fixed
decree.' (Stira lir. 49.) ' When God created
you and that ye make.' (Sura xxxvii. 94.)
* Some of them there were whoir God guided
and there were others decreed to err.' (Stfra
xvi. 88.) As God decrees faith and obedience
He must be the causer of it, for ' on the hearts
of these hath God graven the Faith.' (Sura
Iviii. 22.) « It U hfl who causeth you to laugh
and, weep, to die and ma.ke alive.' (Su"ra liii.
44.) * If God pleased Ho would surely bring
them, one and all. to the guidance.' (Sura
vi. 36.) * Had God pleased, He bad guided
you all aright.' (Stfra vi. 150.) 'Had the
Lord pleased, He would have made mankind
of one religion.' (Srfra xi. 120.) ' God will
mis-lead whom He plaaseth, and whom He
pleaseth He will place upon the straight
path.' (SUrah vi. 39.) Tradition records
that the Prophet said. ' God is the maker of
all makers and of their actions.
" The Mutazilites took up the opposite
side of this great question and said : — *
" (i ) If man ha* no power to will or to do,
then what ia the difference between praising
60
474
PREDESTINATION
PRESERVED TABLET
God and fcfnMng against Him ; between faith
and irimlf.'lifcy ; good and' evil ; what is the use
of • commands and prohibitions.; rewards and
punishments; promises and threats ; what is
the us* of prophets, books. <fec.
" (ii.) Seme acts of men are bad, such as
tyranny and polytheism, ff these aro created
by God, it follows that to tyrannise and to
ascribe plurality to the Deity is to render
•obedience. To this the Ash'anan-s reply that
orders aro of two kinds, immediate and me
diate. The former, whio'h they csil • Auir-i-
tAkvr/nj',' is tin* order, ' Bo arid it was.' This
roiiiprehends all existences and according to
it whatever is ordered must come to pass.
The latter 'they call ' Amr-i-tasbri'i,' art order
given in the 'Law. This come* to men
through prophets and thus is to be obeyed.
True ohedienee is to act according to that
which is reveajed. not according to the secret
mtenfion of God, for that we know not
" (iii ) If Goo decrees the nets of men, He
should bear the name of that which he de
crees. Thus the causer of inudality is an
infidel ; of tyranny a tyrant, and se on ; but to
speak thus of God is blasphemy.
"(iv.) If infidelity . is decreed by God He
innst wish it ; but a prophet desires faith and
obedience and so is opposed to God. To this
'the orthodox reply, that God knows by His
eternal knowledge that such a man will die
an infidel. If a prophet intends by bringing
tbe message of salvation to such an one to
make God's knowledge become ignorance, he
would be doing wrong; but as he does not
-know tht» secret decrees of God, his duty is to
deliver bis message according to the Hadis :
' A prophet has only' to deliver th6 clear
(v.) The Mutazilites claimed as on their
side all verses of the Quran, in which the
words to do, to obstruct, to renew, to create,
&c« are applied to men. Such are the verses :
* Whatever h? in the h«a ens and the earth is
God's that He Trtay reward those who do evil
according to their deeds : and those who do
•good will He reward with good things.' (Sui'a
liii. 82.) * Whoso sball have wrtjught evil
shall not be racoxppaased but v/ith its like :
but JrhoiO shall have dor>> vlie things that are
right, whether male or f«maie and is a be
liever, f.hese shall enter Paradise.' (Sura xl.
4£.) 'Sriy: rhe truth 'is from the Lord- let
hiiri then who will, believe; and let him who
will, be an infidel.' (Sura xviii. 28.) ' Those
who odd gods to God wiil say : * If God had
pleased neither we nor our fathers bad given
Him companions/ * Say . Verily ye follow-
only a conceit, ye utter lies.' (Sura vi.
149.) The Hadi's is also very plain. « All
good is in Thy hands and evil is not to
Thee.'
44 The Ash'ariacs have one famous text
which they bring to bear against all this rea
soning and evidence. It is; * This truly Is a
warning ; and whoso willeth, taketh the way
of his Lord ; but wiil it ye shall not, unless
God will it, for God is knowing, wise.' (Sifra
Ixxvi. ^9, uO.) To the Hadj's they reply (1)
tuat there is a difference between acquies
cence ia evil and decreeing it. Thns the ex
pression *6c-'A -wilieth not ty army for His
servants,' does not mean that God hath not
decreed it, but that tyranny is not one of
His attributes : so • uvii is cot to Thee means
it- is not an attribute of God; and (2) tho
Hadi's musi be explained in accordance with
the teaching of th-j Quran
" The Muslim philosophers tried to find a
way out of • the difficulty. Averhcea says;
We are free to act in this way or that, bat
our will is always determined by some exte
rior cause. For -example, we see something
which pleases us. we ar<r drawn to it in spite of
ouioolves. Our "will is thus bound by exte
rior causes. Those causes exist according to
certain order of things which is founded on
tho general laws of nature. God aloue knowe
beforehand tho necessary connection whieh
to us Ss a mystery. The connection of our
will with exterior causes is determined by the
laws of nature. It is this which in theo
logy vio call, 'decrees and predestination."'
(Mtlunges de Pkitoxopkie Jitive et Arube, par
S3. Muni;, p. 4oS.;
PKE-KMPTION Arabic M.ufah
(&***). Lit. " Adjunction." The
right of pre-emption is a power 'of possess
ing property which is for sale, and is esta
blished upon the teaching cf Muhammad. It
applies not to movable property but to im-
iiiovrthle property (N.^ar). T.bi« right of
pre-emption appertains i.n the first place to
the co-sharer or partner in the property;
secondly, to a sharer in the immunities and
appendages of. the properly such as the right
to water, or to roaus ; and thirdly, to the
neighbour. (Hiituyab, vol. iii. p. ,594.)
PKE-EXISTENCE OF SOULS is
taught botii in tin* Qu'run and the £ raditioiis.
•Ayiabab relates that Muharainad eaid.
"Souls before thoy b«eaane united with bodies
were like auembiod ariuies, and afterwards
they wc*r<; dispersed and sent into the bodies
of mankind." (Mithkqt, book xxii. eh. xvi.)
There is said to.be a reference to this doc
trine in the Qur an :—
Sur.'ilr vii. 171 : " And when the Lofd drew
forth thojr posterity from .the loins of the
sous of Adam . / . ."
The couunentater, a I Caizawi, says God
stroked Adam's back and extracted from his
loins his whole posterity, which should come
into the world until the Resurrection one
generation after another; and that these
aouls 'were all assembled togothev like smaU
ants, and after they bad in the presence of the
angels confessed their dependence upon God.
they v.vro again caused to return, into thv
loin? of Ada/is," (See Taj'siru '{-Baizd&i, in
fofeo.)
PRESERVED TABLET. Accord-
ing to the ioaching of Muhammad, botii the
actions of men and the -QnrVin were recorded
before creation npon a preserved tablet called
Lnun Afatbfut (i^ae^ CjJ), Siivah ssxv. 22:
14 And if thev treat thee as » liar, se did those
PRIDE
who were before them t.eat their Ape&iles |
who came to them with the proofs of 'heir !
mission, and v.'ith the Scripture* and with thn '
clear Boolk": and /?/?j</< Alttvin (^.*<*->» ^»V«»). ;
Surah xxxvi. 11 ; ik Verily, it i~ NVe ^\ho vrill
quiciieu tho dead, and write rtown the works
which they tuvo seut on before tbe>n, -vnd I
tin* tritccj* whieJi they shnll have left behind
therri . find everything have we sot down in
rhe clear Book of our decrees. [PKEDERTI-
PEOPHET
476
and therefore a foGtor-sistor or a foster- brother
is unlawful in marriage. J'MAJIRIAGK.]
PH1DE, Arabic kibr (^)y is for-
idueu in the • Qur'nn, aoe Surah xvii. 39:
\Y;>~ik not proudly on the earth ; truly thoit
can: V.y no means cleave the earth, neiiher
eanst thou reach the mountains in weight; all
tbift ?s evil with thy Lord and odious."
PRIEST. There is no sacerdotal
cla?:5« o! ministers in the M«hammadan reli
gion. The leader of the daily prayers is
called na Imam. [IMAM.]
PE1VACY OF DWELLINGS is
established by the teaching of Muhar.iir.ad.
and it is therefore unlawful to enter the house
without /.s/j'z'/n, or "asking poi-mission." The
injunction is gi>en in the Qur'fm, Surah xsir.
27-29 :—
•'0 yc v-ho. believe! enter not into other
brush" tixan your own, until ye have asked
leave. JUKI have saluted its inmates. This
will >>•- lies!, for you.: haply ye will b*ar this
in mind. And if ya iiud no one therein, then
enter it not till Irave be given yoti ; and if it
be said to you, • Gc ye 1)3 ^k.' then go ye back.
This will be more blumeiess in. you, and God
kno*v«tii what ye do. There s^.-ill be no harm
in joar eclering houses in which no one
dweiieth, for (.he supply of your noeas : and
God knov-eth wu.'it ye do openly and what ye
hide."
'Ata' il;n Ya?ar relates that " A man once
askeu the Prophet, ' Must I ask leave to go
into the room of my mother ? ' The Prophet
said, 'Yes.' Then :he man said, ' But I live
in the same home.' The Prophet said, * Yes,
even if you live in the game home.' The man
said, * But I wau upon her I ; . The Prophet.
' But you must ask permission : for, what !
wourd you lika to soo yotii mctLer naked t ' "
It i«;" further relat«xi that Muhammad al-
vays went first to the right and then to the
left of a door which b.id ao curtain, and
salamsd several times before lie catered.
(Afislikdt, book xxii. eh. ii)
This has become an established rule in the
East, and it is considered very rude to enter
any dwelling without first gmri£ notice.
PROHIBITED DEGREES OF
MARKIAGE. According ti> the Qur'an tliey
are se\en: 1, motber ; 2, daughter; 8, sister:
4, paternal aunt ; 5, materaul aunt ; 6, sister's
daughter; 7, brother's daughter. And the
same with regard to the other sex. It is
also unlawful for a Muslim to marry bis
wife's sister (see Lev. xviii. 18) or his wii'c'a
aunt during the lifetime of bis wife.. Foster
age in Muslim law establishes relationship,
PROPHET. The
to express the pi
Arabic words
ic oi'Sce iro naot
ntursai ( L*),. pL_ KKTMM9. la Per
sian, the thre-3 titles are invariably trans-
iitod by the word paiqha.imfKjr {•+++*.+>') (i.e.
a mossoiiger).
Nihi. is the Hebrew ndbi
Gesenius says means " ono who bubMos forth"
as a fountain. The Arabic lexicon, the
tlwnus, derives the word from nr/6tT, *k to be
exalted.
According to Muuamrnadan writers a nabl
is anyone directly iTispired by God, and rasul
and mwr&al, one to whom a special missioii
has been entrusted.
Maharnv}acl is relate.! to have said (Afi>A-
kdt, book xxiv. oh. i. pt. 3) that there were
124,000 umrnyd\i>r prophets, acd 3l5apcstle§
or messengers. Xire of these speciaViatJRPen-
gevs aro entitled Z7/« '/-'Azm, or *• possessors of
constancy, namely," Noah. Abraham, David,
Jacub, Joseph, Jc'o, Mcses, Jtjsus. and Mu
hammad. ^jx ar<e dignified with sv>ocja'
titles: Adarn, Sntv/H 'Haft, tne Chosen of Gcd :
Noah. Nuhiyn V/ul. tho Proa '.-tier of God;
Abraham, J\'h>i/ilu V/J/», the Friend of God;
Moses, Kalimu V/«A. the Convurser with God ,
Jeva*, Kithii 'Hah, the Spirit of Gccl ; M\ihara-
mad, Rasutu 'Hah, the Mosspnger of God.
The number of eacren books delivered to
mankind it ?;tid to have been 104 (see Alaja-
Itsii 'l-Abrdr, p. 55) ; of these, ten were given
V x-'3arr., ilfty to Seth (a name not mentioned
iu tiie Quran), thirty to Enoch, ten to Abra
ham, the Taurilt to Moses, the Zabur to
David; the Icjii to Jesu.?, and the Qnr'a'i to
Muhammad.
"The one hundred scriptures given to Adam.
Seth, Eeoch, and Abraham are termed SaHii-
fah(& pamphlet), and the other four Kitab (fi
bock) ; but all that is necessary for the Mus
lim to know of these inspired records is sup
posed to have been retained iu the Qur'an.
Muhammad's enumeration of the C'd and
New Testament prophets, both as t? name
and chronological ordur, is exceeding !y coa-
fused. and it i? acknowl&dged.to be a ruatter
of doubt amongst Muslim coromeut.aiois wh«
ther or not Alexander the Great and ^Esop
were inspired prophets.
The names of twenty -eight prophets aid
said to occur in the Quran: —
Ada>fit Adam : Idris, Enofh ; ATu£, Noah j
Hud, Htbtf ?;£&$, Methusaleh; Jbrdhim,
Abraham; /.sv/io-i/, Ishmaol; J*hdi;. Isaac;
>a'o«i, Jacob, \usuf, Joseph; Lui, Lot:
Mutd, Moses : Hariri, Aaron; Shtfaib. Jethro?;
Zakariyd, Zicharias, the father of John the
Baptist; Yaityd. Johu Baptist; 4lsfi, JASUS;
f)dTidi David; tfulaimun. Solomon; //'/«*,
Elias; Aty<i.w, Elisha ; AiyUf, Job: Yuwa,
Jonah ; '£/zai>. EZIM ; Lnyimtn. /Esop? uicre
likely Balaam , Zii V-XiY/, Is:»iah or Oba-
^ Z.u 'i-ljfirnain, Alexander th«
476
PBOPHETESSSS
An account of these prophets will be fonnd
tinder their respective names.
A Persian book, entitled the Qisasu. >l-
Amlriyff, the "Tales of the Prophets," pro
fesses to give au account of the prophets
mentioned in the Qar'an, but the utter reck
lessness of the writer passes all description;
for example, it is a matter of uncertainty
whether Zu 7-Qarnam is Alexander the
Gr«at or some celebrity who lived in the days
of Abraham I
PROPHETESSES. It i» said thot.
only three wotnen have been prophetesses :
Sarah, the mother of Moses, and Mary, the
daughter of *Imrun: for Sarah received by
revelation the news of Isaac's birth, the birth
of Moses wae divinely communicated to his
mother, and Mary received from an angel the
happy tidings of the birth of Jesus. (See
Hist. of Twnle of Jerusalem, translated from
the Arabic.^
PSALMS OF DAYID, The,
PUBERTY. Arabic bv.lugh
bulughiyat (^4*). The puberty of a
boy ia established as soon as the usual signs
of manhood are known to exist ; but if none
of these signs exist, hia puberty is not clearly
established until he nave completed his
eighteenth year. The puberty of a girl is
established in the same way ; but if the usual
signs of womanhood are known not to exist.
her puberty is not established until her
seventeenth year has been completed, This
is according to the teaching of the Imam
Abu Hanifah. But hia two digciples main
tain that upon either a boy or girl completing
the fifteenth year, they are to be declared
adult. The Imam ash-Shafi'i concurs in this
opinion, and it is said there is also a report
of Abu IJanifah to the same effect. The
earliest period ot puberty with respect to a
boy is twelve years, and with respect to a
girl nine yoars.
When a boy or girl approaches the age Q£
puberty and they declare themselves adult,
their declaration must be credited a^^ they
then become subject to all the laws affecting
adults, and must observe all th.e ordinances of
the Muslim faith. (Bictff^ah, Hamilton's
Translation, vol. iii. p. 483 •"jSmfa'r-Rumuz,
Durru 'l-Muktear.)
Syed Ameer &li says :—
* The validity of marriages contracted for
minors by any guardian other than the father
or the grandfather, is not established until
ratified by the parties on arriving at puberty.
Stich ratification in the case of males must be
express, and in the case of females may be
either express or implied. On arriving at
puDtfrty, both the parties have the right of
either ratifying the contract entered into
during their minority or of cancelling it. Ac
cording to me Sunnis, in order to effect. a dis
solution of the matrimonial tie, in exercise of
the right of option reserved to the parties, it
is necessary that there «hould be a decree of
the judge j and until such decree is made, the
PUNISHMENT
marriage remains intact. If before a deor«
has been obtained one of the parties tfiould
die, the survivor would be entitled to inherit
from the deceased.
"The Shiahs differ materially from the
Sunnis on this. They hold that a- marriage
contracted on behalf of minors by any un*
authorised, person (fazuli), i.e. any person
other than a father or a grandfather, remains
in absolute suspension or abeyance until as
sented to by the parties on arriving at
pvberfcy; that, in fact, no legal o ff eet arises
from it until such ratification, and if in the
interval previous to ratification, one of the
parties should die, the contract would fall to
the ground and there would be no right of
inheritance in the survivor." (Persona! Law
of the Mahommcdans, p. 269.)
PULPIT. The pulpifc or mimbar
(~-s-*), used for the recital of the
Muitbafi on Fridays in the chief mosque is
asually a wooden structure of three steps and
movable, but in the large mosques of Turkey
and Egypt it is a fixture of brick or stone.
It is related that the Prophet, when ad
dressing the people, stood on the uttermost
step, Abu Bakr on the secondT and 'TJmar on
.- MIMBAfi.
W, S.
the third or lowest. 'Usman being tho most
humble of man, would gladly have descended
lower, but this being impossible, He fixed
upon the second step, from which it is now
nsua! to recite tho khutbah OR Fridays and
on the two great festivals. [MOSQUE. HIM-
BAB.]
PUNISHMENT is divided into
three classes j (1) ffadd (**), (2)
Qisas (uoUS), (3) Tafagb (v**F).
(1) Hadd (^), pL Hudud (lit. « That , which
is defined "), is that punishment the limits of
which have been defined in the Qur an and
Hadia. The following belong to this class :—
(a) Adultery, zinff (°^j)> for which the
adulterer must be s;oued, rajm (/»««•;). (Mish-
kdt, book xv. ch. 1.)
(6) Fornication, zina' (ey;)> for which the
guilty persons must receive one hundred
stripes. (Qur'au, Surah xxiv. 2.)
(c) The false accusation of a married per
son with adultery, qaif (*~^)> for which
PUNISHMENT
the offender- must receive eighty stripes
(Qur'iui. Surah xxiv. 4.)
' (4) Apostecv, irtiddd («^ •**))) } which is
punishable witn death. (Mishfcdt, book xiv.
ch. v.)
! (e) Drinking wine, s/iurh (v»j^)» for which
jthe offender must receive eighty lashes.
(Miskkat, book xv. oh. iv.)
| (/) Theft, sanqah (&*-) , which is punished
by cutting off the right hand. (Qur'an, Surah
IT. 42.)
| (g) Hignway robbery, qafcu 't-tanq (£»»
LjJ^ti^) : for robbery only, the loss of hands
and feet, and for robbery with murder, death,
(either by the sword or crucifixion. (Qur'an,
: Surah v. 37 )
(2) QjtSs (\J>\~*), Kt. "retaliation," is that
punishment which, although fixed by the law,
| can be remitted by the person offended against,
or, in the case of a murdered person, by his
heira. It is applicable to cases of murder
and of wouruiing. Q,isa$ in the lex .talionis of
i Moses : " .Eye for eye, tooth for tooth, burn
ing for burning, wound for wound, stripe for
stripe (Exodus xxi. 24) ; but in allowing a
money compensation, Muhammad departed
from th« Jewish Code. (Qur'an, Sureb ii.
173)
(3) Ta'zib (s-^«ktf), is the punishment
which is left to the discretion of the QSzi or
Judge. [KADD, QISAB, TA'ZIB.]
PUNISHMENTS OF THE
GRAVE, [AXABU 'L-QABR.]
PURGATORY. [BARZAKH.]
PURIFICATIONS. Arabic taha-
rah (8,^). The Jogal methods of
purification under the Muhammadan law
vary but slightly from thobe which were en
joined in the Talmudtc law of the Jews ; with
the remarkable difference that whilst with
the Muslim the simple act of purification
QA'DAH
477
Suffices, the Jew was taught by the use °*
expiatory offering to discern to it« fnll ex'
tent the connection between the outward sign
and the inward fount of impurity.
The most minute regulations with reference
to the subject of legal purification, were laid
down in the Jewish law, and are found in a
treatise of the Mishna entitled Yadaim. See
also Leviticus xv.
The following are the different acts of
purification existing in Muhammadan law : —
1. Qhusl (J~*)- The waohing of the
whole body to absolve it from tuicleanliness
and to prepare it for the exorcise of prayer,
after the following acts : pollutio noctui-na,
menses, coitwt, puerperium. [GHUSL.]
2. Ghusl-masnun 0y-~* —*). Such
washings of tho whole body ae are founded
upon the sunnak or practice and precept of
Muhammad, although they are not supposed
to be of divine institution, namely, upon the
admission of a convert to Islam ; before the
Friday prayer, on the festivals ; after washing
the dead ; and after blood-letting, [anusfc
MASNlTN.j
3. Warf (*y*))i or the simple ablution of
hands, arms, ears, face, mouth, &c., before the
recital of the usual prayers. [ABLUTION.]
4. Tayyammum (fffr**), or the use of sand
or dust instead of water for the wazvf.
[TAYAMMUM.]
5. Istinjff (o^x~\), or- the abater«ion o.f
the private parts. [ISTINJA'.]
6. Miswak (tfttj-w«), or the cleansing of
the teeth. [MISWAK.]
7. Mask (c~**)» or tne touching of the
boots whereby they become purified for
prayer. [MASAH.]
8. Tathir C;*^), or the cleansing of ves
sels, articles of clothing, &c., from impurity*
which is generally done by applying either
water, or sand and du&t, the mere sprinkling
being sufficient. [TATHIB.]
Q
QABALAH, QIBALAH (4M). A
deed of conveyance or transfer of right or
property; Any contract or bargain or sale
signed by a judge, (tiiddyah, vol. ii. p. 569.)
QABAQAUSAIN(tf*-yv»tf). Lit.
« Two bows' length/' An expression which
occurs in the Qur'an, Surah liii. 8-10 : « Then
he drew near and hovered o'er ; Until he was
two bowjs' length off or nigher still. Then he
revealed to his servant what he revealed
him." Commentators understand this to refer
to the angel Gabriel Mystic writers use the
term to express a state of nearness to God.
(See 'Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Diet, of $uf\ Terms,}
QABIL (J*^). [CAIN.]
AL-QABIZ (ut*W\), "The Be-
gtrainer." One of the ninety -nine attributes of
God. But the word does not occur in the
Qur'an,
QABB (;**)• A grave. [aRA^,
IOMB.]
QABtJL (A,**). ^Oonseat." A
term in the Muhammadan law of marriage,
contracts, &c.
QABZ WA BAST (t-* ; yM). Two
terms which are employed to express two
opposite states of tho heart; gabz being a
contraction, and bas^ an expansion, of tao
spiritual state. (See 'Abciu 'r-Razzaq's Diet.
of$ufi Terms.}
QA'DAH (BJUU). The sitting- pos-
ture in the daily pray or, when the tasTiMihtid
is recited. [TASHAHHUD.]
478
QADAR
QA.PAR ( jjtf). Lit. « Measuring."
(1) The 'word generally used in the Hadls lor
fata, or predestination. (2) Ai-Qjadar. the
title of the xcvnth Surah of the Qur'an.
[TA^DIR, PRK INSTIGATION.]
QADARIYAH (V)- A sect of
Muhaoiznadans who >ieuy absolute predesti
nation and believe in the power (?adr) of
mau's free will. They wero the ancient Mu'-
tazilahs before al-Wasi! separated from the
school "of Hasan -il-
QADIM (<*>•**). "Ancient: old."
im, "The one without beginning.''
u '1-A.iydm, " Ancient of days.*' God.
AL-QADIK (jovsil). "The Power
ful." One of the ninety-nine attributes oi
God. The word occurs, in the Qur'au, at
Surah ii 19, " God is w'ffhty over all." and in
m«r.y other passages,
QADIK1YAH (A*^;. An ascetic
order of Fuqlrs instituted A.H. 561, by Saiyid
'Abdu '1-Qadir ai-Jilani, surnaraecl PIr Das-
tagir, whose shrhie is at Baghdad, It is the
most popular religious order amongst the
Sunnis of Asia. ('
QAF (^ii). (1) The twenty. first
letter of the Arabic alphabet. (2) The title
of the Lth Surah of tho Qur'an. (o) Thu
circle of mountains which Easterns fancy en
compass the world. The Muhannmtdan be
lief being that they are inhabited by demons
and jinn,' and that the mountain range is of
emerald which gives an azure Ime to the sky.
Hence in Persian az qdi td qtif means tue
whole world. The name is also used for
Mount Caucasus.
AL-QAHHAK (jWalt). "The Do-
minant." One of tho ninety-nine names of
God. It occurs iu tbo Quran. Surah xiii. 17:
" He is the Cue, the Dominant."
QA'IF (utftf). Lit. " Skilful ia
knotting footsteps.** One who can judge of
character from tho outward appearance.
One instance of the Idnd if? related in the
Traditions, namely, 'Ayishah relates, " One
day the Prophet came home in high spirits,
and said. *0 'Ajritfhah, verily Mujazziz al-
Slndiiji cama and snw Usaciah and Zaid
covered over with a oloth, except their feet ;
and ho said, 'Verily, I know from these feet
the relationship of father and son.1* (Mi'shkdt,
bock xiii. eh. xV, pt. I.; This knowledge is
called '//wit* '1-Q.ignfah.}
QAINUQA' (guu«l;. A Jewish
tribe near al-Madm.ih in the time of Muham
mad. He besieged thena in their stronghold
m the second year of the Hijrah, and, having
conquered them, sent raost cf thorn into exile.
(See Muir's Life of Mv/tomet, vol. iii. p. 134.)
QAISAK ( ^J). [C/ESAR. ]
QA1S IBN SA«D (j«u ^ u~**)-
One of the leading companions. He was of
the tribe Khazraj and the son of Sa d. a
QAEl'
Companion of note. He was a man of large
stature and corpulent, emiment for learning,
wisdom, and courage. Ha commanded the
Prophel's body guard, and under the Khallfah
'All he was made Governor of Egypt. Died
at al-Madinab, A.H. 60.
AL-QAIYUM (rr^^)- " ifh* Sei^-
Subsisting." One of the ninety-nine attri
butes of Go«i. If occurs in the Quran, Surah
iii. 1 : " There is no deity but God< the
living, the self-subsisting."
QALAM (^»). Lit. "A '(rod)
pen." (1) The' pen with ^hich God is said to
have pi-e-recorded the acticuB of men. Th«
Prophet said the first tiling which God
created was the Pen (*7«/u«), and that it
wrote down the quantity of evoiy individual
thing to bo created, all that was .and r*ll tnat
will be to all eternity. (See Alis/ikdt.} (2)
Af-Qa/ani. the title of the Lxvmth Surah of
tho Qur'an.
Q ALAN OAR (j-wli). A Persian
title to an order of faqirs or darwishes. . An
Ascetic;
AL-QAMAR (j*&\). " The moon."
Tho title of the Livth Surah of the Qur'an,
in the lirsi verse of which the word occurs.
" And the moon hath been split in sunder/'
[MOON, SHAQQU 'L-QAMAB.J
Q AN A' AH (AeU). Contentment;
resignation.
QANIT (c^li). Lit. "One who.
stands in prayer or in the service of God.
Godly, devout, prayerful. The term is used
twice in the Qur'an : —
Surah xvi. 121 : " Verily, Abraham was a
leader in religion and obedient to God."
Surah xsxix. 12: "He who obserreih tba
hours of the night in devotion."
QANUK (^y^). K<m»>f. Canon;
a rule, a regulation, a law, a .statute.
QAKABAH (*U). Lit. « Proxi-
iry." A. legal
for reiaiionship.
QAKI' (u;jVl), pi. yarra. "A
reader." A term used for one who reads
the Qur'un correctly, aad is acqcainted with
the 'Ilmu '{-Zoppuf, wr the science of reading
the Qur'au. In the history of Islam there are
seven celebrated Q,urrd\ or " readors," who
are known as al-Qurrffu 's»Sa1rah, or "the
seven readers." They are —
1. Imam Ibn Kasir. Died at Makkah, A.n.
120.
2. Imain 'Asim of al-Kufab, who learut
the way of reading the Qur'an from 4Abdu
'r-Rahman as-Satami, who was taughfefry the
Khalifahs ^Ustttan and «A1I. He died at »1-
Kufah, A.H. 127.
3. Imam Abu 'ITmr was born at Makkah,
A.H. 70, and died at al-Kufah, AH. 154. It
is on bis authority that the following impor
tant statement has been handed down : " When
the first copy of the Qur an was written out
AL-QABI'AH
ted to the Khat-fch 'Ujmin, he
There are faults of l;«nguRg* in it, let
:abs of the desert rectify -thorn with
lias.'* The meaning of this is that
o-jid pronoucce the words correctly
ot alter the written copy.
Imam Hamzah of ai-Kufab was born
. 8v>, and di?d A.H. 156.
L Invi.-n al-Kisa'i who had a gr«at reputa-
i as a Qari', but none us a pint. It was
conioiiin saying, among the learned in
.mmar, that there was no on« who know
little poetrv as al-Ki.iii'i. H*> i* i?aid to
ire diod at Tda aboui, the year A.H. IH2.
S. Imsm Nafi',a native of al-Madlmth, who
.H. 169.
Imam ifou 'Amir, vh<-- was a native of
&. His date is unoortain.
AL-QARI'AH (A^uat). "TheStrik-
." The title of the cis* Surah of the
r'5n, which begins with the words, " The
lkiriir! Wbut is the Striking 't And what
all make chee understand how terriblw the
riking wail be."
Falalu Yl-din says it is one oi the epithets
en to the last ds«.y, because it will strike
hearts of ail creatures with terror.
QARIN (&f). Lit. "The one
oited." The demon which is said to be in-
solubly united with every man. (See
ithkdt, book xiii. th. xv. ; alsp Qur'an,
rah xli. 24 ; Surah xliii. 35; Surah I. 22.)
QARTNAH (&»;»). The context,
tenTi used in theological and esegetical
rks.
QARUN (05^). [KORAH.]
QARZ (yi/j. JW«. "Cutting.'-'
A wonl used in the Qur'an for good
eds done for God. for which a future re-
mjpense will be awarded, e#. Surah v. 15:
jend (jiou a liberal loan and I will Kurely
c away from you your evil d^eds, and will
Uoe you to enter gavctens through which
vers flow."
(2) Monoy aJvonced as a Joan without in-
rest, to be repaid at the pleasur of the
rrower.
(3) The word is used in 1'ervUn, Urdu, and
shtoo for money lent at interest, but the
legal term for auch a debt is nbff.
QASAM (>-*) [OATH.]
QASAMAH (i-U»). Lit. "Taking
an oath," An oath under the following cir
qumstanoes :—
When a pei'aon ia found slain in a place,
and it is not known who was the murderer,
and his heirs deina^l satisfaction for his
bioou from the Inh:: i.H.»:it,r>of the district, then
fifty of the inhal-itunts Ri.noctod by the next
of kin, muet be put to their oaths and depose
to this affect: "I swear by God thai 1 did
not -kill him, nor do 1 know the murderer."
This on;; torn is founded upon the Mosaic
law. See Dteut. xxi. 1-9.
AL-QA§A$ (t/fccaH). <lThe narra
tive." The title oi the xivnith Surah of the
QAZV
479
Qur'an. So called because in the 25tli verse
of th ! -r Chapter Closes is sftid to have related
toe ixtrrutive of his adventure* to Shu'aib
QASM (^). Lit, "To divide."
A di»isiou of conjugal rights, which is en-
icinod by the BfttJubn law. (See M.ixhk'it,
book xiii. ch. x.}
AL-QASVVA' (*yj^). Lit. "One
whose eirs are cropt." Muhammad's cele
brated she- camel who conveyed him m tb<»
flight from Makkah.
QATL (J^). L^UBDEE.]
QATTAT (^^i). A slanderer.
A ;a:« •boarer, who, according to the Tradi-
tions, vriil not enter the kingdom of heaven ;
for the Prophet has said, *' A tale-bearer
shall not enter Paradise." (Afishkut, book
xxii. ch. x. pt. 1.)
QAT'U
{'HIGHWAY ROBBERY.]
QAUL (Jy). A saying; a 'pro
mise : a covenant. The word occurs in the
Qur'an fi-equontly in th«sd senses.
QAULU 'L-HAQQ (&*)\ tf).
MTh« Word of Truth." A title given 10
Jesus Christ in the Qur'an, Surah ids. 35:
kt This was Jesus the son of Mary, the. word of
ruth concerning whom they doubt." By the
jouimentators Husaiu, al-Kamal»n, ai)d
Abdu 'l-Qddir, the words are understood to
refer to the .statement qiad«, but al-BaizawI
says it is- a title applied to Jesus the son of
Marv. r.TEsus CHRIST.]
QAWAD (oyi). « "Retaliation."
Lex intfnnis. [MUBDER. QISAS. RETALIATION.]
AL-QAWI (qyf). "The Strong."
Cue of the ninety nine attributes of God. It
occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xi. t>9: <*>Thv
Lord is the Stromj, the Mighty/'
QAZA' (*U>), pi. ayziyah. Lit.
*' Consummating.'* (I) The office of a Qazi,
or judge. (2) The sentence of a Qa/i. (Ii)
Kypeating prayer-s io make up for having
omitled then at the appointed timu. (4)
Maki.agup for an ouii.ssion in iv)igi^u-? duties.
sueli ;;s fasting, &c. (5) The deofeo existing '
in tiie Divine mind from all eternity, and thf
execution and declaranan of a deere<j nt the
appointed time. (f») Sodden death
QAZF . 0-*A5). Lit. "Throwing
at.** Aci:u*ing a virtuous man or woman of
adultery; the punishment for which is eighty
lashes, a\\ in the case of a slave, forty
lashes. This punishment Vas established by
a supposed revelation from heaven, when the
Pivjili.'t's favourite wife. 'Ajio.unh. was ;»c-
i*use«l of improper intimacy wiih S.ii'wan
JLv.i: 'l-Mu;;ittil. \'idi. Qur'an. Sunitu 'n-
N'Or ;'s.xi '.'.), -t: "But to those who sic'cuse
married persona of adultery flnd produce not
four witnesses, them shall ye scourge with
four-score stripes." (Hidayah, voL ii. p. 6d.)
QIBLAH
480
QIBLAH (flus). " Anything oppo
site." The direction in which all Muhamma-
dans must pray, whether in their public or in
their private devotions, namely, towards
Makkah, It is established by the express in
junction of the Qur'an, contained in the
Sttratn 1-Baqarnb (ii.), 136-146 :—
"Fools among men will say, What has
turned them from their Qiblah on which
they were agreed ? Say, God's is the east
and the wast, He guides whom He will unto
the right path. Thus have we made yon a
middle nation to be witnesses against men,
and that the apostle may be a witness against
yon. We have not appointed the qiblah on
which thou wort agreed, save that we might
know who follows the Apostle from him who
turns upon his heels, although it is a great
thing save to those whom God doth guide.
But God will net waste your faith, for verily
God with men is kind and merciful. We see
thee often turnabout thy face in the heavens,
but we will surely turn thee to a qiblah thou
shalt like. Turn, then, thy face towards the
Sacred Mosque, wherever ye be turn your
faces towards it, for verily those who have
the Book know that it is the truth from their
Lord. God is not careless of that which ye
do. And if thou shouldst bring to those who
have been given the Book every sign, they
would not follow your qiblah, nor do some
of thorn follow the qiblah of the others ; and
if thou followest their lusts after the know
ledge that has come to thee, then art thou of
the evil-doers. Those whom we have given
the Book know him as they know their sons,
Although a sect of them do surely hide the
truth the while they know. The truth (is)
from thy Lord, be not therefore one of those
who doubt thereof. Every sect has some one
side to which they turn (in prayer), but do ye
hasten onwards to good works, wherever ye
are, God will bring you all together. Verily,
God is mighty over all. From wheucesoever
thou comest forth, there turn thy face to
wards the Sacred Mosque ; for it Is surely
truth from thy Lord, God is not carelesd
about what ye do. And from whencesoever
thou comest forth, there tarn thy face to*
wards the Sacred Mosque, and wheresoever
ye are, turn your faces towards it, that men
may have no argument against you, save
only those of them who are unjust, and fear
them not, but fear me, and I will fulfil my
favour to you ; perchance ye may be guided
yet."
In explanation of these verses (which are
allowed to be of different periods), and the
change of Qiblah, aJ-Batzawi, the commen
tator, remarks that when Muhammad was
in Makkah he always worshipped towards
the Ka'bah ; but after the flight to al-Madi-
nah, he was ordered by God to change his
Qiblah towards a?-Safchrah, the rock, at Jeru
salem on which the Temple was formerly
erected, in order to conciliate the Jews, but
that, about sixteen months after his arrival in
al-Madinah, Muhammad longed once more to
pray towards Makkah, and he besought the
Lord to this effect; and then the instructions
QIBLAH
wero revealed, "Verily we have seen ti
turning thy face," <fcc., as given above, (J
al-Baizawi, in loco.)
Th;« Temporary change of the Qiblah
Jerusalem is now regnrded as "a trial
faith," and it is asserted that Makkah *
always the true Qiblah. But it is impossi
for any non-Muslim .not to see iu this trausi
tion a piece of worldly wisdom on the part
the Prophet.
Jalalu 'd-dm as-Suyuti admits that t
110th verse of the imd Surah — which reac
" The east and the west is God's, Iberefc
whichever way ye turn is tho face of God"
has been abrogated by a more recent von
and that at one time in the history of M
hammad's mission there was no Qiblah
all
Major Osborne remarks in his Islam uw
the Arabs, p. 58: —
" There have been few incidents more d
astrous in their consequences to the hum
race than this decree of Muhammad, changt
the Kibla from Jerusalem to Mekka. Had
remained true to his earlier and better fait
the Arabs would have entered the religio
community of the nations as peace-make;
not as enemies and destroyers. To All alike
Jews, Christians, and Muhammadans— the
would have been a single centre of holine
and devotion ; but the Arab would ha
brought with him just that element of co
victiou which was needed to enlarge ai
vivify the preceding religions. To tho J«
he would have boon a living witness that ti
God who spake in times past to his fathe
by the prophets still sent messengers to me
though not taken from the chosen seeds— t)
very testimony which they needed to rise 9
of the conception of a national deity to th
of a God of all men.
" To the Christians, his deep and ante
conviction of God as a present living ai
working power, would have been a voice recji
lin^ them from their petty sectarian squabbl
and virtual idolatry, to the presence of tl
living Christ. By the change of the Kibl
Islam wan placed in direct antagonism '
Judaism and Christianity. It became a riv
faith, possessing an independent centre
existence. It ceased to draw its autliontidi
from the same wells of inspiration. Jew at
Christian could learn nothing from a era
which they knew only ad an exterminate!
and the Muhammadan was condemned to
moral and intellectual isolation. And so Ion
as he remains true to his creed, he cann»
participate in the onward march of meu
The keystone of that creed is a black pebfc
in a heathen temple. All the ordinances <
«iis faith, all the history of it, are so groupe
round and connected with this stone, th*
were the odour of sanctity dispelled whio
surrounds it, the whole religion would inevil
ably perish. The farther and the faster me
progress elaewhere, the more hopeless become
the position of the Muslim. He can onl
hate the knowledge which would gently lea
him to the light. Chained to a black stoa
in a barren wilderness, the heart and reaso
QIBTI
j
of the Muhammadan world would seem to
have taken the similitude of the objects they
reverence ; and the refreshing dews and
genial sunshines which fertilise all else, seek
in vain for anything to quicken there," (Isfam
under the Arabs, p. 58.)
QIBTI ( Jo**}. Copt. The Chris-
tian descendants of the Ancient Egyptians,
derived from Coptos, a great city in Upper
Egypt now called Gooft. The favourite slare
of Muhammad, Mariyah, was a Copt, and is
known in Muslim history as Mariyatu '1-
Qfbtiyah. [WUHAMMAD, WIVES OP.]
For an account of the manners and customs
of the Coptic Christians, see Lane's Modern
Egyptians.
QIMAR (jUs). Dice or any game
at chance. It is forbidden by the Muham
madan religion. (Miskkat, book xvii. ch. ii,
pt. 2.)
QINN (<£$), A slave, especially
one born in the family and whose father and
mother are slaves.
QISAS
481
QINTAR (;M). A talent. A
sum of money mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah
ii 67 : " And of the people of the Book them
are some of them who if thou entrust them
with a qintar give it back to you."
Muhammad Tahir, the author of the Maj-
ma"u 'l-Bifrdr, p. 173, says a qintar is a very
large sum of money. As much gold as will
go into tho hide of a cow ! or, according to
others, 4,000 dinars. Others say it is an un
limited sum, which implies a considerable
amount of money.
QIRl'AH (WjS). Lit. " Reading.''
A term given to the different methods of
reading the Qur'an. A scienqe which is
termed 'Ibnu 't-Tajwid. [QUR'AN.]
QIRAN (&\f). Lit. " Con June-
tion." (1) The conjunction of two planets,
(2) The performance of the Hajj and the
'Umrah at the same time.
QISAS (v/»Ui). Prom qasas. Lit.
u Tracking the footsteps of an enemy." The
law of retaliation. The Lex talionis of the
Mosaic law, with the important difference
that in the Muslim law the next of kin can
accept a money- compensation for wilful
murder.
The subject of retaliation njust be consi
dered, first, as to occasions affecting life,
and, secondly, as to retaliation in matters
short of life.
(1) In occasions affecting life, retaliation is
incurred by wilfully killing a person whose
blood is under continual protection, such as
a Muslim or a Zimml, in opposition to aliens
who have only an occasional or temporary
protection. A freeman is to be slain for a.
freeman, and a slave for a slave ; but accord
ing to Abu Hanifab, a freeman is to be slain
for the murder of a slave if the slave be the
property of another. A Muslim is also slain
for the murder of a zimmi, accoi'ding to Abu
Hanifah, but ash-Sbafi'i disputes this, because
the Prophet said a Muslim is not to be put to
death for an infidel A man is slain for a
woman, an adult for an infant, and a sound
person for one who is blind, infirm, dismem
bered, lame, or insane. A father is not to be
slain for his child, because the Prophet has
said, " Retaliation must not be executed upon
the parent for hi» offspring "; but a child is
slain for the murder of his parent. A master
i» not slain for his .slave, and if one of two
partners in a. slave kill such a slave, retalia
tion is not incurred. If a person inherit the
right of retaliating upon hia parent, the reta
liation fails. Retaliation is to be executed
by the next of kin with some mortal weapon
or sharp instrument capable of inflicting a
mortal wound.
If a person immerse another, whether an
infant or an adult, into water from which it
is impossible to escape, retaliation, according
to Abu Haniifah, is not incurred, but his two
disciples maintain otherwise.
(2) Of retaliation short of life. If a person
wilfully strike off the hand 'of another, his
hand is to be struck off in return, because it
is said in the Qur'au (Surah v. 49), " There
is retaliation in ease of wounds." If a person
strike off the foot of another, or cut off the
nose, retaliation is inflicted in rer-urn. If a
person strike another on the eye, so as to
force the member, with its vessels, out of the
socket, there is no retaliation ; it is impos
sible to preserve a perfect equality in extract
ing an eye. If, on the contrary, the eye remain
in its place, but the faculty of seeing be de
stroyed, retaliation is to be inflicted, as in this
case equality may be effected by extinguish
ing the sight of the offender's corresponding
eye with a hot iron. If a person strike out
the teeth of another, he incurs retaliation : for
it is said in the Qur'an, " A tooth for a tooth."
(Surah v. 49.)
Retaliation is not to be inflicted in the case
of breaking any bones except teeth, because
it is impossible to observe an equality in
other fractures. There is no retaliation, in
offences short of life, between .a man and a
woman, a free person and a slave, or one slave
and another slave ; but ash-Shaft (i maintains
that retaliation holds in these cases. Retalia
tion for parts of tho body holds between a
Muslim and an unbeliever, both being upon an
equality between each other with respect to
fines for the offences m question.
If the corresponding member of the
mainier be defective, nothing more than re
taliation on that defective member, or a
fine ; and if such member be in the meantime
lost, nothing whatever is due.
There is no retaliation for the tongue or
the virile member.
(3) Retaliation may be commuted for a sum
of money. When the heirs of a . murdered
person enter into a composition with the mur
derer for a certam sum, retaliation is re
mitted, and the sum agreed to is due, to
whatever amount. Tnis is founded upon an
express injunction of the Qnr'an :" Where
the heir of the murdered person is offered
anything, by way of compensation, oat of
61
482
QISSIS
the property of the murderer, let him take
it." And also in the Traditions, it is related
that Muhammad said (Alishkdt, book xiv.):
" The heir of the murdered person is at liberty
either to take retaliation, or a fine with the
murderer's consent." Moreover, it is main
tained by Muhammadan jurists that retalia
tion is purely a matter which rests with the
next of kin, who are at liberty to remit
entirely by pardon, and that therefore a,
compensation can be accepted which is
advantageous to the heirs and also to the
murderer.
When a person who has incurred retalia
tion^ dies, the right to retaliation necessarily
ceases, and consequently no fine is diie from
the murderer's estate. [MDB0BB.J
QISSIS (y-tj-i). Persian hishlsh.
A Christian presbyter or priest. The word
occurs once in the Qur'an, Surah v. 85 :
" Thou shalt certainly find those to be
nearest in affection to them who say, ' We
are Christians." This because some of them
are priests (qiasisun) and monks (ruhban). and
because they are free from pride."
Q1TFIB (?&). Potiphar Al-
luded to iibthe Qur'an, Surah xii. 21, as •• the
man from Egypt who had bought him "
(Joseph ). Al-BaizftwI. the commentator, .sa,ys
his name was Qitflr.
QIYAM (fW*). TAi. " Standing."
(1) The standing- in the Muhanmiadau
prayers when the Subfydn, the 7Ta'aa'?ru?, the
Taxmiyah, tiie FiiUhnh^ and certain portions
of the Qur'an, are recited. [PRAYER.] (2)
Yawnit 'I'Qjiydm. the Day of Judgment,
AL-QIYAMAH (<wu3Ni. Li*. "The
Standing up. (J ) The Day of Resurrection
[RESURRECTION.] (2) The title of the LxxvtL
Surah of the Qnr'aji. (3) The Sufis use tho
term in a spiritual sense for the state of a
man who, having counted himself dead, to
the world, " stands up "ma new life in God.
(See 'A'bdo 'r-Bazzao's /J-ict. of Sufi Terms.}
QIYAS ((j^»). Lit. "To compare.*'
The fourth foundation of Islam, that is to say.
the anologicai reasoning of the learned with
regard to the teaching of the Qur'an. Hadis,
and Ijma'.
There are four conditions of Qiyat : (1)
That the precept or practice upon which it is
founded must- be of common (Mmm) a*hd not
of special (&Aa.??) application . (2) The cause
Qi'llah) of the injunction must be known and
understood ; (3) The decision- must be based
upon either the Qur'an, the Hadis, or the
Ijma' ; (4) The decision arrived at must not
be contrary to anything declared elsewhere
iu the Qur'an and Hadis.
Qf'yds is of two kinds, Qiyas-i-Jali, or evi
dent, and Ci*yds-t~Khafi, or hidden.
An example of Qiyds-i-Jali is as follows :
Wine is forbidden in the Qur'an under the
word jckamr, which literally means anything
intoxicating; it is, therefore, evident that
opium and all intoxicating drugs are also for
bidden.
QUHUTU 'L-WITB
Qjyas-i-Khafi is seen in the following ex
ample : — In the Hadis it is enjoined that one
goat m forty must be given to God. To
some poor persons the money may be more
acceptable ; therefore, the value of the goat
may be given instead of the goat.
QUBA' .(oW*). A place three miles
from at-Madinah) where the Prophet's she-
camel, ai-Q&swa' knelt down as she brought
her master on his flight from Makkah, and
where Muhammad laid the foundations of -a
mosque. This was the hrst place of public
prayer iu Islam. Muhammad laid the first
brick with his javelin, and marked out the
direction of prayer. It is this mosque which
is mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah ix. 109 : —
'« There is a mosque founded from ita first
day in piety. More worthy is it that thou
enter therein : therein, are men who aspire
to purity, and God loveth the purified."
It is esteemed the fourth mosque in rank,
being next to that oi Makkah, al-Madinah,
and Jerusalem, and tradition relates that the
Prophet said one prayer in it was equal to a !
a lesser pilgrimage to Makkah. [UMRAH.]
Captain Burton says : —
"It wos originally a square building of
very small size ; Osraan enlarged it in the
direction of the minaret, making it sixty-six
cubits each way. It is no longer • mean and
decayed ' as in Burckhardt's time. The Sul-
t.in Abdel Hamid, father of Mahtnud, created
a neat structure of cut' it-one, whose crenelles
mn^e it look more like a place of defence
than of praver. It has. however, no preten
sions to grandeur. The minaret is of Turkish
shape. To the south, a small and narrow
Riwak (riwdq). or raised hypo-stvle, with un
pretending columns, looks out northwards
upon a little open area simply sanded over:
and this is the whole building."
AL-QUDDUS (u-ytfW). " The
Holy." One of tbe ninety-nine names of God.
It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah lix. 23 : '* He
is God beside whoin there is no deitv. the
King, the //'>///."
QUDRAH (8;Jtf). Power. Onmi-
potence. One of the attributes of God.
al-Qutiratu ' t-haliva\ The sweet cake of God,.
i e. The manna of Israel. The word Qit'frafi
does not occur in the Quran.
QCJNUTU L-WITR (ffC *>fij.
A special supplication said after the Witr
prayers, or, according to some, after the
morning prayers. It was at such times that
the Prophet would pray for the liberation of
his friends and for the destruction of his
enemies.
For the different forms of supplication, see
Miskkat, book iv. chapters xxxvi. and xxxvii
The following is the one usually recited.
"O God! direct me amongst those to whom
Thou hast shown the right road, and keep me
in safety from the calamities of this world and
the next, and love me amongst those Thou
hast befriended. Increase Thy favours on
me, and preserve me from ill; for verily
Thou canst order at Thy will, aud canst not
QUBAT8H
be ordered. Verily none are ruined that Thou
befriendofct, nor are any made great with
whom Thou art ai enmity."
QURAISH (&?). The Arabian
tribe from which Muhammad was descended,
and of which his grandfather, 'Abdu '1-Mot-
talib WHS chief or prince, this tribe occu
pies a very prominent place in tbe Qur'an
and in Muhammad*!) history. . In the Tradi
tions, a special section is sot apart for a.
record of tb« savings of the Prophet regard -
.ng the good qualifies of this tribe.
jVJuhammad is. related to have said : " Who-
vor wishes for the destruction of the
Quraish..him may God destroy. '
Ibn kUmar relates that the Prophet said,
"The ofiice of Khalifah should bo in the
raish as long as there are two persons left
in the tribe, one to be ruler and the .other to
be ruled." (Mishkat. book xxiv. «\ xii.)
The Sharif, or Sheriff of Makkab, is always
of the Quraish tribe, but ever since the ex
tinction of the Abbaside Khalifa hs, the Sul
tans of Turkey have held the oflice of Khali-
fah, who arc not of this tribe. ' £KHALIFAH.]
For an account of the Quraisb, refer to Sir
William Nwr's Life of Mat omet, vol. i. Intro.
cx<:v See ateo article ARABIA.
Mahammad Tahir, in his
vol. ii., p. 138, says Quraish i« the name of a
ut marine monster which preys on fish,
and WHS given to thi/5 tribe on account of its
strength and importance amongst the tribefe
of Arabia. Qurais/i w tlie title of the cvith
Surah of the Qur'an.
QURAIZAH (&*/). A tribe of
Rvw« located near al-Medmah in the t:ime of
Munammad. They at Hrst professed to sup
port bin mission, but afterwards became dis
affected. --The Prophet asserted that he bad
been commanded by God to destroy them,
and a complete massacre of tbe men took
place, and the women nnd children word taken
.ptivft. 'Che event is referred to at length
in the xxxnird Surah of the Qur'an.
Sir William Muir thus records tin event :—
" The men a'nd women were penned up for
tbe night iu Depurate yards ; they were sup
plied • with dates, and spent tbe mght in
prayer, repeating passages from their Scrip
tures, ana exhorting one another in constancy.
During the night graves or trenches Muflicient
to contain ths dead bodies of 'the men wet<$
dug in the chief market-place of the city.
When these were ready in the morning, Ma
homet, himself a spectator of the tragedy.
gave command that the captives slio»id Le
brought forth in companies of live or six at a
time. Each company was made to sit down
by the brink of the trench destined for its
Ifravts, and there beheaded. Party- after* party
they were thus l«d out, and butchered in cold
blond, till the -whole vvwo slain. On* \Ycman
alone Avas put to death. It was sh« who
threw the millstoiit; from ^he battlements.
For Zohoir, an aged Jew, who had saved
some of his allies of the Bani Ana in the
battle of Boath. Thabit iMevcedad and pro-
463
cured a pardon, including tlie frt'cdcm of his
family and restoration oi his property. * But
what hath become of all our chiefs.-,— of Kab.
of Hnwey, of Ozzal, the sou of Samuel?'
askod the old man. As one after another a«
named the leading chiefs of bis tribe, he re
ceived to each inquiry the same reply. — they
had all been slain already. 'Then of wuat
use is life to me any lo;»gt*r? Leave me not
to thai bloodthirsty man wbo-b;iH kiil.-d a'i
that are d«ar to me in cold blood\ But slay
me also, I entreat th«e. H^ia, take 'toy
sword, it is sharp ; strike high and hard.'
Thabit refused, and gave him over to another,
who, under Ali's orders, beheaded the aged
man, but attended to his last request ia ob
taining freedom for bis family. "When Ma
homet was told of his spying * Slay mb aiso,
that I may go to my home and join those
that have preceded me,' he answered. • Y*a,
he shall join them in tho flr« of hell ? '
'- Having sated his revenge, and drenched
tbe market-place with the blood of eight
hundred victims, and having j?ivea corawand
for the earth to be smoothed over their re
mains. Mahomet returned from tho botrid
spectacle to solace himself -with the charm?
of 'Rihana, whos husband and -all whose
• male relatives had just perished in the ma.'-
3acre. He invited her to be his wife, b«t
she declined, nnd chose to remain (as, ieirio«»d.
having refusod aiarriage, she had nq aker-
native) his slave or concubine. She als** de
clined the summons to conversion, and con
tinued in the Jewish faith, at whicii th.6 j^rw
phet was much concerned. It is said, how
ever, that she afterwards embraced lolam
She lived with Mahomet till hie death.
" The booty was divided into lour Classes —
lundft, chattels . cattle, and slaves^ and Ma
homet took a fifth of ea<:h. There were
(tesides little children who counted with
their mothers) a thousand eaptirt» ; fr *m
his share of these, Mahomet made certain
presents to his friends of slave girls auJ
female servants, the rest of the Bonier, and
children be scht t be sold amonjc tlw Bedouin
tribes of Najd, in exchange for horses and
nnm ; for lie kept tcadily in view the advan
tage of raising around him a body of ofticieul
horse." (Ltfe of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. 276.)
^, vv^ , sacred book
of the Muhammad acs, an/I believed by them
to be the Inspired word of Ood It is written
in the Arabic iaegaagfe
The word Quran is derived ir(vu« the
Arabic Qara', which occurs at the commence
ment oi Siirah xcv.. which is said to h«ve
been the iirst chapter revealed to Mutiam-
mad, arid has tb« same meaning aj? the
Heb. W\^ knrtL i4to read," or "to recite."
isTfroqu<nitly u«ed m Jeremiah xxxvj.,
as ti'ell-as iu rther place* in the Old Testa*
ment. It is, therefore, equivalent to the
Heb. r"'^r* «nd**ed'in Nebemiali
viii. 8, '-the reading." It ia the -title given
to the Muhatomadan Scripture* which are
484
QUR AN
QTO AN
usually appealed to and quoted from as al-
Qur'dn at-Majid. the ."Glorious Qur'an";
a/- Qur'an ash-Sharif, the " Noble Qur'an »;
and is also called the Fwqan, " Distin-
guisher" ; Kaldmu YZ«A, the " Word of God " ;
and al-Kitab, "the Book."
According to Jalalu 'd-dm as-Suyuti, in
his Itqdn, p. 117, the Qur'an is distinguished
in the text of the book by the following
fifty-five special titles : —
1. Al-Kitdb
2. Al'Mubin .
3. Al-Qur'an .
4. Al-Karlm .
5. Al-Kal&m .
6. Al-Burhdn .
7. An-Nur
8. Al-Hudd
9. Ar-Rahmah .
10. Al-Furqxn .
11. Ash-Shifff .
12. Al-MuHzah .
33. Az-Zikr
14. Al-Mubdrak .
15. Al-'Ali . .'
16. Al-ffikmah .
17. Al-Haklm .
18. Al'Muhaimin
19. Al-Mu?addiq.
20 Al-Habl
21 As.&ri
tuqlm.
22. Al-Qfliyi
23.
24.
25.
'l-Mus*
V-
26. A I- Mandril .
27. Al-Muiashdbih
28. At-TamM . '
29. .dr^M-fr .
30. AMVofy .
31. 4/-<Ara& .
32. Al-Ba$$ir .
33. Al-Baydn .
34. ^/-'//m .
35. Al-Haqq
36. A/..&&6 "..
37. Al-'Afab
88. ^4M«2HraA.
39. 4/ - « Urwatu V-
40. Af-Sidq
41. AfrActl.
42. ^/-u4?nr.
43. Al-Munadl
44. Ai-Bushrd
45. Al-Majid
46. 4*-Za&Kr
47. Al-Bashir
48.
49. ,
50. Al-Balagh
51.
The Book.
The Enlightener.
Tlie Reading.
The Good.
The Word.
The Proof.
The Light.
The Gxiidance.
The Mercy.
The Distinguisher.
The Health.
The Sermon.
The Reminder.
The Blessed.
The Lofty.
The Wisdom,
The Philosopher
The Preserver.
The Estabiisher of
Truth.
The Rope.
The Straight Path.
The Strong.
The Distinguishing
Speech.
The Exalted News
« V- The Good Saying.
The Repetition.
The Uniform.
The Revelation.
The Spirit.
The Inspiration.
The Arabic
The Enlighten
ment,
The Explanation,
The Knowledge.
The Truth.
The Guide.
The Wonderful.
The Exhortation.
The Firm Handle.
The Righteous.
The Justice.
The Order.
The Preacher.
The Glad Tidings.
The Exalted.
The Psalm.
The Herald of Glad
Tidings.
The Warner.
The Mighty.
The Message.
The Narrative.
52. As-Suliuf .
53. Al-Mukarramah
54. Al-Marffrah .
55. Al-Mutdharah
The Pamphlets.
The Excellent.
The Exalted.
The Purified.
/. — The Inspiration of the Qur'an.
According to Abu Hamfah, the great
Sanni Imam, the Qur'an is eternal in its
original essence. He says, " The Qur'an is
the Word of God, and is His inspired Word
and Revelation. It is a necessary attribute
(stifah) of God. It is not God, but still it is
inseparable from God. It is written in a
volume, it is read in a language, it is re
membered in the heart, and its letters and its
vowel points, and ite writing are all created,
for these are the works of man, but God's
word is uncreated (ghairu 'l-inakhliiq}. Its
words, its writing, its letters, and its verses,
are for the necessities of man, for its meaning
is arrived at by their use, but the Word of
God is fixed in the essence (zdfy of God, and
he who says that the word of God is created
is an infidel." (See Kitdbu 'l-Wa$iyah,
p. 77.)
Muhammadans believe the Qur'an to have
been written by " the hands of noble, righ
teous scribes," mentioned in the Suratu
'Abasa (Ixxx.) 15, and to have been sent
down to the lowest heaven complete, from
whence it was revealed from time to time
to the Prophet by the angel Gabriel. [GA
BRIEL.]
There is, howover, only one distinct asser
tion in the Qur'an of Gabriel having been the
medium of inspiration, namely, Suratu
Baqarah (ii. ), 91 : and this occurs in a Medi
nah Surah revealed about seven years after
the Prophet's rule had been established. In
the Suratu 'sh-Shu'arr (xxvi.), 193, the
Qur'un is said to have been given by the
Jtuhu 'l-Amin, or " Faithful Spirit " ; and in
the Suratu 'n-Najm (liii.), 5, Muhammac
claims to have been taught by the Shadidu
'l-Quwd, or " One .terrible in power " ; and in
the Traditions the agent of inspiration i
generally spoken of as " an angel " (nial'
It is, therefore, not quite certain throng]
what agency Muhammad believed himself to
be inspired of God, the Holy Spirit or th«
angel Gabriel.
According to the traditions, the revelation
was first communicated in dreams. 'Ayishah
one of the Prophet's wives, relates (Mishkdt
xxiv. 5) : —
" The first revelations which the Prophei
receive-il wer6 in true dreams ; and he nevej
dreamt but it came to pass as regularly ai
the dawn of day. After this the Prophei
was fond of retirement, and used to secludi
himself in a cave in Mount Hira' and wor
ship there day and night. He would, when
ever he wished, return to his family at Mak
kah, and then go back again, taking wit!
him the necessaries of life. Thus he conti
nued to return to Khadljah from time t<
time, until one day the revelation came dow:
to him, and the angel (Arabic ma/a&,.Heb
malakh, "an angel; a prophet"; a name ol
QUR'AN
office, not of nature [See Wilson's Hebrew
Lexicon, p. 13]) came to him and said, * Read '
(iqra1) ; but the Prophet said, • I am not a
reader.' And the Prophet related that he (i.«.
the angel) took hold of me and squeezed me
aa much as I could bear, and he then let me
go and saio again, ' Read I ' And I said, ' I
am not a reader.' Then he took hold of aae
a second time, and squeezed me as much as I
could bear, and then let me go, and said,
'Readl' And I said, *I am riot a reader.'
Then he took hold of me a third time and
squeezed me as much as I could boar, and
said : —
" * Read ! in the name of Thy Lord who
created ;
Created man from a clot of blood in the
womb.
Read 1 for thy Lord is the most bene
ficent,
He hath taught men the use of the
pen;
He hath taught man that which he
knoweth not.'
(Jlhese are, the first five veises of the \CVlth
Surah of the Qur'an. The other verses of the
Surah being of a later date.)
" Then the Prophet repeated the words
himself, and with his heart trembling he re
turned (i.e. from Hirat-o Makkah) to Khadi-
jah, and said, ' Wrap me up, wrap me up.'
And they wrapped him up in a garment till
nis fear was dispelled, and he told Khadijab
what had passed, and he said : * Verily, I
was afraid I should have died.' Then Kha-
dijah said, ' No, it will not be so. I swear by
God, He will never make you melancholy or
sad. For verily you are kind to your rela
tives, you speak the truth, you are faithful
in trust, you bear the afflictions of the
people, you spend in good works what you
gain in trade, you are hospitable, and you
assist your fellow men.' After this Khadijah
took the Prophet to Waraqah, who was the
son of her uncle, and she said to him, ' O son
of my uncle 1 hear what your brother's
son says.' Then Waraqah said to the Pro
phet, '0 son of my brother! what do you
see ? ' Then the Prophet told Waraqah what
ae saw, and Waraqah said, ' That is the
Namua [KAMCS] which God (»ent to Moses.'
'Ayishah also relates that Haris ibn Hisham
asked the Prophet. « How did the revelation
come to yon ? ' and the Prophet said, ' So'me-
times like the noise of a bell, and sometimes
the angel would come and converse with rae
in the shape of a man.' "
According to 'Ayishah's statement, the
Suratu 'l-'Alaq (xcvi.) was the first portion
of the Qur'an revealed ;" but it is more pro
bable that the poetical Surahs, in which there
ta no express declaration of the prophetic
office, or of a divine commission, were com
posed at an earlier period. Internal evidence
would assign the earliest date to the Suraha
az-ZalzaJah (xcix.), al-'Asr Jciii.), al-'Adiyat
(c.), and al-Fatihah (i.), which are rather the
utterances of a searcher after truth than of
an Apostle of God.
Althougn the Qur'an now appears as one
QUR AN
485
book, the Muslim admits that it was not all
made known to the Prophet in one and the
same manner.
Mr. Sell, in his Faith of Islam, quoting
from the Muddriju 'n-Nubuwah. p. 600, gives
the following as some of the modes of inspi
ration : —
" 1. It is recorded on the authority of 'A'ye-
sha, one of Muhammad's wives, that a bright
ness like the brightness of the morning came
upon the Prophet. According to some com
mentators, this brightness remained six
months. In some mysterious way Gabriel,
through this brightness or vision, made
known the will of God.
" 2. Gabriel appeared in the form of Dah-
iah (Dahyah). one of the Companions of the
Prophet, renowned for his beauty and grace
fulness. A learned dispute has arisen with
regard to the abode of the soul of Gabriel
when he assumed the bodily form of Dahiah.
At times, the angelic nature of Gabriel over
came Muhammad, who was then translated
to the world of angels. This always hap
pened when the revelation was one of bad
news, such as denunciations or predictions of
woe. At other times, when the message
brought by Gabriel was one of consolation
and comfort, the human nature of the Pro
phet overcame the angelic naturj of the
angel, who, in such case, having assumed a
human form, proceeded to deli or the mes
sage.
" 8. The Prophet heard at times the noise
of the tinkling of a bell. To him alone was
known the meaning of the sound. He alone
could distinguish in, and through it, the
words which Gabriel wished him to under
stand. The effect of this mode of Wahf
( Waky) was more marvellous than that of
any of the other ways, When his ear caught
the sound his whole frame became agitated
On the coldest day. the perspiration, like
beads of silver, would roll down his face.
The glorious brightness of his countenance
gave place to a ghastly hue, whilst the way
in which he bent down his head showed the
intensity of the emotion through which he
was passing. If riding, the camel on which
he sat would fall to the ground. The
Prophet one day, when reclining with hia
head on the lap of Zeid, heard the well-
known sound : Zeid, too, knew that some
thing unusual was happening, for so heavy
became the head of Muhammad that it was
with the greatest difficulty he could support
the vreight.
"4. At the time of the Mi'raj, or night
ascent into heaven, God spoke to the Pro
phet without the intervention of an angel.
It is a disputed point whether the face of the
Lord was veiled or not,
"5. God sometimes Appeared in a dream,
and placing his hands on the Prophet's shoul
ders made known his will
"6. Twice, angels having each six hundred
wings, appeared and brought the message
from God.
" 7. Gabriel, though not appearing in bodily
form, so inspired the heart of the Prophet,
486
QUK AN
QUB AN
that the wards b« wtersd under its influence
were the •words -6* Ood. Tai.s is technically
called ilka (liqii''-. ru'd is by some supposed
to be tl«e degree i-.l inspiration to which tho.
Tractions belong. (See on-Svniutis liq&i,
p. 103.)
" Ab<>ve all, the Prophet was not allowed
to remain in any error ; if. by any chance, he
had made a wrong ded notion from any pre
vious revelation, another was always sent to
rectify it. This id«a has be«n worked up to
a science of abrogation, according to which
some verses of tho r/tiran abrogate others.
Muhammad found it necessary to shift his
stand-point more than once, and thus it be-
caine necessary to annul earlier portions of
his revelation. [MAMCtttt]
"Thus in various wav£ ma the revelation
made knowi to Muhammad. At first there
seems to have been a season of doubt, the
dread lest after all it roi^'ht be a mockery.
But ais yeA'rs rolled on, confidence in himself
and in his mission came. At times, too,
there is a jovovt.-niesa in his -utterances as bV
swears by neaven and earth, by God and
man; but more often the visions were weird
Mid terrible. Tradition says :— " He roared
like a camel, the sound as of bells well-nigh
rent his heart in pieces.'' Some" str&nge
power moved him, his fea.v was uncontrol
lable. For twenty years or more the revela
tions came, a direction on things of heaven
and of earth, to the Prophet as the spiritual
guide of all men, to the Warrior-Chief, as
the founder of political unity ainong-the Arab,
tribes."
A SPECIMEN OF THE FIRST TWO PAGES OP A QUEAN.
LL—The Collation of the Qprdn.
The whole book was not arranged uiitil
after Muhammad's death, but it is believ«*l
that the Prophet himself divided the Surahs
[SURAH] and gave most of them their present-
titles, which are chosen from some word
•which oxjcnrs in the chapter. The following
is the account of the 'collection and arrange
ment of the Qur'an, as it stands at present,
as given in traditions recorded by al-Bukhari
(see Sahihu V-JSw/tAar?, Arabic ed , p. 745.)
" Zaid ibn Sabit relates •~-( Abu Bakr sent
a person to uve, and ontted me to him, at tbe
i time of the buttle with the people of YamS-
j inak; and I went to him, and 'TJmar was
with him ; and Abu Bakr said to rne, rt >l7m«r
came to me and sei«i, • Verily a jfreat many
of the readers of the (^ur'an were slam on the
day- of the batik with thd people of Yama-
QTJK'AN
mah ; and really I am afraid that if the .
slaughter should be great, much will be lost I
from the Qur'au, btwause every person re- j
members something of it ; and, verily, I see !
it advisable for you to order the Qur'an to
be collected into ono book.' I said to 'Umar,
' How can I do a thing which the Prophet has
not done?' He said, 'I swear by God, this
collecting of the Qur'an is a good thing.'
Ahd 'Umar used to be constantly reluming
to me and saying: 'You must collect the
Qur'an,' till at length God opened my breast
so to do, and I saw what ;Umar had been
advising.' And Zaid rbn Sabit says that,
'Abu Bakr said to me, "You are a young
and sensible man, and I do not suspect you of j
forgetfulness, negligence, or. pertidyj and, I
verily, you used to write for the Prophet his '
instructions from above ; then look for the i
Qur'an in every place and collect it,' I said, j
" I sfrear by God, that if people had ordered j
me to carry a mountain about from one place
to anpther, it would not be heavier upon ine
j than the order which Abu Bakr has given for
I collecting the Quran." 1 said to Abu Bakr,.
'• How do you do a thing which the Prophet of
God did not ? r' He said, " By God, this col
lecting of the Qur'an is a good act." And" he
I used perpetually to return to me, until God
j put it into my heart to do the thing which the
heart of Abu Bakr hud been set upon. Then
1 I sought for the Quran, and collected it from
| the leaves of the date, and white stones, and j
the breasts of people that remembered it, till
I t found the last part of tho chapter entitled
j Tauba (Repentance), with Abu Khuzuiinah
al-Ansari. and with no other person. These
1 leaves were iu the posses.sioa of Abu Bakr, j
i until God caused him to die ; after which I
| 'Umar had them iu his life-time ; after that, I
! they remained with his daughter, Hafsah; |
| after that, 'Csmun compiled them into one
' book."
"Anas ibn Malik relates; ' lluzaifah came
to *Usman, and he bad fought with the people
of Syria in the conquest of Armenia ; and had
fought in A^urbaijan, with the people of al-
'Traq, and he • wag shocked at the different
ways of people reading tho Qur'an. And Hu-
zaifah s&id to 'tJaman, " 0 'Usman. assist this
people, before they differ in the Book of God,
just as the Jews and Christians differ in their
books." Then 'Usuiaa sent a person to Haf
sah, ordering her to send those portions
which she had, and saying, "I shall have a I
number of copies of them taken, and will then
return them to you." And Hafsah fcent the
portions to •Usmun, and 'Usmaii ordered Zaid
ibn Sabit, Ansari,and Abdu'llah ibn az-Zub'air,
and Sa'id ibn Al'as, and 'Abdu 'r-Rahman ibn
al-Haris ibn Hisham ; and these were all of
the Quraish tribe, except Zaid ibn SSubit and
'Usuian. And ho said to the three Qurai wh
ites. '• When you and Zaid ibn-Sabit differ
about any part of the dialect of the Qur'an,
then do ye write it in the Quraish dialect,
because it came not down in the language of
any tribe but theirs." Then they did as
'Usman had ordered ; and when a number of
copies had been takeu, 'Us. man returned the
QURAN
487
leaves to Hafsah. And 'Usman sent a copy
to every quarter of the countries of Islam,
and ordered all other leaves to be burnt, and
Ibn Shahab said, "Kharijah, son of Zaid ibn
Siibit, informed me, saying, ' I could cot find
one verse when I was writing the Qar'an,
which, verily, 1 heard from tho Prophet;
then I looked for it, and found it with Khu-
zaimah, and entered it into the Suratu '1-
Ahzab.' "
This recension of th« Qur'an produced by
the Kliaiifah 'Usnian has been handed down
to us unaltered ; and thei'e is probably no
other book in the world which has remained
twelve centuries with so pure a text.
Sir William Muir remarks in his Life of
Mahomet : —
" The original copy of the first edition was
obtained from Haphsa's (Hafsah) depository,
and a careful recension of the whole set on
foot. In case of difference between Zaid and
his coadjutors, the voice of the lattor, as
demonstrative of the Coreishite idiom, was^
to preponderate ; and the new collation was
thus assimilated to the Mecctin dialect, in
which the Prophet had given utterance to
his inspiration. Transcripts were multiplied
and forwarded to the chief cities in the em
pire, and the previously existing copies were
all, by the Caliph's command, committed to
the flames. The old original was returned
to Haphsa's custody.
" The recension of Othraan ('Usman) has
been handed down to us utialtered. So care
fully, iudeed, has it been preserved, that
there are no variations of importance, — we
might almost say no variations at all, amongst
the innumerable copies of, the Coran scat
tered throughout the vast bounds of the em
pire of Is] am.
" Contending and embittered fact ions, taking
their rise in the murder of Othrnan himself
within a quarter of a century from the death
of Mahomet, have ever sinc« rent the Maho
metan world. Yet but one Coran has been
current amongst them ; and the consenta
neous use by them all in every nge up to the
present day of the same Scripture, is an irre
fragable proof that we have now before UH
the very text prepared by command of the
unfortunate Caliph. There is probably in the
world no other work which has remained
twelve centuries with so pure « text. The
various readings are wonderfully low in num
ber, and are chiefly confined to differences
in the vowel points and diacritical signs.
But these marks were invented at a later
date.
" They (did not exist at all in the early
copies, and can hardly be said to affect the-
text- of Othm&n. Since, then, we possess the
undoubted text of Othman's recension, it re
mains to be inquired whether that text was
an honest reproduction of Abu Bakr's edi
tion, with the simple reconcilmnont of unim
portant variations. There is the fullest
ground for believing that it was so. Xo
early or trustworthy traditions throw suspi
cion of tampering wi'tb the Coran in order to
support his own claims upon Othman. The
488
QUK'AN
Sheeahs (Shi'ahs)* of later times, indeed,
pretend that Othmaii left out certain Suras or
passages which favoured Ali, But this \e
incredible. He could not possibly have done
so without it being observed at the time : and
it cannot be" imagined that Ali and his fol
lowers (not to mention the whole body of the
Mussulmans who fondly regarded the Goran
as the word of God, would have permitted
such a proceeding.
** In support of this position, the following
arguments may be adduced. First: When
Othaaan's edition was prepared, no open
breach had yet taken place between the
Omeyads and the Alyites. The unity of
Islam was still complete and unthreatened.
All's pretensions were as yet undeveloped.
No sufficient object can, therefore, be assigned
for the perpetration by Othman of an offence
which Moslems regard as one of the blackest
dye. Second: On the other hand, Ali, from
the very commencement of Othm&n's reign,
had an influential party of adherents, strong
enough in the end to depose the Caliph, to
storm his palace in the heart of Medina, and
to put an end to his life. Can we conceive
that these men would have remained quiet,
when the very evidence of their leader's
superior claims was being openly expunged
from the book of God. Third : At the time
of the recension, there were still multitudes
alive who had the Cor&n, as origina y deli
vered, by heart; and of the supposed pas
sages favouring Ali — had any ever existed —
there would have been numerous transcripts
in the hands of his family arid followers.
Both of these sources must have proved an
effectual check upon any attempt at suppres
sion, . Fourth ; The party of Ali shortly after
assumed an independent attitude, and he
himself succeeded to the Caliphate. Is it
possible that either Ali. or hjs party, when
thus arrived at power, would have tolerated
a mutilated Goran— mutilated expressly to
destroy his claims Yet we find that they
used the same Goran as their opponents, and
raiaed no shadow of an objection against it.
" The insurgents are indeed said to have
made it one of their complaints against
Othman that he had caused a new edition
to be made of the Goran, and had committed
all the old copies to the flames ; but these
proceedings were objected to simply as un~
authorised , and sacreligious. . No hint was
dropped of any alteration or omission. Such
a supposition, palpably absurd at the time,
is altogether an after- thought of the modern
Sheeas.
*' We may, then, safely conclude that Oth-
man's recension was, what it professed to be,
a reproduction of Abu Bakr's edition, with a
more perfect conformity to the dialect of
Mecca, and possibly a more uniform arrange-
* Hayatu '2-Qulfib, leaf 420: "The Ansars were
ordained to oppose the claims of the family of
Mubanmiad, and this was the reason why the
other wretches took the office of Khalifah by
force. After thus treating one Khalifah of God,
they then mutilated and changed the other Kha
lifah, which is the book of God."
QUR AN
ment of its parts, —but still a faithful repro
duction.
" The most important question yet remains,
viz. Whether Abu Bakr's edition was itself
an authentic and complete collection of Maho
met's Revelations. The following considera
tions warrant the belief that it was authentic
and, in the main, as complete as at the time
was possible.
" First. — We have no reason t6 doubt that.
Abu Bakr was a sincere follower of Maho
met, and an earnest believer in the divine
origin of the Corun. His faithful attachment
to the Prophet's person, conspicuous for the
last twenty years of his life, and his simple,
consistent, and unambitious deportment as
Caliph* admit no other supposition. Firmly
believing the revelations of his friend to be
the revelations of God himself, his first object
would be to secure a pure and complete tran- -
script of them. A similar argument applies
with almost equal force to Omar, and the
other agents in the revision. The great mass
of Mussulmans were undoubtedly sincere in
their belief. From the scribe a themselves,
employed in the compilation, down to the
humblest believer who brought his little
.store of writing on stones or palm-leaves, all
would be influenced by the same earnest
desire to reproduce the very words which
their Prophet had declared as his message
from the Lord. And a similar guarantee
existed in the feelings of the people at large,
in whose soul no principle was more deeply
rooted than an awful reverence for the sup
posed word of God, The Coran itself con-*
tains frequent denunciations against those
who should presume to £ fabricate anything
in the name of the Lord,' or conceal any part
of that which He had revealed. Such an
action, represented as the very worst descrip
tion of crime, we cannot believe that the first
Moslems, in the early ardour of their faith
and love, would have dared to contemplate.
" Second. — The compilation was made
within two years of Mahcmet's death. We
hare seen that several of his followers had
the entire revelation (excepting, perhaps,,
some obsolete fragments) by heart; that
every Moslem treasured up more or leas some
portions in his memory ; and that there were
official Reciters of it, for public worship and
tuition, in all countries to which Islam ex
tended. These formed an unbroken link
between the Revelation fresh from Mabomet'a
lips, and the edition of it by Zeid. Thus th«
people were not only sincere and fervent in
wishing for a faithful copy of the Ooraji;
they were also in possession of ample means
for realising their .desire, and for testing the
accuracy and -completeness of the volume
placed in their hands by Abu Bakr.
** Third.— A still greater security would be
obtained from the fragmentary transcripts
which existed in Mahomet's life-time, and
which must have greatly multiplied before
the Goran was compiled. These were in the
possession, probably, of all who could read.
And as we know that the compilation of Abu
Bakr came into immediate and unquestioned
QUB AN
QUR'AN
489
use, it is reasonable to conclude that it em
braced and corresponded with every extant
I fragment, and therefore by common consent,
i superseded thorn. We hear of no fragments,
sentences, or words, intentionally omitted by
the compilers, nor of any that differed from
the received edition. Had any such been
discoverable, they would undoubtedly have
been preserved and noticed in those tradi
tional repositories which treasured up the
minutest and most trivial acts and sayings of
the Picphet.
** Fourth. — The contents and the arrange
ment of the Goran speak forcibly for its
authenticity. AH the fragments that could
possibly be obtained have with artless sim
plicity been joined together. The patchwork
bears no marks of a designing genius or a
moulding nand. It testifies to the faith and
re .'wpuce of the compilers, and proves that
they dared no. more than simply collect the
sacred fragments and place them in juxta
position. Hence the interminable repetitions ;
the palling reiteration of the same ideasj
truths, and doctrines ; hence, scriptural stories
and Arab legends, told over and over again
•with little verbal variation ; hence the per-?
vading want of connection, and the startling
chasms between adjacent passages. Again,
the frailties of Mahoinet, supposed to have
been noticed by the Deity, are all with evi
dent faithfulness entered in the Coraxu Not
less undisguised are the frequent versea which
are contradicted or abrogated by later reve
lations. The editor plainly contented him
self with compiling and copying out in a con
tinuous form, but with scrupulous accuracy,
the fragmentary material within his reach.
He neither ventured to select from repeated
versions of the same incident, not' to reconcile
differences, nor by the alteration of a single
letter to connect abrupt transitions of con
text, nor by tampering •with tl^ text to soften
discreditable appearance 4. Tuti* we possess
every internal gunr^^M t u! tonfid'Wtf.
"But it may be objected,— if the text of
Abu Bakr's Ooran was pure and universally
received, how canae it to bo »o soou corrupted,
and to require, hi eousoquence of its varia
tions, an extensive recension? Tradition
does not afford sufficient light to determine
the caus« of these discrepancies. They may
have been owing to various readings in the
older fragmentary transcripts which re
mained in the possession of the people ; they
may have eriginatert in the divi-vse dialects
of Arabia, and the different modes of pro
nunciation and orthography; or they may
have sprung up naturally in the already vast
domains of Islam, before strict uniformity
•was officially enforced. It is sufficient for UB
to know that in Otbjumn's revision recourse*
•was had to the nriyinui exemplar of the £rst
compilation, and that thero is otherwise every
security, internal anil external, that vre po*
ness a text the same as that which Mahomet
himself gave forth and used." (Life of Ma
homet, new ed., p. 557 et seyq.)
The various readings (qira'ak) in the Qur'an
we not such as are usually understood by
the term in English authors, but different
dialects of the Arabic language. Ibn 'Abbas
says the Prophet said, "Gabriel 'aught me
to read the Quran in one dialyci, ;md when
I recited it he taught mo to recite it in
un other dialect, and so on, until the number
of dialects increased to seven." (MishLat,
book ii. <'h. ii.)
Muhammad seems to have adopted thia
expedient to satisfy the desire of the leading
tribes to have a Qur'an in their own dialect ;
for -Abdu 'l-Haqqsaya, " The Qur'an was first
revealed in the dialect of the Quaraish, which
was the Prophet's native tongue ; but when
the Prophet saw that the people of other
tribes recited it' with difficulty, then he ob
tained permission from God to extend its
currency by allowing it to be recited in all
the chief dialects of Arabia, which were
seven : — Quraish, Taiy . Hawazin, Yaman,
Saqlf, Huzail, and Banu Tamiiu. Every one
of these tribes accordingly read the Qur'an
in its own dialect, till the time of 'U.srrwn,
when these differences of reading were pro
hibited."
These seven dialects are called in Arnbic
Saba'tu Ahrvf, an'd in Persian
Qthfftt,
///.
Divisions of the Qur'an.
The Qur'an, which is written in the Arabio
language, is divided into: Harf, Kalimuk,
Aval*) tiurafi, Ruk"u\ Rub, NisJ\ §ult. Juz\
Manzal
1. Harf (pi. Huruf\ Letters; of which
there arc said to be 323,671, or according to
some authorities, 33B,606.
2. Kalimah (pi. Kalirndf), Words; of which
there are 77,931, or, according to some writers,
79,934.
3. Ayah (pi. Aydt), Verses. Ayah (Heb.
j"Y^) is a word which signifies " sign." It
was used by Muhammad for short sections or
verses of his supposed revelation. The divi
sion of -verses differs in different editions of
the Arabic Qur'an. The number of verses in
the Arabic Qur'ans are recorded after the
title of the Surah, and the verses distinguished
in the text by a small cypher or circle. The
early readers of the Qur'an did not agree as
to the original position of these circles, and
so it happens th&t there are ilvo different
ay stems of numbering the verses.
(a) Kufafi verses. The Readers in-tho city
of ul-Kufah say that they followed the custom
of 'AH. Their way of reckoning is generally
adopted in India. Th- r.,239 verse?.
(b) Ba$rak verses. The Readers of al-
Basrah follow -Agini ibn Gajjaj, R Compa
nion. They reckon tf.204.
(c) Siid.tii verses. The Readors in Syria
(Sham) followed <Abdu 'll»,h ibn 'Uniar, »
Ct-mpauion. Tbay recko.n 6,225 verses.
(•i: Makkaii verges. According to thi«
arrangement, there are 6,219 verses.
(t) Madlnah verses. This way of reading
contains 6,2IJ verses.
4. tfvrah (pi. SUMW), Chapters A wosri
which signifies a row or series, but
62
490
QUB AN
is now used exclusively for the chapters of
the Qur'an, which are or>e hundred and four
teen in number. These chapters are calleo
after some word which occurs in the text, and
if the Traditions are to be trusted, they wen
so named by Muhammad himself, although th
verses of iueir respective Surahs were an
doubtedly arranged after his death, and seme-
times with little regard to their sequence.
Muslim doctors admit that the Khalifali 'Us-
man arranged the chapters in the order in
•which they now stand in -the Q.ur'an.
The Surahs of the Muhammadan Qur'a.s
are similar to the forty-three divisions of
Q.UR AN
the Law amongst the Jews known as
Kiddrlm. or "orders.'5 These were
likewise named alter a word in the section,
e.g. The first is Bereshith, the second Noah,
&c. (See Bnxtort's Tiberias, p. 181.)
Each Surah of the Qur'an.' •with the excep
tion of the ixlh, begins with the words —
<" In the name of the Merciful, the Compas
sionate."
The Surahs, as they stand in Arabic edi
tions of the Quran, are as fellows : —
No.
Title of Surah.
Meaning in Enslish,
The Chronological Order.
According
to Jalaiu
'd-din.
According
to Rev.
.1. M.
Rodwell.
According tc
Sir W. Muir
1
Futihab
Preface ...
uncertain
8
,6
2
Bctqarah
Cow ....
86
91
uncertain
3
Alu 'Imraii ...
Family of imrin
88
y?
A.H. 2 to 10
4
Vr- -!
Women
91
100
uncertain
5
Table . .
112
114
A.H. 6 to 10
o
CaUle ...
54
89
81
7
A'raf
Aral
38
87
91
g
\nfal
Cy-^'la
87
95
A.H. 2
9
Tauhab
Repe^i&nce
11.3
113
The last
iO
•Yunus
Jo'iab ... ... ...
50
84
79
11
Hud
Hud • ...
51
75
78
12
Yusuf
Joseph ...
52
77
77
13
Ra'd ..
Thunder
95
90
89
14
Ibrahim
Abraham
71
76
80
15
Hijr
Hijr ... ,
53
57
62
16
Nahl
B«e
69
~3
88
17
Banu IsrtiSl .. .
Children or Israel
49
67
87
18
Kahf
Cave
68
,>r»
69
19
Mary an)
Ma.ry
43
58
68
20
Ta Ka
TtiHa ...
44
55
75
21
Ambiya'
Propheta
72
05
86
22
Hajj
Pilgrimage
103
107
85
23
Mu'mmun
Believers
73
64
84
24
Nur
Li^rht
102
105
A.H. 5
25
Fur q an
QnVan
41
66
74
26
Shu'iira' ... I..
Poets
40
66
61
27
Nam 1 ...
Ant
47
66
70
28
Qa.sae..
Story
48
79
83
29
'Ankal>tir
Spider ,.. *
84
81
90
30
Rum
Greeks ..- ... ..*
83
74
60
81
32
LtiqmJlft
Sajdah
Lnqman
Prostration
56
74
82
70
50
44
33
Ahzab
Confederates
89
10S
uncertain
34
Saba' ...
Saba
57
85
79
35
Mala'ikah
Angels ..,
42
86
66
36
Ya Sm
Ya Sm ...
40
60
67
87
Saftat
Ranks ...
55
50
59
38
Sad
Sad
37
59
73
S9
Zuniar
Troops ...
58
80
45
40
Mu'min
Believer
59
78
72
11
Fussilai
Explanatioj
60
71
53
42
Shura
Council ...
61
83
71
43
Zukhruf ... ...
Ornaments
62
61
76
44
Dukhan
Smoke ...
63
53
58
45
Jasiyah
Kneeling
64
72
57
40
Ahqaf
Ahqaf
65
88
64
QURAN
49i
No.
Title of Sarah.
Meaning in English
The Chronological Order.
According
to JalSlu
'(Win.
According
to Rev.
J. M.
RodweU.
According to
8ir W. MuJr.
47 1 Muhammad
Muhammad ... ...
94
96
uncertain
48
Fath -..
Victory
111
108
A.n. 6
49
Hujurat
Chambers
10€
112
uncertain
oO
Qaf
Qaf ' ...
33
54
56
51
Zariyat
Scattering Winds
60
43
63
62
Tur
Mountain
75
44
55
53
Najm
Star
22
46
48
54
Qamar ... ...
Moon
36
49
48
55
Rahmar
Merciful
96
48
40
56
Waai'ali
Inevitable ... ....
45
45
41
57
Hadid
Iron ... ... .»i
93
99
uncertain
58
Mui'adilao
Disputer
105
106
wticertain
59
Hashr
Assembly
101
102
A.R. 4
GO
Mumtahinab
Proved .' ...
90
110
A.H. 7
61
Saff ...
Array ... ... ...
110
98
uncertain
62
Jamu'ab
Assembly
108
94
uncertain
68
Munaiiqm
Hypocrites ... ...
104
104
A.H. 65
64
Taghiibun ...
Mutual Deceit ...
109
93
82
65
Talaq
Divorce ...
108
101
uncertain
66
TahriBj
Prohibition
107
109
A.H. 7 t« 8
67
Mtdh
Kingdom
76
63
42
68
Qalam
Pen
2
17
52
69
Haqqah
Inevitable Day... ....
77
42
51
70
Ma'arij
Steps
78
47
37
7.1
Niih
Noab ...
70
51
54
72
Jinn
Genii ;>.
,S9
62
65
73
Muzzammil ...
Wrapped up
3
3
46
74
Mttddassir ,..
Enfolded
4
2
21
75
Qivamah
Resurrection
30
40
36
76
Dahr
Time
97
6°
35
77
Mursalat
Messengers
32
36
34
78
Naba'
News
79
37
33
79
Nazi* at
Those who drag
80
35
47
80
'Abasa
He frowned ....
23
24
26
81
Takwir
Folding up
6
32
27
82
Infitar
Cleaving asunder
81
31
11
83
Tatfif
Short Measure
85
41
32
84
Inshiqaq
Rending in sunder
82
33
28
85
Burui
Celestial Signs...
2G
28
31
86
Tariq
Night Star
35
22
29
87
A'la ;, ...
Most High
7
25
23
88
ghasliiyah
Overwhelming
67
38
25
89
Fajr
Day-break ... .*.
9
39
14
90
Balad
City ,
34
18
15
91
Shauta
Sun
25
23
4
92 !Lail
Night ...
8
16
12
93
Zuha
Sun in his o^eridiau . .
10
4
16
94
Inshirah
Expanding
11
5
17
95 !TIn
Fig
27
26
8
90
<Alaq
Congealed blood
1
1
19
_ i
97
98
Qadr ...
Baiyinah
(Night of) Power
Evidence
24
99
92
21
24
uncertain
99
Zakalah
Earthquake
92
30
3
100
'Adiyat
Swift horses ... ...
13
84
2
10J
Qari'ah
Striking
29
29
7
102
Takasur
Multiplying . .-. ...
15
14
9
103
«Asr
Afternoon •
12
27
1
104
Humazab
Slanderer
31
13
10
105
Fil
Elephant
18
19
13
106
Quraish
Quraisb
28
20
5
107
Ma'uu
Nece$sftrie« J
16
15
39
492
QTTB AN
QUB AN
The Chronological Order.
N6,
Title of Silrah.
Meaning in English.
According
to Jal&ta
According
to Rev.
J.M.
According to
Sir W. Muir.
'd-din
Rodwell.
108
Kausar
Kausar
14
9
18
109
Kafirun
lufidols .».
n
12
38
110
Nasr ...
Assistance
101
111
30
111
Abu Lahab
Abu Lahab
5
11
22
112
Ikhlas
Unity
21
10
20
113
Falaq.
Day -break
19
6
uncertain
114
Nas
Men
20
7
uncertain
5. jFtuku' (pi. Ruba'aty, an inclination of the
head or bow. These are sections of about
ton verses or less,, «T which: the devout Mus
lim, makes a bow o* reverence; they arc
marked on the margin of the Qur'an with the
letter 'aiu £. with the number of the rukii'
o v er it. Mnhammadans generally quote their
Qur'an by the ,fuz or Stydmh and the
Huktf.
6. Rub6. The quarter of a Juz\ or Sipd-
rahr
7. Niff, The hall of a Siparah.
8. Sul}>. The throe-quarters of a Siparah.
These three divisions are denoted by the
word$ being written on the margin.
9. Juz* (pi, Ajzff). Persian Sipnrah.
Thirty divisions of the Quran, which have
been made to enable the devout Muslim to
recite the whole of the Qur'an in the thirty
days of Rainazan Muhaiuniadans usually
quote their Quran by tho Siparah or Jtiz1 and
riot by the Surah.
10. Manzil (pi. Mandzil, Stages). These
are seven in number, and are marked by the
letters j^ ji» ^ ^ p «J>, which arc eaid to
spell Farni in Shauq* "My mouth with de
sire." This arrangement is to enable the
Muslim to recite the whole in the course of
a week.
IV.—Tht Contents of the Qur'mi and the
Chronological Arrangement of its Chapters.
In the Arabic Qur'an, the Surahs are placed
as they were arranged by Zaid ibn Sabit,
who seems to have pnt them together re-
gardlesH of any chronological sequence. The
initial, or opening prayer, stands first, and
then the longest chapters. But the Muham-
madaa commentators admit that tke Quran
is not chronologically arranged ; and Jalalu
d -ciiu, in his ftqan, has given a list of them
as they are supposed to have been revealed.
This list will be found under the JJivinons of
the Qur'an in the present article. A.nd, what
is still more confusing, all Muhammadan
doctors allow that in some of the Surahs
ihere are verses which belong to a different
date from that of other portions of the chap-
tor ; for example, in the Suratu VAlaq, the
first, five verses belong to a much earlier date
than the others } and in Suratu '1-Baqarah,
verse 234 is acknowledged by all commenta
tors, to lia»e been revealed after verse 240,
which it abrogates.
If we arrange the Surahs or C'rapters ac
cording to tho order given in Su> iifci's Itqdn,
or by Sir William Muir, or by Mr Hodwell,
we cannot fail to mark the gradual develop
ment of Muhammad's mind from that of a
mere moral teacher and reformer to Uiat of a
prophet and warrior-chief. The contrast be
tween the earlier, middle, and later Surahs is
very instructive and interesting.
In the earlier Surahs we obseimve a predo
minance of a poetical element, a deep appre
ciation of the beauty of natural objects, frag
mentary and impassioned utterances ; denun
ciation of woe and punishment being ex
pressed in these earlier Surahs with extreme
brevity.
" With a change, however, in the position
of Muhammad when he openly assumes the
office of ' public -warner,' the Surahs begin to
wear a more prosaic and didactic tone, though
the poetical ornament of rhyme is preserved
throughout. We lose the poet in the mis
sionary aiming to convert, and in the warm
asserter of dogmatic truths ; tho descriptions
of natural objects, of the Judgment, o! Hea
ven and Hell, make way for gradually increas
ing historical statements, first from Jewish,
and subsequently from Christian histories ;
while in the twenty-nine (thirty?) Surahs
revealed at Medina we no longer list«n to
vague words often, a« it would seem, with
out defiuinite aim, but to the earnest dispu
tant with the opponents of the new faith, the
Apostle pleading the cause of what he be
lieves to be the truth of God. He who at
MeQoa is the admonisher and persuader, at
Medina is the legislator and the warrior dic
tating obedience, xnd who uses other weapons
than the pen of the poet and the scribe;
while we are startled by rinding obedience to
God and the Apostle, God's gifts and the
Apostle's, God's pleasure and the Apostle's,
spoken of in the same breath, and epithets
and attributes elsewhere applied to Allah
openly applied to himself. ' Whoso obeyeth
the Apostle obeveth Allah/
"The Suras, viewed as a whole, wiii J.lius
appear to be the work of one who began hir,
career as a thoughtful inquirer after truth,
QUR'AN
and AS an earnest asserter of it in aucb rhe
torical and poetical forms as he deemed most
likely to win nnd attract his countrymen, but
who gradually proceeded from the dogmatic
teacher to tho political founder of a system
for which lawH and regulations had to be
provided as occasions arose. And of all the
Suras, it must be remarked that they were
intended not only for readers but for hearers
— that they were all promulgated by public
recital— and that much wa.s left, as the imper
fect sentences show, to the manner and sug
gestive action of the reciter." (Rodwoil's
Preface to the, QurVrn.)
The absence of tho historical element from
the Qur'an, as regards the details of Muham
mad's daily life, may be judged of by the
fact that 'only two of his contemporaries
(Abu LaLab and Zaid) are mentioned in the
entire volume, and that Muhnmuiad's name
occurs but five times, although he is all Vae
way through addressed by the angel Gabriel
an the recipient of the divine revelations, with
the word " Say." Perhaps also such passages
as Surah ii.. verses 5, 216, und 274. and the
constant mention of guidance, direction, wan
dering, may have been suggested by remini
scences of his mercantile journeys in his earlier
years.
Sir William Mnir has very skilfully arranged
the S'qrahs into six periods. fSee Coran,
S. P. 0. K. ed.), and although they are not
precisely in the chronological order given by
Jalalu 'd-DIn in his Jtqdn, the arrangement
seeems to be fully borne out by internal evi
dence. With the assistance of Prof. Palmer's
•• Table of Contents " slightly altered (The
(^ur'an, Oxford ed. 1880), we shall arrange
the contents of the Qur'an according to these
periods.
THE FIRST PERIOD.
Eighteen Surahs, consisting of short rhap
sodies, may have been composed by Muham
mad before ho conceived the idea of a divine
mission, none of which are in the form of a
message from the Deity.
CHAPTER CIH.
Stiratu "l-'Aar.
The Chapter of the Afternoon.
A short chapter of one verse as follows : —
" By the afternoon ! Verily, man is in loss I
Save those who believe and do right and bid
each, other be true, and bid each other be
patient."
CHAPTER C.
Suratu 'I-1 Adi if at.
The Chapter of the Chargars.
Oath by the charging of war-horses.
Man is ungrateful.
Certainty of the Judgment
CHAPTER X£]X
Suratu 'z-Zalz«lah.
The Chapter of the Earthquake
Tho earthquake prccading tho Judgment
Dav.
QURAN
493
CHAPTER XOL
Suratu 'sh-Shams.
Tho Chapter of the Sun.
Purity of the soul brings happiness.
Example of Sauiud *
(The lattf.r verse* are clearly of a later date
than thejirst ten.}
CHAPTER CVI.
Suratu 'f-Quraish.
The Chapter of the Quranb.
The Quraish are bidden to give thanks to
God for the trade of their two yearly cara
vans.
CHAPTER I.
Suratu 'I'Fdtibah.
The Opening Chapter.
A pi %>*>r for guidance.
(This short chapter, which is the opening
chapter of the (£urdn, is recited in the liturgy.)
" Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds I
The compassionate, the merciful J
King of the day of reckoning 1
Thee only do we worship, and to Thee
only do we cry for heJp.
Guide Thou us in the straight path,
The path of those to whom Thou h«,st
been gracious ;
With whom Thou art not angry,
A.nd who go not astray./'
CHAPTER CI. *
Suratu V-QtfrroA.
The Chapter of the Smiting.
The terrors of the last day and oi heil-flre
(al-ffdwiyah')
CHAPTER £OV.
Suratu 't-Tfa.
Tho Chapter of the Fig.
The degradation of man.
Future reward and punishment.
CHAPTER GIL
Suratu 't-TaJcasur.
The Chapter of the Contention about
Numbers.
Two families of the Arabs rebuked fcr
contending which was the more numerous.
Warning of the punishment of hell
CHAPTER CIV.
$uratu 'l-Hvmazah.
The Chapter of the Backbiter.
Backbiters shall be cast into hell.
CHAPTER LXXK1I.
Siiratu 'I- In fit dr.
Tlxe Chapter of tho Cleaving Asunder.
Signs of the Judgment Day.
Guardian an^-
CHAPTER XC11.
-Surafu 'l-Lail.
The Chapter olfcbe Night.
Promise of reward to tnose wnc yive alms
and fear God and " believe ra the besi."
494
Q,UR AN
CHAPTER 0V.
Suratu '/-Fit.
The Chapter of the Elephant.
Tho miraculous destruction of the Abyssi-
nian army under Abrahatu '1-Ashram by
birds when mvaomg Makkah with elephants,
in the year that, Muhammad was born.
CHAPTER LXXX1X.
Suratu 'I'Fafr.
The Chapter of the Dawn.
Fate of previous nations who rejected therr
teachers.
Admonition to those who rely too much on
their prosperity.
CHAPTER XC
Suratu 'l-Balacf.
The Chapter of the City.
Exhortation to practise coanty.
CHATTER XCHI.
The 'Chapter of the Forenoon.
Muhammad encouraged a.nd bidden to re
member how God has cared for him hitherto ;
he is to be charitable in return, and to
publish God's goodness.
CHAPTER XCIV.
Suratu 'i~[nshiro.ht.
The Chapter of 4< Have.we not Expanded?"
God has made Muhammad's mission easier
to him.
CHAPTER CVHL
Suratii 'l-Kansur,
The Ghfl.pt.er of al-Kanstir.
Muhammad is commanded to offer tne
sacrifices out of his abundance.
Threat that his enemies shall be child -
THE SECOND PERIOD.
Four Surahs. The opening of Muhammad's
Ministry. Surah xcvi. contains the command
to recite, and, according to the Traditions, it
was the first revelation.
CHAPTER XCV1.
.Suratu V-M/«y.%
The Chapter of Congealed Blood. ,
Muhammad's first call to read the Qur'iin. j
Denunciation of Abu Lahab for his opposi
tion.
( The latter verses of this Surah are admitted
i o oe of a later date than the jormer.)
CHAPTER CXII.
Suratu 'l-lkhlas.
The Chapter of the Unity,
Declaration of God's unity.
(This short Surah is highly esteemed, and is
recited in the daily liturgy.)
" Say : He is God alone :
God the Eternal 1
He begetteth not,
And is net begotten :
And there is none like unto Him.'*
OUR AN
CHAPTER LXXIV,
Suratu 'l-Mvdda-$$'ir.
The Chapter of the Covered.
Muhammad while covered up is bidden to
arise and preach.
Denunciation of a rich infidel who mocks
at tho revelation.
Hell and its nineteen angels.
The infidels rebuked for demanding mate
rial scriptures as a proof of Muhammad's
mission.
CHAPTER CXL
&yrai\< Tabbat.
The Chapter of '• Let Perish."
Denunciation of Abu Lahab and his wife,
who are threatened with bell fire.
THE THIRD PERIOD.
Nineteen Surahs, chiefly descriptions of
the Resurrection, Paradise, and Hell, with
reference to the growing opposition of the
QaraL-h, given from the commencement of
Muhammad's public ministry to ihe Abyssi
nian emigration
CHAPTER LXXXVlI.
Snrnl'i V- /!**/«.
Tue Chapter of the Most High.
Muhammad shall not forget any of the
revelation save what God pleases.
The revelation is the same as that given to
Abraham and Moses.
CHAPTER XOVTL
Suratu 't-Qadr,
The Chapter of Power.
The Qur'an revealed on the night of
power
Its excellence.
Angels descend thereon.
CHAPTER LXXXVTII
Suratu '!-Ghashti/ah.
The Chapter of the Overwhelming.
Description of the Last Day, Heaven and
Hell.
CHAPTER LXXX.
Suratu '•Abasa.
The Chapter " he Frowned."
The Prophet rebuked for frowning on a
poor blind believer.
The Creation and Resurrection.
CHAPTER LXXXI\.
Suratu 'l-lnshiqaci
The Chapter of the Rending Asunder
Signs of the Judgment Day.
The books of- men's actions.
The Resurrection.
Denunciation of misbelievers.
CHAPTER LXXXL
Surafu 'l-Takwlr.
The Chapter of the Folding-up.
Terrors of thei Judgment Day.
The female child who has been buried
alive will demand vengeance.
QUB AN
Allusion to the Prophet's vision of Gabriel
on Mount Hirii'.
H* is vindicated from the charge of mad
ness.
CHAPTER LXXXV1.
Surat't 'ut-Tariq.
The Chapter of the Niarht Star.
By the night- star, every soul has a guar
dian angel.
Creation and resurrection of man.
The plot of the infidels shall bo frus
trated.
CHAPTER CX.
Siiratu 'n-Pfast.
The Chapter of Help.
Prophecy that men shall join Islam by
Jroops.
CHAPTER LXXXV
Surntu *l-Bwruj.
The Chapter of the Zodiacal Signs.
Denunciation of those who persecute be
lievers.
Example of the fate of Pharaoh and
•imfid.
CHAPTER LXXXHJ.
Suratv >t-Tat ftf.
The Chapter of those who give Short Weight.
Fraudulent traders are warned.
* Sijjin, the register oi the acts of the
wicked.
Hell and heaven.
CHAPTER LXXVm.
Siir-'ita 'n- Nat/a'.
The Ciinpter of the Information.
Description of the Day of .Judgment, hell,
and heaven.
CHAPTER LXXVIJ.
Sura! it 'l~Mui'sa(dt.
The Chapter of Messengers.
Oath by the angels who execute God's
behests
Terrors of riie Last Day.
Hell and Heaven.
CHAPTER LXXVI.
Suratu 'd-Daiir.
The Chapter of Time.
Man's conception and birth
Unbelievers wained and believers promised
a reward.
Exhortation TO ch;;rity.
Bli^s of the charitable in Paradise
The Qur'an revealed by degrees.
Only those believe wln»ra God wills.
CHAPTER TYX.XV.
Stint tv V- Qiyamtin .
The Chapter ol Kesurreotion.
The Resurrection
Muhammad i-4 bidden not to be hurried in
repeating the Qnr'an so as to commit it to
memory.
Dying agony of an infid»-i.
QOB AN
495
CHAPTER LXX.
Snr at 1.1 Y-Jfav/r//.
The Chapter of the Ascents.
An unbeliever mockingly calls for a judg •
ment on himself and bis companions.
The terror? of the Judgment Day.
Man's ingratitude.
Adultery denounced.
Certainty of the J udgment Day.
CHAPTER CiX
Swan* 'l-Ka/irnn.
The Chapter of the Misbelievers.
The Prophet will not follow the religion of
the misbelievers.
CHAPTER CVIL
Suratu 'l-Ma-un.
The Chapter of Necessaries.
Denunciation of the unbelieving and un-
ehavitable.
CHAPTER LV.
Surata 'r-Rahmdn.
Tbe Chapter of the Merciful.
An ettftmer&fcioa of the works of the Lcrd
ending with a rlescriptioii of Paradise and
Hell.
A refrain runs throughout this chapter : —
'• Which then of your Lord's bounties dc
ye twain deny ? "
CHAPTER LVI.
Suratu V- Waqi'ah.
The Chapter of the Inevitable.
Terrors of the inevitable Day of Judgment.
Description of Paw-disc and Hell.
Proofs in Nature.
None but ths clean may touch the Qur'an.
The condition of a dying man.
THE FOURTH PERIOD.
Twenty-two Surahs, given from the sixth to
tha tenth year of Muhammad's ministry. With
this period begin the narratives of tbe J"«arisb
Scriptures, and Rabbinical and Arab legends.
The temporary compromise with idolatry is
connected with Surah liii.
CHAPTER LXVIL
Suratu Y-A/u/A-.
Tho Chapter of the Kingdom
God the Lord of heavens.
The marvels thereof.
The discomtiture of the misbelievers in
Hell.
Tho power of God exhibited in Nature.
Warnings and threats of punishment.
CHAPTER LIII.
Sui'otu 'n-Ar<///'//.
The Chapter of the Star.
Onth by the star that Muhammad's vision
of his ascent to heaven was not :\ delusion.
Description of the same.
Tbe amended passage relating to idolatry.
Wickedness of asseitiug the angels to be
iemales.
God's 0:uni. science.
496
QUB AN
Rebuke of sn apostle who paid another to
take upon him hie burden at the Judgment
Day.
Definition of true religion.
God's attributes.
CHAPTKB XXX1T.
's-tsajdah.
The Chapter of Adoration.
The Qur'an is truth from the Lord.
God the Creator and Governor.
The Resurrection,
Conduct of true believers when tHy hear
the word.
Their reward.
The punishment of misbelievers
Description of Heli
The people are exhorted to believe and are
admonished by the fate of the ruined cities
they see around them.
They are warned of the Judgment Day.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
The Chapter of the Troops,
Rebuke to ttx« idolaters who say they
serve false gods as a means of access to God
himself.
The unity of God, the Creator and Con
troller of the universe,
His independence and omnipotence.
Ingratitude of man for God's help.
Difference between the believers and un
believers-
Muhammad is called to sincerity of reli
gion and to Islam.
He is to ft at the torment at the Judgment
Day if he disobeys the call
Hell-tire is prepared for the infidela.
Paradise promised to those who avoid
idolatry.
The irrigation of the soil and the growth of
corn are signs.
The Qur'an makes the skin of tliose who
feir G6d creep.
Threat of the Judgment Day.
The Makkans are warned by the fate of
their predecessors not to reject the Qur'an,
Parable showing- the uncertain position of
the idolaters,
Muhammad not immortal.
Warning to those who lie against God, and
promise of reward to those wuo assert the
truth.
Muhammad is not to be frightened with
the idolfl of the Makksuis.
Their helplessness demonstrated.
The Quran is a guide, but ths Prophet
cannot compel men to follow it,
Human souls are taken to God during
siyep, and those who tire destined to live on
are sent back.
No intercession allowed with God.
The doctrine of the unity of God terrifies
the idolaters.
Prayer to God to decide between them
The infidels will regret on the Re&urrectioa
Day.
Ingratitude of man for God's help in
trouble.
Q.UR'AN
The Makkans are warned by the fate of
their predecessors.
Exhortation to repentance before it is too
late.
Salvation of the God-fearing.
God the creator and controller of every
thing.
Description of the Last Judgment.
All soul* driven in troops to heaven or to
hell.
CHAPTER LXXIII.
Suratu 'l-Muzzatnntif,
The Chapter of the Enwrapped.
Muhammad, >rhen wrapped up in his
mantle, is bidden to arise arid pray.
la bidden to repeat the Qur'an and to prac
tice devotion by night.
He is to bear with the unbelievers for a
while.
Pharaoh rejected the apostle sent to him.
Stated times for prayer prescribed.
Almsgiving prescribed.
CHAPTER LXXIX,
Suratu 'n-Ndzildt.
The Chapter of those who Tear Out,
The coming of the Day of Judgment.
The call of Moses.
His interview with. Pharaoh.
Chastisement of the latter.
The Creation and Resurrection.
CHAPTER LIV.
Suratu H-Qamar.
The Chapter of the Moon.
The splitting asunder of the raoon,
Muhammad accused of imposture.
The Makkans warned by the sioriea of
Noah and the Deluge, of Sain fid, the people
of Sodom, and Pharaoh.
The sure coming of the Judgment.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
Suratu £>aba\
The Chapter of Saba*.
The omniscience of God.
Those who have received knowledge re
cognise the revelation.
The unbelievers mock at Muhammad for
preaching the Resurrection.
The birds and mountains sing praises with
David.
Iron softened tor him.
He makes coats of mail
The wind subjected to Solomon-
A fountain of brass made to flow for him.
The jinns compelled to work for him.
Hie death only discovered by means of the
worm that gnawed.
The staff that supported his corpse.
The prosperity of Saba'.
Bursting- of the dyke (al-«Arim) and ruin of
the town.
Helplessness of the false gods.
They cannot intercede for their worship
pers when assembled at the Last Day.
Fate of the misbelievers on that day.
The proud and the weak shall dispute as to
which misled the othe'rs.
QURAN
The affluence of the Makkan* will only in
crease their ruin.
Tha angels shall disown the worshippers of
false gods.
The Makkans accuse Muhammad of im
posture.
So did othor nations deal with their Pro
phets and were punished fur it
Muhammad is cleared of the suspicion of
insanity.
The wretched plight of the misbelievers ou
the Last Day.
CHAPTER XXXi
Stinaiu Luqman.
The Chapter of Luorafu:
The Qnr'Sn a guiduneo to bo hovers.
Denunciation of ono who purchased Per
sian legends and preferred them to the
Qur'an.
God in Nature.
Other gods can create nothing.
Wisdom granted to Luqukuu.
His advice to his BOB,
The obstinacy of the infidels rebuked-
If the sea wore ink and the trees peha,
they would not suffice to write the words of
the Lord.
God manifest in the night and day, in the
gun and moon, and in rescuing men from
dangers by sea.
God only knows the future
CHAPTER LXIX.
Sural* 'l-Hdqqah.
The Chapter of the Inevitable.
The inevitable judgment.
Fate of thoflo who denied it, of Ad, Samud,
and Pharaoh.
The Deluge and the Last Judgment.
Vindication of Muhammad from the churge
of having forged the Qur'an.
OHAPTIZ* LXVm.
Suratu 'l-Qalam.
The Chapter of the Pen.
Muhammad is neither mad nor an im
postor.
Denounced by an insolent opponent
Example from the fate oi the owner of the
gardens.
Unbelievers threatened.
Muhammad exhorted to be patient and not
to follow the example of Jonah,
CHAPTER XLI.
QURAN
497
The Chapter " Are Detailed."
The Makkana are called on to believe the
Qur'an.
The creation of the heavens ami the
earth
Warning from the fate of 'Ad and S^/nud.
The very akins of tho unbelievers shall
bear witness against th<im on tho Day of
Judgment.
Punishment of those who reject the Qur'tm.
The angels descend and encourage the e
•who believe.
Precept to return good for evil.
Refuge to be sought with God against
temptation from the devil.
Against sun and moon worship.
The angels praise God. though the idola
ters are too proud to do so.
The quickening of the earth with rain is a
sigjj.
The Qur'an & confirmation of previous
scriptures.
If it had been revealed in a foreign tougue
Uit> people would have objected that they
could not understand it, and that the Pro-
phot, being an Arab, should have had a
revelation in his own language.
Mosea* scripture was also the subject of
dispute.
God is omniscient.
The fa lee gods will desert their worship -
puMti at the Resurrection.
Man's ingratitude for God's help in trouble.
God is sufficient witness of the truth.
CHAPTER LXXI.
Suratv NV&.
The Chapter of Noah.
Noah's preaching to the Antediluvians.
Their five idols also worshipped by the
Arabs.
Their fate.
CHAPTBR LJI.
Siiratu '(.-fur.
The Chapter of the Mount.
Oath by Mount Sinai and other things.
Terrors of the Last Day.
Bliss oi Paradise.
Muhammad is neither a madman, sooth
saver, poet, nor impostor.
Reproof of the Makkans for their ftupea--
BiitJons, and for proudly rejecting the Pro
phet
GHAPTKR L.
Suratu Qdf.
The Chapter of Qaf .
Proofs in nature of 8 future life.
Example of the fate of the nations of old
who rejected the apostles.
Creation of man.
God's proximity to him.
The two recording angels.
Death and Resurrection.
The Last Judgment and exhortation to
believe.
CHAPTER XLV.
Suralu '1-JdfityfJi.
The Chapter of Vhe Kneeling.
God revealed in nature.
Denunciation of the infidels.
Trading by sea a aign of God's providence.
Tho law first given to Israel, tnen to Mu
hammad in the Qur'an.
Answer to the infidels who deny the Ro-
Rurrection, and warning of thf-ir fate on that
day.
CIIAITER XL1V.
The Chapter of tho Smoke.
Night of the revelation of the Qur'an.
Unity of God.
63
498
QTJB'AN
CflJR AW
Threat of the Last Day, when a smoke *ha!l
cover the heavens, and the unbelievers shall
be punished for rejecting the Prophet, and
raying ho is taught by others or distracted.
Fate of Pharaoh for rejecting Moaes.
Fate of the people of Jubba'.
The Judgment Day.
The tree Zaqqfira and the punishment of
b.e!l.
Paradise and the virgins thereof.
The Quran revealed in Arable for an
admonition.
CHAPTER XXXVTT
Suratu 's-8affdt.-
The Chapter of the Ranged.
Oath by the angels ranged in rank, by
chose who drive the clouds, and by those
who rehearse the Qur'an, that God is -one
alone 1
They guard the gates of heaven, and pelt
the devils, who would listen there, with
shooting-stars.
Do the Makkans imagine themselves
stronger than the angels, that they mock
of God's signs and dony the Resurrection?
Tho false gods and the Makkans shall
recriminate each other at the Judgment
Day.
They say now, " Shall we leave our gods
for a mad poet ? "
They shall taste hell-fire for their unbelief,
while the believers are in Paradise.
Description of the delights thereof,
The maidens there.
The blessed shall see their unbe]ieving
former comrades in hell.
Immortality of the blessed.
Ax-Zaqqum the accursed tree in hell.
Horrors of that place.
The posterity of Noah were messed.
Abraham mocks at and breaks the idols.
He is condemned to be burnt alive, but is
delivered.
Is commanded to offer up his son as, a
sacrifice : obevs. bnt. his son is spared.
His posterity is blessed.
Moses and Aaron, too, left a good report
behind them; so, too, did Elias, who pro-
ested against the worship of 'Baal.
Lot was saved
Jonah was delivered after having been
thrown overboard and swallowed by a fish.
The gouru.
Jonah is sent to preach to the people of
the city (of -Nineveh)
The Makkans rebuked for saying that God
has daughters, and for saying that He is akin
to the jinns.
The angels declare that they are but the
humble servants of God.
The success of the Prophet and the con
tusion of the infidels foretold,
CHAPTER XXX.
Suratu 'r-Rum.
The Chapter of the Greeks.
Victory of the Persian* over the Greeks.
Prophecy of the coming triumph of the
latter.
The Makkans warned by the fate of lonaei
cities
The idols shall forsake them at the Re
surreetion.
The believers shall enter Paradise.
God is to be praised in the morning and!
evening and at noon and sunset.
His croat ion ol man and <~,f the universe
and His providence are signs.
He is the incomparable Lord of all.
Warning, against idolatry and scfhism.
Honesty inculcated and usury reproved.
God only creates and kilL
Corruption in the earth through sin.
Tne late or tormer idolaters.
Exhortation to believe beiore the sudden •
coming of the Judgment Day.
God's sending rain to quicken the earth is
a sign of His power.
Muhammad canuot make the deal hear hi»
Warning of the Last Dav.
CHAFFER XXVI.
Siiratu '.tti-Sku'arff.
The Chapter of the Poets,
Muhammad is not to be vexed by tl
people's unbelief,
Though called a liar now, his cause
triumph in the end.
Moses and Pharaoh.
He fears lest he may be killed for sl
the Egyptian.
Pharaoh charges him with ingratitude.
Their dispute about God.
Pharaoh claims to be God himself.
The miracles of the rod and the w
nand.
Moaes' contest with the magicians.
The magicians are conqaered and believe.
Pharaoh threatens them with condign
punishment.
The Israelites leave Egypt and ar^ pur
sued.
The passing of the Red Sea and destruc
tion of Pharaoh and ins nostp
The'history of Abraham.
He preaches against idolatry.
Noah is called a liar and vindicated.
Hud preaches to the people of 'Ad and
>alih to Samfic!.
The latter hamstring the she-camel and
perish.
The crime and punishment of the people
of Sodom.
The people of the Grove and the prophet
Shu'aib.
The Qur'an revealed through the instru
mentality of the Faithful Spirit (Gabriel) in
plain Arabic.
The learned Jews recognise its truth from
the prophecies in their own scriptures.
The devils could not have brought it.
Muhammad is to be meek towards be
lievers and to warn his clansmen.
Those upon whom the devils descend,
namely, the poets who wander distraught iu
every vaie.
QURAN
CHAPTER XV.
Suratu Y-//yV.
The (Juapter of al-Hijr
Misbelievers wll one day regret tbeii
misbelief.
No city was ever destroyed without w»rn-
Q.UR'AN
499
e iufidels mockingly ask Muhammad to
>ring down angels to punish them.
So did the sinners of old act towards their
apostles.
There are signs enougn in the zodiac,
guarded as they are from the devils who are
pelted vdth shooting-stars if they attempt to
listen.
All nature is under God s control.
Man created from clay, ajid jinn from
smokeless firy.
The angels bidden to adore Adam.
The devil refuses, is cursed ami expellee!,
out respited until the Day of Judgment.
la allowed to seduce mankind.
Hell, with its seven doors, promised to
misbelievers, and Paradise to believers.
Story of Abraham's angelie guests,
They announce to him the birth of a son.
They proceed to Lot's family.
The crime and punishment of the people of
Sodom.
The ruined cities still remain to tell the
tale.
Similar fate of tbe people of the Grove and
at al-Hijx.
The hour draws nigh.
The Lord Omniscient, Creator has seat the
Qur'an and the seven verses of repetition.
Muhammad is not to grt?e at the worldly
success of unbelievers.
Those who dismember the Qur'an arc
threatened with punishment
Muhammad is encouraged against the mis
believers.
CHAJPTER LL
Suratu 'z-Zariydi.
The Chapter of the Scatter?;
Oaths by different
that the Judgment. Day will come.
Story of Abraham's entertaining the angels.
The destruction of Sodom.
Fate of Phuraoh, of -Ad. of Samud, and
oi the peepic of Noah.
Vindication of Muhammad ogainst the
charges of imposture or marines*.
THE FIFTH PERIOD.
Thirty-one Surahs. Fron the tenth year
of Mubamm.id's ministry to the flight from
Makkab.
The Surahs of this period contain some
narratives from the gospel. The rites of
pilgrimage are enjoined. The cavillings of
the Quraish are refuted ; and we have vivid
picturhigs of the Resurrection and Judgment,
of Heaven and Hell, with proof's of God's
unity, power and providence.
From stage to stage the Surahs become,
on the average, longer, and some of them
now [ill n,.<5ny pages. In the latter burs UK of
this period, we m^et not unfrequently -with
Madinah passages, which have been interpo
lated as bearing on some connected subject.
As examples may be taken, verse 40 of
Surah xxii., in which permission is given to
r>ear arms against the Makkans ; verso 33,
•Surah xvii., containing rules for the admini
stration of justice; verse 111, Surah xvi..
referring to s^ach believers as had fled their
country and fought for tbe faith; being all
passages which could have been pr^mul-
gated only after the Flight to al-Madmah.
XL VI.
Suratu 't-AkqaJ.
The Chapter of al-Ahqaf.
God the only God and Creator.
The unbelievers call Muhammad a sor
cerer or a forger.
The book of Moses was revealed before.
and the ty^i an is a continuation of it in
Arabic.
Conception, birth, aud life of man.
Kindness to parents and acceptance o*
Islam enjoined.
The mls'-elievers are warned by the
example c.f ;Ad, who dwell inAhqaf ana by
th#t of the cities wnose ruins lie .'.round
Makkah.
Allusion to the jinns who listened to Mu'
j hammad's preaching at Makkah on his re-
I turn from at-7'aif.
I Warning to unbelievers of the punishmen
of the Last Day.
CHAPTER LXXII.
Sur.atu "l-Jiun.
The Chapter cf the Jinn.
A crowd of jinns listen to Muhammad .>
I teaching at Nakhlah.
Their account of themselves.
Muhammad exhorted to persevere in
preaching
CHAPTER XXXV.
Siiratn '(-Afala'i/cah.
The Chapter of tbe Angels.
Praise of God. who inaK.es the Angels his
messengers.
God's unity.
Apostles before Muhaminad ,veie accused
of imposture.
Puiiu.hinent in stoi'e for the unbelievers.
Muhammad is not to be vexed on their
account.
God senda^aiu to quicken the dead earth.
This is a sign of the Resurrection.
The power of God shown in all nature
The helplessness of the idols.
They will disclaim their worshippers attho
Resurrection.
No soul shall bear the burden of another.
Muhammad cannot compel people to be
lieve.
Be is only a waraer.
Other nations have accused their prophet*
of imposture and perished.
Reward of the God-fearing of oeheveia,
and of those who read and follow, the Qur'an,
500
QXFR AN
Punishment of hell for the iundels.
The idolater* shall be confounded on the
Judgment Day.
The Quraish, in spite of their promises and
of the examples around thorn, are more arro
gant and unbelieving than other people.
II God were to punish men ae they daaerve,
he would not leave so much as a beast on the
earth ; bat He respites them fur a time.
CflAlTEK XXX.VI.
Siirattt Y« tila.
The Chapter of Ya Sin,
Muhammad is God's messenger, and the
Qur'an is a revelation irom God to warn a
heedless people.
The inndels are predestined not to believe.
All men's work ehal) be recorded.
The apostle** of Jesus rejected at Aiitioeb.
Habibu 'n-Najjar exhortfl the people fco fol
low their advice.
He is stoned to death by the populace.
Gabriel cries out and the sinful people are
destroyed.
Hen will laugh at the apostles who come to
them, but they have an example in the
nations who have perished before them.
Tho quickening1 of the dead earth is a sign
of the Resurrection.
God*s power flhowri ia the procreation of
species
The alternation of aight and day, the
phases of the moon; the sun and moan in
their orbits, are signs of God's power.
So, too, the preservation of men in ships at
sea.
Almsgiving enjoined.
The unbelievers joor at the command.
The sudden coming of the Judgment Day,
Blessed state of the believers in Paradsse,
and misery of the unbelievers in hell
Muhammad is no inere poet.
The Qur'an an admonition.
God'ri providence.
The false gods will not be able to help their
worshippers.
Proofs of the Resurrection.
CHAJPTSR XIX.
Svrutu MaruQfn.
The Chapter of Mary.
Zachariah prays ?$r an heir.
He is promised a son, who ia to be called
John.
Is struck dumb for three days as a sign.
John is bom and given the Book, Judg
ment, grace, and purity.
Story of Mary.
The annunciation,
Her delivery boaeata a palm -tree.
The infant Jesus in the cradle testifies to
her innocence arid to his own mission.
Warning of the Day of Judgment.
Siory of Abraham.
He reproves his father, who threatens to
atoise him.
Abraham prays lor him.
Isaac and Jacoh are born to him.
MOSRS communes with Qod and has Aaron
for a help.
QURAN
Iskmael and Idris mentionet! as Prophet*.
Their seed, when the signs of the Merciful
are read, fall down adoring.
The Makkans, their successors, are pro
mised reward in Paradise, if they repent and
believe.
The aagels only descend at the bidding of
the Lord.
Certainty of the Resurrection.
Punishment of those who have rebelled
against the Merciful.
Reproof of one who said he should have
wealth and <jhildrea oja the Judgment Day.
The false gods shall deny their worshippers
then.
The devils sent to tempt unbelievers.
Tha gathering of the Judgment Day.
All nature is cojnyulsed at the imputation
that the Merciful has begotten a son.
This revelation is only to warn mankind
by the example of the generations who have
passed away.
CHAPTER XVIII.
Suratu 'l-Kcthf.
The Chapter <tjf the Cave,
The Qur'an is a warning especially to thoso
who say God has oegotteii a son.
Muhammad is not to grieve if they refuse to
believe.
Story of the Fellows of the Cave-
Their number known only to God.
Muhammad rebuked for promiouig a reve
lation on the subject.
He is enjoined to obey God in all things,
and not to be induced to give up his poorer
followers.
Hell- fire threatened for the unbelievers and
Earadise promised to the good.
Parable of the proud man's garden which
was destroyed while that of the humble
man Nourished.
This life ia like the herb that springs up
and perishes.
Good works are more lasting than wealth
and children.
The Last Day.
The devil refuses to adoro Adam.
Tho men are not to take him for a patron
They shall be forsaken by their patrons at
the Last Day.
Men would believe, but that the example
of those of yore musi be repeated ,
Misbelievers are unjust, and shall not lw»
allowed to understand, or be guided.
But $od is merciful.
Story of Moses aud his servant in s«Jirdh
of al-gkizr.
They lose their fish at the confluence of
the two seas.
Tbey moet a strange prophet, who bids
Moses not question anything he may do.
He scuttles a ship, kills a boy., and builds
up a tottering wall.
Moses desires &n explanation, which the
stranger gives, and leaves him.
Story of 2$ i-Qarnain.
He travels to the ocean of the setting-
sun.
QURAN
QUR AN
501
Builds a rampart to keep in Gog and
Magog.
These are to be let loose again before the
Judgment Day.
Reward and punishment on that day.
Wore the sea ink, it would not suffice for
the words of the Lord.
The Prophet is only a mortal.
CHAPTER XXVII.
tfuratu 'n- ATam/.
The Chapter ot the Ant.
The Qur'an a guidance to believers.
God appears to Moses in the fire.
Moses is sent to Pharaoh with signs, but
is called a sorcerer.
David and Solomon endowed with know-
, ledge.
Solomon taught the speech of birds.
His army of men, jinns, and bmix, marches
through the valley of the ant.
One ant bids the reat retire to their holes
lest Solomon and his hosts crush them.
Solomon smiles arid answers her.
He reviews the birds and misses the
hoopoe, who. returning, brings news of the
magnificence of the Queen of Sheba.
Solomon sends him hack with a tetter to
the Queen.
A demon brings him her throne.
Sho comes to Soloaion, recognises her
throne ; marvel1? at the palace with the glass
floor, which sho mistakes for wate*.
Becomes a Muslim.
garaud reject Salih and perish.
Lot is saved, while tha people of Sodom
are destroyed.
The Lord, the God of iiaturo ; the only God
and Creator
Certainty of thy Resurrection.
The ruins of ancient cities an example,
The Qur'an decides disputed points for the
Jewa.
Muhammad bidden to trust in God, for he
cannot make the deaf to hear his message.
The beast that shall «ppo*r at the Resur
rection.
Terrors of the Last Day.
The Prophet bidden to worship the Lord
of thifi laud, to recite the Qur'an, and to be
come a Muslim.
CHAPTER XLU.
Su.rat.ii 'xh-Shura
The Chapter of Counsel.
The Qur'an inspired by God to warn the
Mother jf cities of the judgment to coma
God is one. the Creator of all things, who
provides for all.
He calls men to the same religion as that
of the prophet » of old, -which men have
broken up into sects.
Muhammad has only to proclaim his mes
sage.
Those who argue about God sLaJ be con
futed.
None knows when the hour shall come but
God.
The idolaters shall only .have fciieir portion
in this life.
God will -vindicate the truth of His revela
tion.
His creation and providence signs of His
power.
Men's misfortunes by land and aoa are due
to their ovrn sins.
The provision of the next world is oest for
the righteous.
It is not sinful to retaliate if wronged,
though forgiveness is a duty.
The shiners shall have none to help them
on the Day o/ Judgment.
They are exhorted to repent before it
comes.
Ingratitude of mau.
God controls all.
No mortal has ever seen God face to
face,
H*1 spoakp to men only through inspiration
of His apostles,
This 'Qur'an was revealed by a spirit to
guide into the rig-nt way.
CHAPTKH XL.
Suratv 'l-Alu'mitt.
The Chapter of the Believer.
Attributes of God.
Muhammad encouraged by the fate of
other nations who rejected their apostles.
The angels' prayer for the believers.
Despair in hell of the idolaters.
The terrors of the Judgment Day.
God alone the Omniscient Judge.
The vestiges of former nations are still
visible in the land to warn the people.
The btory of Moae* and Pharaoh.
The latter wishes to kill Moses, bat a
.secret believer makes a long appeal.
Pharaoh bids Haman construct a tower to
mount up to the God of Moses.
God saves the believer, and Pharaoh is
ruined by his own devices.
Mutual recrimination of the damned.
Exhortation to patience and praise.
Those wno wrangle about God rebuked.
The certain coming of the Hour.
The unity of God asserted and His attri
butes enumerated,
Idolatry forbidden.
The conception. birfU, lift-, and death of
man.
Idolaters shall find out then error in hell.
Muhammad encouraged tc wait for the
Cattle to ride on and to eat are signs of
God's providence.
The example of tho nations who perished
of old for rejecting the apostles.
CHAFTBB XXXVIIL
Suwtu 's-S&d,
The Chapter of $ad
Oath by the Qur'an.
Example of former generations who pe
rished for unbelief, and for saying that their
prophets were sorcerers and the Scriptures
forgeries.
The Makkans are warned thereby.
Any hosts of the confederates shall be
routed.
502
QJJR4.N
Fain of the people of Noah, 'Ad, Pharaoh.
Sam fid, and Lot.
The Makkans must expect the same.
Muhammad exhorted to be patient of what
they say.
He is reminded ot' the powers bestowed on
Da via.
The parable of the ewe lambs proposed to
David by the two antagonists.
David exhorted not to follow lust.
The heaven and earth were not created in
\ain, as the. misbelievers think.
The Qur'an a reminder.
Solomon, lost in admiration of his horses,
neglects his devotions, but. repenting, slays
them.
A jinn in Solomon's likeness is set on liis
throne to punish him.
He repents and prays God for a kingdom
such as no one should ever possess again.
The wind and the devils made subject to
hkin.
The patience of Job.
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob
Elisha and Zfi 'J-TCii1
Happiness of the righteous in Paradise-
Misery and mutual recrimination of the
wicked in hell.
Muhammad only sent to warn people and
proclaim God's unity.
The creation of man and disobedience of
Iblfa, who is expelled,
He is respited till the Judgment Day, that
he may seduce people to misbelief.
But lie and those who follow him shall
fill hell
CHAPTER XXV
Surfitu 'l-furqan,
The Chapter of the Disc rimin^ ilor,
The Discrimination sent down as a \varn-
iug that God is ono, the Creator and Governor
of all: yet the Makkans call it old folks'
tales.
They object that the Prophet acts and
lives as a mere mortal or is crazjr.
Hell-firs shall be the punishment of those
Vho disbelieve in the Resurrection.
Description of the Judgment Day.
The Quraish object that tbe Our'an was
revealed piecemeal.
Moses and Aaron and Noah were treated
like Muhammad, but those who called them
liars were punished.
'Ad and. %amud perished for the same
sin.
The ruins of the citifts of the plain are
existing examples.
Yet they will .not accept tbe Prophet.
God controls the shadow, gives night
for a repose, quickens the dead earth with
rain.
He lets loose the two sous, but places a
barrier between them,
He has created man.
lir is the loving and merciful God.
The Quraish pbject to the Merciful as a
new God,
The lowly and moderate art? His
QURAN
They abstain from idolatry, murder, false
witness, and frivolous discourse, .
These shall be rewarded.
God cares nothing for the rejection of his
message by the infidela.
Their punishment shall be lasting.
CHAPTER XX.
&uratu ]Td Ha.
The Cuapter of Ta Ha.
The Qur'an a reminder from the Merciful,
-,vho owns all things and knows ail things.
There is no god but He.
His are the excellent names.
Story of Moses.
He perceives the lire arid is addressed from
it by God in the holy valley Tuvan.
t.-rod shows him the miracle of the staff
turned to a snake and of the wlrto hand.
Sends him to Pharach.
Moses excuses himself because of the im
pediment in his speech.
Aaron is given him as a, minister.
Moses' mother throws him into the sea.
His sister watches him
He is restored to his mother.
Slays an Egyptian and flees to Midian.
Moses and Aaron goto Pharaoh and call on
him to believe.
Pharaoh charges them with being magi
cians.
Their contest with the Egyptian magi
cians, who believe, and are threatened with
punishment by Pharaoh.
Moses leads the children of Israel across
the sea, by a dry road,
Pharaoh and hi^ people are overwhelmed.
The covenant on Mount Sinai.
The miracle of the manna, and quails.
As-Sainiri makes the calf ir>, Moses
absence.
Moses seizes his brother angrily by the
beard and destroys the calf.
Misbelievers threatened with the terrors of
the Resurrection Day,
Fate of the mountains on that day.
All men shall be summoned to judgment.
Nro intercession shall avjiil except from
such as the Merciful permits
The Quran is in Arabic that people may
fear and remember
Muhammad is not to hasten oil its revela
tion,
Adam broke his covenant with God
Angel H bidden to adore Adam.
Iblis refuges.
Tempts Adam.
Adam, Eve; and the Devil expelled from
Paradise
Misbelievers nnali be gathered together
blind on tbe Resurrection Day.
The Makkans pass by the ruined dwellings
of the generations who have been aforetime
destroyed for unbelief
But for the Lord's word being passed, they
would h/ive perished too.
Muhammad is exhorted to bear their in
sults patiently and to prabe God through the
day.
Prayer enjoined*
QUR'AN
The fate of those <M yore a Sufficient
| dign.
Let them wait and see the issue.
CHAPTER XLili.
Suratn 'z-Zukhruj.
The Chanter of (Hiding.
Tay original of the Qur'an is with God
The example ot the nations of old wh->
jjiiiocked at rhe prophets.
God vhe (Creator.
Men are h'ddon t,o praise Him who pro
vide* man witb ships and cattle \vhereon to
ride.
The Araba are rebuked for attributing
i female -,>ti8pring to God. when taey themselves
repine when a female child is born to anv
one 01 them.
They are plso blamed for asserting that
'< !ho angeh nn- * .-male.
The excuse that this was the religion of
their fathers, will not avail
It >s the snine as older nations ma/? a.
Their fate.
Abraham disclaimed idolatry.
The Makkans were permitted to enjoy
prosperity only until the Apostle oamo, and
i now that he has come they reject him.
The are reproved for saying that bad tue
Prophet boen a mt-n ol fnpsiderfltiotj at Mak-
kan and at-Ta'if, they would have owned
1 him.
Misbelievers won Id bavfj aad still more
! wealth and enjoyment, but that men would
I have tbf»n all become iniideh.
Tho-SH who turn from the admonition ihal)
i be chained to devils, who .shall mislear1
their.
God will take vengeance on them, whe
ther Muhammad live to see it or not.
He is encouraged to persevere.
Moses was mocked bv Pbaraon. -who.u he
was sent to Tvnr'i
But Pharaoh and his people were drowned.
Answer to the Arabs, who objected that
lesuy, too, must come under the ban against
lalse gods.
But Jesus <*i<i not assume to be a god.
Threat of the coming uc the Hou
The joys of Paradise and the terrors of
Holl
The ihimiiHii suail beg Malik to moke aa
end of them.
The recording angels note down the secret
plots of the infidels.
God has no son.
He is the Lord of all.
CHAPTER XII.
Suratu Yusuf.
The Chapter of Joseph.
The Quran revealed in Arabic that the
Makkans may understand.
It contains the best of storius.
Story of Joseph.
He tells his father his dream.
Jacob advises him to keep it to himself.
Jealousy of Joseph's brethren.
They conspire to throw him in a pit.
Induce hie father to let him go with them.
QUR AN
503
They caet him in the pit, and bring home
his shirt covered \vith lying blood.
Travellers discover him and sell him into
Egypt.
He is adopted ny ins maslci,
His mistress endeavours to seduce him.
His innocence proved.
His mi*tikesfl shows him to me women of
the citv to excuao her conduct.
Their amazement at his beauty.
He is imprisoned.
Interprets the dreams of the baker and tue
capbearei
Pharaoh's -ir-jaii*.
Joseph is sent for to expound it.
tie is appointed to a situation of trust, in
the land.
His brethren arnvp *nd do iiot recognise
him.
They ask for corn and he requires them
to bring their youngest brother as the condi
tion of his giving it to them.
The goods they had brought to barter are
i-eturned to their sacks.
Benjamin is sent back.
Joseph discovers himself to hici.
Joseph places the king's drinking-cup in
his brother's pack.
Accuses them ail of the theft.
Takes Benjamin as a b^dsmon for the
theft.
They return, to Jacob, who, in great grief,
•<eiiis them back again, to bring him news.
Joseph discovers himself to them and
sends back his shirt.
Jacob recognises it oy iiie »meil.
Jacob STOPS hack with them to Egypt.
This story appealed to as a proof of the
truth of the Revelation.
CHAPTER XI
SSmtH Hud.
The Chapter of Hnd.
The Qar'an H hook calling men to believe
in the unity of God.
Nothing is hidden from Him.
Ho is the Creator of all.
Men will not believe, and deem them
selves secure, because thair T>nnioViment is
deferred.
They demand a sign, or say the Qur'an is
invented by the Prophet ; bnt t-boy and their
false jfods together cannot briny ten such
Sdrahti
Misbelievers threatened wiin future punish
ment, while believers are oronnsed Para
dise.
Noah was likewi&e sent, but his people
objected that he vis a mere mortal like
themselves, and only followed by the meaner
sort of n»en
He also is accused of uaviug invented his
revelation.
He is saved in the ark and tho unbelievers
drowned.
He endeavours to save his son.
The «rk settles on Mount al-Juui.
Hud was sent to 'Ad.
His people plotted against mm auu wore
nestroved. while he was saved.
504
qmt AN
QURAN
wae sent to Samtid.
The she-camel given for u, sign.
The people hamstring her and perish.
Abraham entertains the angels who are
sent to the people of Lot.
He pleads for them.
Lot offers his daughters to the people of
Sodom, to spare the angels.
He escapes by night, and Sodom is de
stroyed.
Shu'aib is sent to Midian, and his people,
rejecting his mission, perish too.
Moses sent to Pharaoh, "who shall be
punished at the Resurrection.
The Makkans, too, shall be punished.
They are threatened with the Judgment
Day, when they shall be «ont to hell, while
the* believers are in Paradise.
The Makkans are bidden to take warning
by the fate of the cities whose stories are
related above.
These stories are intended to strengthen
the Prophet's heart.
He is bidden to wait and leave the issue to
God.
CHAPTER X.
Suratu Yunu*.
The Chapter of Jonah.
No wooder that the Qur'an was revealed to
a mere man.
Misbelievers deem him a sorcerer.
God the Creator and Ruler.
No one can intercede with Him except by
His permission.
Creation is a sign of His power.
Reward hereafter for the believers.
Man calls on God In distress, but forgets
Him when deliverance comes.
Warning from the' fall of former genera
tions.
The infidels are not satisfied with the
Qur'an.
Muhammad dare not invent a false revela
tion.
False gods can neither harm nor profit
them.
People require a sign.
God saves people in dangers by land and
sea.
This life is like grass.
Promise of Paradise and threat of Hell.
Fate of the idolaters and false gods at the
Last Day.
God the Lord of all.
Other religions are mere conjecture.
The Qn.rvan could only have been devised
by God.
The Makkana are challenged to produce a
single Surah like it.
Unbelievers warned of the Last Day by the
fate of previous nations.
Reproval of those who prohibit lawful
God is ever watchful over the Prophet's
actions.
Happiness of the believers.
The infidels cannot harm the Prophet.
Refutation of those who ascribe offspring
to God.
Muhammad encouraged by the story <
Noah and the other prophets of old.
Pate of Pharaoh a;ud vindication of Mosi
and Aaron.
The people of the Book (Jews and Chrl
tians) appealed to in confirmation of the trul
of the Qnr 'an.
The story of Jonah.
The people of Nineveh saved by repenth
and believing in time.
The people are exhorted to embrace Isiau
the faith of the Hanif.
God alone is powerful.
Belief or uubelief affect only the individoi
himself.
Resignation and patience inculcated.
CHAPXKH XIV.
Suratu Ibrahim.
The Chapter of Abraham.
The Quran revealed to bring men froi
darkness into light.
God is Lord of all,
No apostle sent except with the languag
of his own people.
Moses sent to Pharaoh.
The people of Noah.
'Ad and Samud objected that their prophel
were mortals like themselves.
The prophets relied on God, who vindicate
them.
Frightful description of hell.
Misbelievers are like ashes blown away b
the stormy wind.
Helplessness of the damned.
But believers are in Paradise.
A good word is like a good tree whose roc
is in the *»arth and whose branches are in tb
sky, and which gives fruit i» all seasons,
A bad word is as a tree that is* fellod.
God's word is sure.
Idolaters are threatened with heli-nre.
God is the Creator of all
He subjects all things to man's use.
Abraham prayed that the territory of Mai
kah might be a sanctuary.
The unjust are only respited till the Judg
men! Day.
The ruins of the dwellings of those wh
have perished for the denying the mission c
their apostles, arc a proof of the truth <
Muhammad's mission.
The Lord will take vengeance on the Lat
Day, when sinners shall bum in hell witi
shirts of pitch to cover them.
The Qur'an is a warning and an admoni
tion.
CHAPTER VI.
The Chapter of Cattle.
Light and darkness ape both created b'
God.
Rebuke to idolaters.
They are exhorted to take warning by fch<
fate of those of old who rejected the pro
phets.
Had the revelation been a material book
thev would have disbelieved it.
QUR AN
Tf the Prophet had been an angel, ho would
have come in the guise of a man.
Allributi'F of God.
Muhammad bidden to become a Muslim
Those who have the Scriptures jnight to
recognise Muhammad as the one foretold in
them
Tho idolaters will he disappointed of the
intercession of their gods on the Judgment
Day,
Thoy deny the Resurrection Day now, but
hereafter they will have awful proof of its
truth.
The neat world is preferable to this.
Prophets aforetime were also mocked at,
find they were patient,
(rod could semi them a sign if He pleased.
Beasts, birds, and the like, are communities
like men.
Their ff»to is all written in the book.
They, too, shall be gathered on the Judg
ment Day.
Arguments in proof of the supreme power
-* God.
Muhammad is only a messenger.
He is to disclaim miraculous power.
Is not to repulse believers.
He is bidden to abjure idolatry and no«
follow the- lusts of Hie Makkans.
God's omniscience.
He takes men's souls to Himself during
sleep.
Scuds guardian angels to watch over them
Preserves men in danger by land and sea.
Muhautuniu is tiu< 1o join in discussions oi>
religion with idolaters, nor to associate with
those who make a sport of it.
Folly of idolatry set fortL
God the Creator.
Abraham's perplexity m seeking after the
> rue God-
Worships successively tlio stars, the moon,
and the sun, but is convinced thnt they are
not gods by seeing them set.
Tuim to God and becomes a Hamf.
Other nrophets of old were inspired.
Thf* Qur'an is also a special revelation froir
God to the Makkans, fulfilling their Scrip
tures, but the Jews have per.verted or sup
pressed parts of them.
Denunciation of one who falsely pretended
to be inspired.
The Creation a proof of God's unity.
Rebuke to those who call the jinn His part
ners, or attribute offspring to Him.
Idolaters are not to be abused, lest they,
too, speak ill of God
The Makkans would nut have believed
even if a sign had been given them.
Muhammad is to- trust to God alone.
Men are not to abstain from food over
which .God's name has been pronounced
God Will vindicate His messeiigei .
Belief or the reverse depends on God's
grace.
The jinn.-- and false gods, together with
their worshippers, '.vill be" condemned to ever
lasting torment.
God never punishes without first ending
an apostle with warning.
QCFR'AN
505
The threatened doom cannot be averted.
Denunciation of the idolatrous practices of
the Arabs.
Setting apart portions of the produce of the
land for God and for the idols, and defraud
ing God of His portion.
Infanticide.
Declaring cattle and tilth inviolable.
God created all fruits and all cattle, both
are therefore lawful.
Argument, proving the absurdity of some
Of these customs.
Enumeration of the only icmds of food that
are unlawful.
The prohibition to the Jews of certain food
was only on account of their sins.
God's revealed word is the only certain
argument.
Declaration of things really forbiddon.
namely, harshness to parents, infanticide,
abominable sin*, and murder
Tho property uf orphans is to be respected
and fair-dealing to be practised.
No soul compelled beyond its capacity.
The Qur'an to be accepted on the sam»»
authority as the Book of Moses w?c
Faith required now without signs.
No latter profession on the Judgment Day
shall proilt them.
GoocJ works to be rewarded tenfold, but
evil works only by the samo amount-
Islam is the reliarion of Abraham in«
Hanif.
A belief in one God. to whom all prayer
.ind devotion is duo.
Each .soul shall bear its own nuroeu.
The high rank of some of the Makkans is
only a trial from the Lord whoroby to prove
them.
CHAPTER LXIV.
Siiratn 't-Taghdbun.
The Chapter of Mutual Deceit.
God the Creator
Tho Resurrection.
The Unity of God.
Wealth and children must not distract
men from the service of God.
CHAPTEJH XXVEQ.
Siirutu 'l-tlaya$.
Tho Chapter of the Stoiy.
The history of Moses and Pharaoh
The latter and his vizier.
Ham an oppresses the children of Ismei.
Moses is exposed 'oti the river by uis
mother.
He is adopted by Pharaoh.
His sistpr watches him, and his mother is
engaged to nuv.se him.
He grows up and slays the Egyptian.
Fleos to Midian.
Helps thn uvc Midianito.-: to drs^ water
Serves their fathor Shohaib for ten years
and then marrie? his daughter
God appears to him in the fire.
Ts sent with his Votiier Aaron to Pha
raoh.
Hainan builds Pharaoh a high tower to
ascend tc the God of Moses.
64
§06
QUR'AN
H"»s punishment,
Moses gfoes the Law.
These stories are proofs of Muhammad's
mission.
The Arabs reject the Book of MOSGS and
the Qur*au aa two mipofctures.
Those who have the Scriptures recognise
the truth of tha Qnr'an.
The Makkans warned by: the exarnplo of
the cities of old that have perished.
Disappointment oi the idolaters at the Day
of Judgment*
Helplessness of the idols before God.
Q&rftrvs great wealth.
The earth o^ena and swallows him up for
his pride and his insolence bo Mows.
Muhammad encouraged in hb faith and
purpose.
CHAPTER XXIII.
Suratu '1-Mu'mijtin.
The Chapter of Belie vera.
The humble, chaste, and honest, shall
prospwr.
The creation, birth, death, and resurrection
of roan.
God's goodness in providing for man's fcus-
tenanoe,
Noah sent to bis people, who reject him
fcecause be is a mere mortal!
They are drowned, and he is saved in the
aik.
Moses and Aaron were also called liars.
Mary and her eon the cause of their fol
lowers division into sects.
The Gbd-fearing encouraged.
The Quraisb. rebuked iov their pride and
for denyk# Muhammad, and calling him
possessed.
They are reiniaded of the famine and de
feat they have already experienced.
Doctrine of the Resurrection.
The unity of God.
He has no offspring?.
l« omniscient.
Muhairraad is encouraged not to care for
the false accusations of the Makkans, bat to
seek refuge ia God.
Punishment, ontho Day of Resurrection, of
those who mocked at the little party of be-
lierers
CHAPTBE XXII.
Siiratu 'l-Hajj.
The Chapter of the Pilgrimage.
Terrors of tbe Last Day, yet men dispute
about- God and follow devils.
The conception, birth, growth, and death of
men, and the growth of herbs in the ground
are proois of the Resurrection.
But some dispute, others waver between
two opinions.
The most desperate means cannot thwart
the divine decrees.
0od will decide between the Jews. Chris
tians, Sabians, Magians, and idolaters on the
Judgment Day.
All nature adores God.
The misbelievers are threatened with hell-
fire. and the believers promised Peradiee.
QUR AN
Punishment threatened to those who pro
hibit; men from visiting the Sacred Mosque.
Abraham, when bidden to cleanse the
Ka'bah, -was told to proclaim the pilgrimage.
The rules of the Hajj enjoined.
Cattle are lawful food.
Warning against idolatry and exhortation
to become Uanifs.
Sacrifices at tbe Ka'bah. are enjoined.
All men have their appointed rites,
The name of God is to be mentioned over
cattle vdien slaughtered.
Cam sis may be sacrificed and eaten.
God wiii tfefend believers, but loves not
misbelieving traitors.
Tbose who have been driven from their
heroes for acknoxdedgirg God's unity are
allowed te tight. .
If -men did not %ht for such a cauae, all
places of worship would be destroyed,
The people of Noah, :A6 Sjamud, Apr**
ham, and "Lot. called their prophets liars,
aad were allowed to raoge »t large, but at
last they were punished.
Their cities were destroyed and the ruins
are visible to travellers still.
Muhammad is only sent to >varn the Mak
kaos of a like late.
Satan contrives to aaggBst a wrong read
ing to tha Propnet while reading the Qur'ln
The Kingdom shall be Gtod's upon the
Judgment Day.
Those wbo flee or ore slum in the cause
shall be provided for and rewarded.
Believers who take revenge and are again
attacked, will be helped.
All nature ie subject to God.
Every nation has itg rites to observe
The Idolaters treat tbe revelation with
•scorn.
The fake gods could not even create a
fly.
Exhortation to worship God and fight for
Che faith of Abraham, whost religion the
Muslims profess.
God is the Sovereign and Helper,
GHAPTB* XXJ
Saratu 'LAintyiyff*
The Chapter of tbe Prophet*.
Meu muck at the revelation.
They say it is a iumble of dreams, and
that Muhammad is a poet, and tbey asif for
A sign.
The prophets of old were but mortal.
The people who rejected them parisbed.
and earth were not created in
sport, ^~
Truth shall crush falsehood.
All things praise God.
If there vere other gods thah He, heaven
and earth v/ouid be corrupted.
Al! former prophets were tanght there is
no god but God.
The Merciful has net begotten chadren.
The angels are only His servants.
The separation of earth from lietiven, the
creation of living things from water, the
steadying of tbe earth by mountains, and
placing the aky as a roof over it, and the
QURAN
creation of the night and day, and of the sun
and moon, are signs.
No one was over granted immortality.
Every foul must taste of death.
The unbelievers mock at Muhammad and
disbelieve <n the Merciful.
Mwi is hasty
The infidels are threatened with punish
ment in the noxi ^orld
Those who mocked at the prophets o/ old
perished.
No one shall be wronged on the Last
Day.
Moats and Aaron received a scripture
Abraham destroys the image? which his
peyple worshipped.
He tells (hem thjit it was the largest idol
which did it.
He IB condemned to be burnt abve. Hut, the
fire is miraculously made cool and sa/*
Abraham, Lot, Isaac, and Jacob, all in
apired.
Lot waft brought Rifely oui of a city of
wrong-doeis.
North aUo was saved.
David and Solomon eive judgment abont a
field.
The mountains ami birds are made subject
to David,
He is taught the art of making coats of
mail.
The wind and th*> demons are subjected to
Solomoo.
Job was saved.
Ishmail, Mrlo. and 2u i-Kitt were patient,
and entered into the mercy of the Lord.
2u 'u-Nun (Jonah) was saved in the fish's
belly.
Zachariau had his prayer granted and a
son (John) given him.
The spirit was breathed into the Yhgin
Mary.
But their followers hare divided imo seels.
A city once destroyed for unbelief shall
not be referred tiB Gog and Magog are lei
loose.
The promise draws nigh,
Idolater^ shall be the pebbles of hell
Bat the elect shall be rolled up as as-Sijill
rolls up a book.
As is written in the Psahns " The righ
teous BhaJl inherit the earth."
Muhammad sent as a mercy to the worlds
God is one God.
He knows nil.
Hd in the Merciful
QUR AN
507
XVII.
Suratu Baai Jsra'U
The Chapter of the Children of Israel.
Allnsion to the night journey from the
Sacred Mosque (at Makkab) to the Remote
Mosque (at Jernsalom).
Mosea received the book.
Noah was a faithful servant.
Israel's two sins and their punishment.
The Quran a guide and a good tidings.
Man prays for evil and is hasty.
Night and day are two signs.
Every man's augnry is round his neck.
Each one shall have a book on the Resur
rection Day with an account of his deeds.
Bath is to bear the burden of hi* own
3>P«.
;^o city w destroyed till warned by an
apostle.
Choice of good in this world or the next.
Muhammad is not to associate others with
God.
Kindness to parents enjoi'^n.
Moderation to be practised.
Infanticide and fornication are su**.
Homicide is wot to be avenged except tot
just cauae.
Hooeeiiy and humility inculcated.
The angels are not the daughters of God.
I! there were other gods, they would
rebel against God.
All in the heav«ns praise JEUro.
Unbelievere cannot understand the Qar'&a
The unity of God unacceptable to the
Makkans.
The .Resurrection.
Idolaters not to be provoked.
Some prophets preferred over others.
False gods themselves have recourse to
God,
All cities to be deutroyed before th« Judg
ment Day.
Had Muhammad been sent, with &igns, the
Hakkans would have disbelieved them like
Sainud.
The vision (of the Night? Journey) and tht
Zaqujim tree of hell, are causes oi conten
tion,
J bits' d'tsobe>lbnce ard fall.
Tfti 'it givon permission to delude men.
Safety by land and sea a special mercy
team God
Ail shall h*ve ju&tice at the Last Day,
The Saqit trlae at 2,t-TaJil nearly seduced .
Muhammad into promujgating an anautho-
risod sentence.
Injunction to pray.
Man ia ungrateful
Departure of the spirit.
Mankind and jinns together could not pro-
dace the like of the Qur'an.
Signs demanded of Muhammad.
He is only a mortal.
Fate of thoae who disbelieve in the Resur
rection.
Moses brought nine signfi, but Pharaoh
disbelieved in them.
His fate.
The children of Israel encceed&d him in
his possessions.
The Qur'an was revealed as occasion re
quired.
Those who bo\ieve th« scripture recog
nise it.
Cod and the Merciful One are not two
goda, for God haii no partner.
CHAPTBB XVI.
Svrtttu
The Chapter of the Bee.
God's decree will come to pass.
He sends the angels to instruct his servants
to give warning that there !»• no other God.
508
QUR AN
QUft AN
Xhc creation and ordering oi all natural
objects are signs of His power.
The false gods are inanimate and power
less
God i« but one.
The unbelievers who call the revelation
old folks' tales, must bear the burden of their
own sins.
On the Resurrection J)ay, their associates
will disown them.
Reception by the angels of the wicked and
the good in Hell and in Paradise.
The infidels strenuously deny the Kesur-
reetion
The Muhajirun are promised a good re
ward.
The Jews and Christians to be asked to
confirm the Qur'an.
All nature adores God.
Unity of God affirmed.
When in distress, men turn to God, but for
get Him and become idolaters when -deliver
ance, comes.
The practice of setting aside part oi thai)1
produce for the idols reproved.
The practice of female infanticide, while
they ascribe daughters to God, is reproved,
and disbelief in the future life al&o rebuked.
Satan is the patron of the infidels.
The Qur'an sent down as a guidance and
mejrey.
The rain which quickens the dt$nd earth, and
the cattle which give milk, and the vines
which give fruit and. wine are signs.
The bee is inspired from the Lord to build
hives and to use those made first by men.
Its honey is lawful,
The^ rich Arabs are reproved for their
treatment of their slaves.
Helplessness of the false gods illustrated
by the parable of the slave and of the dumb
man.
Goodness of God' in providing1 food and
shelter for men.
Idolaters . shall be disowned by the false
god if at the Resurrection.
Every nation shall have a witness against
it on that day.
Justice and good faith inculcated, espe
cially the duty o! keeping to a. treaty once
made.
Satan has no power over believers.
Verses of the Qur'an abrogated- .
The Holy Spirit (Gabriel) is the instru
ment of the revelation.
Suggestion that Muhammad, is helped by
Some mortal to compose the Qnr'an.
This canuot be, as the person hinted at
speaks a foreign language and the Qur'an 13
in Arabic.
Denunciation fct misbelievers.
Warning- of the fate Makkah is to expect
if its inhabitants continue to disbelieve.
Unlawful foods.
Go«l will forgive wrong done through igno
rance
Abraham was Hanif,
The ordinance of the Sabbath.
Muhammad is to dispute with bis oppo
nents kindly.
The believers are not to take too savage
reveille.
They are exhorted to patience and trust in
God.
CHAPTER XU1
Stiratu V-lfa't/.
The Chapter of Thunder.
The Qor'iii a revelation from the Lord, the
Creator and Governor of a/1
Misbelievers are threatened,
God knows all, and the recording angel*
are ever present.
Lightning and thunder celebrate God's
praises
All in heaven and earth
Him
God sencly ram and causes the terrents to
flow.
The scum thereof if like the dross on
smelted ore.
The righteous and the believers are pro
mised Paradise, and the misbelievers are
threatened with hell-fire.
Exhortation to believe in the Merciful.
Were the Quran to convulse nature, tb*>y
would not believe.
Further threats against misbelievers
God notes the deeds of every soul
Stratagem unavailing against Him.
Paradise and Hell.
Muhammad bidden to persevere in assertr
Dig the unity of God.
Had he not followed the Qur'an, God would
have forsaken him.
Other apostles have had wives and chil
dren.
None could bring a Sign without God's
permission.
For every period there is a revelation.
God can annul or confirm any part of His
revelation which He pleases.
He has the Mdther of the Book (i.g the
Eternal -Original).
Whether Muhammad live to see his pre
dictions fulfilled or not, God only knows.
His duty is only to preach the message.
The conquests of Islam pointed to.
God will support the prophets against
misbelievers.
CHAPTER XXIX.
Surirtu -l
The Chapter of the Spider.
Believers must be proved,
Kindness to T?e shown to parents; but
they are not to be obeyed if they endeavour
to lead their children to idolatry.
The hypocrites stand, by the' Muslims -only
in success, •
The unbelievers try to geduce the be
lievers by offering to bear their sins.
Noah delivered from the deluge.
Abraham preaches ugjdn&t* idolatry,
Is CftjSt into the fire, but saved.
Flees from his native land.
Isaac and Jakob born to hint.
Jkot and the Cate of the Inhabitants of.
Sodom.
Midian and their prophet Shufa.ifr
QUR AN
QUR'AN
509
4 Ad and Samiid.
Fate of CJarun, Pharaoh, and Human.
Similitude of the spider.
Muhammad bidden to rehearse tho Qur'an.
Prayer enjoined.
Those who have scriptures ar« to be mildlv
dealt with in disputation.
They believe in the Qur'an.
Muhammad unable to vead.
Signe are only in the power of God.
The idolaters mproved, and threatened
with punishment.
Tho believers promised reward.
God provides for all.
This world is but a sport.
God saves men in dangers by se&. vot they
are ungrateful
The territory of Makkah inviobibl*
Exhortation to strive for the faith
CHAPTER YD.
Sunlit. 'l'A*ra.f
The Chapter of al-Akraf.
Mahammad is bidden to accept the Q.ur'aij
fearlessly.
The Makkans must take warning by the
fate of those who rejected the prophets of
old
Tie creation and fall of Adam.
fblis allowed to tempt mankind.
Men are to go to mosque decently clad.
God hafl only prohibited sinful actions.
Men are warned not to reject the mission of
the apostles
Their punishment at tmd after death if
they do so.
The happiness of believers iu Paradise.
Description of al-A'raf, the partition be
tween heaven and hell.
Immediate belief in the Qi»r*an required.
God the Creator.
Humble and secret prayer enjoined.
Proofs uf God's goodness.
.Noah sent to warn his people.
He is saved in. the ark while they are
drowned.
Hud aent to 'Ad.
They reject his preaching aud are pun
ished/
Salih sent to Samiid.
Produces the she-camei as a sign,
Tho people hamstring her and are pun
ished.
Lot sent to the people of Sodom.
Their punishment.
Shu'Hib sent to Midiar.
His people reject him and arc destroyed.
Thus city after rity was destroyed for
rejecting the apostles.
Moses sei)t, U> Pharaoh.
The miracles ol rue simke and the white
hand.
The magicians contend with Moses, are
overcome and believe.
Pharaoh punishes them.
The ttlaughtor of the first-born.
The plagues of Egypt.
The Israelites are delivered.
Moses commune* with God, who appears
lo him on the mount.
I The giving of the La? .
The golden calf.
I Moses' wrath again*"! Aaron.
The seventy elders,
The coming of Muhammad, the illiterate
Prophet, ioretold.
Some Jews are just and rightly guided.
Tho division into twelve tribee.
The miracle of smiting the rock.
The manna and quail*.
The command to enter the city, saying*
*• Hiltatun ." and punishment for disobe
dience.
Tho Sabbath- breaking city.
The transformation of the wicked inhabi
tants into apes.
The dispersion of the Jews.
The mountain hold over the Jews.
The covenant of God with the posterity oi
A. dam.
Am I not your Lord 'i
Humiliation of one who, having foretoM tfco
coming of a prophet in the time of Muhair-
tnad, would not Acknowledge the latter a*
Many, both of the jinn aim of mankind.
predestined to hell
The names of God are not to bo perverted.
Muhammad is not possessed.
The coming of the Hour.
Creation of Adam and Eve.
Conception and birth of their first child,
:Abd« '1-Harig.
Their idolatry.
Idols are themselves servants of God.
They have neither life nor senses.
Muhammad is bidder, to treat his oppo
nents with mildnwas.
The mention of God's name repels devilish
influences.
Men are recommended to tteten to the
Qur'an and to humble themselves before God,
whom the angels adore.
CHAPTER CXIIi
Suralu 'l-Fa/aq.
The Chapter of tho Daybreak.
The Prophet seeks refuge in God from evil
influences.
CHAPTER CXIV
Svratu 'n-Nas.
The Chapter of Men.
The Prophet seeks refuge in God from the
devil nod hip evil suggestions..
. THE SIXTH AND LAST PERIOD:
Twenty Surahs given at al-Madmah.
CHAITKU XCVIJi.
Tho Chapter of the Manifest Sign.
Rebuke .to Jewa^and Christians for doubting1
the manifest sign of Muhammad's mission.
CHATTER IL
Suratu 'l-Baqai-ah.
The Chapter of the Heifer
The Qur'in a guidance.
Rebuke to unbelievers.
510
QURAN
A parable of one who kindles tire.
God is not ashamed ol trifling similitudes,
The creation of man,
Adam taught the names.
Iblis refuses to adore him.
The temptation and fall.
Tha Children of Israel
Their trials in Egypt.
The golden call.
The manna and quails.
Bidden to enter the city and say, " Hit-
jjatun,"
Moees strikes the rock.
Hetrids the people slaughter a dun cow to
discover a murder.
Charge against the Jew?; of corrupting the
Scriptures.
The golden calf.
The mountain held ovor them.
Gabriel reveals the Qur'an.
Harut and Mtrut.
Belie.vere are not to sav •- Ra'ina, but
Verses which are annulled will be replaced
by better ones.
Paradise not exclusively for Jews and
Christians.
Mosques to he free
Story of Abraham.
He rebuilds the Ka'bab.
Was a Hanif .
The qiblah free.
As-§afa and al-Marwah may be compassed
Proofs of God's unity.
Lawful and unlawful food.
The law of retaliation for homicide.
Testators,
The fast of Ramazan.
Rites of the pilgrimage,
Its duration.
Pighting for religion lawful during the
sacred months,
Wine and gaming forbidden.
Marriage with idolaters unlawful.
The law of divorce
Of suckling children.
The Muhajirun to be rewarded.
The Children of Israel demand a king
Saul (Taiat).
The sbeehina.
The ark.
Saul and Gideon confounded.
Goliath,
Jesus.
The Ayatu 'Vkunl (verse of the throne),
asserting the self -subsistence and omnipre
sence of God.
Nimrod and Abraham.
Almsgiving.
No compulsion in religion.
Proofs of the Resurrection.
HJzekiel's vision of the dry bones referred
to.
Abraham and the birds.
Almsgiving recommended.
Usurers denounced,
Laws relating to debt and trading,
Persons mentally incapable are to aet by
agents.
The believer's prayer
Q.TJE AN
CHAPTER III.
teuratu Mi 'fmrda,
The Chapter of Quran's Eamily.
God's unity and self' subsistence.
The Qur'an confirmatory of previous scrip,
ture
The verses are either . decisive or ambi«
guous<
Example of Pharaoh's punishment.
The battle of Badr.
Islam the true religion,
Future torment eternal.
Obedience to God and the Apostle en-
loined.
Conception of the Virgin Mary.
She is brought up »y Zachariah.
Birth of John.
The annunciation of the Virgin.
Birth and infancy of Jesus,
The miracle of the birds of clay.
The disciples.
Allusion to Muhammad's dispute with a
Christian deputation frojn Najran.
Abraham a Hanif,
Reproof to Jews who pretend to believe
and then recant, &ud who pervert the scrip
tures.
No distinction to be mode between the
prophets.
The Jews rebuked for prohibiting certain
kinds of food.
The foundation of the Kabbah.
Abraham s station.
Pilgrimage enjoined.
Schism and misbelief reproved.
Battle of Uhud referred to,
The victory at Badr due to angelic aid.
Usury denounced.
Fate of those who rejected the prophets of
old.
Muhammad's death must not divert the
believers Iroai their faith.
Promise of God's help.
Further account of the battle of Badr.
The Muslim martyrs to enter Paradise.
The victory of Badr more than counter
balanced the defeat at Uhud.
The hypocrites detected and reproved
Death the common lot, even of apostles.
Prayer for the believers.
Exhortation to vie in good works and be
patient.
CHAPTSR VUL
Svratu 'l-An/ai.
The Chapter of the Spoils.
Spoils belong to God and the Apostle.
Who are the true believers ?
The expeoHion of Muhammad against the
caravan from Syria under Abu -Sufyin,
The miraculous victory at Badr.
Address to the Makkans who, fearing an
attack from Muhammad, took sanctuary in
the Ka:bah, and prayed to God to decide
between themselves and him.
Exhortation to believe and avoid treachery.
Plots against Muhammad frustrated by
Divino interference.
The revelation treated -as old folks' tales.
I Rebuke of the idolaters for mocking the
feu slims at prayer.
I Offer of an amnesty to those who will be-
eve
I Exhortation to tight the infidels.
(Division of the spoils.
Descriptien of the battle.
The enamy made to seem few in the Mas
Ims ey«fi. while they seemed more numerous
(nan they really were
1 1 The infidels forsaken by Satan, their
|»ader, on the day of ua.tle.
I Fate of the hypocrites.
j Warning from Pharach's fate.
I The infidels WHO break their treaty.
I ' Treachery to be met with the like.
f i God will help the Prophet against the
! A. few enduring believers shall conquer a
multitude of infidels,
The Muslims are reproved for accepting
ansom for the captives taken, at Badr.
! The spoils are lawful.
The Muh&itruTi who fled with Muhammad,
nd the inhabitants of al-Macunah who gave
iim refuse, are to form ties of brotherhood.
CHAPTER XLVH.
Suratu
The Chapter of Muhammad.
?f Premise of regard to believers.
' ExJiorlatfnn to deal severely with the
\;nemy.
Description ot Paradise and of Hell.
Reproof to aome pretended believers and
nypoerites who hesitate to obey the command
;o make war against the unbelievers.
Their secret malice shall be revealed.
Exhortation to beliflve. and to obey God
ind the Apostles, and sacrifice all for the
faith
CHAPTER LKK
Suralu 't'Juma'ah.
The Chapter of the Congregation.
God has sent the illiterate prophet.
The Jews rebuked for unbelief.
Muslims are not to leave tfao congregation
daring divine service for the sake of mer
chandise
CHAPIEB V.
Suratu 't-Mffidah.
The Chapter of tho Table.
Believers are to fulfil their compacts.
Brute beasts, except those hereafter men
tioned, are lawful, but chase during the pil
grimage is unlawful
The fitfcs and sacrifices of the Pilgrimage
are Lawful.
The Muslims are not to bear ill* will against
the Quraish, who prevented them at Hudai-
biyah from mailing the Pilgrimage.
Forbidden meets.
The food of Jews and Christians is lawful
to Muslims.
So, too, their women.
Sll
Ablutions before prayers.
Rules for purification in oases of pollu
tion.
The Muslims are bidden to remember the
oath of fealty (at 'Aqabah), and how God
made a similar covenant with the children of
Israel, and chose twelve wardens.
Muhammad is warned against their trea
chery, as well as against the Christians.
Refutation of the doctrine that Christ is
God, and of the idea that the Jews and Chris
tians arc the sons of God and His beloved.
Muhammad sent as a warner and herald of
glad tidings,
MOROS bade the children Of Israel invade
the Holy Land, and they were punished for
hesitating.
Story of the two sons of Adam.
The crow shows Cain how to bury the body
of Abel.
Gravity of homicide.
Those who make war against God and His
Apostle are not to receive quarter.
Punishment for theft.
Muhammad is to judge both Jews and
Christians by the Qur'iln. in accordance with
their own Scriptures, but not according tc
their fusts.
Or would they prefer to be judged accord
ing to the tmiust laws of the time of the
pag*n Arabs f
The Muslims are not to take Jews and
Christians for patrona.
The hypocrites hesitate to join the be
lievers.
They are threatened.
Further appeals to the Jews and Chris
tians.
Fate of those before them who were trans
formed for their sins.
The Jews reproved for saying that God'*
hand ie fettered.
Some of them are moderate, but tho greater
part are misbelievers.
The Prophet is bound to preach his mes
sage.
Sabians, Jews, and Christians appeded to
as believers.
Prophets of old wtre rejected.
Against the worship of the Messiah and
the dectrine of the Trinity.
Jews and idolaters are the mo9t hostile to
tbe Muslims, and the Christians 4re nearest
in love to them.
Expiation for an inconsiderate oath.
Wine and gambling forbidden.
Game not to be hunted or eaten during pil
grimage.
Expiation for violating this precept.
Fish is lawful at this time.
Rit*s of the Hajj to be observed.
Believers must not ask about painful things
till the whole Qor'an is revealed.
Denunciation of the superstitious praotices
of the Pagan Arabs with respect to certain
cattle.
Witnesses required when a dying man
makes his tostament.
The mission of Jesus.
The miraclos of the infancy.
512
QTTR AN
The Apostles ask for a table from heaven
as a sign.
Jesus denies commanding men fco worship
him and his mother as gods.
CHAPTER LIX.
Sura tu 'I- tlashr .
The Chapter of Assembly .
The chKstiseuients of the Jews who would
not believe in th« Qur'an.
The divisions of the spoils.
The treacherous conduct of the hypocrite?.
CHAPTER IV.
Suratu 'n-
The Chapter of Women.
God creates and watches over man.
Women's dowries.
Administration of the property of orphans
and idiots.
Distribution of property among the heirs.
Witnesses required to prove adultery.
Be] fevers are not to inherit women's estates
against tneir will.
No i'alse charge of adultery to be made
with a view of keeping a woman's dowry.
Women whom it is unlawful to marry.
Men are superior to women.
Punisuiuoiit of refractory wives.
Arbitration between man and wife.
Duty towards parents, kinsmen, orphans.
fche poor, neighbours, &o.
Almsgiving for appearance sake a crime.
Believers must not pray when drunk or
j. diluted.
Sand may be used for purification when
water is not to be had. "
Charge, against Jews ,of perverting the
Scriptures and saying1, 4i Ra'ina.''
They are threatened with transformation.
like those who broke tna Sabbath, for- their
unbelief.
Idolatry the unpardonable sin.
Some who have Scripture* believe.
Trusts to be paid back
Quarrels to be referred to. God and the
apostles only.
The Apostle will intercede for the be
lie ver«.
Muhammad commanded to settle their dif
ferences.
Believers to take precautions in sallying
forth to battle.
Thev are exhorted to fight, end oromised
Paradise if they fall
Obedience to the Prophet is obedience to
God.
Salutation to be returned.
The hypocrites.
Deserters are to be slam, unless they have
taken refuge with a tribe in league with the
Muslims.
Penalty for killing a believer by mistake.
Believers are not to plunder others on the
mere pretence that they are infidels.
Fate of the half-hearted Muslims who fell
at Badr.
Precautions to be taken against an attack
during prayers.
OUR'AN
Exhortation to sincerity in supporting the
faith.
Rebuke to the pagan Arabs for their ido-
ifttry and superstitious practices.
Islam the best religion, being that of Abra
ham the Hanif.
Laws respecting women and orphans.
Equity and kindness recommended.
Partiality to one wife rather than another
reproved. ,
Fear of God inculcated.
God does not pardon the unstable in faith
or the hypocrites.
No middle course is allowed.
The Jews were punished for demanding a
hook from heaven.
Of old they asked Moses to show them
God openly, and were punished.
They are reproached for breaking their
covenant with God, for ealumrnating Mary,
and for pretending that they killed Jpctis,
whereas they only killed his similitude, for
God took him to Himself.
Certain lawful foods forbidden the Jews
for their injustice and usury. !
Muhammad is inspired in the same manner
as the other apostles and prophets.
Jesus is only an apostle of God and Hia
Word, and a spirit from Him.
Doctrine of the Trinity denounced.
God. has not begotten a son.
The law of inheritance in the case of re
mote kinship.
CHAPTER LVIU.
Suratu 'I'Mujadilah.
The Chapter of the JDisputer.
Abolition of the idolatrous custom ol
divorcing women with the formula, " Thou
art to me as my mother's back."
God s omniscience and omnipresence.
He knows the secret plottings "f the dis
affected.
Discourse on the duties of true believers.
Denunciation of those who oppose the
Apostle.
CHAPTER LXV.
Suratu 't-Taldq.
The Chapter of Divorce.
The laws of divorce.
The Arabs are admonished by the fate of
former nations to believe in God-
The seven stories of heaven and earth,
CHAPTER LXII1.
Suratu '1-MunafiqiH.
The Chapter of the Hypocrites.
The treacherous designs of the hypocrites
revealed,
CHAPTER XXIV.
Suratu -n-Nur.
The Chapter of Ligh: .
(This chapter deals with the accusation of
unchastity against 'Ayishah.)
Punishment of the whore and the whore-
, monger.
Witnesses required in the case of an impu
tation of unchastity to a wife.
QUR AN
Vindication of 'Ayishuh's character and
•1 enunciation ot the accuser*.
Scandalmongers rebuked and threatened
»rith punishment at the Last Day.
Believers are not to enter other persons'
houses without permission, or in the absence
of the owners.
Chastity and modest deportment enjoined,
particularly upon women.
Those by whom women may be seen un
veiled.
Slaves to be allowed to purchase their
freedom. ,
Slave-girls not to bo compelled to prostitute
themselves.
God the Light of the Heavens.
Nothing keeps the believers from the ser
vice of God, but the unbeliever's works are
like the mirage on a plain, or like darkness
on a deep sea.
All nature is subject to God's control.
Reproof to a sect who would not accept the
Prophet's arbitration.
Actual' obedience required rather than
n oath that they will be obedient.
Belief in the unity of God, steadfastness in
prayer, and the giving of alms enjoined.
Slaves and children not to be admitted into
an apartment without asking pet mission, when
the occupant ia likely to be undressed.
Rules for the social intercourse of women
past child-bearing, and of the blind, lame, or
sick. ,
Poisons in whose houses it is lawful to eat
food.
Salutations to be exchanged on entering
houses
Behaviour of the Muslims towards the
Apostle.
He is to be more respectfully addressed
than other people.
CHAPTEB XXXIII.
Suratu 'bAbzab.
The Chapter of tht Confederates.
Muhammad is warned against the hypo
crites.
Wives divorced by the formula, " Thou art
henceforth to me fike my mother's back,"
are not to be considered as real mothers, und
as such regarded as unlawful.
!• Neither are adopted sons to be looked
upon as real sons.
The real ties of kinship and consanguinity
are to supersede the tie of sworn brother
hood.
tjrod s covenant with the Prophet.
Miraculous interference in favour of the
Muslims -when besieged by the confederate
.inny at al-Madinah.
Conduct ol the hypocrites on the occasion.
Departure of the invaders.
Siege and defeat of the Bauii Quraiaah
Jews.
The men are executed.
Thoir women and children are jw>ld into
slavery and their property confiscated.
Laws for the Prophet's wivea.
They are to be discreet and avoid ostenta*
tion..
QUR'AN
513
Encouragement to the {food and true be
lievers of either sex.
Vindication of Muhammad's conduct in
marrying Zainab, the divorced wife of his
freed man and adopted son Zaid (who is men
tioned by name).
No term need be observed in the case of
women divorced before cohabitation.
Peculiar privileges granted to Mnhammad
in the matter of women.
Limitation of his licence to take wives.
Muslims are not to enter the Prophet's
house without permission.
After, they are to retire without inconve
niencing him by familiar discourse.
Ate to be very modest in their demeanour
to his wives.
Are not to marry any of his wives after
him.
Those relations who are permitted to see
them unveiled.
God and His angels bless the Prophet.
Slander of misbelievers will be punished.
The women are to dress modestly.
Warning to the hypocrites and disaffected
at al-Madinah.
"The fate of the infidels at the Last Judg
ment.
Man alone of all creation undertook the
responsibility of faith.
CHAPTER LVTJL
Suratu 'l-ffadid.
The Chapter of Iron.
God the controller of all nature.
Exhortation to embrace Islam.
Those who do BO before the taking of Mak-
kah are to have the precedence.
Discomfiture of the hypocrites and unbe
lievers at the Last Day.
The powers vouchsafed to former apostled.
CHAPTER
Suratu 's-
The Chapter of the Ranks
Believers are bidden to keep their word
and to fight for the faith.
Moses was disobeyed by his people.
Jesus prophesied the coraing of Ahmad.
The Christians rebuked, t
CHAPTER XLVm.
Siirattt'l-Fatb.
The Cnapter of Victory.
Announcement of a victory.
God comforts the believers ami punisueo
the hypocrites and idolaters.
The oath of fealty.
The cowardice and excuses of the desert
Arabs,
Those left behind wish to share the spoU
gained at Khaibar.
The incapacitated alone are to be excused.
The oath of fealty at the tree.
God prevented a collision between the
Makkaus and the Muslims, when the latter
vrere prohibited from making the pilgrimage.
Prophecy of the pilgrimage to be com
pleted the next year.
65
514
QUEAN
LX.
Suratu 'i-Mumtafitnah.
The Chapter of the Tried.
Exhortations to the Muslims not to treat
secretly with the Quraish.
Abraham's example.
Other idolaters who have not borne arms
against them may be made friends of.
Women who desert from the infidels are to
be tried before being received into Islam.
If they are really believers, they are, ipso
facto, divorced.
The husbands are to be recompensed to
the amount of the women's dowries.
CHAPTER LXVL
Suratu 't-Tabrim.
The Chapter of Prohibition.
The Prophet ia relieved from a vow he had
made to please his wivea.
The jealousies in his harom occasioned by
his intrigue with the Coptic slave-girl, Mary.
Exhortation to hostilities acainst the in
fidel*.
The example of the disobedient wives of
Noah and Lot.
And of the good wife of Pharaoh.
And of the Virgin Mary.
IX.
Suratu 't-Taubatt
The Chapter of Repentance.
(This chapter is without the initial formula,
u In the name of the Merciful," &c.)
An immunity for four months proclaimed
to such of the idolaters as have made a
league with the Prof het, but they are to Be
killed wherever fourd, when the sacred
months have expired.
An idolater seeking refuge ia to be helped,
in order that he may hear the word of
God.
None are to be included in the immunity
but those with whom the league was made
at the Sacred Mosque.
They are not to be trusted.
Exhortation to fight against the Makkans.
Idolaters may not repair to the mosques of
God.
Beproof to al-4Abbas, the Prophet's uncle.
who. while refusing to believe, claimed to
have done enough in supplying v/ater to the
pilgrims and in making the pilgrimage him
self.
CKAPTffll XLIX.
tiuratu 'l-fftijurait
The Chapter of the'lnner Chamber.
Rebuke to some of the Muslims who had
presumed too much in the presftnce of the
Apostle, and of the others who uad called
out rudely to him.
Also of a man w.Uo had nearly induced
Muhammad to attack a tribe who were still
obedient.
Of certain Muslims who Amended to
gether.
Of others who use epithets of abuse against
each other.
Who entertain unfounded suspicions.
QURAN
Exhortation to obedience and reproof of
the hypocrites.
The Muhajirun are to hold the first rank.
Infidels are not to be taken for patrons,
even when they are fathers or brothers.
Religion is to be preferred to ties of kin-
ship.
The victory of Hunain.
The idolaters are not to be allowed to
enter the Sacred Mosque at Makk^U Another
year.
The infidels are to be attacked.
The Jews denounced for saying that Ezra
is the son of God.
The assumption of the title Rabbi re
proved.
Diatribe against Jewish doctors *ud Chris
tian monks.
Of the sacred months and the oin of defer-
i-ing them.
"Exhortation to the Muslims to march forth
to battle.
Allusionc to the escape of Muhammad and
Abu Bakr from Makkah, and their conceal
ment in a cave.
Rebuke to those who seek to be excused
from fighting, and to tho?e who sought to
excite ^edition in the Muslim ranks.
iteproof to the hypocrites and half-hearted
and to those who found fault with the Pro
phet for his use of the alms (xakdt),
Proper destination of the alms.
Hypocrites and renegades denounced.
They are warned by .the example ot the
people of old who rejected the Prophets.
Rewards promised to the true believers.
Continued denunciation of the hypocrites
arid cf those who held back from the fight..
Muhammad is not to pray at the grave of
any one 01 them who dies.
Their seeming prosperity is not to deceive
him
Happiness in store for the Apostle, the be
lievers, and the Muhajirun.
Those who may lav/fully be excused mili
tia .y service.
The desert Arabs are among the worst of
the hypocrites, though some believe.
Rome people of al-Madmah also denounced
as hypocrites.
Others have finned but coniessed.
Ofcluers wait for God's pleasure.
Denunciation of some who had set up a
mosque from motives of political opposition.
Muhammad is not to sanction this mosque,
but rather to use that of Quba', founded by
him while on his way from Makkah to al-
Madinah during the Flight.
God has bought the persons and wealth of
the believers at the price of Paradise.
The Prophet and the believers must not
ask forgiveness for the idolaters, however
near of kin.
Abraham only asked pardon for his idola
trous father in fulfilment of a promise. *
The three Ansars who refused to accom
pany Muhammad to Tabuk are forgiven.
The people of al-Madinah and the neigh
bouring Arabs blamed for holding back on
the occasion
QUR AN
All sacrifices for the sake of the religion
«ro counted to them
Exhortation to fight rigorously against the
infldtfls
Reproof to tljoso who receive the revela
tion Suspicion .sly.
God will stand by his Apostle.
V;— Sources of the Qur'*?
Muhamraadanisru owes more to Judaism
(5»-e a book by M. Goiter, entitled, Wan hat
M tf hammed nun dcm Judcntfntme aufyenommcn,
in which that learned Jew has traced all the
leading features of Islam to Talraudic sources ;
also Literary Rtnviimt of Einanuel. Deutsch,
Essay on Islam; also &rti>le on JUDAISM in
the present work) than it does to either
Christianity or Saheanistn, for it is simply
Talmudic Judaism adapted to Arabia, plus
the Apostleship of Jesus and Muhammad ; and
wherever Muhammad departs from the mono
theistic principles of Judaism, as in the ido
latrous practices of the Pilgrimage to the
Ka'bab, it is evident that it is done as a
necessary concession to the national feelings
and sympathies of the people of Arabia, *<ud
it is absolutely impossible for Muhmmtaadan
divines to reconcile the idolatrous rites of the
Ka'bah with that simple monotheism which it
was evidently Muhammad's intention to esta
blish in Arabia.
" The sources (says Sir. Rodwell) whence
.Mohammad derived the materials of his
Koran, are, over and above the more poetical
purls which are his own creation, the legends
of his time and country, Jewish traditions
based upon the Talmud, and the Christian
traditions of Arabia and of S. Syria. At a
lat*r period of his oareer, no one would ven
ture lo rtoabt the divine origin of his whole
book. Bui; at its commencement the case
was different. The people of Mecca spoke
openly and tauntingly of it as the work of. a
poet, as a collection of antiquated or fabulous
legends, or as palpable sorcory. Tlloy ac
cused him of having confederates, and even
f pecified foreigners who had been his coad
jutors. Such were Salmon the Persian (Sal
man al-Farisi), to whom he may have owed
the descriptions of heaven and boll, which
are analogous to those of the Zcndavesta ;
and the Christian monk Sergius, or, »a the
Muhamraadans term him, Boheira (Buhai-
rah). From the latter, and perhaps from
other Christians, especially slaves natura
lized at Mecca, Muhammad obtained access
to the teaching of the Apocryphal Gospels,
and to many popular traditions of which
those gospels are the concrete expresy:r>r-
His wife Chadijah (Khadijah), as well as her
cousin Waraka (Waraqah), a .reputed convert
to Christianity, and Muhammad's intimate
friend, are said to have been well acquainted
with the doctrines and "s^red books, both of
Jews and Christians. And not only were
several Arab tribes in the neighbourhood of
Mecca converts to !ne Christian faith, but on
twu occasions Mubamrjfcd had travelled with
his uncle Abu Taho, a« far as Bostra, where
OUR AN
515
h>' must have nad opportunities of learning
the general outlines of Oriental Christ an doc.
trine, &nd perhaps of wit/neasing the ceremo
nial of their worship.
*****
" It has been supposed that Muhammad
derived many of hi? notions concerning Chris
tianity from Gnosticism and that it is to the
numerous Gnostic sects the Korin alJudt*
when it reproach^* the*3hri$tians with having
' split up their religion into parties.' But for
Muhammad thus to have confounded Gnos
ticism with Christianity itself, its prevalence
in Arabia must have been fnr mere universal
than we bare reason to believe that it really
was. In fact, we have no historical autho
rity for supposing tbat the doctrines of these
heretics were taught or professed in Arabia
at all. It is certain, on the other hand, that
the Basilidans, Valentinians, and other Gnos
tic sects had either died out, or baen reab-
sorbed into the Orthodox Church, towards
the middle of the fifth century j and had dis
appeared from Egypt before the sixth. It
remains possible, however, that tho Gnostic
doctrine concerning the Crucifixion may have
been adopted by Muhamroad as likely to re
concile the Jews to Islam, as a religion cm-
biticmg both Judaism and Christianity, if
they might believe that Jesus had not boon
put to death, and thus find the stumbling
block of the Atonement removed out of I awr
path. The Jews would, in this case> liar<?
simply been called upon to believe in Jesae
KS a divinely born and inspired teacher, who,
like the patriarch Enoch, or the prophet
Elijah, Lad been miraculously taken from the
earth. But, in. al) other respects, the sober
and matter-of-fact statements of the Koran,
relative to the family and history of Jesus,
are opposed to the wild and fantastic doc
trines of Gnostic emanations, and especially to
the manner in which they supposed Jesne, at
his baptism, to have been brought into union
with a higher nature. It is more clear that
Mnhammad borrowed in several points from
the doctrines of the Ebionites, Essenes, and
Sabeitea. Epiphanius describes the notions
of the Ebionit.es of "Nnbathaa, Mcabites, and
Baeanites, with regard to Adam Jesus, almost
in the very words o* Sura iii. 52. He tells us
that they observed circumcision, were opposed
to celibacy, forbade turning to the sunrise, out
enjoined Jerusalem as their Kebla (Qiblah), (as
did Muhammad during twelve years), that
thoy prescribed ^as did the Sabeites) wcuh-
ings, very similar to those enjoined in the
Koran, and allowed oaths (by certain natural
objects, as clouds , signs of the Zodiac, oil, the
winds, etc.), which also we find adopted
therein. These points of contact with lalam,
knowing as wo do Muhammad's eclecticism,
can hardly be accidental.
" We have no evidence that Muhammad had
access to the Christian scriptures, though it
is just possible that fragment* of the Old or
New Testament may have reached him
thi'c'igh Chadijah or Waraka, or other Mec-
can Christians, possessing MSS. of our sacred
volume. There is but one direct quotation
516
O.UR'AN
(Sura xxi. 105) in the whole Koran from the
Scriptures ; and though there are a few pas
sages, as where alwtf are said to be -given to
be seen of »;ey and as, none forgiveth sins but
God only, which might seem to be identical
with texts of the New Testament, yet this
similarity is probably merely accidental. It is,
however, curious to compare such passages
as Dent. xxvi. 14, 17, and 1 Peter v. 2, with
Sura xxiv. 50, and Sura x. 78 — John vii. 15,
with the 'illiterate' prophet — Ma-tt. xxiv. 36,
and John xii. 27, with the use of the word
hour, as meaning any judgment or crisis, and
tho last Judgment — the vniw.of the Son of God
which the dead are to hear; with the exter
minating or awakening cry of Gabriel^ etc.
The passages of this kind, with which, the
Koran abounds, result from Muhammad's
general acquaintance with scriptural phrase
ology, partly through the popular legends,
partly from personal intercourse with Jews
and Christians. And we may be quite cer
tain that, whatever materials Muhammad
may have derived from our Scriptures,
directly or indirectly, were carefully recast.
"It should also be borne in mind that we
have no clear traces of the existence of
Arabic versions of the Old or New Testament
previous to the time of Muhammad. The
passage of St. Jerome — ' Hmc autem translatio
nullum de veteribus sequitur interpretem ; sed
ex ipsoHebraico, Arabicoque sermone.et inter-
dum Syro, nunc verba, uurio sonsum, nunc
sinaul utrumque resonabit ' (Prol. Gal.), ob
viously does not refer to versions, but to
idiom. The earliest Ar. version of the Old
Testament of which we have any knowledge
is that of R. Saadias Gaon. A.D. 900 : and the
oldest Ar. version of the New Testament is
thac published by Erpenius in 1616, and
transcribed in the Thebais. in the year 1271,
by a Coptic bishop, from a copy made by a
person whose name is known, but whose date
is uncertain. Michaelis thinks that the
Arabic versions of the New Testament were
made between tho Saracen conquests in the
seventh century, and the Crusades in the
eleventh century — an opinion in which he
follows, or coincides with, Walton (Prol in
Polygl. § xiv.), who remarks — ' Plane consist
versionem Arabicam apud eas (ecclesias ori-
entales) factam esse postquam lingua Arabica
per victorias et religionem Muhammedanicam
per Orientem propagata fuei-at, et in multis
locis facta esset vernacula.' If, indeed, in
these comparatively late versions, the general
phraseology, especially in the histories com
mon to the Scriptures aud to the Koran, bore
any similarity to. each other, and if the or
thography of the proper name? had been the
same in each, it might have been fair to
suppose that such versions had been made,
more or less, upon the basis of others, which,
though now lost, existed in tho^ages prior to
Muhammad, and influenced, if they did not
directly form, his sources of information.
Bui this does not appear to be the case. The
phraseology of our, existing versions is not
that of the Koran, and the versions as a
whole appear to, have been made from the
QTO AN
Sepfrnag-int, the Vulgate, Syriae, Coptic, and
Greek ; Tischeudorf, indeed, says that the
four Gospels originem mixtam habere videntur ;
but the internal evidence is clearly in favour
of the Greek origin of the Arabic Gospels.
This can be seen in part even from the order
of the words, which was retained, like that -Of
the Greek, so far as possible, even in such
constructions and transpositions of words as
violate the rules of Arabic Syntax.
" From the Arab Jews, Muhammad would
bo enabled to derive an abundant though
distorted knowledge of the Scripture histories.
The secrecy in which ho received his instruc
tions from them and from his Christian infor
mants, enabled him boldly to declare to the
ignorant pagan Meceans that God had re
vealed those Biblical histories to him. But
there can be no doubt, from the constant
identity between the Talmudic perversions of
Scripture histories and the statements of the
Koriiu, that the Rabbis of Hcjaz communi
cated their legends to Muhammad. And' it
should be remembered that the Talmud was
completed a century previous to the era of
Muhaavmad, and cannot fail to beve exten
sively influenced the religious creed of all the
Jews of tlie Arabian peninsula. In one pas •
sas'e. Muhammad speaks of an individual
Jew — perhaps some one of note among his
professed followers, as a witness to his mis
sion ; and there can be no doubt that his
relations with the Jews were, at one time,
those of friendship and intimacy, \vhen wei
find him speaking of their recognizing him
as they do their own children, and blaming
their most colloquial expressions. It is im
possible, however, for us at this distance of
time to penetrate the mystery in which this
subject is involved. Yet certain it is, .that,
although their testimony against Muhammad
was speedily silenced, the Koreish knew
enough of hia private hintpry to disbelieve
and to disprove his pretensions of boimg the
recipient of a divine revelation, and io accuse
him of writing from the dictation of teachers
morning and evening. And it is equally cer
tain that all the information I'ceeived by
Muhammad was em belli shed and recast ini
bis own mind and with his own words. There;
is a unity of thought, a directness and sim
plicity of purpose, a peculiar aud laboured-
style, a uniformity of diction, coupled with a
certain deficiency of imaginative power, which
indicate that the ayats (signs or verses) of the
Koran are the product of a single mind. The
longer narratives were, probably, elaborated
in his leisure hours, while the shorter verses^
each proclaiming to be a sign or miracle, were
promulgated as occasion required them. Andj
whatever Muhammad may himself profess ill
the Koran as to his ignorance even of reading
and writing, and however strongly modern
Mvihammadiius may insist upon tho samtt
point — an assertion, by the way, contradicted
by many good authors — there can be uo doubt!
that to assimilate aud work up his materials,
to fashion them into elaborate Suras, and tof
fit them for public recital, must have been a!
work requiring much time, study, and medi-l
QURAN
tation, and presumes a far greater degree of
general culture than any orthodox Muslim
will bo disposed to admit." * (The- Preface to
Rodwell's El-Korftn, p. xvi. ci
QUR AN
517
VL—Tbe Ri'fital and Reading of ike Quran.
'filouah (J^tt,), or -'the recital of the
Qur'au," has been developed into a science
knowa as 'llmu 'l-Tajwtd (jkjj^xN Jus), which
includes a knowledge of the peculiarities of
the spelling of many words in the Qur'an : of
the fjiraat («^>\£>^J>), or various readings: of
the ojaculations, responses, and prayers to be
said at the close of appointed passages ; of
thevarious divisions, punctuations, and mar
ginal instructions ; of the proper pronunciation
of the Arabic words ; and of the correct into
nation of different passages.
The reading or recital of the Qur'an should
commence with legal ablution and prayrr.
The usna] prayer is, •• I seek protection from
God ugaipst the cursed Satan ! " which is fol
io ved by the invocation. M In the name of God
I1". Moreiful, the Compassionate 1 '
The mosque is considered the niwst suitable
of all places in which to road the Qur'an, and
the UK'S! auspicious days of the week are
Friday, Monday, and Thursday. TJie ordi
nary time allowed for reading the Qur'an
through is forty days, although by reciting »
jus* 01 " Stlparah daily, it can be done in thirty
days, which is said to have been the custom
of the Prophet. Some read it through by
manzils, or stages, of which there are seven,
which is done in a week. On no account
should it be read through in less than three
days, for which there is a three-fold division.
known it, Persian as the Khatam-i-Manzil-i-
/•'//, Uu- i-ii'ial letters of each portion (J\ (^i)
forming tiu« word /;/.
Ejaculations, or rospnis'-.s, are made at
o?rt/un places. For example, at the end of
the Sfirah-, 't-KaiiUal' <'!') *ud of theSuraia 'l-
rah (ii j. ray, " \rnen!" At th* end of
Sura in Bani Is rail (x/ii.), say, " God is
H) ! " After the last verse of the Sfiralu
'l-.'.Myainah (ixxv.), .say, •' Is He not powerful
enough '.o i Mis-o the dc:u] ?. :*::v, Yes, for He
is niv Lord Woat High ! " .\t the end of the
Suratu '1-Mulk (Ixvii ), .;ay, "God brings it
(c [»•••:•• water) to ur- and He is Lord of all the
Wovl.N I "
.in c-l.'ifioix to rc-'-ponses to be made alter
each Sf'-. •;:,)>, or r'h.ij'tt.-r, thorc pro oert-ain eja
culations to ba iriado atJov certain vyrses. lor
example, • after the sixteenth verse of th.1
third Sunm, '< There is no God but. Ho, the
?'iL'>'iy, the Wise! " say, "I am a witness to
There ave fourteen verses hnown us the
-Sajdc.-'i. «%fter which a proafration is>
They nro Surahs vii. rf05 : xiii. 16;
xvi. 51-; vii. 109: xix. 59; xxii ID; s.xv. 61 •
xx di. 26; xxxii. 13: xxx^ii;. 24: xli. 38;
liii. 02; hi'xxiv. JO: xcvi. is.
There are numo'cus instmctionii .^iwn at
to pronuncir.lion. uud there huve .-u-ise >
schools of pronunciation, which uro knovvu t'xa
thoso of the Qurnin 'n.-Sabka/i, or " seven
readers (for a list of th^c readers, see QARI)
it is considered Mnitc, 'a'vful to r«cite the
Qur'an according to the pronunciation est*-
hliflhod by any one of these sevon worthies.
Them aro many marks and symbol* on
the margin of an Arnfiie Qur'an. Mr. SHI,
in Iris Iln> i JUjund, jMvr-'i them in detail.
(J.lm i -J'oiwitL Koyfl <fe Co., MHrir«s. IH52,)
The symbol for full stop is o, when the
reader should take breath The word jjJL.
is written when a slight PHUSH is uj:ide, but
no breath taken. There aro aUo «igns wiiirh
are known as waqf, or pause They wore
«ii;:M);illy of five kinds, but many more have
oeen added in modern timer, . They are di»-
tinguirthed by letters and wtm^. [\VAQF.J
There arc t \ven1y-nine Sura tis >A th« Qur'an
which begin with certain letters of the alpha
bet. These letters, the learned say, have
porno profound moaning, known only to the
I'rophQt himself, although it seems probable
that they arc simply marks i-ecorded by the
amanuensis.
(1) Six Surahs begin with the letters AliJ ,
Lam, Afim. ^\\ ,\LM, viz:. Suruha al-Baqa-
rah (ii.), Alu Jmran (iii.), al-'Ankabut (NXJX.),
al-Rum (xsx.). Luqman (x:xxi.), as-Sajdah
(xxxii.). Golhis thinks that they probably
stand for Amr li-Muhammad, vi At tho com
mand of Muhrttamad," and to have been
written by the amanuensis. Jnlala 'd-dln as-
Suyuti says that Ibn -Abbas said that they
stood for Ann 'Udha a'/jmu, •' I, God, know "
(that this is true). Al-Bai?awi thinks A
stands for "Allah," L for " Gabriel," and M
for " Muhammad." Mr. Sale gives tha mean
ing as Aildku jMti/ttn Mafidnn, " God is gra
cious "and exalted": others have Micgested
Alldltu l-i-Muhammad, " God to Muhammad."
But the general belief is that the letters hav6
a hidden meaning.
(2) At the coinmencenient of Suratu '1-
A'raf (vii.), then; is Af)f< Law, ,!////«, Sad.
^^ A LMS, which may mean : .1, " Ana '' :
/,, '• Allah " ; >/, ;- Rahrriar. " : ,S, " Symad " ;
i.e. •• T w,m Cod, the Merciful, the EUrnal."
.(3) The Suratu r-R«.%d (xiii.) l>o^'u
the letters A/if, Lam, Mlm. fid. ^\ ALMR,
which al-Bai'/awi tnkos-to mean, A, " Ana ".
L, " Allfihu "' : ,V, " A'limuv: //, " A-rn." « I
God, both know and 3ce.'
(-Ti Five Surahs begin wilh Afif, Li' .• /.',
^ouie understand to
Ainara H RaW.. f> My Lord hutb said
or And V/.-'Af- ni-a, -' I, God, >oe." Those
Surahs are Y units (x.).Hu!: .
Ibriih?./; (xiv.), al-l.Iijr (xv.).
(5) « Mai-yam (xix.) beglm with
tho let tor a K af. Hd V«, '•/!/'«, Sdrf. tj**~*£
--'d fiw
liv»' '-it
' iki.-jg
• middle letter •, " V/isc " • 1 ••< . • L-.'n mod ";
' , • '
(t>) Thy ~ • Ii (\x.). as iis thio im-
plifts. bc^ii. ' '•• : 1 1. ' l-tlt.vt- /'< lid &Jt>,
which Husain savs ma> sigi,ifj
518
QOB AN
"Pure": Uadi, "Guide"; being attributes
of God.
(7) Six Siiraha commence with the letters
Hd Mlm pe*, HM, namely, Surahs ai-Mu'min
(xl.), Fus^ilat (xli.), az-Zukhruf (xiiii.), ad-
Dukfean (xliv.), al-Jasiyah (xlv.), al-Ahqaf
(xlvi.). Ibn 'Abbas says thoy indicate the
attribute Rahman," Merciful."
(8) The Suratu 'sh-Shura (xlii.) begins with
Ha Mm <Ain Sin Qdf. ^«u~ HM'ASQ,
which Muhammad ibn Ka'b understood to
mean H for Rahman, " Merciful " ; J/ for
Raltm, '"Gracious"; 'A.*Alim< "Learned";
5, Qud#M,"nbly"; 0, a^Mar," Dominant";
being attributes of God.
(9) The Suratu YS (xxxvi.), as its title im
plies, begins with the letters Yd Sin (J^f
which is supposed to stand for Yd insdn,
"Oman!"
(10) The Suratu § (xxxviii.), as its title
signifies, begins with the letter Sdd ^y
which some say means Sidq, "Truth."
(11) The Suratu Q (I.), as its name implies,
begins with the letter Qaf jj, which Jalalu
?d-Dm as-Suyu$i says stands for Qddir,
"Powerful," an attribute of God. Others
think it meana the mountain of Qaf.
(12) The Suratu '1-Naml (xxvii.) begins
with the letters fd Sin (jJL>, which Muham
mad ibn Ka'b saya stand for Zu't-trtul, " Most
Powerful," and Quddvji, " Holy," being attri
butes of the Almighty."
(13) Two Surahs, namely ash-Shu'ara'
(xxvi.), and al-Qasas (xxviii.), begin with J«
Sin Mvn A-JU, whroh supplies the addition of
the attribute Rahman, " Merciful," to those
of the former section, indicated by JVSY.
(U) The Suratn '1-Qalam (Ixviii.) begins
with Niin, ^ A7, which some say stands for
an ink-horn, others for a fieh, and some for
the attribute of Nur, or " Light."
VIL — Th& Interpretation of the <lur'dn.
•Jlrrw. 'l'U?ul (»Jj*>3N f*k)» of tno E
of the Qur'an, is a very important science,
and is used by the Muslim divine to explain
away many apparent or real contradictions.
The most authoritative works on the *lfmu 'l-
U?iil of the Qur'an, are Mandru 'IrUftif and
its commentary, the Nuru rl-Artwar> and
as-Suyu^i's Itqdn (ed. by Sprenger). The
various laws of interpretation laid down in
these books are very complicated, requiring
the most careful study. We have only space
for a mere outline of the system.-
The words (alfaz) of the Qnr'an are of
four classet Khnss, 'Amm, Mushtarak, and
Mu'awwal.
(1) Khd$$, Words used in a special sense.
This speciality of sense is of three kinds.:
Khusv^u 'l~jins, Speciality of gonus, B.g. man
kind ; Khufusit 'n-naw*, Speciality of species,
e.g. a man ; Muf«f u V-'om, Speciality of an
individual, e.g. Muhammad.
(2) 'Amm, Collective or common, which
embrace many individuals or things, e.g. people.
(8) Mushtarak, Complex words which have
several significations ; e.g, *<J?n, a word whic)
signifies an Byo, a Fountain, the Knee, orth !
Sun.
(4.) J/tt'ajrwa/, words which have sovwra^
significations, all of which are possible, ant;
so a special explanation is required. Fo:'
example, Surah cviii. 2, reads thus in SaleV
translation. " Wherefore pray unto the Lorri
and slay (the victims)." The word trans
lated " slay" is in Arabic fȣar, from the root
mz#r, which has several meanings. The fol
lowers of the great Legist, Abu Hautfah,
render it " sacrifice," and add the words
(the- « victims M). The followers of Ibn Ash-
Sliafi'I say it means «« placing the hands on
the bre&st in prayer."
H. The Sentences ^Ibarah) of the Qur'ir,
are either %dhir or /[Aa/i, V,«. either Obvious
or Hidden.
Obvious sentences are of four classes : —
Zdhir, Na9$f Mkifa&sar, Muhkum.
(1.) &ahir. — Those sentences, the meaning
of which is Obvious or. clear, without any
assistance from the context (tjarlnaK).
(2.) Na$s. a word commonly used for at
text of the Qur'an, but in its technical moan- j
ing here expressing vrhat is meant by a sen- \
tence, the meaning of which is made clear by !
some word which occurs in it. Tho following |
sentence illustrates both %dhir and Nays: 1
" Take in marriage of such other women a* I
please yon, two, three, four." This sentence I
is ftahir, because marriage is here declared I
lawful ; it is ^Vcr?#, because the words *; one,
two, three, four," which occur in the sen
tence, show the unlawfulness of having more
than four wives.
(3.) Afufassar, or explained. A sentence
which needs some word in it to explain it and
make it clear. Thus : " And the angels
prostrated themselves, all of them with one
accord, save Iblis (Satan)." Here the words
*' save Iblis * show that he did not prostrate
himself. This kind of sentence msy be abro
gated.
(O Mufykam, or perspicuous. A sentence
as to the meaning of which there can be no
doubt, and which cannot be controverted,
thus : " God knoweth all things." This kind
of sentence cannot be abrogated. To act on
such sentences without departing from the
literal sense is the highest degree of obedi
ence, to God's command.
Tho difference between these sentences is
seen when there us a real or apparent con
tradiction between them. If such should
occur, the first must give place to the second,
and 59 on. Thus Muhkam cannot be abro
gated or changed by any of the preceding, or
Mufassar by Nass,&c.
Hidden sentences are either Khq/i, Mwihkil^
J/tt/wo/, or Muta^hdbih.
(1:) itkaji. — Sentences in which other per
sons or things are hidden beneath the plain
meaning of a word or expression contained
therein : e..g. Suratn 1-Ma*idah (v.), 42, " Aa
for a thief whether male or female cut ye off
their hands in recompense for their doings/
In this sentence the word *an'gy" thief," a
understood to have hidden beneath its life?* at
QUB AN
neanmg, both pickpockets and highway rob-
>ers.
(2.) Muahkil. — Sentences which are am-
nguous ; e.g. Suratti 'd-Dahr (lixvi.), 15,
•And (their attendants) shall go round
J ibout them with vessels of silver and goblets.
1 The bottles shall be bottles of silver." The
'•:. difficulty here is that bottles are not made
E" of silver, but of gloss. The commentators
; sa.y, however, that glass is dull in colour,
:a though it has some lustre, whilst silver is
':• iwhite. and not so bright as glass. Now it
l may bo, that the bottles of Paradise will be
; llike glass bottles as regards their lustre, and
like silver as regards their colour. But
» any how, it is very difficult to ascertain the
QUR'AN
519
(3.) Afujmal. — Sentences which may have
a variety of interpretations, owing to the
words in them being- capable of several
: - meanings; in that case the meaning which
:; is given to the sentence in the Traditions
relating to it shouW be acted on and ac
cepted ; or which may contain some very
: rare word, and thus its meaning may ^
doubtful, as : " Man truly is by creation
hasty " (Surah Ixx, 19). In this verse the
word ha!&t "hasty," occurs. It is very
rarely used, and had it not been for the
following words, "when evil tonchetb him,
be is full of complaint ; but when good be-
falleth him, he becometh niggardly," its
meaning would not have been at all easy to
understand.
The following is an illustration of the first
kind of Mujinal sentences : "• Stand for prayer
(faldt) and give alms (takat}.* Both taldf
and zaJcdt are *• Mushtarak " words. The
people, therefore, did not understand thin
yerse, so they applied to Muhammad for an
explanation. He explained to them that
§alat might mean the ritual of public prayer,
standing to say the words " God is great,"
or standing to repeat a few verses of the
Qur'an; or it might mean private prayer.
The primitive meaning of zahdt is " growing."
The Prophet, however, fixed the meaning
here to that of " almsgiving," and said, " Give
of your substance ono-fortioth part."
(4.) MutatJidbih. — Intricate sentences, or
expressions, the exact meaning of which it
is impossible for mac to ascertain until the
day of resurrection, but which was known
to the Prophet: e.g. the letters Alif, Lam,
'• Mini (A, L. M.); Alif, Lam, Ra' (A. L. R.);
Alif, Lara, Him, Ra' (A. L. M. R.), &c., at
the commencement of different Surahs or
chapters. Also Surutu '1-Mulk (IxviL) 1,
" In whose hand is the Kingdom," i.e. God's
! hand (Arabic, yad); and Suratu TH (xx.),
"He is moat merciful and sitteih on His
throne," i.e. God ritteth (Arabic, istawd) ;
and Suratu '1-Baqarah (ii.), 1 16, " The face
of God " (Arab!';, wajhu Y/d/i).
HI. The use (i&ti'mdl) of words in the
Qur'an is divided into four classes. They
are either Haqiqah, Majd?, Sar-h, or Kinnyah.
(!•) ffagiqak. — Words which are. used in
their literal moaning ; e.g. rukir, " a prostra
tion"; M'na, "adultery"
(2.) Majaz. — Words which are figurative-,
as ?aldt in the sense of namaz, or the liturgi
cal prayers.
(3.) $arVi. — Words the meaning of which
is ckar and palpable : e.g. '• Thou art free,"
" Thou art divorced."
(•i.J) Kindyah. — Words which - are m?ta
pjtorical in their moaning : e.g. " Thou art
separated " ; by which may bo meant. ' '» thou
art divorced."
IV. The dsduction of arguments, or ia-
tidldl, as expressed in the Qur'nn, is divided
into four sections : 'Ibdrah, I&hdrah, Dald/n/t.
and. Iqtizd.
(1.) '/6«raA, or'the plain sentence. "Mo
thers, after they are divorced, shall give
suck unto their children two full years, and
the father shall be obliged to maintain them
and clothe them according to that which is
reasonable." (Surah ii. 233.) From thi»
verse two deductions are made. First, from
the fact that the word " them " is in the
feminine plural, it runst refer to the mothers
and not to the children ; secondly, as the
duty of supporting the mother is incumbent
on the father, it shows that the relationship
of the child is closer with the father than
with the mother. Penal laws may be based
on a deduction of this kind.
(2.) Ishdrah, that is. a sign or hint which
may be given from the order in which the
words are placed; e.g. " Born of him," mean
ing, of course, the father.
(3.) Daldlahj or the argument which may
be deducted from the use of some special
word in the verse, as: "say not to yonr
parents, « Fie ! ' (Arabic, «/F>" (Surah xvii.
23.) From the use of the word uff\ it is
argued that children may not boat or abuse
tbeir parents. Penal laws may ba based on
daldlah, thus : " And they strive after vio
lence on the earth; but God lovotb noi
the abettors of violence." (Surah v. 69.)
The word translated " strive^' is in Arabic
literally yas'auna, "they run." From this
the argument is deduced that as highway
men wandor About, they are included amongot
those whom " God loveth not," and that
therefo. , tho severest punishment may be
given to them, for an? deduction that come*
under the head of dalalaH is a sufficient basis
for the formation of the severest penal laws.
(4.) Iqtizd. This is a deduction which
demands certain conditions : " whosoe-v er
killoth a believer by mischance, shall be
bound to free a believer from slavery."
(Surah iv. 94..) As a man has no authority
to free his neighbour's slave, the condition
here required, though not expressed, is that
the slave should bo his own property.
VIII.— The Abrogation of Passages in the
Qur'an,
iSoine passages of the Qur'an are contradic
tory, and aro often made the subject of
attack ; but it is part of the theological be
lief of the Muslim doctors that certain pas
sages of the Qur'an are mansukh (fr. ^ t)t
or abrogated by verses revealed afterwards
entitled /i<w<M(£-^). This was the doclrms
520
OTJft AN
Q.UR AN
taught by Muhammad in the Suratu 1-Baqa
rah (ii.) 1.05 : "Whatever verses we (i.e. God)
cancel or cause thee to forget, we bring . a
better or its like." This convenient doctrine
fell in with that law of expediency wbich
appears to bo the salient feature in Muham
mad's prophetical careei.
In the 'J'afsir-i-'Azlvl,. it is written, that
abrogated (mantu&fi) verses of the Qur'an are
of three kinds : (1) Where the verse has been
removed from the Qur'an and another given
in its place ; (2) Where the injunction is
abrogated and the letters of the verse re
main ; (3) Where both the verse and its in
junction are removed from the text. This is
also the view of Jalalu 'd-DIn, who says that
the number of abrogated verses has been
variously t-siimated from rive to live hundred.
The Greek verb KaroAt'w, in St. Matthew
v. 17. has been translated in seme of the ver
sions of the New Testament by mansukh ; but
it conveys a wrong impression to the Muham-
madan mind as to the Christian view regard
ing this question. According to most Greek
lexicons, the Greek word me.ins to throw down,
or to destroy (as of a building), which is the
meaning given to the word in our authorised
English translation. Christ did not come 1
destroy, or to pall down, the Law and til
Prophets • but we all admit that certain pr<
cepis of the Old Testament were abrogate
by these of the New Testament. Tndoei
we further admit that the old covenant ws
abrogated by' the new- covenant of graci
"He taketh away the first that he ma
establish the second," Heb. x. 9,
In the Arabic translation of the New Tei
lament, printed at Beyrut A.D. 1869,/caroAl
is translated by naqz, "to demolish'':}
Mr. Loewenthal's Pushto translation, A..I
1863, by batilawal, "to destroy," or "real
void " ; and in Henry Mart jn's Persian Tei
tament, A.D. 1837, it is also translated by th
Arabic ibtdl, i.e. " making void," In both til
Arabic-Urdu and Roman-Urdu it is tin f 03
innately rendered 'mansukh_, a word which ha
a technical meaning in Muhammadan the(
logy contrary to that implied in the word use
by pur Lord in Matthew v. 1 7.
Jalalu 'd-DIn in his Itqan, gives the fo
lowing list of twenty verses which are a<
knowledged by air commentators to be abr<
gated. The verses are given as numbered i
the Itq&i.
No.
Mansukh, or
abrogated verses.
Nasikh, or
abrogating verses.
The Subject abrogated.
1
Siiratu 1-Baqarah (ii.).
Suratu 1-Baqarah (ii.),
The Qiblah.
119.
145.
2
Suratu 1-Baqarah (it),
Suratu 1-Ma'idah (v.),
Qisas, or RetaUation.
178.
49
Suratu Ban! IsraTl, (xvii.),
•
35.
3
Suratu 1-Baqarah (U.),
Suratu 1-Baqarah (ii.),
The Fast of Rama?, an.
183.
187.
4
Suratu 1-Baqarah (ii.),
Suratu 1-Baqarah (ii.),'
Fid yah, or Expiation.
184.
185.
5
Suratu Ah ^mran (iii.)-
Suratu 't-Tftghabunaxi v.),
The fear of God.
102.
16.
6
Suratu 'n-Nisa' (iy.), 88.
Suratu 'n-Nisa' (iv.), 89.
Jihad, or war with infidels.
Suratu 't-Taubah (ix.), 5.
7
Suratu 1-Baqarah (ii.),
Suratu 't-Taubah(ix,),36.
Jihad in ttie Sacred months.
216.
8
Suratu '1-Baqarah (ii.),
Suratu 1-Baqarah (ii,),
Provision for widows.
240. ,
234.
9
Siiratu 1-Baqarah (ii.),
Suratu 't-Taubah (ix.\
Slaying enemies in the Sacred
191.
5.
Mosque.
10
Suratu 'n-Nisa' (ivi), 14.
fcuratu 'n-Nitr (xxiv.), 2.
Imprisonment of the adulte
ress.
11
Suratu 1-Ma'idah (v.).
Suratu 't-Talaq (Ixv.), 2.
Witnesses.
105.
(
12
Suratu 1-Anfai (vii.). 66.
Suratu 1-Anfal (vii.), 67.
Jihad, or war with infidels.
!3<
Suratu 'n-Nuv (xxiv.), 3.
Suratu 'n-Nur (xxiv/), 32.
The marriage of adulterers
i*
Suratu l-Ahi'.ab fsxxiii.),
Suratu '1-Ahaab (xxxiii.1.
The Prophet's wives.
52.
49.
15
Suratu '1-Mujadilah (Iviii.).
Suratu 1-Mujadilah (Iviii).-,
Giving alms before assembling
13, first part of verse.
13. latter part of verse.
a council.
16
Suratu 1 - Mumtahinah
Suratu 't-Taubah (ix.), 1.
Giving money to infidels for
(lx.), 11.
women taken in marriage.
17
Suratu 't-Tauban (is.), 39
Suratu 't-Taubah (ix.), 92
Jihad, or war with infidels.
18
Suratu 1 - Muzzammil
Suratu l-Muzzammil
The night prayer.
19
(ixxiii.), 2.
Suratu 'n-Nur (xxiv.),
(Ixxiii,), 30
Suratu 'n-Nur (xxiv.;,
Permission to young children
57
58,
to enter a house.
20
Suratu 'n-Nisa? (iv.), 7.
Suratu 'n-Nisa' (iv.), 11.
Division of property.
i
QTJR'AN
rX. — The, Reputed Excellence of the Qur*dn,
tuid its Miraculous Character.
Copies of the Quran are held in tho greatest
usteein ;wid reverence amongst Muhammadatu*
They dare not ta touch it without being tirst
•vashed and purifkal. a ad they read it with
he greatest care and respect, never holding
t below their girdles. They swear by it,
Consult it on all occasions, carry it with them
X) war, write sentences of it on their banners,
Suspend it from their necks as a charm, and
'ilways place it on the highest shelf or in
some place of honour in their houses. Mu-
hammadans, as wo have already remarked,
believe the Qur'an to he uncreated and
Mtrnal, subsisting in the very essence of
ftjod. There have, however, been great dif-
fferences of opinion on this subject. It was a
fpoint controverted with so much beat that it
occasioned many calamities under the Ab-
baside Khallfah-s. Al-Ma'raun (AH. 218)
made a public edict declaring the Qur'an to
be created, which was confirmed by his suc
cessors al-Mu'tasiru and al-Wasiq, who
whipped and imprisoned and put to death
those of the contrary opinion. Bui at length
al-MutawakkiL who succeeded al-Wasiq, put
an end to these persecutions by revoking the
former edicts, releasing those that were im
prisoned on that account, and leaving every
man at liberty as to his belief on this point.
(Abu 'IrFaraj, p. 2G2.) The Qur'an is, how-
over, generally held to be a standing miracle,
indeed, the one miracle which bears witness
to tho truth of Muhammad's mission, an
assumption which is based upon the Pro
phet's own statements in the Qur'an (Surah
x. 39,. si. 16, lii. 34), -where he calls upon the
people who charge him with having invented
it to procure a binglo chapter like it. But the
Mu'tazalites have asserted 1 hat there is nothing
miraculous in its style and composition (vide
Sharhu 'l-Muwagif}. The excellences of tho
Qur'un, aa explained by the Prophet himself,
claim a very important place in the tra
ditions (see Fazaihi 'l-Oftr'an, in tho Tradi
tions of al-Bukharl and Muslim), from which
tbd lollowing arc a few extiacts: —
': The best person amongst you is ho who
has lea mt the Qu'run, and teaches it."
'•Read the Quran as long as you feel a
pleasure in it, and when tlrrd leave off."
•'If the Qur'an were wrapped in a skin and
ihrown into a fire, it would not burn.'
'• He who is an expert in the Qnr'im shall
rank with the ' Honoured Righteous Scribes,'
and ho -who reads the Qur'an with difficulty
and gots tired over it shall receive double
rewards.''
. '" The state of a Musulinan who reads the
Qur'an is like the orange fruit whoso smell
and taste are pleasant. '
" Tho person who repeats three verses
from the beginning of the chapter of tho C»vo
(Surah xviii.) shall be guarded from tbo strifo
of ad-Dajjal "
" Everything has a heart, and the heart of
the Qur'an is the chapter Ya-sin (Surah
xxxvi.") ; and he whoreads it, God will write
Q.UR AN
521
for him rewards equal to those for reading
tho whole Qur'au ten times.'' •
" There is a Surah in the Qur'an of thirty
versos which intercedes for a man until he is
pardoned, and it is that commencing with
the words, ' Blessed is he in whose hands is
the kingdom.'" (Surah Ixvii.)
" God wrote a book two thousand years
before creating the heavens and the earth,
and sent two verses down from it, which aio
the two last verses of the chapter of the Gow
(Surah ii.) ; and if they are not repeated in a
house for three nights, the devil will be near
that house.''
•• Verily the devil runs away from tho
house in which th'e chapter entitled the Cow
is read."
"Tho chapter commencing with these
words, ' Say God is one God ' (Surah cxii.),
is equal to a third of the Qur'an."
" The person that repeats the chapter cf
rhe Cave (Surah xviii.) on Friday, the light
of faith brightens him between two Fridays."
In the Qur'an there are many assertions of
its excellence ; the f ollowing are a few selected
verses : —
Siirali iv. 94: "Can they not consider the
Qur'an ? Were it from any other than God,
they would assuredly have found in it many
contradictions."
Surah ix 16 : "If they shall say, 4 The
Qur'an in his own device ' Then bring ton
Surahs like it of your devising."
Surah xlvi. 7; "Will th«y say, 'He hath
devised it '? Say, If I have devised it, then
not one single thing - .in ye ever obtain for me
from God."
Surah liii. 1 : " Verily the Qur'an is none
other than a revelation. One terrible in
power taueht it him."
Maracci, von Hammer, and other Orien
talists, have selected the xcist chapter o£ tne
Qur'an, entitled the Suratu 'sh-Shams, or the
Chapter of tho Sun, as, a favourable specimen
of the best style of tho Qur'an. It bogins in
Arabic thus:
r
^b u lpS\J f O&i ut jVji
u
Ut
y,
"Which Mr. Rodvrell translates as follows :—
1 By the Sua and his noonday bright no >. '.
2 By the Moon wuen she followeth him !
3 By the Day when it r»vealeth his glory !
4 By the Night when it enshroudeth him !
5 By the Heaven and Him who built it I
n By the Earth and Him svuo spread it
forth I
7 By a soul and Him who balanced it,
8 And breathed into it icf wickedness and
its piety,
66
522
QDR'AN
9 Blessed HOAV is he who hath kept it pure, \
10 And undone is he who bath oonupted i
von Hauji-rer rendered it in German
thus : —
1 Bey der Sdmu:. ana ibreixi schuumar ;
2 Bey detn Mond der ihr folget iwmat* ;
a'» Bey tit'ia T;<;o- der sie
4 Bey der Nacht, flit* sie ?«rfiwftert gautf ;
5 Bey den Himmt'Li rind dem-d*jv si.-; ge-
rxmcht ;
6 Boy uer Erdo mrd uem u«r .sie schitf
7 Boy uer Sccio ui:d iio.ii der aie ina
ghkicbge »v ic i 1 1 #» bra oh c
v5* Bey deru tUrr ihr &i'« bewuastseyij des
guieu und hoser, jjegebon,
9 iSelig v tn1 seine -S^ete rc-inigt ;
10 "Wer dioseibc verchinklet wird »r,.f ewi#
gepeinigi.
The renowned Oritynttuist, Sir William
Jones. praised the following account of the
dr0v:;iing of Noah's sons as tral magnificent,
and inferior in sublimity oriy to ;|ie s.Majjle
declaration of the creation o'i iig'ai i^ GeJiosis.
D'Hcrbt'iut also coasiders it on\: -f the iiuost
passages in t'je Qur'au >'Surnii si. 4-1 -10. : —
-»CfiC-^
*
on the Qw'dn.
In the earliest ages of Islani the expositions
of the Qur'au wero handed down in the tra
It may be rendered as follows :— -
" And the. ark moved on with them ainici
waves like inotintains :
" And Noah called to bis son— for he was
apart —
" ' Embark with us, 0 my child ! and stay
not with tb.e iiubelieTers.'
" He .said, * I will betake myself to a tnoun-
tain that shall save .me from t.be wr.ier.'
*• He aairt. • None shall be saved this day
fi-om God's decree, save him on whom He
shall have mercy.'
4< And a wave passed between them and
he -WHS drowned.
;< And ii wa« said, * 0 earth ! swallow up
thy water ! and 0 heaven ! withhold thy rain I*
And -he water abated, and God's decree wr«.:i
fulfilled, and the ark rested on al-Judi.
" And it was said. ' A vaunt, ye tribe of the
wicked!"'
^l e?5yl>5gs of the ccmpariiops and their
. but we have it on the' authority
of the Kashfn 'z-Znnitn that one Qut.'vibah
i:>!; Ahmad, who died A-H. 310, compiled a
i;y.«t:f-inaiio eomtuentary on the whole of the
Qnr'au. The work is act iiov,1 extant.
Musliro comi£:eT3tariei> are very numerous.
Dr.'M. Ahioid (fstam and Christianity ^i», 81)
says there are n.-> less than M,000 iii the
Library at Tripc-iiM.
The bifjit hjit>«n coxnweniaries amongst
ti'js atv. tho.^e of : —
i, A.£i. 515.
At Tafsii-u '1-Kahir, A.H C06.
tbnq 1i-;Arabi, S.H. 628.
,, A.H..7M1
Ehisain, A,n, i)00.
Al-Jaialaii, A.R 9*54, A.H. 911.
A.1-Mazhari, A.U. 122;".
Ampr-gst tbo Shrahs the- following are
woks ui reputation •.-—
Shaikh Sailuq. .i.*-;. ''$\,
At-Tftfaim '/-.A '?''•">-. by Saiyid Muhain-
A,s-Sitfi. A.H. i»t>-S.
As-Hirnx 'l-TV%.j.'"at A.it. 71.>
Siw-w.K Y-JlifAtalia. ij Mtr Bakir. A.K.
1041.
han^ by S^r-id Hash&in, A..JI, UOO
XI.— -Editions and Translations ot /A?
Qar'Sn.
The t^ur'an v;.i« ilrsii printeti in Arabic
at RtiifiO by Pn;nuntis Brixioi'si?- Rorrt*, lf>30,
but It v<as either burned or wtnuiiii*<i ua-
puldislic'd. Since then the follow?!:;* »'<H
tions of the Arabic text have appeared in
Europe :—-
At -Coronas, sr:u it? Islam tica, <fec., the
Arabic text of the Qiu-'an, publisoei' by A.
Hinkelmann, Hamburg; 1649, 4to.-
Aicorani lextms utiiuersuS) &«'., the .Arabic
textt with ». Latin translation and numorons
extracts from the principal eoumeutaricfl
and preceded by a Prodromus, eoiitniuiug a
" refutuUon " of the Qar'an, by Maracci,
Padua. 1698, folio.
^\«.J5j\} an anorated text of the Qur'an,
publii-'hed by order and at the cost of the
Empress Catherine II. of Russia, at St.
Petersburg!* in 1787, 1 vol. in folio. This
edition was reprictod at 3t. Petersburg!) in
1790, 1793, 1796, and 1798, and without any
change at Kasan in 1803. 1809, and 1839.
Another edition, in two *vols, 4to. without
notes, was published at Kasan, 1S17, re
printed 1821 ami 1343, and a third edition,
in C voK 8vo, at the same place, 1819.
<7o-»w?- t*xtr(s Ctrahicttst &c., the fir.^i critical
edition of the test, by G. Fliigel, Leipzig.
1834, 4to. Second edition, 1842; third edi
tion, ldti.0.
CV>/ft»»«$ araln'ct, £c.t revised republication
of Fluff el's text, by G. M. R^dsiob, Leipzig,
1837, 8vo.
QUB AN
ii cotnment'jriM tw Coranum, &c.,
he text of the Qur'an with al-Baizawi's
.'ommentary, by H. O. FJcisber.two vols. 4to,
jeipzitf. 184G.
The Muhammartans, so far from thinking
ho Qiir'an profaned by a translation, a« .some
nthors have written (Marracri de Alcoran.
». 33), have taken care to have it translated
nto various laugua^f-s, although those trans
itions are always icterlineary with the
»riginal text. Translations exist in Persian^
Jrdu. Pu.shto, Turkish, Javan, Malayan,
jid other languages, which have heon made
»y Muhammadim* themselves.
The first translation atttempted by Euro
peans was a Latin v^rsbn translated by an
Snglitfhtuan, Robert of Retina, and a German,
Icrmarm of Dalmatia. This translation,
nrhich was done at the request of Peter,
iVhhot of th* MoTiastery of Clugny, A.I>. 1143,
•eiuaiited hidden nearly 400 yeara till it was
mbiiflhed at Basle, 1543, by Theodore Bibli-
uuler, and was afterwards rendered into
."tali.in, fferman, and Dutch. The next trans-
ation in German was by Schweigger, at
Vurntorg, in 1C16. This was followed by
•he above-inentionod work of Maraeei, con
sisting of the Qur'an. hi Arabic. with a Latin
version with notes and refutations, A D. 1698.
The oi'b'st French translation was done
by M. Du lifer (Paris, 1G47). A Russian
version appeared at St. Petersburg in 1776.
M. Savary translated the Qur'un into French
in 1783. There have also b&«n more recent
French translations by Kasitnirsk-i (Paris, 1st
*d. 1840. 2nd cd. 1841, 3rd ed. 1857;.
Tht1 iir.st English Qitr'rin was Alexander
ROSS'K tvanftlntion of Du Rver's French version
11649-1688). Sale's well-known work first
appeared in 1734, and has since passed
through numerous editions. A translation
by the Rev. J, M. Rodwell, with the Surahs
arranged in chronological order, WMS printed
in 1861 (2nd ed 1876). Professor Palmer, of
Cambridge, translated th« Qnr'an iu 1880
(Oxford Press). A Roman- Urdu edition of
tho Qur'an -,vns published at Allahabad in
184-1, aud a second and revised edition at
Ludianfth iu 1876 (both these beiug a trans-
Uterati-jn of 'Abdu l-Qadu's well-known
Urdu translation).
The best known translations in German
are those by IJoyseu, published in 1773, with
ati Introduction ;md notes, a>»»l again revised
and corrected from the Arabic by G. Wahl
in 1SL'*, nn*l another by Dr. JU rilumnn,
hich has passed through two editions (1840.
QUR'AN
523
XI. — The Opinion* of J£urofteun Writers on .
the
Mr. Sale, in his Preliminary Discourse, I
remarks : —
'• Th«.' style of the Knrfwris ijenprally beau
tiful and ftttent, fsjveTally where il imitates
tbe prophetic manner, anu crriptuv'-> phrase*
It io concise, ard often obscure, adorned "with [
hold figuivb after t1*^ Eastern taste, enlivened j
wit'i ilorid and s?ut«jnti'>us expressions, and
«tt many |»lnce«. e^pt?"' ''• •vil«'»*> tl'-v
find attributes of God are described, snblinio
and magnificent: of which the reader cannot
but observe several instances, though he
must not imagine the translation comes v.p
to the original, notwithstanding my endea
vours to do it justice.
" Though it he written in prose, yet the
sentences generally coacludo in a long con
tinued rhyme, for the sake of which the
sense is often interrupted, and unnecessary
repetitions too frequently made, which appear
still more ridiculous in a translation, vriirre
the ornament, *nch as it is, for whose *'ake
they were made, cannot be perceived. How
ever, the Arabians are so mightily delighted
with this jingling that they employ it in thoir
most elaborate compositions; which they also
embellish with frequent passages of and al
lusions to ine Koran, so that it i.s next to
impossible to understand them without being
••veil versed in this book.
'• It is probable the harmony of expression
which the Arabians liud in the Koran might
contribute not a little to uiako them relish
the doctrine therein taught, and ^rive an
efficacy to arguments, which, bad they been
nakedly proposed without- this rhetorical
dress, might not have so easily prevailed.
Very extraordinary effects are related of the
power of words well chosen and aitf'.iil?
placed, which are no less powerful either to
ravish or amaze than inn-sio itself : \yht:-^
fore as much as has been ascribeJ by the
best orators to this part of rhetoric ss :,o auy
other. He tuu.st have a very bad ear. wh» is
not uncommonly moved with the very ca
dence of a well-turned sentence ; and Moham
med seems not to havo been ignorant of tlift
enthusiastic operation of rhetoric on the
minds cf men ; for which reason iie bas not
only employed his utmost skill in these his
pretended revelations, to preserve that dig
nity and subliaiity of styJe. which might seem
not unworthy of the majesty of that Being,
whom he gave out to be the author of them,
and to mutate the prophetic manner of tbe
Old Testament ; but he has not neglected
evon the other arts of oratory; wberoin he
succeeded so well, and so strangely captivated
the minds of his audience, that several of bis
opponents thought it the effect of witchcraft
yn<"' enchantment, as bo sometime? complains
(Sarah xv. 21. cfcc.)."
Tho late Prauissor Paliuer, in his introduc
tion to the Qur'an, remarks : —
'•The Arabs made use of a rhymed and
rhythmical prose, the origiu of •which it is not
difficult to imagine. The AiMhic i;Mrjna:;'e
consists for the mcst part of trilitM-»!
/..:. the sinjrlo \vov«s expressing individual
ideas consist generally of thr»-o consonants
each, and tht* deiivative forms* UCpreMlng
ttiodiiicdtior.s of the i»riginnl idea ar
i!i.'!']i! by iithxt-5« tmt\ terfninations Mow.1, but
also by the inBortbn of letters in tho root.
Thus iftmbn . mewis • he struck.' and tjubtltt,
" ho killed,' while mtsrfib and ntaqtht signify
1 one struck ' and ' one killed.' A sentence,
*.t consists of a series oT »ord.s Alii^-ii
524
QURAN
would each require to be expressed in clauses
of several vrorda in other languages, and it is
easy to sec now a next following sentence,
explanatory of or completing the first, \vould
be much, more clear and forcible if it con
sisted of words of a similar shape and imply
ing similar modification? of othsr ideas. It
follows then that the two Rent-once* would be
necessarily symmetrical^ and the presence of
rhythm would not only please the oar but
contribute to the better understanding of the
.•sense, while the rhyme would mark the pause
in the sense and emphasize the proposition.
" Th'e Quran is written in this rhetorical
style, in which the clauses ave rhythmical
though not symmetrically so, and for the
most part end in the fame rhyme throughout
the chapter.
" The Arabic language lends itself very
readily to this species of composition, and the
Arabs of the desert in the present day em
ploy it to"a great extent in their more formal
orations, while the literary men -of the towns
adopt it as the recognised* correct style, deli
berately imitating the Quran.
u That the best of Arab wriiers has never
succRpdftd in producing anything equal in
merit to the Qur'an itself is not Surprising.
" In the-firdt place, they have agreed before
hand that it is unapproachable, and they
have Adopted its style as the perfect stan
dard ; any deviation from it therefore must of
necessity Vm a defect. Again, with them thia
style is. not spontaneous as with Mohammed
and his contemporaries, but is as artificial,
as though Englishmen should still continue
to follow Chaucer as their model, in spite of
the changes which their language has under
gone. With the prophet the style was
natural, and the words were those used in
every -day ordinary life, while with the later
Arabic authors the style is imitative and the
ancient words are introduced as a literary
embellishment. The natural consequence is
that their attempts look laboured and unreal
by the side of his impromptu and forcible
eloquence.
'•'•That Mohammed, though, should have
been able to challenge even his contempora
ries to produce anything like the Qur'an,
' And if ye are in doubt of what we have re
vealed unto our servant, then bring a chapter
like it. . . . But if ye do it not/ and ye surely
bhall do it not, <fce./ is at first sight surpris
ing, but, as Nokleke has pointed out, this
challenge really refers much more to the
subject than to the mere style, — to the origi
nality of the conception of the unity of God
and of a revelation supposed to be couched
in Cud's o.wu words. Any attempt at such a
work must of necessity have had all the weak
ness and want of prestige which attaches to
an imitation. This idea is by. no means
foreign to the genius of Ihe old Arabs,
* *• * * *
" Amongst a people who believed firmly iu
witchcraft aud soothsaying, and who. though
passionately foud of poetry, believed that
every poet had his familiar spirit who inspired
his utterances, 'it was no wonder that the
QUR'AN
Eiophet should be taken for • a soothsayer,
>r ; one possessed with an evil spirit.' or for
' an infatuated poet.' "
Mr. Stanley Lane Poole, in his Introduction
to Lane'e Selections frjm the Kur-an, re-
rnai'ks : —
" It is confused in its progression and
strangely mixed in its contont* ; but the deve-. .
lopment of Mohammad's faith can be traced
in it, and we can see dimly into the workings
of his mind, as it struggles with the deep
things of God, wrestles with the doubts
which echoed the cavils of the unbelievers,
soars upwards on the wings of ecstatic faith,
till at last it gains the repose of fruition.
Studied thus, the Kur-a'n is no lender dull
reading to one who cares to look upon the
working of a passionate troubled human soul,
and w.ho can enter inio its trials and share in
the joy of its triumjShs.
•' In the poorahs revealed at Mekka. Mo
hammad .has but one theme — God ; and one
object — to draw his people away from their
idols and bring them to the feet'of that God.
He tells them of Him in glowing language,
that cornea from the heart's white heat. He
points to the glories of nature, and tells them
these are Ood'a w.orks. With all the. brilliant
imagery of the Arab, he tries to show them
what God is. to convince them of His power
and His wisdom and His justice. The soorahs
of this period are short, for they are pitched
in too high a key to be long sustained. The
language has the ring of poetry, though no
part of the Kur-an complies with the demands
of Arab metro. The sentences are short aud
full of half -restrained energy, yet with a
musical cadence. The thought is often only
half expressed ; one feels the speaker has
essayed a thing beyond words, and has sud
denly discovered the impotence of language,
and broken off with the sentence unfinished.
.There is the fascination of true poetry about
these earlieat soorahs ; as we read thorn we
understand the enthusiasm of the Prophet's
followers, though we cannot fully realise tho
beauty and the power, inasmuch as we cannot
hear them hurled forth with Mohammad's
fiery eloquence. From first to last the
Kur-an is essentially a book to be heard, not
read, but this is especially the case with the
earliest chapters.
'* In the soorahs of the second period of
Me*kkti, we begin, to trace the decline of the
Prophet's eloquence. There are still the
same earnest appeals to the people, the same
gorgeous pictures of the Last Day and the
world to c.ome; but the language begins ta
approach the quiet of 'prose, the sentences
become longer, the same words and phrases.
I are frequently repeated, and the wearisome
j stories of the Jetvif h prophets aud patriarchs,
which fill so large a space in the later por
tion of the Kur-an now make their appear
ance. Tho fierce passion of the earliest soo
rahs, that could not out save in short burn
ing verses, gives place to a calmer more
argumentative style. Mohammad appeals less
to the works of God as proofs of his teach •
QURAN
j ng. mid more to the history of former
icac'aere, and the punishments of tho people
(kho would not hear them. And the charac-
jiteristic oaths of the first period, when Mo-
fiammatl swears by all the varied sights of
nature as they mirrored themselves in his
I imagination, have gone, and in their place we
i find only the woaker oath ' by tho Kur-an.'
[And this declension is earned -still further in
the last group of the soorahs revealed at
Mekka. The stylo becomes more involved
and the sentences longer, and though the old
enthusiasm bursts forth ever and anon, it is
rather an echo 01 former things than a new
i and present intoxication of faith. The fables
I and repetitions become more and more dreary,
and but for the rich eloquence of the old
Arabic tongne, which gives some charm
I even to inextricable sentences and dull stories,
tbc Kur-tin at this period would be unreadubie.
As u is, wo feel we have fallen the whole
depth from poetry to prose, and the matter
of tho prose is not so superlative as to give us
amends for the loss of the poetic thought of
the earlier time and the musical /all of the
sentences.
•; In the soorahs of the Medina period these
faults reach their climax. We read a singu
larly varied collection of criminal laws, social
regulations, orders L>v battle, harangues' to
the Jews, first conciliatory, then denuncia
tory, and exhortations to spread the faith,
and sueh-likeheterogeneousjnatterm. Happily
the Jewish atones disappear in trie latest soo-
rah.s but their place is filled by scarcely more
palatable uiateruus. The chapter)? of this
period are interesting chiefly as containing
the Laws which havo guided every Muslim
state, regulated every Muslim society, nud
directed in their smallest acts every Mouam- j
madan man and woman in all parts of the world
Irom the Prophet's time till now. Tho Me
dina part of the Kur-an is the moat important
part for Islam, considered as a scheme of
ritual and a system ol manners ; the earliest
Mekka revelations are those, which contain
•what is highest in a great religion and what
was purest iu a great inau.''
Mr. Rodwtrll. in his introduction to hi6
Qur'an. says :- —
"The contrast between the earlier, middle,
aijd later Suras is very striking and inte-
'•esting, and will be at once apparent from
";he arrangement here adopted. Iu the Suras
as far as iho 54th, we cannot but notice the
entire predominance of the poetical element, I
:». deep appreciation fas in Sura xci.) of the I
beauty of natural objects, brief fragmentary
and impassioned utterances, denunciations of
woe und punishment, expressed for the most
part in linos of extreme brevity. With a
ehartge, however, in the position of Mu-hnm-
iruid when he openly asauines the office of
k public warner, tho Suras begin lo assume a
more prosaic and didactic tone, though the j
poeticai ornament of rhvrm> is preserved |
throughout. We gradually lose the Poet in j
the missionary aiming to convert, the warm j
r of dogmatic truths ; ihe descriptions i
QURAN
525
of natural objects, of the judgmeut, ol IKH-
von and hell, make way for gradually in
creasing historical wtatements. iivat frcfin
Jewish, and subsequently from i, nri;*tian his
tories ; while, in the 2'.) Suras revealed at
Medina, we no longer listen to vufirue words,
often as it would eeem without positive aim.
but to the earnest disputant with, the encore?
of his faith, the Apostle pleading the causo
of what he believes to bo the Truth of God.
H,e who at Me^ca is the admbruuher and per
suader, at Medina is the legislator and war
rior, who dictates obedience, and uses other
weapons than the pen of the Poet und the
Scribe. When business pressed, as at AJ edlna.
Poetry makes way for prose, and although,
touches of tire Poetical element occasionally
break forth, «nd he has to defend himself up
to a very late period against the cnarge of,
being merely a Poet, yet this is rarely tho
case in the Moitina Suras ; and we are startled
by finding obedience fo God and the Apostle,
God's gifts and the Apostle's, God's pleasure
and the Apostle's, spoken of in the same
breath, aud epithets and attribute? elsewhere
applied to A.lhih openly applie'd to himself, aj
in Sura ix. 118, 129.
u The Suras, viowed as a whole, etrike me
as being the work of one who began his career
as a thoughtful enquirer after truth, and an
earnest asserter of it in such rhetorical and
poetical forms as he deomed moat likely to
win and attract his couutyymeu, and wtio gra
dually, proceeded from the dogmatic teacher
to the politic founder, of a system for which
laws and regulations had to be provided ad
occasions arose. And of all the Suras, it
must be remarked that they wore intended
non for r&Jerj but for !i£aren>~-ii\ai UJoy
were all promulgated by public fecffqf-tttvl
that much \vas left, -as the imperfect sen
tences shew, to the manner and suggeativi
action of the reciter, tt would be impossible
and indeed it is unnecessary, to attempt a de
tailed life of Muhammad within tho narrow
limits of a Preface. The main events thereof
with which the Suroa of the Koran stand in
connection, aro — Theiviaicns ol Gabriel, seen,
or said to have beon seen, at the outset of his
career in his 40th vet\r. during one of hia sea
sons of annual m^mthly retirement, for devo
tion and meditation to Mount Hira, near
Mecca, -the period of mental dcpredsi-jn and
re-assurance previous to the assumption of
the office uf public teacher — the Falrah or
pause during vhich he probably waited for a
repetition of the angelio vision — hia labours
in comparative privacy for three years, issuing
in about 40 converts, of whom his wife Oha-
dijah was the first. uiiJ Abu Bekr the most
important ; (for it id to him and to Abu
Jahl tho Sura xcii. refer-) — struggles with
Meecan unbnlief nnd idolatry followed by a
period during which probably he had the
second vision/ Sura liii. ano was listened
to and respected us a person • posses^nd'
(Sui -i IK.IX. 42, lii. 29) — the first emigration
to Abyssinia iu A.D 010, in consequence of
the Meccan persecutions brought on by hu
now open attacks upon idolatry (Taghout)—
526
ft AN
QTJB'AN
inc ''easing- reference to Jewish and Christian
histories, sht'wiiig that much time had been
devoted to their study — the convei*sion of
Omar in 617 — the journey to the Thaquitites
at Taicf in A.D. 620— the intercourse with
pilgrims from Medina, who believed in Islam,
and spread the knowledge thereof in their
nu tiro town, in the sumo year — the vision of
the midnight journey to .Jerusalem and the
fleavmjs— the ineeiir\g< by night at A**aba, a
mountain near Mecca, in the llth year of his
mission, and the pledges of foalty ihere given
to him'- -the command given to th^ believers
to emigrate to Yalhrib. henceforth Medina t-
en-nabi (the t/.'.y of the Propkcf), or El-Medina
(th?, city), in. April of A.D. t)2Si--th* escape of
Muhammad ami Abu Bc-kr from Mooca t>o the
cave- of Thaur- — the FLIGHT to Medina in
June 20, A.D 622— treaties made with Chris
tian tribes-— increasing, but still very imper
fect acquaintance with Christian doctrines —
(he Battle of Bedr in Hej.. 2, and of Ohod —
the coalition formed against Muhammad by
the Jews and idolatrous Arabians, issuing in
uhe siege of SiTedin.!, Hej. ;T(A.n, 627) — the
Convention, with reference to cho liberty of
making- the pilgrimage, of Hudnibiya, Hej. 6
— the. embassy to Chosroet? King of Persia in
the same yoa-v. tu tli« Governor of Eg'ypt
and to the King of Abyssinia,, desiring- them
to embrace Islam— -tho conquest of several
Jewish tribes, tho most important of which
was that of Chaibar in Hej. 7, a year marked
by the embassy sent to Hera dins, then in
Syria, on his return from the Persian cam
paign, and by a solemn ami peaceful pilgri
mage to Mocca — the triumphant entry into
Mecca in Hej. 8 ("A.D. t>30),'and the demolition
of the idols of the Caaba — the Submission of
the Christians of Nedjran, of Alia on the Red-
Sea, and of Taief, etc., in Hej. 9, called 'the
year of embassies or deputations,' from the
numerous deputations \vhich (locked to Mecca
proffering submission — and lastly in Hej. 10,
the tttibmissioti of HadraTitont, Yemen, tbe
Creator part of the southern and eastern pro
vinces of Arabia— and the final solemn pil
grimage to Mecca.
•'• While, however, there is no great diffi
culty in ascertaining- the Suras which .stand
in connection with the more salient features
wf Muhammad's life, it is a much move
arduous, and often impracticable, task, to
point out the precise events to which indi
vidual verses refer, and out of which they
sprung. It is quite possible that Muhammad
himself, in a later period of his career, de
signedly. mixed up later with earlier revela-
tiyns in the same .Suras — not for the sake of
producing that mysterious style which soerus
.so plot'.wnjf to the mind of those who value
truth least when it is most clear and obvious**
• -but for tbe purpose of softening down some
of th« earlier .statements which represent the
last hour and awful judgment as imminent;
and thus leading: his followers to continue
still in the attitude of expectation, and to see
M. bis lat^r successes tb^ truth ot his earlier
predictions If af!er-l.ho!J<>'hU of th» > kind
the attentive reader, it then follows that the
perplexed state of the text in individual Suras
is to be considered as due to Muhammad
himself, and vre are furnished with a rferios
of constant hints for attaining to chrono
logical accuracy. And it may be remarked
in passing, that a belief that the end of oil
things was at hand, may have tended to
promete the earlier successes of Islam at
MtH'ca, as it unquestionably was AH argument
with the ApoSvle«, to fiee from rthe wrai.h to
come.1 It must- bo borne in miud that, the
ullasiong to cowemporary minor events, and
to tho local efforts made by the new religion
to gain the ascendant are very ftrw, &nd o'ten
'•-otu-hed in terms so vague and general, that
TVC a re forced fco interpret tho Koran solely
by the Koran itself. And for this, the Ire-
qu^nt repetitiona of the same histories and
the same sentiments, afford much facility:
and the peculiar manner in which tho details
of eac'h history are increased by /resit traits
at e.Holi recurrence, enables us to trace their
growth iu the author's mind, and to .ascertain
the manner in yrhich a part of the Koran was
composed. The absence of the historical
element from tbe Koran as regards thft de
tails of Muhammad's daily tife, may be judged
of by tht- fact, that only two of his contempo
raries are mentioned in the entire volume.
and that Muha-mmad's mwuo occurs nnt five
times, although U? is all the way through
addressed by tho Angt] Gabriel as the re
cipient of the divine revelations, with the
word SAY. Perhaps such passage** as Sura
ii. ID and v. 246, and (he constant znunii«n of
guvfanre, direclivn* waitddrirKj, may hav« been
suggested by reminiscence's of his mercantile
journeys in his earlier years.'1
Dr. Steingass, the learned compiler of the
English- Arabic and Arabic-English Dictio*~
fines (VY. H. Allen & Co.), has obligingly
recorded his opinion as follows : —
Invited to subjoin a few further remarks
on the composition and style of the Qur'an,
in addition to the valuable and competent
opinions contained, in the above extracts. I
can scarcely introduce them better than by
quoting the striking words of GSthe, which Mr
Rodwell places by -way of motto on the reverse
of the title page of his Translation, These
words seem to me so- much the more weighty
and worthy of attention, as they are uttered
by one who, whatever his merits or demerits
in other respects may be deemed to be, indis
putably belongs to the greatest masters of
language of all time$. and .stands foremost as
a leader of mud-mi thought and the intellec
tual culture of modern, times. Speatcing of
the Qur'an in his West-Otttlithr Diwrrt, he
sayg : "However often we turn to it, at first
disgusting US' each lime afresh, it soon At
tracts. astounds, and in the end enforces our
reverence .... Its-style, in accordance -with
its contents and aim, is stern, grand, terrible
— ever and anon truly sublime . . , . Thui
this book will go on exercising through rtM
agc^ a mos« potent influence."
A *oik, liter, which ealta forth PO f>< *> \\*\\
Q;UIi AN
->ii i •;. uiJn^ly inetuiw".ui-ie emotion*,- even in
the diM"ur roller — .!J-n';»nt as to time: and
Still more so as iO mental development — a
wnk which j-ot-only conquers the repugnance
.-.Ha v.bvK be may begin itH perusal. Hut
abac! fei r.t:is aHvcr.it- fe-'ung fnto astonishment
dncl ;> .'i» r.-iiun sue1.! a work ian<t be :i vron-
ol' t-lic highest interest "to
obo-erver of the destinies of
k:u;l. iJvich ha? been &aid in tho pre-
.rt^. »o ;io>now ledge, to appreciate,
lo ox; 'lain the literary excellencies of the
-*. u -.ore or less distinct admis
sion thr: fiu-Jou'a much-quoted saying : "Le
!*• CM rin'jniiio.1' is here more justified
r* e.vr, un-K-ii^, all tbsse various ver
dicts. "We may well fe.iy tha Qur'an is one
tho grandest tooks e..;r vrltten, be-
caii.s^ it frihhiuily ivitects the character and
;!\ «!i one of 'the greatest men that ever
breathed. •''Sincerity,'" \siiu-sCarlyle, •' siu-
.•erh; , in uli rsn.ses, .sp«?a;s TO me the merit of
M* Koran.*1 This sfeuae ninoerity. thi.s jirdour
and earnest ness in the search for truth, this
•MWvfiagguig perseverance in trying to im
press it. when f>artly found, again and again
upon iii.s ijnvriiling hearers apr-ears to me a<$
th*; real and imUoaiabio •' .^ftal of prophecy"'
in Mnhauimad.
.IV.irh, mid .ibove al! relijrlons truth, can
on!y i;e one. Clir.'-tianity aay duly rejoice in
bethought that, nt the vory , momunt when
Iflie rcpre-s^ntati\* ;>f tiie trreaiei't Empire of
the anoicni world mockhigiy i.r ''-espairingly
put forth i'v question, M Whal la truth?"
tliifl our: cteniai truths as alums to be written
flown witii riie nloo-l yf the J'.'vine "Redeemer
in the sn '\ation 'deed of our race. Ohrin'fl
glorionn and holy Oospel, But thr approaches
id 'truth nre -nany, and he N\riio rtevoied all
Ms i»^ers rvuri ^nt-rgies, with uuLiring ]ia-
tience i\\i;\ .seli'-(ieni:il, to the '.nsk o* leading
a whole nation by one of rlic.se aj.proaehe^,
fron a coarse Mi-l effetf idolatry, to the
Horsbip ->i the livinir («vd. h.1.* certainly ?«
strong cliiiai to our -.viinut"^! sympathio.^ .is <i
faithful ^'. • .-'»iit. and not»le ohnoipion of tmth.
It i>, b . vt-r. not my intention to dwell
hero any longer upon this side of tlte cjues-
t;-iii P.rai>': hu^ bren bestowed in this work
Oil the-Qnr'an and its au.hv>r viiliout stint or
g;-^, ijr,^ -):)j f^e unanimity uf so fnauv dis-
tingaisiirci v-i'i;*1-:; in this respect will no
douht iujjir-'-^s tlio general rei-lcr in favour
of ilie srtcred ix>t-A of tho Ahihaniuindan*,
which i.aiil uo^ bo mnv have knov.n only by
uauio. At the same time, it -will be noticed
Ihat i«.o IOBS unanimity prevails in pointing
cut tb-> inftu'ioci'y jf the later poriiouo' ut' the
Qi'i-'ii.n h- ( otnuaii^un with the earlie" Surahs ;
fi falling oi'L .t • it were, from the original
poy.u'al grsudeur and lofiin'>S3 of Ui compo
sition into pivse and e<Munen-place. Gothc-,
?n, udep such it stroll^ word as
^ agaiu and again experience J by L»irn
at the very outset jf its repeated reading.
Not beinx an /Vrnbic scboUr 'himsolf, he
knew ihe Qur'an ou!y through the translations
existing at the time, which follow through-
QURAN
527
.it
cvi murk
w.--;0 f< •
out the order of the received text. Thu
Le \vas O.;M]O t • i*.i63, r
from tlit> iaror t«i iho e.iriier
and from \k^t ::^«iiu to ti:
Makk.'.-h at '.l:.^ ari/.ar, &t:isfi's
Mii}'.-iiri:ij:ii.rs ifcini^try. while
in
.. froxil
thf uttoi-tn'.'es of the worldly vu'or :>.nJ law-
giver to tliObO of i.ht» irnf.iivd _ Divine, who
had just succeeded iu laying the foundation-
stones of a new religion, under fierce struggles
and suiterings, but in obedience to a r-ni
wliich, in his irmer.ruofrt heart, he feit had
gone out to him, and which he had accept od
with awe. humility and resignation, Wliilc,
therefore, in the beginning of his studies
Gothe may have met with A number of
details in the vast ,stnirturo raised by "VI n -
hu:n;ii>>d 'A']iich £iy>pe^re(J distaftefal to thf;
re/1 ued scion of the nineteenth century, hiu
interos't fnu^t hare been nwakeoed, his arl-
miration ki)»o!led and kcpr increaiiing, th«
more be bocMM aftqurunted, through the
•work itself, with l,he tiftture and personality
of its oi'ontor, and with the purity and ;> .
oh&r&ot8t of the nfeitn-Bjjriit| of hi.s motive*.
Tiiose critic.?, on the other hand, who
view the Qor'in -.vith regard to the chroao-
logical order of its oonstitoeiitt, iolluv, ibr?
descending scale hi their estimate. Speaking1
at fjrsr- higfily— -na.y. frequently with entha-
>la^:ii--of thf earlier parts, they cornolam
orioro and more of th« growing todiouane'j-i and
wtarisomeneu of the Surahs uf Inter origin.
Noldeke, for instance, the learned and
ingenious author of Gtschichte dt* Quran.*,
Speaking of the deiicieni-it^ in style, lan
guage, and treatment of the subject matter,
which, in his opinion, Qharactevise the second
aud third po.viud of tuo Makkau revelationi-
and iu general tb;> Madinah Surahs, pointedly
tertriiriiito.'* his* indictment hy the sentence,
" if it were not for the exquisite flexibility
and vigour (tAV nw/eineine F^inkcit M/U/ Km ft)
of the Arwbic Inngua^e itself, -which, how
ever,- is to be attributed more to tho a^e
in ^vhieh the author lived tbiui to bis indiv
duality, it would tscnroely ho bearable to rea
the later portions of iha.Qur'an a second time.1
But if we Consider the variety and hotero-
geneouBiiess of the topics on wiucii the Quran
touched, uniformity of style ami dietiyu can
scarcely he vxpoctud; on th« contrary, it
would appear to bt1. strangely out of place.
Let us not f.>:'£et tii.'ii in M-: nook, a* Mc-
biognfphtf| Ludol/ Krehl
"» 'tiii-iHiiHt'.i, Leipzig, lft-^4;,
oxpressc-si it, "there is #iveu a complete eodo
of creed and morals, as well as of tho law
based thereupon. There .ire also the fouuda-
tionf* laid for every institution of an extensive
commonwealth, for iustrm-tiou, for tho ad
ministration of justice, for military orgaui/..%-
lion, for tho finances, for a uiost direful
legislation for the poor; all built up on tho
belief in the o/ic God, who holds man'n desti
nies in His han-i/' Where BO many important
objects axe concerned, the standard of oxrel
lanes by which we have t« gauge the compo-
528
QUK'AN
sitirfn of the Qur'an as a whole must needs
vary with the matter treated upon in each
particular case. Sublime and chaste, where
the supreme truth of God's unity is to be
proclaimed ; appealing in high-pitched strains
to the imagination of a poetically -gifted
people where the eternal consequences of
man's submission to God's holy will, or of
rebellion against it, are pictured; touching
in its simple, almost crude, earnestness, when
it seeks agaiu and again encouragement or-
consolation for God's messenger, arid a solemn
warning for those to whom he has been sent.
in the histories of the prophets of old : the
language of the Quran adapts itself to the
exigencies of every- day life, when this every-
d/iy life, in, its private and public bearings, is
to be brougtrc in harmony with the funda-
menval principles of the new dispensation.
Htn'e, therefore, its merits as a literary
production should, perhaps, not be measured
by some preconceived maxims of subjective
and aesthetic taste, but by the effects which
it produced in Muhammad's contemporaries
and fellow-countrymen, ff it spoke so power
fully and convincingly to the hearts of his
iiwarers as to weld hitherto centrifugal and
antagonistic elements into one compact and
well- organised body, animated by ideas far
beyond those which had until now ruled the
Arabian mind, then its eloquence was* perfect.
simply because it created a civilized nation
• mt ol savage tribes,vand Shot a fresh woo£.
into the old warp of history.
Noldeke's above-quoteJ remark, it seems
to me, raises, however, a very important
question. It must, of course, be admitted that
the Arabic language, which is now so greatly
and deservedly admired, cannot be attributed
to Muhammad individually, but originated in
and was" at his time the common property of
lae- Arabic-speaking section of the human
race, or, more accurately, of its Semitic
branch-, who were then living within the
Peninsula and in some of the neighbouring
countries. But we may w,ell ask ourselves,
what would in all probability have become
of this language without Muhammad and his
Qur'un ? This is not at all an idle and
desultory speculation. It is true the Arabic
language had already produced numerous tine
specimens of genuine and high-flown poetry,
but such poetry was chiefly, if no't exclu
sively, preserved in the memory of the people,
for the art of writing wa« certainly very little
known, and still less ~ actised.
TVfoi*eover, poetry is not tantamount to
literature ; it may lead to it, and will always
form a most essential part of it; but it will
live on-, and perhaps die, in solitary isolation,
unless it becomes, as it were, as Brahmans
Bay, " twice-born," by participating lira lite
rary development of vaster dimensions and a
more general character. Divided among
themselves into numerous tribes, who were
engaged in a perpetual warfare against each
other, the Arabs, and with them their various
dialects, would more and more have drifted
asunder, poetry would have followed in the
wake, and the population of Arabia would
QTJE , AN
have broken ap into a multitude of clans,
with their particular bards, whose love- and
war*songs enterprising travellers of our days
might now collect, like the popular songs of
the Kosaks of the steppe, or the Kalniuks
and similar nationalities, vegetating- for cen
turies in a more or less primitive state of
existence.
It 'seems, then, that it is only a work of the
nature of the Quran which could develop
ancient Arabic into a literary language, not«
withstanding the fact that it had already
been Admirably handled by local poets As
this book places the national life of the
Arabs upon an entirely new basis, giving
it at the same time a much-needed centre
and a wonderful power of expansion, It
became a matter of the utmost importance,
nay, ot urgent necessity, that the contents
of the volume should be preserved with scru
pulous accuracy and oidisputable conformity.
This again was only possible' by fixing upon
one dialect, which by its recognized excellence
commended itself to general acceptance, and
also by establishing a written text.
But not only by.raieing a dfelect, through
its generalization, to the power of a language,
and by rendering the adoption of writing
indispensable, bas the Quran initiated the
development of an Arabic literature; its
composition itself has contributed two factors
absolutely needful to this development: ft
has added to the existing poetry the origins
of rhetoric and prot>e.
Although the decidedly poetical character
of the earlier Surahs is obvious, they differ
in two important points from the hitherto
acknowledged form of poetry, which is that
of the Qasidah. This form consists of baits,
or distichs, measured by some variation of
one of the fifteen (or sixteen) principal metres,
and each containing two half-lines, the same
rhyme running through both hemistichs of
the first bait, and through every second one
of the following. For instance :
1. Qifa nabki min zikra Hablbin wa-manzili
Bi-siqti '1-liwa baina 'd-dakhuli wa-hau-
mali
2. Fa-titziha fa 1-maqrati lam ya'fu ra&-
muha
Li -ma, nasajat-ha min junfibin wa-
wham'ali
which would scan :
Qifa nab- j fci min zikra ! habibin j wa-
inanzili &c.
and belongs to the first variation of the metre
Tawii.
Emancipating himself from the fetters of
metre, and gradually also of the uniform
rhyme, Muhammad created what is now
called saf, that is to say. a rhythmical
prose, in which the component parts of a
period are balanced and cadenced by a vary
ing rhyme, and of which e.g. the Suratu '1-
Qiyamah (Ixxv.) offers some fair examples ;
as (5-10) :—
Bal yuridu '1-insunu li-yafjura ainamah,
Yas'alu aiyaua yaumu 'l-qiyaman.
QUEAN
! Fa-iza bariqa 1-basar.
Wa-k^fisafa '1-qamar
Wa-jomi'a 'sh-sharnsu wa '1-qamHf
Yaqulu '1-iusanu yauma'izin aina 1-rnafair.
j(But man chooseth to go astray as to his
future ;
1 He asketh, u iVhcn this Day- of Resurrec
tion?"
When the «»ye-*iffht shall be dazzled.
And the moon shall be darkened,
And the sun and the moon shall bo to
gether,
On that day man shall cry, " Where is
there « placo to flee to ? **)
And again (22-30):
Wa-wiijiihiu yauma'izin uazirah
HA rabbi ha aazirah,
Wa-wujuhin .vauma'izin biisir.iU
Tazauuu KH yaf-ala bi-lia faqirah.
Kallii iza baJaghAti 't-taraqiya
Wa-qTIa man raq
Wa-zauna annahu l-flraq
Wa 1-taffati 's-saqn bi Vsaq
lin rabbi -ta yaurna'izini '1-masaq.
On that day shall faces beam with light,
Out-looking towards their lord ;
And faces on tliat day shall be dismal.
As it they thought that soino calamity I
would therein befall them i
Assuredly when the soul ohall come up to
the breast bone.
And there shall t*t * ciy, '; Who is the
magician to restore him ? "
And the man feeloth that the time of Ida
departure « write,
And when one leg shall bo enlaced with
the other,
To thy Lord on that day shall ho be driven.
1 his kind of rhetorical style, the peculi
irily of which Professor Palruer, in the pa.s-
age quoted, p. 623, aptly explains from the
(tymological structure of Arabic, has become
he favourite model of oratorical aud ornate
with the later Arabs. It is ire-
employed in ordinary narratives,
*uch as the tales of the Arabian Ntubts,
vheuevrr the occasion requires a more-
ilevaied form of speech; it in the usual
arb oi that class of compositions, which is
:uovm by the name of Maqamut, and even
xtentiivo* historical works, as the Life of
rtnutr. by 'Arab Shah, are written in it
hroughout.
But Mnlmmmad rnado a still greater .tnd
lore decisive atep towards creating u litera-
iire for his people. In those Surahs, in
rfi»ick uc re^ulatoct the private and public
ife of the Muslim, hf» origrinated a pvoso,
/hich ha.» i-cuiauied The standard of classical i
iurity ever siuce.
With regard to this point, however, it has
een stated, seemingrlv in disparagement of
ho later Ajrabic authors, that their accepting
lubammad's language as a perfect standard,
roiu >vhieh TIO ucvialiou is admissible, has
ed Ihem to adopt au artilicial style, ns
innatural " as tliough Eii'lishniou should
OUR'AN
529
atill continue to follow Chaucer aa their
model, in spite of the changr.-! \vhich their
language has undergone." But ia such a
parallel justiiied in facts? In Knglish. as
amongst modern nations in general, the
written language has always kept in close
contact with the spoken language : the
c-hiuigos which the former has undergone
are simply the registration and legalisation
of the Changes which in course of time had
taken place in the latter. Not so in Arabic.
From tho moment when, at the epoch of its
fullest and i;cuest growth, it was through
the composition of the Quran, invested with
the dignity of a literary language, it was, by
ils very nature, for many centuries to come,
precluded frem any essential change, whether
this be considered as an advantage or not
The reason for this lies in too lirst instance
iu the trilateral character of tiie Semitic
roots, referred to by Professor Palmer svtiich
allows such a root to form one, two. or three
syllables, according to the pronunciation of
oach letter, with or without a vowel Let
us take as art example once more the root
2-r-b {^f&V which conveys the idea of
" boating,1 and serves in Arabic grammars,
like the Greek TUTrru), to form para<u£aid, oy
way of a wholesome admonition, i suppose,
to the youthful student. The first of those
three consonants can only remain quiescent,
i.e. vowel-less, if it is preceded by a vowel,
as in the Imperative i-zrib (s^^c\). "beat
thou,M where the root appears as a mono
syllable, or in the aorist va-zntou ( w^y4>).
•' he beats or will b«at," where it takes toge
ther with the iinal u a dissylabic form. Tf
we leave the second consonant quiescent and
jionounce the first with a, we have -rarb. with
*f O"
the nominative termination zurbun (««>y4)>
the verbal noun {i beatmg *' or inGnitivo 'Mo
beat." Vocaliaing both tho first letters, we
mav obtain .zanb, the active participle " beat
ing, ' or zurub. plartil of the last mentioned
zarb. with the nominative termination zanl->in
^»_-»,U i and
three consonants with vowels, it may be
zaraba (^j^)^ :<oe ^^ beat," or zarabu
(\+;r±)- ." lu°y (lld b<>flt-" TaKing, again, the
two forms zaraba, i( he did beat," and ifa-
zn'bu, " he beats or will beat/' a simple chauife
of vowels suffices to transform the active
into the passive : zunba w*)» " h« w»*
," and wtzrub* (t^y%)< " ne JS
or vill be beaten." Lastly, it must be
uoiiced, that tho distinction bctwucn tlie TWO
fnndamontaltenses of the Arabic verb rusts on
tht principle that the affixes, representing
the porsoiuil proiiouni, are in the preterite
placed at the end, in tho aorisl at the begin
ning of the root: zarab-na* "we did beat."
but na-*ribu, • we beat or will beat.
From all this it will be easily understood
67
530
QTTR AN
that any essential change In the written Ian- |
guage must deeply affect the whole system
of Arabic accidence, and that this language
•will, therefore, naturally be ? verse to such
changes. But, moreover, thi.» system stands
in closest connection with an«i dependence on
the syntactical structure uf the language,
which" is equally " conservative," If I may
trse this expression, in its fundamental prin
ciples. The Arabic syntax knows only two
kinds of sentences ( ;Wu'o/i), one called nomi
nal (ismiyah), because it begins with a noun,
the other verbal ffrl.ynk)i because it begins
with a verb. Reduced to their shortest ex
pression an example of the first would be :
Zaidun zaribun («^U Sj). " Zaid (is)
beating n; of the .second: zaraba zaidun
(jjj s^>)> " (there) did b^at Zaid." The
constituent parts of the nominal sentence,
which we would call subject and predicate,
are termed mubtada', " incipient," and khal*a.r.
" report," meaning that which is enounced or
stated of the subject. Th<; khutor need not
be an attributive, a.s in the sentence given
above, but it may be another clauso, either
nominal or verbal, and if it is the former, its
own mubtada' admits uvon of a third clause
as a second khabar for its complement. The
sulr'oot of the verbal sentence is called agent,
or/o'tY, and, as mentioned before, follows the
verb, or ft/, in the nominative.
The verb with icb agent (ji'l and fa'if). ov
the subject with its predicate (jmtbtadq* and
khabar), form the essential elements of the
Arabic sentence. Bui there are a great many
accidental elements, nailed fafluh, " what \s |
superabundant or in excess," which may >
enter into the composition of a clause, and
expand it to considerable length. Such are
additional parts of speech expressing the
varioua objective relations (maf'itC) in which
a noun may atand to an active verb, or the
condition (ho}) of the agent at the moment j
when the action occurred, or circumstances
of time and place (far/) accompanying the
action, or spoeificative distinctions (lamyiz)
in explanation of what may be vague in a
noun, or the dependence of one noun upon
another (izdfan) or upon a preposition
(khafz)% or the different kinds of apposition
(tawabi1) in which .a noun maybe joined to
another, either in the subject or the predicate
and so on
All these numerous component parts of a
fully-developed sentence are influenced by
certain ruling principles .(^iwimil, or " re
gents ";. some merely logical, but most of
them expressed in words and particles,
which determine the i'rab, that is, the gram
matical inflection of nouus und verbs, and
bring into play those various vowel changes,
of which we have above given examples
with regard to the interior of roots, and
•which, we must now add, apply equally to
the terminations employed in declension and
conjugation..
The subject and predicate, for instance,
of the nominal sentence stand originally,
QUSTANTIN1YAH
aa it is natural, both in the nominative*
There are, however, certain regents called
nawastkh, "effacing ones," which, like the
particle inna. " behold/' change the nomi
native of the subject into the accusative,
while others, like the verb kdno. "he was,"
l<»ave the subject unaltered, but place- the
predicate in die objective case: -zmrt-nn
zurib-itn becomes thus either inna xotW-M
teo.ri/>-vn, or ittinu zaid-un %urib-<m.
Again, we have seen that the aorist proper
of the third person singular terminates in u
(yazrib-n). But under the influence of one
class- of regents this vowel changes into a
(fWjrto-o); under that of others it is dropped
altogether, and in both cases the meaning
and grammatical status of the verb is thereby
considerably modified. If we consider tha
large number of these governing parts of
.speech — a well-known book treats of the
"hundred regents," but other grammarians
count a hundred! and fifteen and more — it
will he seen what delicate and careful
handling the Arabic syntax requires, and
how little scope there "is left for the ex
periments of wilful innovators.
At the time of Muhammad this then was.
apart from some slight dialectical differences,
the spoken language of his people. He took
it, so to .say, from the month of his interlo
cutors, but, wielding it with the power of a
master-mind, he made in the Qur'an such a
complete and perfect use of all its resources
as to create a work that, in the estimation of
his hearers, appeared worthy to be thought
the word of God Himself.
When a long period of conquests scattered
the Arabs to the farthest East and to the
farthest \Yest, their spoken language might
deviate from its pristine purity, slurring over
unaccented syllables and dropping termina
tions. But the fine idiom of their fore-fathers,
as deposited in the Qur'an, remained the
language of their prayer and their pious
meditation, and thus lived on with them, as
a bond of imity, an objeeb of national love
and admiration, and a source of literary
development for all times.
AL-QtTR'ANU 'L-'AZIM
fttJMtf). Lit. "The Exalted Reading."
A title given to the Introductory Chapter of
the Qur'an by Muhammad. (Miskkut, book
via. ch. i. pt. 1.)
QURBAN (0V), •&#• " Approach-
ing near." Heb. p"^p karban. A term tiRed
in the Qur'an andTiii rthe Traditions for a
sacrifice or offering. Surah v. 30 ; u Truly
when they (Cain and Abel) offered an offer
ing." [SACBIPICB.]
QURBU 'S-SA'AH (fcUK vj*}.
" An hour which is near." A term used for
the Day of Resurrection and Judgment.
QUSTANTINTYAH (A-a-Jok-*).
The word used in the Traditions and in Mu-
haumiadan history for Constantinople. (See
Hadisu't-Tirmixl) Istanbul (Jj»*s-t), is
QUBT
RAFI* JBN KHAD1J
531
the word generally used by modern Mus
lims.
QUTB (v-ti). Lit. "A stake, an
axis, a pivot." The 'highest stage of sanctity
amongst Muslim saints A higher position
than that of yhaus. According to the Kash
shdfu 'I'Iftildkdt, a quth is ono who has
attained to that degree of sanctity which
is a reflection of tho heart of the Prophet
himself. Qutbu \(-DiH, "the axis of reli
gion," a title given to omiucut Muslim divines.
[FAQIK.]
R.
AR-RABB (^j. "The Lord,"
" The Sustainer," " The Supporter." A title
frequently used in the Qur'an for tho Divine
Being, *:.£. : —
Siirah iii. 44: "God (Allah) is my Lord
Rabb) and your Lord (Rabb)."
Surah xviii. 13: "Our Lord (RubV) is tho
Lord (Ral)l>) of the heavens and the earth."
From its frequent occurrence in the Qu'ran,
it would seem to occupy the place of the
Hebrew JfirP Jehovah, the Kupto? of the
LXX-, the Dominus of the Vulgate, and tbo
LORD of the English Bible ; but all Muslim
writers say that whilst Allah w the /*•/»« rz-
Zat, or "Essential name of God/' ar-Ra-bbt
"the Lord," is but an ISMU Sifah, or attri
bute, of the Almighty.
Al-Baizawi, tho commentator (p. 6, line 10,
of FliigoFs edition), says, " rakb, in its
literal meaning, is ' to bring up/ that is, to
bring or educate anything up to its p*-i foot
standard, by :;low degrees, and inasmuch as
the Almighty is He who can bring everything
to perfection, the word »^>J\ .ur-Rabb, is
especially applied to God."
It la the Hebrew ^p^ Rah, which euiorn
into the composition of many names of dig
nity end otiice in the Bible.
Tn Muslim works of theology, tho word
occurs v-ith the following combination: —
Rabbn '/-'/,? w/A . Lord of Gl«,r>
'f-'Ahttnin Lor'i of tho l'ni\erso.
'l-Arbnb . Lord of Lords.
Rabbit 'I-' fbed . Lord of (His) Servants
The word is a mo used for a master or
owner, e.g. : —
Rabbn \i-Ddr .
Rabbu'l-Arz .
Rabbn 'i-Mtl .
Rabbn 's-Sahf.
The Matster of ihe house.
A possessor of property.
A person who pays in
advance for an article
RABBU 'N-NAU' (ty& v»j). The
" Lord of the Species." An angel who i« paid
to preside over the animate and inanimate
creation, viz. . nabvtdt. "vegetable"; hmwn-
ndt, " animal'' -^jamudat, " inanimate'' (stones,
earth, &c.), called al-'iihtmu 's-sujli, '• the
lower creation,'' as distiugui-shed from ul-
(dla;ttu '/-*«/«; i, " the heavenly world." (See
'
'RABI'TJ 'L-AIOHR (/A\
" The last spring month." The fount) month
of the Muhammad an year. [MONTHS.]
RABT'U 'L-AWWAL (J;M
' the fii.rti spring- month." The third month
of the Mohammad an year. [MONTHS.]
In India, the word rain* is used for Spring-
harvest, or crop sown after the raino.
RACHEL. Arabic Rahil (J*«*\>).
Heb. » &<ti*l' Th9 wife of J-icob and
the mother of Joseph. Not mentioned in
the Qur'un, but the name occurs in commen
taries.
The English form Rachel is a b trance error
on the part of our translators, who almost
invariably represent the Hebrew j*J by the
letter h. The correct forru, Rt*h*I, which
is the form familiar to Muslim writers, occurs
once in the English Bible, Jer, xxxi. 15.
AJi-RA'D (J*>) " Thunder." The
titlo of the xiuth Siirah of the Quran, in the
14th verse of which th* word occurs. " The
thunder celebrate* hip praise.''
RADD (<*}\). " Rejection, repul-
sion, refutation, reply ; ivpeul, abrogation,
making null and void ; hometirnes, erasure,
In Mubainmndan IRW it applies especially to
the return or surplus of an inlioritaiK .0
which remains after tho lr>gal purtioiw have
been distributed among the sharers, aud
whk-L, in default of a residuary heir, rut urns,
or .is to bo divided amongst the original
sharers.
RADDU 'S-SALAM (pSufl *j).
The returning of a salutation which is an in
cumbent duty upon one Muslim to another
[SALUTATION.]
AK-RAFP (#yj). " The Exalter."
One of the ninety-nine names or Attributes
of God. Tho word occurs in tho Q.ur'an,
Surah iii. 48 : " When God said, O Jesus ! J
will make tb.ee die and will take ih.ee »//> again
to myself (J^caUttj).
RAFJ{ IBN KHADU (^ #\}
ejj^). One of the Sahabah. He was
too youn;.1 to be present at B«.»'lr, luit )io
aci'ojvipauied Muliauimad at Uhud and was
wounded with an arrow, on which occasion
the Prophet said to him, " 1 will answer for
532
RAF1ZI
RA'LNA
you in the Day of Judgment." He died at
al> Madman. A.H. 73, aged 86,
RAFIZl i\j-rt.). Lit " A forgaker,"
Synonymou.-? with Hafizah (pi. Rawufiz} A
term used for a body of soldiers who have
deserted their commander and turned buck
again, applied to a sect of Shrahs who joined
Zaid the pen of 'All, the son of al-Husain,
the second son of the Khallfah 'All who,
when they had submitted to Zaid, demanded
that he should abuse Abu Bukr and : Umar.
tho lirst two Khalifahs of the Sunnis ; hut
Zaid refused to do so. for he said, "They
•were both Waidrs of iny forefather Moham
mad." Upon this they forsook, the party oi
Zaid. and were called llafizah. /aid imcl
then only fourteen faithful companions left,
and hfe was soon surrounded by al Hajjaj ibn
Yiisnf , the general of the imam Ja'far's army,
and fell at the head of hi* brave compa
nions, not one ot them .surviving1 him.
(2) The term R'ifizt is used oy Snnni
MU shins for any sect of Shrahs.
KAHBANLYAH (^W^). LMOSAS-
TIClSM.j
KAHTB (s~*t;), pi. Ruhba.n. A
Christian monk. Mentioned in the Quran.
Surah v. 85 : " Thou witt find the nearest in
love to those who believe to be those who
say, ( We are Christians " ; that is. because
there are amongst them priests (yimswn) and
monk* (ruhbdn), and because they nro not
proud/1 [MONASTICS M.J
&AHIL (J*^j. Lit. " That which
is fit for travelling." A small book stand
jiiueu: so as to fold up for convenience in
travelling, but now generally used as a book
stand in mosques and Muslim schools to
support the Qur'an and other books as the
student reads his lesson from th«m, They
are also used in private dwellings.
AR-RAHIM (f**-f\). "The Com-
passionate/' One of the ninety -mac names or
attributes of God. It generally occurs in
conjunction with the attribute ar -Rahman, e.g.
Quran, Surah ii. 156: » The Merciful. The
Compassionate," [RAHMAN.]
RAHMAH (&W), Heb. 3m
u Mercy, compassion/ The attribute of mercy
is frequently dwelt upon in the Qur'an, c.g* :~
Surah vii. M: "'The mercy of God is High
unto those who do well/'
Surati x. 58 j " A guidance and a rnercy to
believers/'
Surah vi. 133: '• Thy Lord is the rich one.
full of compassion."
Ar- Haft man, •"' The Merciful," is one of t,ho
chief attributes of the Almighty.
Au-RAHMAN
raffu/n, " The Merciiul. ' One of thx) ninety
nine names or attributes of God. It generally
occurs in conjunction with the attribute nr~lia-
hint, e.g. Quran, Surah ii, 15iJ ; "Your God is
one~God, There is no god but He, the Merci
ful, the Compassionate." It alao eccurs in the
j initial formula, placed at the commencement
of each Surah, with the exception of the ix.th,
"< In the name of God, the Merciful, the Com
passionate "
Al'BoizawI .sava that ar -Rahman is a more
exalted attribute than ^r-Ka/um, because it
not f/nly contains nve letters whilst Rahiir,
only has foui% but it expresses that universal
attribute of mercy which the Almighty ex
tends to all mankind, the wicked and the
good, believers and unbelievers.
RAHN (vj*>). Pledging or pawn-
ing. A legal term which siyuifiea the deten
tion of a tiling oil account of * claim which
may be answered by means of ttiat thing ; as
in the case of debt. This practice of pawn
ing and pledging is lawful in Islam, for il is
related that the Prophot, in a bargain with a
Jew for grainr gave his coat of mail in pledge
for the payment. It is also said in the
Qur'an, Surah ii. 283 • '• Let pledges be
taken. The word is used in, the Qur an in
its plural form, rihdn. (For further infor
mation on the subject of Pawning, see Ha
milton's Hiddyah. vol. iv. p. 188.)
j RAIHANAH (&W>). A Jewess
j whose husband had been cruelly murdered
j in the massacre of the Banii Quraizah. Mu
hammad offered to marry her if she would
embrace lalam; but she refused to forsake
the faitli of her forefathers,, and consented to
become his concubine instead of hia wilV
RAEN. Arabic mat,ar (/»*), Heb.
ItDD w*lor> Mentioned [in the Qur'an as
one of God's special mercies Surah vii. 55;
" He it is who aonds forth tho winds as
heralds before His mercy; until .when they
left the heavy cloud whicH We drive to a
dead tand^ and send down thereon water, and
bring forth therewith every kind of fruit."
Prayers for rain are called Saldtu 'l-lstisqd',
and consist of two rak ah prayers. Ana*
says that on one occasion they 'were caught
in the ram, and the Prophet look off his gar
ment until he got wet, and they said, «»O
Prophet, why have you done this ? "• He re
plied. " This is fresh rain from our Lord,"
(Mishkdi. book iv. ch. liii.)
RA'ISA 0-*^;). A word the use
oi which is forbidden in the Qur'an, Surah
Ii. 08: "0 ye who believe «' say not to the
Apostle - Rd-iact' (i.e. 'Look at as'), but
say, ' Uuxurnd' (i.e. ' Regard us)." These
two words have both the same signification j
but Muhammad had a great aversion to the
use of the word ru tna. because it had also a
bud moaning m Hebrew (see nl-Bai/awi, in
KAINBOW
RAMA7AN
533
oco), alluding, porhaps, to tbe Hebrew verb
J^ rua\ which signifies ;' to be mischievous
IT bad "
1>A1NBOW. Arabic qausu rjumh
(Cj* u-j*;> Heb. nttjg fa*M/i. Lrt.
•' The bow of many colours. ' . Not mentioned
in the Qur'an, but in the Traditions. Tn the
book entitled au-NihHfok\ it is said that
Muhammad forbade his people calling thf
rainbow qausu quzah. because i/nza/i is one of
the names of Satan (one who can ussnme
many characters in older to tempt the- son*
of juoii). He enjoined them to call it Qjuusu
'Udh. '* God'a how,'' because by il Cod ban
promised to protect the world from a second
delude. (MajHia u 'l-lhhar. vol. ii. p. 142.J
The lYrsians call it Kamdn-i~J{ustu/H, " the
bow of Tlustuni n (See Muatahu 'i-'Ai-ub, in
loco)
UAIYAN (yV.,). Lit." One whose
thirst is quenched " The gate of Paradise
through wlueh. it is said, the observers of
the mouth of Ratna/an will enter. It us men
tioned in the Traditions (Mishkal. book vi
cb. vii. pt. 1). but not in. tho Qur'au.
RAIiAN IBM AL.WALlD(e>> ^
JMJ^i\) The King of £gypt in the
Lime of Joseph. (See al-Baizawi on Suratu
Ytisuf in the Quv'an.
KAJAB (s-^-j). Lit. "The ho
noured month." The seventh month of the
Muhauuuadan year. So called because of the
honour in which it was held in the "Tirnc of
Ignorance/ i.e. before Islam. It is called
Rujahu Mmcur, because the Muzar tribe
honoured it more tnau an? other month.
[MONTHS. ]
EAJ'AH (***>). "Restitution."
Receiving back, a "wife who has been divorced,
before the time has fully elapsed when the
divorce must of necessity take pJace. In
other words, the continuance of the marriage
bond. (Hidayah, vol. i. p. 239.,
RAJlM (ptfr)), Lit. 4< One who in
Stoned '' A name given to Satan in tht
Quran Surah iii. 31: "I have called her
Mary, and 1 seek refuge in The« for her. and
fur her seed from Satan, the poitcd one (Mtn
tluil th«j devil and bin
angels Listen at the gates of beaven for
scraps of information regarding the things of
futurity, and when detected by the augeU of
heaven they are pelted with shooting stars.
Abraham is <il»o said to have drivon the
devil away by pelting linn with stones, which
legend is expressed in th« ih rowing;
at the pillars at Mina. f PU,GfciM.4GE.]
KAJM (, - ^).
TO DEY1H.1
" Lupidation."
KAK'AH (<%). From Ruku\ <; to
bow. to prostrate ones self." A section of
the Mohammadan daily prayers. ["i*ttA'rEJiS.]
H.AMAZAN (t)U-;). The ninth
month of the Muhanimadan year, which L>
observed a.-i a strict last from dawn to sunset
of each day in the month. The word Itumu
zdn in derived from rumz. •' lo bum." The
month is said to have been so called either
because it us«.'d (before the change of tlie
calendar) to occur in the liot .season, or be
cause the month'* fa.st is supposed fo bum
a-way the sins of men. (QJiiyu$u 'l-Luy/taJi, in
ioco~)
The observance ot this month is one ol tho
livo pillars of practice in tin- Muslim relisriou,
and its excellence is much extolled by Mu
hammad, who said that dnnny Hninazan
•' th.e xatos of Paradise are open, and the
gates of boll are shut and the devils arc
chained by the log, and only those who
obat-i vo it will be permitted to outer at the
gate of heaverr called Kaiyxn." Those who
keep the fast •• will be pardoned all llicir
p-ast venial sins.'' (Mishkut. book vii. ch i.
.pt. l.j
The express injunctions regarding the ob
servance of this mouth are given in the
Qur'an. Surah ii. 179-184:—
"0 believers! a Faat is prescribed to you
as it was prescribed to those before you. that
yc may fear God, for certain days. Bnt he
among you who shall be sick, or on a journey.
shall font that same number of other days :
and as for those who are able to keep il und
ytt break ity the expiation of this shall be
the maintenance of a poor man. And ho
•who of his own accord porformeth H
work, shall derive good from it: and
shall it IKJ for you to fast — if ye know it As
to the month Rninazan in which the Quran
^a.s sont down to bo man's guidance, and an
explanation of that guidance, and of that
illumination as soon as any one of you
observcth the moon, let him set about the
fast ; but he who is sick, or upon a journey,
shall fast a like number of other days. God
wistioth you ease, but wisheth not your dis
comfort, and tha. yon fulfil the numbi.-r uf
days, and that you glorify God for his gui
dance, and that you be thankful. And v/hen
my servants ask theo concerning me. then
will I be nigh unto them. I will answer ttte
cry of him that erieth, when ho crieth unto
me : but let them hearken unto me, and
believe in me, that they may proceed anght.
You are allowed on the night of the fast to
approach your wives: they are your garment
and ye are their garment. God knowoth that
ye defraud yourselves therein, so He tanv.th
unto you and iorsiveth yon ! Now., there
fore, go in unto thum with full desire lor that
which God hath, ordained for you ; and eat
and drink until ye ean discern a white thread
from a black thread by the davbreak : then
fast strictly till night, and go not in uaic
thcm: but rather pass the time in tlu- Mosques.
These are the bounds set up by God : there
tore come not near them. Thus Cod inakcth
His signs clear to men that they my it*u
Ilicn-'1
From the pvccodng verses it will }>••
that f*st does not coinui u- •• r<,'ii >oi.-v Mus-
534
RAMAZAN
EAMAZAN
lim is able to state that be has seen the new
moon. If the sky be over-clouded and the
moon cannot be seen, the fast begins upon
the completion of thirty days from beginning
of the previous month.
It must be kept by every Muslim, except
the sick, the infirm, and pregnant women, or
women who are nursing their children. Young
children, who have not reached the age of
puberty, are exempt, and also travellers on
a journey of more than three days. In the
case of a sick person or traveller, the month's
fast must be kept as soon as they are able to
perform it. This act is called llazff, or
expiation.
The fast is extremely rigorous and morti
fying, and when the Rain az an happens to fall
in the summer and the days are long, the
prohibition even to drink a drop of water to
slake the thirst is a very great hardship.
Muhammad speaks of this religious exercise
as "easy" (Qur'an; Surah ii. 181), as most
probably it was when compared with the
ascetic spirit of the times. Sir William Muir
(Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. 49) thinks Mu
hammad did not foresee that, when he
changed the Jewish intercalary year for the
lunar year, the fast would become a grievous
burden instead of an easy one ; but Muharn.-
madan lexicographers say the fast was
established when the month occurred in the
hot season (see Qjtij/agu 'i-Lugitah).
During the mouth of Rainnzan twenty
additional mfcaJts, or forms of prayer, are
repeated after the night-prayer. These are
called Tarati'lfi.
Devout Muslims seclude themselves for
some time in the Mosque during this month,
and abstain from all worldly conversation,
engaging themselves in the reading of the
Qur'an. This seelusion is called Ptikaf.
Muhammad is said to have usually observed
this custom in the last ton days of Ramazan.
The Lailatu Y-(i«dr, or the "night of power,"
is .said by Muhammad to be either on the
twenty-first, twenty -third, or twenty-fifth, or
twenty-seventh, or twenty-ninth of the month
of R&mazan. The exact date of this solemn
night has not been discovered by any but the
Prophet himself, and some of the Companions,
although the learned doctors believe it to be
on the twenty -seventh of this night Mu
hammad says in the Qur'an (Siiralu '1-
Qadr):-
M Verily we have caused it (the Qur'an) to
descend on the night of power.
And who shall teach thee what the night
of power is ?
The night of power excelleth a thousand
months ;
Therein descend the angels and the spirit
by permission
Of their Lord in every matter ;
And all is peace till the breaking of -the
morn."
By these verses the commentator Husain
understands that on this night the Qur'an
came down entire in one volume to the lowest
heaven, from whence it was revealed by
Gabriel hi portions, as the occasion required,
The excellences of this night are Said to be
innumerable, and it is believed that during it
the whole animal and vegetable kingdom bow
in humble adoration to the Almighty, and the
waters of tho sea become sweet in a moment
of time ! This night itf frequently confounded
with the Shab-i-jBaral, but even l.hf Qtir'an
itself is tot quite clear on lire subject, for in
Surah xliv. 1 it reads, "By this clear book
See on a blessed night have we sent it down,
for we would warn mankind, on the night
wherein all things arc disposed in wisdom."
From which it appears that " the blessed
night," or the LailAttu Y-wwftawforA, is both the
uii'ht of record and the night upon which
the Qur'an came down from heavon, although
the one is the twenty-seventh day of Ramazau
and the other the fifteenth of Sha'han.
M. Geiger identifies the Ramazan with the
fast of the tenth (Leviticus xxiii. 27) j but it
is probable that the fast of the Tenth is iden
tical with the 'Ashura', not only because the
Hebrew Asur, " ten," is retained in the title
of that Muhammadan fast, but also because
there is a Jewish tradition that creation began
upon the Jewish "fast of the Tenth, which
coincides with theMuhaianiadanday, 'Ashura'
being regarded as the day of 'ireation. More-,
over, the Jewish Asur and the Muslim •A.ihnra':
are both fasts and days of affliction. It is
more probable that Muhammad got- his idea1
of a thirty days' fast from the Christian Lent.
The observance of Lent in the Eastern 'Church
was exceedingly strict, both with regard -to'
the nights as well us the days of that season
of abstinence; bat Muhammad entirely re
laxed the ruled with regard to the night, and
from sunset till the dawn of day the .Muslim
is permitted to indulge in any lawful plea
sures, and to feast with bis friends-, conse
quently large evening dinner parties areujKL*'!
in the nights of the Hauiazan amongst tb.€'
better classes. This would be what Ma-'
hamraad meant when he said, "God wouic,
make the fast an ease and not a difficulty/]
for, notwithstanding its rigour in the day;
time, it must be an easier observance than
the strict fast observed during Lent by th<
Eastern Christians of Muhammad's day.
The following sayings of Muhammad re-;
garding the last of Rainuzan are found hi
the Traditions (see Miahkat. Arabic Ed.!
'• The difference between our fast and tha'j
of the people of the book (z'.e. .lews and Chris •,
tians) is eating vnly before the first dawn o
day (and not afterwards)."
"Keep not the fast till yon see the ne^j
moon, and if the moon bo bidden from yoi'
by clouds, count the days," And in one traj
dition it is thus :• — w A month is twenty-ntiVj
nights, then keep not tht- fast till you see th«!
new moon, which, if she be hid from you b;i
clouds, then complete thirty days."
"When the darkness of the night advaneej
from the west and the day departs from th1
east, and the sun sets, then the keeper of thj
fast may begin to eat."
"There are eight doors in . Paradise, an.;
RAMYIT L-JIMAR
AR-RAZZAQ
535
0 is called Raiyan, by which only the
lepers of the fast shall enter."
"When the montb Ramadan arrives tho
tors of Heaven are opened " (In another
lidition it \? said, the doors of Paradise are
coned), " and the doors of hell are shut, and
1C devils RTV chained" (in ^n* tradition it is.
hi, the doors of God's mercy are o|^ ned).
"The person vrho fa«t.^ in the month of
jmazan on wccount of belief in God and in
ifcdiflnce to Hi* command, shall be pardoned
nil his past .sins, and the person who says
e night prayers of the Raiuazitn shall be
irdoned all his past ains, and th* person
ho aays the prayers on the Lailatu '1-Qadi
ith faith and the hope of reward shall bo
iirdoned of all his past sins."
!"If a keeper of fast does not- abandon
ing, God cares not ahout his leaving oO"
,tinjf and drinking."
M There are many keepers of fast who gain
jthing by fasting hut thirst, and there arc1
nny risers np at night and performers of
•ayors who gain nothing by their rising hut
akefulness."
RAMYU 'L-JIMAR
he throwing of pebbles at the pillars, or
arnrah, at Makkah. A religious oeremonj"
uring the Pilgrimage, [PILGRIMAGE.]
RAQABAH (*«*,). Lit. "The
eck " ; pi. riqab. A term used in the Qur'an
>r a captive slave. Surah iv. 94. -" Wtio-
jever kills » heliever by mistake, then let
im free a believing neck."
The word is used in India for Jin enclosed
rea of land. (See Wilson's Glossary of
ndian Terms.)
AR-RAQ1B (s— a-S,-H). " The
Catcher over." One of the ninety-nine names
r attributes of the Almighty. Th6 word
ccurs in the Qur'iin, &.g, Surah iv. 1 : " Verily
fod doth watch over yon."
AR-RAQlM (f**X). A word
rhich occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xviii. 8 :
Hast thou reckoned that the Fellows of the
ave and the Raylm wore a wonder amongst
ur signs?" The commentators are not
greed as to the meaning of tbis word. The
alalan say, il wan a bra«s plkte or stone-
able, on which the names' of the Fellow* ot
he Cave were written. The Kamitliin rfay
f. was either the name of *.Le dog which be-
ongcd to the young men, or of the yallov in
vhich tlie cave was situated.
AE-RASHID (JL^J^\). "The
lightly Directing." One of the ninety-nine
lames or attributes of God. The word occurs
mce in the Qnr'an. but it is not there used
'or tho Almighty. See Surah xi. 80 : " Is
•here not among you one who ran rightly
iirect V "
RASM (r-;), pi. Rustim. lit.
'That which is stamped or sealed. Accord-
ng to the QJwi/j?, it is a very ancient word
nsed in Arabia before tho days of the Pro
phet for custom and law, the ancient records
of the people being entitled Rii't'iLsm (*^»\., \
It in a v/ord which is very common in itiu-
dnstan for the customs and usages of the
people.
AR-RASS ((j-/^). A word which
occurs twice in the Qur'an the meaning of
Avhioh is uncertain.
Surah x.xv. 40 : " The poople of 'Ad. arid
So mud, the people of the R<ms"
SFirah 1. 12 : "Before them the people of
Xoah and the fellows of tho Rass and Snrniid
and Ad and Pharaoh, called the Apostles
liars."
According to the commentators al-Jalalan,
it is tho name of a well near Midian. Some
take it to he the name of a town hi Yama-
mah.
RASUL (Jr;), pi. Rusul. "An
Apostle." A title specially applied to Mu-
hamrnad, but iised also for all Prophets who
brought inspired hooks. [PROPHET."]
RATL, RITL ( JLj). (1) A certain
thing which one weighs A, weight or mea
sure. (See The Mug.hril/ of af-Mv^arrizl, in
loco. (2) That which is chaste. (See the
Tfiju 'l-'Ari/s, -in loco'}.
(1) According to the standard of Baghdad,
a weight of 12 ounces, and as a measure of
capacity, a pint, (L;t7ie's Arabic Dictionary.)
Muhammad used to give, a ratl of silver as a
marriage present, which' has given rise to the
expression, As-sunnutu fi 'n nikahi ritlun
(JLj t\£A\ ^ JU.J1). Professor Wilson
says that at Bouihay the ratal is equal to 36
Sm-flt rupees, and in the Red Sea tho rottolo,
as it is corruptly called, varies from 10 to 20
ounces avoirdupois.
(2) A hoy not having arrived at puberty.
(8) AD aged man.
AR-RA'UF (u^t). "The Kind."
One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of
God. tt occurs frequently in the Qur'an, e.g.
Surah ii. 188: "God is kind and merciful
with mankind,"
AR-RATJZAH (fc^n). Lit. "The
Garden." The garden in which is situated
the tomb uf Muhammad at al-Madinah. The
name is also given to the lornb itself by some
writers.
RAVEN. Arabic g&urab (vV).
Heb. ~ foreb. Mentioned once in the
Qu r'an, Surah y. 34: "Am 1 t&u holplesa to
become like thin raven and hide my brother's
shame." The raven te not lawful food ac
cording to the Muslim law- (Dnrru 'l-Afu%b
tdr, vol iv. p, 523.)
RAWA (\j;). A Persian word for
that which is lawful. [LAW.]
AR-RAZZAQ
The Pro-
vider with Food." One of the ninety-nine
names or attributes? of God. It occurs in tho
Qur'an once. Surah li. 58 : " Verily God ;
He is the Provider."
536
REBEL
REPENTANCE
REBEL. Arabic bagki (^), pi.
buylidt. A legal term for a person, or a body
of people, who withdraw themselves from
obedience to the riehtftil Imam. In -case of
rebellion, the Iniam must first call the rebels
to his allegiance and show them what is
right, and if they refuse to obey, he mupt
use force of arms. (f/iduyah, vol. ii. 248.)
RECORDING ANGELS. The.
[KIRAMCJ 'L-KATJBIN.J
RED SEA. Arabic al-Bafrru- 'l-
Ahmar ( j+*~$\ j«r*tt). Mentioned in
the Quran as al-Bahr, " the Sea.>%
Surah i. 47 : " When we divided for you the
&ea. and saved you and drowned Pharaoh's
people/
Surah x. 90: ^ And We brought the Chil
dren, of Israel across the sea."
In Muhammadan works it is known a? the
Balira Y-Qtf&nm, or Qfllzam, Jaialu 'd-Din,
the commentator, says the town of Qulzum is
the same as Allot (the Elath of the Bible,
Dent. ii. 8), a town at the head of the Arabian
Gulf. The ATAam of Strabo (xvi. p. 766).
it is referred to in tho Qur'an, Surah vii. 163 *
" Ask them about the city which stood by
the sea/' Elath was at one time a place of
importance, but it has now become quite in
significant.
RELIGION. The religion of
Mubammadans is called Islam (/»iL«^) and
the laws of God Sliarfah (^&\ There are
three words used by Muslim writer.1? for tho
word- religion, namely, Din. Milluh. and
Matkab. In the Eitabu 'tr Ta-rlfdt, the dif
ference between these words is as follows : —
Din ('(.Ok>) i» used for religion as it stands
in relation to God, e.g. Dlnu 'lldh, " the reli
gion of God."
Millah (&•), us it stands in relation to
the Prophet or lawgiver, e.g. Millatu Ibrahim*
" tho religion of Abraham," or Mil lulu V-
liasul. '•• the Prophet's religion."
Afazhab (vr^fea*), as it otands in relation !
to the decisions of the AlnjtaJiidun, t-.q,
Muzkabu Abi Hani fid).
The expression- I)in^ however, is of genera)
applicatiou, whilst Miltak and Mazhal are
restricted in their use,
RELIGIOUS DUTIES, The per-
formanco of. Strictly according to Muhara-
niadati law. it is not lawful to accept any
remuneration for the performance 'of religious
duties. But these -injunctions are now totally
disregarded, and fees are taken for almost
evcx*y religious -duty performed by an Imam,
The teaching of the Hidayuh on the subject
is as follows :—
" It is not lawful to acccpl R recompense
for summoning the people -to prayers, or for
the performance of a pilgrimasre, or of the
duties of an Imam, or for teaching the Tvoian,
or the law ; for it is a general rule. -with our
doctpra, that no recompense can be received
tor the perforaianee of ;u)y duly puiely of a
religious, natuie Acconling to Sbafei, it i.s
allowed to receive pay for the performance
of any religious duty which is not required
of the hireling in virtue of a divine ordinance,
as this is only accepting a recompense {or a
certain -service; and as the acts above de
seribed are hot ordained upon the hireling,
it is consequently lawful to receive a recom
pense for them. The arguments of our
doctors upon this point are twofold. First,
the prophet has said, * Read the Koran, but
do not receive any recompense for so doing 'f
and he also directed Othman-bin-Abeeyas,
that if he wbio appointed a Mawsdn [a cryei
to prayer] he should not take any wages
Secondly, where an act of piety is performed,
it springs solely from the performer (whence
regard is hvd to his competency), and conse-
sequeutly ho is not entitled to any recompense
from another as in the cases of fasting or
prayar A teachor of the Koran, moreover.
is incapable of instructing another in it, but
by means of qualities existing in his scholar
namely . capacity and docility, and therefor*
undertakes a thing the performance of which
does not depend uponhimsuli, which is conse
quently invalid. Some of our modern doctors,
however, hold it lawful to jeeeive wages f or
teaching the Koran in the present age, be
cause HII indifference has taken place witti
respect to religion, whence it peoplw were to
withhold irom paying a recompense for in
struction m T,he sacred writings, they -would
in time be dwregai'ded ;— -and decrees pass
It is not lawful to receive wages for
singing or lamentation, or for any other
species of publie exhibition, as this is
taking a, recompense for an act which i* of
a criminal nature, and acts of that nature
do not entitle to a recompense in virtue oi
\ contract.
RE-MARRIAGE. Re-marriage
may take phice with the divorcer before or
after tue completion of the iddali provided
only the iirst or second sentence of divorce
has been pronounced, but it cannot take place
after a three- fold divorce until the divorced
wife is marriftd to another man and is
divorced by him alter the second marriage
has been consummated. This is both Sunui
and Shi' ah law (Tagore L-aw Lectures^)
A. widow can marry again at the expira
tion of four mouths ami 'ten days after tho
death ot her foimer nusband. Theie is no
restriction as to Ihe period for a widower*
RENTAL. Arabic ij&rah (*j±\).
[HTUK.J
KEPJbJNTANCE. Arabic taubah
(&*/). Lit. "The turning of the
heart from sin. (Au-Nawawrs Commentary
on Muslim. voL ii. p. 854.) It is frequently
enjoined in the Quran, e,g • —
Sumh iv. 20: "If they repent and amend
•let them be. Veiily God is he who relenteth
He is inerciinL*'
Surah xxiv. 3? : " Be ye wholly turnoa to
God. O ye believers, and it shall be well with
you "
EESIDUARIBS
Surah xxv 71 : u Whoso hath repented and
tath done what is right, he verily it is who
arneth to God with a true conversion."
PAKDOK.J
RESIDUARIES. Arabic 'asabah
*-*), pi. 'asabat. According to Mu-
ammadazi law, residuaries in their own
ight are divided into four classes : —
(1) Tho offspring of the deceased.
(2) The ascendants (such as father, grand-
ither, Ac.).
(3) The offspring of his father, viz. the
mothers and their descendants.
(4) The offspring of his grandfather.
\ye& Ameer Ali'a Personal Law, p. 49.) [IN-
RTTANCE.]
RESIGNATION. The literal
leaning of Islam is a state or condition in
hich a believer becomes " resigned " to the
ill of God, a "Muslim" being one who is
resigned." But in the Quran, the grace of
natioo is more frequently expressed by
ic word sabr, " patience," e.g. Surah ii. 160 :
Give good tidings to the pati&it, who when
lere tails on them a calamity, say. ' Verily
e are God's and verily to Him do we
»turn.' n
The word TasLlm. which the compiler of
w Kitdbu 't-Tarifat eays means to place
one's .ueck under the commands of God, seems
to uxjpress the £nglish word " resignation."
It occurs in the Qur'foi, Surah iv. 68:
" They submit with submission."
The author of the AkMaq-i-Jalali says
Ta&lim is to " acquiesce in and receive with
satisfaction (although, perhaps, .repugnant to
the inclination) the commands of God,*1 as
exemplified in the verse above quoted.
Riza. is also a word which expressed re
signation, and is defined as being pleaded with
the inevitable decrees of God, whatever they
may be.
RESURRECTION. Belief iu al-
yavmu 'Z-dA&ir (/JK ^\^ "the
Last Day," is an article of the Muhammadan
Faith. The terms used in the Qur'an are —
Yaumu *l-Qiyjmaht " Dav of Standing up ''
(Surah ii. 79).
Yaumu 'l-Fa$l, " Day of Separation "
( Surah Ixxvh. U).
Yaumu 'l-J-Iiitdb, "Day of Reckoning"
(Surah xL 28).
Yaumu 'l-Ba'f,, "Day of Awakening"
(Surah xxx. 56).
Yaumu V-ZWw, "Dav of Judgment ^
(Sttrab i. 3).
Al- Yaumu 'l-Afuhit, " The Encompassing
Day " (Surah xi. 85).
As-Sd'ah, « The Hour" (Surah viii. 186).
There are very graphic descriptions of the
Last .Day in the poetical Surahs of the
Qur'an. The five following belong to an
early period in Muhammad's mission : —
Surah Ixxv. :—
" It needeth not that I swear by the day of
the Resurrection,
Or that I swear by the self-accusing soul.
RESURRECTION
537
Thinketh man that we shall not re-unite
his bones ?
Ay« I his very finger tipa are we able
evenly to replace.
But man chooseth to deny what ii beiore
him :
Ho aaketh, 'When this day of Resurrec
tion?'
But when the eye shall be dazzled,
And when the moon shall bo darkened,
And the sun and the moon shall be to
gether,
On that day man shall cry, * Where is there
a place to flee to ? '
But in ?aiu — there is no refuge-
With thy Lord on that day shall be the sole
asylum.
On that day shall man be told of all that he
hath done first add last ;
Yea, n man shall be the eye -witness against
himself :
And even if he" put forth his plea . . .
(Move not thy tongue in haste to follow and
master this revelation :
For we will see to tho collecting and the
recital of it j
But when we have recited it, then follow
thou tho recital,
And, verily, afterwards it shall be ours to
make it clear to thee.)
Aye, but ye love the transitory.
And ye neglect the life to come.
On that day shall faces beam with light,
Outlookiug towards their Lord i
An'd faces on that day shall be dismal,
As if they thought that some gTeat calaaaily
would befall thorn.
Aye, when l/ie soul shall come up into the
throat,
And there shall be a cry, 'Who hath a
charm that can restore him ? '
And the man feeleth that the time of his
departure is come,
And when one leg shall be laid over the
other,
To thy Lord on that day shall ho be driven
on;
For he believed not, and he did not pray,
But he called the truth a lie and turned bis
back,
Then, walking with haughty mien, rejoined
his people.
Thai Bour is nearer to thee and nearer,
It is ever nearer to thee and nearer still.
Thinketh man that he shall bo left su
preme ?
Was he not a mere embryo ?
Then ho became thick blood of which God
formed jiirn and fashioned him ;
And made him twain, male and female.
Is not He powerful enough to quicken the
dead ? "
Surah Ixxxi. 1-19 r—
' When the sun shall be folded up.
And when the stars shall fall,
Aud when the mountains shall be set in
motion,
And when the she-camels Khali be aban
doned,
538
BBSTJRBEOTION
RESTJBBECtrOK.
And when the wild beasts shall be gathered
together,
And wh*m the seas shall boil,
And when souls shall be paired urith their
bodies,
And when the female child that had been
buried alive shall be asked
For what crime she was put to death.
And when the leaves of the Book shall be
unrolled,
And when the Heaven shall "be stripper
away,
And when Hell shall be made to blaze,
And when Paradise shall bo brought near,
Every soul shall know what it hath pro
duced.
It needs not that I swear by the stars of
retrograde motion,
Which move swiftly and hide themselves
away,
And by the night when it cometh darkening
on,
And by the dawn when it brighteneth,
That this is the word ot an illustrious
Messenger."
Surah Ixxxii. :—
' "When the Heaven shall cleave asunder,
Aud when the stars shall disperse.
And when the seas shall be commingled,
And when the graves shall be turned upside
down,
Each soul shall recognise its earliest and
its latest actions.
0 man I what hath misled thee against thy
generous Lord,
Who hath created theo and moulded thae
and shaped thoe aright ?
In the form which pleased Him hath He
fashioned thee.
Even so ; but ye treat the Judgment as a
lie,
Yet truly there are guardians over you —
Illustrious recorders —
Cognizant of your actions.
Purely amid delights shall the righteous
dwell,
But verily the impure in Hell-fir©;
They shall be burned at it on the day of
doom,
And they shall not be able to hide them
selves from it.
Who shall teach thee what the day of
doom is?
Once more Who shall teach thee what the
day oi doom is ?
It is a day when one soul shall be powerless
for another sotil : all sovereignty on that
day shall be with God,"
Surah Ixxxiii 4-20:—
What! have they no thought that they
shall be raised again
For the great clay ?
The day when mankind shall stand before
the Lord of the worlds.
Yest the register of the wicked is in
Stjjm.
And who shall make thee understand what
is?
It is a book distinctly written.
Woe, on that day, to those who treated our
signs as lies,
Who treated the day of judgment as a lie !
None treat it as a lie, save the transgressor,
the criminal.
Who, when our signs are rehearsed to him,
saith, ' Tales of the Ancients » '
Yes ; but their own works have got the
mastery over their hearts.
Yes ; they shall be shut out as by a veil
from their Lord on that day ;
Then shall they be burned in Hell- tire:
Then shall it be said to them, ' This is what
ye deemed a lie.'
Even so. But the register of the righteous
is in 'Uliyon.
And who shall make thee understand what
A book distinctly written."
Surah Ixxxiv. 1-19 :—
•• When the Heaven shall have split asunder
And duteously obeyed its Lord :
And when Earih shall have been stretched
out a* a plain,
And shall have cast forth what wad in her
and become empty,
And duteously obeyed its Lord ;
Then vorily, 0 ma^ who desirest to reach
thy. Lord, shall 'aou meet him.
And he into' wl oso right hand his Book
shall be givon,
Shall be reckoned with in an easy reckon*
ing*
And shall turn, rejoicing, to his kindred.
But he whose Book shall bo given him
behind his back
Shall invoke destruction :
But in the fire shall he burn,
For that he lived joyously among hi*
kindred,
Without a thought that he should return to
God.
Yea, but his Lord beheld him.
It needs not therefore that I swear by the
sunset redness,
And by the night and its gatherings,
And by the moon when at her full,
That from state to state shall ye be surely
carried onward."
The following description belong? to a much
later period than the former Surahs already
quoted, and occurs in Surah xxii. 1-7, which
was given at Al-Madinah not long before Mu
hammad's death * —
"0 men (of Makkah) fear your Lori
Verily the Earthquake of the Hour will be a
tremendous thing- !
" Oil the day when ye shall behold it, every
suckling woumu shall forsake her sucking
babe ; and every woman that hath a burdon
in her womb shall cast her burden; and thou
shalt see men drunken, yet are they not
drun'ken: but it is the mighty chastisement
of God !
" There is a man who, without knowledge^
wrangleth about God, and followeth eviry
rebellious Satan ;
RESURRECTION
RESURRECTION
539
-Concerning whom it is decreed, that ho
lall surely beguile and guide into the tor-
tent of the Flame, whoever shall take him
»r his lord.
u 0 men ! if ye doubt as to tho resurrection,
et, of a truth, have We created you of dust,
ien of the moist germs of life, then of clots
I blood, then of pieoes of flesh shapeu and
nshapen, that We might give you proofs of
ur power ! And We cause one sex or the other,
t our pleasure, to abide in the womb until
tie appointed time ; then We bring you forth
ifanta , then permit you to reach your age
f strength ; and one of you dieth, and
nother of you liveth on to an age so
bject that all his former knowledge is
lean forgotten ! And thou hast seen the
arth dried up and ban-en : but when We
end down the rain upon it, it stirrcth and
welleth. and growcth every kind of luxu-
lant herb.
« This, for that God is the Truth, and that
*t is He Avbo quickencth the dead, and that
le hath power over everything :
" And that • the Hour ' will indeed come —
;here is no doubt of it — and that God will
wake up to life those who are in the tombs."
Very lengthy accounts of tho Day of Resur
rection, and of the signs preceding it, are
jiven iu all books of tradition, and works
on dogmatic theology. (See Sahlhu 'l-Bukhdri,
Arabic Ed. Kitabu 'l-Fitan, p. 1045 ; Safchu
'I'Musiim Arabic Ed. volii. p. 388; Mishkdtu
'l-Ma$dbih, Arabic Ed. Kitabu 'l-Fiian ; Sharhu
'l-Muwdqif, p. 579.)
The following, collected by Mr. Sale from
various writers, is given, with some altera-
tions> additions, and references.
It is the received opinion amongst Muslims
>of all sects that at the Resurrection the body
will be raised and united to its soul, and that
one part of the body, namely, the lower part
of the spine, the os sacrum, in Arabic called
'Ajbu 'z-Zanab, "the root of the tail," will
be preserved as a basis of the future edifice.
(Mishkdt, book xxiii. ch. ix.)
This bone, it ig said, will remain uncor-
nrpted till the last day, as a germ from
•whence the whole is to be renewed. This
will be effected by a forty days' rain which
God will send, and which will cover the
earth to the height of twelve cubits, and
cause the bodies to sprout forth like plants.
\ For this doctrine Muhammad is beholden to
the Jews, who say the same things of the
bone Litzt excepting that -what he attributes
to a great rain will be effected, according to
them, by a dew, impregnating the dust of the
earth. (Jfrreshit rabbah.}
The time of the Resurrection the Muham
madans allow to be a perfect secret to all
but God alone ; the Angel Gabriel himself
acknowledged his ignorance on this point
when Muhammad aaked him about it. (Mish-
kdt, book i. cb. i.) However, they say the
approach of that day may be known from
certain signs which are to precede it. These
signs are distinguished into *' the lesser " and
"'the greater."
The lesser signs ( fshdratit 4-6'a'aA) are as
follows : —
(1.) The decay of faith among men.
(2.) The advancing of the meanest persona
to eminent dignity.
(3.) A maid servant shall become the
mother of her mistress (or master); by
which is meant either that towards the end
of the world men shall be much given to
sensuality, or that the Muhammadans shall
then take many captives.
(4.) Tumults and seditions.
(5.) A war with the Greeks or Romans.
(6.) Great distress in the world, so that a
man, when he passeth by another's grave,
shall say, "Would to God I were in hi&
place ! "
(7.) The provinces of al-'Iraq and Syria
shall refuse to pay their tribute.
(8.) The buildings of al-Madinah or Yasrih
shall reach to Makkah. (Mis/ikdt, book xxiii.
ch. iii.)
"The greater signs ('Aldmdtu V&ra/t) are
as follows : —
(I.) The sun's rising in the west, which
some have imagined it originally did.
(2.) The appearance of the Ddbbatu *i-Arz.
or " beast," which shall rise out of the earth,
hi the temple of Makkah, or on Mount as-
$afa. This beast will be sixty cubits high,
and will be a compound of various species,
having the head of a bull, the eyes of a hog,
the ears of an elephant, the horus of a stag,
the neck of an ostrich, the breast of a lion,
the colour of a tiger, the back of a cat, the
tail of a ram, the legs of a camel, and the
voice of an ass. She will appear three times
in several places, and will bring with her the
rod of Moses and the seal of Solomon ; and,
being so swift that none can overtake her or
escape her, will with the first strike all the
believers on the face, and mark them with
the word Mu'min, " believer," and with the
hvtter will mark the unbelievers on the face
likewise with the word kd/ir, " infidel," that
every person may be known for what he
really is. The same beast is to demonstrate
the vanity of all religions except I.slain, and
to speak Arabic. [DABBATU 'L-ARZ.]
(3.) War with the Romans or Greeks, and
the taking of Constantinople by seventy thou
sand of the posterity of Isaac, who shall
not win that city by force of arms, but the
walls shall fall down while they cry out.
" There is no deity but God ! God is most
great 1 " As they aro dividing the spoil, ne\va
•will come to them of the appearance of Anti
christ, whereupon they shall leave all and
return back.
(4.) The coining of Antichrist, whom the
Muhammadans call al-Maribu 'd-DajjaL " the
false or lying Christ." lie is to be one-eyed,
and marked on the forehead with the letter>
jcJsi) K F R; signifying Aw/ws'-iutidel.1" He
will appear first between al--lraq and Syria,
or. according to others, .in the province oi
Khorasan. He is to ride on n white ass, be
followed by seventy thousand JVw? of Is
pahan, and continue on earth forty days, of
which one will be equal in length to a year.
540
RESURRECTION
RESUBBEOTION
another to a month, another to a week, and
the rest will be common days. He will lay
waste all place*, but will not enter Makkah
or al Madinah; which are to be guarded by
angels •, and at length he will be slain by
Jeans, who is to encounter him at the gate
of Lnd. [MASIHU 'D-DAJJAL.]
(5.) The descent of Jesus on earth. He is
to descend near the white tower to the east
of Damascus, when the people have returned
from the taking of Constantinople. He is to
embrace the Mtthammadan religion, marry a
wife, get children, kill Antichrist, and at
length die, after forty years'— or, according
to others, twenty -four years' — continuance on
earth, and be buried at Al~Madlnah. Under
him there vail be great security and plenty in
the world, all hatred and malice being laid
aside ; when lions and camels, bears and shoep,
shall live in peace, and a child shall play
with serpents unhurt. (See Sahihu 'l-BiikhmV)
(6.) War with the Jews, of whom the
Muhammadans are to make a prodigious
slaughter, the very trees and stones dis
covering such of them as hide themselves,
except only the tree called £j&arqad. which
iff the tree of the Jews.
(7.) The appearance of Gog and Magog,
or. as they are called, Ya'juj and M'a'juj.
These barbarians, having passed the lake of
Tiberias, which the vanguard oJ their vaat
urmy wiiif drink dry, will come to Jerusalem,
and there greatly distress Jesus and His
companions, till, at His request, God will
destroy them, and till the earth with their
carcasses, which alter some time God will
send birds to carry away, at the prayers of
Jesus and His followers. Their bows, arrows
and quivers the Muslims will burn seven
years together ; and at last God will send a
rain to cleanse the earth, and to make it
fertile. [GOG AND MAGOG.}
(8.) A smoke which shall fill the whole
«arth
(9.) An eclipse of the moon. Muhammad
is reported to have said, that there would be
three eclipses before the last hour, one to be
seen in the east, another in the west, and the
third in Arabia
(10.) The returning of the Arabs to the
worship of al-Lat and al-'Uzza, and the rest
of their ancient idols, after the decease of
every one in whose heart there was faith
equal to a grain of mustard-seed, none but
the very worst of men being left alive. For
God, they say, will send a cold odoriferoifs
wind, blowing from Syria, which shall sweep
away the eouls of the faithful, and the Qur'an
itself, so that men will remain in the grossest
ignorance for a hundred years.
(J L) The discovery of a vast heap of gold
and silver by the retreating of the Euphrates,
which will be the destruction of many.
(12.) The demolition of the Ka'bah in the
Makkan temple by the Ethiopians.
(13.) V he speaking of beasts and inanimate
things.
(14.) ;.h« breaking- oat of fire in the pro
vince of tl-Hijii;:. or. according to others, in
al-Yam,
(15.) The appearance of a man of the
descendants of Kahtan, who shall drive men
before him with his staff.
(16.) The coming of al-Mahdi, "the di
rector," concerning whom Muhammad pro
phesied that the world should not have an
end till one of his own family should govern
the Arabians, whose name should be the
same with his own name, and whose father's
name should also be the same -with hh
father's name, and who shall fill the earth
with righteousness. This person the Shi'ahs
believe to be now alive, and concealed in
some secret place, till the time of his mani
festation : for they suppose him to be no
other than the last of the twelve Imams,
named Muhammad Abu '1-Qasim. as their
prophet was. [SKI* AH, MAHDI.]
(17.) A wind which shall sweep away the
souls of all who have but a grain of faith in
their hearts, as has been mentioned under the
tenth sign. (Mishk&i* book xxiii. ch. iv.)
These are the greater signs which, ascord-
ing to Muhammadan traditions, are to precede
tho Resurrection, but still leave the hour of it'
uncertain ; for the immediate sign of its being
come will be the first blast of the trumpet, I
which they believe will be sounded three -
times The first, "the blast of constenwn
tion." at the hearing of which all creature* '
in heaven and earth shall be struck with^
terror, oxcept those whom God shall please
to exempt from it. The effects attributed toi
this .first sound of the trumpet are very
wonderful; for they say the earth will be
shaken, and not only all buildings, but the
very mountains, levelled ; that the heavens
shall melt, the sun be darkened, the stars fall
on the death of the angels, who, as some
imagine, hold them suspended between heaven*
and earth, and the sea shall be troubled and
dried up, or, according to others, turned into^
flames, the eun, moon, and stars being thrown'
into it ; the Qur'an, to express the greatness
of the terror of that day, adds that women*
who give suck shall abandon the care of their
infants, and even the she-camels which have
gone ten months with young (a most valuable
part of tit? substance of that nation) shall be
uf terry neglected. (Qur'an, Surah Ixxxi.) A|
further effect of this blast will be that COB-J
course of beasts mentioned in the Qur'an,
though some doubt whether it bo to precede*
the Resurrection or not. They who suppose!
it will precede, think that all kinds of ani
mals, forgetting their respective natural
fierceness and timidity, will run together
into one place, being terrified by the sound of
the trumpet and the sudden shock of nature.
This first blast will be followed by ft
second, the " blast of examination," when all
creatures, both in heaven and earth, shall die
or be annihilated, except those which God
shall please to exempt, from the common fate ;
and this shall happen in the twinkling of an eye,
nay, in an instant, nothing surviving except
God alone, with Paradise ajid Hell, and the in
habitants of those two places, and the throne of
Glory. The last who shall die will be the an
gel of death. (Malaku ^Maut ) (1 Cor.xv. 26.)
RESURRECTION
ty y«jar« after this will be heard the
of insurrection," when the trumpet
be sounded the third time by Israfil,
together with Gabriel and Michael, will
previously restored to life, and, standing
the rock of the temple, of Jerusalem (a$-
l), shall at utod's command call to-
aU the dry and rotten bones and other
id parts of the bodies, and the very
to judgment. Thia angel having, by
tine order, set the trumpet to his
ith, and called together all the sduls from
parts, will throw them into his trumpet,
whence, on his giving the last sound, at
command of God, they shall fly forth like
3, and fill the whole apace between heaven
earth, and then repair to their respective
which the opening earth will suffer to
and the first who shall so arise, ac-
Ling to a tradition of Muhammad, 'will be
ill. For this the earth will he prepared
the rain above-mentioned, which is to fall
IB ally for forty years, and will resemble
seed of a man, and be supplied from the
jr under the throne of God, which is
living water ; by the efficacy and virtue
which the dead bodies shall spring iorth
their graves, as they did in their
ther's womb, or as corn sprouts forth by
ion rain, till they become perfect : after
2h breath will be br&athed into them, and
they will sleep in their sepulchres till they
raised to life at the last trump.
Aa to the length of the Day of Judgment,
Qui'an in one place (Surah xxxii. 4) tells
that it will last one thousand yoars, and in
tner (Surah Ixs. 4) fifty thousand. To
;onoile this apparent contradiction, the
[ commentators use several shifts, some saying
'they know not what measure of time God
| intend* in those passages , others, that these
forms of speaking are figurative, and not to
be strietly taken, and were designed only to
express the terribleness of that day, it being
usual for the Arabs to describe what they
dislike as of long continuance, and what they
like as the contrary ; and others suppose them
spoken only in reference to the difficulty of
the business of the day, which, if God should
commit to any of his creatures, they would
not be able to go through it in so many thou
sand years.
That the resurrection will be general, and
extend to all creatures, both angels, genii,
men, and animals, is the received opinion,
and according to the teaching of the Qur'an.
(See Surah Ixxxi.)
In the resurrection those who are destined
to be partakers of eternal happiness will
arise in honour and security, and those wht>
are doomed to misery, in disgrace and under
dismal apprehensions. As to mankind, they
will be raised perfect in all their parts ami
members, and in the same state as they came
out of their mother's wombs, that is, bare
footed, naked, and uncircumcised; which
circuinstapcea, when Muhammad was tolling
his vrifo 'Ayishah. she, fearing the rules of
modesty might be thereby violated, objected
that it -would be very indecent for men and
RESURRECTION
541
women to look upon one another in that con
dition i but he answered her, that the busi
ness of the day would be too weighty and,
serious to allow them the making use of that*
liberty.
Others, however, allege the authority of
their Prophet for a contrary opinion as to
their nakedness, and eay he asserted that the
dead should arise dressed in the same clothes
in which they died ; although some interpret
these words, not so much of the outward
dress oi the body as the inward clothing of
the mind , and understand thereby that every
person will rise again in the same state as to
his faith or infidelity, knowledge or ignorance
h\8 good or bad works.
Muhammad taught (Mishkat, book xxiii
eh, x) that mankind shall be a?8embled at
the last day, and shaQ bo distinguished into
three classes. The first, those who go on
foot; the second, those who ride; and the
third, those who creep, grovelling with their
faces on the ground. The first class is to
consist of those believers whose good works
have been few ; the second of those who are
in greater honour with God, and more accept
able to Him : whence 'AH affirmed that the
pious, when they come forth from the sepul
chres, shall find ready prepared for theiii
white- winged caraele, with saddles of gold,
wherein are to be observed some footsteps of
the doctrine of the ancient Arabians ; and
the third class will be composed of the infidels,
whom God shall cause to make their appear
ance with their faces on the earth, blind,
dumb, and deaf.
But the ungodly will not be thus only
distinguished; for. according to the com
mentator ai-Baizawi (voL ii. p. 480), there
will be ten sorts of wicked men on whom
God shall on that day fix certain discretory
marks. The first will appear in the form of
apes ; these are the backbiters. The second
in that of swine ; these they who have been
greedy of filthy lucre, and enriched them
selves by public oppression. The third will
be brought with their heads reversed and
their feet distorted ; these are the usurers.
The fourth will wander about blind; these
are unjust judges. The fijth will be deaf
dumb, and blind, understanding nothing;
these are they who glory in their works.
The sixth will gnaw their tongues, which will
hang down upon their breasts, corrupted
blood flowing from their mouths like spittle,
so that everybody shall detest them ; these
are tho learned men and doctors, whose
actions contradict their gayings. The seventh
will have their hands and feet cut off ; these
are they who have injured their neighbours.
The eighth will be fixed to the trunks of
pahn-trees or stakes of wood ; these are the
false accusers and informers. The ninth will
stink worse than a corrupted corpse : these
are they who have indulged their passions
and voluptuous appetites. The tenth will be
clothed with garments daubed with pitch;
and these are the proud, the vain-glorious,
and the arrogant.
542
BESUREBOTION
BESUBKECTION
in the Traditions, Muhammad is related to
have said : —
The first person who shall receive sen
tence on the Day of Resurrection will be a
martyr, who will be brought into the pre
sence of the Almighty i then God will make
known the benefits which were conferred on
him in the world, and the person will be
sensible of them and confess them ; and God
will say. ' What didst thou do in gratitude for
them 'f ' Ho will reply, ' I fought in Thy
cause till 1 was slain/ God will say, 'Thou
Hest, for thou foughtest in order that people
miaht extol thy courage.' Then God will
order them to drag him upon his face to
hell. The second, a man who shall have
obtained knowledge and instructed others.
and read the Quran. He will be brought
into the presence of God, and will be given to
understand the benefits he had received,
which he will be sensible of and acknowledge ;
and God will say, ' What didst thou do in
gratitude thereof ? ' He will reply, ; I
learned knowledge and taught others, and 1
read the Qur'an to please Thee/ Then God
yifl^say . ; Thou liesi, for them didst study that
pebple might call thee learned, and thou didst
rea'd'ihe Qur'an for the name of the thing.'
yhen God will order him to be dragged upon
hJB face and precipitated into hell. The third
a man to whom God shall have given abun
dant wealth : and he shall be called into the
presence of God, and will be reminded of the
beriouts which be received, and he will ac
kpoxwledge and confess them; and God will
say. * What return didst thou in return for
them f ' He will say. 'I expended rny wealth
to please thec, in all those ways which Thou
hast approved.' God will say, • Thou iiest,
for thou didst it that people might extol thy
liberality ' ; after which he will be drawn
upon his face and thrown into the lire.''
As to the place where they are to be as
sembled to Judgment, the Qur'an and Tradi
tions agree that it will be on the earth, but in
what part of the earlh is not agreed. Some
say their Prophet mentioned Syria for the
place: others, a white and e-en tract of land,
without inhabitants or any signs of buildings.
Ai-Ghazali imagines it will be a second earth,
which be supposes to be of silver ; and others
an earth which has nothing in common with
ourg, but the name; having, it is possible,
heard something pi the new heavens and new
earth, mentioned in Scripture (Rev. xxi. 1);
whence the Qur'an has this expression, " on
the day wherein the earth shall be changed
into another earth," (Surah xiv. 49.)
The end of the Resurrection the Muham-
niadans declare to be, that they who are
so raised may .g've an account of their
actions, and receive the reward thereof. And
that not only mankind, but the genii and
irrational animals also shall be judged on
this great day; when the unharmed cattle
shall take vengeance on Uhe horned, till en
ure satisfaction ehall be given to the injured.
As to mankind, when they are all assembled
tegether, tbev will not be immediately brought
to judgment, but the augele will keep them in
their ranks and order while they attend for
that purpose : and this attendance, some say,
is to last forty years, others seventy, others
three hundred : nay. some say no less than
fifty thousand years, each of them vouching
their Prophet's authority. During this space
they will stand looking up to hearven, but with
out receiving any information or orders thence,
and are to suffer grievous torments, both the
just and the unjust, though with manifest
difference. For the limbs of the former, par
ticularly those parts which they used to
wash in making the ceremonial ablution be
fore prayer, shall shine gloriously. And
their sufferings shall be light in comparison,
and shall last no longer than the time neces
sary to say the appointed prayers : but the
latter will have their faces obscured with
blackness, and disfigured with all the marks
of sorrow and deformity. What will then
occasion not the least of their pain, is a won
derful and ineredible sweat, which will even
atop their mouths, and in which they will be
immersed in various degrees, according to
their demerits, some to the ankles only and
some to the knees, some to the middle, some
so high as their mouth, and others as their
oars. And this sweat will be provoked not
only by that vast concourse of all sorts of
creatures mutually pressing and treading on
one another's feet, but by the near and un
usual approach oi the sun, which will be then
no farther from them than the distance of a
mile, or (as some translate the word, the sig
nification of which is ambiguous) than the
length of a bodkin. So that their skulls will
boil like a pot, and they will be alV bathed in
sweat. From this inconvenience, however,
the good will be protected by the shade of
God's throne; but the wicked will be so
miserably tormented with it, also with hun
ger and thirst, and a stifling air, that they
will cry out, "Lord, deliver us from this an*
guish, though thou send us into hell-fire 1 "
What they fable oi the extraordinary heat of
the sun on this occasion, the Muhammadan*
certainly borrowed from the Jews, who say
that, for the punishment of the wicked in
the Last Day, that planet shall be drawn
forth from its sheath, in which it is now put
up, lest it should destroy all things by its
excessive heat.
When those who nave risen shall have
waited the limited time, the Muhammadans be
lieve God will at length appear to judge them,
Muhammad undertaking the office of inter
cessor, after it shall have been declined by
Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus,
who shall beg deliverance only for their own
souls. (MishkUt, book xxiii. ch. xii.} On
this solemn occasion God will come in the
cloudvS, surrounded by angels, and will pro
duce the books wherein the actions of every
person are recorded by their guajdian ansrels,
and will command the prophefca to bea*r wit
ness against those to whom they have been I
respectively sent Then everyone will be
examined concerning all bis words and
actions, uttered and done by him in this life ;
not as if God needed auy information in those I
RESURRECTION
543
respects, but to oblige the person to make
public confession and acknowledgment of
God's justice. The particulars of which they
shall give an account, as Muhammad himself
enumerated them, are . of their (irae, how
they spent it ; of their wealth, by what means
they acquired it, and how they employed it :
of their bodies, wherein thoy exercised them ;
of their knowledge, what use they made of it.
It is said, however, that (Muhammad has
affirmed that no less than seventy thousand
of his followers should be permitted to enter
Paradise without any previous examination :
which seems to be contradictory to what is
said above. To the questions, it is said, each
person shall answer, and make his defence in
the best manner he cau, endeavouring to ex
cuse himself by casting the blame of his evil
deeds on others ; so that a dispute shall arise
even between the soul and tho body, to which
of them their guilt ought to be imputed : the
soul saying, •' O Lord, my body I received
from thiee ; for thou oreatedst me \\ ithout a
hand to bay hold with, till I came and entered
into this body ; therefore punish it eternally,
but deliver me." The body on the other
side will make this apology, '• 0 Lord, thou
createdest me like a stock of wood, having
neither hand thai 1 could lay hold with, nor
foot that I could walk with, till this .soul, like
a ray of light, entered into me, and my tongue
began to speak, my -eye to see, and my foot
to walk ; therefore pnnish it evernally. bnl
deliver me."
But God -will propound to them the fol
lowing parable of the blind man and tho
lame man. which, as well as the preceding
dispute, was borrowed by the Muhammadans
from the Jews. (Gemara, Sanhedr., ch. xi.)
A certain king having a pleasant garden.
in which were ripe fruits, set two persons to
keep it. One of them was blind, and the
other lame, tho former not being able to scv
the fruit nor the latter to gather it. The
lame man, however, seeing the fruit, per
suaded tho blind man to take him upon his
shoulders, and by that means he easily
gathered the fruit, which they divided be
tween them. The lord of the garden coming
some time after, and inquiring after his fruit,
each began to excuse himself ; the blind man
said he had no eyes to see with, and the lame
man that he had no feet to approach the
trees. But the kinsr, ordering the lame man
to be set on the blind, passed sentence on
and punished them both. And in the same
manner will God deal with the body and the
soui. As these apologies will not avail on
that day. so will it also be in vani for anyono
to deny his evil actions, since men and angels
and his own members, nay, the very earth
itself, will bo ready to bear witness against
him.
Though the Muharnniadans assign so long
a space for the attendance of the resusci
tated before their trial, yet they tell us the
trial itself will be over in much less time,
and, accordina to an expression of Muham
mad, familiar enough to tho Arabs, will last
no longer than while one may milk an ewe,
or than the space between two milking* of a
she-camel. Some, explaining these words so
frequently used in the Qur'an, " God.wlll be
swift iu taking an account.'' say that he will
judge all creatures in the space of half a day,
and others that- it will be done in IPM time
than the twinkling of an eye
At this examination they also believe that
each person will have tho book wherein all
the actions of his life are written delivered
to him. which books the righteous will receiv-
in their right hand, and read with great ploa-
suro and satisfaction; but the ungodly will
be obliged to take them against their wills
in their left, which will be bound behind
their backs, their right hand being tied up to
their necks.
To show the exact Justice which will be
observed ou this great day of trial, the next
thing they describe is ihemizdn or " balance,"
wherein all things shall be weighed. They
say it will be held by Gabriel, and that it is
of so vast a size that its two scales, one ol
which hangs over Paradise, and the other
over hell, aro capacious enough to contain
both heaven and earth. Though some are
willing to understand what is said in the
Qur'an concerning this balance allegorically,
and only HP a figurative representation of
God's equity, yet the more ancient and ortho
dox opinion is that it is to be taken literally;
and since words and actions, being mere acci*
dents, are not capable of being themselves
weighed, thoy say that tho books wherein
they are written will be thrown into tho
scales, ami according as those wherein the
good or tbo evil actions are recorded shall
preponderate, sentence will be given ; those
who.oe l>:ilance« laden with their good works
shall be heavy will be saved, but those
whose balances are light will bo condemned
Nor will anyone have cause to complain that
God suffers anv good action to pass unre
warded, because the wicked for the good
they do have their reward in this life, and
therefore can expect no favour in the next.
The old Jewish writers make mention as
well of the books to be produced at the last
day, wherein men's action* are registered, as
of the balance wherein tlu-y shall be weighed,
and the Scripture ustlf ocenis to have given
the first notion of both. But what the Per
sian Magi believe of the balance comes
nearest to the Muhaminadan opinion. They
hold That on tne day of judgment two angels,
named Alihr and Surush, will stand on tbe
bndg*) sis-$irat, tc i-xHtnine every person as
he passes ; that the former who represent*
the (Uvmc mercy, will hold a balance in Ins
hand, to weigh the actions of men ; that
according to tho report he shall make thereof
lo God, sentence will be pronounced, aud
those whose good works are loiuid mure
ponderous, if they turn tho scale but by the
weight of a hair, will be permitted to pass
forward to Paradise : but those whose good
works shall be found light will bo by the
other angel, who represents God's Justico.
precipitated from the bridge into hell
This ^xamination being past, and every-
544
BESUBREOTION
RICHES
one's works weighed in a just balance, that
mutual retaliation will follow, according to
which every creature will take vengeance
one of another, or have satisfaction made
them, lor the hi juries which they have suf
fered. And since there will be no other way
of returning like for like, the manner of
giving this satisfaction will be. by taking
away a proportionable part of the good
works of him who offered the injury, and
adding it to those of him who suffered it.
Which being done, if the angels (by whose
ministry this is to bo performed) say, "Lord,
we have given to every one his due, and there
reutaineth of this person]* good works so
much as equalleth the weight of an ant,"
God will of his mercy cause it to be doubled
unto him, that he may be admitted into Para
dise But if, on the contrary, his good works
be exhausted,and there remain etil works only,
and there be any who have not yet received
satisfaction from him, God will order that an
equal weight of their sins be added unto his,
that he may be punished for them in their
stead, and he will be sont to hell laden with
both. This will be the method of -God's deal
ing with mankind
As to brutes, after they shali havfr like
wise taken vengeance of one another, as we
have mentioned above, He will command them
to be changed int/o dust, wicked men being
reserved to more grievous punishment, so
that they shall cry out, on hearing this sen
tence pronounced on the brutes, "Would to
God that we were dust also ' "
As to the genii, many Muhammadans are
of opinion that such of them us are true
believers will undergo the same fate as the
irrational animals, and have no other reward
than the favour of being converted into dust,
mod for this thoy quote the authority of their
Prophet. But this, however, is judged not so
very reasonable, since the genii, bein^ capable
of putting themselves in the state of believer*
&9 well as men, must consequently deserve,
as H seems, to be rewarded lor their faith, aa
well as to be punished for their infidelity.
Wherefore some entertain a more .favourable
opinion, and assign the believing genii n place
near the confines of Paradise, where they will
enjoy sufficient felicity, though they be not
admitted into that delightful mansion. But
the unbelieving genii, it is universally agreed,
will be punished eternally, and be thrown
into hell with the infidels of mortal race. It
may not be improper to observe that under
the denomination of unbelieving genii the
Muhaininadans comprehend also the devil
and his* companions.
The trials being over and the assembly
dissolved. 1 Ue Muhammadana hold that those
who are to be admitted into Paradise will
take the right hand way, arid those who are
destined to hell-fire will take the lell, but
both of them must first pass the bridge,
called in Arabic a$-$irdt, which they say is
laid over the midst of hell, and described to
be finer than a hair and sharper than the
edge 'of ;> sword ; so that it seems very diffi
cult to conceive how anyone shall be able to
stand upon it, for which reason most of the
sect of the 'Mu'tazilites reject it as a fable.
though the orthodox think it a sufficient proof
of the truth of this article that it was seriously
affirmed by him who never asserted a false
hood, .meaning their Prophet ; who, to add
to the difficulty of the passage, has likewise
declared that this bridge is beset on each
side with briars and hooked thorns, which
will, however, be no impediment to the good,
for they shall pass with wonderful ease and
swiftness, like lightuing, or the wind. Mu
hammad and his Muslims leading the way
whereas the wicked, what with the slipperi-
nesa and oxtieme narrowness of the path
the entangling of the thorns, and tho extinc
tion of the light which directed the former to
Paradise, will soon miss their footing, and fall
down headlong into hell, which is gaping
beneath them.
RETALIATION. [QISA.S.]
REUBEN. Heb. DIN^ Reubain,
Jacob's -first-born son. Referred to in the?
Qui'afc, Surah xii. 10: "A speaker from*
amongst them said, * Slay not Joseph, but*
throw him into tho bottom of the pit : some ,
of the travellers may pick him up."
Al-Baizawu the commentator, says the?
name of Joseph's eldest brother was either
Yahuza, or RZbil. Josephus gives the namej
as Rcntbel, and explains it as tho " pity oil
God." (Ant. i. 19. s. 8.)
REVELATION.
PBOPHKTS.]
REVENGE.
[INSPIRATION
RIB A Oo). "Usury/' A te
in Muslim law defined as " an excels accord
ing to a legal standard ol measurement 01
weight, in one or two homogcnecntt article.1
opposed to each other in a contract of ex
change. and in which auch excess is stipnlatet
as an obligatory condition on one of thepartie*
witho at any return."
The word rtbd appears to have tho sam<
meaning as the Hebrew t
included gain, whether from the Joan o
money, or goods, or property of any kind. la
the Mosul* law, conditions of gain f.or the loai
of money or goods were rigorously prohibited)
Se« Exod. xxii. 25 ; Lev. xxv. 36. [USURY.]
RIBlT (kV*>). A station or for]
on the frontier of an enemy's country, erected
fox the accommodation, of Muslim warriorf
(Hamilton's Uidaydh, vol. ii. p. 357.)
RICHES. Arabic daulah (&^)\
Qur'an lix. 7, mal (J^»), kasratu 1}
mCd (JU3\ Sytf), "Great weatth.'i
Muhammad is related to have said, " Who!
ever desires the world and its riches in
lawful manner, in order to withhold hiinsa
from begging, or te provide a livelihood fcj
his family, or to be kind to his neighbour
will appear before Grod in the Last Day wit;
EIKAZ
RITES
645
bis faco as bright as a full moon. But who
ever seskfl the riches of the world for the
sak*> of oatflwaiion, wiii appear before God in
his an#or (Mi-hkai book xxii. ch. xsiii.)
3n the Qur'an i!" if* «;>id :- -
Surah xviii. 44 • " Wealth (mat) and chil
dren arc an adornment of this world, but en
during "rood works aro better with thy Lord
as a recompense, and belter as a hope."
Surah via. 2£ • •'•' Know that your wealth
»nd your chjJdron are but a temptation/
In the wr<s Surah, 12, i.J. the possessions
of this world arc contrasted with tboso of tlr,
world to eomo in the followin;" language:
"Seemly unto men is a life of lust1*, of
women, and children, and hoarded talents t f
gold and silver . and of horse* well bred, and
Cattle, nnd ffhli: — that \A the provision for
the life of this world : but God, with Him is
the best rerx>rt. Say. '• But shall we tell yon
of a better thing than this ? ' For those who
fear are gardens with their Lord, beneath
which rivors flow; they shall dwell therein
for aye, and pure wives and grace from God ;
the Lord looks OT ITis servants who say,
'Lord, -ve believe ; pardon Thou our sin* and
keep ue from the torment ol the fire,' — upon
the patient, the truthful, the devout, and
those who ask for pardon at th • dawn."
RIKAZ (j^V). Treasures buried
in the earth, pai'ticularly those treasures which
have been buried at some remote period.
In the llidaycih, the word rikaz includes
leu rut. " treasure," or other property buried in
the earth, and ina'din, " mines." Such trca-
aures are subject to » zakai of a fiith.
(Hamilton's ffidayah, vol. i. p. 39.)
RINGS. Arabic kbdtim (/*^),
pi. khawatim Silver signet-rings arc lawful,
but a gold ring is not allowed. (See Saklhu
'l-Bukhari p. 87! i
Ibn 'Umar SH.VP, " The Prophet took * gold
ring and put it on his right hand, but he
afterwards threw it away, and took a silver
ring, on which w&c engraved Mtjhctmmctdtm
Rarulu 'ilak, T.C. 'Muhammad the Messenger
of God,' and he eaid. Let none of you en-
grave on your ring like mine ' And when he
wore the ring ho used to havo the signet
under his finger and close to the palm of his
hand." 'All says the rin<? was on the little
finger of the l*»ft hand, and that Muhammad
forbade a ring being worn upon tho fore or
middle linger.
Ana* say a the Prophet's ring was of silver
and on his right hand f
Modern Muslims usually wear s silver
ring on the little finger of the right hand,
with a signet of cornelian or other stone,
upon which is engraved the wearers name,
with the addition of the word 'abdu (A^j.
" His servant,*' meaning the servant or v.-or-
shipper of God This signet- ring is used for
aignmc: documents, letters, Ac. A little ink
is daubed upon it with one oi the fingers,
and it is pressed upon the paper— the pursuit
who iiaos the ring having first touched the
paper with bis tongue and moistened the
place upon which the impreaxion i« to be
made. There is no restriction in Muslim
law regarding rings for women. They ar6
generally of gold, and are worn on the
fingers, in the ears, and in the nose.
RIQQ (J). The servitude of a
slave.
RISALAH (flU). Apoatieship.
The o zee of au apostfe or prophet. [PRO-
RISING UP, Arabic
It is a subject of discussion amongst students
of the Traditions, as to whether cr not it is
incumbent on a Muslim to riso up when, a
visitor or stranger, approaches.
Abu Unittinah says : '• The l*rophet came
out of hia house leaning on a stick,. and we
stood up to meet him, and ha said. : Do not
stand up like the Gentiles who give honour
to others.'1'
Anas says ""Thore "was no one more be
loved by the Companions than the Prophet ;
but when they saw him. they used not to rise,
for thcv knew he disliked it "
Abu liurairah say:: "The Prophet used
to ait with us in ihu mosque and talk, aud
when he rose up,, we aUo rose, and remoinad
standing till we saw him enter hie house.''
The general practice Amongst Muhamma
dans is according to tha last tradition, but it
is hold to bo very overbearing for a person to
require others to rise for him.
Mu'awiyah eays that " the Prophet said,
- He who is pleased at othe-r people rising for
him, does but prepare a place for himself iu
tho fire of hell" (Mishkat, book jocii. ch.
iv.) [SALUTATION.]
BITES. Arabic jnanvak, manaik
(«£jL-i*»), pi. mandtik. The ritaa and
ceremonies attending religious worship in
general Qur'an, Surah, xxii. 35 : "To every
nation we appointed ritts (mansak) to men
tion the name of God over the brute beast.*
which htf has provided for them.
The term mansik is more frequently uaed
for a place of sacrifice, whil«» mansak applies
to rohgious observance^, but the plural
inanastk is common to both, ami rendered by
Professor Pa Luxor and Mr. Rodwell in their
translalionn of the Qur'an, " rttea."
The principal rites of the Muslim religion
are the flajj, or Pilgrim*.*: • to Makkah,
with the ceremonies at the Makkan Temple
[HAJJ]; the daily ritual of tho liturgical
prayors [ PKAVKR] ; tho marriage and fujtera.1
ceroinoiues ; and with the Shi-.ihs, the i-ojv •
monies of the Muharram. The s.iot;.
the gi oat festival, although priui.-trily ]"i
of the Makkan Pilgrimapo coreino*.'
o^K'hiHtcd in all v -dirts of Isliiin on tin
A/an, or Foast of Sacrifice. [n>o 'L
Tho o»-i' mony of Zikr can hardly be
be oi»o of tM rites of orthodox Tsl'nn oi
though it is common in all parts of the
MUSUJII world j it belongs rather lo ^the
mystic 3ido of the Mubamroadutt religion.
I. ZI1LK.1
69
546
B1VBR
Arabic nakr (&), pi.
anhar ; Feb. IHD nahar. The word
f*:bahr, " sea," being also used for a
large river. [SEA.]
According to Muhammadan law rivers are
of three descriptions :
1. Those which are not the property of
auy, and of which the waters have not been
divided, lake the Tigris and the Euphrates.
The care oi these rivers, being the duty of
the State, and the charge of keeping Ihera in
order roust be defrayed from the public
treasury, bat these expenses must be dis
bursed from the funds of tribute &nd capita-
Ut>»i~tax, and tun from chose of tithe and aims.
2. Rivers which are appropriated and
divided, and yet at tho same, time public
rivers on winch boats sail. The clearing of
such rivers must be done at tno expense of
the proprietors, although its wators arc used
lor the public benefit
3. Water-courses which are held in pro
perty and divided and on which no boats
sail. The keeping of such streams rests
entirely with the proprietors
in countries where much oi the cultivation
oi land depends upon irrigation, the right to
water, or as it is called in Arabic skirb, 13 a
subject of much litigation, and chapters arc
devoted, to the Cvwsitieration of the subject
in the Hiddyah, laiawd-i-'Alamgirl, hum '/-
Mukhtar, and other works on Muslim -law.
Fot the Rivers of Paradise, see EDEN.
KIWAYAH rtty>). Relating the
words of another. A word used for both an
ordinary narrative, and also for an authori
tative tradition. [TRADITION.]
BIYA5 MS)). " Hypocrisy ; dissi
mulation." Condemned ill toe Qur'an.
Surah ii. 266 : k 0 ye who believe ! make
not your alms void by reproaches aiidMrfjury,
like him who spendeih his substance to bo
seeu of Pien and beiieveth not in God, and
in. the Labt Day, for the likeness of such a<n
cue is that o:f a rock with a thin soli upon it.
on which rain falletb, but leaveth it hard."
Sit rah iv. 41. 42 •. •» We have made ready a
shameful chastisement for Lhe unbelievers,
and ior those wiu- aesiow tboir substance in
amis to bo seen of men. and believe uot in
God and in the ijast Day."
HIZA' (£U;). A legal term, which
means --uc-Jkim? milk Irom the breast of a
woman for a. certain time. The period of
fosterage. [FOSTERAGE.]
RIZWAN (0Vj). The name of
tEe srardener or keeper of Paradise
ROAD OF GOD. Arabic sabllu
J***). Aa expression used
in the Qur'an and Traditions for any good
act, but especially for engaging in a religious
Wat. 1&ADXLU 'LltAH.j
ROMAN- [GREEKS.]
^ 'ROSA. BY. Arabic sub&ah (t*»*~).
The rosar>- amongat Muhammadana consists
RUH
of 100 baads, and is used by them for count*
ing the nioetj-oino attributes of Gtod, toge-
tlier with the essential name AUdh [000} : . or
the repetition of the Tasbtti (" 0 Holy God [.*%
the Tahmld ("Praised be Godi"), and the
Takbir (" God is Great I "), or for the recital
oi any act of devotion. It is called in Per
sian and in Hindustani the Tasblh (^j^J),
The introduction of the rosary into Chris
tendom is ascribed by Pope Pius V.. in a Bull,
A.:D. 1596. to Dominic, the founder of the
Black Friars (A.D. 1221), and it is related
that Paul of Phernia, an Egyptian ascetic of
the fourth century, being ordered to recite
300 prayers, collected as many pebbles which
he kept in his bosom, and threw out one by
one at every prayer, which shows that t&e
rosary was probably not in use at that
period.
'Abdu 1-rHaqq, the cornxaentator on the
Mishkdtu C-Afasd&ib, says that in the early
days of Islam the Muhammadans counted
God's praises on small pebbles, or on the
fingers, from which the Wahhabis maintain
that their Prophet did not use a rosary. It
.seems probable that the Muslims borrowed
ihe rosary from the Buddhists, and that the
Crusaders copied their Muslim opponents and
introduced it into Christendom,
RQZAH (*j.y). The Persian word
for the Arabic scum, or fastinp. TFASTINO,
RAMADAN.]
RUB' (e?;)- A fourth. A legal
term used in Mubamrxiadan b w e.o. " a
fourth." or the whVs portion whon her hus
band dies without issue.
EUH (Cjy), pi arv)$h\ Heb. H
ttt' ** spirit ; soul; life.;' Ibnu 'I- A sir,
author of the Nihcttf^h. iiays it is the uervou^
fluid or animal spirit. • A vaporous substance,
which is the principle of vitality and oi sen
sation, and of voluntary motion.
In the Kiiabu 't-Ta'rifat, it is defined as a
subtle body, the source of which is the hol
low of the corporeal heart, and which dif
fuses itself into all the other parts of tiae
body by means of the pulsing veins and
arteries. See also Gen. is, 4 : " Flesh with
the life thereof, which is the blood thereof.'*
Many of the ancients believed the soul to re
side in the blood. (See Virgil's jfJn., ix.
p. 349.) Tbc breath whi'ch a man breathes
RUH
and whkh pervades the whole body. Called
in Persian jdn (<jW)- The philosophers say
it is the bloort^ by the exhausting of which
life ceases. The word is generally rendered
in Hindustani as of the feminine gender, but
Arabic authors render it as often masculine
as feminine. (See Lane's Arabic Dictionary.
in loco.)
Inihe Qur'iiu the word is soiuotiuics used
for Jesus, why is known as Huhu 7/aA ("the
Spirit of God"), for the angel Gabriel. and
also for life, grace, soul, and the Spirit of
Prophecy. (A complete list of texts is ^iven
m the article SPIRIT.)
According to the Kttubu 't-Ta-rifdt. p. 76,
Spirit is of three kinds : —
(1) Ar-Ruhu 't-lnsanl (^iL^Si e«^). " the
human spirit/' by which is understood the
mind of man, -which distinguishes him from
the animal, and which is given to him, by the
decree of God, from heaven, of the true es
sence of which we know nothing. It is this
spirit which is sometimes united to the body
and sometimes separated from it, as in sleep
or death.
(2) Ar-Ruhu 't-tfaiwdni (^y\j^ cJ\)
**fhe auimai spirit,** by which is understood
the life, the seat of which is in the heart, and
which moves in the veins with the pulsations
of the body.
(3) Ar-Ruhu "l-A'tam, (^\ t^\) "the
exalted spirit," that, human spirit which is
connected with the existence of God, but
the essence of which is unknown to all but
the Almighty. The spiritual faculty iu man.
It i9 caller] also al-'Aqlu.l-Awwa/," the first
intelligence " ; al- Haqiqatu ''i~Mithammodiyah,
" the essence of Muhamuaad '' ; an-Nafsu V-
Wahidah. " the single essence " ; al-Haql-
yatv i-Sawaali/d/i, '• The original spirit of
man nrst created by God."
The following terms are also found in Mas
Una works : —
Ar-Rnhu 'n-Nabati (^luJ\ C;?»), "the
vegetable spirit."
Ar-lti>fo 'i-Tabvi (^j»M\ tyf*)> "tfce ani-
mal sphit."
Ar-J&bu 'litdhi .^^yine &v™
spirit."
A.'-RuhM 'y.&v/h (^ijUJ'i fc^ythe lower
spirit.' which is said to belong merely to ani
mal life.
Ar-Gii/ut ^(Jlvn (<j;y*n c^lV), " the lofty
or heavenly spirit."
Ar-Rihu 'l-Jarl \ J\, " thetravel-
EUKH
547
Hng spirit," or that which loaves the body in
sleep and gives rise to dreams.
Ar-RvJ:,u 'l-
resident spirit," which is said never to leave
the body, oven after death.
c^), "the spirit of
abri
castiug. into.'* Used for Gabriel and the spirit
of prophecy. [SPUJLX.]
. 'L-AM1N (^e-»
The faithful spirit/' Occurs- rs the
xx ?J. IBS: u Verilv from th* Loi\t of
the World, hath thie book comedown; the
faithful spirit halh com 9 dowu with if upon
thy heart, that thoumaypsl become a warnoi
in the clear Arahic topi-uc." U is suj
to refer to the Aujrel Gabriel. [SPIRIT j
RUHU 'LLAH (AW ty. "The
Spirit of God." According to M:;
is the special Kalimah. or title of Je.ui~. !jec
tuo Qia an.
Suratu 'n-Nisa1 (iv.), 169: "The M>
Jesus, the son of Mary, is only an Apostle ol
God, and His Word, which lie conveyed into
Mary and a spirit proceeding from Himself."
i (Kuhun min-hu).
Suratu 'I- Am bya' (xxi.)5 91: "Into whom
(Mary) we breathed of our spirit.*
Suratu Vfahrim (Ixvi ), 12: "Into whose
womb we breathed of our spirit."
It is also used in- tho Qur'im for Adam,
Suratu 's-Sajdah (xxxii.), 8; Suratu 'i-Hijr
(xv.), 29; and Suratu $ad (xxxviii.), 72;
where it is said that God breathed hit spirit
into Adam, but Adam is never called Mn^u
'Hah in auy Muhammadan book, (spuur,
JE803.]
BUHU 'L-QUDU8 (^&\ z»).
" The Holy Spirit v {lit, " Spirit ol Holiness M>
The expression only occurs three tiroes in tho
Qur'an : —
Surah ii. SI : "Wo .gaye Jesus the Son of
Mary manifest signs arid aided him with thg
Holy Spirit.'*
Surah ii. 254 : " Of them is one to whom God
spoke (i.e. Moses) ; and. we have raised sonic
of them detrroeD .- and we have s-iv^n Jestw
the son of Mary manifest signs, and strength
ened him bv the Holy Spirit.''
Surah v. 109: « When God said. ' 0 Jesus,
son of Mary ! remember my favours i .
thee and towards thy mother, when i
aided thee with the IJoiy Spirit, til
didst speak to meu in the cradle, nuo
fj'vo >v.u up.J'
AJ-Eaizawi says the
sion Rujtii 'J-Qudu$ is tho Angel Gb
alt«iou.?»h soaie understand ic lu j'elor to the
spirit of Jesus, and others to the Go. -
Jesns. whilst setae think it ia'the Ismu'l-
A'zam, or "the exalted name of God," whore-
by Jeans raised the dead. (v»Sae T&fsini '/-
Baizdwi. p. 65.) [SPIRIT. HOLY ariarr.]
RUINOUS BUILDINGS. The
owner of a ruinous wall in any buil<
responsible "for any accident occasioned by
its fall, after having received duo warning
and requisition to pull it- down, ant* a person
building a crookod wall i.s responsible for
the damage occasioned by i.i .• fitliin^. But
tho owner of a ruinous house is not respon
sible for accidents occasioned by the fall of
any article from it, an less such article
belong to him. (Fiidayah, Grudy's EJ , pp.
664, 6S6.)
RUKH (t»). The name of a mcii-
itiouj> bird, WAI oh is said to have power
to earry off a live als^h&n;. '<2$i-
548
AR-RUKNU L-YAMANI
AR-RTTKNU 'L-YAMANI
<yWtt). The YamanI pillar. e
south, corner of the Ka'bah, said to be one of
the most ancient parts of the temple. [MAJS-
JIDU 'L-HARAM.]
Burkhardt says : " In the south-east corner
of tha Ka'bah, or as the Arabs call it, RoJni
el Yatnany, there is another stone about five
feet from the ground ; it is one foot and a
half in length, and two inches hi breadth,
placed upright, and of the common Mecoah
atone. This the people walking round the
Ka'bah touch only with the right hand ; they
do not kiss it." (Captain Barton says ho
had frequently seen it kissed by men and
women.)
Burton remarks : '* The Rukn el Yamani is
A corner facing the south. The part alluded
to (by Burkhardt) is the wall of the Ka'bah,
between the Shami and Yeraani angles, dis
tant about three feet from the latter, and
near the site of the old western door, long
since closed. The stone is darker and redder
than the rest of the wall It is called El
Mustajab - (or Mustajab min el Zunub, or
Mustajab el Dua, " whero prayer is granted ")
Pilgrims here extend their arms, press their
bodies against- the buildhig, and beg pardon
for their sins." (£1 Medinah and Mecca,.
vol. ii. p. 160.)
RUKtT' (£#). A posture in the
daily prayers. An inclination of tee head
with the palms of the hajids resting upon tho
knees. [PRATERS.]
RULE OF FAITH. The Muham-
madan rule of faith is based upon what are
called the four foundations of orthodoxy,
namely,, the Quran, or, as it is called, Kalamu
7/aA; -the Word of God; the Hadii (pL
Akddlf;)) or the traditions of the .sayings and
practice of Muhammad ; //ma', or the consent
ol the Mujtaaidun, or learned doctors; and
Qiya*. ox the analogical reasoning of the
learned.
Tu studying the Muhammadan religious
system, it must be well understood that
Islam is not simply the religion of the Qur'an,
hut that all Muhammadans, whether Bunni,
RULERS
Shi'ah, or Wahhabi, receive the Traditions as
an authority in matters of faith and practice.
The Simnl Muhammadans arrogate to them
selves the title of traditionists ; but the
ShPahs also receive the Hadis as binding
upon them, although they do do not acknow
ledge the same collection oC traditions as
those received by their opponents. [QUR'AK,
TRADITIONS, IJMA4, QIYAS, RELIGION, ISLAM.]
RULERS. The ideal admmistra*
tion of the Muslim world, as laid down in the
Traditions, is that the whole of Islam shall ba
under the dominion of one Imam or leader, who
is the KM&fah (A6JU), or vicegerent, of the
Prophet on earth. The rulers of provinces under
this Imam are called Amir (^\}(p\. Umarff}.
'I he Eastern titles of Sultftn and Shah are not
established in the Muhammadan religion.
The word Malik, Heb. p JMelekh> occurs
' V V
in the Qur'an for a "• king," and is used for
Kio£ Saul (Surah ii. 248). The word is still
retained in Asia for the chiefs of villages.
In the Qur'an (Surah iv. 62), believers are
enjoined to " obey the Apostle and those in
authority/' but the chief injunctions are
found in tho Traditions.
In the Mislikdtu '£J£a*a6t£, book xvi. ch.
i , the f olio wing sayings of Mnh&mma-d regard
ing rulers are recorded :—
'• Whoever obeys me obeys God, and who
ever disobeys me disobeys God. Whoever
obeys the Amir obeys me. AJI Imam -is
nothing but a shield to fight behind, by which
calamities are avoided. ; and if ho orders you
to abstain from that which ia unlawful, he
will have great regard : but if ho enjoins that
which God has forbidden, he will beur the
punishment of hia own acts."
'* If God appoints as; your Amir t\ man who
is a slave, with his ears and noso cut off, and
who puts people to death according to God'g
book, then you must listen and obey him in
all things/'
'vlf a negro slave is appointed to rule ever
you, you must listen to hiia and obey him,
even though his head be like a dried grape."
'•It is indispensable for avory Muslim tp
listen to and approve the orders of the Imam, ,
whether bo likes or dislikes, so long as he IB I
not ordered to bin and act contrary to law
When he is ordered to sin, hf must neither i
attend to it nor obey it."
"There is no obedience due to sinful i
commands, not to any order, but what is i
lawful."
u He who shall see a tiling in his ruler which i
he dislikes, let him be patient, for verily j
there is not one who shall separate a bodyj
of Muslims the breadth of a span, and he I
dies, out he dies like the people of igno- j
ranee."
" The beet Imains are those you love,!
and those who Jove you, and those who|
pray for compassion on you, and yon out
them ; and the worst of ImSrrs nre thoael
you hate, and those who hnto you; anoj
those whom you curse, and who rarse you/' <
Auf said. " 0 Prophet of God! when ifcfl
RULERS
ire our enemiee and wo theirs, may we not |
light against them ? n He said. «* No, so long
v« they keep on foot the prayers amongst
lyou." This ho repeated. " Bewaro,r,he who
shall be oonfltitutod your ruler, see if he does
anything in disobedience to God, and if he
does, hold it in displeasure but do not with
draw yourselves from his obedience."
" There will be Amirs among yout some of
whoay actions you will find conformable fco
law, and some eontiory thereto ; then whet?
anyone who shall say to their faces, ' These
aets are contrary to la wy verily he shall bo
pure ; and no w-he has known their actions to
Da bad, and has not told them so to their
faces, has cortainly not remained free from
responsibility, and he who has seen a bad act
and obeyed it, 13 their companion in it." The
Companions said, " May we not 6ght them? "
Ttw Prophet said, *' No, *o long as they per
form prayers."
"He who ia disobedient to the Imam will
come before God on the Day of Resurrection
without a proof of his faith, and he who dies
without having obeyed the Imam, dies as the
people of ignorance."
"Prophets were the governors of the chil
dren of Israel, and whru one died, another
supplied his place; and verily there is no
prophet after me, and the time is near when
there will be after me a great many Khall-
falw." The Companions said. " Themvhat do
you order us?" The Prophet said, "Obey
the Khalifah, and, give him bis due ; for
verily God will ask about the duty of the
subject.''
"When two ghalifuhs have been set up,
put the last of them to death, and preserve
the other, because the second is a rebel."
"Whoever wishes to make divisions
amongst my people, kill with a sword."
"He who acknowledges an Imam must
obey him as far as in his power, and if another
pretender comes, kill him."
" Verily the time is near that you will be
ambitious of ruling ; and it is at hand that
this love of rule will be a cause of Borrow at
the Resurrection, although the possession of
it appears pleasant, and its departure un
pleasant"
"That is the beat of men who dislikes
power."
" Bewaro ! you are all guardians of the
subject, and you will all be asked about yout
obedience. The Imam la the guardian of the
subject, and he will be asked respecting this.
A man* is as a shepherd to his own family,
and will L«, asked how they behaved, and
about his conduct to them : and a wife is a
guardian to her husband's house and children
an'd will be interrrogated about them ; and a
slave is a shepherd to his master's property,
RU YA
549
and will be asked about it, whether he took
good care of it or not.''
" There is nc Amir who oppresses the sub
ject and dies, but God forbids Paradise to
him."
" Verily the v >ry worst of Amirs are those
who oppress ihv. subject.
" O God 1 he who shall be ruler over my
people and shall throw them into misery, 0
God ! cast him into misery ; and he who
shall be chief of my people and be kind to
them, thet be kind to him.'*
" Verily, just princes will bo upon splendid
pulpits on the right hand of God; and both
Cod'a hands are right."
" God never sent any Prophet, nor evar
made any KJialifah, but had two oounBellora
with him, one of them directing lawful deeds
(that is, a good angel), and (ho other sin
(that is, the devil). He is guarded from sin
whom God has guarded." [KHALIPAH.]
The Arabic form
of the Latin Roma, or Romanv*. The ancient
Byzantine, or Eastern Roman Empire. Still
used ia Eastern countries as a name for the
T Turkish Empire.-
The titl* of the xxxth Surah of the Qui'an,
which opens with the word. "' The GrteJu
are overcome in the highest parts of the
land; but after being overcome they shall
overcome in a few years."'
&UQAIYAH (M;). A daughter
of Muhammad by his wife Khadijah. Sho
was married to 'Utbah, the son uf Abu
Lahab, but being divorced by her .husband,
she was married to 'Us. man, the third Kha
lifah.
KTJQBA (.jiJj). Lit. " Waiting."
Giving a thing on condition that if the donor
die before the receiver it shall become the
property of the receiver and his heirs ; but ii
the receiver die first, the property given shall
return to the. donor. It is forbidden in Mus
lim law, because it exposes each of the parties
to the temptation of wishing for the other's
death.
EUQYAH (*«ij). "Enchanting."
The use of 8pelb. The word used in the
Hadia fbr exorcism and incantation. [KXOB-
OI8M.]
RU'YA' (.Vty). "A dream; a
vision. A term used in the Qur'an for the
visions of the Prophets. It occurs five times.
Once for the vision of Joseph (Surah xii. o) ;
twice for the dream of the Egyptian king
(Surah v. 48); once lor the vision of Abia-
ham (Surah xxxvii. 105) ; ouoe for Muham
mad's vision (Surah xvii. 62.). [DHEAMB.J
550
s/v
SABBATH
SA< (£wo) or STJWA*
certain .measure- used for measuring corn,
and upon which depend the decisions, of
Muslims relating 10 measures of capacity. It-
occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xii. 72: for the
drinking-cup placed by Joseph in his bro
ther's pack.
The compiler of the Tdjv '[-'Arils, says
that according to five different /eaders of me
Qur'an, it is given yuwa' in that verse, hut in
the majority of texts it is .sa'.
The Qamiis explains suwd' us a certain
vessel from which one drinks and $<r, a
measure of capacity. Its invariable measure
being, according to ancient authorities, four
tirnos the quantity of corn that fills two
hands ot a nian of moderate si/e.
Ai-Baizawi records., beaides $uivd* and $u'.
the reading $au; and smuduh.
8ABAr (»--,. (L) A tribe of
YamiUi, whose dwelling-places are called
Ma lib, mentioned in the xxxivth Surah of
tiie Qur'an (entitled the' Suratu Saba'), verse
14:-
" 1 sign there was to Saba' in their dwel
ling places : — two gardens, the one on "the
right hand and the other on the left :--• Eat
ye ot .your Lord's supplies, aud give thanks
to him ; Goodly i« the country, and gracious
is the-i,ord ! '
But they turned aside : ao we sent upon
them -the flood of Tram: ana we changed
them their gardens into two gardens of bitter
fruit and tamarisk nod some few jujube
trees,
Such was our retribution on them for
.heir ingratitude/
M. Caussin de Perceval, Hist, de.y Arabes.
vol. ILL, as well as M. de Sacy. fix this evoni
in the second century of the Christian eia.
(2; Also the name of a province referred
to in the Quran, Surah xxvii. 21, where it,
seems to be identical with the Sheba
" God : there is no god but He ! the lord]
of the glorious throne ! "
For a discussion of the identity
;.he
of the Bible, or the country of the Queen
of Sheba :— *.
" Nor tamed it (the lapwing) long ere it
came and said, 'I have gained tho knowledge
that thou knowest not, and with sure tidings
have 1 come to ihee from Saba':
" ' I foiuid a woman reigning over them.
gifted with evervthmg, and she hath a
splendid throne;
'•And 1 found her and her people worship
ping the sun instead of God ; and Satan hath
made then works fair seeming to them, so
that he hath turned . them from the Way :
wherefore they are not guided,
"To the worship of God, who briugeth to
light tiie secret things of heaven and earth,
and knoweth what ;nen conceal and what they
manifest :
Saba of Arabia with the Sheba of the Bible,!
refer to the word Sheba in Smith's Dictionary
•7f the Bible.
SAB'ATU-AHPwUF
j'SEVKN DIALECTS."}
SABA'U X-MAgANI
Lit. "The Seven Repetitions." A
title given to the Introduc ory Chapter of
the Quran by Muhammad hi.nself. (Mishk&tA
book vin. ch. i.) There are three reasons as-'
signed for this title ? —
(1) ikicause it is a chapter of seven verses,!
which is said to have been revealed twice!
over.
(2) Because it contains seven words twice;
repeated, namely, Allah, God : Rahman, CQIEM
passionate 5 Raliim, Merciful ; fyakd, The«
and to Thee ; Sir at, Way; 'Alaihim, to whomij
and with whom : Qhairt Not, and La, Not. ^
(3) Because the seven versus are generally j
recited twice during an ordinary prayer.]
(See Majmcfu :l-Bi(idrf in loco ; and Abdu '1-1
Llaqq.)
SABBATH, The term used in the
Qur'an for the Jewish Sabbath is Sabt ( \^^^ i
a corruption of the Hebrew Ffeftj Shabbdth.
It occurs five times in the Qur'an : —
Surah ii. 61 : " Ye khow, too. those of you
who transgressed on the Sabbath, and to
whom Wo ("God) said. Be.coine scouted
apes.' "
Siirah iv. 60 : " Or curse you as \Ve (God)
cursed the Sabbath breakers "
Surah iv. 153: «• We (God) said to thom
(Israel). •' Break not the Sabbath.' "
Surah vii. 1GS: "And ask them (the
Jews) about the city that, stood 'by the sea
•when its inhabitants broke the Sabbath;
when their fish came to them appearing
openly on their Sabbath-day, but not to them
&n the day when they kept no Sabbath,
Surah xvL 125 : ^ The Sabbath was only
ordained for those who differed about it.*'
In explanation of these verses, the com"
mentator, al Baizawi relates the following]
traditions. Moses gave orders for the obser
vance of the Day of Rest on Friday: but the
Jew* would not obey, and declared tnat they,.
would observe Saturday, as it was on that day ii
that God rested from creation, so it earn,-* to ,
pass that "the Sabbath was ordained for!
tbosa, who differed about it." But in the I
time of King David, certain people began to J]
break the Sabbath by fishing iu the Red Se«|
near the town of Ailah (Elath), and as tl
ponishment they were turned into apes.
For an account o« the Mn4?smx*:.ad&r< 8%b*fl
bath, see FRIDAY.
&ABBAN8
SABEAJSTS. Arabic
un. Probably from the Hebrew frS-lV1
SACRIFICE
551
bd. "'u host" Gen if. I. *.«.'• Those who
rahip the hosts oi heaven/ According to
uo Arabic writers, the Sdbiufl were a cer-
n suet ot unbelievers who worshipped the
r» secretly, and openly prolossed to be
natians According to others, they aro of
i religion of Sabi'. tho son of Scth, the son
Axiain ; whilst others say their ruliyion
lemblod that of the Christiana, except thai
iir qibluk was towards the south. Iruin
ence the wind blows. In the Qdwus it is
d they were of the religion of N'oah. Tho
rd fab? also means x>ne who has departed
m one religion to another rcliyion. and the
ib.s used to call the Prophet a&-$abi'. be
departed from the religion of the
raish to al-Tslani (Sec Lane's Diet, in
'}.) Al-Baiinwi ^ays 'some assort they
re worshippers of anarela. others that they
re the worshippers of tho star 3-
Pliey are mentioned three tunes in the
r'an. and from th< following verses it "would
pear that Muhammad regarded them as
levers in the time God.
Jurah ii. 00 : (< They who believe and they
io are Jews, and tne Uhristians, and tho
bean* —whoever bchevoth in God and the
8t Pay. and doot). thai which ia right.
ill have their reward with their Lord."
Surah v. 73: '* They who believe, and the
ws and the SatHians, and the Christiana —
iocvcr of them beliovoth in God. ancl in tho
at Dayi and doeth what is right, oa them
nil no fear come ; neither shall they be put
Surah xxii 17 : il They who believe, and
) Jcwa. and the Sabtaiis, and tho I'hns-
,us, and the Magiand, tind those who join
ler gods wilb God. verily God shall decide
nrun on tiie Day of ResmTGCtiort "
SABi'
[SABAEANS.]
8AB1LU LLAH (&\ J~~.). "The
nd of God." A term used for religious war-
re and other meritorious deeds ; e..g, Qur'an,
irah ii. ; —
Veri>e 14i*. And say not of those who
e slain in the road of God that they are
ad. but rather that th^v are living."
Verse 2G3 : " Tho»< who expend their
:alth in the road uj God" [JIHA.D. :
SABBATH. |
CHRISTIAN.
8ABT (W-). 1
SACKAMEMTS,
IUCHARIST, BAPTISM. J
SAC.BTFICE. ! here an-, six words
ted in the Muhawmadan religion to express
« idea oi sacriCco.
(1) {->o zabh, Hebrew HI17 zcbucf). Like
» Heurew word (Geu, xxxi o4). tho Arabic
used generally for slaughtering ainuiaia,
oa the Great Festival of Sacrificb
BBC L-AZiiAj, or, at ordinary times, for food,
In the Qdmus the word iabk is dofinod •• to
split or pierce 5 to cut the throat of an >
tim- " Iti the Qur'an. the word is used for
theslauwrhtermtf <A tlie heifer by Wosos(Suiah
ii. G3), for tho slaying of the sons •.«!' In:. .-I by
Pharaoh (Surah ii 4(>^. foi Macrilicii);. '<• idols
(Surah v. -I); and for the intentic a f Ahra-
hum to o -ci ilice his son (Surah i; M. 101 )
C2) oV qurban, Hebrew n \"5 korban
»T :'r
(L«>v. ii. 14), Lit. - Approaching near." It
occurs twice in the Qur'an, for the sacrifice
to hu devoured by fire from heaven, which
the Jcwo demanded of Muhammad (Surah iii.
179). and for tho offering of the sons of Adam
(Surnli v, 30) it is a. word frequently em
plovcd m Tslnm to express the ordinary sacri
tice. and Lbe great festival'is cnUed'm Persia
the -Id-i-Qiurban. or " Feast of Sacrifice."
^3) ^.j nahr. Lit. " To injure the jugular
vein." ITged for stabbing the breast of a
camel, as iu sacaihce, hence the sacrifice it
self. It occurs once iu the Qur'an, Surah
cviii. 1, 2: ""Verily we have given thec al-
f\au$ar so pray to thy Lord and sacrifice "
which. al-RaizHwi says nieans to sacrifice a
camel, tho most costly victim of the Arabians
The "Ida. 'l-Azhd is called the Yaumu n~
Nahr. I'rou' L-A./HA.]
CO ^ssr«^ uzhlyah. A word which docfl
riot occur in the Qur'au. but in the Tradi
tions it is the subject oi n Chapter m Mish
kdtu 'l-Ma$abili (book iv. ch. xlix.J. Accordmy
to tho Qjamun, it is derived from zahiv, zuftd.
a word which expresses that time of the dtty
when the sun has risen to a considerable
height, about -10 A.M. (Saidtu 'z~Zuhd. being
a voluntary prayer at Uiat hour;, ('tfm/ah
ia the ret ore the sacrifice offered about 10
o'clock on the day of the Great Festival.
(o) ^ai HaAy. or, ar.^ordin^ io another
reading, Hadi. Occurs four riuus ,:i the
Qur'an. Surahs ii. 198. v. 2 9C, US, for ou'or-
ing 01 a-n auimal for sacrifice sent to the
temple at Makkah, when the pilgrim is not
able to reach in time The Qdmux dytines ii
as that "which is pre.-scntud.'' Al-Bai7:)vrt
(7tr/i/"r, p 100) gives Hatty ai the plural
form of Hadyuh and Hadi as that of Uadi-
yah. The latter occurs in the Qur'un.
xxvii. ^5, for un orlcring or gift, and -"
have the sanio meaning ;is the Hebietv
miiicltah. which is used in the Old
Testament for a gift or tribute (Ueu, iv. 3),
and also for the unbloody sacrifice or uiCHl
ottering " 'vLe?. ii. 1).
(6) ciL*^« mansak. Occurs in th< Quran,
Surah xxii. 35 : " We have appoiutcu to every
nation a rite(ma!iJM&) " Suraii ii. 122 : '-Show
us ouj rites' : nuinasik): also veiise 1%. Al-
Baii'P,w; • foj'sir , p. 91), to l\><^ lirst passage,
c word i: wt of devotion, or
«i sacrifice which maws *t m.*ii .io«. to Go<i,
und mentions another reading, mansik, a
place of worship, of- which manasik is like
wise tho plural. The word, as quoted above,
as well as the plural form, is translated by
the late Professor Palmer " rites." [RITES.]
5S2
SACRIFICE
SACRIFICE
II. There are only two occasions upon which
Muhaunmadans sacrifice, namely, on the
Great Festival held on the 10th day of fcu fl-
Hijjah {*IDTJ *L-AZHA] and on the birth of a
child [AQIQAH].
(1) The great sacrifice recognised by the
Muslim faith is that on the Great Festival,
called the *Idu 'l-Azfra, or * Feast of Sacri
fice." This sacrifice is not only offered by
the pilgrims at Makkab, but in 'all parts of
Islam, upon the day of sacrifice. In the first
place, this sacrifice is said to have been esta
blished in commemoration of Abr-aham having
consented to sacrifice his son (most Muslims
say it was Ishmael), as recorded .in the
Qur'»n, when it is said God " ransomed his
(Abraham's) son with a costly victim " (Surah
xxxvii. 107) ; but Shaikh <Abdu U- Haqq. in
his commentary 011 the Mishkdt, also says
that al~ Uzhiyah, ** the sacrifice,1' is that
which at the special time (i.e. on the
festival) is slaughtered with the object of
obtaining nearness to God.
(2) The teaching of the Qur'an on the sub
ject of sacrifice in conveyed in the following
verses (Surah xxii. 37) : —
" The bulky (camels) we made for you one
of the symbol* of Qod (Sha'airi 'Uahi), therein
have ye good. So mention the name of frod
over them as they etand in a row (for sacri
fice), and when they fall down (dead), eat of
them and feed the easily contented and him
who begs. Thus have we subjected them to
you : haply ye may give thanks. Their flesh
will nevor reacfi to God, nor yet their blood,
but the piety from you will teach Him."
Al-Baizawi on this verse says, " It, the
flesh of the sacrifice, does not reach unto
God, nor its blood, but the piety (tiu/wo) that
is the sincerity and intention of your heart."
(Tafslru 'l-Baizawi, vol. ii. p. 52.)
(3) In the Traditions (Mishkdi, book iv. ch.
xlix.) we have the following : —
Anan says : ** The prophet sacrificed two
rams, one was black, and the other was white,
and he put his foot on their sides as he killed
thorn, and cried out, * Bf-smi 'llvihi, Allaku
akbar! In the name of God! God is most
great!'"
*Ayishah says : *« The Prophet ordered a
ram with horns to be brought to him, and
one that should walk in blackness, sleep in
blackness, and look in blackness " (by which
he meant with black legs, black breast and
belly, and black eyes), " and he said, « 0
'Ayishah, give rue a knife and sharpen it! '
And I did so. Then -the Prophet took hold
of the ram and threw him on his side and
slew it. And when he was killing it he said,
4 In the name of God ! O God accept this from
Muhammad, and from his children, and from
his tribe! ' Afterwards he gave to the people
their morning meal froni. the slaughtered
ram."
Jabir says : " The Prophet sacrificed two
rams on the day of the Festival of Sacrifice,
which were black or white, and had horns,
and were castrated; and when he turned
their heads towards the Qiblah, he said,
* Verily I have turned my face to Him who
brought the heavens and the earth hit
existence from nothing, according to th
religion of Abraham, and I am not of tb '
polytheista. Verily my pray era, my worship'
ping, my life, and my death, are for God, tk
Loj-d of the universe, who hath no partner
and I have been ordered to believe in on-
God, and to abandon associating any othe
god with. Him; and I am one of thoMas
Inns. OGodl this sacrifice is of TJaeo, anc
for Thee; a<fcept it then from Muhammati
and his people I ' And he added, ' In Uu '
name of God! the Great God'' and thet'
killed them!"
'All said : " The Prophet has ordsrod m<;
to see that there be no blemish in the anima '.<
to be sacrificed; and uot to sacrifice one wit}'
the oars cut, aithev at the top or the bottom
or split lengthwaye, or with hole* made ii'
them. The Prophet prohibited sacrificing a
ram with broken liorns. or slit eai*s,"
relates that the Prophet said:
'* Maji hath not done anything, on the day ol
sacrifice, more pleasing to God than spilling
blood; for verily the animal sacrificed wiU
como on tho Day of Resurrection, with its,
horns, its hair, its hoofs, and will make the
scales of his actions hoavy and verily itsj
blood reacheth the acceptance of God before
it falleth upon the ground: therefore ba
joyful in it."
Zaid Ibn Ajqam relates : ** The Gornpaiuons
said, *0 messenger of God ! what are these
sacrifices, and whence i» their origin?' Ht!
said, * These sacrifices are conformable to
the laws of your father Abraham/ They!
said, -0 Prophet! what are our reward*;
therefrom?' He said, * There ia a reward
annexed to every hair.' Tho Companion?;
then said, « O Prophet ! what are the rewards ;
from the sacrifices of camels and shoep, that!
have wool?* He said, 'There is a good:
reward also for every hair of their woo].' *'
(4) The following Is t-he teaching of thei
Sidayak regarding the nature and conditions
of the sacrifice : —
It is the duty of every free Muslim arrived j
at the age of maturity to offer a sacrifice, onj
the sldu 1-AzbJi, or " Festival of the Sacrifice/;
provided he be then possessed of a Ni$ab (i.e •,
sufficient property), and be net a traveller. ;
This is the opinion of Abu Hanifah, Muh*m- ;
mad, Zufar, and Hasan, and likewise of Abtt!
Yusuf, according to one tradition. According
to another tradition, and also according to ash- ;
Shaft*!, sacrifice is not an indispensable duty,
but only laudable. At-Tahawi reports that,]
in the opinion of Abu Hanifah, it is indispenB- j
able, whilst the disciples hold it to be in ft ;
strong dejcrree laudable. The offering of aj
sacrifice is incumbent on a man on account;
of himself, and on account of his infant child.
This is the opinion of Abu Hanifah in one;
tradition. In another he has said that it is j
not incumbent on a man to offer a sacrifice j
for his child. In fact, according te A bu j
Hanifah and Abu Yusuf, a father or guardian j
is to offer a sacrifice at the e&ponee of the j
child (when he is possessed of property), I
eatiog'what parts of it are eatable-, and]
SACRIFICE
SACRIFICE
553
sling the remaining parts that are valuable
ii their substance, such as the skin, &c.
Jiihammad, Zufar, and ash-Shafi'i have said
tot a father is to sacrifice on account of his
qild at hi« own expense, and not at thai of
3 child. The sacrifice established for one
rson is a goat; and that for seven, a cow
( a camel. If a cow be sacrificed for any
imber of people fewer than seven, it is
wful; but it is otherwise if sacrificed on
count of eight. If for a party of seven
ople the contribution of any one of them
ouM be lesa than a seventh share, the
orifice is* not valid on the part of any one
them. If a camel that is jointly and in
ji equal degree the property of two men
aould he sacrificed by them on their owh
pcount, it is lawful ; and in this case they
.ust divide the flesh by weight, as flesh is
i article of weight. If, on the contrary,
ley distribute it from conjectural estimation.
I is not lawful, unless they add to each share
f tho flesh part of the. head, neck, and joints.
if a person purchase a cow, with an intent to
ac-riijce it on hip own account, and he after
wards admit six others to join with him in
jhe sacrifice, it is lawful. It is, however,
los-t adviaable thnt he associate with the
khers at the time of purchase, in order that
he sacrifice may be valid in the opinion of
ill our doctors, as otherwise there is » dif
'e.rence of opinion. It is related from Abu
rlanifah that it is abominable to admit ollters
0 share in a sacrifice after purchasing the
mimal, for. as the purchase was mod? with
1 view to devotion, the sale of it is then-fort;
,111 abomination.
The time of offering the sacrifice is on the
morning of the day of tbo festival, but it is not
lawful for the inhabitants of a city to beyin
the sacrifice until their Imam shall have
finished the stated prayers for the day.
Villagers, however, may begin after brt»nk of
day. The place, hi fact, must regulate che
time. Thus, where tho place of celebration
is in Ihe country, and tho performers of it
reside in tho city, it is lawful to begin in the
morning; but if otherwise. it must be deferred
until tie stated prayers be coded. It the
victim be slain after ilto prayers of the
Mosque, and prior to those offered at the
placo of sacrifice [IDGAU), it is lawful, as is
likewise the reverse of this. Sacrifice is
lawful during three days — that is, on the
day of the festival, and Ota the two ensuing
days. Ash-ShaiH is of opinion that it is
lawful on the tfwee ensuing days. The sacri
fice of the day of the festival is fai Superior
to any of tho others. It is also lawful to
sacrifice on the nights of those days, although
it be considered as undesirable. Moreover,
the offering of sacrifices on these days is
more laudable than the custom of emitting
them, and afterwards be&tuwjng an adequate
sum of money upon the poor. If a person
neglect the performance of a sacrifice during
the stated days, and have previously deter
mined upon the offering of any particular
goat, for instance : or, being poor, havo pur
chased a go.tt 1'or that purpose, — in either of
these cases it is incumbent on him to bestow
it alive in charity. But if he be rich, it is in
that case incumbent on Kitn to bestow in
charity a sum adequate to the price, whether
he have purchased a goat with an intent to
sacrificed or not." It is not lawful to sacri
fice animal? that are blemished, such as those
that are blind, or lame, or so lean as to have
no marrow in their bones, or having a great
part of their ears or tail cat off. Such,
however, as havo a great part of their ears
or tail remaining may lawfully he sacrificed.
Concerning the determination of a great part
of any member, there are, indeed, various
opinions reported from Abu Hamfah. In
some animals li<» haa determined it to be the
third ; in others more than the third ; and in
others, again, only the fourth. In the opinion
of the two disciples, ^if more than the hall
should remain, the sacrifice is valid, and this
opinion has boon adopted by the learneil Ahfi
'1-Lais. If an animal have lost the third of
its tail, or the third of its ears or eye-sight, it
may l»e lawfully sacrificed : but it, in either
of these cases, it should have lost more than
a third, the offering of it is not lawful. The
rule which our doctors have* laid down to
discover in what cle#:-ee the eye-sight is im
paired is as follows. .Tho animal must first
be deprived of its food for a'day or two that
it may be rendered hungry, and having then
covered the eye that is impaired, food must
be gradually brought towards it from a dis
tance, until it indicate by some oznotion 'hat
it has discovered it. Having marked the
particular spot at, which it observed the food,
and uncovered tho weak eye, the perfect eye
must then b* bound, and the same process
carried on. until it indicate that it baa ob
served it with the defective eye. If. then,
the particular distance froi?) those parts to
where the animal .stood be measured, it may
be known, from the proportion they i>ear to
erieh other, in what degree the siqht is im
paired.
It is not lawful to offer a aacrific* of any
animal except a camel, a cow, or a goat for
it is not recorded that tho Propli/jt. or tiny of
his companion^ ever sacrificed others Buf
faloes, however, aro lawful as being oi the
species' of a cow. Every animal of a rnix*»d
breed, moreover, is considered as c»f the s.xme
species with the mother.
If a Christian or any person whose object
is the flesh, and not the sacrifice, be a sharer
with six others, the sacrifice is not lawful on
the part of any. It is lawful for a person
who offers a sacrifice either to eat the flesh
or to bestow it on whomsoever he pleases,
whether rich or poor, and he may also lay it
np in store. It is most advisable that the
third part of the flesh of a sacrifice be
bestowed in charity. It is not lawful to give
;i part of the sacrifice in payment to th*
butcher. It is abominable to take the wool
of the victim and sell it before tbo sacrifice
be performed, but not afler tlie sacrifice. In
tlie same manner, it is abominalil*? to milk
the victim and sell the milk. It is most
advisable that the person who offers the
70
554 SAD
sacrifice should himself perform itj provided
he be well acquainted with the method, but
if he should not be expert at it, it is then
advisable that he take the assistance of
another, and be present at the operation. It
is abominable to commit the slaying of the
victim to a KitabI (a Jew or Christian). If,
however, a person order a KitabI to slay his
victim, it is lawfuL It is otherwise where a
person orders a Mk an, or worshipper of fire,
to slay his victim, for this is inadmissible.
(Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. iv. 76.)
(5) From the foregoing references to thfe
Qnr'an, the Traditions, 'Abdu 1-Haqq» al-
Bateawi, it will appear that whilst the Mu-
hammadan sacrifice is (1) Commemorative,
having been instituted in commemoration of
Abraham's willingness to offer his son* (2)
Self Dedicator}/, as expressed in the Tra
ditional sayings of Muhammad; and ($)
EuckarisiiCi according to the verse in the
Qur'an already quoted, " Haply ye may give
thanks " ; that the expiatory character of the
sacrifice is not clearly established, for there
is no offering for, or acknowledgment of, sin,
connected with the institution. Mnham-
madanism, true to its anti-Christian character,
ignores the doctrine that " without shedding
of blood there is no remission." (Lev. xvii.
11 • Heb. ix. 22.)
(6) At the birth of a child .it is incumbent
upon the Muslim father to sacrifice a goat
(one for a girl and two for a boy) at the
ceremony called 'Aqiqdh, which is celebrated
on either the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-
first wenty-eighth, or thirty-fifth day after
birth, when the hair is first shaved and its
•weight ia silver given to the poor. * Abdu '1-
Hfeqq says 'Aqiqah comes from laqq, "to
cut-," and refers to cutting the throat of the
animal. Others refer it to cutting the^ hair.
The idea of the sacrifice on this occasion is
dedicatory and eucharistic. Buraidah says,
"We used, in the time of ignorance, when
children were born to ue, to slay sheep and
rub the child's head with the blood ; but
when Islam came we sacrificed a sheep on
the seventh day, and shaved the child's head
and rubbed saffron on it.w
&ID (oU). The fourteenth letter
of the Arabic alphabet. The title of the
xxxvnrth Surah of the Qur'an, which begins
with the letter.
^ADAQAHCfcj^pUadfl^. From
to, " to be righteous, truthful " ; Hebrew
tsedek. A term used in the Qur'an for
" AJaisgiving," t.g. Surah ii 265: "Kind
speech and pardon are . better than alms
giving (sadaqah) followed by annoyance, for
God is rich and clement."
Sadaqatu Y-.Fiftr.is the alms given on the
lessor Festival, called the */rf« Y-Fifr, whieh
consists of half a $& of wheat, flour, or fruits,
or one f& of barley. This shtuld be dis
tributed to the poor before the prayers of the
festival are said. (Hidayak, vol. i. p. 62.)
[IDU 'L-FITB]
SAFIYU LJLAH
SA'D IBN ABl WAQQAS (*..
<P\*. Jl\ <j*y. Called also Sa'd ibn;c
Malik ibn Wahb &z-Zubri. He was the it
seventh pefson who embraced Islam , and waa j f
§-esent with Muhammad in all his battles,
e died at 'Atlq A.H. 55, at the age of 79.
and was b tin ad at al-Madinah.
SA'D IBN MXJ'AZ ($*• o* **-)•"
The chief of the Banu Aus. He embraced"
Islam at al MAdlnah after the first pledge at
'Aqabah. He died of wounds received at th«
battle of the Bitch, A.H 5. (See Mnif's Z-(fy
of Mahomet, vol. iil. 282.)
SA'D IBN 'UBADAH (<*» ^
1^W«). One of the Companions and;
an Austin of great reputation. He carried!
the standard at the conquest of Makkalv
Died A.H. 15.
SADR G^), or Sadru '
The chief judge. Under Muhammadan rnfei
he was especially charged with the settle-'
ment of religious grants and the appoihtment;
of law officers.
SADtTM (f;-*^). [SO.DOM.J
AS-^AFA (^UiS^). A hill neai|
Makkah. One of the snored places visited bj<
the pilgrims during the Hajj. [PILGIHMAO»,;J
SAFAR (./-). Ut. "The voic
month." The second month of tne Muham]
madan year. So called because in it til
ancient Arabs went forth on their predator;]
expeditions and left their houses ?ift, «|
empty ; of, according to some, because whe:
it was first named it occurred "in the autumti
when the leaven of the trees were fr^fr, dj
"yellow." (Qkiyv$u V-/"/wjziaA, in
[MONTHS.]
SAFF (*-^*). An even row or lin|
of things.
(1) -A term used for a row of person
standing "up for prayers.
(2) A?-Saf, the title of the Lxith Sura!
of the Quran, in tho f»th verse of which tk|
word occurs for the <*lose unbroken line
an army.
As-$iFFAT («ft>UUt), pi of so/a)
" Ranged in ranks." The title of the Xxxvtrtj
Surah of the Qur'an, in the first verse J
which the angels are mentioned as belnjj
ranged in ranks.
SAFIYAH («i»*) One of tlJ
wives of Muhammad. She was the widow <
Kinanah, the Jewish chief of Khaibar, wbj
was cruelly put to death. In after years
is said Muhammad wished to divorce hej
but she begged to continue his wife, and r«{
quested that her turn might be given 1(
'Ayishah, as she wished to /be one ^ tl|
Prophet's " pure wives " irt Paradise.
SAFlYU 'LLAH (&\ £*) I*
" The Chosen of God * A title given ia a
Traditions to Adam, the father of n>ankin«j
[ADAM.]
8AFTJRA
; (pU*-). The Zipporah i
the Bible. The wife of Moses. According '
Muslim Lexicons, she was the daughter of
lu'aib. [MOSE&.]
£AFWAN IBN UMAIYAH
W & 0V*)- A- Sahabi of reputa-
on. A native of Makfcah. He was slain
e same day as the Kh>15fah 'Hainan.
§AHABI (^W*), fern. Sahablyah,.
An associate." One of the Companions of
uhaminad The number of persons entitled
this distinction at the time of Muhammad's
»ath is said to have boon 144,000,. the
imber including all persons who had ever
rved as followers of the Prophet, and who
ad actually seen him. The general opinion
eing that one who embraced Islam, saw the
topbet aud accompanied him, even for a
ort t;rne, is a $ahdbi, or " associate."
SAINTS
555
legal term for one possessed of a certain
tate upon which zakat, or "legal alms,"
net be paid. Alflo for one who has suf-
jient means to enable him to offer the dacri-
ipe on the great festival, or to make the
pilgrimage to Makkah. The possessor of
fcOO dirbems, or five camels, is held to be a
$dhibu 'x-Nisdb, as regards zakat.
[Lord of the Age." A title given by the
8h?ah8 to the Imam Mahdi. ((r/»y«su V-
'iMgAah, in loco.)
! SAHIFAH (**«*-), pi. *uhuf. Lit
r' A small book or pamphlet." A term gene
rally used for the one hundred portions of
scripture said to have been given to Adam,
Setb. Eacch. and Abraham, although it is
used in the Quran (Surah Ixxxvii. 19} for
the books of Abraham and Moses : '4 This is
truly written in the books ($«£u/*) of old, the
books (sukuf) of Abraham and Moses
[PBOPHETS.]
SAHIFATU 'L - A'MlL
JU*J\). The "Book of Actons,"
which is said to be made by the recording
angels (Kirdmu 'l-Kdtibin} of the deeds of
men, and kept until the Day of Judgment,
when the books are opened. See Qur'an : —
Surah 1. 10 : " When two (angels) charged
with taking account shall take it, one sitting
on the right hand and another on the left."
Surah xvii. 14, 15.: " And every man's fat*
have Wo (God) fastened about his neck ; and
on the Day of Resurrection will We bring
forth to him a book, which shall be proffered
to him wide open: Read thy Book: There
needeth none but thyself to make out an
account against thce this day." [KIRA.MU 'L-
KATtBlN, RESURRECTION.]
'L-BUJvHAUl (c*~>
The title of the first of the
Katubu'g-Sittah, or " six correct'' books of
traditions received by the Sunnis. It was
compiled by Abu 'Abd 'llah Muhammad ibu
Isma'fl al-Bukhari, who was born at Bukh.a-
rah, A.M. Id4, and died at Khartang, near
Samarkand, A.H. 256. It contains 9,882 tra
ditions, of which 2,628 are held to be of un
disputed authority. They are arranged into
160 books and 8,450 chapters. [TRADITIONS.]
SAHIHU MUSLIM (^L— {?*•).
The title of the second of the SMubu't-Sitta^
or " six correct " books of the traditions re
ceived by the Sunnis. It was compiled -by
Abu '1-Husaiu Muslim ibu al-Hajjaj al-
Qushairl, who was born at Naishapur, A.H.
204, and died A.H. 261. The collection con
tains 7,275 traditions, of which, it is said .
4,000 are of undisputed authority. Thu
books and chapters of the work were not ar
ranged by the compiler, but by his disciples.
The most celebrated edition of this work is
that with a commentary by Muhyiyn 'd-din
Yahya an-Nawawi, who died \.H. 676. [TEA-
SAHM (,«*•). Lit. "An arrow
used for drawing lots." A term in Muham-
madan law for a portion of an estate allotted
to an heir. (Hamilton's Hiddyah. vol. iv.
p. 487.)
SAH0E ()?*<•}. The meal . whioh
is taken before the dawn of day during the
Ramazan. It is called in Persian jfa'aw-i-
Sahari. In Hindustani, Sahdrqdhi. In Poshto
PeshmanL
SA'IBAH (4«IU). Anything set
at liberty, as a slave, or she-camel, and de
voted to an idol. Mentioned once in the
Qur'an, Surah v. 102 : " God hath not or
dained anything on the subject of sffibah, but
the unbeliever* have invented it,"
SA'ID IBN ZAIL» „. .
A gahabi who embraced Islam in his youth.
He -wa« present with Muhammad in all his
engagements except at Badr. He is held to
be one of the 'Asharah Mubashsharah, or ton
patriarchs of the Muslim faith. Died at
'Aqiq, A.H. 51, aged 79.
SAIFU 'LLAH («M ^*-). "The
Sword of God.M A title given by Muhammad
to the celebrated General Khalfd ibn al-Walld.
(Mishkdt, book xxiv, ch. viii.)
SAIrltTN (<s>^^-). The river
JaxarteR*. Said to have been one of the rivers
of Eden, f
SAINTS. In Mufcammadan coun
tries, reputed saints are very numerous.
Very many religious leaders obtain a great
reputation for sanctity even before their
deaths, but after death it is UMXUI! for the
followers of any well-known, religious teachor
to erect a shrino over hie grave, to light it
up on Thursdays; and thus ostablieh » saintly
reputation for their departed guide. Very
disreputable persona are thu* often reckoned
to have died in the k< odotr of sanctity. " At
Hasan Abdal in the Punjab (celebrated in
550
SA'IR
SAKHft
the story of Lala Rookh), there is a shrine
erected over a departed cook, who for many
years lived on his peculations as keeper of
fcho staging bungalow. When he died, about
tea years ago, his family erected over his re
mains a shrine of some pretensions, which
even in the present generation is an object
of devout reverence, but' which, in the next,
will be the scene of reputed miracles. This
is but ati example of many thousands of
shrines and saintly reputations easily gained
throughout Islam.
It is generally asserted that according to
the teachings of Talani,the Prophet.s (ambiya)
were without sin, hut there is a tradition, re
lated by Anas, which distinctly asserts the
contrary, and states that Muhammad not
only admitted Iris own sinfulness. but also
the fall of Adam, the murder committed by
Moses, aod the three lies told by Abraham.
(See Miskkat, book xxiii. ch. xii.) But it is
very remarkable that, according to this
Harifs, Muhammad does not charge Jesus
Christ with having committed sin. The
immaculate conception and the sinlessness
•,of Christ are admitted doctrine* of Islam.
(JESUS CHRIST.]
The terms pir and wali are common titles
for those who, by reputed miracles and an
ascetic life, have established a reputation for
sanctity, for whom in Persian the title bu-
zurg is generally used. . The titles qulh and
glifiu$ are very high orders of sanctivy, whilst
xahid and'tf&t'a are employed for persons who
devote their lives to religious contemplation
•and worship.
The Siitis use the word saiik, " pilgrim '' or
" traveller," for one who has renounced the
world for the "path" of myaticittn, whilst
faqir is a title of move general application to
one who is poor in the sight of God. Shaikh.
and mir, used for old men, also express a
degree of reputation in the religious world :
ihaikjt (in India) being a title generally con
f erred on a convert from Hindu ism to Islam.
Saiyid, or "lord," is a title always given to
the descendants of Muhammad, mlr being'
sometimes used for the samo. Miy(tn,
" master " or "friend," is generally used for
the descendants of celebrated saints, or as a
mere title of respect.
SA'IH (,**-.). "A flaming lire."
The special place of torment appointed for
the Sabeans. (See al-Baghawfs Commentary
on /At'-. Qwr'aj?.) It occurs sixteen time* in
the Qur'an (Surah ir. 11, and fifteen other
places), where it does not seem to be applied
to any special class.
SAIYIBAH (*«*). A legal term
for a woman wbo departs from her- husband,
whether through divorce" or the death of her
husband, after the first connection.
SAIYID '(*#*). A term used for
the descendants of Muhammad from his
daughter Fajjimah by 'AH. The word only
occurs twice ia the Qur'an — in Surah ill. 34>
where it is used for John Baptist: and in
Surah xii. 25, where it stands for the husband
of Zalikhah. According to the Majnw V-
Bihar, p. 151. it means "lord, king, exalted,
saint, merciful, meek, husband," &c.
There are two branches of Saiyids— tho$e
descended from al-Hasan and those descended
from al-Husain (both the sons of 'All.;
These descendants of Muhammad are
prayed for at every period of the daily
prayers [PRAYERS], and they are held in all
Muhamnnadan countries in the highest respect,
however poor or degraded their position may
be.
The term Saiyid is also given as a name to
persons who are not descended from Muhau-
mad, e.g. Saiyid Shah, Saiyid Amin, &e., al
though it is a mere assumption. In addition
to the term Sai;/id, the term Badshah, ShSk,
Miry and Sharif, are applied to those de
scended from Bihi Fafcraaah.
The author of the Akblaq-i-Jalali esti
mated in bis day the descendants of Muham
mad to be riot Jess than 200,000.
SAJDAH (So^>, vulg. sijdah. Lit.
44 Prostration."
(1) The act of worship in which the per
son's forehead touches .the ground in pros
tration. [>«AYER.J
(2) As-'Sajdah, the title of the xxxnnd
Surah of the Qnr'aa. in the 15th verse of
which the word occui'S : ** They only believe
in our signs who, when they are reminded oi
them, full don>n adoring and celebrate th<'
praises yf their Lord."
SAJDATU 'S SAHW
!» The prostrations of forget fulness." TVS
prostrations made on account of forgetfu
ness or inattention in prayer. Afuhamina
said, " When any of you stand up for praye
and the devil comes to you and casts doa
and perplexity into your mind, so that yo
do not know how many rak'ahs you have r<
?ited, then prostrate yourself twice.
SAJDATU 'SH-SHUKB
f^\). "A prostration of thank
giving." When a Muslim has received son
benefit or blessing, he is enjoined to make
prostration in the direction of Makkah, ai
say, "Holiness to GodJ and Prais* be
God. There is no deity but God J CJod
most Great ! " (Raddu H-Mn^tdr, vol
p. 816.)
SAJJADAH (SoV.). Th« srng
carjjet, njat, or cloth, on which the Musi
prays. [JAI-NAMAZ, MUSALLA.]
SAKER (/*-»). The jinn or de
•who is sa.id to have obtained
AS-SAKHRAH
Solomon's tnngie ring, and to have
;he King for forty days, when Sakljr lie*
iway and threw the ring into the se,i, \vh«»re
t was swallowed by a fish, which was after-
wards caught and brought to Solomon, who
by this means recovered his kingdom.
lock." The sacred rock at Jerusalem on
rhicb the Temple was erected, and on which
now stands the Qutoa/n ^-Sobhraj*, th»>
Dome of the Rock," known to English
readers as the Mosquo of 'Umar. This rock
is said to have eome from Paradise, and to
the foundation-stone of the world, to
»ave been the place of prayer of all prophets.
arid, next to the K.vhab, the most sacred
pot in the universe- Imam Jalalu'd-din as-
AS-SAKHRAH 557
| Snyut.I, in his history of the Temple of Jeru
salem (Reynold*1 edition, p. 44), gives the fol
lowing traditional account of the glorious
" We are informed by Ibn al-Mamutr that
the Rock of the Baitu '1-Muqaddas, in thu
days of Solomon, was of the height of t\v.-lv»f
thousand eubits; each cubit at that time
being the full cubit, viz. one modern cubit,
one span and one hand-breadth. Upon it
also was a chapel, formed oi aloes (or sandal)
wood, in height twelve miles (sic); also above
this was a network of gold, between two
eyelet-beads of pearl and ruby, netted by
the women of Balka in the night, which net
was to serve for three days ; also the people
of Emmaus were under the shadow of the
chapel when the sun rose and the people of
TJHK DOME OF THE ROCK. ( Condf>T.)
Baitu 'r-Rahrnah when it set, and even otharrt
of the valleys were under its shadow ; also
upon It waa a jnrinth (or ruby), which thone
in the night like the ligbt of the sun ; but
when the light began to dawn ita brilliancy
was obscured ; nor did all these cease until
Nebuchadnezzar laid all waste, and seized
whatever he found there, and carried it into
Greece.
"Again, by a tradition .we learn that th?
Sak^rab of Baitu '1-Muqaddas was raised
aloft into toe sky, to tbe bright *f twelve
miles, -md thy spaoe between it and heaven
was no more than twelve miles. All this
remained in the same state unlil Greece (or
Rome) obtained the mastery over it. subse
quent to its devastation by Nebuchadnezzar.
But when the Greeks obtained possession uf
it. they said, "Let us build thereupon n
building far excelling that which was thf re
before." Therefore they built upon it a
building as broad at the base as it was
high in the sky, and gilded it with gold.
And silvered it with silver. Then,
558
AS-SAKHRAH
therein, they began to practise their associ
ating Paganism, upon which it turned upside-
down aver them, BO that not one of them
came out.
" Therefore, when the Grecian (king) saw
this, he summoned the Patriarch and his
ministers (deacons), and the chiefs of Greece,
and said. 'What think ye?' who replied,
' We are of opinion that our idol-gods are
not well pleased, and therefore will not
receive us favourably/ Hereupon he com
manded a second temple to be built, which
they did, spending a great sum thereon, and
.having finished the second building, seventy
thousand entered it as they had entered the
first. But it happened to them as it had
happened to the first ; when they began their
Paganism it turned over upon them. Now
their king was not with them. Therefore,
wher. he saw this, he assembled them a third
time, and said unto them, * What think ye ? '
who said, 'We think that our Lord is not
well pjeasod with us, because we have not
offered unto him abundantly ; therefore he
has destroyed what we have flone, therefore
we should greatly wish to build a third.'
They then built a third, until they thought
they had earned it to the greatest possible
height, which having done, he assembled the
Christians, and( said unto tbem, ' Do ye
observe any defect ? ' who said, * None,
except that we must surround it with crosses
of gold and silver.'- Thou all the people
entered it, to read and cite (sacred things)
Having bathed and perfumed then* solves,
and having entered it, they began to practise
their associating Paganism, as the others had
ilone before them ; whereupon down fell the
third buildiug upon them. Hereupon the
king again summoned them together, and
abked their coiinsel about what he should do.
But their dread was very great ; and whilst
they wero deliberating, there cauie up to
tliem a very old man, in a white robe and a
biaek turban; his back was bent double and
he -was leaning upon a staff. So he said,
*O Christian people, listen to mo I listen to
me 1 for I am the oldest of any of you ui
years, aud have now come forth from among
Ihe retired votaries of religion, in order to
inform you that, with respect to this place,
all its possessors are accursed, und all holi
ness hath departed from it, and hath been
transferred to this (other) place. I will
therefore point out this as the place wherein
to build the Church of the Resurrection. I
will show you the spot, but you will never
see me after this day, for ever. Do, there
fore, with a good will that which I shall tell
you.' Thus he cheated, them, and augmented
their accursed state, and commanded them
tb cut up the rock, and to build with its
stones upon the place which he commended
them.
'** So whilst he was talking with them he
became concealed ; and they saw him no
more. Thereupon they increased in their
infidelity, and said, ' This is the Great
Word. Then they demolished th6 Mosques,
and carried away the columns and th<? stones,
AS-SAKHRAH
and all the rest, and built therewith the
Church of the Resurrection, and the church
which is in the valley of Hinnon. Moreover,
this cursed old man commanded them,
* When ye have finished their building upon
this place, then take that place whose ownew
are accursed, and whence all holiness hath
departed, to be a common sewer to receive
your dung,' By this they gratified their
Lord. Also they did this, as follows: At
certain seasons, all the filth and excrement
was sent in vessels from Constantinople, and
was at a certain time all thrown upon the
Rock, until God awoke our Prophet Mu
hammad (the peace and blessing of God be
with him !), and brought him by night there
unto ; which he did on account of its peculiar
consecration, and on account of the greatness
of its super-excellence. We learn, also, thai
God, on the Day of Judgment, will change
the Sakhrah into white coral, enlarging it to
extend over heaven and earth. Then shall
men go from that Rock to heaven or hell,
according to that great word, 'There shall
be a time when this earth shall change hit*;
another earth, and the heavec shall tura
white ; the soil shall be of silver ; no pol
lution shall ever dwell thereon.' Now from
'A'ish (may the satisfying favour of God rest
upon him H, I said, ( 0 apostle of God, ow
that day when this earth shall become arfc^
other earth, and this eky shall change, where?;
shall men be on that day?' He replied,
4 Upon the bridge as-$irat.' Again, a certain!
divine says, « that in the Law, God says to.
the Rock of the Holy Abode, «* Thou art mfy
•seat ; thou art near to me ; from thy founda-i
lion have I rai&ed up the heavens, and from
beneath thee have I stretched forth the
earth- and all the distant inaccessible moun
tains are beneath thee. Who dies within
thee is as if he died within the world of
heaveu, and who dies around thee is as if he
died within thee. Days and nights shall not!
cease to succeed, until I send down upon
thee a Light of Heaven, which shall obliterate i
all the (traces) of the infidels of the sons of
Adam, and all their footsteps. Also. I will]
send upon thee the hierarchy of angels and
prophets : and I will wash thee until I leave
thee like milk , and I will fix. upon thee *
wall twelve miles above the thick-gathering:
clouds of earth, and also a hedge of light.
By my hand will I iusui'e to thee thy support
and thy virtue; upon thee will I cause to
descend my spirits and my angels, to worship!
within thee ; nor shall any one of the sons ofj
Adam enter within thee until the Day of
Judgment. And whosoever shall look upon!
this chapel from afar shall say, ' BJessed be
the face of him who devoutly worships and
adores, in thee ! ' Upon thee will I place walls
of light and a hedge of thick clouds — five
walls of ruby and pearl.1" Also from the]
Book of Psalms, 'Great and glorious art
thou, thou threshiutf-fioor ! Unto thee shall
be the general assemblage : from thee shall
all men rise from death." Moreover, frooai
the same author. God says to the Rock af
the Holy Abode, '• Who loveth thee, him will
AS-SAKHRAR
A8-8AKFRAH
659
ve ; who loveth thee, loveth me : who
the*, him will I Tiate. From year to
my eyes are upon thee, oor will I forget
until I forget my eyes. Who?o prayeth
thin thee two rak'ahs, him will I cause to
off all hie Bins, and to h« as guiltless as
inroght him from his mother's womb, unless
return to his wns. beginning them afresh.'
js is also a tradition of old standing: 'I
engage and promise to everyone
o dwells therein, that all the days of bis
Ibe bread of corn and olive-oil never
(all fail Kim ; nor shall the days and the
hU fail to bring that time, when, out of
Je supremacy of mv bounty, 1 will caa.se to
upon thee the assemblage of nsan for
— the whole company of risen irior-
1s.' There is a tradition that 'MuqatilJbn
tliiinan came to this Temple to pray, and
,t by the gate looking towards the Rock ;
id we had assembled there in great numbers ;
was reading and we were listening. Then
une forward 'All Ibn aUBadawi. stamping
rribly with hie slippers upon the pavement.
s greatly afflicted him, and he said if>
around him, {< Make an opening for me-"
the people opened on each side, and be
de a threatening motion with hie hand to
him and prevent this stamping, saying,
Tread more gently! That pJ.are at which
is * — pointing with his hand — " and
which then art stamping, is the very place
iolent of Heaven's breezes ; and there is not
spot all around it — not a spot within its
a hand's- 1 readth square— wherein
commissioned prophet, some near angel,
not prayed." ' New from the mother of
.bdu 11ah," daughter of Khali d, from her
her, • toe moment i<* surely fixed, when
;be Kii-biib. shall b* led as a bride to the
•ah. and shall hang upon her all her
image merits, and become her turban.'
asc it is said that the Sakhrah is the middle
[of the Moeqne : it is cut off from every
touching substance on all sides. No c-ne
supports it but He who supports and holds
up the sky ; so that nothing falls thence but
by His good permission ; also upon the upper
part of the west side stood the Prophet (the
blessing and peace of God be with him !) on
the night when he rtfde al-Buraq. This side
began to shake about, from veneration of
him ; and upon the other side are the marks
of the angels' fingers, who held it up when it
shook; beneath it is a d&ep hole cut out on
each side, orer which is the j?ate opened to
men for prayer and devotion. 'I resolved,'
says a f artain author, * one day to enter it,
in great fear lest it should fall upon me. OD
account of the sins I had contracted : then,
hovrerer. I looked, and saw its darkness, ana
some holy pilgrims entering it at the darkest
part, who came forth therefrom quite free
from sin. Then I began to reflect upon
entering. Then I said, ** Perhaps they entered
very slcrwry and leisurely, and I was too much
in a hurry ; a little delay may facilitate the
matter." So I made up my mind to enter;
and entering, I saw the Wonder of Wonders,
the Reck supported in it§ position *r course
on every side; for I saw it separated from
the earth, so that no point of the earth
touched it. Some of the sides were separated
by a wider interval than others: also, the
mark of toe glorious Foot is at present in a
stone divided from the Rock, right over
against it, on the other side, west of the
Qiblnh ; it is upon a pillar. Also the Rock
is now almost abutting upon the side of the
crypt, only divided from it by that space
which allows room for the gate'of the crypt,
on the aide of the Qiblah. This gate, also, is
disjointed from the base of the Qiblah : it is
between the two. Below the gate of the crypt
is '<>. s;one staircase, whereby one may descend
| into the crypt. In the midst of this crypt Is
a dark-brown leather carpet, upon which
1 pilgrims stand when they visit the foundation
of the Rock ; it is upon the eastern side.
There are also columns of marble abutting
oc the lower side upon the path of the ro"ws
of trees upon the ride of the Qiblah, and on
th« other side forming buttresses to the
estremity of the Rock ; these are to hinder
it from shaking on the side of the Qibiab.
There are buildings besides these. There is
a building in the ChapePof the Rock. Be
neath the chapel, the spot marked by the
angels' fingers is in the Rock, on the western
side, divided from the print of the glorious
Foot above-mentioned, very near to it, over
against the western gate, at the end.'" (2?t*>.
Jerusalem, from the Arabic MS, of Jalalu 'd-
din as-Suyik$I, Reynolds' ed. 1885.)
Eh-. Robinson (Biblical Researches, voL i.
p. 297) says the followers of Muhammad
under 'Umar took possession of the Holy
City A.D. 636, and tte Khallfah determined
to erect a mosque upon the site of the Jewish
Temple. An account of this undertaking, as
given by Muslim historians, will be found in
the article on JEBU&AL.BM. The historians
of the crusades all speak of this great
Sakljrah as the Templum Z>omin»,and describe
its form and the rook within it. (TF?//. Tyr.,
i 8. 2, ib. 12, 7. Jac. dt Ftrrioc, c. 62.)
Lieut. E. R. Gender. R.E.. remarks that
| the Dome of the Rock belongs to that obsenre
; period of Saracenic art, when tue Arabs had
I not yet created an architectural style of
their own, and when they were in the tiabit of
employing Byzantine architects to build their
mosques. The Dome of the Rock, Lient. Con-
der says, is not a mosque, as it is bometirnes
wrongly called, but a " station" in tbe outer
court of the Masjidn 1-Aqsa.
Wo are indebted to this writer for the fol
lowing account of the gradual growth of tbe
present building (Tent Work in PaUstinB,
vol. ii. p. 320):—
" In AD. 831 the Caliph El Mamun restored
the Dome cf the Rock, and, if I am correct,
enclosed it with an outer wall, and gave it its
present appearance. The beams in the roof
of the arcade bear, as above-stated, the date
913 A..D. ; -a well-carved wooden cornice,
hidden by the present ceiling, must thefi
have been visible beneath them.
"In 1016 i,D the building was partly
destroyed by earthquake. To this date
560
AS-SAKHRAH
belong restorations of the original mosaics
in the dome, as evidenced by inscriptions.
Th* oresent wood-work of the cupola WHS
^rooted by Hnaein, son of the Sultan Hakeui.
•as shown by an inscription dated 1022 A.D.
" The p)ace next fell into the hands of
the Crusaders, who christened it Teatplum
J joining and established in 1 112 A.n. a chapter
ul' Canons.
"The Holy Rock was. then cut into its
present shape and covered with marble slabs,
An altar being erected on it, The works -were
carried on from 1115 A.IX to 1136 A. i>. The
beautiful iron grille between the pillars of
the dome and variou.s fragments of carved
wr»rk ;«re of this date, including small altars
with sculptured capital*, having bonds upon
them— abominations to the Moslem, yet -still
Drworved within the precincts. _ The interior
of the outer w.ill was decorated in the- twelfth
century with frescoes, trace.-; of which still
remain The exterior of th» same wall is
surmounted by a parapet, with dwarf pillars
arid arches, which is first mentioned by John
of Wurt/.bnnr, but must b** as old as the
ronnd archly of the windows below. The
Crusaders would teem to have filled up the
parapet arches, and to have ornamented
tbo whole with glaas mosaic, as at Bethl*-
hdW.
«*In 1187 A,r>. Saladin won the city, tor«
nji the altar, and once more oxposeci the
bare rock, covered up the frescoes with
marble slabs,' and restored and regilded the
dome, as evidenced by an inscription io. it
1189 A.».
In 1318 A.U. the lead- outside and the
-within were restored by Makr cd Din,
as evidenced by an inscription
"In 1520 A.i». the Sultan Soliman cased
the bases and upper blocks of the columns
with marble. The wooden cornice, attached
to tfce beam between the piHara, s-esms to be
of thi* period, find tV.e sHgntlj- pointed marble
casing of the arches under the dome is pro
bably of the same dato. Tins \vindovrs bear
inscriptions of 1528 A.D. T!it> whole exterior
was at this time coT*re<i with Kishftoi tiles.
Attached by copper hooks, as evidenced by
inscriptions dated 15ft! A.IX The uoors were
restored in 15 W A.U., as »!*o shown by in
scriptioHS-
".The dale of the beautiful wooden ceiling
of th« cloistore is not known, but it partly
covers the Cufic inscription, and this dates
72 A.M. (688 A,».). and it hides the wooden
cornice, dating p fob a b!y 813 A. P. The ceiling
is therefore probably 'of tbv time ot Soli
man,
" In I8SO A.U. the Sult«i; Mattmud, and m
1 JJ73-75 A o. the law &M«.f-Azic, ic»pairod
the D«m«, ami H«e taiter period w^3 one
specially vf,li»;.Mv f«r ^hwsc who wished to
Study thf? history of the placo.
" Such is $ plain statement of th<? gradual
grovth of the building. The dates of the
various inscriptions on the walls fully agree
with the cmunmaiilial accounts af the
Arab writers who describe the Dome of the
Rock/'
SAKINAH
SAKINAH (<W-.). A word
which occurs in the Qor'au five times. (1)
For that wbich was in the Ark of the Covenant,
S»irnh ii. 249 : " The sign of his (Saul's)
kingdom is that there shall come to you the
Ark (Tubnt) with the sakina/t in it from your
Lord, and lh« relics that the family of Moses
and the family of Aaron left, and the angels
bear it"." With reference to this verse, al-
.Baizawi, the great Muslim common tator.
says: "The ark here mentioned i« the box
containing the Books of Moses ''Arabic
Taurnt. namely, the 7bra4,orL»w), v;hich was
made of box- wood and gilded over wir,h gold,
and was three cubits long and two wide, and.
in it was ' the safanah from yoin' Tjord. TUe
meaning of which is, that with the Ark there
was intnyuHHty and peace, Twtrnely. the
Tuurdt (Books of Moses), because when
Mows went forth to war he always took the
Ark with him. which gave rtpose to the
hearts of the children «f Israel. But some
«*y that within that Ark there was an idol
made either of emerald or sapphire, with the
hend and tail of a cat, and with tno wing*;
and that this cpdHtvre made a noiw when
tlw Ark v/as carried forth to war. But ethers
say that the Ark contained images of tbe
prophets, from Adaia to Moses. Others
assert that the meaning of &tkittah is know
ledge and sincerity.1 Others, that the Ark
contained the tables of the Law, tb* rjd of
Moses, and Aaron's turban," {Tnfitrv V-
Boizawl, Fleischer a ed., yol, ii. p. 12^.)
(2) It is also used in the <<#»r 3a for help
And confidence or grace. Surah xlviii. 26:
f' When those who misbelieved put in their
hearts pique — the pique of ignore nee — and
Cod sent down His Sah.lnah upon His Apostle
and upon the belie ven*, and obliged them to
keep to the word of piety." AI'Baizuwi
'says that in this verse tli« word sukinaM
means tbfi tranquillity atwl repose of soul,
\viiich is tbe meaning given in all Arabic dic
tionaries.
The word occurs in three other places in
a similar sense : —
Surah ix. 2ft : "God s«nt down HinSukittah
upon His Apostle and upon the believers,
and sent down armies which ye coeld not sec
and punished those who did not believe."
Sfirah ix. 40 : ** God sent davrn H» Saftftta/i
tiim. und aided him with hosts."
Surah xlvitt. 2 : •' It »K Ho whu sent down
the saktn'i/i into the -hearts of believers, that
they might have faith added to faith."
None of the Muslim commentators seem to
understand that the Arabic Ax-^SL. Sakixafi **
identical with. the Hebrew rU'OU
•A term wiiich, although not found in tbo
Bible, has been used by the latar Jews, and
borrowed by the Christians froru tl>ein< to
express the visible Majesty of the- Divine.
Presence, especially when rtating or </«w//t'*y
between the Cherubin on the Mercy S*at
in the Tabernaela, and in the Temple of
Solomon, Rabbinical writers identify the
SALAP
L-KHUSUF
561
with the Holy Spirit, nnd some
Christian writers tmve thought that thft three
fold expression for the Deity— the Lord, the
Word of the Lord, and the ,SY,' <7<mr//j — indi
cates the knowledge of a trinity of person*
in the God -head.
For tho Tabfludic vie-.v-; regarding the
Shecfu'nah, the English reader can refer t<>
Dr. Hevghon'fi Tahnudic Miscellany (Triibuor
& Co., London).
SALAF (oil*). (1) Ancestors; niea
of repute for piety atui faith in past generations,
(2) Money lent without interest. [SAIAM.]
SAL AM* (/A~). A contract invol
ving an immediate payment of the price, and
i admitting a delay in the delivery of tli« arti-
I clos purohaied. Th« word used in tho Hadi§
ia generally mlaf. In a sale of this kind, tho
! seller \& called mutolhtM ilai-hi \ the pur-
! chaser, rnhbu 't-stfam, and I he go«ds pur
chased, musalla-m-fT-hi. ( Kitatxt 't- Ta'rifat.)
AS-SALAM (,A . ». tt). " The
I Pejicc(ful) one. (i) One of the mnriy-nme
i nam«* or attributes of God It occurs <xico
in the Qur'*n, Surah lix. 20: "He in #od,
than whom then* i* nn other . . . the Peace
ful." Al-BaijuwT explains the word a* "He
who is free from nil loss or harm "
n
construction
i. sulawdt.
(2) Aa-Salaiiui Wai- htm
"The peace be on' you," the common saluta
tion amongst Muslims
AS-SALAT (i£"l\
frequently spell*?d
Thy term usco* in the Qnr'an, fts well as
amongst all Muslims In overy part of the
•world, for tho litmyienl form of pravor,
which is rocited live times a iby an account
of which is j?ivQn iii ilte article oa ijRA\t:a.
Its equivalent in Persian and Urdu is n.j/taz,
which has been coriupted into nmiiz by iho
Afghans. Tho word occurs with this mean
ing in tho Qur'an, Surah ii. 239: "Obser\t»
\Sb* prayers" and ia very many other places. Ir
has also the meniving of prayer or tupplictttitm
in JU gc.ner^l souse, e.g. Surah ix. 104: " Prny
for Ibem. of a truth thy prayers shall assure
their rnin'ls," Also Kessint/, c.rj. Siirah xsxiii.
56: "Verily God and His" AoMlfl bless (not
"pray fur," as rendered by Painter) tho Pro
phet." (S»o I.&ue's Dictionary, au /ora.)
The word ^c/*J^ oecurs with various com
binations used to express different periods,
and also special <.»eca jiona of prayer.
The five stated liturgical prayers which
are held to bd of divine institution: —
(l.l S'tfiitu 'i-£uhr, the meridian prayer.
(2) Sfttelu V-*}l.«r, tho afternoon prayer.
(3> '$aUHn '/-Afrrflti'ih, the Htuiset prayer.
(4) SuldiH V-'/sM', the night prayer.
(a) $,iliif.u Y-AVr/V, tho pniyer at dawn.
(O2w, Tli«-. lu idd A y prayer is reckoned the
first in order.)
Also for tlie three voluniary dnily htur-
gictl prnyt»rs: —
<1) ScU&tu 'l-lshriiq, wheu the sun ha^i wall
(2) frlatu 'l-Zuhn, nbrtut 11 A.M.
(3) »S''.'/'7/u 'i-l\ikajjvd, after midnight.
Iiiturgtetl prayers said on social occn-
sions «xv given below. [PBAYB1.J
SALATU 'L-HAJAH (^\*i\ flu).
•' Prayer of necessity." four rnk'ah prnyora,
or, arrordintf In *MIUS twolvw rak'ahs rocited
after th«> iiighl grayer in times of necessity,
or trouble. (Ritddu 't~Muktart vol. i. p. 719.)
SALlTU 'L-'JDAIN (&**& OU).
"Prayore of the two festivals.* The t*o
rak*?»h prayers reciled on the two Muhani-
madnn fosiivais, tho 'Idu 'l-Fij^r and the
'Ida U-A*hu.
SALlTU 'L-ISTIrilURAH (01-
IJUU^t). Lit. " Prayer for oonciiisii-
inp favour." Two mk'aus reciicd /or suc
cess in an undertaking. Jii^ir relates th*t
i»jnhaminad taught him Iftik^v^k^ or-! tliat
after rwitinjj; two rak'ahsii* .'i>ould thus snp-
pliratc tfod : " 0 God, I deek Thy good help
in Thy gr#«i wisdom. I pray lor ability to
ail .through Thy po^er. I u.*k fhi.^ tJiing of
thy jLTOOUMeHb'. Thou knovreet. but I know
uof . Thou art poworfu], btlt I am not. Thou
ark knower «f secrets. 0 Uod, if Thou
k)*ow«>9(i that th* matter -wbicii I am a!>ou'
lo undertake is ^ood ior my religion, for uiy
life, for my future, then make it easy, and
prosper me in it. B«t if it is bau for niy
ve!i){ion, ray lJi«?, «'»nd juy future, t)i4»n put it
away from me. end show me what i& ^«KUI.'-
f, hook iv. 40.)
§AT,ATU 'L - JSTISQ.V
•VJUuUi)^)^ from sityy,
Twa rqk'ai; prayers rccil«;J in th^ timu of
dearth,
SAkATU ?li - JINAZAU (&*
Thi? funeral service.
U THE
L/r. " TIJO prayer of assomi'l
Pr/iyer. Jt c-ousista of two
jit tie time of ~uAr, or
l'ie jr'ricuy.
];? rtcitj«l
y ;«r;iyv.- <v.
SALATU 'L-KHAUF
The "Prayers of Fear." Two rak-ahg of
prayers recited first by c-no regiment and
then by another in time af w,ir, when the
usual prayars cannot be recited for fear of
tho enemy. These prayers are founded upon
uri injunction in tiio Qur'au, Surah iv. 102:
" And when ye go to war in the land, it shall
bo «o sin for you to curt ail your prHyars, if ye
fear that the enemy come upon you." ThU was
also the Talumdie law ('/V. fltardtatf 'V- 4);
u H«i that goeth in a dangerous ph-.cu tuay
pray a short prayer.''
SALATU 'L-KHUSUF (SL^
sj^ir^\). Prayers said at an eclipse
uf Uv» moon, consisting of lw» rak'ahs of
prayer {Aliskkut', hc-pk iv. eh. Ii.)
71
562
SALATU L-KUSUF
SALIB
SALlTO 'L-KUS0F (
Prayers »t an eclipse of the sun, consisting
af two rak'ahs of prayer. (Miskkat, book iv
oh. II)
SAL*T(J 'L-MARlZ (<A^ tfU)-
" Prayer of the sick." When a person is
too sick to stand up in the usual prayers,
>s allowed to recite them either in a reclining
or sitting posture, provided he perforoos the
usual Ablutions. It is ruled that he shall in
such a case make tho prostrations. &c • men
tally. (Raddu 7 Muhlar. vol, i p. 891. 3
SALATU L-WITR (fj\ iJU)
The Witr prayers. The word ioitr means
either a unit, or an cdd number and IK used
for either & single or odd number of rak'ab
prayers recited after the evening prayer
(«M&T). i .MifUkat, book iv. ch xixvi.)
There is considerable controversy amongst
the learned doctors as to whether it i* fan.
wiljib, of surtnah, but it is generally b«ld to
be swwah, i.e. founded on tbe example of the
Prophet, but with no divine command
Amongst the Hanafi sect, it is also known as
Qwnwte H-Witr, bat the Shafifs recite the
ty/wit separately
lafjons between every (our rak'ahs.
9ALATU 'R-BAQHA'IB
s-fl*^V) "A prayer for things de
sired. ' Two rak'ab prayers recited by one
who desires «ome object in this world. Ac
cording to the orthodox, ii is forbidden in
Islam, (jffarfcfo 'MfvMir, yoU. p 717.) It
in recited by some persona jrt the -first week
of the month Rsjab.
SALATTT 'S-SAFAR (>*~it »U).
•• Prayers of travel. A shortened recitaJ of
prayer allowed to travellers. It is founded
on a tradition by Ya'la ibn "Umaivah who
says, "I said to Wmar, 'God hath said)
"When ye go co war in the land it shalj be
no sin for you to shorten your prayers if ye
fear that the infidels may attack you M ; but
now verily we are safe in this journey, and
yet we shorten oar prayers.' Umar replied.
' I also wondered at the thing that astonished
yon but the Prophet said, Qod hath done
you A kindness in curtailing your prayers,
therefore accept it, Ibn *Umar *ays, '-I tra
vailed with the Prophet, and he did not say
more than two rak'aba of prayer, and Abu
Bakra-nd 4Umar and 'Usman did the same.'
Ibn'Abb«~h aays, 'The Prophet used to &ay
on a journey, tke noon and afternoon prayer
together, and the sunset and evening prayer
together* ° fJ!/i«Maf, book iv ch xlii.)
The established prayers for a traveller are,
therefore, two rak'ahs instead of the four/or*
rak*ahs at the noon and afternoon and even
ing prayers, and the usual twa Jart at the
morning and the usual three faff a? the sun
set prayers , all voluntary pray ere being
omitted (/?«</</* 't-Mahtar, vol. ». p. 821 .j
$ALATU 'T TARAWI? (W^
C^^). " Prayer of rest So called
because of the pause or re&t made for eja.ru
Twenty rak'ah prayers recited after thenight
prayer durinir the month of Rsmtk/en They
j are often followed with recitations known as
ztkrs ,[nKRj, and form an exciting service of
devotion. The Imam recite* the Tarffoft
prayers with a loud voice.
Abu HuraJrah says : "The Prophet usi-d
to encourage people, to say hight prayers IB
Hnmazan witbont orderiug them positively.,
and would say. He who stands up in prayer
at night, for tbe purpose ol obtaining reward,
will have ell his sins pardoned '} then the
Prophet died, leaving the prey or a of Ramazan
in this way." Tt ib said 'Umar instituted th«
present custom .of reciting the twenty rak*aha,
(JftfuA&ot, book jv ch xxxviii.) j RAMA*A«.]
SALATU T-TASBlH d^*— J\ »M
Prayer of praise." A form of prayer
founded on the following tradition related bjf
Ibn Abbas who says: —
« Verily the Prophet said to my father, 10
Abbas! 0 ray uncie ! shall I not give to you
shall 1 not present onto you, shall 1 not in
form you of a thing which covers ads of sij|?
When you perform it. God will lorgivo /out
sina, yotti former sins, and your latter sim,
and those sins which you did unko«»\v»ng!y,
and those which you did knowingly, your
great sins, and your small sins, your disoloscd
sint, and your couoe&led sins? It is this
namely, thai you recHe four rak'ahs of
prayer, and in each rak*»h recite tbe Fatitthm
fl Kilab (it. the Introductory chapter of
the Qur'an). and some otber SGr«h of.
the Qcr'an • and when you have recited
tbeae port ions of the Qur'iti In tlie position i
of Q^yaro. then s»yrrt Holiness to Qod.' * (S*b •
hana 'Uahi), and Praise be to God ! " ( Ww i
•'l-ffamdu H H*hi)t and **There is no defW i
fcal God ! » ( Wa to Ttjbailla huwa-, Rnd t( Ood
is most great!" (Wa''ttafa AJffairj, fifteen i
time*. Tlien perform a rukii* nnd recite H ]
ten tunes', then raiie up your head and I
say it tea times, then make tho sajdah and
«ay it ten times ; tbea raise your hea4and say
it (en times , then make another aajdah and j
say it ten times, then raise yonr head again
and say it ten Urnes : altogether seventy-five
limes fu every rak'a-h; and do this in each of
the rak'ah, Tf you ere abl.e to say thi« form
of prayer every day> then do so, but if not,
do il f.rtoe every Friday, and if not harh week
then say it once a month, and if no* once ft'
month; then aay it once a yenr^and if not once j
a year, then do it once m yonr sonurme.*'1]
(MtMat, book i'v, ch. xli.)
The foregoing is a striking iilustrnrion of
the mochanical character of the Hfinsiir reli
gion as regards its system of devotion
1
SALE, The Lawoi [BAJ'.]
SALIB (n**) "A crucifix; a.
cross." [CROSS.]
SALIH (r>\~). A prophet men-
Hcned in the Qur'an (Surah vii. 71). who w
sent to tbe tribes 'Ad and Samud Al-
SALIK
fietzawi fid/ lie was the sou of 'Ubaid, the
sou of Asaf, the son of Masih the son of
Ubaid. the son of Hazir, the son of Samuel.
Bochant think* he must be, the PUeg of
Genesis xl Ifi. D'Herbelot, makes him* the
Salah of Genesis xi. 13
The tollowing'ia the account f>f him in the
Qnrlin. with the colon: entaters remarks in
Hetties (see Lane's Selection 2nd ed by Mr.
Stftnlev Lane Ppole): — -
And VF, sent nut-o M<? 6-ifrf o/ Thflmood
their brother Salih. H« said. Q my people
wsiship fjed Y« Jravo no othyr deity^ her
Him, A MiiraWoos proot ofmxf twraeifyhule
eoine unto you front your Lord thtgdher
of God bemg- A srgn untc yoli [He-
hod taused tier ot heir demand, to cofcft.sjorh
tkc hcctrt of a mck~] Therefore let ber
in God> ep.rih. and do berine harm lest
a painful pnhiahtnent seize yen. Aad rt»rnorn-
berliowHe hath appointed you icagerenfe
in the wrtk »fu>r [the tribe of]
given y.ou ;i hakitfiKon Jn the ' hftrth y«
moke yourselves, or Ma plains, pavilions
faherftn ye dyed in si/miaer. and cot the inonu-
tains into hous«?s wherein we fttuff) m mmter.
Romero/bar tb>n the 'benefir* of God, and 40
not evil in the c*rth act-nig corrnptly — The
ehiefs who were ehitod with pride smbng his
people. said unto t.host- vrhe wore esteemed
weak, Mmeiy, to those who had believed
among them. Do ye Itno^? that Satihhatb been
gent unto this ? And they tiamstrung the she-
camel (Kuddr fthe *son of fialif] doing *<* 6#
^Ao»r wder and shtyiity hfr urith the ntGartT)
aorJ They JKmpioiwly transgressed the com
mand nf their Lard, aix! saJd, 0 SaliU, bring
upon us thit ffttnishm^iif vnth wdich ihoti
thfeatenosf iis fonjcilfinq' her, if thoH be [onej
of the apostlos , And the violent convulsion
(« yrear Hetrthyuukc and a ery fipm heaven)
asRailed them, and !n the morning they *ere
In t.hair dwellhi'jR prostrate O7*d dead So he
torved away from then), and said", 0 my
people I have brought nnto yea the message
oi my Lord and giver )you faithf al counsel ,
but ye Wed nint- faithful cowsaallors ''
Surah rii. 71 77 )
SALUTATIONS
563
SALIK (oUU). Lit A"tra-
ell&r. A torni us^d by the trestles for
devotee or one whe h&s started on the hea
veuly journey. [«on.}
SALSABJL (J--JUr). Lit. Tlie
sortly flowing. A fooittam in Paradise,
mentioned in the"Quran in Surah IXXTI. JO,
and irmn which the MoslJniH in heaven are
said to driuk. " A spring- therein named
S<il*ai>it, and there shall •&« round about
them immortal
SALUTATIONS. Arabin at-mldm
(/XJ^, « peace." Ta«ftm ..(/»*^), Heb.
Ofttf «A<iAw?i, the net of giving the prayer
of peace ^ pi. Uu&mdt. The duty of giving
and returning a salutation is founded on* ex
press injunctions in tne Qur in.
Snrah 'Jtxiv. 61 " When /e euter house*
then greet each other with a salutation from
God the Blessed and the Good "
Surah iv. 88. "When ye are aaiuted with
a salutation, salute ye with a better than H,
or return the same salutation."1
'AJi says that M\;bammad establkbed it as
an ineumbeut duty that one Munlim should
salute another. [FITRAH.] 'The ordinary
salutation of the Muslim is " v*~S<d(vnu 'oAj«.
Icum? ic. " The porie (iron you" And, the
Usual reply is ire Wo )&lcr( Jeum as Salarn or
And on jon also be the pesai . -
The supposes orfgia ol tl)*? salutation es
given m a traditinn by Abu ,Hurari ab «r
relates that the Prophet s.aid.
God erestet Adarn in. rus owen kwnese,
andhis stad ^ was sixly cubite ; and God
said to Adam, Godand salute that party
eng'els who are» itting down, and listen
to their ana wcr for verily it sh*!! be the
aalueieou and ropiy tor you and your chil
dren.'. Adam then went and said to tho
aitgela. ' as Saianit alai-kvm? i>, ' The peace
be en you,'* ami thft ahgolg replied, '<**-
-aldika w rahmatu 'Uaki? i.e. 'The
b*. nn thee. aod the morcy of God.'"
This j'orm U now usually given hi reply
by devont p»>r8erui (Suhihu *I Bukhd+i
pi 9 19.]
Muhammad iuRrructed his people as fottowe
regarding he use of the salutation; —
" The person riding must salute one on
foot, and he who in walking must salute those
who are sitting, and the small must aalute
the larger, and the person of higher decree
the lower. It ia therefore a religious duty
for Lhe person of high degree, when meet
ing one of a lower degree; the giving of the
Saldm being regarded-as a benediction. For,"
says Maharnmad, •* the nearest people to God
are those wno salute first When a party ia
pasaiug* it is sufficient if one of them give the
3alo.fatiou and. In like manner^ ita1* flufficient
one of the parry return it of those sitting
down."
The Jews m the M«ne of Muhammad seem
lo Bavo niadfl the alutation a auhject of ah
horahoe to Muhammad ; for it ia related when
Bit*y wcni tc^he Prophet th^y uned to say,
* As Sammu JaftzY-£a,? "On you be poison."
To which the Prophet always replied, " Wa
alai kot"s* And on you.'?
Uraniah - ibn Zaid aays : •• The Prophet
pncv passed a mixed assnuibly of Muslim
poiyt heists, idolaters, and Jewa, and, he gave
tho salutation;: bur he uaeant it only for the
Muslims,"
Jarir relates that on one occasion the Pro-
ot met a party of women, and gave them
the lalutatiou. But this Is contrary to" the
uaual practice of Muhammadans j and 'Abdu
i-Uaijq, iu bis commentary on this tradition,
*ay& > This practice was peculiar to the
Prophet, for the laws of Islam forbid a man
saluting a woman unless she is old."
In the Bant it is usual to raise the right
hand (the raising of the left hand being diV-
respectfu!, as it is the hand u*ed for legal
ablutions) when giving the Saiain, but this
custom, common though it be. ie net in ao-
564
SALVATION
SARACEN
cortbtnce with the traditions. For 'Amr ibn
Shiu'aib relates, from his fore-fathers, that
the Prophet said, " He is not of us who likens
himself to another. Do not copy the Jews
• »r the Christians in your salutation. For a
Jew's salutation is by raising his fingers, and
the Christians salute with tho palm of tho
band. (Mishkat, book xxii. ch. i.)
In Central Asia, the salutation is generally
ijiven without any motion of the body, in
accordance with the above tradition.
SALVATION. The Arabic word
najdt (ft?*), " salvation," only occurs
once in the Qur'an, namely, Surah xl. 44:
" O my people! how is it thai I bid yau to
salvation, but that yo bid me to the fire?"
Nor is the word generally u*ed in Muslim
worKs »f divinity, although the orthodox sect
of Muslims claims for itself the title of Naji-
yah, or those who arc being saved.
The word nwghfirah, s( forgiveness," is fro-
queutly used in the Qur'an to express what
Christians understand by "salvation"; also
jf.«7<fw, ////an, and Din, words which express
the idea of a state of salvation.
According to Islam, a man obtains salva
tion by a recital of the Kaiimah,, or creed ;
but if. he be an evil doer, he will suffer tho
pains of a purgatorial fire until his sins are
atoned for ; whilst he who has not accepted
the Muslim creed will euduro the pains of
everlasting punishment. [HELL.]
AS-§AMAD (A*-aN). "-The Eternal."
Ouo of the ninety-nine names or attributes of
God. It occurs once in the Qur'an, Surah
esii. : « God the Eternal"
In its original meaning, it implies & lord,
because one roj»aira to him in exigencies ; or
whan applied to God, because affair* are
stayed or rested on Him. Hence> according
to at Afu/tkfiin, -inloco* and the Li$dnu 'l-'Arab,
it signifies the Being that continues for ever —
the Eternal One.
SAMAHAH (&.U-). / [BBNBFI-
CENCE.]
SAMARITAN.
AS-SAMI' ($^t)." The Hearer."
One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of
God. The word frequently occurs in the
Qur'an.
AS-SAMIRI (^LJty. Mentioned
in the Qur'an (Surah xx. 87: "As-Samirl
has led them astray") as the person who
made the golden calf for the Children oi
Israel In Professor Palmer's translation, it
is .rendered "the Samaritan," which, is ac
cording to al-Baicawf, who says his name
T»M Mnaft ibn Zafar, of the tribe ol Samari
tans. [M08KS.J
SAMUEL,
Arabic Ishmaml
Heb.
referred to in t*i« Qur'an (Surah ii,£4?> M
M the prophet * to whom t*ie Children of .
Israel said, " Raise for us a Kin£, and we
will tight for him in God's way/'
Husaii), the commentator, says it is not
quite certain who he was. Ho WHS either
Yftsha* ibn Nun, or Shnm'im ibn Safiya, or
Ishmawit. (Tufsir-i-Hnsuini, p. 65.;
The Kamal'm give his name as Shamwit,
but say it was originally Ismail, and that the
meaning is the same.
SAN'A' («W-). A city in al~
Yaman, the Viceroy of which, Abrahatn 'I-
Ashram, an Abyssinian Christian, maivhed
with a largo nrmy and some elephants upon
Makkah, with the intention of destroying tho
Temple (see Qur'an, Surah cv.) in the year
Muhammad was born. Hence the year was
known as that of the Elephant.
SANA!) (d^). Lit. "That on
which one rests, as a pillar or cushion." An
authority; a document; a warrant. A term
used in Muslim law.
SANAM (f**-*), pi. asnam. The
word used in the -Qur'an for an idol, e.g
Surah xiv. 38 : " Turn me and rny sons away
from serving idols " f IDOLS.]
SANCTUARY. The Prophet for
bade putting a nmrderar to death iu a
mosque, but he may bo taken by force from
the mosque and slain outside the building.
The same rule applies to persona guilty of
theft. (Mifhlc&t, book iv. ch. viii.)
The custom of sanctuary was deiivedjrom
the Levitical law of ref iure. The six ctt ies b^lng
established as cities ol refuse /or the invo
luntary manslayer. The alt.ar oi burnt offer
ings was also a place of refuge for those who
bad undesignedly committed smaller offences.
(Dent. six. 11, 12; Joshua xx.) According-
to Leeky (Enrvpenn Murals, vol, ii. p. 42),
the right of sanctuary v/a* possessed by the
Imperial statues and by the Pagan temples.
Bingham (Antirfniti<as, vol. ii. p. 554) says it
seeros to have been introduced into the Chris
tian Church by Constantino.
SANDALS. [SHOES.]
SAQAR (y»~). "A. scorching
heat." According ,to th* commentator, al-
Baghawi it is the special division of hell set
apart for the Magi. It is mentioned thus in
t!w Quv'an:--
Surah liv. 18: "Taste ye the touch of
saqctr"
Surah Ixxiv. 26 : " I will broil him in sayur I
And what shall make theo know what saqw
is ? " It leaveth nought and sparoth nought,
blackening the skin of man.
SARACEN. A term used by
Chri&tian writers f ar the followers of Muham
mad, and applied not only to the Ai'abs, but
to the Turks and other Muslim nations.
There is much uncertainty as to the origin
of this word. The word Sapcuo/vos ""
used by Ptolemy and Pliny, and also by Am-
mianug and Proeopiua, for certain Oriental
tribes, long before th» death of Muhammad
8ABAH
(26 Gibbon). Some etymologists derive it
>m tho Arabic shurq, " tho rising fmn, the
st " (see Wedgwood's Diet). Others from
hr<? " a desert,"— the people of tho desert
Webster). Gibbon think.1? it may be from
o Arabic sarar/ah, u theft,"' denoting ihf.
evith character of tho nation ; whilst some
?e even thought it may be derived from
rah the wife of the Patriarch Abraham.
SARAH. Arabic Sarah (V-0, Hob.
Hi!?, Greek 2<i^pa. Abraham's wife.
ot mentioned by name in the Qur'an, but re-
ured to in Surah xi. 74 : " And his wife was
tanding by laughing, and We gave her the
lad tidings of Isaac, and of Jacob after
I SARAQAH (iy>. [THEFT.]
§ARF (<-V). (1) A term used
or a special kind of sain or exchange. Ac-
lording to tho [Jidnyah, bai'u 's-sarf, or $arf
ale, means a pure sale, of which tho articles
ipposed to each other in exchange are both
•eproaentativfla of price, as gold fpr S°W or
lilvor for bilyev. (See Hamilton's HidayO/i,
IQ\. ii. p. 551.)
1 (2) That part of grammar which relates to
.he declming of nouns and the conjugating of
jrarba.
SARIH (e*/*). Explicit or clear.
A. term used in Muslim law for ibat which is
pxprox.» in contradistinction to that which is
lfjHfi>/oh, or implied. For example, the Tal'iqu
'f-snrifi, is an explicit form of divorce, -whilst
Talii'ju 'l-kiniiyah is nn implied form of
divorce, as when a man says to his wife,
" Thou art free."
$A'RIQ (jjU). A thief. [THEFT.]
SATAN. Arabic Shaifan
[OKVli,.]
BATH (v^). A curtain or veil.
A term used for rbo seclusion of women.
called ;Uso lujub. in the Traditions it is
'
used for ut'cedsary and decent attire, bnbn
satr bomt( a special chapter in the Miskkaht
$.Mafat>ih (book iv. cb. ix.). The sotr for a
luan being from the waist to the knee, and
for a free wum.'ui from the neck to the feet;
but for asluvt girl from the waist to the knee
as in the (use of a man. That part of the
hotly which must be 90 covered ia called
'aurah or 'avrat, »k shame or modenty," from
which the Hindustani word, 'awruf, " a
woman." is derived. [MABIM, WOMEN.]
SATTUQAH (*V-.). Base coin.
The term is used for a coin which is current
aiuon^st merchants, but is not received at the
public treasury. Coins in which the pure
metal pretUinina-tes are pot considered base.
(See Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 560.)
SAUDAH (5^). One of the
wives of Muhammad. She was the widow of
Sakriia, a Qurnish, and -one of the early com
panions of tV, Prjphet. Muhamuiftd mar-
SAUI, 565
ricd her within two months of the death of
Khadijah. (Muir's Lif> '•/' A/uA •>//»*/. ne*v *»U.
p. II?.) She die^ A.H '>.>.
SAUL. Arabic TV/a/
'lfxtl. Kin;.' of Israel. Mentioned
in the Qur an ns :; kini; raist-d up of Go>! lo
rei#n ovor lsra«;l, <».- wh- i W<IH ^iven an «x-
Cwll«nt de^n'e ot koowed^r u/id p«r3ondi
appearance.
Tl»o f<illovviti> :•? tht accnunt givfii of Saul
\\\ 1he Qur'nn, with .Mr. Lane'fc rend^rin% jl
the com»»'jatator's remark* iu i tali ft. ^Mr
Stanley Lane Poolc's liud Kd.)
" Haul thoti not conaivlerpd ihc a>»eini»ly
of th« ''hlldrcn of Israel after th* u'*wfi oj
>fosea. when they »aiH wulo » proph«l of
theirs, numdy Samitel, Set up for us a kiog.
v/iuW tvlun* we will i»gh( in Uie way of (»od ?
lie said nnto (Item, If iif«hlii)g be piv-»crih«d
as incumbent on you, will ye. pcradvi»ouire.
alstain from fighting? They replied. And
wherefore should we not li^ht in the way yf
God. since we have been expelled from our
habitations and our children by (fair iiti<)iii<j
bf-fn takf.n prisoners (tuff sitting — 7'hc fteofitf of
Goliath [Jalootj hud done t/ivs auto (h.m. —
But when fighting w*s oominanded tlifiu,
they turned bark, excepting a few of them,
who crossed lh* river with Sttitt. And God
knoweth the offenders. An>f the prophet
he.<n;<:d in* Lord to send '/ king ; w/trn>np<jn ha
const utc-J to fend Swtl. And thcii* prophet
said imto tl-.cm. Veriiy Hod hath set up Saul
as your kin^'. They said, How snnll he h:iv^
the (k'lnimtm over us, when we arc more
worthy of the dominion than he, (for lit >rf/s
not of th* royui lineayt:, not of the piof-hftir.
and he wtt* a tunnvr, or a tr.nrlvr of Jlvtk* or
/fc>rr/.s,) and he hath not been i-mluwed with
ample wealth? He replied. Vtriiy <-«f'<l hath
chosen him as king over you. and increased
liioi in largeness of knowledge ami of kx»d;/;
(for he waft tin', wisest of the. chtl(tre,n ofltnui
at that ttjae, and the most comely .-/ //«<•<», <7/t^
the must perfect of them in mak<.>.) ,ui(i (»«>!
f<iveth his kin^doui unto whom Ho pleuse-ib ;
and Ood is ample I'M His '>en<?/?aw. knowing
with refiH-rt to him who is worthy of the h'ny-
,/07«. — And their propiiet .said unto them,
when they demanded «f him " siyn in proof of
Ms kinyship, Verily thfl Riqn of his kinjj*Lip
•ihall be that the ark shall como unto you (»i*
' it tcerc the. image* of the prophets : Go J sent it
down unto Adiim, and it paused into their pos-
tfmon; but the Ainaltlcites took it from ihe>n
by force : and they used to seek victory thereby
over their enemy, <tnd to advance it in the fight,
and to trust Vn it. as He— whose nuw. 1-:
pjcalttd'.—hatli S'./tW); therein ia tranquillity
[SAKINAH] from your Lord, and relics of what
the family of Moses and tho family of Aaron
have left : namely, the two shoes (or sunderf*)
of Moses, Mid his rod, and the turlsa.i of
Aaron, <md a measure of the manna that used
to descend upon thriii, and the fragments of
the tables [of the Law]: the angels shal
bi-cr it. Verily in this shall be a si^ri unto
you of his ktnyshifj, if ye be believe* *. Actor J.
566
SATO
inch ike angels bore it betvsecn
earth, white they looked at ft until they placed
it 6v Santi wntreiuton they aoknour<><tQetiihi&
- * "
Jerusalem, and it vta& w'6/wrrf/e
..„. wsathei' and they sterna rn_fecl of him wdtw*
be said. Verily Uod will try you by a liver ,
Wai £fo obedient amony yott-wid fhs ^fso -
fodient ntay opne<tr (ntd, tV was bdvelnvA
Jordan ana Palestine)., and whoso drinketh
thereof he is not of ' my party but he who
taafeth not. thereof tho fs of my part y) ,
excepting1 Him who takes for$i a draUBurm
his fiatid, a*»d is satisfied therewith, not
additiq to .it, for he is of mv party; —then
they drank tnersof abundantly excepting a
few of thorn who we.hr content only with the
handful of water. It is. ralatet ihak it sufficed
them for ttwir own drinking aajd for fair
bexst,e. and iheij were three hitndtfcd and so-me*
uhot mote than ten And wheh lie had passed
oVer it he and , those wHo believed with >
thev said. We ^haye no powe-r today to COM
tend against Goliath and his frops in , And
thfy tt'«ry cor&rdjj/ and pase^ riod oo-cr ifr
They who held it as crr^nm thet they shouri
m«et G-od at the resurrection (and they rutwv
those who hud pftssodover* if /said How- many
a small bodj' oiT men haih. overcome a great
hody l>y the permission (or wiitj of wod!
A»a f^ed 1s with the qatient, io defend tmo'
<i/W. — And when they went, forth to battle
against dolzath ft«d his troops they said, 0
6«r Lard, peur upon us patience, arid ^nake
firm our teet. by ttrengtneriinrj our hearts f&'
the holy re or, and help us against the unbe-
Hdvhig people 1— And they routed them by
the permission. (or will) of Qod and David'
who tiros in t fie army of Saul 01evr GoDat^'
(Sarah ii. 247 -25S.J
SAUM Cfr) Casting. The,
usual Arabic term used for this religious act
whether during" the Ramazan or ai any other
time. Its equivalent ^n Persian is nmah
[FASIWO
SAITMU T-TATAWWU
V) A voluntary fast, other
month of
SAUT
SAWAB
reward ,, «^. Quran Surah
ward from God, for God /with Him ere the
lx?8t rewaeds.
Recompense
fii'l&S,'' A- TV
AS-SAWADU J.AZAM
ftety. Lit. The exalted multi
tude. A term uset in the "Tradition* and in
Maclim tbeologry for the Assembly of #c«U or
the congregation of faithful men, or for a
large ioaiority
SAWA 1M (^fh), pi of
Tlecks And herds vrhieh arc grazing and for
wihch zaleai must l>e couocted [
SLA
SCHOOL- Arabie ma
•pi. malcatib madrasah r*-^*») pi,
madaris. Accordiiig to Mcslim iaw. all ode
cafwn should b« carried on «! coun«otioTi
With relrgras instruction, aad consequently ,1
schools are genei-aiiy attached to
SCRIPTURE, .HOLY The ex
pressron • •** Holy Scripture ia rendered fn !
Perssi by PaXlfaunshtah X*4,y a^). "the
Holy "Writing., il» e^uivafaot in Arable being i
HoJy Book or Kalamu, ttah (i&\ ^) / the
Word of God* Those terms, wntl&i &ev , ars;
generftily rcucierstood by Muslims tc reter t<;
the Qur'an. more feorrectly include all books,
acknowledged ^y Muhajmraadaas to be the i
Word of God. They profess to reeeive allthe
Hewisb .Stfriipliire arid tbe New Testament ai j
vrell a>s tbe Qun'oa aB the revealed Word of
God (JPItORH CT5 . IN SPI RJI T 10 H J
SCTJLPTUKE Aratio • ansdJ)
The makitig of carved
, or acuiptufed flgiires,i« understood
io be Forbidden in the Quran wider the term
)^f an Idal (see Sirrah xiv 881;
in Surah v 92; M Verily wina, atid
s of obance.- and statues
diviiungerrows are an abomination
d.erice. '
Consequently seal ptare 7 g not allowed a«-
cordir^j te MusHm law, although ar-Raghtl»
savs a.««rru?m is that wbjch diverts- the mind
from God.
SEA Arabic b*hr (<~) "The
sea.4 a/ 6o/rr ifratettu applied in the Qur»an
te the Red. SP« kjiowz^ amongat Msibanima'
dans as the £ahrv i-QvJzum. [*Et> SEA!}
Sarahs ii 47 vii 134 " The ships that aall
like motintaiufi in the sea are awwngst the
<{ signs of God. (Seo. Surah xlii. 51 ) >n
Swah iii, i> Muhammad, Rwears by "the
swellijig; se» w In Surah , vii 68 : " It is the
Lurd Whe drives the ships for voii in the sea*
tint ye way *ek a^ter plcswy Ipow Rim.1* In
Sflrah jjil 109. it occurs as kn illnstration
of Hie beundless character of the W^rd &
<?o<i, "Were the sea ink for the words of
my Lord- the sea *ould surolj fail before the
words of my Lord , fail ?f aye, though w*
brought aa much ink again."
In fVfuhanvxnadan works ib the Traditions,
and couimentarie?, the Arabic bakr is fl . *
(or large river* as the Euphrates and the
In the Same sense as the Hehrevr Q^
yam (but the) ^ord nahr, Hebrew "^Jti
nahar occxirs in the Qor an for "rivers.)
It is relaxed that Muhammad said, "Let
S one but three clas&e of people cross the sea
for.it has fire tinder it which causes its
trembled motion) pamely, 'I) those vbo per
form the ffajj or ' Fifgtimage ' ; (2) those
who make tii£ umrah. oi visitation ' ; (3)
those who go forth to war." (Majmtfu 1-
Bihar, vol. i.p. 76)
SEAL OF PROPHECY
SECTS OF ISLAM
567
The following are the names of the seas as
;urrent in Muhammadan literature;-—
Al-Sahn/ 'l-Akhzar. the Green or Indian
)cean.
Al-Bahru 'l-Abyat, the White or Medi-
enranean Sea.
Ai-Bahru 'l-Asu>adt the Black, or Kuxine
364.
Al-Bcihru 'l"A*ra.qt the Blue or Persian
A1 gahra 'l-Qulru/n. or al-Bahru 't'
the Red Sea.
Al'Bahru 'IJLut) the Sea of Lot or Dead"
Sea
] Al~B<ikru '/ Ktirr. the sea of Khiir, ihe
Caspian Sea.
SEAL OF PROPHECY. Khatimu
I'n-Nvbuwah. (Sj^N ,JW) A mole of
Ian unusual size on the Prophet a back which
is said to have been the divine seal '#hich.
i according to the predictions.of th* Scriptures,
marked Muhammad AS the " Sea! of th<» Pro
phets," Khattmv'n NabwTn.
According to * tradition recorded in the
1 Afishkatv TMojofaA. book fii. ch. 7 it wa-
'Ihe sue of the knob of a bridal canopy.
' Others say rt was the size of a pigeon's egg,
of even the size of a closed flat,
Shaikh 'Abdu 'I Haqq says "it was a piece
of flesh, very brilliant in" appearance and
according to some traditions it had secretly
inscriben within it. ' God is one and has no
Associate.5"
Abu Ratnsa whose family were skilled in
surgery, offered to remove it, but Muhammad
refased, saying, "The Physician thereof is Re
who placed it where it is."
According lo another tradition, .Muham
mad as id to Abu Ramsa', " Come hither and
rouch my back*j which he did drawing hi*
fingers over I he. prop helical seal. and. behold!
there was a oollecfion of hairs upon the spot.
(See Mxtir, newed. p. 542.)
'Abdu I Haqq also says it dieappeared
from the Prophet's back shortly before his
death.
I Ms not. clear how far Muhammad encou
raged the belief in this supernatural sign" of
his prophetic mission, but from his reply to
Abu Ramsa', it would oot appear that he
really attributed any special po**r to its
existence. [MUHAMMAD.]
SECTS OF ISLA M. Arabic firquh
(&;•)> pi. /raj. Muhammad is re-
tated to have prophesied that his followers
be divided into numerous religious
Abdu Mliih ibn Unur relates tnefc the Pro-
onet said Verily it will happen to my
pBopi* even &s it did to the Children of Israel.
The Children of Israel were divided into
seventy-two sect*, and my people will be
divided into seventy-three Every one of
these sects wili go to HeH except one sect."
The Co npanions said, " 0 Prophet, which »6
that? " He aaid, " The religion which is pro
fessed by me Mid my Companions." (mis/t-
kdt, book i. ch. vl. pt. 2.)
The number has. however, far exceeded
thft Prophet's predictions, for the s«*ls
Islam even exceed in number and variety
those of the Christian religion.
The Sunnis arrogate to themselves (he
litle of the Ndjiyah, or those who are " being
saved " f>s, indeed, do the other sects), but
within the limits of the Sunni section of Mir*
hammadans tbereare four which are esteemed
"orthodox," their differences consisting
chiefiy in minor difference's of rituatj and in
varied interpretations of Muslim law.. Thase
four orthodox sects or schools of interpreta
tion amongst the Sunnis, are tn« Hanafiyah,
the Shafi'fvah the MalaViya.' . and the Ham
1. The Thnafiyahs era lAimd in Turkey,
Central Asia, and" North India The founder
of thia sect was ihe Ttnam Abu Uanlfah, who
was born at a!-Ki\fah, the capital of al-'IrSq,
A.D. 702. or A.ti. 80. at wbiciu time tour of the.
Prophet's companions ware still alive. He
is the great oracU of jurisprudence, and (with
his two pupils the Imams Abu Yoeuf and
Muhammad) was ihe founder of the Hanafiyah
Code of Law.
2. The ShaM'iyahs are found in South
fndia and Egypt. The founder of tbio school
of inlerpretation was fmam Muhammad iba
Idrls as Shafi'i*, who was born at Asoalon, in
Palestine A i> 7<>7 (A.H t50)%
3. The Malakiyahs prevail in Morocco,
Batbary and other parfs of Atnca. and wer*
founded by Imam Malik who was born at aU
Madinah. A.O. 714 (A.H. 95) He eojoyed the
persona) acquaintance of Abu Hanifah, and
he was considered the most learned man of
his time.
4. The Hambaliyahs were founded by
Imam Abu Abdi Hah Ahmad ibn Muham
mad ibn Hfimbal, who was born at Baghdad.
AD. 780 (A.H. 164), He attended the lec
tures delivered by ash Shifiji, by whom he
was instructed in the. Traditions His fol
lowers are found m Eastern Arabia, and in
some parts of Africa, but il is the Jea»t popn -
lar of the tour schools of interpretation. They
have no Mufr? at Makkah whilst the other
three sects are represented there The Wah-
hahis rose trom this sect. [WAHHAKI.]
From the disciples of these four great
Imams have proceeded an immense number of
commentaries and other works < all differing
on a variety of poinis in their constructions,
although coinciding in their genera! prin
ciples.
The Ghma^u'l-Lughat gives the following
particular* of the seventy three sects spoken
of in the Traditions, arranging their, in six
divisions of twelve sects each, and concluding
wilh the Najfuufi or " Orthodox" SunnTr
L— The /tyfcru/tfAiMne Separatists," who
are divided mto—
1. * Al(iu*y0ri, who esteem the Khalifah
'All to have been a prophet.
2. AbaJiiiaL who hold tnat Ali is divine.
3 5%uWu/ab. v/ho sajr 'AIT was the first
and best of the Khah'fahs.
i. lafidifiyufi. who say the age of prophecy
u not yex completed
568
SECTS OF ISLAM
SECTS OF ISLAM
5. %aidfy(jh, who hold that prayers can
only be led by a descendant of Alj.
6. iAbbus~tyah, who *ay al-'Abbas, the
uncle of Muhammad, was the enly righ'Jxii
Imam.
7. I»MHiiyalt, who state tiiat th* world is
never lefl without a» Im&m of the Banu
Kii^him to lead the prayers.
8. Narhlyah, who say it la Wasp hen ly for
one person to say he is better than another.
9. Tanasiikhiyahi who believe in the trans
migration of tfouit.
10. LfrinrygA. those who curse the names
of Talhrih, Zubair, and *Ayishah.
11. R<iji*lynh, who believt ihat -AIT is
bidden in the clouds und will return again to
this earth.
12. Murtazlyah, who say it is lawful for
a Muslim to fight against bis Imam,
U. — The KJtnrijiyah, "the Aliens,' ' who
are divided into- -
I. Azrayfyab, who fay th«re is no lioly
vision now to be obtained by the sous of men,
as tlie days of inspiration are paaf.
2 Riijaxiyith, who say a man is saved by
good works, <*nd not by faith.
3. fjf&l'ihiyah* wbo soy God is indifferent
lo the actions of men, as 'though He were ir.
9. binte of sleep.
4 Jatitnlyeh, who hold true fa-ith has not
ye I been made evident.
5, KJuttfiyah, who say to run away even
from double th« number of in/ldelsis a mortal
sin for Muslims.
6. Kfiziyah, who say i-hat the hunmit b»d y
is ttoi made ready for pruyar unless the
ablutions l>o suen as entirely «l?an*?e tb$
body.
7, Kuiiziyctb, who do not regard tlae giving
of *«£rti mi nectttary.
8. ]tft(t('jr.?itfth, v«ho jjnaintaia tkat ovil
ac irons are not according to the decree of
God, snd that the pray era of a sim'ul roan
are not acceptable to God, and that faith is
of man's free will, and that the Qur'su i^
created, and that almsgiving :" and prayer ao
jiot benefit the f!ead, ar.d that there i;i no
/^r*«» or kilali, &e, , at the Day of Judg-
raeht.
S. Mftim'mlijali. wtio hold that belief in the
unseen VB «hsur«i
30. Mnlikawiyafi, %vhu su; t^oti ba?? not re
vealed His will to mankind.
II. Sfriijiyah, who believe the example <»f
the saints 18 of no iuiportanc^.
12. Akhimsnjah, who hoM thnt there is no
for aiu.
lU.~The Jfrbarigah, the '« Denier.? of Free
Will," who a»v divided into —
1. A/w£//?;r*y<vA, wbo lio'd that both i<oo<3
and c-vil are entirely from God, and man is
not raspoasibU.' fw his actions,
'3. AfafafaA, Mho say inun id responsible
for his actions although the power to do and
tc acl is alono fi'ora God.
3. Ma'tyak, wha believe thai man possesses
an entirely frea will.
4. farlrflyah* who 3ay faith witfaewt works
5. Bakhtlyuh* who beliere that au every
mortal receives according to God'a specisl
^ift, it is not therefore lawful for one ro git»
to another.
6. MutfimmiJtiyah, who hold that good
works are those from which comfort and hap
piness are derived in this world.
7. Kusfi'nivnh) they who say punishment
and reward is inflicted by God only according
to the actions of man.
8. ffabilnyah) who hold th»t as one friend
never injures another, so God, who is a God
of lore, does rrot pnui.vh bis own creation.
9. Kjiai'fir/ah, who say thai juut a» a friend
does not terrify his friend, so God does not
terrify his people by judgments.
10. Fikriyahj who s»y contemplation is
better than worship, And more pleasing to
God.
U. Httsabiyahi who hold that in the worM
there is ao such a thing as fate or predestina
tion.
12, Hvj]atiyqh,vibQ say that inasmuch as
God doet h everythlnu and everything is of
(Sod, man cannot be made- t-esponsible for
cither good or evil.
IV.-— The Qfldariyah, the « Assertei-9 of
Free Will," who are divided into—
1. AAadiyah, vrho accept the injunctions
of God, but not those of the Prophet.
2. $anawiyah, wbo say there are two
eternal principles, good and evil ; good
being of Yazdun and evil being of Ahraman.
3. Kaisaniyah, who say onr actions are
either the creation of G»d or they are not.
4. tyiaitilniynh, who deny fche personality of
Satan.
5. Sharikiyah. who say faith is ghfiir nuxkk- \
iiq, or ** uncreated."
6. Wahmyab, uho say the actions of man ''
are of no consequence, wheiher tbey bo good i
or evil.
7. ftttwaidiyah , who uajtintain that the i
world lias an eternal existence.
S. Nuicisiguiti who say it is lawful to light
\igai.ust the Imam or Khaiiffth.
i). Mtttttbqrrijfah, who s>*y the repeutanca j
of siruiers is not. accepted by God,
10. Q^itlynli, who hold that, the acquire- i
muni of weaitli and learning is a religious!
duty ordered by God.
11. NafimSJaht wh* mamUin that it is j
lawful to sp«ak of the Almighty as a thing1
12, MatamaHifiyah, who »ay it is not:
evident whether <ivil is by God's decree or
not.
V. — The Johimiyak, th« followers of
ibn §afwfin, who are divided iuU —
1. Mu'attaliyah, who say the nanius and;
attribut«?<j of C»od are created
2. Afutmrabtfiyak, who hold that tho pewar,
knowlwl^e, and purpose of God are created. |
3 UliitaniqibSjfnk, who say God has oi
place.
A. Waridiyah, who al-ate that those who
enter hell will nevm- escape from it, and tbati
a nnfmin, or "believer.'' will never
bell.
SECTS OF ISLAM
SEVEN DIALECTS
569
, ffar</ii/ak, who say the inhabitants of
Iwill ao burn, that in time they will be HH-
[fated.
i Makhlii(f~iyah. who believe that the
ian, the Taurat, the Injil. and the Ziibu?
rrrealfid.
'Jbariyuh, -who say Muhammad was a
ifunl man, and a philosopher, hut not a
Dhet.
JFaniyaft, who say both Paradise a)id
[( will be annihilated.
[I Zanddiqiyah, who say the Ati'raj, or
•sent of Muhammad to heaven," was only
Lie spirit, and that the world is eternal,
l^thftt there is no Day of Judgment
). Laf?ly<iti, who hold that the Qur'an is
an inspired writing, but that its instruc
ts are of God.
t. Qdbriyah, who say there i,s no punish-
i t m the grave
B. Waqiflyak, who state th*t it is not
eain whether the Qur'an is create or un-
r.te.
I. — The Afiii'jiyuh, or " Procra»tlii»tors,"
f> are divided into —
Tarlqlytiti, who say nothing is necessary
i faith.
Shffiynh, who maintain that when once a
Don has repeated the Mnh-immadan creed
<s saved.
Rajlyah* who believa that the worship
Hod is not necessary to piety, nor are good
rks necessary.
. fSliiikkiya/i, who say a man cannot be
rain if he has faith or not, for faith is
pit.
. Nahlyah, who day faith, is knowledge,
tho.se who do not know the command-
.its of God have not faith.
'Aiwiliyah, who say faith is but jjood
rks.
. t/ani]u?iyah «vho say faith is sometimes
:; and sometimes more.
. Mustfifnlyah, who deprecate assurance
religion, but say. •' we a^ believers if God
i Is it."
'. AsA'ariyah, who say ytyas, or " aualo-
il reasoning, in matters of. faith is un-
•ful.
0. BitPiyah, who hold that it is a duty to
>y a ruler, even if he give orders which are
I.
1. Muxfitibbihiyah, who say God did lite-
ly make Adam in his own image.
&. BasJwuolyafti who consider that in
.sliui law there is no difference between
rib, sunnah, and nutstnbab,
/II. — The Ndjiyah. or " Saved Ones," make
the complete number of seventy-three.
Vfr. Sale traces all tho Mnhammadan sects
four sources : —
.The ifittazitiyaktt the followers of
tail ibn'Ata. who may b« said to have been
• Hrst inventor of scholastic divinity in
am.
i. The Sif a fiyahs, or. Attribution*, who hold
i contrary opinions of the Afuttaziliya,h&.
.1 The jf£hdrijiyahs, or Aliens. Those who
volted from 'AR.
4 The S/iVahs, or the followers of 'Alt
The author of the S/iorAv 'i-'
Hiere are eight leading divisions of the sects
of Islam:—
1. The Mu'tazilah.
2. The Shrahs.
3. The Khawarij.
t. The Murjlyah.
5. Tho Najjariyah.
6. The Jabariyah.
7. The
8. The Najiyah.
For an account of these leading sects, the
reader is referred to the articles under their
respective titles-
Shaikh kAbdu 'l-Qadir says there are not
less than 150 sects in Islam.
SERMON. Thfe oration delivered
at the Friday midday prayer is called the
khatli.th /<L.!ad ) ; exhortations at any other
time are termed KV?'Z (!bc«)' The former i*
au established custom in Islam, and the dis
course is always delivered at the M'isjidu '/.
Jiinii*, or principal inosque, on Fridayd^ but
sermons on- other occasions although they
are in accordance with the practice of Mu-
Jiammad, are not common. Very few Mao-
lawirf preach evrept on Fridays.
SERPENT, Arabic haiyah
occurs in the Qur'in once for the serpent
made from Moses' rod (Surah ii. 21). The
word us«d in another placp CSurah vii. 104)
is vi-bnt (cjV*i'). 'J'he Hebrew p^p)
tannttn is also used for a large serpent in
Muslim books, but it does uot occur in the
Qur'an.
In the Qur'an, Surah ii. 34, it is said S»<an
made Adam and Eve to backslide and *; diove
them out from what they were in." but no men
tion is made of the serpent
The commentators say that when the Jevil
attempted to get into Eden to tempt Adam,
he was stopped by the angelic guard at tht
gates of Paradise, whereupon he begged of
the animals to carry him in to ppeak to Adam
ami his wife, but they all refused except the
serpent, who took him between his teeth and
so introduced him to r»nr first parents. (Taf-
(tiru 'l-'Azizi, p. 124.,
SETH. Arabic 8Ms (vA^fc) : Heb.
Shetf>. The third son of Adam. A
prophet to whom it is said God revealed
fifty small portion* of scripture. [PROPHETS ]
In the fourth century there existed in Egypt
a sect of gnostics, calling themselves Sethians,
who regarded Seth as a divine emanation.
(NeanderW/;. Ifat.. vol. ii. p. 115), which will
account for Muhammad classing him as an
inspired prophet with a revelation
SEVEN DIALECTS Arabic
j&W/ff./w AhniJ (w»^ ^*— ). The
•Prophet is related to have said that the
Qur'an was revealed in seven dialects (Mish
hut, book ii. ch. ii.). The word ahntf. trans
lated »• dialects." may admit of two interpre
tations Some understand it to wean that
72
570
SEVTW S A LA MS
ASH-SHAFI'J
the Qur'an contains seven kinds of revela- j
tion : Commandment (a?;i/-), prohibition \
(naAy), history (qissaJi), parable (/msd/), ex- i
hortation (wal%), promises (wa'dah), and j
threatening (100*10?). But the more common \
interpretation of ahruf is " dialects," by which
is understood that by changing the inflec
tions and accentuations of -words, the text of
the Qur'an may be read in the then existing
" seren dialects " of Arabia, namely, Quraish,
Taiy,Hawazin, Yftinan. Saqlf, Huzail, Tamlm.
SEVEN SALAMS. Seven verses
of the Qur'au, in which the wordsa/aw
" peace," occurs : —
Surah xxxvi. 58: « Peace shall be the word
spoken unto the righteous by a merciful
God."
Surah xxxvii. 77 : " Peace be on Noah and
on all creatures."
Surah xxxvii. 109: "Peace be on Abra
ham."
Surah xxxvii. 120: "Peace be on Moses
and Aaron."
Surah xxxvii. 130 : " Peace be on Elias." ,
Surah xxxvii. 181: "Peace be on His
apostles."
Surah xcvii. 5 : "It is peace until the break
ing of the morn."
These verses are recited by the religious
Muslim during sickness, or in seasons of
danger or distress. In some parts of Islam
it is customary to write these seven verses of
the Qur'an on paper and then to wash off the
ink and drink it as a charm against evil.
SHA'BAN (0W). Lit. "The
month of separation." The eighth month of
the Muhammadan year. So-called because
tho Arabs used to separate themselves in
search of water during this month.
SHAB-I-BAKAT (^ v*). The
Persian title for the fifteenth day of the
month Sha'ban, which is called in Arabic
Liiilatu 'n+nisfmin Sha'ban, or " the night of
the middle of Sha'ban."
On this nighty Muhammad said,- God regis
ters annually all the actions of mankind
which they are to perform during the year ;
and that all tho children of mon, who are to
be born and to die in the year, are recorded.
Muhammad, it is said, enjoined his followers
to keep awake the whole night, to repeat one
hundred rak'ah prayers, and to fast the next
day ; but thei-e are generally great rejoicings
instead of a fast, and large sums of money
are spent in fireworks. It is the " Guy
Fawkes Day " of India, being the night for
display of fireworks.
The Shab-i-Barat is said to be referred to
in the XLivth Surah of the Qur'an, verse 2,
as " the night on which all things are dis
posed in wisdom," although the commenta
tors are not agreed as to whether the verse
alludes to this night or the Shab-i-Qadr, on
the 27th of the month of Ramazan.
The Shab-i-Bardt is frequently confounded
with the Lailatu 'l-Qadr, or, as it ia called in
India, the Shab-i-.Qadr
SHAB-I-QADR (;^ v*). [LAI.
I,ATU 'L-QADH 1
SHADI (<^VA). .Persian. lAt.
" Festivity." The ordinary term used , for
weddings amongst Persian and Urdu-speaking
peoples. In Arabic the term is 'urs
[MARRIAGE.J
" SHADIDU 'L-QTJWA (Oyai
Lit. " One terrible in power." A title given
to the agent of inspiration in the Surafcu 1,
Najm (liij.), verse 6: "Verily the Qur'an is
up 'Other than a revelation revealed to him:
one terrible in power (shadidii '/-</«?#«) taught
it him."
Commentators are iiimiiiuious in a
this title io the angel Gabriel.
SHAF4 (&*) A term used
rateaim 01 prayer when recited in pairs.
SHAFA'AH
SIGN.]
ASH-SHAFrT (0*iuJ\,. Imam
Muhammad ibn Idm ash-ShaiH. the foundea
of one of the four orthodox sects of Sunnls!
was born at Askalon in Palestine A.H. 150. i
He was of the same tribe as the Prophet, i
and is distinguished by the appellation of'
al-Imamu '1-MattalibI, or Quraish Muttalibl^
because of his descent from- the Prophet^
grandfather, 'Abdu '1-Muttahb. He derive4j
his patronymic ash-Shafi'i from his grand- (
father, Sha^fi'i Ibn as-Sa'ib. His family werej
at fii'st among the most inveterate of Mu-i
hammad's enemies. His -father, carrying thej
standard of the tribe of Hashim at the battle
of Badr, was taken prisoner by the Muslims,
but released ou ransom, and afterwards b$-j
came- .a convert to Isluni. Ash-Shafi'i it!
reported by Muslim writers to be the most
accurate of all the traditionists, and, if their'
accounts be well founded, nature had indeed^
endowed him with extraordinary talents fo
excelling in that species of literature. It i
said 'that at seven years of age he had go
the whole Qur'an by rote; at ten he ha<
committed to memory the Muwattc? o
Malik, and at fifteen he obtained the rani
of Mufti. He passed the earlier part of hia
life at -Gaza, in Palestine (which has oc
casioned many to think he was born in tha
place) ; there he completed his educatioi
and afterwards removed to Makkah. H«
came to Baghdad A.H. 195, where he gav(
lectures on the traditions, and composed his
first work, entitled al- Vsul From Baghdad
he went on a pilgrimage to Makkab, am
from thence afterwards passed into Egypt
where he met with Imani Malik It doe
not appear that he ever returned from thai
country, but spent the remaindar of his iif<
there, dividing fyis time between the exerciset
of religion, the instruction of the ignorant
and the composition of his later works.
died at Cairo A.H. 204. Although he was
forty-seven years of age before he began t(
publish, and died at fifty-four, hid works ar«
more voluminous than those of any otha
Muclirn doctor. He was a great enemy t<
SHAGHAR
scholastic divines, and most of his pro-
stions (especially upon theology), were
itten with a view to controvert their
lurdities. Ho is said to have been the
it who reduced the science of Jurispru-
ice into a regular system, and to have
de a systematic collection of traditions,
am Hambal remarks that until the time
ash-Shafi'i men did not know how to
tinguish between the traditions that wei-e
force and those that were cancelled. His
it work was, as before-mentioned, the
u/, 01 " fundamentals," containing all the
nciples of the Muslim civil and canon law.
» next literary productions were the Sunan
i Masnad, both works on the traditional
r, which are held in high estimation among
» Sunnis. His works upon practical di-
ity are various, and those upon theology
isist of fourteen volumes. His tomb is
11 to be seen at Cairo, where the famous
.ahu 'd-dm afterwards (A.H. 587) founded
sollege for the preservation of his works.
i the propagation of his doctrines. The
SI-JUG at Hirah was built by Sultan Ghiyasu
Din for the same purpose. Imam ash-
afi'I is said to have been a person of acute
cernment and agreeable conversation. His
perence for God was such that he never
s heard to mention his name except in
lyer. His manners were mild and ingra-
ting, and he reprobated all unnecessary
Toseness or severity in a teacher, it being
saying of bis that whoever advised his
>ther tenderly and in private . did him a
•vice, but that public reproof could only
jrate as a reproach. His principal pupils
re Imam Ahmad ibn Hambal and az-
.halri, the former *of whom afterwards
inded a sect [HANBAL].
Fhe Shafi'i sect of Sunnis is chiefly met
bh in Egypt and Arabia."
SHAQHAR (;UV). A double
taty of marriage common amongst tho
[ran Arabs, viz. the man marrying the
ter or daughter of another, and in "return
'ing his sister or daughter in order to
oid paying the usual dower. It is strictly
•bidden by the Muhainmadan religion (see
\shkdt. book xiir ch. 11). although it is
to. now practised by the people of Central
ia
SHAH (sU). Persian. " A King."
title usually given to members of tho
;cetic order, and to Sniyide, as Faqir
ah, Akbar Shah. It has, however, become
common addition to surnames, both in
iia and other countries, and no longer
aotes a position of dignity.
8HAQQU S-SADB
571
the Qur'an for the Almighty (e,g. surah iii.
93) as one who seeth all things.
). « Evidence.11
7TNES3E3.J Martyrdom. [MABXTRS.]
SHAHlD (•**$*;. [MARTYKS, WIT
SHAHINSHiH (fiUj^U.). A
Persian title given to the King of Persia—
" King of Kings." It is a title strictly for
bidden in Traditions, hi which it is related
that Muhammad said u • King of Kings * is
the vilest name you can call a man, for there
is no other King of Kings but God." (Mishkdt.
book xxii. ch. viii.)
SHAIKH (**«.), pi. thuyulch; ash.
ydkh, or mashdyikh. A venerable old man.
A man above fifty years of age. A man of
authority. A superior of an order of Dar-
weshes. Shaykhu 'I- Islam, a title given to
the chief Maulawi or Qazi of the cities of
Constantinople, Cairo, Damascus, &c.
SHAITAN (0U**). [DEVIL.]
SHAJJAH (*-*-*), pi. shijdj.
[WOUNDS.]
SHAKING HANDS. Arabic
musdfahah (X***^** ). Is enjoined in
the Traditions, and is founded upon the
express example of Muhammad himself.
Al-Bara' ibn 'A'zib says the Prophet said,
"There are no "two Muslims who meet and
shake hands but their sins will be forgiven
them before they separate." (Mishkdt, book
xxii. ch. iij.)
ASH-SHAKUR Gyk^). "The
Acknowledger of Thanksgiving." One of the
ninety-nine -special attributes of tho Al
mighty. Qur'an, Surah xxxv. 27 : " Verily
He (God) is forgiving, and an acknowledger
of thanksgiving." When used for anyone
but God it means one who is grateful, e.g
Quraii. Surah xtxiv. 12: " Few of my ser
vants nre grateful."
Asn-SHA'M (rl^). Lit. "That
which is on the left-hand (looking to .the
rising «uu)," i.e. tho northern country to
Makkah. Syria.
ASH-SHAMS (u-^-AJ*). " The
Sun." Tho title of the xciet Surah of the
Qur'tin, which begins with the word.
Asn-SHAHID (***$). "The
itness." One ot the uinciy-nme -names or
tributes of God. It frequently occurs in
SHAQQU 'S-SADE (^
Lit. " The splitting open of the heart." Anas
rebates that " the Angel Gabriel came to th«>
Prophet, when he was playing with boys
and took hold of him, and laid him on the
ground, and split open his heart, and brought
out a little bag of blood, and said to Mn-
hammad, ' This is the devil's part of you.
After this. GaBriei washed the Prophet's
heart with zamzain, water, tben sowed it np
and replaced it. Then the boys who were
with the Prophet caine running to his nurse,
saying, 'Veriiy Muhammad is killed."1 Anas
also savs that he " had seen the marks of the
sewing in the Prophet's breast." (Mishfcdt,
book xxiv. ch. vi.^
According to the comment atorw 31-BaizSwi,
Jil-Kamdlun, and ITusain, tbe first verse of
572
SrlAjl'
SHPAH
the xCivth Surah of the Qur'an refers to this
event: u Have we not' opened thy breast for
thee, and taken off from thce thy burden,
which galled thy back?" But it, seems
probable that this simple verse of oue of the
earliest chapters of the Qur'an refers merely
to the enlightenment of Muhammad's heart.
>nd that his followers afterwards invented
the miracle in order to give a. supernatural
turn to the passage. [MUHAMMAD.]
SHAB* (£,*). [LAW.]
SHAHAB (vAjfi.). in its original
meaning. " that which is drunk/' A drink.
Always applied to wiiie and Intoxicating
drinks. Jn mystic writing.?, sharab, u wine,*'
Signifies the dominion of Divine love over
the heart of man.
SHARH (cjA)* Lit. "Expound,
ing." A term used for a, commentary written
in explanation of any book or treatise, a a
distinguished from la/sir, which is used only
for a commentary of the Qur'an, These
expositions are written either in the text, or
on the side of the book or treatise they
attempt to expound, The term, however
generally used for marginal notes is hashiytik.
For example^ the Tanvnru 'iAbsur is the
main, or text, of a great work on Muharn-
mada.n laws, written by Shamsu 'd DTn Mu
hammad AH. 995; the Dym< 'l-MMtar is
a sharh. or commentary written on tha.t work
by 'Ala'd-Din Muhammad. A.M.. 1088; and
IwHashitfah. or marginal notes on these two
works, is the Hndcfu 'l-Afufrtar, by Muhammad
A rum.
SHARI'AH (*•*!*). The law. in
eluding1 both the teaching of the Qur'an and
of the traditional sayings of "Muhammad.
[LAW.]
SMART (>/•)• The conditions of
marriage, of contracts. &c.
SHAVING. The shaving of the
beard h forbidden in the Traditions, for Ibn
TJnrir relates that the .Prophet said; "Do
the opposite of the polytheists: let your
beards grow long and clip your mustachios."
The shaving of the head is allowed, provided
the whole and not a part is shaven, for the
Prophet said : " Shave off all the hair of the
head or let it alone. (Mishknt-^ xx. ch. iv,
pt. a>
In Afghanistan it is the custom to shave
the head, but not in other parts of Islam.
SHAVING THE HEAD. Arabic
laMfy (,j*UJ): Forbidden in the
Hadis (Jltishktit, hook xiy. ch. v.j. although
it is most common amongst the Muhamtna
dans of India and Central Ask,
SHAWWAX (JV*.), Lit. "The
month of raising the tail." The tenth month
of the Mutianimadan year. For a discussion
of the meaning of the title of this month, see
Lane's Arabic Diet, in loco.)
SHA( Y A1 f>S**) . [ISAIAH.]
SHECHINA [SAKINAH, TABTJT.]
SHEM Arabic Sam (f^). A son
of Noah. Not, mentioned in the Qur'an, but
his name is given in commentaries.
SHI' All («M.). UL " Followers.1'
The followers of 'All, first cousin of Mu-
hammand and the ItuSbaud of hid daughter
Fatimah. The Shl'ahs maintain that 'Ali
was the first legitimate Imam or Khs.llfab, or
Successor, to the Propbetjand therefore reject
Abu Ba,kr, 'Umar, and 'Ustnan,the fir%l three
Khallfahs of the Sxtnnl Muslims, as usurpers.
They are also called the Iinamiyahs, because
they believe tbe Muslim religion consists in
the true knowledge or the Imam or rightful
leaders of the faithful Also the f$na*
'ashariyah, or the Lwelveans, as followers of
the. twetve Imams. The Sunm Muslims oali
them the ftafizi, or the forsakers of the
truth. The {Shi'ahs Strenuously maintain
that they are the •• orthodox " Muslims, and
arrogate to themselves (as do also the
Sunms) the title of al-MuiniiiitiL, or the
"'True Believers."
The Spirit of division, which appeared
among the followers of Muhammad, even
before his death, broke out with greater
violence after it ; and the rapid Strides of his
successors to even imperial power, only af
forded a wider sphere for ambition. The
great and radical difference between the
Shi'ahs and Sunnls, as we have already re
marked, arises from the former maintaining
the divine and indefeasible right of 'AH to
succeed to the Khalifate on the death of the
Prophet. 'All's claims, they assert, rested on
his nearness of kindred to Muhammad, of
whom he was a co\isin, and on his having
married Fathuah, the only offspring of the
Prophet which survived him. They also
assert that he was expressly declared his
successor by the Prophet himself, under
direct guidance from God.
The text quoted in defence of the divine
institution of the Khalifate in the Prophet's
own family, is the 11 8th verse of the Suratii
'1-Baqarah, or the Second Chapter of the
Qur'an, which reads : —
tr And when his Lord tried" Abraham with
words and he fulfilled them, He said, 'I am
about to make of tbee an IMAM to mankind ':
he said, * Of my offspring also? ' * My cove
nant,' <*aid God, 'embraceth not evil doer.i.' '
According1 to the ShT'aha, this passage
shows that the Iraamate, or Khalifate, is a
divine institution, and the possessor thereof
must be of the seed of Abraham. This the
Suoals would also adroit, at* they hold that
tbe true Khallfah can only be one of the
Quraish tribe [KHALIFAH], but from the ex-
pi'ession^ u my covenant embraceth not evil
•loerfJ/'the Shl'ah doctors establish the super
natural character of the Khalifate, and hold
that the divinely appointed leader must
himself be without spot or blemish or capa
city to sin. The primeval creation of 'Ali is
therefore a dog-ma of the Shl'ah faith.
The author of the Ifaydlu >l- Qptub (Mer
SHI 'AH
rick's ed., p. 4;, says: "The Prophet de
clared that the Most High had created him.
and "Ali and Futimah, and Hasan and Husnin.
before the creation of Adam, and when as yet
ithere was neither heaven, nor earth, nor dark-,
ness, nor light, nor sun, nor moon, nor para
dise, nor .hall.1 [HAQIQATU'L-MUHAMMAWYAH. i
The Shi'th traditions also give very lengthy
accounts of the nomination of 'Alt by the
Prophet to be hio .successor The following
is the account given in the Huwll>i */-Q,uliif>
fp.334):-
"When the ceremonies of the pilgrimage
were completed, the Prophet,, attended by
'Ali. and the Muslims, left Makkah for al-
Madinah. On reaching Ghadlrkhum, the
Prophet halted, although that place had
never been known as a stopping-place for
caravans because 4t had neither .water nor
pasturage. The reason for stopping at. this
place being a direct message from the Al
mighty. The Prophet had received divine
messages on the subject before, but He had
not before expressly appointed the time ot
'All's inauguration."
*****
" As the day was very hot, the Prophet
ordered them to take shelter under some
thorn trees Having ordered all the camel-
saddles to he piled up for a pulpit, he com
manded a herald to summon, the people
aiomid him. Most of them had bound their
cloaks on their feet as a protection from the
excessive heat.. When all the people were
assembled, the Prophet ascended, the pulpit
made of camel-saddles, and, calling to him.
the Commander of the Faithful ('Ali), placed
him on his right hand. Muhammad then
gare praise to God, and foretold his own
deal h, raying that he had been called to the
gate of God. He theu said,* I leave among'
you the Book of God, to which, while you
adhere, yon will never go astray. I leave
with you the members of my family who can
not be separated from the Book of God until
both they and the Book join me at the foun
tain of al-Kausar* [KAOSAR.] He then,
with a loud voice, said, ' Am 1 not dearer to
you than your own lives ? And all the
people said, 'Yes.' He then took the hands
of 'Ali and raised them up so high, that the
white of his arm-pita appeared, and said,
4 Whosoever from his heart receives me as his
master, then let him receive 'Ali. 0 Lord,
befriend -All. Be the enemy of all his ene
mies. Help rJl who help him. and forsake
all who forsake him. "
The writer also says : —
•* Certain authorities both Shi'ah and
Sunni, declare that when the Prophet died,
the hypocritical Muhajirs and Ansars, such as
Abu Bakr, 'Umar, and 4Abdu V-Rahman ibnu
l-'A.uf, instead of visiting the family of the
Prophet to comfort them at the time of his
death, assembled at the nbode of the1 Banu
Saudnh. and plotted to yei/.e the Khalifate.
Most of them did not perform the prayers at
the Prophet's burial, although 'Ali sent to
call them for the purpose. This plan was to
make Abu Bakr Khallfah. and for this they
SHT'AH
673
had plotted in the Prophet's lifetime. The
hypocritical Ansars, however, wished to make
Sa'd ibnn '! Abadah. Khalifah, but they were
ovur-ruled by the Muhajirs. A certain man
brought the information that Abu Bakr wan
constituted Khalifa ht when 'All was in the
act of filling in the earth of the Prophet's
grave, and aaid that the hypocrites had
feared that if they waited till the funeral
ceremony was over, they would not succeed
iti their design of depriving -Ah of hia rights.
'Ali laid his spade on the ground and recited
the rirst verses of the xxixth Surah of the
C^ur'an : ' A. L. M. Do men reckon that they
will be left alone who say, " We believe," and
wot be tried / We did try those who were
before Ibem, and God will surely know those
who are truthful, and he will iiirely know
those who are liars.' "
The ^hi'ahs believe that at this time God
made special revelations to Fatimah, the
Prophet's daughter, and 'All's wji&. These
revelations are said to have been possessed by
the last of the Imams, al-Mahdi, and to be
still in his poswession. [MAHDI j
It need scarcely be added that the Sunm
writers deny every word of these traditiona.
The strong hand of the Sunni Khalifah
'Uroar kept the claims of 'Ali in abeyance ;
hot when 'Umar died, the Khalifate was
offered to 'All,, on condition that he would
govern according to the Qur'an, and the tra
ditions as received by the Sunms. Tbe
auswer of 'All not being deemed satisfactory,
j the election devolved upon *U5.uian COt.hman).
' risnian was assassinated A.M. 36, and 'Ali
was elected on his own terms, in s'pite of the
opposition of 'Ayishah, the favourite wife of
the Prophet, who had become & great; in
fluence in Islam.
One of the first acts t>f *Ah was to recall
Mu'awiyab from Syria. Mu'awiyah refused,
and then claimed the Khalifate for himself.
Hi.s claims were supported by 'Ayishah. 'A.1I
was eventually assassinated at Kfifah, A.H.
10, and upon his death his son Hasan was
elected Khallfah, but he resigned it in fav-mr
of Mu'awiyah, ou the condition that he should
resume it on the death of the latter. Mu'a
wiyah consented to this arrangement, al
though secretly determining thflt his own son
Yaaid should be his successor.
Upon the death of Mu'awiyah, A.M. GO, fain
son Yazld, '• the Polluted," obtained the posi-
sition of Imam or Khalifah, without the form
of election, and with this event commenced
the great Sbi'ub. schism, which has divided
the forces of Islam until this da/.
The leading, or " orthodox " sect of the
Shi'ahs, the Jmatniyahat, receive the following
as the rightful Khalifahs : —
1. 'All, the son-in-law of the Prophet.
2. AMIasan, the son of 'Ah
3. Al-Husain, the second son of-'Ali.
4. 'AH, surnained Zainn 'l-'Abidln, the son
of al-Husain.
5. Muhammad al-Baqir, son of Zainu '1-
•Abidln. '
6. Ja'far as-Sadiq, son of Muhammad al-
Baqir.
574
SHI6AH
BHrAH
7. Musa al-Kazim, son of Ja'far
8. Ar-Raza, son of Musa.
9. Muhammud at-Taqi, son of ar-Raza.
10. 'All an-Naqi, son of Muhammad at-
Taqi.
11. Al- Hasan al-'Askari, son of 'All an-
Naqi.
12. Muhammad, son of al-Hasan al-Askari,
or the Imam al-Mahdi, who is supposed by
the Shi'ahs to be still alive, though he has
withdrawn for a time, and they say he will
again appear in the last days as the Mahdi,
or •* Director." which the Prophet prophesied
would appear before the Day of Judgment.
[MAHDI.]
The Jjnanjitos trace the descent of this
Imam Muhammad as direct from 'All, thus
making him the twelfth' lawful Imam, on which
account they are called the Ipnd-'ashariyah,
or the ** Twelveans." They assert that this
last Imam, whilst still a boy, being perse
cuted by the Abbaside Khalifahs, disappeared
down a well in the courtyard of a house at
Hillah near Baghdad, and Ibn Khaldun says,
so late as even in his day, devout Shi'ahs
would assemble every evening after sunset
at this well and entreat the absent Imam to
appear again on earth.
In the present day, durintr tne absence of
the Imam, the Shi'ahs appeal to the Mujta-
hidun, or " enlightened doctors of the law,"
whose opinion is final on all matters, both
temporal and spiritual.
There have heen two great schisms in the
succession of the Imams, the first upon the
death of 'All Zainu 'l-'Abidin, when part of
the sect adhered to bis son Zaid, the founder
of the Zaidiyah sect. And the second on the
-leath of as-Sadiq, whea his father nominated
his second son, Musa al-Kazim, as his succes
sor, instead of allowing the "Khalif ate to go in
Isma'il's family ; those who adhered to Isma'tl's
family being called Ism&lilyah. The great
body of the Shi'ahs acknowledge Musa al-
Kazim and his descendants as the true
Imams.
The Isma'iliyah, like the Twelveans,
make profession of a loyal attachment to the
cause of "AH. Their schism was occasioned
by a dispute regarding the succession to the
Intimate on the death of Imam Ja'far Sadiq.
Jftfar had four sons, the eldest of whom was
Ismail. One day, noweyer. Isma'il was seen in
a state of inebriety, and his father disinherited
him, and appointed his son Musa. The
greater number of the Shi'ahs accepted this
decision, but a small number, who regarded
the drunkenness of the Imam as an evidence
that he accepted the hidden meaning and not
the legal precepts of Islam (!), remained
attached to Isma'il. They say from the time
of 'Ali to the death of Muhammad, the son of
Isma'il, the Imams were visible, but from his
death commenced the sucoe&siot) of concealed
Imams. The fourth of these " concealed "
Imams was a certain 'Abdu 'llah, who lived
about the third century of the Hijrah,
The contentions of the Shl'ahs regarding
the succession have become endless, and
of the proverbial seventy-three sects of Islam,
not fewer than thirty-two are assigned- to the
Shi'ahs, and, according to the Skarku 'l-
Muwdqif, there are as many as seventy-
three sects of the Shrahs alone.
According to the Sharjiu 'l-Muwdqif, the
three principal sects of the- Shi' as are (1)
(rhuldt, or Zealots, the title generally given
to those who, through their excessive zeal
for the Imams, have raised them above the
degree of human beings. (2) Zaidiyah,
those who separated after the appointment
of Muhammad Baqir to the Khalifate, and
followed Zaid. (3) Imamiyah, or those who
acknowledged Ja'far Sadiq as the rightful
Imam, to the exclusion of Isma'il, and which
appears to be what may be called the ortho
dox sect of the Shf as. Out of these three
great divisions have grown innumerable sects,
which it would be tedious to define. All
Shi' ah religionists are more or less infected
with mysticism.
Many of the Shi'ahs have carried their
veneration for 'Ali so far, as to raise him to
the position of a divine person, and most of
the sects make their Imams partakers of the
divine nature. These views have their foun
dation in the traditions already quoted, wJiich
assert the pro-existence of Muhammad and
'Ali, and they have undoubtedly been fostered
by the gnostic tendencies of all forms of per-
sian belief, especially Sufiism. [SUFI.]
Since the accession of Isma'il, the first of
the Sufi dynasty, A.I>. 1499, the Shi'ah faith
has been the national religion of Persia.
Nadir Shah, when at the summit of his power,
attempted to convert the Persians to the
Sunni form of Islam, in order to assist his
ambitious designs, but the attempt failed, and
the attachment of the Persians to the Shrah
faith has remained as decided as ever.
Sir Lewis Pelly remarks : —
" Though the personal history of Ali and
his sons was the exciting cause of the Shiah
schism, its predisposing cause lies far deeper
in the impassable ethnological gulf which
separates the Aryan and Semitic races.-
Owing to their strongly centralised form of
government, the empire of the Saesanides
succumbed at once before the onslaught of
the Saracens; still, Persia was never really
converted to Islam, and when Mohammod,
the son of Ali, the son of Abdullah, the son
of Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet Moham
med, proclaimed the Imamate as inherent of
divine right, in the descendants of the Caliph
Ali. the vanqiiished Persians rose as one man
against their Arab conquerors. The sons of
Abbas had all espoused the cause of their
cousin Ali against Moawiyah, and when Yezid
succeeded to the Caliphate, Abdullah refused
to acknowledge him, and retired to Mecca.
It was he who tried to dissuade Husaia from
going to Cufa. His son was Ali, who, by
order of the Caliph Walla, was flogged and
paraded through the streets of Damascus,
mounted on a camel, with his face to its tail ,
and it was to avenge this insult on his father
that Mohammed resolved to overthrow the
dynasty of the Ommiades
" The Persians, in their hatred of the
SHI'AH
SHI'AH
575
Arabs, had from the first accepted the rights
of the sona of All and Fatimah to the Imamate ;
and Mohammed cunningly represented to
them that tie Imamate had been trans
mitted to him by Abou Hashinj, the son of
Mohammed, another son of the Caliph Ali,
whose mother was a daughter of the tribe of
Hanifah. This was a gross fraud on the de
fendants of Fatimah. but the Persians cared
nut so long as they threw off the Arab yoke."
(Miracle Play, Intro., p. xvi. : W. H. Allen &
to., 1879.)
The Muliammadans of ihe province of
Oudh in British India are for the most part
Shi'ahs, and there are a few in the region of
Tlrah, on the frontier of India With the
exception of the province of Omlh, the Mu-
hammadans of India arc for the most part
Suiinls of the Hauafi sect, but practices pecu
liar to the Shi'ahs have long prevailed in
certain localities. In most parts; "of India.
where the parties are Shrahs, the !aw of
this school of jurisprudence is always ad
ministered, especially with regard to mar
riage and inheritance
It is not correct, as at* ted by Sale (Intro
duction to the Koran) and others, that the
Shi'ahs reject the 6'unnaA, or Traditions ;
for although the Sbruhs do not receive the
" six correct books of the Sunms," they ac
knowledge five collections of their own
namely : (1), Al-Kafi, (2) Manlayastahzirahn
1-Faqih, (3) Tahzib, (4) Istibsar, (5) Nahjn
1-Balaghah. [TRADITIONS.] The works
written on the traditions are very numerous.
The Rev. James L. Merrick (Boston, 1850)
has translated into English portions of the
Hayatii 7-CjM/a6, the most popular book of
traditions amongst the Shi'ahs. It was ori
ginally compiled by Muhammad Baqir, son of
Muhammad Taki, whose last work was the
well-known Haqqu 'l-Yaqln, A.H. 1027 (A.D.
The Shrah school of jurisprudence is of
earlier date than that of the Sunms, for Abu
Hanifah, the father of the Sunni Code of
Muslim law, received his first instructions in
jurisprudence from Ja;far as-Sadiq, the sixth
Imam of the Shi'ahs ; but this learned doctor
afterwards separated from his teacher, and
established a code of laws of his own.
The differences between the Shrahs and the
Sunnis are very numerous, but the following
are the principal points : —
(1) The discussion as to the office of Irnam,
already alluded to.
(2) The Shi'ahs Lave a profound veneration
for the Khalnah 'All, and some of their sect?
rogard him as an incarnation of divinity,
whilst they all assert that next to the Pro
phet, 'All is the most perfect and excellent
of men.
(3) They stiii possess MujtahMs, or " en
lightened doctors," whose opinion is final in
matters of Muslim law and doctrine. The
Mujtahid is the highest degree amongst Mu-
hammadan doctors. The Sunnis say, in the
present divided condition of Islam it is im-
ro appoint them, but the Shi'aha still
elect them in Persia, and the appointment !•
confirmed by the king. [MUJTAIUD.]
(4) They observe the ceremonies of the
Muhiirram in commemoration of al-Hasan
and al-Husain, whilst the Sunms only observe
the tenth day of the Muharram, or the
lAshurc\ being, they say, the day on which
God created Adam. [MDQARRAM.]
(5) They include the Afaju.fi, or tire wor
shippers, amongst the Afilu 'l-Kitiib, or people
who have received an inspired record from
God, whilst the Sunnis only acknowledge
the Jews, Christians, and Muslims as such.
(G) They admit the principle of religiouu
compromise called Taqlyah (lit. " Guarding
oneself). A pious fraud, whereby the
Surah Muhammadan believes he is justified
in either smoothiu^' down, or denying, the
peculiarities of his religious belief in order
to save himself from persecution. [TAQIYAII.]
(7) There are also various minor differences
iu the liturgical ceremonies of the Shraha,
which will be found iu the account of the
liturgical prayers. [PRATER.]
(8) The differences between the cml law
of the Shrahs and Sunni have been carefully
noted in Mr. N. B. E. Baillie'a Introduction to
his Digest of ihe Tntumf.en Code (London,
1869):—
(a) " With regard to the sexes, any connec
tion between them, which is not sanctioned by
some relation founded upon contract or upon
slavery, is deuounced by both the sects as
zinff, or fornication.' But, according to the
Hanafiyahs. the contract'must ba for the lives
of the parties, or the woman be the slave of
the man, and it w only to a relation founded
on a contract for life that they give the name
of ntkah, or marriage. According to the
Shi'ahs, the contract mav be either tem
porary, or for life, and it is not necessary
.hat the slave should be the actual property
of the man ; for it is sufficient if the usufruct
of her person be temporarily surrendered to
him by her owner. To a relation established
in any of these ways they give the name of
mkdh, or marriage, which is thus, according
to them, of three kinds, permanent, tempo
rary, and servile. It is only their permanent
marriage that admits of any comparison with
the marriage of the Hanafiyahs. And here
there is, in the first place, some difference in
the words by which the contract is effected.
According to the Hauaflyaha, the words may
be ftarih (express) or kinayah (ambiguous).
According to the Shi 'aba, they must always be
express ; and to the two express terms of the
other sect (nikdh and tazwij) they add a third
muf-ah, which is rejected by the others as in
sufficient. [MUT'AH.] Further, while the Hana
fiyahs re^.-ti1'! the prosonoo of witnesses as
essential to a valid contract of marriage, the
Shi'ahs do not deem it to be in any \vise neces
sary. The causes of prohibition correspond, to
some extent, ia both schools; but there is
this difference between them, that the Hana-
fiyah includes a dili'erence of dar,or nation
ality, among the causes of prohibition, and
excludes //'on, or imprecation, from among
them ; while the Shi'ali excludes the former
576
SHI'AH
and includes the latter. There is, also, some
difference between them as to the conditions
and restrictions under which fosterage be
comes a ground of prohibition, And with
regard to infidelity, though both schools {
entirely prohibit any sexual intercourse
between a Muslimah or Mailman woman
and a man who is not of her own religion,
the Hanau allows of such intercourse; under
tne sanction of marriage 01 of slavery,
between & Muslim and any woman who ia a
kitdbiyah, that is, who belongs to any sect
that is supposed to have a revealed religion,
while the Shi'ah restricts such connection to
•niuVak* or temporary and servile marriages.
Among Kitabiyab both schools include
Christians and Jews, but the-Hanafi rejects
Majusis, or fire -worshippers, who are included
among them by the Shi'ahs. The ShT'ahs
do not appear to make any distinction be
tween invalid and valid marriages, all that
are forbidden being apparently void accord
ing to them. But the distinction is of little
importance to the parties themselves, as
under neither of the schools does ail unlawful
marriage confer any inheritable quality upon
the parties'; and the rights of the children
born of. such marriages are determined by
another consideration, which will be adverted
to in the proper place hereafter.
*•' (6) With regard to the servile marriage of
the Shi'ahs. it is nothing more than the right
of sexual intercourse which every master
has with his slaves; but there is the same
difference between the two pects, in this case,
as in that of marriage by contract. Accord
ing1 to the Han aiiy a hs, the light must be
permanent, by the woman's being the actual
property of the man. According to the Sbi'ah^,
the right may be temporary as wheu it i.«
conceded for a limited time by the owner oi
the slave. When a slave has borne a child to
her own master, which he acknowledges, shf
becomes his umm~ul-walad> or mother of a
child, and cannot be sold, while she is en
titled to emancipation at her masters death.
According to the Hanafiyahs, these privi
leges are permanent, but, according to the
Sbi'ahs, the exemption from sale is restricted
to the life of her child, and her title to
emancipation is at the expense of her child's
share in the master's estate. If that be
insufficient, her enfranchisement is only pro
tanio, or so far as the share will go. Where
the child's father has only an usufructuary
right in the mother, the child is free, though
the mother, being the property of another,
does .not acquire the rights of an umm-vi-
wtiJad.
" (c) With regard to the persons who may be
legally slaves, there seems to be litUe, if any,
difference between the two sects. According-
to the Shi'ahtij slavery is the proper condition-
of the harabis, or enemies, with the exception
only o( Christians, Jews, and Majusis, or
fire-worshippere, so long as they continue in
a stttte of zimwah, or subjection, to the Mus
sulman community. If they renounce their
gimmah, they fail back into the condition of
ordinary 'tfarabls, aud if a. person should buy
from a hctrabi his child, or wife, or any of
his consanguineous relations, the persen
so purchased is to be adjudged a slave.
There seems also to be but little diffe
rence in the manner in which slaves may
be enfranchised, or their bondage qualified.
But there is an important difference as to
children: for, according to the Hanaflyahs,
a child follows the conditions of its mother,
being free or a slave, as she is the one or the
other • while, according to the Shi'ahs, it is
free, if either of its parents be so. Both the
sects are agreed that marriage may be dig-
solved by the husband at any time at his
pleasure, and to such dissolutions they both
give the name of talaq.
11 (d} But there are seme important diffe
rences between the repudiation of the two sects
Thus, while the Hanaf ry ah s recognize two
forma, the SunnI and Bida'I, or regular and
irregular, as being equally efficacious, aud
subdivide the regular into two other forms,
one of which they designate a* ah*an,or best,
and the other aa 7iai>an, or good, the Shi'ahs
reject these distinctions altogether, recog
nizing only one form of the Sunni,or regular.
So also as to the expressions by which repu
diation may be constituted; while the Hana-
fiyahs distinguish between what they call
$firili< or express words, which are inflections
of the word taldg, and various expressions
which they term kindyah^ or ambiguous, the
Shi'ahs admit the former only. Further, the
Hanafryah*; do not require intention when
express words are ussd:'so that, though a
man id actually compelled to use them, the
repudiation is valid according to them. Nor
.do they require the presence of witnesses
as necessary in any case to the validity
of a repudiation; while, according to the
Shi'ahs, both intention 'and the presence
of two witnesses in all cases are essential
Both sect?! agree that repudiation may be
either lain (absolute) or.nyVi (revocable),
and that a repudiation given three timef
cannot be revoked, nor a woman so repudi
ated be again married by her husband until
she has been intermediately married to an
other man. arid the marriage with him has
been consummated. But, according to the
Hanaflyahs, repudiation may be made irrevo
cable by an aggravation of the terms, or the
addition ef a description, andsthree repudi
ations may be given in immediate succession,
or even ttttieo contexiu, in one expression ;
while, according to the Shi'ahs, on the other
hand, the irrevocability of a repudiation is
dependent on the state in which the woman
may be at the time that it if? given, and
three repudiations, to have their full etTect,
must have -two intervening revocations.
To the bain and , rcj'irl repudiation,'? of
both sects, the Shi'ahs add one peculiar to
themselves, to wluch they give the name of
the (.alag-u'l-'idclaht or repudiation of the
'iddah, and which has the effect of rendering
the repudiated woman for ever unlawful to
her husband, so that it is impossible for
them ever to marry with each other again
The power of revocation continues until the
SHI'AH
SHI'AH
577
tpiration of the '•iddah, or probationary
jriod for ascertaining whether a womau is
regnunt or not. After it has expired, the
pudiation becomes absolute, according to
>th schools. So long as it is revocable, the
irties are still in a manner husband and
la ; and if either of them should happen to
e, the other has a right of inheritance in
e deceased's estate.
**(«) With regard to parentage, maternity is
tablisbed, according to the H&nafiyahs, by
rth alone, without any regard to the con-
iction of the parents being lawful or not.
jcordiug to the Shi'ahs. it must in all cases
lawful ; for a waladu 't-zina, or illegitimate
ild, has no descent, even from its mother,
r are there any mutual rights of inheritance
tween them. For the establishment of
.ternity there mast have been, at the time
the child's conception, accoiding to both
cts, a legal connection between it^ patents
marriage or slnvery, or a semblance of
ther. According to the Hanafiy&hs, an
tivalid iua?'riage is sufficient for that pur-
lose, or even, according to the head, of the
chool, one th.-it is positively unlawful : but,
Lccording to the ShVahs. the marriage must
jn all cases be lawful, except when there in
;rror on the part of both or either of the
>arents. Again, as to the children by slaves'.
•xpress acknowledgment by the father is
eq aired by both the sects, except when the
;lave is his ummu'l-wnlad, or has already
>orne a child to him j for though, oc cording
o the Shr.ihs, there are two reports on the
mbject, yet, by the mo.st generally received
»f the*e, a «ln re does not become the wife of
ier master by mere coition, and her child is
lot affiliated to him without his acknow-
edgnitfiit. With regard to children begotten
inder a .semblance of right, the HanafTyah.i
•equire some basis for the semblance in the
•elation of the parties to each other; while,
iccording to the Shrahs, bnna ,/fde belief on
'he part of the man that the woman is his
wife or bis slave seems to be all that is
•equired ; while no relation short of a lepal
narriage or slavery, without uuch belief
either on the part of the mm or the woman.
vould apparently be sufficient.
" (7*) On the subject of testimony, both
ichools require that it shall be direct to the
>oint in Issue ; and they also seem to be agreed
hat when two or more witnesses concur in
inserting a fact in the same terms, the judge in
)ound by their testimony, and must give IIH
udgment in conformity with it. They agree
n requiring that a witness should in general
lave full knowledge, by the cognisance of
lis own senses, of th« fact to which he i.x
Mjjtrin'j! testimony but both allow him, in
lertain exceptional case*, to testily on infor
aatior? receive I from others, or when lie is
;onvinced of the fact by inference from oir-
(nmstances with which it is connected.
** (y) Nasab, or descent, is included by b-jth
iecta among the exceptional facts to whh-h a
fitness is allowed to testify when they are
generally notorious!, or when be is credibly
nformed of them by others But according
to the Hanafiyahfl. it w enough if the infor
mation be received from two just men, or
one just man and two just women ; while the
ShF'Hhs require that it should have been
received, from a* considerable nuu»l»er of
persons in succession, without any suspicion
of their having got up the story in con
cert. The Hjnafiy;ihd cl.'iss marriage among
the exception*! tacts, together with Ntsab;
but, according to the Shi':ib«, it more
properly follows the general rule, which
•equires that the witness nhould have the
direct evidence of his own senses to the
I'act to which he i? giving his testimony.
They seem, however, to admit an excep
tion in its favour; for they reason that as
we adjudge Khadijah to have been the
mother of Fatim«»h, the dttnghter of the
Prophet, though we know it only by general
notoriety and tradition, which is but con
tinued hearsay, so also we may equally
decide her to have been the Prophet's wife, for
i which we have the same evidence, though we
j were not present at the contract of marriage,
nor even heard the 1'rophet acknowledge
it. Both sects are agreed that a witness
may lawfully infer and testify that a thing
is the property of a particular person wh<-n
he hag seen it in his posses-sion ; and so,
according to the Hanaflyahs, * When a person,
has seen R man and woman dwelling in the
j same house, and behaving familiarly with
i each other in the manner 01 married persona,
it i,s lawful for him to testify that she is his
wife, in the same way AS when he has seen
A specific thing in the hands of another.'
The Shl'ahs do not apply this principle
of inference to the case of marriage, and
there is no ground for saying that, according
to them, marriage will be presumed ia a
case of proved continual cohabitation.
•( (h) There is difference between the tw»
schools a* to the person *ho i* entitled to
claim a right of shijtf'uh} or pre-emption.
According to the Hanafijahfl, the right Mtyp
he claimed, firstly, by a partner in the thiii£
it<5rlf : secondly by a partner in its rights of
water and way ; and thirdly, by a neighbour.
According to the Shi'a-hs, the right belongs
only to th«; flrt>t of these, with some slight
exception in favour of the second. The claim
of the third tbey reject altogether. In gift
the principal difference between the schools
is, that a gilt of an nndivided share of a thing,
which is rejected by the HanafTynh. is quite
lawful according to the Shrahs.
:; (i) In appropriation -and alms there do not
^eem to be Hny diffe wires of importance
between the two schools. And in wills the
leading dinereiice seems to be thut. while
according to the Hariafiyahs, a bequeit in
favour of an heir is positive) illegal, tl
in quite unobjectionable according to the
Sht'ahp
"(j) In reipoct of inheiitancr, there are
many and important differences between
the iwo sects, but they admit of !>< iug
reduced to » iew leading principles, "which
1 now proceed to notice, following the order
in which the different branches of the
73
578
SHI' AH
SHI'AH
subject are treated of in this volume. The
impediments to inheritance are four in n am
ber, according to the Hanaflyahs, viz.
slavery, homicide, difference of religion, and
difference of dar, or countr}". Of these the
Shi'aha recognize the first; the second also
with some modification, that is, they require
that the homicide be intentional, in other
words, murder, while with the Hanaflyahs ii
operates equally as an impediment to inherit
ance, though accidental. For difference of
religion the Shv'ahs substitute infidelity, a-nd
difference of country they reject entirely.
Exclusion from the whole inheritance, ac
cording to the HanaflyaliR, is founded upon
and regulated, by two principle?!. The one
iis that a person who is related to the de
ceased through another has no interest in
fche succession during the life of that other,
with the exception of half-brothers and
sisters by the mother, who arc not excluded
by her. The other principle is, that the
nearer relative excludes the more remote.
The former of these principles is not ex-
prei-siy mentioned by the Shi'ahs, but it if.
included without the exception in the second,
which is adopted by them, and extended, sf
as to postpone a more remote residuary to a
nearer sharer— an effect which is not given
to it by the Hanaf lyahs.
•' With regard to partial exclusion or the
diminution of m share, there is also some
difference between the .sects. According to
the Hanaflyahs, a child, or the child of a
son. how low soever, rediices the shares of
a husband, a wife, and a mother, from the
highest to the lowest appointed for them ;
while, according to the Shia'hs, the reduction t
is effected by any child, whether male or"
female, in any stage of descent from the
deceased. Further, v/hen the deceased has
left a husband or wife, and both parents,
the share of the mother is. reduced, accord
ing to the Hanaflyahs, from a third of the
whole estate to a third of the remainder,
in order that the male may have double
tho share of the female; but,, according
to the Shrahs, there is no reduction of
the mother's third in these circumstances,
thoxigh, when the deceased has left a hus
band, the share of the father can only be a
sixth. Tho shares and the person for whom
they are appointed being expressly men
tioned in the Qur'an, there is no difference
in respect of .them between the two schools.
But ihey differ materially as to the relatives
who are not sharers. They are divided by
the Hauafiyahs into residuaries and distant
kindred. The residuaries in their own
right they define as every malo in whose
lino of relation to the deceased no female
enters; '.and the distant kindred,' as 'all
relatives who are neither sharers nor resi
duaries.' The residuaries not only take any
surplus that may remain after iiie sharers
have been satisfied, but also the whole
estate when there is no sharer, to the
entire exclusion of the distant kindred,
though these may, in fact, be much nearer
in blood to the deceased. This preference
of the residuary is rejected with peculiar
abhorrence by the Shi'ahs, who found their
objection to it, certainly with some appear
ance of reason, on two passages of the Qur'an
cited below. Instead of tho triple division
of the Hanafiyahs, they mix up the rights of
all the relatives together, and then separate
them into three classes, according to their
proximity to the deceased, each of which in
its order is preferred to th*t which follows";
so that while there is a single individual,
even a female, of a prior class, there is
no room for the succession of any of the
others.
" Within the classes operation is given to
the doctrine of the return by the ShI'aha,
nearly in the same way as by the Hana
fiyahs : that is, if there is a surplus over
the shares, it reverts to the sharer?, with
the exception of the husband or wife, and
is proportionately divided among them. Ac
cording to the Hanafiyahs, this surplus is
always intercepted by the residuary, and it
is" only when there is no residuary that there
is with them any room for the doctrine of
the return. When the shares exceed th>
whole estate, the deficiency is distributed by
the Hanafiyahs over all the shares by rais
ing the extractor of the case — a process
which is termed the 'aul, or increase. This
is also rejected by the Shi'ahs, who make
the deficiency to fail exclusively upon those
among them who.^e relationship to the de
ceased is on the father's side. With regard
to the computation of shares, there does not
appear to be any difference between the
schools." A Digest of Mdohummudan Law.
Imameett Code. N*. B. E. Baillie, London (1869).
Mr. Wilfrid S. Blunt, in his Future of Islam,
has the following remarks, on the present
position of the Shl'ah sect : —
"In theory, I believe the Shies still hold
that there is an Imam aud Caliph, but they
will not tolerate the pretension of any one now
in authority to the title, and leave it in abey
ance until the advent of the Mohady (Mahdi),
or guide, who is* to reunite Islam' and restore
its fortunes. So much is this the case that,
sovereign though he be and absolute master
in Persia, the Shah is to the present day
looked upon by the Persians as a usurper,
and he himself acknowledges the fact in a
rather curious ceremony. It is a maxim with
Mussulmans of all sects that prayer is not
valid if made in another man's house without
his permission, and this being so, and the
Shah admitting that his palaces of right be
long not to himself but to the Mohady, he
is obliged to lease thorn according to legal
form from an alem (•alini) or ruujtahed, act
ing for the supposed Mohady, before he can
pray in them to his spiritual profit.
" It will be readily understood that, with
such an organization and with such tendencies
to deductive reasoning, a wide basis is given
for divergence of opinion among the Shiites,
and that while the more highly educated of
Iheir mollahs occasionally preach absolute
! pantheism, others consult the grosser incli-
| r< at ions of the vulgar, and indulge their
SHI'AH
SHIRK
579
•s with the. most extravagant tales of
tairacle and superstition. These are a con
stant source of mockery to the Sunites.
Among the more respectable Shiite beliefs,
aowever, there seoais to be a general convic-
pion in Persia that a reform of Islam is at
aand, and that a new leader may be expected
lit any moment and from any quarter, so that
enthusiasts are constantly found simulating
|the gifts of inspiration and affecting a divine
(mission. The history of the Babitos, so well
(described by M. de Gobiueau in his Reiiyions
\oj' Asia, is a case in point, and similar occur-
jrences are by no means rare in Persia. I met
at Jeddah a highly educated Persian gentle
man, who informed mo that he had himself been
(witness, when a boy, to a religious' prodigy, no-
[torious, if I remember rightly, at Tabriz. On
that occasion, one of these prophets, being
condemned to death by the supremo govern
ment, was bound, to a cross with two of his
companions, and, after remaining suspended
thus for several hours, was fired at by the
royal troops. It then happened that, whJle
the companions were dispatched at the first
Tolley, the prophet himself remained unhurt,
and, incredible to relate, the cords which
bound him were cut by the bullets, and he
fell to the ground on his, feet. ' You Chris
tians,' said another Persian gentleman once
to me; ' talk of your Christ as the Son of
God* and think it strango, but with us the
occurrence is a common one. Believe me,
•we have " sons of God " in nearly all our vil
lages.' [3UFI.]
" Thus, with the Shiites, extremes meet.
No Moslems more readily adapt themselves
to the superficial atheisms of Europe than do
the Persians, and none are more ardently
devout, as all who have witnessed the miracle
play of the two Imams will be obliged tu
admit. Extremes, too, of morality are seen,
fierce asceticisms and gross licentiousnesses.
By no sect of Islam is the duty of pilgrimage
more religiously observed, or the prayers
and ablutions required by their rule per
formed with a stricter ritual. But the very
pilgrims who go on foot to Mecca scruple not
to drink wine there, and Persian morality is
everywhere a by-word. In all these circum
stances there is much to fear as well as to
hope on the side of the Shiite sect ; but their
future only indirectly involves that of Islam
proper. Their whole census does not pro
bably exceed fifteen millions, and it shows
no tendency to increase. Outside Persia we
find about one million Iraki Arabs, a few in
Syria and Afghanistan, and at most five mil
lions in India, One small group still main
tains itseli in the neighbourhood of Medina,
where it is tolerated rather than acknow
ledged, and a few Shiites are to be found in
most of the large cities of the west, but every
where the sect of Ali stands apart from and
almost in a hostile attitude to the rest of
Islam. It is noticeable, however, that within
the-last fifty years the religious bitterness of
Sbiito and Sunite ia sensibly in decline."
For information on the History of the
Shl'ahs, the English reader can refer to Mal
colm's History of Persia, 2 vols. (A.D. 1815) ;
Moder's Travels, 2 vote. (A.D. 1812); Mark-
ham's History of Persia (A.D. 1874). A trans
lation of their traditions is found in the Life
find Religion of Mohammad, by the Rev.
James L. Merrick. Boston (1850). For Shi'ah
Law, consult Tayore Lectures, 1874 ; A Diytst
of Moohummudan.Law. The Imameea Code.
N. B. E. Baillie (18G9). FMUIIARRAM.]
SHIRB (v>/»). The share of water
used for tillage. [RIVER.]
SHIRK (^). « Idolatry ; pagan
ism ; polytheism." Ascribing plurality to tho
Deity. Associating anything with God.
According to Wahhabi writers. .Shirk i<?
defined to be of four kinds: Shirku^l-'iliii,
ascribing knowledge to others than God ;
Shirku 't-tattamif, ascribing power to others
than God ; Shirku 'l-'ibadtiJi, offering worship
to created things ; Shirfcu 'l-'adah, tho per
formance of ceremonies which imply reliance
on others than God.
(1) S/iirku V-'///M is illustrated by tho
statement that prophets and holy men huve
no knowledge of secret fbings unless as
revealed to them by God. Thus somo
wicked persons made a charge against.
'Ayishah. The Prophet was troubled in
mind, but knew not the truth of the matter
till God made it known to him. To ascribe,
then, power to soothsayers, astrologers, and
saints is Polytheism. " All who pretend to
have a knowledge of hidden things, such as
fortune-tellers, soothsayers, and interpreters
of dreams, as well as those who profess to
be inspired, are all liars." Again, " should
anyone lake the name of any "saint, or invoko
his aid in the time of need, instead of calling
on God, or use his name in attacking an
enemy, or read passages to propitiate him,
or make him the object of contemplation — it
js Shirku 7-»i7m."
(2) Shirku 't-ta§arruf is to suppose that
anyone has ' power with God. He who looks
up to anyone as an intercessor with God
commits Shirk. Thus : " But they who take
others beside Him as lords, saying, ' We only
serve them that they may bring us near God,'
—God will judge between them (and the
Faithful) concerning that wherein they are
at variance." (Surah xxxix. 4.) Intercession
may be of three kinds. For example, a
criminal is placed before the King. The
Vizier intercedes. The King, having regard
to the rank of the Vizier, pardons the of
fender. This js called Shaffrat-i~ Wajahah,
or "intercession from regard." But to sup
pose that God so esteems the rank of any
one as to pardon a sinner merely on account
of it is Shirk. Again, the Queen or the Princes
intercede for tho criminal. The King, from
love to them, pardons him. This is called
Shafd'at-i-maliabltah, or "intercession from
affection. " But to consider that God so
loves anyone as to pardon a criminal on his
account is to give that loved one power, nnd
this is Shirk, for such power is not possible
in the Court of God. '• God may out of His
bounty confer on Hie favourite 8errRnt:» tho
580
SHIRK
epithets of Jfubib, 'favourite,' or Khalil.
* friend,* Ac.; but a servant is but a ser
vant, no one can put his foot outside the
limits of servitude, or rise beyond the rank
of a servant," Again, the King may him
self wish to pardon the offender, but he fears
lest the majesty of the law should be lowered.
The Vizier perceives the King's wish, and
intercede?1!. This intercession is lawful. It
is called Skafd'at-i-ba-'ixn, "intercession by
permission," and such power Muhammad
will have at the Day of Judgment. Wahhabis
hold that he ha« not that power now, though
all other Musalmans consider that he has,
and in consequence (in Wahhabi opinion)
commit the sin of Shirku'ttasarruf. The
Wahhabis quote the following passages in
support of their view. " Who is he that can
intercede with Him but by His own per
mission" (Surah ii. 256) " Pay : Intercession
is wholly with God 1 His the kingdoms of
the heavens and of the earth." (Surah xxxix.
45.) They also say : " Whenever an allusion
is made in the Qur'an, or the Traditions to the
intercession of certain prophets or apostles, it
is this kind of intercession and no other that
is meant."
(3) Shirlnt V-'Ibadak is prostration before
any created being, with the idea of wor
shipping it; perambulating the shrines of
departed saints, " Prostration, bowing down,
standing with folded arm*, spending money
in the name of an individual, tasting out of
respect to his memory, proceeding to a dis
tant shrine in a pilgrim's garb and calling
out the name of the saint." It is wrong ":tt>
cover the grave with a sheet, to say prayers
at the shrine, to kiss any particular 'tone, to
rub the mouth and breast against the walls
of the shrine, <fce." This is a stern condem
nation of the very common practice of visiting
SHOES
the tombs of saints and of Some of the special
practices of the pilgrimage to Makkah. All
Such practices as are here condemned are
called Ishrak fi 'l-'Ibddah, "association in
worship.''.
(4) Shirku 't-'adulf is the keeping up ot
superstitious customs, such as the Istikharah,
seeking guidance from beads ? &c., trusting
to omens, .good or bod, believing in lucky
and unlucky days, adopting such names as
<Abdu 'n-Nabi (Slave of the Prophet), and
so on. In fact, the denouncing of such
practices and calling them Shirk brings
Wahhabiisrn into daily contact with the other
sects, for scarcely any people in the world
are such profound believers in the virtue of
charms and the power of astrologers as
Mn.-Hilmans. The difference between the first
and fourth Shirk, the Shirk u V-'z/m and the
Skirkv'l-'adtdt, seems to be that the first is
the belief, say in the knowledge of a sooth
sayer, and the second the habit of consulting
him
To swear by the n«me of the Prophet, of
<Ali, of the Iinama, or of Pirs (Leaders) is
to give them the honour due to God alone.
It is Ishrak tfi -l-adab, " Shirk in associa
tion." [WAHHABL]
SHIEKAH (tf/0. "Partnership."
The term signifies the umon of two or more
persons in one concern. It is applied in Mus
lim law to contracts as well as to partner
ships Shirkah, or association, with regard
to the essence and person of God, is forbidden
in Islam.
SHIS (v^~A). ,[SETH.]
SHOES. The removal of the san
dals, shoes, or boots, from the feet upon en
tering either a mosque or house, or during
THB SHOES OP THE FAITHFUL. (A. F. Hole.)
worship, is not enjoined in Muhammadan
law, although it has become a common cus
tom in all Eastern countries, for the modern
Muslim uncovers his feet upon entering the
Ka'bah at Makkah (Burckhardt's Arabia,'
vol. I. p. 270), the Muhammadans of Pales
tine remove the shoes upon entering their
places of worship (Robinson's Researches,
vol. ii. p 36) and it is also the practice to
take off the shoes in Egypt (Lane, vol. I.
pp. 16, 105 ; voL ii. p. 11), and in Hindustan.
The number of traditions which prove that
Muhammad allowed his followers to worship
•with their feet covered, is very numerous,
and they are held to be Ahadip. of good
authority, and supported by the fativds of
eminent doctors of law,
Shaddad ibn Aus relates that the Prophet
! SHROUD
Uid, "Act the reverse of the Jews in your \
prayers, for they do not pray in bootrt or
«hoes."
' Abu Sa'Id al-Khudri says » the Prophet
(said his prayers with the Companions, and
suddenly took off his ehoes, and put them j
down on his left side ; and when the people j
observed it, they took off theirs also, and when |
[prayers were finished, the Prophet risked
why they took. their shoes off. The Compa
nion* replied, 'We followed your example.'
The "Prophet then said, ' Verily Gabriel carnr
to me and told me there was a little filth on
iny shoes. Therefore, when any of you enter
a inosque, look well at your shoes, and if you
perceive any flirt on them, wipe it off, and
then aay your prayer in them.' '
<Amr ibn Shiraib relates that he saw the
Prophet saying his prayers sometimes with
his shoes and sometimes without, (AfZiMwl,
book iy. ch. 9.)
In the Hidayah it is enjoined that when
there is any unoleannens on the shoes, rfuch
as dung, blood, Ac., they rnuat be rnbbed
with earth, and then they become legally
clean and fit for worship. (Arabic edition,
vol. i. {» 26 )
This- is continued by the Durru 'l-Mukldar
(vol. i. pp. SO. 65), and by uuiBerous tradi
tions.. (Mi*hkdt* book iii. oh. iiv
If the «liii ftftiuiot be removed from the
shoes by rubbing them with enrth, the law
permits the Muslim to mrJte them ceremonially
clean by wetling his three fingers and draw
ing them once over the upper part of the
shoes 01 boots. [MASAH.]
According to the Traditions, when a Mus
lim sits down on the floor, he should take off
his shoes and place them on one aide, and he
should take off the right shoe first and then
the left. f.MM<~tt. book xx. ch. iii.)
ASH-SHU'ARA
581
to be buried : their weapons being first re
moved from their bodies, they wero burrird in
their blood-stained clothes. CBURIAI .)
' A IB (~*V. The Muslim
SHROUD. Arabic lea/an
The act of shrouding is called tab/in. A
wooden coffin ifl called tdbut, the use of which
is generally held to he forbidden by Sunnls,
but it is used by the Shi'ahs.
Muhammad is related to have said : —
" Do not be expensive in your nhrouds, for
they soon rot."
•> Plain white is the best for the shrouds of
your dead."
"The best clgth for a shroud is hullah" (i.e.
& white striped cloth used in Arabia).
'Ayishah says : •' The P.rophet was shrouded
in three garments, but there was neither a
coat nor a turban."
These three garments are still used as
shrouds in all parts of Islam.
(1) 7*<zr, a piece of cloth which covers
from the waist to the feet.
(2) Ridff. covering from the feet to the
shoulders.
(3} Lifdf'th, a large sheet covering the
whole body from head to feet, and closed at
the ends.
The bodies of martyrs are not shrouded,
but are buried in the garments in which they
fell, for it is related that Muhomm&d ao or
dered the men who fell in the battle of Uhud
commentators generally suppose Bhofftib t-j
be the same poison with the fat hei-in-law of
looses, vrho is named in scripture Heuel or
Hageul and Jethro But Ahmad J'MI -Abdi
'1-Hilirn charges tho?e who entertain this
opinion with ignorance. Ttiey say (after the
Je^s) that he gave bin son-in-lavr [MOSES!
that wonder-working rod v/itli vhirh he per
formed all those miracles in Egypt and the
desert, and also gave excellent advice and
instruction; whence he had th*> surname of
Khatilm 'l-Arabiyil' (PU^>>\ «--wJci.)» the
" Preacher to the Prophet*."
The account given of him in the Qur'an,
Surah vii. 83-9J, is as follows : -
•• And uuto Midian did we send their bro
ther Shu'aib, who said, • 0 my people ! Serve
(>od, ye have no god save rfim. There h*s
come to you a manifest s*ign from your Lord :
then stive good «y eight and measure, and be
not niggardly of your gifts to men, and do
not evil in the earth after it li-v» b»vjn righted.
Tbitt is better for you if ye are believer* ,
vnd *it not down in every path, threatening
*nd turning from the path of God those who
believe in Him, and craving to make it
crooked. Remember when jre wera few and
He multiplied you : and ,xf>e what was the
end of the evil-doers! And if there be- a
party of you who believe in what I am sent
with, and » party who believe not, then wait
patiently until God judges between us, for He
is the bt.it of judges; Said the crowd of
those who were big with pride amongst hi*
people, • We will of a surety turn thee out, 0
Shu'aib, and those who believe with thee,
from our village ; or else thou shalt return
unto our faith.' Said he, ' What even if we
be averse therefrom ? We shall hare devise*
a lie against God if we return unto your faith
after God ban saved us from it : and what
should ail nti that we Should return thereto,
unless that God our Lord should pleas* ? Our
Lord embraces everything in His knowledge .
on God do we rely. 0 our Lord! open be
tween us and between our people in truth,
for Thou art the best of those who open.
And the chiefs of those who disbelieved
amengst his people said, « If ye follow Sbiraib.
verily, y* «b;ill be tbe losers.' Then there
took them the earthquake, and in the morn
ing tboy lay in their dwellings proue. Those
who called Sbu'aib a liar, ( were) as though
they had not dwelt therein. Those who
called Shu'ftib a liar, they were tbe loser*
then 1 And he turned away from them .md
said, < 0 ray people I I preached to you the
messages o^ uiy Lord, and I gave you good
advice; how should J be vexed for a people
who do misbelieve 'f 1 "
A8H-SH U'ARA Oy^m. " The
Poets." The title of the xxvith Surah of
the Qnr'an, ao called because at the conclu
sion of the chapter the Arabian poets are
severely censured. [POETS.]
582
SHUF'AH
SHUFAH (**&**). [PREEMPTION.]
ASH-SHURA (<j?;r^)- " The Con
sultation." The title of the xomd Surah of
the Qur'an. Taken from the 36th Terse, in
which the believers are commended for taking
consultation together.
SHURB '(vj*). Lit. « Drinking."
X term used for wine-drinking, which is for-
biduen by the Muslim law. [DRUNKENNESS."]
SIBOtJAH (***»). Lit. " A dye,"
A word which occurs in the Qur'an, Surah ii.
132 : " The dye of God ! And who is better
than God at dyeing ? And we are worshippers
of Him"; wliich both Mr. Sale and Mr. Rod-
well translate baptism, but which Professor
Palmer says must bte rendered " dye." Ac
cording to al-BaizawI3 it stands in the text for
the Islam' of God. but refers to Christian
baptism. [BAPTISM.]
SIDDIQ kJiJ*). "One who Speaks
the "truth." It occurs in the Qur'an for Idris
-(generally identified with Enoch), who is de
scribed as a man, of eminent truthfulness.
Pi-ofessor Palmer translates the word " con
fessor " (see Surah xix. 57.)
As-Siddiq is a title said to have been given
to the first Khallfah Abii Bakr by Muham-
inad himself.
SIDKATU 'L-MOTTAHA (Syu..
ijex^tt). Lit. " The Lote-tree of the
extremity." A tree in the seventh heaven,
having its roots in the sixth. Its fruits were
like water-pots, and its leaves like elephant's
ears. (Mishkdt, book xxiv. ch. vii. pt. 1.)
Jt is mentioned twice in the Qur'an, Surah
liii. 8-18 :—
" Then came he (Gabriel or the angel)
nearer and approached,
And was at the distance of two bows, or
even closer, —
And he revealed to his servant what he
revealed.
His heart falsified not what he saw.
What 1 will ye then dispute with him as to
what he saw ?
He had seen him also another time,
Near the Sidrah-tree, which marks the
boundary,
Near which is the garden of repose.
When the Sidrah-tree was covered with
what covered it,
His eye turned not aside, nor did it wan
der': •
For he saw the greatest of the signs of his
Lord."
The Sidrah-tree is the Zizyphus jujtiba of
Lmnfeus, the prickly plum, ^hich is called
JBer in India. A decoction of its leaves is
used in India to wash the dead, on account of
the sacredness of the tree.
$IFAH (&*). pi. Si/at. An attri
bute. Used for the attributes of God. The |
Qur'an is also said to be a $ifah of the
Almighty.
SIJILL
Ismu 's-Sifah* the name of an attribute, isr
a term applied to any of the ninety-nine
names or attributes of God. FOOD.]
SIFATIYAH (M*«). From 'Sifat,
" attributes." A school of thought rather
than a sect of Islam, although it is given by
Mr. Sale as one of the Muhammadan sects.
The orthodox Sunni claims to be a. Sifdtt,
or Attributist (as opposed to the Mu'tazilahs,
who reject the idea of God's attributes being
eternal), and maintains that the attributes of
God are eternally inherent -in His essence
without separation or change ; every attri
bute being conjoined with Him as life with
knowledge, or knowledge with power. With
regard to the verses of the Qur'an which are
held to be Mutoshdbih, and assign some re
semblance between God and His creatures,
the $ifatiyahs say, the expressions "hands,"
"face," "sitting," &c., must simply be ac
cepted as they stand, without any attempt at
explanation. [MO'TAZILAH, WAHHABI.]
As-SIHAHU '8-SITTAH
, also called al-Kutubu 's-Sittah
s~*<N). "The six correct
(books)." The title given to the six -most
trustworthy collections of traditions received
by Sunni Muslims, namely, those by —
(1) Abu ' Abdi 'Mb. Muhammad ibn Isma'il
al-Bukhdrl, born A.H. 194; died A.H. 256.
(2) Abu '1-Husain Muslim ibn al-Htijjaj
al-Qushairi, born A.H. 204, died A.K. 26L
(3) Abu ;Isa Muhammad ibn 'Isa'l-TtVmtzf,
born A.H. _209, died A.H. 279. .
(4) Abu Dffud Sulaiman ibn Ash'as as-
Sajastani, born A.H. 202, died A.H. 275.
(5) Abu 'Abdi 'r-Rahman Ahmad ibn
Shu'aib an-Nasal, born A.H. 215, died A.H.
aoa
(6) Abu 'Abdi 'iiah Muhammad ibn Yazid,
ihn Mdjah, al-Qazwini, born A.-H. 209r died
A.H. 273.
The above are generally esteemed the six
authentic collections, but some substitute for
the Sunan Ibn Mdjah the Muwatta' of Abu
'Abdi 'tlah 'Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn
Abi 'Amir 'ibn 'Amr ibn al-Haris al- Asbahi
al-Himyari, born A.H. 95, died A.H. 179.
(The above words in italics denote the
popular title of the collection.)
Al-BuKhdrl and Muslim are held in highest
reputation, and are called ax-Sahihdn, or
" the two authentics."
• The collection by Malik, the founderof the
second orthodox sect of the Snnnis, is the
most ancient collection of traditions, and is
held in high [reputation, but it is sometimes
omitted from the list by the Hanafis, because
he is the founder of a certain school of
jurisprudence. [TRADITIONS.]
SIJDAH. [SAJDAH.]
SIJILL (J*~). A register. The
record of a court of justice. The decree of
a judge. In the Qur'an, the word occurs
when it is used for the angel which has
charge of the register of the fate of mankind,
SIJJIN
SIKHISM
583
ir, according to others, it may moan the roll
t*e1f.
Surah xxi. 104: " Tne day when we will
•oil up the heavens as as-Sijill rolls up his
jook^ ; as We produced it at the first crea-
,ion, will -we bring it back apain "
SIJJlN (($*qe~)' A deep pit in
irtiich is kept the register of the actions of
ihe wicko'l, and honoo this register itself.
Jur'an, Surah Ixxxiii. 7. s: "The book of
;he wicked is in Siji'in. and what shall make
hee know what SijjTn i.1- ? — It is an inscribed
>ook." (See also Mishkat, book v. ch. iii.
pt. 3.)
SIKANDAR (yu£,). Th«- Per-
<ian for Alexander, by which i^ meant
Alexander tb^> 'iroat Tzb 'L-QABNAIN.J
SIKHISM (from the Paujabi.word
rikh or silchd^ Sanskrit s-'u-hya, •• a disciple"
yr "pupil"). The religion of the Sikh.s in
the Panjab. ' Founded by Naaak, who waa
born in the village of Talvandi (now known
AS Nankana), on the banks of the river Ravi,
near Lahore, in A.D. 1469.
The history of the Sikh religion has not
yet been subjected to tho srrutiny necessary
to warrant strong dogmatism as to the ulti
mate source, or sources, whence the system
of Nanak and his followers took its rise.
The literature and traditions of Sikhism pro-
sent a strange intermingling; of Hindu, and
Muhamundan ideas ; and this is so pal
pably apparent that even superficial inquirers
have been led to conclude that Nanak pur
posely intended his creed to bo a compromise
between those two great religions. Dr.
Tfumpp, the able translator of the Adi
Grant h (ifoo sacred book of the Sikhs), who
is the only author that has written with
knowledge on the subject, is, however, dis
tinctly of opinion that Sikhism has only an
accidental relationship with Muhammadanisai.
In tbo Introduction to his Translation of ihe
Adi (j ninth ( f> ci.\ bo savs : —
lili it> a im.s'ake, if Xanak is represented
as having endeavoured to unite the Hindu
and Muhammadan ideas about God. Nanak
remained a thorough Hindu, according to all
his views ; and if he had communionship with
Musalmans, and many of these even became
bis disciples, it was owing to tho fact that
Sufifim, which all* these Mi.hammadans were
professing, was in reality nothing but a Pan
theism, derived directly from Hindu sources,
and only outwardly adapted to tho forms of
th« Islam. Hindu and Muslim Pantheists
could well unite together, as they enter
tained essentially the same ideas about the
Supreme.'
If the foregoing opinion accurately repre
sents the real truth, then Sikhism hardly de
serves mention in the present work ; but it
\till soon be seen that the balance of evidence
is heavily on the other sale. A careful investi
gation of early Sikh traditions points strongly
to the conclusioa that tho religion of Nanak
was really intended as a compromise between
Hinduism and Muhammadanism, if it may not
even be spoken of as the religion of a Muhaci-
madan sect. Tho very little that .seems to bo
known an to the views of tho early Sikt.
toaobers, coupled with the decided opinion put
forth by Dr. Trumpp, has made it uecess.'trv
to give here a longer article on Sikhism than
its importance with respect to Islhin would
h;ivo otherwise warranted ; because it was
-.try to establish tho relationship which
actually existed between tho two faith", ll
will be seen that the inWaiation given i'i tins
article is chiefiy taken from original P.-mjabi
books, and from manuscripts in the India
Office Library : and it is supported bv the
authority of tiie Adi Granth, which is the
sacred canon of the Sikhs.
Tho Janatn-Sd/Jiis, or biographical sketches
of Nanak and his associales, contain a pro
fusion of curious traditions, which throw
considerable light on the origin and develop
ment of the Sikh religion. From these old
books we lerxrn that, in early life, Nanak, al
though a Hindu by birth, came under Sufi
influence, and was strangely attracted l>y the
saintly demeanour of the ftn/irs who were
thickly scattered over Northern India and
swarmed in the Panjab. Now, Sufiism is not,
as Dr. Trumpp supposes, due to Hindu'
pantheism ; for it arose in the very earliest
days of Muhammadanisrn, and is almost cer
tainly due to the influance of Persian Zoro-
astrianism on the rude faith of Arab Islam-
ism. Persia has ever been the stronghold of
SufTistie doctrine ; and the leading writers who
huve illustrated that form of Muhammadan-
ism have been the Persian poets Firdiisi,
Nixami, Sa'di, Jalalu 'd-Din. I.Iafiz, and Jf.mi.
HatiV., the prince of $iifi poets, boldly de
clares : " I am a disciple of the old Magian :
be not angry with me. O Shaikh ! For thou
gavest me a promise ; he hath brought me
the reality." Although this stanza alludes
directly to two persons known to Hafi/, its
almost obvious meaning is : " I, a Persian
adhere to the faith of my ancestors. Do not
blame me, 0 Arab conqueror ! that my faith
is more sublime than thine." That Hafiz
meant his readers to take his words in a gene
ral sense, may be inferred from the stanza in
which he says : ;' I am the servant of the old
man of the tavern (i.e. the Magian) ; because
his beneficence is lasting : on the other hand,
the benetioence of the Shaikh and of the Sai-
yid at times is, and at times is 'not." Indeed,
Hfiflz was fully conscious of the fact that
Sufiism waa due to the influence of the faith
of his ancestors ; for, in another ede, he plainly
says : " Make fresh again the essence of the
creed of Zoroaster, now that the tulip has
kindled the fire of Nimrod." And Nizami,
also, was aware that his ideas were perilously
akin to heterodoxy; for, he says in his /
wa Shirin : " See not in me the guide to the
temple of the Fire-worshippers ; see only the
hidden meaning which cleaveth to the alle
gory." These citation.^, which could be in
definitely multiplied, sufficiently indicate tin-
Zoroastrian origin of the retinou spirituality
of the Sufis. The sublimity of the Persian
faith lay in its conception of the unity of
584
STKHISM:
SIKHISM
Eternal Spirit, and the intimate association
of the Divine with all that is manifest. Arab
Muhammadaus believe in the unity of a per
sonal God ; but mankind and the world were,
to thein, mere objects upon which the will of
God was exercised. The $ufls approached
nearer to the Christian sentiment embodied
in the phrase, " Christ in us.''
The Persian conquerors of Hindustan car
ried with them the mysticism and spirituality
of the Islarno-Magian creed. It was through
Persia that India received its flood of Mnhani-
madanism ; uud the mysticism and asceticism
of the Persinn form of Islam found con
genial soil for development among the specu
lative ascetks of northern India. It is.
therefore, only reasonable to suppose that any
Hindu affected by Muhammadaniain would
show some traces of Sufi influence. As a
fact we tind that the doctrine? preached hy
thp SiM Gurus were distinctly Sufiitstic : and,
indeed, the early Gurus openly assumed the
manners and dress of faqirg, thus plainly'
amiounciiiic their connection with the Sufiistic
side of Muhammadanisin. In pictures they
are rapresented with small rosaries in their
hands, quit^ in Ifuhaminadan fashion, art
though ready to perform zikr. Guru Arjun,
v/Lio watf fifth in succession iroinNnnak, was the
first to lay aside the dress of a faqir. The doc
trines, however, still held their position; for
we find the last Guru dying: while making an
open confession of Suftism, His words arc :
'« The Smritis. the S'astras, and the Vedas,
all speak in various ways : I do not ac
knowledge one ('of them). 0 possessor of hap
piness, bestow thy mercy (on me\ I do not
say, 'I.' 1 recognise all as * Thee. — (Sikhan
rle Raj dl Vithia. p. 81.) Here we have not
only the ideas, but the very Uuiguageof Sufis,
implying a pantheistic denial ot" all else than
Deity. The #amo manner of expression is found
In the Adi Granth itself, ey, "Thou art I;
T am thou. Of what kind is the difference ? "
( Translation, p. 130); and again, " Ju all the
One dwells, the One is contained " < p. 41),
Indeed, throughout the whole Adi Grunth, a
favourite name tor Deity is the •' True One,"'
that is, that which i? truly one — the Absolute
Unity, It is hardly possible to find a more
complete correspondence of ideas than that
furnished by the following sentences, one
taken from the Yvsuf wo ZvlaiKha of Jarni,
the Persian Sufi ; and the others, from the
Jap ji and the Adi Grnnih. Jam! says :—
"Dismiss every vain fancy, and abandon
every doubt :
Blend iufco one every spirit, and form, and
place ;
S"5ee One — know One — speak of Oue —
Desire One — chant of One — and seek
One."
In the Jap-ji. a formula familiar to every
Sikh household, we find : —
t; The Guru is Isar (Siva), the Guru is
Gorakh (Vishnu). BrabmA, the Guru is
the mother Pfvrbatf,
If I ahould know, would I not tell? The
ptory cannot be told,
0 Guru, let me know the One ; that the ,
One liberal patron of all living beings
may not be forgotten by me."
In the Adi Granth, we read.-. —
" Thou reoitest the One ; thou placest the '
One in (thy) mind j thou reoognizest
the One.
The One (is) in eye, in word, in mouth ;
tliou knowest the One in both places i
(i.e. worlds).
In sleeping, the One; in waking, the
One : in the One thou art absorbed."
(India Office MS., No, 2484, fol. 568.)
It is not only with respect to the idea of
the unity of God that this identity of expres
sion is discernible ; for other technical terms
of Sufiism are, also, reproduced in Sikhism.
Thus the Sufi Farldu 'd-DIn Shakrgani calls
Deity "the light of life," and Jalalu 'd-DIn
speaks of "flashes of His love," while Jam!
represents the " light " of the Lord of Angels
as. animating all parts of the universe; and
Nizami exclaims, *' Then fell a light, as of a
lamp, into the garden (of my heart)," when he
feels that a ray of the Divine has entered into
his soul. It is not difficult to collect many
such instances from the works of Persian
Sufls. Turning: to Sikhism, we, find that
the Adi Granth is full of similar expressions.
It is enough.to cite the following exclamation
of Naoak himself : >• In all (is) light. He (is)
light. From His light, there w light in all.**
•India Office MS., No. 2484, fol. 36,) And
in another place he says: " The Luminous
One -is the mingler of light (with himself)."
(fol. 186.) On fol. 61 we and :." There death
enters not ; light is absorbed in. the Luminous
One/'
Another favourite metaphor of Sufis for
the Deity is "the Beloved''; for example*
when Hnfiz says: "Be thankful that the
Assembly ig lighted up by the presence of the
Beloved.*1 This term is well recognized in
Sikhism; thus in the Adi Granth, "If thou
call thyself the servant of the Beloved, do not
speak despitefiilly (of Him). (India Office
MS.< No. 2484, fol. 564.)' "JJove to the
Beloved naturally puts joy into the heart,
| I long to meet the Lord (Prabhu) ; therefore
why should I be slothful." (India Office
MS., 2434, fol 177.) Also, "In in'y soul
and body are. excessive pangs of separation,
how shall the Beloved come to my house
and meet (with me)?" And again: M The
Beloved has become my physician." (India
Office MS., No. 1728. fol. 87.) The words
used iu the Panjabi texts are pirl(a, pntam,
and /M/V " a lover," or <c beloved one, '
Another remarkable proof of Persian in
fluence is found in the form of the Adi Granth
itself. It consists of a collection of short
poems, in many of which all the verses com
posing the poem rhyme together, in singular
conformity with the principle regulating the
construction of the Persian yhctzctl. This
resemblance is rendered more striking by the
fact that the name of- Nauak is worked into
the composition of the last line of each of
the poems. This last characteristic is too
8IKHISM
jersistent to be considered the result of
incident; and while it is altogether foreign
;o the practice of Hindu verse, it is in
precise accord with the rule for the correct
jompodition of the ghazal.
The foregoing facts seem conclusive as to
the influence of Persian Suilism t>n the origin
yt the Sikh religion. Dr. Trumpp, when dis
cussing the philosophy of the Adi Granth,
admits the intimate connection between Sikh-
iflm and Sufiism in the following words : —
"We can distinguish in the Granth a grosser
and a finer kind of Pantheism In this
finer shade of Pantheism, creation assumes
the form of emanation from the Supreme (as
in the system of the Sufis); the atomic
matter is either likewise considered co-etemal
with the Absolute and immanent in it, be
coming moulded into various, distinct forms
by the energizing vigour of the absolute jott
(light) : or, the reality of matter is more or
less denied (as by the Sufis, who call it the
I»J^, TO fJir) ov) 80 that the Divine joti is the
only real essence in all." — (Introduction to
Translation of the Adi Granth, pp. c. ci.)
Any doubt that may remain on the ques
tion seems to be set at rest by the express
statement in the life of Guru Arjun, who was
urged by his followers to reduce to writing
the genuine utterances of Nanak, because" by
reciting the numerous verses and speeches
uttered by other Sufis, which have received the
name of Baba Nanak, pride and worldly wis
dom are springing up in the hearts of men.''
(tiikhdn de Raj di Vithijd, p. 29.) And in the
Adi Granth itself, we find the following re
markable verses ascribed to Nanak : —
" A ball of intoxication, of delusion, is
given by the Giver.
The intoxicated forget death, they enjoy
themselves four days.
The True One is found by the Softs, who
keep fast his Court."
(Translation, p. 23.)
Here we have not only a plain claim of kin
ship with the Sufis, but the incorporation of
several of their favourite terms.
The traditions of Nanak preserved in the
Janam-Sdkhi, are full of evidences of his
alliance with Muhammadanism. He was a
Hindu by birth, of the Vedi Khattri caste ;
and was the son of the patwdri, or village-
accountant, of the place now called Nankana,
in the neighbourhood of Lahore. In his
very early days, he sought the society of
faqirs : and used both fair and unfair means
of doing them service, more especially in the
bestowal of alms. At fifteen years of age. he
misappropriated the money which his father
bad given him for trade ; and this induced his
parents to send him to a relative a.t Sultanpur,
in order that he might be weaned from his
affection for faqirs (India Office MS. No.
1728, fol. 29). His Jirst act in his new home
wafc to join the service of a Muhammadan
Nawab, named Daulat KhanL.odi ; and, while |
serving him, he continued to give to faqirs
all his salary, except the bare maintenance he I
reserved for himself. While in the service of !
SIK1IISM
585
•this Muhammadan, Nanak received the ecsta
tic exaltation which he felt to be Divine inspi
ration. It is stated in tho tradition ul bis life,
that Nanak went to the river to perf-jrin his
ablutions, and that whilst so engaged, he was
translated bodily to the gates of Paradise.
•' Then a goblet of amrita (the water of life)
was given (to him) by command (of God).
The command was : ' This nmritu is the goblet
of my name; drink thou it.' Then ihe Gum
Nanak made salutation, and drank the goblet.
The Lord (Sahib) had mercy (and said) :
* Nanak, I am with thee ; I have made thce
happy, and whoever shall take thy name
they all shall be rendered happy by me. Go
thou, repeat my name, and cause other people
to repeat it. Remain uncontnmiuat.ed from the
w'orld. Continue (steadfast) in the name, in
alms-giving, in ablutions, in service, and in the
remembrance (of me). I have given to thee
my own name : do thou this work.' " (fol. 33.)
Here we have notions closely akin to those
of the Sufis, who lay much stress on the re
petition of the name of God, which they term
ZIKR [^.u.], on religious ablutions [WAza',0.v.],
and on meditating on the unity of God [WAH-
DANIYAHJ ^.w.] No sooner had Nanak reco
vered from his trance than he uttered tho
key-note of his future system in the celebrated
phrase, " There is no Hindu, and there is no
Musalman." (fol. 36.) The Janam-Sdkhi then
goes on to say that, " The people went to the
Kb.au (his former employer) and said, ' Baba
Nanak is saying, There is no Hindii, there is
no Musalman.' The Khan replied, ' Do not
regard his statement ; he is a faqir.' A QazI
sitting near said: '0 Khan! it is surprising
that he is saying there is no Hindu and no
Musalman.' The Khan then told ftn attendant
to call Nanak ; but the Guru Nanak said .-
< What have I to do with thy Khan ? ' Then
the people said : ' This stupid is become mad.'
.... Then the Baba (Nanak) was silent.
When he said anything, he repeated only this
statement: 'There is no Hindu, there is no
Musalman.' The Qjazi then said: ' Khan, is
it right that he should say, There is no Hiudu,
there is no Musalman ? ' Then the Khan-said :
'• Go, fetch him.' The attendant went, and
said : * Sir, the Khan is calling (you). The
Khan says : For God's sake give me an inter
view [Panj. aj bard Khuddjide tdnj = Persian
nz baratl Khuda] ; I want to see thee.' The
Guru Nauak arose and went, saying: 'Now
the summons of my Lord (SdJkib) is come, I
will go.' He placed a, staff upon his nock and
went! The Khan said: *Naiiak. for God's
sake take the staff from off thy neck,
gird up thy waist ; thou art a good faqir.'
Then Gurn*Nanak took the staff from off (his)
neck, and girded up his loins. The Khau
said : * 0 Nanak, it is a misfortune to me that
a steward such as thou shouldst become a
faqir.' Thenjthe Khan seated the Guru Nanak
near himself and said : ' Qazi, if thou desirost
to ask anything, ask now ; otherwise this one
will not again utter a word.' The Qful be
coming friendly, smiled and said: 'Nanak,
what dost thou mean by saying, There is no
Hindu, there is no Muealmau ? ' Nanak re-
74
586
STKHISM
SIKHI8M
plied : ... ( To be called a Mueaiman is £i£-
cult ; when one (becomes it) then he may bo
called a Musalman. First of all, having
made religion (din) sweet, he 'clears away
Musalman wealth. Having become firm
f *L~*«), religion <Y/»i) in. this way brings to
an end the revolution of dving and living.' —
(1. 0, AfS., 2484, fol. 84.) "When Nanak had
uUered this verse, the Qaal became amazed.
Tke Khan said : < 0 Qazi, is not the ques
tioning df him a mistake ? ' The time of
the afternoon prayer had come. All arose
and went (to the naoaque) to prayers,
end the Baba (Nanak) also 'went with
them." Nanak then demonstrated his
supernatural power by reading the thoughts
of the QazT. " Then the Qazi came and fell-
down .at his feet, exclaiming, ; Wonderful,
wonderful I on this one is the favour of God.'
Then the Qazi believed ; and Nanak uttered
this stanza : ' A (real) Musalman clears away
self ; (he possesses) sincerity, patience,
purity of speech : (what is) erect he does
not annoy : (what) lies (dead) he does nofc
eat. 0 Nanak ! that Musalman goes to heaven
(bihis/it).' When the Baba had uttered this
stanza, the Saiyids, the eons of the Shaikhs,
the Qazi, the Mufti, the .Khan, the chiefs
and leaders were amazed. The Khan said :
'Qazi, Nanak has reached the truth; the
additional questioning is a mistako.' Wher
ever the Baba locked, there all were saluting
him. After tne Baba had recited a few
stanzas, *be Kftan came and fell down at hk
feftt. Then the people, Hindus and Musal-
inans, began to say to the Khan that God
(Khuda) was speaking in Nanak." (India
Ofice MS. 1728, fol. 30-41 .)
The foregoing anecdotes are taken from the
India Office MS., Ne. ii 28; but the ordinary
Janam-Sakhis eurren|; in the Pan jab vary the
account somewhat by saying that when the
Khan reproved Nanak for not coming to him
when sent for, the latter replied : " ' Hear, 0
Nawab, when I was thy servant I came before
thea ; now I am not thy servant ; now I am be
come the servant of Khuda (God).' The Nawab
said: * Sir, (if) you have become such, then
come with me and say prayers (niwaf.= nwidz,
see PKATER), It is Friday.' Nanak said:
'Go, Sir.' The Nawab., with the Qazi and
Nanak, atxd a great concourse of people, went
into the Jami' Masjid and stood there. All
the people "who came into the jttasjid began
to say, * To-day Nanak has entered this sect.'
There was a commotion among the respect
able Hindus in Sulianpur ; and Jair^m, being
much grieved, returned home. Nanaki per
ceiving that her husband came home dejected,
rose up and said, * Why is it that you are
to-day BO grieved ? ' Jraram replied, " Listen,
0 servant of Paramesur (God), what haa thy
brother Nanak done ! He has gone, with the
Nawab, into the Jami' Masjid to pray ; and,
in the city, there is an outcry among the
Hindus and Musainians that Nanak has be-
epnre a Turk (Muslim) to-day.'" (India
., No. 2866, foi. 39.)
the fotegoiog it is perfectly clear
that the immediate successors of Nanak be
lieved that he went very close, to Muham-
aaadanism; and we can scarcely doubt the
accuracy of their view of the matter, when we
consider the almost contemporaneous cha
racter of the record, from which extracts
have been given, and the 'numerous con
firmatory evidence^ contained in the religion
itself. It is particularly worthy of remark
that a " cup of amrita " (i.e. immortality) is
considered the symbol of inspiration ; just as
Hafiz exclaims, " Art thou searching, 6 Hafiz,
to find the waters of eternal life ? " And t"h3
same poet expresses Ma own, ecstasy in a
way almost identical with the reception
accorded to Nanak at the gate of Paradise.
His words are : "Then be gave into.my hancl
a cup which flashed back the splendour of
Heaven so gloriously, that Zuhrah broke eu'i
into dancing and the lute-player exclaimed
« Drink 1 ' " The staff (muttaka) that is men-
tioned ia, also, that of a faqlr, on which &
devotee supports bimself while in meditation.
Another significant fact is that when Nanak
speaks of himself as the servant of God. he
employs the .word. f[huda.,.-& Persian Muham
mad an term ; but when his brother-in-law
Jairam speaks . of God, he uses the Hindu
word. Paramtsur. It will. also, be noticed
;hat Muhammadans are affected by the logic
*nd piety of Nanak ; and to them he shows
himself so partial that he openly accompanies
them to the mosque, and thereby causes his
Hindu neighbours and friends to believe that
he is actually converted to the faith of Islam.
But, of course, the most remarkable expres
sion of all is the emphatic and repeated
announcement that "There is no Hindu ;
there is no Musalman." This can mean
nothing else than, that' it was Nauak's settled
intention to do away with tba differences be
tween those two forms of belief, by instituting
a third course which should supersede both
of them.
Nanak's whilom employer, in consequence
of the . f oregoing manifestations ct wisdom,
became his devoted admirer. After this,
Nfanak undertook a missionary-tour ; and it is
noticeable that the first peraon he went to and
converted was Shaikh Sajan (? ^L*)., who
showed himself to be a pious Muhammad an.
Nanak then .proceeded to Pampat, and was met
by a certain Shaikh Tatlhar, who accosted
him with the Muhammad's s greeting, "Peace
be on thee, 0 Darvesh !" (Saldm-ciieka Darvei) ;
to which Nanak immediately replied, " And
upon you be peace, O servant of the Pir !
(aleka us-sal-dmu, Ap Ptr Jce dosta-pes).'1'1
(India Office MS., No. 1728, fol. 48.) Here we
find Nanak both receiving and giving the
Mahammadan salutation .; and also the ac.-
knowledgraeat th*t lie ^as recognized BS a
ffarvesk. The PanjabT form of the Arabic
salutation is given iest.it might be thought
fcliat the special character of the wordy is
due to the translation. The disciple then
called his master, the Pir Shaikh Sharaf , who
repeated the sal action of peace, and after a
long conversation acknowledged the Divine
mission of Nanak, krwed his hands and feet,
SiKHISM
SIKHI8M
587
and left him. (foL 62.) After the departure of j
this Pir, the Guru Nanak wandered on to j
Dehli, where he was introduced to Sultiin |
Ibrahim Lodi, who also culled him a darvesh.
The previous conversations and acts are
found to have awakened the curiosity of
Nanak's attendant Mardana, who asked in
surprise : " Is God, then, one ? " To which
Nanak firmly replied : " God (Khuda) is one."
(fol. 55.) This was intended to satisfy Mar
dana that there is no difference between the
Muriammadan and the Hindu God.
Nanak is next said to have proceeded to
the holy city of Benares, and there he met
with a Pandit named Satrudas. The MS. 1728
(fol. 66) says : " He came to this Nuuak, and
cried, < Ram ! Ratn ! ' Seeing his (Nanak's)
disguise (bhekhu), he sat down, aud said to
him, ' 0 devotee (bhagaC), thou hast no sdli-
gra,n ; no necklace of tufa ; no rosary ; no
tikd of white clay ; and thou callest (thyself)
a devotee ! What 'devotion hast thou ob
tained ?"' In other words, the Pandit is
made to challenge his piety ; because he
has none of the marks of a Hindu upon
him. Nanak explains his peculiar position
and views ; and is reported to have converted
the Hindu Pandit to his own way of think
ing. This anecdote, also, shows that the
immediate successors of Nanak were aware
that their great Guru occupied an interme
diate position between Muhammadanism
and Hinduism ; for we see that he is made to
convert Muhammadana on the one Land, and
Hindus on the other. After this primary
attack on Hinduism, Nanak is said to have
converted some Jogis,Khattris,ThagsT necro
mancers, witches, and even the personified
Kaliyug, or present age of the world. These
conquests over imaginary Hindus are obviously
allegorical ; though they clearly point to a well
recognized distinction between the te&oLing
of Nanak and that of orthodox Hinduism.
The most significant associate which Nanak
fbtmd was, undoubtedly, Shaikh Farid. He
was a famous Muhammadan Pir, and a stric.
Sufi, who attracted much attention by hi
piety, and formed a school of devotees of his
own. Shaikh Farid must have gained con
siderable notoriety in his day : for his special
disciples are still to be found in the Pan jab,
who go by the name of Shaikh Farid's faqirs.
This strict Muhammadan became the confi
dential friend and companion of Nanak ; and
if ail other traditions had failed, this alone
would have been enough ta establish ihe
eclectic character of early Sikhism. The
first greeting of these famous men is significant
enough, Shaikh Farid exclaimed, "Allah,
Allah, 0 Darvesh "; to which Nanak replied,
"Allah is the object of my efforts, 0 Karid I
Cume, Shaikh Farid ! Allah", Allah (only) is over
my object." The words in the original feeing
Allah, Farid, juhdi; hameta an, fykk /VlriJ,
ivkdi Allah Allah. (India Office MS... No,
1728, fol. 86.) The use of the Arabic
termjuhd impljos the energy of the purpose
witli which he sought for Allah; and the
whole phrase is forcibly Muhammadan in tone. !
\n intimacy at once sprang up between '
these two remarkable men ; and Shaikh Farid
accompanied Nauak in ail his wanderings
for the next twelve years. The intended com
promise between Hinduism and Islam if
shown not only in the fact of this friendship .
but in the important circumstance that n.<
less than 142 stanzas composed by ShaikJ-
Farid are admitted into the Adi Grant/.
itself. An examination of these verses still
further proves the mingling of the two reli
gions which .Nanak effected. They are dis
tinctly Suliistic in tone, containing f?uch HIK-S
as, " Youth is passing, I am not afraid, if
love to the Beloved doeernot pass"; and still
more pointedly, " Full of sins I wander about ;
the world calls me a Darvesh "; while, be
tween these declarations of steady adherence
tp Islam, comes the remarkable Hindu line.
" As by fire the metal ."becomes purified, so the
fear of Hari removes the filth of folly." The
fact that the compositions of a genuine Suf.
should havo been admitted into the cancnica
book of the Sikhs, and that they should con
tain such a clear admixture of Hindu and
Muhammadan ideas, is conclusive evidence
that Nanak, and his immediate successors,
?aw 'no incongruity in tlfre mixture.
As soon as Nanak and his kiead Shaikh
Farid begin to travel in company, it i« related
that tuey reached a place called Bisi,ar.
where tbo people applied cow-dung to every
spot on which they had stood, as soon as they
departed. (7. 0. 3/5., No. 1728, fol 94.) The
obvious meaning of this is, that orthodox
Hindus considered every snot polluted wluch
Nanak and his companion had visited, Tbi«
could never have been related of Nanak had
he remained a Hindu by religion.
-In his next journey Nanak is said to have
visited Patan, and there he met with Shaikh
Ibrahim, who saluted him us a Muslim,
and had a conversation with him on the
Unity of God. Nauak expressed his views in
the following openly Suf iistic manner : " Thou
thyself (art), the wooden tablet ; thou (art)
the pen; thou (art) also the writing upon
(it). 0 Nanak, why should the One be called
a second ? " (India Office MS. 1728, fol. 117.)
Tti* Pir asks an explanation of this verse in
these words : " Thou sayeat, .* There is One.
why a second ? " but there is ono Lord- ($<z£i6),
and two traditions. Which shall I accept,
and which reject ? Thou sayest, « The only
One, he alone is one'; but the Hindus ar*
saying thatjn (their) faith there is certainty ;
and the Musalmans are saying that only in
i. their) faith is there certainty. Toll me, in
which of them is the truth, and in which ie-
there falsity?" Nanak replied, "There is
only one Lord (SaAz'6), and only one tradi
tion." (fol. 119.) This anecdote nerves still
rurtherto illustrate the> intermediate position
between the two religions ascribed to Nanak
by bis immediate followers.
Shortly alter the foregoing episode, Ninak
was captured auiong the prisoners taken by the
Emperor Bdbar, who seems to have been
attracted by the Guru's piety, and to havo
shewn him some attentions. The .chror.icler
informs us that "all the people, both Hindus
588
STKHISM
SIKHlSM
and Musalmans. began to salute (Nanak)."
(fol 137.) After his release, Nanak recom
menced his missionary work, and is described
as meeting a Muhammad an named Mi van
Mitha, who called upon him for the Kalimah
[see KALIMAH], or Muhammadan confession
ol faith (fol. 1 43) ; which leads to a long con
versation, in which Nanak lays emphasis on
the Sufi doctrine of the Unity of God. In
this conversation Nanak is made to say, " The
book of the Qur'an should be practised." (fol.
144.) He also acknowledged that "justice is
the Qur'an." (fol. 148.) When the Miyan asked
him what is the one great name, Nauak took
him aside and'whispered iri his eai*, " Allah "
[GOD]. Immediately the great name is ut
tered, Miyan Mitha is consumed to ashes ;
but a celestial voice again utters the word
ifc Allah 1 " and the Mivan regains life, and
falls at the feet of Nanak. (fol. 147.)
Nanak then proceeded to convert some
Jainas, and even a Rakshasas, or Hindu
demon; and next went to Mult an, where he
converted the famous Pir, Makhdiim Baha'u-
"d Din. In Kashmir ho met with a Hindu
Pandit who recognized Him as a sddku, or vir-
tuoTis person ; but askod him why he had aban
doned caste xisages. why he wore skins, aiid
ate meat a-ndl fish. The Pandit's scruples
having been satisued. he flung away his idols,
and became a devoted belie vei in Nanak's
doctrines. Tuis anecdote again furnishes us
with distinct evidence that Nanak took up
an intermediate position between Islam and
Hinduism, and sought to bring both under one
common system.
In precise conformity with this deduction
is the tradition of Nanak's pilgrimage to
Mekkah. The particnlars of 1m visit to that
hoiy place are fully given, in all accounts
of Nanak 'H life; and although, as Dr.
Trumpp reasonably concludes, the whole
story is a fabrication, yet the mere invention
of the tale is enough to prove that those who
most intimately knew Nanak considered his
relationship to Muhammad ani sin sufficiently
close to warrant the belief in such a pilgrim
age. In the course ol his teaching in Mak-
kah, Nanak is made to say: "Though men,
they are like women, who do not obey the
Sunnat, and Divine commandment, nor the
order of the book (i.e. the Qur'an)." (/. 0.
MS. No. 1728, fol. 212.) He also admitted the
intercession of Muhammad, denounced the
drinking of bhang, wine, &c., acknowledged
the existence of hell, the punishment of the
wicked, and the resurrection of mankind ; in
fact, the words here ascribed to Nanak con
tain a full confession of Jslard. These tenets
are. of course, duo to the nai'rator of the tale ;
and are only useful as showing how far
Nanak's followers thought it possible for him
to go,
A curious incident is next related to the
fefloct thai Makhdum Baha'ti 'd-DIn, the Pir of
Mulian. feeling his end approaching, said to
his disciples, " 0 friends, from this time the
faith of no one will remain firm; all will
become faithless (be-imari)'' His disciples
asked for an explanation ; and in reply be
delivered himself of an oracular statement:
'* 0 friends, when one Hindu shall come to
Heaven (bihishC), there will be brilliancy
(ujdla) in Heaven." To this strange an
nouncement his disciples replied : " Learned
people say that Heaven is not decreed for
the Hindu ; what is this that you have said ? "
(/. 0. MS. 1728, fol. 224.) The Pir told them
that he was alluding to Nanak ; and sent one
of his disciples to ask Nanak if he. also, had
received an intimation of his approaching
death.
In this anecdote we hare the extraordinary
admission from a Muhammadan that Nanak
would succeed in breaking up the faith of
Islam It is in ^consequene? of a Hindu's
having conquered Heayen itself, and vindi
cated his right to a place In the paradise of
Muhammad, that those who were then in the
faith of the Prophgt vroujd lose confidence in
his teaching. Here again the words em
ployed are useful ; for the Pir is made to say
that Muslims will becomo be- \rndn, the Arabic
t«nu specially applicable to the " faith " of
Islam ; and Heaven is called in the Panjabi
story pAijafi that is bihisht, the Paradise of
Muliatnmadans [see PABADI»B]; for had the
Hindu heaven been intended, some such word
as stvarg, or parahk. or Brahtoalok would have
been used.
The final incident in the life of this en
lightened teacher is in precise accord with all
t hat has been said of his former career. Nanak
came to the bank of the Ravi to die— rin con
formity with Hindu custom — by the side of a
natural stream of water. It is expressly said
that both Hindus and Muslims accorn-
pa^ied him. He then seated himself at the
foot of a Sarib tree, and his Assembly of the
faithful (Sangat} stood around him. His Nsons
asked bku what their position was to be ; and
he told them to subordinate themselves to
the Guru Angnd whom he had appointed as
his successor. They were to succeed to no
power or dignity merely on the ground of
relationship ; no hereditary claim was to be
recognized ; on the contrary, the sons were
frankly told to consider themselves non
entities. The words are : " Sons oven the
dogs of the Guru arc not in want ; bread and
clothes will be plentiful; and should you
mutter 'Guru! Guru I' (your) life will be
(properly) adjusted." (7. 0. MS. 1728, fol. 238.)
The anecdote then proceeds in the following
remarkable manner : " Then the Hindus and
Muiahnans who wore firm in the name (of
God), began to express themselves (thus),
the Musalmans said, ' We will bury (him) ';
and the Hindus said, ' We will burn (him).'
Then the Baba said, ' Place flowers on both
sides ; on the right side those of the Hindus,
on the left side those of theMusalznjjins, (that
we may perceive) whose will continue green
to-morrow. If those of the Hindus keep
green, then burn (me) ; and if those of the
Musalmans keep green, then bury (me).'
Then the Baba ordered the .Assembly to
repeat the praises (of God); and the As
sembly bogan to repeat the praises accord
ingly. [After a few verses had been recited]
SIKHISM
StKHTSM
589
he laid down his head. When the sheet
(which had been stretched over him) was
raised, there was nothing (under it) ; and the
flowers of botb (sides) remained green. The
Hindus took away theirs; and the Musal-
mans took away theirs. The entire Assembly
fell to their feet." (/. 0. MS. 1728, fol. 23'J,
240.)
The mixture of Hinduism and Muhamma-
danism is evident in this tradition. It is
obviously intended to summarize the life of
Nanak and the object of his teaching. He is
not represented as an outcaste and a failure ;
on the other hand, his purposes are held to
hare been fully accomplished. The great
t'-'.umph was the establishment of a common
basis of religions truth for both Muhain-
madan and Hindu ; and this he is shown to
have accomplished with such dexterity that
at his death no one could say whether he was
more inclined to Hinduism or to Muhamma-
danism. His friends stood around him at the
last moment quite uncertain as to whether
they should dispose of his remains as those
of & Muhammadan, or as those of a Hindu.
And Nanak is represented as taking care that
the matter should ever remain a. moot point.
The final miraculous disappearance of the
corpse is obviously intended to convey the
idea that Nanak belonged specially neither to
one party nor to the other ; while the green
and flourishing appearance of the flowers of
both parties conveys the lesson that it was
his wish that both should live together in
harmony and union. The narrator of the life
dearly wishes his history \o substantiate the
prophetic statement recorded at the com
mencement of his book (/. 0. MS, 1728, fol. 7)
that, at Nanak's birth, "The Hindus said,
"The manifestation of some God (Devatd) has
been produced ;' and the Musalmans said,
1 Some holy man (fddiq) of God (Khudd) has
been bom,' "
The most potent cause of the uncertainty
As to Nanak's true position in the religious
•world, arises from the initial fact that he was
born a Hindu, and necessarily brought up in
that form of belief. He was a perfectly
uneducated man, there being no reason to
suppose that he could either read or write, or
perform any other literary feat, beyond the
composition of extemporaneous verses in his
mother tongue. Guru Arjun, the fourth suc
cessor of Nanak, appears to have been the
first chieftain of the fraternity who could read
and write. The necessary result of Nanak's
early associations was that all his ideas
throughout life were substantially Hindu,
his mode of thought and expression was
Hindu, his illustrations were taken from
Hindu sources, mnd his system was based on
Hindu modelg. It must bo borne in mind
that Nanak never openly seceded from the
pale of Hinduism, or ever contemplated doing
eo. Thue in the Sdkhl of Miyan Mithd it is
related that towards the end of Nanak's life a
Muhammadnn named Shah 'Abdu Y-Rahman
acknowledged the great advantages ho hnd de
rived from the teaching of Nanak, and sent
his irieud Miyan Mitha to the Gum so that
he might derive similar benefit. " Then Miyan
Mitha said, ' What is his name? Is he ft
Hindu, or is ho a Musalman ? ' Shah 'Abdu 'r-
Rahman replied, ' He is a Hindu ; and his
name is Nanak.'— (Si khan de Raj di Vithifi,
p. 258.") Ho struck a heavy blow at Hin
duism by his rejection of caste distinctions ;
and ou this point there can be no doubt, for
his very words, preserved in the Adi Granth,
are : " Thou (0 Lord) acknowledgest the Light
(the ray of the Divine, in man), and dost uot
ask after caste. In the other world there is
HO caste." — (Translation of the Adi Granth,
p. 494.) In consequence of this opinion
Nanak admitted to his fraternity men of all
castes ; his constant companions being spoken
of as Saiyids and Sikhs, that is, Muhammadan
and Hindu pupils. Sikhs have ever before
them the- intermediate character of their
religion by the stanza (21) of the -Jap-Ji,
which says, " Pandits do not know that time,
though written in a Purana ; Qazls do not
know that time, though written in the
Qur'an." Hindu scholars are told in the Adi
Grctntk that they miss the true meaning of
their religion through delusion. " Reading
and reading the Pandit explains the Veda,
(but) the infatuation of Maya (delusion per-
sonitied) lulls him tb sleep. By reason of
dual affection the name of Hari (i.e, God) is
forgotten." (Translation, p. 117.) In the
same way Nanak turns to tho Musalnaan and
says, —
u Thou must die, 0 Mulla ! thou must
die I remain in the fear of the Cre
ator 1
Then thou art a Mulla, then tbou art a
QazI, if thou knowest the name of God
(Kkudd).
None, though he be very learned, will
remain, he hurries onwards.
He is a Qazi by whom his own self is
abandoned, and the One Name is made
his support.
He is, and will be, He will not be de
stroyed, true is the Creator.
Five times he prays (niwdj gujarhi), he
reads the book of the Qur'an."
(Translation, p. 37.)
Nanak does net seem to have been fastidious
as to the name under- which he recognized
the Deity ; he was more concerned with im
pressing on his companions a correct under
standing of what Deity was. The names
Hari, Ram, Govind, Brahma, Parumes'war,
Khuda, Allah, <fec., are used with perfect
freedom, and are even mixed up in the same
poem. The most common name for God in
the Adi Granth is certainly Hari ; but that
does not se«m to have shocked the Muslim
friends of Nanak. Thus, in a poem addressed
to Hari as " the invisible, inaccessible, and
infinite," we are told that. i( Pirs, prophets,
saliks, sadiqs, martyrs, shnikhs. inulla&, and
darvesbes ; a great blessing has come upon
them, who continually recite his salvation."
— (Translation, p. 75.)
The chief point of Nanak's teaching was
unquestionably the Unily of God. He set
himself nrmly against the idea of associating
590
SIKHISM
SIKHISM
any other being" with the Absolute Supreme.
This exalted idea of Divine Majesty, enabled
Nanak to treat with indifference the crowd
oi Hindu deities. To such a mind as that of
Nanak it would have been sheer waste of
time to argue, with any earnestness, about
the attributes, powers, or jurisdictions, of a
class of beings, the whole of whom were sub
ordinate to one great, almighty, and incom
prehensible Ruler. Without any overt attack
on the Hindu pantheon, he caused the whole
cluster of deities to subside into a condition
similar to that of angels in modern Christi
anity ; whose existence and operations may be
the subject of conversation, but the whole of
whom sink into utter insignificance compared
with the central idea of the Divine Majesty.
The One .God, in "Nanak's opinion (and, it
maybe added, in the opinion of all Sufis),
was the creator of plurality of form, not the
creator of matter out of nothing. The phe
nomenal world is the manifestation of Deity,
and it is owing to pure deception that the
idea of soveralty exists. In the Adi Granth
we road —
'4 The cause of causes is the Creator.
Tn His hand are the order and reflection.
A.3 He looks upon, so it becomes.
Ho Himself, Himself is the Lord.
Whatever is made, (is) according to His
own pleasure.
He is far from all, and with all.
He comprehends, sees, and makes dis
crimination.
He Himself is One, and He Himself is
many.
He does not die nor perish, He neither
comes nor goes.
Nanak says : He is always contained (in
all).*— (TVaJwfofcVm, p. 400.)
Notwithstanding this conception that the
Supreme One comprehends both spirit and
matter, and therefore zV what is ; He is never
theless spoken of as in some way different
irom the creature's He has formed, and has
been endowed with moral and intellectual
qualities. Thus we find in the Adi Granth —
u. Whose body the universe is, He is not
in it, the. Creator is not in it.
Who is putting (the things) together, He
is always aloof (from them), in what
can He be said (to be contained) ? "
(Translation, p. 474.)
Tbe soul ef man is held to be a ray of
ligHt from the Light Divine ; and it necessarily
follows that, in its natural state, the soul of
man is sinless. The impurity, which is only
too apparent in man, is accounted for by the
Operation of what is called Maya, or Delusion ;
and it is this Maya which deludes creatures
into egotism and duality, that is, into self-
eonsciousness or. conceit, and into: the idea
that there can be existence apart from the
Divine. This delusion "prevents the pure soul
from freeing itseH from matter, and henSe
*he spirit -passes from one combination of
matter to another, in a long chain of births
and deaths, until the delusion is removed,
and the entraraelUd ray returns to the*
Divine Light whence it originally emanated.
The belief in metempsychosis is thus seen to
be the necessary complement of pantheism.;
and it is essential to the creed of a Hindu, a
Buddhist, and a Sufi.
In Sikhism, as in Buddhism, the prime
object of attainment is not Paradise,' but the
total cessation of individual existence. The
method by which this release from transmi
gration is to be accomplished is by the perfect
recognition of identity with the Supreme.
When the soul fully realizes what is summed
up in the formula so ham> " I am that," i.e.
" I am one with that which was, and is, and
will be," then emancipation from the bondage
of existence is secured. This is declared by
Nanak himself in the Adi Granth in these
words —
" Should one know his own self as the so
ham, he believes in the esoteric mys
tery.
Should the disciple (Gur~mukhf) know
his own self, what more can he do, or
cause to be done?"-r-(I. 0. MS. 2484,
fol. 53.)
The principles of early Sikhism given above
are. obviously too recondite for acceptance
among masses of men ; accordingly we find
chat the pantheistic idea of • Absolute Sub
stance became gradually changed into the
more readily apprehended notion of a se)f-
conscious Supreme Being, the Creator and
Governor of the universe. Here Dr. Trumpp
himself admits the influence of Mahamma-
danism, when he says : " It is not improbable
that the Islam tad a great share in working
silently these changes, which are directly
opposed to the teaching of the Gurus."-—
(Introduction to- Translation of the Adi
Granth, p. cxii.) The .teaching of Nanak
was, however, very practical. His followers
are daily reminded in the Jap-Ji that, " With
out the practice of virtue there can be no
worship."
In all that has proceeded we have confined
ourselves strictly to the intimate relationship
subsisting between early Sikhism and the
Muhamrnadan religion. It is, however, need
ful to allude to the fact that certain surviving
relics of Buddhism had no small share in
moulding the thoughts of the Founder of the
Sikh religion. A full -examination of this
part of the subject would be out of place in
the present work. It must suffice to say that
Buddhism held its position in the Panjab long
after it had disappeared from other parts of
Northern India ; and the abundance of Bud
dhistic relics, which are -continually being un
earthed in the district, prove the wide-spread
and long-continued influence of the tenets of
the gentle-hearted Buddha, indications of
this influence on early Sikhism are seen in
its freedom from caste, in the respect for
animal life, the special form of metempsy
chosis accepted, the .importance ascribed to
meditation, the profuse charityythe reverence
paid to the seat of the Guru (like the Bud
dhistic worship of the throne), 3S ianak's respect
f ?r the lotos, his missionary touWj and th?
curious union subsisting between the (Juru
SIKHISM
md his Sangat. In the Travels oj Gum Tegk
Bahadur, translated from tho original Gur-
nukhi by an excellent scholar, Sirdar Atar
singb, we find the following remarkable aen-
ence : "The Guru and his Sangat are like
;he w?.rp and woof in cloth, — there is no dif-
:erenco between them " (p. 37). In the Adi
Grrtnth there is an eniiro Sukhmam, or poem,
t>y Guru Avjun, wholly devoted to a recita
tion of the. advantages of '• the society of the
pious," the term employed being, however,
in this case, sddfi kai sang. (J. 0. MS. 2484,
t'ol. 134.) In addition to those p'oints of
resemblance, there is found in early Sikhism
a curious veneration for trees, offerings to
which were sometimes made, as will be seen
by reference to pp. 67, 70, arid 83, of the
Travels of Guru ff.gh Bahadur, just cited.
In precise conformity with the tradition that
Buddha died under a Sal tree, we have seen
that Nannk purposely breathed his last under
a Sarlh tree. Anyone familiar with Bart-
Jhism will readily recognize the remarkable
coincidences stated above ; but the most con
clusive of all in the positive Inculcation of
views identical with the crowning doctrine of
Buddhism — the Nirvana itself. The following
in what Dr. Truinpp says on the subject : —
" If there could be any doubt on the pan
theistic character of the tenets of the Sikh
Gurus regarding the Supreme, it would be
dissolved by their doctrine of the Nirban.
Where no personal God is taught or believed
in, man cannot aspire to a final personal com
munion with him, his aim can only be absorp
tion in the Absolute Substance, i.e. individual
annihilation. We find, therefore, no allusion
to the joys of a future life in the Granth, as
heaven or paradise, though supposed to
exist, is not considered a desirable object.
The immortality of the soul is only taught so
far as the doctrine of transmigratioa requires
it ; but when tho soul has reached its highest
object, it is no more mentioned, becuuse it no
longer exists as individual soul.
11 The Nirbao, as is well known, is the grand
object which Buddha in his preaching held
out to the poor people. From his atheistic
point of view, he could look out for nothing
else; personal existence, with all the con
comitant evils of this life, which are not coun
terbalanced by corresponding pleasures, neces
sarily appeared to him as the greatest evil.
Hia whole aim was, therefore, to counteract
the troubles and pain of this existence by a
stoical indifference to pleasure and pain, and
to stop individual consciousness to its utmost
limit, in order to escape at the point of death
from the dreaded transmigration, which he
aleo, even on .his atheistic ground, had not
ventured to reject. Buddhism is, therefore,
in reality, like Sikhism, nothing but unre
stricted Pessimism, \xnable to hold out to man
any solace, except that of annihilation.
" In progress of time, Buddhism has been
expelled from India, but the restored Brah-
manism, with its confused eosmelogical le
gends, and gorgeous mythology of the Puranas,
was equally unable to satisfy the thinking
minds. It is, therefore, very remarkable, that
SIKHISM
591
Buddhism in its highest object, the Nirbau,
soon emerges again in the popular teachings
of the mediaeval reformatory movements.
Namdev, Trilochau. Kublr, Rividas, Ac., and
after these Nanak, take upon themselves to
«how thu way to the Nirban, as Buddha in
"his time had promised, and find eager lis
teners; the dhfcrence is only in the moms
-vhich these Fhagats [s.iintsj propoao for ob
taining the desired' end." (Introduction to
TKmMOlUM of the A(K Grantht p. eviv
Such, then, was the Sikh religion as founded
by Guru \riinak. It is based on Hinduism,
modi Tied by Buddhism, and stirred into new
life by Suflism. There seems to be super
abundant evidence that Nanak laboured ear
nestly to reconcile Hinduism with Mu'bamma-
danism, by insisting strongly on the tenets on
which bcth parties could agree, and by sub
ordinating the points of difference. It is
impossible to deny that Nanak in his life-time
actually did effect a large amount of reconci
liation, and left behind him a system designed,
to carry on the good work. The circumstances
which led to the entire reversal of the project,
and produced between MuJiammadans and
Sikhs the deadliest of feuds, does not come
within the purview of the present article. It-
is enough to state that the process was gra-
dual, and was as much due to political causes
as to a steady departure from the teachings
of the Founder of Sikhism.
The Sikhs acknowledge ten Gurus, whose
names, with the«year in which each died, are
given in the following list : —
Date of Duration
Name. Death, of Guru-thip.
A.D. Years.
Guru Nanak . . 1538 34
Guru Angad . . 1552 14
Guru Amar-Das . 1574 22
Guru Ram-Das . 1581 7
Guru Arjun . . 1600 25
Guru Har-GoTind . 1633 32
GuruHar-Ra,i ; 1WO 22
Guru Har-Kisan . iGb4 4
Gam Tegh-Bahadur 1675 11
Guru Govind Singu . 170* 33
It is thus seen that the Sikh fraternity
was under tho guidance of personal Gurus
from A.D. 1504, when Nauak received the
spiritual impulse which gave birth to the
new sect, until A.D. 1708, a total period of
204 years. After the death of Guru Govind
Singh, the Adi Granth itself was taken to be
the ever-existing impersonal guide.
The first successor of Nanak was appointed
on account of his devotion to the cause.
Shortly after the supposed visit to Makkah,
Nitnak met with a devotee named Lahanli,
whose faith and earnestness were so fully
demonstrated that Nanak named him. iu
^reference to either of bis sons, as his
successor in the leadership of tho now sect.
His name was also changed from Lahana to
Angad («=a/i#a-</a, *' body-giving "), implying
that he was willing to give his very body to
the cause of God. He was a poor and igno
rant man, and maintained himself by rope-
592
SIKHISM
making. He is saia to have heard the whole
account of Nanak's life from. Bha.,1 Bala, who
had long been with the Founder. It is re
lated that all the counsel which Nanak had
given to the Sikhs was sedulously inculcated
by him. (Sikhan de Raj di Vithifi, p. 19.)
Like his predecessor, the Founder, he also
named as his successor a devoted servant ;
although he had sons whom he might have
appointed.
Amar-Das, the third Guru, was a simple-
minded and inoffensive man, who was as un
learned as his two predecessors ^ nevertheless,
he composed several verses incorporated in
the Adi Granth. It was in his time that we
hear of the first differences between the Sikhs
0nd the Muhammadans. The gentle disposi
tion of Amar-Das was unsuited to the posi
tion of ruler among tha strong-willed people
of the Panjab ; accordingly, when a difference
occurred, he was quite incapable of settling
the matter. It is related that Amar-Das was
completely absorbed in the service of Para-
mesur (God). (Sikhan de Raj di Vithifi, p.
25.) The use of this word indicates a marked
inclination towards the Hindu side of Sikh-
ism ; and we may suppose that such an
inclination would be resented by the firmer
adherents to Islam ; for we find that the
Muslims began to annoy this Guru's disciples
by trivial acts of aggression. The disciples
asked their Guru. what they had better do ;
and he suggested various temporising expe
dients, which only emboldened the aggressors.
When again appealed to. he desired his dis^
ciples to endure the wrong, as it. was more
meritorious to submit than to resent an insult.
The weak conduct of this Guru left a legacy
of ill-will for his successors to deal with.
Amar-Das nominated his son-in-law as his
successor; an example which initiated the
hereditary Guru-ship which followed.
Ram-Das was a poor lad, who got a scanty
iiving by selling boiled grain. He was'taken
into the family of Amar-Das, and married
his daughter. He had acquired the elements
of education, and was a peaceful and non-
aggressive man. On attaining tb,e Guru-ship,
he set himself industriously to the acquisition
of disciples ; and took large contributions
from them in the shape of voluntary offerings.
This wealth placed him, above his brothers
in the faith ; Rod conferred upon him the ele
ments of a royal state. He restored an old
tank in magnificent style, for the purpose of
religious ablution, and called it Amritsar,
or the lake of the water of life. This tank
enabled the Sikhs to perform their ablu
tions in a luxurious manner, and necessarily
attracted many to the spot. In the course of
time, a town grew up round the tank, which
gradually increased in importance, and is now
one of the most important places in the Panj
ab. This assumption of dignity arid increas
ing wealth in all probability awakened the
anxiety of the Muhammadan governors of the
country ; and the gradual drifting into Common
Hinduism accentuated the feeling. It is cleat
that the Muhammadans who had fought so
desperately to overturn the ancient Hindu
SIKHISM
kingdoms, could not view with indifference
the up-growth of a Hindu sovereignty in their
very midst. Ram-Das named his son as his
successor in the Guru-ship — an act which
sealed the fate of the Sikh attempt at com
promise in religious matters ; for every Mu-
hammadan felt his position as a citizen threa
tened by the establishment of a rallyinsj-
point for disaffected Hindus.
Guru Arjun, the fifth Guru, was an active
and ambitious man. He laid aside the dress
of a faqlr, which had been worn by all his
predecessors, and converted the voluntary
offerings of his disciples into a tax. This
raised him to some importance, and enabled
him to take men into his pay, a proceeding
which conferred additional dignity upon
him, and, at the same time, intensified the
jealousy of his Muhammadan neighbours.
As an additional means of uniting his com
munity into one compact body, he collected
the words of Nanak^ and those of other
saintly personages, into a book, which he
called Granth, i.e. " the book ; " and strictly
enjoined his followers to accept no speech as
authoritative which was not contained in " the
book." The spark which lit the torch was.
however, a distinct interference in political
affairs, which provoked the resentment of
the Muhammadan ruler at Delhi, and occa
sioned the arrest and, ultimately, the death
of the Guru. It is not clear whether the
Emperor actually executed him, or whether
the Guru committed suicide; but his death
was brought about by the ruler of Deling and
this was enough to inflame the passions of
the Sikhs, who were eager to revenge his
death.
Har-Goviud succeeded his father in the
Guru-ship; and at once proceeded to arm
his followers, and slay those who had been
personally concerned in procuring the death
of the late Guru. This did not, however,
prevent him from entering the service of the
Emperors Jahangir and Shah -Jab an in a mili
tary capacity ; but his turbulence got him
into much trouble, and he spent a preda
tory, rather than a religious, life. Under his
Guru-ship the Sikhs were changed from
faqirs into soldiers ; and were freely recruited
from the warlike Jat population, who eagerly
availed themselves of any opportunity for
securing plunder. It is evident that the
actions of this Guru must have led him into
frequent contests with the Muhammadan
authorities ; and provoked the efforts after
wards made to break up what the rulers must
have felt to be a dangerous confederation.
Har-Rayi was the grandson of the last
Guru; and was chosen as successor because
Har-Govind distrusted the fitness of his sons
for the office. Har-Ray! fought against
Aurangzib in the interest of Dara-Shikob. ;
and when the latter was defeated he made
his submission to the Emperor, and was
pardoned.
Har-Kishan was. the younger son of the
preceding. Nothing eventful occurred during
his short tenure of power He was called to
Delhi by the Emperor Aurangzib, and was
STKH1SM
SIKHISM
593
there attacked by *u jxH-pox, of which disease
he diod The succession to the Guru-ship
w*» broken by his death ; for he wa« too
vr«ftk to appoint a miecessor, and merely
indicated tha* the next Guru would be found
in Bakala. a village near Anaud-pw
Tegh-Babadur, who happened to be residing
in Bakala, was tha son of Har Govind, and
had been passed over by his fafher in favour
of Har-Ra,i. He was by nature contempla
tive, and not particularly anxious to assume
the delicate position of leader among the
bellicose Sikhs. Aurangzib was in the fnll
fury of his Islamizing mania, and was accord
ingly specially solicitous to suppress the
ambitious projects of the Sikhs. The'Panjab
appearjs to have been too carefully guarded to
be pleasant to Tegh-Bahadur, and he. there
fore, began a wandering lifo over the north
of India. An account of his travels has been
translated from PanjabI into English by the
learned Sirdar Atar Singh ; and the story is
singularly interesting to the student of Sikh
history. We learn from one anecdote that,
even rn the time of this ninth Guru, Muham-
madans eould feel a certain respect for the
Sikhs. The tale relates that a small party of
Hindus and Muhammadans %v«ut to rob the
Guru ; but at the last moment the Muhain-
ntad&iiH felt remorse, for they said, <l he was
undoubtedly Ji prophet." — (Travels of Guru
Teyh Bahadur, p. 24.) On reaching S'ivaram
the Gurc met a Salyid seated under a Sanh
tree (the dame kind of tree, be it remarked, as
that under which Nanak breathed hie last); and
the Salyid saluted the Guru.with reverence,
saying : "I am really happy now, having
seen your divine countenance." — (Travels,
dre , p. 46.) Still more marked is the friendly
feeling shown by the courteous reception which
Tegh-Bahadur received from Sharafn 'd-DIn, a
Muhammadan gentleman residing uearPatidla.
This Muslim sent him presents, and then
went out to meet him. He conducted him with
much ceremony to his own palace, where he
entertained him. It is specially mentioned that
" the Guu-'s eyes fell upon a mrfsque. at?d
Sbarafu 'd-DTn immediately said that that was
the house of God," — (Travels. &c., p. 2.) Not
withstanding this reverential treatment by
pious Muhamuri&dans, it is certain that Tegh-
Bahadur spent his life iu violent antagonism
to the Muslim rulers of the country. The
book of Travels, frotn which we are quoting,
gives numerous instances of this, as may be
seen by those who caro to study the details,
in pp. 45, 40, 57, 5b, (JO, 126, 130, 131. Some
desperate fights took place, and after a
specially severe engagement it is said on
p. 5$ that '' from that day theMuharcmadans
never ventured to fight with the Guru." How
ever, the Guru appears to have been hunted
from plac.i to place, and OP many occasions
he narrowly escaped capture. The apparent
contrudictior involved in the reverential
attitude of pious Muharmnadans, and the.
skirmishes with Muhammadan soldiery, find*
its explanation in the ^opposition that the
religious aspect of Sikbisro watj not antago
nistic to Muhammadan ideas, while its
political aspect provoked the violence of the
Court of Delhi. In the present day much the
same state of things is recognizable with
respect to the Wahh abis The English Go vern-
ment would never dream of interfering wilh
the religious opinions of that, or any oth«r,
sect; but wheu their doctririfts find expression
m the subversion of civil authority, tho
leaders sgon find themselves in the Andaman
islands. Tegb Bahadur was at length arrested,
and the Empoi or is stated to ha ve endeavoured
earnestly to bring him over to the pure Mas-
lira fsith : but when he proved obdurate ho
was thrown into prison, where long-continued
cruelty induced him to command a Sikh, who
was with him, fo cut off his head.
Govind Singh was the tenfh and last Guru,
and he succeeded his father Tegh -Bahadur
when only J5 years of agt. He was brought
up under Hindu guidance, and became »
staunch devotee ot the goddess Dnrga ; and,
by his pronounced preference for Hinduism
he caused a division in the Sikh community
He introduced several important changes into
the constitution of Sikh society. Tho chief
among these waa the establishment of the
Khalsu, by which he bound his disciples into
an army, and conferred upon each of them the
name Sinyh< or lion He freely admitted all
oastes to the ranks of his army ; and laboured
more earnestly over their military than over
their religious discipline. The nature of the
changos which Govind Singh effected in the
fraternity is best shown by the fact that the
special followers of Nanak personally, sepa
rated themselves from him, and formed a com
munity of their own, rejecting the title of Singh
In other words, they preferred the religious to
the military idea. This Guru fought against
rhe Muhammadana with, determination ; aTid
was so incensed against them that he insti
tuted a fine of 25 rupees tor saluting »
Muhammadan tomb, however saintly. To
wards the ond of hi& Guru-ship an atlotnpt
was made to raise this fine to 5.000 rupees ;
but it was ultimately fixed at 125 rupees
(Travels, &c., pp, 69 and 130.) The ipirrt
of toleration so marked during the life of
Nanak was clearly gone , ;ind in yet later
times this hostility gave birth to the
juixini that "a true Sikh should always
he engaged in war with the Muhamma-
dans and slay them, fightiug them face to
face " After a turbulent reign, Guru Govind
Singh was treacherously slain by the dagger
of a Pathan follower He refused to name a
successor} tolling his followers that after his
death the Granth Sahib, or " the Lord the
Book," was to be their guide in every re
spect. (Sikhdn de Rnj di Vittti,a, p. 79.)
The foretfoJog sketch of the relation oi the
Sikhs to the Muhmumadims is sufficient to
show that the religion of Nanak begau in
large-hearled tolerance; and that political
causes operated to convert its adherents
into a narrow- minded sect. The Hinduism
which Nanak had disciplined, reasserted
its superiority under his successors, and ulti
mately became predominant. While this
change was in progress the Yeligions a&pecl
75
594
SILSILAH
SIN
of the movement became gradually con
verted into a military and political propa
ganda. No contrast, indeed, could well be
greater than that between the inoffensive and
gentle-minded Nanak, and the warlike and
ambitious Gurus of later times. But while
we cannot help being painfully impressed with
the apparently undying feud which still sub
sists between the Sikhs and the Muhani-
toadans, it eeems perfectly clear that thn
intention of the Founder was to reconcile the
differences between those creeds ; and that in
this excellent work he attained a large mea
sure of success. His pious object was de
feated by. political causes, and by the war
like nature of the people of the Pan jab The
name " Muhammadan," in the various coun
tries in which it exists, is allowed to cover
differences in religious belief quite as great
as those between the views of Nanak and those
of Muhammad ; and in all probability would
have done so in this instance also, but for the
reasons pointed out. We cannot, however,
concern ourselves with probabilities; it is
onough for the purposes of this article to
have established the fact that Sikhism, in
its inception, was intimately associated with
Muhammadanism ; and that it was intended
as a means of bridging the gulf which sepa
rated the Hindus from the believers in the
Prophet.
There are five leading sects of Sikhs, 'the
names of which need only be mentioned. They
are: —
1. The Udatfo, or those who are " indif
ferent " to the world.
2. The Sutkre, or the " pure."
3. The Diwdne, or " mad " saints.
4. The Nirmale Sddhu, or " spotless
saints."
5. The Akdlis, or worshippers of the
" Eternal One."
[The foregoing able review of the connec
tion between Sikhism and the teachings of
Islam has been contributed, specially for the
present work, by Mr. Frederic Pincott,
M.R.A.S]
Th'e authorities upon which this article is
based are : — Dr. Trumpp's Translation of the
Adi Granth', the text of the Adi Granth,
India Office MS. No. 2484; the Janam-Sdkhl
of Garu Nanak in old PanjabI, 1. 0. MS.
No. 1728 ; the Janam-Patrl of Guru Nanak,
/. 0. MS. No. 2885; Si/chdn de Raj dlVithia
(an Account of the Rule of the Sikhs, in Pan-
jab!) ; The.Travels of Guru Tegh- Bahadur and
Guru Gobind Singh> translated from the ori
ginal Gur-mukhi by Sirdar Atar Singh, Chief
of Bhadaur; Jap-Ji Sahib, the Panjabi text
with commentary in Urdu, by Sirdar Atar
Singh; Sri Guru Charitra Prabliakarr by
Pandit Gyani Sant Singh ; Sri Ndnak Prakds,
by Bha/ Santokh Singh; Sri Granth Gur-
Pratap Suraj Rasa, by Bha,! Santokh Singh.
[FAQIR, MUEUMMADANISM. STJFI.]
SILSILAH (&Ju). Lit. "A
chain." (1) The line of succession in any
I religious order, traced either to some religious
! leader of reputation, or to the four rightly
directed Khalifahs, or to the Prophet him
self. (2) An unbroken tradition.
SIMON PETER Arabic Sham'**
j (g^*«jfc). Not mentioned by name in
the Qur'an, but al-Bai^aw: says he is the
Apostle who was sent to Antioch to succour
the two disciples in prison (said to be John
and Jude), and who is referred to in Surah
xxxvi. 13 : ". And we strengthened them with
a third."
SIMSAR (}\~-*~*), pi. samasirah.
A term used hi MuhamTnanan law for agents
or brokers.
SIN, Arabic zamb (s-»«i), khati'ah
ism, (fj\). Heb. QflJ^ dshdm,
^'' Muharamadan doctors
divde sin into two classes. Kabirah, " great,"
and $aghirah, " little " sins. Kablrah. sins are
chose great sins of which, if a Musahnan de
;iot repent, he will be sent to the purgatorial
hell reserved for sinful M.uslims^ whilst
sagjilrah are those venial sins which are in?
befent in our fallen nature.
Muhammadan writers are not agreed as to
the exact number of kabtrah sins, but they are
generally he*d to be the following seven
teen :—
1. Kufr, or intiueaty.
2. Constantly committing little sins.
3. Despairing of God's mercy.
4. Considering oneself safe from the wrath
ut God.
5. False witness.
6. Q/azfi or falsely charging a Muslim-
with adultery.
7. Taking a false oath.
8. Magic.
9. Drinking wine.
10. Appropriation of the property of or
phans.
11. Usury.
12. Adultery.
13. Unnatural crime.
14. Theft.
15. Murder.
16. Fleeing in battle before the face of an i
infidel enemy.
17. Disobedience to parents.
The following are sayings of Muhammad, ;
as given in the Traditions, on the subject of j
sin (Mishkat, book i. ch. ii.) : —
" He is not a believer who commits adul- j
tery, or steals, or drinks liquor, or plunders»
or embezzles, when, entrusted with the j
plunder of the infidel. Beware 1 beware ! "
M The greatest sin is to associate another;
with God. or to vex your father and mother, :
or te murder your own species, or < o commit |
suicide, or to swear, or to lie."
"The greatest of sins before God i« that I
you call any other like unto the .God \vho!
created you, or that you murder your child;
from an idea that it will eat your victuals., orj
SINAI
'L-MUSTAQIM 595
that you commit adultery with yotir neigh
bour's wife."
" Abstain ye i rOm seven rainona dcstmctive
things, namely, (1) associating anything with
God; (2) magic ; (3) killing anyone without
reason ; (4) taking interest on money ; (5)
taking the property of the orphan; (6) run
ning away on the day of battle ; (7) and
taxing an innocent woman with adultery."
"Do not associate anything with God, al
though they kill or burn you. Do not affront
your parents, although they should order you
to leave your wives, yonr children, and your
property. Do not abandon the- divine prayers,
for he who does so will not remain in the
aayham of God. Never drink wine ; for it is
the root of all evil. Abstain from vice, for
from it descends the anger of God. Refrain
from running away in battle, although ye be
billed. When a pestilence shall visit man
kind, and you dre in the midst of it, remain
.here. Cherish your children, and chastise
them in order to teach them good behaviour,
and instruct them in the fear of God."
It is related that a Jew once said to his
friend, " Take me to this Prophet." He said,
" Do not call him a prophet, for if he hears it
be will be pleased." And they came to the
Prophet and asked him about the nine (sic)
wonders (i.e. Ten Commandments), which ap
peared (from the hands of Moses). He said,
" Do not associate anything with God, nor
•teal, nor commit adultery, nor murder, nor
take an inoffensive person before .the king to
be killed, nor practise magic, nor take inte
rest, nor accuse an innocent woman of adul
tery, nor turn your backs on the field of
battle ; and it is proper, particularly for the
Jews, not to work on Saturday." The Jews
Lissed the hands and feet of the Prophet, and
said/' We bear witness that you are a Pro
phet." He said, " What prevented you from
being my d:sciples?" They replied, ''David
called on God to perpetuate the gift of pro
phecy in his family, and we fear the Jews wii)
kijl ns if we become your followers "
SINAI. Arabic Saind' («»W-), Heb,
^n tni8 Qor'an 'JL'vni Saina
(•W- ;^»)> also Juru Sinin
"Mount 'Sinai"; and at-Jur (j£&\), "the
Mount"; Chaldee -fl^ Tur. In Muslim
commentaries, Jabaiu Musd
" the Mount of Mosea."
It is referred to in the Qur'an as the moun
tain on which God gave the table,s of the Law
(Surah vii. 130), and ajs the. place where God
assembled the prophets and took a compact
from them (Surah rii. 75). In Surah xcv. 2,
Muhammad makes the Almighty swear «'by
Mount Siuai"; and in Surah xxiii. 20, we are
:old that, " a tree growing out of "Mount
Sinai produces oil and a condiment for those
who eat"
Al-Baizdwl (to ieischer's ed., vol. i. p. 343),
and the author of the Majma'u 'l-Bifrdr (p. 57),
both say that Me see received the tables of
the Law oa the mountain called Jabaiu Zubair
SINGING. Arabic ^ina, f>Uc).
Among Muslim theologians, singing is gene
rally held to be unlawful, and the objection in
founded on a tradition recorded by Jabir, who
relates that Muhammad said, " Singing an'l
hearing nongs oauseth hypocrisy to grow in
the heart, even as rain caueeth the oorn to
grow in the field." (Afinhkdt, boolt xxii.
ch. ix. pt. 3.)
Shaikjh 'Abdu '1-Haqq, i.« ^A commentary,
remarking on this tradition, says, it is not a
tradition of any authority, and adds, " The
traditionists all agree that there ia no Hadi^
of any authority forbidding the practice of
singing " (vol. iv. p. 63.)
Tho Sufis, who engage in the sertice of
song as an act of worship, say Muhammad
only forbade songs of an objectionable cha*
racter. Still most divines of reputation re
gard the practice with disfavour.
SlPARAE (S;W-)- The Persian
term for the thirty juz\ or divisions of the
Qur'an. From si, " thirty," and pdrah, " p
partion."
The Qur'an is said to have been thus divided
j to enabfe the pious Muslim to recite the whole
i of the Qur'an in the month of Ramazan.
j Muhamraadans generally quote the Qur'an by
' the Sipdrah and not bv the Surah [QUF'AW.I
SIQAH (A»> -"Worthy of con
fidence." A term used in the study of the
Hadis for a tradiiionist worthy of
SIRAT (iU.). Lit. "A road." The
word occurs in the Qur'an thirty-eight times,
in nearly all of which it is usod for the
girdlu 'l-JMOstaqim, or the ''right way" oi
religion. In Muslim traditions and other
writings it is more, commonly used for the
bridge across the infernal fire, which is de
scribed as finer than a hair and sharper than
a sword, and is beset on each side with briars
and hooked thorns. The righteous will pass
over it -with the swiftnosB of the lightning,
but the wicked will soon miss their footing
and will fall into the fire of hell (Mull* 'J/>
QarF^p. 110.)
Muhammad appeals to have borrowed hi»
I idea of the bridge from the-Zorcastrian tyetem,
j according to which the spirits of the departed,
' both good and bad, proceed along an »p-
I pointed path to the " bridge of the gatherer "
(c.hinvat • peretii). This was a narrow road
conducting to Heaven or Paradise, over
which the souls of the pious alone could pass,
whilst tbe wicked fell into the gulf below.
(Rawlinson's Seventh Oriental Monarchy,
p. 636.)
The Jews, also, beite\ea in tbe bridge of
hell,- which JB no broader than a thread, over
which idolaters mast pass. (Midrafh,Ya!kvt,
Reubeni, sect. Gehinnor*.}
'L-MUSTAQTM
The right way," i.e. the
Muhammadan religion; e.g. Qur'an, Surah
iiL 44 : '« Fear God and obey me ; of a truth
God is my Lord and your Lord : Therefore
596
simus
worship Him. This is the right, way* it
occurs in about thirly other places,
SIRIUS Arabic ash-SU'raf^^).
"The dog-star." The Almighty is called in
Ihe Quran. Surab liii. 50. ftabbu, 'sh-Skt'ra.
the '• Lord of the Dog-star."
The Kanialan say that before the-time ot
Muhammad this star was worshipped by the
Ban 11 Khuza'ah, hence the reference to it in
the Qur'an.
SITTING. Arabic julAs. (u-jW).
The tiaditiemsts are very particular in de
scribing the precise position in which Muham
mad used to sit.
Ibn 'I/mar says : " I sa w Una sit with his
knees up and the bottom of his feet on the
ground, and his arms round his legs/'
Ja-bir says : %i I saw him sitting reclining
upon a pillow which was put under his
arm,"
Kailah says : " 1 SAW him sitting in the
mosque upon his buttocks, in the greatest
humility and! lowliness."
Jabir says, again . " The Prophet used, after
he had said morning prayer, to sit with hia
feet drawn under &iH,u»til sun-rise." (Mish-
kal, book xxii. -ek it.)
Muhammadans always sit on the ground
in their places of public -worship. In social
gatherings, people of inferior position always
sit lower than tbeir superiors.
SIX FOUNDATIONS OF FAITH.
Al-Imdn (yUiSt), or "the Faith," is
defined, as consisting of the six articles of
belief:—-
1, Allah, God.
2. Al-Malf7ikahy the Angels.
3. Al-Kutub, the Books (of the Prophets).
4, Ar-Rusul, the Prophets.
6. Al Yaumu 'l-Akliir, the Last Day.
8. Al-Qjadar, the Decrees of God.
These Six Articles of Faith are entitled '
Sifatv 'l-lman. " the Attributes of Faith," or
Arkhnu '/-/wan, " the Pillars of Faith," [MU-
HAMMADAH1SM.]
SIYAE (j*+\ pi. of slrah. Lit.
" Going in any manner or pace,0 The record
of a iruius actiens and exploit* Stories of
the ancients.
Kitdbu %SrSiyar is Ihe title .given to a his
tory of the establishment of Islam , hence as-
Styut means au historical work on the life
of Muhammad, or any of bis Companions, or
of his successors, &c: Tbe earliest book of
the kind written in Islam is that by Imam
Muhammad ibn Ishaq, who died A.M. 61.
(Kushjv '* Zuiwn Fh'igel's edition, vol. iii.
p. 684.)
SLANDER,
SLAUGHTER OF ANIMALS.
(>001>; ZABH.J
SLAVERY Arabic 'UbSdiyoh
Heb '«tod5*. A slave
SLAVERY
| Abd (<***} (Surah ii. 220), Heb,
Mamluk (os)jU*) (Sarah xvi. 77) ; A femal
slave, amah (<u\) (Surah ii. 220). The tern
generally usod in the Qur'an for slaves ii
>«^WiVo^st« V^* ma rnalaJcat ct'imdmtJfum
u that -which your right hands possess."
Muhammad found slavery an existing
institution, both amongst the Jews and tae
idolaters of Arabia, and therefore it if
I recognised although not established in the
i Qur'an.
I. — The TEACHING OF THE QUR'AN on the
subject of slavery is as follows :
(1) Muslims are allowed to cohabit with any
| of their female slaves. Surah iv. 3 : " Then
j marry what seems good to you of women,
i by twos, or threes,, or fours ; and if ye fear
j that ye cannot be equitable, then only one,
. or what your right hands possess" Surah hr.
29 : " Take of what your right hands possess
of young women" Surah xxxiii. 49 : a 0
prophfctl verily We make lawful for th'ee
wives to whom thou hast given their hire
(dowry), and what thy right hand possesses
out oj the booty God hath granted thee"
(2) They are allowed to take possession of
married women if they are slaves. Surah iv.
28 : " Unlawful for yeu .are ... married
women, save such as your right hands possess.'
(On this verse al-Jalalan the commentators
say : " that is, it is lawful for them to cohabit
with those »wornen whom you have made
captive, even though their husbands be alive
in the i>ar«'/-//ar&.")
(3) Muslims are excused from strict rules
of decorum in the. presence of their female s/av«,v,
eoen as in the presence of their wives. Surah
xxiii. 5: " Those who are strict in the rules
of decorum, except for their wives, or what
their right hands possess" See also Surah
ixx, 29.
(4) The helpless position of the slave as
regards his master illustrates'- the helpless
position of the false gods of Arabia in the
presence of their Creator. Sxirah xvi. 77 :
" God has struck out a parable, an owned
slave, able to do nothing, and one provided
with a good provision, and one who expends
therefrom in alms secretly and openly, shall
they be held equal? Praise be to God, most,
of them do not know ! " See also Surah
xxx. 27.
(5) Muslims shall exercise kindness towards
their slaves. Surah iv. 40 • w Serve God and
do not associate aught with Him, and show
kindness to yonr parents and to kindred . ,
and to I hat. afhick your fight hands possess?'
(C) When slaves can rrdeeat themselves .it
is the ditty of Muslims lo grant the emanci
pation Surah xxiv. 33; "And such of those
whom your right hands possess as crave a
writing (i.e. a document of freedom), write
it out for them if ye know any good in them,
and give them of the wealth of God which
He bat given yon. And do aot compel your
slave-girls to prostitution if ih«y desire to
keep continent
From th«? tsacbing of the Qur'an above quoted
SLAVERY
SLAVERY
597
twill bfi seen that all male and female slaves
;aken as plunder in war are the lawful
n-operty of their roaster ; that the master
las power to take to himself any female
>lave. either married or single ; that the
josition of a slave is its helpless as that of
he f-tone idols of Arabia; but they should
>e treated -with kindness, and be granted
heir freedom when they are able to aak for
md pay for it.
II.— From the TEACHING OF THE TRADI
TIONS, it appears that it was the custom of
fluhammad either to put to death or take
•aptive those of the enemy who fell into his
lands. If a captive embraced Islam on the
ield of battle he was a free man ; but if ho
were made captive, and afterwards embraced
Islam, the change of creed did not emanci-
>ate him. 'Atiyatu '1-Qurazi relates that
ifter- his buttle wilh the Banu Quraizah, the
^ophet ordered all those who were able to
ight ko be killed, and the women and children
o be enslaved.
Very special blessings are attached to the
emancipation of a slave. Abu Hmairah
•elates that Muhammad said, w Whosoever
rees a slave who is a Muslim, God will
•edeeiu every member of his body,. limb for
imb, from hell firo." Abu Zarr asked which
slave was the best to emancipate, a/id the
^rophot replied, "That which its of the
lighest price aud most liked by his master."
\.n Arab once asked the Prophet what act
would take him to Paradise, and the Pro
phet said, " Free a slave, or assist one in
•edeeming a bond of slavery." The following
ire some oi the sayings of Muhair-mad re-
jarding the treatment of slaves :
"It is well for a slave who regularly
worships God and discharges his master's
svork properly."
""Whoever buys a slave and does not
agree about his property, then no part of it
is for the purchaser of the slave."
" When a slavo of yours has money to
redeem his bond, then you must not allow
him to come into your presence afterwards."
"Behaving well to slaves is a means of
prosperity, and behaving ill to them is a
cause of loss.**
" When any one of you is about to beat
his slave, and the slave asks pardon in the
aarae of God, then withhold yourself from
beating him."
" It is incumbent upon the master of
slaves to find them in victuals and clothes,
and not order them to do what they are not
able to do."
" When a slave-girl has a child by her
master she is free at his death."
"Whoever frees a slave, and- the slave
has property, it is for the master, unless
the master shall have agreed that it was
the slave's at the time of freeing him." (See
Mishkdtu V-Ar«sJ4i£, £afaAu 'iBukhdn. Sa-
Wu Muflnn.)
III. — With regard to the ENSLAVING OF
CAPHTEB, the author of the Hidmymk says :
"The Imam, with respect to captives, has
it in his choice to slay them, because ihe
i Prophet put captives to death, and also
because slaying them terminates wicked
ness ; or. if he ctoose, he may make them
slaves, because by enslaving them the
wickedness of them is remedied, and at
the same time the Muslims reap an advan
tage; or, if he please, ho may release them
so as to make them freomt-u and Znnmis,
according to what is 1-or-orded of 'Umar ;
but it is not lawful so to release the ido--
laters of Arabia, or apostates It in not
lawful for ihe Imam to return the captives
to their own country, as this would be
strengthening the infidels againsl the Mus
lims. If captives become Muslims. let not
the Imam put them to daath, because the
wickedness of them is hereby remedied
without slaying them ; but yet he may law
fully make them slaves, after their conver
sion, because the reason for making them
slaves (namely, their being secured within
the Muslim territory) had existence previous
to their embracing the faith- It is otherwise
where infidel* become Muslims before their
capture, because then the reason for making
them slaves did not exist previous to their
conversion. It is not lawful to release mfidel
captives in exchange for the release of
Muslim captives from the infidols Accord
ing to the two disciples, this is lawful (and
such also is the opinion of ash-Shali'I), be
cause this produces the emancipation of
Muslims, which is preferable to slaying the
infidels or making them slaves. The argu
ment of Imam Abu Hanifah is that such an
exchange is an assistance to the infidels,
because those captives will again return to
fight the Muslims, which is a wickedness,
and the prevention of this wickedness is
preferable to effecting the release of the
Muslims, since, as they remain in the hands
of - the infidels, the injury only affect" them,
and does not extend to the othei Muslims,
whereas the injury attending tho release of
infidel captives extends to the whole body of
Muslims. An exchange for property (that
is, releasing infidel prisoners in return for
property) is also unlawful, as this is assisting
the infidels, as was before observed, and the
same is mentioned in th.e MazhaJbu 'l-Mas/iftur.
In the Saint 'f-Kabir it is asserted that an
exchange of prisoners for property may be
made where the Muslims are "necessitous,
because the Prophet released the captiveg
taken at Badr for a ransom. If a captive
become a Muslim in the hands of the
Muslims, it is not lawful to release and sent!
him back to the infidels in return for their
releasing a Muslim who is a captive in their
hands, because no advantage can result from
the transaction. If, however, tho converted
captive consent to it, and there be no appre
hension of his apostatizing, in this case the
releasing of him in exchange for a Muslim
captive it, a matter of discretion. It is not
lawful to confer a favour upon captivea by
releasing them gratuitously, that K\ without
receiving anything in return, or their be
coming Zimmis, or heing made <JavoB. Aeh-
i Shafi'i save thai skewing favour to captive*
598
StiAVBBY
in this way is lawful, because th,e Prophet
showed favour in this way to some of the
captives taken at the battle of Badr. .The
arguments of the Hanafi doctors upon this
point are two-fold : First, it is said in the
Qur'an, ' Slay idolaters wherever ye find them' ;
secondly, the right of enslaving them is
established by their being conquered and
captured, and hence it is not lawful to annul
that right without receiving some advantage
in return, in the same manner as holds with
respect to all plunder; and with respect to
what ash-ShafH relates that the Prophet
showed favour in this way to some of the
captives taken at the battle of Badr, it is
abrogated by the text of the Qur'an already
quoted. (Hamilton's Hiddyah, vol. n. p. 160.)
IV. — SLAVS TEAFFIC is not only allowed
but legislated for by Muhammadan law,, and
is clearly sanctioned by the example of the
Prophet as given in the Traditions (see
Sahihy Muslim, Kitdbu 'l-Buyu', vol. i. p. 2).
In the Law of Sale (see JKaddu 'l-Mvbtdr.
Hiddyah, Hamilton's ed., vol. ii. p. 458),
slaves, male and female, are treated merely
as articles of merchandize. In chapters on
sale, and option, and wills, the illustrations
are generally given as regards slaves, and
the same, or very similar, rules apply both
to the sale of animals and bondsmen.
The following traditions (Mishkdt, book j
xi-ii. chap, xx.) with reference to the action of I
the Prophet in this matter are notable : —
;"Imran ibn al-Husain said a man freed
six slaves at his death, and he had no other
property besides ; and the Prophet called
them, and divided them into three sections,
and then cast lots ; he then ordered that two
of them should be freed, and he retained
four in slavery, and spoke severely of the
nrm who had set them free."
ik' Jabir said we used to sell the mothers
of children in the tune of the Prophet, and
of Abu Bakr ; but 'Umar forbade it in his
time."
V. — The MAM-MISSION OF SLAVES is per
mitted by Muhammadan law under the fol
lowing forms :' (1) 'Atdq ('Atq, I1 tag") ; (2)
KitSbah ; (3) Tadbir ; and (4) Isttfdd.
(1) 'Atdq, in its literal sense, means' power,
.and in law expresses the act of the owner of
a slave (either male or female) giving im
mediate and unconditional, freedom to his
slave. This act is lawful '.when it proceeds
from a person who is free, sane, adult, and
the actual ov.-ner of the slave in question,
If such a person say to his slave, " Thou art i
iree," or "Thou art mu'tai?," or. "Thou art. j
consecrated to God," or make use of any :
similar expression to his slave, the slave ;
becomes ipso facto free, whether the owner i
really mean emancipation or not.
(2) Kildbah, literally " a writing," sig- !
niftes a bond of freedom granted to a slave
(male or female), in return for money paid, j
It is founded on the teaching of the Qnfltn, j
Surah xxiv. 33 : " And s.uch of those as your !
right hands possess as crave a writing, write j
it out for tbem if ye know any good in them," !
which precept is held to be recommendatorv, i
SLAVERY
although not injunctive. ;The slave thus
ransomed is called mukdtab, until the ransom
is fully paid. During the interval between
the promise of freedom and the payment of
the money the niukdtab enjoys a certain
degree of f/eedom, but is nevertheless placed
under certain restrictions. For example,
although lie i$ free to move from place to
place, he cannot marry, or bestow alms, or
become >bail> or grant a loan, or [ make a
pilgrimage, &c., without the perrnssibn of
his master.
. (3) Tadbir .signifies literally, •• arrange
ment, disposition, plan," but in the language
of the law it means a declaration of freedom
made to a slave (male or female), to take effect
after" the master's 'death. If the owner of a
slave say, "Thou art free at my death," or
".Thou art a. mudabbir" or words to that
effect, the slave <ian 'claim his freedom upon
the decease of his master, and any children
born to him in the interval are placed in the
same position. .
(4) Istildd, Lit. "the offspring's, claim,"
signifies a man having a child born to him
of a . female slave, which he claims and
acknowledges as his own, which acknow
ledgment becomes ipso facto the cause of
the freedom of the female slave. The woman
is then called ummu 'l-walad, " the mother of
offspring," and stands in relation to her
master as his wife, the child being also free.
(5) In addition to the above forms . of
emancipation, it is also established that the
manumission of slaves is the legal penalty
or expiation (kajfdruh} for certain sins, e.g.
for breaking the fast of Ramazan the expi
ation is either the release of a slave or
feeding seven poor persons; this expiation
is also made for a rash oath [OATH], as also
for the rash fovni of divorce known as sihar
[zraAE]. (See Rnddu 'l-Mubtar, voL ii. p.
175; iii. p. 02 ; • ii. p. $52.)
VI.— MODERN MUSLIM SLAVERY. Tho slaves
of the Arabs are mostly from Abyssinia and
negro countries ; a few. chiefly in the -homes
of wealthy individual*, are from Georgia and
Circassia.
Mr. Lane sdys, in Egypt " Abyssinian and
white female slaves are kept by many men
of the middle and higher clashes, and often
instead of wives, au requiring less expense,
and being more subservient, but they are
generally indulged with the same luxuriate
as free ladies ; their vanity is gtatified by
costly dresses and ornaments, and they rank
high above free servants j as do also the male
slaves. Those called Abyssinians appear to
be a mixed race between negroes and whites,
and from the territories of the Gallfts. They
are mostly kidnapped and sold by their own
countrymen. The negro female slaves, as
few of them have considerable person*!
attractions (which is not the case with the
Abyssinians, many of whom are very beau
tiful), arc usually employed only in cooking
and other menial offices,
" Tho female slaves of the higher classes
are often instructed in plain needlework and
embroidery, and, sometimes in music and
SLAVERY
SLAVERY
599
dancing. Formerly many of them pos- j
gessed sufficient literary accomplishments to
quote largely from esteemed poems, or even '
to compose extemporary verses, which they
would often accompany with the lute. The
condition of many concubine slaves is happy,
ana that of many quite the contrary. These,
and all other slaves of either sex, are gene
rally treated with kindness, but at first they
are usually importuned, and not unfrequently
used with much harshness, to induce them
to embrace the Muhamfnadan faith, which
almost all of them do. Their services are
commonly light ; the usual office of the male
white slave, who is calLed (momlook) mamluk,
is that of a page, or a military guard.
" .Eunuchs are employed as guardians of
the women, but only in the houses of men
of high rank or of grea.t wealth ; on account
of the important office which they fill, they
are generally treated in public with special
consideration. I used to remark, in Cairo,
that few persons saluted me with a more
dignified and consequential air than these
pitiable but self-conceited beings. Most of
them are Abyssinians or negroes. Indeed,
the slaves in general take too much advan
tage of the countenance of their masters,
especially when they belong to men in power."
(Arabian Nights, vol. i. p 55.)
In Central Asia the great slave-trade is
carried on with Kafiristan. The Kafirs,
inasmuch as they enslave each other in war,
sell their own countrymen and countrywomen
into slavery, and, when the slave market is
dull, the Muhainmadans residing on their
borders make inroads upon the Kafirs and
oarry them (especially the women who are
very fair and pretty) into slavery. Some
Kafir slaves have risen to eminence in Cabnl,
the late Sher Ali Khan's commander-in-chief ,
Feramoz Khan, being a Kafir slave.
In Hindustan British rule has abolished
slavery, but it nevertheless exists in noble
families, where the slaves seem willingly to
assent to their condition of bondage.
VII.— The TREATMENT OP SLAVES.— It has
been already shown that, both according to
the teaching of the Qur an and also according
to the injunctions of Muhammad, as given in
the Traditions, kindness to slaves is strictly
enjoined : and it must be admitted that the
treatment of slaves in Muhammadan countries
contrasts favourably with that in America,
when slavery existed as an institution under
a Christfan people.
Mr. Lane (Arabian Nights, vol. i. p. 56),
writing from his personal observations of
slavery in Egypt, remarks : —
"The mastor is bound to afford his slaves
proper food and clothing, or to let them
-vork for their own support, or to sell, give
away, or liberate them. It is, however,
considered disgraceful for him to sdl a slave
who has been long In his possession ; and it
seldom happens that a master emancipates
a female slave without marrying her to some
maa able to support her, or otherwise pro- j
vidiug for her.
* The Prophet suongly enjoined the daty •!
of kindness to slaves. ' Feed yonr slaves,'
said he, ' with foo'd of that which ye eat,
and clothe them with such clothing as yo
wear ; and command them not to do that
which they are unable.' These precepts are
generally attended to, either entirely or in a
degree.'
" Some other sayings of the Prophet ou this
subject well deserve to be mentioned; as the
following : —
"«He who beats his slave without fault,
>r slaps him on the face, his atonement for
,his is freeing him.'
«*« A man who behaves ill to his slave will
not enter into Paradise.'
" k Whoever is the cause of geparation
between mother and child by selling or
giving, God 'will separate him from his
friends on the day of resurrection.'
" ' When a slave wishes well to his master,
and worships God well, for him are double
rewards.'
" It is related of Othman ('Usman), that he
twisted the ear of a memlook belonging to him,
on account of disobedience, and afterwards,
repenting of it, ordered, him to twist his ear
in like manner ; but he would not. Othman
urged him, and the slave advanced and began
to wring it by little and little. He said to
him, ' Wring it hard, for I cannot endure the
punishment of the Day. of Judgment [on ac
count of this act].' The memlooK answered,
' 0 my master, the day that thou fearest I
also fear.'
" It is related also of Zainu '1-Abidin, that
he had a memlook who seized a sheep and
broke its. leg ; and he said to him, * Why
didst thou this ? ' He answered, ' To pro
voke thee to anger.' ' And I,' said he, * will
provoke to anger him who taught thee ; and
he is Iblis (i.e. the Devil) : go, and be free,
for the sake of God.'
" Many similar anecdotes might be added ;
out the general assertions of travellers in the
East are far more satisfactory evidence in
favour of the humane conduct of most Mus
lims to their slaves."
But although this testimony of Mr. Lane's
will be borne out with regard to the treat
ment of slaves in Islam in all parts of the
Muhammadan world, the power which a
Muslim possesses over the persons of hiw
bondsman or bondsmaid is unlimited. For
example, according to the Hiddyah (vol. iv.
p. 282), " A master is not slain for the murder
of his slave," nor "if one of two partners in
a slave kill the slave is retaliation incurred.''
In this the law of Muhammad departs from
that of Moses. See Exodus xxi. 20 : " Ami
if a man smite his servant, or his maid, with
,x rod, and he die under his hand, he shall b«
surely punished. (Heb. avenged.) Notwith
standing, if he continue a «iay or two, he
shall not be punished : for ho is his money."
Slaves have no civil liberty, but are en
tirely under the authority of their ow'nor*,
whatever may bo the religion, sex, or a^e, of
tae latter; and can possess no property,
unless by the owners permission. The
owner is entire master, while he pleases, of
600
SLAVERY
the person and goods of his slave; and oi i
the offspring of his female slave, which, if j
begotten by him OT presumed to be so, he
may recognise as his own legitimate child,
or not : the child, if recognised by him, enjoys
the same privileges as the offspring of a free
wife, and if not. recognised by him is his slave.
He mav gi*e away or sell his slaves,
excepting in some cases which have been
mentioned, and may marry them to whom
he will, but not separate them when married.
A slave, however, according to most of the
doctors, cannot have more than two wives
at the same time. Unemancipated slaves,
at the death of their master, become the
property of his heirs ; and when an emanci
pated slave dies, leaving no male descendants
or collateral relations, the former master is
the heir; or. if he be dead, his heirs inherit
the slave's property. As a slave enjoys less
advantages than a free person, the law, in
some cases, ordains that his punishment for
an offence shall be half of that to which the
free is liable for the same offence, or even
less than half: if it be a fine, or pecuniary
compensation, it must be paid by the owner,
to the amount, if necessary, of the value of
Ihe slave, or the slave must be given in
compensation.
The owner, but not the part owner, may
cohabit with any of his female slaves who
is a Muhammadan, a Christian, or a Jewess,
if he has not married her to another man ;
but not with two or more who are sisters, or
who are related to each other in any of the
degrees which would prevent their both,
being bis wives at the same time if they
were free: after having so lived with one,
no-must, entirely relinquish such intercourse
with her before he can do the same with
another who is so related to her. He cannot
Have intercourse with a pagan slave, A
Christian or Jew may have slaves, but not
enjoy the privilege above mentioned with one
ft ho is a Muhammadan. The master must
wait a certain period -(generally from a month
to threo months) after the acquisition of a
female slave before he can have such inter
course with her. If he find any fault in her
within three days, he ig usually allowed to
return her.
When a man, from being the husband,
becomes the master of a slave, the marriage
is dissolved, and ha cannot continue to live
with her but as hor master, enjoying, how
ever, all a master's privileges; unless he
emancipates her, in which case he may again
take her as his wife, with her consent. In
like manner, when a woman, from being the
wife, becomes the- possessor of a- slave, the
marriage is dissolved . and cannot be -renewed
unless she emancipates him. and he consents
to the reunion.
There is absolutely no limit to tup number
of slavo-girlR with whom a Muhammadan
may. cohabit, and it is the consecration of
this illimitable indulgence which so popu
larizes the Muhammadan religion amongst
uncivilised nations, and so popularizes slavery
in the Muslim religion.
SNEEZING
In the Akhldg-i'Jildfi, which is the gopular
work upoa practical philosophy amongst
the Muhammadans, it is said that "for
service a slave is preferable to a freeman,
inasmuch as he must be more disposed to
submit, obey and adopt his patron's habits
and pursuits."
Some Muslim writers of the present day
(Syed Ameer Ali's Life of Mohammed, p. 257)
contend that Muhammad looked upon the
custom as temporary in its nature, and
held that its extinction was sure to be
achieved by the progress of ideas and
change of circumstances ; but the slavery
of Islam is interwoven with the Law of
marriage, the Law of sale, and the Law of
inheritance, of the system, and its abolition
would strike at the very foundations of the
code of Muharamad.anism.
Slavery is in complete harmony with the
spirit of Islam, while it is abhorrent to that
of Christianity. That. Muhammad amelio
rated the condition of the slave, as it existed
under the heathen laws of Arabia, we cannot
doubt ; but it is equally certain that the
Arabian legislator intended it to be a per
petual institution,
A Ithough slavery has existed side by side
with Christianity, it is undoubtedly contrary
to -the spirit of the teaching of our divinft
Lord, who has given to the world the grand
doctrine of universal brotherhood.
Mr. Lecky believes {European MoraU.
vol. ii. p. 70) that it was the spirit of
Christianity which brought about the aboli
tion of slavery in Europe. He says, ""The
services of Christianity were of three kinds.
It supplied a new order of relations, in
which the distinction of classes was un
known. It imparted a moral dignity to the
servile classes. It gave an unexampled
impetus to the movement of enfranchise
ment."
SLEEPING. Arabic naum (,*y).
Heb. Q^3 num. It is usual for Mus
lims to sloep with the head in the direction of
Makkah.
Abu Zarr relates that on one occasion, he
was sleeping on his belly, and the Prophet
saw him. and, kicking him, said. '•' 0 J undub \
this way of sleeping is the way the devils
sleep ! "
Abbab says he saw the Prophet sleeping on
his back, with one leg lying over the other,
but Jabir says the Prophet forbade that way
af sleeping. (Mishkdt, book xxii. cb. v.
pt, 1.)
SNEEZING. Arabic 'Mas (u-U*).
According to the Muhammadan religion, it is
a sacred duty to 'reply to a Sneeze. For
example, ii a person sneeze and say imme
diately afterwards, " God be praised " (al-
harndu li-Udh; <5JJ Jk*^), it is incumbent upon
at least .one of the party to exclaim., "' God
have mercy cm you " (Yarh<jwu-kn 'Hah. usJUso
d)Jt), This custom of replying to a sneeze
existed amongst the Jews, whose sneezing
SODOM
formula was " Tobim khayi/n ! n t>. " f*ond i
life."
'ihere are interesting chapters on saluting I
after sneezing in Tylor's Primitive Culture. ]
and Isaac I/Israeli's Curiosities of Litera
ture.
Replying to a sneeze is amongst the
duties called Farz Kafai. ( Mi&hkat. book v
cb. i. pt. 1.)
Abu Hurairah relates that Muhammad
said, •' Verily God loves sneezing and hates
yawuing." (Mitliiat, book xxii. ch. vi.)
SODOM. Arabic Sad-urn (rV~).
Heb. Q"rfp Ueddm. "The City of
SOLOMON
601
Lot." The Qurhiif says it is more correctly
ZU.HIH. The city is not mentioned by name
in the Qur'fm. but it is admitted to be one
of the "overturned cities" referred to in
Sfaahs ix. 71 ; Ixix. 9. Amongst Muharama-
dan.s. this city is associated with sodomy. I
or unnatural crime, called in Arabic liwatah
Ptrdtr'iatia, is held to be forbidden by Mus
lim la\v, and the reader will find a discus
eiou on the subject in Hamilton s Hidayult \
vol. ii. p. 26. The prevalence of this, vice j
amongst Muhammadans is but too well |
known. (See Vambery'e Sketches of Central j
SOLOMON. Arabic tiufaiman
Heb.
Both according. to the Qurfmaudthe Muham-
madiin commentat-ors, Solomon was cele
brated for his skill and wisdom. The fol
lowing is the account given of him in the
Qur'un. with the commentators' remarks h I
italics. -i.«? £;.;ven in Mr. Lane's Selectiom \
from the Knrdn (2nd ed. bv Mr. Stanley
" And We subjected unto Solomon the wind,
blowing strongly, and being light at his desire,
which ran at his command to the land that
We blessed (namely Syria) ; and We knew all
things (knowing that what We gave, him would
stimulate him to he submissive to his Lord).
And We subjected, of the devils, those who
should dive for him in the sea and briny
forth from it jewels for him. and do other
work besides that : that is, fun'/ ding, and
f'-ifdi-mii'y othf-r service* ; and We watched
ovei them, thnt they wiyht not spoil what they
ru-utcd ; for they used, when they had finished
.i work If fore, night, to spoil it. if they were
not employed in tometlting efse." (Surah xxi.
82.)
u Wr '.jrive unto David Solomon his .wir.
How excellent a servant ?f«« he! For lie
was :»ne -,vho earnestly turned himself unto
turl, tflori :ung and prauing Him ut fill tim*$.
Remember when, in the latter part of the
' f'tfi th* coiitfucrK-fiiient of the declining
•_>/ ///' <mn. tlie nun-en standing on three feet
and touching the ground with the edge of the
foul. -^vift in the course, were dis-
before him. '/'A^y were a tkoutond
.i-hiiji j)?r? display*!'! he fort htm after
ht- A.W :)cr funned thf noon-prayers, on the.
<j<d>. inn <•: i,ix fltsi/'iarj to make i.n?e vf then
in . a holy wai ; and when nine hundred of
them had fan deployed, the sun set, and hf
had not performed the afternoon prayers. So
he was grimed, and he said. Verily I have
preferred the love of earthly goods above
the remembrance of my Lord, (that /.«, tfa
perfot'iii'tnw of the afternoon prayers,) so that
the snn is concealed by the veil, firing them
(n-t welt/ the horsea) bark unto me. Tht)tfore
they brought them back. And he l*rf/*n to
sever with his sword the leg** and the nocks,
slauijhteriiig them, and futti'ny off their legs,
as u afiri'i/ict unto God, and yaw their flcth
in alms •. and God gave him in <ioinf>ennutton
what was be'ter than thty were and swifter
namely the wind, which travelled by his com
wand whithet soever he desired. And We tried
Solomon by depriving him of his kingdom.
Thin was because he nuirrie d a womtin of whom
hf. became enamoured, and she used to worship
an idol in his palace without his knowledge.
Hi* dominion was in his signet ; and hr pulled
it off once and deposited it with his wife, n-ho
was named El-Emeeneh (Aminah] ; and a jinnee
tame unto her in the form of Solomon, and took
it from her. And We placed upon his throne
a counterfeit body : nuniely that jinnee, who
was Sokhr (Xakhr), or another He sat upon
the throne of Solomon, and the birds and other
creatures surrounded him; and Solomon went
forth, with a cfianged appearance, and saw him
upon his throne, and said unto the people, I am
Solomon : — but they denied him. Then be re
turned unto his kingdom, after some days,
having obtained the signet and put it on, and
seated himself upon his throne. He said, 0
rnv Lord, forgive me, and give me a do
minion that may not be to anyone alter me
(or beside me); for Thou art the Liberal
Giver. So We subjected nnto him the wind,
which ran gentiy at his command whither-
goevet- he desired; and the devils also, overy
builder of wonderful striictntef. and diver that
brought up pearl* from the sea, and others
bound in chains which connected thei-i huii.t* t<,
their necks. And W* said unto him, This is
Our gift, and bestow t.hou thereof upon whom
soever thou wilt, or refrain from uestoirint/
without rendering an Recount And verily
for him was ordained a high rank with Ps.
and an excellent retreat. (Surah xxxviu
29-30.;
" We bestowed on David and Solomon
knowledge in judyinff men and in the language
of the birds and otktt matters ; and they said,
Praise be to Ood who hath made us to excel
many of His believing servants, by the gift t;/
pruphfry and by the subjection of the jinn and
mcinlcnid and the devils. And Solomon in
herited from David the gift of prophecy and
knowledge; and he said, O men, we have
been taught the language of the birds, and
have had bestowed on us of everything
is/iei-r.with prophets and kings are gifted.
Verily this ia manifest excellence. And Lis
armies of jinn and men and birds were
gathered together unto Solomon, and they
\yere led on in order, until, when they ••aine
unto the valley of »mta, (tchich was ut I'.t
*". ihe anti w/l*"0S
76
602
SOLOMON
SOLOMON
•vvere small or great"), an ant (the queen of the
ante), having seen the troops of Solomon, said,
O ants, enter your habitations, lest Solomon
and his troops crush you violently, while they
perceive nrot. And Solomon smiled, after
wards laughing at her saying, which he heard
from the distance of three miles, the wind con
veying it to him: so he withheld his forces
when'he came in sight of their valley, until the
ants had entered their dwellings : and his troops
were on horses and on foot in this expedition.
And he said, 0 my Lord, inspire me to be
thankful for Thy favour which Thou hast
bestowed upon me and upon my parents, and
to do righteousness which Thou ahalt ap
prove, and admit me, in Thy mercy, among
Thy servants, the righteous^ the prophets and
the saints,
" And he examined the birds, that he might
see the lap-wing, that saw the water beneath
the earth, and directed to it by pecking the
earth, whereupon the devils used to draw it
forth when Solomon wanted it to perform the
ablution for prayer ; but he saw it not : and
ho said, Wherefore do I not see the lap
wing ? Is it one of the absent ? And when
ne was certain of the case he said, I will
assuredly punish it with a severe punish
ment, by plucking out its feathers and its tail
and casting it in the sun so that it shall not be
able to guard against excessive thirst ; or I
will slaughter it ; or it shall bring me a
manifest convincing proof showing its excuse.
And it tarried not long before it presented
itself unto Solomon submissively, and raised its
head and relaxed its tail and its wings : so he
forgave it ; and he asked it what it had met
with during its absence ; and it said, I have
become acquainted with that wherewith thou
hast not become acquainted, and I have come
unto thee from Seba (a tribe of El-Yemen}
with a sure piece of news. I found a woman
reigning over them, named Bilkees (Bilqls'),
and she hath been gifted with everything
that princes require, and hath a magnificent
throne. (Its length tvas eighty cubits, and its
breadth, forty cubits; and its height, thirty
cubits : it was composed of gold and silver
set with fine pearls and with rubies and
chrysolites, and its legs were of rubies and
chrysolites and emeralds : upon it were closed
seven doors : to each chamber through which one
passed to it was a closed door.) I found her
and her people worshipping the sun instead
of God, and the devil hath made their works
to seem comely unto them, so that he hath
hindered them from the right way, wherefore
they are not rightly directed to the worship
of God, who produceth what is hidden (namely,
the rain and vegetables) in the heavens and
the earth, and kuoweth what they [that is.
mankind and others] conceal in their hearts,
and what they reveal with their tongues.
•Gfod : there is no deity but He, the Lord of
the magnificent throne, bettveen which and the
throne of Bilkees is a vast difference.
'•' Solomon said to the lapwing, We will see
whether thou hast spoken truth or, whether
thou art of the liars. Then the lapwing
guided them to t)ie, wul?r. and it was drtntm
forth by the devils; and they quenched their j
thirst and performed the ablution and prayed. !
Then Solomon wrote a letter, the form whereof (
was this : — From the servant of God, Solomon f
the son of David, to Bilkees the queen of Seba. j
In the name of God, the Compassionate, the j
Merciful, Peace be on whomsoever followeth '
the right direction. After this salutation, I \
say, Act yc- not proudly towards me; but come \
unto me submitting. He then, sealed it with \
musk, and stamped it with his signet, and said j
unto the lapwing. Go with this my letter and •
throw it down unto them (namely Bilkees and \
her people") : then turn away from them, but \
stay near them, and see what reply they will I
return. So the lapwing took it, and came '•
unto her, and around her were her forces ;, and !
he threu> it down into her lap ; and when she \
saw it, she trembled with fear. Then she con- '
sidered what was in it, and she said unto the
nobles of her people, O nobles, an honourable '
(sealed*) letter hath been thrown down unto '
me. It is from Solomon ; aud it is this : — .
In the name of God, the Compassionate, the '
Merciful. Act ye not proudly towards me :
but come unto me submitting. — She said, 0
nobles, advise me in mine affair. I will not '
decide upon a thing unless ye bear me wit- '
ness. — They replied, We are endowed with i
strength and endowed with great valour ; but ; j
the command belongeth to thee; therefore h
see what thou wilt command us to do, and \
we will obey thee. She said, Verily kings j
when they enter a city, waste it, and render1
the mighty of its inhabitants abject ; and '
thus will they do who have sent the letter, j
But I will send unto them with a gift, and I !
will see with what the messengers willi
return, whether the gift ivill be accepted, or. ,
whether it will be rejected. If he be merely a!
king, he will accept -it ; and if he be a prophet^ <
he will not accept it. And she sent male and\
female servants, a thousand in equal numbers^
five hundred of each sex, and five hundred^ <
bricks of gold, and a crown set with jewels. \
and musk and ambergris and other things, by a]
messenger with a letter. And the lapwinyl
hastened unto Solomon, to tell him the news ;j
on hearing which, he commanded that bricks oj<
gold and silver should be cast, and that a\
horse-course should be extended to the length oj\
nine leagues from the place where he was, and!
that they should build around it a wall with*
battlements, of gold and silver, and that tht[
handsomest of the beasts of the land and of tht
sea should be brought with the sons of tht
jinn on the right, side of the horse-course . ana
on its left.
" And when the messenger came with tht
gift, and with him his attendants, unto Solo-;
mon, he (Solomon) said, Do ye aid me with,
wealth? But ^rhat God hath given mej
(namely, the gift of prophecy and the kingdom^
is better than what He hath given you, of.
worldly goods; yet ye rejoice in your gift:
because ye glory in. the showy things of thit\
world. Return unto them with the gift that
thou hast brought; tor we will surely come,
unto them with forces with which they have
not power to contend, and we will surely
SOLOMON
SOLOMON
drive them out from it, (that is, from their
.country, Seba, which was named after the
father of their tribf.) ;\->ject and contemptible,
ifthei/rome not unto u* submitting. And when
the messenger returned unto her with the gift,
she placed her throne within seven doors, within
her palace, and her palace was within seven
palaces ; and she closed the doors, and set
guards to them, and prepared to go unto Solo
mon, that she might see what he would command
her to do. She departed with twelve thousand
kings, each king having with him many thou
sands, and proceeded until she came as near to
him as a league's distance ; when he knew of
*>er approach, he said, 0 nobles, which of you
will bring unto me her throne before thev
come unto me submitting ''. An 'efreet ('Ifrit)
of the jinn, answered, I will bring it unto thee
before thou shalt arise from thy place wherein
thou finest to judge from morning until mid
day ; fur I am able to do it, and trustworthy
with respect to the jewels that it compriseth
and other matters. Solomon said, 1 desire ii
more speedily. And thereupon he with "whom
was knowledge of the revealed scripture1
(namely his Wezeer, Asaf the son of Barlchiya,
who was a just person, acquainted with the
most great name of Cod, which ensured an
answer to him who invoked thereby) said, I
will bring it unto thee before thy glance can
be withdrawn from any object. And he said
unto him, Look at the sky. So he looked at it ;
then he withdrew his glance, and found it
placed before him : for during his look towards
the sky, Asaf prayed, by the most great name,
that God would bring it ; and it so happened,
the throne passing under the ground until it
came up before the throne of Solomon. And
when he saw it firmly placed before niin, he
said, This is the favour of my Lord, that
He may try me, whether I shall be thankful
or whether I shall be unthankful. And he
who is thankful is thankful -for the sake o,
bus own soul, which will have the rewara
of his thankfulness. ; and as to him who i.?
ungrateful, my Lord is independent and
bountiful.
" Then Solomon said, Alter ye her throne
so that it may not be known by her, that
we may see whether she be rightly directed
to the knowledge thereof, or whether she be
of those who are not rightly directed to the
knowledge of that which is altered. He desired
thereby to try her intelligence. So they altered
it, by adding to it, or taking from it, or in
iome other manner. Aud when she came, it
was said unto her, Is thy throne like this ?
She answered, As though it were the same.
[She answered them ambiguously like as they
had questioned her ambiguously, not saying, Is
this thy throne? — and had they so said, she
had answered, Yes.) 2\.nd when Solomon saw
her knowledge, he said, And we have had
knowledge bestowed on us before her, and
have been Muslims. But what she wor
shipped instead of God hindered her from
worshipping Him ; for she was of an unbe
lieving people. It was said unto her also,
Enter tho palace. (It had a floor of white,
transparent glass, beneath which was running
water, wherein were fish. Solomon had made
it on its being wid unto him that her legs and
feet were hairy, like the legs of an as*. And
when she saw it, she imagined it to be a
great water, and she uncovered her lega,
that she might wade through it ; and Solomon
was on his throne at the upper end of the
palace, and he saw that her legs and her feet
were handsome. Ho said unto her, Verily it
is a palace evenly spread with glass. And
he invited her to embrace El- Islam, where
upon she said, 0 my Lord, verily I have
acted unjustly towards mine own soul, by
worshipping another than Thee, and I resign
myself, with Solomon, unto God, the Lord of
the worlds. And he desired to marry her ;
but he disliked the hair upon her legs ; so the
devils made for him the depilatory of quick
lime, wherewith she removed the hair, and he
married her ; and he loved her, and confirmed
her in her kingdom. He used to visit her every
month once, and to remain with her three days ;
and her reign expired on the expiration of the
reign of Solomon. It is related that he begun
to reign when he was thirteen years of age, and
died at the age of three and fifty years. Extolled
be the perfection of Him to the duration of
whose dominion there is no end! " (Surah
xxvii. 15-45.)
We subjected unto Solomon the wind,
which travelled in the morning (unto the
period when the sun began to decline) the
distance of a month's journey, and in the
evening /rom the commencement of the declining
of the sun into its setting') a month's journey.
And We made the fountain of molten brass
to flow for him three days with their nights in
every month, as water floweth ; and r-V people
worked until the day of its flowing, with that
which had been given unto Solomon. And of
the jinn were those who worked in his
presence, by the will of his Lord ; and such
of them as swerved from obedience to Our
command Wo will cause to taste of the
punishment of hell in the world to come (or,
as it is said by some, We came to taste of its
punishment in the present world, ar. angel
beating them with a scourge from hell, the
strive oj' which burneth them). They made
for" him whatever be pleased, of lofty halls
(with steps whereby to ascend to them), and
images (for they were not forbidden by his
law), and' large dishes, like great tanks for
watering camels, around each of which as
sembled a thousand men, eating from it. tind
cooking-pots standing firmly on therr legs, cut
out from the mountains in El- Yemen, and to
which they ascended by ladders. And We said,
Work, 0 family of David, in the service of
God, with thanksgiving unto Him for what
He hath given you .-—but fo./ of My servants
are the thankful. And when We decreed
that he (namely Solomon) should die, and he
died, and remained standing, and leaning upon
his stajf for a year, dead, the jinn meanwhile
performing those difficult tcorks as ih>y were
accustomed to do, not knowing of hi* death,
until the worm ate his staff, whereupon he fe/l
down, nothing showed them his death hut
the eating reptile (the worm) that ate his
604
SOI, (WON
SPEAKING
staff. And when he foil down, the jinn
plainly perceived that if they had known
things unseen (of which things was the death
of Solomon), they had not continued ' in the
ignominious affliction (thai. is. in their dif/i-
cv.lt works), imaqintny fhat he was aline,
inconsistently with their opinion that they
knew things unseen. And Mat the period was
a year was known by calculating/ what th* worm
had eaten of hif staff since his death in each
day and night or other space ftf time" (Surah
xxxiv. 11-ld.j
Mr. Sale, quoting from the commentators
al-Jalalan and ai-Baiza\\ri, has the following
remarks on the foregoing account of Solo
nion : —
" Some say the spirits made him (Solomon)
two lions, which were placed at the foot of
his throne ; and two eagles, which were set
above it ; and that when he mounted it, the
lione stretched out their paws: and when he
sat down, the eagles shaded him with their
wings ; and that he had a carpet of green
silk, on which his throne was placed, being
of a prodigious length and breadth, and suf
ficient for all his forces to stand on, the men
placing themselves on his right hand, and
the spirits [or jinn} on his left : and that
when all were in order, the wind at his com
mand took up the carpet and transported it
with all that were upon it wherever he
pleased • the army of birds at the same time
flying over their heads and forming a kind
of canopy to shade thorn from the Sun. The
commentators tell us that David, having
laid the foundations of the Temple of Jeru
salem, which vv«a to be in lieu of the taber
nacle of Moses, when he died, left it to be
finished by his son Solomon, who employed
the genii in the work ; that Solomon, before
the edifice was quite completed, perceiving
his end drew nigh, begged of God that his
death might be concealed from the genii till
they had entirely finished it; that God there
fore so ordered it that Solomon died as he
Stood at his prayers, leaning on his staff,
which supported the body in that posture a
full yoar ; and the genii, supposing him to be
alive, continued their work during that term,
at the expiration whereof, the temple being
perfectly completed, a worm, which had
gotten into the Staff, ate it through, and the
corpse fell to the ground and discovered the
kinsr's death. That after the space of forty
days, which was the time the image had been
worshipped in his bouse, the devil flew away,
and threw the signot into the sea : the signet
was immediately swallowed by a fish, which
being taken and given to Solomon, he found
the ring in its belly, and, having by this
moans recovered the kingdom, took Sakhr.
and, tying a great stone to his neck, threw
him into the Lake of Tiberias. The Arab
historians tell us that Solomon, having
finished the Temple of Jerusalem, went in
pilgrimage to Makkah, where having stayed
as long as he pleased, he proceeded towards
al-Yaman ; and leaving Makkah in the morn
ing he arrived by noon at San'a', and being
extremely delighted with the country rested
there; but wanting water to make the
ablution, he looked among the birds for the
lapwing which found it for him. Some say
that Bilqis, to try whether Solomon v.'as a
prophet or not, drest the boys like girls and
the girls like boys, and sent him in a casket
a pearl not drilled and an onyx drilled with a
crooked hole ; and that Solomon distinguished
the boys from the girLs by the different
manner of their taking water, and ordered
one worm to bore the pearl, and another to
pass a thread through the onyx."
SON. Arabic ibn
. folen; walad
Heb.
walad.
> pi. banu ;
, pi. auldd-,
The evidence
of a son in favour of his parents in a court of
law is not admissible. A son cannot be the
slave of his father. A father can slay his
son without punishment being inflicted upon
him for the murder.
According to the law of inheritance of both
Sunni and Shi'ah, when there are several sons
they dividfi the property of their deceased
father equally, the eldest son being according
to Shi-ah law, entitled to take possession of
his father's sabre, Qur'an, signet-ring, and
robes of honour. (Personal Tsim, bv Syed
Ameer Ali,p. 74.)
For the Muslim doctrine regarding the
•son-ship of Christ, refer to article JESUS
GBKSX.
SOROEKY. [MAGIC.]-
SOUL, There are two words used
in the Qur'an for tho soul of mwi, ruh
Heb.
rwakh, and nafs
wphesh ; e.g. : —
Surah xvii. 87 : " They will ask thee of the
spirit (ruh). Say, tho spirit proceedeth at
my Lord's command, but of knowledge only a
little to you is given,'*
Surah iii. 24 : « Each soul (nafs) shall be
paid what it has earned."
Muslim theologians do not distinguish be
tween the ruh and no/i, bnt the philosophers
do. Nafs seems to answer the Greek i£yv>f,
" soul or life," human beings being distin
guished as an-nafsu 'n-natigah, "the soul
which speaks"; animals as an-nafsu 'i-hai-
wdniyah, " the animal life"; and vegetables
as an-nafsu 'n-nabatiyak ; whilst run ex
presses tbe Greek irvfvjjia., " spirit." Man
thus forming a tripartite nature of ,»,«•»
jism, "body"; ^^ai nafs. "soul": and £i)j
ruh, " spit it " ; an idea which does not find
oxpression in the Qur'an, but which is ex
pressed in the NOAV Testament, I Thess. v.
23: " And I pray God your whole spirit and
soul, and body be preserved blameless until
the coining of our Lord Jesus Christ,"' This"
tripartite nature of man is used by Dr.
Pfander, and other controversialists, as an
illustration of the Trinity in Unity. [sriKir.]
SPEAKING. [CONVERSATION.]
SPIDER
SPIDER, The. Arabic nl-'Ankabilt
(wj^&uiN). The title of ih.-i xxixth
Surah of the Qur'ftn, in the 40th vorHC of
which is given the pai-ablo of tho spider :
" The likeness for those who tako to them
selves guardians instead of God is the like
ness of the spider who buildeth her a house :
But verily, frailest of all houses surely is the
house of the spider. Did they but know
this ! "
SPIRIT. Arabic (tj,). The word
ruh (pi. arwdh), translated " spirit." is the
Arabic form corresponding to the Hebrew
ruakh. It occurs nineteen times in
the Qur'an : —
1. Suratu "1-Baqarah (ii.), 81: "We
strengthened him (Jesus) by the Holv Spirit
(Ruhu V-Qtjrfiw)."
2. Siiratu '1-Buqarah (ii.), 254: "We
strengthened him (Jesus) by the Holy Spirit
3. Suratu 'n-Nisa' (iv.), 1G9 : " The Maslh,
Jesus, son of Mary, is only an apostle of <^od.
and His Word which He conveyed into Mary
and a Spirit (proopfdinar) from Himself
(Rukun min-hiC)"
4. Suratu '1-MaiMah (v.), 109: "When I
strengthened thee (Jesus) with the Holy
Spirit (Rvhu 't-Qudusy
6. Suratu 'n-Nahl (xvi.), 2 : " He will cause
the angels to descend with the spirit (Rub)
on whom He pleaseth among his servants,
bidding them warn that there be no God but
me."
• 6. Suratu 'n-Nahl (xvi.), 1(H : « The Holy
Spirit (Ruhu 'l-Q,udus) hath brought it (the
Qur'an) down with truth from thy Lord."
7. Sura iu '1-Mi4 raj (xvii.), 87: "They will
ask thoo of the spirit. Say : The spirit (ar-
Rtify proceedeth at my Lord's command, but
of knowledge only a little to you is given.''
8. Suratu- 'sh-Shu ara' (xxvi.), 193: "The
faithful Spirit (ar-Ruhu, '(-Amiii) hath come
down with it (the Qur'an)."
9. Suratu 'l-Mu?min (xl.), 15 : "He sendeth
forth the Spirit Car- Rvh) at His own behest
on whomsoever of His servants He pleaseth."
10. Siiratu '1-Mujadilah (Iviii.), 23: "On
the hearts of these (the faithful) bath God
graven tho Faith, and with a spirit (pro
ceeding from Himself (Ruhun min-hu) haib
He strengthened them."
11. Suratu '1-Ma'arij (hex.;, 4 : •» The angels
and the Spirit (ar-Rah) ascend to Him in a
day, whose length is fifty thousand years."
12. Suratu '1-Qadr (xevii.), 4: "Therein
descend the angels and the Spirit (ar-RQh)
by permission of their Lord for every
matter.
13. Suratu 'sh-Shura (xlii.), 52: "Thus
have we aent the. Spirit" (ar-Ruh\ to thee
with a revelation, by our command. '
14. Suratu M^-yam (xix.), 17: "And we
sent our spirit (/?u/«?-nu) to her. Mary, and
he took, before her the form of a perfect man."
15. Surfttu '1-A.rabiyi.' (xxi.), 91: "Into
whom (Mary) we breathed of cur Spirit
(jwj/i l\uki-iw\"
SPIIUT 605
16. Siirata 't-Tahrim (Ixvl), 12: "Into
whose womb (i.e. Mary's) wo breathed of our
Spirit (min Rahi-ntT}."
17. Suratu 's-Sajdah (xxxii.), 8: "And
brcathnd of His Spirit '(min Riihi-ki) into
him (Adam)."
18. Suratu '1-Hijr (xv.), 29: "And when I
shall have finished him (Adam) and breathed
of my Spirit (min Ruhi) into him."
19. Suratu Sad ''xxxviii.), 72: " And wh«n
I hav? formed himfAdanrO and breathed of
my Spirit (min-Ruhi) into him."
Of the above quotations, all Muslim com
mentators are agreed in applying N<;E 1 '-»
4, 5, G, 8, 11, 12, 14, to the ang'el Gabrier:'
Nog. 3, 15, 16, ar»? said to be Jesus, tho ftuhv
'lldh, or "Spirit of God"; Nos. 17, lie, ID,
the Ruh, or " Life," given to Adam; Nos. t>,
13, " the Spirit of Prophecy " ; Xo. 10 is held
to moan God's gracp nnd strength. With re
ference to No. 7, there is some discussion. The
KhalrTih JA1I is related to havo saH that
it was an angH Hth 7,000 mouths, in each
tnouth there bein^ 7,000 tongucH, which un
ceasingly praised God. Ibn 'Abbis-held tb,/t
it moant the angel Gabriel. Mujuhid, that
I it meant being? of another world.
The Commentators al-Kamalan say the
Jews came and asked Muhammad regarding
the spirit of man, and the Prophet replied,
" The Spirit proceedeth at my Lord's com
mand, but of knowledge only a little to you
is given," from which it is evident that it if,
impossible for the finite mind to understand
the nature of a spirit.
The philosophical bearings of the question
are fully discussed, from an Oriental stand
point in the Kfishstia/'v 'ftildhati 'l-Funun, A
Dictionary of Technical Terms used in the
Sciences of the Mussalmdm,, edited by W.
Nassau Lees, LL.D., 18f>2, vol. i. p. 541 ; also
in tho Sharhu 'l-Afawdqif, p. 582.
Muhammadan writers hold very conflicting
views regarding the state of the soul of
spirit after death. All" agree that the Angel
of Death (AfalaJui 'l-Mttut), separates the
human soul from the body at the time of
death, and that he performs lik office with
ease and gentleness towards the good, and
with force and violence towards tho wickad,
a view which they establish on the testimony
of tho Qur'an, Surah Ixxix. 1, where the
Prophet swears by " those who tear out vio
lently and those who gently release." After
death the spirits enter a state called al-
Barzakli, or the interval between death and the
Resurrection, the 'At&y? of the New Testa-
mcnt. The souls of the faithful aro said to
be divided into three classes : (I) those of
the Prophets who aro admitted into Paradise
immediately after death; (2) those of the
martyrs who, according to a tradition of Mu
hammad, rest in the crops of green birds,
which eat the fruits and drink of the waters
of Paradise ; those of all other believers, con
cerning the state of whole souls before Die
Resurrection there is great diversity of
opinion. Some say they stay near the graves,
either for a period of only seven days, or,
according to- others, until tho Day of Resur-
606
SPIRIT
STANDARDS
roction. In proof of this, they quote the
example of Muhammad, who always saluted
the spirits of the departed when passing a
grave-yard. Others say, all the departed
spirits of the faithful are in the lowest
heaven with Adam, because the Prophet de
clared he saw them there in his pretended
ascent to heaven. [MI'KAJ.] Whilst others
say the departed spirits dwell in the forms of
white birds under the throne of God (which
is a Jewish tradition).
Al-BaizawI says the souls of the wicked
arc carried down to a pit in hell called Sijjin
[.SIJJIN] ; and there IB a tradition to the
effect that Muhammad said the spirits of the
wicked are tormented until the Day of Resur
rection, when they are produced with their
'>ot)ies for judgment.
The author of the Sharhu H-Mawdqif (p.
583), says that' some Muslim philosophers
?.tate that after death the spirit of man will
either be in a state of enlightenment or of
ignorance. Those who are in a state of igno
rance will go on from worse to worse, and
those who are in a state of enlightenment
will only suffer so far as they have con
tracted qualities of an undesirable character
when in the body, but they will gradually
improve until they arrive at a state of per
fect enjoyment. This view, however, is not
one which is tenable with the views pro
pounded, by the Qur'an, in which there are
very decided notions regarding the future
state of heaven and hell. - [SOUL.]
SPITTING. According to the<j
Traditions, Muslims must spit on the left:
side, and cover it over with earth. Spitting
in mosques is forbidden. (See ' Abdu '1-Haqq'a j
Commentary on the Mishkdt, vol. i. p. 295.)
Muhammad said : " Spit not in front, for I
you are in. God's presence. Spit not on the j
right hand, for there standeth the angel who
recordeth your good actions."
SPOILS, The. Arabic al-Anfcll
(JteN). The title of the vmth j
Surah of the Qur'an, in which are given in- j
structions regarding the division of the spoils j
taken at the battle of Badr, a dispute having j
arisen between the young men who had fought '
and the old men who had stayed under the
ensigns; the former insisting they ought to
have the whole, and the latter that they
deserved a share. [PLUNDEK.]
STANDAEDS. Arabic 'alarn (^),
pi. atldm. Regarding the standards used by
Muhammad, there are the following tradi
tions : —
Jabir says : " The Prophet eame into Mak-
kah with a white standard."
MUHAMMADAN STANDARDS. (A. F. Hole.)
1. Muslim Standard of Central Asian, Tribes.
2. Standard of the Turkish Empire.
3. Standard of tlie Empire of Morocco.
4. Horse.tail Standard of Modern Turks
5. Standard of Egypt.
6. Standard of Persia.
STANDARDS
STONING TO DEATH 607
Ibu 'Abbas says: "The Prophet had two ! tion of rank, the two ranks of pash^a being
standards, a large black one and a small | distinguished respectively by two and threfc
white one.
Al-Bara' ibn 'Aeib says : " The standard,
I remember, was a square one, and black
spotted with divers colours."
In the struggle between the Shi'ahs and
the Sunnls, the Fatimides adopted green as
the colour of their standard, whilst the Bam
(Jmaiyah assumed white for theirs.
In " Central Asia, the ordinary Muslim
standards are either black or green, and are
triangular. The sign of the crescent, as it
appears on Turkish standards, was adopted
after the taking of Byzantium ; for, long before
the conquest of Constantinople, the crescent
had been used in the city for an emblem of
sovereignty, as may be seen from the medals
struck in honour of Augustus and Trajan.
[ORESCENT.]
There is a standard still preserved at Con
stantinople amongst the ancient relics, and
called as-Rinjaqu 'sh-sharif, which is held to
tails, and a further distinction of rank being
marked by the elevation of one of the tails
above tho others
MURARRAM STANDARDS.
be a most sacred emblem, and is only pro
duced on very special occasions. It is said
to be the ancient standard of the Prophet.
A modern writer, describing this flag, says :
"It is made of four layers of silk, the top
most of which is green, those below being
composed of cloth, embroidered with gold.
Its entire length is twelve feet, and from it
is suspended the figure of a human hand,
which clasps a copy of the Qur'an, transcribed
by the Khalifah 'U.srnan. In times of peace,
the banner of the Prophet is kept in a
chamber appropriated to the purpose, along
with the clothes, teeth, the venerable locks,
the stirrups, and the bow of the Prophet."
In the Muharram, when the martyrdom of
al-Hasan and al-Hnsain is celebrated, mime
roua standards are carried about in the pro
cession.
The origin of the horse-tail standard borne
by modern Turks, appears to have been from
the people bearing the horse-tail as a distinc-
MUHARRAM STANDARD.
According to the Traditions, the Mahdi, iu
the Last Days, will appear from the direction
of Khorosan with black ensigns, and there
seems to be every reason to regard the black
standard as the primitive ensign of Islam,
although the Wahhabis have generally car
ried green standards.
STATUES. [SCULPTURE.]
STONING TO DEATH. Arabic
rajm (f*-j). Iu Muslim law, the
punishment of iapidation is only inflicted foi*
adultery. (Under the Jewish law idolaters
and bearers of false witness were also
stoned.) It is founded, not upon the Qur'an.
where the only punishment awarded is on-
hundred stripes (Surah xxiv. 2), but upon
the Traditions (Mishhlt, book xv. ch. 1).
where Muhammad is related to have said,
" Verily God hath ord:iinea for a man or
woman not married one hundred lashes and
expulsion from their town one year, and for
u man or woman having been married one
hundred lushes and. stuiiing. Abdu "1-Haqq
says the hundred lashes, in addition to the
stoning, is abrogated by the express example
| of the Prophet, who ordered Ktonitiy only :
fur -Abdu 'Hah ibn 'Umar relates tho fol
lowing tradition :— •
"A Jew came to the Prophet and said
' A man and woman of out 3 have committed
adultery.' And the Prophet said. ' What do
vou mee* with in the BooV of Moses in the
608
STONING TO DEATH
SUFI
matter of stoning? ' The Jew said, « We do
not find stoning in the Bible, but we disgrace
adulterers and whip them.' Then 'Abdu
'Hah ibn Salam, who was a learned man of
the Jews, and had embraced Islam, said,
'You lie, 0 Jewish tribe! verily the order
for stoning is iu the Book of Moses.' Then
the book was brought, and opened: and a
Jew put his hand upon the revelation for
stoning, and read the one above and below
it ; and 'Abdu 'llah said, « Lift up your hand.'
And he did so, and behold the revelation for
stoning was produced in the book, and the
Jews said, "Abdu 'llah spoke true, 0 Mu
hammad ! the stoning revelation is in the
Book of Moses.' Then the Prophet ordered
both the man and woman to be stoned/'
(Mishkat, book xv. ch. i.)
The author of the Hidayah (vol. ii. p. 9)
give:- the following instructions as to the
correct way of carrying out the sentence : —
'•' It is necessary, when -a whoremonger is
to be stoned to death, that he should be
carried to some barren place void of houses
or cultivation, and it is requisite that the
stoning be executed — first by the witnesses,
and after them by the Imam or Qazi, and
after those by the rest of the bystanders,
because it is so recorded from 'AH, and also
because in the circumstance of the execu
tion being begun by the witnesses there is a
precaution, since a person raay be very bold
in delivering his evidence against a criminal,
but afterwards, when directed himself to
commence the infliction of that punishment
which is a consequence of it, may from com
punction retract his testimony ; thus, causing
the witnesses to begin the punishment may
be a means of entirely preventing it. Ash-
Shan'i has said that the witnesses beginning
the punishment is not u requisite, in a case
of lapidatiou, any more than in a case of
scourging. To this our doctors reply that
reasoning upon a case of lapidation from a
case of scourging is supposing an analogy
between things which are essentially dif
ferent, because all persons are not acquainted
with the proper method of inflicting flagella
tion, and hence, if a witness thus ignorant
were to attempt, it might prove fatal to the
sufferer, arid he would die where death is not
his due, contrary to a case of lapidation, as
that is of a destructive nature, and what
every person is equally capable of executing,
wherefore if the witnesses shrink back from
the comruers cement of lapidation the punish
ment drops, because their reluctance argues
their retraction.
!(In the .same manner punishment Ls re
mitted when the witnesses happen to die. or
to disappear, as in this case the condition,
namely, the commencement oi it by the
witnesses, is defeated. This is when the
whoredom is established upon the testimony
of witnesses : but when it is established
upon the confession of the offender, it is then
requisite that the lapidation be executed,
first by the Imam or the Qa^si, and after
then by the rest of the multitude, because
it. is o recorded from 'All. Moreover, the
Prophet threw a small stone like a bean &\
Ghamdiyah who hadr confessed whoredom.1 1
When a woman is to' be stoned, a hole oil
excavation should be dug to receive her, asi
deep as her waist, because the Prophet'
ordered such a hole to be dug for Ghamdiyah' '
before mentioned, and 'All also ordered a
hole to be dug for Shuraha Hamdiani. It
is, however, immaterial whether a hole bfl|
dug or not, because the Prophet did not issue
any particular ordinance respecting this, and j
the nakedness of a woman is sufficiently*
covered by her garments ; but yet it is
laudable to dig a hole for -her, as decency is!
thus ino«t effectually preserved. There is
no manner of necessity to dig a hole for a
man. because the prophet did not so in the i
case of Ma* is. And observe, it is not lawful!
to bind a person in order to execute punish- j
merit upon him in this case, unless it appears
that it cannot otherwise be inflicted.
" The corpse of a person executed by j
lapidation for whoredom is entitled to the!
usual abltitious, and to ail other funeral cere- 1
monies, because of the declaration of the
Prophet with respect to Ma'iz. { Do by the
body as ye do by those of other believers'; j
and also, because the offender thus put to i
death is slain in vindication of the Jaws of
God, wherefore ablution is not refused, as j
in 'the case of one put to death by a sentence I
of retaliation ; moreover the Prophet allowed
the prayers for the dead to Ghamdiyah, after !
lapidation/' -(Hidayah, book )i. p. 9.)
This punishment of lapidation for adultery i
has become almost obsolete in modern times ;
even in Bukharah, where the institutes of j
Muhammad are supposed to be most strictly j
observed, it is not inflicted.
SUBHAH («W~), The rosary ot
ninety-nine beads. [ROSARY. 1
SUBHAN (0W~). [TASBIH.]
SUBHANA XLAHI
" Holiness be to God ! " An ejaculation which
is called the Tusbih. It occurs in the litur
gical prayer, and is used as a.u ejaculation of.
surprise or fear. [TASKIH.]
SUFAH (*V). Banu &vfa-h, An
ancient triLe of Arabia. The descendants of
Tahikha and Elyas (Muir, vol. i. p. cxcis.)
i more correctly
$ufty. (The Persian form of the plural
being <^Ui*o Sttfiyan.) A man of the people
called £*i~<9 Sufiyuh, who profess the mystic
principles of «^<H«S> T(i*<nr~iruf, There is consi
derable discussion as to the origin ot this word.
It is said to be derived (1) from the Arabic
Suf, " wool," on account of the woollen dress
worn by ^Eastern ascetics; (2) or from the
Arabic Safii. " purity," with reference to the
effort to attain to metaphysical purity (which
is .-scarcely probable) ; (3) or from the Greek
(TO'J)tctj ': wisdom'' j (4) or, p.ccording to the
Ghiydsu 'i-Luybat) it is derived from the
Sufuh) the name of a tribe of Arabs who in
SUFI
the " time of ignorance," separated themselves
rroin the world, and engaged them selves
exclusively in the service of the Makkah
Temple.
It might at first sight appear almost 0,11
impossibility for mysticism to engraft itself
upoo the legal system of the Qur'un, and
the Alindis, with the detailed ritual and cold
formality which are so strikingly exemplified
in Islam ; but it would appear that from the
very 'lays of Muhammad, there have been
always th-j.se who", whilst they called them
selves Muslims, sfct aside the literal meaning of
the words of Muhammad for a supposed mystic
or spiritual interpretation, and it is generally
admitted by Sufis that, one of the great
founders of their system, as found in Islam,
was the adopted son and son-in-law of the
Prophet, -AK ilm Abi Talib. Tho Sufis
themselves admit that their religious system
has always* existed in tho world, prior to the
mission of Muhammad, and the unprejudiced
student of their system will observe that
Ta?fiirirnf, or Sufiism, is hut a Muslim
adaptation of the VedAnta school of Hindu
philosophers, and which also we find in the
writings of the old academics of Greece, and
Sir William Jones thought Plat -.> learned from
the sacros of the East.
The Sufis are divided into innumerable
sects, which find expression in the numerous
religious orders of Darweshes or Faqirs
[FAQIT;]; but although they differ in name
and in some of their customs, as dress,
meditations and recitations, they are all
agreed in their principal tenets, particularly
those which inculcate the absolute necessity
of blind submission to a murshid, or inspired
guide. It is genei'ally admitted that, quite
irrespective of minor sects, the Sufis are
divided 'into those who claim to be only the
flhdnnyah, or inspired of God, and those who
assert that they are Ittihddiijah, or unionist
with God.
/. The Oiiririne -of the Sufis.
The following is a succinct account of the
doctrines of the Sufis : —
1. God only exists. He in all things, and
all things in Him.
2. All visible and invisible beings are an
emanation from Him, and are not really
distinct from Him.
. 3. Religions are matters of indifference :
they however serve as leading to realities.
Some for this purpose are more advantageous
than others, among -which is al -Islam, of
which Suflisui is the true philosophy.
4. There doe-t not really exist any dif
ference between good and evil, for all is
reduced to Unity, and God is the real Author
of the acts of mankind.
5. It is God who fixes the will of man;
man therefore is not free in hid actions.
8. The soul existed before the body, and
is confined xvithiu the latter as in a cage.
Death, therefore, should be the object of the
wishes of the Sufi, for it is then that he
returns to the bosom of Divinity.
7. It is by this metempsychosis that souls
SUFI
609
which hare not fulfilled their destination here
belo\v are purified and becomo worthy of re
union with God.
8. Without the grace of God, which the
Siifls call Fayazdnu'Udh, or Fitz/u Y/J/<, no
one can 'attain to this spiritual union, but
this, they assert, can be obtained by fervently
asking for it.
i). The principal occupation of the Sfifi,
whilst in the body, is meditation on the
ira/iffumt/uh, or Unity of God,, tho remem
brance of God's names [ZIKB], and the pro
gressive advancement in the Tariff ah, or
journey of life, so as to attain unification
with God.
// The Sufi Journey.
Human lite is likened to >» journey (»•//"/•),
,'ind the seeker after God to a traveller
(tmlik).
The great business of the traveller is to
exert himself and strive to attain that perfect
knowledge (ma'rifah') of God which i.s dif
fused through all things, for tho Soul of man
is an oxile from its Creator, and human
existence is ita period of banishment. The
sole object of Suflism is to load the wan
dering soul onward, stage by stage, nntil it
reaches the desired goal —perfect union with
the Divine Being.
The natural state of every human being is
humanity (ndnut), in which state the disciple
must observe tha Law (shari-ah) ; but as this
is the lowest form of spiritual existence, the
performance of the journey is enjoined upon
every searcher after true knowledge.
The various stages (mandzil) arc differently
described by Siifi writers, but amongst those
of India 'and, according to Malcolm, of Persia
also.) the following is the usual journey —
The first stage, as we have already re
marked, is humanity (nd.«ut), in which the
disciple must live according to the Law
(sharraK). and observe all the rites, customs,
and precepts of his religion. The second is
the nature of angels (malakut), for wnich
there is the pathway of purity (tariqak).
The third is the possession of power (jubrut),
for which there is knowledge (mtrifak) ; and
the fourth is extinction (fanff} (i.e. absorp
tion into the Deity), for which there is Truth
(hagiqah).
The following more extended journey is
marked out for the traveller by a Sufi
writer, ;Aziz ibn Muhammad Nafasi, in a
book called al-Maq?adu 'l-Aqsd, or the " Re
motest Aim," which has been rendered into
English by the lamented Professor Palmer
(Oriental Mysticism, Cambridge, 1867) : —
When a man possessing the necessary re
quirements of fully-developed reasoning
powers turns to them for a resolution of his
doubts and uncertainties concerning the real
nature of the Godhead, he is called H tdltb,
•• a searcher after God."
If he manifest a further inclination to
prosecute his inquiry uoc-oidii... to tbeir
system, he is called a iiiurid, or " one who
inclines.'"
Placing himself then under the spiritual
77
610
SUFI
instruction of some eminent leader of the
sect, be is fairly started upon his journey
and becomes a salik, or " traveller," whose
whole business in life is devotion, to the
end that he may ultimately arrive at the
knowledge of God.
1. Here he is exhorted to serve God, as
the first stop towards a knowledge of Him.
This is the first stage of his journey, and ig
colled 'ubudlyah (Aj^u^c), or "service."
2. When 'in answer to his prayers the
Divine influence or attraction has developed
his inclination into the love of God, he is
said to have reached the stago called 'Ishq
(<j**»e). or " love.''
3. This Divine Love, expelling all worldly
desires from his heart, leads him to the next
Stage, which is ziihd (>xfcj)» or " seclusion."
4. Occupying himself henceforward with
contemplations and investigations of meta
physical theories concerning the nature,
attributes, and works of God, he reaches
ma'rifah (&,*>•), or " knowledge."
5. This; assiduous contemplation of start
ling metaphysical theories is exceedingly
attractive to an oriental mind, and not
unfrequently produces a state cf mental
excitement. Such ecstatic state is con
sidered a sure prognostication of direct
illumination of the heart by God, and con
stitutes the next stage, called wajd (J^),
or •" ecstasy."
6. Daring thia stage ho is supposed to
receive a revelation of the true -nature of
the Godhead, and to have reached the stage
called haqifjah (dS^ae*.), or "truth."
7. He then proceeds to the stage of wasl
{4Vo»)« or "union with God."
8. Further than this he cannot go, but
pursues his habit of self-denial and con
templation until his death, which is looked
upon as fanff (eUi), " total absorption into
the Deity, extinction."
To develop this quasi " spiritual life " the
Sufi leaders have invented various forms of
devotion called zilcr (y&)» or "recitations."
These eccentric exercises have generally
attracted the notice of travellers in the East.
and have been described by Lane, Vambery,
Burton, and other Orientalists. For an ac
count of these ceremonies of Zikr the reader
is referred to the article under that head.
///. The Perfect Man in Sufi Spiritualism.
The late Professor E. H. Palmer of Cam
bridge has? in his Oriental Mysticism, com-
piled from native sources, given a very
correct idea of what may be considered the
spiritual si<^e of Muharnniadanism, as ex
pressed in the teaching of Muslim Sufis.
"The perfeol ruaii is he who has fully
comprehended the Law. the Doctrine, and
the Truth: or, in other words, ho who is
endued with four things in- perfection viz 1.
Good words : 2. Good deeds ; 3. Goqd prin
ciples } 4. The sciences. It is the business of
sim
the Traveller to provide himself with these
things in perfection, and by so doing he will
provide himself with perfection.
" The Perfect Man has had various other
names assigned to him, all equally applicable,
viz. Elder, Leader, Guide, Inspired Teacher,
Wise, Virtuous, Perfect, Perfecter, Beacon
and Mirror of the world, Powerful Antidote
Mighty Elixir, 'Isa (Jesus) the Raiser of the
Dead, Khizar the Discoverer of the Water of
Life, and Solomon who knew the language of i
Birds.
••( The Universe has been likened to a
single person, of whom the Perfect Man ie I
the Soul ; and again, to a tree, of which man- 1
kind is the fruit, and the Perfect Man the • I
pith and essence. Nothing is hidden from the ',
Perfect Man ; for after arriving at the know- j
ledge of God, he has attained to that of the •
nature and properties of material objects, and i
can henceforth find no better employment !
than acting mercifully towards mankind,
Now there is no mercy better than to devote
oneself to the perfection and improvement of i
others, both by precept and example. Thus
the Prophet is called in the Goran ' a mercy '
to the Umverse.' (Cor. cap. 21, v. 107.) But i
with all his perfection the Perfect Man can- i
not compass his desires, but passes hia life iv. i
consistent and unavoidable self-denial: he is j
perfect in knowledge and principle, but im- J
perfect in faculty and power.
•< There have indeed been Perfect Men pos- j
sessed of power ; such power as that which
resides in kings and rulers ; yet a careful !
consideration of the poor extent of man's |
capacities will shew that his v/eakness is pre
ferable to his power, his want of faculty pre- i
ferahle to his possession of it. Prophets and
saints, kings and sultans, have desired many |
things, and failed to obtain them ; they have i
wished to avoid many things, and have had I
them forced upon them. Mankind is made *
up of the Perfect and the Imperfect, of the
Wise and the Foolish, ^of Kings and Subjects, !
but all are alike weak' and helpless, all pas? i
their lives in a manner contrary to their de- j
sires ; this the Perfect Man recognises and j
acts upon, and, knowing that nothing is '
better for man than renunciation, forsakes all i
and becomes free and at leisure. As before
he renounced wealth and dignity, so now he
foregoes eldership and teachership, esteem '•
ing freedom and rest above everything: the!
fact is, that though the motive alleged for I
education and care of others is a feeling of i
compassion and a regard for discipline, yet ••
the real instigation is the love of dignity : as j
the Prophet says, 'The last thing tnat Is re
moved from the chiefs of the righteous i&' i
love 01 dignity. I have said that the Perfect ,
Man should be endued with four things in
perfection : now the Perfectly Free Man
should have four additional characteristics, j
viz.remmcialion,retireujeut, contentment, and ;
leisure. He who has the first four is vir- !
tuous, but uot free : lie who has the whole j
eight is perfect, liberal, virtuous, and free i
Furthermore, './here are two grades of the ,
Perfectly Free— those who have renounced
8UFI
SUFI
611
wealth and dignity only, and those who have
further renounced ^eldership aud tenehorship,
thus becoming free and at leisure. These
igain are subdivided into two classes ; thost
who, nftor renunciation, retirement and con
'entmeiit, make choice of obscurity, and those
«rho, after renunciation, mako choice of sub-
nission, contemplation, and resignation ; but
;he object of both is the same. Some writers
issert that freedom and leisure consists in
ihc former coursr, while others maintain that
t is only to be found in the latter.
'• Those who make choice of obscurity are
ictuated by the knowledge that annoyance
ind distraction of thought are the invariable
soncoruitants of society ; they therefore avoid
•eceiviug visits and presents, and fear them
13 they would venomous beasts. The other
slAss, who adopt submission, resignation and
sontemplation, do flo because thov perceive
hat mankind for the most part axe ignorant
if what is good for them, being dissatisfied
rith what is beneficial, and delighted with
sircumstauces that are harmful to them; as
;he Goran says, ' Perchance ye may dislike
what is good for you, and like what is hurt-
ul to you.' (Cor. cap. 2, v. 213.) For this
•eason they retire from society equally with
;he other class, caring little what the world
nay think of them.
•• Fellowship has uiany qualities and effects
30th of good and evil. The fellowship of the
arise is the only thing that can conduct the
Fraveller safely to the Goalj therefore all
;he submission, earnestness, and discipline
;hat have been hitherto inculcated are merely
n order to render him worthy of such fcllow-
ihip. Provided he have the capacity, a
single day, nay, a single hour, in the society
)f the wise, tends more to his improvement
,han years of self-discipline without it.
Verily one day with thy Lord is better than
i thousand years.' (Cor. cap. 22, v. 4(5.)
" It is, however, possible to frequent the
lociety of the wise without receiving any
>enent therefrom, but this must proceed
iither from want of capacity or want of will.
[n order then to avoid such a result, the
sufis have laid down the following rules for
he conduct of the disciple when in the pre
tence of his teachers.
" Hear, attend, but speak little.
"Never answer a question not addressed
to you ; Liit if asked, answer promptly
•and concisely, never feeling ashained to say,
' I know not.'
"Do not dispute for disputation's sake.
" Never boast before your elders.
" Never s-.vjk the highest place, nor even
accept it if it be offered to you.
" Do not bo over-ceremonious, for this
will compel your elders to act in the same
manner towaids you, and give them need
less annoyance.
"Observe in all cases Die etiquette ap
propriate to the time, place, and persons
present.
" In iudiiierciit matters, that is, matters
involving no breach of duty by their omis
sion or commission, conform to the practice
.md wishes ot tkose with whom you are
.vssociating.
" Do uot make a practice of anything
-.vhicii is not either a duty or calculated to
increase the comfort of your associates.;
otherwi.se it will becotno an idol to you ;
and it 1.3 incumbent on c\ ory one to break
his idols and r^ounco hi« habits."
1 V. Denunciation.
^ " This leads us to the subject of Renuncia
tion, which is of two kinds, external and in
ternal The former is the renunciation of
worldly wealth ; the latter, the renunciation
of worldly desires. Everything that hinders
or veils the Traveller's path must bo re
nounced, whether it relate to this world or
the next. Wealth and dignity are groat hin
drances ; but too much praying and fasting
are often hindrances too. The one is a shroud
of darkness, the other a veil of light. The
Traveller must renounce idolatry, if he desire
to reach the Goal, and everything that bars
his progress is an idol. All men have some
idol, which they worship ; with one it is
wealth and dignity, with another overmuch
prayer and fasting. If a man sit always upon
his prayer-carpet, his prayer-carpet becomes
his idol And so on with a great number of
instances.
"Renunciation must not be performed
without the advice and permission of an
elder. It should be the renunciation of
trifle*, not of necessaries, such as food, cloth
ing, and dwelling-place, which are indispens
able to man ; for without them he would be
obliged to rely on the aid of others, and this
would beget avarice, which is ' the mother of
vice.' The renunciation of necessaries produce J
as corrupting an influence upon the mind as the
possession of too much wealth. The greatest
of blessings is to have a sufficiency, but to
over-step this limit is to gain nought but
additional trouble.
" Renunciation is the practice of those who
know God, and the characteristic mark of
the wise. Every individual fancies that h<-
alone possesses this knowledge, but know
ledge is an attribute of the mind, and there
is no approach from unaided sense to the at
tributes of the mind, by which we can dis
cover who is, or who is uot, possessed of this
knowledge. Qualities however are the sources
of action : therefore 2. man's practice is an
infallible indication of the qualities he pos
sesses ; if, for instance, a man asserts that he
is a baker, a carpenter, or a blacksmith, we
can judge at once if he possesses skill in
those crafts by the perfection of his handi
work. In a word, theory is internal, and
practice external, the presence of the prac
tice, therefor*, is a proof ll.at the theory too
is thoi
" Kenun j:uiou is necessary V> Iho leal con
fession of f.iJtL ; for the formula ' There is no
God but God,' involves two things, negation
and proof. Negation is the renunciation of
other Gods, and proof is the knowledge of
God. Wealth and dignity have led many
from the right path, th»;y arc the <ro«K the
612
8TJH
SUFI
people wcr«*hip; if then yon see that ono has
renounced these, you may be sure that he
has expelled the love of this world from his
heart, and completed the negation ; and who
soever has attained to the knowledge of God
has completed the proofs. This is really con
fessing that ' there is no God but God ' ; and
he who has not attained to the knowledge of
God, has never really repeated the confession
of faith. Early prejudices are a great stum
bling-block to mrmy people; for the first
principles of Monotheism are contained in the
words of the Hadis: 'Everyone is born with
a disposition [for the true faith], but his
parents make him a Jew, a Christian, or a
Magian.' The Unitarians also say, that the
real confession of faith consists in negation
and proof; but they explain negation by re
nunciation of self, and proof by ackno'wledg-
aient of God.
" Thus, according to the Sufis, confession
of faith, prayer and fasting contain two dis
tinct features, namely, form and truth ; the
former being entirely inefficacious without
the latter. Renunciation and the knowledge
ot God are like a tree ; the knowledge of God
is the root, renunciation the branches, and all
good principles and qualities are the fruit.
To sum up, the lesson to be learnt is that in
repeating the formula the Traveller must .ac
knowledge in his heart that God only always
•was, God only always will be. This world and
the next, nay, the very existence of the Tra
veller, may vanish, but God alone remain?
This is the true confession of faith; and al
though the Traveller before was blind, the
moment he is assured ol this his eyes ate
opened, and he seeth.
V. Helps to Devotion.
" The Sufis hold that there are three aids
necessary to conduct the Traveller on his
path.
"1. Attraction (injizdb <*J\^\) ; 2. De
votion Qtbdd&h SaUc) ; 3. Elevation ('urfi/
Salify. If devotion be first practised, and th<
attraction of God then step in, such a persor
is called an Attracted.Devotee (^..x^/* cdJLj
Sdiik-i-majzub\ If he practise and complettj
devotion, but is not influenced by the at i
traction of God, he is called a Devotee {c^JLt
Sdfi/c).
" Sheikh Shehab-uddin, in his work entitled!
'A.wdrif al Madrif, says that an elder 01
teacher 'should be selected from the secone!
class alone: for although many may be esti-j
mable and righteous, it is but few who art!
fit for such offices, or for the education oil
disciple*.
"Devotion is the prosecution of the jour-;
ney, and that in two ways, to God and in*
God.' The first, the Sufis say, has a limit •!
the second is boundless; the journey to God
is completed when the Traveller has attained j
to the knowledge of God; and then com-j
mences the journey in God, which has for its';
object the knowledge of the Nature and;
Attributes of God, a task which they confess;
ia not to be accomplished in so short a space
as the lifetime of man.
The knowledge wisest men have shared
Of Thy great power and Thee
Is less, when with Thyself compared,
Than one drop in a sea.
" The Unitarians maintain that the journey |
to God is completed when the Traveller ha=j
acknowledged that there is no existence save!
that of God ; the journey in God they explain'
to be a subsequent inquiry into the mysteries j
of nature.
" The term Elevation or ascent
is almost synonymous with Progress.
" Attraction is the act of God, who draws '
xnan towards HirnseU. Man sets his face to
wards this world, and is entangled in the love j
of wealth and dignity, until the grace of God j
steps in and turns liis heart towards God.
The tendency proceeding from God is called
Attraction ; that which proceeds from man is
called Inclination, Desire and Love. As the
inclination increases, its name changes, and it
causes the Traveller to renounce everything
else becoming a Kiblah, to set his face to
wards God ; when.it has become- his Kiblah,
and made him forget everything but God, it
is developed into Love. [QIKLAH.]
" Most men when they have attained this
stage are content to pass their lives therein,
and leave the world without making further
progress. Such a person- the Sufis call
Attracted (s^.A^* majzub^,
" Others, however, proceed from this .to
self-examination, and pass the rest of their
lives in devotion. They are then called De
voutly Attracted (c*)JU, ^*j&.» majziib-i-
VI, The, Intellectual and /Spiritual Development
of Man.
" Every animal possesses a veeretatlve
spirit, a living spirit, and an instinctive j
spirit ; but man has an additional inheritance,!
namely the Spirit of Humanity. Now this!
was breathed by God into man directly from*
Himself, and is therefore of the same cha-'
racter as the Primal Element: ; And when Ij
have fashioned him and breathed My spirit i
into him.' (Cor. cap, 15. v. 21).) The Siifisj
do not interpret this of the Life, but of the,
Spirit of Humanity,, and say that it is fre-j
quently not attained until a late period of
life, thirty or even eighty years. Before manj
can receive this Spirit of Humanity, he mustj
be furnished with capacity, -which is only to]
be acquired by purifying oneself from all evil
and immoral qualities and dispositions, andj
adorning oneself with the opposite ones.
Sheikh Mubiy-uddin ibn ul 'Arabi, in his
* Investigations ' (,p«ai), says that the words)
' and when I have fashioned him,' refer toj
this preparation, and the rest of the sentence,
• and breathed My spirit into hiip,' refers to
the accession of the Spirit of Humanity.
" Two conditions are therefore imposed
upon the Traveller, first, to attain Huma
nity, second, to acquire capacity.
" There are three developments of cha-j
racter that must be suppressed before man!
SUFT
SUFI
613
can attain to Humanity; the animal, the
brutal and the fiendish. He who only eats |
and sloops, and gives way to lust, is mere j
animal : if besides these he gives way to
anger and ^rufilry. Vie is bmtal ; aiad if in
addition to a'! those he is crafty, lying, and
deceitful, he i? fiendish.
" If the Travoiier is moderate in his food.
r?st, nnd desires, and strives to attain a
knowledge nf himself and of God, then is the
time for acquiring capacity by freeing himself
from all that is evil and base, and ndorning
hiinself with the opposite qualities ; after
that by prayer he may obtain the Spirit of
Humanity. boine one has truly said that
there is none of the perfection, essence, or
immortality of man, save only among such as
are • created with a godly disposition.' When
tho Traveller has once been revivified by the
.>}>irit of Humanity hebecomea immortal, and
inherits everlasting life. This is why it has
been said that * man has a beginning but no
! end.'
" If when he has attained this Spirit of
Humanity, lie is earnest, and does not waste
his life in trifling', he soon arrives at the
Divine Light itself. For ' God guidoth whom
He pleascth unto His Light.' The attain
ment of this light is the) completion of Man's
upward progress, but no ooe can attain to it
but those who arc pure in spirit and in their
lives. . Mohauirueti asserted that he hiinsek
had attained it, < To the light have I reached,
and in the light I live ; ' now thia light is the
Nature of God ; wherefore he said, ' who
seeth me seeth God,' [NUR-I-MUHAMMA.D.]
" The germ that contains the Primal Ele
ment of Man is the lowest of th* low, and the
Divine Light is the highest of the high ; it 19
between these extremes that the stages of
man's upward or downward progress lie. ' We
have created man in the fairest of propor
tions, and then have thrown him hack to be
the lowest of the low, save only «uch as be
lieve and act with righteousness ; and verily
these shall have their reward. (Cor. cap.
95, v. 4). This reward is said by the Sufis
t6 be defined by the word ajrvt, 'reward,'
itself. Thia word contains three radical
letters \ $ and , ; ^ stands for Solc\ ' return,'
g tor <Ucj. • paradise,1 and , for £>»,, that is
'those who have handed down the faith.'
Their acting righteously is their return to tue
Nature of God, for when they have finished
their tip-word progress and reached this they
are in Paradise, and in the presence of their
God. He therefore is a man, in the true sense
of the word, vho being sent down upon earth
strives upward towards Heaven. These as
pirations are indispensable fco man ; he might
by the Almighty Power of God exist without
all beside, even had the Heavens and the
elements themselves never been; but these
things are the aim nnd want of all.
ult has been said that the Primal Ele
ment or constructive spirit as well as the
Spirit of Humanity proceed direct from God.
They are therefore identical, and are both in
cluded by tlir Sufis in the one term Conco
mitant Spirit. Now this Spirit, although
distinct and individual, comprehends and
governs the entire Universe. The Simple
Natures are its administrators and exponents ;
of these tho Seven Sires begot, and the Four
Mothers conceive from the incarnation of this
t;pirit in them, and their offspring is the triple
kingdom, Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal.
And so it is with the Lesser World of Man
" Now this Spirit hath two functions, ex
ternal and internal ; the external is revealed
in the material generation just alluded to. the
internal abides in tho .heart of man. Who
soever purifies his heart from worldly impres
sions and desires, reveals this internal func
tion of the Spirit within him. and illumines
and revivifies His soul.
" Thus the Spirit at once comprehends the
Universe aud dwells in the heart of man.
VII. Of the Upward Progress or Ascent of
Man.
*' When Man has become assured of the
truth' of Revelation, he ha* cached the stage
of Belief, and has the name of Mumin,
( Believer.' When he further acts in obe
dience, to the will of C4od, and apportions the
night and day for earnest prayer, he ha:
reached the stage of worsbin. *»nd is callerl
aa 'A' bid, or * Worshipper.' When he baa
expelled tne love of this world from hia
heart, and occupies himself with a contem
plation of the mighty Whole, he reaches
the next stage, and becomes a Zdhid, or
: Recluse.' When in addition to all this he
knows God, and subsequently learns the mys
teries of nature, he reaches the stage .of
Acquaintance, and is called ^A'rif, ' One who
knows.' The next stage is that in which he
attains to the love of God, and is called a
WeM, or ' Saint.' When he is moreover gifted
with inspiration and the power of working
miracles, he becomes a Nebi, < Prophet ' ; and
when entrusted next -with the delivery of
God's own message, he is called an 'Apostle,'
Rusui When he is appointed to abrogate a
previous dispensation and preach a new one,
he is called Ulu TAzfn, l One who has a mis
sion.' When this mission is final, he has
arrived at the stage called Xhatm, or * the
Sfal.' This is the Upward Progress of Man.
The first stage is the ' Believer.' the last the
' Seal.'
" After separation from tlae body, the soul
of Man returns to that Heaven which corre
sponds to the stage which he has attained ;
thus the Believer at last dwells in the first or
lowest Heaven, and the Seal in the Heaven of
Heavens ; for it will be noticed that the
stages of upward progress con-espond to the
number of degrees in the Heavenly ^phtrei,
namnly, aeven inferior and two superior.
" The metaphysicians say that these stages
and degrees do not in reality exist, but thnt
the Heavenly Intelligence which corresponds
to the degree of intelligence attained by Man,
attracts aud absorbs his soul into itself after
separation from the body. Thus every one
who has attained intelligence corresponding
to that of the highest sphere, his soul returns*
SUFI
sun
thereto ; and he who has attained intelligence
corresponding to the lowest sphere, his soul
in like manner returns to that ; those who
have not attained intelligence corresponding
to any of these will be placed in Hell, which
is situate below the lowest sphere.
" A» each of the Heavenly Spheres is fur
nished with knowledge and purity in propor
tion to its position, the rank of Man's soul in
the future state will, according to this last
account, be in proportion to his degree of
knowledge and purity of life while upon the
earth.
" The Unitarians say that man's Upward
Progress has no end, for if he strive for a
thousand years, each day will teach him
something that he knew not before, inasmuch
as the knowledge of God has no limit. So
Mohammed says, ' He who progresses daily is
yet of feeble mind.'
" The religious account says that the soul
of every man returns to an individual place
after separation from the body. This the
metaphysicians deny ; for how, say they, can
the soul of a man return to a certain place
when it has not originally come from a cer
tain place ? The soul of man is the Primal
Spirit, and if a thousand persons live, it is the
same spirit that animates them all ; and in
like manner if a thousand die, the same spirit
returns to itself, and is not lessened or dimi
nished. If a myriad persons build houses and
make windows therein, the same sun illumines
them all, and though every one of them should
be destroyed, the sun would not be lessened
or diminished. The sun is the lord of the
sensible world, and the exponent of the attri
butes of the Primal Spirit. The Primal
Spirit is the lord of the invisible world and
the exponent of the Nature of God.
" When the heart, of man has been revivi
fied aud illumined by the Primal Spirit, ho
has arrived at Intelligence; for Intelligence is
a light in the heart, distinguishing between
truth and vanity. Until he has been so re
vivified anrl illumined, it is impossible for him
to attain to intelligence at all. But having
attained to intelligence, then, and not till then.
is the time for the attainment of knowledge,
for becoming Wise. Intelligence is a Primal
Element, and knowledge the attribute there
of. When from knowledge he has succes
sively proceeded to the attainment of the
Divine Light, and acquaintance with the
mysteries of nature, his last step will be Per
fection, with which his Upward Progress con
cludes,
u But dive he ever so deeply into the trea
sury of mysteries and knowledge, unless he
examine himself and confess that aft*r all he
knows nought, nil that he has acquired will
slip through his hands, and leave him tar
poorer than before. His treasure of to-day
should as much exceed the treasure of yes
terday as an ocean exceeds a drop ; but this
can never be, unless he, leaving all else for
contemplation and self-examination, have
freedom and leisure to learn how poor he
really is, and how much he needs the saving
help of God.
I " One class of Unitarians explain the Up
ward Progress of Man thus. They say that
every atom of existent beings is filled with
light;-
Arise and look around; for every atom
that has birth
Shines forth a lustrous beacon to illu
mine all the earth :
but that man walks abroad in darkness,
blinded by the lusts of life, and laments the
want of light that would, were he but aware
of it, involve him in the glorious sheen of
brightest day :
'Twere well to catch the odours that
about our senses play,
For all the world is full of blasts to bear
the sweets away.
What they mean is this, that all existent
beings are compounded of two things, dark
ness and light, which are indistinguishably
blended together. The light belongs to the
Invisible, and the darkness to the Sensible
world ; but the two are intimately connected,
and the former exercises a paramount in
fluence upon the latter. The object of man,
according to them, is to separate the light
from the darkness, that its nature and attri
butes may be understood, and in this consists
his Upward Progress.
" Although the light and the darkness can
never be entirely separated, for the one is as
it were the veil of the other, the light can be
made to prevail, so that its attributes may
become manifest.
" Now it is possible to separate thus far
the light from the darkness in certain cases ;
in the bodies of men and animals, for in
stance, there are certain organs always at
work, whose sole object is this separation.
Thus, when food is introduced into the sto'-
mach, the liver receives the cream and es
sence of it and transmits it to the heart ; the
heart, in like manner, extracts the essence of
this, which is the life, and transmits it to the
brain ; lastly, the brain extracts the essence
of this, and transforms it into the elixir of
life, the real light of all.
" The elixir evolved by the brain is the
instinctive spirit, and is, as it were, a lamp
in a lantern ; but it gives forth after all but a
flickering and cloudy light, and man's object
should therefore be to strengthen and purify
it by Renunciation and Contemplation, until
it give forth the true light which is the Spirit
of Humanity. WThen man has attained to
this he necessarily becomes free from all that
is evil, and is adorned instead with every
good and noble quality.
" The body of man is like a lantern, tiio
Vegetative Spirit is the lamp, the Animal
Spirit is the wick, the Instinctive Spirit the
oil, and the Spirit of Humanity the fire that
kindles all. 'Verily its oil 'would almost
shine even though no fire kindled it.' (Cor.
cap. 24, v. 35.) In other words, the Instinc-
tivo Spirit should feed and supply the Spirit
of Humanity, as the oil feeds and supplies'
the fiaiue in a lamp. The Traveller must
aim at completing this lamp, so that his
heart may be illumined, and he may see
su?r
si n
things as they really are. When the Spirit of i
Humanity a ' light upou. light ' (Cor. cap. 24, !
v. 35) has thus kindled the Instinctive Spirit, |
God ' guideth ' whom He pleaseth to Hi?
own light' (idem), that is, to the divine i
light of His own nature, reaching which the ,
Traveller's Upward Progress is complete ; j
for 'from Him they spring, and unto Him
return.' "
VIII. Suflism adapted to Afuhammadnnism.
A clear and intelligible exposition of the
principles of Sufliam, or Orienial Spiritual
ism, is given by Muhammad al-Misri, a
Sufi of the Ilhamiyah school of thought, in
the following categorical form (translated by
Mr. J. P. Brown, in the Jownal of the Ameri
can Oriental Society). It represents more
particularly the way in which this form of
mysticism is adapted to the stern and dog
matic teaching of Islam.
Qfiettian. — What is the beginning of at-
Tasawwuf?
Answer. —Imdn, or faith, of which thero
are six pillsu-8, namely, (1) Belief in God,
(2) in His Angels, (3) in His Books, (4) and
in His Prophets, (5) in the Last Day, and (6)
in His decree of good and evil.
Q.— What is the result of at-Tasawwuf ?
A. — It is not only the reciting with the
tongue these pillars of faith, but also esta
blishing them in the heart. This was the
reply made by the Murshid Junaidu '1-
Baghdadi, in answer to the same question.
1.l. — What is the distinction, between a Sufi
ana an ordinary person ?
A. — The knowledge of an ordinary person
is but Imanu-i-Taqlldi, or "a counterfeit
faith," whereas that of the Sufi is Imdn-i-
Tabq'u/i, or " true faith."
Q. — What do you mean by counterfeit
faith?
A. — It is that which an ordinary person
has derived from his forefathers, or from
the teachers and preachers of his own
day, without knowing why it is essential
that a man should believe in these six
articles for his soul's salvation. For example,
A person may be walking in the public streets
aud find a precious jewel which, perhaps,
king? had sought for in vain, and rulers who
had conquered the whole world had sought
for and yet had not found. But in this
precious jewel he has found that which is
more effulgent than the sun, when it is so
bright that it obscures the lesser light of
the moon ; or even he has found an alchemy
which can convert copper into geld. And
yet perhaps, the finder knows . not the value
of the precious jewel, hut thinks it a counter
feit jewel, and one which he would give
away even for a drink cf water if he were
thirsty.
(j._\Yhn la h;> o-t.-ihlishment of faith?
A. — The estiiblishmeut of faith consists in
a search being made fur the true origin of
each of these six pillars of faith, until the
enquirer arrives ut al-Hayiqah, " the Truth,"
Many person.* pursue the journey for ten, or
twenty, or thirty, or oven forty years, and,
wandering away from the true path, enter
upon the path of error, and hence there are
knov;n to be seventy-three ways, only one of
which is the way of Salvation. [HBCTS.] At
last, by a perfect subjection to the teaching
of tho Murshid, or gnide, they h'nd out the
value of the lost jewel which they have
found, and their faith becomes manifest, and
you might say that, with the light of a lamp,
they have reached the sun. They then find
out that the farlqttk, or journey of the Sufi,
is consistent with the Shari'att, or law of
Islam.
Q. — In matters of faith and worship, to
what sect are the Sufis attached ?
A^ — (To this reply the author says, speak
ing, of course, of his own people, that they
are chiefly of the Sunni sect. But he doe«
not notice that mystic doctrines are more
prevalent amongst the ShJ'ahs.)
Ci- — When Bayazld al-Bistami was asked
of what sect he was, he replied, "I am of
the sect of Allah." What did he mean?
A. — The sects of Allah are the four ortho
dox sects of Islam. [Here our author departs
from true Sufi teaching.]
42- — Most of the Sufis, in their poems, use
certain words which we hear and under
stand as showing that they were of the
Metempsychosians. They say, " I am some
times Lot, sometimes a vegetable, sometimes
an animal, at other times a man." What
does this mean?
A.— Brother! the prophet has said: "My
people, in the future life, will rise up iu
companies " — that is, some as monkeys, others
as hogs, or in other forms — as is written in a
verse of the Qur'an, Surah Ixxviii. 18 : " Yc
shall come in troops," which has been com
mented on by al-Baizawi, who cites a tra
dition to the effect that, at the resurrection,
men will rise up in the form of those animate
whose chief characteristics resemble their
own ruling passions iu life : the greedy,
avaricious man as a hog; the angry, pas
sionate man as a camel ; tho tale-bearer or
mischief-maker as a monke/ For though
these men, while in this life, bore the human
form externally, they were internally no-
thing different from the animals whose
characters are in common with their own.
The resemblance is not manifest during the
life, but becomes so in the other existence,
after the resurrection. Let us avoid such
traits ; repentance before death will free us
from these evils. The Prophet said with
regard to this : " Sleep is the brother of
death- The dying man sees himself in his
true character,* and so knows whether or not
he is, by repentance, freed from his ruling
passion of life. In like manner, ho will s.?f
himself during his slumbers, still following
in the p.it'i of his passions.'' For instance,
the money-calculator, in sleep, sees himself
engaged in his all-absorbing occupation ; and
this fact is a warning from God not to allow
himself to be absorbed in any animal patsion
or degrading occupation. It is only by
prayerful repentance that anyone "an hone
616
SUFI
STTF1
to see himself, in his sleep, delivered from
his ruling «arnal passion, and restored to his
proper human, intellectual form. If in your
slumbers you see a monkey, consider it as a
warning to abandon or abstain from the
passion of mischief ; if a hog, cease to seize
upon the goods of others ; and so on. G'j
and give yourself up to an upright Mnrshid,
or spiritual guide, who will, through his
prayers, show you in your slumbers the
evil parts of your character, until one by
one they have passed away, and have been
replaced by good ones — all through the
power of the name of God, whom he will
instruct you to invoke [ZIKH] : at length you
will only see in your slumbers the forms of
holy and pious men, in testimony of that
degree of piety to which you will have
attained. This is what is meant by that
expression of certain poets, referring to
one's condition previous to the act of re
pentance, when the writer says, " I am
sometimes an suhna-l, sometimes a vegetable,
sometimes a man "';• and the same may be
satrl by the Sufis, in application to theu,-
^elves --is of any othfr part of orpation, for
UJHP is <-allpr* thf 'iklnrv 't-maujudat, or "th?
chmax of beings " : for in him are com
prised all the characteristics oi creation.
Many mystical books hate been written on
this subject, all showing that man is the
larger part, and tin world the smaller part,
of God s creation. The buman iraine is said
to comprise all the other parts of creation;
and the heart of man is supposed to be even
more oompreheusi ve than the rainbow, be
cause, when the eyes are closed, the mental
capacity ran take in the whole of a vast
city : though not soen by the eyes, it is seen
by the capacious nature of the mind. Among
such books is the Hauzu 't-Haydt, or the
•{ Well of Life," which says that, if a man
closea his eyes, e>u», and nostrils; he cannot
take cold: that the right nostril is called
the sun, and the left the moon : that from
the former he breathes heat, and from the
latter cold air.
Q. — Kxplain the distinctive opinions of. the
Sufis in at-2^<indmkh, or the Transmigration
of Souls.
A. — O Brother! our teaching regarding
al-Barza/ch (Quran xxiii. 102) has nothing
whatever to do with at-Tanasukh. Of all
the erring sects in the world, thoso who
believe in Metempsychosis, or Transmigra
tion of Souls, is the very worst.
Q. — The Sufis regard certain things as
lawful which are forbidden. For instance,
they enjoin the use of wine, wine-shops, the
wine-cup, sweethearts: they speak of the
curls of their mistresses, and the moles on
their faces., cheeks, &c., and compare the
furrows on their brows to verses of the
Qur'an. What does this mean ij
A. — The Sufis often exchange the external
features of all things for the internal, the
corporeal for the spiritual, and thus give an
imaginary signification to outward forms.
They behold objects of a precious nature in
their natural character and for this reason
the greater part of their words nave a
spiritual and figurative meaning. For in
stance, when, like Hanz, they mention wine,
they mean a knowledge of God, which,
figuratively considered, is the love of God.
Wine, viewed figuratively, is also Io7e : love
and affection are here the same thing. The
wine-shop, with them, means the murshidu Y-
kdmil, or spiritual director, for his heart is
daid to be the depository of the love of God :
the wine -cup is the Tallin, or the pronunci
ation of the >name of G-od in a declaration of
faith, as : " There is' no God but Allah! " or
it signifies the words which flow from the
MurskifT* mouth respecting divine know
ledge, and which, when heard by the Sdlik,
or " one who pursues the true path." intoxi
cates his soul, and divests his heart of
passions, giving him pure spiritual delights.'
The sweetheart means the excellent pre
ceptor, because, when anyone- sees his l>e-
ioved, he admires her perfect proportions,
with a heart full of love; the Salik beholds
the secret knowledge of God which fills the
heart of his spiritual preceptor, or Murshid^
and through it receives a similar inspiration,
and acquires a full perception of all that he
possesses, just as the pupil learns from his
master. As the lover delights in the pre
sence of his sweetheart, so the Sdlik rejoices
in the company of his beloved Murahid, or
preceptor. The sweetheart i>* the object of
a worldly affection, but the preceptor of a
spiritual attachment. The curls or ringlets
of the beloved are the grateful praises of the
preceptor, tending to bind the affections of
the disciple ; the moles on her faoe signify
that when tho pupil, at times, beholds the
total absence of all worldly wants on tuo
part of the preceptor, he also abandons all
the desires of both worlds — he perhaps even
goes so far as to desire nothing else in life
than his preceptor; the furrows on the brow
of the beloved one, which they compare to
verses of the Qur'an. mean the light of the
heart of the Murshid ; they are compared to
verses of the Qur'an, because the attributes
of God, in accordance with the injunction of
the Prophet: "Be ye endued with divine
qualities," are possessed by the Murshid.
Q.. — The Murshids niid their disciples often
say: *• We see God." Is it possible for any
one to see God ?
A. — It is not possible. What they mean
by this asssrtion is that they know God, that
they see His power ; for it is forbidden to
mortal eyes to behold Him, as is declared in
the Qur'an, Surah vi. 103: "No sisrht reaches
Him ; Ho reaches the sight — the subtle, the
knowing." The. Prophet commanded us to
"adore God, as thou wouldst didst thou see
Him ; for, if thou dost not see Him, He sees
thee." This permission to adore Him is a
divine favour, and they say that they are
God's servants by divine favour, 'AH said:
"Should tho veil fall from ray eyes, how
would God visit ino in trutb v '' This saying
proves that no. one really sees God, and that
even the sainted 'Ail never s«w Him.
Q. — Can it possibly be erroneous to say
3UFI
that, by seeing the traces of anyone he may
be beheW ?
_A. — One may certainly be Urns aeon.
When any person sees the brightness of the
sun^iie may safely Bay that he has seen the
snn, though, indeed, he has not really «een
it. There is another example, namely:
Should you hold a mirror in yonr hand, you
see a figure in it. and you may, therefore,
say that you see your own fact', which is
realiv an impossibility, for no one has ever
seen his own face, and you have asserted
what is not strictly correct.
Q. — Since everyone sees the traces of
God, as everyone is able to do. how is it
that the Sufis declare that they only see
Him >
A.— Those- who make this statement do
not know what they see. for they have never
really seen Him. A person who has eaten
of a sweet and savoury dish given to him,
but of which he knows not the name, seeks
for it again with a longing desire after it, and
thus wanders about in search of what has
given him so much delight, even though he
be ignorant of what it really was- So are
those who seek after God. without knowing
Him, or what He is.
Q. — Some Sufis declare: ;> We ate neither
afraid of Hell, nor de we desire Heaven" — a
iayin^ which must be blasphemous. How is
this '
A.— They 'do not really mean that they do
not fear Uell, and that they do not wish for
Heaven. If they really meant this, it would
be blanphemous. Their meaning is not as
they express themselves : probably they wish
to say : " O Lord, Thou who createdst ua,
and madest us what we are, Tbou hast not
made us because we assist Thy workings.
We are in duty bound to ,serve '1 bee all the
inon devotedly, wholly in obedience to Thy
holy will. We have no bargaining with
Thee, and we do not adore Thee with the
view of gaining thereby either Heaven or
Hell ! " As it is written in the Qur'an, Surah
ix. 112: "Verily. God hath bought of the
believers their persons and their wealth, for
the Paradise they are to have," which means
that His bounty has no bounds. His mercy
no cud; and thus it is that He bcnelits
His faithful servants. They would say:
"Thou hast uo bargaining with anyone . our
devotion is from the sincerity of our hearts,
and is for love of Thee only. Were thorc
no Hea-ren, nor any Hell, it would still be
our duty to adore Thee. To Thee belongs
the perfect right to put us either in Heaven
or in Hell, and may Thy commands be exe-
•uted agreeably to Thy blessed will! If
Thou puttest us in Heaven, it is through
Thine excellence, not on account of our
devotion; if Thou puttest us in Hell, it is
from out of Thy great justice, and not from
any arbitrary decision on Thy purl ; so be it
for ever and for ever ! •' This is the true
meaning ot the Sufis when thev sav they do
not desire Heaven or fear .Hell.
Q.— ^Thoa saidst tbat there is no conflict
between the Sftariak. " \aw," and the Haqiqali,
SUFI
617
".truth," and ucthin^ m tho latter racnn-
sistent with the former ; and yet those two
are distinguished frorn one another by "a
something " which the Ahlti y-JIaqiqah, " be
lievers in tho truth," conceal Were there
nothing eondictiua-, whj should il bo thus
hidden ?
A. — If it be concealed, it is not because
there is a contrariety to the law. but only
because the tiling .hidden is contrary to the
human mind ; its definition is subtle, and not
understood by everyone., for which rea»ou
the Prophet said <m Speak to men nccording
to their )aenta4 capacities, lor if you speak
all things to all men, some cannot under
stand you. and so fall into error.** The $ufis,
therefore, hid* some things conformably with
this precept.
Q. — Should anyone not know tho science
which is kuown to the 'Sufis, and still do
what the law plainly commands, and be
satisfied therewith, would his faith and
lalum bo less than that of the Sufis?
A. — No. He would- riot be inferior to the
Sufis: his faith and ''Islam would bo equal
even to that of the prophets, because Jinan
and Islam are a jewel which admits of -no
division or separation into parts. And can
neither be increased nor diminished, just as
tho portion of '.the sun enjoyed by a king and
by a Jaqir is the same, or as the limbs of ths
poor and tho rich are equal in number : just
as tho members of the body of the king and
the gubjf.'ct arc precisely "alike, so ia the faith
of the Muslim the same in all and common to
all. neither greater/nor less in any case.
Q.— Some men arc prophets-, saints, pure
ones, and others /'Yrsroj abo know God, but
perform none of His tammauds) ; what dil-
fcronce is there among i«em ?*
-•I. -The difference lv:s in their mu'rifah,
or •• knowledge of spiritual things'': bui in
the inat tor .of faith they are all equal; jusi
as, in the case of the ruler .and tho subject,
their limbs are all cquai^while they differ in
their dress "power, and office.
IX. Sufi Pot.tfv
The vt»rv essence of Siufiisai is poetry, and
tho Eastern Mvstics are never tired of expa
tiating on the fls/i</t or •• love to God,'' which
is the one 'distinguuihin? feature of SufT mys
ticism. The Masnawi, which teaches in the
sweetest strains Lha^ all nature abounds with
love divine, thut causes even the lowest plant
to seek the sublime object o, its desire ; the
works of the celebrated .hum, so full of
ecstatic rapture-, the moral lessons of the
eloquent Sa-di . *nd the lyric odes of Hafiz.
may be te;-nied Ibc Scriptures of the Sufi
sect ; and yet cnch of these authors contains
passages which arc: unfit for publication in
an English dress, and advocate morals at
variance with what Christianity teaches as
to be the true reflection of Ood's Holy Wfll.
Whilst propriety demands the suppression
of verses of the character alluded to, we
give a few odes as specimens of the higher
order of Sufi poetrv.
78
618
SUFI
SUFI
Jalalu 'd-din ar-Rumi, the author of the
Magndjci (A.H. 670), thus writes : —
"I am the Gospel, the Psalter, the Qur'an ;
I am 'Uzza and Lat— (Arabic deities)— Bell
and the Dragon,
Into three and seventy sects is the world
divided,
Yet only one God; the faithful wno believe
in Him am I.
Thon knowesjy what, are fire, water, air and
earth ;
Fire, water, air, and earth, all am I.
Lies and truth, good, bad, hard and soft,
Knowledge, solitude, virtue, faith,
The deepest ground of hell, the. highest
torment of the flames,
The highest paradise,
The earth and -what is therein,
The angels and the devils, Spirit and man,
aw 1.
What, is the goal of speech, Otell it Shams
TabrUT ?
The goal of sense V This:— The world
Soul am L"
* . » * * *
And again : —
"Are we foois ? We are God's captivity.
Are we wise ? We are His promenade.
Are we sleeping-? We are drunk with
God.
Are we waking? Then we are His
heralds.
Are we weeping? Then His clouds of
wrath.
Are we laughing? Flashes of His love."
# * * » #
" Every night God frees the host of spirits ;
Frees them every night from fleshly prison.
Then the soul is neither slave nor master ;
Nothing knows the bondsman of his bond
age;
Nothing knows the lord of all his lordship.
Gone from such a night, is eating sorrow ;
Gone, the thoughts that question good or
evil.
Then without distraction, or division,
In this One the spirit sinks and slumbers."
The following is from the mystic poet
Mahmud : —
"All sect* but multiply the I and Thou;
This I and Thou. belong to partial being.
When I and Thou, and several being
vanish,
Then mosque and church shall find Thee
nevermore.
Our iudividual life is but a phantom ;
Make clear thine eye, and see reality."
The following verses, are by Farldu 'd-din
oiinki-gunj (A.K. GG2;: —
4' Man, what thou art is bidden from thy-
self;
Know'st not that morning, mid-day, and
the eve
Are all within Thee ? The uinth heaven
art Thou ;
And from the spheres into the roar of
Didat fall ere- while, Thou art the brush
that painted
The hues of all the world — the light of
life
That ranged its glory in the nothingness."
" Joy ! joy ! I triumph now ; no more I
know
Myself as simply m«. I burn with love.
The centre is within me, and its wonder
Lies as a circle everywhere about me.
Joy.! joy! No mortal thought can fathom
me.
I am the merchant and the pearl at once.
Lo 1 time and space lie crouching at my
feet.
Joy 1 joy ! When I would revel in a rap
ture,
1 plunge into myself, and all things know,"
Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, gives a
j translation of a, Sufi noem recited by an
Egyptian Darweeh : —
" With my loye my heart is troubled ;
And mine eye-lid hind'reth sleep :
My vitals are ilissever'd:
Wbiie with streaming tears I weep.
My ~uuiou aeetas far distant :
Will my love e er meet mine eyo ?
Alas ! Did not estrangement
Draw my tears, I would not sigh.
By dreary rights I 'm wasted :
Absence makes my hope expire :
My tears, like pearls, aro dropping ;
Aim my neart is wrapt in fire.
Whose is liko my condition?
Scarcely know I remedy.
Alas! Did it ot estrangement
Draw my tears, I would not sigh.
0 turtle-dovp 1 acquaint me
Wherefore thus dost thou lament ?
Art thou so stung by absence?
Of thy wings depri v'd and pent ?
H« s>ntn, * Our griefs are equal :
Worn away wii.h Jove, I lie.'
Alas ! Did not estrangement
Draw my tears, i would not, sigh.
O First, and sole Eternal !
Siiuw tr»y favour yet to me
Thy slave, Ahmad El-Bekree,
Hath no Lord excepting Thee.
By Ta-ha, the Great Prophet I
Do thou not hi** wish deny.
Alas 1 Did not estrangement
Draw my tears, J would not sigh."
Dr. Tholuck quotes this verse from a Dar-
wesb Breviary : —
"Yesterday I neat the kettle-drum of do
minion,
I pitched my tent on the highest throne ;
I drank, crowned by the Beloved.
The wine of unity from the cup of tho
Almierhty."
One of the most characteristic Sufi poems
is the Persian poem by the poet Jam!, en
titled Saldman and Absal. The whole nar
rative is supposed to represent the joys of
Love Divine as compared with the delusive
fascinations of a Life of Sense. The story 13
SUFI
that of a certain King of Ionia, \\li-t had a
son namod Salaman, who in his infancy
was nursed by a young maiden named Absal,
who, as he grew np, fell desperately in
love with the youth, and in time ensnared
him. Salainun and Absal rejoiced together
in a life of sense for a full year, and thought
their pleasures would never end. A certain
sago is then sent by the king to reason with
the erring couple. Salaman confesses that
the sage ifl right, but pleads the weakness of
hi« own will. Salaman leaves his native land
in company with Absal, and thoy find them
selves on an island of wonderful beauty.
Salamau, unsatisfied with himself and his
love, returns once more to hisnatire country
where he and Absal resolve to destroy theui-
'elves. They go to a desert and kindle a
pile, and both walk into the lire. Absal
is consumed 4 but Salumau is preserved in the
fire, and lives to lament tho faU> of his be
loved one. In course of time he is introduced
by the siuye to a cele.stial beauty called Zuh-
rah, will; \vhom ho becomes completely ena-
pionred, and Absfu is forgotten.
" . . . . Ceiesuai beauty seen,
He left the earthly ; and once come to
know
Eternal love, ho let the mortal go."
In the epilogue to. the poem, tho author
explains the mystic meaning of the whole
story in i,J»n following language : —
*' Under the out ward form of any story
An inner meaning lies — this story now
Completed, do ihou of its mystery
(Whereto the wise hath found himsolf a
way)
Have thy desire — no tala of I and Thou,
Though I and Thou be its interpreters.
What signifies the King? and what tho
Sage?
And what Salaman not of woman born?
And wha.t Absal who drew him to de
sire?
And what the Kingdom that awaited
him
When hd had drawn his garment from
her hand ?
What means that Fiery Pile ?. and what
the Sea /
And what thai heavenly Zuhrah who at
Ifttt
Olear'd Absal from the mirror of his
soni ?
Learn part by part the mystery from
me ;
All ear from head to foot and under
standing be.
The incomparable Creator, when this
world
He did create, created that of all
Theirs* vnttlUgetiee- -first of a chain
Of tea iatelligen&M, of which tke faat
Sole Agent is this out Universe,
Active intelligence ao cill'd, the one
Distributor of evil and of good,
Of joy %nd sorrow. Himself apart irom
matter,
In essence and in energy — His treasure
SUFI
619
Subject to no such, talisman — He yet
Hath fashion'd all that is— material
form,
And spiritual sprang from Him — bv
Him
Directed all, and in His bounty drown'd.
Therefore* is He that Firman-issuing
King
To whom the world was subject. But
'because
What he distributes to the Universe
llimsolf from still higher power receives,
Tho wise, and all who comprehend
wight,
Will rocugnise that higher in tho Sago.
His tho "Prime Spirit that, spontaneously
Projected by the tenth intelligence,
Was from no womb of matter reproduced
A special essence called the Soul— a
Child
Fresh aprung from Leaven in raiment
nndefiled
Of sensual taint, and therefore call'd
Salaman.
And who Absal? — The lust-adoring
body.
Slave lie the blood and sense — through
whom the Soul,
Although the body's very life it be,
Does yet imbibe the knowledge and de
sire
Of things of bonaej and these uuitcd
thus
By such a tie God only oan unloose,
Body and soul are lovers each oi other.
Wh;it is tlio Sea on which they sail'd ? —
the Sea
Of auirnal desire — tho Beiisuai abyss,
Under whose waters lias a world of
being
Swept far from Hod in luat submcJa'ur..
And wherefore was Absal in that lile
Deceived in Ler delight, and that Sa la-
man
Fell short of his deaire ?— that was to
show
Hovr passion tires, and how with time
begins
The folding of the carpet of desire.
And what tho Uirumg cf SaUmau's
heart
B-tf k la the King, and looking to tJie
throne
Of pomp and glory ? What but the
return
Of the lost Html to it* true parentage,
Aid hack from carnal error looking up
Hopentant to ita intellectual throne.
What i.5 the Fire?— Aortic Jitc-ii-liuo,
That barm away tho miinml nlloy.
Till all the i!vos& of matter be conanmod,
And the- e^emial SuuJ, its raiment
clean.
Of mortal taint, be left But foraa-
"mtch .
As, any life* long IwUit .so con«»imed,
May well reciu n P^^*' f°T v»hat is Lst,
620
SUFI
8UFI
Therefore the Sage set m Salamans
eyes.
A sootning faritom of the past, but still
Toid of a better Venus, till his soul
She fill'd, and blotted out his mortal
love.
For -what is Zuhrah ?— That divine per
fection,
Wherewith ' the soul iiispir'd and all
array'd
Its intellectual ligrht is royal blest,
And mounts the throne, and wears the
crown, and reigns
Lord of the empire of humanity.
This is the meaning of this mystery.
Which to know wholly ponder in thy
heart,
Till all its ancient secret be enlarged.
JSnough — the written summary I close.
And set uiy seal :
THE TRUTH GOD ONLY Knows."
X. The, True (Jharaoter of Sufiism.
It will be seen that the groat object of the
Sufi Mystic is to lose his own identity-
Having effected this, perfection is attained.
This ideal conception of the Sufi is thus
expressed by Jaliihi 'cl-dinu 'r-Rumi in his
book, the Ma&nawi (p. 78). It represent*
Human Love seeking1 admission into the
Sanctuary of Divinity : —
"One knocked at the door ot the Be
loved, and a voico from within inquired,
' Who is there?' Then he answered, -It is
L' And the voice said, -This houso will
not hold mo and thee/ So the door remained
shut. Then the Lover sped away into the
wilderness, and fasted and prayed in soli
tude. And after a year ho returned, and
knocked again at the door, and the voice
again demanded, 'Who b there? And the
Lover said, ' ft ».s Thou.' Then the door was
opened."
The Sufi doctrines are undoubtedly pan
theistic, and are almost identical with those
of the Brahmans and Buddhists, the Neo-
Platonists, the Beghards and Begums. There
is the same union of man with God, the same
emanation of all things from God, and the
same final absorption of all things into
the Divine Essence. And these doctrines
are held in harmony with a Muhammadan
view of predestination, which makes all a
necessary evolution of the Divine Essence.
The creation of the creature, the fall of those
who have departed from God, and their final
return, aro all evouts pre-ordained by an
absolute necessity.
Bayazidu 'l-Bis^ami, a mystic of th« ninth
century, said he was a sea without a bottom
without beginning and without end. Being
asked, " What is the throne of God ? " he
answered, " 1 am the throne of God." " What
is the table on which tho divine decrees are
written?" " I am that table." "What is
the pen of God — the word hy which God
created all things ? " "I am the pen/
""What is Abraham. Moses, and Jesus?"'
*» I am Abraham, Moses, and Jesu*-" " What
are the angels Gabriel, Michael, Isrufil ? "
" I am Gabriel, Michael, Israfil, for what
ever comes to true being is absorbed into
God, and this is God/ Again, in another j
place. al-Bistami cries, '; Praise to me, I am
truth, lam the true God. Praise to rue, 1 1
must be celebrated by divine praise. '
Tho chief school of Arabian philoso- '
phy. that of al-Ghazzali (A.H, 5Q5), passed j
over to Sufiism by the same reasoning
which led Plotinus to his mystical theology.
After long inquiries for some ground on
which to base the certainty of our know
ledge. al-G.hazza.li was lod to reject entirely
all belief iq the senses. He then found it
equally difficult to be certified of the accu
racy of the conclusions of reason, for there
may be. he thought, some faculty higher I
than reason, which, if we possessed, would
show tho uncertainty of reason, as reason
now shows the uncertainty of the senses. He
was left in scepticism, and saw no escape but
in the Sufi union with Deity. There alone can
man know what id true by becoming the. truth j
itself, '* I was forced," he saicV " to return to j
•;he admission of intellectual notions as the
bases of all. certitude. This, however, was not I
by .systematic reasoning and accumulation of
proofs, but by a flash of Light which God j
sent into my soul ! For whoever imagines
that truth can only bo rendered evident by
proofs, places narrow limits to the wide com
passion of the Creator."
Sufiism (says Mr. Cowell) has arisen from
the bosom of Muhammadanism as a vague
protest of the human soul, in its intense
Iquging after & purer creed. On certain
tenets of the Qur'un the Suf is have erected
their own system, professing, indeed, to
reverence its authority as a divine revela
tion, but iu reality substituting for it the
oral voice of the teacher, or the secret J
dreams of the Mvstic. Dissatisfied with the j
barren letter of the Qur'an, Sufiism appeals I
to human consciousness, and from our j
nature's felt wants, seeks to set before us j
nobler hopes than a grcs* Mahaniinadan j
Paradise can f ulQl.
Whilst there are doubtless many amongst
the Sufis who are earnest, seekers after truth, J
it is well known that some of them make |
their mystical creed a cloak fer gross sensual
gratification. A sect of Sufis called the 1
Muhabiyah, or •• Kevercd," maintain the
doctrine of community of property and I
women, and the sect known as the Mala- \
iriatiyah) or '• reproached,'1 maintain the j
doctrine of necessity, and compound all i
virtue with vice. Many such do not hold i
themselves in the least responsible for sins
committed by the body,, which they regard ,
only as the miserable robe of humanity
which encircles the pure spirit.
Some of the Sufi poetry is most objection- i
able. M&cGuekin de Slane, in his Introduction \
to Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary,
says :— " It often happens that a poet describes >
IMS mistress under the attributes of the !
other sex, lest he should offend that execs- '
sive prudery of Oriental feelings which, since !
SUFI
the fourth century of Iglamism, scarcely
allows an allusion to women, und more
particularly in poetry • and this rigidness is
still carried so far, that • uiro public singers
dare not amuso their auditors with a song
in -which the beloved is indicated as a female.
It cannot, however, be denied that tho feel
ings which inspin»xl poetry of this kind were
not always pure, and that polygamy and
jealousy have invested tho morals of sonic-
Eastern nations with the foulest corruption."
Tho story of the Rev. Dr. Tmadu 'd-din
(the eminent native clergyman, a convert
from Islam, now residing at Amritsar) is a
remarkable testimony to tho unsatisfying
nature of Siifiistic exorcises to meet the
spiritual need of anxious soul The following
extract from the printed autobiography oi
tup life will show this : —
'* I sought for union with God from tra
vellers and Jayirs, and even from the insane
people of the city, according to the tenets of
the Sufi mystics. The thought of utterly
renouncing the world then came into my
mind with so much power, that I left every
body, and went out into the desert, and
became a faqir, putting on clothes covered
with red ochre, and wandered here and there,
from city to city and from village to village,
Btep by step, alone, for about 2,000, or (2,500
miles; without plan or baggage. Faith in
the Muharnmadan religion will never, indeed
allow true sincerity to be produced in the
nature of man; yet I was then, although
with many worldly motives, in search only
of God. JUi this state i entered the city of
Karuii, where a stream called Cholida Hows
beneath a mountain, and there I stayed to
perform the Hisbii H-bahdr. I bad a book
with me on tho doctrines of mysticism and
the practice of devotion, which I had re
ceived from my religious guide, and hold
more dear even than Ihe Quran. In,rny
journeys I slept with it at my Bide at nights,
and took comfort in clasping it to my heart
whenever my mind was perplexed. My
religious guide had forbidden me to show
this book, or to speak of its secrets to any
one, for it contained the sum of everlasting
happiness ; and so this priceless book is even
now lying useless on a shelf in my house
I took up the book, and sat down on the
bank of the stream, to perform tho core-
monies as they were enjoined, according to
the following rules: — The celebrant must
first perform his ablutions on the bank of
the flowing stream, and, wearing an un&ffwn
dross, must sit in a particular manner on oho
knee for .twelve days, and repeat the prayer
called Jugopar thirty times every day with a
loud voice. He must not eat any food with
salt, or anything at all, except somo "barley
bread of flour lawfully earned, which he has
made with his own hands, and baked with
wood that he has brought himself from the
jangles. During the day he must fast
entirely, after performing his ablutions in
tho river before daylight; and he must
remain barefooted, wearing no shoes; nor
must he t»uch any man, nor, except at an
SUFI
621
appointed time, even speak to anyone. The
object of all this "is, that he may moot with
God, and from the longing desire to obtain
this. 1 underwent all this pain. In addition
to the above, 1 wrote tho name of God on
paper 125,000 times, performing a certain
portion every day ; and [ cut out each word
separately with scissors, and wrapped them
up each in a ball of flour, and fed the iishcs
of the river with them, in tho way the book
prescribed. My days were spent in this
manner: and during half tho night I slept,
arid the remaining half I sat up, and wrote
the. name of God mentally on rny heart, and
saw Him with tho eye of thought. When all
this toil was ovor, and I went thence, I had
no strength left in my body ; my face was
wan and pale, and I could not even hold
myself up agaiiiit the wind."
Major Durie Osborn, in his Islam under (he
Khalifs nf Baghdad (p. 112), says: "The
spread of this Pantheistic spirit has been and
is the source of incalculable evil throughout
the Muharnmadan "world The truo function
of religion is to vivify and illuminate nil the
ordinary relations of lite with light from a
higher world. The weakness to which reli
gious minds are peculiarly prpne is to sup
pose that this world of working life is an
atmosphere too gross and impure for them
to live in. They ?:rave for bettor bread than
can be made from wheat. They attempt to
fashion a world for themselves, where nothing
shall soil the purity of the soul or disturb the
serenity of their thoughts. The divorce
thus effected between the religious life and
the -worldly Iife3 is disastrous to both. The
ordinary relations of men become emptied of
all divine significance. They are considered
as the symbols of bondage to the world or to
an evil deitv The religious spirit dwindles
down to a. scllish desire to acquire a frlidty
from which the children of this world are
hopelessly excluded Pre-eminently has this
been the result of Muhauimadan mvsticiam.
It has dug a deep gulf between those who caw.
know God and those who roust wander in
darkness, feeding upon the husks of rites and
ceremonies. It has atlirmed with emphasis,
that only by a complete renunciation of the
world is it possible to attain tho true end of
man's existence. Thus all tho best and purest
natures — the men who might have put A soul
in tho decaying Church of Islam — have boon
drawn off from their proper task to wander
about .in deserts and solitary places, or ex
pend their lives in idle and profitless pas
sivity disguised under the title of ' spiritual
contemplation.' [ZIKR.] But this has only
been part of the evil. Tho logical result of
Pantheism is the destruction of a moral law.
If God be all in all. and man's apparent in*
dividoality a delusion of the perceptive
faculty, there exists no will which can act,
no conscience vrhicb can reprove or applaud
The individual is but a momentary seeming :
he comes and goes like • the snow-Hake on tho
rifer; a moment seen, xhcu gone for over.'
To rop roach such an ephemeral creature for
being the slaves of its passions, is to chide the
622
SUFTAJAH
SUNNAH
thistledown for yielding to the violence of
the wind. Mnbammadans have not been
slow to discover these consequences. Thou
sands of reckless and profligate spirits have
entered the orders of the derweshes to enjoy
the lioenue thereby obtained. Their affecta
tion oi piety is simply a cloak for fchc pracUee
of sensuality ; their emancipation from the
ritual of Islam involves a liberation also from
its moral restraints. And thus a movement),
animated at its outset by a high snd lofty
purpose, ha* degenerated into '& fruitful
source of i)i. The stream which ought to
have expanded into a fertilising river, 1ms be
come a vast ft« amp, exhaling vapours charged
with disease and death." [FAQIF j
(For further information ou the subject
of Eastern Mysticism the English reader is
referred to the following works : Hunt's
Pantheism; Tholuck s .Sufisnius ,- Malcolm's
Jlistonj of Persia ; Brown's Darweshes ; Ox
ford Essays for 1855. by E. B.. Co well;
Palmer's .Oriental Mysticism • Do Slane's
Introduction to Ibn JCkaJUika*. ; BickneH'*
Transl'tiion of JH ft /is- of Shlriiz ; Ousrjify's
Persian PoeL ; Vaugban's Hours with ihe
Mystics. Persian and Arabic books on the
subject are too numerous to mention. 'A.bdu
'r-Razzaq's Dictionary of the Technical TcnM
of the Sufis was published in Arabic by Dr.
Sprenger in Calcutta in 1 "45 ) ( FAQIR ;
ZIKR.j
S U FT A J AH (^A-) . The delivery
of property by way of loan, and rot by way
of trust. It is forbidden by the SunnI law.
(Hamilton's Hidayuh. vol. iii. p. 244.)
SUHAIL 1BN 'AMR (%+* & J^.).
One of the most noble of the Qnraish, and one
of their leaders ou trie day of the action of
Badr, He was taken prisoner on that occa
sion. He embraced Islam after the taking of
Makkah. He is said to have died A.H. 18.
SUICIDE. Arabic Qatlu nafsi-U
o*j. Suicide is not once re
ferred to in the Qur'an, but it is forbidden in
the Traditions,, where Muhammad is related
to have said: "Whosoever shall kill himself
shall suffer in the fire of hell" (al-Bujchdri,
Arabic ed., p. 984); and "shall be excluded
from heaven for eve.r" (ibid. p. 182). It ia
also related that the Prophet refused the
funeral rites to a Suicide (Abu 'Dd'ud, Arabic
ed., vol. ii. p. 98), but it is usual in Muham-
madan countries to perform the funeral
service, although forbidden by the custom of
the Prophet himself.
SUKE (j*-J. [DRUNKENNESS.]
SULAIM (,»JL.). Baffin Svlaim.
One of the powerful tribes of ancient Arabia,
descended from the Banu 'Adwan.
SULAIMAN tyWL.). [SOLOMON.]
STOH C^U). " Concord; recon-
oiliation; peace.1' It occurs in the Qur'an, as
follows :—
Surah iv. 127 : u And if a woman fears
from her husband perverseness or aversion, J
it is no crime in them both that they should
be reconciled to each other, for reconciliation \
is best."
„ , , , " Three-quarters "
of a. Siparah of the Qur'an. 01- of the Qnran
itself.
SULTAN" (oVUL-). A word in
modern times used for a ruler or king, as the
Sultan of Turkey. Its literal meaning is
" strength " or " might," and in this sense it
occurs in the Qur'an : —
Surah xvii. 35 : " We have given his next of
kin authority."
Surah Ixix. 29 : " My authority baa pe
rished from me."
Surah ii. 38: "We sent him < Moses) to
Pharaoh with a manifest power (miravte, or
authority)."
STJNKAH (<Lu). Lit.-" A path or
way ; a manner of life." A term used in the
I religion of the Muslim to express the custom
or manner of lifa. Hence the tradition which
records either the sayings or doings of Mu-
hamtnad. Consequently all traditional law is
divided into (1) Sunnatu 'I -Ft' I. or what Mu
hammad did; (2) Sunnatu V-Qau/, or what
Muhammad enjoined ; (3) Surcnatu ^t-Taqrlr^
or that which was done or said in the pre-
=^nca of Muhammad, and which was not for
bidden by him,
Those things which tho Prophet emphatically
enjoined on his followers are called Sunnatu
i-H'iJd, " Sunna of Guidance/' or as-Sunnatv
t-MiCakkadah : as, for example, the sound
ing of the azan before prayers. Those things
which have not been emphatically enjoined,
are called as-Sunnatu 'l-Za'idah, or " Snpsro-
gatory Sunnab."
The Honourable Syed Ahmed Khan, O.S.I,
5ays in his Essay on the Traditions, that
" upon examining the sayings (or the A/iadis),
».nd the deeds (or the Siuma/i) of the Pro
phet, we find (1) SOJUR of them relating to
religion, (2) others connected with the pecu
liar circumstances of his life, (3) some bear
ing upon society in general, and (4) others
concerning the art of Government." When
Muhammad spoke on the subject of religion,
he is held to have been inspired, and also
when he performed a religious act he is be
lieved to have been guided by inspiration ;
but with regard to other matters, the degree
to which he was inspired is held to be a sub
ject for investigation as well as for discrimi
nation. In support of this view, the follow
ing tradition is related by Rafi' ibn Khadlj ;
»« The Prophet came to al-Madinah when the
people were grafting the male bud of a date
tree into the female in order to produce greater
abundance of fruit, and he said, 'Why do you
do this ? ' Thay replied, '« it ia an ancient
custom.' The Prophet said, ''Perhaps it
would be better if you did not do it.' And
then they left off the eustora, and the trees
yielded but little fruit. The people com
plained to the Prophet, and he said, • 1 am
no more than a man. Wh«n I order any-
SUNNI
thing respecting religion, receive it ; hot when
I order yon about the affairs of the world,
then I speak only as a man.'" (Mtshkdt,
book i. ch. vi. pt. 1.)
'Abdu' 'llah ibn Mas'ud says: "The Pro
phet drew A. straight lino for us, and said,
'This is the path, of God.' Then he drew
several other lines on the right and loft of Jt>
and said, There are the paths of tnose who
follow tne devil. Verily iny path (sunnali) is
straight and you must follow it.' "
It is upon the sayings and customs of Mu
hammad that that traditional law us founded
which is handed down in the Haclls, and
which is treated or under the article TRADI
TION.
SUNNI (cr-K Lit. "One of the
path." A Traditionist. A term generally
applied to the large sect of Muslims who
acknowledge the first four Khallfahs to have
been the rightful successors of Muhammad,
and who receive theKntubv 's-Sittah, or " s'x
authentic" books of tradition, and who belong
to one of the four schools of jurisprudence
founded by Imam Abu Hauifah, Imam ash-
Shan' I, Imam Malik, or Imam Ahmad ibn
Hambal.
The word Sunnl is really a Persian form,
with its plural Sunniydn, and stands for that
which is expressed by the Arabic Ahlu's-
Sunnah, "the People of the Path.'? The
word sunnati meaning a " path," but being
applied to the example of Muhammad.
A Sunni i« held to be a traditionist, not
that any section of Islam rejects the tradi
tions, but merely that the SunnTs have arro
gated to themselves this title, and the rest of
tae Muslim world has acquiesced in the as
sumption; hence it coines to pass that al
though the Shi'uhs, even to a greater degree
than the Sunnis. rest their claims upon tra
ditional evidence, they have allowed their
opponents to claim the title of traditionists,
and consequently Mr. Sale and uiany^ Euro
pean writers Lave stated that the Shl'ahs
reject the traditions.
The Sunnis «iubrace by iar the greater
portion of the Mabaxnmadan world. Accord
ing to Mr. Wilfrid Blunt's census, they are
145 millions, whilst the Shrahs are but sumo
15 millions.
TA'AJAUQ
623
The principal differences between the
Sunnis and the ShI'ahs are treated of in the
article sin' AH.
SUPEREROGATION, ACTS OF.
[NA.FL.]
S0RAH f«)r). Lit. « A row or
series." A term dsed exclusively for the
chapters of tho Qur'an, of which there are
one hundred and fourteen in number. These
chapters are called after some word which
occurs in the text, c.fj. Suratu "l-Ha<li<l, th»»
" Chapter of Iron." The ancient Jews divided
the whole law of Moses into fifty-four siderim,
or " sections," which wore named after the
same manner as tho Surahs of the Qur'an
[QUH'AJT.]
SUTRAH (^s-). Lit. "Thai
wherewith anything is concealed or covered."
Something put up before one engaged in
prayer facing Makkah, to prevent others
from intruding upon his devotions. It may
be a stick, or anything a cubit in height and
an inch in thickness. (Aiishkdt, book iv.
ch. x.) [PRATER.]
SUWA* (£V~). An idol mentioned
in Surah Ixxi. 2? Professor Palmer says it, was
an idol in the fornj of a woman, and believed
to be a relic of antediluvian times. (Intro
duction to the Qvr'an, p. xii.)
SWEARING. [OATH.]
SWINE. Arabic Mtinsii
pi. khanazir. Heb. "Vin Hiazlr. Swina'a
flesh is strictly forbidden to Muslims in four
different places in the Qur'an, namely, Surahs
ii. 168. v. 4, vi. 146, xvi. 116 ; m which places
its use is prohibited with that which dieth of
itself and blood.
In the Traditions, it is related that Mu
hammad said that " when Jesus the Son of
Marv shall descend from the heavens upon
your poopl*1 as a just king, and he will break
the cross and will kill all tin swine. (Mish-
kdt, book xxiii. ch. vi.)
SYNAGOGUES. [CHURCHES.]
SYRIA. [SHAM.]
T.
TA'AH (*e\M. Lit. "Obedience." i
A word which occurs once in the Qur'un,
Surah iv. 83 : " Thev say k Obedience ! ' " It
is an old Arabic word naed for tho worship
«nd service of God.
TA'ALLUQ C^1*5). Lit. "That
which is suspended." A division or district.
A term applied in India to a district including
a number of villages, for which a
amount of revonno is p.iid. and the possession
of which is hereditary »s iong as tha revenue
is paid. These in'ullu'/*, or, as they ate com
monly called. titluks> are »i two kinds: (1)
Huzuri (irom ,^, "the Sute "), of which
the revenue ia p:ii<i direct to i^vyrnmeut ;
and (2) Mazkuri (iroiu )£*'•> " -"pecifiod "),
cf -which the revenue is paid through a chief,
624
TA'AM
TAGHLIB
who thus farms the revenue. The term was
introduced to India bv the Muslim con
querors.
TA'AM (fUto'K FFOOD.].
TA/AWWUZ (oytf). The ejacula
tion : '• I seek refuge from God from the
cursed Satan," which forms part of the Mu-
hammadan daily prayer. It is called also
•auzun bi-llah. |~BRAYEP.]
TABAREUK (^). The commu
tation for an offering incumbent upon a reli
gious medicant holding some endowment
TABA'F 'T-TABHN (<*««*U
Lit. " The followers of the followers." Those
who conversed with the Td-bvun (which
term is used for those who conversed v ,-jlh
Companions of Muhammad). Traditions re
lated by them are received, but are of less
authority than thosp related by persons w!r
had seen the Prophet... [TRADITIONS.]
TAB1B <S-~*K). • -A doctor of me
dicine. One who practises at -tilth; the " science
of medicine." Hakim (.lit. " a philosopher '")
is also used to expnas^ia med»V«l practi
tioner."
TABI'UN (0yN$), pi. of TaW.
Those who conversed with the Associates. or
Companions of -Muhammad, The traditions
which they related are of hi^h authority and
form, part of the Surmah or traditional law.
[TRADITIONS.]
TABLES OF THE LAW, Arabic
Alwah (t\^), pi. of Lauh. The
giving of the Law to Moses on tables is men
tioned in the Quran, Surah vii. 142 : '•• We
wrote for him (Moses) upon tables (alwali) a
monition concerning every matter.'' But
Muslim doctors are uot agreed aS to the
number of the tables. The commentators
al-Jalalan say that there were either seven
or ten. [TEN COMMANDMENTS.]
TABUK (e^,. A valley in
Arabia, celebrated as the scene of oue of
Muhammad's military expeditions, and as the
place where he made a treaty with John the
Christian prince of Allah. {TREATV.J
TABUT (<^u;v (1) Tho Ark of
the Covenant, mentioned in the Qur'an. Surah
ii. 249 : 4- Verily the sif^n ol his < Saul's 'i king
ship shall be that the Ark (Jafjuf) shall come
to you: and in ii Salcinah from your Lord.
andtherelici left by Moses and Aaron ; the
an<?ols shall boar it"
7 'abut ia the Hebrew f!^p 'J'ebaft used tor
Noahs Ark, and the Ark oi bulrushes,
Jfix. ii. 3, and not p"ft$ Arvn. tho word in
the Bible tor the Ark of "the Covenant.
The commentator, al-B&izawI, say* the
Soklnah was oither the Taurat, or Books of
Moses, or an idol of emeialda or rabies, the
bead and tail of which was like that of a
goat, and the wings of leathers, and which
uttered a feeble cry; and when the ark was
sent after an enemy, theu this was seat. Bufc
some say it was a representation of the pro
phets.
Al-Jaialan say the relics left in the Ark
were the fragments ol the two tables of the
Law, and the rod and robes and shoes of
Moses, the mitre of .Aaron, and tha vase of
manna. {ARK OF TUK COVENANT, SARIMAH.]
(2) A coffin or bier for^ the burial of the
dead.
(3) The representation of the funeral of al-
H USA ill. j MUHARRAM.]
(i) The box or ark in which the body of
the child Moses was placed by his mother for
tear of Pharaoh. See Quran. Surah, xx. 39:
vi When we spake unto thy mother what was
spoken : * Cast him into "the ark : then cast !
him on the sea [the river], and the. sea shall '
| throw him on the shore : and an enemy to me
I and an enemy to him shall take him up.'
! And I myself have made thee uu object, of
love, That thou mightest be reared in mine
eye. "
TADB1.R (j**^). Post obit manu
mission of slaves. In its primitive sense it
uiemis looking forward to the event of a b.usi>
nns*. [n the language of the law, it means a
declaration of a freedom to be established
after the master's death. As when the
master says to his slave, "Thou art free
after my death." The stove so freed is called
a mwfabbir. (Hamilton's Hiddyetk, yol. i.
p. 475.) [SLAVERY.]
TAPAKKUR (jfS). -^^."Con
templation or thought." According to the
Kitdbu 'l-Ta-nfat, it is the lamp of the
heart whereby a man sees his own evils or
virtues.
TAFSIE ( j~~tf). Lit. " Explain-
' mg.?i A term used for a commentary on any
book, but especially for a commentary on the
Quran. [COMMENTARIES.]
AT-TAGHABUN (^U*tt). "Mu
tual deceit." The title of the 64th Surah of
the Qur'au. the ixth verse of which begins
thus :
" The day when He shall gather you to
gether for the day of the assembly will be
the dav of Mittttal Deckii,"
That juj, when the blessed will deceive or
disappoint the damned by taking the places
which they would have had in Paradise had
they been true believers, and vice versa.
TAGHLIB OT-**?). .Au- Arabian
tribe who. on the first spread of Islam, wero
occupying a, province in Mesopotamia and
professing the Christian faith. The Banu
Taghlib sent an embassy to Muhammad,
formed of sixteen men, some Muslims and
some Christians. The latter" wore crosses of
gold. The Prophet made terms with the
Christians, stipulating that they should them
selves continue in the profession of their
religion, but should not baptize their children
AT-TAGHTIS
TAIY
625
into Christian faith. (Sir W. Muir, from
Katibu'l-Wai<K> 61.
AT-TAOHpS (v-aUsN). A terra
which occurs in th« Kashfu '%-£wnitn for
"baptism." [INJIT,, SIGHBAH. >
Au idol men
tioned in the
Surah iv. 54 : " They believe in Jibt and
Taghut."
Surah ii. 257: "Whoso disbelieves in
Taghut and believes in God, he has got a
linu handle, in which is no breaking off."
Surah ii. 259 : " But those who misbelieve
their patrons are Taghut, these bring them
forth to darkness."
Jalalu 'd-dln says T^yhiii was an idol of
the Quraish, whom certain renegade Jews
honoured in order to please the tribe.
Mr. Lane observes that in the Arabian
Niglits the name is used to express the devil
as well as an idol.
TA HA (At). The title o£ the
XXth Surah of the Qur'an, which begins with
Jhese Arabic letters. Their meaning is un
certain. Some fancy the first letter stands
for tuhd, * beatitude," and the second for
Hawiyah, the name of the lowest pit of hell.
TaA is also, like tah, and the English " hush,''
an interjection commanding silence, and might
be here employed to enjoin a silent and reve
rential listening to the rev elation to follow.
TAHALUF («JtfW). The swear
ing of both plaintiff and defondant. In a
civil snit of both seller and purchaser. In a
disagreement, if both should take an oath,
ihe QazI must dissolve the sale, or contract.
(Hamilton's /7/e//jy«/t, vol. iii. p. 85.)
TAHANNU3 (*MJ). Avoiding
and abstaining from sin. Worshipping God
for a certain period in seclusion. The word
U used in the latter sense for the seclusion of
Muhammad ou Mount Hira', when he is sup
posed to have received his first revelation.
(MisJJcat, book xxiv. c. v.) [INSPIRATION,
QUR'AN].
TAHARAH (^). "Purifica-
lion,* including wuzu:, tayaiuimini, masah,
ghitsl, and mtiwdk, accounts of which are
given under their respective articles. [PURI
FICATION.]
TAHIR (>*Ue). A woman in a
state of purity [PURIFICATION.]
TAHLIL ( JtAy). The ejaculation,
"La iWui Ilia 'llah!" (&\ J\ ^ 3),
" There is no deity but God ! " (Mishkdt.
>>ook x. ch. ii.)
Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet
said, " That person who recites l There is ao
deity but God,' one hundred times, shall re
ceive rewards equal to the emancipating of
tea slaves, and shall have one hundred good
deeds recorded to his account, and one hun
dred of his sins shall-be blotted out, and the
words shall be a protection from the devil.*
[ram.]
TAHMID O^KsJ). The ejaculation,
"al-Hamdu li-'llah!" (& *+*J\),
*« God b« praised ! " (Mishkdt, book x.
ch. ii.)
*Umar ibn Shu'aib relates from his fore
fathers that the Prophet said, " He who recites
* God be praised/ a hundred times in the
morning and again a hundred times in the
evening, shall be like a person, who has pro
vided one hundred horsemen for a jihad, or
' religious war.'"
TAHRIF (^;W). The word used
by Muhammadan writers for the supposed
corruption of the Jewish and Christian scrip
tures. [CORRi:i»TlOS OF THE SCRIPTURES.]
AT-TAHRIM (f*.,+A\ ). " The Pro-
hibition." The title of the 66th Surah of the
Qurau, which begins with the words : <J Why
0 Prophet ! dost thou forbid that which God
hath rmido lawful to thee, from a desire to
please thy wives." The object of this chapter
was to free Muhammad from his obligation
to his wife Hafsah. to whom he had recently
sworu to separate entirely from the Coptic
slave-girl Mnriyah.
TAHZIB (v*J*). A book of tra-
ditions received by the SLi'ahs, compiled by
Shaikh Abu Ja-far Muhammad, A.U. 466;
AT-TAlF (Utf\U\). The name of a
town, the capital of a district of the same
name iu Arabia, which Muhammad besieged
A.H. S, but the city was surrounded by strong
battlements and was provisioned for some
months. The siega was, therefore, raised by
Muhammad, after he had cut down and
burned its celebrated vineyards. (Muir's
Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 432.).
TAIRAH <«^). ' "Lightness;
levity of mind." Condemned in the Hadis.
TAIY ( J.) , An Arabian tri be who
emigrated uoiii al-Yaman to the Najd about
the third century. Some of them embraced
Uudaisrn and seine Christianity, while a por
tion remained pagans and erected a temple to
the idol Fuls. The whole tribe eventually
embraced Islam, A.D. 632, when '.\li was sent
to destroy the tornple of Fnls.
Hatim at Ta'iy, a Christian Bedouin Arab,
celebrated for his hospitality, is the subject
of F;i stern poetry. He lived in the "time
of ignorance." viz. before Muhammad, but
his son 'Adi became a Muslim, and is num
bered among the " Companions." Hatim ajt-
Tu'u's! most famous act of liberality was ihat
which h« shewed to an ambassador of the
Greek Emperor, sent, to demand of him as v
present for his-mastor, a horse of very great
price. The generous Arab, before he kne*
the object of this person's mission, slaughtered
his horso to regale him, having nothing at
the time in his houae to aorve in its stead.
It is ulso said that he often caused as many
as forty camels to be slaughtered for the
79
626
TAJ
TALISMAN
entertainment .of his guests and the poor
Arabs of the desert.
TAJ (©U) . " A crown ; a diadem."
The Muslim Khalifahs never wore a crown,
the won! is therefore not used in Muslim
theology, but it is used by the Sufi f aqirs for
the cap worn by a leader of a religious
order, which is generally of a conical shape.
[KULAH.]
AT-TAKASUK ( /VSOt) . , « Multiply -
ing." The title of the cnnd Surah of the
Quran, the opening verses of which are:
"The desire of increasing riches occupieth
yon
Till you come to the grave."
TAKBlR (j#&). The expression,
" All&hu aKbar ! " (^ ^), "God is
very great. I * (Mishkat, book x. ch4 ii'.J
The ejaculation frequently occurs in the
daily liturgy and in the funeral offi«e.
[PRAYER.]
TAKBIEU 'T-TAHKIMAH (,-&
***,«^). The first -takbir- in the
liturgical prayer, said standing, after the recital
of which the worshipper must give himself
up entirely to worship. [PRAYER, TAKBIR.]
TAB3JABUJ feW). Anarrange-
ment entered into by some heira-at-law with
others for their share of the inheritance, in
consideration of some specific thing which
excludes them from inheritance. (Hamilton's
Hidayah. vol. iii. p. 201.)
AT-TAKWIB (^ySUH). "The
Folding-up." The title of the Luxist Surah
of the Qur'an, which opens a solemn announce
ment of the Judgment Day by the words:
"•When the sun shall be folded up"
TAJLZAH (**&). Lit."&?M0*
a place of repose." Usdd in all Muhammadf ,
countries for —
(1) A place in which some celebrated sai;
has -stayed. In Central Asia, these plac<:
are often merely marked by a few stones ari
a flag, but they ara held sacred.
(2) A -monastery, or religious house,. * j
which faqirs and ascetics reside, as- the Talj
yahs at Constantinople and Cairo,
(3) A hostel or rest-house, as the Takyaf
at Damascus,, which is a hostel for pilgrim ]
Dr. Robinson describes it as a large quar,
rangular enclosure, divided into two court [
in the southern court of which there is j
large mosque. Around the wall of the couj
runs a row of cells, with a portico or galleif
of columns in front. This takyah was foundtj
by Sultan Salim, A.D. 1516. (ReseartheA
voL-iii. p. 459.)
TALAQ (e^). (1) The sentencj
of divorce. [DIVORCE.] (2) The title of til
Lxvth Surah of the Qur'an which treats-<
th& subject of divorce.
TALBIYAH (£-!?)• Lit, ^Waitinj
or standing for orders." The recitation < j
the following words during the pilgrimage, i\
Makkah : " ^abbo'ika ! AJlahummah ! Lcdl
baika ! T&bbaika ! Ld Sharika laka ! La,bb&\
ka / Inna Jl-hamda wa-ni'amata laka ! Wa '
mulka! Ld Shdr'Jca-laka ! " {< I stand up fcr
Thy service, 0 God ! 1 stand up I I stan
up ] There is no partner with Thee !
stand up for Thy service! Verily Thine i I
the praise, the beneficence, and. the kingdom]
There is no partner with Thee I ';
From the Mishkdt (book xi. ch. ii. pt. 1), i
appears that this hymn was in use among*
the idolaters of Arabia before Muhammad1
time. [HAJJ. ]
TALHAH (^it), son of 'Ubaidi
'Hah, the Quraish. was a grand-nephew o
Abu Bakr. He was a distinguished Compaj
nion, and was honoured with the position c
one of the 'Asharah Mubashshdrah. or "ta
patriarchs of the Muslim faith." He save»<
the life of Muhammad at the battle of Uhuc
He was slain in the fight of the Camel. A.E
§6. aged *U. and was bui'ied at al-Basrah.
TALIB (s-JW). Lit. ';0ne wh(
seeks." An inquirer. A term generally
used for a student of divinity, is falibu 'I
<ilm.
TALISMAN. Arabic (^-it) til
sam ; pi. talaaim. The English word is a cor
ruption of the Arabic. A term applied t<
mystical characters, and also to seals ami
stones xipon which such characters ar<|
engraved or inscribed. The characters anj
astrological, or of some other magical kindj
Talismans are used as charms against evil)
for the preserving from enchantment or froir
accident; they are also sometimes buriecj
with a hidden treasure to protect it. [AMULET!
EXORCISM.]
TALKING
TALKING-; [CONVERSATION.]
TALMUD The traditional law
[f the Jews, Frou Heb. -J£^ lamad, ;' to
earn." The learning of the liabbis. Mr.
Smanuol Ueutsch says :—
" It seems as if. Muhammad had breathed
rom his childhood almost the air of contem-
)orary Judaism, as is found by us crystallized
a the Taftnud, the Targum and the Midrash.
» » r * *
"It in 1161 merely parallelisms, remiuis
ences, allusion", technical tennt;, and the
ike of Judaism, its Inw and do^ma and cerc-
aony. its Halacha and its Hajrgadah (its law
.nd legend), which wo find in the Koran; but
ve think Islam neither moro nor les^ than
'udaism -as adapted to Arabia— plus thr>
Lpostleship of Josi;- -iud Muhammad. l!
"Literary fitmnins, p. B4.)
How much Muhammad was. indebted to tlu
ewish Talmud f"r his doctrines, ethics, and
ereruonial. is shown in an essay by the
'ewish Rabbi, Abraham Geigor, in answer to
he question put by the University at Bonn :
Inquiratur in fontes Alcorani sou legis Mo-
lammedicjr cos. qui ex Judaeiamo dcrivandi
unt." of which a German translation has
ppeared, IW* hat Mohammtd au* dem Juden-
kumc 'lufyenoinmen'? (Bonn, 183i5). and i."
reatoi1 of in the present work in the artick
in JUJ'AIail.
The Talmud consists of two partH : The
lishna. or the text (what is called in Arabic
he Alain), and the Gemara. or Commentary
Arabic Shark'). These two form the Tal-
ond.)
The Mishna flrom Slianah, to i; repeat ") or
he oral law of the Jews, was not committed
o writing until about the year A.D. 190, by
tabbi Judab. although it is said it was first
ommenced by Rabbi Akibah. A.D. 130.
The Gemara (lit. " that which is perfect '')
re two commentaries on the Mishna. The
>ne compiled by Rabbi Jochonam at Jeru-
alem about the middle of the third century.
,nd the other by Rabbi Ashe at Babylon,
.bout the middle of the sixth.
Canon Farrar (Life of Christ, voL ii.
i. 348), says : " Anything more utterly uu-
listorical than the Talmud, cannot be con-
eived. It is probable that no human writ-
ags ever confounded names, dates, arid facts,
nth more absolute indifference."
And doubtless it is this unsatisfactory
sature in the Talmud of the- Jews which, to
great extent, accounts for the equally
inhistorical character of the Quran,
For information on the Talmud, the English
eader can consult the following works : The
rulinud. by Joseph Barklay. LL.D., Bishop of
eiusalem. 1878: A Talinudic Miscellany, by
*aul Isaac Hcrshon, 1880; Selections from the
Talmud, b\ H. Polono ; The Talmud, an
.rticle in the Quarterly Review, October,
867. by Emanuel Deutsch ; The Talmud, a
hapter inv The Home and Synagogue of the
Modern Jew (Religious Tract Society). A
omplete translation of the Talmud is being
TANFIL
627
undertaken by Mr. P I. Herehon. See Dr.
Farrar'.H Preface to iha Talmudic
TALQIN (e^). Lit. "Instruct-
in«^," An exhortation or instruction impart ed
by a religious teacher. It Js specially u ^od
for the instruction given at the grave of a
departed Muslim, at the close of tho burial
service, when one of the mourners draws
near the middle of the grave, addresses th*
deceased, and says : —
" 0 servant of God, and child of a female
servant of Goci.
" 0 son of such an one, remember the faith
you professed on earth to the very last ; thi.«
is your witness that there is no deity but
(rod; and that certainly Muhammad i" His
Apostle, and that Paradise and Hell and the.
Resurrection from the dead ire real ; that
there will be a Day of Judgment ; and^ay : *F
confess that God is my Lord. lalam my reli
gion, Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and
peace of God) my Prophet, the Q.ur in my
^uide, the Ka'bah ray QibUK r-nd that Mus"-
iims are my brethren.' 0 God. keep him (the
deceased) firm in his faith, and widen, his
grave, and make his examination (by Munkir
and Naklr) easy, and exalt him and have
mercy on him, 0 Thou most Merciful !n
[BURIAL.]
^ TALUT
TAMATTTf .
advantage." Th'o act of performing the
'Umrah until its completion, nnd then per
forming the Hajj a£ a .scparatr .;;rc--mony.
thus reaping the advantages of both, fn jj,
CMRAH.l
TAMIM (^*jf)- x^n independent
Arab tribe of Makkan origin who occupied
the north-eastern desert of Najd. They
fon.^ht by the side of Muhammad at Makkah
md llunain.
TAMJID 0*^). The expression,
1 Jja haula wa. Id rjuwwala UK. bi-'lldhi I
"
There is no power and strength
but in God. the High one, the Great.'' (Mish-
kak, book x. ch. ii.)
Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet
said, " Recite very frequently, * There is no
power and strength but in God,' for these
words are one of the treasures of Paradise.
For there is no escape from God but with
God. And God will open for the reciter
thereof seventy doors of escape from evil, the
least of which is poverty."
TANASUKII fe-m). (I) In Mu-
hammadan law, the death of one heir after
another before the partition of an inheritance.
(2) At-Tanasukh. The metempsychosis or
Pythagorean system of the transmigration of
souls, a doctrine hold by Ihe Hindus and
Buddhists, but forming no part of the Muhain-
znadan sstem.
TANFlL (J***). " Plundering m
religious warfare." Commended In the Quran,
628
TAQARROB
Surah viii. I : " They -will question thee about
the spoils. Say: The spoils are God's and
the Apostle's."
TAQAKRUB (vy>> Lit. "Seek-
ing admittance or striving to draw near." A
tern) used to express the desire of propitiating
the Deity by prayer, almsgiving, or sacrifice.
TAQDIR (j*v«). Lit. "To mea
sure.'' The doctrine of Fate or Predestina- i
lion, al-Qfidr. (PREDESTINATION.]
TAQIYAH (4*;. -Lit. "Guarding !
oneself." A Shl'ah doctrine, A pious fraud i
whereby the Shl'ah Muslim believes he is
justified in either smoothing down or in ;
denying the peculiarities of his religious i
belief, in order to save himself from religious '
persecution. A ShT'ah can, therefore, pass
himself of! as a Sunnl to escape persecution.
The Shi'ab traditionists relate that certain
persons inquired of the Imam Sadiq if the
Prophet had ever practised taq'iyah, or "re
ligions dissimulation," and the Imam replied.
" Not after this veree was sent down to the
Prophet, namely, Siirah v. 71: ' 0 thou
Apostle! publish the whole of what has been
revealed to thee from thy Lord ; if thou do it
not, ohou hast not preached His message, and
God will not defend thee from wicked men;
for God guides not the unbelieving people.'
When the Most High became surety for the
Prophet against harm, then he no longer dis
simulated, although before this revelation ap
peared he had occasionally done so." (The
Hayalu V^CJu/wi, Merrick's ed., p. 96.)
[SHI* AH.]
TAQLlD O^ff). Lit. "Winding
round'." (1) Putting a wreath- round a victim
destined to be slain at Makkah. (2) Girding
•with a sword, as a sign of investiture of a
high dignitary. (2) A term used in Muhani'
tnadan law for the following of a religious
leader without due inquiry.
TAQWA (<£>»). [ABSTINENCE.]
TARAWlH (cfcV)- Tbe Plural of
larvnb, "Rest." The prayers, of usually
twenty rak'ahs, recited at night during the
month of Ramazan: so called because the
congregation sit down and rest after every
fourth rak'ah and every second " «Sa/om."
[RAMA/.AN.]
TARIKAH (49). A legacy, a,
Inquest, an inheritance.
AT-TARIQ (oW). :" The night-
oomer." The title of the Lxxxvith Surah of
the Q.ur'an, beginning thus ;
•• By the heaven, and by the night-comer!
But what shall teach thee
What the night-comer is ?
'Tis the star of piercing radiance/
According- to al-Wahidl, these words were
revealed when Abu Talib, at the time 01 the
evening meai, was startled by a shooting
star. Noldeke, however, observes that the
three verses soem rather to apply to a planet
or a fixed star of particular brightness.
TASLIM
TAKIQAH (&»>). "A path." A'
term used by tno Sufis for the religious life. •
[SUFI.]
TAEWIYAH (W). Lit « Satis-j
fying thirst," or, according to some, "giving*!
attention." The eighth day of the pilgrim-i
age; so called either because the pilgrims
give their camels water on this day, or be- j
cause Abraham gave attention (rawtoa) to the;
vision wherein he was instructed to sacrifice
his son Ishmael (?) on this day.
TASAWWTJ^ (^y3)- A word!
used to express the doctrines of the Sufis or
Muhammada'n mystics. Sufiism. The word
does not occur in the celebrated Arabic Dic
tionary, the Qdmus, which was compiled A.H.
817, nor in the Sibah, A.H. 393. fsuFi.J
TASBIH (e»~0. (1) The ejacula
tion, " Subhana 'lldh ! " (*W 0W~»),
"I extol the holiness of GoA!"or " 0 Holy
God 1 " A most meritorious ejaculation which,
if recited one -hundred times, night and morn
ing, is said by the Prophet to atone for man's
sins, however many or great. (Mishtcdt,
x. oh. ii.)
(2) A Rosary. [ROSARY. ZIKR.J
TASHAHHUD (j*«j. Lit. '; Tes,
timony." A declaration of- the Muslim faith
recited during the stated prayers, immediately
after the Tagiyak, in the same attitude, but
with th« first finger of the right hand ex
tended, as a witness to the Unity of God. It
is as follows : " I testify that there is no deity
but God, and I testify that Muhammad is thej
Messenger of God." It is also used as an
expression of faith upo.n a person becoming
a Muhammadar. (Mishkdt\ book iv. ch. xvi.)
[PRAYERS.]
TASHR1Q U$*ytf). Lit, "Drying
ilesh in the sun. A name given to three
days after the sacrifice at Makkah during .the
Pilgrimage, either because the flesh of "the
victim is then dried, or because they are not
slain until sunrise. {HAJJ.]
TASLIM (f*k~*). The benediction
at the close of the usual form of prayer, " As-
saldmu 'alaikinri wa r&hmatu 'lloh ! "
TASMl*
TATJIiAT
629
, jitt &*••*« f&^*), " ^Jl3 Peace
i Rod be with yon.** [PRAYEBS.]
TASMP (£*4~>'). The following
ejaculation which is recited by the Imam in
the daily prayers : " God hears him who
praises Him.'* [*»KAYLR$.]
TASMIYAH (***->•)• L{t- " Giving a
name." (1) A title given to the BasmcrUah,oi
the initial sentence, " In the name' of God, the
Compassionate, the Merciful" This occurs
at the commencement of each chapter or
Surah of the Qnr'an, with the exception of
the ixth Surah. [QUR'AN.] (2) Also used
at the commencement of any religious act
(except sacrifice), such as prayer, ablutions,
Ac. (3) The usual "grace before meat,"
amongst Muslims. [BTSMILLAH.]
TASNI.M .(r?~S). Lit. k< Anything
convex and shelving at both sides." The
name of a fountain in Paradise mentioned in
the Quran, Surah Ixxxiii. 28: "Mingled
therewith shall be the waters of Tasnim"
TA§WIB (s^j*). Repeating _tbe
uorase, '• A?-?alatu khairnn minct 'n-naum "
(i.t "Prayer is better than sleep"), in the
Azan for the early morning prayer. [AZAN,
[PRATER.]
TATAWWU' . An ace of
supererogation. A terra which includes both
i.he sunnah and naft actions of the Muslim
AT-TATFIF («Jk«*U\). «' Giving
.Short Measure." The title of the Lxxxnird
Surah of the Qur'an, beginning with the
words ;
k< Woe to those who stint the measure :
Who when they take by measure from
others, exact the full ;
But when they mete to them or weigh to
them, niiniah —
Have they no thought that they shall be
raised again
For a great day.
W« learn from the Itqdn that some com
mentators see in this passage allusions to
Madinah circumstances, and
think that the Surah, or at least part of it,
was revealed in that t«-wn. But in connec
tion with such obviously Makkan versos, aa
BO and following, where it is aaid :
" The sinners, indeed, laugh the faithful to
scorn,
And when they pass by thorn, they wink at
one another,
And when tbey return to their own people,
they return jesting.
And when they sec them, they say, ' Verily
these are the erring one? ' —
it appears evident, that the pride and arro
gance of the Makkans, founded on their ill-
gotten wealth, is contrasted with the humble
and precarious condition of tho followers of
Muhammad, to convey at the saino time a
solemn warning, that the positions will be
reversed on the Great Day of Reckoning.
TATHIR O*'~>'). A puritying or
cleansing of anything which is ceremonially
unclean. For ex.'inipie, if a dog drinks from
a vessel, it become* najis, or "impure,*' but
it can be purified (tathir) by wsshing.it seven
times. A mosque wri^h has h.»en defiled cau
be cleansed with dry ^arth or water, an-l by
recitals from the Qur'an. If fch« boots on me
feet ha?o been defiled, -hey .c*iu be purilied
by rubbing them on dry earth.
Bar a' ibn 'Aijb says that Muhammad
taught that the maturation of an animal
lawful for food does not render clothes cere
monially uncUan. (Mishkat* book lii. ch.
ix.) [PURIFICATION ]
TATTOOING. Muhammad for
bade the custom of the idolaters of Arabia to
prick the hands of their women and to rub
the punctures over with wood, indigo, and
other colours. (Mi$hkdt, book xii. ch. i.
pt. 1.)
TAUBAH (A?y). (1) Kepentance.
(2) At-Tavb((Ji< a title of the ixth Surah of
the Qur'an. [PARDON, REPENTANCE.]
AT-TAUBATU 'N-NASUH (*tf*\
£y*ij\). Lit. "Sincere repentance."
A term used by divines for true repentance
of the h<M.rt, as distinguished from that only
of the lips
TAUHTD (>ft*y). A term used to
express the unity of the Godhead, which is the
great fundamental basis of the religion of
Muhammad. [dOD.]
TAUJIH («#j>y). Any pious eja
culation recited by the pious before or after
the Takbir. (MisMcdt, book iv. ch. xii.)
[PRAYER]
TAURAT (aV,/). The title given
in the Qur'an (Surah iii. 2), and in all Mu-
liammadan wurks, for the Books of Mo«es.
Tt is the Hebrew -TOD Tor<2h,« the Law."
The author of the Kathj'u 'z-fiunun (the
630
AT-TAUWAB
TAXATION
bibliographical dictionary of Haji K.halifah),
says
'• The Ttiurat is the inspired book which
God V'A ye to Moses, and of which there are
three v oil-known editions. (1) TBe -Tauratu
's-Saba^n, • the Torah oi the Seventy,' which
•was translated from the Hebrew into Greek
by seventy-two learned Jews. (It is admitted
by Christian writers .that the Law, i.e. the
Pentateuch, alono was translated first). It
has since heeri translated into Syriac and
Arabic. (2) The Tauratu Y Qctrr&'in wa Rab-
bavnyin, ' the .Taurat of the learned doctors
nnd rabbin^.* (#) The Tanrnin, 's-tiaimraii.
• The Samaritan Pentateuch.' '"
The same writer savs the learned who" have
examined ihese editions of the Taurat, found-
that although they agreed with each other
and taught the unity of God. they /lo not
contain an account of the slated prayers,
the last, tb.9 pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and
almsgiving:, nor anything regarding heaven
or hell, which is, he acids, a proof of th.e
Tuurat having been altered by the Jews.
(iiaskfu 'z-Zun~un, Flugel's etlition, vol. fi.
p. 459.)
Although Muhammad professed to establish
the Taurat of Moses (soe Qur an. Surahs ii.
IbO ; iii. 78 ; iv. 135), ir, would appear fr9ni
ihe Traditions that be did not view with
favour the readinur cl it in his presence
It is related that' Umaronce brought a copy
of the Tauritt to the Prophet, and said", " This
is a copy ot the laurat," Muhammad was
silent, and 'Umar was about to read some
portions of it. Then Abu Bakr said. " Your
mother weeps fox you. Don't you see tho
Prophet's face look angry." Then 'Umar
looked, and he saw the Prophet wag angry,
and he said. i; Ood protect me from the anger
of God and of His Apostle. I am satisfied
\vith God as my Lord, Islam as my creed, and
Muhammad as my Prophet.'' Then Muham
mad said, " If Moses were alive and found my
prophecy, he would follow me/' [OLD TES
TAMENT.]
AT-TAUWAB (<+\f&\). Literally
One who turns frequently,'1 lience " the Re
lenting.'' One of the ninety-nine names or
attributes of God. Preceded by the article,
as a name of God, it occurs four times in tht
Suratu 'J-Baqarah (ii. 35, SI, 122, 155). and
twice 'in the Suratu 't-Taubah (ix. 105, 119).
IB three of these passages, God's relenting
mercy is illustrated by striking instances
taken from ancient and contemporaneous his
tory, viz. in the case of Adam ^ of the Jews
after their worshipping the golden calf, and
of the three men who did not accompany*
Muhammad in the expedition to Tabuk, and
who, put under interdiction after bis return,
were not released from it till after fifty days
of penance
Surah ii. 35 : •• And words of prayer learned
Adam from his Lord : and God relented to
wards him ; verily, He is the Relenting, the
Merciful."
Surah ii. 51 : '•' And remember when Moses
said to his people : ( 0 my people! verily ye
uave sinned to your owir hurt, by your taking
to yourself the calf to worship it; Be turned
then to your Creator, afld slay thd guilty
among you ; this will be best for you with
your Creator.' So he relented towards you :
verily He i<? the Relenting, the Merciful."
Surah iv. 119; "He has also turned in
Mercy unto the three who were left behind,,
so that the earth, spacious as it is, became
too strait for them • anrl their souls b'ecame
so straitened within them, that there was- no
refuge from .God but unto Himself i -Theft
was He turned to them that they might -turn
to Him. Verily, God is He that turneth, the
Merciful"
In the other places, mentioned above* and
in two more (Surahs xxiv. 10, and xiix. 12),
where the word is used as an adjective with
out the article, it describes God as ever
ready to turn hi forgiveness to man in general
and to the Muslim in particular, if they turn
in repentance unto him.
TAWAF Mjk). The ceremony
of circumambulating the Iva'bah seven times,
three times in a quick step and four at the
ordinary pace. It is enjoined in the Qur'an,
Surah xxii. 27. Shaikh <Abdu '1-Hfcqq eay»
it was the custom of the Arabian idolaters to
perform the taivaf naked, [HAJ.T.]
TA'WIZ (Jay*). Lit. " To-tiee for
refuge." An amulet or charm. A gold or
silver case, inclosing quotations from the
Qiir'an": or Hadis, and worn upon the breast,
arm, neck, or waist. [AMULET.]
TAXATION. There are three
words used for taxation in Muslim books of
law. (1) <&shr (j£&), "'the tenth"; (2)
Kharaj (Z\)!L.'}, "land revenue"; (3) Jizyah
(<5ov7*Jr ' capitation tax."
(1) Lauds, the proprietors of whiQh become
-\Iualims, or which the Imam .divides among
the troops, are,:-Z7sArt, or subject to tithe,
because it is necessary that something
should be imposed a,nd deducted from the
subsistence of Muslims, and a tenth is the
proportion most suitable to them, as that
admits the construction of an oblation or
act of piety ; and. also, because tbis is the
most equitable method, since in this way ttte
amount of what is levied depends Qpon the
actual product of the lands,
(2) Lands , on the other hand, which the Imfen
subdues by force of arms and then restores
to the people of the conquered territory^ are
J^aro^i, ,or subject to tribute, because it is
necessary that something be imposed and
deducted from the subsistence of infidels,*
and tribute is the most suitable to their
situation, as that bears the construction of
a punishment, since it is a sort of hardship,
the tax upon tribute land being due from
the proprietor, although he should not have
cultivated it. It is to be rwnwrktid, however,
that Makkah is excepted from this rule, ns
Muhammad conquered thai territory by force
oi arms, and then restored it to the inhabi
tants without imposing tribute.
TAXATION
It -ifl 'written in the Jami'u 't-,Saghir that
all land subdued by force of arms, if
watered by canals cut by the Gentiles, is
subject to tribute, whether the Imam have
divided it among the troops, or restored it
to tb.e original inhabitants ; and if there bo
no canals, but the land bo watered by
springs, which rise within, it is subject to
tithe, in enher case, because tithe is pecu*
Uar-to productive land, that is, land capable
of cultivation, and which yields increase, and
the increase pradrfced from it is occasioned
by water. The standard, therefore,- bv which
tribute is due is the land being watered by
tribute w*ter, namely, rivers, and the standard
by which tithe is due is the laud being watered
by tithe water, namely, springs.
If a. pei sou cultivate waste lands, the im
position ot tithe or tribute upon it ('according
to Abu Y-usuO is determined by the neigu-
upuriiitf ooils ; in other words, if the neigh
bouring Isnds be subject to tithe, u tithe is
to be imposed upon it, or tribute if thev be
subject to tribute: because the rule respect
ing anything is determined by what is nearest
to it ; as in tho ca^e of a house, for instance,
the rule- with respect to it extends to its
court-yard, although it he not ihe owner's
immediate property. The tribute established
and imposed by 'Umar upon the lands of al-
•Iraq was adjusted as follows: — Upon nvory
jarib of land through which water runs (that
is to say, which is capable of cultivation) one
><r and one dirham, and upon every jurib
of pasture-land five dirhams, and upon every
jar\b of gardens and orchards ten dirhams,
provided they contain vines and date-«trees.
This rule for tribute upon arable and
pasture lands, gardens, and orchards, is
taken from 'Umar, who fixed it at the rates
above-mentioned, none contradicting him ;
wnereiore it is considered as agreed to by
all the Companions. Upon all land of any
other description (such as ple'a.snre-grounds,
gaffron:tields, and so* forth) is imposed a
tribute according to ability : since, although
•Umar has not laid down any particular rule
with respect to them, yet ns he has made
ability the standard of tribute upon arable
land, so in the same manner, ability is to be
regarded in lands of any other description.
The learned in the law allege that the utmost,
.extent of tribute is one half of the actual
product, nor is it allowable to exact more ;
but the taking of a halt is no more than
strict justice, and is not tyrannical, because^
as it is lawful to take the whole of the per
sons and property of infidels, and to dis
tribute them among the Muslims, it follows
that taking half their incomes IH lawful a
fortiori.
(3) JizyaJi, or capitation-tax, is.of two kinds.
The first species is that which is established
voluntarily, and by composition, the rate of
which is such as may be agreed upon by
both part-let The second is that which the
Imam himself imposes, where he conquers
infidel, and then confirms them in their
possessions, the common rate of which is
fixed by his imposing upon every avowedly
TA'ZIAH
631
rich person a tax of forty-eight dirhams per
annum, or four ..dirhama per month; and
upon overy person in middling circumstances
twenty-four dirhams per annum. 01 two
dirhams per month ; and upon the labouring
poor twelve dirhams per annum, or one
dirham par month.
(For further information see Ruddu 'l-
Wuhtdr, vol. ii. 7 ; L'utttwa-i-- Alamgirr, ii. 860-
IlUlaya/i, vol. i.
TAYAMOTM f^i. Lit. "In
tending or proposing to do a thing. The
ceremony of ublution performed with sand
instead of water, as in the case of wa:u. Tho
permission to use sand for this purpose, when
water cannot be obtained, is granted ia the
Qur'un,. Surah v. 9:-
"If ye cannot rind water, then take fine
surface sand and wipe your faces and your
hands therewith. God docs not wish to make
any hindrance for vou.''
It is rnlattvl in the Traditions that Muham
mad -JiiiU : God has made me greater than
^11 jjreceeding prophets, inasmuch as my
ranks in woribip aro like the ranks of angels;
and the whole earth Ls fit for my people to
worship on: and tho very dust of tho earth
:s tit for purification when water cannot be
obtained C Mixhkcit, book iii. ch. xi. >
TbyoMMm, or "purification by sand," IB
allowable under the following circumstances :
(1) When water cannot be procured except at
a distance of about two miles : (2) in case of
sickness when tho use of water might be in
jurious : (3) when water. cannot be obtained
without incurring danger -from an enemy, a
beast, or a reptile; and (4) when on the
occasion of the prayers of a Feast day or at a
funeral, the worshipper is late and has no
time to perform the wazu'. On ordinary days
this substitution of tayamihum for teazff is not
allowable TWAZU'.]
TA'ZIAH (&j*?). Lit. "A conso
lation." A representation or model of the
tomb of Hasan and Husain at Karon!*', car
ried in procession at the Muharram by the
ShI'ahs. It is usually made of a light
frame of wood-work, covered with paper,
painted and ornamented, and illuminated
within and without. It is sometime* of con
siderable size and of elaborate execution ac
cording to the wealth of the owner.
RAM.]
TA'ZIAH. (A. F. Hole.)}
632
TA'ZIB
TA'ZIR (#<&. From W, "to
censure or repel " That discretionary cor
rection which is administered for offences, for
which Hadd, or " fixod punishment," has not
been appointed.
According to the Sunni law the following
are the leading principles of Ta'zlr: —
Ta'zir, in* its primitive sense, means " pro
hibition,5* and also "instruction ": in Law it
signifies an infliction undetermined in its
degree by the Jaw, on account, of the right
either of God, or of the individual ; and the
occasion of it is any offence for which ftadd,
or "stated punishment/' has not been ap
pointed, whether that offence consist in word
or de-id.
(1) Chastisement is ordained by the law,
the institution of it being established on the
authority of the Qiir'an, which enjoins men
to chastise their wives, for the purpose
of correction and amendment; and the same
also occurs in the Traditions. It is, more
over, recorded that tbe Prophet chastised a
person who had called another perjured; and
all the Companions agree concerning this,
Ueason and analogy, moreover, both evince
that chastisement ought to be indicted for
acts of an offensive nature, in such a manner
that men may not become habituated to the
commission of such acts j for if they were,
they might by degrees be led into the per
petration of other$ more atrocious. It is
also written, in the Fat&ion-i-Timur -Toshl of
Imam Sirukhsh, that in ta'zir, or " chastise
ment," nothing is fixed or determined, bnt
that the decree of it is left to the discretion
of the Qazi. because the de&ign r.f it is cor
rection, and the dispositions of men with
respect to it are different, some being suf
ficiently corrected by reprimands, whilst
others, more obstinate, require confinement,
and even blows.
(2) In the Fatawa-i-SMftl it is said that
there are four orders or degrees of chastise
ment : — First, the chastisement proper to the
most noble. of the noble (or, in other words,
yrinces and men of learning), which consists
merely in admonition, as if the Qazi were to
say to one of them, "I understand that you
have done thus, or thus," so as to make him
ashamed. Secondly, the chastisement proper
to the noble (namely, commanders of armies,
and chiefs of districts), which may be per
formed iu two ways, either by admonition (as
above), or by jasrr, that is, by dragging the
offender to the door and exposing him to
scorn. Thirdly, the chastisement proper, to
the middle order (consisting of merchants
and shopkeepers), which may be performed
by jurr (as above), and also by imprison
ment ; and Fourthly, the chastisement proper
to the lowest order in the community, which
may be performed by jarr, or by imprison
ment, and also by blows.
(3) It is recorded from Abu Yusuf that the
ruler of a country may inflict chastisement
by means of property, tlia^ is, by the exaction
of -A small sum in the wanner of a fine, pro
portioned to the offence; but this doctrine is
refected by many of the learned. .
TA'ZIR
(4) Imam Timftr Tashi says that chastise i
ment, where it is incurred purely as the righj
of God, may be inflicted by any person what>
ever; for Abu Ja'far Hinduani, being askej
whether a man. finding another in the act c
adultery with his wife, might slay him, re
plied, "If the husband know that expostu
iation and beating will be sufficient to dete
the adulterer from a future repetition of hi!
offence, he must not slay him ; but if he see!
reason to suppose that nothing but deaf1
will prevent a repetition of the offence, i:(
such case it is allowed to tbe husband t[
slay that man : and if the woman were con'
senting to his act, it is allowed to her nusbani'
to slay her also ; t: from which it appears thaj
any man is empowered to chastise anothe:,
by blows, even though there be no magistral j
present. He has demonstrated this fully hi
the Muntfiji1 i and the reason of it is that thij
chastisement in question is of the class oj
the removal of evil with the hand, and tb<'
Prophet has authorized every person to re'j
ruove evil with the hand, as he has said!
" Whosoever among ye see the evil, let hin;
remedy it with his own hands; but if he b»|
unable so to do, let him forbid it with hi I
tongne.'' Chastisement, therefore, is evidentl;!
contrary to punishment, since authority. IB
inflict the latter does not appertain to any bu
a magistrate or a judge. This species of chas)
isemeut is also contrary to the chastisenien!
which is incurred on account of the right 01
the individual (such as in cases of slandeij
and so forth), 'since that depends upon th<j
complaint of the injured party, whence in
person can inflict it but the magistrate, ever
under a private arbitration, where the plain
tiff and defendant may have referred th<j
decision of the .matter to any third person.
(5) Chastisement, hi any instance in which!
it is authorized by the law, is to be inflicted
^where the Imam* sees it advisable.
(6) It a person accuse of whoredom a mal<!
OT female shave, an wnmu 'l-walad, or an infidel
he is to be chastised, because, this acc-usatiot
is an offensive accusation, and punishment foil
slander is not incurred by it, as the condition)
namely, Ifaan (or marriage in the sense whicl
induces punishment for slander), is not at'j
tached to the accused : chastisement, there- j
fore, is to be inflicted. And in the sam«j
manner, if auy person accuse a Muslim oj
any other thing than whoredom (that is!
abuse him, by calling him a reprobate, or t p
villain, or an infidel, or a thief), chastisement)
is incurred, because he injures a Muslinj
and defames him ; and punishment (fyadd\
cannot be considered as due from .analogy!
since analogy has .no .concern with the!
necessity of punishment : chastisement, there-i
fore, is to be inflicted. Where the aggrieved;
party is a-slave. or so forth, the chastisemenlj
luust be inflicted to the extremity of it: bulj
in the case of abuse of a Muslim, the|
measure of the chastisement is left to the!1
discretion of the magistrate, 'bo it more or'
less ; and whatever he sees proper let hixnl
inflict .
TA'ZIR
(7) If a person abuse a Muslim, by calling
him an ass, or a hog. in this osso ouas-
tiaeuieut is not incurred, beciueo these ex-
pressions are in no respect de^roatory of
the parson towards whom tfie; ar* uned, it
beiii£ evident tbar he it, neither «*n &.'•»•'» nor a
hog. Some allege that, <n our time, chas
tisement is infiiotod, iiMce, i/i the modern
acceptation, calling a muu an usj, or a hog
to held to be abuse. Otbets, again, allf^e that
it i« toritfiem*«d such only where tiio person
toward.; waona #ueh expressions <».r6 used
happen* to be of dignified rank (each as a
prince, or a man of letters), in which case
chastisement must be inflicted upon the
abuser, as by so speaking he expu&w* that
person of rank, to contempt ; but if he be
only a common poofon, r-hacitiReinent is not
incurred: and this is the mo«t approved
doctrine.
(8) The greatest uumbor of stripes in
chastisement is thirty-nine (a*« 2 Cor. xi. 24),
and tha smallest number is three Thin is
according to Abu HauifaL and Imam Mu
hammad Abu Yusuf says thai the greatest
number of stripes in chastisement is seventy-
flv«. The restriction to thirty-nine otripos is
founded on a saying of the Prophet t-"TLe
mau who shall infiiot scourging io the
(Oncunt of punishment, in a oaso -where pun
ishment is not established, shall be accounted
an aggravatoY H (meaning a wanton aggra-
vator of punishment), from which saying it
ie to bo inferred that the infliction of a num
ber of stripes in chastisement, to the same
amount as in punishment, is unlawful; and
this being admitted, Abu Hanifah flnd Imam
Muhammad, in order to determine the utmost
extent of chastisement, consider what i* the
smallest punishment : and this is pnnishmont
for slander with respect to a slavo, which if
forty stripes; they therefore deduct there
from one stripe, and establinh thirty -nine as
the greatest number to be inflicted in chas
tisement. Abu Yusuf, on the other band,
has regard to the smallest punishment with
respect to freemen (as freedom is the original
state of man), which is eighty stripes; he
therefore deducts ft ve, and establishes seventy-
five as the greatest number to be inflicted in
chastisement as aforesaid, because the same
is recorded of 'All, whose example Abu \ usnf
follows in. this instance. It. is in one place
recorded of Abu Yustif that he deducted only
oue stripe, aud declared the uonoot number
of. stripes in chastisement -to be seventy-nine.
Suab, also, is th<? opinion of Zafr ;• and this i»
agreeable to analogy. Imam Muhammad, in
his book, has determined the smallest num
ber of stripes in chastisement to be three,
because in fewer there is no chastisement.
The more modern doctors assert that the
smallest degree of chastisement must be left to
thti judgment of the Imam or Qiizi, who is
to inflict whatever ne may deem sufficient for
cbastisom«nt, which is different with respect
to different men. It is recorded of Abn
Yusnf *hat ho has alleged that the degree
thereof is in proportion to tho dogi^ec of the
; and it is also recorded , from him
C33
TA'ZIR
that the chA«ti«ocaftnt for petty
should be infiiotrtd to a degree approaching
to the punishment allotted .for omMti of a
strr.il»r nature; thus the chastisement for
libidinous act*' (such an kissing and touch
ing), id to beitidicteil to a decree approach >ig
to DuniKhment for whoredom ; and me chas
tisement lor abunive language to a degree
approaching to punishment for slander.
(9, li tho Q&sti dftflm it tit in chastiaomeut
to unitb imprisonment with scourging, it is
lawful for him to do both, since imprison
uiuut is oi itself capable oi constituting
chantisMineiot, and has byeu sc employed, for
the Prophet once imprisoned a pardon by ^'ay
of ohftbtiBing him. But as imprisoninent i «
tbuR capable of constituting chastiseinefit, in
offences where chastiswuieiit ia incurred by
their bcnnjf estahbahed. impnsonment is not
law/ul before the ortom-e be proved, meroly
upon suspicioa, since imprisonment is in
itself n cnanti8cm«nr, : conirury to offeu(:efl
which induce puuisniaeut, /or there the ac
cused may be lawfully imprisoned upon
suspicion, as chastisement is short of punish
ment (whence the suihcionc> of impriHoamen.t
alone in chastisement) ; and such being the
case, it is lawful to unite imprisonment with
blows.
(10) The severest blows or stripes may be
used in chastisement, because, as rogara to
had to lenity with respect to the numbor of
the stripes., lenity is not to. be regarded with
respect to the nature of them, for otherwise
the design w~onld be defeated ; and hence,
lenity is not shown in chastisement by in
flicting the bio we or stripes upon different
part« or members of the l>ody. And next to
chastisement, the severest MOW! 01* stripoa
are to be inflicted in punishment for whore
dom, aa that ia instituted in the Qur'ao,
Whoredom, moreover, IB a deadly sin, in-
soianch that lapidatiou for it has boen
ordained by the- law. And next to puuiah-
ment for whoredom, the severe-it blows or
stripes are to bo inflicted in ponishmont for
wire-drinking, as the occasion of Banish
ment is there fully certified. And next to
punishment for wine-drinking, the severity
of the blows or stripes is to be attended to in
punishment for eionder, because thert ib a
doubt in respect to the* occasion of the
punishment (narneiy, tne accusation;, as an
accusation may t>» either false or true ; and
alafi. because severity is here observed, in
disqualifying the slanderer from appearing
as an evidence : wherefore severity is not
atao to De observed in tho nature of the
blows or stripes.
(11) If the magistrate inilict either punish*
meat or chastisement upon a person, and the
sufferer should die in couiioquenco of such
punishment or chastisement, his blood ia
Jfodkr, that is to say, nothing whatever is
due upon it, because tho magistrate is autho
rized therein, and what uo does is done by
decree of the law ; and an act which u
decreed is not restricted to the condition of
safety. This is analogous to a en so of phle
botomy; that is to say, if any person desire
80
634
TAZKIYAH
to be lot blood, and should die, the operator
is in no respect responsible for his death ; and
so here also. It is contrary, however, to the
caso of a husband inflicting chastJHeinantupon
hiti wife, for his act is r<wtrid«u U> safety, as
it is only allowed to a husband i«j chastise
hie wife ; and an act which is only allowed
is restricted to the condition of safety, like
walking upon the highway, Ash-Shafi*I main
tains that, in this case, the fine of blood is
dvo from the public treasury ; because,
although where chastisement or punishment
prove destructive, it is homicide by misad
venture (as the intention is not the destruc
tion, but the amendment of the sufferer), yet
a fine is due from tho public treasury, since
the advantage of the act of the magistrate
extends to the public at large, wherefore the
atonement is duo from their property, namely,
from the public treasury. The Hanafi doc
tors, oa the other band, say that whenever
the magistrate inflicts a punishment or
dained of God upon any person, and that
person dies, it IB the same as if he had died
by the visitation of • God, without, any visible
cause; wheretore there is no responsibility
for it. (See the Hiddyak: the " Durru '/-
Mukktdr', the Fatdwd-t-'Afaoyiri, in loco.)
[PUNISHMENT.]
TAZKIYAH (4*y). Lit. " Purify
ing." (1) Giving the legal alms, or zakdt.
(2V The purgation of witnesses. (See
Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 674.) An
institution of inquiry into the character of
wituessefi.
TAZWTJ \(&rf). Lit "Joining/'
A term used for a marriage contract. [JMAK-
TEMPLE AT MAKKAH, The.
[MASJFW 'L-JiASAM. ;
TERAH, [A.ZAB.J
THEFT.
THEOLOCH. Arabic al-'Ilmu 'l-
IlaM (ujW ,»Wl), "The Science of
God." In the Traditions, the term lllm,
u knowledge," is specially applied to the
knowledge of the Qur'aii.
Shaikh 'Abd u '1-Haqq, m his remarks on
the term '//m, eays religious knowledge con-
sists in an acquaintance with the Qux'an and
the Traditions of Muhammad.
Mttbammadan theology may be divided
into—
(1) 'limit ''t-Tafnr, a knowledge of the
Qur'an and the commentaries thereon.
(2) 'llmu 'l-ffadi$, a knowledge of the
Traditions.
(3) 'llmu "I'JJsuI, a knowledge of the roots,
or of the four principles of the foundations 'of
Muslim law, being expositions of the exegesis
of the Qur'an and the Hadls, and the principles
of Ijma' and Qiyas.
(4) 'limn 'l-Fiqhi Muslim law, whether
moral, civil, or ceremonial.
(SV/iW 'i-'Aqefid, scholastic theology,
founded on the six articles of the Muslim
TOLERATION
creed, the Unity of God, the Angels, the
Books, the Prophets, the Resurroetiori, and
Predestination. ['ILM.J
THUNDER. Arabic Ra'd (J^).
In the Qur'aii, Surah xiii. 13, 14, it is said:
" He (God) it is who shows you the lightning
tor fear and hope (of rain) : and He brings up
heavy clouds, and the thunder celebrates His
praise; and the angels, too, fenr him, and He
sends the thunder-clap and overtakes there*
with whom He will ; yet they wrangle about
God ! But He is strong in might.''
AT-TIBBU 'K-RUHAN1 (c*UV
i/Ujjft). Lit '•* The science (medical)
of the heart" A term used by the Sufis for
a knowledge of thw heart ami of j aajedies for
its health. (See Kitdbu 't-Ta'rifdt:;
TILAWAH (ftjAf). ^.
The reading ot the Qur'a«. [Q
AT-TIN (&>*\). <4 The Figr/' The
title oi the xcvth Surah of the Qur'an, iii»
opening words of which are: "I swear by
the./?r' ft»id b tb« nliv<». '
TINATD '
Lit. "The clay of putrid
matter," The swr-at of the people of hell.
An expression used in the Traditions. (Mish-
kdt, book xv. eh. vii, pt. I,}
AT-TIRMm (^^^). Tho J&mi'u
*t-Tirmi$i, or the "Collection of TirmM,"
One of the six correct books of Sunni tradi
tions collected by Abu 'Jaa Muhammad ibn
!Isa ibn Saurah afc-Tirmi^I, who was born at
Tirmiz on the banks of the Jaihun. A;W.
209. Died A.H. 279. [THADITIOTSS. j
TITHE. [TAXATION.]
TOBACCO. Arabic dukhdn (0Vw)
(smoke). In some parts. of Syria iabaglt (/c«i')
andtutun .?> ^n India and Central Asia,
tamdku, corruption of the Persian tambakti
Tobacco was introductjd into Tur
key, Arabia, and other parts oi Asia sooh
after the beginning of the ssventeeth cen
tury of the Christian era, and very soon after
it had begun to be regularly imported from
America into western fiurope. Its lawf nlness
to the Muslim is warmly disputed. Th6
Wahhabls have always maintained its un
lawfulness, and even other Muslims hardly
contend for its lawiulneBs, but it has hecome
generally used, m Muslim countries. In India,
smoking is allowed in mosques : but in Af
ghanistan and Central Asia, it if? generally
forbidden. The celebrated Muslim leader,
the Akhund of Swat, although an opponent
of the Wahhabls, condemned the use of
tobaeco on account of its exhilarating effects.
TOLERATION, RELIGIOUS.
Muhammadan writers are unanimous in
asserting that no religious toleration vras
extended to the idolaters of Arabia in the
time of the Prophet. The only choice given
them was death or the reception of Isl&m
TOLEEATION
TOMBS
635
But tlojr aie not agreed as to how far
idolatry should be tolerated amongst peoples
not of Arabia. Still, a«? a matter of fact,
Hindus professing idolatry »re tolerated in
all Muslim countries. Jews, Christians, and
Majusis are tolerated upon the payment of
a capitation tax [JIZYAH. JREATT]. Persons
paying this tax aro called £ir,imt*, and enjoy
& certain toleration. (Fatdwd-i-'Aiamoirii
vol. i. p. 807.) [ZIAUII.J
According to the Hanafis, the following
restrictions are ordained regarding those who
do not profess Islam, but eujoy protection on
payment ot thH t,?i\ : —
It behoves the Imam to make a distinction
between Muslims and Zimmis, in point both
of dress and of equipage. It i«», therefore,
not allowable for 7immls to ride upon
horses, or to u$t« armour, or to use the same
saddles and woa.r the same garments or head
dresses as Muslinifi, and it is written in- the
Jdim'u 't'jfayhtr, that Zimmis must be
directed to wear the kistij openly on the
outside of their clothes (the kistif is a
woollen cord or belt which Zimim.' wear
round their waists on the outside of their
garments) ; and also that they must >>r
directed, if they ride upon any animal, to
provide themselves a saddle like the panniers
of an «<••>•.
The reason for this distinction in point of
ind so forth, and the direction to
wear ir« kistij openly, is that Muslims are
to be held in honour (whence it is they are
not saluted first, it being the duty of the
highan in rank to salute first [SALUTATION]),
and if there were no outward signs to dis
tinguish Muslims from Zimxnis, these might
be heated with the same respect, which is
not allowed. Tt is to be observed that' the
insignia incumbent upon them to wear is
a wcullen rope or cord tied round the waist.
and UUL a silken belt.
It is requisite that the wives of Ziuainis
be kept separate from vhe wives of Muslims,
both in the public roads, and also in the
baths ; and it is also requisite that a majrk
be set upon their dwelling?, in order that
beggars who come to theii doors may not
pray for them. The learned have also re
marked that it is fit that Zimmis be not
permitted to ride at all, except in cases oi
absolute necessity, and if a Zimmi be thus,
of necessity, allowed to ride, he must alight
wherever he sees any Muslims assembled;
i.nd,as mentioned before, if there be a neces
sity for him to use a saddle, it must be made
hi thft manner ot the panniers of an ass.
ZjrmniB of the higher orders must also be
prohibited from wearing rich garments. -
The construction of ohureh^s or syna
gogues in the Muslim territory is unlawful.
this being forbidden in the Traditions ; but
if places of worship originally belonging to
Jews or Christians be destroyed, or fall to
decay, they are at liberty to repair them.
because buildings eannot endure for ever,
and at the iiaam hac left these people to the
exorcise of thaii r*n religion, it is H neces
sary infei-c-nce tnat, h«- hak engaged noi to
prevent them from rebuilding or repairing
their churches and synago^"*1" If, however,
they attempt to remove these, and to build
them in a place different from their former
situation, the Imam must present thorn,
since this is an actual construction ; and the
places which they use as hermitages are
held in the same light ax their churches,
wherefore the construction of those also is
unlawful.
it i« otherwise with respect to such places
ot prayer as are within their d welling" • ^'hioh
they are not prohibited fror,-. constructing,
because these »re an nppurtonanoe to the
habitation. What tc here said is the rule
with respect o chw.-,, but not with respect
to villages or hamlets, because, as the tokens
of Islam (such as public prayer, festivals, and
so forth) appear in cities, Zimmis should not
be permitted to celebrate the tokens of infi
delity there in the face of them ; out as the
tokens of Islam do not appear in villages
or hamlets, therw is no occasion to prevent
tho construction ot1 synagogues or churches
there.
Some allege that Zhtuma are to be prohi
bited from constructing churches or syna
gogues, not only in cities but also in villages
and hamlets, because in the villages variouH
tokens of Islam appear, and what is recorded
from Abii flanifah (that the ^inhibition
agttiuet buiiamg churches and synagogues is
oontine«l to oitiea, and does not extend to
viliagos and hamlets) relates solely to the
villages of al-Kufau, because the greater part
of the inhabitants oi villages are ^inamis, there
being few Muslims among fh«m, wherefore
the tokens of Islam did not there appear;
moreover, in the territory of Arabia Znnniis
are prohibited from consrtuctintc churches
or synagogues, either in cities or villages,
because the Prophet has said : " Two religions
cannot be poesp^sed together in the peninsula
of Arabia." (See t'af^ri-i^A/amgiri, Durru
*J- Mukktdr, Hiddyak, in two.; [ZIMMI .J
TOMBS. The erection of tombs
and monuments over the grave.- ot Muslims
is forbidden by the strict laws of Islam. For
the teaching of the Traditions on tho subject
is unmistakable, as will be seen by the fol
lowing Ahadis. (Afishkdt, book v. ch. vi.
pt. 1) .—
Jabir says: "The Prophet prohibited
building with mortar on graves."
Ann '1-IIaiyaj al-Asadl relates that the
Khalifab «Ali said to him : " Shall I not Rive
you the orrff>r»> -which the Prophet pave me,
namely, to des'.-ov all pictures and images,
and not to leave a siugls lofty tomb without
lowering it within a span from the ground,"
Sa'd ibii Abi "Waqqas said, when he w*s
ill : « Make me a grave towards Makkah, and
put unburnt bricks upon it, as was done upon
the Prophet's."
The Wahh&bis consequently forbid the
erection of monuments, and when they took
possession of al-Madmah. they ;nt ended to
d««trov tho handsome building wnich cover*
the grave of the Prophet, but were prevented
636
TOMBS
TOMBS
by accident. (See Barton's Fiiffriswigfo vol. i>
p. 854.) [WAIIHABL]
But. wot with stand mg the general rror^ensus
of orthodox opinion, that tho erection of «uoa
buildings is Tmlawfn', dow>??d tow»>$ of sub*
stantial structure, similar to the illustration
givon on t-Hs pas*e, ar« common to. ail Mu-
hniuttiadati countries, auu masonry combs aro
arwfijs ftrectei over the graves of Arsons of
respectability,
Soma have a head-stone, in woioh there
are recess lor somll oil fcunps, which are
lighted every Thursday; evaniag. Persons of
distinction are generally honotned with tombs
constructed with domes, The specimens given
in tba flhurtratton* are common to all parts of
the Muslim, world,.
The most common form of structure is not
dissimilar to that which is ereoted in Christian
oemctoiids, but it ia usual to put a liead:stone
to the grave of a male on which i* a figure
representing the turban as a sign of authority.
Sometimes there is a cavity in th« top of the
grave-stone filled, with mould, in which
flowers fire planted.
Writing of the grave-yard* of ,
Mr. Wellsted says : " T know of nothing Vhich
displays the Moslem character to more ad
vantage than tho care they bestovr on their
burial -groui^ds. On Friday, the Moslem Sun
day, those of Damascus afford at otjce a
touching and animated scene, Th* site
selected for the remains of those most che
rished in life is generally pictiwesqnely
situated, jn some lovrer spot, beneath the lofty
cypress or quivering poplar. Here a. headr
stone of marble, covered with inscriptions,
and of a male, surmounted with a turban,
mingles vith costlier buildings, of an oblong
form, very tastefully and elaborately insqribed
vtth eentence^ froua the Kornn The greatest
care is observed in prefierving these- sepul-
«?hrsl monuments. A small aperture is left
in »owe poroious, which is filled with ^arth,
atsd iii them 'the females plant myrtle and
otiier flowp.ra,- «.nd not iRfrequeBfly T?ater
tho?n, with tfceir tears. On tb« d}jy I have
nsmfd, thuy js?.ay be perceived in groups,
haeietung *o perittrm fcbe sad but
oflice of mottra&jgfcr the departed.
to ike Cttyofitie (?</%%«, -vol. i p. 848. Y
Mr. Latjo (Arabian Nigkt** vol. i. p. 433)
^ays the tpi-pb " is a hoiiov/, oblong vault, one
side of -which faces Mekkeh, generally large
enpUgh-to contain four or more bodies, and
having an oblong moaument of stone or brick
constructed ovei' it with & stela at the head
and foot. Upon the former of these two
stet (tvhich is often inscribed vdtb a text
'>om the J&ur-aii, and the name of the de
ceased, with the d^ite of his death), a turban,
or other head-dress, is sometimes carved, shew
ing' the rank or class of the person or persons
buried beneath ;• aud in manj- casee, a cupola,
supported by four walls, or by columns, &e.,
is constructed over the smaller monxuBent*
The body is kid on its right side, or iaclkod
hy means of H fow crude bricks, so that the
;"a<M-> is turndd towards Mekkeh; and a person
is generally employed to dictate to wu» de
gased the aiiswers which he shoiild gire
when he in examined by the two angels
Munkir and Nekeer," [TAI.QIN;]
The tombs of tho imperial family of
Turkey are fcoaunget th« most interestifcg
sights of the city of Consiantinople. They
TOMBS
TOMBS
are principally erected in the outer courts of
mosques and behind tho mihrab. One of the
finest of these mausoleums is that of Pultun
Sulaiman I., who died A.D. 1566. It is an
octagonal building of divers coloured marbles,
with cupola and fluted roof ; four pillars
support the dome, which in elaborately
painted in red and delicate arabesque. It
contains the remains of throe Sultaris, Sulai-
juan I., Sulaiman II., and Ahmad II., besides
some femalo members of tbe family., The
biers are decorated with mk embroideries
and oostly shawls, and wth turbans and
aigrettes; and that of Sulaiman L is sur
rounded by a railing inlaid with mother- ol-
p»arl.
Tho mausoleum of the Emperor Jahangir
at Sbfthdaroih, near Lahore, is one of the
finest Muhamma Jaa tombs in the world. It
is situated in a garden 1,GOO feet square.
There is, first, ft nne corridor 233 feet long,
frcw which to the central dome is 108 feet.
The passage to the ton: *> is paved with beau
tifully streaked marble from Jaipur and
other places. The sarcophagus stands on a
white marble platform, 18 feet 6 inclxcv long,
from north to south, and 8 feet 9 inches
broacl. The sarcophagus itself is of white
marble, and is 7 feet loag. Or. t)ue oast and
went sides of it are the ninety-nine namos of
God. [OOD. SAMK* OP] most beautifully
carved, and on tiie south side is iziserlbecl :
'• The glorious tomb of His Ri#h Majesty,
the Asylum of Protectors. Nuru 'd-dlii Mu
hammad, the Emperor Jihangtr, A.JT. 1037
( A.D. i627). OB the north end o* the tomb is*
in Arab™. "Allah the Living God. Ther*»
is uo deity but God ov»r the hi visible world
and all things. He is tbe Merciful and the
Compassionate," On tho top is n sh"ort pas-
sago from the Qur'an, written in beautiful
Jughra. The central dome of the building
is 27 feet square, and on thfs four sides tligro
are tine screens of trellis work. Just inside
the entrance, and to the ri^ht of it, is a utair-
caaa with twenty-five steps*, which leads up
to a magnificent tesaelated pavement, at each
coruei of wfrmii is a minaret tt5 ft»»t high
from tiw platform. This platform is 211 feet
5 inches square, and is truly heautif nL A
marble wall rau rouud the pavement, butsit
was takon away by the Sikhs, and it hae been
replaced by a poor -substitute of masonry.
The minarets are tocr storeys high, and are
bnUt wj magtdliceat bio* '*;.» uf /.toi.* 8 teot
by 61 leet, and Ui tlioni ts!c otop.-. l<>£;i;u«: t*
the top of the building, from whioa iherc is
a fiuo view of Lahore.
The tomb of- Ahmad Skah AbdaH at Kan
dahar, if* an octagonal etmctwi-e^ ov«=>rlnid
with rolourod porcelain briefer, 0n3 is stir-
mounted with 0 gilded dome, surrounded by
small minarets. The pavMncnt inside ie
covered with a carpet, and the MurcuphAgXUi
of the Afghttit king is covered u-^h a sliawl.
The tomb itB*»1f is made of Kaadi'hsr st<>uo,
inlaid with wreaths of Ccvjera in coloured
marble. Tbe interior wMl-? nre prettil>
and the windows are of nno trellis
stone,
The sepulchre of the Taimnr, who died
A.D. 1406, is at Samarkand in Bukharab, and
is described by M. Vambery ar a ne*,t little
chapel crowned with a splendid dome, and
encircled by a wall in which there is an
arched gate. On both sides are two small
domes, roinature representations of the large
one in the centre. Tho court-yard between
the wall and the ohapel is filled with trees ;
the gardon being much neglected. Upon
entering the dome, there i& a vestibule which
leads to the chapel itself. This is octagonal,
and ttbout ten short paces in diameter. In
the middle, under the dome, that is to say,
in the place of honour, there are two tombs,
placed lengthways, with the head in the
direction of Makkah. One of these tomb* is
covered with a very fine stone el a dark
groen colour, two and a half spans broad and
ten long, and, abuut the thicknesb of six
lingers. It is laid tlat in two pieces over the
grave oi Taimur. To* ether grave IK
covered with a blaok stone. It is the tomb
of Mir Syud Bakar, the teacher- and spiritual
guide of Taimur, and beside whose grave thy
great Ameer grat-etully desired to b« buried.
Round ibout lie other tombstones groat and
smalt. The inscriptions are simple, and are
hi Arabic and Persian,
It has often been the case that Muham-
ni'xdau kings have erected their mausoleums
during tlieir lifetime, although such acts ore
ntrictlt contrary to the teaching*, ol their
Prophet A remarkable instance of this is to
be seen at Bijapur in India, where the uu-
finished toun> oi 'Ali 'Adi Shah (A.IS 1557; is
still to ba seen, having never beor> completed
after his burinL His successor, Ibrahim (A.D.
1579), warned by the fsto of his predecessor's
tomb, commenced his own on ao small a plan
— 116 teet square — that, as hn was blessed
with a long and prosperous reigu. it was only
by ornament that ho. could render the place
worthy of himself. This he accomplished by
covering every part with the most exquisite
mrt elaborate carvings; The ornamental car-
vings uu this tomb are go nuiziercug, that it in
jaid the whole Qur'an is engraven on it*
walls The principal apartment in the toir,l/
is a square of forty feet, covered by a stone
roof perfectly flat in the centre, and supported
by a cove pi-ojoctiug ten feet from tbe wall
on overy oide. Mr. Fergussou aays : •* How
the roof is supported is a my»tery,Vhich <»an
oniy be understood by those who are familiar
with the use tho Indians make of ina&tos of
concrete, which, with good mortar, seems
OHpable oi infinite applications unknown in
Europe." (Afcttftc&re, vol. iii. p. 562.)
The tomb of M&huiiid, Ibrahim's successor
(A.D. 102«), was alao built ic hifl li/eticio, and
rouoarkabie for its simple gr&ndeiu nufl crii
: rructiTe bnldnofls. Jt in internally 1H6 feot
««rh *."7 ifid Ms areai« consequently 18.225
iqv-.ar« WWij wba^e tho Pantheon at Rome has
only an area of 15.8&J feot.
tbe tomb of lioarn aah-Sliafi'i, the founder
the « ir orthodox scots of tho Sun-
•i %«ho cued A.H. 2O4, i? still to I
kid city oi Cnire J[f >e suroi^nntoo h
688
TOMBS
a large dome, with a •weathercock in the
form of a boat. It is said to have been
erected by Yusuf Salahu 'd-DIn (Saladin).
The interior is cased to a height of eight feet
with marble, above which the whole build
ing is coloured in recent and unartistic style.
The windows contain coloured glass. There
are three nich«s, with a fourth in the form
of a mzTirci, marking the direction of Mak-
kah. The covering of the tcuib of the cele
brated Muslim doctor is of simple brocade,
embroidered with gold. It is enclosed with
a wooden railing, inlaid with mother-of-
pearl, the corners being clasped with silver
fittings. At the head of the tomb Is a large
turbau, partly covered with a Cashmere
shawi. Is ear the head of the tomb is a marble
pillar, with sculptured inscriptions, coloured
red and gold. From the roof are suspended
a few porcelain lamps ; and lamps of glass,
as well as ostrich eggs, hang in profusion
from the canopy of the tomb and from light
wooden beams. The walls and tomb-enclo
sure ».re aderaed with scrolls. Close to the
building are four other tombs of ibe Imam's
family.
The tomb Oi 2jubaidah, the beloved wife
of the celebrated Kbillfah Harunu V-Rashid,
the hero of the tales of The Tftptwond and
One Nights, is a simple edifice standing on a
sloping eminence, within an extensive cemetery
outside the city of Baghdad. It is a building
of an octagonal shape, thirty feet in diameter,
and surmounted by a. spire, in the upper part
of the building are two ranges of windows,
TOMBS
U;e upper of which presents the flattened and
tiie lower the pointed arch. The spire is a
mere sharpened cone, ornamented without
with convex divisions corresponding to oon-t
cave arches within. The ulterior is occupied*
by three oblong buildings of masonry, coated
with lime. A modern Pacha and his wife
have now the honour of reposing beside
the remains of the fair Persian, and ao
inscription over the porch testifies that
their remains were deposited nine centuries
after the favourite wife of the renowned
Khalifah.
A very interesting specimen of tomb ar
chitecture is found at Sultaniah in Persia. It
is the sepuchre of one Muhammad Khuda-
bandia. Texier ascribes the building to
Khudabandiah, of tho Sufi dynasty, AJp,
1577-85 ; but Fergusson says its style shows
that the monument must be two or three
hundred years older than that king. Ker
Porter says it is the work of the Tartar Ma-
hammad Khudabandia, who was the suc
cessor of Ohazan. Khan, the builder of the
celebrated mosque at Tabriz, who, beingi
seized with as much zeal for his Shi'ite faith as
his predecessor had been for the Sunuite.hlfi;
intention was to lodge in this nmuscleum the<
remains of 'All and his son al-Elusain. This in
tention, however, was not carried into effect,
and consequently tiie bones oi th« founder re-
poae alone in this splendid shrine, and not under
th.8 central dome, but ia a side chamber. Th»
general piau of this building is an octagon,
with a small chapel opposite the entrance, in
THE TAJ AT AOKA. (A. F. ffcfe, >
TOMBS
TRADITION
639
which the body lies. Internally, the dome is
81 feet in diameter by 150 feet in height, the
ootagon being worked (Mr. Ferguson says)
into a circle by as elegant a series of brackets
as, perhaps, ever were employed (or ihis pur
pose. The form of the dome is singularly
graceful and elegant, and superior to any
thing* of the kind in Persia. The whole is
covered with glazed tiles, rivalling in richness
those 01 tho celebrated mosque at Tabriz;
and vrith its general beauty of outline, it
affords one of the finest specimens of th's
style of architecture found in any country.
Tho grave of the Persian poet Hafiz, nt
Shiruz in Persia, is « single block of beau
tiful marble from Yesd, of which about eigh
teen inches appear above the ground. It is
a line slab, is perfectly flat, and is nine feet
long by two feet nine inches in width. Raised
in low relief, in the centre of the top of the
slab, is one of the poet's odes in the beau
tiful letters of the Porsian alphabet, and
round the edges, in a band about five inches
deep, is another ode. The tomb, which is
probably about two hundred years old, is
situated in a squaie enclosure or garden, and
the ground around is thickly beset with
tombs, mostly flat like that of the poet.
The finest specimen of monumental archi
tecture ia the celebrated Taj at Agra, erected
over the grave of Ujjummad Bauu Begum,
called Mumtaz-i-MujuiH, or the "Exalt»>cl
One of the Palace," the favourite wife of
the Emperor Shah Jab an, who died abjut
A.D. 1629. The designs and estimates for
the building are said to have been prepared
by «t Venetian named Geronimo Verroneo ;
but, the architect died at Lahore before its
completion, and the work is supposed to have
been handed over to a Byzantine Turk. Mr.
Keene says that it is certain Austin, the
Frenoh artist, -was consulted. Mr. Fergusson
gives the following particulars of this re
markable building : —
" The enclosure, including garden and outer
conn, is a parallelogram of 1,860 feet by more
than 1,000 feet. The outer court, surrounded
by arcades and adorned by four gateways, is
an oblong, occupying in length the whole
breadth of the enclosure, and is about 450
feet deep. The principal gateway leads from
this court to the garden, where the tomb is
seen framed in an avenue of dark cypress
trees. The plinth of white marble is 18 feet
high, and is an exact square of 313 feet each
way. At the four corners stand four columns
or towers, each 137 feet high, and crowned
with a little pavilion. The mausoleum itself
occupies a spate of 186 feet square, in the
centre of this larger square, and each of the
four corners is cut off opposite each of the
towers. The central dome is 50 feet in
diameter by 80 feet in height. On the plat
form in front of the juwab, or false mosque,
is a tracing of the topmost spine, a gilded
spike crowning the central dome to the
height of 80 feet. The interior is lighted
from marble-trellised-screen lights above
and below." — Ferausson's History of Archi
tecture, vol. ii. p. 693.) [ZTYARAH.J
•TRADITION. It, is the belief of
all Muhammadans, whether Sunni, Shi'ah, or
Wahhabl, that in addition to the revelation
contained, in the Qur'an, the Prophet recent
the Wdhy ghalr Matiu (J?V. " an unread re
velation " ), whoreby he was enabled to give
authoritative declarations un religious ques
tions, either moral, ceremonial, or doctrinal.
Muhammad traditions are therefore supposed
to be the uninspired record of inspired say
ings, and consequently occupy a totally dif
ferent position to what we understand bv tra
ditions in the Chridtian Church. The Arabic
words used for these traditions are Jfadit
pl. Ahndix, " a saying " ; and SunnaJi
, pi- Sunan "a custom." Tho vord
Hadis, in its singular form, is now generally
used by both Muhanxmadaa and Christian
•writers for the collections of traditions.
They are records of what Muhammad did
(Sunnatu V-^/f'/), what Muhammad enjoined
(Siuviatit }l-qav,[)) and thut which was done in
the presence of Muhammad and which Jie did
not forbid (Sunnatu 't-taqrir). They also in
clude the authoritative sayings and doings
of the Companions of the Prophet.
The following quotations from the Tradi
tions as to the sayings of Muhammad on the
subject of this oral law, will explain th«
position which ho intended to assign to it.
"That which the Prophet of God hath
made unlawful is like that which God him
self hath made so."
" I am no mor«. than a man, but when 1 en
join anything respecting religion receive it,
and when I order anything about the affairs
of the world, then I am nothing more than
man."
" Verily the best word is the word of God,
and the best rale of life is that delivered by
Muhammad."
"I have left you two things, and you will
not stray as long as you hold them fast.
The one is the book of God, and the other
the law (sunnah} of His Prophet."
*« My sayings do not abrogate the word of
God, but tho word of God can abrogate my
sayings."
" Some of my injunctions abrogate others."
(Mishkdt, book i. ch. vi.)
Muhammad gave verj special injunctions
respecting the faithful tiansmission of his
sayings, for, according to at-Tinnlzi, Ibn
'Abbas relates that Muhammad said : " Con
vey to other persons none of my words, ex-
fcept those ye know of a surety. Verily he
who represents my words wrongly shall find
a place for himself in the fire."
But notwithstanding the severe warning
given by their Prophet, it is admitted by all
Muslim scholars that very many spurious tra
ditions have been handed down. Abu Da'ud
received only lour thousand eight hundred
traditions out of five hundred thousand, and
even in this cartful selection, he states, that he
has given " those which seem to be authentic
and those which are nearly so." (Vide Ibn
Khallikan, voLi.p. 590.)
Out of forty tuousand persons who have
640
TEADITION
TRADITION
been instrunieBjtal in handing dowo tradi
tions. al Bukjiarl only acknowledges two
thousand as reliable Authorities.
Id consequence oi the unreliable character
e* the Tradition,'., the following canons have
been frattn*? for the reception or rejection
(vide Nnkhbatu Y-/'«yr, by Shaikh Shihabv
'd-Din Ahmad, ed. by Captain N. Lees) :~
T. With reference to the character of thoef-
veho have handed down the tradition; —
(1) Hctd*$u vs-.^h/tiA, a genuine tradition, ia
quo which has been handed dcWu by truly
pious persons who have been distinguished
for their Integrity.
(2) fiirdi$ii'l~ffaxfXh, a mediocre tradition, Je
one the narrators of which do not approach
iu moral excellence to those of the $ah"ih
claws.
($) /fcu&pu 'z-Z(tlift h-weak tradition, is one
whose narrator* are of questionable autho
rity.
The disputed claims of narrators to these
three claaaee! nave proved a fruitful source of
learned discussion, arid very numerons are
the works' written upon the subject,
It. /With ret'erarieo to the original relators
of the Hadia ;—
(1) Ifadi$u'l-M<ir/&, an exalted tradition is
& saying, or an act, related or performed by
the Prophet himself and handed down in a
tradition.
(2) Hadifoi'l'MQuqufi a restricted tradition,
Is a saying or ao >ct related or performed
by one of the a?#a6, or Companions of the
Propfcet.
(3) Hadl$u n-Maqtu^ an intersected tradi
tion, i« a saying' or an act related or per-
for? a ad by one of the T«i6;''w», or those who
conversed with the Companions of the Pro
phet.
IIL With reference to the links in the
chain of the narrators of the tradition, a
Hadls is either Mutia$il> connected, or Mun-
qaii', disconnected. If tiie chain of narrators
is complete from the tini« of the first utter
ance of the saying or performance of the act
recorded to the time that it was written down
by the collector of traditions, it is Muttasil',
but if the chain of narrators is incomplete, it
IV, With reference to the manner in which
the tradition has been narrated, and trans
mitted down from the first; :--
.(I) JIadizu't-Mutawdtir, an undoubted tra
dition, is one which is handed down by very
many distinct chains of narrators, and which
hus btten always accepted *s aulhentio n.nd
genuine, no doubt ever haying been raised
against it. The learned doctors say there are
only five such traditions-; but the exact ndm-
lifer is disputed
<%) tiudisw 'l-$Iaskhur, a -welt-known tradi"
tion.is one xviiicb haa been banded down b'yrat
l»asi three distinct linos of narrators. It is
called alzo Mu&ttifix,t Jiffused. It is plso
used tor a tradition -whloii was at lirat re
corded uy one person, or n lew individuAls,
*ud afterwards becann. a popular tradition.
(8) tiadi$u 'teAziz, t« i*ure tradition, is one
related by only two line* of narrators,
.pQor tradition, is .one
related by only one lire of narrator*,
(5) Khabaru.'Z- Wahid, a single saying , is a.
term algo used for a tradition related by one
person and nanded down >>y one tiue of
narrators. It >s t? disputed point whether
a Khobar Wahid can farm the basis of
Muslim doctrine.
(6) TJad^u 'l-Mursai (lit. « a tradition Jet
loose ";, is a tradition which any collector uf
traditions, such atf u*Buk»\sm and others,
records with the assertion, v flte Apostle' tif
God sitid."
(?) 'Riipiiyahy is a Hadis wbieh commences
with iha words "it is .'etaied" without the
fi.itthoyity being .given.
(8) Hadlsu ty-Mauzu't an invented tradition,
ia one the untruth of which is beyond dispute.
The following is a specimen o.f a £«*/?£, w
given in tht? collection of at-Tirmm> ^tiich
will exemplify the wjiy in which ft tradition
is rocorded.:-^-
" Abii ETurafb said to us (hadda^a-niC) that
Ibruhiai ibn Ywsuf ibn Abi Ishaq said to us
(haddasa-ndj, from ('««,) bin fnther, from (*re«)
Abu Ishaq, /r-ora (*tt«) Tulatflu'ibn
that b.t- Ruiu, J hayo heard {aami"tit)t
?r Kahmau ibn Au>;ajfeh, that he said
), 1 have heard (sumVtv) from Bara
n 'zib tbixi he said (yn^uiu) J have heard
(OT'm?'«at) that the Prophet said, Whoftver
shali give in c?harity a railcb. cow, or silver,
or a leathern bottlo of water, it shall be
equal to the freeing of a slam,*'
The Honourable Syed Ahmed Khan Baha
dur, O.S.I., an educated Muhammadan
tleman, in an Essay on Mohammedan
tionnt gives tbe following infornaaticn ; —
The 'Style of Composition employed in the
imparting of a Tradition.
For the purpose of expressing hoijv ft tr#*
dition had boon commnnioated from one per
son to another, csi-taiit introductory verbal
forms were selected by ctaiy qu&lifiad per
sons, and it was ineurnbwi! upon every' one.
about to narrate a tradition., to eomiawtco by
that particular form appropriated to the said
tradition, and this was done with tb,e vievy of
securing i'oi each tvaditioc the quantiun of
credit to which it might be justly entitled.
These Introductory verbal forms are as
follow : (1) U*JB* "He said to me "; (2) d*««**
Jj5> «I heard him saying "; (3) U5 JUuJHe
told me"; (4) UJ^J "fie related to. -me";
(5)v^«*He informed roe"; (6)Ut(i\«He
informed me ' ; ^7)^X5 " From>"
The first four introdnctyry f ornxs were to
be used only in the case of an original nar*
rator communicating the very words of the
tradition to the next ono beloxv him. the
rifth and aiath introductory verbal forms
•w^rfl n«od whea A narrator inquired of the
narrator immediately above him whether
such or such a fact, or circumstance, wets or
wan not correct. The last form is not euf-
iioiently explicit, and the coa».-jquenoe ia that
it cannot ho decido4 te which of the two per-
TRADITION
TRADITION
641
ions the tradition related belongs, r.o that
unless other fact's be brought to bear Tipon it,
it cannot be satisfactorily proved ^.vhother
there be any other n «>-<;on8, one. or more
than one, intermediary between the two nar
rators. As to any external facts that mig'at
prove what wa« .raquu'wl lo hf> Vnown, the
Earned are divHod in th«»r opinions.
First: If it be knowh of .a certainty that
the narrator ia not notorious for fraudu-
'ently emitting the names of other parties
ionning links in the chain of narration, and
who also livud at such a time and in such a
locality that it A\MS possible, although 'not
proved, that khey visited each other, then it
might bf taken fop granted that tVi«re TUTC
no-othov narrators tin<:rrne"'': TV Wtwean th«"><?
two.
Secondly : Other iearn^-T anthoritica add
that it must l>o proved that they visited each
oth&r, at le^rtt one* in their life-time.
Thirdly: Others assert that it must ho
proved th^+ ^h^y remained together for such
atimnaa would be twiHek-nt t« ~r»ihlethczn
to !«?»•?> the tradition, cue from tbe other.
FoiHbly; SomfiholrHhatifcmuHt t»o proved
that one of tnsm really lea rned the tradition
from the other.
Degree of Authenticity of the Narrators an
judgetl by their ^Acquirements
Tha associates of tho Prophet, and those
persons who lived immediately att^r them,
used to relate, "»HL th« exception of the
Qnr'au, in* sense of the Prophet's words it>
their own language, unless they had to use
sorr-ft phrases containing prav^w <*v i»h<jrj
they had to point out to others the very
wordp of the Prophet. It ia natural to sup
pose that deeply-learned persons would them
selves understand and deliver, to others, tho
sense of the sayings better than, persons of
inferior parts, and therefore narrators have
been divided into seven grades.
JFirst : Persons highly conspicuous for then*
learning and legs.1 acquiromento. as well HS
for their retentive memory. Siich persons
are distinguished by the title of &.»\
v£oJk;*Jt A'im'matu V-l/arfj*, that is ik Iieaders
in Htt<)is-'
Serocd : Pftrxonfi who, as to tbeirltnowledj' e,
fcjik" r.-iil. niittr ihe iirfit., and who out very
rarely coMUiiUed ^nv mi«tako,
fhird : Fersona v,::j ha-e aiade ttlterations
in the pure religion of the Prophet, -without
carrying thorn to *vt'**»mes by pire}iid)<M, but
re«pi?>«tine whose integrity and honesty there
is no doubt.
Fourth ; Persons resps^tinp whom nothing
'« knov?n.
Firth : Persons who have mn.de alterations
in the pure religion of the Prophot, and,
actuated by prejudice, havo oarritsd thfir to
exti-omes.
Sixth : Persons who are pertinaciously
sceptirnl, and have not a reti?jit>ve memory.
Sf^pntli : Persor^ who are notorious for
inventing epurion." traditions. LearnM di
vines are of opinion that the traditions related
by persons of the first throe elaasas ahouH
be accepted as true, according to their re
spectiva merits, and also that traditions re-
latud by persons coming under the tbrce laat
classes should be, nt once, entirely rejected ;
and that the traditions reJated by ^ persons of
the fourth class, should be passed over un
noticed so long as the narrator remained
unknown.
Causes of Difference among Tradition*.
We should not be jjoitttied in concluding
that, whenever a difference is met with in
traditions, those lather are nothing more
than so many mere inventions and fabrica
tions of the narrators, since, besides the
fabrication of hndis, there are also other
natural causes which might occasion such
differences ; and we shall now consider those
natural causes, which produce guch variety
among kadis.
(1) A misunderstanding of the real sense
of the Mft-ying of the Prophet.
(2) Difference of tne opinions of two nar
rators in understanding the true sense of the
Prophet's saying.
(8) Inability to enunciate clearly thfr sense
of the Pi-ophet's saying.
(4) Failure of memory on the part of the
narrator — in consequence of which he either
left out some portion or portions of the Pro
phet's saying, or mixed up together the
meanings of two different hadis.
(5) Explanation of any portion of the
ha dig given by the narrator, with the inten
tion of its beinj? easily understood by the
party hearing it, but unfortunately mistaken
by the latter for an cctnal portion of the
i itself.
(6) Quotations of certain of tho Prophet's
words by tho narrator, for the purpose of
supporting his own narration, ^bile the
.hearers of the narration erroneously took" the
wholft of it as being the Prophet's own
words,
(7) Tradition* borrowed from the Jews
erroneously -takeu to be the words of the
Prophet, and the* difference existing between
such Jewish traditions was thus transferred
to tnosfl of the Mucair.rnadans. The stories
of Huciont persons and early prophets, with
whifh our histories aod commentaries are
rilled are ail derived frorn these sources.
(8) The difference which is naturally
caused in the continual transmission of A
tradition by oral communication, as it has
beeu ia tto caj>fi of traditions having mira
cles for their subject- matter.
(9) The various states uad circumstances
ill which the different, narrators saw the
Prophet.
There exists no donbt respecting the cir
cumstance of certain persons having fabri-
cat»*d some hadis iu the Prophet's name.
Those who perpetrated so impudent a for
gery were man of the following descrip
tions : —
(1) Persons desirous of introducing some
81
642
TRADITION
praiseworthy custom among tbe public, forged
hadis in order to secure success, Such
fabrication is restricted exclusively to those
hadis which treat of the advantages .and
benefits which reading the.Quf'an. and pray
ing procure to any one, both in thw world
and the next • which show how reciting pas
sages from the Q,ur'an cures every disease,
ete. : the real object, of such frauds bciug to
lead the public into the habit of reading the
Qur'an and of praying. According to eur
religion, the perpetrators of such frauds^ or
of any others, stand in the list of sinners,
(2) Freacliere, with a view of collecting
large congregations around them, and of
amusing their hearers, invented many tradi
tions, such traditiona being only those which
describe the state and condition 01 paradise
and of hell, as well as the state and condition
of the soul alter death, etc., in order to
*wa,ken the tear of God's wrath and the hope
o£ salvation.
(v) Those persons who made alterations in
the veligioM of the Prophet, and who, urged
by their prejudices, carried the same to ex
tremes, and who, for the purpose of success
fully confronting their controversial anta
gonists, forged such traditiona in order to
favour their own interesoed views.
J4) Unbelievers "who maliciously coined
circulated spurious hadis.. Learned men,
however, have greatly exerted themselves in
order to discover such fabricated traditions,,
and have written many works upon the sub
ject, laying down rules for ascertaining false
traditions and f^r distinguishing them from
genuine ones,
The modes of procedure were as follows:
Such persons examined the very words em
ployed in Huch traditions, as well as their
style o,f composition; they compared the con-
twnts of each hadis wifch the command*- and
injunctions contained in the Qur'an, with
those religious doctrines and dogmas that
have been deduced from the Quran, and
with those hadia which have been proved to
be genuine ; they investigated the nature of
the import of such traditions, as to whether
it was unreasonable, improbable, or impos
sible. (
Ifc will, therefore, be evident that the hadis
considered as genoiae by MuhaminaflQns,
must indispensably possess ti.e following
characters; The narrator imist have plainly
and distinctly mentioned that such and sueh
a thin,£ was either said or done* by the Pro
phet ; .'the chain of narrators from the last
link up to the Prophet, must ba unbroken ;
the subject related must have oomo under
the actual ken of its first narrators : every
one of tho narriitorsj from the last up. to the
Prophet, must fcave beejx persons conspicuous
.for their piety, virtue,, and honesty; avery
narrator must have received moro than on£
hadis from Uie narrator immediately pre
ceding him; evnxy one of the narrate* 6 must
be conspicuous for his learning, go that he
misrbt bo safely presumed tts be competent
both to undersiahd correctly, and faithfully
deliver to others, the sense of the tradition :
TRADITION
the import of the tradition must not be con
trary to the injunctions contained in the
Qur'an, or to the religious doctrines deuu/jed
from that Book, or to ths traditions proved
to be correct ; and the nature of the import
of the tradition must not be such as persons
might hesitate' in accepting.
Any tradition thus proved genuine can be
maae the basis of any religious doctrine ; but
notwithstanding this, another objection may
be raised agaiast it. which is that this tradi
tion is the statement of one person only, and
therefore, cannot, properly, be believed in
implicitly. For obviating this, three grades
have been again formed of the hadib proved
as genuine. These three grades are the fol
lowing ; jft.«r£* Mutawatir, J*Q..&*.» Mashhvr, and
JU&M j*ii*. jKhabar-i-Ahad.
Mutawulir ia an appellation given to those
hadis only that have always been, from the
time of the Prophet, ever afterwards recog
nised and accepted by every associate of the
Prophet, and every learned individual, as
authentic and genuine* and tc which no one
has raised anv objection. All learned Mu-
hammadatx divines of evsry period have
declared that the Qur'an only is the Hadis
Mutawatir; but some doctors liave declared
certain other hadis also *o be Mutawatir, the
number, however, oi such hadis not exceed
ing five. Such are the traditions that are
implicitly believed and ou^ht to be religiously
observed.
Maskhur is a title given to those traditions
that, in every age, have been believed to be
genuine, by some learned persons. These are
the traditions which are found recorde.d in
the 06T& works that treat of them, and,
having been generally accepted as genuine,
form the nucleus of some of the Muslim doc
trines.
Kkabgr-i-Atutd (or hadig related' by one
person), is au appellation given to traditions
that do not possess any of the qualities he-
longiag to the traditions of the first two
grades. Opinions of the learned are divided
whether or not they can form the basia of
aay religious doctrine,
Persoua who undertook the task of collect
ing traditions haa neither time nor opportu
nity for examining and investigating all the
above particulars, and eonoe of them col
lected together whatsoever came under their
notice, while others collected only those
whoso narrators ware acknowledged to be
trustworthy aud honest persons, leaving en
tirely upon their readers the task of investi
gating and examining all the above mentioned
articulars, as ??ell as of de< iding thftir com-
merits, their genuineness, and the
u of credit due to fchsrn.
There is some difference of opinion as to
who first attempted to collect the traditions*,
atid. to compile them in a book. Some say
•A-bdu '1-Malik ibn Juraij a/ Makkah, who
died A.H - 150, whilst others assert that the
collection, which is still extant, by the Imam
Malik, who died A.K. 179. was the first collec
tion Tbo work by Imam Malik is still held
TRADITION
TRADITION
643
in very great esteem, and although not gene
rally included among the standard six, ft is
beliered by many to be the source from
whence a great portion of their materials are
derived
The following are the Sthdfiu 's-Sittah, or
" six correct " books, received by Sunui
Muslims : —
(1) Muhammad Ismail cd-Bukhdri, A.H.
266.
(2) Muslim ibnu '1-Hajjai, A.H. 261.
(3) Abii 'Isa Muhammad. at-Tirmi$i, A^H.
279.
(4) Abu Da'ud as-Sajistam, A.H. 275,
(5) Abu 'Abdi 'r-Rahman an-Nasai, A.H.
303.
(6) Abu < Abdi 'llah Muhammad jtbnMajah,
A.H. 273.
According to the Ithd/'n 'n-Nubala\ there
are as many as 1.466 collections of Traditions
in existence, although the six already re
corded are the more generally used amengst
the Sunms.
It is often stated by European -writers that
the Shi'ahs reject the Traditions. This is
not correct. The Sunnls arrogate to them
selves the title of Traditionists ; but the
Sbi'ahs, although they do not accept the col
lections of traditions as made by the Sunnls,
receive jtre collections of Ahadls, upon which
their system of law, both civil and religious,
ia founded.
(I) The Kdfi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad
ibn Ya'qub, A'.H. 329.
(2^ The Man-ld-yastakzirahu 't~Faqih, by
Shaikh 'Ml, A.H. 381.-
(3) the Tahzib, by Shaikh Abu .la-far
Muhammad ibn 'All ibn Husaiu, A.H. 466
(4H The It>tib?dr, by the same author.
(5) The Nahjit 'l-BaldgAak, by Sa,iyid ar-
Ra,?i, A.H. 406.
There are many stories which illustrate
the importance the Companions of the Pro
phet attached to Sunuaii. The Khalifau
•Uiuar looked towards the black stone at
Makkah, and said. "By God, I know that
thou art only a stone, and canst grant no
benefit, canst do no harm. If I had not
known that the Prophet kissed thee, I would
not have done so, but oh account of that I do
it." Abdu 'llah ibn ' Uiuar was .seen riding
his camel round and round a certain place.
In answer to an inquiry ae to his reason for so
doing, he said : " I kno.w not, only I have seen
the Prophet do so uere." Ahmad ibn Hanbal
is said to have been appointed on account
of the care with which ho observed the Sun-
nah. One day when sitting in an assembly, he
alone of all present observed Some formal
motorn authorised by the practice of the
Prophet. Gabriel at ones appeared and in
formed him that no^w, and on account of his
act, he was appointed un Imam. And on
another occasion it is said this great tradi-
tiohifit would not even oat waier-melons,
because, although he knew the Prophet ate
them, ho oouTd not learn whether he atc»
them with or without the rind, or whether he
broke, bit or cut them : and he forbade a
woman, who questioned him as to the pro
priety of the act, to spin by the light of
torches passing in the streets by night, be
cause the Prophet had not mentioned that it
was lawful to do so.
Tha modern Wahhabis beinp, for the most
part, followers of Ibn Hanbal, attach great
importance to .the teaching of the Traditions,
and have therefore cnnsed a revival of thin
branch of Muslim literature. [WAHHABI.J
We are indebted to Sir William Muir's
Introduction to the Life of Mahomet, for the
following : —
"Mahometan tradition consists of the say-
Ingjs of the friends and followers of the Pro
phet, handed down by a real -or supposed
chain of narrators to the period when they
wero collected, recorded, and classified. The
process of transmission was for the most part
oral. It may be sketched as follows.
" After the death of Milhomet, the main
employment of his followers was arms. The
pursuit of pleasure, and the formal round of
religions observances, filled up the interstices
of active life, hut afforded scanty exercise for
the higher faculties of the mind. The tedium
of long and irksome marches, and the lazy
intervals from one campaign to another, fell
listlessly upon a simple and semi-barbarous
race. These intervals were occupied, and
that tedium beguiled, chiefly by calling up
the past in familiar conversation or more for
mal discourse. On what topic, then, would
the early Moslems more enthusiastically des
cant than on the acts and sayings of that
wonderful man who had called them into ex
istence as a conquering nation, and had
placed in their hands ' the keys both of this
world and of Paradise ' ?
" Thus the converse of Mabcmet's followers
would be much about him. The majesty of
his character gained greatness by contempla
tion , and, as time removed him farther and
farther trom them, the lineaments of the mys
terious mortal who was wont-to hold familiar
intercourse with the messengers of heaven,
rose in dimnrer, but in more gigantic propor
tions. The mind was unconsciously led on te
think of him as endowed with supernatural
power, and ever surrounded by supernatural
agency. Here was the material out of which
Tradition grew luxuriantly. "Whenever there
was at baud no standard of fact whereby
these recitals may be tested, the memory was
aided by the unchecked efforts of the imagi
nation ; and as days rolled on, the latter
element gaired complete ascendancy.
" Such is the result which the lapse of time
would naturally have upon the minds aud
the narratives of the A*-kab or « COMPANIONS '
of Mahomet, more especially of those who
were young when he diod. And then another
race sprang up who had never seen the Pro-
phtt, who looked up to his contemporaries
with a superstitious reverence, and who lis
tened to their stories of him as to the tidings
of a messenger froin the other wo.rld. ' I* it
possible, father of Abdallah I that thoa ha«t
been with Mahoruet ? ' was the question ad-
i dressed by a pious Moslem to Hodzeifa. in the
1 mopque of Kufa ; ' didst tbou really eee the
644
TRADITION
TRADITION
Propnet. and wert thou on familiar torms
with him ? '—'Son of. my uncle 1 it is indeed
as thou sayest.'— • And how wert thou wont
to behave towards the Prophet?' — < Verily ^
we used to labour hard to pipage him/—
'Well, by the Lord 1 ' exclaimed the ardent-
listener, « had I been but alive in his time. I
would not have allowed him to put his blessed
foot upon the earth, but would have borne
him on. my shoulders wherever he listed.'
(Hishdini) p. 295.) Upon another occasion,
the youthful Obeida listened to a Companion
who was reciting before an assembly how
tfie Prophet's head wa* shaved at the Pil
grimage, and the hair distributed amongst
his followers; the eyes of the young man
glistened as the speaker proceeded, and he
interrupted him with tha impatient oxeiauaa-
tion, — « Would that I had even a, single one of
those blessed hairs ! I would cherish it for
ever, and prize it beyond all the gold and
silver m the world.' (Kdtib at Wackidi,
p. 279.) Such were the natural feelings of
fond devotion with which the Prophet came
to be regarded by the followers of the ' Com
panions.'
44 As the tale of the Companions was thus
taken up by their followers, distance began
to invest it with an increasing charni, while
fche products of living faith and wjum imagi
nation were being fast debased by supwstir
i'ious credulity. This sec'ond generation are
termed in the language of the 'patriotic lore
of Arabia, Tabiw, or * SUCCESSORS.' Here and
there a Companion survived till near the end
of the first century : but, for nil practical pur
poses, they had passed off the stage before
tile commencement of its laat. quarter. Their
first Successors* who were in some measure
aisc th«ir contemporaries, flourished in the
latter halt of tho same century, though some
ot tne oldest may have survived for a time
in the second,
"Meanwhile a novr cause was at work,
which -gave to the tales of Mahomet s com
panions a fresh and an adventitious impor
tance-
** The Arabs, a simple and unsophisticated
race. lounu.in the Goran ample provisions for
the regulation of all their affairs, religious,
social, h$d political, But the aspect of Islam
soon underwent a mighty Change. Scarcely
was the Prophet ciead when his followers
issued forth from their barren peninsula,
a i mod vtith the wa.n-s.iit of tfce Goran to im
pose the faith of Mahomet upon all the
nations OA lae earth. Within a century tney
had. is a tlrat step to this universal subjuga
tion, conquered every land tnat intervenea
bet. wean the bunks of the Oxua ajid tho f*r
thost shores of Northern Africa aua of Spain ;
and h&a enrolled the #reat majority ol theu
peoples under the standard of the Goran.
l%his -east empire din ej cd widely indeed from
the Arabia of Mahomet's tune; nod that
wiucn well sufficed tor tha patriarchal sim
plicity and tirmied social system of tho early
Arabs, became Bitterly inadequate- fox the
hourly multiplying wants of their descendants.
Crowded cities, like Fostat. Kuifc, and Damas
cus, required an elaborate compilation, of
laws for the guidance of their courts of jus
tice: new political relations demanded ft
•system of international equity : the specula
tions of a people before whom literature was"
preparing to throw open her arena, and the
controversies of eager factions upon nice
points of Mahometan faith, were impatient of
Lhe narrow limits which confined them: —all
called loudly for the enlargement of the
scanty and naked dogmas of the Goran, and
for the development of its defective code of
ethics.
44 And yet .it was the cardinal principle of
early Islam, that the standard of Law* of
Theology, and of Politics , was the Goran and
the Goran alone. By it Mahomet himself
ruled ; to it in his teaching he always re
ferred ; from it he professed to derive his
opinions, aud upon it to ground bis decisions.
If he, the Messenger of tho Lord, and the
Founder of the faith, was thus bound by the
Goran, much more were the Galiphs, his un
inspired substitutes. New and unfor»de«»n
circumstances were continually arising, for
which the Goran contained no provision. It
no longer sufficed for its original object/
H<>w then were its deficiencies to be sup
plied ?
"The difficulty was resolved by adopting
the 008TOM or "« SUHNAT' of Mahomet* that is,
hig sayings and his practice, as a supplement
to the Goran. The recitals regarding the
life of the Prophet now acquired an unlooked-
for value. He had nover held himself to be
infallible, except -when directly inspired of
God ; bat this new doctrine assumed that a
heavenly and unerring guidance pervaded
every word and action of hia prophetic life.
Tradition was thus invested with the force of
law, and with some of. the authority of inspi
ration. It wttft in great measure owing to
the rise of this theory, that, during the first
century of Islam, the cumbrous recitals of
tradition eo far outstripped the dimensions of
reality. The prerogative now claimed for
Tradition stimulated the growth of fabri
cated evidence, and led to the preservation of
overy kind of story, spurious or real, toudbr
ing the Prophet. Before the close of the
century it had imparted an almost incredible
impulse to the search for traditions, and had
in fact given birth to the new profession of
Collectors. Men devoted their lives to the
business. They travelled from city, to city,
and from tribe to tribe, over the whole Maho
metan worid; sought out by personal inquiry
every veatige of Mahomet's biography yet
lingering among the Companions, the Succe&-
*f»rv, and their descendants ; and committed
-,o writing the tales and reminiscences with
which they used to edify their wondering and
admiring auditors.
" 1 tie work, however, too closely affected
the pubhc interests, and the political aspect
of the empire, to be left entirely to private
and individual zeal. About a hundred years
after Mahomet, *ne Caliph Omar II. issued
circular orders for the formal collection of
all extant tradition's. [He committed to Abu
TRADITION
Bftor ibn Muhammad the task of compiling all
the traditions he could meet with. This tra
ditionist died A.ir. 120, aged 81. Spren#<-r .-.
Mohammed, p. 67.] The task thus begun
continued to be rigorously prosecuted, but we
possess no authentic remains . of any compi
lation of an earlier date than the middle or
end of the second century. Then, indeed,
ample materials bad been amasaed, and they
have been handed, down to us both in the
shape of Biographies and of ffenerol Collec
tions, which bear upon every imaginable
point of Mahomet's character, and detail the
minutest incidents of his life.
"It thus appears that the traditions we
now possess remained generally in an unre
corded form for at least the greater part of a
century. It is not indeed denied that some
of Mahomet's sayings may possibly have been
noted down in writing during his life-time,
and from that source copied and propagated
afterwards. We say posvibly, for tho evidence
in favour of any such record is meagre, sus
picious, and contradictory. The few and un
certain statements of this nature may have
owed their origin to the authority which a
babit or the kind would impart to the namo
of a Companion, supposed to have practised
it. ... It is hardly possible that, if the cus
tom had prevailed of writing down Maho
met's sayings during his life, we should not
have had frequent intimation of the fact, with
notices of the writers, aud special references
to the nature, content*, ana peculiar autho
rity of their records. But no sucn references
or quotations are anywhere to be found. It
cannot be objected that the Arabs trusted so
implicitly to their memory that they regarded
oral to be as authoritative as recorded nar
ratives, and therefore would take no note of
the latter ; for we see tuat Oms r was afraid
lest even the Goran, believed by him to be
divine and itself the subject of heavenly care,
should become defective if left to the memory
of man. Just as iit^e weight, on. the other
hand, should be allowed to the tradition that
Mahomet prohibited his followers from noting
down his words ; though it is is not easy tc
see how that tradition could have gained
currency at all, had it been the regular and
constant practice of any persona to record
his sayfnga. The truth appears to be that
there w^s in reality no such practice ; ami
that tho story of the prohibition, though spu
rious, embodies the after-thought of serious
Mahometans as to what Mahomet would
haw: *aid, had he foreseen the IOOMJ *»nd fa-
Wi<.rt.1ed stories that sprang up, and the rwi
ii*ngei his people ^ould fall into of allowing
Tradition to supersede the Coran. The evil«
of Tradition were, in truth, aa little thought
of aa its value was perceived, till many years
after Mahomet's death,
" But even were we to admit all that has
been advanced, it would prove no more than
that *om* of the Companions used to ice^p me
moranda oi the Propbuefc's sayings, Now, un-
le*8 it be possible to connect such memoranda
with extant Tradition, tho conceprioa would
be useless. But it is not. KB far an I know.
TRADITION
645
demonstrable of any single- tradition or class
of tradition? now in existence, ibat thev were
copied from »mcL memoranda, or have been
derived in any way from taem. To provo,
therefore, that svrne traditions were at flr«t
recorded will not help us to e. knowledge
of whether any of these still exist, or to a
discrimination of thrm from other* resting on
a purely oral basis. Xhs very most that
could. be urged from < he premises is, that our
present collections nay contain tofllc tradi
tions founded upon a recorded original, and
handed down in writing ; but we are unable
to single out any individual tradition and
mak« such affirmation regarding it. The
entire mass of extant tradition rente in this
reaped on the same uncertain ground, nod
the uncertainty of any one portion (apart
rVym internal evidence oif probability) attaches
equally to the wholf. \Ve cannot with con
fidence, »>r even with tho least show of likeli.
Uood, affirm of any tradition that it was re
corded till nearly the end of the first century
of the Hogira.
" \Ve see, thon, now entirely tradition, *u>
now possessed by us, rests its authority on
the memory of those who handed it down ;* and
how dependent therefore it muet have been
upon their convictions and their prejudices.
For, in addition to the common frailty of
human recollection whioh renders tradi
tional evidence notoriously infirm, and to tbe
errors or exaggerations which always distort
a, narrative transmitted orally through many
witnesses, there exist throughout Mahometan
Tradition abundant indications of actual fa
brication; aud taord may everywhere be
traced the indirect but not less powerful and
dangerous influence of a silently working
bias, which insensibly Rave its colour and its
shape to all tho stories of their Prophet, trea-
surea up in the memories of the believers.
" That the Collectors of Tradition r«udered
an important service to Islam, and even to
history, cannot be doubted. The vast flood
of tradition, poured forth from every quarter
of the Moslem empire, aad dally gathering
volume from innumerable tributaries, was
composed of the most, heterogeneous ele
ments; without the labmus of the tradi-
tionists it muet soom have formed a chaotic
86*1, in which truth and error, fact ajid fable:
would have mingled together in undwtin-
guishatle confusion. It in a legitimate imt-
rence from tho foregoing- sketch, that Tra/ii-
tion, in the second century, embraced a large
fllement of truth. That even respectably
derived traditions often contained much that
was exaggerated aad fabuloua. b an equally
fau conclusion. It is proved by the testi
mony of the Collectors themselves, that thou-
aanUu aad tens of thousand* were current
in tbeir times, which posbeesod no\ eveu a
oh ado w of authority. The moss may be
likened to the image in Nebuchadnezzar'^
dranm, formed by the unnatural union of
gold, of silver, oi . thw baser motals, find of
clay'; and hero the more valuable parts wore
646
TRANSMIGRATION
TRINITY
fast commingling hopelessly with the bad."
(Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. i., Intro, p.
xxviii,)
TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS.
[TANASUKH.]
TREATY. Arabic <J.M(J**). The
observance ol treaties js enjoined in the
Qur'an (Surah viii 6B ; ix. 4) ; but if peace
be made with aliens for a speotiled terra (e.g.
ten years), and afterwards me Muslim leader
shall perceive that it in most advantageous
for the Muslim interest to break it, he may
in that case lawfully renew the >ar, after
giving the enemy due notice. (Hidayah, vol.
ii. p. 15 J ; Arabic edition, vol. ii. p. 423.)
The negotiations between John the Chris
tian prince of Allah, are an interesting inci
dent in the life of Muhammad, as indicating
tiie spirit of Islam, in Its early hi story, to wards
Chiistianity. In the first place, Muhammad
adrressed to John the following letter. —
<: To John (Yahya), the son of Rubah, and
the chiefs of the" tribe of Ailah. Peace be
unto yoti! Praise be to God, besides whom
tbare is no God. T will not fight against you
until I receive an answer to this letter. Be-
l;ove, or else pay tribute (;u*/<2/i). Be obe
dient unto God and te His Apostle. Receive
the embassy of dod'a Apostle, and honour
them, and clothe them with excellent vest
ments, and not with inferior raiment; Spe
cially honour Haris ibn Zaid.for as long as
my messengers are pleased, -do am I likewise.
Ye know tho tribute. If ye desire security
by nea and by land, obey God and His Apostle,
and you will be delended from every attack,
whether by Arab or by foreigner. But if you
oppose God and His Apostle, I will not accept
a single thing from you until 1 have fought
again&i you, and have slain your men, and
have taken captive yotir women and children.
For. in truth } I am God's Apostle. Believe in
God and iii His Apostle, as you do in the
Messiah the ^on of Mary : for truly he is the
Word of God, and I believe in him as an apoatle
of God. Submit, then, before trouble reaches
yon. I commend this embassy to you. Give
to Harmalah three measures of barley, for
Harmalah bath intleed interceded for you. As
tor me, if it were not, ror the Lord and fo^ this
intercession, I would not h.'ive seat any em
bassy to you, until you had been brought
fact to face with my army. But now .sub
mit to my embassy, and God will be your
proU rtor, as well as Mubaimaad ami aJl his
followers. This embassy doth consist of
Shurahbil, and TJbaiy, and Harmalah, and
Haris ibn £aid. Unto yo\i is the protection
of God and of his Apostle. If you submit,
then peace be unto you, and convey the
people of Maqnab back to their, land."
Upon receipt of this message, Johc has
tened to Muham«ua'# caaip, where he was
received wiih kindness : and having made sub-
o,igi<i.m ami having agreed u> pay tribute of
.'00 dinars » year, the -folio wing treaty was
ratified:—
•• In the name of G«xl. the Mereiful. the
Gracious. A treaty of Peace from God, am
from Muhammad the Apostle of God, granted
unto Yahya ibn Bubah and unto the tribe of
AUah. For them who stay at home and for
thoRe who travel abroad, there is the security
of God and the security nf Muhammad the
Apostle of God, and for all who are with
them, whether they belong to Syria, or to al-
Yanmn, or to tho sea-coast. Whoso breaketh
this treaty, his wealth shall not save him;
it shall be the fair prize of whosoever shall
capiurt) him. It Hhall not be lawful to
hinder the men of Ailah from going to the
springs which they have hitherto used, nor
from any journey they may desire to make,
whether by iand or by sea. This is the wri
ting of Juhftira and Shurahbil by the command
ox the Apostle of God." [TOLERATION.]
TRIBUTE. [JIHAD, JIZTAH,
TIO», TKBAJY.]
TRINITY. Arabic Tastis (
'« Holy Trinity," ^-Salu^u 'l-Aqdas
.j*A5$\). The references to the doctrine of
the Holy Trinity in the Qur'an occur in two
Surahs, both of them composed by Muham
mad towards the close of hia career at al-
Madmah.
Surah iv. 169: "Belisve, therefore, in God
and His apostles, and say not * Three.'"
Surah v. 77 : " They misbelieve who say-,
« Verily Gocl re the third of three.' ... The
Messiah, the Sou of Mary, is only a prophet,
. . . and his mother was a confessor r they
loth ate food."
Surah v. 116: « And when Goo shall say,
' 0 Jesus son of Mary, hast thou said unto
mankind: Take me and my mother as two
Gods besides God ? "
AL-Baizawi, in his remarks on Surah iv.
169, says, tEe Christians made tLe Trinity
consist of Allah, al-Masih, and Maryam] and
Jalaiu 'd-din takes the same view. Al-
Bftizawi, however, refers to a view taken of
the Trinity, by some Christians in his day,
wlio explained A to b«. Ab, Father, or the
Essence of God ; Jon, Son, or the Knowledge
of God ; and Ruhu *l~QfuU, the Life of God..
Iii a work quoted in the Ka*hfn V£wn6n,
entitled at-Imanu 'I- Kami I (written by the
Shaikjh 'Abdu '1-Karim ibn iuranim al- Jlli,
iiv*d A,H. 767-811) it is said that when the
Christians found that there was at the com
mencement of t.ue Jnjtl the superscription
(•tfN *, ^f»^' ^-»^>» t.e. " Tn the name oLtho
Faiber HudSott,' they tpok the words in their
natural meaning, ana [thinking it ougut to be
At>, father, Umin, mother, and Jbii. son] un-
dprstood by Ab. the Spirit, by Ummt Mary,
and by Ibn. Jesus ; and on thi« account they
said. >$titi$u £ald§atin, i.e. (God is) the third
•>f thj-.-o.' (Surah v. 77.) But they did not
yndevitawd tbat by Ab is .meant Cod Most
High, by Unim, the Mdhiyalu *l'Huqffiqt orj
• Essence of Truth " ( Quidditus veriiatum)* and
by Slmt the Book of God, which is called the
Wujuau 'I'Mutiaq. or Absolute Existence,'
being an emanation of the Essence of "Truth,
as it is implied in tUa woi-ds of the Qur'an.
TEOVES
Sttrah :dli 9: 'And with him is the Ummv.
'l-Kitdb. or the Mother of the Book.' "
In the Qhiydfu 'l^Luglidt, in toco, it is said
the Nazarene* (Na?d'ra) say there are three
aqdnbn, or principles, namely, wujud (entity),
Juaifdi (life), and 'Urn (knowledge) ; and also Ab
(Father^ Ibn (Son), and Ruku Y-Quos (Holy
Spirit). [INJTJL, JESUS, SPIRIT.]
It is evident neither Muhammad nor
bis followers (either immediate or remote),
! had any true conception of the Catholic doc-
brine of the Trinity, but the elimination of the
Holy Spirit from the Trinity is not strange,
when we reiuemboi that Muhammad was
under the impression that the angel Gabriel
was the Holy Lrhost.
As the doctrine uf the Holy Trinity is one
of several stumbling-blocks to the Muslim >
reception of Christianity, we cannot refrain
irom emoting Charleu Kingsley's words ad
dressed to Themas Cooper on the subject
(yol. i. p. 311):—
" They will say ' Three iu one ' is contrary
t» sense ajid experience. Answer, * That is
your ignorance.' Every comparative anato.-
mirt wili tell you the exact contrary, that
among the most common, though the most
puzzling phenomena, is multiplicity in unity
— divided life in the same individua! of every
extraordinary variety of case. That distinc
tion of persons with unity of individuality
(what the old schoolmen properly called sub"
stanoe) is to be met with in some thousand
species of animals, e.q. all the compound
polypes, atod that the soundest physiologists,
like Huxley, are compelled to talk of these
anim&ls in metaphysie terms, just as para
doxical as, and almost identical with, those
of the theologian. Aak theiu then, whether
granting one primordial Being who has con
ceived and made all other beings, it is absurd
to suppose in Him, some law of Multiplicity
in unity, analogous to that on which He has
Constructed so many million* of His crea
tures.
**<*••«
" But my heart demands the Trinity, as
much as my- reason. I waut to be sure tha.t
Qod oares for us, that God ie our Father,
that God has interfered, stooped, sacrificed
Himself' for us. I do not merely want to love
Christ— a Christ, Kome creation or ema-natton
of God's — whose will aud character, for
aught t know, may be different from God's.
I want to love and honour the absolute,
abysmal God Himself, aud none other -will
satisfy me ; and in the doctrine of uhriht
being co-equal and co-eternal, sent by, sacri
ficed by, His Father, that He might do His
Father's will, I find it ant1 no pn?zling texte.
like those you quote, shall rob me of that
rest for nry heart, that Christ is the exact
counterpart of Hhn in whom we live, and
move, and have our being'."
TROVES. Arabic luqtak (&*>),
signifies property which a. person finds on
the frround. :>ml takes away for the purpose
of preserving it hi the manner of a. trust. A
trove under ten dirhams must be advertised
TURBAN
647
for some days, or as long as he may deem
expedient : but if it exceed ten dirhams in
value, ho must advertise it for a yew.
(Hamilton's Hiddyali. vol. ii. p. 266.)
TRUMPET. Arabic sur (jr).
According to the QurYtu, Surah xxxixi 68,
the trumpet at the Day of Resurrection
shall be blown twice. "The trumpet shall
be blown (first), and those who are in the
heavens and in the earth shall swoon (or
di«), save -whom God pleases. Then it shall
be blown again, and, Lo ! they shall rise again
and look on.'
Al-BaizawI nays there will only be these
two blasts, but Traditiomsts assert there will
be threu. The blast of consternation, the blast
of examindtimi, and the blast of rvwurrarfzem,
for an account of which, see the article on
RKSI1RRRCTTOK.
TUBBA* (ft?). A tribe of Himya-
rite Arabs, whose kings were called Tutiba',
or " Successors," and who are mentioned in
the QurVm. Surah xliv. 15; " Are they better
than the people of Tubba1 and those before
thein? Verily, they wer*1. ainuers, and wo
dustroyed them."
TUHR ( y»). The period of pnrity
in a woman. [DIVORCE, POEIFICATIOS. J
TULAIHAH (Ok). A chief of
the Banu Aaad, a warrior of note and in
fluence in Najd, who claimed to have a
divine commission in the dayt of Muhammad,
but who was afterwards subdued by Khalid
under the Khalifate of Abu Bakr. and em
braced Islam, ^fuir's Life of Mahomet.
vol. ir, p. 246.)
TUR Gy*). Chaldee -^. (.1) A
mount. At-Tur, the mountain meutiou*d ia
in the Qur'an, >§urah ii. 60 : " When we took
a covenant (/ntgay) with you, and held tho
mountain (ready to fall) over you." Thii
is generally understood to mean 4urv Saind',
or Mount S'nai, but al-Baizawi says it was
Jabal Zubail. In Persian, the mountain is
called Koh-i-Tur, or the Mount ot Tur. In
Arabia, the nanao is given to the Mount
Sinai of Scripture.
(2) The title of the unid Surah of the
Qur'an.
TURBAN. Arabic 'imd/mah (*-U»),
Porsian dastar (jtuo)7 Hindustani
payri ((^-^->). The turban, which
consists of a stiff round cap, ocoasionAlly
rising to a considerable height, and a Ivug
piece of muslin, often as inuen R$ twenty-foui
ya^ds in length, wound round it, is amongbi
all Muhamrnadaa oations a sign of autho
rity and honour, and it is held to be dis
respectful to stand in the presence of a
person of respectability, or *o worship <jk>d,
with i he head uncovered. Shaikhs aud per
sons of i*elij7ious pretensions wej»i green tur
bans. The Coptie Christian* m Egypt wear
a blue turban, having been compelled to do
so by an edict published iu A.I>, 1301. In
648
TURK
TUWA
some parts of Islam, it is usual to set apart
a Maulawi, or to appoint a chief or ruler, by
placing a turban on his head,
The mitre, bonnet, hood, and diadem of the
Old '1'estament are bat varieties of the head
dress known in the* East as the turban. Canon
Ocok, in the Speaker^ Contmwtary, on Exodns
xxvin. 4, 87, saya the nwtzmphetn, or "mitre"
of the Habrev Bible, <* jtceording to the de
rivation of the word, and from the statement
in verse 30, was n t mated band of linen
coiJfMl into a cap, in which the name nnrre
in its original sense closely answers, but which
in .modern usage >ould rather be called »
turban."
The if>rm used in th»; Hebrew Bible for put'
ting OK tut» tzuniph or the peer, " bonnet," in
,Lev,-vifi. 13, is '
bind roucd," and would therefore indicate
that evej.i lathe earliest periods of Jewish his
tory the head-dress was similar in character
to *hat new seen sinougax tne different Muslim
tribes of thft v/crJ'?,
loeephtts* account t>f the high priest'* mitre
is pemiJiai* 5 ht c:vs (Antiquities, book in, tb.
vii p. S) : " tts make is such iliftt it seem* to
beacrx»wiij oeing mada of thick swathes, but
the contexture is of linen , and it IF double*
many times, and 6ewn together : besides which
s piece of fine linen covers the whole caj
from the upper part, acd reaches down to th»
forehead and the seams of the swathea, whi^l
wonld otherwise appear indecently; this ad
heres closely upon the solid part of the head
and is thereto so rirrnly fixod that it may n6
f»ll off during the sacred aerviee about th<i
sacrifice^."
The varieties of turbHn worn in the Eaai
are very greafc, and their pecnliarltie^ ?r
iliastrated by the accompanying
.tfiving seventeen different styles of tying- TIJ
the turban. In bookR written upon the sub
jcefc in Es.sto-ji languages, 'it is said that ther<
are not fo.wer than a ihoueaad methods b:
bindinj/ the turban. It is in the peculiai
method of tying on, and oi arranging; thii
head-dress, that not. only tribal and religion*
distinctions are aeon, but cvec. p<*ctil'«Titiea 01
dispcj.iEion. The humility or pride, the virtue
or •vitjo, as w.^Ii as the socisi standing of th«
indi'fiduftl. ia supposed to bo indicated in kh
method ot binding the turban upon his head
And travellers in the Eaet can at once dis
tinguish the different races by their turbans
[DRESS.]
MUSLIM TURBANS. (A. F.
pi;
TURK, Arabic tark or tur/c
(1) A tei*rn applied by European
t'c express MubamrnadanS of all
nationalities. (See Book aj Common Prayer,
or Good Friday, )
A.u. inhabitant oif Turkomanift, Turki*
stun or Irausoxania, ao named from TuTi
eldest son of Farkinn, to whom his lather
gava it ror ah inheritance, Also of those
numerous races of Tartafti who claim TO be
descended from Turk, A son ot Japhet. Tvcrki
chin. ," Chmese Tartar,
(3) A native cf European or Asiatic
Turkey. Halaku, thti 'turk., a grandson of
Jengisf Khan, took Baghdad A.T>. i258, and
about forty y^ar 8 afterwards *UgjnSn (Oth
roan) louuaod the 'Ugmani or Turk dynasty
at Constantinople, A.D. 1299. Hence Muhatn-
madau* were known to the Euwpean Chris- i
tians as Turks,
The word Turk is also frequently used by!
Sikh writers to express Muhammadaas int
general The terms Turk and Muaulman arej.
employed Interchangeably. [KHALIFAH.]
TUWA (^), A sacred
mentioned in the Qur'an:-^
Surah xx. 12 : "0 Moses J verily I am thyj?
Lord, so take off thy sandals ; thou art in tliei-
sacred valley of Tuwa, and I have chosen!
Surah Ixxix. 16 : «« Has the story ofHosdl
reached you? when hia Lord addressed biraf:
in the holy valley of Tuwa*
649
D
'UBADAH IBN AS-SAMIT (
o^U\ ($)). One of the An?ars of
ul-Madinah, who was afterwards employed
by Abu Bakr lo collect the scattered sen
tences of the Qur'aa.
'UBtTDlYAH Aic). (-SLAVERY!.
Ai.-UFUQU
Lit. ;' The Loftiest Trsicf." (1) The place in
which it is said Gabriel -was v.-Ken he taught
Muhammad, see Surah liii. 7 : " One mighty
in power (Shadidu '/-(^KU;«) taught him, en
dowed with sound understanding, aud ap
peared, he being in the loftiest tract."
(2) According to the Sufis, it is the highest
spiritual state a man can attain in the mystic
Ufn
Ul.INU.rai (e^). The Enoch of
the Old Testament, supposed to be the Idrls
of the Qur'an. A full account of this per
sonage will b« foi.nd in the article on IDRIS.
OHII1; (^\). Ohod. A hill about
three miles distant from nl-Madmah, and de
scribed by Burckhardt as a rugged and
almost insulated ofl'shoot cf the great moun
tain range. Celebrated for the battle fought
by Muhammad and the victory gained over
the Muslim.6, by the Quraish, A.H. 3. (Muir'e
Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 2C6 seqq.)
f MUHAMMAD.!
•fJJ ($f). The son of <Uq. A
giant who is said to have been born in the
days of Adam, and lived through the Deluge,
as the water only came up to his waist, and
:o have died in the days of Moses, the great
lawgiver having smitten him on the foot with
his rod. Ho lived 3,500 years. ( Ghiya&n V-
Lughdt, in /ore.)* The Og of the Bible, con-
corning whom ae-Suyutl wrote a long book
taken chiefly from Rabbinic traditions.
(Ewald, Gctch. i. 306.) An apocryphal book
of Og was condemned by Pop« Gelasius.
CDec. vi. 13.)
UKAIDAE ( iJke«). The Christian
v-hief of Dumah. who was taken prisoner by
KLalid. A.H. 9. (Muir*8 Lift of Mahomet, new
cd. p. 468.;
In the Traditions it is said : " KLalid took
Ukaidar prisoner because the Prophet -for
bade killing him. And the Prophet did not
kill him, but mane peace with him, when he
paid the poll-tax." (Mi&Maf. Vnok xvii.
ch. ix.)
Sir W. Muir says he became a Muslim,
but revolted after the death of Muhammad.
'UKAZ (U£c). An annual fair of
twenty-one days, which was held between at;-
T.a*if and Nakh'.ah, and which was opened ou
the first day of the month of Zu '1-Qa'dah,
at the commencement of the three sacred
months. It was abolished by Muhammad.
Mr. Stanley Lane Poole says (Section*
from the Kur-dn) : —
"There wa.i one place where, above all
ethers, the Kascedoha (Qasldahs) of the an
cient Arabs were recited: this was 'Okadh
('Ukaz), the Olympia of Arabia, where there
was held a great annual Fair, to which not
merely the merchants of Mekka and the
south, but the poet-heroes of all the land re
sorted. The Fair of 'Okadh was hold during
the sacred months, — a sort of ' God's Trueo,'
when blood could not be shed without a vio
lation of the ancient customs ana f&iths of
the Bedawees. Thither went the poets of
rival clans, who had as often locked spear*
as hurled rhythmical curses. There was little
fear of a bloody ending to the poetic contest,
for those heroes who might meet there with
enemies or blood-avengers are said to have
worn masks or veils, and their poems were
recited by a public orator at their dictation
That these precautions and the saoredncss c f
the time could not always prevent the ili-
feeling evoked by the pointed personalities oi
rival singers leading to a fray and bloodshed
s proved by recorded instances ; but sucii
results were uncommon, and as a rule the
.•ustoins of the time and place were respected
In spite of occasional broils on the spot, ano
the lasting feuds which these poetic contest^
omst have excited, the Fair of 'Oka*dh wa* a
grand institution. It served as a focus foi
the literature of all Arabia: everyone with
ary pretensions to poetic power e"me, and if
he could not himsdf gain tbe applause of the
assembled people, r.t least he could form one
of the critical audience on whose Terdict
rested the fame or the shamo of every poet.
The Fair of 'Okadh was a literary oongress,
without formal judges, biit with unbounded
influence. It was here thet tho polished
heroes of the desert determined points of
grammar and prosody i hero the so van Col'1 or.
rfonge were recited, although (alas for tne
charming legend !) they were not afterwards
• suspended' on the Kaabeh; and hero :a
magical language, the language of tho Hija'z,'
was built out of the dialects of Arabia, auc?
was made ready to the skilful haul <>f Mo
hammad, that he might conquer the world
with his Kur-an.
"The Fair of 'Okudh was not merely a
centre of emulation for Arab poets : it was
also an annual review of Bcdawee virtue*.
It was there that the Arab nation oii-'^-a-year
inspected itself, so to say, and V ron^Ul forth
ana criticised its ideals of the iiM.!.< and liie
beautiful in life and in poetry. For it was in
poetry that the Arab — and for thut matter
650
TTKT7F
each man all the world over— expressed his
highest thoughts, and it was at 'Ok&dh that
these thoughts -were measured by the stan
dard of the Bedawee ideal The Fair not
only maintained the highest standard of
poetry that the Arabic language has ever
reached: it also upheld the noblest idea of
life and duty that the Arab' nation has yet
set forth and obeyed. 'Okadh was the press,
the stage, the pulpit, the Parliament, and the
Acade'mie Fran<;aise of the Arab people; and
when, in his fear of the infidel poet9 (whom
Imra-el-Keys was to usher to hell), Moham
mad abolished the Fair, he destroyed the
Arab nation, even whilst be created his own
now nation of Muslims ; and the Muslims
cannot sit in the places of the old pagan
Arabs."
Lit. "Remaining
behind." A term used to express a life of
prayer of one who remains constantly in the
mosque.
'ULAMA' (*Uc), pi. of «oKm.
" One who knows ; learned : a scholar." In
this plural form the word is used as the title
of those bodies of learned doctors in Muham-
xnadan divinity and law, who. headed by their
Shaikhu '1-Islam, form the theocratic element
of the government in Muslim countries, and
who by iheirfatwda or decisions in questions
touching private and public matters ^ of im
portance, regulate the life of the Muhamnia-
dan community.. Foremost in influence and
authority are naturally reckoned the 'Ulama'
of Constantinople, the seat of the Khalifah.
and of Makkah, the Holy City of Islam. Like
the A?T}ab 'or Companions of the Prophet
under his immediate successors, they cor
respond in a certain measure to what we
would call the representative system of our
modern constitutions, in partially limiting
and checking the antocratism of an other^
wise absolute Oriental ruler.
ULUHf YAH (J>,n ) . " Divinity ;
godhead "
ULU 'L-'AZM (ty*\ fi\). « The
Possessors of Constancy." A title given to
certain prophets in the Qur'an, said by the
commentators to have been Noah, Abraham,
David, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Moses, Jesus, and
Muhammad, (Vide Ghiyd$u '/-iuojkft.) See
Surah xlvi. 34: ".Then be thou constant,
aa the Apostles endowed with a purpose
were constant, and hasten not on."
UMANA' (0U*\), pi. of amm.
" Faithful Ones." A title given by the Sufis
to those pioua persons who do not make their
religious experiences known. They are
known also as the Maldmatiyah, or those
who are willing to undergo rmsrepresention
rather than boast of their piety.
'UMAR ( ^) IBN AL-&HATTAB.
(Omar) the second Khalifah, who succeeded
Abu Bakr, A.H. 13 (A.D. €34), and was assas
sinated by Firoz, a Persian slave. A.H. 23
UMAB
(A.D. 644), after a prosperous reign of ten
years. His conversion to Islam took place in
the sixth year of Muhammad's mission, and
the Prophet took 'Umar's daughter Hafsah
as his-thirci wife.
'Umar is eminent amongst the early
Khalifahs for having chiefly contributed
to the spread of Islam. Under him the
great generals. Abu 'Ubaidah, Khalid ibn
al-Walid, Tazid, drore the Greeks out of
Syria and Phoenicia ; Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas,
Qaqa'ah, Nu'man, completed the ecnquest of
the two 'Iraqs and the overthrow of tbe
Persian Empire ; 'Amr ibn al-'Aa (commonly
called Amru) subdued Egypt and part of the
Libyan coast, after having, as commander in
Palestine, prepared by his victories and a
severe siege, the surrender of Jerusalem
[JERUSALEM] into the Khalifah's own hands.
-'Umars name is, moreover, intimately con
nected with the history of Islam, bjf the
initiatory and important share which he took
in the first collection of the Qur'an, under
Abu Bakr, by the official introduction of the
Muhaxmriadan era of the Hijrah, and by the
first organisation of the diwdn, or civil list of
the Muhammadans. The two former subjects
have been treated of in this Dictionary in their
proper places ; the third institution, which
laid the foundation to the marvellous suc
cesses of the Muslim .trrns under this and
the succeeding Governments, is ably explained
in the following extract from Sir W. Muhr's
Annals of the Early Caliphate :—
" The Arabian nation was the champion of
Islam, and to fight its battles every Arab
was jealously reserved. He must be the
soldier, and nothing else. He might not
settle down in anjr conquered province as cul
tivator of the soil ; and for merchandise or
other labour, a busy warlike life offered but
little leisure. Neither was there any need.
The Arabs lived on the fat of the conquered
land, and captive natives served them. Of
the booty taken in war, four parts were dis
tributed to the army in the field ; the fifth
was reserved for the State ; and _even that,
after discharging public obligations, was
shared among the Arabian people. In the
reign of Abu Bakr, this was a simple matter.
But in the Caliphate of Omar, the spoil of
Syria and of Persia began in ever-increasing
volume to pour into the treasury of Medina,
where it was distributed almost as soon as
received. What was easy in small beginnings,
by equal sharing or discretionary preference,
became now a heavy task. And there began,
also, to arise new sources of revenue in the
land assessment, and the poll-tax of subject
countries, which, after defraying civil and
military charges, had to be accounted for to
the Central Government ; the surplus being,
like the royal fifth, the patrimony of the Arab
nation.
;< At length, in the second or third year of
his Caliphate, Oinar determined that the dis
tribution should be regulated on a fixed and
systematic scale. The income of the com
monwealth was to be divided, as heretofore,
amongst the Faithful as their heritage, but
'UMAR
upon fa rule oi precedence befitting the mili
tary and theocratic groundwork of Islam.
For this end three poiuls only were con
sidered: priority of conversion, affinity +o
the Prophet, and military iox%vice. The
widows of Mahomet, ' Mothers of the Faith
ful,' took tho precedence with an annual
allowance of 10,000 pieces each ; and all his
kinsmen were with a corresponding liberality
provided for. Tho famous Three Hundred of
Bedr had 5,000 each ; presence at Hodeibia
(Hudaibiyah) and the Pledge of the Tree, gave
a claim to 4,000; such as took part in quell
ing the Rebellion ("immediately after Muham
mad's death;, had 3.000 ; and those engaged
in the great battles of Syria and Irac, as well
as sous of the men of Bedr, 2,000 ; those
taking the field after the actions of Cadesiya
and the Yermuk, 1,000, Warriors of distinc
tion received an extra grant of 500. And so
they graduated downwards to 200 pieces for
the latest levies. Nor were the households
forgotten. Women had, as a rule, one-tenth
of a man's share. Wives, widows, and chil
dren had each their proper stipend ; and in
the register, every infant, as soon as born,
had the title to be entered, with a minimum
allowance of ten pieces, rising with advancing
age to its proper place. Even Arab slaves
(BO long as any of that race remained) had,
strange to say, their portion.
•• Ttoe Arabian" aristocracy thus created
was recognised by the whole Moslem world.
The rank and stipend now assigned descended
in the direct line of birth. Even rewards
given for special gallantry in the field were
heritable. By making thus the revenues of
Islam the heritage of the nation militant,
their martial genius was maintained, and their
employment perpetuated as the standing
army of the Caliphate.
" To carry out this vast design, a register
had to be drawn and kept up of every man,
woman and child, entitled to a stipend from
the State — in other words, of tho vhole Arab
race employed in the interests of Islam.
This was easy enough for the higher grades,
but a herculean task for the hundreds and
thousands of ordinary lighting men and their
families who kept streaming forth from tho
Peninsula ; and who, by the extravagant
indulgence of polygamy, were multiplying
rapidly. Hut ihe task was simplified by
the strictly tribal composition and dispo
sition of the forces. Men of a tribe, or
branch of a tribe, fought together ; and the
several corps and brigade? befog thus terri
torially arranged in clau.s. the Register as
sumed tho same form. Every soul waa
entered under the stock and tribe and da.ss
whose liueage it claimed. And to thi.s ex
haustive classification we owe in great mea
sure the elaborate genealogies and tribal
traditions of Arabia before Islam. The
Hegiater iUelf, as well as the office for Us
and for pensionary account wa.s
'UMAIt
661
called the DewS.u {Diwdn), or Department of
the Exchequer." (Sir W. Muir* Annals of the
Early Caliphate, London, 1883, p. 228.)
It was fortunate for Islam, that the reign of
Abu Bakr. short in duration, but pregnant with
decisive issues, should precede that of 'Umar.
During the critical period, immediately after
"Muh.-un uaad's death, when three false pro-
I>uei5 and a prophetess gathered increasing
numbers round their rebellious standards,
when in the north, east, and south of the
Poninsula, tribe after tribe, apostatized from
the newly-adopted creed, and when al-
iladinah itself was repeatedly threatened by
hostile invasions of the neighbouring clans
it needed all tho spirit of compromise and
conciliation which blended in Abu Bakr'a
character with penetrating shrewdness and
dauntless courage, to steer the bark of the
Muslim commonwealth through the dangers
which were surrounding it on every side.
'Omar's irrepressible impetuosity would, at
that time, probably have caused more harm
than good, while, on the other hand, the
unprecedented success which crowned Abu
Bakr's wise and temporising politics, taught
him to temper his own impulses of bold en
terprise with prudence and cautiousness,
when, in his turn, tho roponsibilities of office
rested on his shoulders.
The original violent beat of Umar's nature
is forcibly illustrated by the history of his
conversion, as it is told in variqus traditions.
In his youth and early manhood, a zealous
and devoted adherent of the religion of his
forefathers, he hated and persecuted Muham
mad as a dangerous innovator, who had
come to lead his people astray, and to sow
discord between them. Infuriated at some
fresh success of the pretended Prophet, he
sallied forth one day to kill him, when he mot
his kinsman, Nu'aim ibn 'Abdi 'ilah. who,
seeing him armed and fiercely excited, asked
him: " "Whither goest thou, and what is thy
intent? '•' " i seek Muhammad," was 'Umar's
reply, " and I will slay him ; he has vilified
our gods and dishonoured our ancestors."
" Passion blinds thee." retorted Nu'aim ;
4i knowest thou not that, if thou killest Mu
hammad, thou wilt draw the vengeance of
the Hasbimites ana the Banu Mujt;alib
upon thy head ? Better far it would be for
theo, to heed the welfare of thy own family,
and to bring back to the right path those
members of it who have forsworn their ances
tral religion." " And who are they," asked
•Uiuar. " Thy brother-in-law, Sa'id ibn
Zaid, uiul Fajtimah, thy very own sj&ter."
answered Nu'-aim.
Forthwith the iaccn.sod man hurried onto
the house of the culprits. Here Khabbab ibn
al-Aratt, a devoted disciple of Muhammad,
the same who had made them acquainted
with his teaching uud won tlu-iu over to
IsUtin unknown to 'Umar, was reading with
them at that moment a new fragment of the
Qor'an. When he heard 'Umar coming, he
concealed himself, and Fatimah tried to
hide the manuscript in tho bosom of her
dress. On entering, -Uraar aakod : " What
852
'UMAR
'UMAR
have \ou been reading just now ? I heard
roar voices ! " " Nothing," she replied, " thou
art mistaken." "You have been reading
something, and I am told that yon belong to
the sect of Muhammad." With these words
he threw himself upon his brother-in-law, and
struck him. Fatimah rushed in between
them. Both husband and wife boldly con
fessed : •' Yes, we are Muslims ; we helievo
that there is no god but God, and that Mu
hammad is his sent one ; kill us, if thou
wilt."
No sooner had 'Urnar seen the blood flowing
from a wound which he had inflicted on his
sister, than shame for his own unmanly act.
coupled with admiration of their courageoas
Conduct, brought about a powerful revulsion
of his feelings. He asked to be shown the
manuscript, and when, after his solemn pro
mise not to destroy it, the fragment was
handed over to him, he read : —
" Not to sadden thee have We sent down
this Qur'an to thee,
But as a warning for him who feareth ;
A missive from Him who hath made the
earth and the lofty heavens,
The God of Mercy who sitte+h on His
throne !
His, whatsoever is in the heavens and
whatsoever is in the earth, and whatso
ever is between them botb, and what
soever is beneath the humid soil !
And thou needest not raise thy voice in
prayer : He verily knoweth the secret
whisper* and the yet more hidden I
God 1 there is no God but Him I Most
excellent His titles ! "
(Surah xx. 1-7.)
"How nobly said and how sublime 1" ex
claimed 'fjmar, when he had read the pas
sage. Thereupon Khabbab came forth from
his place of concealmont, and summoned him
to testify to the teaching of Muhammad.
'Umar asked where Muhammad was, went to
tim, and made his profession of faith to the
iVophet himself.
Henceforth 'Umar remained attached to
ihe person of Muhammad with the most
devoted friendship, and embraced the cause
of Islam with all the energies of his strong
nature. We find 'Umar, immediately after
Muhammad's death, unable at first to grasp
the reality of the fact. When the news was
imparted to him, he exclaimed wildly before
the assembly of the faithful : " The Prophet
is not dead ; he has only swooned away.'' And,
i'gain, when Mughirah tried to convince him
that he was mistaken — " Thou liest !" he cried,
" the Prophet of the Lord shall net die, until
he have rooted out every hypocrite and unbe-
ver." At this point Abu Bakr quoted the
•rrses of the Qur'an, revealed after the
Jvfeat at Uhud : " Muhammad is no more
than an Apostle ; verily the other apostles
have gone before him. What then! If he
were to die or be killed, would you turn back
on your heels ? " And he added the memo
rable appeal .• '* Let him then know, whosoever
Muhammad that Muhammao in
deed is dead; but whoso worbhippsth Uod ,
let him know that the Lord liveth and doth
nob die."
Then, and only then, on hearing those
words, spoken by the book, as if he had never
heard them before, the truth burst upon
'Umar with crushing force. " By the Lord,"
he would tell in later days, " it was so that
when I heard Abu Bakr reciting those verses,
I was horror-struck, my litnbs trembled, I
dropped down, and I knew of a certain* that
Muhammad indeed was dead."
The paramount ascendency which Muh-xm- ;
mad, during his lifetime, exercised ovej !
j 'Umar, could not failjto soften his passionate
and vehement nature, and to train him to {
those habits of self-command, which fonti j
one of the most essential elements in Ihe ';
character of a good ruler. If it was an act
of wise foi'esight on the part of Muhammad
to designate, at the approach oi death, the
older and sedater Abu Bakr as his successor,
by appointing him to conduct the public
prayers during his last illness, he could at
the same time feel assured that 'Umar, far
U'om contesting the Choice of his dying
friend, would respect it and make-it respected
igaiusi any defection or rival ambition by his
cordial and powerful support. Bat it was
I equally natural and wise on the part of Abu
i Bakr, when the time had come, to fix the
I choice of his own successor upon 'Umar. It
is related that, feeling his end to be near, and
willing to fortify his own conviction by the
sense of others, he first consulted 'Abdu 'r-
liahman, the son of 'Auf , who praised 'Umar
" as the fittest man, but withal inclined to be
severe." " Which," responded the dying Kha-
lifah, " is because he saw m<- soft and tender
hearted, when himself the Master, he will
forego much of what thou sayest. I have
watched, him narrowly. If I were angry with
one, he would intercede iu his behalf ; if over-
lenient, then he would be severe." 'Usman,
too, confirmed Abu Bakr's choice. " What is
hidden of 'Umar," he said, " is better than
that which doth appear. There is not his
equal amongst us all."
And so it was: as in bodily stature 'Umar
towered high above his fellow-men, so he
excelled in every quality required in an
imposing commander of the Faithful (Amir
al-Mu'minln), this being the title which he
adopted in preference to the more cumber
some of " Successor of the Apostle of God "
(Khalifatu 'r-Rasuli 'llah). It lies outside
the scope of the present work to give a com
plete biography of 'Unoar, and we must refer
the reader who should wish to make himself
acquainted with it, to the above-quoted
attractive volume of Sir V?. Muir, Annals of
the Early Caliphate. Our less ambitious
object here has merely been to sketch, as it
were, in a few salient traits culled from it,
the picture of a man, who, as a founder of
Islam, was second onry to Muhammad Iiim-
selL Gifted with a high and penetrating
intellect, and possessed of a strong sense of
justice, ho w.vs impartial, skilful, and forlu
•' n«tte in tbo eh'jico of his military »rtd civil
'UMAR
'UMAR
058
agents, a-:d had learnt to temper stverity
•with clemency and wise forbearance. While
it was he who, in his earlier days, after the
battle of Badr, had ndvised that the prisoners
should all be put to death, his later resent
ment against Khalid, with whose name the
cruel fate of Malik ibn Nuwairah and tho
gory tale of the " River of Blood " are linked
in history, on the contrary, took rise in
Khalid's unscrupulous and savage treatment
of a fallen foe. And the fanatic intolerance
of some of the Muslim captains is favourably
contrasted with 'Umar'.s treatment of tho
Christianised Arab tribe of the Banu Tagh-
lib. They had tendered their submission to
VValid ibn 'Uqbah, who, solicitous for the
adhesion to Islam of this groat and famous
race, pressed them with some rigour to ab
jure their ancient faith. -Umar was much
displeased at this — " Leave them,'' he wrote,
" in the profession of the Gospel. It is only
within the bounds of the peninsula, where
are the Holy Places, that no polytheist tribe
.3 permitted to remain." Walicl was removed
from his ( ommand ; and it was enjoined on
his success jr to stipulate only that tho usual
tribute should be paid, that no member of
the tribe should be hindered from em!- racing
Islam, and that the children shouiu. not be
educated in the Christian faith. The last
condition e<ui only have been meant as a
nominal indication of the supremacy of Islam,
for if it had been enforced, we should not read
of the Banu Taghlib continuing in the profes
sion of Christianity under the next two dy
nasties and even later. The tribe, deeming
in its pride the payment 01 tribute ( faxgak)
an indignity, sent a deputation to tuw Kha-
llfah, declaring theii willingness to pav the
tax if only it were levied under tho samo
name as that taken from the Muslims, 'Uniar
evinced his liberality by allowing tue conces
sion ; and so the Banu Taghlib enjoyed the
singular privilege of being assessed as Chris
tians at a «• double tithe " ('ushr), instead of
paying jazyatt. the obnoxious badge of subju
gation. (Sir W. Muir. Annals, p. 218.)
As the original asperity of 'Umar's cha
racter had been mellowed in the school of
life and in close communion with Muham
mad and Abu Bakr, so the same influences,
togetner with tne responsibilities of his posi
tion, tended to blend his natural boldness and
impetuosity with prudence and cautiousness.
While his captains in Syria and the 'Iraq
were continually urging him to push on his
conquests to tho north and east, he would
not allow any advance to be ventured upon,
before the Muslim rule in the occupied pro
vinces was well established aud firmly conso
lidated. In like manner he evinced a singular
dread of naral enterprise, ever after an expedi
tion sent to Abyssinia acrose. the Red Sea in
the seventh year of his reign had met with a
signal disaster ; and he was countenanced in
this aversion for the treacherous element by
a not less daring general than 'Amr, son of
al-'As, who, consulted on the subject, wrote
to him : —
"The sea is a bouiulle^ expanse, wh«r«on
great ships look but tiny specks : there i*
nought saving the heavens above end tho
waters beneath. Trust it little, fear it much.
Man at sea is an insect floating on a splinter ;
if the splinter break, the insect perisheth."
When the wily 'Amr wished to rane his
people in the estimation of the Egyptians,
he had a feast prepax-ed of slaughtered
camels, after the Bedouin fashion; and the
Egyptians looked on with wonder, while
the army satisfied themselves with the
rude repast. NText <lay he commanded a
sumptuous banquet i:-> be set before them,
with all the dainties of the Egyptian table ;
and here again the w : nora fell to with equal
zest. On the third nay, there was a grand
parade of all the troops in battle array, and
the people flocked to see it. Then "'Amr
addressed them, saying : " The first day's
entertainment was to let you see the plain
and simple manner of our life at home ; the
.second, to show you that we can not the less
enjoy the good things of the lands we enter ;
and yet retain, as ye see in the spectacle here
before you, our martial vigour notwithstand
ing."
'Amr gainod his end, tor the Copts retired,
saying one to the other, " See ye not that the
Arabs have but to raise their heel upon us,
and it is enough ! " 'Umar was delighted
with his lieutenant device, and said of him,
" Of a truth it is on wisdom and resolve, as
well as on nacre force, that tho success of
warfare doth depend."
But, at the same time, 'Umar was. much too
' houghtf ul and far-seeing himself not to recog
nise the danger for the future of Islam, which
was lurking in this sudden acquisition of un
measured riches. On one occasion, when he
was about to distribute tho fifth of some
Persian spoils, he was seen to weep. " What,"
.t was said to him, " a time of joy and thank
fulness, and thon Reddest tears." "Yea,"
replied the simple-minded Khallfah, " it is
•lot for this I weep ; but I foresee that the
wealth which the Lord hath bestowed rpou
us will become a spring of worldliness and
jnvy, and in the end a calamity to my
>eople."
Moreover, the luxury and ostentation which
vas thus engendered in tho enriched leaders,
.vas utterly repulsive to his own frugal
habits and homely nature. On his first visit
to Syria. Abu 'Ubaidah, Yazu: and Khalid.
met him in state to welcome im. A bril
liant cavalcade, robed in Syrian >rocade, and
mounted on steeds richly ctpa'isonod, they
rode forth as he approached. At the sight of
all their finery, Umar's spi.it was stirred
within him. He stooped dow, and, gather
ing a handful of gravel, flung it at the asto
nished chiefs. " Avauut ! " he cried ; '• is it
thus attired that ye come out to meet me 'i
All changed thus in the space of two short
vears ! Verily, had it been after two hun
dred, ye would have deserved to be degraded."
This primitive simplicity of the Arab
chieftain is another grand and highly capti
vating feature in 'Umar's character. We sea
in our mind'n fyetho mighty mov^r of armie.s.
054
(JMM
'L-MU'MININ
at the time when the destinies of Islam
trembling in the balance on the battle-field of
Qadisiyah, issuing on foot from the gates of
al-Medinah in the early morning, if pevohanco
ao might meet some messenger from the
scene of combat. At last a courier arrived
outside the city> who to. 'Umar's question re
plies shortly, " The Lord has discomfited the
Persian host." Unrecognised. 'Umar followed
the messenger, leading the camel, and with
his lonj< stride* keeping pace with the
high-stepping animal, to glean from him the
outline of the great battle. When they en
tered al-Maumah, the people crowded round
.he Khaiifah. saluting him, and hearing the
liappy uows. wished him joy of the triumph.
Tho courier, abashed, cried out, "0 Com
mander of the Faithful, whv didst thou not
tell mu?" but his mind was instantly set at
rest by the Khaiifah 's kindly answer : " It is
well, my brother/'
Or we may ta.ncv him perambulating, whip
in hand, the streets and markets of al-Madi-
nali, ready to punish the offenders on the
spot, may be his own son and his boon com
panions, who had indulged in the use of wine.
For on this head 'Umar did not brook plea
santry. When news of some arch-transgressors
on this score was sent from Damascus, and
indulgence from - the strict enforcement of
the law was claimed for them on the plea of
their exalted position and military merits, he
wrote back : " Gather au assembly aud bring
them forth. Then ask, Is wtne lawful, or is
it forbidden ? If they say forbidden, lay eighty
stripes upon each of them ; if they say law
ful, then behead them every one." The
punishment, if inflicted by'Umar's own hand,
vas tolling, for it became a proverb :
Omar's whip is more terrible than another's
word
Or, again, with the groan 'of repentance of
the well-chastised offender still ringing in
our ears, we may watch the same 'Umar, as
journeying in Arabia in the year of famine,
he conies upon a poor woman, seated with
her hungry and weeping children round a
fire, whereon is an empty pot. He hurries to
the next village, procuies bread and meat,
fills the pot, aud cooks an ample meal,
leaving the little ones laughing and at play.
Such a uaa,n was 'Umar, the great Khali-
.fab., brave, v.ise, pious. No fitter epitaph
couid adorn hij tombstone, than his dyin<;
words .•--*• It liau gone- hard with 'my soul, if
I had not been a Muslim." [DAMASCUS, JE.BU-
SAJUSM. JIHAD, HL'ItAMMAD.]
(The Editor is indebted to Dr. Steingass,
"ilia learned author of the tbglish-Avetric
Dictionary, A.I>. 1862, and Arabic- English
Dictionctry, A.D. IfciJ-i ^\y. I-]. Alien <i'Co..
London;, for this review of 'Uinars influence
en the Muslim religion.)
UMM (p\), pi. -ummat. ummakai.
Mother " Heb. Qft cm. A word which
frequently occurs in combination with other
words, e.g. Ummu 'l-Qurd, "the mother of
villages," the metropolis Makkah; Ummu V-
" the mother of sciences," grammar.
A people, a nation, a eect. The word occurs
about forty times in the Qur'an.
Ummatu Ibrahim, the people of Abraham*.
Ummatu */sa, the people of Jesus.
Ummatu Muhammad, the people of Muham
mad.
UMMI (,j-\)-. The title assumed
by Muhammad, and which occurs in the
Qur'an, Surah viii. 156;. "Who shall follow
the Apostle, the illiterate Prophet (dn-Nablyv
7-u0M»t)"; and in the 158th verse of the
same Surah.
Commentators are not agreed as to the
deinvation of this word, the following are the
three most common derivations of it :—
(1) From Umm, " mother," i.e. one just as
he came from his mother's womb.
(2) From Ummak, •• people," i.e. a gontile,
one who was is/norant : alluding to the time
of Muhammad's ignorance.
(3) From Ummu 'l-qura. " the mother of
villages," a name given to Makkah; i.e. a
native of Makkah.
Muhammad appears to have wished to be
thought ignorant and illiterate, in order to
raise the elegance of the Qur'an into a
miracle.
UMMU HABIBAH (&***. ^). One
of Muhammad's wive's. She was the daughter
of Abu Sufyan, and the widow of TJbaidu'llah,
one of the " Four Inquirers," who, after emi
grating as a Muslim to Abyssinia, embraced
Christianitv there, and died in profession of
that faith.
UMMU KULStJM (^ ^), The
youngest daughter 'of Muhammad by his
wife Khadijah. She had been married to her
cousin 'Utaibah, son of Abu Lahab, but
separated from him and became, after the
death of her sister Kuqaiyah, the second wife
of -Usman, the later Khaiifah. She died a
year or two before Muhammad, who used,
after her death, to say he ao dearly loved
'Usman, that had there been a third daughter,
he would have given her also in marriage to
him.
tJMMU 'L-KITAB (VU*H *V). Lit.
- The Mother of the Book."
(1) A. title given in the Hadis to the first
Surai) en the Qur'an.
(2) In the buratn Ahli •Iinran (iii.) 6^ it is
iisad for the Qur'an itself.
(3) In the Sttratu V-Ra'd (xiii.) 39, it seems
to bf applied to the preserved tablet, on which
were written tlie decrees of God and the fate
of every human being.
•' A mother of the Faithful." A title -which
English authors restrict either to the Pro
phet's wife Khadijab, or to 'Ayishah: but it is
a title applied to each of the wives of Muham
mad. Qur'an, Surah xxxiii. 6; " His wives
are -their mothers,"
TJMMU L-QUBA
UMMU 'L-QUBA (^ f\). Int.
••Mother of Villages." A name given to
Makkah. The Metropolis.
UMMU 'L-WALAD (^ r\). A
term used in Muhammadan law for a femalo
slave who has borne a child to her master,
and -who ia consequently free at his death.
[SLAVERY.]
UMMU SALMAH (*JL r\). One
of the wives of the Prophet. The widow of
Abu Salmah, to whom she had borne several
children. Abii Salmah was killed at Uhud, and
Muhammad married his widow four months
afterwards.
'UMRl (cs/^). A life grant, or
interest in anything, e.g. if the proprietor of a
house says to another, " This is yours as long
as you live."
'UMRAH <V*). A Lesser Pilgri
mage, or a visitation to the sacred mosque nt
Makkah, with the ceremonies of encompassing
the Ka'bah and running between at-Marwah
and as-$afa, but omitting the sacrifices, &c. It
is a meritorious act, but it has not the sup
posed merit of the ' Hojj or Pilgrimage. It
can be performed at any time except the
eighth, ninth, and tenth days of the 'month
2u '1-Hijjah, these being the days of the Hctjj
or Greater Pilgrimage. [HAJJ.]
UMUMIYAH (***y*)' "Mater-
nity." A term used in Muslim law. . (Hidd-
yoh, Tol. iii. p. 417.)
UNBELIEVERS. There are seve
ral terms used in Islam for those who are
unbelievers in the mission of Muhammad
'e.g.'.—
Kafir (j*tf), One who hides the truth. A
tertn generally applied to idolaters, and not
to Jews or Christians.
Mushrik (**}-£*• ^ Ono who gives com
panions to God. Believers in the Blessed
Trinity are eo called. The term is also applied
by the Wahhabis to any Muslim. who observes
ceremonies which are not clearly enjoined in
the precepts of the Muslim religion, a* visit
ing shrines, &c.
Mulhid (A*JU)» One who has deviated
from the truth.
Alurtadd («Juy»)> An apostate from Tslain.
Dahrl (^Jfc^). An Atheist.
(For further explanations, refer to the, words
in their places.')
UNCLEAN MEATS. [FOOD.]
UNCLEANNESS. | PURIFICATION.]
UNITY OF GOD. [TAUHID.J
UNLAWFFL. Arabic hardm(r\^}
fLAW.]
'UQAB (v»Vae;. A black eagle.
A celebrated standard belonging to Muham
mad. (See tfaydtn 'l-Qutub. p. 88, Merrick's
edition.) [STANDARDS.]
U8MAN
655
'UQBA (4^). Lit. "End." A
reward or punishment. Hence used to ex
press the life to come either of good or evil.
f PA11ADI8E, HELL. ]
'UQBAH (**te) IBN 'AMIR AL-
JUHANl. A Companion of great celebrity.
He was afterwards Governor of Egypt, where
he died, A.H. 58.
UQNUM (ff*\),v\.'aqanim. Ac-
cording to Muslim lexicographers, it is " .1
word which means the root or principle of a
thing, and, according to the Nasara (Naza-
rwnes), there are three Aqanim, namely,
wujud (entity or substance), haydt (life), and
ltlm (knowledge); and also, Ab (Father), Ibn
(Son), and JRuftu 'l-Q,uds (Holy Spirit); aud
it is also the name of a book amongst the
Nazarenes which treats of these three. (Seo
Qhiydsu '1-LugJidt. in loco.} [TRINITY.]
'UQtJBAH (A»yte). "Puuisbment;
chastisement." A legal term for punishment
inflicted at the discretion of the magistrate.
'Uqubah s/iadidah is severe punishment ex
tending to death. [TAZIR.]
AL-4UQULU 'L-'ASHARAH (Jy*tt
Y^\). Lit. " The Ten Intelligences."
Ten angolp who, according to the philoso
phers, were created by God in the following-
manner : First, lie created one an^el : vho
then created one heaven and ono angel, this
second angol then created a second heaven
and a third angel ; and so on until there
were created nine heavens and ten ongels.
The tenth angel then, by the order of God,
created the whole world. (See Qhiyfi&u V-
LuyAdt, in /oco.)
*URS (u-^). (1) Marriage festi
vities, as distinguished from w'£<7#,"the mar
riage ceremony." [MAKHIAGK.J
(2) A term also used for the ceremonios
observed at the anniversary of tho death of
any celebrated saint or tuvrahid.
'USHR (r**), pi- a'shtlr and
'usktir. A tenth or tithe given to tho Muslim
State or Baitu "l-Mdl. [KAITIJ 'L-MAU I
'USMAN (pUJic) IBN 'AFJTAN.
The third Khalifah, who succeeded *Um«r
A.H. 23 (A.D. 643), and was slain by Muham
mad, son of Abu Bakr and other conspira
tors on the 18th of Zu 1-Hijjah, A.H. 30
(Juno 17th, A.D. 65»5), sgcd eighty-two, and
having reigned twelve years. He is known
amongst Muslims as Zu 'n-Nurain, " Tbc
Possessor of the Two Lights," because he
married two of the Prophet's daughters, Rn-
qaiyah and Unitnu Kulsiim. His chit'f merit
with regard to the cause of IslSin was the
second and linal revision of tho sacred book
which he caused to bo made, and of which an
exhaustive account has been given in our
article on tho Quran
Although Muhammadan historians distin
guish the reigns of the first four Khalilahs
as founded on faith (dint}, from those of th«
later ones, as based on the world and it«
656
UStJL
passions and vanities (dunyawi), it must be
admitted that worldly motives entered al
ready largely into the politics of 'Usman and
'Ali, as contrasted with Abu Bakr and 'Unaar.
'Usman, by his weakness and nepotism, 'All
by holding aloof with culpable indifference,
during the protracted death-struggle of his
predecessor, by abetting his murderers in the
open field, and by his vacillating spirit,
where firmness of purpose was needed, gave
rise to those fierce dissensions between rival
-eligious and political parties, which led, for
the time being, to the establishment of the
CJmaiyah dynasty, and eventually caused the
division of Islam into the two great sects of
the Sunnis and ShI'ahs.
LTStJL (Jj*\), pi. of asl. Lit.
"Roots." The roots or fundamentals of the
Muhammadan religion, as opposed to furu'
(£jy)> "branches," a term used for Muham
madan law, civil, ceremonial, and religious.
Tho usiil of Islam are universally held to be
four : (1) TheQwrYIn, (2) Tho Hath*, (3) Ijmar,
and (4) Qfyaf, terms which will be found ex
plained under their respective titles.
'Ilmu'l-Ufiil is the science of interprets-
aon or exegesis of these four fundamental
USURY. Arabic riba' . A
word which, li^c the Hebrew 'TTUXJ neshek.
includes ail gam upon loans, whether from the
loan of money, or goods, or property of any
kind. In the Mosaic law, conditions of gain f or
the loan of money or goods, were rigorously
prohibited : " If thou lend money to any of my
people that is poor by thee, thou shalt not
be to him as an usurer, neither shalt thou
lay upon him usury." (Exodus xxii. 25.)
" If thy brother be waxen poor . . . take no
usury of him or increase : but fear thy God ;
that thy brother may live with thee. Thou
fihalt not give him thy money upon usury,
nor lend him thy victuals for increase." (Le
viticus xxv. 35-37.)
(1) The teaching of the (^ui'u.u on the
subject is given in Surah ii. 276: ''They
who swallow down usury, shall arise in the
Last Day only as he ariseth, whom Satan
has infected by his touch. This for that they
say, ' Selling is only the like of usury,' and
yet God hath allowed selling and forbidden
usury ; and whosoever receiveth this admo
nition from his Lord, and abstaineth from it,
shall have pardon for the past and his lot
shall be with God. But they who return to
usury, shall be given over to the Fire, —
therein to abide for ever."
(2) In the Traditions, Muhammad is related
to have said:—
" Cursed be the taker of usury, the giver
of usury, the writer of usury, and the witness
of usury, for they are all equal."
" Verily the wealth that is gained in usury,
although it be great, is of small advantage."
(§ahlhu Muslim, Bdbu 'r-Hiba'').
(8) jRt'6a',inthe language-of the lawtsignifies
"an excess," according to a legal standard of
measurement or weight, in one of two homo-
USURY
gentcus articles (of weight or measurement of
capacity) opposed to each other in a contract
of exchange, and in which such excess is
stipulated as un obligatory condition on on*
of the parties, without any return, that is,
without anything being opposed to it. The
sale, therefore, of two loads of barley, fof
instance, in exchange for one load of wheat,
does not constitute usury, since these articles
are not homogeneous ; and, on the other hand,
the sale of ten yards of cloth in exchange for
five yards of cloth, is not usury, since al
though these articles be homogeneous, stil)
they are not estimable by tveiqht or measure
ment of capacity.
Usury, then, as an illegal transaction, is
occasioned (according to most Muhammadan
doctors) by rate, united with species, where,
however, it must be observed, that rate.
amongst the Musalmans, applies only to
articles of weight or measurement of capa
city, and not to articles of longitudinal mea
surement, such as cloth. <fec., or of tale, such
as eggs, dates, walnuts, &c., when exchanger1
from hand to hand. Ash-ShafM maintain*
that usury takes place only in things of an
esculent nature, or in money, and according
to him, therefore, articles of the last-men
tioned description would give occasion to
usury. It is, furthermore, to be observed,
that superiority or inferiority in the quality
has no effect in the establishment of the
usury ; and hence it is lawful to sell a quan
tity of the better sort r>f any article in ex-
change for an equal quantity of an inferior
sort. Nor floes usury exist where the qua
lities of an article of weight or measurement
by capacity are not ascertained by some
known standard of measurement. Thus it !•*
lawful to sell one handful of wheat in ex
change for two handfuls, or two handfuls for
four, because, in such case, the measurement
not having been made according to a legal
standard, the superiority of measurement,
establishing usury, has not taken place, and,
since the law has fixed no standard of mea
sure beneath half a ,s-<r, any quantity loss
than such is considered equivalent to a
handful.
Where the quality of being weigh* ble or
measureable by capacity, and correspondence
of species (being the causes of usury) both
exist, the stipulation of inequality or of sus
pension of paymeni to a future period, are
both usurious. Thus it is usurious to soli
either one measure of wheat in exchange for
two measures, — or one measure of wheat foi
one measure deliverable at a future period.
If, on the contrary, neither of these circum
stances exist (as in the sale of wheat for
money), it is lawful, either to stipulate a
superiority of rate, or the payment at t.
future period. If, on the other hand, one of
these circumstances only exist (as in the sale
of wheat for barley, or the sale of one slave
for another), then a superiority in the rate
may legally be stipulated, but not a suspen
sion in the payment. Thus ono measure of
wheat may lawfully be sold for two measures
of barley, or one slave for two slaves: but it
U8WAH
is not lawful to sell one measure of wheat for
one measure of barley, payable at a future
period ; nor one slave for another, deliverable
at a future period.
According to the majority of doctors, every
thing in which the n<nmousness of an excess
has been established by the Prophet on. tho
ground of measurement rf capacity (sucb &R
wheat, barley, dates and salt), or en the
ground of v-eighi (like gold or silver ), is for ever
to be con^idored as of that nat re. although
mankind should forsake this modo of estima
tion; because the custom of mankind, which
regulates the measurement, is of inferior force
to the declaration of the Prophet ; and a
superior court cannot yield to an inferior.
Abu Yusuf, however, is of opinion that in all
tiring practice or custom ought to prevail,
although in opposition to the ordinances of
the Prophet ; for the ordinance of the Pro
phet v/as founded on usage and practice of
his own time. In ordinances, therefore, the
prevalent customs among mankind are to be
regarded ; and as tiiese are liable to alter,
they must be attended to rather than the
let-tor of an ordinance.
Usury cannot take place between a nzastei
and his stave, because whatever is in the
possession of the slave is the property of th<-
ouster, so that no sale can possibly take
plu-e between them, and hence the possibility
of usury is excluded a fortiori. Nor cnn it
take place between a Muslim and a no stile
in6dei in a hostile country, in accordance
with the saying of tlie Prophet: "There is
no usury between a Muslim and a iumile in
fidel in a foreign land,'' and on the further
giound, that the property of a, hostile infidel
btiug free to the Muslim, it follows that it if
lawful to take it by, whatever mode may bo
possible, provided there be no deceit used.
It is otherwise with respect to a zimmi, or
protected alien, as his property is not ,of a
neutral nature, because of the protection that
has been accorded to him, and, therefore,
usury is as unlawful in his ease as in that of
a Muslim. Abu Yusuf and ash-Shaft'I con
ceive an analogy between the case of a hostile
'.ntidel, in a hostile country, and that of a
zimmi. and hence they hold, contrary to the
other Muslim doctors, that usury can take
place also between a Muslim and a hostile
infidel in a foreign land.
The testimony of a person w.'io receives
usury is inadmissible in a court of law. It ife
recorded in 'the Mab&ut, however, that the
evidence ui a usurer is inadmissible only in
case of his being so in a notorious degree :
because mankind often make invalid, con
tracts, and these are in some degree usu
rious. (Hiddyuh, Grady's edition, p. W2.'j
For further informal ion ou the subject oJ
usury and fur C.ISIK, illnstralive rf the above-
stated principles, see Hi da yah. Hamilton's
translation, vol. ;i.. p. 480, atifq. ; Grady'b
edition, p. 2c.'J sfqy ; the Lhirr't'l- Mukktar \
the Fatdu/a-i-1 Atumgirl. ?';» tori.-.
TTSVVAU, al«o 1SWAII («rl).
" An example." The word occurs in the
tJTEUINB RELATIONS G57
Qur'an, Surah xxxiii, 21: «» Yo had in the
Apostle of God a good example" (vfw<ilun
hasanatun). Ar-Raghib says it is the condi
tion in which a man is in respect of another's
imitating him.
TTTEEINE RELATIONS. Arabic
mwil, 'l-arham (f^\ »*), called by
the English lawyers " distant kindred."
They are divided into four closes .- —
(1) Persons descended from the deceased,
how low soever, i.e. the children of daughters
or of son's daughters.
(2) Those fronj whom the deceased is de
scended, how high soever, i.e. False qr&nd
parents, in contradistinction from the frvc. a
true grandfather being one between whom
and tho deceased no- female intervenes : »
true grandmother, one between vJioin and
the deceased no false grandfather intervenes
(3) T"hose descended from the parents of the
deceased, how lov.- soever, i.e. the daughters
of full-brothers an<i of half-brothers (by the
same father only), the children of half-
brothers (by the same mother only), and tbp
•hildren of sisters.
(4) The children of the two grandfather*
and two grandmothers of the deceased, i.e.
father's half-brothers and sisters by the same
mother only and their children; the de
ceased's paternal aunts and their children ;
maternal uncles and aunts and their children;
the daughters of full paternal uncles and
half-paternal uncles by the same father only.
This classification, However, does not ex
haust the distant kindred, which, in the Ian-
zuago of the law, are defined as those rela
tions of a deceased person who are neither
sharers nor residuarjes. [ISHERITASCE.]
Thus, cousins who are children of residuape.s,
but are not residuaries themselves (e.</.
paternal uncles' daughters) are distant kin
dred, though not members of any of the fore
going classes, or rein ted. through any member
of such a class.
When the distant Kindred succeed, m conse
quence of the absence of oharors and residua-
ries, they are admitted according to tne outer
of their classes. Within tue Jurats of each j.ar •
tieular class^ it is a general rule thai a person
nearer in degree success in preference to one
more remote ; and in all classes, if tiiere b««
several of an equal degree, the property goes
equally among them if thoy are of the name
bex. There is, however, some disagreement
as to cases -in which persons through whom
they ore related to the deceased ;iro ol
different sexes or of different Mood : and
it is maintained by Muhammad, agaitut
Abu Yusuf, that regard must be had
partly to the "roots ' or intermediate rela
tions, and not only to the •' branches,"
or actual claimants. Thus all are agreed
that if a man leave u daughter's son and
a daughter's daughter, the male A ill
haye a double portion, for there is no dif-
i'erence of sex in tho intermediate rel itions
hut if there be a daughter's SOILS daoshm
.and a daughter's daughter's son. it n said
by Abu Vfiouf that the male *ill hxvr p.
83
658
double portion, on account of his sex ; but by
Muhammad, that the female, instead of the
male, will take the double portion, by reason
ol her fathers sex. And on the other hand,
all are agreed that if there be two daughters
of different brothers, they will take equally
between them ; but if there be a daughter of
a brother and a daughter of a half-brother by
the father only. Muhammad rules that the
latter will take notning ; for having regard
to the circumstances that a brother excludes
a half-brother by the father only, he considers
that there is nothing to be handed down to
the descendant of the latter, and that the
whole will go to the descendant of the
former.
This rule of Muhammad, which in its appli
cation to the different classes of the distant
kindred, leads to curious results of a complex
character, seems to deserve a particular notice,
as jesting to a large extent on tho principle
of representation, which otherwise is all but
VOWS
foreign to the Muhammadan law of inheri
tance. (A. Rumsey, Moohumnvudqn Law of \
I'/iAeritance, p. 56 ; Syed Ameer AH, Personal
Law, p. 52 : Durru '1-Mukhtar, p. 87,%)
[SACRIFICE.]
'UZLAH (&>*). " Retirement/'
A term used by the Sufis for a religious life
uf retirement from the world.
<UZR (y*). "An excuse." A
legal term for a claim or an objection.
AL-'UZZA (c5}*^>- An -idol men
tioned in the Quran. Surah liii. 19: " What
think ye then of al-Lat and al-'TJiiza, and
Manat. the third idol besides." According to
Husain. it was an idol of the tribe of (j&ata-
fan. For a-discussion on the subject, see the
article on LAT
V.
VEILS. [MESS.]
VESSELS, in the early days of
Islam, there were four kinds , of drinking-
vosseis forbidden to Muhammadans . on
account of their Jbeiug used for wine, namely,
bantam ( *-«»•) , a green vessel ; dubbd ( ^«J),
a large gourd hollowed out; naqtr (j*&),
a cup made from the hollowed root of a tree ;
rnuzajj'at (cr>J>y»), a vessel covered with a
kind of black pitch, or the glutinous sub-
stance with which the bottom of boats are
payed. (Mishkdt, book i. ch. i. pt. i.) But,
according to Muslim law, the vessels used by
Christians and Jews, and even by idolaters.
are lawful, but they must be free from the
taste or smell of wine.
VIGIL. Arabic 'arafah^btf. The
only .Muhammadan festival which has a vigil
is the lidu yl-Az1ua, or «' Feast of Sacrifice.'
['IDU 'L-AZHA.]
VISITING THE SICK Arabic
'iyadah (5jL*) An incumbent reli
gious duty enjoined by Muhammad on -his
followers The following traditions illustrate
his teaching on the subject (Mishkdt, book
v. ch. i.):~
" When a Muslim visits a sick brother, he
fathers the fruits of Paradise from the time
e leaves his home until he returns."
"If a Muslim visit a .sick person, and say
seven tiines, • 1 ask the Almighty God, who is
Lord of the great throne, to give thee health,
the prayer shall be granted* unless the ap
pointed time of his death hath surely come."
" Verily God will say at the Day of Resur
rection. * 0 sons of Adam I I was sick and ye
did not visit me.' And the sons of Adam will
say, '0 our Defender! how could we visit
thee, for Thou art the Lctfd of the universe
and art free from sickness ? ' And God will
say, ' 0 men ! did you not know that such a
one of my servants was sick, and you did not
visit him ? Do you not know that had you
visited that servant you would have met me
there?'"
'Ayibhah says : " When any one of us was
sick, the Prophet used to rub his hands upon
the sick person's body, after which he would
say, '0 Lord of man ! take away this pain
and give health ; for Thou art the giver of
health; there is no health but thine, that
health which leaveth no sickness."
" When any person complained of being cut
of order, or having a wound or sore, the Pro
phet would say. when passing his finger over
the part affected, ' In the name of God, the
earth of our ground mixed with the spittle of
our mouth ; we have done this in order to re
store the sick to health, by permission of our
Lord/ "
VOWS. Arabic no*r G^)>pl- nusur.
Ileb. "T"J3 neder. They who fulfil their vows
V V
are amongst those who drink of the waters
o! Kafur iu Paradise (Qur'an, Surah Ixxvi. 7) ;
and the non-performance of a vow is sin
(Mishkdi, book xiii. ch. xxii.). But the Pro
phet is related to have said, ''Do not make a
vow for it cannot alter fate ; still it does ex
tract something from the wealth of the
stingy "
The aronement for a vow which has been
not performed is the same as for an oath
namely, the freeing of a slave, or clothing ten
poor persons, or feeding ten persons, or three
days fast, (Hiddyah^ Arabic ed,, vol. L p.
350.) [OATH.]
WADI'AH
WAHHABT
659
W.
WADr AH (8*t*)). Lit. " A thing
p; ., uown." The legal term for a deposit'.
,. Si x Hamilton's Hidayuh. vol. iii. p. 259.)
AL-WADtfD Oy>yt). " The Loving
One," or "The Beloved One.'' One of the
the ninety-nine special attributes of God.
It occurs twice in the Qur'un: —
Surah xi. 92 : " My Lord is Merciful and
Loving."
Surah Ixxxv 14: '*He is the Forgiving,
the Loving."
Al-Muliku 'l-Wadud. the « King of Love."
WAHDANIYAH (<M^>. (1) A
theological term for the doctrine, of the Unity
of God. (:?) The name oi a s<5ci.-of Sulis,.
[GOD, SIKHISJ!; SUFI.]
WAHDATU 'L - WTJ.JUDlYAH
(&o£*.y\ *^)- A pantheistic sect of
$nfis, who say that everything is God, and
of the same essence.
AL-WAHHAB Or^yV). " The
Be.stower of gifts." Ono of the ninety-nine
special attributes of God., It occurs in the
Qur'an, e.y. Surah iii. 6 : 4i Thou art He who
bestcweth gifts."
WAHHABT GjAfcj). A sect of
Muslim revivalists founded by Muhammad.
son of 'Abdu 'l-Wahhab, bub as their oppo
nents could not call them Mutiainmadans.
they have been distinguished by the name of
the father oi the founder of their sect, and
are called Wahhtibis.
Muhammad ibn 'Abdu '1-Wahhab was born
at Ayinah in Najd in A.I».~ 1691. Carci'uily
•nstructod by his father in the tenets of the
Muslim faith, according to the Hanbali soct,-
the strictest of the four great schools of inter
pretation, the son of 'Abdu l-Wahhab deter
mined to increase his knowledge by vieiting
trie schools of Malckah, al-Basrah and Bagh
dad. The libraries of these celebrated centres
of Muhammadauisan placed within tho reach
of the zealous student those ponderous folios
of tradition known as the " six correct books,"
and also gave him access to numerous manu
script volumes of Muslim law. Having per-'
formed the pilgrimage to Makkah with his
father, and visited the Prophet's tomb at al-
Madlnah, he remained at the latter place to
sit at the feet of Shaik£ 'Abdu 'llah ibn Ibra
him, by whom ho was carefully instructed in
all the intricacios of the exegedcal rules laid
down for the exposition of ethics and juris
prudence.
For some years he resided with his father
'at HoromeJah, a pltice which, accoiding to
P«l#rav«, claims the honour of hia birth ; but
after his father's donth. he returned to hia
native village, Ayinah, where he assumed t Im
position of a religious leader.
In his various travels, Muhammad ibn
'Abdu '1-Wahhab had observed the laxities
and superstitions of those who, whilst they
professed to accept the stem unbending
preccptg . of the Prophet of Arabia. • had
succeeded in stretching tho rigid lines of
Islam almost to breaking. Omens and nugu-
rieS; sacred shrines and richly -ornamented
tombs, the use of intoxicating drugs, the silks
and satins of the wealthy, all seemed to the
earnest reformer lament-able departures from
the first principles of Islam, and unwarrant
able concussions to the luxury, idolatry, and
-superstitions of the age. Having carefully
studied- the teachings of 4>bo Quu'aa aad the
sacred traditions, he thought he had learned
to distinguish between the essential elements
of Islam and its recent admixtures, and now
once more in the home of his childhood, ho
determined to teach and to propagate nothing
but the " pure faith/' as laid down by tho
precepts and practice of the Prophet himself.
The Muslim world had departed from tho
worship • of the Unity, and had yielded a
blind allegiance to Walls, Firs, and Saints,
and all because the teachings of the sacred
traditions had been neglected for that of
learned but ambitious teachers.
To accept any doctrine other ihau that oi
those " Companions " who received their in
structions from the Prophet's lips, waa simply
the blind leading the blind; and, therefore,
the Reformer, refusing to join his faith to tho
uncertain Ieading<-string8 of oven the four
orthodox doctors, determined to establish
the right of private judgment in the inter
pretation of those two great foundations of
Islam— the Qur'aa and the Ahadls.
• His teaching mot with acceptance, but hie
increasing influence excited the opposition of
•'the ruler of his district, and ha was compelled
to seek an asylum at Deraiah, under tho pro
tection of Muhammad ibn Sa'ud, a chief of
considerable influence. The protection of tho
religious teacher was made, a pretext for
more ambitious uosigns, and that which the
zealous ck-ric h;ul failed to accomplish by his
persuasive eloquence, the vrairit>r chief now
sought to attam by the power of the sword ;
and" he thus esi.iblished in his own person
that Wahhabi dynasty which, after a che
quered existence of more than a hundred
years, still exercises so powerful an influence
not only in C«uu-«l and Eastern Arabia, but
wherever the Muhammadan creed is pro
fessed. Like other great men before
him, the Chief of Deraiah strengthened his
position by a matrimonial ilii.'«u<e. which
united the' mtorosts of hU own famiiv with
66f)
WAHBAfll
WAX HA* I
that of the reformer H« married the
daughter oi MuhiijnrorMiibi>'*A.b<lii'l--Wahaab,
vtid she bowline Mu> in other o\ the ce ebttMfed
WahKabi chief ' Abdii 'U'A/f/,. >'ho U,H»VI the
death of his father ( v i>. 17U&). led tht« Wah-
hubi army to vi<'f,orv, an«i fm^reeded in pu^h-
ing his conquests to the remotest corners of
Arabia.
'Abdu 1-* Aziz was not only a brave war
rior, but ft- pious Muslim, and it is «aid that
he fell a victim to the scrupulous regularity
with which he performed Ms devotions in
public A Persian fanatic plunged his sharp
.Khurasan dagger into his side, just, as he
was prostrating himself in prayer in the
mosque of Deraiau (A.D. 1803).
But the great military champion oi the
reformed doctrines was Sa'ud, the eldest 'son
of 'Abdn 'l-'Aziz, who during the lifetime of
his father led the Wahbabi armies tc- vic
tory, and threatened even the conquest of the
whole Turkish empire. He is said to have
been a remarkably handsome man, praised
for his wisdom in counsel and skill in \var.
Having wielded the sword from his youth (for
he fought his first battle when a lad of
twelve), he wa« regarded by the wild Arabs
of the desert as a fit instrument to effect the
conversion of the world, and men from all
parts of Arabia docked round his Standard.
Sa*ud gained several decisive victories over
Suiaiman Pasha, and afterwards, with an
army of 20,000 wen, inarched against Kar-
bala'. the famed city of the East, which con
tains the tombs of the Shi'nli Khalifahs.
The city was entered with the Wahhabi cry,
" Kill and strangle all intidels which give
companions to God." and every vestige of
supposed idolatry, from the brigiii golden
dome of al-Husam's tomb to the smallest
tobacco pipe, was ground to the very dust,
whilst the offerings of the numerous devotees,
wliich formed the rich treasure of the sucked
shrines, served to replrmsh the ;mpoven«sbed
exchequer of the Wahhabi chief.
The following year the fanatical arim
effected the conquest of Makkah. and, on tha
27th April 1803, Sa'ud made his formal entry
into the sacred city of the Ka'bah. Tho
sanctity of the place subdued the barbarous
spirit of the conquerors, and not the slightest
excesses were committed against the people.
The stern principles of the reformed doc
trines were, however, strictly enforced. Piles
of green buqqas and Persian pipys were col-
iceted. rosaries and amulets were forcibly
taken from the devotee,**. si]k and satin
dresses were demanded from the wealthy and
•worldly, and the whole, collected into th<
oris heterogeneous mass, was bum! by tht>
infuriated reformers. So strong was the ;eel-
\*';T against the pipes, and so necessary did a
jyublic example seem to be. ibflt % respect
able InAy, wbone delinquency had well nigh
escaped the vigilaut eye of the Muhlasib, was
raized and placed on an ass. with a green
pipe suspended from her neck, and paraded
ibiough tiie public etreots— a terrible warn
ing to all of her sex who may be inclined to
indulge in forbidden luxuries. When tlit>
USM&J uoui's of prayer arrived, the myrmidons i
of the taw sallied forth, and *,\t\ if-ntieru
drove nil jlothfal Muslims to their
The- mosque* were (tiled. Nnver
tUe days wf the Prophet had the sar.red
<iity witnessed so a»*jcb piety and devotion.
\ot on$ pipe, not a. single tohacco^topper,
wa$ to be seen in the streets or toand in thb
houses, rtud 'he whole population of Mukfesb
prostrate^ -ihetuhel ves at leas! fix*' limes
a day in -olenm adoration. Ha vine carried
out hi-, mission mtu fidelity., Sa'urt hastened
to aouve.) the news of bis SIHCOVS to the
Sultan of Turkey in the foUcwi%- charac
teristic letter :—
" Sa.'nd to Sallm. — 1 entered Makkah, oil j
the tourtb. day of MubffT^tn m the 1218th i
yea** of tbe Hijrah. I kept peace t-o^ards 1
the inhatitams. 1 destroyed all things that
were idolatiou^ly wfttshipped. I abolished
all taxes ?xo >pt i,hose required by tbe law.
I conlirmed tn« '^azi whom vou Uad. aj>-
poinie«i agreo.n}>:y to the commands ol the i
Prophet of lion. 1 desire that you will give j
orders to the rulers of Damascus and Cairo
not to come up to tbe sacred city with the
JVlahiual and with trumpets aud drums. Reli-
giori is tiot profited by tbese things. May the
peace and blessing of God be with you,"
[MAHMAL.J
Beiore the close of the year, al-ivladmaH
was added to the Wahhabi conquests, aud so
thoroughly did Sa'ud carry rut the work, oi
reform, that even the Hujrah, containing th<
tomb of the Prophet, did not escape. Its
richly ornamented dome was destroyed, ant1
the curtain which covered the Propb.et't.
grave would have been removed, had not tho
Leader or' the Faithful been warned in his
dreams not to commit so monstrous a sacri
lege. [HUJFAH.I
For nine years did the Wahhabi rufe exist
at Makkah, and so strong- was the position
i occupied by the Wahhabi army, and so ra-
| pidly did Wahhabi opinions spread amongst
I the people, that the Sultan of Turkey began
i to entertain the worst fears for the safety of
iiis empire. 'All Pasha was therefore ordered
by the Sultan of Turkey to collect a strong
army to suppress the Wahhabi movement;
and eventually, Makkah and al-Madinah
were taken from the, fanatics.
Upon the death of Sa'ud (AJD, 1814), his j
MOD, 'Abdu 'ilah, became the Leader of the j
Faithful. He was even more distinguished j
than his father for p'ersonal bravery, but he
lacked that knowledge of men which was so
necessary for om? called upon to lead the un
disciplined nomadic tribes of the Arabian
deserts. 'Abdu 'Ilah and him army met with
a scries of reverses, and he was »C last taken
prisoner by Ibrahim Pashah aud seni to Con
stantinople. He was executed in tbe public
square of St. Sophia^ December 19th. 1818.
Turk!, the son of 'Abdu 'Jlnh, abandoned all
hope of regaining the position, $uid ned te
Riyaz, where' he was afterwards assassinated.
F^ul succeeded his father A.D. 1830, and
established the Wahhu'bT rule in Eastern
Arabia, making Riya/ the capital of his kinjf
WAHHABI
dom. It was this chief who entertained the
traveller Pa (grave in 1863, and received
Lieutenant-Colonel (now Sir Lewis Pelly), as
Her Majesty's representative, in 1865. Faisal
died in 1866, soon after Sir Lewis Felly's
visit, arc! was succeeded by his Son Abdu
Hah.
But although the groat political ami mili
tary power Oi the WahhabTs had oecn well
nigh crushed, and the rule of tho dynasty of
Sa'ud circumscribed within the liinits of tho
province of Najd, the principles laid down by
Vfuharnraad ibn 'Abdu "1-Wahhab were still
zealously maintained by certain religious
teachers within tho sacred ;nosqut» itself.
And so it came to pass that when a restless
spirit from India was endeavouring to redeem
A lawless life by performing the- oilgrimage
to Makkah, he fell in with teachers who bad
imbibed W.jhhabl doctrines and wore secretly
disseminating them amongst the pilgrims.
Saiyid Ahmad, the freebooter and bandit
of Rai Baroli, having performed the sacred
i'itos of the Pilgrimage, returned from Mak-
kah (A.D. 1822), resolved to reclaim the
a-hole'of North India to the Faith of Islam.
Bing a direct descendant from the Prophet,
he possessed (unlike the Wahhabl of Najd)
the necessary qualification for a Leader of
the Faithful, and the HusUius of India at
once hailed him as the true Khalifah or al-
Mahdi. Unheeded by the British Govern
ment, he traversed our province* with a nu
merous retinue of devoted disciples, and
converted the populace to tiis reformed doc
trines by thousands. Ho appointed deputies
at Patna, and then proceeded to Delhi, where
he met with a ready listener in Muhammad
Ism all. who became his most devoted dis
ciple, aad recorded +he sayings of the new
JChalifjik in the well-Known Wahhabi book,
entilted the Strut u l-A/unlat/lm.
On the 21st becember 1826, Saiyid Ahmad,
tho Leader of the Faithful, declared a religious
war, or Jikad, against the Sikhs, and. hoping
to unite the hosts of Islam in Central Asia
under his banner, be commeuced an insurrec
tion on Ihe Peshawar frontier. A fanatical
war of varied successes followed, and lasted
for four years ; but the Wahhabi army was
soon reduced in strength, and its disasters
culminated in the death of its chief, -vho was
slain by Sher Singh in au wuga^cuient at
Balakot in Hazarah, May 1831. The rem
nant of the Saiyid's army fled across th(
border and settled at Sattana, where in 1857.
their numbers were augmented by mutineers
who joined ibeir camp. They were even
tuallv displace 1 by the British Governmen
in the Umbeyla War of 1863, but there aro
still some three hundred of them residing at
Palosi on the banks of the Indus, where
they are ruled by Shaikh 'Abdu 'Hah, an old
mutineer of 1857, who has recently married
bis daughter to a former Imam of the Pesha
war, Sadar Bazar, in order to combine the
Wahhabi influence? of Peshawar with those
of the Palosi settlement.
But as in tbje rase ol the Wahhabis of Najd.
so with the Wahbabis of India. 'The reli
1TV'HHABT 661
gious tenets of the reformers did not die with
their political leader. What Sa'ud of Najd
and Ahmad of Bareli failed to accomplish
with the sword, the cheapness of lithographic
printing ha« enabled less daring leaders to
accomplish with the pen. Th* reformed
doctrines, as embodied in the Strain Y-Afus-
toqlm and the Tut/wiyatu 'l-Inian, still exer
cise a powerful influence upon Muhammadan
thought in India.
Wuhhahiisxn has sometimes been desig
nated tho Protestantism of Islam, and so it
really is, although with this remarkable dif
ference, that whilst Christian Protestantism
is the assertion of tho paramount authority of
sacred scripture to the rejection of traditional
teachings, Wahhablism i* tho assertion of the
paramount authority of the Qnr'an with the
Traditions. But both systems contend for first
principles, and if there appears to be :«ny in
congruity in applying the term Protestant to
a sect which receive*, instead of rejects, tra
dition, it arises from the very important fact
that what is called " tradition " in-Islaui oc
cupies a totally different place in the Muhara-
madan system iroui that which it does in the
Christian, Tradition in Islam being nothing
less than tho supposed inspired sayings of the
Prophet, recorded and handed down by un
inspired writers, and being absolutely neces
sary to complete the structure «f the faith.
The daily prayer, the customs of the pilgri
mage, and numerous other duties and dogmas
held to be of Divine institution, being found not
in the Qur'an but in the Ahadis, or Tradi
tions. Hence it is that the Wahhabis of Najd
and India call themselves Ahl-i-Hadis, or the
people of Tradition, and promote in every
way they can the study of those records.
("TRADITION.]
Tho Wahhabis speak of themselves as
Mutvalifyidj or " Unitarians," and call all
others Muskrik, or those who associate
another with God; and the following are
some of their distinctive religious tenets: —
1. They do not receive the decisions of the
four orthodox sects, but suy that any man
•vho can read and understand the Qur'an and
the sacred Hadis cnn judge for himself in
matters of doctrine. They, therefore, reject
fjuia* after the death of the Companions of
the Prophet.
2. That no oua. but God can know the
serrets of men, and that prayers should not
be offered to auy prophet, wall, prr, or saint ;
but that God may be asked to grant a peti
tion for tho sake of a saint.
3. That at the Last Day, MuH«umnau will
(ibtaiu permission (izn) of God to intercede
for his people. The Sunnis believe thst per-
misaion has alrearty been given.
4. That it is unlawful to illuminate the
shrines of departed saints, or to prostrate
beioio them> or to perambulate (tuwdf)
round them, they do not even perform any
act af reverence at the Prophet's tomb st al-
Madinab
5. That wuiiifu >houid u<,i, oe allowed to
viui* the grave? of the dead, on account ol
their immoderate weeping.
062
WAHHABI
WAHY
G. "iliHt <.»uly tour fastivalo ought to be
observed, namely, 'Ida '1-Fitr, 'Idu 'kAzhft,
'Ashura, and al-Lailatu '1-Mubarakah.
7, They do not observe the ceremonies of
Jfaulud, which are celebrated on the anni
versary of Muhammad" a birth.
8. They do not present offerings (Nasr) at
any shrine:
i}. They count the ninety-nine names of
God on thoir fingers, and net on a rosary.
10. They understand the tei'ins *' sitting of
God" (Arabic /sfzW), and «• ha ad of God"
(Yadu '//«/;), which occur in the Qur'an, in
their literal (Haqiqi) sense, and not figura
tively (Majdzi'); but, at the sume timo, they
say it is not- revealed how God sits, or in
what sense he has u hand, &c.. and on this
account the Christian doctrines of the Trinity
and the Sonship of Christ do not present the
.•same tfi-fficiutieB to the niind of a WahhabT
which they do to that of a-Sunni.
Mr. Wilfrid Blunt, in his Future of /s/a?n,
.says : —
"I believe it is hardly now recognised by
Mohammedans how near Abd el Wahhab was
10 complete .success. Before the close of the
eighteenth century, the chiefs of the Ibn
Saouds, champions of Unitarian Islam, had
established their authority over all Northern
Arabia as far as the Euphrates, and in 1808
they took Mecca and Medina. In the mean
while, tue Wahhabite doctrinas were gaining
ground still further afield, India was at one
time very near conversion, and in Egypt, and
North Africa, and even in Turkey, many
secretly subscribed to the new doctrines.
Two things, however, marred the plan of
general reform and prevented its full accom
plishment. In the first place, the reform was
too completely reactive. It took no account
whatever of the progress of modern thought,
and directly it attempted to leave Arabia it
found itself face to face witu difficulties which
only political as well as religious success
^ouid overcome. It was impossible, except
by force of arms, to Arabianise the world
again, and nothintr less than this was in con
templation. Its second mistake, and that was
one that a little of the Prophet's prudence
\vfaicn always went hand in hand with his
zeal might have avoided, was a too rigid iii-
sistauce upon trifles. Abd el Wahhab con
demned minarets and tombstones because
neither were in use during the first years of
Jslair. The minarets, therefore, were every-
svliere thrown down, and when the holy
places of liejd* fell into the hands of his fol
lowers, the tombs of saints which had for
centuries been revered as objects of pilgri
ms ge sver-o levelled to the ground. Even the
Prophet's tomb at Medina way laid waste
aud the treasures it contained distributed
among the soldiers of Ibn Saond. This
roused the indignation of all Islam, aud turned
the tide of the Wahhabite fortunes. Respect
able feeling which had hitherto been on their
fiirie now declared itself against them; and
they never after regained their position as
moral and social reformers. Politically, too,
it was the cause of thfcir rviia. The outside
Musalman world, looking upon them as sacri
legious barbarians, was afraid to visit Mecca,
and the pilgrimage declined so rapidly that
the Hejazi became alarmed. The source of
their revenue they found cut off, and it
seemed on the point of ceasing altogether.
Then they appealed to Constantinople, urging
the Sultan to vindicate his claim to be pro
tector of the holy places. What followed is
well known. After the peace of Paris, Sultan
Mahnind commissioned Mehemet Ali to de
liver Mecca and Medina from the Wahhabite
heretics, and this he in tim6 effected. The
war was carried into Ncjd ; Deriyeh. their
capital, was sacked, and Ibn Saotid himself
taken prisoner and decapitated in front of St.
Sophia at Constantinople. The movement of
reform in Islam was thus put ba&k for, per
haps, another hundred years.
•' Still, the seed cast by Abd el Wahhab
has not been entirely without fruit. Wahhab-
ism, as a political regeneration of the world,
has failed, but the spirit of reform has re
mained. Indeed, the present unquiet attitude
of expectation in Islam has been its indirect
result. Just as tbe Lutheran reformation in
Europe, though it failed to convert the Chris
tian Church, caused its real reform, so Wah-
habbism has produced a real desire for re
form it not yet reform itself- in Mussulmans.
[slam is no longer asleep, arid were another
and a wiser Abd el Wahhab to appear, not
as a heretic, but in the body of the orthodox
sect, he might play the part of Loyola or
Borrouieo with success,
" The present condition of the Wahhabites
as a sect is one of decline. In India, and I
believe in other parts of Southern Asia, their
missionaries still make converts and their
preachers are held in high esteem. But at
home in Arabia, ther zeal has waxed cold,
giving place to liberal ideas which in truth
are far more congenial to the Arabian mind.
The Ibn Saoud dynasty no longer holds the
first position in Nejd, and Ibn Rashid who has
taken their place, though nominally a Wah
habite, has little of the Wahhabite fanaticism.
He is in fact a popular and national rather
than a religious leader, and though still de
signated at Constantinople as a pestilent
heretic, is counted as their ally by the more
liberal Sunites. It is probable that he wo aid
not withhold his -allegiance from a Caliph Of
the legitimate house of Koreysh."
(The following English works may be con
sulted on the Hubiect of Wahhabhsm : Burck-
hardt'tf Bedovins v.nd WaJikabys; Brydge's
Brie^f History of the Wahhabi* . Sir Lewis
Pellya Potiiical Mission co jVo/t/; Hunter's
Musalmdns of India ; Palgrave's Central and
Eastern Arabia] Lady Ann Blunt's Pilgri
mage to Najd ; Dr. Badger's Imams and Sey-
yids of'Oinan ; Blnntfa Future of f slain. f
AL- WAHID C^VO- "Tii* One."
Cue of the ninety-nine special attributes of
the Almighty. It occurs, frequently in the
Qur'an, e.g. Surah ii. 158 : " Yonr God 13 One
God,"
WAHY
[lN8PrEAl'ION.]
WAIJYU L-'AHD
603
Wl'IZ (W;)- "A preacher/'
The word khatlb is generally applied to the
Maulawi who recites the khutbah on Fridays ;
wa'iz is of more general application. In the
Qdinus dictionary, the wd'i% is defined as one
who reminds mankind of those punishments
iand rewards which soften the heart. The
usual time for preaching is on Fridays, and
in the* months of Muharram and Ramaxan.
[KDUTBAfl.]
WAJD v^-*;;- "Ecstasy." A
$ufi terra for tho fifth atago of the mystic
journey, when the spiritual traveller attains
to a state of mental excitement which is
supposed to indicate a high state of divine
illumination. [SUFI.]
WAJH (*+)). Lit. Presence:
face." The word occurs in the Qur an for the
presence of God. Surah ii. 109 . " Wherever
ye turn there is the face of God (Wajhu
WAJIB (*i~9»V)- Lit- " That which
is obligatory/ A term used in Muharamadaii
lav/ for those injunctions, the non-observance
of which constitutes sin. but the denial of
which does not attain to downright inAdelity.
For example, that Muslim who does? not
offer the sacrifice ou the day of the Great
Festival [IDU 'L-AZUA] commits a *in, and if
he says the sacrifice is not a divine institution,
he is a sinner, but not an iutidel ; and he who
does not observe the fast [KAMAZAN] is a
sinner, but if he deny that the fast is a
divine iustitution, he is an infidel. The sacri
fice being wajib, whilst the fast .is fanz.
[i-Aw.j
(2) A term which frequently occurs in com
bination with others. For example, al-
Wajibu 'i-wujud, * the necessary existence "
—God ; Wctjibu *l-ittibd-, " worthy to be
obeyed." as a teacher or prophet ; Wdjibu 7-
add\ " necessary to be discharged," as a debt
or duty.
AL-WAJ1D (J^V*). " The Find**-
Inventor, or Maker." One of the ninety-nine
attributes of God, but th* word does not
occur in the Qur'an.
j WAKALAH. WIKALAH (&\*:).
The office of substitute. An embassy; an
agency ; attorneyship. For the Mnhammadan
law, with regard to agency tor sale, sec
Hamilton's Hidayak vol. iii. pp. 1-62.
[AGENT, BAIL, SALE.]
WAKIL (J«*«). An attorney, an
agent, an ambassador. [AGENT.]
AL-WAKlL (J«*>N). "The Guar
dian." One of the ninety-nine special «ttri-
butes of God. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah
iv. 83 : " For God is all sufficient for a
Guardian."
WALA' (P^;. Lit. " Proximity.
kin, friendship." A peculiar relationship
voluntarily established, and which confers a
right of inheritance on one or both parties
connected Tt Is of two khvis : —
(1) Watffu 't-'Atdgah
tionship between a master aud a mauuiuiUnil
slave, in which the former inherit* nnv pro
perty the latter may acquire after ein.'Utripft-
tion.
(2) Walffu 'l-Mvrcalat Cfi^yJf »^), The
connection arising out of mutual fritf»4*hip.
especially between a Muhammadan and .1
convert. (See Hidmmh. Oradv'.s HitJon,
p. 513.)
WALAHAN foty). The demon
who troubles people wh(m they are perform
ing their ablutions. (Mixhkdt, book ii. rb.
7.) The name signifies grief or distraction of
mind. (See Munlaha 'I-' Arab.}
WALT (Jj), pi. auliyd\ " One
who is very near." (1) Saints, or holy men.
e.g. Surah x. 63: "Arc not, verily, friends
(««%«') of God they on whom there in uo
fear ? " [SAIXTS.]
(2) Next of kin or kindred, e.g. Surah viii
73 : «« These shall be next of kin to each
otto."
Wall *oA«/, an hoir. especially to a sove
reignty.
Wait ba'id, A legal guardian of * more
remote degree than father, brother, or »mcle.
Wali ;a6tr, an » uthoritatiro" guardian re
cognised by law.
Wall ni'mat, a title of respect for a father
a natron, a benefactoi-,
w'atiyu 'd-daift, a relative entitled to exact
retaliation.
(3) A benefactor or helper,. e,q. Surah ii
114 : " Thou hast no helper but God."
(4) Al- Wati, " the H«lper.M One of th«
ninety-nine special attribntw of God.
WALl (^J\)), pi. wulat. A prince
or governor. A term used for the ruler ot
a o/mntry. It is assumed by the Ameer of
Afghanistan in his 'treaties.
The.titfe implies one who rul^s « Mnslini
country as an Amir, or in behali of tho Kha-
iifah af Islam.
(2) God. Quran, Siirali xiii. 12: "Nor
have they any (/ovemw be.'dile JIim.v
AL-WALID JBN 'UQBA.H (^\
<M* ($>). A celebrated Companion.
A brother to the Khalifa-h 'Usmun, ^ho was
Governor of al-Kiifah, and died in tb^ reign
of Mu'aTviyah.
WALIMAH (WO. The nuptial
least. The wedding breakfast, wbkrh is gene
rally given on the morning after thu mar-
riage. The custom is founded on the example
of Muhammad, who is related to have givon
a feast of dates and a tues»l ou the occasion
of hi.s marriage witk §afly<ih.
Ibu M:i5M*ul sajr» the Prophet rr^nrdeH tlw
wedding feast as of divine authoiitv. and bt
who is invited on such »u occa»ion must
accept the invitation. ( Mitkkat book xiii.
ch. ix. pt. 1 )
WALIYIT JL-'AHI) (.*•» J-).
Vnlg. WaK'aM. Th* heir to a kingdom 'or
state
664
WALKING
W/iSITAH
WALKING.
WAQF (<-&)). Lit. "Standing,
stopping, halting," (1) A term which in the
language of the? law signifies the appropriation
or dedication of property to charitable uses
and the service of God. An endowment. The
object of such an endowment or appropria
tion must be of a perpetual nature, and sueh
property or land cannot be sold or transferred.
If a person build a mosque his right of pro
perty is extinguished as soon as prayers have
been recited in the building.
According to the Imam Abu Yusuf, if the
place in which a mosque is situated should
become deserted or uninhabited, inasmuch a«
there is no further use for the mosque, no
person coming to worship therein, still the
property does not revert to the original owner
and founder. But Imam Muhammad alleges
that in such a ease the land and the mate
rial (bricks, &c.) again become the property
of the founder or his heir.
If a person construct a reservoir or wel!
for public use, or a caravansera, for travellers,
or a hostel on an infidel frontier for the ac
commodation of Muslim warriors, or dedicate
ground as a burying-place, hi? right is not
extinguished until the magistrate, at his re
quest, issues a decree to that effect. Th-s is
the opinion of Imam Abu Hanifah, but j mam-
Abu Yiisuf maintains that the person's right
of property ceases on the instant ri his say
ing: "I hare made over this* f j such and
spch purposes." Whilst Imam Muhammad
assorts that as soon as the property is used
for the purpose to which it is dedicated, it
ceases to be the property of the original
cwner. (See Hamilton's Hiclayatt. vol. ii.
p. 334.)
(2) A term used for a full pause, and parti
cularly for certain pauses in the ivading of
the Qnr'an, which are marked with the letters
cJl£ in tho text.
WAQI'AH (fcJfy). Lit. The "in
evitable ' (1) A term generally used for an
accident or an unavoidable dr cum stance in
life.
(2) The Day of Judgment. See Qur'an,
Surah- Ivi. 2 : " When the inevitable happens
none shall call its happening a lie."
(3) Tho title of the LVith Surah of the
Qur'an.
AL-WAQIDI feJuW). His full
name: Abu 'Abdi 'llah' Mtthauimad ibn
«Umar al-Wnqidi. A celebrated .Muslim his
torian, much quoted by Muir in his Life of
Mahomel. Born at al-Madlnah A.H. 330, died
A.H. 207. He is *aid to hate left a library of
GOO boxes of books.
WAQS (u^), pi. aut^as. A uy pro
perty under the regulated value ov number
upon which zakdt or legal alms ie due.
WAQT («^*j). The present time
as distinguished from al- Waqtu 'd-Dffiw- or
th* eternal existence of God.
Lit. " The Everlasting Time." A Sufi term
for the extent of the existence of the Eternal
One. ('Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dictionary of Sufi
Terms. )
WARAQAH (&»). Waraqah ibn
Naufal ibn Asad ibn 'Abdi 'l-'Uzza. The
cousin f Khadijah: to whom she first made
known the supposed revelation, or dream, of
Muhammad, and who is related to have said
that the Prophet must have seen tbe Ndmus
which C4od sent to Moses. (Mufikat, book
xxiv. ch. v. pt. 1.)
In the Arabic Dictionary a!~(£d/nus, it is
stated that Waraqah was the son of one of Kha-
clljah's uncles, and that it is not certain if he
ever embraced Islam. 'Abdu '1-Haqq, the
commentator on the Mishkat. says he had
embraced Christianity and had translated the
G ospeis into Arabic. There does, not seem to
be any good authority for the supposition
that he was originally a Jew. He appears to
have died soon after the incident in the cave
at Hira'. [MUHAMMAD.]
WARFARE. There are three
terms used in the Traditions for warfare.
(1) Jihad (*>lg^), warfare carried on by
Muslims for the extension of Islam.
(2) Fitan (^vJ)> seditions and cymmotions
which will precede the Resurrection
(3) Malahim ( ^U)M), pi. of malhamah, war
fare carried on between Mushm nations and
tribes. These are al&o signs of the Resur
rection. [FITAN, JIHAD. MALAHIM.]
AL-WARIS (*4>,y\). " The Heir "
(of all things). One of the ninety-nine attri
butes of tbe Almighty.
WASAN (^j), pL ausan. An
idoL [IDOLATRY.]
WASANl (<^>);, from
idol. An idolater. [UM>L,ATJ£JR.J
WAS ATA (^j), pi. of
Lit. •• Precepts." Used in Muslim law for
wills and regulations coacerniii^ theui
[WILLS.]
AL-WASr (fr*y). "The Capa
cious." OiiG of the ninety -nine attributes oi
God. It occurs in the Quriin, Sfirah ii. 248 :
" God is the Capacious one and knows.'
WASlLAH (AU-.). i«..«Near.
ness." The name of the highest station L
Paradise, which Muhammad said was re
served for one person <>nly, and which he
Uoped to obtain for himself (Mi*hkat, book
nxiv ch. ii. pt- 2.)
It 16 usual for religious Muhatmnadans to
pray, after the call to prayer (fizan*) has been
concluded, that Muhammad may obtain this
station of \Vasilah. Hence the place of in
tercession, and the office of mediator. That
whicij effects nearness to God.
WlSlTAH (S3*«\,). A thing or
person intervening; an agent1: a broker
a medititoi.
wasan, an
WASL
WASL ( J*j). " Meeting ; union."
A Sufi term used for the seventh stage in (he
spiritual journoy, when the inyntie. as it were,
sees Mifl Divino One face to face. The stage
previous toy/z/irt', or extinction in the essence
Of the Eternal One. [SUFI]
WASWASAH (i-j-,). Lit. "In-
Spiring," or M suggesting. " A suggestion
from the devil. The machinations of the
devil, to the consideration of which a chapter
is devoted in the Traditions. (Mishkat^ book
i. ch. iii.)
Muhamtnod said, " There is rot tt aiiigle
child of man, except Mary and her *on, Who
is not touched by the devil at tlio time of his
birth, and hence the ohild makes a loud cry
when he is born, nor is there one human
being who has not a devil appointed to attend
him. The devil 3tick» close to the *ons of
Adam, and also an angel; the business of the
devil is to do evil, and that of the :iii«el to
them unto truth.''
WATER
665
WATER. Arabic ma' f.U). pi.
jniyiih, annwh. f]«»b Q^O tnai/im, waters.
In the Quran, Surah xxi. 31, it is said, " We
clave them (the heavens and the earth) asun
der, ;ind by means of water. We gave life to
everything." Which, as Sprenarev (vol. i.
p. 30») remarks, is one of the principles of
the Ebionite doctrino. Al-Bai'za\vI says it
means either that God made all animals from
water, or that the 'ihief element iu animal life
is water, or that animal life is supported
chiefly by water.
Mnhamruadan 'vriters say there are seven
kinds of watvr wL'.ch are lawfui for the pur-
pases of purification and drinking : —
Mau 'l-matnr. rain-water.
Ma'u V-'oin, spring-water.
Af«*»/ 'l-h'ir, well-water.
Mau. 'l-barad, hail-water.
Ma a Vi/7/;, sno*-water.
Ma 'i '/-/><//<>•. sea -water.
Ma'u 'i:-itol'i\ river- waior.
Water whi eh is consul? ml luvmti foi *hni-
tion is also lawful for drinking, »md /•/><» orrsSt.
Ibn 'Uiuar rt»lat?s that Muhammad was
asked about the water of the plain? in which
animals go t° drink. &c., and he said, " Wh«m
the water is equal to two (jullfihf:. il is i|ot
impure." fAbdu 'l-Haqq says two qull<ih*
are equal to 250 mans. (Alishkaf. Matt how's
ed., vol. i. p. 107.) [WELLH.J
Mr. Sell, in his Faith of Islam, SHV* : —
" Minute regulations aro laid do'vn v,-iih
regard to the water which may bo used for
purification. The following kind« of water
are lawful :- -rain, .sea, river, fountain, well,
snow, and ice- water. Ice is not lawful. The
first kind is authorised by the Quran. ' He
sent you down w»ter from heaven tliat He
might thereby cleanse you, and cause the
pollution of Satan to pass from you/ (Sura
viii. 11.) The use of the others is sanctioned
by the Tradition*. I give one illustration. A
man one day tfanie to the Prophet and said :
• 1 am going on a voyage and shall only have
upply ji rre»h water; if I us? it for
ablutions I shill have none wherewith to
quench ray thirst, may I tine sn«-vvater?'
The Prophet replied: 'The water of Urn sea
is pure.' TirimV sfat.' •-. that this in ;i Hadfs-
i-Saht'h. Great difien'iHv of ojiinion exisls
svith regard to what constirntos impurity in
water, and so renders it unfit for tbltltioat.
U would be wearisoui*- )-; «he readei- to f:>Ur
into all <3fl;iils. f»xt I may brieflv s«y thf»t,
amongst the orthu«l)x, it is ^ftnerally h-^ld that
if a dead body ur any uncj^^n fhingf f*\[s into
'lowing water, or intr, ;>, rc^orvoir more than
1 6 feet square, it cmi h*» oaed, provid-d always
Inat the colour, smoll. and taste are not
changed. It is for this reason that the pool
near a mosque is never less than ton cubits
square. If of that si-ze. it is called a dah dar
dal> (literally 10 x 10) Tt may be, and com
monly is, larger than ?his. Tt ahould be
about one foot deep."
flights rryfirdiwi arai'-i; According to Mu-
hau\m»d3ii taw, water is of four ktads:—
(1) Th.» water of the ocean, to which every
person has a perfect and eqtwl right, for the
enjoyment of the j<:ean is common to every
one, in the samo manner as the light of the
.sin or the air we breathe.
(2) The waters of large rivers, such as the
Euphrates, the Tigris, the Indus, or the
Oxus, from \vhich every person has an abso
lute right to drink, and also a condition? t
right to use il for Too purpose of irrigating
his lands For example, if a person desire
to oullivfllo n-nste 1and,nnd di-/ a watercourse
or .•;:). al ;oi the purpose of conveying watar
to If ;>om the river, he may lawfully do so.
Drovid-»d the act be in no sens*) detrimental
to the people. The «ame law applies lo the
erection of a water-mill on tb« ^.anks of a
rivei1.
(3) Wrtter in which several have a share;
in which <:.•:&« also the r\ght of drinking is
common to all, whilst there are certain re
strictions; regardinff its use for the purposes
of irrigatioj!. which will be hereafter troat^d
of.
(4) Water which is k^pt in vessels : v/hich
ia regarded as property, except in times of
scarcity, when it is even lawful to seixe-ft for
common use.
The I'no regnrflina HI* dh ision of water for
the purposes of irrigation,, known as $hirl
V*-*)**)* or " a right to water," is most im
portant in the East, whero so much of
the cultivation of land depends not upon
the fall of rain but upon irrigation. In Af
ghanistan, there are more disputes and more
mtnders committed ovor the division of water
than with -^artl to tiny ot.hor question. A
•jl.ii:" oJ «''/V^, or •• vi^ht of water/' is vah'd,
iurie - i'e-)' of an v property in the ground,
for H -jj-.-^on in ay '-ocorne endowed with it,
exclusive ->f Ihu ground, o;th<>r by inlicritance
or bnqusst ; and it sometimes happens that
when a person sells his lauds, he reserves to
him&elf the rJ^ht of shirb.. No person can
alter or obstioict thp course of wnrt-r running
through his ground, and in the case of dis- ,
putes regarding a rivulet held jointly by
84
666
WA'Z
several, it is the duty of the judge to make
a distribution of the water according to the
extent of land which they severally possess ;
for, AS the object of right to water is to
moisten the lands, it is but fit that each
should receive a just proportion. A rivulet
must aot be dammed up for the convenience
of one partner without the consent of the
others ; nor can he dig ». trench or erect a
a mill upon a rivulet used for irrigation, with
out the general consent of all persons con
cerned. The same restriction applies, also^
to a water-engine or a bridge. One partner
cannot alter the mode of partition without
the others' consent, nor increase the number
of sluices or openings through which he re
ceives his share, nor convey his share into
IH ids not entitled to receive it, nor even to
lands which are entitled to receive it, nor can
he shut up any of the sluices, or exchange
the manner of division in any way, as. for
example, by taking the water in rotation
inatoad of division by sluices. A right to
water cannot be consigned as a dower, nor
given as a consideration in Kkul^ when a wife
bargains for her divorce [KHUL'], nor in
composition for a claim, nor sold to discharge
the debts of a defunct owner. It is also noted
that if a person, by irrigating his lands, should
by that means overflow those of his neigh
bour, he is not liable to make compensation, as
he was not guilty of any transgression.
WA4Z (kftj). A sermon, [KHUT-
BAH, WAl'z,]
WAZIFAH (**M, from wazf, " a
daily ration of food." (l) A term used for a
daily lesson, or portion from the Qar'an
which is read "by devout Muslims. The
Qur'an is divided into thirty sipdrahs as the
daily wa^lfah to be read during the rooni h of
Ram&zan.
(2) A pension or stipend granted to pious
persons
(3) Revenue collected at a stipulated rate.
WAZIE (jty). A Vezeer. The
principal minister in a Mukammadan country.
There are three opinions respecting the ety
mology of the word. Some derive it from
wizr, " a burden," because the wazir bears
the burden of state j others from roazar, " a
refuge," because the ruler has recourse to the
counsels of the wazir ; others from axr, " the
back, or strength," because the ruler is
strengthened by his wazir as the human
frarao is by the back.
Mr. Lane (Arabian Nights, Intro., p. 23),
says : " The post of wezeer was the highest
that was held by an" officer of the pen ; and
tho person who occupied it was properlv
the next to the Sultan ; but the Turkish Sul
tans of Egypt made the office of ntnb, or
" viceroy," to have the pre-eminence. Under
them, tho post of iatzeer was sometimes occu
pied by an officer of the pen, and sometimes
by an officer, of the sword; and in both cases
the weteer was called ' the $aheb."'
Khalil az-Zahir relates that Muhammad
• said. " Whosoever is in authority over Mus-
WIDOWS
lims, if God prosper him, shall bo given a
virtuous wazir. The wazir shall remind him
when he forgetteth his duty, and shall assist
him wheri he doth remember it. But to a bad
ruler God giveth an evil-minded wazir, who,!
when the ruler forgetteth his duty, does not!
remind him of it, and when he rememberetb;
his duty, doth not assist him to perform it." j
WEDDING. [MA*BIA<M.]
WEEK. Arabic ussbu1 (&«~t), subfr
(£r~) ; Heb. JpQfcj skdviia'. The1
Mnhammadan week fas the Jewish and Chris
tian) begins with Sunday and ends with Satur^
day. In the Qur'au, Sfirah vii. 52, it is said;
"God created the heavens and the earth in]
six days." In Surah xvi. 125, it is said, " the
Sabbath was only made for those who dis-3
pute thereon," which al-Baizawi says meant*!
that tho Sabbath was established for the
Jews who disputed with Moses regarding it;|J
but there is no injunction m the Qur'an foiS
the due observance of the Sabbath. [DAT,!
FRIDAY.]
WEEPING. [BUKA'.]
WELLS Arabic bi'r (^j)? pi,
a6'«r. Heb. * Be'ei\ If a person dig «•
well for public use, it is held by Imam Mujti
hamiQftd that his right to the well ceases a*1, i
soon as the people drink of the well; buia
Imam Abu Hamf.mh is oi opinion that it doei
not become common property until the magi "
strotes issue a daoree to that effect, (Hida''\
yah, vol. ii. p. 357.)
If a person dig a well in a high roadl
(whore no person is entitled to dig a well), h(jj
is liable to a fine for any accident which maw
happen by people falling into it. (ffidat/ahm
vol. ii. p. 719.)
If any animal, or impurity of any kindM
fall into a well, all tha water must be drawi j
out before the well can be lawfully used ; amiJ
if it be impossible to draw the whole of th<
water, then not less than 800 bucketfuls tnus
be drawn out. If the animal has in any wajjl
become putrified in the well, then the watei j
must not be used for three whole days ; but ir
any other case the water can be used afteij]
the lapse of a whole day. (Sharjiu V- VK^a- I
yak, p. 10.)
WHISTLING. Axabic mukdll
(«A&»). Mentioned in the Qur'an. I
Surah viii. 35 : '« Their (the Quraish) prayer]
at the House was naught but whistling anc •
clapping hands ! Taste, then, the torment, fo: j
that ye misbelieve/' From which it is under j
stood that whistling was one of the idoiatroui j
cereruoniea in the days of ignorance in th«i j
Makkan temple. Whistling is theref or& gene j
rally held to be unlawful for pious Muslims. I
WIDOWS. Arabic armalak (&»;*) 1 1
Heb. rr^nSss almdndh. Mourn-
ing is incumbent upon a widow for a perioc
of four inonthfl and ten days after th<j
death of her husband. (Hamilton's fltddyah]
WILLS
ToL i. p. 370.) After this period she may
lawfully take another husband, provided ahe
be not pregnant of her first husband. A
widow's share of her late husband's property
is one-eighth when there is a child, or a son's
child, how low soever, and a foifrth when
there is no child. Though a man may have
as many as four wives, the provision for
two or more is the same as that for one : the
fourth or eighth, as the case may, being-
divisible among them equally. (Baillie's Law
of Inheritance., p. u^.)
If a Musliiu, whose wife was once a Chris
tina should d^e, and his widow appear before
a Qazi and declare that she is Muslim, and
that she embraced the faith prior to the
death of her husband, and the heirs assert
the contrary, the assertion of the heirs ia to be
credited to the exclusion of the rights of the
widow. And if a Christian die, and his widow
appear before the Qazi as a Muslim, aud the
heirs declare the contrary, the assertion cf
the heirs is to bo credited to the exclusion of
the widow. (Grady's Hiddyah, p. 347.)
WILLS. Arabic waslyak (^},
pL wafayd, which term is held by Muslim
legists to moan " an endowment with the
property of anything after death, as if ono
person should say to another, « Give thia
article of mine, after my death, to a parti
cular person.'"
The testator is called mvfi, fern, miifiyah,
The legatee is termed mu^a la-hu. Tlie legacy,
muja bi-hi. The person appointed to carry
out the will, or the executor, is called the
vjtuiy, pi. autiyd.
It is not necessary that the will of a Mus
lim should be executed in writing, but it must
be certified to by two male witnesses, or one
male and two females.
The following are some of the chief point*
in Muslim law, regarding tiie making and the
execution of will* : —
Wills are lawful and valid to the extent of
a third of the testator's property, but not to
any further extent unless by consent of the
heirs, and it Is laudable to Avoid making
bequests when the heirs are poor.
A bequest to an heir is not valid unless
confirmed by the other heirs, and a bequest
to a •person from vhom the testator has
received a mortal wound ia not valid ; and
if a legatee slay his testator, the bequest in
his favour is void.
A bequest to a part of tho heirs is not valid.
Bequests are valid between Muslims and
ZimmiB, that is, between Mubamiaadans and
Jews or Christians under protection, [zmm.]
The acceptance or rejection of bequests is
not determined until after the death of the
WILLS
667
tester
he legatee becomes proprietor of the
legacy by nis acceptance of it, which may be
either expressed or implied
A bequest by an insolvent person is void, as
also that of an infant, or a mukatab (a slave
•who has ransomed himself). A bequest
favour of n fietus in the womb is aleo
invalid . but ash-ShfitH says it i» valid.
A female «lave may be bequeathed . with
the exception of her progeny. To bequeath
the offspring of a female slave is, unlawful.
A bequest is rescinded by the express de
claration of the testator, or by any act on hut
part implying his retractation, or which ex
tinguishes hi* property in the legacy. But
the testator's denying his bequest is not it
retractation of it, nor his declaring it unlawful
or usurious, nor his desiring the execution of
it to be deferred. A bequest to one person is
annulled by a subsequent bequest of the same
article to another, unless that other be not
then alive.
A legacy after being divided off by the
magistrate, descends to the legatee's heirs ia
case of his decease.
Concerning the Bequest of a Third of t ta
Estate*.
If a person ieare a third of his property
co ono man and a third to another, and
che heirs refuse their consent to the execution
of the whole, it is then restricted to one
third.
It a person bequeath the third of hie
estate to one, and then a sixth of it to
another, and the heirs refuse their consent,
in that case one-third of his estate is divided
into throe shares, of which two are given to
tho legatee of tne third and one to the
legatee of the sixth.
A bequest of a SOD'H portion of inheritance
is void, but not tho bequest of an equivalent
to it. For example: If a person say, "I
bequeath my son's portion," such a bequest is
null ; but the bequest, -will b* valid if he say,
" I boquoath an equivalent to my son's por
tion."
A bequftst of a " portion " of tho estate is
executed to the extent of the smallest portion
inherited from it, and a bequest of "part of
the estate," undefined, may be construed to
apply to any part.
A person bequeathing a third of any par
ticular property, if two-thirds of it be lost,
and the remainder come witbin a third of
the testator's estate, the legatee is entitled
to the whole of such remainder ; and a bequest
of " the third of " an article, part of which
is afterwards destroyed, holds with respect
to a third of the remainder
A legacy of money must be paid in full
with the property in hand, although all the
rest of the estate should be expended in
debts.
A legacy left to two persona, one of them
being at that time dead, goes entire to the
living legatee.
A legacy being bequeathed to two person*
indefinitely, if one of them die, a moiety of
it only goes to the other.
A bequest made by a poor man ia of force
if he afterwards become rich.
A bequest of auy article, not existing in
the possession or disposal of the testator at
his decease, is mill, unless it was referred to
his property, in which case it must be dia-
eharged by a paytneut of the value.
668
WILLS
WILLS
An acknowledgment of debt, upon a death
bed, is efficient to the extent of a third cf tlu.
astute.
-vny accident occasioning uncertainty with
respect to the legatees, annuls the bequest.
An heir, after partition of the estate, ac
knowledging a bequest in favour of another,
must pay the acknowledged legatee his pro
portion of such bequest.
Th* Period of Making Wills.
As has already been remarked, Muham-
madan wills are not as a rule written docu
ments, and therefore the instit\itions of the
law are entirely randr for verbal rather than
written bequests.
Gratuitous acts, oi immediate operation, if
executed upon a death-hod, take effoet to the
extent of one-third of the property only.
An acknowledgment ou a death-bed is valid
in favour of the person who afterwards be
comes an heir, but not a bequest or gift ;
neither is an acknowledgment so made valid,
if the principle of imicr'uance had exisUd in
the person previous to tho deed.
Such acknowledgment, gift, or bequest, in
favour of a son, being a slave, who after
wards becomes free, previous *o *>.c nither'h
decease, is nevertheless void.
Rules for Ascertaining a-Deatk-bcd Iltnws.
The following curious paragraph occurs in
the Hiddyah on this stibject ; —
" Paralytic, gouty, or consumptive persons,
where their disorder has continued for a
length of time, and who are in no immediate
danger of death, do not fall under the de
scription of mariz or 'sick.* whence deeds of
gift, executed by such, take effect to the ex
tent of their whole property ; because, when a
long time has elapsed, the patient has be
come familiarised to his disease, which is not
then accounted as sickness. The length of
time requisite, by its JapSej to tlo away with
the idea of sickness in those cases, is deter
mined at one year ; and if, after that time, the
invalid should become bed-ridden, he is then
accounted as one recently sick. If, therefore,
any of the sick persons thus described make
a gift in the beginning of their illness, or after
they are bedridden, such gift takes effect
from the third of their property, because at
such time there is apprehension of death
(whence medicine is given to them), and
therefore the disorder is then considered as
a deatb>b*»<* i"r>^ss." (ffidayeh, Grady's ed.,
p. 685.)
Emancipation of Slaves upon a Death -bed.
Emancipation and deeds of giit on a death
bed, take effect to the extent of a third of
the property, and emancipation precedes in
their execution the actual bequests.
The appropriation of a sum by bequest to
the emancipation of a slave is annulled by
the subs«quent loss or failure of. any part of
it, but not the appropriation of a sum to the
performance of a pilgrimage.
A slave, exceeding one-third of the pro
perty, emancipated on death-bed, is exempted
•ircm emancipatory labour by the heirs as
senting to his freedom.
A bequest of emancipation in favour of a
slave is annulled by his boing made over in
compensation for an offence committed by
him.
Where the heir and the legatee agree con
cerning a slave having been emancipated by
the testator, the allegation of the heir is
creditor!. wji,h respect to tho data oi the
deed.
Bequests for Pious Purposes.
In the execution of bequests to certain
; .-ions purposes, the duties ordained by the
command of God precede those which are i
voluntary, and are then" benevolent acts to- J
wards mankind.
If a person will that ." the pilgrimage which jj
was incumbent upon him be performed on \
his behalf after his death," the heirs must I
depute a person for this purpose and pay all :
liis expenses to Makkah.
But when all the purposes mentioned be \
of equal importance, the arrangement of the \
testator must be followed.
A legacy, appropriated to pilgrim-*-*, if
lost, must be repaired to the *-xt«nt. or a thinl
of the estate.
}Vills made by Jews and Christians.
gimmis, or Jews and Christians paying
tribute for protection, can make bequests,
and they are held good in Muslim law, and
are subject to the same restrictions wjt.h
those of Muslims.
A church or synagogue founded during
health descends to the founder's heirs, but the j
bequest of a house to the purpose of an infidel 1
place of worship, is appropriated, whether j
any'particiilar legatees be mentioned or other I
wise.
Abu Hanifah says the bequests oi Zirnims I
are of four kinds : —
(1) Thoso made for purposes held sacred I
in Iricir belief, but not in that of Muslims. |
such as the building of a church or synagogue. |
which according to Hanifah is valid under I
certain restrictions.
(2) Thoso made for purposes held pious by
Muslims and not by Zimmis, such as the!
building oi a .mosque, in which case tho be- i
quest is invalid.
(3) Those made for a purpose held sacrod \
by both Muslims and Z.immis. such as an offer- r
ing to tho Tomplo at Jerusalem, which aref
valid.
<4) Those made for purposes held to be i
wrang by both Zimmis and Muslims, such as
the support of singers and dissolute women, j
which are invalid as being sinful.
The will of a sensualist or innovator is the '
same as of an orthodox Mussulman, unless he
proceed to avowed apostasy. The will of a ;
female apostate is valid, but not that of a
male apostate.
A Zimml may bequeath the whole of bisl:
property ; but if he bequeath a part only, theR
residue is transmitted to his heirs.
WILLS
An emancipation granted by him on hm
death-bed, takes offori in toto.
Any bequest in favour of tv £imznF is valid,
and he may make a bequest in favour of an
unbeliever of a different «c«-l not bein^ u
hostile infidel.
Usufructuary Wills.
An article bequeathed in usufruct must I*
consigned to the Iwgateo . but if it constitute
the sole estate, being a slavo. ho is possessed
by the heirs and legatee alternately ; or, being
a house, it is held among them in their duo
proportion^ ; nor are the heirs in the latter
instance allowed to sell their slaves. The
beqnest becomes void on the death of the
legatee.
A bequest of the produce of an article does
not entitle the legatee to the personal use of
the article ; nor does a bequest of the use
entitle him to let it to hire, A bequest of the
use of a slave does not entitle the legatef-
to carry him out of the place, unless his
family reside elsewhere. A boquest of n
year's product, if the article exceed a third of
the estate, docs not entitle the legatee to a
Tonbignment of it.
[n a bequest of the use of an article to one,
and the substance, of it to another, the legi'ttx
of usufruct is exclusively entitled to the mt
during his term. A bequest of an nrtiole U-
one, and it* contents to another, if cou
nectedly expressed, entitles the second legatee
to nothing.
A bequest of the fruit of a garden implies
the present fruit onJv, unless it bo expressed
in perpetuity, and a bequest of the produce of
an a»nimal implies the existent produce only
in every instance.
The Executors.
An executor having. accepted his appoint
ment in presence of the testator, is not after
wards at liberty to reject it, but his silence
leaves him an option of rejection ; but any
act indicative of his acceptance binds him
to the execution of the office.
Having rejected the appointment after the
testator's decease, he may still accept of it,
unless the magistrate appoint an executor in
the interim.
Where a slave, a reprobate, or ;in infidel
are appointed, the magistrate mast nominate
u proper substitute.
The appointment of the testator'n slave it
invalid if any of the heirs have attained to
maturity, but not otherwise.
In case of the executor's incapacity, the
magistrate must give him an assistant ; but
he must not do so on the executor pleading
incapacity without due examination ; and if
he appear perfectly equal to the office, he
cannot be removed, not even on the complaint
of the heirs, unless his culpability be ascer
tain*^.
One of t-wo joint executors cannot act
without the concurrence of the other, except
in such matters as require immediate execu
tion, 01 which are of an incumbent nature, or
WINDS
669
in which the interest or advantage of the
estate are concerned.
In case of the doath of u joint executor.
the magistrate must- appoint H substitute
unless the* deceased have himself nominated
his successor. The executor of an executor
is his substitiilo in office.
An executor is entitled to possess hiujself
of the portions of infanl and abhcnt ndult
heirs on their bohalf. but nut of the legacies
of infant or absent legat-vs.
An executor may sell a slave of the esta<«,
for the ilisrharge of the, debts npon it, in
absence of the creditors, unless the sUve be
involved in dc'"t
An executor having sold and receive J the
price of an article which afterwards proves
to be the property of another, is accountable
to the purchaser for the price he had -so
received ; but if this JIMS been lost he may
reimburse himfcolf from ihe person to whom
the article hnd fallen by inherit an- e,
An executor may accept a transfer for a
debt due to iiis ipfjint *»ard. (>r sel' ^r pur
chase mov^Mes on his account. He may also
sell-movabir»3 on account of an absent adult
heir, but he cannot trade with his ward's por
tion. Ha may sell movable -property on
account of the infant or absent adult brother
of the testator.
The power of a father's executor precedes
that of the grandfather. If there, bo no exe
cutor, the grandfather is the father's repre
sentative.
j}vidcn<-f> with rtfpft-t to Wills.
The evidence of two executors to the ap
pointment of a third is not valid, unless he
claim or admit it, and the evidence of orphans
to the appointment of an executor is not
admitted if he deny it.
The testimony of executors with respect to
property on behalf of an infant orcf an absent
adult is not admitted.
The mutual evidence of parties on bohalf
of each other to debts due to each from an
estate is valid, but not their evidence to lega
cies, unless each legacy respectively consists
of a slave.
A mutual evidence of tin's nature is void
where it involves a right of participation in
the witnesses.
WINDS. Arabic r/yeiA (cv»;), pi.
of ///*. Hf-b. ?"PO ruffteh. There aro fonr
speciaJ winds mentioned in the Qur'5n :
$(jr$iir, A violent hurricane (Surah Ixix. 6) ;
'ctfjiin, a barren wind (Surah li. 42) ; lawaqth,
fertili-/.infl winds (Surah xv. 2'2) ; nntbath-
shirat, harbingers of rain (Surah xxx. 47).
And it is related that the Prophet said
h.> was assisted by an east wind at the
battle of the Ditch, and that the tribe of
'Ad waa destroyed by a west wind. A
special chapter is devoted to the Prophet's
sayings with regard to the wind, «s it_ap-
pcars that he had a superstition of it. 'Avi-
sl th said, that when the clouds apponrod, the
670
WINE
WITH
Prophet used to change colour, and come out
of his house and walk to and fro, nor would
his alarm cease until the storm had passed
away. When she expressed her surprise at
his excitement, he said, " 0 'Ayishah, perad-
venture these winds be like those which de
stroyed the tribe of 'Ad,"
WINE. Hebron Memcr, Is.i.22,
" old wine." Wine under the term
Jc&wmr (7*^), which is generally held
to imply all things which intoxicate, is for
bidden in the Qur'an m the following
verses : —
Surah il 216 : " They will ask thee con
cerning wine and games of chance. Say : In
both is great sin, .and advantage also, to
men; but their sin is greater than their
advantage."
Surah v. 92: "0 believers I surely wino
and games of chance, and statues, and the
divining arrows, are an abomination of Satan's
work I Avoid them, that ye may prosper.
Only would Satan sow hatred and strife
among you, by wine, and games of chance,
and turn you aside from the remembrance of
God, and from prayer : will ye not, therefore,
abstain from them ? Obey God and obey the
Apostle, and be on your guard : but if ye turn
back, know that our Apostle is only bound to
deliver a plain announcement."
Al-Jalalan, the commentators, on these
verses, say, " Only that wine is forbidden
which intoxicates the brain and affects the
steadiness of the body." But all Muslim
doctors hold that wine of any kind is for
bidden.
Imam Abu Hanifah says: "This doctrine
is founded upon a precept of the Prophet,
who said, * Whoever drinks wine, lethim suffer
correction by scourging as often as he drinks
thereof." (Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. ii. 63.)
If a Mnsalman drinks wine, and is seized
whilst his breath yet smells of wine, or be
brought before the Qazi whilst he is yet in
toxicated, and two witnesses give evidence
that he has drunk wine, scourging is to be
inflicted. The punishment is eighty lashes
for a free man. and forty lashes for a slave.
Mr. Lane say a ; " Several stories have been
told as to the occasion of Muhammad's pro
hibiting the drinking of wine. Busbequius
Bays : * Muhammad, making a journey to a
friend at noon, entered into his house, where
there was a marriage feast, and, sitting down
with the guests, he observed them to be very
merry and jovial, kissing and embracing one
another, which was attributed to the cheer
fulness of tfceir spirits raised by the wine ; so
that he blessed it as a sacred thing in being
thus an instrument of much love among men.
But, returning to the same house the next
day, he beheld another face of things, as gore-
blood on the ground, a hand cut off, an arm
foot, and other limbs dismembered, which he
was told was the effect of the brawls and
fightings occasioned by the wine, which made
them mad, and inflamed them into a fury,
thus to destroy one another. Whereon he
changed his mind, and turned his former
blessing into a curse, and forbade wine ever
after to all his disciples.' Epist. 3. This
prohibition of wine hindered many of the
Prophet'js contemporaries from embracing his
religion. Yet several of the most respectable
of the pagan Arabs, like certain of the Jews
and early Christians, abstained totally from
wine, from a feeling of its injurious effects
upon moral, and, in their ehniate, upon
health; or, more especially, from the fear of
being led by it into the commission of foolish
and degrading actions. Thus Keys (Qais),
the son of Asim, being one night overcome
with wine, attempted to grasp the moon, and
swore that he would not quit the spot where
he stood until he had laid hold of it. After
leaping several times with the view of doing
so, he fell flat npoc his face ; and when he re
covered his senses, and was acquainted with
the cause of his face being bruised, he made
a solemn vow to abstain from wine ever
after." — Lane's Arabian Niqhts, vo! i. pp.
217, 218.
WITNESS. Arabic shahid
dual Khahidan ; pi. shuhadd, or skuhud.
Terms which are used for witness in legal
cases, an account of which is given in the
article on EVIDENCE; and also for those who
die as martyrs for the Muslim faith, or meet
with sudden death from any accidental cir
cumstance. [MARTYR.]
WITR (/,). Lit. " An odd num-
ber." Witr rak'ahs are an odd number of
rak'ahs, 3, 5, or 7, which may be said after
the last prayer at night, and before the dawn
of day. Usually they ar& added to the
§alatu 'l-'Isha. Imam Abu Hanifah says
they are wajib, that is, ordered by God,
although they are not authorised by any text
in the Quran. But they are instituted by
traditions, each of which is generally received
as a Hadis §ahlh ; and so uriir rak'ans are
regarded as being of divine authority. Imam
Shafa'i, however, considers them to be sun-
nah only.
The Traditions referred to are : —
The Prophet said ; " God has added to your
prayers one prayer more : know that it is
witr, say it between the Salatu Vlsha and
the dawn."
On the authority of Buzar, it is recorded
that the Prophet said : " Witr is wajib upon
Muslims," and in order to enforce the prac
tice. he added : " Witr is right ; he who does
not observe it is not iny follower."
The Prophet, the Companions, the Tabi'un
and the Taba'u 't-Tab>in, all cbaerved it.
The word witr literally means " odd num
ber," and a tradition says : *• God is odd, He
loves the odd/
Musalmans pay the greatest reapect to an
odd number. It is considered unlucky to
begin any work, or to commence a journey on
a day, the date of which is an even number.
The number of lines in a page of a book is
nearly always an odd number. feALATu 'L-
WITB.j
WIVES
WIVES. Arabic sauj (e«j), pi.
azwdj, also zaujak. pi. zartjat. Although
Muhammad himself claimed the special in
dulgence of eleven lawful wives, he limited
his followers to four, allowing at the same
time as many female concubines or domestic
slaves as the master's right hand possessed.
See Qur'an, Surah iv. 8 : " Marry what seems
good to you of women, by twos, or threes, or
fours, or what your right hand possesses."
[MARRIAGE.]
According to the ShT'ahs, he also sanc
tioned temporary marriages, an account of
which will be found in tho article on MOT* AH.
Regarding the treatment of wives, tho fol
lowing verse in the Qur'an (Surah iv. 38)
allows the husband absolute power to cor
rect them: "Ohide those whose refractori
ness yon have cause to fear. Remove them
into sleeping chambers apart, and beat
them. But if th«y are obedient to yon, then
seek not occasion against them."
(For other injunctions in the Qur'an on the
subject, see the article WOMEN.)
The following is Muhammad's teaching, as
tjiven in the Traditions (see Minkkat, Arabic
. .lition ; Bdbu 'n-Nikafi) :—
" That is the most perfect Muslim
•vhose disposition ia tho host, and the best of
von is he who behaves best to his wives."
" When a man has two wives and does not
treat them equally, he will come on the Day
of Resurrection with half his body fallen
off."
" When a man calls his wife, she must
come, although she bo at an oven."
" The Prophet used to divide his time
equally amongst his wives, and he would
say, « 0 God, I divide impartially that which
thou hast put in uiy power.' n
" Admonish your wives with kindness, be
cause women were created from a crooked
bone of the side ; therefore, if you wish to
straighten it, you will break it, and if you let
it alone, it will always be crooked."
" Not one of you must whip his wife like
whipping a slave.'"
" A Muslim must not hate his wife, for
if he be displeased with one bad quality in
her, then let him be pleased with another that
is good."
•" A Muslim cannot obtain anything
«tter than >vn umiable and beautiful wife,
such a wife who, when ordered by her hus
band to do a thing, will obey, and if her hus
band looks at her will be happy ; and if her
h unhand swears by her, she will make him a
swearer of truth ; and if he be absent from her,
she will honour him with her own person and
property."
It ia related that on one occasion the Pro
phet said : " Beat not your wives." Then
Uinar came to the Prophet and said, " Our
wives have got the upper hard of thetr hus
bands from hearing this." Then the Prophet
permitted beating of wives. Then an im
mense number of women collected round the
Prophet's family, and complained of their
husbands beating them. And the Prophet
said, " Verily a great number of women are
WIVES 671
assembled fn my home complaining olf their
husband*, and those men who beat their
wives do not behave well. He is not of my
way who teaches a woman to go astray and
who entices a slave from his master."
The legal position of a wife under Sunni,
and. with some slight differences, under §hi«ab
law also, may be generally stated as fol,
lows : —
Her consent to a marriage is necessary.
She cannot legally object to be one of four
wives. Nor can she object to an unlimited
number of hand-inaids. She is entitled to a
marriage settlement or dower, which must be
paid to her in ca«e of divorce or separation.
She may, however, remit either whole or part
of the dower. She may refuse to join her
husband until the dower is paid. She may be
at any time, with or without cause, divorced
by her husband. She may seek or claim
divorce (&£«/') from her husband with her
husband's consent. She may be chastised by
her husband. She cannot give evidence
in a court of law against her husband. Ac
cording to the Sunnis, her evidence in favour
of her husband is not admissible, but the
Shi'ahs maintain the opposite view. Her
husband can demand her seclusion from public.
If she becomes a widow, she must observe
kidad, or mourning, for the space of four
months and ten days. In the event of her
husband's death, she is entitled to a portion
of her husband's estate, in addition to her
claim of dower, the claim of dower taking
precedence of all other claims on the estate.
There are special arrangements made by
Muslim law for the partition of the husband's
time amongst his wives in case he may have
two or more wives. For it is related that
Muhammad said, " The man who has two or
more wives, and who, in partition of his time,
inclines particularly to one of them, shall in
the Day of Judgment incline to one side by
being paralytic." And 'Ayishah relates that
the Prophet Baid, " 0 God, I make an equal
partition amongst my wives as to what is in
my power ; do not, therefore, bring me to
account for that which is not in my power,
namely, the affections." It is therefore ruled
that the wife of a prior marriage and of a
recent one, are all alike in the matter of the
partition of time spent with them. The hus
band can, however, arrange and determine
the measure of the partition of his time AS
to whether it be one day or more at a time.
But if a man marry two wives, the one a free
woman and the othor a bond-maid, he must
divide his time into three portions, givinK
two portions to tne freo woman and one tc
the bond -maid. When the husband is on a
journey, his wjvea can make no claim to ac
company him on tiro journey, and it is entirely
at his option to carry along with him whom
soever he pleases, but it is preferable for him
to cast lots and take with him on the journey
her upon whom the lot may happen to fall.
The time of the journey is not to be counted
against a husband, and he is therefore not
obliged to make up for the partition lost
within that time, It is also allowed by the
WIVES
WIVES
law, of-Dce wife to give up her right as. .re
gards partition of time to any other of her
husband's wives. But if a woman give up
her right, sho is not at liberty to resume it.
Durru 'l-AfuJehtdr, in /oca.)
The position of a wife as regards the law
of divorce, is treated under the article
DIVORCK.
W* are indebted to Moulvi Syod Ameer
AH, MA., LL.B , a Muhainuiadan Barrister-
at-Law, and Presidency Magistrate of Cal
cutta, lor tho following able exposition of the
of wives under tho Muslim law J —
Prior to. the Islamic legislation, and
among the pagan Arabs, women
hs»d ?.io i«">i:< x/.andi in Uu» eye of the law.
The pM-Isiamic Arflb cnstoms as well AS the
Rabbinical Jaw, dealt most harshly with
them. (3 Caussin de Poreeval. Hist. de$.
Arobes, p. ;'37.)
"The Korau created a thorough revolu
tion in th* condition of women. For Uie first
t'ttnf in the history of Oriental legislation, the
principle of equality between (he sexes was
recognised and practically carried into effect.
'The women,' says the 'Koran, ' ought to be
have towards their husbands in like manner
as their husbands should behave towards
them, according to what is just.' (Koran,
chap, i»., v. 228.) And Mohammed in his dia
course on Jabl-i- Arafat, emphasised the pre
cept by declaring in eloquent terms, ' Ye men,
ye have rights over your wives, and your
wi?ea have rights ov«r you.' (Ibn Hisham.)
In accordance with these precepts the Ma-
hoinmedan law declares equality between tli<»
married parties to b«» the regulating principle
of all domestic relationship. Fidelity to the
marriage bed is inculcated on both sidew ;
and untaithfulnesis leads to the .same r.onsu-
qnences. whether the delinquent be the hus
band or the wife. Chastity is requiret1
equally from man and woman. ^
" The husband is legally bound to maintain
his wife and her domestic servants, whether
she and her servants belong to the Moslem
faith or not. This obligation of the husband
comes into operation when the contract itself
comes into operation, and the wife is subjected
thereby to. the marital control. It continues
tn force during the conjugal union, rmd in
certain cases oven after it is dissolved.
" The maintenance (nafkah) of a wife in
cludes everything connected with her support
and comfort, such as food, raiment, lodging,
Acc», and inust bo provided in accordance with
the social position occupied. (1 Fatqwa-i-
Afamgiti. p. 737; i Patdwu-i-Kuzi Khan\
Jdma-ttsh-Sfiatttil : Fusui-lniaa'li'f/h : AJ a faith :
1 lied., Bug. Trans., p. 392.)
" The wife is not entitled merely TO main
tenance in the English sense of the word, but
has a right to claim a habitation for her own
exclusive use, to be provided consistently
with the husband's means.
rc If the wife, however, is a minor, so th U
the marriage cannot be consummated, accord
ing to the HanafS and the Shiuh doctrines,
there is no legal obligation on the husband's
part to maintain her. (I Fat.'}tvn~i-Alam<)iri,
p. 773; Kanz-ud-Dakmk\ I II*d., En?.
Trans., p. 394 : Jama-ush-Shattat.\
"With the Shafeis it makes no difference,
in the obligation of the husband to maintain
his wife, whether the wife be a minor or not.
(Kitdb-ul- Anwar : I Hod., Fng. Trans., p.
394)
'* Nor is » husband, under the Hanaff and
the Shiah law, entitled to the custody of the
person of a minor wife whom he is not bound
to maintain. (In re Khatija Bibi, 5 Bengal
Law Report*, 6. C. J. 557.)
" If the husband be a minor and the wife
an adult, and the incapacity to complete or
consummate the contract be solely on his
part, she JH entitled to maintenance. (I ][&i,
Kng. Trans., p. 395: F\isu.l-i-Tmddiyth: 1
i Khan, p. 480; Jdinaush-
It makes no difference in the husband's
liability to maintain the wife whether be be
in health or suffering from illnass, whether he
be a prisoner of war or undergoing punish
ment, » justly or unjustly,' for some crime,
whether he be absent from home on pleasure
or business, or gone on a pilgrimage. (1
Fatdwa-i-Ai>niif/H, p. 733.) In fact, as long
as the status o! marriage subsists, and as
long as the wu<> is subject, to the marital
power, so long she is entitled to maintenance
from him. Nor does she lose her right by
beiiiR afflicted with any disease. (1 Fatawa-
i-A(aniuiri> p. 734; Jtnua-ush-Shattat.)
" When th* husband has loft tho place of
the conjugal domicil withoiit "making any ar-
raugvment for his wiiVs support, the Kazi is
authorised by law to make an order luat her
ir'ainferftnce shall be paid out of any fund or
propei'ty- which the husband inay have left
in deposit or in trust, or invested in any trade
or business. (I Fataiva-i-Abun(/iri, p. 750.)
" A wife may contract debts for her sup
port during the husband's absence, and if
sjuc-L diibla are legitimate, contracted bond
ftdf. for rter support, the creditors have a
•• right ..>f recovery '' against the husband.
(Nail-ul'Mardm.) In the same way, if the
husband be unable for the time being to
maintain his wife, ' it would not form a cause
for separation,' says the Hedai/nh^ ' but the
magistrate may direct the woman to pledge
her husband's credit and procure necessaries
for herself, the husband remaining liable for
the debts/ (I Hed., Eng. Trans., p. 297.)
" When the husband in absent and has left
real property either in the possession of his
wife or of somo ether person on her behalf,
the wife is not entitled to sell it /or h«r sup
port, though she may raise a temporary loan
on it, which the husband will be bound to dis
charge. provided the mortgage was created
bond fide for her or her children's support,
and did not go beyond the actual necessity of
the ce.se Under such circumstances the
iiiort^a«ee is bound to satisfy himself that
th* money advanced is applied legitimately to
the support of the family of the absent
husband. (1 Fatama-i-AlamfftH, p. 737.)
4< When llw woman abandons the conjugal
domicil -without any valid reason, sho is not
WIVES
WIVES
673
entitled to maintenHtice. (1
yiri, p. 783; Fusul-i-Imadiyah; Jama-ush-
Shattaf.) • Simple refractoriness, as has been
popularly supposed, does not lead to a for
feiture of her right. Jf sho live in tbe house
but dr> not obey the husband's wishes, she
would not IOSR her right to her proper main
tenance. If she leave the house against hi*
will without any valid reason, she would lose
her right, bul would recover it on her return
to the conjugal domiril. (fahiwa-i-Afam-
yiri; Jiima-uxh-Shattnl: Kilab-min lA-Kxhiu-
t*r ml-FaJeik.)
u What is a valid and auiricient reason for
the abandonment of the conjiigal doinicilia a
matter for the discretion of the Kazi or judge
As .1 i^uieral principle anJ one which ha>
boon adopted and enforced by the Kaxis'
ma/tkfwias in Algeria, a wife who leaves her
husband's house on account of his or hi:1
relations' continued ill-treatment of her, doe^
not come within the category of rnit.tnza}<
and -continues entitled to her maintenance.
" A woman who is imprisoned for somt»
offence, or is undergoing incarceration in the
civil jail for non-payment of a debt, or who
goe* on a voyage or pilgrimage without her
husband's consent, has no right to claim afly
maintenance during her absence. (I Fataicur-
i-Aiam</iri,-p. 734.)
" Among the Shiahs, if she goes on an
obligatory pilgrimage, even without her hus
band's consent,. she is nevertheless entitled to
maintenance.
"The husband's liability to support tbe
wife continues during the whole period of
probation, if the separation has been caused
by any conduct of his, or has taken place in
exernse of a right possessed by her. The
husband would not, however, be liable to sup
port the wife during the iddat, if the separa
tion is caused by her misconduct. ' Fatuwa-
i-Alnmgirt. p. 748 ; Jama-u$h- Shaft at ; 1 Fn-
fiiwa-i-Kazi Khun, p. 481.
" If she is pregnant at the time oi separa
lion her right remains intact until she is con-
tir.ed of the child.
" The Hedaya seems to imply that a woman
IB not entitled to maintenance during the
period of probation she observes on the death
of her husband. (1 Hf.d. p. 407.) As the
Koran, however, distinctly says. ' Such of you
as shall die and leave wives ought to bequeath
to them a year's maintenance,' several jurists
have held* that n widow ha* a right to be
maintained from iho estate of her husband for
a year, independently of any share she may
obtain in the property left by him. This
right would appertain to her whether' she bn
a Moslemah or non-Moslemah.
44 In the case of probation (iddat) observed
by a woman on the death of her husband, the
Sunnis calculate the period from the actual
date of bi« decease; ih« Shiahs from tho day
on v» hi oh the wife receives the new* of ibe
death.
" According to the Sunnis, the liability of
the husband to maintain a pregnant wife from
whom ho has separated ceases at her confine
ment. (1 tied. p. 360.) Tbe Shiahs. on the
other hand, hold that thy liability la&ts for
the same period after confinement as if the
woman was not enceinte. (J<1mn-ii$h-Shattdt.)
"If the-husband be insane, thu wife is en
titled, according to the ShafeT doctrine-- UK. 1
the views of the <*ompil«ni of th^ Fatdipa-i-
Alamgiri, to maintenance for th« period of one
year, which in lixed by 1lv» K«/.i in order to
discover whether the insanity is curable or
not, The Mfllikis. with whom tho author of
the Hcddya seems to agree, deny to the wife
the right of asking for a dissolution of the
marriage tie on the ground of the husband's
insanity. Among th^m the wife, therefore,
retains the right of maintenance during the
insanity of her husband, now^ver long con
tinued. With the Shiahs the wif« is entitled
to a cancellation of the marriage contract if.
the husband's insanity be incurable. Should
she exorcise this right and dissolve the mar
riage, her right to maintenance ceases.
" Tb> Mnhoromedan law Jays down dis
tinctly (1) that a wife is bound to live with
her husband, and to follow him wherever he
desires to go; (2) and that on her refusing to
do so without sufficient or valid reason, the
courts of justice, on a suit for restitution of
Conjugal rights by the husband, would order
her to live with her husband.
" The wife cannot refuse to live with her
husband on pretext* like the following : —
"(1.) That she wishes to live with b«v
parents.
"(2.) That the domicil chosen by the
husband IK distant from the bom.* of hei
father.
'* (8.) That sh« does not wish to remain
away from thu place of her birth.
" (4.) That the climate of the place where
the husband has established his doraicil is
likely to be injurious to her health.
"(5.) That she detests her husband.
" (6.) That the husband ill-treats hjr fre
quently (unless such ill-treatrnent is actually
proved, which would justify the Kaai to grant
a separation).
" The obligation of the woman, however, to
live with her husband is not absolute. The
law recognises circumstances which justify
her refusal to live with him. For instance,
if he has habitually ill-treated her, if he has
deserted her for a long time, or if he has
lireoted brer to leavo his house or oven con-
uived at her doing so, he cannot require her
;.o re-enter the oonjugal domieil or ask the
assistance of a court of justice to compel hei
to live with him. The bad conduct or gross
neglect of the husband is, under the Mussul
man law, a good defence to a suit brougbi
by him for restitution of conjugal rights.
" lu the absence of any comUu't o- the hus
band's part justifying an appivii'MiiK-n that, if
tho wife accompanied him to thy place chosen
by him for his residence, she would bo at his
mercy and exposed tu his violence, she is
bound by lav.- to accompany him wherever he
goes. At the same time the la^v recognises
the validity of express stipulations, entored
into at thVtime of marriugo, respecting the
conjugal domieil. If it be agreed that the
as
674
WIVES
husband shall allow bis vrife to live always
with her parents, he cannot afterwards force
her to leave her father's bouse for his own.
Such stipulation in order to be practically
carried into effect, must be entered in the deed
of marriage ; ft mere verbal understanding is
not sufficient in the eye of the law.
"'If the .wife* however, once consent to
leave the plaoe of residence agreed upon at
the time of marriage, she would be presumed
to have waived the rig-lit acquired under ex
press stipulation; and to have adopted the
domicil chosen by the husband. If a special
place be indicated in the deed of marriage as
tbo place where the husband should allow
the wife to live, and it appear subsequently
that it is not suited for the abode of a reepeci-
able woman, or that injury is likely to happen
to the wife if she remain there, or that the
wife's parents were not of good character, the
husband may compel the wife to remove from
sxioh place or from the house of such parents,
" The husband may also insist upon bis
wife accompanying him from one place to
another, if the change fs occasioned by the
requirements of his duty.
11 Every case in which the question of
conjugal domicil is involved will depend, says
De Menerville, upon its own special features,
the general principle of the Mussulman law
on the subject being the same as in other
systems of law, viz. that the wife is bound to
reside with her husband, unless there is any
valid reason to justify her refusal to do 90.
The sufficiency or validity of the reasons is
K matter for the consideration of the Kazi or
judge, with special regard to the position in
lifo of tHe parties and the usages and customs
of the particular country in which they reside,"
Faqlr Jani Muhammad As'ad, the author
of the AkklUg-i-Jalatit gives the following
sage advice, which expresses very much the
ordinary Oriental view of the question : —
4s regard* the Selection of a Wife.
The best of wives would be such an one aa
is graced with intellect, honour chastity, good
sense, modesty, tenderness of heart, g-ood
manners, submission to her, husband ."a ivi
gravity of demeanour. Barren she should
not be, but prolific. . . A free ^oman is
preferable to a bond woman, inasmuch as
this supposes the accession of new friends
and counootions, and the p* *••«.'. ration of
enemies and the furtherance of temporal
interests. Low birth is likewise objec
tionable on the same account. A young
maid&n is to be preferred, because ahe may
be expected more readily to attend to her
husband's guidance «nd injunctions ; and if
she be further graced with the three quali
ties of family, property, and beauty, she
would be the eicmt of perfection
To these three qualities, however, sundry
dangers may attach ; and of these we should
accordingly beware. For Family engenders
conceit ; and whereas women are noted for
weakness of mind, she will probably be all
the elower to submit to the husband's con
trol, nay, at times she will view him in the
WIVES
light of a servant, which must needs prove a
perversion of interest, an inversion of rela
tion, and an injury in this world and the
next. As to property and beauty, they are
liable co the same inconvenience; while in
beauty there is this further and peculiar evil,!
that a beauty is coveted of many ; and since
women possess less of that judgment which '
restrains from crime, it may thus lead to I
mischief without end.
As regards the Management of a Wife.
There are three things to be maintained
and three things to be avoided.
Of the three things to be maintained :—
1. Dignity. —The husband should constantly
preserve a dignified bearing towards her, that
sho uiay forbear to slight his commands and j
prohibitions. This i* the primary means of |
government, and it may be effected by the
display of his merits and the concealment of
his defects.
2. Complaisance.— He is to comply with his
wife . as far as to assure her of his affection
and confidence • otherwise, in the idea of
having lost it, she will proceed to set herself
in opposition to his will. And this withal,
he is to be particular in veiling and aecluding
her from all persons not of the harim, in con-
versing with her in conciliatory terms, and
consulting her at the outset of matters hi
such a manner as to ensure her consent.
(Observe the seclusion and veiling is here put as
a compliment rather than a restraint.)
8. Towards her friends and connections he
is to follow the course of deference, politeness,
cordiality, and fair dealing:, and never, except
on proof of her depravity, to take any wife
besides her, however superior in family^ pro
perty and person. For that jealousy and
acrimony which, as well as weakness of judg
ment, is implanted in the nature of women,
incite s them to misconduct *nd vice. Except
ing, indeed, in the case of kings, who marry
to multiply offspring, and to whom the wife
has no alternative bot obedience, plurality of
wives is not defensible. Even in the case of
kings, it would be better to be cautious ; for
husband and wife are like heart and body,
and like as one heart cannot supply life to
two bodies, one man cannot properly provide
for two wives or divide his affection equally
between them.
The wife should be empowered to dispose
of provisions as occasion maty require, and to
prescribe to the domestics the duties they are
to perform. In order that idleness may not
lead her into wrong, her mind should be kept
constantly engaged in the transaction of
domestic affairs and the superintendence of
family interests.
As to the three things to be avoided in a.
husband towards his wife :— •
1. Excess of ajfectt&i, for this gives her the
predominance and leads to a state of perver'
sioo. When the power is overpowered and
the commander commanded, all regularity
must infallibly be destroyed. If troubled
with redundance of aftoction, let him at least
conceal it from her.
WIVES
WIVES
675
2. Let him act consult her on matters of
paramount importance j let him not make her
acquainted with his secrets, nor let her know
(he amount of his property, or the stores he
possesses, boyonci those in present consump
tion, or her weakness of judgment will infal
libly set things wron».
3. Let him allow h.a uo musical instru
ments, no visiting out 01 doors, no listening
to men's stories, nor ict.ercourse with women
noted for such practices; especially Xvliero
any previous suspicion has been raised.
The particulars which wives should abide
by are /t>e:—
1. To adhere to chastity.
2. To wear contented deineanotu .
3. To consider their husband's dignity and
treat them with respect.
4. To submit to their husband's directions.
5. To humour their husbands in their
moments of merriment and not to disturb
them by captious remarks.
"The Refuge of Revelation ^Muhammad)
ueclar«d that If the worship of one created
tbmg conld be permitted to another, he would
have on joined the worship of uusbands. Philo
sophers have &aid, A good wife ia as a mother
for affection and tenderness ; as a slave-girl
for content and attention ; as a friend for con
cord and sincerity. Whilst, on the other
hand, a bad wjfe is as a rebel for unrnh'ness
and contumacy ; as a foo for contemptuous-
ness and reproach ; and as a thief for treache
rous designs apon her husband's purse."
The Arab philosophers also say there are
five sorta. of wives to be avoided : the
yeamers, the favourers, the deplorers, the
backbiters, and the toadstools, The y earner
is a widow who has had a child by a former
husband, and who will indulge her chjld out
of the property of her present one. The
favourer is a woman of property who makes
a favour of bestowing it upon her husband.
The deplorer is one who is the widow of a
former husband whom she will ever aver to
be better than her present one. The back
biter is one invested with the robe of conti
nence, and who will ever and anon in his
absence brand his blind. side by speaking of
his faults. The toadstool i* an unprincipled
beauty, who ie like vegetation springing Tip
to corruption. (See AkMaq-i-Jaioti, Thomp
son's ed., p. 263.)
Mr. Lane, in his Modem Egyptians, re
marks :- -
" Polygamy, which is also attended with
very injurious effects upon the morals of the
husband and the wives, and only to be de
fended because it serves to prevent a greater
immorality than it occasions, is more rare
among the higher and middle classes than it
is among the lower orders ; and it is not very
common among the latter. A poor man may
indulge himself with two or more wives, each
of whom may be able, by some art or occu
pation, nearly to provide her own subsistence
but most persons of the middle and higher
orders are deterred from doing so by the con
sideration of the expense and discomfort
which they would incur. A man having a
wife who has the misfortune to be barren,
and being too much attached to her to di votes
her, is sometimes induced to take a locond
wife, merely in the hope of obtaining off
spring; and from the same motive, he may
lake a third, and a fourth ; but fickle passion
w the most evident dnd common motive both
to polygamy and repeated divorces. They
ar* comparatively very few who gratify this
passion by the former practice. T believe
that not more than one husband among:
twenty has two wives.
" When there are two or more wives belong
ing to one man, the first (that is, the one fir it
married) generally enjoys the highest rank .
and is called ' the great lady.' Heneo it often
happens that, when a. man who hds already
one wife wishes to marry another girl or
woman, the father of the latter, or the female
herself who is sought in marriage, will not
consent to the union unless the flret wife be
previously divorced. The women, of course,
do not approve of a ruin's marrying more
than one wife. Most men of wealth, or of
moderate cfrcuinstanoes, and even many men
of the lower orders, if they have two or more
•rives, have, for each, a separate house."
Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, an Englishwoman
who spent twelve year? in a Muhaaimidan
zananah at Lucknow, and who in 1832 pub
lished her Observations on the Miisafmai* of
In <#a, says : —
" Although bo (the Muslim) may bo the
husband of many wives in the courso of time,
and some of them prove greater favourites,
yet the first wife takes precedence in all
matters were dignity is to be preserved.
And when several -wives meet (each h/vv«
ooparato habitations if possible), all the rest
pay to the first wife that deference which
superiority exacts from inferiors; not only
do the secondary wives pay this respect to
the first, but the whole circle of relation*
and friends make the came distinction, as a
matter of course ; for the first wife take*
precedence in overy way.
* » ' » * *
"The latitude allowed by the law pre
serves the many-wived Muualman from the
world's censure ; and his conscience resit nn
accused when be adds to his numbers, if be
cannot reproach himself with having neglected
or unkindly treated aay of the n timber bound
to him. or their children. But the privilege
is not always indulged in by the Musalman* ;
much depends upon circumstances, and more
on the man's disposition. If it be the happy lot
of a kind hearted, good man to be married to a
woman of assiuiilaiing mind, possessing the
needful requirement* to render home agree
able, and a prospect of an increasing family,
then the husband has no motive to draw him
into further engagements, and he is satisfied
with one wife. Many such men I have known
in Hindustan, particularly among the Say-
yuds and religious characters, who deem a
lilurality or wives a plague to the possessors
in proportion to their numbers."
There is A curious work published in Per
sian, entitled Kitdbi Kulsum jV<rn«A, in which
676
WIVES
WIVES
are given the maxims regarding wives as they
are supposed to exist in Persia. It pretends te
be a grave work, compiled under the direction
of seven matron law-givers, but is really a
specimen of Persian humour, a jeu d'esprit,
founded upon female customs and supersti
tions. The work is of little worth as regards
its Jegal value, but shows the popular views
of Persian women regarding their own and
the opposite sex. The chapter relating to
" The Conduct of the Wife to her Husband.
Mother-in-Law, and other Relations," is a
Fair specimen of its character.
" That man it. to be praised who confines
himself to one wife : for if he takes two it is
wrong, and he will certainly repent of his
folly. Thus sav the seven wise women —
Be that man's life immersed in gloom
Who weds more wives than one,
With one his cheeks retain their bloom,
His voice a cheerful tone;
These speak his honest heart at rest,
And he and she are always blest ;
But when with two he seeks for joy,
Together they his soul annoy ;
With two no sun-beam of delight
Can make his day of misery bright.
" That man, too, must possess an excellent
disposition, who never fails to comply with
his wife's wishes, since the hearts of women
are gentle and tender, and harshness to them
would be cruel. If he be angry with her,
89 great is her sensibility, that she loses her
health and becomes weak and delicate. A
wife, indeed, is the mirror of her husband,
and reflects his character ; her joyous and
agreeable looks being the best proofs of his
temper and goodness of heart. She never
of herself departs from the right path, and
the.colbur of her cheeks is like the full-blown
pose ; but if her husband is continually angry
with her, her colour fades, and her com
plexion becomes yellow as saffron. He
should give her money without limit : God
forbid that she should die of sorrow-and dis
appointment ! in which case her blood would
be upon the head of her husband.
"The learned conclave are unanimous hi
declaring that many instances have occurred
of women dying from the barbarous cruelty
of their husbands in this respect ; and if the
husband be even a day-labourer, and he does
not give his wages to his wife, she will
claim them on the Day of Judgment. It is
incumbent on the husband to bestow on the
wife a daily allowance in cash, and he must
also allow "her every expense of feasting, and
of excursions, and the bath, and every other
kind of recreation. If he has not generosity
and pride enough to do this, he will assuredly
be punished for all his sins and omissions on
the Day of Resurrection. And whenever he
gees to the market, he must buy fruit and
ether little things, and put them in his hand
kerchief, and take them to his wife, to shew
his affection for her, and to please her
heart. And if she wishes to undertake a little
journey, to go to the house of her friends for
a menth, to attend the baths, or enjoy any
other pastime, it is not fib for the husband i
to deny those wishes, and distress her mind
by refusal. And when she resolves upon
giving an entertainment, it is wajib that he <
should anticipate what she wants, and bring ,
to her all kinds of presents, and food, and
wine, required on the festive occasion. And
in entertaining her guests, and mixing among
them, and doing all that hospitality and cor
dial friendship demand, she is not to be inter
rupted or interfered with by her husband
saying. ' What have you done ? where hare
you been ? ' And if her female guests choose
to remain all night, they must be allowed to
.sleep in the woman's room, while the hus
band sleeps apart and alone. The learned
conclave unanimously declare that the woman
who possesses such a husband— a man so
accommodating and obedient, is truly fortu
nate ; but if he happens to be of an opposite
character, morose, disobliging, and irritable,
then indeed must she be the most wretched
of womankind. In that case she must of
necessity sue for a divorce, or make him
faithfully promise future obedience and readi
ness to devote himself wholly to her will and
pleasure. If a divorce is denied, she must
then pray devoutly to be unburthened of her
husband, and that she may soon become a
widow. By artifice and manoeuvring the
.spouse may thus be at length induced to
say; ' Do, love, whatever you please, for I
am your dutiful slave/ Bibf Jan Afrdz says,
' A woman is like a nosegay, always retain
ing its moisture so as never to wither.' It is
not, therefore, proper that such a lovely
object should be refused the comfort and
felicity of taking pleasant walks in gardens
with her friends, and manifesting her hospi
tality to her guests ; nor is it reasonable that
she should be prevented from playing on the
dyra, and frequently visiting her acquain
tance.
" Should her husband, however, maliciously
and vexatiously refuse these rights, she can
not remain longer in his house. AJI old or
ugly woman does not lie under the same
obligation ; she may submit to any privation
without infringing the rules of decorum.
The conelave also declare that the husband's
mother, and other relations, are invariably
inimical to the wife : it is therefore wajib
that she should maintain her authority when
thwarted in her, views, by at least once a
day using her fists, her teeth, and kicking,
and pulling their hair, till tears come into
their eyes, and fear prevents further inter
ference with her plans. Kulsum Naneh says
that she must continue' this indomitable
spirit of independence until she has fully
established her power, and on all occasions
she mast ring in her husband's ears the
threat of a divorce. If he still resists, she
must redouble all the vexations which she
knows from experience irritate his mind, and
day and night add to the bitterness and
misery of his condition. She must never.
whether by day or by night, for a moment
relax. For instance, if he condescends to
hand her the loaf, she must throw it from
WOMEN
her or at him. with indignation and con-
tempt She must make his shoe too tight
for Him, and his pillow a pillow *£<«•:"
that at last he becomes weary of life, and is
elad to acknowledge her authority. On tfc
other hand, should these resource* fail he
wife may privately convey from her hus
band's house everything valuable that .he
n lay her handa upon, nnd then go to the
Kazi, and complain that her husband has
beaten h«r with his shoe and pretend to
Shew the bruises on her skin. She must
state such facts in favour of her case as she
knows cannot be refuted by evidence, and
pursue every possible plan to escape from
tCthraldonfshe endures. For that purpose
every effort of every description is perfectly
justifiable, and according to law.
« And the seven learned expounders of t]
customs regarding Ihe conduct and demeanour
of women in Persia declare, that among the
forbidden thing* is that of allowing kMr f<
tureB to be seen by men not wearing turbans,
unless indeed they are handsome, and have
.oft and captivating manners ; in that case
their veils may be drawn aside without the
apprehension of incurring blame, or in ai
degree exceeding the discretionary power
with which they are traditionally invested.
But they must scrupulously and reliRiouely
abstain from all such liberties vnth Mullah*
and Jews ; since, respecting them, the pro
hibition is imperative. It is not necessary,
however, to be vorv particular m the pre
sence of common people; there is nothing
criminal in being seen by singers, musicians
hammam-servauts, and soch persons as g
about the streets to sell their wares and
trinkets.1' (Atkinson's Onitmn* nnd Manner*
ofihe Women of Persia, [>. 54.)
WOMEN
677
although they u«ed to call the angels
< danSken of God.- they objected (as do the
Badawi to this day) to fomale offspring, and
used to bury tlvir infant dnu^hters »hvf».
This horrible custom is referred to m t
Qur'an, where it is said. Surah vi.
"Thus have thwir associate* m:ide seemly tf
many of the idolaters the killing of their
children to destroy them." And, » gam Surah
xvi 60 «l : " When any one of thorn has tidings
of ft female child, his face is overclouded and
black, and he ha* to keep Jack his wrath
He skulk3 away from the public for the evil
tidings he has heard ;-is he to ke*p »t in
disgrace, or to bury it in the dust i
It is said the only time on which U«man
shed a tear, was in the days of igno
ranee, when his little daughter, whom he was
burying alive, wiped the dust of tho grave-
earth from his beard.
The ancient Arabic proverbs illustrate
the ideas of pre-Islamic Arabia as to t
position of women, e.g. :—
"A roan can bear anything but the men
tion of his wives."
« Women are the whips of batan.
« Trust neither a king, a horte, nor a
WOMEN. Arabic /«««'
I.-The Condition of Women he/ore the time of
M'thamnind.
Although the condition of women under
Mu< m law is most unsatisfactory, it moat
Kmitted that Muhammad effected L . . vast
and marked improvement in the condition of
pen of Arabia the .condition , of women
was extremely degraded, for amongst the
natran \rabs a woman was a mera chattel.
Ill formed the integral part of *»+»*
her husband or father, and the ****** *
man descended to his son or sons by ngh of
inheritance, as any other portion o t patn
me
mother forbids us to err and runs
'""What lias a woman to do with the coun-
C'« Obedience to a woman will have to be
repeated of."
IL—Tke Teaching oftjie Qnr'an.
It has often been asserted by European
writers that the Qur'an teaches that women
have no souls. Such, however, la not
case. What that book does teach on the
subject of women will be gathered om the
following selections :—
Surah xxxiiv 35 :—
« Verily the resigned men and the resigned
The believing men and the believing
women,
The devout men and the devout women
The truthful men and the truthful
TfaTpttka* men and the patient women,
The humWemen and the humble women.
The charitable men and tho charitable
TbTfosting men and the fasting women,
The chaste men and the ehaste women
And the men and women who oft
carried their
d prepared forgiveness
and a mighty recompense.
Surah xxiv. 31 :—
« Speak to the believing women that t
refrain their eyes, and observe continence ,
andTbat they display not their ornaments
except those which are external; and that
they throw their veils over their bosoms, and
678
WOMEN
WOMEN
display not their ornaments, except to their
husbands or their fathers, or their husbands
fathers* or their acme, or their husbands
sons, or their brothers, or their brothers
sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or
their slaves, or male domestics who have no
natural force, or to children who note not
women's nakedness. And let them not strike
their feet together, so as to discover their
hidden ornaments. (See Isaiah iii. 16.) And
be ye all turned to God, O ye Believers ! that
it raay be well with you "
Surah Ix. 10-12 :—
" O Believers ! when believing women
come over to you as refugees (Muhajirs),
then make trial of them. God best kno-wetb
their faith; but if ye have also ascertained
their faith, let them not go back to the in
fidels ; they are not lawful for them, nor are
the unbeliever** lawful for these women. But
give them back what they have spent for
their dowers. No crime shall it be in you to
marry them, provided ye give them their
dowers. Do not retain any right in the- in
fidel women, but demand back what you
have spent for their dowers, and let the unbe
lievers demand back what they have spent
for their wives. This is the ordinance of God
which He ordaineth among you : and God is
Knowing, Wise.
" And if any of your wives escape from
you to the Infidels from whom ye afterwards
take any spoil, then give to those whose
wives shall have fled away, the like of what
they shall have spent for their dowers ; and
fear God in whom ye believe.
" 0 Prophet I when believing women come
to thec, and pledge themselves that they will
not associate aught with God, and that they
will not steal or commit adultery, nor kill
their children, nor bring scandalous charges,
nor disobey thea in what is right, then plight
thou thy faith to them, and ask pardon for
them of God: for God is Indulgent. Mer
ciful!"
Surah iv. 1 :—
«* OMen I fear your Lord, who hath created
you of one man (na/'s, soul), and of him
created his wife, and from these twain hath
spread abroad so- many men and women.
And fear ye God, in whose name ye ask
mutual favours — and reverence the wombs
that bare you. Verily is God watching
you!
"And entrust not to the incapable the
substance which God hath placed with yon
as a means of support; but maintain them
therewith, and olothe them, and speak to
them with kindly speech."
" Men are supsnur to women on account of
the gu&iitiee with which God had gifted the
one above the other and ou account of the
onOay they make from their substance for
them. Virtuous womert are obedient, barcful
during: the husband's absence, oeeause God
hath of them been careful But chide those
for whose refractoriness ye have cause to
fear ; remove them into sleeping-chambers
apart, and scourge them, but if they are
obedient to yon, then seek not occasion
ag.-dnst them ; verily God is High, Great 1
'• And if a wife fear ill-usage or aversion on
the part of her husband, then shall it be no
fault in them if they can agree with mutual
agreement, for agreement is beat. Men's
souls are prone to avarice, but if ye aot
sindly and piously, then, verily, your actions
are not unnoticed by God 1
" And ye may not have it at all in your
power to treat your wives witn equal justice
even though you fain would do so ; but yield
not wholly to disinclination, so that ye leave
one of them as it were in suspense ; if ye
come to an understanding and act in the fear
of God, then verily, God is Forgiving, Mer
ciful I
•' But if they separate, God caa compensate
botli out of His abundance : for God is Vast,
Wise ! "
Surah xxiv. 4-9 :—
"They who defame virtuous women, and
bring not four witnesses, scourge them with
fourscore stripes, and receJv? ye not their tes
timony for ever, for these are perverse per
sons —
" Save those who afterwards repent and
live virtuously $ for truly God is Lenient,
Merciful!
•* And they who shall accuse their wives,
and have no witnesses but themselves, the
testimony of each of them shall be a testi
mony by God four times repeated, that he is
indeed of them that speak the truth.
" And the fifth time that the malison of
God be upon him, if he be of them that
lie.
" But it shall, avert the chastisement from
her if she testify a testimony four times
repeated, by God, that he Is of them that
lie ;
" And a fifth time to call down the wrath
of God on her. if he have spoken the
truth,"
IlT.—The Teaching of M uhatnmad, as given
in the Tradition*,
will be gathered from the following quota-
" I have not left any calamity more detri
mental to mankind than women."
" A bad omen is found in a woman, a house,
or a horse.
n The best women are those that ride on
oamele,. and the virtuous women of the
Quraish are these who are affectionate to
yoong children and who are most careful
of their husband's property.**
"The world and ail things in it are valu
able.- but more valuable than all is a virtuous
woman."
"Look to your actions and abstain from
WOMEN
the world and from women, for verily the first
sin which the children of Israel committed
wae on account of women."
« God will reward the Muslim who, having
beheld the beauties of a woman, shuts his
WOMEN
679
"Do not -visit the houses^ of men when
they are absent from their, h'omes, for the
devil circulates within you like the blood in
your veins. It was said, 'O Prophet, in
yonr reins also?' He replied, « My veins
also. But God has given ine power over the
devil and 1 am free from wickedness.'"
"Two women must not sit together, be
cause the one may descri!.*; the other to her
husband, so that you might say the husband
had seen her himself."
w Do uot follow up one look at a woman
with another . for verily the first lock is ex-
ousable. but the next in unlawful."
Ill* — Mtthonmaitan law secures the following
Rights to Women.
An adult woman may contract herself in
marriage without her guardian's consent, and
an adnlt virgin cannot be married against
her wilL When divnroerl or a widow, she is
at liberty to marry s 5<*oond husband. She
must be treated with respect, and it is not
lawful for a judge to aec more than her face
and the palms of her hands. She should go
abroad veiled. She is not required to engage
m war, although .she roay be taken by her
husband on a military expedition* but she can
have no share in the plunder, She ie not to
be slain in wsj .
The fine for a woman is half that of a rnwo,
and in evidence the testimony ot two women
is but equal to that of one man, except in
the case of a birth, when the evidence of one
woman is to be accepted. Her evidence is
not accepted in the case of retaliation.
[QISA.U.] In the event of a person being
found slain in the house or village belonging
to a woman, the oath (in the matter of evi
dence) is administered to her fifty times re
peatedly before the fine is imposed. If ehe
apostatize from the faith of Islam, she is not
to be put to death, but to be imprisoned until
she return te the faith . for although Imam
ash-Sha/H maintains ihat she is to be put
to dearh. Imam Abu Hamf»u nuUls that
the Prophet has forbidden the slaving of
women, without making any distinction be*
tween those who are apostates or those who
are original infidels. But, according to an
express injunction, they are to be stoned to
death for adultery, and beaten for fornication.
Women who have no means of subsistence
are to be supported by the state.
(The law of divorce is treated under the
article DIVOBCK.)
It is a curious arrangement of Muslim law,
that (according to the ffidnyah. Qrady's ed.,
p. 340) a woman may execute the offioe of a
Qazi or judge; except in the cages hadd and
yifnf, in conformity with the rule that her
evidence is accepted in every legal case except
in that of hadd and git an, or M retaliation."
There is, in fact, no distinct prohibition
against a woman assuming the government of
a state. The rulers of the Muhammadan State
of Bhopal in Central India have been women
for several generations.
JV.—Th* Position of Women in
Countries
has been the subject of severe criticism at
well as of some controversy. Mr. Stanley
Lane-Poole says : —
" The fatal blot in Islam is the degradation
of women. . . . Yet it would be hard to lay
the blame altogether on Mohammad. The
real roots of the degradation of women lie
much deeper. When Islim was instituted,
polygamy was almost necessitated by the
number of women and their need of support ;
;uio the facility of divorce was quite neces
sitated by the separation of the sexes, and the
consequence that a man tonld not know or
even see the woman he was about to marry
befere the marriage ceremony was accom
plished. It is not Mohammad whom we must
blame for these great evilsf polygamy and
divoree ; it is the state of society which de
manded the separation of the sexes. and in
which it was not safe to allow met) and
women freeiy to associate ; in other words, it
was the sensual constitution of the Arab that
lay at the root of the matter. Mohamu ad
might have done better. He might boldly
have swept A way the traditions of Arab
society, unveiled the women, intermingled the
sexes, and punished by the most severe mea
sures any license which such association
might at first encourage. With his bound
less influence, it is possible that he might
have done this, and, the new system once
fairly settled, and the people accustomed to
it, the good effects of tho change would have
begun tu show themselves. But such an idea
could never have occurred to him. We must
always remember that we are dealing with a
social system of the seventh century, not of
the nineteenth. Mohammad's ideas about
women were like those of the rest of bis con-
temporaries. He looked npon them as charm
ing snares to the believer, ornamental articles
of furniture difficult to keep in order, pretty
playthings ; but that a woman should be the
counsellor and companion of a man does not
seem to have occurred to him. It is to be
wondered that the feeling of respect he always
entertained for his first wife. Khadeejeh,
(which, however, is partly accounted for by
the fact th.it she was old enough to have
been his mother,) found no counterpart in his
general opinjon of womankind : ' Woman wa«
made from a crooked rib, and if you try to
bend it straight, it will break ; therefore treat
your wives kindly.' Mohammad was not the
man to make a social reform affecting women,
nor was Arabia the country in which snob a
change should be made, nor Arab ladies per
haps the best subjects for the experiment.
680
WOMEN
Still he did something towards bettering the
condition of women: he limited the number
of wives to four ; laid his hand with the ut
most severity on the incestuous marriages
that were then rife in Arabia • compelled hus
bands to support their divorced wives during
their four months of probation; made irre
vocable divorce less common by adding ^he
rough, but deterring, condition that a woman
triply divorced could not return to her hus
band without first being married to some one
else — a condition exceedingly disagreeable to
the first husband ; and required four wit
nesses to' prove a charge of adultery against
a wife — a ,'znerciful provision, difficult to be.
fulfilled. The evil permitted by Mohammad
in- leaving the number of wives four instead
of insisting on monogamy was not great.
Without considering the sacrifice of family
peace which the possession of a large harem
entails, the expense of keeping several wives,
each of whom must have a separate suite of
apartments or a separate house, is so great,
that not more than one in twenty can afford
it. It is not so much in the matter of wives
as in that of concubines that Mohammad
made an irretrievable mistake. The condi
tion of the female slave in the East is indeed
deplorable. She is at the entire mercy of her
master, who can do what he pleas-JS with her
and her -companions ; for the Muslim is not re
stricted in the number of his concubines, as
he is in that of his wives. The female white
slave is kept solely for the master's sensual
gratification, and is .sold when he is tired of
her, and so she passes from master to master,
a very wreck of womanhood. Her condition
is a little improved ii. bhe bear a son to her
tyrar-.t : but even then he is at liberty to re
fuse to acknowledge the child as his own,,
though it must be o weed-he seldom does this.
Kind as the Prophet was himself towards
bondswomen, one cannot forget the unutter
able brutalities which he suffered his fol
lowers to inflict upon conquered nations in
the taking of slaves. The Muslim soldier \vas
allowed to do as he pleased with any •' in
fidel ' woman he might meet with on his vic
torious march. When one thinks of the
thousands of women, mothers and daughters,
who must have suffered untold shame and
dishonour by this license, he cannot find
words to express his horror, And this cruel
indulgence has left its mark on the Muslim
character, nay, on the whole character of
Eastern life," (Selections from the Kur-dn,
2nd eel., Preface.)
The strict legislation regarding women as
expressed in Muhainmadan law, does not
affect their position amongst wild and uncivi
lized tribes. Amongst them she is as free as
the wild goats on the mountain top*. Amongst
the Afr<*«3«es in the Afghan hills, for ex
ample, worn a a roam without protection from
hill to hill, and are engaged iu tending cattle
nuii other agricultural pursuits. I! ill-treated
by th*ir husbands, they either demand divorce
or run uway to some neighbouring tribe. Not
a few of the tribal fouds arise from such cir
cumstances.
WRITING
Amongst the Bedouins fBadawii), Mr. Pal <
grave tells us, their armies are led by «t|
maiden of good family, who, mounted amidj
the fore ranks on a camel, shames the timid! i
and excites the brave by satirical or enccK
miastic rooitations (Arabia, vol. ii. p. 71.) |
The influence which Afghan women have!
exercised upon Central Asian politics has! !
been very groat, and, as we have already'
remarked, the Mnbammadan State erf Bhopalj
in Central India has for several generations! i
past been governed by female sovereigns..
fCOHCUBIKES, DIVORCK, M.AKH1AGE. WIVES.] I
WOKD OF GOD. [INSPIRATION,!
OLO AND NEWTtSTAMENTS, PROPHETS, QOK'AN.]|.
WOUNDS- Arabic skijdj ($^*)|
pi. of shajjah. The Muhammadan law only
treats of wounds on the face and head, allj
other wounds being compensated for by arbi-i
trary atonement.
According to the Hidayah, shijdj are of
ten kinds : —
Hdrisrtht a scratch, «»uch as does not drawl
blood.
Dami\ak, a scratch which draws blood'
without causing it to flow.
Ddmiyah, a scratch which causes the blood
to flow.
Bdzi'ah, & cut through the akin.
MutaWiimth, a cut into tin flesh.
Simliao, a wound ranching 10 the pericra-
rinm.
M-ufiffah, ;v wound which lava bare the
bone.
ffdshimffh, a fracture of the skull.
Mun'jqqilah, a fracture which requires part
of the skull to be removed.
Ammah, a wound extending to the mem-;
brane which encloses the brain.
According to the injunctions of the Pro
phet, a twentieth of the complete fine for;
murder is due for musihah ; a tenth for
hdshimah ; three-twentieths for munaqqilftfi ;
and a third for dmmah. All other fines are
left to the discretion of the judge.
WRITING. Arabic 'Ilmn 'l-Khatt
^). Sir William Muir, in tha
Introduction of his Life of Mahomet, writes*
on this subject as follows: -
" De Sacy and Caussin de Perceval concun
in fixing the date of the introduction of Arabic
writing into Mecca at A.D. 560 (Mem. <k\
TAtad., vol. 1. p. 306; C. de Pore., vol. i. p.j
291.) The chief authority is contained in al
tradition given by Ibn Khallican, that the)
Arabic system was invented by Moramir atj
Anbar, whence it spread to Hira. It wasi
theiuv,. shortly after itn invention, intro
duced :-or,o Mecca by Harb, father of Abfij
Botisu. tfto great opponent of Mahomet. (Ibn
Khatfican, by Slane, vol. ii. p. 284.) Other
traditions give a later date; but M. C. de
PerceviJ reconciles the discrepancy by re-
fevring theci rather to the subsequent arrival
WRITING
WRITING
681
of some zealous and successful teacher than
to the first introduction of the art (vol. i.
p. 295). I would observe that either the
above traditions arc erroneous, or that some
sort of writing other than Arabic must have
been known long before tLe date specified,
MS. A.p. 660. Abd nl MuttaJib is described
as writing from Mecca to his maternal rela
tives at Medina for hrlp, in his younger
days, i.e. about A.D. 524). And still" farther
back, hi the middle of the fifth century,
Cussei (Qiixaiy ; addressed a written demand
of a similar tenor to his brother in Arabia
Petraea. (Katib al Wackidi, 111; Tabari.
18,28.)
" The Himyar or Musnad writing is said by
Ibn Khalticau to have been confined to
Yemen ; but the verses quoted by 0. de
Perceval (vol. i. p. 295) would seem to imply
that it had at one period been known and
used by the Meccans, and was in fact sup
planted by the Arabic. The Syria <• and
Hebrew were also known and probably exten
sively used in Medina and the northern parts
of Arabia from a remote peHod.
"In fine, whatever the system employed
may have been, it Is evident that writing of
some sort wan known and practised at Mecca
long before A.D. 560. At all events, the fre
quent notices of written papers leave no
room to doubt that Arabic writing was well
known, and not uncommonly practised, there
In Mahomet's eariy days/ I cannot think,
with Weil, that any great ' want of writing-
materials ' could have been foil, even ' by
the poorer Moslems in tho early days of
Islaui.' (Mohammedr p. 350.) Reeds and
palm-leaves would never be wanting." (Muir's
Mahomet , Intro., p. viii.)
The intimate connection of the Arabic
alphabet, *as it is now in one, with the
Hebrew, or rather Phoenician alphabet, is
shown not only bv the form of the letters
themselves, but by their more ancient nume
rical arrangement, known bj- the name of
Abjad, and described under that head on
page 8 of the present work. This arrange
ment; it will be remembered, is uontained in
the six meaningless words : —
The first six of these words correspond to
the Hebrew alphabet, the last two consist of
the letters peculiar to Arabic, and it will be
seen that the words abjad, hawwaxt and
huttf (as we transcribe them according to our
system of transliteration), express the nine
units, together with ten, kalaman and sa'-fas,
the tens irotn .twenty to ninety, and r/arafh&t.
sakhaz. and zaz/iyh, the hundreds together
with one thousand.
The present arniMgement- of the Arabic
alphabet, in the form which the letters take
as finals, is the following: — •
FINALS,
Order.
Reduced
Order.
Sepa
rate.
Joined.
Trans
literation.
1
1
,
I
a (i, u)
2
) (
v>
V*
b
3
4
'I
^
(&<»
p
5
&
C
i
6
3 •
C
r
h
7
£
e
kjj
8
9
) \
J
d
1
10
1 5 (
^
^
r
11
j I
*
.
z
12
1 6
u*
v~
s
13
J i
J»
*~~
8h
14
I 7 i
if
c^
f
15
J v
v>
v/
*
16
1 8 1
li
U
|
17
i
ib
a
18
19
i •{
V J
^
«
e
t
gb
20
10 j
^
wA
f
21
1
j
^
q
22
11
«ji)
«*X
k
23
12
J
J
1
24
13
r
f*
m
25
14
o
^
n
2C
15
h
A
h
27
16
^
»
w
28
17
°
0
y
On examining these characters, as repre
sented in the above synopsis, it will at once
be seen that, with the exception of the firat
and the seven laat ones, each character stands
for two or three sounds, their only distinction
cousiating iu from one to three dots, which
are added at the top cr bottom of thf letter,
and that thereby the number of characters is
reduced from twenty-eight to seventeen. It
will, moreover, be noticed that several of
these characters have en appendix or tail,
which is well adapted to mark the end of a
word, bnt which would prevent the letter
frotn being rcadilv joined to a following one.
and therefore ia dispensed with If the letter
be initial or connected with other*. Sup-
Dressing those dots and cutting off the-sr
tails, and arranging the characters in their
reduced order, and in that form which fits
86
682
WRITING
WEITING
thorn to appear as initials or medials, we I
obtain the following simplified schedule : —
INITIALS AND MEDIALS
Reduced
Order.
Final.
Ini- 1 Me-
tial. | dial.
Value.
1
\
v
\ V
a(i,u)
2
s->
w^
> *
b, t^ s
3
c
C
e» As
j, h, kh
4
J
A
0 A
d, z
5
)
;
; j
r, z
6
•« MM
s, sh
7
u9
<^
* -0
s, z
8
I
L
I S,
t, z
9
£
a
£ X
S gb
10
v_>
4^ft
* a
f,.q
11
us!
«d
^ X
k
12
j
J > i
1
13
r
A
** «4»
m
14
0
e J *
n
15
&
A * i
h
16
j
* 3 9
w
17
*5
0 > *
y
A further examination of this reduced list
shows, that the characters, 1, 4, 5 and 16, \f
u, 4 and . do not admit of the horizontal
prolongation towards the left which serves
to connect a letter with a following one, or, in
other words, that they can only be joined to
a preceding letter, and that the characters
14 and 17, viz. M and ^, in their initial and
medial form, differ from the character b
only by the superadded dots, and may there
fore count for one with it, finally limiting the
number of characters to fifteen* Thus the
whole Arabic alphabet resolves itself into
the four signs
which can be joined to a preceding letter, but
must, even in the middle of a word, remain
separate from a following one, and the eleven
signs
which can be connected either way.
These, then, are the graphical elements, in
their simplest expression, by means of which
Arabic, etymologically perhaps the richest
language in existence, was originally written,
and which were expected to transmit the
sacred text of the inspired book to the
coming generations. The first in the above
series of connectible characters (>) repre
sents five different sounds, ft, t, s, », and y ;
the second (s>) three sounds', b,j, and H; the
next five (^ *t L, c, 3), together with o
and . two sounds oachr s and sh, s and z, t
and z, ' and 5$, /"and <?» d and z, r and 2, re
spectively, and only five out of the whole
number of fifteen (V t»J \t $t \\ are single
signs for a F ingle consonantal sound each.
As for the vowels, only the long ones, a, ii,
and t, were in this system of writing graphi
cally expressed, being represented by the so-
called weak consonants, \} . and ^f which,
in this case, act as letters of prolongation.
Yet the corresponding short vowels, a. w, and
/, were of the utmost importance for the cor
rect reading of a text, for the whole system
of Arabic inflection is based upon them, and
their faulty employment in the recital of the
Qur'an would frequently lead to grave mis
takes, or, at all events, grievously shock the
pious and the learned.
So it will be easily understood that the
nvant of additional signs was soon felt, to
obviate this double insufficiency of the
original alphabet, that is to say, on the one
hand to distinguish between letters of the
same form but of different sound, and on the
other hand to show with what vowel a letter
was to be enounced iu accordance with the
rules of the Frab or grammatical inflection.
Accounts differ aa to when and by whom
these signs were invented and introduced
into the sacred as well as the secular writing.
We must here at once remark that the form
in which they now appear is by no means
their oldest form, as we have also, with re
gard to the characters of the alphabet them
selves, to distinguish between two styles of
writing, the one called Cufic, used in inscrip
tions on monuments and coins, in copies of
the Qur'un, and documents of importance, the
other of a more cursive character, better
adapted to the exigencies of daily life. This
latter style, it is true, seems to have existed,
like the former, long before Muhammad, and
resembles in a document of the second century
of the Hijrah, which has come down to us,
already very much the so-called Naskhi
character now in use. But the two kept
from thu first quite apart, and developed
independently from each other up to the
middle of the fourth century of the Muham-
madan era, when the more popular system
began to supplant tlie older one, which it
finally superseded even in the transcriptions
of the sacred book.
In tracing the origin of the vowel-marks
and the diacritical signs, as we may now call
them, in the first instance of the Oufic alpha
bet, we will follow Ibn Khallikan, whose in
formation on the subject seems the most in
telligible and self-consistent that has reached
us. In his celebrated biographical dictionary,
he relates that Ziy ad, a natural brother of the
first Umaiyah Khalifah Mu'awiyah, and then
Governor of the two 'Iraqs, directed Abu
Aswad ad-Dn'ili, one of the most eminent of
the Tabi'un, to compose something to serve
as a guide to the public, and enable them to
understand " the book of God," meaning
thereby a treatise on Grammar, the elements
of which Abu Aswad was said to have learned^
from 'AIT, the son-in-law of the Prophet him-*
self. He at first asked to be excused, but
when he heard a man, on reciting the passage*
(Surah ix. 3) : Anna V/aAa barfun mina '/"-
mushrikina too, rasutuhu, pronounce the last
WETTING
•ord rasulihi, which changes the meaning of
ae passage from " That God is clear of the
lolaters, and His Apostle also," into " That
rod 13 clear of the idolaters and of His
tpostle," he exclaimed, " I never thought
hat things would have come to such a pass."
£e then went to Ziyad and said, " I shall do
/hat you ordered ; find me an intelligent
cribe who will follow my directions.1' On
his a scribe belonging to the tribe of 'Abdu
1-Qais was brought to him, but did not give
lim satisfaction : another then came, and
Abdu '1- As wad said to him : " When you see
ne open (fatah) my mouth in pronouncing
!i letter, place a point over it ; when I close
Izamw) nay mouth, place a point before the
letter, and when I pucker up (kasar) my
mouth, place a point under the letter."
Noldeke, the learned author of Gencftichte des
Korans, rejects this part of the story as a
fable, and it is certainly not to be taken in
the literal sense, that each time a letter was
3ronounced,the scribe was supposed to watch
the action of the dictator's lipa. But it
seems reasonable enough to assume that in
cases where much depended on the correct
I vocalisation of a word, and where the reciter
would naturally put a particular emphasis on
it, Abu As wad should instruct his amanu
ensis not to rely upon his oars only in
fixing upon the sound, but also call the tes
timony of his eyes to his aid. At any rate,
the name of the vowel-points : Fathah,
k< opening," for a, zammak, " contraction,"
for u, and kasrah, " fracture " (as the pucker
ing up of the mouth may fitly be. called), is
well explained, and the notation itself: _•
torfathah, • — for zamtnah&ndi -p ioYkasrah,
is that which we still find in some of the old
Cufic manuscripts of the Quran marked in
red ink or pigment. We refer the reader
to the first specimen of Cufic writing given
below (p. 687), which he is requested to
compare with the transcript in the modem
Arabic character and with our Roman trans
literation, when he will readily perceive that
the points or dots in the Cufic fragment cor
respond to the short vowels of the translite
ration, while, in the Arabic transcript, they
serve to distinguish the consonants. Take,
for instance, the point above the second
letter of the third word, and it will at once be
seen that in the Cufic form it expresses the a
after the n of tanazzalat, for it recurs again
after the / in the last syllable, and that in the
Naskhi character it distinguishes the n (i)
itself from the preceding double-pointed t
(5), both which letters remain without a dis
tinctive sign in the Cufic.
To return to Ibn Khallikan: he relates
In another place, after Abu Ahmad al-
'Askarl, that in the days of 'Abdu '1-Malik
ibn Mar wan, the fifth Khallfah of the Umai-
yah dynasty, the erroneous readings of the
Qur'an had become numerous and spread
through 'Iraq. This obliged the governor,
al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , to have recourse to his
kdtibs, for the purpose of putting distinctive
marks on the words of uncertain pronuncia-
WRITING
688
tion i and it is said that Nas ibn ' Afiim under
took that duty and imagined single and double
points (nuqtit.'pl. of nuqtah, " drop,"" dot "),
which he placed in different manners. The
people then passed some time without making
any copies of the Qar'an but with points,
the linage of which did not, however, prevent
Borne false readings from taking place, and
for this reason they invented the I'jam (signs
serving to distinguish the letters of the same
form from one another), and they thus placed
the i'jam posteriorly to the nuqat.
Primd facie., this seems to contradict the
passage quoted previously, according to
which Abu Aswad would be the inventor of the
nuqat or vowel-points, and the same remark
applies to another account of the same
author, which we shall adduce presently.
Pending our attempt to reconcile the diffe
rent statements, we notice here two fresh par
ticulars of some importance. For the first
time mention is made of double points, and
we shall scarcely be wrong if we refer
this to the way in which the Nutonutjon or
7am<;m,that is the sounding of an n after the
vowels, is expressed in the early writing. It
is simply by doubling the vowel-signs in the
snme position in which the single points are
placed: ^_*_ for an, * for tw, and TT for
in. Secondly, we meet with the distinct
assertion that the invention of the i'jdm or
diacritical signs followed that of the nuqat
or vowel-points. Noldeke thinks the reverse
more probable, not only because the letter b
0-r>) is found already pointed on coins of
'Abdu '1-Malik, but also because the diacri
tical signs are in the ancient manuscripts,
like the letters themselves, written with black
ink, while the vowel-points are always of a
different colour. But the early uae of a
pointed b does not prove that the other letters
were similarly marked at the same tune.
On the contrary, if such a distinction was
once established for the b, which would be
most liable to be confounded with one of its
four sister-forms, the other characters of a
like shape could for some time dispense with
distinctive signs, as for an Arabian reader
accustomed to hear, see, and think certain
groups of consonants together, and deeply
imbued with an instinctive consciousness of
the phonetic laws of his language, tho danger
of mistaking one letter for another would not
be by far so great as it appears to us. And
as for the argument taken from the different
colour of the ink, Noldeke himself remarks
that it was natural to use the same tint
for the consonants and their distinctive signs,
which form only a part of them, while the.
vowel-points are an entirely new element.
According to a third tradition, it was
Yahya ibn Ya'mar (died A.M. 125)) and al-
Hasan al-Basri (died A.U. 110), by whom al-
Hajjaj caused the Qur'an to be pointed, and it
is stated that Ibn Shlrin possessed a copy of
it, in which Yahya ibn Ya'mar had marked
the vowel points. He was remarkable as a
Shi'ah of the primitive class, to use Ibn Khal-
likau's expression : one of those who, in assert
684
WEITING
WRITING
ing the superior inorit of the People of the
Hovset abstained from depreciating the merit
of those Companions who did not belong to
that family. It is related by 'Asim ibn Abi
'n-Najucl, the Qur'an reader (died A.J&. 127),
that al-Hajjgj .summoned Yabya on that
account into his presence and thus addressed
him:— -
"Do you pretend that al-Hasan and al-
Husain were of the posterity of the Apostle
of God ? By Allah, I shall cast to the ground
that part of yeu which has the most hair on
it (that is .- I shall strike off your head), tin-
less you exculpate yourself." " If I do so,"
said Yahya, " shall I have amnesty? " f* You
shall," 'replied al-Hajjaj, "Weil," said
Yahya. " God, may His praise be exalted I
said:
' And :We gave him (Abraham) Isaac
and Jacob, and guided both aright ; and
We had before guided Noah; and of his
posterity, David and Solomon, and Job,
and Joseph, and Moses and Aaron: Thus
do We reward the righteous : And
Zacbariah. John, Jesus, and Elias : all
were just persons,' (Siirah vi. 84, 86).
Now, the space of time between Jesos and
Abraham is greater than that which sepa
rated al-Hasan and al-Husain from Muham
mad, on all of whom be the blessing of God
and his salvation 1 * Al-Hajjaj answered, " I
must admit that you have got out ot' the dif
ficulty ; I read that before, but did not uii-
derstaud it,'* la the further course of con
versation, al-Hajjaj said to him : v* Tell me
if I commit faults m speaking." Yahya
remained silent, but as al-Hajjaj insisted on
having an. answer, he at length replied : " O
Emir, shioe you ask me, I must say that you
exalt what should be dopreased, and depress
what should be exalted:" This has the
grammatical meaning : You put hi the nomi
native (r«/*) what should be in the accusa
tive (nosh), and vice versa : but it is. at the
same time an epiyntmmattcat stricture on al-
Hajjaj's arbitrary rulerehip, which, it is said,
WOD for Yahya the appointment as Qa?I in
Marw» that is to say, a honorary banishment
from the former's court.
According to other sources, Yahya had
acquired his knowledge of grammar from
Abu Aswad ad-D«rili It is related that,
when Aba Aswad drew up the chapter on
the agent and patient (fffilt subject; atid
maf(ul. object of the verb), a man of the tribe
of Lais made some additions to it, and that
A.bu Aswad, having found on examination
that there existed, in ike language of the de
sert Arabs, soaie expressions which could not
1>6 made to enter into that section, he stopped
short and abandoned the work. Ibn Khal-
likan thinks it possible that, this person was
Yahya ibn Ya mar, who, having contracted
au aili*ace by oath with the tribe of Lais,
was considex-ed as one of its members. But it
is equally possible that the before-mentioned
Nasr ibn 'Asim. whose patronymic was al-
Laisi, may have been that man, and this
supposition wou!<3 enable as to bring the dif-
leient statements which we have quoted
into some harmony. To Abu Aswad the
honour can scarcely be contested of having
invented the simple vowel-points or nuqat.
Nasr ibn 'Asim, walking in his track, may
have added the double points to designate the
Tanwln. Lastly, Yahya would have com
pleted the system by devising the tjdm, or
diacritical signs of the consonants, and intro
duced it to a fuller extent into the writing of
the Qur'an, in which task he may have been
assisted by al-Hasan al-Basri, one of the
most learned and accomplished Quran-
readers amongst the Tabi'ftn.
But whoever may have been the inventor
of the diacritical signs in their earlier form,
we must again remark that their shape hi
Cufic manuscripts, like that of the vowel-
points, is essentially different from the dots
which are now employed for the same pur
pose. They have the form of accents (ILL),
or of horizontal lines (-==-), or of triangular
points, either resting on their basis or with
their apex turned to the right ( -> >). AJS it
cannot be our intention to give here an ex
haustive treatise on Arabic writlngj we pass"
oyer the remaining orthographical signs made
use of in the old copies of the Qur'an, in
order to say a few words on the system of
notation which is employed in the NaskhJ
character and our modern Arabic type.
If, with regard to the Cufic alphabet, we
have spoken of diacritical signs to distin
guish between the consonants, and of vowel-
points, we must now reverse these expres
sions, calliug the former diacritical points,-
the latter rowel-sigas. For, as already has
been seen from the synopsis of the alphabet
on p, 68l> the point or dot is there made use
of for the distinction of consonants* while the
vowels, which in the Greek and Latin alpha-
beta rank as letters equally with the conso
nants, have no place in that synopsis. As
this style of writing was to serve the pur
poses of daily life, it is probable that the want
of some means of fixing the value of the
consonants was here more immediately felt,
and that therefore che use of points for this
end preceded the introduction of the vowel
marks, or to spe-ak more accurately, of
marks for the short vowels. For the long
vowels a, I, and «, were, as in the Cafic
writings also expressed by the weak conso
nants \ .« and » taken as letters of pro
longation.
When, later on, the necessity arose to re
present the short vowels equally in writing,
the point or dot, as a distinctive mark, was
disposed of; and other signs had to be in-
.vented for that purpose. This was accom
plished, we are told, by al-Kh»lIl, the cele
brated founder of the Science of Arabic
Prosody and Metric. His deviue was simply
to place the abbreviated form of the before-
mentioned weak consonants themselves1 above
or beneath the letter after which any short
vowel was to he pronounced. The origin of
the zornmah or u (_L.) froin the ^ is at once
evident. The sign for the fatftaih or a (JL.)
differs only by its slanting position from the
WRITING
form which the \ assumes frequently in such
words as t&\ for 5^ , and the hurrah or i
(TO is derived from the bend towards the
right which the letter «.$ takes in its older
shape (e~)- The Tanvrin was then, aa in the
CunV writing, expressed by doubling the
signs for the simple vowels : JL for rrn, 2L 01*
JL for «n, and -7- for in.
There remains a third set oi signs supple
mentary to the Arabic alphabet, which ma)
be called orthographical signs, and which, in
their present form, were probably also in
vented and Introduced by al- phalli ; at all
events, this IB distinctly stated with regard to
two of them, tho Hamaah and the Tashdid.
The Hamzah, to be well understood, must be
considered in connection with the letter 'am
(£) °* W^CQ i*8 si&a (*) l* *be abbreviated
term. If the latter assertion uceded proof
against the erroneous opinion, put forth by
some writers, that the Hamzah is derived from
fche .<, this proof would be afforded by the
following anecdote. The Khalifah Harunu T-
JRa^hid was sitting one day with a favourite
negro concubine, called Khaliaah, xrhen the
poet Abu Nawas entered into his presence
and recited some verses in his praise. Ab
sorbed in conversation with the fascinating
slave-girl, the Kjhallfah paid no attention to
the poet, who, leaving him in anger, wrote
upon ar-Rashld's door : —
WHITING
685
Laqad za?<i shi'ri *&la bdbikwn^ Jtomei zu'o
'iqdun 'aia Khali 9 ah.
" Forsooth, my poetry is thrown away at
your door, as the jewels are thrown
away on the neck of JQialisah.'
When this was reported, to Harun, he or
dered Abu Nuwiis to be called back. On re-
entering the room, Abu Nuwas effaced the
final stroke of the £ in the word £U
(jrff'a, " is lost " or *' thrown away "). changing
it thereby into »U (?<JV), written with the
Hamzah and entirely different in meaning.
For when the Khalifah asked ; " What have
you written upon the door? n the answer was
now :
" Truly, my poetry sparkle* upon your
door, as the jewels sparkle on the neck
01 Shalisah."
The fact is, that both the letter 'tun and
the liamzah are different degrees of the
distinct effort, which we all make with the
niuscles of the throat, in endeavouring tc
pronounce a vovel without a consonant. In
the case oC the 'az'ft, this effort is so strong
for the Arabic organ of epsech, that it par
takes in itself of the nature oi a consonant,
and found, as such, from the first, a repre
sentative in the written alphabet, while the
slighter effort, embodied in the Hauiaah, was
left to the utterance of the speaker. But
when their language became the object of R
favourite stndy with the leamed Arabs, this
difference not only called for a graphical ex
pression, but led even to a. further distinction
between what is called Hamzatu '/-Qaf* or
Hainzah of Disjunction, and ffamzatu '/- Wa$ I
or Hanuah >>f Conjunction. We will try
shortly to explain this difference.
If we take the word ^^ amir, " a com-
uiander or chief," the initial a remains the
same, whether the word beftinn the sentence
or IN proceeded by another word : we say
JU rc^\ ami run ff^fa, "a commnnder sgid "
(according to the Arabic construction lite
rally " <i.<t for a curimiandev, he said "), ac
well as >.y*\ JU gala amirun, i; th«re snid a
commander '' (in Arabic literally " he said,
namely, a commander "). Here the Harruah
(»), with tho Alif H) as its prop an<i rVu,
fathuh or a aa its vowel. »• called Ham
zatu V-Qajf'. bocause in the latter case it-
disjoins or outs off, as it were, the Initial
a of the word nmlrnn from the final a of
thft word qdld ; and the satna holds good if
the Hamzah is pronounced with i, as in
*j^»\ imiirah, *' commandership," cr \vith «,
as in e^y»* umarff* " commanders," plural
of amir. But it would be otherwise -with
the a of the article \\ at. if joined
with the V7ord amir. In JU j~»$\ al-amini
qulci, "the commander said," it would pre
serve its original sound, because it begins the
sentence ; but if we insert the order of words,
we iuust drop it. in pronunciation altogether,
and only sound the final c, of gala instead,
thus : tfch. Y-flVJtrw, a said the commander,"
and the flarne would take place if the preced
ing word terminated in another vowel, as
yagulu '/-amiru. " says the commander," or
et~qauli '^-oiw«t', " by the word of the com
mander." Here the Hamzah would no longer
be written ,±. but .n, (^\ jti, ete.); *nd
would be called ffamxatu 7- Wasl or Ham-
zatu >-5"i/«A, becausp it joins the two words
together in closest connection.
In the article, as it lias been stated abo?e. and
in the word aimon, '' oath,'* the oiigiaal souod
of the Hamzatu 'I Wa$i \&jatkakt a ; it occur*
besides in a few nouns,' in several derived
forme of the verb, and in the Imperative of
the primitivo trilitcral verb, hi all of which
cases it is sounded with katrah or t, except
in the Imperative oi those trilitei'M verb*
whose aorist takes zammah or v for the
vowel oi' t/he second radical, where the Ham
zah is also r>ronoun<5od with zatnmak (c^i-^
w>lcut, " bo silent"). But the reader musv
always keep in rni'ud that it proserve* this
ortgiual pronunciation only at the. beftiujung
of a sentence ; if it is preceded by any other
word, the final vowel of that preceding word
takes the place of the Hainzah, and if this
word terminate* in a consonant, the Hainiah
ie generally pronounced, with i. We say
generally, because the only exceptions are
after the preposition Q^ mm, where 11 is
686
WRITING
sounded with a. and after the pronominal
affixes of the second and. third person plural,
1$ htm and ^ AMW, where it takes u.
We can pass over more rapidly the other
signs of this class, which are the Maddah,
the Tashdid, and the Jazmah or Sukun. If
iti consequence of any grammatical operation
an Alif, as prop of a Ilamzah sounded with
fathah, comes to stand before another such
Alif, we write \ pronounced a, instead of V}
and the upper horizontal sign is called Mad
dah or Madd, " lengthening," " prolongation."
While thus the Maddah is the sign for the
doubling of an Alif, the Tashdid (_TL is the
sign for the doubling of a consonant (.*=6i)
If, lastly, a consonant is not to be followed
by a vowel, the sign JL or JL, named Jaz-
raah (cutting off) or Sukun (rest), is placed
above it, and the consonant is called
" quiescent " (sakinah), in contradistinction
from a "moved" consonant (rmifiarrakah) ,
that is, one sounded with a vowel (t.iarakah,
* motion ").
We have seen that the Hamzatu '1-Qat'
(JL) is an abbreviated form of the letter
'Ain (£). In similar manner, tbe sign for
the Hamzatu '1-Wasl or Hamzatu 's-Silah
(_!L) is an abbreviated form of the initial
rf (?) of the word Silah. The sign for the
Maddah (-IL), as written in old manuscripts,
seems to be a stretched out form for the
word Madd (»*/•) itself, and the sign for the
Tashdid (---) represents the initial & of the
word Shiddah, which is the technical term
for it. The original sign for the Jazmah
(JL) is the cypher or zero, employed to indi
cate the absence of a vowel sound. A native
Arab scholar of our days, th** late Nasif al-
Yaziji of Beyrout, has combined the vowel
marks as well as the last-mentioned ortho
graphical signs in the words :
A. tchut.tu %hi.jffa.
" I write out the Alphabet/
ami these words, together with the two
formulas given on page 682 (»\»>^ and
&,JL£a*k-3~. «te*), an<^ *^e ^°* as a diacritical
sign, contain the whole system of Arabic
writing, as it were, in a nut-shell.
However indispensable these various sup
plementary signs may seem to us for fixing
the meaning of an Arabic text, educated
Arabs themselves look at them in a different
light. Although the need for them was from
the first most urgently felt for the purpose
of securing the correct reading of the Qur'an,
several of the learned doctors of early Islam
strongly opposed their introduction into the
sacred book as a profane innovation. The
great Suani traditionist, Malik ibn Anas (died
A.H. 179), prohibited their use in the copies
employed at the religious service in the mosque
(iimmahatv '£>M«rf«$(/*), and allowed then>
only in the smaller copies, destined for the
WRITING
instmction of thn young in schools. In
course of time, however, when even the
office of reading the Qu'ran publicly more
and more frequently devolved upon persons
who had not received a special theological
training, the necessity of carefully marking
the text with these signs all through went
on increasing, and became at last 9 generally
acknowledged principle. In secular litera
ture and in epistolary intercourse amongst
the educated, on the contrary, their use
should, according to the competent authori
ties, be limited to those cases where ambi
guity is to be apprehended from their omis
sion. If there is no danger of miscompre
hension, we are told by Haji Khalifah, it ia
preferable to omit them, especially in . ad
dressing persons of consequence and refine
ment, whom it would be impolite not to
suppose endued with a perfect knowledge
of the written language. Moreover, to a
chastened taste, a superabundance of those
extraneous signs seems to disfigure the
graceful outline of the Arabic character.
When a piece of highly elaborate penman
ship was presented to <Abdu 'llah ibn Tahir,
the accomplished governor of Khurasan under
the Abbaside Khalifah al-Ma'mun, he ex
claimed, ' How beautiful this would be if there
were not so much coriander seed scattered
over it." The diacritical points of the conso
nants, of course, are now always added, for
they have grown to be considered as inte
gral elements of the alphabet itself. Their
absence, or their accidental misapplication,
gave rise, in former times, to numberless ludi
crous or aerious perplexities and mistakes,
instances of which abound in Muhammadan
history. Al-Baladori, e.g., relates that the
poet al-Farazdaq* (died A.H. 110) interceded
by letter with Tamim, governor of the boun
daries of Sind, in order to obtain release
from military service for the son of a poor
woman of the tribe of Taiy. The youth's
name was Hubaish (yiLj^a.) ; but as the dia-
ritical points were not marked in al-Farazdaq's
letter, Tamim was at a loss whether to read
Hubaish cr Khunais (^^.jjii.), and solved
the difficulty by sending home all soldiers
whose names contained the dubious letters.
A more tragical event is recorded by Haji
Khalifah, to which we would fain apply the
Italian saying : Se non e verot e ben trovato,
The Khalifah al-Mutawakkil is said to have
sent an order to one of his officials to ascertain
the number of Zimrnis in his province, and to
report the amount. Unfortunately, " a drop
fell," as the Arabic original expresses it,
upon the second letter of the word ,-acJt
fafal, " count "), and the result was, that the
officious functionary submitted the ill- fated
Zimmls to a certain painful and degrading
operation, in consequence of which they all
died but two,
On the other hand, the employment of
these signs in the Qur'an. together with
several others, to mark its division into
verses, chapters, sections* and portions of
sections, to call attention to the pauses that
WRITING
should be observed in reciting it, and to indi
cate the number of rvku' or inclinations with
which the recital is to be accompanied, gave
occasion for graphical embellishment of
various kinds. Brilliantly coloured ink or a
solution of gold to write with, delicately
tinted and smoothly pressed pergament or
paper, frequently overspread with gold or
silver dnst, highly finished ornamental de
signs of that fanciful and eUgant description
which has received the name of arabesques,
guch are the means which serve to render the
copies of tho Qor*an of the halcyon days of
Islian gorgeous and oftentimes artistically
beautiful. Writing became indeed an art,
diligently cultivated, and eloquently treated
upon in prose and verse by its possessors, to
whom it opened access to the most exalted
positions in the State. Amongst the most
celebrated calligraphists are mentioned tho
Wazir Muhammad ibu All ihn Muqlab (died
A.H. 328), *Ali ibn Hilal, surnamcd al-Bauvrab
(died A.H, 413), and Abu 'd-Durr Yaqut ihn
Yaqut ihn 'Abdi 'Hah ar-Rumi al-Must'asaim
(died A.H. 698), whose father and grand
father had excelled in the art before him, but
who, according to Hajl Khallfah, was never
surpassed in it by any of his successors.
It w<ts a natural consequence of the
WRITING
687
I general development of the art of writing,
that various styles were invented and culr
tivated independently of each other, and it
will uow be our task shortly to speak of the
principal varieties, trying to describe their
distinguishing features by help of a few illus
trations chosen from Bresnier's COMAS- de
Langue Arab*. Along with the fundamental
distinction already mentioned, of tho Cufic or
monumental, and tho Na«khi or manuscript
ityle, there ruiib, in the tirst instance, that of
the Maghrib-Berber or Western, and Mashriij
or Eastern style. It must, however be re
marked, that tho Western Naskhi stands in
closer connection and has preserved a greater
resemblance with the Western Cuflc, than ii
the case with the Eastern Naskhi in reference
to the Eastern Cufic, as tho reader will
scarcely fail to perceive on comparing the
following specimens.
The first is the before-mentioned tragment
of the Qur'in, written in the Cufic manuscript
style, and provided with the vowel-points
as invented by Abu Aswad ad Du'ili for
Nasr ibn *Asiui, see page 682). Like the
remainder of our specimens, we accompany
it with a transcript in modern type, a trans
literation in Roman character, and a render
ing into English.
No. 1.
Ct'FIC MANUSCRIPT CHARACTER.
Wa ma tanazzalat bi-hi ash-
shayatinu wa md
yanbaghija-hwn wa md
(yastati'una).
" The Satans were not sent down with it
(the Qnr'an} : it beseemed them not,
and they haftnoi the /wirer."
(Surah xxvi. 210 ; the words in italics cor
respond to the word yasta^unn, which is not
contained in the Cuiic original.)
The next two specimens illustrate the Cufic
style, as it is employed on monuments, rind
more particularly so its Maghrcbian develop
ment.
WHITING
CtfFIC MOWftTENTAI, CHARACTER,
No. 2 is part of an inscription copied from
a public building in Tarragona in Spain. It
reads : —
JVM
'llahi! barakatun mina V/a/tt H-'abdt
T/o/i* "'abdi 'r~rahmani amiri 'l-tnvtminina
dtalti 'lldkv (baqfffi'hu).
" In the name- of God ! May a blessing
from God be upon. 'Abdiilah 'Abdur
rahman, Commander of the Faithful ;
may God lengthen his life."
No, 3.
MAGHBIB MONUMENTAL CHARACTER,
No, 3, an inscription taken from the Al-
hamhra, exhibits a style of monumental
writing which can scarcely be called Cufie
any longer, so much reflemblefl it the Naskhl
chai'ftctor. While in the previous specimen
neither vowel points nor diacritical signs are
made use of, here we find them employed in
the shape, which they assume in manuscripts
written in that hand. The reader will not
have much difficulty in tracing the compo
nent letters by comparison with the follow
ing transcript and transliteration :—
* 3 -
Ya wdri$& ''l-an^iiri la 'an kaldlatin titra^a,
jaialin iasiakhijftn 'r-rawdsiyd.
" O tbou who inheriteat from the Ansars,
and not by way -of distant kindred, a
heirloom of glory that makes every
summit of fame appear low."
It wiU be n-oticed that the i (/) of the
word tastakhiff'u is left without the diacri
tical point which distinguishes this letter
from the letter i (?). This tallies with
a remark of Haji Khallfah, according to
which the diacritical points of these two
letters may be put or omitted ad libitum ; and
we seem therefore ' justified in concluding
that the necessity for their distinction was
latest felt and provided for. Hence arises one
of the peculiarities which at once mark the
difference between the Western and Eastern
styles of -writing, and which the reader will
observe in the next three specimens, present
ing instances of the Maghrib manuscript
character.
The first (No. 4) is written in a bolder
hand, and consequently shows more strik
ingly the close relationship with the monu
mental style of the Western Arabs:
No. 4.
FORM OF THE MAGHRIB MANUSCRIPT CHARACTER
WRITING
WRITING
689
JL A
2al 'Ayishatu raziya 'lldhu (an-hd
-ftu rasula 'lldki salln Vldhu 'alai-hi.
fa-j
"'Ayishah, may God be gracious to her,
related :
.1 went to the Apostle of God, may God's
blessing be upon him," &c.
On comparing the initial letter of either
line, it will be found that the one is 3
(in qdlat), the other > (in/e-;Tru); but in the
Maghrebian original, the former is marked by
A dot above, the latter by a dot beneath the
character, instead of the superscribed doable
and single point respectively in the tran
script. This is the distinguishing feature
between the two styles previously alluded to,
and it seems to prove that the use of the dia
critical points tor these two letters is of later
origin, and dates from a time when the t wo
great divisions of the nation had definitely
separated and followed each their own desti
nies. Another point to which we draw at
tention, is thfi different form of the Ta.sh.did,
as seen in the word Allah. The Maghrib
form is _I_ instead of _!. ; and while in the
Oriental writing the vowel uigns are placed
over it, the Western style places the sign for
the Tashdid and for tho vowel frequently
side by side, as it is done here.
No. 5.
GOOD MAGHRIB WRITING .
Qdla Abuqrdtu rahima-hu 'lldhu 'l-'wnnt
qasirun wa 's-fina'atu tawilatun
wa. 'l-waqtu zaiyiqun wa 't-tairibatu kit at
wa V-oozoV *&$inin.
irun
Hippocrates, may God have compassion
upon him, said : Life is short, art is
long,
Time is narrow, experience dangerous,
judgment difficult.'"
BUPBBIOR MAGHRIB WKITTKa.
UL
87
690
WRITING
Abuqrdta lam ya'zan li-man da(at-hu
shahwatu-hu ild 'sh-shurbi bi-l-laiti
an yasitraba an
la yashraba Idkinna-hu in shariba wa ndma
ba'da shurbi-hi fa'inna-ku ajwadu min
an la
yandma wa z_dlika tfctnna 'n-nauma yatadd-
raku zarara 'sh-shurbi loa zdlika anna
'l-'ddata lam
tajri bi-'sh-shvrtn li-'l-laiti fa Vs« shariba
fl-hi fa-Id mafidlata anna zdlika 'sh-
fhurba yuhdisu
ft H-hazmifajajatan wa fasddan ka-hdli'i-
inai 'l-bti'i'idi izd subbafl gadrin
fl-hd ta'dmun wa huwa yagliji 'a/a 'n-
nari,
" Hippocrates neither allows nor forbids a
man, who has a desire to drink nt
night-time,
to satisfy his desire. If, however, he
drinks, and sleeps after drinking, it is
better
than not to sleep, this being so because
sleep counteracts, in this case, the evil
effect of drinking ;
for it is not customary to drink at night
time, and if one does so, this will of
necessity produce
WRITING
a disturbance and derangement in the
digestion, Just as if cold water were
poured into a vessel
containing food that is being boiled."
These two fragments scarcely call forth
any further remark, except that in the last
both forms of the Tashdid are employed, the
ordinary form even more frequently than the
Maghrebian : for the latter occurs only twice,
in bi-sh-shurbi, which is the second word in
the fourth line, and in ash-shurba, which is
the last word but one in the same line
Moreover, it will be useful to notice the pecu
liar shape which the letters o (d*) and j
(2) take in the Maghrib character, as in the
words ajwadu towards the end of the second
line, and ya'zan near the beginning of the first.
Dismissing the Maghrib -Berber style of
Arabic writing, with its numerous-local varie
ties, as less interesting for the English reader,
we now turn to the Oriental style, where we
meet again with a bipartition, viz. into the
Eastern Naskhi, as it is written in Arabia
itself, Egypt, and Syria, and the Ta'liq,
current in Persia, India, and Central Asia.
No. 7 is a specimen of the Naskhi in the
more limited sense of the word, meaning the
style generally employed in manuscripts, and
derived from naskh or nuskhah, " copy."
No 7.
WASKHI CHARACTER FROM A GOOD EGYPTIAN MANUSCRIPT.
* JU
A !
Qnla yd Adarrut '•nftt'-Aim bi-asmffi-him fa-
lamma. omba'a-jinm bi-asmd'i-him qdla
alum aqul la-kum
Annl a'/amu yhaiba 's-samawdtt wa V-
arzi wa a'lamu ma. tabdiina
Wa, ma kuntum taktumina, Wa iz </w/n«
H-l-inaltii-kati 'sjudu.
He said : ' O Adam, inform them of their
names,' and when he had informed
them of their names, He said : ' Did I
not say to you,
That I know the hidden things of the
heavens and of the earth, and know
what ye bring, to light, .
And what ye hide ? ' And when we said
to the angels : ' Bow down ' . . .*
(Surah ii. 31, 32.)
WRITING
WRITING
691
From this ordinary Nitskbi several moiv
ornate manuscript styles are derived, as the
Rihani, Yaquti, and Sulus. They are dis
tinguished principally by the relali /a pro
portions of the characters ; and in the Suing
in particular, of which we give a specimen
under No. 8, the letters are thrpo times the
size of the ordinary Naskh.1, while the
Rihani and Yaquti show intermediate pro
portions between the two.
No. 8.
8ULD8 8TTLK.
.Utt ^ ro^
Kuntu nablyan wa 'l-adamu baina 'l-mai
wa 't-tini.
" I was a prophet, when man was yet a
mixture of water and clay."
It will be observed that beneath the p
(»i) of the words ^^\ (al-adanni) and UN
(al-mai\ in the Sulus fragment, the letter is
written a second time in a smaller character,
ind that, moreover, in the word ^o3\ it is
iurmounted by the sign _1_, which in Magh-
•ib writing, as we have seen, generally repre
sents the THshdid. This is done, in the
above mentioned ornate styles, especially
with those letters which admit of diacritical
points, Viz. C, •>, > u-, u°> k. & &c< Toindi-
cate that no such diacritical point is intended,
the sign JL is placed on the top of the
letter, or to make still surer of preventing
a mistake, the letter itself is repeated in a
minute shape at the bottom. Only the letter
5 (A), as distinguished from S (/), is, in this case,
written above the line, because it frequently
occurs as abbreviation of ysf huwa, " He," or
AlJ\ Allah, " God," and it would therefore be
considered irreverential towards the Deity to
write it beneath the other letters. As a fea
ture common to this division of the Eastern
Arabic manuscript style, we lastly point out
the inclination of the characters from the
left to the right, in contradistinction both to
the Maghrib and Ta'liq writing, where the
letters are traced perpendicularly, or even
with a slight bend from ihr right to the
left.
Two other deviations from the pure Naskjn
style are the Jari and Diwaui, officially
employed in Turkey, and exhibited in the
specimen No. 9: —
No. 9.
JARI AND D1WANI
692
WRITING
WRITING
The Jail fragment, in the upper division
is a facsimile of the formula which accom
panies the seal of the Sultan, and runs as
follows : —
Nishani sharlfi 'atishdn saml maktin va
tughral g^arrfff jihan arffi sitdni kha-
qdn nufiza bi Y-aun ar-rabbarii wa's-
as-samaddni titikmi oldur ki . . .
'* This is the noble, exalted, brilliant sign-
manual, the world-illuminating and
adorning cipher of the Khaqan (may it
be made efficient by the aid of the Lord
and the protection of the Eternal).
His order is that, etc."
The beauty of this style is considered to
consist in its being written either diagonally
from the top to the bottom of the page, or as
cending eliptically from the bottom to the top.
The DTwan! style, of which the lower
division givee an "example, is used in the
official correspondence of the Turkish admi
nistration. The final letters, and even words,
are placed on the top of one another, and in
its more intricate varieties the letters ran
together in a fanciful manner, which renders
the decipherment of this writing frequently
very difficult.
Finally, we present In No. 10 a specimen
of the Persian Xa'Hq writing : —
No. 10.
TA'llQ CHARACTER.
Mamin chashmi ddram zi Jchwdnundagtin
Ki n&mom ba niku barand bar zabdn.
"Such hope I cherish that in minstrel's
lay,
With right fair fame my name will live
for aye ! "
From this style of writing the Shikastah
is derived, and bears the same relation to it
which the Diwani bears to Naskjii. While
in general preserving the peculiar outline
of the Ta'liq, it superposes finals and words,
and joins letters in a similar way to the
Diwani, with which, however, it contrasts
favourably by a far more elegant and grace
ful delineation 01 the characters.
It remains now only to add a few words on
the writing materials which the Arabs, and
Orientals in general, make use of. From the
nature of the character and from the direc
tion of the writing from the right to the left.,
it will be easily understood that our quill
and steel pens would answer the purpose
rather indifferently. The bolder stroke re
quires a broader nib, and, at the same time,
the edges of the writing instrument should be
smooth enough to glide with ease over the
paper, so as to enable the hand te give that
fine swing and swell to the curved lines,
which form one of the chief beauties of the
Arabic writing. These conditions are admi
rably fulfilled by the qalam or reed pen. For
the same reapons their ink is richer and their
paper more glossy than those which we employ
ourselves. The best ink is said to be made
of lamp-black and vinegar or verjuice, to
which red ochre is added, well beaten up and
mixed with yellow arsenic and camphor. The
paper, before being used for writing, is sub
mitted to the action of the press, or made
smooth by placing it on a well-levelled board
of chestnut wood, and polishing it with an egg
of crystal of about half a pound's weight.
We cannot here enter into further particu
lars on the subject. The reader who might
feel interested in it, will find some curious de
tails in a short poem by Abu '1-Hasan 'All ibr>
al-Bauwab, which De Sacy has published and
translated in his Chrtstomathiv, As mentioned
before, this calligraphist was one of the
greatest masters of his art, so much so that
when he died, A.H. 413 or 423, the following
lines were written in his praise :—
" Thy loss was felt br the writers of former
times, and each successive day justi»
fiea their grief. The ink-bottles are
therefore black with sorrow, and the
pens are rent through affliction. "
Ibn Khallikan, from whom we quote, finds
these verses very fine. Without disparaging
his taste, we can happily assure our readers
that Ibn al-Bauwabs verses are finer* With
regard to the qalani, however, he rather mya«
tifies us on the very point which would be
most interesting", namely, the manner in
which the nib should be cut or made. He
says : —
"Give your whole attention to the making
of your nib, for on this, verily, all else
depends.
WUJUD
"But do not flatter yourself that I am
going to reveal this secret ; it is a
secret which I guard with a miser's
jealousy.
" All that I will tell is, that you must
observe the goldon mean between a
too much rounded and too tnurh
pointed form."
Disappointed as we are r*l thi« oracular
saying, we will condone him for his niggardly
reticence on account oi his final lines, with
which we will also terminate our article : —
"Let your hand devote its fingers to
writing only useful things that you will
leave behind you on quitting this abode
oi illusion ;
44 For man will find, when the book of his
actions will be unrolled before him, all
that ha has done during the days of
his life."
WUJOD (*&). An existence.
Philosophers say existences are of three
kinds :—
Wajibu V- Wujud, a necessary existence —
God.
Mumkinu 7- Wujtid, a possible existence-
Creation.
Jfumfom'u 'l-Wvjiid, an impossible exis
tence — an Associate with God
WITQUF (Uji,). " Standing."
A name given to those ceremonies of the Pil
grimage which are performed on Mount
'Arr.foh. (Burton, Pilgrimage, vol. ii. p. 383.)
WU£tT' (•**)). The ablution made
before saying the appointed prayers. Those
which are said to be of divine institution are
four in number, namely : to wash (1) the face
from the top of the forehead to the chin, and
as far as each ear ; and (2) the hands and
698
YA HU
arms up to the elbow ; (3) to rub (
with the wet hand a fourth part oi the head ;
also (4) the feet to the ankles. The autho
rity for theso actions is the Qar'nn, Surah v.
8 : " O Believers ! when ye address yourselves
to prayer, wash your hands up to tho olbow,
and wipe your heads, and your feet to the
ankles. ' The Sunms wash the foot : the
Shi'ahs are apparently more correct, for they
only wipe, or rather nib (nuisah) them. In
these ablutions, if the least portion of the
specified part is left untouched, the whole
act becomes useless and tbe prayer which
follows is vain.
The Sunnah regulations (or those esta
blished on the example of Muhammad) re
garding it are fourteen in number. (L) to
make the intention or n't yah of umzu', thus :
" I make this wvzii' for the purpose of putting
away impurity " ; (2) to wash the hand up to
the wrist, but care must be taken not to put
tbe hands entirely into the water, until each
has been rubbed three times with water
poured on it ; (3) to say one of the names of
God at the commencement of the wuiu', thus :
" In the name of the Great God," or ", Thanks
be to God " ; (4) to clean the- teeth (miswdk} ;
(6) to rinse the mouth three times ; ((J> to
put water into the nostrils three times ; (7) to
do all the above in proper order : (8) to do
all without any delay between the various
acts ; (9) each part is to be purified three
times ; (10) the space between the fingers of
one hand must be rubbed with the wet
fingers of the other; (11) the beard must be
combed with the fingers ; (12) the whole head
must be rubbed once; (13) the ears must
be washed with the water remaining on the
fingers after the last operation ; (14) to rub
under and between the toes with the little
finger of the left hand, drawing it from the
little toe of the right foot and between each
toe in succession. [ABLUTION. PRAYKR,
WATER.]
YADU 'LLAH (&\ *). "Hand
of God." The expression occurs in the
Qur'an :—
Surah xlviii. 10: "God's hand is above
their hands."
Surah v. 69 : •' The Jews say, ' God's hand
is fettered."
The expression is a subject of contro
versy amongst the Muhammftdaiis. The
Wahhabis maintain that, it is wrong to hold
that it is merely a figurative expression, bnt
rather that God doth possess a hand in such
a manner as it exists, without attempting to
explain the manner how. On the other hand,
some maintain that it is merely t figurative
expression for God's power.
YAQBC§ (*>j*i). An idol men-
tioned in tbe Qur'an, Surah Ixxi. 23. Pro
fessor Palmer says it was in the figure of a
lion. Al-Baizawi says it wao the name of a
hero who lived between the days of Adam
and Noah, who was afterwards worshipped
in an idol of the name.
YA HIJ (»*li). "O He!" that
is, "O God." An exclamation often recited
by faqir* or darvoshe* in their religious zikrc:
Thff third personal pronoun singular, A*
694
YAHUD
(fiuwd), " He" being a name for God, i.e. "He
who exists." [ZIKR.]
YAHUD (Jj«), the plural of
Yahudi. Heb. VtKf1. Jews- Tn€
word used in the Qur'an (together with Banu
Israil) for the Jews. [JKWS, JUDAISM.]
YAHYA (c^.)- John the Baptist.
The son of Zachariah, whose birth is men
tioned in the Qur'an, Surah six. 1; iii. 34;
and who is said in the latter Surah to have
been sent with glad tidings " to confirm the
Word from God (Jesus), a chief and a chaste
one and a prophet from the righteous." And
in Surah vi. 85, his name occurs with that of
Zachariah. Jesus, and Elias, as one of the
" righteous ones." [JOHN THE BAPTIST.]
YA'JIJJ WA MA'JtJTJfe^ 6j^).
[GOG AND MAGOG.]
YALAMLAM (,JUli). The miq.dt
or stage where the pilgrims from al-Yaman
assume the pilgrim's garb at the pilgrimage.
[HAJJ.]
YAMAMAH (A-W). A province
in the eastern portion of the Hijaz frequently
mentioned in the history of Muhammad.
AL-YAMAN (^\). The south-
western province of Arabia. It is con
sidered the most fertile part of the country,
and is called the garden of Arabia.
Y.AMIN
[OATH.]
AL-YAQIN (<***«). "The cer-
lainty." (1) A term which implies belief,
sure * knowledge, and which occurs in the
Qur'an to express the hour of death.
Surah Ixxiv. 43-48 : " They shall say, ' We
were not of those who prayed, we did not feed
the poor ; but we did plunge into discussion
with th6se who plunged, and we called the
Judgment Day a lie until the certainty did
come upon us.'"
Surah xv. 99 : " Serve the Lord until the
certainty come upon thee."
Muslims say there are three degrees of
spiritual knowledge : —
1. 'limit 'l-Yaqln ((#!&J\ ^) , that which
a man apprehends with his intellectual
faculties.
2. 'AtRu'l-Yaqin ((.y-Jutt ^*c) , that which
he yees with the eye.
3. Haq^l-Yaqli^f^A^ j^.), that which
be fully embraces with the heart ; the highest
form of spiritual knowledge, especially of the
Unity of God.
YAQT1N (,^5,). Heb.
The gourd tree under which Jonah sheltered
after he escaped from the belly of the fish.
YAUMU 'L-ASHURA'
Surah xxxvii. 145, 146 : " We cast him on t
barren shore : and he was sick : and we inad<
to grow over him a yourd tree."
YA'QUB
[JACOB.]
YA SIN (0*. \i)- The two Arabic!
letters ^ and <j* corresponding tcj
the English y and s. The title of the xxxvrtr >
Surah of the Qur'an, which begins with these !
two letters, the mystic import of which i?i
said to be unknown. Al-Baizawi says per-,
haps they mean Yd Insan! (^jLj\ U), "Cj
Man ! " Husain suggests that they mean Ycj
Saiyid! (j^ \>), "0 Saiyid!" whilst tht!
Jalalan think the meaning is known alone tcj
God. Muhammad said this chapter was thej
Qfllbu 'I- Qur'an, "the heart of the Qur'an,' |
ind it is consequently held in high estima-1
tion. It is usually read to dying persons.
Yd Sin is a title given to Muhammad witbt
the belief that he is referred to as " 0 Saiyid,' j
in the first vers.e of the Surah referred to.
YAgEIB (s^t). The ancient;
name of al-Madmah, mentioned once hi the;
Qur'an, viz. Surah xxxiii. 13. According tcj
the traditionist, the Prophet changed the
name from Yasrib to Madinatu 'n-Nabi, " thef
| City of the Prophet," because Yasrib was a
name of shame and reproach. (Majma'u 74
Bihar, vol. iii. p. 499.)
YA'SUB (v»r^)- L't- " A priuce!
or chief." The King of the Bees. A tifclej
given to 'All. (Majmafu 'l-Bifidr, vol. iiij
p. 502.) A name of one of Muhammad'tji
horses. (Richardson's Dictionary.)
YATHRIB. [Y/A.SRIB.]
YATIM ({„&). [ORPHAN.]
YAUM (^). A day of twenty-
four hours ; pL aiydm. In contradiction tc|
lail tva nahdr, " night and day."
The seven days of the week are known
as : —
Yaumu 'l-afaad, first day, Sunday.
Yaumu V-egnam, second day, Monday.
Yaumu 'll-sala?ff, third day, Tuesday.
Yaumu 'l-orba'd', fourth day, Wednesday, j
Yaumu 'l-khamis, fifth day, Thursday.
Yaumu 'l-jum'ah, day of Assembly, Friday, j
Yaumu 's-sabt, Sa bbath day, Saturday.
). "Day
of Judgment."
Surah i. ; " The King of the Day of Judu-l
ment."
Siirah Ixxxiii. 17 : " What shall make (bed
Know what the Day of Judgment is?"
AL- YAUMU '
" The Last Day." A name given in the Qur'an
to the Day of Judgment.
YAUMU 'L.'ASHURA'
\). The tenth day of the month!
uharram, ['ASHURA'.]
YAUMU 'L-FASL
iAZID
695
YAUMU 'L-FASL
Day of Severing." The Day of Judgment.
iurah Ixxvii. 13, 14: "For tho Day of
ievering I and who shall teach thee what tho
)ay of Severing is ? ''
YAUMU 'L-FITR(>d\ r^). "The
)ay of breaking the fast." ['n>u 'L-FITR.]
YAUMU 'L-HARA' (.\^\ &).
•The day of tho stony country. "mentioned
n tho Traditions. (Mishkatu 'l-Afttsdbih, book
txiv. ch. ix.) The day on which Yazid sent
in army to al-Madmah and laid it in ruin*.
[See Ockley's Saracens, p. 425.)
YAUMU 'L-HASHR (3&+)\ r>>)-
" Day of Assembly." Tho Day of Judgment.
YAUMU 'L-HISAB (
"Day of Reckoning." Tho Day of Judg
ment. Surah xl. 1?8 : " And Moses said,
Verily, I will take refuge in my Lord ami
your Lord from every one who -is big with
pride, and believes not on tho Day ofafckon-
YAUMU 'L-INQITA'
M The Day of Cessation." The day on which
anything terminates. In law, the last day on
•which anyone who has- become possessed of
property illegally may restore it, or make
compensation to the owner,
YAUMU 'L-.TAM'
•« Day of Gathering." The Day of Judgment.
Surah Ixiv. 9: "On the day when He shall
gather you to tl cDay of Gathering."
YAUMU 'L.IQIULUD (ojUN _0i).
"Day of Eternity." Surah 1. 34: "Enter
into it in peace: this is the D«y of Eternity."
YAUMU 'L-IfflURUJ (e^t r#).
"The Day of Exodus." The Day of Judg
ment. Surah L 41 : " The day when they
shall hear tho shout in truth ; that is, the
Day of Coming Forth."
YAUMU 'L-QARR (/N r^).
." The Day of Rest." The day after the sacri
fice at the Hajj, when tho pilgrims rest.
YAUMU 'L - QIYAMAH
**W\). " Day of Standing up." The
Day of Resurrection." [RESURRECTION.]
YAUMU 'L-WA'ID (^ ry.).
" The Day of Threatenings." The Day of
Judgment. Surah 1. 19 : " And tho trumpet
shall be blown 1— that is the threatened
day."
YAUMUNMA'LUMUN (?}** &).
" A Known Day,'' i.e.. known to God. Tho
Day of Judgment, Surah Ivi. 50 : " Gathered
shall they surely bo for the tryst oi a k
day "
YAUMU 'N-NAHR
"Day of Sacrifice." A term used for tho
Feast of Sacrifice. ['IDU '
I YAUMU 'S-SABU'
The " Day of Sabu'," mentioned in the follow
ing tradition (Jftftttrftl 'l-M« : xxiv
ch. 16) :—
" Abu Hurnirah says, ' Whilst a man wa.s
with his goats, behold a wolf canio in au.
them, and took a gont ; and tho niai- i
it. And tho wolf said to the m-m, •• \\"n-,
is to guard these gouts on '
when thoro will be- no »h«pherd t-nt me.M
And the people suul, •> The wolf sj,
And tbo Prophet said, <• I lielipvo that th..-
wolf did sj)eak.'' Abu Bfl-cr and *\}m;
said so.' n
'Abdu '1-Haq-i says there is a diffenmr-e
of opinion as t<» what the Day of >Vnu- i-.
either it is a day of insurrection, or a fes
tival amongst the ancient .Arabs-, when th<>
flocks wore loft to th'-'niR^lve*:
YAUMU 'T-TAQSABUN (»*
&^\), " Day of Mutual D^r^it."
The Dny of Judgment. Surah Ixiy. 1>: -'On
that day when bo shall gather you to the Day of
Gathering, that is the Day of Mutual T'
Al-Baiziiwi says : i( Both the righteoi
the wicked will disappoint each othov h? ro-
vcrsing their positions, the wicked heing
punishod, while the righteous are in blis«."
YAUMU 'T-TALAQ (Jte\ &
" Day of Meeting." The Day of Jun-
Surah xl. 15 : " He throws the Spirit hy
bidding \ipon whom He will ot His sor
to give warning of the D<iy r>f AFeetmy."
YAUMU 'T-TANAD (oud^ ^).
" A Day of Mutual Outcry." A iiaino given
to the Day of Judgment in the Qur'an. Surah
xl. 34 : "0 my people I verily I fear for you '
the day of crying out to one another"
YA'UQ (jy**). An idol mentioned
in the Qur'an, Siirah Ixxi. 23. Professor
Palmer says it was in the figure of a horse.
Al-Baiziiwi says it is the name of a certain
hero who lived between the days of Adam
and Noah, and was afterwards worshipped in
an idol of the name.
YAWNING. Arabic tasa-icui.
(v>jU»). From the Traditions it
appears yawning is regarded as an evil ; for
Abu Hurairah relates that Muhammad said,
" God loves sneezing and hates yawning. As
for yawning, it is of the dovil. Therefore, if
any of you yawn, let him suppress it as much
as possible. If he cannot stop it. let him put
the back of his left hand upon his mouth ; for,
verily, when anyone yawns and opens his
mouth, tho devil laughs." (Mishktit, book
xxii. ch. vi.)
YAr/U- (-V-A The sou of Mu'a-
i WI'VMI.. Tho second Kh.ili.'V.i: rf the house of
I in.' \a'u ;i i'f'iivH1 - >. wb'i ;-c:.'::r'l from A D.
679 to A.D. o83 (A.H. 60-64). He is celeU.vtod
in Muslim history m tho opponent • f al-
Husain. (See Ockley's tlitt. Saracens, p.
393.)
696
YEAR
YEAB Arabic sanak (^-»)» pi.
sanun, sanawdt ; 'dm (f^), pi. a1 warn ;
haul (Jy^), pi. ahwtil}- Persian sal
(JU), pi. goZfoi.
The ancient Arabian year is supposed to
have consisted of twelve lunar months, as
now observed by the Muhammadaus ; but
about the year A. D. 412, the Arabians intro
duced a system of intercalation, whereby one
month -was intercalated into every three
years. (See -M. de Perceval, vol. i. p. 242).
This system of intercalation existed in the
time of Muhammad ; but it is related that, at
the farewell pilgrimage, the Prophet recited
tho khufcbah on the Day of Sacrifice, and
said : " A year is twolve months only, as at
the tiuia of the creation," and thus again in
troduced the lunar year. (See Mishktit, book
xi. oh. xi.) Thi^ Muhammadan year, there
fore, consists of twelve lunar months, without
any intercalation to make it correspond with
the course of the sun, and amounts very
nearly to 354 days and 9 hours. Hence the
Muhammadan New Year's Day, Jffau JRoz,
will happen every year about eleven days
earlier than in the preceding year.
There also existed amongst the Arabians a
system of commutation whereby the Mubar-
ram, the last of the three continuous sacred
months [MONTHS}, became sftculur, and Safar
sacred. Some traditions say that the power
also existed of commuting the isolated sacred
month Rajab, for the one succeeding if,
Shefban. When this was done, it became
lawful te war in the eacrod months of Mu-
harram and HP jab ; and Safar and Sha'ban
acquired th« sacredness of the months for
wbi«vh they h.td hems substituted. It is with
reference to this custom that Muhammad
<?nys in the Qur'an (Surah ix. 36, 37) : —
" Verily, twelve months is the number of
months with God. according to God's Book,
ever since the day when He created the
Heavens and the Earth; of these, four are
sacred: this it> the right usage. Therefore,
wrong not yourselves therein, and attack
those who join gods with God, one and nil, as
they attack you one and all •, and know that
God is with those who fear Him. To carry over
a sacred month to another i* only an increase
of unbelief. They who do not believe are led
in error by it They allow it one year and
torbid it another, that they may make good
the number of months which God hath hal
lowed, and they allow that which God hath
prohibited."
This system of commutation is said to have
been introduced by Qusaiy, who wished, by
abridging the long three months' cessation of
hostilities, to humour the warlike Arabs, as
well as to obtain the power of making a
sacred month secular when it might best
Suit his purpose ; but Sir William Muir is in
clined to think that this system of commuta-
YTISUF
lion was an ancient_one, and merely restored by
Qusaiy. (Muir's "Mahomet y vol. i. p. ccvfii)
Both in India and in* Egypt, in the present
day, the Muhammadans use the lunar year
for their religious observances and the ordi
nary affairs of life ; but for the purposes of
agriculture and other calculations, for which
the lunar year is inconvenient, they employ
the Julian calendar.
To find the number of solar years elapsed
since any given Muhammadan date, subtract
the given year of the Hijrah from the cur-
rent year of the Hijrah, and from the re
mainder ded\ict three per cent. ; the remainder
will be the number of solar years which have
elapsed. Thus, suppose we see a manuscript
written A.H. 681, and wish to know its real
age in Christian or solar years, we subtract,
in the first place, the number 681 from the
current year of the Hijrah, say 1256, and
there remains 575 ; from this last we deduct
three per cent, or 17, and there remains 558j
which at that period is the real age of the
manuscript in solar years.
If the object, however, be to find the pre
cise Christian date corresponding to any
given year of the Hijrah, apply the following
rule : — From the given number of Musalman
years, deduct three per cent., and to the re
mainder add the number 62154; the sum is
tLe period of the Christian era at which the
given current Musalman yeir ends/ For
example: from A.H. 042, deduct three per
cent., or 28-26, and the remah. ler is 913-74.
To this last add 621-54, anr the sum is
1535-28, which shows that A.II. 942 ended in
she spring of A.J>. 1536, This simple rule is
founded on the fact that 100 lunar years are
very nearly equal to 97 solar years, there
being only eight days of excess in the former
period ; hence to th« result found, as just
stated, it will be requisite to add 8 days, as a
correction for every century.
The following is a more accurate rule.
Express the Muhammadan date in years and
decimals of a year ; multiply by -970225 ; to
the product add 621*64, and the sum will be
the precise period ot the Christian era. (Dr.
HVrbes.)
If it Is desired to find the year of the Hij
rah which comes in in a given year of the
Christian era ; it is sufficient to subtract 621
from the year given, and to multiply the
remainder by 10,307. (Murray.)
YtTHANNA (U^). The Arabic
Christian name for John the Baptist, and
John the Apostle, the corresponding Muslim
name being Yakya. [YAHYA.]
YUNUS (u-i*.). [JONAH,]
YtJSHA'
YUSDJB1
[JOSHUA.]
[JOSEPH.]
ZABH
ZABT
697
/ABU
Heb. nit
AraNie lexicographers define the word to
nienn the act of cutting th« throat. In the
language of the law. it denotes the act of
6 lay ing an animal agreeably to th<« prescribed
forms, without which its tiVsh is tiot lawful
for the food of man. See Qv.r'nn, Surah ii.
lf,7, 1H8:—
" Eat of the good things wherewith we
havo provided you, find /jive thank* vnto
God, if ye are His worshippers. He has only
forbidden for you that which is dead, and
blood, and fl«»b of swme, and whatsoever has
been consecrated to other than God < but he
who is forced, neither revolting uor trans
gressing, it is no sin for him : for verilv God
is for^ving and merciful.''
The injunctions in the Traditions are more
explicit (Miskk&t, book xviii. eh. i.), for
example: Abu 'jTufail relate^ that 'Ali was
ouce asked, " Has the Prophet ever told you
anything with regard to religion which ho has
not told others ? " And 'Ali replied. " Nothing.
unless it be that which 1 have in the scab
bard of my sword." Then "Alt brought
out of hi b scabbard a pioce of paper, and
thereon was written: <: May God curse those
who slay without repeating the name of.God,
in the same manner as t"he polytheists, did in
the names of their idols ; may God curse those
who remove their neighbours' landmarks;
may God curse those who curse their fathers ;
may God curse those who harbour innovators
in matters of religion."
a ding to Sutmi law, zabk is of two
kinds : (i) Ihknyart, of choice ; and (2) lzt.i-
rcr;, of necessity.
The first is effected by cutting the throat
above the breabt and reciting the word*
Alldhu ukbar, •« God is most great " ; and the
second by reciting these words upon shooting
»n arrow or discharging a gun.
The latter aot, however, is merely a sub
stitute for the former, auu accordingly ia not
of any account unless the former be imprac
ticable ; for the proper zakh is held to be by
the shedding of blood, and the former method
is most effectual for this purpose.
It is absolutely necessary that the person
who slays the animal should t*>. a Muslim or
a kilabi(i.c. a Jew or a Christian), and that
he should do it in the name of God alone :
it signifies not whether the person be a njnn
or a woman, or an infant, or an idiot, or an
uneircumcised person.
Au animal slain by *» Magian is unlawful
as also that slain, by an idolater or a poly-
theist. Zalih performed byanapostaiefrona t:ie
Muslim taith (who is svorthy of deatto) i« also
unlawful; but, according to Abu H&nifah, if
a Jew or a Christian become an apostate from
his own creed, his zubft is lawful, for the Mu«-
lim law Htill regards him, with respect to zcthh}
in the same light as formerly.
If ihe slayer wilfully omit the invocation,
"In the name of the most great God," the
flesh of the aeumal is unlawful ; but if he omit
the invocation through forgetful ness, it i»
lawful, although there is some difference of
opinion on this subject amongst ihw Sunni
doctors. ,\8h-ShaH'I is of opinion that the
auimal is lawful in either case, but the Imam
MSlik maiutains that it is unlawful in both.
Abu Yfitntf and all the Hanafl doctorn have
(i. that an animal Klain under a wilful
ornism'on of ihe invocation i^ utterly uniaw-
fal, and that the magistrate must forbid the
sale of meat so killed.
ft is a condition of joM ikhtiiftn-i that the
invocation be pronounced over the animal at
the time of slaying it : but in th« caae of rdbh
iitirari (i.e. when a person ahiys an tuiunal
m hunting), the condition is that the invoca
tion be pronounced at the time of letting
loose the hound or hawk, or of shooting the
arrow or gun, or casting the sponr.
Jt is a condition of tahft that nothing but
the invocation Bismi 'Hahi Alldhi nkbar. " It>
the uame of God, God the most great," should
be said. That is, no prayer or other matter
must be mentioned.
The place for slayiug is betwixt the throat
and the head of tbe breast-bone (Arabic
, and the vessels it is requisite 10 cut
are four, al-hulqiim, " the wind-pipe," al-mur?.
u the gullet.'1 and al-wariJan, or ai-wadajan.
li the two jugular veins."
Ash-Shafi'i holda that if a man slay an
animal with a nail or horn or teeth, tbe flesh
is unlawful, but this is not the opinion of
other doctors. (See Durru '/-MnMtdr and
) in loco.}
AZ-ZABlNlYAH (^jN). Lit.
-Guards." The angels in charg-e of hell, of
wbt-m Malik is said to be the-chief. SuraL
xovi, 17, 18: "So let him call his council :
we will call the guards of hell (
7.AB1HAH
divided lengthways
Hub
Lit." Cut or
\2\ *efaM. An
animal slaughtered according to tho law : a
sticririce. f LAWFUL FOOD, bAcRnricBfl.]
ZABlR (^3). A name for Mount
Sinai. Al-BnizawI Bays it is the mountain
on which tBe Lord conversed .with MOHOS.
[aJNAi, TUB.]
ZABT (W-*). " Occupation, sei
zure." In Muhammad an law it means attach
ment, distraint, or sequestration; taking
698
ZABUB
ZAINAB
lands under the management of Government
officers.
ZABtfR (jpij), pi. subur. Also
subur, pi. of zibr. From the Heb. rVV^t
T '• *
zimrah, " a psalm or chant " (Psa. Ixxxi. 2,
xcviii. 5). The title given to the Psalms of
Day id -in the Quran, whero it occurs only
three times.
Stiratu 'n-Nisa? (iv.) 161 : « And to David
we gave Psalms (zaburarij."
Suratu !l-Mir<aj (xvii.) 67: "And Psalms
(gaburany we gave to David."
Siiratu 1-Ambiya* (xxi.) 105: "And now,
since the exhortation (zikr) was given, have
we written in the Psalms (fi 'z-saburi) that
my servants the righteous shall inherit the
earth."
Both Sale and Rodwell take this last to be
a quotation from Psa. xxxvii. 29 (ft appears
to be the only direct quotation from either
the Old or New Testament in the whole of
the Qur'an), and they have both translated the
Arabic gikr k<the law," meaning, of course,
the Taurdt. Amongst Muslim commentators,
there, is considerable difference of opinion as
to what is meant in this verse by gi/-r and
tttfair.
The commentator al-Baizawi says there
are three views. SaH ibu Jubair and Mu-
jaiyid explained the wr»-d .a Liu to mean all
inspired books, and that by zikr was meant
the Preserved Tablet (al-Lauliu '1-MabfiLe).
J.bn 'Abbas and az-Zahhak said by zabvr was
oaeant the Tanrat, and by zikr those books
which came after. And Sha'bi said the zabur
was the Book of 'David, and the zikr that oi
Moses.
Al-Bajjhawi and al-Jalalan decide in favour
of the first interpretation, Husain decides in
favour of the third, whilst al-Baizawt leaves
it an open question.
Jalaln 'd-dln as-Suyuti gives the word zaltir
as one of the fifty-five titles of the QurMn.
•'Outward, exte
rior, manifest.*" A wot d much used in Mus
lin* theology to express that which is maau-
foei. »s distinguished from battn. " interior,'5
or Ma/'» " that which is hidden."
ZACHARIAS. Arabic
(*^&)' [ZAKARIYA*.]
ZAMB (^). Lit. "Drawing
back the breath because of distress ; groan
ing." In the Qur'an, for the groans of hell.
-Surah xi. 108 : " In the Fire, there shall
they groan."
ZA'FIRANIYAH (M^;. A
seel of Muslims, who say the Qur'an is a
created thing, the orthodox school maintain
ing that the WoKti of God is uncreated.
(Kitabn 'l-Talrlfdt, in loco.}
ZAI.IF. (v*»)), Lit. "Aswariniag
multitude." An army; a military force ar
rayed for battle.
Qur'an, Surah viii. 15 : •« 0 ye who belie vo !
when ye meet the fcarshalied hosts of the un
believers, tuna not your backs to them."
Hence, battle, combat.
ZAEID(J*Vj). Lit. "Abstinent;
continent." An ascetic person. Zdkid-i-
Persian, <« a digeembler, a hypocrite."
Az-ZAHIB (pm\ « The Evident/9
One of the ninety-nine attributes of God.
Qur'fin, Surah Iviii. 3: "Hois the First
and the Last, the JKcident and the Hidden."
Z.AHITSU 'L-MAZHAB (yfcli
s^fc^J^). An expression used by
Hanaii Muslims for those theological ques
tions which are decided in the four well-
known SunnI books : (d-Malsut, ul-Jdmru 'I-
Kablr. al-Jami'v 's-Sayhlr, us-Sairu 'l-Kabir.
ZAHIRU 'L-MUMKINAT (^
«jt>UX*43\). An expression used by
theologians for the proofs of God's existence,
power, and attributes, as exhibited in nature]
ZA1D IBN AL-H&RI3 (^ *j
*£»jL. Ss— *\y. Muhammad's freednian and
adopted son. Muhammad having seen and
admired Zaid's wife Zainab, her huiihand
divorced her. The relations of the ancient
Arabs to their adopted children were very
strict, and Muhammad's marriage with the
divorced wife oi his adopted son occasioned
much scandal amongst nis contemporaries.
A revelation was consequently produced
which revoked the inconvenient restrictions.
Surah xxxiii. 37: -And when Zaid had
settled the necessary matter of her divorce,
we did wed her to tiioo, that it might not be
a crime iu the faithful to marry the wives of
their adopted sons, when they have settlod the
necessary affair concerning them."
Zaid was slain at the battle of Mutah, as
he carried the standard of Islam, A.M. 8.
ZAIDIYAH '(***j)- A Shi'ali
sect. Those who followed Zaid the son of
*Ali ibn al- Husain instead of the other son
Ja'iar as-Sadiq. [sm'AH.j
ZAIGH (£-*)). •&'*• "Turned
aside" ("from the Truth}. It occurs in the
Quran, Surah iii. 5. 6: "In whose hearts is
perversity. ... 0 Lord, pervert not our
hearts."
ZAINAB (vmj). The daughter of
Khuzahnah and the widow of 'Ubaid, Mu
hammad's cousin, who was slain at Budr.
She married Muhammad in the third year of
the Hijrah. Zainab was renowned for her
kindness to the poor, and was called Uinmu
"i-Mcisdkin, " the mother of the poor," from
her care of destitute converts. She and
Kljadijah were the only wives ol the Prophet
who died before him.
ZAINAB (H-^J). The daughter
of Jahsh and the divorced wife of Muham
mad's adopted son Zaid. Being the wife of
an adopted son, she was unlawful to the
Prophet, but a pretended rovelation (see
Qnr'an, Surah xxxiii. 37) settled the dif
ficulty, and Muhanjmad married her.
HAWMAD.l
ZAINAB BINT MUHAMMAD
ZAINAB BINT MUHAMMAD
(<u^y» u^'4 s-^i)). The daughter of
Muh;:mnjad by Khadijah. She married Abu
l-'As The story of the conversion oi Abu
l-*Aa, thiough the devotion cxf hia wile, is
told by Mnir vvol. iv p. 7). She died
Au bl"
ZA'IR (/-"I;). A pilgrim to
Muhaunjjad',- grave ftt al-Madinnh, :u> listiii
guided from aAa/>. or pUgrim to Makkah
According to Burton. Za'irs ar« ordered to
visit the iamb perfumed and in their host
clothes. Tho person who conducts the zctii
to the sacred spot, is called * nmzau'u:ir, who
on tho occasion of Captain Burton's, visit re
cited tho following prayer •-
" In the name of Allah and in tho Fajth of
Allah's Prophet I 0 Lord, cause me to enter
the entering of truth, and cause mo to issuo
forth tho Usuiw? of Truth, and permit ine to
draw ;iear to Thee and make me a King vic
torious I " (i.e. over tho world, the Gesh, and
the devil;. Then follow blosaings on Che Pro-
phot, and afterwards: " O Allah I open to me
the doora of Thy mercy, -and grant ine en
trance into it, and protect me from the stoned
devil!" (Burton's El- Medina h and Mecca fi.
vol. ii. p. 206.)
ZAKAKIYA' (.^;). Zacliari&s.
The father of John Baptist ; the husband of
Hannah's sister ; and tbe uncle of the Virgin
iM'.irv. Mentioned four times in the Qnr'an : —
SuraL ' iii. 32: " So with goodly accep
tance uid her Lord accept her, -with goodlv
growth did He make her grow, and Zakariyii'
roared her. So oft as Zakariya' went in to
Mary at the (sanctuary, he found her supplied
with food. k Oh Mary 1 ' saM he, ' whence
hast tliou this '{ • She said, ' It is from God :
verily God supplieth whom He will without
reckoning!' There did Zakuriya' call upon
his Lcrd ; ' 0 my Lord ! ' said he, ' vouchsafe
mo from Thyself good descendants; Thou
verily art the hearer of prayer.' Then -did
the n Qgela cull to him, AK he stood praying in
the sanctuary : • God announced John (Yahya)
to thee, who* shall be a vcriher of tne Word
from God, and a great one, chaste, and a pro-
phot of the number of tho just.' He said,
' 0 iny Lord ! how shall I have a son now
thut old age has come upon me ami my wife
is barren ? ' He said : * Thus will God do his
pleasure.' He said, ' Lord ! give me a token.'
He said, 'Thy token is, that not for three
days shalt thou speak to man but by signs.
But remember thy Lord often, and praise
Him at even and at morn.' "
Surah vi. 85 : " And Zakariya', John, Jesus,
*nd Klias : all were just persons/
Surah xix. 1-12: " A recital of thy Lord's
mercy to His servant Zakariya', when he
called upon his Lord with secret calling. He
said : ' O Lord, verily my bones are weak
and the hoar hairs glisten on my h'-ad. and
never, Lord, have I prayed to Thee v.itii ill
success. But now I have fear for my kjn-
dred after me ; and my wife is barren : Give
me then, a successor as Thy special gift and
ZAKAT 699
an neu uf the" family of Jacob: and make
him Frf.rd, Hell-pleasing to Thee.' ' 0 Zaks-
n>d, verily We announce to Thee a aon,--
his name Yu.hy» (John) : that uumo We have-
^tveu to n«7ntJ betoro him.' He snid : ' 0 my
Lord ! how when my -vife IH barren shall I
hare a aon. and whon I have now reached
old af?p. failing in my powers?' He said:
1 So shall it bo. Thy Lord hath said, Eauy
is thid to Mu. for I created thoo aforetim*
when thou natit nothing.' !{•> y>iid : ' Vcuoh-
sa/e mo. O my Lord ! a sigr..' Ho «=»id : ' Thy
aign shall be that for three nights, though
sound in health, thou ^pcukc^t uot to man'
And he came forth from the sanctuary tO'hw
people, and made signs to tiiem as though
ho woiild say. * Praise God at morn ?nd
even.' "
Surah Vxi. 80. "And Zakariya', when lie
called upon his Lord saying. •' O my Lord
leave me m/t r-hildlefts:" but there* is no
better boil- than Thyself.1 So We, heard him
•iud gavo him Yahya (John\ *nd We
Jiis wife tit for chi "
ZAKAT (ft/\). In iU primitive
sense the word xitkat tneann purijitnti^n.
whence it i« also used to express H portion of
property bestowed in alms, as n Bancvilicrttun
of u.e remainder to the proprietor, Ifk an
iiidtttution of J slam and founded upon on ex
p«.ss ouninmud in the Qur'An (tide SiiraL ii.
7j~). being one of the five founds tinn« of
practical religion.
It is a religious duty incumbent upon any
person nhtm free, sane, adult, and a Muslim,
provided Le be possessed in full property of
such estate or effects as are termed m the
language of tue law ju'silh, and that he ha§
been in possesxion of the same for the space
of one complete yonr. Tin? Mfub, or tixod
amount of property upon which zakal i« du«n
i varies with reference tc the different kinds of
[ property in possession, an will be seen in the
present article.
Tho one complete year in which the pro
perty is held in possession is termed hiuiiu 7
haul. Zukat is not incumbent upon a man
against whom there are debts equal to or
exceeding the amount of bis whole property,
nor is it due upon the necessaries of life,
such fl? dwelling-houses, or articles of cloth
ing, or household furniture, or cattle kept
for immediate use, or slaves employed as
actual servants, or urtnonr and weapons de
signed for present use, or npon books of
science and theology used by scholars, or
upon tools used by craftsmen.
(\) The znkut'of cmnck. Zakut is not
duo upon less than five camels, and upon nr«
camels it is one goat or sheep, provided they
subsist upon pasture throughout the year,
because zakat is only due upon such camels an
live on pasture, and not upon those which are
fed in tho borne with forage. One goat is doe
upon any rmmbei of camels trom fire to nine;
two gc&t* /or any number of camels from ten
to fourteen : thrw goats for any number from
twenty to twenty-four. Upon any number of
camels frcm twenty-five to tbirty-nw the
700
ZAKAT
ZAKHA'IRH 'LLAH
is a hint mi^haz, or a yearling female
camel; from thr'rty-six to forty- five, a bint
labun, or a. two-year-old female carnei ; from
forty-six to sixty, a hiyqah, or a tbre'e-
year-old female camel ; from sixty-one to
seventy-five, a juz'ah, or four-year-old female
camol ; from seventy-five to ninety, two
camels' female two-year-old colts; and from
ninety-one to one hundred and twenty, two
camels' female three-year-old colts. When
the number of camels exceeds one hundred
and twenty, the zakat is calculated by the
aforesaid rule.
(2) The zakat of butts, <:ov>s} and lujfalo&s.
No zakat is duo upon fewer than thirty cattle,
and upon thirty cattle which feed on pasture
for the greater part of the year, there is due at
the end of the year a tabi'ak, or a one-year-
old calf; and upon forty is due a miisim^ or a
calf of two years old; and where th« number
exceeds forty, the zakat is to be calculated
according to this rale. For example, upon
sixty,, the zakat is two yearling calve*; upon
seventy, one tabl'ah and oue inusim; upon
eighty, two musims ; upon ninety, three
to&'a/i; ttpon one .hundred, two tabl'aJis and
cue mMim ; arid -thus upon every ten head of
cattle a miisim and a tabrah alternately.
Thus upon one hundred and ten kine, the
fcakat is two musims and one tabi'ah ; and
upon one hundred and twenty, four tabt'aks.
The usual method, howsver, o( calculating
tho zakat upon large herds of cattle is by
dividing them into thirties and forties, impos
ing upon every thirty one fabi'ah., or upon
every forty one musim.
(3) Zakat upon sheep and goats. No zakat
is due upon less than forty, which have fed
tho greater part cf the year upon pasture,
upon which is due one goat, until the num
ber reaches: one hundred and twenty ; for one
hundred and twenty-one to two hundred, it is
two goats or sheep; a-nd above this, one for
every hundred. Tho same rules apply to both
sheep and goats, because in the Traditions
the original word ahanttm applies to both
species,
(4) Zakat upon horses. When horses and
mares are kept indiscriminately tog-ether, fee-d
ing for the greater part of the year on pas-
tore, it is the option of the proprietor to give
a zakat of one dinar per head for the whole,
or to appreciate the whole, and give five per
cent, upon the total value. No zakat what
ever is due upon droves of horses confiisting
entirely of males or entirely oC mares. There
is no zakat due upon horses or mules, unless
they are articles of merchandise, nor is it due
upon war horses, or upon beasts of. burden,
ur -upon cattle kept for drawing ploughs and
so forth.
(5) Zakat upon silver. It is not due upon
silver of l-'.ss value than two hundred dir-
!«#ffis. but if one be possessed of this sura for
a whole year, the zakat due upon it is five
eiirh.'tms. N'o zakslt is due upon an excess
above d:e two hundred dirhaais till such ex
cess amoo.ru t<-> forty, upon which the zakat is
one dirham, uud for every succeeding forty,
'.•w airham. Th •.:**> dirhams in which silver
predominates are to be accounted silver, and
tho laws respecting silver apply to them,
although they should contain some alloy ;
and the same rule holds with regard to all
articles falling under the denomination of
plate, such aa cup* and goblats.
(6) Zakat upon gvlJ. No zakat is due upon
gold under the value of twenty mia.qals, and
the zakiit due irpoa twenty raiaqale is half a
misqal. When the quantity oi gold exceeds
twenty misqals, on every four misqals above
twenty am due two qirats, ami so on in pro-
protion.
Zakat is due upou gold and silver bullion,
and upon all gold and silver ornaments and
utensils.
(7) Zakat upon articles of merchandise.
Articles; of merchandise should be appraised,
and a. zakat of 2£ per cent, paid upon the
value, if it exceed two hundred dirhams in
value.
(8) Zakiit opou mtnes, or buried treasures.
Mines of gold, silver, iron, lead, or copper, are
subject to A zakat of one -fifth (/chumf) ; bnt it
the mine is discovered within the precincts of
a person's own home, nothing is due. And if
a person find a deposit of bvried treasure, a
fifth is due upon it. No zakat is due upon
precious stones.
(9) Zakat upon the fruits of the earth.
Upon everything produced from the ground
there i*» a tenth (*o.$A»V -or <«sAr), whether the
soil be watered by the overflow of rivers or
by periodical raias, excepting the articles of
wood, bamboo, and grass, which are not sub
ject to th<* tithe. Land watered by means of
buckets, or machinery, or watering camels,
is subject to a twentieth. Honey and fruits
collected in the wilderness are subject to
tithe.
The zakat is received by a collector duly
appointed /or the purpose, although it is law
ful for the possessor to distribute his alms
himself. If a person corny to the collector,
and make a declaration on oath as to the
amount of his property upoa which zakat is
due, his statement is to be credited.
There are sewn descriptions of persons upon
whom zakat may be bestowed.
(1) Faqlrs, or persona possessed of pro
perty, the whole of which, however, does aot
amount to a nua6.
(2) Miskias, or persons who have no pro
perty whatever,
(3) The collector of zakat.
(4) Slaves.
(5) Deptors.
(6) Fi sabili 'llaJi, i.e. in the service of God,
or religious warfare.
(7) Travellers.
The above laws with reference to zakat
are those according to the Hanafiyah sect,
but the differences amongst the Imams of
the Sunnis on this subject are but small.
They may be seen upon reference to Ha
milton's translation of the fliddyah> roJ. i.
p. 1.
'LLAH (*M /Wo).
Lit. " Repositories of God." A Suu term for
ZAKIR
701
a clafis ol believers who, oa account of thfair
spiritual attainments, are the moans of pre-
renting troubles in a nation, in the same
manner ag stores (-zakhfir^) of grain keep
away famines.
7AKIR (/U). One who remem
bers God by reciting His names and praises.
The roc it e r o f a z « /lr. [z I KR. "]
ZALALAH (a^u). " Error." The
word frequently occurs in the Qur'au, e.g.
Surah ii. 15: " Thase aie they who have
purchased error, at the price of th« guidance."
ZAMB (s— •>), pi *«*»&. "A
sin; a crime." A charge of such. The word
occurs frequently in tho Qur'an,€.y. : —
Surah Kxvi. 13: "They have a chary tt
against me -.(/.«. Aaron), and I fear lest they
put na<j to death."
Surah \1. 2 : [From God] "tne furgiver of
fin."
Surah Ixxxi. 9. " For what crime sue was
put to death." [SIN.]
ZAMZAM (,»>-;). The sacred well
withij; the precincts of the mosque at Mak-
ksh. It is supposed to be the identical spring
from which Hagar ajid Islimael drank in the
wilderness (Genesis xvi. 4). but. which is
stated in the Scriptures to ha\-e been between
Kadesh and Bared.
The origin of the '-vord za.vz?r//n is uncer
tain. According to Jonrison's Arabic Dic
tionary, it means the low buzzing sound,
made by the ancient fire -worshippers, and
may therefore allude to the murmuring oi
the water of the well. S^-me Muslim com
mentators derive it from zti.min .' ~amm ! i.e.
" fill! fill ! " II a gar's words to Ishuiuel when
she -saw the water. 8ale translates it:
"Stay! Stay!" and adds that Hngar called
om in the Egyptian language i<> pr-ivtiu
Ishnuel wandering.
The building' which encloses the well Zaru-
zain stands close by the Maqam Hanbail, and
vas erected in A.H. 1072 (A.D. 1661). Accord
ing to Burckhardt, it is of a square shape, and
ol massive construction, with an entrance to
the north, opening into the room which
contains the well. This room is beauti
fully ornamented with marbles of various
colours; and adjoining to it, but having a
separate door, is a small room with a stone
reservoir, which is always full of Zsm/am
water. This the pii$rimft get to drink by
passing their hand, wjth a oup, through an
iron-crated opening which serves ,\s a win
dow, into the reservoir, witixout entering th<-
room. The mouth of the w--U is .surrounded
hy a wall five feet in height, M»»U ahou* MU
fcV, in diameter. Upon this t'.ie people stand
who draw up the \vatcrn leathern buckets,
an iron railing being so pis rod -f.s *o prevent
their fallin}? in. The w^ter i.-i the;i poured
into earthen jars, railed tiimrvn. wt.icii C.-»p-
tam Burton describes MS lit»,!e aiuphoriv, each
mark«'d with the natnc of the donor and »
peculiar cypher. Thes«» jars are placed in
bug; rows on fh« ground, R!OU*J rh« paved
( :. r,*-w;iyn -Alncli lead u{» to I lit- Ka'l)nh, xnd
bttwoen which grass appears growing in
.several plucen, produced by th« ZaDizura
water coxing out of the jars.
The Zainzam water is halu in great eoteem
throughout tlu? Kast. It, ;-. -\^-\ for drinking
And ablution, but for no tmscr purposes : and
the Makkans advise pilgrircH always to break
their fast with it. Captain P.uiton says; " It
is apt to cau&e diarrhoea and boils, and I
never saw a stranger drink it without a wry
face. Sale is deeidod!y correct ii hi.s asser
tion: the flavour is salt-bitter, mach rcscn.
bling an infusion of a t<^>pooiiful of Kpsum
NalU in a largo tuinbjc.c of tepid water.
Moreover, it in exceedingly ' heavy ' to the
faste , for this reason, Tm-ka and other
strangers prefer rain-water collected in cis
terns, and bold for five farthjngs a gullet.
The water i« transmitted to distant regions
in glazed earthen jars covered with b««»ke».-
, and healed by thft Zem Ze.mis (Z<t>n-
. or diapensert* of the holy water).
Rerigio>i» meu break their lentcn f»st with it,
apply it to their eyes to brighten vision, and
imbibe a fow drops at the hour of o»>jth,
when Satan glands by holding a bowl of
purest water, the price of the departiug Rc/nl.
The copious supply oi the well in considered
at Meccah miraculous ; in distant countries it
facilitates the pronunciation of Arabic to the
student ; and everywhere the nauseous
draught is highly meritorious in a religions
point of view."
According to the same author, the name
has become generic for a well situated within
the walls of a mosque, arid amongst these,
naturally, the Zam/.aio of al-Madinah stands
nearest in dignity to the Makkah well, with
which it is said to be connected by a subter-
raueous passage; Others believe that it is
filled by a vein of water springing- directly
under the Prophet's grave, whence it is gene
rally called Bi'ru 'n-Nab?, or the Prophet'*
well. Jt slunds at the south-east anglo of
itn rnulosuro within the court of the mo5c,ue
uf al-Madfuah, called the garden of Faj.irnali,
uuder a wooden roof supported by piilars of
the aame material.
ZANANAH (*»yj).- A Persian
adjective derived from the word CCIK, " a
woman." That which belongs to women. Jt
denotes the household of a. Muiiainmadan,
bis wives and children, and thu apartments
in which they reside. For a fuli account of
an Indian zammuh by Mrs. M.-cr Aii. *ee
HARIM.
'• A zaiidiiah mission" is a Christiau mis-
sioi. Ptt.iblisheJ for the benefit of the wires
:ina daughters of Muh^mmadau".
ZANJABlL (J^O)- "Ginger."
An arwiuutic with which tho cups of I'aia-
dise «ir«' ftavoortd. v>ee Qur'ar:. Si-jVi!. ..v.i>j.
IT: ' And they .<L;ill driuii thcii-in a cup
t<»p.' jeered with mnjabil''
/ANN" (<^)» pi. zvm*n. " Opinion j
x'lspi'-ion." Tn Muhammad an law,v a pre-
siiinpti- o that a cborge 5> \v-?
702
ZAQQUM
AZ-ZARR ( jUN). " The Distresser."
One of the ninety-nine attributes of God. In
the Qur'an the word is applied to Satan.
Surah Iviii. 11 : ." Only of Satan is this
clandestine talk, that he may bring the
faithful to grief ; but, unless by God's per
mission, not aught shall he harm them (faisa
bi-sarr,:kim)\ in God, then, let the faithful
trust."
God, .therefore, is called the " bis.fcros.ser,"
in HO far as evil befalls man only by His
permission,
ZAHRAH (8»o). "An ,atora."
although the evidence is inconclusive. Az~
Zaniw 'l-Qhalib, expresses a strong presump
tion of truth in a charge, although the evi
dence does not amount to conviction. The
•' Not- proven " of Scotch law. The word i
ca/i/«, in the sense of " suspicion," occurs in the '
Qur'an, Surah xlix. 12 : « 0 Believers ! avoid
frequent suspicions, for SOIMO suspicions arc
a crime."
ZAQQtJM (,»#). An infernal
tree described in the Qur'an.
Surah xxxvii. (50-64 : " Is this the better
repast or the tree az-Zaqqum? Verily We
have made it for a subject, of discord to the
wicked : Lo, it Is a tree which eometh up
irom the bottom of bell; its Jruit is as it
were the heads of Sataus: and, lo ! the
damned shall surely eat cf it and fill their
bellies with it."
Surah xliv. 43, 44 : %< Verily the tree of HZ
Xaqqiiui sliail be the sinner's food."
Siirah Ivi. 51-53: "Then verily ye. O ye
the erring, the imputers of falsehood, shall
surely eat of the tree of Zaqqum, and fill
your bellies with it."
It is a name now given to A thorny tree,
whose fruit is sweet and styptic, and from
the stone of which oil is extracted. (Richard
son's Dictionary.)
ZARA Ml YAH (Wjj) A sect of
ShJ'ahMnhurnmsdans. who s?y that the next
Imjinis after 'AH were Mulmirmad ibn Han-
fiyah. 'Abdullah, 'All ib'u ' /vbdillah ' ibn
Abbas, and aftervrards bio progeny, as far as
Mansur, until at last the Divine power en
tered into Abu Muslim; who, they assert, was
not real'y slain. (Kasiifu, '/-Z?£t7u$aft in
loco.)
ZARARIYAH (kj&. A sect of
Muslims founded by one of the Companions,
named Zarfirah, who say the attributes of
God are not eternal. (Kitti'su 't-Ta'nfdt, in
loco.)
ZARB (vy*). Lit. " Striking."
-In arithmetic, " Multiplication." The con
cluding foot of a line in poetry. A term used
by Sufi mystics for the ceremony of zifa
AZ-7ARIYAT MtVR), "The
Scatterers." The title of the List Sfirah of
the Qur'an which begins with the words " By
the Scatterera who scatter." By which is ru-
deratood the winds of heaven
ZIItAfe
Tho word occurs in the Qur'an in the follow
ing verse; —
Siirah xcix. 0: "On that day shall men
come up in separate bands to behold their
works ; and whosoever shall have wrought
an atom's weight of good shall behold it. and
whosoever >*hali have wrought an atom's
weight of evil shall behold it."
2AT («>to), pi. zawdt. From &>.,
'; a poa^essor," of which cJ£ is the feminine.
In th« Dictionary af-Mii'jjirab it is defined
as the essence of a t]img, meaning that by
being wbich a thing is what it is, or that in
being which a tiling consists ; or the ultimate
and radical constituent of a thing. It is
used for the nature or essence of God,
Allah being called the Isnm '5 -Xat, or •' Es
sential name of God," Ztitu 'Uult. the ''Es
sence of God," is a scholastic theological
impression. lu Muslim law, ztit signifies ths
body connected with tho Houi: in opposition
to larfn. which means the -'material body.''
ZAWU 'L-ARHAM (rW^ ,.J).
[lllBHlNk RELATIONS.]
ZAWU 'L-FURUZ (jk,jti\ ttj).
The Sharers of inbcritance whose shares are
specified in tbo Qar'ai- itself. [iJ»HERfi'-
ZEALOTS. [GHULAT.]
Z1HAR 0^). Lit. "Likenmgto
the back.*" A form of imprecation wbich in
volves the separation of husband and wife
until expiation i* made. According to the
HidayaJi, yihar signifies the likening of a
woman to "a' kmsworaau within the prohi
bited degrees, which interpretation is found
iu the comparison being applied to any of
the parts or members of the body improper
to be seen. The usual formula is : Anti
•iilaiya ka~y«hri vmnii, " Thou art unto ine as
my mother's back."
Before the establishment of Muhaminadau-
ism, gihdr stood as a divorce, but Muham
mad changed it to a temporary prohibition,
for which expiation must be performed, viz.
either freeing a slave, or two mouths' fast, >>r
feeding sixty persons. Qur'an. Suratul-Muja-
dilah (Iviii.), ]-5:~
" God hath heard the words of her who
pleaded with thee against her husband, anri
made her plaint to God ; and God hath heard
your mutual intercourse : for God Heareth !
Beholdeth.
'* As to those of you who put away then
wives by saying, " />V; thou to me as my motk«r't>
back '' — their motherjs they are not ; they
only are their mothers who gate them birth !
they certainly say a blameworthy thing and
an untruth ;
fc But truly, God fo Forgiving, Indulgent.
"And those who ittiis put away their
wives, and afterward^ would recall their
wordsj must free a captive before they can
vome togeihei again. To this are ye waraed
t* r^nform : und God is aware of what ye
lid.
ZIKR
ZIKR
703
•«• AnU he who flndcih not a captive to &t
frit, shall fast two months m succession
Deforc they two come together. And he who
^hali uol be able to do ao, aha 11 feed sixty poor
Mfu. f uis, that he may bohevo in God and
His Apoblte. These are the statute* of God 5
H&d iur die unbelievers is an afflictive chastise
ment ! "
The above injunction \vas occasioned by f
KhauUh. tr«o daughter of ^a'lihah. having :
pleaded her case with the Prophet, bocause j
she had be*m dhoroed t\v her husband Auf. ;
fbita* •Samit.by thoforrauln above-mentioned, I
ami \\luch was understood by the Arabs to j
imply perpetual separation. Muhammad bad.
in the first instance, decreed the divorce in
accorduncv with ancient Arabic law, but re
laxed his order in consequence of the woman'
earnest pleadings.
£lKR(jfc). Lit. " Keraemberins."
Kelt. * xdkkttr. The religious ceremony.
or act of devotion, which in practised by the
various religious orders of Kaqirs, or Dar-
woshc.s. Almost every religious Muhamma-
dan is a member of some order of Faqirs.
and, consequently, the performance of zikr is
very common iu all Muhammadan oounti-ies :
but it does not appear that any one method
of performing the religious service of zikr is
peculiar to any order.
gikr*, are of two kinds : zikr jafi. that
which is recited alou'i. and zikr £/ti.A» that
which is performed either with » low voice
or mentally.
The Xaqshbandlyah order of Faqirs
rsua^ly perform the hitter, whilst the Chish-
tiy~h and Qadiriyah order* celebrate the
former. There are various ways of going
through the exercise, but the main features
of each are similar hi character. The fol
lowing is a zikr jo.fi, as given in Ihe book
QfiuJii 'I Jam I/, by Mania wi Shah Walivvi
'Hah, of Delhi :—
The worshipper s-.ts in the usual .sitting
posture and shouts the word Allah (God),
drawing his voi«;e from his left side and then
from his throat.
Sitting aa at prayers he repeats the word
Allah still louder than before, first from his
right knee, and then from his left side.
Folding his legs under him he repeats the
word Allah first from his right knee and then
from his left side, still louder!
Still remaining in the .same position, he
shouts the word A Hah, first from the left
knee, then from the right knee, then from the
left side, and lastly in front, still louder!
Sitting as at prayer, with his face towards
Makkah, he closes his eyes, says ;' Ld " —
drawing the sound as from his navel up
to his left shoulder; then be says ilahu,
drawing out the sound as from hi* brain ;
and lastly •' ilia V/a/m," repeated from his left
side with great energy.
Each of these stages iw cauuu a zarb.
They are. of course, recited many hundred*
of times over, and the changes we have de
scribed account for the variations of sound
and motion of the body described by Kauern
travellers who have witne^t-d the perform
ance of a zikr.
The following is a a'Lr khafl, or that which
is performed in either a low voice or men
tally.
Closing his eyes and lips, he says, " with
the tongue of the heart,"
Alldhu Same VH, " God the Heart- r."
Alluhu Batirun, "God ihe Soor/'
Alldhu -Alimun, <• God the Kuowor.r
The first being drawn, as it wort, from lh«-
navel to the breast ; the second, from the
breast to the brain; the third, from the
brain up the heavens : and then a«uin re
peated stai^e by ,st:itje backward-- uru /or
Ho eays in a 1 -w voice, " J//JA." fruin the
right knee, anil then from the left side.
With each exhalation of bis breath, h<-
says, " Id Halm." snd will) eacli inhalation.
" ilia V/uA«."
This third zarb in a most t-xhausUiiK act
of devotion, performed, as it is, hundreds or
even thousands of liim-*. and is. therefoiv.
considered the most meritorious.
It ii related thai ^luulawl llabibu lUh.
living in thu village of (labasauri. in the
Gadim country, on the Poshnwur frontier,
became *uch au aocpt in the performance of
this zarb, that he recited the first }»art of th«
zikr tu iluJia with thoe^halatijn of his broalh
alter the mid-day prayer: and Ihe Mn-onU
part» illn 'lluJiu. with the inhalatuu uT bi.s
breath before the ncx.1 time of praj-er, Lhiu
sustaining his breath fox the period ol abouv
three hours !
Another act of devotion, winch usually ac
companies the zikr, is that of -Muraqabah. ur
meditation.
The worshipper first performs zikr uf the
/ollowing : —
Allaho hdzin. •' God who ia picsdnt with,
me.''
Allaho nazir'i, i; God who s«e*» me.1*
Alldho zhdhidi, " God who witnesses mo "
AUiilio wu'i, " God who is with n»c.
Having recited this zikr, either aloud or
mentally, the worshipper proceeds i* medi
tate upon some verse or verses ui the Qur'an.
Those rocoiumendcd tor the Qadiriyah Faqirs
by Maukvi Shab, Walryu'llah are the follow
ing, which we give as indicating th* line of
thought which is considered most devotion
and spiritual by Muslim mysti<%- .--
1. Suratu '1-Hadid (Ivii.). 3 :-
•* He (God) is first. He is last. The Mani
fest, and the Hidden, and who knoweth all
things."
2. Suratu *l-JIadid (IviL), 4 :—
" He (God) is with you wherosoeTer ye be."
3. Suraiu Qal (1), 10:-
"\Vc (God) arc closer to him (man) than
his nook- vein."
1. Suratn 'l-Bnqarah (ii.) 1*1: —
" Whichever w«y ye turn, there is th« face
of God."
5. Suratu 'n-Nisi1 (iv.), ll'o :—
"God onrompasseth all tilings."
704
ZIKR
ZIKR
(>. Suratu 'r-Rahman (lv.), 26, 27 ? —
" All on earth shall pass away, but the
face of thy God-shall abide resplendent with
majesty and glory."
Some teachers tell their disciples that the
heart has two doors, that which is fleshly, and
that which is spiritual; and that the zikr jail
has been established for the opening of the
former, and zikr lrhi.fi for the latter, in order
that they may both be enlightened.
To the uninitiated such a ceremony appears
but a meaningless rite, but to the Sufi it is
one calculated to convey great benefit to his
inner man, as will appear from the following
instructions which are given, by a member
of the Order respecting the .zifer, which he
says is ti union oi' the heart and the tongue
in calling upon God's name. "In the first
place, the Shaikh, or teacher, must with his
heart recite, * There is no God but Allah,
and Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah.'
whilst the Murid keep's his attention fixed by
placing his heart opposite that of the Shaikh:
he must close his eyes, keep his mouth firmly
shut, and his tongue pressed against the
roof of his ixiotith ; his teeth tight against
each other, and hold his breath ; then, with
great force, accompany the Shaikh in the
zikr, which he must recite with hi.s heart,
and not with his tongue. He must retain
his breath patiently, so that within one re
spiration he shall say the zikr three times,
and by this means allow his heart to be im
pressed with the meditative zikr,"1
" The heart," the same writer continues,
"in this manner is kept constantly occupied
with the idea of the Most High God ; it will
be filled with awe. love^and respect for Him ;
and, if the practiser arrives at the power of
continuing to effect this when in the com
pany of a crowd, the zikr is perfect If he
cannot do this, it is clear that he must con
tinue his efforts. The heart is a subtle part
of the human frame, and is apt to wander
away after worldly concerns . so that the
easier mode of arriving at the proceeding is
to compress the breath, and keep the
mouth tirinly closed with ihe tongue forced
against the lips. The heart is shaped like
the cone of a iir-tree; your meditations
should be forced upon it, whilst you men
tally recite the zikr. • Let the " L<i * be up
ward, the " llaha " to the light, and the whole
phrase '• La ifttha ilia 'l/ahu " (There is no
God but Allah) be formed upon the fir-cone,
and through it pass to all the meiuners of the
whole frame, and they feel hs warmth. By
this means the world and a'l its attractions
disappear from your vision, and you are
enabled to behold the excellence of the Most
High. Nothing must be allowed to distract
your attention from the zikr* and ultimately
you retain, by its medium, a proper concep
tion of the Tauhid, ov Unity of God.
" The cone-shaped heart rests in the left
breast and contains the whole trnth of maw
Indeed, it signifies the ' whole truth ' ; it com -
prises the whole of man's existence, within
itself, and is a compendium of man; mankind,
great and small, are but an extension of it
and it is to humanity what the seed is to the
whole tree which it contains within itself : in.
fin?., the essence of the whole of God's book
and of all His secrets is . the heart of man.
Whoever finds a way to the heart obtains hi«
desire j to find away to the heart is needed by
a heartfui service, and the heart accepts of
the services of the heart. It is only through
the fatigues of water and ashes that the
Murid. reaches the conversation of the hea7*t
and the soul ; he will be then so drawn to
wards God that afterwards, without any dif
ficulty, he may without trouble, in case of
need, turn his face from all others towards
Him. He will then know ot he real meaning
of the Turk (the abandonment ot the world),
the Haqiqat (the truth), the Hur-riysti (the
freedom), and the Zikr (the recital of God'a
names and praises)."
As a curious instance of the superstitious
character of this devotional exercise, the
Ghishtlyah order believe that if a man sits
cross-legged and seizes the vein called kut-
mas, which is under the leg, with his toes,
that it will give peace to his heart, when
accompanied by a zikroi the '* 'waft toa i?bat,"
which is a term used for the Ealimah,
namely : —
Lfi ilaha ittd Wdfiu, '" There is no deitv but
God."
The. most common form of zikr is a recital
of the ninety-nine names of God [HAME« OF
GojaJ, for Muhammad promised those of his
followers who recited them a sure entrance
to Paradise (Afighkdt. book exi.); and to faci
litate the recital of the^e names, the z_dkir (or
reciter) uses a taxbih (or rosary). PrABBIH.j
In addition to the forms of ZI'KT already
mentioned there are three others, which ai*e
even of more common use, and are known as
Tasbift, Tahmld, and Takblr, They are used
as exclamations of joy and surprise, as well
aa for the devotional exercise of zikr.
Tafblh is the expression Subhdna 'Udk'
" Holiness be to God ! n .
Tahmld, Altmmdu H-'l!dh ! " Praise be to
God 1 "
7Vut*tr, Allahu akbur ! « God is great ! "
When the Tasbifr and Tahmld are recited
together it is said thus, Subhdna 'lldhi bi~
fraHidi-hi, i.e. " Holiness be to God with Hi*
praise." It is related in the Hadls that Mu
hammad said, " Whoever recites this sentence
a hundred thnos. morning- and evening, will
have all his sins forgiven/'
Muhammad said. " Repeat the Tasbjli a
hundred times, and a thousand virtues shall
be recorded by God for you, ten virtuous
deeds for each repetition."
In fonning our estimation of Muhammad
and Muhammadnnism, we must take into
consideration the important place the devo
tional exercise of zikr occupies in the system,
not forgetting that it has had the authorita
tive sanction of 4i the Prophet" himself.
The following is a graphic description of)
one of these devotional performances, by Dr. j
Eugene Schuyler, in his work on Tnrkistan : —
" At about ten o'clock one Thursday even
ing, in company with several friends, we went
7IKR
ZIKR
705
to the mosque, and vrere at once admitted.
Seme thirty men, young and old, were ou
their knees in front of the qiblaft, reciting
prayers with loud cries a,nd violent move
ments of the body, and around them was a
circle, two or three deep, of men standing,
who were going through the same motions.
Wo took, up a position in on* corner and
watched the proceedings. For thH most part
the performers or worshippers had taken off
their outside gowns and their turbans, for the
night was warm aud the exercise wns violent.
They wore mciting the words • My defence is
in God ! May Allah ho -magnified*! My light,
Muhammad — God bless him I There is no
God but God !" These words were chanted
to various semi-musical uotos in R low voice,
and were accompanied by a violent move
ment of the head over the lt»ft shoulder to
wards the heart, then back, then to the right
shoulder, and then down, a» if directing all
the movements towards the henrt. These
texts wore repeated for hundreds and. hundreds
of times, and this *ikr usually lasted for,au
hour or two. At first the movements were
slow, hut continually increased in rapidity,
unti' the performers were v»able to endnre it
any longer. Jf anyone failed in his duty, or
was slower, or made ie;*s movement than was
required, the persons wi«o regulated the en
thusiasm went up <o him and struck him
over the bead, or pushed him back out of
the cii-cle aud called another into it. Occa
sionally persons got so worn out with their cries,
and so wet with perspiration, that it became
necessary for them to retire for a few minutes
rest, and thoir places were immediately taken
by others. When their voices became en
tirely hoarse with one cry another was begun,
and finally the cry was struck up,* He lives!
He lives ! God lives! ' »t first slowly, wHh an
inclination of the body to the ground: then
the rhythm grew faster and in cadence, the
body bocflinfl more vertical, until at last they
all stood up : the measure? still increased in
rapidity, and, each one placing his hand on
the shoulder of his neighbour, aud vn«n form
ing several concentric rings, they moved iu a
mass from side to side of the mosque, leap
ing about and always crying: 'He lives!
God livp<! ! ' Hitherto, there had been some
thing wild and unearthly in it, but now to
persons of weak nerves it became positively
painful, and two of ray friends were so much,
impressed as to be obliged to leave the
mosque. Although I was sufficiently eold-
.Hlooded to see the ridiculous rather than
uorrible side of this, I could not help receiving
an impression that the devotees were a pack
of madmen, whose motions were utterly inde
pendent of any volition of their own
The intonations of the voice were very re
markable, and were often accompanied by
most singular gestures, the hands or a book
being often held to the side of the mouth in
order to throw the voice as far ns possible.
Often those recitations are merely collections
of meaningless words, which always seem to
produce the same effect on the hearers, and
are constantly interrupted by cries of Hit ho,
ocA, oc/i, 6a, bfr, and groans and tobs, and the
hearers weep, beat their bre»*t« with thoir
Hats, or fall upon the ground."
The dancing and howling darweshes at
Cotust;iruinoplo a.n-1 Cwiro have become publio
sights, and are fauiiii;ir t- ; opeans
who havn visited those citi«s.
Wo HI?- ii-d.ihtcd to Mr. F.rownb account of
The Demshts (Triib)ier and Co.,Ludgat* Hill)
for the following graphic dcMVjili'Mi of on<«
of these public recitals of yiL>.. [t Agnt. }
The ceremony commences by the recital
by thu Shaikh of the seven lirst ittributea of
Uio Divinity, called by them the -ev^n mys
terious worris. '• H»; next cl'Hrus various pas
sages of the Koran, and at each pause the
Dervishes, placed hi « circle round- the hall,
respond in cboru* by the word 4 Allah !
(God) or 'Hoc I' (ffiiwn or Hu, Ho). In
com* ol the societies they nit on their heels,
tlie elbows cl«.*e t / iuose of each other, and
all making simultaneously light movements
of -the head and r»<viy. In others, the move
ment consists in balancing themselves slowly,
from the right to the left, and from the left
to the right, or inclining the body methodi
cally forward and aft. There are other socie
ties in which these motions commence seated,
in measured cadences, with a staid counte-
uanoc, the even closed or fixed upon the
ground, and are continued on foot. These
simrvV.tr t;xercis'»s are eonaecratod under the
name of Murnkebeh (exaltation of the Divine
gbryj [mrrifyebaki 'meditation'], and also
under that »! the Tevheed (celebration of
the Divine unity) [Tun hid], from which
comes the name To-hoed khuneh given to the
whole oC the halls devoted to these religious
exercises.
•' In some of these institutions, such as the
Ka<l.ir»'*s. the Rufit'ees, the Khalwettees, the
Bairftmees, the Oulshenees.find the'Ushakee;',
the exorcises are made, each holding the other
by the hand, putting forward always the
right foot, and increasing at every «t«p the
strength of the movement of th<» body. This
is called the Devr {D'tm-}, which may be
translated the ' dance or ' rotation.' The
duration of these dances is arbitrary, — each
one is fre« to leave when he pleases. Every
one, however, makes it a point t<> remain as
long as possible. The strongest and most
robust of the number, and the most enthn
siaatic, strive to persevere longer than the
others ; they uncover their heads, take off
tb<»ir turbans, torui a second circle within the
other, entwine their arms within those of
thoir brethren, lean their shoulders against
each other, gradually raise the voice, and
without ceasing rcoeat • Yt Allah ! ' (O God).
or'Ydllool' (O le), increasing each time
the movement ot th j body, and not stopping
until their entire strength is exh iu3<" 1
" Those of the o 1er of the Rufs'ees excel
in the-^e exercises. They are, moreover, the
only ones who use fire in their devotions.
Their practices embrace nearly all those of
the other orders; they are ordinarily divided
into fi?e different scenes, which last more
than three hours, and which are preceded,
89
706
ZIEB
accompanied, and followed by certain cere
monies peculiar to this order. The first com
mences with praises which all the Dervishes
offer to their sheikhs, seated before the altar.
Four of the more ancient come forward tht
first, and approach their superior, embrace
each other as if to give the kiss of peace.
and next place themselves two to his right
and two to his left. The remainder oi the
Dervishes, in u body, press forward in a pro
cession, all having their arms crossed, and
their heads inclined. Each, one, at first,
walutes by a profound bow the tablet on
•which the name of his founder is inscribed.
Afterwards, putting his two hands orer his
iaee and his oeard, he kneels before the
Sheikh, kisses his hand respectfully, and
then they all go on with, a grave step to take
their places on the sheep-skins, which are
spread in a half-circle around the interior of
the Lali. So soon as a circle is formed, the
ZIKH
Dervishes together chant the Takbeer (Tak
bir, the exclamation AUdhu okbar, ' God i&
exalted') and the Fatiha (F«*i'M, the first
chapter of the Qur'an). Immediately after
wards the shaikh pronounces the words • La
ilaha ill' Allah (Thero is no deity but God),
and repeats theui incessantly ; to \vhich the
Dervishes repeat *• Allah ! ' balancing them
selves from side to side, and putting their
Hands over their faces, on their breasts, and
their pLdomen, and on their knees.
"The second scene is opened by the
Hamdeo Mohaminedee, a hymn in honour of the
Prophet, chanted by one of the elders placed
on the right of the sheikh. During this chanl
the Dervishes continue to repeat the word
'Allah!' moving, however, their bodies lor-
ward and ait. A quarter of an .hour laiei
they all riS" up, approach each other, and
press their elbows against each other, balan
from right to left, and afterwards in a
ZIKR. (A. F. Hole,}
reverse motion, — the right iuot always linn.
and the left in a periodical movement, the
reverse of that of the body, all observing
great precision of measure and cadence. In
the midat of this exercise, they cry out the
words <Ya Allah!' followed by that of ' Ya
Hoo 1 ' Some of the performers sigh, others
aob} some shed tears, others perspire great
drops, and all have their eyes closed, their
faces pale, and the eyes languishing.
" A, pause of some minutes is followed by
a third scene. It la performed in the middle
of an Ilahee, chanted by the two elders on
the .right of the sheikh. The Ilahees are
spiritual continues, composed almost exclu
sively in Persian by sheiks deceased in tbe
odour of sanctity. The Dervishes then hasten
their movements, and, to prevent any relaxa
tion, one of the first among them puts him
self in their centre, au'd excites them bv his
example. If in the assembly th^re be, any
strange Dervishes, which often happens.
they give them, through politeness, tins
place of honour ; and all fill it successively,
the one after the other, shaking themselves
as aforesaid. The only exception made is in
favour of the Meylevees ; these never perform
any other dance than that peculiar to their
own order, which consists in turning round
on each heel in succession.
" After a new pause commences the fourth
scene. Now all the Dervishes take off their
turbans, form a circle, bear their arms aud
shoulders against each other, and thus make
the circuit of tho hall at a measured pace,
striking their feet at intervals against the
floor, and all springing up at once. This
dance continues during the Ilubees, chanted
alternately by the two elders to the left of
the sheikh. In the midst of this chant the
cries of ' Ya Allah! ' are increased doubly, as
also those of * Ya Hoo ! ' with frightful howl-
ings, shrieked by the Dervishes together in
the daace. At the moment that they would
7,IKk
lo stop from fheor exhaustion, the
bheikh makes a point of exert in CT tbom to
new r»fforts by walking through their midst,
raakinjs Also himself most violent movements.
He is next replaced hv the two alder*, who
double tho ijuickness of thw step and the
agitanoii-'.a the body; they even straighten
jJMOMelros up from time to time, nnd excite
the envy or emulation of thy others in their
astonishing efforts to continue the 'datlco,
until their strength is entirely exhausted.
•' Tha fourth .-'vene leads to the last, which
j& In- must frightful of all. tho wholly pro-
Ktrited condition of vhe actors becoming con
verted into a species of ecstasy which they
call Jfakl (Jfaluh}. It" is in the midst ol this
abandonment of self, or rather of religious
delirium, that they make use of red hot irons.
Several cutlasses and other instruments of
tffcarp-pointed iron are suspended in the
i;ichf«i of the hall, and upon .1 pail of the
will to the right of the sheikh. Near the
••lone of the Jonrth s^ene, two Dervishes take
down oight ur uiuu oi* these instrumont<»rheat
ihein red-hot, and present them to th* sheikh.
He. after reciting some prayers over .them,
'and invoking the founder of the Order, Ahmed
cr Rufa'oe, breathes over them, and raising
ibfin slightly to th« mouth. gives them to the
Dervishes, who ask for them with the greatest
eaewiess. Then it is that these fanatics,
transported, by frenzy, seize upon these iron.*,
gloat upon them tenderly, lick them, bite
them, hold them between their teeth, and eml
by cooling them in thoir mouths! Those
who are unable to procure any, seize upon
the cutlasses hanging on the wall with fury,
and stick them into their sides, arms, and
legs
" Thanks U the fury of their frenzy, nnd to
the a ma /ing boldness which they deem a
merit in the eyos of thfc Divinity, aU stoically
bear up against, tne pain which they expe
rience with apparent gaiety. If, -however,
some of them fall under their sufferings, they
^hrow themselves into the anus of their con
freres* but without, a complaint or the least
sign of pain. Some minutes after thia tbc
sheikh walks round the hall, visits each one
of jhe peiformers in turn, breathes upon ihcir
wounds, rubs them with saliva, recites
prayers over them, and promise- them speedy
euros. It is said that twenty-four hours after-
wardf jtothing is to be seen of their wounds.
" t{ is the common opinion among the Ru-
ftt'ecs that the origin of those bloody prao-
tkos can be traced back to tbfi founder of
the Oder. They pretend that one day. during
the transport of his frenzy, Ahmed Rufa;eo
put his Ityjs in a burning basin of coals, and
was immediately cured by tbe breath and
saliva and the prayers of 'Abdul K&dir Gqi-
lauec: they belfcwfc tb:;t their founder received
this same prerogative from heaven, «nd that
ul his death ho .transmitted it to all the
sheikhs his successors. It is fur this reason
that they give to those sharp instruments,
nnd to these red-hot irons, and other objects
employed by them in their mysterious frenzy.
iHf name of GvL which sumiVic* rose,'
ZIKR 707
wishing to indicate thereby that the uae
made of them is as agroenblo to the K<HI] of
the elect Dervishes as the odour ..if thin flower
may bo to the voluptuary.
" These extraordinary exercises seem to
have .something prodigious in them, which
imposes on common peopl^.but they have not
the same effect on thfe mfnds of men of good
sense and reason. The latter believe loss in
the sanctity of thcso pretended thaumaturges
than in the virtue of certain secret*, which
they adroitly use to keep up the illusion and
the credulity of the spectator*, even amon^
the Dervishes themselves. It is thus, per
haps, that some assemblies of these fanatics
have given, in this age of light, and in the
heart of the most enlightened nation, th*
ridiculous spectacle of those pious and bar
barous buffooneries known by the name of
convulsions. At all times, and amongst
every people ( f the earth, weakness and cre
dulity, enthusiasm and charlatanry . have \ ut
too frequently profaned the most holy faith,
and objects the most worthy of our veneration
" After the Rufa'ees, the Sa'dees h»ve also
the reputation of performing nuraclen, pretty
much of the same sort as the preceding. One
reads in the institutes of this Order, that
Sa'd ed Deen Jobawee. its founder, when cnt
ting wood in the viciuity of Pamascus, founil
three snakes of- an enormous length, an'
that, after having recited some prayers an<
blown upon them, he caught them alive, and
used them a* a rope with which to hind hi^
fagot. To this occurrence they ascribe the
pretended virtue of the .sheikhs end the Det-
vishes of this society, to find oat snakes, lo
handle them, to bite them, and even to eat
j them, without any harm to themselves. Their
exHrcieen consist, like those of the Rufa'eeg
and other Orders, at first in seating them-
oclves. and afterwards in rising upright ; but
MI often changing Vhe attitude, and in re
doubling their agitation even until they be-
ooaie overcome ^-itn fatigue, when they fall
upon the floor motionless and without know
ledge. 'J hen the sheikh, aided by his vicars.
employs no other means to draw them out of
this state of uncou&ciousnoKs than to nib their
arms and legs, and to breathe into their i-*ra
the words • La ilaha ill' Allah.'
" The Merlevees are distinguished Jby the
singularity of thoir dance, which has nothing
in common with that of the other societies.
They call it Som'a (Sawo4) in pUce of Devr
Dvur). and the balls consecrated to it axo
called Scm'a khaneha. Their construction is
also different. The apartment represents a
kind of ]>:iviliun,_ sufficiently light, and sus
tained by fight columns of wood These
Dervishes have also prayers and practices
peculiar to themselves. Among them ihe
public exercises are not ordinarily made by
more than nine, eleven, or thirteen individuals.
They commence by forming • circle, seated
on sheep fkin spread upon the floor at e<jn*l
distances from ouch othi»r ;,thoy remain nesrlv
a haif-houi m this position, the arms folded,
the 'eyes closed., the head inclined, sud tb
sorbed in pi ^nnd mediation
708
ZIKR
ZIKR
•' The sheikh, placed on the edge of bis
seat on a small carpet, breaks silence by a
hymn in honour of the Divinity ; afterwards
he invites the assembly to chant with him
the first chapter of the Koran. ' Let us
chant the Fatiha,' he says, in ' glorifying the
holy name of God, in honour of the blessed
religion of the prophets, but ;thove all, of
Mohammed Mu8tapha> the greatest, the most
august, the most magnificent of all the celes
tial envoys, and in memory of the first four
Caliphs, of the sainted Fatiniah, of the chaste
Khadeeja, of the Imams Hasan and Husain,
of all the martyrs of the memorable day, of
the ten evangelical disciples, the virtuous
sponsors of our sainted Prophet, of all his
zealous and faithful disciptea, of all the
Imams. Majtahids (sacred interpreters), of all
the doctors, of all the holy men and women
of Mussulmanism. Let us chant also in
honour of Hazreti Meriana, the founder of
our Order, of Haxreti Sultan ul 'Ulema (his
father), of Say id Burhan ed Deen (his
teacher), of Sheikh Shems ed Din (his conse-
crator),. of Valideh Sultan (his mother), of
Mohammed 'Allay ed Deen Efendi (hia son
and vicar), of all the Chelebees (hia succes
sors), pf all the sheikhs, of all the Dervishes,
and ai! the protectors of our Order, to whom
the Supreme Being deigns to give peace and
mercy. Let us pray for the constant pro
sperity of our holy society, for the preserva-
tiou of the very learned and venerable Che-
iebee Efendi (the General of the Order), our
master and lord, for the preservation of the
reigning Sultan, the very majestic and cle
ment Emperor of the Mussulman faith, for
the prosperity of the Grand Vizier, and of the
Sheikh ul Islam, and that of all the Moham
medan militia, of all the pilgrims of the holy
city of Mekkeh. Let us pray for the repose
of the souls of all the institutors, of all the
sheikhs, and of all the Dervishes of all other
Orders ; for all gool people, for all. those who
have been distinguished by their good works.
their foundations, and their acts of benefi
cence. Let us pray also for all the Mussul
mans of one and the other sex of the east
and the west, for the maintenance of all pros
perity, for preventing all adversity, for the
accomplishment of all salutary vows, and for
the success of all praise worthy enterprises ;
finally, let us ask God to deign to preserve in
its the gift of His grace, and the tire of holy
love.
"After the Fatiha, -which the assembly
chant in a body, the Sheikh recites the Fa-
tiha and the Saiawat, to which the dance of
the Dervishes succeeds. Leaving their
places all at once, they stand in a file to the
left of the superior, and, approaching near
him with slow steps, the arms folded, and
the head bent to the floor, the first of the
Dervishes, arrived nearly opposite the Sheikh,
salutes, with a profound inclination, the
tablet which is on his seat, on which is the
name of Hazreti Mevlftna, the founder of the
Order. Advancing uext by two springs for
ward, to the right side of the superior, he
turns toward him, salutes him with reverence.
and comaaeuees the dance, which consists in
turning on the left heel, in advancing slowly,
and almost insensibly making the turn of the
hall, the- eyes closed, and tha arms open. He
is followed by the second Dervish, ho by the
third, and so on with ail the others, who end
by filling up the whole of the ball, each re
peating the same exercises separately, and all
at a certain distance from each other.
"This H an ce lasts sometimes for a couple
of hoars; it is only interrupted by two short
pauses, during which the Sheikb recites dif
ferent prayers. Towards the close of the
exercises, he takes a part in them himself,
by placing himself in the midst of the Der
vishes; then returning to his seat, he recites
some Persian verses expressive of good
wishes for the prosperity of the religion, and
t,he State. The General of the Order is again
named, also the reigning Sultan, ia the fol
lowing torms : l The Emperor of the Mussal-
mana, and the most august of monarcbs of
the house of 'Othmau, Sultan, son of a sultan,
frandson of a sultan, Sultan , son of
ultan , Khan,' &c.
" Here the poem mentions all the princes of
blood, the Grand Vizier, the Muitee, all the
Pa&has of the empire, the Illemas, all .the
Sheikhs, benefactors of the Order, and of all
the Mussulman peers, invoking the benedic
tion of heaven on the success of their arms
against the enemies of the empire. ' Finally,
let us pray for all the Dervishes present and
absent, for all the friends of our holy society,
and generally for all the faithful, dead and
living, in the east and in the west.
" The ceremony terminates by chanting the
Fatiha, or first chapter of the Koran."
(John P. Brown, The Dervishes, or Oriental
£jptrt too/Mm, p. 218 seqq.)
These ceremonies of zikr would at first sight
appear to have little in common with original
Mubaramtidanism, but there appears to be
little doubt that the practice of reciting the
word AUah and other similar expressions, com
menced in the days of Muhammad himself,
and this even tbo WnhhabJs admit, who at
the same time condemn the extravagances of
the Howling and Dancing Darveshes of Tur-
kistan, Turkey, and Egypt.
A chapter is devoted to the Prophet's in
junctions on the subject in all large books of
traditions, called Baku 'z-Zikr, from which
the following sayings of Muhammad have
been selected : —
Whenever people sit and remember God they
are surrounded by angels which cover them
with God's favour, and peace descends upon
them, »nd God remembers them in that
assembly which is near him.
Verily there are angels who move to and
fro on the roads and seek for the , remem
berers of God, and when they find an as
sembly remembering God, they say to one
another, " Come ye to that which ye wena seek
ing." Then the angels cover them with their
•wings as far a* iho lowest heaven, called the
region of the world. The Prophet said: —When
the angels go to the court of God, God asks
them, while knowing better than they. " What
ZIKR
709
my servant5; say and do?" Then the
say, •' Tbov are, reciting the Taabsh,
the Takhir, (he Talmud, and the Tamjid for
Thee." And God Hay*, ''Have they seen
Me ? " The angels PAJ. " !Sro, by God, they
have not neon Thee." Then God says,*' What
would their condition be if they had seen
M.>?" The angels say, "If they had seen
Thee, ihey would be more energetic in \v >r-
ihippiiig Thea and in reciting the Taiujid,
and ihey woiiM be more excessive in repeat
ing thft Tasbih." God says, " Then what do
they want 'i '' The angels Bay, " Paradise."
The» (rod ^ays, " Have they seen Pars-disc? "
Th« angels suy\ " We swear by God they
have not." Then God says, " What would
theu1 state have been had they seen Para
dise ? ' The angels say, Mf thev had .seen
Paradise, they -would be very ambitious for
it. aud would be excessive wishers of it, and
very great desirers of it." God says, •' What
thing is it they *wck protection from ? " The
angels cay, " From hel) fire." God says,
"Have they seen the fire'/ : The angels say,
"No, by God, if they h»d seen the tire '"
God aaye. " How would they have been nad
th«y been the fire ? " The angels say, " If they
had seen the fire, they would be great run
ners from it. and would be great fearers of
it." Then God savs, •• I take ye as witnesses
that verily I have pardon ;d tliwa-i.'* One of
the angels said. " There is a person amongst
mem who is not a rememberer of Thee,
and is only cnnm r»t« account of his own
needs."
There ia a polish for everything that takes
rust, and the polish for tue heart is the re
membrance of God, and there is no act that
redeems from God'a punishments so much as
the remembrance of Him. The Companions
said, " Is not fighting with the infidels also
like this?' He said, "No, although he
tights untii his sword be broken."
" Shall 1 not inform you of an action which
is better for you than fighting with infidels
and cutting off their beads, and their cutting
off yours ? *' The Companions said, '•' Yes,
inform us." The Prophet said, " These
actions are remembering God.''
'Abdullah ibii Aus said : — An 'Arabi came
to the Prophet and asked, '« Which is the best
of men ? " The Prophet said, " Blessed is the
person whose life is long and whose actions
are good." The 'Arabi said, U0 Prophet 1
which is the best of actions, and the most
rewarded?" He said, " The best of actions
is this, that you separate from the world, and
die whilst yowr tongue is moist in repeating
the name of God."
A man said. " O Propbet of God, really the
rules of luliim are many, tell me a thing by
which I may lay hold of rewards." The Pro
phet said, ** Let your tongue be always moist
in the remembrance of God."
" Verily there are ninety nine names of God ;
whosoever counts them up shall enter into
Paradise." And hi another tradition it is
added. " God is Witr and Eke Witr."
Wben Zu 'n-Nun (Jonah) the prophet
preyed his Lord, when he was in the fish's
b?lly. he said, " There IB no Deity but Thee.
I extol Thy holiaes*. Verily I am of the un
just ones." And a Mussalman, who suppli
cates God witn this petition will have his
prayer granted.
The best uxin-tMrfiona are these four:
Subhana Allahi. al-Hamdu Liilnhi, La ilaha
ilia 'llfvbu. ao<l Alluhu akbar \ and it does not
matter with which of them you begin.
Verily I lik-- r^poiuinj? these fonr f
sions : O Holy G'>d ! Praisp bo to God !
There is no deity but Uod ! und God ib
Great ! better than anything upon which the
sun shines.
No one can bring a better deed on the Day
of Resurrection (unless he shall uave said
the like or added to it) than bo who ban re
cited, "0 Holy God! Praise be to'!
nne hundred times every morning and
evening.
There are two expressions light upon the
tongue and heavy in the scale of good works,
aT-d they are, " 0 Holy God ! Praise be to
Thee ! " and " O Holy God ! the Mighty
One ! '
That person who shall say, " There is no
deity but Ood, who has no partner, to whom
is dominion and praise aud power," one hun
dred times, shall receive rewards equal to tu«
emancipating of teu slaves : and one hundred
good actions shall be written for him, and one
hundred of his sins shall be blotted out: and
those words shall be a pioteetion to him from
tho devil and his wickedness, in that day in
which he shall have repeated them, until the
night. Nor can anyone perform a better deed
for the Day of Resurrection than this, unless
he has done even mor*.
Moses said, •• O my Lord, teach me how I
am to call upon Thee." And God Haid, " 0
Moses, recite ' Then; is no deny but God! 1r
Then Moses said, " 0 my Lord overy one of
Thy people say this." And God said, "O
Moses, if the seven heavens and *beir inhabi
tants and the seven earths wp>re pat into on?
scale, and this expression, ' There is no deity
but God,' into another, these words would ex
ceed in weight."
Reciting " 0 Holy God " in half the scale
of good works, and reciting •* God be praised,"
fills the scale. The recital of " There is no
deity but one," removes the curtain between
the worshipper and bis God.
He who recites with an unsullied heart
" There is no deity but God," shall have the
doora of heaven open for him until ho reaches
the throne of God, as long us he abstains
from groat sins.
The ejaculation, " There is no power and
strength but in Gen,'1 is men me for ninety-
nine pains, the least of whicb is melancholy.
" There are two qualities which, being prac
tised by anyone, shall cause him to enter
Paradise : they are small and easy, and it is
easy for anyojie to practise them. One of
tbem is this: eaying 'God is hoi}' ten
times after every prayer, ' Praised be God'
ten times, and • God is great ' ten times." And
verily I saw the Prophet counting these
words on his hand, and be would say, " Then
240
JKWS
up of an evidence of guilt or innocence re
specting it, is also borrowed, to the very letter
from the same source.5 In this Surah it if
also stated, that « the devil made him
(Joseph) forget the remembrance of his
Lord," in perfect harmony with the Jewish
tradition, '* Vain speech tendoth to destruc
tion; though Joseph twice urged tho chief
butler to remember him. yet he had to re
main two years longer in prison."2 The
seeking protection from man is here repre
sented as the instigation of Satan,
f JOSEPH, j
The Qur'an causes Jacob to tell his sons
to enter at different ga'cs, and the same in
junction is given by the Patriarch" in the
Jewish writings ; " Jacob said to them, Enter
not through one and the same gate." ? The
exclamation of the sons of Israel, when they
found tbe cup in Benjamin's sack — " Has he
stolen ? so has his brother also " — are clearly
a perversion of the word* which the Jewish
traditions put into their mouths : " Behold a
thief, son of a female thief ! " referring to
the stealing of the Seraphim by Rachel.4
Muhammad, again, acquaints us that Jacob
knew by divine revelation that his son Joseph
was still alive, and Jewish tradition enables
us. to point out \vhence. he obtained the infor
mation. We read in the Midrash Jalkut,
•' An unbeliever asked our master, Do the
dead continue to live ? your parents do not
believe it, and will ye receive it ? Of Jacob,
it is said, he refused to be comforted ; bad he
believed that the dead still lived, would he
not have been comforted ? But he answered,
Fool, he knew by the Holy Ghost that he
still really lived, and about a living person
people need no comfort." 5
Muhammad made but scanty allusions to
the early' patriarchs. Joseph only excepted :
but concerning Moses, it was his interest to
be more proiuso in his communications, pos
sibly from the desire to be considered like
him, as he is generally thought to have taken
that prophet as his model. Among the op
pressions which Pharaoh exorcised towards
the Jews, are named his ordering their chil
dren to be cast into the water. Moses, the
son of 'Imran was put into an ark by his
mother ; Pharaoh's wife, observing the child,
rescues him from death, and gives him back
to his mother to nurse. When Moses was
grown up, he sought to assist his oppressed
brethren, and kills an Egyptian; being the
next day reminded of this deed by an Hebrew,
he flees to Midian, and marries the daughter
of an inhabitant of that country.6 When
about to leave Midian, he sees a burning
bush, and, approaching it, receives a call to
go to Egypt to exhort Pharaoh, and perform
miracles: he accepts the mission, but re-
A Midi-ask JalJtuc, cxivi.
* Midrash Kabbah on Gen. xl. 14 j Geiger, p. 146 :
ami Surah xii. 42.
• Midraah Kabbah on Genesis, Parash. xci. ; and
Sumh xii. 67.
1 Midrash Kabbah, x«ii. ; Gen. xxxi. 19 ; and
^3urah xii. 77.
a Midraah Jalkut, cxliii. ; and Surah xii. 8»>.
fi Surahs xx. 37 ; xxviii. 2.
JEWS
quest* the aid of his brothe-1 Aaron.1 Pha
raoh, however remains anin/iik-1, and gathers
his sorcerers together, wbo perform only in
terior miracles ; and, in spite of Pharaoh's
threats, they become believers.2 Judgment
falls upon thf. Egyptians; they arc drowned,
whilst the Israelites are saved.3 A rock
yields water. Mose$ receives tho law.' ami
desires to see the glory of God.5 Daring
Moses' absence, tbe Israelites make a golden
calf, which he destroys, and reducing it to
oowder. makes them drink it.6 After this.
Moses chooses seventy men as assistants.7
Tho npies sent to Canaan are all wicked with
the exception of two: the people being d<»-
oeivod by them, must wander forty years in
tho desert.8 Koran, on quarrelling with
Moses, .is swallowed up by the earth.*
[K.OKAJTL] The marvellous journey of Moses
with his servant is not to be omitted in thfc
summary of events." Among the detail* de
serve to be mentioned. Hint Hainan and
Koran were counsellors of Pharaoh." it i*
not surprising that Muhammad should asso
ciate Hainan with Pharaoh &x an enemy of
the Jews, since he cared lillle when indivi
duals lived, provided they could be introduced
with advantage. Korah, according to Jewish
tradition, was chief agent or treasurer to
Pharaoh.12 The ante-exodus persecution of
the Jews is ascribed to a dream of Pharaoh.13
This is in exact accordance with Jewish tra
dition, which, as Canon Churl on remarks, has
in part the sanction of Acts vii. and Hebrews
si., though not found in Exodus : " The sor
cerers said to Pharaoh, A boy shall bo born
who will lead the Israelites out of Egypt.
Then thought he, Cast all male children into
f.he river, and he will be cast in among them."1*
The words (Exod. xi. 7), •' I will call one oi
the Hebrew women," produced the Rabbinical
fiction, "Why just a Hebrew woman? This
shows that he was banded to all the Egyptian
v.'omea; but he would not drink, for God
suid, The mouth which shall once speak with
me, should it drink what is unclean?"10 This
was too valuable for Muhammad to omit from
the Qur'an.lfi Although it is nowhere said in
the Bible that the sign of the leprous han«i
was wrought in the presence of Pharaoh, yet
the Quran relates it as having there taken
place,17 And in this also it was preceded bv
Jewish tradition — " He put his hand into
his bosom, and withdrew it leprous, white
a£ snow ; they also put their hands into their
1 Surahs xx. 8; xxvi. 9; sxxvhi. & > Lxxix. 15.
2 Surahs vii. 101; x* 76 ; xi. 99 j xx. 50.
3 Surahs ii. 46 ; vii. 127 ; x. 90; xx. 79: xxvi. 8H
radii. 40; xliii. 55.
* Sarah vii. 148.
3 3&rahs vii. 135 ; ii. &s ; ix. 152
* Surahs ii. 48; vii. 147 ; xx. 82.
"• Surah vii. 155.
" Surah v. 23.
* Surah xxviii. 16.
10 Surah xvui. 59.
ix Surah xxviii. 38; xxix. 38; xl. 25.
Midrash on Numbers, Parash. xiv.
13 Surah xxviii. C.
" Pirke Eabbi Elieser. xlwiii.
1S Sotah xii. 2.
18 S0rahxxiii.il.
47 Surahs vii. 105; xxv. 32.
JEWS
bosoms and withdrew them leprous, white as
snow."1 Again, among Moses' own people
none but his own tribe behoved him.2 This
Muhammad doubtless inferred from the state
ment of the Rabbis : " Tho tribe of Levi was
exempted from hard labour."3 Among the
sorcerers of Egypt, who first asked for their
wages, and then became believers, when their
serpents were swallowed by that of Moses,4
Pharaoh himself was chief.* Here, again,
Muhammad is indebted to Judaism: "Pha
raoh, who lived in the days of Moses, was a
great sorcerer." « In other places of the
Quran, Pharaoh claims divinity/ and Jewish
tradition makes him declare, " Already from
the beginning ye speak falsehood, for I am
Lord of the world, I have mado myself as
well as the Nile " ; as it is said of him (Ezek
xxix. 3), <• Mine is the river, and I have made
Tho Arab prophet was much confused
with regard to the plagues ; in some places he
enumerates nine,9 in others only five, the first
of which is said to be the Flood 1 10' As the
drowning in the Red Sea. happened after the
plagues, ho can only allude to the Deluge.
The following somewhat dark and uncer
tain passage11 concerning Pharaoh has caused
commentators great perplexity. It is stated
that Pharaoh pursued the Israelites until
actually drowning, when, confessing himself a
Muslim, ho was saved alive from the bottom
of the sea, to be a "witness for ages to
come." 12 But we find that it is merely a ver
sion of a Jewish fable: ''Perceive the great
power of repentance! Pharaoh, King of
Egypt, uttered very wicked words— Who is
the God whose voice I shall obey ? (Exod.
v. 2.) Yet as he repented, saying. « Who is
like unto thee among the gods ? ' (xv. 2) God
saved him from death ; for it saith, Almost
had I stretched out my hands and destroyed ;
but God let him live, that he might declare
his power and strength." 13
As ^Jewish commentators add to Exod.
xv. 27, where we read of twelve fountains
being found near Elim, that each of the
tribes had a well,14 so Muhammad transposes
the statement, and declares that twelve foun
tains sprang from the rock which had been
smitten by Moses at Rephidim.15 The Rabbi
nical fable, that God covered the Israelites
with Mount Sinai, on the occasion of the law-
giving,^ is thus amplified in the Qur'an : " We
shook the mountain over them, as though it
Pirke Rabbi Elieser, xlviii.
Surah x. 23.
Midrash Rabbah, Parash. v.
Surahs vii. 11 ; xxvi. 40.
Surahs xx. 47 ; xxvi. 48.
Midrash Jalkut, clxxxii.
Surahs xxiviii. 38; xliii. 50.
Rab. Exodus, Parash. v.
Surahs xvii. 103; xxvii. 112
10 Surah vii. 130.
1 Sarah x. 90.
i* See al-Baizawl, Husain, al-Jalalan, and others.
Pirke Rabbi Elieser, xliii.; Midrash Jalkut,
Bashi on Exodus, xv. 27.
f>, ,C»non Chiton pointed out to Dr. J. M. Arnold
tft&t the statement of twelve streams flowing from
the rock occurs in the Litnrgy of St. Thomas
JEWS 241
had been a covering, and they imagined
it was falling, upon them ; and we said,
' Receive the law which we have brought
unto you with reverence."1 The Qur'an
adds that the Israelites, now demanding to
see God, dio, and are raised again.2 It will
not be difficult to trace the origin of this fig
ment When the Israelites demanded two
things from God— that they might see his
glory and hear his voice — both were granted
to them. Then it is added, « These things,
however, they had no power to resist; as
they came to Mount Sinai, and He appeared
unto them, their souls escaped by His speak
ing, as it is. said, 'My soul escaped as He
spake.' The Torah, however, interceded for
them, saying, 'Does a king give his daughter
to marriage and kill his household? The
whole world rejoices (at my appearance), and
thy children (the Israelites) shall they die ? '
At once their souls returned ; therefore it is
said, The doctrine of God is perfect, and
brings back the soul."3 In the matter of the
golden calf, the Qur'an follows as usual the
fabulous account of the Rabbinical traditions.
Both represent. Aaron as having been nearly
killed when at first resisting the entreaty of
the people. The Sanhedrin relates : « Aaron
saw Chur slaughtered before his eyes (who
opposed them), and he thought, If I do not
yield to them they will deal with me as they
dealt with Chur."4 According to another
passage in the Qur'an, an Israelite named as-
Samiri enticed them, and made the calf.5
Like the wandering Jew in Christian fable.
M-Simiri is punished by Moses with endless
wandering, and he is compelled to repeat the
words, " Touch me not."6 Jewish traditions
make Mikah assist in manufacturing the idol
calf ;? but Muhammad either derived as-Samin
from Sanaa el, or, as the Samaritans are stated
by the Arab writers to have said, " Touch
me not," he may have considered as-Samiri
as the author of the sect of the Samaritans.
That the calf thus produced by as-Samiri
from the ornaments of the people, lowed on
being finished,8 is evidently a repetition of the
following Jewish tradition : " The calf came
forth (Exod. xxii 24) roaring, and the Is-
raelites saw it. Rabbi Jehuda says, Samael
entered tho calf and roared to deceive the
Israelites." The addition, that the tribe of
Levi remained faithful to God, is both Scrip
tural and Rabbinical.9 The matter of Korah
is honoured with singular embellishments ; for
instance, Korah had such riches, that from
ten to forty strong men were required to
carry the keys of his treasures.10 Abu 1-Fida,
says forty mules were required to convey the
Keys. Jewish tradition is still more extra-
Surah vii. 170.
Surahs ii. 52 ; iv. 152.
Aboda Sarah, ii. 2.
Sanhedriu, v. ; and Surah vii. 150.
Sarah xx. 87, 90, 96.
Sttrah xx. 97.
Rashi to Sanhedrin, ci. 2.
Pirke Rabbi Elieser, clix. : and Surah vii. 147-
XK. 90.
9 Pirke Rabbi Elieser, xlv. ; and Surah vii 159 ?
see Exodus xxxii. 26.
10 Surah xxviii. 76.
31
710
AZ-ZTLLU L-AUWAL
these words arc one hundred and iifly with
the toumie in the day and night, but they are
one thousand and live hundred in .the scale
of action.^ reckoning ten for one. And. the
second is this: when he goes to his bed
chamber, let him say, ' God is holy.' and
'God be praised,' and 'God is great.' then
that is one hundred on the tongue and a
thousand in the scales. Then which of you
is it that commits two thousand five hundred
vices in the day and night, so that these
words m*y cover them ? " The Companions
said, ** U when we repeat these vronts we have
so many rewards, why should we not say
lheiu?f The Prophet said, "The Devil
comes to one of yon vrhcii at prayers and
says to him, • Remember so-and-so.' till you
have finished your prayers i and the Devil
come* to you in your bed -chamber, and j.s
always making yon sleep.*'
Az-ZILLU 'L-AUWAL
U\).
-The first shade." A Sufi term for al-'Aylu
f-AttvaL [SUFI.]
2ILLU 'LLAH <*W Jt). "The
Shade of God." A $ufl term for iho Insantt
Y-A«/tf//, or the •'- perfect man." " [SUKI !
AZ-ZILZAL ( jya\). 'l The Earth
quake/' The title of the kcrxth Surah of the
Qur'un, beginning with tho words " When the
earth shall quake with its quaking.*
ZIMMAH (£*•>), pi. zimam, from
the root zamm, *• to blame/' A compact, cove
nant, or contract, a league or treaty, any en-
pngoment or obligation, becauso the breaking
thereof necessitates blame; and a right or .duo,
for the neglect of which one is to be blamed.
The word is also synonymous with, atnan, iu
the sense of security ' of life and, property,
protection or safeguard, and promise of such;
hence «/</« 'z-zimmah^ or. with suppression of
the noun akin, simply «i -;<//» /««/«, the people
with whom » Compact or covenant has been
made, mid particularly tho Kiliibis. or the
people of the book, i.e. Jews and Christiana,
and the MaKisT or Sabeans, who pay the poll-
tax called juzyah. [JAZI'AU.J An individual
ol'tliis class-^-namely, a free non-Muslim sub
ject of n Muslim Government, who pays" a
poll- or capitation-tax, for which the Mus
lims are responsible for his security, personal
freedom, and religious toleration — is called
limtni (see the following article).
In the Qur'an. the word gvnmah occurs
once, in the sense of clientship, or good faith,
a* oppposed to ties of blood. Silrah ix.
7-10 :~
•• How can they who add gode to God be in
i.;a§ue with God and with His Apostle, nave
those \vjth whom- ye made a league ai the
sacred temple ? So long as they are true to
you, be ye true £o them : verily, God loveth
those who feur Uinj.
"How can they? since if they prevail
against you, they will 'not regard, in their
dealing \vilh you. either ties ol blood or good
Jaith : With their mouths they content you.
Z1WM1
but their hearts ait; averse, and most oi them
are perverse uoere.
" They sell the :-iigns of God for a luean
price, an-1 turn others aside from his way : of
a truth, evil i«j it that they do!
l> Thfty ruspcct not with ft believer either
ties ol blood or good faith -. aiui those aro the
transgressors."
In modern language, the word fimmah has |
frequently tne^meumng of conscience. (Coin- I
pare Lane's Arnhic Dictionary, in loco )
ZIMMl ((^*J)j it member of the
Ahlu 'z Zimmah, a now Aluslim "subject of n |
Mushm Government, b>)1uagit\g to the Jowi^Ii,
Christian, or Sabcnn creed, who, for the pay
ment of ft poll- or capitation-tax, cujoys siwu- t
rity ol lus person and property in a Mnlt&in- [
ttiadan country.
One of the most uiyfiit dutioj.s enjoined by
Muhammad upon the Muslim or true believer, t
WHS ;bw Jihnd fi Sabili 'llalii. or exertion in |
the ro:i.l of (»od, i.e. warfare for the spread- t
of Isluu), amongst the- infidels within and j
without Arabia [JIHAD]; thus tho whole j
world came to be regarded as divided into j
two great portions, the Dttru '1-Harb nnd
Pfuu '1-Tslam [DARU 'L-HARB, DAHU 'L-ISLAM]
— the tevritovio§ of War and the territories
of Peace. Tlu-oo two divisions, otic of which
represented the Innd of infidelity and dark
ness, tbe other that of light and faith, wore
supposed to l>o in a continual state of open
or latent belligerency, until the I>6ru H-Islfua
should have absorbed the Dtiru I-Harb s«nd
faith conquered unbelief. Infidelity,, how
ever, admits of degrees. Its worst shape is
idolatry, that is, the worship of idols instead
of or besides the <mt< true God ; and this^ again,
is a crime most abominable ou the part of
Arabs, "cince the Prophet was sent aniong»t
them, and manifested himself m the midst of
them, and the Qur'an was doJivertsd down in
their language.r • Of an ^uaHy atrocious
character is the mGdeluV of apostates, " be
cause, they have hecomo infidels, after having
b*een led into the way of faith, and made
acquainted with its excellence.*' In the.caao
of neither, therefore, is a compromise admis
sible : they must accept .or re-embrace tho
faith, or pay with their lives the full penalty
of their crime.
With regard to the idolaters of a uon-
Arabic or 'Ajam country, which latter expres
sion in the times oi early Islam particularly
applied to the Persian Empire, ash-Shafi'i
maintains that destruction is incurred, by
them also; but the other learned doctors
agree that it is lawful to reduce them to
slavery, thus allowing them, as it were, a
respite during which it may pleaso God to
direct them into the right path, but making,
at tbe same time, their persons and substance
subservient io tlie cause of Islam.
The least objectionable form of infidelity
iu the eyes of I>Iuhamniad and his followers,
is that of the Kitabis or people of tiw Book
(ahlu 'l-kitalj}, i.e. the Jews* *s possessor* of
the Old Testament, or Tavrat. and the Cbrfo-
ti^ns. to whom, moreover, the Injil (Gospel/
ZIMMI
Z1MM1
711
is revealed. As Ihcy are nut guilty of an
nolute denial, but only of a partial p^rter-
>n of the truth, ordy part of the punishment
r disbelief is their dun, and it is imposed
>on thorn in tho shape of a tribute, called
Jl- or capitation- tax [JAZYAH], by menus of
oich they secure protection for their pro-
>rty, personal freedom, and religious tolera
jh from tlxe Muslim Government. The same
•ivile^e is extended to tho MajusI or
ibeans, whose particular form of worship
as nioro leniently judged by Muhammad
id the Traditionists than that of the idolaters
f Persia.
This is the state of thing** Ji " country
(habited by such infidels be conquered by a
[uslini army : theoretically, the inhabitants,
jgether with their wives and children, are
onsidered as plunder and property of the
tate. and it would be lawful to reduce them
> slavery. In practice, however, the milder
fturse prevails, and bv paying the stipulated
fcpitatioft-tax- the subdued people become,
i tho quality of Zimrni*. (rue subjects of the
onquering power, whose condition is but
ttle inferior to that of their Muslim fellow-
ubjects.
The relations of an Hiicu or JJarbi— Ui&t i»:
ne who belongs to the people oi the Darn 'I
iftrb — to a Muslim community which lu>
isits, in tim* of peace, for the sake of irailir
r any other legitimate purpose; a re regulated
y that high conception of the duties of hos-
itaUty, which was innate with the ancient
jab. and which, prompted him to defend and
oxiour even a mortal enemy, as soon as he
light have crossed as a ciiance guest the
Irresho4d of his tent.
On entering the territory, an alien can
laim a guest's protection from liu: lii&t met
luslim, be it even the lowest peasant, and
»viu£ obtained this protection, he is entitled
D remain in the country unmolested for the
arm of a whole year. The authorities, how-
vor. must within the year give him notice
iiat.if he should remain until its completion,
» pita Li on- tax will be imposed upon him, and
» such notice the permission for his stay may
e limited to some months only, if for some
jason or other it should appear advisable
r necessary to do so. If the alien conUiuv
i the country beyond the full or limited time
rescribed. he becomes ipso facto liable to
a* capitation-tax, and ii. after thus becom-
ig a Zumui, he be desirous of returning to
is owji country, he may be prevented, us now
eiiig bound to the Muslim Government by a,
ontract of fealty. Tn .similar manner an
lien becomes a Xiimni upon purchasing tri-
ute land and paying the impost on it, and i.s
hen liable to captitatiou-tax for llie ensuing
car. An alien woman turns Zitmnivah by
Hurrying a Zimint. because thereby she
ndextakes to xesidc Lu the Muhanunadan
Late. (See Hamilton's Hidauak. vol. ii. p.
96.)
Ziimmis do not subject thcmsclvc* to the
iws of Islam, either with respect to things
rhich are merely ol a religious nature, such
s fasting and prayer, or <witb respect to those
temporal acts which, though contrary to lUe
Muhniumadan religion, may bo legal by their
own, such as tho sale of wine or swine's
flesh. The construction of places of worship
in tho Muslim territory is -unlawful lor them.
unless within their own houses, but if
churches and synagogues originally belonging
to Christians and Jcwa ho destroyed or fail
to decay, they are at liberty to rebuild and
repair them. Tlus is the rule with regard to
cities, because, as the tokens of Islam, such
as public prayer, festivals, Ac., appear there.
Zimmis should not be permitted to exhibit
the tokens of infidelity in the face of thorn;
ia villages and hamlets, on the other lnutd,
where the tokens of Islam do nol appear,
there is no occasion to prevent the construc
tion of Christian and Jewish places ol wor
ship. (See Hamilton's /JiJuya/i, vol. ii p.
219.;
Save some slight restrictions with regard to
dress and equipage, Ztmmis are held in all
transactions of daily life pretty much on a
footing of equality with Mush' ins. 1-iko chil
dren, women and slaves, a Zimini ha« no legal
share in the booty, but only a discretionarv
allowance out of it, if he ha.s taken part m
the fight. If ho has acted as a guido, and
his services as such have been attended with
any eminent advantage, ho inuy. however,
receive even a larger share than a Muham-
inadan combatant. (Hamilton's J/idai/ah,
voL ii., p. 17S.)
Every marriage that is lawful between iwy
Muslims, is lawful between two Zimmis.
Marriages that arc not lawful between two
Muslims are of several kinds. Of theso there
is the marriage without witnesses. When a
Ziinnn marries a Zimmiyah without witnesses,
and such marriages are sanctioned by their
religion, the marriage is lawful. So that, if
they should afterwards embrace the Muslim
faith, the marriage would still be established.
And in like manner, if they should not. em
brace that faith, but should both claim from
thn judge the application of the rule* of
Islum. or one of them should make such a
claim, the judge is not to separate them.
There is also the marriage of a woman during
her -idiiah. on account of another man
[•iDDAif). When a Xiinmi marries a woman
in her nlduli for another man, that iuan being
a Muslim, the marriage is invalid, und nmy
be objected to before their adoption of the
Muhamniadnn religion, even though Uicur
own religion should reco«;uibc the. legality of
marriage iu Lite state of 'idduh •. but if the
•iiljrih were rendered incumbent on the
woman on uooouut of an infidel, and iii;ir-
riagffS in a state of 'idduh nrr, MOOVBlfld law
ful in the religion of the piul'.eo. it cannot be
objected to while they remain in a state of
infidelity, according' to general agreement, if
under these circumstances they afterwards
adopt the Muslim faith, the marriage remains
fixed and established. n<-cordin? to Abu
Hauifah, whose decision is considered valid
in spite ol the different opinions oi Abu
Yusuf and Muhammad, »nd thu jud/c is not
to separate them, though both ol them or
712
ZIMMI
ZIMMI
only one of thorn should adopt the faith, or
both or only one of them sho.uld bring the
matter before the judge. In the Mabsut it
i* stated that the difference between the
masters -was only when the reference to the
judge, or the adoption of the faith, takes
place during the subsistence of the liddak • but
where it does rwt take place till after the
*iddah has expired, the parties are not to be
separated , according to ail their opinions
(Baillie's Digest of Mookummudan Lavs, Hani
fern, p. 178.)
If R Zioum Ria»Tv a Zunmiyah. making the
dower consist of wine or pork, and one or
both should afterwards embrace the faith
beford the wife haa obtained seisin, according
to Abu Hanifah. the woman is entitled to
receive the actual article, if it has been
"identically specified," but if not, the- esti
mated value of the wine, or her proper dower
in lieu of the pork, as the e»se may be. Abu
Yusuf maintains that she is to have her proper
dower, and Muhammad the estimated value
in all cases. If a Christian Ziiami marry a
Christian Zimmiyah, without specifying any
dower, or on a specified dower consisting of
carrion (flesh of an animal not lawfully slain),
such as may be deemed lawful by ZGembers
of their profession, and have ses.ua! inter
course with her, or divorce her without con
summation, or die without consummation;
according to Aha Hamfah, she is not entitled
to any dower, although both parties may
have embraced the faith in the interim ; but
according to Abu Ytisuf and Muhammad, she
will take her proper dower if tbe husband
consummate the marriage, or die without con
summation, and will be entitled to a present
if ehe be divorced without consummation.
(A, Ruwsfvyv ~Monh\Oiimi.{d<m Law of Inherit
ance, p. 373.)
When one of an infidel married couple em
braces the Muhaminad.au faith, Islam is to be
presented to the other, and if the other adopt
it, good ami well • if not, they are to be sepa
rated. If the party is silent and says nothing,
the judge is to pryi^nt Islam to him time
filter time, till the completion of three, by
way of caution. And there is no difference
between a discerning youth and one who i«
adult ; BO that a separation is to be made
equally on the refusal of the former as of the
latter, according to Abu Hanit'ah and the
Imam Muhammad. But if one of the parties
be young and without sufficient discernment,
it is aeceasary to wait till he has understand
ing; aiid wbon he has understanding, Islam
is then to be presented to him; and if he
adopt it, •well ; if not, a separation is to be
made without waiting for his arriving at pu
berty, And if he be t»ad, Islam is to be pre
seated to his parents , and if they, or one of
them, should embrace it, good and well ; if
not, a separation is to he made between the
married patties. If the husband should em
brace the faith and the wife refuse, the sepa
ration is not accounted repudiation ; but if the
wife should embrace the faith and the husband
decline, the separation in consequence is con
sidered a repudiation, since the cause of
separation proceeds from him. When a sepa
ration takes place between them by reason of
refusal, and it is after consummation, she is
entitled to the whole dower ; and if it is be
fore consummation and through his refusal,
she is entitled to half the dower • but if
through her own refusal, she has no dower at
all. If, however, the husband of a Kitabiy&h
adopt the faith, their marriage remains un
affected in accordance with the 'general prin
ciple, that the marriage between a Muslim
and a Kitabiyah is originally lawful. (Bailley,
Hamfer.a Code, p. 180.)
When a Zimmi has repudiated bis Zimmiyah
wife three times, aud then behaves to her as
he had done before the repudiation, withoul
marrying her again, or saving the words o:
the contract over her ; or when his wife hat-
obtained a khul* or release [KHUL'], and IK
then acts to her as before without renewing
the contact — they are to he separated, eve?}
though they should, not bring the matter to
the judge. But if he repudiates her three
times, and then renews the contract of mar
riage with ber without her being married to
another, they are not te be separated. (/fo)
The child follows the religion of the better of
its parents. Hence, if one of them be a Muslim,
the child is of tho Muslim religion. The mother
could not be so ah initio, but only in conse
quence of conversion to the Muhaminadan
faith, for a Muslim worrma cannot lawfully be
the wife of any other than a roan of her own
religion. So also, if one oi them should sub
sequently embrace Islam, having an infant
child, the infant would V>ecome Muslim by
virtue of the parent's conversion, that is,
when there is no difference of dar^ by both
of the parents being either within the Daru"1!-
Islara or the Daru '1-Harb, or by the child
being in the former at the time that its parent
embraces the Muslim faith in the foreign
country, for he then becomes constructively
one of the Muslim people ; but when the
child is in the foreign country, and the parent
within the Muslim territory, and he adopt
the faith there, the child does not follow him,
and is not a Muslim. A Majusi is worse
than a Kitabi : and if one of the parents be
a Majusi and the other KitabL tbe child is a
Kitabi, and may be lawfully married by a
Muslim, to whom also things slaughtered by
the child would be lawful.
Generally, an infidel cannot inherit from j,
believer, nor, on the other hand> caa a be
liever inherit from an infidel ; but inijdel sub
jects of a Muslim state caa inherit from one
another. And it is immaterial, for such a
purpose, whether they be of the same reli
gion or not ; all unbelievers being, in this
respect, considered as of one class. A Muslim
may, however, make a bequest to a Zimmi
and a Zimmi to a Muslim, as well as to an
other infidel, whether of the same or of a
different religion, not being a hostile alien.
The testamentary power of aZimim ia subject
to the same limitations as that of a Muslim,
so that bequests to a person entitled by
inheritance are invalid, and bequests to any
other person are invalid so far as they exceed
ZLV.MI
one-third of the testator's property. This
for the reason that, on entering into the coin-
paot of Zirmnah, he has agreed to conform
to the bws of Islam in all temporal concerns.
(See A. Runisey, Mooliurnmudam IMW of In
heritance, p. 222.)
The will of 4 Xiuami for secular purposes
is valid, according to all opinions. Other
than secular purposes are of four different
kinds. First, there are purposes which are
-jvrtxtk, or a means of approach to Almighty
God, both with Zimmis and Muslims ; and be
quests for these purposes are valid, whether
they be to a set of particular persons or not.
Thus, when a Kitdbi has directed, by his will,
that slay.es be purchased and emancipated on
his account, whether with or without a speci
fication of individuals, or that a third of his
property he bestowed in charity on beggars
and the indigent, or expended in lighting a
lamp in the Baitu '1-Muqaddas or Holy
Temple of Jerusalem, or in making war
against the infidel Tartars, the bequest is
ZIYARAT
713
Second, there aw purposes which are sinful,
both with thus Jimmls and the Muslims ; and
bequests for these purposes are valid, if they
*r* to » set of particular persons, and the be
quest is a gift without regard to the pur-
ucses j but if Ibe persons are not particu
larised. the bequest is void. If, tueficre, a
gimim should bequeath, for instance, a third
of his property for the support of dissolute
women, singers, and the like, the bequest is
valid, if such persons are particularised and it
is a gift to them: .but if they .no not parti
cularised, it is void.
Third, there are purposes which are rjurbal
with the Muslims, but sinful with the Zimmls.
In this, an in the previous case, the bequest
is* a gilt and valid if in favour of a set of
particular persons ; but it is void, if the per
sons are not particularised. Hence, if the
third of a man's property is to be expended in
sending a set of Muslims on pilgrimage, or
building a masjid, and the persons are parti -
ru\f»vised, the bequest or gift is valid, and
considered to be coupled with a counsel to
accomplish tho staled purpose, leaving them
at liberty to perform the pilgrimage, or erect
the mosque, or not, as they please,
Fourth ftnd last, there are purposes which
are sinful with a Muslim, but qurbah or meri-
totious with a Zhmiii : and bequests for these
are valid, according -to Abii Hanifalt, whether
the persons be particularised or not: but
void, according to Abu Yusuf and tho Iinani
Muhammad, when they are not specified. If,
for instance, a Kitabi bequeath a third of his
property for the erection of a church or flyna-
gogue ; or bequeath his mansion to be con
verted into a place of worship of his religion.
the bequest, according to tho two disciplea,
is void, as sinful in the eyes of a Muslim, un
less it is for a particular class of persons,
when it 11 & gift to them; but, according to
Abu Hamfah, it is valid under all circum
stances. This, however, subject to tho con
dition stated nbove. thftt the erection of such
buildings takes place in villages and not in
towns, the bequest in (he latter ea*e bning
inoperative. (See liailley, ffdwi/tM Codr,
p. G73.)
If a Jew or a Christian, being in sound
health, build a church or .1 synagogue, and
then die-, such building is an inheritance, ac
cording to all the doctors, and therefore
descends to the heirs in the same manner as
any other of the founder's property. From
the point of view taken by the two disciples
this is evident enough. But, with regard to
Abu Hanifah's doctrine, the question may be
raised: What is the difference between the
building of a church or synagogue in lh« time
of health, and the bequeathing it by will, thai
Abu Hannah should hold it inheritable in
the fontMjr instance, and not in the latter.
This "objection" in met in the Hiddyah
with the " reply ": " that it is uot the mere
erecting (of the church, Ac.) which extin
guishes tho builder's property, but the ex
clusive dedication of the building to the ser.
vice of God, as in the case of mosques Creeled
by Mussulmans: and as an infidel place of
worship is not dedicated to God indisputably,
it therefore still remains tho property of the
founder, and is consequently inheritable (in
common with his othor effects): whereas a
bequest, on the contrary, is used for the very
purpose of destroying a rierht of property/
(Biddyah, Grady's Translation, p. C96.)
ZINA' (»vJj;.. [ADULTERY.]
ZINDIQ (&<*)). A term now
used to express a person in a hopeless -tale
of infidelity. Some say the word is derived
from the Persian Zan-din, i.e. a woman's rrii
gjon. Others assert that it is » term of rela
tion to the word Znnd or Zend, which meana
M explanation," i.e. the explanation of the
book of Zardusht or Zoroaster. (See f.-*ne s
Arabic Dictionary, in loco.)
ZIPPORAH. [SAPUBV.J
ZIYARAH ft^j). irom the root
z«ur, "to visit," visitation, particularly of the
tomb of the Prophet, and of the grave of any
martyr or saint of the Muhamuiadan faith.
In India and Central Asia, flio word, always
pronounced zrydrai, is. by v.-ay tf abbre%u
tion, used for ziydrnt-guA, i.e. for the place
oj »uch visitation, or the shrine connected
with jt.
Although it is held by Wahlmbi.-* and othe:
Muslim puritans that 'the Prophet forbade
the visitation of graves for the purposes of
demotion, the custom has bocojuc no common.
that it, may be considered part of the Muham-
uiadan religion. And, indeed, it is difficult to
believe that a religious teacher of Mahuiu-
mad's oast of mind should have in principle
opposed a practice which is so natural to the
human hfart. However much ho may haso
objected to the clamorous wailin^y nudlsmm
tations over the dead, in which the pagar
Arabs of the ignorance, especially tbe vioinrn
indulged, he was not |ifc«t« to be insensibl'
to tho solemn 'essoi) which tlir r«siiu#
place of the departed teaches the living
90
714
Z) V \ RAT
7JYARAT
or to ptifie in Ki& follow ers the pious remem
brance of beloved friends and kindred who
have gone before, We see, therefore, no rea
son to doubt the genuineness of t he following
traditions, -which >e Translate from a manu
script of the Afiskkal, belonging to the Library
of I h<> India Office (Arabic MSS.» No. 2143.
New Catalogue. 154). and which the compiler
of that work lias taken from such authorities
•IK Muslim, Ibn lUajah, at-Tirram, &c.
Buraidah rvlaied the Ap,ostle of God f»aid -
<* (Formerly) I forbade you to visit the graves,
hut you may visit them now. . . ." (Muslim.)
Abu Hurairab related-: the Prophet -visited
the grave of bis mother, nnd he wept and
caused those who were around him to weep
also. Then ho said : " I begged leave from
my Lord to ask forgiveness for her, but it
WPS not granted me ; then I begged leave to
visit her grave, and it was granted me ; visit
therefore the graves, for they remind you of
death" (Muslim.)
Bur aidan related : The Apostle of God used
r.o .instruct th&m, when they issued forth to
the burial-places, to pronounce the words :
•? Peace ho upon you, O ye people of thess
abodes from amongst the Believers and the
Resigned ; and we, if ^God please, are surely
overtaking you to ask salvation from God for
us and you" 'Muslim.)
ibn 'Abbas related : The Prophet, passed by
some eraves in al-Madinah,. aud be turned
his face towards them and said : " Peace be
upon yow,0 ye people of the graves; may
God fdrgive ns and you ; ye are the van of iis
and we (following) in your steps."
'Ayishah related that when the turn of her
night had come on -the Prophet s pjrt,h« used
to step out towards the end of the night into
al-BaqJ' (the burial-ground of al-Madinah) anrl
to say : " Peace he with the abode of a be
Hewing people ; and the tirao that has beer
promised you as your appointed term may
come to you on the morrow (speedily); and
we, if please God. 0reovort#.kin£ you. OGSod,
grant forgiveuess to t,he people of Baqi'u M
Garqad." She asked : " What shall I say 0
Apostle of God. to vit, on \ i&itiug the-
graves?" He replied : •* S«v, Pefice fie upon
the people of these abodes trom amongst the
Believers and the Resigned, and God have
compassion on those of us that g-o before and
f hose- that follow; and we. if please God. arc
overtaking yon." (Muslim )
Muhammad iba Nu'Sni related, the Prophet
said •" Ho who visits Ihe grave of his father
jma mother, or of either of Iheui. on every
Friday, his sius are forgiven, and he is
written down as one p»ons '' (Baihaqi).
IbnMas'ud related, the Apo&i)e of God said :
11 1 had forbidden you to visit Hie graves, but
now ye may visit them, for they detach from
th(* world and remind of the world to come.'
(Ibn Majah.)
Abu flurairah related : " The Apostle of
God o urged women visiting tbegraves " To (his
Ibe compile;' oi the M/iAjto/ adds: At-Tirmizi
calls this tradition a well-supporled and
genuinu one. and eays: " Some ot HIP learned
are of norilh.it this happened before the
Prophet permitted the visitation of the graves,
but that when he did so, both men and women
were included hi the permission ; and some
H^ain allege, that he only disapproved of
women visiting the graves, because the) are
but little given to patience and much to
fear."
In the face of these texts we cannot wonder
that the practice of visiting the graves forms
a marked feature in the religious life of the
Mubauimadans, and that thft torob of the
founder ot Ulaoj and the burial-places of its
chief confessors have become the objects of
great devotional reverence. Pilgrims to Mak,
kah (except the Wahhabis) always proceed U
al-Madinah to visit the Prophet's shrine and
to claim an interest in his interce&sious. aud
in all Muhammfidan countries there are nyd-
ruts or " shrines," which are visited by de
votees ii\ order t«> obtain the intercessions of
the departed saint. Such a xiyarat is the
grave, of Khwajah 'Abdu 'llah Ansari, who
flourished about the time of our King John.
A.D. 1200, and who established such a repu
tation for sanctity that' even to this day bis
tomb, at Gazarghaiah near Herat, is visited
by pilgrims from all parts of the province.
Tins tomb is an exceedingly fine piece of
Oriental sculpture (7pon its marble slabs are
iup.crihed, in the-' lines t sufus writing, verses
• torn the Qui'au. But the chief historic inte-
rftat in the shrine of this saint is found in the
fact that Dost Muhammad Khan, the great
Afghan Ameer ofCabul (A.D. 1863), requested
that tis bones should be interred at the feet
of Khwajah Abdii 'liah,- in ordbi that his
dark deeds of Mood may obtain forgiveness
through the potent intercession of this ancient
saint. Such is ene of the many instances of
the great importance, which Eastern rulers
have attached to the sanctity of the very
ground i» which have been buried the remains
of some great teacher or *se<->tic.
Ill towns and in great centres of population .
the tombs which are visited as ziyarats are
usually substantial structures; but in villages
they are ofton the most simple graves, marked
by a few (lat>s, and surrounded by a low wall
to keep the sacred spot free from, defilement
oflentime I IIP Eastern traveller will find a
I'ytuat fjii the ro;ul-sidvj of some deserK high
way. Probably it is the rcsl ing-place of some
pilgrim who, returning from Makkab died of
disease or was slain by highway robbers, in
either case, According to the doctrines of
Islam, suffering a martyr's death. [MART VR.J
Such a ziyarat will be taken charge of by
some poor darwosh or faqlr, who will erect *
shed Tiear the sacred spot, and supply the
Meary traveller with a cup of cold water, as
ho «Jops and raises his hands in supplication
ill the shrine of the martyred saint.
Tbe cures performed.at tiydrats are diver
sified. Some will be , celebrated as the place
where rheumatism cain be onr<»:?, others are
suitable for small-pox patients, whilst some
have even gained a reputation as places of
healing for those who are bitten by mad dogs.
The. grave of Khushhal Khan Khatak the
warrior poet of the Afghans, in the Peshawar
81YARAT
ZODIAO
715
A /IYARAT IN CENTRAL ASIA. (A. F. Hot' >
is visited by thousands of childless
women.
The ziynnds are always visilod with the
fec-t uncovered, and when thegrsxe ir; covered
with .stones or pebbles, fhese are used to rub
upon Ihe aiflirtpd limbs. Some more sub
stantial monitme-ntsv»re supplied with brushes,
which are u&cil for the double purpose of
cleaning up \\\,> /-/mrt-yard and for rubbin?
upon the diseased body of Ihe dovotee.
those zi'yarfrt* are always lighted up with
small lamp;- on Thursday evening', which is
the beginning of tbe Eastern Friday. Bnl
Sanday is beld to be a propitious d^y for
visiting1 shrines.
Adjoining inuay -iynrats of eminence
will l)e mosques supported by large e:i.V»w-
rucnls. in which \vill be found a laiyc number
of .students. Snch is the renowned ztyarot of
Kaka Sahib in tbe KhaUk bills r.r. thr
Afgbtia frontier. Many liydruts aie ve> \
laigel.y endowed by r-rincw and nobles, who
havo believed that they bave obtained assist
ance from the intercessions of tiie depaitnl
saint. There is, however, uo proof <haf Ma
hairmuid evci encouraged the >>elief that the
prayers oi departed saints were of auy avail
in the presence of the Almighty. Indeed, it
i? M distinctive ter>ehinj< of Islam that even
tho Prophet himself r*nnot intercedft (t r his
own- people xiutil the Day of •Juilgnient.- [in-
A ROAO-SIDK, Z1YARAT IK CBNTRAI, ASIA. (E. S- c/U/«J
/ODIAC, The signs of. Arabic I SOrahsxv. o2:
uiwaqat-u <l-bur*j (e5r^^ «^K l H"Bles,ed bo He wbr hath placed
"The- girdle or /on*' of towers." Girek *™*n **?. 1?" ?[**?^'*}
gird I:
Mentioned three times in Ihe
QurVi,.
Siuah Ixxxv. i .
1 8y Ihe heaven witl its TWMSI"
in Ihe
nbo haih
placed in it tbo Lamp of (he •>>>«, .aid \\tt
liphl-^ivin^ Moon! "
Surah xv ]6:
"We havr set the Mtfn«. ol the zodiac in
tbe Henvfln^. .ind iidorneci aii'l decked them
forlh for the bf holders.
716
ZOROASTRIANISM
ZULAIKHA
'* And We guard them from every atoned
Sal an.
"Save such as steal a hearing: and him
doth a visible flame pursue."
tn explanation of the last versos, commen- ]
tators tell us that the devils listen at the i
gate of heaven for scraps of the knowledge of j
futurity, arid when, detected hy the angels, |
are pelted with shooting stars (see Surah iii, j
31 : "the pelted devil"'; also Surah xxxvii. 8 : \
< hurled at from every side ").
So in the Talmud, in Cbagiya svi. 1, the
ahadeem, or "demons," are said to learn the
secrets of the future by listening behind
the pargod or " veil."
The names of the signs are :
1. Hamal, Ram.
2. Saur,.Bull.
3. Jauzd', Twins.
4. Sarttin, Crab.
5. Asdd, Lion,
6. Sumbalah, lit. an " ear of corn," Virgin.
7. Mlzdn, Scales.
8. 'Aqrab, Scorpion.
9. Qaws, Archer*
10. Jadi, He-goat.
11. Dalw, Watering-pot.
12. Hut, Fish,
ZOKOA.STBIANISM, The ancient
reh'gion of Persia is only referred to once in
the Qur'an, Surah xxii. 17, as the religion of
the Majus (^^.J^), the Magiaus. Most
Muhammadan writers, especially amongst
the ShI'ahs, believe, them to have formerly
possessed a revelation from God which they
have since lost. [AL-MAJUS.]
ZUBAIK LBN AL-'AUWAM (^j I
flf^.&)' Cousin german to Mu-
nammad, and one of the first who embraced |
his religion. He is one of the ten, called al- !
'Asharah al-Mubashsharah, to whom the Pro
phet gave certain assurances of Paradise.
He was slain by 'Arnr ibn Jurmuz on the day
of the battle of the Camel (loag'atu H-Jamal]
A.H. 0.
ZUHA (cj*-). (1) That part ol
.the day about half-way between .sunrise and !
noon. {
(2) A period of voluntary prayer j
[PRAYER.]
(3) A?-J$uhd, the title of the xcinrd Surah I
of the Qnr'an, which begins with tae words, j
'• By th* noon-day brightness" (zufyd).
ZUHD (<**}). Abstinence; a reli
gious life. Exercising oneself in the service
of God; especially being abstinent in respect
of eating ; subduing the passions.
AZ-ZUKHEUF (u^Jt).'" Gilding "
The name of the XLmrd Surah of the Qur'an.
in fbe 84th verse of ^hich the word occurs .
•'And but that men would then liave been
one nation, we would have made fqr those
who misbelieve in the Merciful, one roof of
stiver for their hotkey, and sttps up thereto
which they »ni«rht mount: and to their bouses
doors, and bedsteads on which they might
re.cline ; and gilding."
ZULAIKHA', more correctly ZA-
LIEKA (»W*). The wife of Poti-
phar (Qitftr). Al-Baizawi says she was
also called Ra'II. An account of her tempting
Joseph is found in the xiith Surah of the
Qur'an, 23-25 :—
" And she in wliose house he was, con
ceived a passion for him, and she shut the
doors and said, • Come hither.' He said,
' God keep ine ! Verily my lord hath given mo
a good home; verily r-he injurious shall not
prosper.'
" Bat she longed for him ; and he had
longed for her had he not seen a token from
his Lord (the apparition of his father, who
said, 'Hereafter shall the names of thy
brethren, engraven on precious stones, shine
on the breast of the High .Priest. Shall thine
be blotted out ? ') Thus we averted evil and
delilemsnt from him; verily he was one of
our sincere servants.
" And they both made for the door, and she
rent his shirt from behind ; and at the door
they met her lord. ' What,' said she, ' shall
be the recompense of him who intended evil
to my family, but a prison cr a sore punish
ment?'"
" He said, « She solicited me to evil.' And
a witness in her own family (an infant in the
cradle) witnessed : ! If his shirt be rent in
front, then hath she spoken truth, and he is a
liar:
" * But if his shirt be rent from behind, then
she hath lied and he is a man ef truth.'
u And when his lord saw his shirt torn
from behind, he said, ' This verily is ont> of
your devices 1 verily ycur devices are great !
" * Joseph J turn away from this ; and thou
0 wife, ask pardon for thy crime : verily th<>u
hast sinned.'
" And in the city the women said, « The
wife of the Prince hath solicited her servant :
he hath fired her with love : verily we per
ceive her to be in a manifest error.'
" And when she heard of their cabal, she
sent to them and got ready a banquet for
them, and gave each one of them a knife, and
said, 'Joseph, come forth to them.' And
when they saw him they extolled him, and
cut their hands (instead of their food, through
surprifte at his baaufry), and said, ' God keep
us! This 16 no man! This is none other
than a noble angel ! '
" She said. ' This, then, ia he about whom
ye blamed me. And I wished him indeed to
yield to my desires, but he stood firm. But
if he obey not my command, he shall surely
be cast into prison, and become one of the
contemptible.'
*; He said, ' 0 my Lord I 1 prefer the prison
to compliance with her bidding: but unless
Thou turn away their snares from me, I shall
play the youth vvith them, and become one pf
the unwise'.
" So his Lord heard him and turned a§ide
their snares from him : verily Jl«# is the
liearer> the Knower.
ZD L-iHQAR
" Then resolved tbey, even after they had
seen the signs of his innocence, to imprison
him for a time."
The explanation* put into parentheses are
notes of j\lr. RodweH'o, iu whose translation
the passage is given, and who '>tu»»t. s iK-
corresponding Taluiudic legftndn.
This story of Yfumf «•» Znlaikha' has been
celebrated in a well-known Persian poem by
'Abdu 'r-Rahinnn Jaini. and hence Joseph
has become the Adonis of lae East.
Ztf 'L-FIQlR (,van y). Lit.
" The Lord of Hie Vertebrae of tho Back."
The name of the celebrated sword which Mu
hammad gave to bis son-in-law 'AIL
/TJ L-QAJINAIN
717
ZU 'L-HIJJAH (A^Jt ,J). Lit.
" The Lord of the Pil^rimafe." The twelfth
month of the Muhammadan year; so called
because it is the moatu appointed for the
Makkau pilgrimage.
£Cr 'L-JALAL (JM^). " Lord
of Majesty." Due of the ninety-nine Attri
butes of God See Quran, Surah Iv. 78 :
" Blessed be the name of thy Lord possessed
of na,)esty arid glory.'
ZU 'L-KIFL (Jiflt ;o). Lit, « Lord
of a portion.' A -worthy mentioned in the
Quran, Surah xxi. 85 : " And IshmaQl, and
Idris, and Xu '1-Kifl, all of these were patient, I
and we made them enter into our mercy •
verily they were among the righteous." Al-
Baizawi says he was so called because he had
a portion with God the Most High, and gua
ranteed his people, or because he had double
the work of the prophets of his time, and
their reward. According to some writers, he
was either Elias, or Joshua, or Zacbariah.
The root kaji\ having also the meaning of j
" care," " support," otter interpreters iden- I
tify him with the Obadiah of 1 Kings xviii. 4, '
who supported one hundred prophets in the
cave; or Ezeloel, who is called Kvfil by the
Arabs. See Niebubr, Travels, vol. ii. p. 265.
ZULM (,*&). Lit. "Putting a i
thing not in irs proper piece.".- (Ar-Ra<ihib,in \
loco.) Wrong-doing; act/%- tyranir<»Mv. Mu
hammad ibn at-Taiyib, tho author of Annota
tions on the Q,5mus, savs $nlui is ot three Kinds .
(1) between man and OodL/ft) btitwyeuman and
man, (3) beiv>eeu AI\&*I aud himsell. In tha
Qur'au—
Siirab iii. 50 : '; Gnd loves not the tyrants
(az-zaliminc) "
Surab iii. l(M : •« Uod desires not tyranny
'zulntanj unto the worlds "
Surah xxxi. 12 : " Associating (with God)
is a mighty wmng (zu/./n>m 'u.zimuny'
Sui^b. ii. 54 'It was 1 heinselves thoy were
wronging (Icvnu cnfusa-f
\
ZULJVJ \li (i*lfe,>. pi. 4 z/aiamrfi.
" DarkneHS." A term used in iheolo?o foi (
(1) Ignorance, (2) Beh&f in a plurality <J/ j
gods, (3) Tiansgresslons, (4) Aftiiction*
QxirVn, Surah xxir. 10: "Or like 1a,
I. v*--
; A /- .u/-//T-:r»l on a deep sea. there covers it
i wave abo^t wln'cli is a wave, above whieh
is a cloiid. darkness one sbovo
jwb^n on« puts out his baud be ran
soe it ; for be to whom God has given 10
light, hf) has no liuht."
V\ UQA'DAH (i»«V). Lit.
The •' Master oi Tin<-r/' Tbe eleventh month
of tin- VuhaMimadaii vear. so callca '
it was tlv month iu vl.irli th • HTI -ic-ii Araba
abst )i^«rj from warfnre. ("MONTHS.]
ZU 'L-QAKNA1N (^^\ ,o). Lit.
•' He of ".he two horns." A celebrated por-
souage mentioned in the ISth chapter of the
Qu'rau, who is generally considered to !>o
Alexander the Great, although Muslim
writers hold him to have been contemporary
with Abraham.
A( Qastalani, the commentator on al-
Bukhari. says : " Zu '1-qarnain was a king
named Sakandar, whoso wjzit •, or chancellor,
was Khizr |KUJZR], and was contemporary
^rith Abraham, the Friend of God, with whom
he visited the Ka'bah at Makkah. Therein
some difference 01 opinion as to hib being a
prophet, but all learned men are agreed that
he was a man of faith and piety."
Al-Bai/awi eays : "He was Sakandar ar-
Rumi, Kiiu< of Persia and Greece."
Al-Kamalain says "He waa Sakandat ar-
Rfimi; but was contemporary with Abraham,
and not the Sakandar who Lived about three
hundred yearn before Christ, who wad an
bridal*
Muhammad, in his Qur'an, whilst professing
to give an inspired account of £u1-qarnaiii,
K applies m witu but a confused descrip
tion, as follows : —
'•They will ask tnee of Zu'1-qarnain. Say:
I will recite to you an account of him.
Verily We (God) established his pov»er upon
the earth, and We gave him a means to ac
complish every end ; so he followed his way,
until when be reached the setting cf the sue,
he founa it to set in a miry fount ; and hard
by he found a people. We (God) said, ' 0
Zu'l-qarm.in ! whether thou chastise or whe
ther thoa treat them genarcu*ly ' — 'As for
him who is impious,' he said, • *e will chas
tise him ; ' then shall he be taken back to his
Loid, and He \\ill chastise him with a
i^rieveus chastisement. Ont a« to him who
believotb, and doeth th*. which '•* rigLt. he
shall have H fce&ai-ou* recompenso, and Wo
will lay cu th«ui uur eas* be.bj.si*. Then
followed he a route, until ^1 *-n he reached
cheri'dng of the '»n. he fouad it to n»e on a
people to ^liotn We bad givfeu no shelter
*'rom it. Thtis it was. Aud We fcad a lull
knowledge of Ibe forces Mi»» were with bin:,
fhen followed b* a joule \iutil he cauie be
tween the two mountains, bei)@A(b whiob he
found ;i people who icarce understood a Ian-
-ua^-f. They f-iid. 0 Zii'l-q/»inaii» ! Vciilv
-i M » uy i.t. fbe b;irhjji)U3 people uf
L.istcm vn,i) wail; this l.ind; shall \*'f then
i •/ H tribuli . so thou build a rimparl
>etw>en us and tbera ? He laid.
718
AB-ZTJMAB
than your tribute is the might wherewith my
Lord bath strengthened inn-: but help me sire
naonsly, and 1 vill set a barrier between you
*nd them. Bring me block? of iron ' — until
when it filled the eparo between the roonri
fain sides; Blow/ snitj he. upon it' — until
when he had set it' on fire he said,' ' Bring
me molten brass that t any po\u- upon it,1
And Gog and iVfagog wore viot able to scale
it, wither *ere they able to dig tbrouqh it.
' Thi%,' said he. ' is a merry frern my I ora.':
(Qtir'An Surah xriii. 82-90 )
There are different opinions as to the rea
son ol the surname, "two-horned.1' Some
think it was given him because he vas King
ol I be East and oi the West, or because he
had made expeditions to> both those extreme
parts ot Hie earth; or else because he hid
two herns on bis diadem, or two curls of hair,
like horns, on bis forehead. Perhaps there
is Borne allusion to the bo-goat ol Daniel, al
though he is represented with but one born
Uin. ¥<» 5.)
AZ-ZUMAE (^\). « Troops/'
The title of the xxxixth Surah of theQ.nr'an,
in the 73HI verse ol which tlif word occurs :
* But those who fo<».r Cod sli*Jl be driven to
Paradise in
ZUNMA.K. (/ij). Tn Persia, the
belt worn fay Christian^ and Jews, In India,
the BT<* Imctnicat thread A term used amongsl
the SuJis for sincerity in I he pfttb of refr
gio.'i, (Kashfu 'i-lftifftbat. in hco )
zu
ZtT ^N-NlJ N (yyi» ;o), Lil.'« Man
of the fish." A tH»e jiveii to the Prephet
Jonah, io'Qur'an. Siir«h xxi. 87, f.iONAB.]
ZURAH (Cy) -L^. "That which
is very distant," At term used by al-Baizam
the commentator for the Bottu Y-J/«-m«r, or
the model of the Ka-bah, which is said to be
;n the fourth })eaven, and is referred to in the
Qur an. Surah Hi. 4 : •'' By the visited bouic
(i.e. Baitu 'l-Mii'mur).*'. (See af-Boofatoi. in
bo*)
ZU R KAHIM (^ ^), pi. wwu
?l~(trham, or v u ! arham. Lit. " A possessor
of the ^romh/. A nteimc relation. The
plural form vtn V -arkam occurs twice in tho
Quu'an.
Surah riii, 76 : " And they -who have be
lieved awd have since fV>d their country, and
fought at yeur sidt «hese also are o< you.
Those who are imitea by ties of blood (Ji.lv 7-
<efham)t are the n&arest of kin to each other
according to the Book of Gr»d. Verily Gotl
knywef.h all things/'
Surah yxxiii 6 "Nearer of km to the
faithful is the Prophet, than they are to their
own selves. His wive?* are their inotherv.
According to the Book of God, they who are
related by blood (viu l-arham) are nearer the
one to the other than other believers and
than t'hpge who have Bed their country for
the cause of God: but whatever kindoees >e
show to your bindred, shall be noted down (n
the Book."
719
INDEX.
Abdast, 3, i.
Abiq, 3,i. ; 7. i. ; 432. i.
Aiir, 176, i
A-khiru '1-inaujudat,
616, i.
Akhir-i -rhahar-i shambrd
12, ii.
Akiiiind, 12, n.
Akhfmdzadah, 12, ii.
Ada b, 285, ii.
Adam, 9, i. ; 440, i. ; 475, ii.
Azad, 116, i.
Azar, 440, i.
Asiyah, 25. ii.
Asaf, 23, ii.
IJ, 12. ii.
Aminah, 2, i.
Amrnab, 128. ii. ; 680, ii.
Ainin, 14, ii.
Ayatu 'l-hifz, 15, i. ; 27. i
Ayah, 26, ii/; 360, i. ; 481), ii
Ayatu '1-fatb, 26, ii.
Ayatu '1-kursi, 27, i. (
Ayn.tu '1-mawariR, 27, i. ; ^
207, i.
Ab, 646. ii.
Ebiiliiyah. 188, i.
IbazTyah, 188, i.
Ibaq, 7. i. ; 188, i.
Abjad, 3, i.; 681, i.
Abad, 1, ii.
Abdal, 1. ii.
AbadT. 101, i.
Ibralnm. 440, i. ; 475, ii.
Abkam, 1 01. ii.
Ibil, 49, i
Iblis, 84, i. , 188, i.
Ibn. 604, ii. ; 646 ii.
Ibnu '1- hai-ani, J03, i.
Ittihad' 222, ii.
Jttihiiilivah, 609, i.
JT
Ittifaq siikiiti, 197, ii.
Itlif/iq fili 197, i.
Is bat 261 i
Asar 23. ii.
Asani sh-slwrif, 23 ii
Ism, 220. ii. ; 5(J4 ii
'572, ii
/jaian, 175 ii. ; 283, ii. 5 202, n.
Ijti!>ad; 197, ii
Ijtihad fi sh shai ,
198, ii
[jtihad fl 'Umazhab,
198, ii. ; 199, ii.
i "»*i - i r* 1 1 *»'t
Ijlinaa ti l*ma^a tl,
198. ii ; 199 ti
Ajrah (Airat). 613 i
Ajal, 12, ii.
Ijrna1, 60, i. ; 197, i. : 286, ii.;
400, ii. ; 548, i. ; 656, i. i 661, ii
Ajnabi, 12. ii.
Ajir, 12, 11.
Abadis, 1Q6, ii. ; 400, ii.
Ihtikar, 197, i. • 354, ii.
Ihtilam, 140, i. ; 197, i.
Ahad, 12, i.
Uhud, 377, i. ; 649, i.
fhdad, 196,ii.; 366, i.
Ahadlyah, 12, i. ; 568, ii.
tin-am, 156, i. ; 196, ii. ; 317, ii. ;
338, i.
Ah/ab, 12, ii.
Ihsitn, 196. ii. ; 632, ii.
Ihsaru '1-hajj, 197, i.
lliziir, 197. i.
Ahmad, 12 i.
!Jhnukb,649, i.
Ibyu'u '1-uiawat. 197;
?is; 199, ii. ; 286,
' [, 12, ii.
i, 568, i.
Adu\9,i.
Adab, 10. i.
Idrak, 214, i.
jUJ\
>!
I
720
Idris, 192, i.; 440, k ; 475, ii.
Ad'iyatu '1-Ma'surah, *>/X
10. ii.
Asaa, 465, i, i 664, ii,
IZD, 222, ii. ; 661, ii.
Iradah, 146, ii. -, 215, ii.
Arazi, 21, ii.
Arba'ah 'anasitj 77, i. y
Irtid&d, 16, i; 477, i.
Avdan, Urdunn, 250, i.
Arsh, 23, ii.
Ai-z, 102, i. ; 283, i.
Arkauu 'l-iman, 596, i.
Irani. 215, ii.
Armalab, 666, ii.
Trmiya, 227, i. ; 440, i.
Arnab, 163, ii.
Jrhif, 215, ii. ; 350, ii.
Izar, 81, i. ; 581, i.
Azraqiyah, 568, i.
Usara, 49, i.
Usbu4, 666, ii.
Istibra5, 221, i.
Istibsar, 221, i. ; 643; i.
Istisna', 222, ii.
Istihizah, 221, i. ; 221, ii.
Istihsau. 221, iL
Istikharah, 221, ii. ; 580, ii.
Istidrai, 221, i. ; 269, ii. ;
350, ii.
Istidlat, 221, i. ; 519, L
Istirja', 222, ii.
Istisqa*, 222, ii.
Istis^ab, 222, ii.
Tsti'aaab, 221 , i.
Isti'nnal, 519, i.
Isligbfar, 221, ii. ; 318, ii.;
451, i
Isitqain&h, 222, i,
Istiqbal, 222, ii.
Istinja', 222, i. ; 477, ii.
Istinshaq, 222, i.
Jslihlal, 111, i.
Isiiwa', 662, i.
Isti'zan, 181, i.
latilad, 222, i. ; 598, i.
Ishaq, 216, i. ; 440, i. ; 475, ii.
Ishaqlyah, 216, ii. ; 567, ii.
Asad, 74, ii. ; 201, ii.
Asadu 'Hah, 13, ii.
Usara', 49, i.
Israf, 113, ii. ; 221, i.
lerufil, 15, ii. ; 221, i.
Isra'il, 221, i.
Isra, 351, ii.
Iscjat, 4, i, ; 221, i.
iNDEX,
0U»$V o
4
*U\
Islam, 220, i. ; 536, i. ; 564, i.
Ism, 429, i.
Ismu 'l-a'zam, 220, ii. ;
226, ii, ;' 303, ii. ; 547, ii.
Ismu 'z-zat, 220. ii. ;
702, "ii.
Ism jalali, 220, ii,
Isra jamali, 220, ii.
[sm sifab, 220, ii, ; 531, i. ;
582, ii.
Asina'u 'r-rijal, 42, ii.
IsratVIL 216, ii. ; 440, i. ;
475, ii, ; 220, ii.
tsma'iliyab, 220, ii. ; 574, i,
Asrnaa, 170, i.
Uswab, Isnab, 657, i,
Asir, 49, ii,
Isharatu 's-s^ab, 539, ii,
Isharatu '1 maiak, 213, ii. ;
216, ii.
Isbarab, 519, ii.
Asbribab,99, ii.
Asb'ariyah, 24, ii. ; 473, i. ;
569, i,
Ishmawilj 564, i.
Ashbadu, 111, ii.
Isabatu 'l-'ain, 112, ii.
'Ashab, 23, ii. ; 650, i.
Ashabu '1-ahzab, 46, ii. ^
Asbabu '1-Aikah, 151, i, «
Ashftbu '?-supah, 24, ii.
A§habu 'l-fil, 24, i.
Asbabu '1-kahf, 24, ii. ;
50, i. ; 2G6, ii.
Asbabu 'n-nar, 171, ii. jU
Asr, 25, ii.
I§rar, 221, i.
Istiiab, 222, i
Asl, 25, ii.
Usul, 122, ii. j 401, i. ; 656, i.
IzaCab, 530, i.
Uzhiyab, 551, ii.
Itfir, 464, ii.
Tadah, 613, i.
I'taq, 598, i. ; 109, i. ; 222, ii.
Ttiqadat, 285, ii.
I'tikaf, 195, i. ; 222, ii.; 534, i
Tjam, 683, ii. seqq
I'rab, 682, ii.
A'raf , 20, ii. ; 41, i.
rian, 200, ii.
Ala, 13, i.
A^a, 43, ii.
A'uzu bi-llab, 26, ii.
A'yan, 114, i.
A'yanu 's-sabitah, 26. ii.
-A
*
fy*\
INDEX.
721
A'yuu, 114, i.
Uff, 452, i.
Afsfin, 11, ii.
Iftar, 196. ii.
Iqilah, 215, i.
iqamah, 50, ii. ; 215, i. ; 46
Iqtisad, 354, i.
Iqti/,a', 215, ii. ; 519, ii.
Iqrar, 215, ii.
Iqraru 'l-a$ain, 215, ii.
Iqrar 'amm, 215, ii.
Iqrar nainab, 215, ii.
Uqnum, 213, i. ; 655, ii.
Akasirfth, 279, i.
Ikrab, 59, i. ; 200, i.
Al-Ahad, 142, i.
Al-Akhir, 142, i.
Al-'Arba'un, 122, ii.
Al-Azwaju '1-mutah- v
harat/399, i.
Al. Islam, 400, i.
Al-Isuiu '1-A'zam, 142, i.
Al-Asma'u 'l-jalailyah, i-JS
142, ii.
Al-Asma'u 'l-Jamallyah, ^
142, ii.
Al-Ufuqu '1-A'la, 649, i.
Al-Imamu 'l-a'zam, 263, ii.
Al-Itnamu '1-mahdi,
204, ii.
Al-Amln, 369, i.
Al-Insan, 213, i.
Al-lnsaim 'l-Karail,
213, i. ; 710, i.
Al-Inshirah, 213, ii.
Al-Antal, 606, ii.
Al-Infitar. 207, i.
Al-Auwai, 142, i.
Al-AiyaiiHi '1-BIz, 124. ii.
Al-Iman, 596, i.
Al-Bari, 141, ii.
Al-Basit, 141, ii.
Al-Batin, 142, i.
Al-BaMs, 141, ii.
Al-Baqi, 142, i.
Al-Bahr, 366, ii.
Al-Bahru 'l-abya/, 367, i.
Al-Bahru '1-alnnar, 536, i. ;
567, i.
Al-Bsiliru 'l-akhzar, 567, i.
Al-Bahru '1-azraq, 567, i.
Al-BaUru '1-aswad, 567, i.
Al-Barr, 14^ i.
Al-Barzaldb, 605, ii
Al-Basir, 141, ii.
Al-Bayan, 108, ii,
Al-Bailu '1-hiiraiii, 106, i.
Al-Baitu 'l-ma'iuur,
352, ii.
Al-Baitu 'l-muqad<ljs
229, i. ; 333, i. ; 557,
i. seqq.
At-Taslls, 213, i.
At-'J'Hhriln, 625, ii.
At-Tatfif, 629, i.
At-Taghabun, 624, ii.
At-Ta^lltis, 213, i. ; 625, i.
At-Tiitcasur, 626, i.
At-Tsikwir, 626, i.
At.-'J'aiiasukh, 616, i.
At-Tauwab, 142, i. ; 630, i.
At-Taubatu 'n-nasuh,
629, ii.
At-Tin, 128, i. ; 634, ii.
As-Salus al-aqdas, 646, ii. o
Al-Jasiyah, 226, i.
"dS 142, i.
Al-Jabbar, 141, ii. ; 223, ii.
Al-Jibt, 191, ii.
Al-Jabr wa'l-muqabalah,
106, ii.
Al-Jabariyah, 223, i.
Al-Jahim, 171, i.
Al-Jalil, 141, ii.
Al-Jannah, 440, i.
Al-Jfidi, 255, ii. ; 435, ii.
Al-llaqqah, 162, ii.
Al-Hakim, 141, ii.
Al-Hijr, 257, ii.
AUHujunlt, 183, ii.
Al-Hajavu 'i-aswad, 154,
ii.-; 333, ii.
Al-Hudaibiyab, 182, ii.
Al-Hadid, 215, ii.
Al-Hasib, 141, ii. ; 168, ii.
Al-flazarata '1-khamh,
169,'ii.
Al-Hutamab, 171, i.; 187, i
Al-Hatiru, 257, i.
Al-liafiz, 141, ii.
Al-llaqq, 141, ii. ; 162, ii.
Al-l.la.([iqalu 'e-sama- i
wiyah, 547, i.
Al-Haqiqatu '1-Mu- Jo
hauimadiyab, 547, i.
AKHukinu 'sb-shar'i,
184, i.
Al-Hikrnatu '1-
Al-Hikmatu '1-majhu
la'h, 175, i.
91
72%
INDEX.
Al-Hfkmatu 'l-
tab, 175,1!
Al-Hikmatu 'l-mantii-
qah, 175,1
Al-Hakim, 141, n.
Al-liulqum, 697, ii.
Al-Malirn, 141, ii, ; 160 ii
Al-H»rad, 160, ii.
AI-Hamdn Ii Hlah, 104, i.
A I- Haniid, 141, ii. ; 161, i.
AKHambaliyah, 567, ii,
AI-Haujifiyali, 567, ii.
Al-Hawa&u 'l-jQiamsah. *~
129, ii. ; 169, i.
AI-Haiy, 142,1,; 154, ii.
AI-Kbafiz, 141. ii.
AHvhuliq, I4K it,
Al-ghabtr. 141, ii.
Al-Khizr, 227, i. > 272, ii. :
364, ii.
Al-KbulalVu i-raslu- <#J
dim, 264, i. : 274, i.
AI'Kbannas, 269, ii.
Ad-Dauiatu '1-Umawiyah,
448, i.
Art- Daulatu '1-Fatiuuyah, &
125, ii
Az-^ariyal, 702, i.
Ar-Rafi*, 141, ii. ; 531, ii
Ai-Rabb, Slit i.
Ar-Kahman, 141, ii ; 547, ii
532, ii.
Ar.Rahim, 141, ii. ; 347, ii
532, i,
Ar.Radd, 531, ii.
Ar-Razzaq, 141, ii. ; 535, ii
Ar-Rass, 535, ii.
Ar-Rusul, 596, i.
Ar.Rashid, 142, i. ; 535, i.
Ar-Riza', 319, i.
Ar-Ra'd, 581, ii.
Ar-Baqfb, 141, ii. ; 535, i.
Ar-Raqim, 535, i.
Ar-Ruknu 'l-¥anmnl,
548, i.
Ar-Ruhu 'l-a^zaoi, 133, n. ;
547, i.
Ar-Buhu l-iJahi, 547, i.
Ar-Ruhu 'l-amln, 133, i. ;
484, ii. ; 547, i. ; 605? i.
Ar-Ruhu *l-insam, 547, i.
Ar-Rubu 'J-jari, 547, i.
Ar.Ruhn '1-baiwani,
547, i.
Ai'-Ruhu 's-sufli, 547, i.
Af-Ruhu 't-tabl, 547, i,
«j-j»
Ar-Rubu Vulwi, 547, i.
Ar-Ruhti 'l-muhkam.
547, "i,
Ar-Rulm l-Miik&rram.
133; ii.
Ar-Ruhu 'n-na-bnti, 547, i
Ar-Ra*iza,h, 535, ii.
Ar-Ra'uf, 142, K; 535, ii.
Ar-Kuin. 150, i. ; 549, ii.
ih, C97. ii.
I, 710, i.
A7-2ahr,alah, 485, i.
As-Sarah? 177A ii. ; 537, i.
As-Sarai% HI, n.; 564, i.
As-&amiri, 362,. i. ; 564, i.
As-Sa!am, 141, ii. ; 561,4.
563, i,
As-iSi.uiauu
As Sunanu 'l-kubra.
431, i.
As-Sunnatu 'z-Za'idah,
622, ii.
As-Sunnatu 'i-uiu'akka-
dab, 622, ii.
566, i.
As-Saiyarah, 459, ii,
Ash-Sbafiriyah, 567, ii
Ash-Sham, 571. ii.
Ash-Shar1, 285, ii.
Ash-Shar?ah, 285, ii.
Ash-Shu*ara'. 581, ii.
Ash-Shicrri, 596, i.
Ash-Shakur, 141, ii. ; 571, ii
Ash-Shams, 459; ii.; 571, it
Ash-Shahld, 141, ii, ; 57l; i.
Ash-Shahldu '1-kamil.
327, ii.
Ash-Shura. 582, i
As-Saffatj 554, ii.
As-Salihat, 149, i.
As-Sabiir, 142, i.
As-Silwhu VsittaL,
'582, ii'
As-Sakh»-ah; 227, ii ; 333, i. ;
480, i. ; 541, i.; 557, j. seqq.
As-Sinit, 544 i.
A8-Sa£f,'55l, ii.
A?-Safa, 554, ii.
As-Salat?56l, i.
As-.Samad, 142, i.; <>64, i.
Az-Zarr 142, i. : 702, i.
At-Tariq, 628. i
At.-tagtiut. 191, ii.
At-Ta'if, 381> ii. ; 625, ii-
INDEX
723
At-Tibbu 'r-niiiaui, ,
634, u.
Az-£abir, 142, i. ; 698, i»,
A*-Zillu '1-auwHl, 710, i:.
Al-'Adiynl, 485, i.
Al-'Azar, 292, ii.
Al-'Alim, 141, ii.
AI-'Alaum Vsulli, 531. i.
AI-'Alamu'l-'ulwi, 5.JI,).
Al-'Adl, 141, ii.
Ai-'Iraq, l!I5, ii.
AMJzzi, 191, ii. ; 540, i.
(>58, ii.
Al-'Aziz, 141, ii.
Al-'Azba, 360, i.
Al-'A/iin, 141, ii.
Al-'Afu; 142, i.
Al-'Aqlu 'l-anwal, 54 /. i. ;
710, i.
Al-'Uqiilu 'i-'ashrah,
£55, ii
A)-'Ilmu 'i-allabi, «!;•'!. i
Al-'lliiHi :t-t;ihiril 202, ii.
Ai-Ali, 141, ii,
Al-'Auasir al-arba'ah,
108, i.
Al-'Ankabut, 60S, i-
AI-'AM al-jadld, 433, i.
Al-'Ahdu 'J-'atiq, 439, ii,
Al-'Idu >^a^Kir, 192, ii. :
194, it.
Al-'Jdu i-kabir, 192, u,
Al-Ohabah, 138, i.
Al-Obashiyah, 139, i.
Al-Gbaffar, 141, n.
Al -Grhatur, 141, ii.
ll-Gbani, 138, ii. ; 142, i.
Al-Glmib al-imitlaq,
133, i
Al-Falibah, 125, i. : 485, i
Al-Fcvtlfih, 127,i.; 141, ii.
Al-Fath, 125, i.
il-Firdaus, 449, i.
Al-Fuvqan, 132, ii.
A.I-FI1, 128, i.
iLl-Qabiz, 477, i. ; Ml, ii.
Al-Qad!i:3142,i. ; 478, i.
jll-Qari^b, 479, i.
Al-Qubbatain. :>-;9, ii.
li.Qadar, 478, i.; 596, i.
A\ Quvhatu 1-balwu', «
kl.Quddui,141, ii.; 182.
Al-Qadim, 478, i.
^\
Al Qurra'u 's-sab'ab,
• 478. ii
AUQuraii G5r« i.
AI-Qurani! '
530, ii.
Al-Qa^i^, 179, i.
Al.Qa9wa, 390, i. ; 479, ii.
Ai-Qalam 478, ii.
Al-Qa«iar, 459, u. ; 478. ii.
AI-Q*hbar, 141, ii.; 47S. i.
AJ-Qawi, I-U. ii, ; 479, n.
A.I-Qiyamah, 482, i.
Al-Qaiyiifii, J4i?, i ; 178 ii
AJ-Kati, 259, ii.
Al-Kabir, 141, ii.- 259, ii.
Al-Kitab 280. ii. • 484, i
Al-Kitabu '1-liukuii,
^80 ii.
AKKitabu 'Uuublu,
280, ii.
Al-Kitabu 'l-muqaddas.
566, u,
Al-Ktitub, 596, i.
Al-lCutubu 's-sitUb,
555, i. ; 582, ii,
Ai-Karim, 141, ii.; 261. ii.
AUKa'bab, 256. i.
A-1-Kanzu 'l-mak]ifl.
261, ii.
Al-Kabf, 260, ii.
Al-Kausar, 262, i.
AUKiifa'h, 281, ii.
AKKiinija', 277. ii
Al-Kimi^a'u '1-Akbar, ^
278, i.
Al-Laf, 191, ii. ; 285, i. ; 540,
AULatif, 141, ii. ; 285, i.
Allah, 141, i. ; 596, i.
Allahu akbar, 14, i.
Al-Laubu '1-niahfuz, 230. *.
ii. ; 285, ii. : 474, ii. .
698, i,
VJ-Lailatu 1-mubarakab, ^
282, ii. ; 534, ii. ; 662, i.
Al-Ma'im, 347, i
Al-Maiik, 312, i.
Al-M^'idah, 307, ii.
A!-M»niyi42, i. ; 31o. L
AUMubdi. 141, ii.'; 367, i.
AI.Muta'akKirno, 460, i.
AI-Muta'air, U2, i. ; 424 i.
Al-Mntaqaddimiin 460, i. g
Al-Mutjikabbir, 141, ii. ; 424, ii
Al-Matin. 141, ii.; 34(jr ii.
Al-Mesani, 326, ii.
i, 418, ii.
724
Al-Majfis, 310, i.
Al-Mujlb. 141, ii.; 418, ii.
Al-Majid 141, ii. ; 310, i.
Al-Muhdisfm, 460, i.
Al-Mihrabu 'n-nabawi,
344, ii.
Al'Muhsi, 141, ii. ; 418, i,
Al-Muhyi, 141, 11.; 418, i.
Al-MukhazraBiun, 460, i.
Al-Mmldasir; 367, i.
Al-Madinab, 303, i.
Al-Muzill, 426, i.
Al-Mursalat, 422, i.
Al-Murshidu 'l-kamil,
616, ii.
Al-MftH', 697, ij.
Al-Mirrikh, 459, ii.
AUM-uzzawiml. 426, i.
Al-Huxil, 141, ii,
Al-Musabbihal, 422, i.
Al-Mustajab, 548, i.
Al-Masjidu '1-aqsa,
333, i.
Al-Masjidu '1-jami,
343, ii.
Al-Mas j idu ' 1-haram , <
155, ii.
Al-Maslh, 229, ii ; 328, ii.
Al-Maslhu 'd-dajjal, w
328, ii. ; 539, ii.
AI-Mushtari, 459, ii-
Al-Musauwir, 141, ii. ; 423. i
Al-Ma'arij, 302, i.
Al-Mi'jan, 257, i.
Al-Mu'izz, 141, ii. : 418. ii.
Al-Mu'tir142, i. ; 425, ii.
Al-Mu'aqqibat, 366, ii.
Al-Mu'auwizat, 366, ii.
Al-Mu'id, 141, ii. ; 418. ii.
Al-Mughm, 142, i. ; 367, ii.
Al-Muqtadir, 142, i. ; 420, ii.
Al-Muqaddim, 142, i. ; 420, i
AUMaqsudu 'l-aq^a,
609, ii.
Al-Muqsit, 142, i. ; 420, ii.
Al-Muqlt} 141, ii. : 420. ii.
Al-Malarikah, 311, ii. ; 596, i.
Al-Mulk 419, ii.
Al-Malik? 141, ii.
Al-Maliku Jl-wadud, ^
659, i.
Al-Malakiyah, 567, ii.
Al-Miimtahmali. 419, ii.
Al-Mumit, 142, i. ; 419, ii.
Al-Munafiqim, 420, ii.
i, 142.i.: 420 i
IXD.EX.
Al-Mahdi, 305, i. ; 540, ii..
Al-Muhairniri, 141, ii. ; 367. ii. ,
Al-Maulu '1-abyaz, 347, i. ^^
AUMauti3 'l-aswad.347, i. -y-^
Al-Mu'akbkhir, 112 J. ; 366, ii.
Al-Muwalladun, 460, j <,
Al-Mu-min, 141, ii.; 419, ii.
Al-Mu'mmun, 419, ii. ; 572, ii. <•
Al-Maisir, 309, ii.
Au-Najiyab, 428, i. ; 567, ii.
An-Nar, 170, ii.; 430, i.
AurNazi'at, 431, ii. «
An-Nas, 430, i.
An-Nafi.<, 142, i. ; 427, i.
An-Naba\ 427, i.
An-Nabiyu '1-ummi, 654, ii.
An-Najjariyab, 428, i.
Au-Nujaba% 436, i.
An-Najra, 428, i.
Au-Nujiunu 's-sawabit, «^
i59, ii.
Aii-^u-jiimu 's-saivarah, 6j
201, 'ii. ; 459, ii.
An-Nahl, 427, ii.
An-Nisa', 434, ii.
Aii-Na§r, 431, i.
Ari-Nazir, 431, ii.
An-Nafsu M-wahidah,
547, i.
Aii-Nuqaba', 436, ii.
An-Naqshbandiyab, 430, ii
Ai.-Naml, 429, ii.
In-Nawah, 440, i.
An-Nur, 142, i. ; 436, u.
Al-Uadi, 142, i.
Al-Humazah, 184, ,.
Al-Wajid, 142, i. ; 663, i.
Al- Wahid, 142, i, ; 662, ii.
Al-Waris, 142, i. ; 664, ii.
Al-Wasi', 141, ii- ; 664, ii.
Al- Waqi'ah, 664, i.
Al- VVali, 142, i.
Al-Wujudu '1-rputlaq,
<513, i. ; 646, ii.
Al-Wadajan. 69*, ii.
Al- Wadud, 141, ii. ; 659, i.
Al-Waridan, 697, ii.
Al-Waqtu d-da'im,6D4,ii. *$
Al-Wakil, 141, ii. ; d63, i.
Al-Wali, 141, ii.
Al- Wahhab, 141, ii ; 659, i.
Al-Yasa*, 1085 ii. ; 440, i, ;
475, ii.
Al-Yaqin 694, i.
Al-YaiTiiim 'l-ghamus?
437, I
INDEX.
726
Al-Yaminu '1-mun'aqid, o**u-*H ^
437, i.
AI-Yaumn 'J-akhir, 537, i, ;
096, i. ; 094, ii
Al-Yaumu 'l-muhit, 537, i.
A L I.?, 517, ii.
Alia/, 518, i.
Ilqa , 202, ii. ; 486, i.
ALM, 517, ii.
ALM.R, 517, ii.
ALMS, 517, ii.
Ilah, 200, i.
Ilhain, 200, ii. ; 213, ii. ; 470, 11.
Ilhamiyah, 609, i.
Ilahi, 200, ii.
Alwah, 14, i. ; 624, i.
Uluhlyah, 650, i.
Ilyas, 108, ii. ; 440, i. ; 475, u.
Ilyasib, 10H, ii.
Um?n, 654, i.
Ummu 'l-'uium, 654, i.
Ummu '1-Qur'au, 125, i
Ummu '1-quiri. 654, i., ii. ;
655, i.
(Jmmu 'l-kitab, 213, i. ; N
647, i. ; 654, ii.
Uminu 'J-mu'niiniii, 654, ii. ^^*.
Ummu '1-walad, 576, i. ;
632, ii. ; 655, i.
Imam, 58, i. ; 203,1?; 278, ii.;
475. i,
Imam barab, 204, i. *j*
Jniani mubin, 475", i.
Iiuamiyah, 2U4, i. ; 568, i. ;
572, ii.; 574, ii.
Anian, 14, i. ; 69, n. ; 109, i
Amanat, 286, i.
Amsal, 440j i.
Imsak, 206, i.
Umaua', 650, i.
Amah, 596, ii.
Uminab, 654, ii.
Umuiatu Ibrahim, 654, ii.
Ummahatu 'l-inaaahiL •—
686, i.
Umm Wa-lad, 152, i.
Uinumiyab, 655, i.
Uinmi, 138, i. ; 654, ii.
Amir, 14, ii. ; 278, ii. ; 5-io. ii
Arnitu '1-umara', 14, ii.
Amlru 'l-hajj, 14, ii.
Amiru >l«mu'niiiiin, 14, ii.; t*^*?
59, i.
Amin, 14, ii.
Amin l-bait, 34, ii.
Ananivah, 15, i.
4)
Amh>\;. I 1., ii.
Injii,82, i.;'l49, ii. ; 21J, i.
, Itr/.i'uj, 2J5, i.
i lusau, 40, i.
Insha 'llahu U'ala,
213, ii
An'am, 15, i. ; 49, ii
In'an., 206, i
An Rah, 566, ii.
Ansar, 16, i.
Inzar, 215, i.
Infiq, 207, i.
Ania), 15, i.
.Ihhiiah. '350, ii.
Ihtimam, ]07, i.
Ihlal, L9C, ii.
Ahlu 'l-bai|, 12, i.
Ahlu '1-haqiqah, 617. ii.
A.bl« 'z-zimm;th, 710, i.
Ahlu s-Runuah, (523, i.
Ahlu 'l-kal-H'ir, 2J5, i.
Ahlu 'I kitab !•?, i. ,
220, i. ; 423. ii. ; 575, ii.
Ahlu 'l-hawa', 12t i.
Ahlu sunnah w;»
jain'ah, 60, i.
Ablu Kiiniya, 278, i.
Autad. 26, "i.
A.ui"iHlialnu, 227, i.
An I fid, 50, ii.
Ulu 'l-'azm, 475, ii. ; 650. i.
Anliyr*', 26, ii,
\r awn fAyyamu) Ubi/.,
Aiyaniu 't-tashriq, 27, ii. .
157. ii.
Ahamu 'i-qarr, 27. ii.
Aiy iiu^i 'n-nahr, "*!7. li.
Isar, 216, ii.
Ijab, 197, i. ; 314, ii.
Aikab, 151, i.
Jla', 88, ii. ; 20t>, i.
fi
i«Ux»t
j^'
, >».
Aiyim fA/yini), 27, ii.
IiuAii. I9«, i.\ -204, ii.; K'O, ,i
5r,4, i. ; 615, i.
Imau-i-tahqifji, 6JO, i.
linan-i-tn«jlidl. 615, i.
I in H n inujiu.-il. 204. ii.
Imaii innfass^l, 2<H, ii.
A immatu '1 -asina', -7, i. «i-
A'imuialu 'J-lmdis. «v|i. i. ^v
Aiyub, HO i. : 475, ii.
726
INDEX.
Babu Ibrahim.. 342. I.
Babti 'l-ahv^b, 29, i.
Babu 'r-rahmah. 344r ii.
Babu Wiyftdab, 842, i
Babu Vsalam, 29, i. ;
338, ii.
Babu 'Paehrak, 342. L
Babu V Safa, 342, i.
Babu 'i-'uinrah, 342. i-
Balm 'n-i-iabi, 342, i.
Babu 'n-nisa, 29, ii.
Babu 'KWadd', 342, ii.
Btibu ban) shaibab,
29, tt,
Babii 'Usinan, 844, ii.
Babu 'A.ii, .342, i.
Bn-bil, 29, i.
Babu Muhammad, 228. i.
Babuj (ba;boog)/95, i.
Padshah, 278,, iu
Barih. 305; i.
Bariqah, 36, ii.
Barah-i-wafat, 06. .1.
Bari', 36? ii.
BaX 169, ii.
Bazaq baziq, 39, ii,
Bazi'ah, 128. ii.; 680, ii.
Bftiil, 39, ii.
Batin, 39, ii.
Ba:isr34, ii.
Ua'us, 39, ii.
Baghi, 536, i.
Biiqi 36, i. ; 73, ii.
Bala kjianah, 180, i.
Baligb. 35, ii.
Ba'in, 88,.i,
.Pak aawishtah, 566, ii.
Bahr, 546. i, ; 566} ii.
Bahvu 'l-kbi^r, 567, i.
Bahrii 'y-zulmat, 102, ii.
Bahru 'l-qnlzuni, 536, i.
566, ii.
Bahru /l-inubit, 102, ii.
Bahru Lut. 56 7 . i.
Baliira,/3(), i.
Bahifah, 30, ii.
Bakbtiyab 568, ii.
Bakbur, 206, ji.
Badr. 37'd, i.
Bid'ah, 42, i
»-
A-t \1
Bid'ivah. 569, i.
Badn, 702r ii,
Bad aw I, 30, i.
Bad?, SO, i.
Bazl, 79, i.
Barr, 38, ii.
Buraq, 44, ii. ; 351, ii.
Bara'ab, 36, i.
Burj, 7o\ i.
Burdah, 46, ii.
Birzaun. 177; i.
Barz;i!d] > 38, ii.
Bui-qa*, 48, i. , 96; i. i 280, I
Buiiij, 48, i, ;. 76, i.
Buzurg, 48, ii., 556, i,
Bazl, 73; i.
Bismillab, 43, i. ; 51, i. ;
104 i,
Bushra, 48, .ii.
Ba^arah, 39, i.
Basar, 39, i. ; 147> i.
Basir, 39, i.
JJasIrah, 39, i. j 130, i.
B-isit, 39, i.
Bi/.a'ah, 43, i.
Bir'as. 44, i.
Ba% 39, i.
Ba-i, 35, ii.
Bagh],419, i.
Bagiil, 129, ii. ,
Banar 'id. 192, ii.
Baqarab-, 36, i.
Baqi'o 'l-ghs rqad, 36, i. ;
714, i.
Bukii', 44, i. ; 366, i.
Bukm (pL of abkatji), 101, ii.
Biladu 'Mslam, 42, i.
Biladu 'l-'Arab, 17, i.
Bilal, 4*2, i.
Balad, 35, ii. ; 283, i.
Baldah, 13, i.
Bilqls, 42, i. ; 604, ii.
Buiiigh, 476, i.
Bulughiyah, 476, i.
Baflaly 70, ii.
Bhk, 70, ii.
Bint labim, 42, i. ; 700, i.
Bint mikhaz, 42, i. : 700, i.
Banu Isra'ii, 35. i I 36, i.
Banii 'KMustpliq, 373, ii. ;
423, ii.
BfiniJ Urnaiyah, 448, i.
Bui^aiaiiii. 41, ii.
"Banish (beneesh), 93, i.
Bub tan ,29, ii. ; 44, i. ; 49, i.
Bihisht, 42, i. ; 449, i. , 586, i.
ft*
INDEX.
7*27
Biilas, 44, i.
Bibanu 'sli-slurit', 342. i.
Bait, 178, i
Baitu 'l-lmram, 85, i.
Baitu '1-hikmah, 35, i.
Baitu '1-hannl, 35, i.
Baitu 'g-sa'd, 280, i.
Baitu 'J-quds, 35, K
Baitu 'llah, 35, i. ; 333, ii.
Baitu M-innl, 35, i. ; 655, ii. JU31
Baitu 'l-midras, 35. i. !J^\)J^\
Baitu M-ma'tniir, 35, i. :
257, ii.
Baitu 'I'tmiqaddas. 35, i.
Baitu '1-maqdis, 227, i
Bi'r, 666; ii.
Bi'ru 'n-Nabi, 701. n.
Bi'r zamzaat. 42, ii. ; 33/f ii
#i?r ina'uiiali, 42, ii.
Bi .Oiar',43, i.
Bai', 30. ii.
Bai'u 'l-vrafa1, 34, i. ; o5, i.
Bi'ah,42, i ; 56, ii.
Baiyinali, 35, ii.
Pir, 45R, ii. ; 556, i.
Paighambar, 449^ i.
'&*
, i.
Tabut, 410, ii. aeqq. j 560, ii. ;
Tabrit khanali, 411, ii.
Taj, J20. i.; 282, ii. ; l&fi, i.
Ta rikh,440, i.
Ta'ainVi, 82, ii.
Tabarnik. 624 i.
Tubba', 647, ii.
T»bacu 't-tabi'in, 624, i.
Tabagb, 6'34f, ii.
Tabl. 300 ii.
Tabanni. 10, ii,
Tabuk.624, i.
Tabi'ah, 700, i.
TaUyuiu 300, ii.
Tutun, 634, ii.
Tasawub, 695, ii.
, 646. ii.
b 629. i.
Tijarali, 59, i.
TaUluf, 62, i.
Tahrif. 61. ii., 625, ii.
Tabrif-i-lafizi, 61, ii.
Tahnf-i-ma'riawi, 61 ii.
Tahrimu u-nasab, 3l7,i.
Taliliq, 572, i.
Tahmid, 13, ii. ; (J25, ii. ; 70 i, ii.
Tahannus, 625, i.
Tah!yah."26', i.; KiS, i
Takhanij, 62f,f i.
Tadbir, 599. i ; 624, n
Tarbusl.. 03, i.
Turk, 618, i.
Tark. 704. ii.
Tarikah, 628 i.
TArwiyau, 628, ii.
Tftiki/ah, 634, i.
Taxwij, 575, ii. ; 634, i.
lazy! rait Oo/./eereh), 95, i.
rasbih. 646 ii. ; 628, ii. ;
704, ii.
Tasbih-i-sijclah, 1-67, i.
Taslim, 537, i. ; 62rf, ii.
Tasmi', 467, i ; 629, i.
Tasmiyah. 466, ii. ; fS2, i.
629, i.
Tttsnim, 629, i.
Tashdid, 686, i.
Tashriq,628, ii
Tashahhud. 4*5^, i. : 628, .i.
Tasarrufal shat iyah,
608, ii.; 628, ii.
Tatauwu', 629, i.
Tatbir, 477, ii. . 629. n
Ta'sib; 476, ii
Ta'zir, 632, i. 5^/7.
Ta'ziyah, :j66. i. : 40',), ii. :
631, ii.
Ta alluq, 623, i.
Ta'awwuz, 466, ii. ; 4S2, i.
624, i.
Ta'wiz, 14, ii. ; 630, ii.
Taghnb, 35, ii.
L'uglilib, 6-2 1, ii.
Tai'sir, 106. ii. : 072, i. ;
624, ii.
Talakkur. 624, ii.
Tafaitwul, o05, i.
Tatwiy. "286, i.
fteqdir, 8%J, i. ; 472, i. ; 0-'-
Tnqarrui.. »J'JH, i
„
w-
$
'J'a(pv;l, 7, ii.; 028, i.
Taqwiyatu 'l-irnnn. t>6l - ii.
Ta.'|i}a!i (f.-i.ltceyoh •. 94 ii. :
575, ii.; 628, i.
Tukbir, 14. i.; 45, i ; Mr,, ii. ;
626, i. ; 704, i.
728
INDEX.
Takblr-i-tahrimah, 466, i. ;
626, i.
Takbir-i-jatsak, 467, ii.
Takblr-i-riikiiS 466, ii.
Takbh-i-sijdah, 467, i.
Fakmiiu 's-Suluk, 120, ii «^yLJJ
Takyab, 118, i. ; 407, i. r 626, ii
TilAwah, 517, i ; 634, ii.
Talbiyak, 157, ii.; 261, i. :
626, ii.
Talqin, 120, ii. ; £16, ii. ;
627, ii.
Tamattu', 627, ii.
Tamjid, 627, ii
Tarn hid, 546, ii.
Tiins'ah, 63, ii,
Tarn i hi. 627, ii.
Taaasukh, C27, ii.
Tanas ukhivah, 568. i-
THnibaku, 634, ii.
Tana'-ijin, 302, ii.
Tanfil, 627, ii.
Tan win, 683, ii.
Tahzib, 625, ii.; 643, i.
Tahiil, 625, i
Tauwab (tawwftb), 75, ii.
Tawabi', 530, i.
Tawaiu', 286, i.
Taubah, 451,. i. ; 536, ii ; 629, ii.
Taujib, 629, ii
Tauhld, 629, ii. ; 704, i.
Taurat, 53, ii. ; 62, i. ; 114, ii. :
356, i. ; 439, i. ; 440. i. ; 560,
ii. ; 629, ii. ; 698, i.
Tawakkul, 286, i.
Tayamiuum, 3, ii. ; 477, ii. ;
631, ii.
75, ii.
Sakbaz, 681, i.
Su'.ban, 569, ii.
Sa'labiyah, 568, i.
§iqali; 595, ii.
Suls, 489, ii. ; 492, i. : 0
Sulws. 691, i.
Samuel, 17, i. ; 563, i.
Saaawiyab, 568, ii.
8aw;ib, 566, i.
§aur, 73, ii.; 201, h.
Saiyibab, 315, ii. ; 556, i.
2, ii.
Jasuliq, 226, i.
i Jasi, 281, i.
i Jar, 432, ii
| Jar mulasiq, 226, i.
| Jasus, 429, ii.
| Jagir, 224, i.
: Jalfit, 440, i
Jami', 73, ii
Jann, 134, i. ; 225, ii. ; 547,
Ja'i-namaz, 224, ii.
Jubb, 88, i.
Jabbarun, 35, ii.
; Jubbu '1-huzn, 255, i,
! Jabra'it, 1ft, ii
j Jabarut, Jabr.it, 223, 1. ; 609,
i Jabariyan, 473, i.
j Jibril, 15, ii. ; 440, i.
I Jabariyah, o(>8j i.
j Jabal Zubnii, 647, ii J-*,
I Jabal Musii, 223, i ^y*
! Jubbah (gibbah), 93, i.
! Jabil, 223, ii.
Juhfah, 350, i
Jadd, 149, ii. ; 223, ii.
Jadclah, 150, i.
Jiddah, 226, ii.
Jady, 74, ii. ; .201, ii.
Jazbah, 226, ii.
Jaz'ah, 226, i. -f 700, i.
Jarr, 226, i. ; 632, i.
Jarad, 298, ii
Jail, 225, ii.
Jari, 691, ii.
Ja/rib, 631, i.
Jarid, 178, i.
Tua', 256, ii. ; 489, ii. ; 492, i
Jazmah, 686, ;
Jaziratu Jl-*Arab, 17, i. ^»^
Jizyah, 14, ii. . 109, i. ; 630, ii.;
653, i. ; 710, i.
Ju'l, 255. ii.
Ja'lu 1-jauf, 225, i.
Jallad, 112, ii.
Jalal, 225, i.
JaldaL, 85, ii.
Julus, 596, i.
Jamadat, 531, i.
Jumada '1-u^ra, 255, ii. ;
355, i.
INDEX*
729
Jumada M-ula, 255, ii. ;
355, i,
Jima', 140, i.
Jamrab, 225, i.
Jainratu 'l-'aqibah, 225, i.
•a '1-jam', 225, ii.
Juaa'ah, 60, i. ; 131, ii.
Jmniah, 530, i.
Jinii. 40. ii, ; 133, ii. ; 225, ii.
Janab, 225, ii.
Janabah, 225, ii.
Jamiatu 'l-Firdaus. <j+)
226, i. ; 449, i.
Jannatu '1-Mawa, 226, i. ; <j
449,i.
Jannatu 'n-na'im, 226, i. ;
44.9, i.
Jannatu 'Adn, 105, ii. :
226, i. ; 449, i.
Janazah, jinazah, 42. i. ; 44, i. ;
132, ii.: 225,. ii.
Junub, 140, i.; 255, ii.
Jannah, 133, ii. ; 225, ii. ; 613, i
Jannatu '1-fchuld, 226. i. ;
449, i.
Jannatu <Adn, 105, ii. ;
J38,ii.
Jihad, 70, i. ; 82, i. i 286,1.;
520, h. ; 664, ii. ; 710, ii.
jahl, 224, ii.
Jahimiyah, 568, ii.
Jahannam, 170, ii. ; 171, i.
Jawarai'u '1-kalim, 226, i. t
Jauxa', 73, ii.^ 201, ii.
Jaijid, 225, i.
, 224, ii.
**+
Hajj, 155, i.
IJajiz, 39, i.
Haji, 155, i. ; 699, i.
Hadis, 153, ii.
5' arisiyah, 167, ii.
arisJiab, 680, ii.
llashiyab, 572, i.
Hazir zamini, 170, i. ;
' 812, ii.
Hazir zamam, 34, ii.
Hafiz,154, i.
Hafizu fl-bait, 154, i.
Hakim, 160, i.
Hal, 160, i.; 530, i
Halif, 175, ii.
632, i. ; J^
, 707, i.
Ha mim, 161, 5.
Itt'i?., 34?, ii.
Ha'izah, 154, ii.
Hubb. 50, i. ; 286, i. ; 300, i.
Habarah, D5, ii.
Habs, 205, ii.
Hubs, 181, ii.
Habwab, 153, ii.
Hablbijah, 568, ii.
Hajj, 129, ii; 155, i. ; 401 , i. ;
458, ii.; 481, i. ; 545, ii.;
655, i.
Hijab, 14, i.; 174, i.
Hijaz, 17, i.; 174, ii.
ifijiiinah, 43, i.
Hajb, 155, i.
Hujattiyab, 568, ii.
Hijr, 174, ii. ; 211, i. ; 337, i
flijru Isma'Il, 337, i.
Hujrab, 183, i. ; 345, ii.
Hajj mabrfir, 160, i.
Hujjah, 182, ii.
Hujiatu '1-haqqi jP^tV
'«1afl-kbalqf 183, i.
Hajjatu '1-wada', 160, i.
382, i.
Hadd, 153, ii. ; 476, ii. ;
' 679, i.
Hidad, 174, i. ; 671, ii.
Haddu 'r-riddah, 286, i.
Haddu Vzina', '2£
Haddu 's-eariqab, 286, i.
Haddu Vsburb, 286, i.
Haddu 'l-qajgl, 286, i.
Hududu '1-haram, 163, i.
Hadig, 62, ii; ; 153, ii. ; 548, T.;
339, ii. ; 656, i.
Hadl§ hasan, 640, i;
Hadis §abih, 640, i.
Hadis za'if,' 640, i.
Hadis 'aziz, 640, i.
Hadi§ gharib, 640, ii
Hadis qudsi, 153, ii.
Hadis muttasil, 640, i.
Had "19 mutawatir. 640, i
Hadig mursal, 640, ii.
Had 13 raarfu', 640, i.
Ha<lTs mashbur, 640, i
Hadis maqtu', 640, i.
Hadi$ inunqal,)', 640, i.
Hadis manziV. 640, ii.
Hadis mauquf, 640, i.
Hadid, 153, ii. ; 430, i.
Ha^ar (hizr), 58, ii ; 169, ii.
HirA' 175, ii. : 484. ii.
92
iiv.
.
J-;** »i^j^
730
•
haram, 57, ii.; 163, i.; 286, i. ;
655, i.
Harbu bu'as, 44, i. w£>\
Harabl, 576, i.
Hir$, 176, ii.
Havf, 163, ii. ; 489, ii.
Harqiyab, 569, i
Haram, 163, i.
Harairm 1-Madinah, 163, i.
Haramu Makkah, 163, i. <&+
Hurmah, 11, i. <
Harlm, 163, ii. ; 180, i.
Hurriyah/315, i. ; 704, ii.
HJzqil, 114, i.; 440, i.
Huzii, 11, ii.
Hiss, 176, ii.
Hisab, 106, ii.
Hisbu '1-bahiir, 621, i.
Hiss batin, 176, ii.
Hasabiyah, 568, ii.
Hasad/109, ii. ; 168, i.
Hiss gahir, 176, ii.
Hiss mushtarak, 130, i.
Husnu '1-khulq, 187, i.
Hashr, 168, ii.
Hashriyah, 46, i.
Hizanab, 151, i. ; 176, ii.
Hazraii, 170, i.
Hazratu '1-jami'ah, 169, ii.
Hazratu 'sh-sbahadati
'1-muttaqah, 169, ii,
Hazratu 'l-gaibi '1- <j&*$\ s-^V
mut la q, 169, ii,
Hazrat u 'alami '1-arwah.
' 169, iu
htazratu 'alami '1-misal, JU
169, ii.
Hutu, 681. i.
IJatmi, 337, i.
Hifzu 'l-'ahd, 174, i.
Haqq, 74, ii. ; 162, ii.
Haqqu 'l-'abd. 162, n.
Haqqu 'llah, 163, i,
Haqqu 'n-nas, 163, i.
Haqqu '1-yaqm, 163, i. ;
' 694, i. *
Hiqqah, 175, ii. ; 700, i.
Huqqah, 167, ii.
Haqlqah, 162, i. ; 519, i. ;
' 609, ii. seqq. ; 704, ii.
Haqiqatu '1-muhamma-
' dlyah, 162, i.; 436, ii.
Haqiqi, 162, ii. ; 662, i.
Hakam, 160, i.
Hukra, 183, ii.
riikinah, 175, i. ,- 440, i.
INDEX.
Hakim, 160, i.
Halal,.58, i.; 160, i.
Hulaliyah, 96, ii.
Hiif, 175, ii.
Hilfu 'l-fuzul, 175, ii.
Hilf namah, 175, ii.
Hilm, 175,ii/
Hulm, 92, i.
Hullah, 581, i.
HuluJ, 184, i.
HM, 518, i.
Hamalah, 160, ii.
Hama'il, 14, ii. ; 160, ii.
Hamd, 13. ii.
Hamdu li-llah. 13, ii.
Hamziyah, 161, ti.
HM'SQ, 518, i.
Hamal, 73, i. ; 201, ii.
Hamalatu 'l-'arsh, 160, ii.;
162, ii.
Hima, 175, ri.
Hinna', 40, i. ; 175, Si.
Haubab", 286» ii.
Han tarn, 99, ii. ; 658, i.
Hanafl, 286, ii.
Hamf, 161, ii. ; 402, ii.
Hunain, 184. i.
Hauwa', 110, ii.
Hawan, 16, ii. ; 169, i.
Hawalah, 169, t.
Hawamim, 169, i.
Hut, 75, ii. ; 201, ii.
Hur, 184, ii.
Hauzu '1-hayat, 616, i.
Hauzu 1-kausar, 168, ii.
Haul, 696, i. '
Haulu '1-haul, 699, ii.
Hawalanu 'l-haul, 168, ii.
Haya, 169, ii. ; 354, i.
Haiz, 140, i.; 169, ii.
Hayawan, 16, i.
Haiwan, 154, ti.
Haiwaiiat. 531, i.
Hayawaii-i-a'jani, 40, ii.
Haiwan sakit, 154, ii.
Haiwan natiq, 40, ii. ;
' 154, ii.
Haivah, 569, ii.
Hayat, 146, ii. ; 169, ii. ; 655, ii
Haiyatu 'd-dunya, 169, ii.
Kbatim, 545, i.
Kbatimu 'n-nabuwali,
270, f. ; 567, i.
INDEX".
Khattmu 'n-nabiyui,
270, i. ; 567, i.
Kharijlyah, 422, i. ; 568, i.
Khariqn 'l-'adah, 350, i.
Kha§s, 270, i. ; 518, i.
Kh«|ib, 330, ii.
Khntibah, 322, i.
Khafcir, 270, i.
Khalidun, 109, ii. ; 263, ii.
&haltq. 75, ii
Khan, 269, ii.
Khabar, 530, i.
Khabar mutawimr, 262, ii.
tQiibrah, 270, ii.
Khabar wahid, 262, ii. ;
640, ii.
Khabi§, 262, ii.
Khitsn, 57, i.
Khitanah, 57, i.
Khatm, 73, i. ; 613, ii.
jQiatain-i-Manzil-i-Fil, c
517, i.
Khatmah, 196, i.; 270, i ?
323, ii.
Kbatu, 270, i,
JjChatnah, 57, i
KJLiuda, 273, ii. ; 585, ii.
Khudawand, 274, i
Hhizlan, 272, ii.
K>i aril bat, 269, ii.
Kliaraj, 269, ii. ; 630, ii.
Kharqu Vadah, 269, ii,
Khirqah, 271, i.
Khusraw, 53, i.
Khusuf, 105, i.
Khashyah, 2ti9, ii,
Khashyatu 1llab, 269, ii.
Khasr, 2/0, i.
Khu§usu 'l-jins, 518., i.
Khu^usu 'U*ain, 518, i.
Khusu^u 'n-ua-u', 518, i.
i^hasl, 110, i.
Khatt, 271, i.
Kliitbab, 271, \.seqn.
Khutbah, 274, ii. ; 323, i. :
330, ii.; 5G9, i. ; 663, i.
j£hutbatu ?n-na't, 274, ii.
Khutbatu '1-wa'z, 274, ii.
Khutbahi '1-waqfah, 277, ii.
Khatib, 274, ii. ; 330, ii.;
472, i.; 663, i.
gHati'ah, 694, ii.
Khuff, 9«5, ii.
Khaftan. «2, ii.
Khafz, 530, i.
i,263, i.; 518, ii.
SaUtt
J:^
X.
Khilufnh, liijl, i.
KliuhTn, 271, i.
lOiul:', 90, i. : 274, i.; ;W, i
b7l, ii. ; 7! 2. ii
Khil'ah, 270, ii.
Khalfiyah, 263, i.
Khulq, 274, j.
Klialtjah, 62, ii.
Khulud, 274, ii.
Khalwah, Khilwah, 122, ii. ;
Khali f a h, 203, i. ; 263, ii.
278, ii, , 543, ii.
Khalllu 'llah, 4, i. ; 269, i. ; «
475, ii.
Khamr, 130, i. ; 269, i. : 670, i
Khums, 274, ii. ; 700, ii.
Khunga, 173, ii.
Khanzab, 84, ii.; 269, ii.
Khinzlr, 623, ii.
Khwajah, 277, ii.
Khawarij, 270, ii.
Khauf, 270, ii.
Khaufiyab, 568, ii.
Kbiyar, 272, ii.
Khiyaru 't-ta'yin, 272, ii.
Khiyaru 'r-ruyah, 272, ii.
Khiyaru 'sh-shart, 272, ii.
Khiyaru M-'aib, 2^72, ii.
Khiyaru 'l-inajlis, 272, ii.
Khiyanah, 43, ii. ; 272, ii.
KhaJbar, 263, i. ; 379, ii.
Khairat, 263, i. ; 439, ii.
ghaim '1-qurun, 263, i.
Khail, 177, i.
731
&U
J^
o
^
Dabbatu '1-arz, 64, i. ; 539, ii.
Dar, 69, i. ; 178, i.
Daru '1-ibtila', 69, ii.
Daru 'l-akhirah, 132, ii.
Daru '1-adab, 69, i.
Daru '1-aman, 277, j».
Daru '1-Tslam, 42, i.;
69, ii. ; 88, ii.; 710, ii.
Daru M-baqa', 69, i. ; 132, ii. .VaJt
Daru 'Ubawar, 69, ii. .}\J\
Daru '.^-sawab, 70, ii.;
106. i!
Daru M-harb. 69, ii. , 88, ii.;
277, ii. ; 710, ii.
Daru '1-huzn, 69, ii.
Daru '1-hikirmh, 2Un, i.
pVi
,\J
732
Daru 'i-kJkilafah, 69, ii.
Daru '1-khuld. 69, ii.
Daru 's-surur, 69, ii.
Daru 's-salam, 70, ii. ;
449, i
Daru 's-saltanah, 70, ii.
Daru 'sh-sliifa', 69, ii.
Daru 'z-zarb, 69, ii.
Daru 'z-ziyafah, 69, ii.
Daru '1-ghurur, 69. ii.
Daru 'i-fana'. 69, i.
Daru '1-qarar. 70, ii. ; 449, i. f,j&\
Daru '1-qaza', 69, ii, *Uan
Daru '1-kutub, 69, ii.
Daru 'n-na'Irn, 69} ii.
Da ran, 69, i.
Dami'ah (notDamiyah),
128, ii.; 680, ii.
Damiyah, 128, ii. ; 680, h.
Daniq, 85, i.
DaTiiyai, 69, i. ; 440, ii;
Dawud, 71, ii.
Pawud, 71, ii. ; 440, 1. • 475, ii.
Dubba', 99, ii. ; 658, i.
Dibaghah, 64, ii,
Dabur, 64, i.
Dajjal, 64, ii.
Dukhan, 101, ii. ; 634.; ii.
Dargah, 69, ii.
Dirrah (duriah). 85, ii.
Durratu l-bai?i', 101, ii.
Dirhana, 85, i. ; 854, i.
Durud, 45, i. ; 101, ii. j 318, i.
Darwish, 70, ii.
Dastar, 647, h.
Dastarkhwun, 166, ii. <
Du^a', 45, ii. ; 101, i. ; 468, ii.
Du'a'-i-ma'sur, 101, i.
Da'wah, 72, ii.; 803, ii.
Da'wa, 72, ii.
Dafiiyah (diifeeyeh), 94, i.
Dalalan, 322, ii. • 519, ii.
Duldul, 101, ii.
Dftlhiin, 137, ii.
Dalw, 75, ii. ; 201, ii.
DaliL 64, ii.
Dalii burhani, 64, ii.
DaKl qala*, 64, ii.
Dimashq, 64, ii.
Danyawi, 656, i.
Dahlia, 64, i.
Dahr, 64, i.
Dahrl, 64, i. ; 207, i. , 655, i.
Dawa', 347, i.
Dubatt, 462, i.
INDEX.
Daur, 73, i.; 705, ii.
Duzakh/iOl, ii.; 170, ii.
Daulab, 544, ii.
Diinriah, 71, ii.
Baiyan (day y an), 73, ii.
Dain (Daynj, 31, ii. ;.64, ii. ;
81, ii.
Din, 84, ii.; 198, i.; 220, i. ;
343, ii. : 400, ii. ; 536, i, ;
564, i. : 586, i.
Dinar, 84. ii. ; 354, i.
Dmlt 655, ii,
Diyan, 91, i. j 114, i,;. 128, i.
Diwan, 91 » i. ; 180, i. ; 650, ii.
Dnvanu 91, i. ; 691, ii.
Z&i, 702, ii.
?atu Tl-fu?ul, 386, i.
?jitu'Uah,:702, ii. t
Zakir, 76; i. ; 701. i. ; 704, ii.
Za'iqah, 130, i.
Zabh, 105, i. ; 184, ii. ; 551, j. ;
697,1.
Zabh ikhtiyarl, 130, i. ;
697, i.
£aJbb iztirg.ri, 130, i. ; 697, i.
Zabihah, 697, ii.
Zakha'iru 'llah, 700, ii.
Zazum, 601, i,
Zarrah, 702, i.
Za«faranfyah, 698, i.
Zaqan, 40, i.
£ikr, 323? ii, ; 346. ii. ; 418, i. ;
545, ii. ; 662, ii, ; 610, i. seqg. ;
698, i. j 70S, i. ««^g.
Zikr jail, 118, ii. j 7d3, i. Ju,
gikr khafi, 117, ii- , 703,1
Zimmab, 576, i. j 710, i.
2immi'r56? i. ; 69, ii. : 112, i. ;
635, i. ; 710, ii. scqg,
Zamb, 115, i. ; 594, ii. ; 701, i.
2ahab, 149, i
2Ju '1-jabin, 386, i.
Zu '1-jalal, 225, L M
Zfi '1-jaUi wa JI- -UC
ikram, 142, i.
Z« '1-hijjab, 355, i,
Zu '1-huiafa', 350, i.
^u l~himar (khiimar}. 25, ii.
Zu f!-fiq*r, 388, i.
2u l-qarnain, 13, i. •
475, ii.
[NBBZ.
733
2u '1-qa'dab, 355, i.
Zu '1-kifl, 114, i. ; 475, ii.
Zu 'n-nun, 249, \i.
Zawfi '1-arham, 207, ii. ;
657, ii. ; 702, ii.
Zawu 'l-'uqul, 40, ii.
2awu 'Uuruz, 207, ii. ;
702, ii.
Zawu gain 'l-'uqul, 40. ii
479.. i.
Rajnyah, 568, i.
Rahil, 631, ii.
Ra*, 170, i.
Rafizab, 532, i.;.
Rafizi, 5c$U, i. ; 572 ii.
Rafizjyah, 567, ii.
Ra'Eah, 348, i.
Rehib, 532, i.
Rabb, 75, ii.
Riba, riba' (reba), 31.
544, ii. ; 656, i.
Rabat, 544, ii.
Rabbu Vsalara, 561, i.
Rabbu 'sh-sbi'ra, 596,
Rub1, 489, ii. ; 492, i. ; 546. ii.
Rabbu nauc, 531, i.
Rabl'u"! akhir, 355, i. ;
531, ii.
Rabi'u 'I-auwal, 355, i ; J
531, ii.
Ratq, 88, i.
Rajab,355, i. ; 533, i. , 696, i.
Raj'ah, 533, i.
Rajm, 476, ii. ; 583, i. ; 607, ii
Raji% 88, i.
Rajim, 533, i.
Rukh, 547, ii.
Rida', 196, ii. ; 581, i.
Raddu 's-salam, 531, ii.
ftabmah, 347, ii. ; 437, ii. ;
\532,i.
Rahil, 532, i.
Risalah, 545. ii.
Rasm, 535, i.
Rasfil, 16, ii. ; 449, i. ; 475, ii. ;
535, ii. ; 613, ii.
Rasulu 'Hah, 229, ii. ; *
475. ii.
Risbwah, 43, ii.
Rashidah, 315, ii.
Riza,537,i,
RizaS 546, i.
Riza(ah, 131, ii.
Ri/r<in. 546, i
Rat I, t»3o, ii.
Ra:d, 634, u.
Raf*. 684, i
Riqq, ,545. ii.
Raqabah, 535, i.
Ru^ba, 549, ii.
:-, 1>'J. 1.
Riqqatu '1-qalb, 347, ii.
Kuqyah, 303, ii. ; 549, ii.
iiikaz, 54o, i.
RAk'ah/466, i *eaq. \ 533, i.
RukuSll, i; 489, ii.; 492, i.
548, i.
Kaim,. 533, ii.
Raraazan, 124, ii ; 355, i. ;
533, ii.
Ramyu 1l-jimar, 535, i.
Ramyu 'r-rijam, 157, ii.
Rihan, 532, ii.
Raabamyah. 354, i.
Rahn, 532, ii.
Rahib,864, i.
Rawa, 286, i.; 535, ii.
RiwAyah, 546, i.j 644), i
Rubil, 544, ii.
Ruh, 546, ii. ; 604, ii.
Ruhu '1-ilqa, 133, ii.
Euhsi 'l-qudus, 133, i. ;
177, i. ; 605, i. ; 646, ii
Hchu 'Hah, 475, ii.
Ruhun min Allah,
Roz-i-qatl 408, i.
Rozah, 124. ii. ; 546. ii.
Ruya', 92, i.; 549, ii.
Ruwaidiyah, 668, ii.
Rti'ah, 613, i.
Riya', 187, U. ; 546, i.
Riyah, 669, ii.
Kr «dyah, 568. i
Raiyan ibn al-Walid,
252, i ; 452, ii. ; 533, i.
Rihani, 691, i.
605, i.
*»
t»
*»
Zabid, 556, i. j 613, ii. ; 698, i
Z«hid-i-kh»8hk, 698, i
Za'ir, 699, i.
Zabanlyah, 15, ii. ; 697, ii.
Zabur, 71, ii. ; 698, i.
Zabir, 697, ii,
734
TNDFX
Zahf,698, i.
Zuhal, 73, i.; 201, ii. ; 459, ii.
Zarariyah, 702, i.
Zaramiya, 702, \,
Zaghiirjt, 46, ii.? 325, i,
Zufar, 8, ii.
Zaft'atu '1-hainmam, *
323, ii.
Zftffotu Var&sah, 325, ii, £~.j*J'
Zaiir,698, i.
Zaqquin, 702, i.
Zakat, 42, i. ; 58. ii. ; 73, i. ; ( */3)
129, ii. ; 283, i. : 286, i. ;
401, i.; 419,i.; 434, ii. ;
439, ii. ; 545, i. ; 664, i. ;
699, ii, seqq.
Zakariya, 475, ii. ; 699, i.
Zaki , 74, i.
Zalzalab. 103, i.
Zalam, 49, ii.
Zallatu Adam, 115, i. ?J
Zamzam, 157, ii.; 571, ii. ; 701, i.
Zina\ 130, ii.; 476, ii. ; 575, ii.
Zaoadiqiyali, 569, i,
Zaimiah, 16.% ii. seqq.: 180, i, ;
701, ii.
Zanjabll, 449, i. ; 701, ii,
Zandiq, 207, i.
Zuhd, 610, i.
Zuhd fj 'd-dunya, 286, i. W;^ <_
Znbrah, 73, ii. ; 201. ii. ; 459, ii.
Zauba'ah, 136, i.
Zauj, 187, i. ; 671, i.
Zaidiyah, 568, i. ; 574, ii, ;
698, ii.
Zaigh, 698, ii.
a* to:
Sarah, 565, i.
Sal, 696, i.
Salik, 116, i. ; 556,1.; 563, L
610, i. seqq.
Salik-i-majzub, 612, ii.
Samifi, 49, i.
Sami'ab, 130, i.
Sanih, 305, i.
Sa'ibah, 555, ii.
Saba', 550, i.
Sabt, 550, ii.
Subhan, 482, j.
Subhana 'llah, 608, ii.
Subbali, 546, i. ; 608, ii.
Sab'alahruf, 168, 11.5
489, i. ; 550, ii. ; 569, ii
Saba'u M-masani, 550, ii,
Sahiah (sebleh), 95. i.
Subu4, 666, ii.
Sabilu 'llah, 546, i. ; 551, i.
Satr, 565, i,
Sutrah, 623, -ii.
Satluqah, 565, i.
Sihr, 72, ii. ; 303, ii.
Sahur, 555, ii.
Sajjadah, 224, ii. ; 556, ii.
Sajdah, 556, ii.
Bajdatu 's-sabw, 556. ii.
Sajdatu 'sh-shukr, 556, ii,
Sijill, 582, ii.
Sijn, 205, ii.
Sujud, 11, i.
Sakhavvah, 286, i. ; 294, i.
Sidratu Umuntaha,
162, ii. ; 352, ii.; 582, i.
Sadum, 601, i.
Sara tan, 73, ii. ; 201, ii.
Sariqah, 284, i. ; 477, i.
Sarandib, 50, i.
Sarl'u 'i-ijabab, 73, i.
Surriyab, 59, »i,
Sa'faj, 681 3i.
Si'lat, 137, ii.
Sa'Tr, 171, i. ; 556, i.
Suftajah. 622, i.
Sifru''l.hakkam, 440, i.
Sit'ru 'l-inuluk, 440, i.
Saqqa', 323, ii.
Saqar, 171, i. j 564, ii.
Sakb, 390, i.
Sukr, 100, i.
Sukun, 686, i,
SakTnah, 560, ii.
Salam, 468, ii. ; 570, i.
Salaman wa Absal,
618,i.w^.
SalsabIL 563, i.
Silsilah, 594, i.
Sultan, 278, ii. : 622, ii.
Sal tab 1 94, il.
Salaf, 561, i.
Salam, 33, ii.; 561, ii.
Snlamian, 440, i.; 475, ii. ;
601, i.
Saw a', 170, i.
Samahab, 41, i,
Saraa4, 707, ii.
Sarrm' kbanah, 707, ii.
Simhaq, 128, ii ; 680, ii.
Simsar, 594, ii.
565, i.
»*-.
t.Su
0
INDEX
785
Sam', 146, it.
Samak, 129, i.
S-mii4, 74, ii.
Svmbulah, 75, i. ; 201, ii.
Sanad, 564, ii.
Si man ibn Ma jab,
582, ii.
Sunanu 'n-Nasa'T, 431, i.
Sanah, 696, i.
Simnah, 62. ii. ; 156, i. ; 286, i. ;
400, ii. ; 434, ii. ; 622, ii. :
639, ii.
Sunnatu 'fr-taqrir, 622, ii. ;
639, ii.
Sunnatu '1-fi'l, 622, ii. ;
639, ii.
Sunnatu 'l-qaul, 622, ii. ;
639, ii.
Sunnatu '1-huda, 622, ii.
Sunni, 623, i.
Sahm, 555, ii.
Suwa', J91, ii. ; 623, ii.
Sawayim, 566, i.
Surah, 489, ii.; 623, ii.
Suratu Ali 'Imran,
510, ii.
Suratu 'l-Ahzal), 513, i.
Surafcu 'KAhqaf, 499, ii.
Suratu 'l-lkhla$, 466, ii. ;
494, L
Suratu '1-A'raf, 509, i.
Suratu 1-A'la, 494, ii.
Suratu '1-A'nara, 504, ii.
Suratu '1-Ambiya', 506, ii. -
Suratu '1-Inshirah, 494, i. t
Sfiratu '1-Inshiqaq, 494, ii.
Suratu 'l-Anfal, 510, ii.
Suratu '1-Infitar, 493, ii,
Suratu '1-Buruj, 495, i.
Suratu '1-Baoarah, 509, ii. ;
703, ii.
Suratu '1-Balad, 494, i.
Sfiratu '1-Baiyinah, 509, ii
Suratu 't-Tahrim, 514, i.
Sfiratu 't-Tatflf, 495, i.
Sfiratu 't-Taghabuu,
505. ii.
Suratu 't-Taka»ur, 493, ii.
Suratu 't-Takwir, 494, ii.
Suratu 't-Taubaii, 514, i.
.Siiratu 't-Tin, 493, ii.
Suratu '1-Jasiyah, 407, ii.
Sfmitu 'l-Jum'ah. f>ll, i.
Suratu 'l-Jinri, 133. ii. ;
499, ii.
ftfiratu '1-Haqqah, 497, i.
;r-
<"~
fa
s*~
fa
Suratu 'l-Hajj, 506, i.
Suratu 'UHijr, 499, i.
Suratu 'l-Hujurur, 514, i
Suratu '1-Hadid. 513, ii. ;
703, Li.
Sfiratu '1-Uashr, 512, i.
1 Sfiratu 'l-llamd, 125, i.
i Suratu 'd-Dukhan, 497, ii.
i Suratu 'd-Dahr, 495, i.
Sfiratu 'z-Zariyat,, 499, i.
Suratu 'r-Rahrnan 348, i.
495, ii. ; 704, i.
Sfiratu 'r-Ra'd, 508, ii.
Suratu 'r-Rum, 498, i.
Suratu 'z-Zukhruf, 503. i.
Suratu 'z-Zalzalah, 493, i.
Suratu '/-Zuniar, 496, i.
Suratu 's-Sajdah, W6. i.
Suratu 'sh-Shu'ara',
498, ii.
Suratu 'sh-Shams,
493, ii. ; 521, ii.
Sfiratu 'sh-Shura, 501, i.
Sfiratu VSaffat, 498, i.
Sfiratu VSaff, 513, ii.
Sfiratu 'z-Zuhia, 494, i.
Suratu 't-tariq, 495, i.
Suratu 't:falaq, 512, ii.
Suratu 't-f ur, 497, ii.
Suratu 'l-'Adiyat, 493, i.
Suratu 'l-'Asr, 493, i.
Suratu 'l-'Aiaq, 485, i. ;
494, i.
Suratu 'l-*Ankabut, »
508, ii.
Suratu '1-Ohashiyah,
494, ii.
Suratu '1-Fatihah, 493, ii.
Suratu '1-FAtir, 311, ii.
Sfiratu '1-Fath, 513, ii.
Suratu '1-Fajr, 494, i.
Sfiratu '1-Furqan, 502, i.
Sfiratu '1-Falaq, 509, ii.
Sfiratu 'l-Fil, 494, i.
Suratu 'J-Qari'ab, 493, ii.
Suratu '1-Qadr, 494, ii.
Suratu '1-Quraish, 493, ii.
Suratu '1-Qa^a?, 505, ii.
Suratn U-Qalam, 497, i.
Sfiratu '1-Qamar, 496, ii.
Suratu 'l-Qiyjiniuh, 495, i.
Suratu 'l-Kafirln, 495, ii.
Suratu '1-Kahf, 500, ii.
Sur.it u '1-Kausar, 4iH, i.
Suratu '1-Lail. 493, ii.
Sfiratu '1-M.a'un, 495, ii.
°;r-
°;r-
736
Suratu 'i~Ma'idab, 511, i.
Suratu 'UMujadilab,
512, ii.
Suratu '1-Muddassir, 494, ii.
Siiratu 'l-Mursalat,495, i. «
Saratu '1-Muzzammil,
496, ii.
Suratu. '1-Ma'arij, 495, ii.
Suratu 'tMi'rai, 352, ii.
Suratu '1-Mala'ikab,
499, ii.
Suratu "'1-Mulk, 495, ii.
Suratu 'UMumtabinab,
514, i.
Suratu '1-Munafiqin,
512, ii.
Suratu 'l-Mufmin, 501, u.
Suratu 'l-Mu'mimu,
506, i.
Suratu 'n-Nazi'at, 496, ii.
Suratu 'n.Nai, 509, ji.
Siiratu 'n-Naba', 495, i.
Suratu 'n-Na'jm, 495,, ii.
Suratu 'n-Nahl,. 507, ii.
Siiratu 'n-Nisa, 512, i. ;
703, ii.
Suratu 'n-Naf-r, 495, i.
Suratu ri-Naml, 501, i.
Suratu 'a-Nur,.512, ii.
Suratu '1-Waqi'ah, 495. ii.
Suratu Ibrahim, 504, ii,
Suratu Bani Isra'il,
507, i.
Suratu Tabbat, 494, ii.
Suratu Saba', 496, ii.
Siiratu Sad, 501, n.
Sumtu Ta Ha, 502, ii,
Suratu 'Abasa, 494, ii.
Suratu Fuseilat, 497, i.
Suratu Qaf, 497, ii.; 703, ii
Suratu Luqrnan, 497, i
Suratu Muiiammad, 511, i.
Suratu Maryam, 500, i.
Suratu Nufc, 497, ii.
Suratu Hud, 503, ii.
Suratu Ya Sin, 500, i.
Suratu Yusuf.. 503,- i.
Suratu Yunus, 249, ii. ;
504, i.
Saut, 85, ii.
Siparah, 492, i. ; 517, i; ;
595, i. -; 666, i.
Saibuu, 555, ii.
Saiyid, 278, ii. ; 556, i.
Siyar, 596, i
4;
cy
•*>*
Sirajiyah, 568, i.
Saifu 'llih, 555, ii,
Saina*, 595, i.
Shadi, 813, ii. ; 318, ii. ; 570, ii.
Sha'ir, 459, ii.
Shafi'I, 286, ii.
Sbammah, 130, i.
Siiab, 278, ii. ; 571, i.
Sbahid, 327, ii,
Shabioshah, 571, ii.
Shab-i-Barat, 127, ii. ;
534, ii. ; 570, i.
Sbab-i-qadr, 570, i. }
Shijaj , -128? i. ; 680, ii.
Shadidu '1-quwa, 133, i. ; ^
484, i.; 570, ii. ; 649, i.
Sbarab, 572. i.
Sbirb, 546, i, ; 579,- il ; 665, ii.
Shurb, 100, i. ; 477, i, ; 582, i.
S.barb, 572, i. ; 627, i.
Sharab/a', 114, i.
Shart, 572, i.
Sbar , 57*2, i.
Shirk, 157,-ii. ; 169, ii. ; 190, i. ;
579, ii.
Sbh'ku 't-ta§arraf? 579, ii.
.Sbirku Vadah, 579, i.i.
Shirku 'l-'&adah, 579, ii.
Shirku 'i-'iim, 579, ii
Sbirkab, 580, ii.
Shaii'ab, J98, i. ; 636. i. ;
572, i. i 609, ii.
Shaiikijah, 568, ii.
Bhatrani, 50, i.
Sha'ban, 355, i. ; 570, i. ;
696, i.
Sba'r, 154, i.
Sbi'r, 459, ii.
Sbi'ra, 91, i.
Sba'ya', 216, ii. ; 440, L }
572, i.
Slm'aib, 357, ii. ; 475, ii. ;
581, ii.
Sbu'aibiyab, 567, ii.
Sbagbar, 570, i.
Shaghaf,300, ii.
Shafa^ah, 214, ii. j 570, ii.
Sbaf, 570, ii.
Shuf'ah, 474, ii. : 577, ii.
Sbafi', 75, i.
Shiqq, 337; ii.
c/»
tNDEX.
737
Shaqqri VSadr, 571, ii.
Shame, 73, ii. ; 201, ii.
Shara'un, 594, ii.
ShamuU 440, i,
Bhintiyan, 94, i.
Shahadah, 110, ii. ; 129, ii.;
571, i.
Sbahr, 354, ii.
Shahru '1-fcararo, 168, i. rV
Shahid, 327, ii. ; 571, i.; 670, ii.
Shauwal, 355, i. ; 572, i.
Shushah, 170, i.
Shis, 569, ii.
Shaikh, 556, i. ; 571, ii.
Shai^hu 'l-Islam, 571, ii
Shaitan, 84, i. ; 134, i.
Shaitanu 'Ukabir, 157, ii .; j+*Q\
225, i.
Shaitanlyah, 568, ii.
ShTab, 569, i. ; 572, i. aeqq.
$, 518, i.
§abi', 551, i.
Sahib, 585, ii.
§ahibu M-hiit. 249, ii. o^t
Sfthibu 'z-zaman, 555, L (jWjtt
Sahibu 'n-niijab, 555, i. s^WM
$ad, 554, i.
$a', 550, i.
Salih, 475, ii. ; 562, ii.
$ubh, 178, i.j 464, ii.
Subfcan, 45, i. ; 466. i. ,
Sabr, 286, i. ; 452, i. ; 537, i.
SibgLah, 2, iL ; 36, i.; 54, i ;
582, i.
fcibghatu 'llah, 813, i. Ml
Sahabi, 555, i.
§uhuf, 439, ii. ; 555, i.
423, ii. ; 555, i. '
Sahihu Muslim; 423, ii.
555, ii.
Sal?ifah, 475, ii. ; 665, i
Safclfatu '1-a'mal, 14, L ;
555, i.
$akljr, 556, ii.
§adr, 554, ii.
Sadaqah, 14, i. ; 50, i. ; 439, ii, ;
554, i.
* 194, ii. ; 55'4,'i
Sudairah (sudeyree), 92, ii.
^iddiq, 7, ii. ; 582, ii.
Sirat, 173, i. ; 422. i. ; 595, n.
Siratu 'l-mustoqim,
595, ii. ; 661, ii.
^arf , 33, i. ; 106, ii. ; 565, i. uy.
Sarih, 87, ii. ; 519, ii. ; 565, i.
575,. ii.
Sa^liirab, 594, ii.
Satf, 554, ii.
Sjfatu M-iman, 596, f.
Sifatiyal), 509, i. ; 582, ii.
Safar, 355, i. ; 551. ii. ; 69^.,
Sifah, 484, ii. ; 582, i.
'•vifura', 555, i.
bifwatu '1-irnaD, 318, »i. (_
$ufwatu 'llah, 221, i. tti\
Safiyu 'Hah, 475, ii.; 554, ii. *W
§aqr, 169, u.
Sulh,622, i.
Salat, 101, i., ii. ; 129, ii. ; (*M
464,tii.6eqq.
Salatu '1-istikharah, **~1\ &U
' 470, ii. ; 561, ii.
Salatu '1-istisqa, 470, ii. ; »fc~.*\ ii-
532, ii. ; 561, ii.
Salatu '1-Uhraq, 561, i.
Salatu 't-fctrawih, 470, ii. ;
' 562,i.
Salatu 't-tasblh, 562, ii.
$alatu 't-tahajjud, 438, ii.
Salatu '1-jum'ah, 470, i.;
561, ii.
§alatu '1-janazah, 470, ii. ;
561, ii
Salatu '1-hajah, 561, ii.
Salatu 'l-kkusuf , 470, ii. ;
561, ii.
Salatu fl-kbauf, 470, ii. ;
561, ii.
Salatu 'r-ragha'ib, 562, i.
$alatu 'a-Bafar, 562, i.
§alatu 'z-Zuhr, 561, i.
§alatu 'l.'isha', 561, i. ;
670, ii.
Salatu 'l-'a^r, 561, i.
§alatu 'l-'idain, 561, i.
Salatu '1-fajr, 469, i. ; 561, i
Salatu 'l-kuauf, 470, ii. ; *-
562, i.
$alatu '1-layl, 433, ii.
$alatu 1-mariz, 562, i.
SalAtu '1-muiifir, 470, ii.
Salatu 'J-maghrib, 561, i.
Salatu '1-witr, 562, i.
Salib, 63, ii.; 562, ii.
Samud, 75, ii.
ft.
iDu
BL,
a.
5*-
;.!' tt.
93
738
INDEX.
San<a', 564, ii.
Sanam, 191, ii. , 564, ii.
Suwa', 550, i.
Saura, 124 ii. j 129 ii. ; 286, i.
566, i.
Saumu 't-tatauwu', 566, i.
Sur, 647, ii.
Sufi, 608, ii.
Said, 184, i.
?arr, 76, ii.
?all, 7, ii.
?abt, 697, ii.
Zahk, zibk, 285, ii.
Zarb, 702, i. ; 703, ii.
Zarba 'r-raml, 305, i.
Zarbu '1-mandal, 304, ii.
Zazagh, 681, i.
Zalalah, 701, i.
£amanah, 34, ii.
^ammab, 6'83,i.
?iyafab, 177, ii.
Zaif, 152, ii,
t
Tabab, 308, i.
Ta^b, 623, i.
TaMin, 452, i.
Tag&ut? 625, i.
Taqijab, taqiyab (takeeyoh)
' 94, ii.
falib, 609, ii, ; 626, ii.
falibu 1-<am/106> ii. ;
626, ii.
Talut, 440, i. ; 565, ii.
f abir, 74, ii. ; 625, i.
f a'ifu '1-klmral, 462, i.
tabib, 624, i.
Tarbah (tarhah), 95, i.
fariqah, 116, i. ; 609, ii. seqg.-,
' 628, ii.-
Tariqiyab, 568, i.
T S M, 518, i.
Tasm, 17, i.
Ta'ain, 130, i,
sahari, 555, ii, ^;
'liq, 690.' ii. «eog.
lac 66, i. ; 576, ii. ; 626, ii.
Talaqu Jl-ahsan, 87, ii.
Talaqu '1-badi', 87, ii.
Talaqu '1-hasan, 87, ii.
Talaqu 's-sunnah, 87, ii.
Talaqu Viddab, 576, ii.
Talaqu 'l-kinajah, 278, i,
f alabatu Vilm, 106, ii.
Tilsam, 626, ii.
f ulaihah, 647, ii.
TH,517, ii.; 625, i.
Taharab, 477, i. ; 625, i.
Tubr, 87, ii. ; 647, ii.
Tawaf, 156, i. ; 341, i. ; 630, ii
Tuba, 625, i
Tur, 647, ii.
Tufan, 82, ii.
Tuwa, 358, i. ; 648, ii.
Taiy, 625, ii.
fiyarah, 1145 ii.
Taiyibab, 303, i.
Tairab, 625, ii.
jmatu '1-kbabal, 634, ii.
\
Zahir, 1, ii, ; 76, ii ; 518, ii. ;
" 698, ii.
Zaliiru '1-mazbab, 698, ii.
Zabiru '1-mumkiuat, ,
" 698, ii.
Zarf, 530, i.
Zillu 'llab, 710, i.
Zaun, 701, ii.
Zihar, 90, i. ; 702, ii.
Zubr, 177, ii. ; 464, ii.
'Abid, 556, i. ; 613, ii.
'Ad, 8, ii.; 17, i. ;• 563, i.
'Adiyat, 10, i.
'Arif, 613, ii.
^Ariyab, 23, i.
'Asbir, 58, ii. ; 283, i. ; 700, ii,
*Asbiq, 301, i.
'Asbura', 25, ii. ; 424, ii. ;
534, ii. ; 575, ii. ; 662, i.
'Aqib, 16, ii.
'Aqilab, 16, ii.
•ilam, 13, i.
INDEX.
739
'Alim, 13, ii. ; 14, i. ; 106, ii. ;
578, ii.
' Alamu '1-arwah, 13, i. ;
215, i.
'Alamu '1-a'zam, 13, i.
'Alamu '1-baqi, 13, i.
'Alamu '1-barzakb, 215, i.
'Alamu '1-jabarut, 13, i.
'Alamu '1-kbaiq, 13, i.
'Alamu 'sh-shahadab.
'Alamu '1-ghaib, 13, i.
'AJamu '1-lahut, 13, i.
'Alamu 'l.ina'qul, 13, i.
'Alamu '1-malakut, 13, i.
'Alamu 'n.naSut, 13, i.
'Amm, Slfi.t; 696, i.
'Amu fl-fi), 108, i.
'Amil omt&$addiq, 58, ii.
'Aba, 92, ii.
'Ibadat, 285, ii.
'Ibadah, 612, i.
'Ibadatu 'J-ausan, 190. i.
'Ibarah,518,ii. ; 519, ii.
'Abbaslyah, 1, i. ; 568, i.
'Aba'ah (Abayeh), 94, i.
4Abd, 312, ii."; 596, ii.
'Ibarijah, 569, i.
'Abasa, 1, i.
'Ubudivah, 596, i. ; 610. i.
'Ataq, 598, i.
'Atq, 598, ii.
<Itq, 222, i.
'Atirah, 26, i.
'Atiq, 177, i.
'Aibu 'z-zanab, 539, i.
'Ajalah, 82, ii.
^Iddah, 43, i.; 87, ii.; 190,
308, ii.; 317, ii. j 536, ii.
673, i. ; 711, ii.
'Adi, 10, ii. ; 463, i.
<Adn, 10, ii. ; 105, ii.
'A»abu '1-qabr, 27, ii.
'Usr, 658, ii.
*Arabu '1-ba^idah, 17, i
'Arabu 'l-'aribah, 17, i.
SArabu '1-must'aribah,
17, i.
•Irban, 215, ii.
'Arabistan, 17, i.
'Urs, 313, ii.; 655, ii.
'Arsh, 23, ii.
'Arshu Vl-Iblu, 102, ii.
'Arafat, 21, ii.
'Arafah, 21,i.; 658, i.
'Uruj, 612, i.
**?
rAriiz, 17, i.
'Urjan, 338, i.
'Izra'H, 15, ii.; 29, ii.; 91, i. ;
222, ii.
'Uzlali, 658", ii.
'Uzubah, 50, i.
'Uzair, 114, i ; 440, i. ; 4/5, ii.
'Aziz, 29, ii.
'Azimah, 29, ii.; 303, ii.
'Asal, 1/7, i.
'Isha', 177, ii.; 216, ii.
'Usbr, 73, i. ; 283, i. ; 630, ii. ;
653, i. ; 655, ii. ; 700, ii,
'Asharatu'l-mubashsharah, iv£— ,
24, ii.
•Ishq, 220, i.; 300, ii.; 610, i.
'Ash!, 464, ii.
'Ashiyah, 464, ii.
'Asabah, 23, ii.; 537, i.
'A?r, 177, ii.
'Utarid, 74, i.; 201, ii.; 459, ii.
'Utas, 600, ii.
'Azim, 29, ii.
afrit, 134. i. ; 196, ii.
'Iffah, 196, ii.
'Afu, 11, ii. i 451, i.
'Uqab, 655, i.
'Aqar, 474, ii.
'Aqa'id, 106, ii. ; 286, i. ; 401, i.
'Aqabah, 16, ii.
'Uqha, 655, ii.
*Aqdu *n-nikah, 322, ii.
'Aqrab, 74, i.; 201, ii.
'Aq;aq, 305, i.
'Aql, 214, i.
'Aqlu 'l-auwal (awwal),
101. ii.
(Uqubat, 285, ii.
•Uqubah, 655, ii.
'Uqubab shadidah, **
655, ii.
'Aqiqah. 17, i. ; 51, i. ; 554, i.
'Aqiin, 669, ii.
'Ukaz, 649, i.
'Okuf, 650, i.
'llaqah, 300, ii.
'Alamat, 13, i.
'Alamatu Vsa'ah, 13, i.
'Alamatu fn-nabuwah,
13, i.
'Alamah, 350, ii.
'Alaq, 13, i.
«Alam, 13, i. ; 606, ii.
lllm, 146, ii.; 200, ii. ; 655, ii. ;
'Uiama', 13, ii. ; 58, i. ; 106, i. ;
265, i. ; 650, L
iyof
ie
j:
.'-. JT
r**
lit
740
INDEX.
'1-akhlaq, 201, 5. ;
298, i.
'Ilmu 'l^adab, 200, i. ;
294, i.
'Ihnu '1-asma', 201, ii.
'Ibmu 'Lutfl, 106, ii. ;
202, i ; 518, i. ; 634, i. ;
666, i
'Ilmu '1-aktai, 200, i.
'Ilmu 'l-ilablyat, 202, i.
'Ilmu 'l-insha'* 202. i.
'Ilmu '1-batin, 201, ii.
'Ilmu 't-tajwid, 202, ii. ,
478, ii; 517, i
'Ilmu 't-tasbril?, 202, ii.
Ilmu 't-ta^awwuf, 202, ii.
'Ilmu 't-tafsir, 198, i. ;
634,i
'Umu 't-tawarikb. 202, ii.
'Ilmu '1-jabr, 202, i.
'Umu '1-badig, 198, i; ;
201, ii. ; 634, i.
'Umu 'l-feiaab, 202, i.
'Umu 'l-jjaqiqah, 200, ii.
'Ilmu '1 hikmab, 202, i ;
298, ii. ; 452, ii.
'Umu '1-khatt, 680, ii. seqq
'Ilmu 'r*raml, 202, ii.
'Ilmu 'r-riyazah, 202, ii.
'Ilmu 'r-riyaziyat, 298, ii
'Ilmu 's-sifrr, 202, ii.
'Ilrau 's-sTmiya', 202, ii
'Ilmu ?sh-sbi'r, 202, ii.
'Ilmu 't-tibb, 202, ii
'Ilmu '1-aqa'id, 200, i. j
634, i
'Ilmu '1-fara'iz, 201, ii, ;
207, i.
'Ilmu '1-fiqh, 201, ii. ;
236, i; 634, i
'Ilmu '1-falsafah, 202, i
'Ihnu '1-falak, 200, ii.
'Ilmu '1-qira'ah, 202, ii.
Ilmu '1-qiyafah, 478, i.
'Ilmu >l-kaff, 202, i.
'Ilmu '1-kalam, 201, i;
286, i.
'lima '1-lugkab, 201, i.
'Umu 'ilab, 298, ii.
'Ilmu '1-mabadi, 200, ii.
'Ilmu 'i-maeafcan, 202, i.
'Ilnui '1-mu'asbarab, 83j i,
'Ilrou 'Umaqasid, 200, ii.
^Imu M-mukashafoh,
200S ii.
'Ilmii Lmilabah, 202, i.
«JJ\
'Ilmu '1-mantiq, 202, i ;
298, ii,
'Ilmu 'l-muslqa, 202, i.
'Ilmu fl-mizan, 298, ii.
'Ilmu 'n-nabatat, 202, ii.
'Umu 'ii-nujum, 25, ii. ;
202, ii. ; 304, ii.
'Umu '1-handasah, 202, i.
'Ilmu '1-yaqin, 202, ii. ;
694, i.
'Alawiyah, 567, ii.
'AH, 13, ii. ; 75, i
llliyun, 79, ii. ; 200, ii. ; 449, i.
'Imran, 206, i.
'Umrab, 155, ii. ; 259, ii. ;
458, ii; 481, i; 655, i
'Umra, 655, i.
'Amal, 204, ii. ; 400, ii.
'Amal-namab, 14, i. &»i
'Amaliyab, 569, i.
'Umyan, 43, ii.
'Ananah, 205, ii.
'Ankabut, 16, i. «
'Unpab, 88, i
'Inmab, 205, ii.
'Ahd, 646, i
'Awamil, 530, i.
'tfj, 649, i.
'Auzun bi 'llah, 624, i. &
'Aul, 578, ii.
'lyadah, 658, i.
'lyafah, 305, i
'Id, 127, ii
<Idu '1-Az^a, 127, ii. ;
157, ii. ; 192, ii. ; 552, i.,
ii. ; 658, i. ; 662, i.
'Idu 's-sadaqaii, 194, ii.
'Idu 'l-Pitr, 124, ii.; 127, ii
192. ii 5 194, ii; 662, i
'Idaa, 190, i.
'Idu ramazan, J94, ii.
'fdgah, 190, i.
76, 11.
IP
'Ua, 54, ii. ; 229, ii ;
'Isa '1-Muih, 229, ii,
*Isa bmi Maryam,
229, ia.
'Ain, 114, i
cAinu '1-yaqin, 694, i.
'Uyiin, 114, i
i, 139 i-
asil, 139, i.
INDEX.
Qhftbit, 138, i.
Ghaddar, 137, ii. ; 188, i.
Qhadir, 138, i.
Qharaq, 99, ii.
<3£urrah, 139, ii.
Qbazwah, 139, i.
Qiytzwatu '1-khandaq,
85, i. ; 378, i.
Qhazwatu badr, 30, i.
Qhaasan, 139, i.
Qhasl, Ghusl, 89, ii.-; 139, ii. ;
329, i. : 477, ii.
Ghusl masuuD. 140, i. ; <j*Ju-» l«.£
477, ii.
Ghislln, 1.39, ii.
«lhishawah, 139, ii.
Ghafb, 138, ii.
OJiarab, 139, i.
Ghatafan, 189, i. 0UU
Qhifar, 139, ii. *Ui
Qhufran, 451, i. ^t/A
QJiafur, 76, ii rf*.
Qhulam, 139, ii p^*
<&ulat, 139, ii.; 574, ii. »*
£hulul, 139, ii.
Qhamarat, 138, ii.
QJiiiia', 595, ii.
GKanam, 700, i.
Ghanimab, 114, i. ; 459, ii.
£&au& 139, i. ; 556, i.
Ghul. 137, i, ; 189, ii.
Ghaib, 138, i.
Qhaibu '1-Huwiyah, 188, i.
"L, 29, ii.; 49, i. ; 139, i-
makbluq, 484, ii.
mustabln, 82, i.
Ghair mashruS 286, i. fyj**
Ghair Mahdi, 188, ii.
G^airah, 138, i.
Ghaiz. 437, ii.
Fati^ah, 45, ii.j 50, ii.; 318, i. ;
466, ii. ; 482, i. ; 706, ii.
Faraqlit, 123, ii.
Faaid, 124, i.
Pasiq. 112, ii.; 124, ii. ; 617, ii.
Fa'il, 530, i. ; 684, i.
Fa'l, 114, ii. JU
Fini?ah, 569, i.
, 75, ii.
, 683, i. *eqq.
Fatrah, 127, i. ; 393, i.
Fatq, 127, i.
Fitan, 129, i. ; 664, ii.
Fatwa, 127, i. ; 650, i.
Fijar, 128, i.
Fajr, 114, ii. ; 177, ii.
Fadak, 391, i.
Fidyah, 118, i.; 127, ii. ; 520, ii.
Furat, 132, ii.
Firasah, 128, n.
Firash, 128, ii.
Fara'iz, 123, ii. ; 207, i.
Farajiyah (farageeyeh), 93, i.
Firdaus, 128, ii. v
Faras, 177, i.
Faraakb, 124, i.
Firishtab, 15, i.
Farz, 124, i. ; 156, i. ; 286, i.;
434, ii.
Far?u 'l-'Ain, 124, i. &*&\
Far? Kifa'i, 124, i.
Far', 25, ii.; 123, ii.
Fir'aun, 440, i. ; 452, i.
Fir'aun Zu '1-autad,
452, ij.
Faraq, 123, ii.
Furqao, 484, i.
Firqah, 567, i.
Farudiyah (faroodeeyeh), 94, ii.
FuruS656, i. ; 128, i.
Farwah, 124, i.
Fussilat, 132, ii.
Fa§il>u '1-kalam, 260, ii. ^
Fazl, 127, ii.
Fazlah, 530, i.
Faziili, 127, ii.
Fitrah, 40, i. ; 129, ii. ; 213, i.
Fi'l, 530, i.
Faqr, 123, ii.
Fiqh, 106, ii. ; 128, ii. 4 401, i.
Faqir, 115, ii. ; 368, i. ; 556, i. ;
700, ii.
Faqih, 115, ii. ; 323, i.
Fikriyah, 568, ii.
Fuls, 132, ii.
Falsafah, 452, ii,
Faiaq, 115, i.
Fana', 115, ii. ; 609, ii. ; 610, i.
Fahd, 184, i.
Fahm, 214, i.
Fautu '1-Hajj, 127, ii. gj
Faujdar, 127, ii.
Faujdari, 91, i. u
Fai', 114, i. ; 459, ii.
Fi Sablli 'llih, 700, ii.
Faiz-i-addaa, 114, i.
742
INDEX,
w*-?5
Q, 518, i.
Qabil, 2, i. ; 48, ii. ; 440, i.
Qadir, 1, ii. ; 75, ii.
Qadirlyab, 478, i.
Qarim, 281, i. ; 363, ii. ; 440, i.
Qari;, 478, ii.
Qasitivah, 568, ii.
Qazi, 58, i. j 255, I
Qaf, 478, i.
Qafilah, 49, ii.
Qanit 478, ii.
Qanun 478, ii.
Qahir, 1, ii.
Qa'if,478,-i.
Qa'im, 1, ii.
Quba', 482, ii.
Qaba Qausain, 477, i.
Qabalah, 477, i.
Qabr, 150, i.
Qabr-i-Husain, 409, ii.
Qabristan. 48, i.
Qfcjnvgab, 48, i.
Qabriyab, 569, i.
Qab? wa bast, 477, ii. L-» ,
Qibti. 481, i.
Qibfah, 159, i.; 258, ii, ; 480, i,;
520, ii.
Qubattu V^akbrah, 557, i.
Qubbatu ri-* Abbas, 340, i.
Qabul, 314, ii. ; 477, ii.
Qattat,479, ii.
Qatl, 420, ii.
Qatlu 'l-khata', 421, i.
Qafclu l-'amd, 421, i.
Qatlun bi-sabab, 421,. ii.
Qatlun sKibhu 'i-'amd,
l*»
Qatlun qa'knui)
maqarna 'l-khata, 421, i.
Qatlu nafsi-hi, 622, i.
Qadar, 82, i. ; 472, i. j 478, i
Qudrah, 146, ii. v 482, ii.
Qadanyah, 478 i. ; 568, ii,
Qadariyun, 473, i.
Qadimu 'I-aiyam, 478, i.
Qaf f, 476, ii. ; 479, ii. ; 594, ii.
Qara1, 483, ii.
Qurra',478, ii.
Qira'at, 517, i.
Qarabati, 11, i. ; 478, ii.
Qirat 85, i.
\f
t&j*
Qiran, 481, i.
Qur'an, 400, ii. j 483, ii. seqq.
Quranu 'l-'Azim, 125, i.
Qira'ah, 481,"i.
Qurbu 's-Sa'ab, 530, ii.
Qurban, 530, ii. ; 551, ii.
Qurban 'Id, 192, ii.
Qarashat, 681, i.
Qurs (kurs), 94, ii.
Qarz, 33, ii.-; 64, ii. ; 81, ii ;
479, i.
Qur'ah, 49, ii. ; 300, i:
Qa,rn, 88, ii.
Qarnu '1-manazil, 350, i.
Quraish, 483, i,
Quraizah, 483, i.
Qarin, 479, i.
Qarmah, 479, i.
Qasamah, 479, i.
Qustanliniyah, 530, ii.
Qasm, 479, ii.
Qissis, 482, i.
Qjssisun, 54, i. ; 58, i.
Qi§a?, 125, i. : 286, i. j 476, ii. ;
481, i.j 520, ii.; 679, i.
Qasru '1-araal, 286, i.
Qasidah, 649, ii.
Qaza',479,ii.
Qutb, 531, i. j 556, i.
Qutrub, 137, i.
Qat'u 't-tanq, 174, i. ;
477, i. ; 479, ii.
Qitfir, 464, ii. ; 482, i.
Qa'dah, 4-77, ii.
Qaftan, 93, i.
Qufi, 73, i.
Qul, 818, ii.
Qiladah, 431, ii.
Qalam, 478, ii. /J*
Qalandar, 478, ii. >***
Qimar, 133, ii. j 481, i. jUs
Qamar, 74, ii. ; 201, ii. ; 356, i. ^
Qamis, 81, i. ; 92, ii.
Qinn, 481, i.
Qana'ah, 286, i.
Qananah, 478, ii.
Qintar, 354, i. ; 481, i.
Qunutu '1-witr, 101, i. ;
482, ii,
Qawad, 479, ii.
Qaus, 74, ii. ; 201, ii.
Qavisu quzah, 532, i.
Qaul, 479, ii.
Qaulu 'l.baqq, 229, ii. ;
479, ii.
Quwat Hafizah, 130, i
J*
»»&*
INDEX.
743
Quwat khayal, 130, i.
Quwat mutasarrifah, 130, i.
Quwat Walmnah, 130, i.
Qiyas, 400, ii. ; 482, i. ; 548,
656, i.
Qiyas jaii, 482, i.
Qiyas khafi, 4S2, i.
Qiyam, 45, i. ; 466, i. ; 482, iT
545, ii.
Qiyaraah, 255, ii.
Qai§ar, 48, i.
JU*.
Katib, 261, ii.
Karawan, 261, ii.
Kafir, 207, i. ; 259, ii. ; 329, i.
401, i.; 655, i.
Kafur; 260, i.
Kafi, 74, i. ; 643, i.
Kalah, 256, ii.
Kamil, 261, ii.
Kamiliyah, 261, ii.
Kahin. 260, ii.
Kibr, 277, ii. ; 475, i.
Oabr, 133, i.
KabTrah, 259, ii. ; 594, ii.
Kitab, 475, ii.
Kitabu 's-siyar, 596, i.
Kitabah, 598, i.
Kitabi, 280, ii. ; 710, i.
Kitabiyah (kitabeeab), 89, ii. ;
280, ii.; 712, ii.
Kutub, 439, ii.
Katbu" 'I-kitab, 322, ii.
Kitraan, 280, ii.
Ka§ratu '1-mal, 544, ii.
Kachkiil, 259, ii.
Ki^ab, 302, ii.
Ki7amu '1-katibin, 15, ii. ;
555, i.
Kiramun katibun, 279, i.
Kararaah, 269, ». ; 278, ii. ;
350, ii.
Kiramiyah, 279, i.
Karbala', 261, ii. ; 408, ii. eeqq
Karwan, 49, ii.
KarubJ, 50, i.
Karubin, 50, i. ; 261, ii.
Karubiyun, 15, ii.
Gurz,.I52, ii.
Kasrah, 683, i, *eqq.
Kaslaniyah, 568, ii.
/
Kusuf, 105, i.
Kiawah, 279, ii. ; 337, ii.
Kashf, 261, ii.
Kashkul, 120, ii.
Ka'bah, 333, ii, seqq. ; 480, i.
540,i.
Ka'blyah, 259, ii.
Kaffarah, 113, i.; 128, i. ;
259, ii. ; 437, ii. ; 598, ii.
Kafalah, 259, ii.
Kufr, 43, i. ; 281, ii. ; 594, ii
Kafan. 259, ii. ; 342, i. ; 581,
Kaf Qr, 260, i.
Kilab, 91, i.
Kalam, 147, i. ; 260, ii.
Kalamu 'llah, 260, ii. ;
484, i. ; 548, i. ; 566, ii
Kullah, 120, i. ; 282, i.
Kalb, 91, i.
Kalaf, 300,. ii.
Kalamau, 6S1, i.
KaHmah,63, i. ; 261, i. ; 318,
401, i. ; 489, ii. ; 564, i.
Kaliioatu '1-hazrah, 261, i. f
Kalimatu 'sh-shahadah,
63, i. ; 80. ii. ; 102, ii. ;
.261, i.
Kalimatu 'llah, 229, ii.
Kallsah, 261, i.
Kalimu 'llalj, 261, i. ; 356, i.
475, ii.
Kam', 423. ii.
Kaman-i-Rusturn, 533, i.
Kun, 261, i.
Kinayab, 87, ii. ; 278, i. ;
519, ii. ; 565, i. ; 575, ii.
Kanz, 545, i.
Kanziyah, 568, i
Kan'an, 261, ii.
Kamsah, 261, ii.
Kunyah, 429, i.
Kihanah* (kahanah), 86, i. ;
131,i.; 303, ii.
Kahruba, 260, ii.
KHY4S, 517, ii.
K&wakib, 76, ii.
Kausar, 450, i.
Kii/iyah, 568, i,
Qoahah uishin, 149, ii.
Kaifiyah, 260, ii.
Kimiya', 13, i
Kiraiya'u 'I-1-1
278, i.
Kimiya'u Vea'adah.
278, i.
Kimiya'u 'N'awAm, 278, i.
V*
&
744
INDEX.
La-adriyah, 282, i.
Lafeid, 46, i.
La-kbaraj, 269, ii.
La'imyah, 568, i.
Labut, 282, i.
Lubb, 301, ii.
Libas, 92; i. ; 294, i.
Luban, 206, ii.
Laban, 349, i.
Lubnan, 292, ii
Labbah, 697, ii.
Labd,46,i. ; 282, i
L%ah,40, i.; 294, i.
Ludd, 301, ii.
Lisanu '1-^aqq, 294, i
Lisanu VArab, 20, i.
Latifab, 285, i.
Laza, 171, i. ; 292, ii.
Li'an, 293, i., ii. ; 317, ii. ;
575, ii.
La'n, 88, i.
La'nah, 283, i.
Lughah, 20, i.
Lughatu 'l-'Arab, 20, i.
Litafah, 81, i.; 581, ii.
Lafziyah, 569, i.
Laqab, 284, i.; 429, i.
Luqtah, 302, ii. ; 647, i.
Luqman, 18, i. ; 301, ii. ;
475, ii.
Laqijt, 131, ii. ; 284, i,
Liwa', 298, ii.
Lawaqih, 669, ii.
Lauh, 14, i.
Liiz, 539, i.1
Lut, 299, i. ; 440, i. ; 475, ii
Lailatu 1-bara'ah, 282, ii.
Lailatu 'l-l?inna', 325, i.
Lailatu 'd-dakhlah, 326, i.
Lailatu 'r-ragha'ib,
127, ii. j 283, ii.
Lailatu '1-qadr, 282, ii. ;
422, i. ; 570, i.
Ma', 665, i.
Ma'u '1-bahr, 665, i.
Ma'u '1-barad, 665, i.
Ma'u '1-bi'r, 665, i.
Ma'u 's-galj, 665, i.
Ma'u Vain, 665, i.
Ma'u '1-quds, 347, i.
Ma'u '1-matar, 665, i.
Ma'u 'n*nahr, 665, i.
Majuj, 440, i. ; 540, i.
Ma'zun, 347, i.
Mai, 30, ii. ; 544, ii.
Malu 'l-haram, 163, i.
Mai zamini, 312, ii.
Mali! 15, ii. ; 312, i.
Maliku '1-mulk, 312, i,
Mahlyatu 'l-haqa'iq,
213, i. ; 646, ii.
Ma'idah, 110, i.
Mubah, 58, i. ; 286, i. j 367, i.
Mubara'ah (Mubarat) 90, i. ;
367, i.
Mubtada^, 530, i.
Mubtadi', 367, i.
Mubazzir, 114, i.
Mubasbshirat, 669, ii.
Mabna 't-ta^auwuf, «
802, ii.
Mutabarriyah, 568, ii.
Mutaraqibiyah, 568, ii.
Mutashabih, 199, i ; 519,
582> ii.
Mut'ah, 424, i. ; 575, ii.
Mutaqadim, 425, i.
Mutala^imah, 128, ii. ;
680, ii.
Mutammaniyah, 568, ii.
Matn, 346, ii.; 627, i.
Mutawalli, 330, i. ; 331, i. ;
425, i.
Misqa), 85, ii. ; 353, i.
Musallas, 423, i.
Muslah, 423, ii.
Misli, 31, i.
Masnawi, 620, i.
Masna, 463, i.
Majaz, 519, ii,
Maja/l, 6(>2, L
Mujahid, 418, ii.
Mujahir, 132, ii.
Majbub, 310, i
Mujtahid. 418, ii.
Mujtahidan, 548, i. ; 574, i.
Majziib, 116, i.; 301, i. ;
810, i. ; 612, i.
Majzub-i-9R,Hk, 612, ii.
Mujiiml, 619, i.
Majnuo, 190, i. ; 801, ii.
Maju8i, 712, ii. ; 575, ii.
fee*
Jtoi
745
i, 367, ii. tfaV*-
Muha/tu-ah, 118, i. S^U^
Muhibbn 'l-l'liqiM-a', 50, I. -t^ v-s*-
Mahabbah, 50, i. ; 300, i. <L,»^
Muhtasib, 85, ii. ; 418, i s — ^«
Mulitakir, 418, i.
Mihjan, ;>48, i. ^^
105, tt. ;,*-.•
j. :;t-7. ii. si*as>.-
•ft'}.) •'.. ^\—
Mahmui, 307, iir f^
Muliarratu, 355, i. ; 407, i. ; ^^^
Muhriin, 418. i. |»j*»**
Muharramat, 417. ii. u^U^*
Muhsitmh, 318, i. A^S^/.
Wihkiiin, 342. ii. /^^
Muhkam, 518, ii. +*>**>•
, U'JU, i
i, 400, i.
Mahrnai. AUiunil, 30ti, i.
Mahmiid, 307, ii.
Mahinudivah, 307, ii.
Mahiz, 317, ii.
Mukhasiiraat. 286, i.
Mukhalatab, 110, i.
ftfukhaddarah, 419, i.
MaOjf.j^ivjiK r>,(>y, i.
Mudaha?uii», 187, a j.
Mudabbir, 3t>7, i. ; (J24, ii.
Maclrasiih, 342, ii. ; 5(>6, ii.
Mudda'i, 367, i.
Miulda'a -al^ihi, 82, i. ;
367, i.
Ha,d.da.h, 686, i.
Madyan, 303, ii. ; 357, ii.
Madiuatu 5u-n:ibI7 303, i.
Marqad, 48, i.
Mar wah, 328 i.
Mimk.li, 73. n.'j 201. n.
Marid, 131, i.
Murid, 120, ii. ; l-M. i.. . •;
roi, ;.
Man/, C-js, j.
Man. -i in, 32^> i. ; ;;:>•;, n.
Mii/.;it>;niali, )*J6, i.
iSljzuli. 2 I-U, ii.
Mu/ ua'.»h. 426. i.
Ifft/aimr, 41<), i
Mu/ail'at, (J9, ii. } 058, jr
Mu/;vwwir, 61)1), i,
Maiay 1 78, i, ; 404, ii.
Masabihu 's-8iinnah.
353, i.
M uviqal , 423, i.
Musainai-ah, 423. i.
Musta'jir, 176, i.
Mu sin.' iii in, 424, i.
j (HI >•; ^ »•
"
Sttu_
it 423, ii.
>, Iu6f .. ; ;
Masjid, 329, i. ; 366. i.
Masjidu '1-aqaa, 227; i. ;
559, ii.
Maahab, 220, i. ; 348, ii. :
636, i.
Muzalibabat, 460, i.
Murabahah, 420, ii.
Muraqabah. 420, ii. ; 705. ii.
Murabiq. 420, ii.
Muvahaqah, 420, ii.
Murtajis, 390, i.
1,16, j.; 20?, i.; 655,
Hffarbi 12», i-
Mir/abah, ;i52, ii.
Mill-sal, 422, i. ; 175, ii
Murshid, 120, ii.; 422, i. ;
458, ii.; 609, i. j 655, ii.
ypVfAhw*
A»?1j*»
Mr-
v5*V
&*\S*
u-^r
i. Xj-
sfc
^r*
&
X
J-r-
.U«^»
Ifasiidu 1- iirai4, 330; ii. ^
.Ma.tiidu "1-hararn,
227, i. ; 333. ii.
Mvisji.lu '1 k-;:iii', ;j<!3. ii.
Masjidu u-nabl, 3A-J. ii.
Masah. Si i. ; 32rit ii. ; 177 .
Musrif. lit, i.
MisUin, .'.,j3, i. . i'OO, ii.
M usaliani, 586, i.
Muslim, 40, ii.'; U)0f i. ; 12,i, ii.
| Mus.iiniau. 100, i. ; 42-J, i. c«
Musaii.ini li-hi, .">6l, i. • .»
Miisliiiiiin. 10, ii. c
Vlasriun, 346. ii.
Miswak, 353. ». ; I/O, ii. :
477, ii.
i Masib, 37, i. ; -'4. n.
Masilni 'd Jajj.,1, ')! ii, ' ^
. , - i - « . > i
1.
, W:\. ii.
i. 123, i.
Avl— . -
• v> _.
94
746
INDEX.
Musbabbihiyah, 569, i.
Mushtarak, 518, i.
Mushtari, 73,ii. ; 201, ii.
Musbrik, 190, i. ; 207, i. ;
818, i. ; 423, i. ; 655, i. ;
661, ii.
MashnV, 286, i.
Mash'al, 326, i.
Masb'uq, 301, i.
Mishkatu 'l-
353, i.
MuaHkil, 519, i.
Mubarak, 31 7, i.
Mu^afa^ah, 422, ii. ; 571, ii.
Musaddiq, 422, ii.
Misr, 108, i.
Musalli, 224, ii. ; 423, i.
Muzarabah, 308, ii. ; 426, i.
Matar, 532, ii.
Mitraqali, 27, ii. ; 152, ii. ;
353, i.
Mutauwif , 341, i.
Ma'aqil, 302, i.
Mu'amalat, 285, ii
Mu'anaqah, 366, ii.
Mu'ahid, 366, ii.
Mu'taddab, 317, i. ; 424, i.
Mu'tazilab, 425, i ; 473, i. ;
568, i.
Mu'taq, 425, i.
Mu'tiq, 426, i.
Mu'tamir, 425, i.
Mu*jizah, 269, ii. ; 279, i. ;
350, i.
Mu'ajjal, 91, i.
Mi'jan, 340, i.
Ma'din, 545; i. ; 350, i.
Mi'raj, 44, ii. ; 351, ii. ; 464, ii. ;
485, ii.
Ma'rifah, 609, ii. j 610, i.
Mu'attaliyah, 568, ii.
Mu'aqqlbat, 279, i.
Mu'allaqat, 460, i.
Mu'allim, 366, ii.
Mu'aUimu U-mala'ikah,
366, ii.
Ma'mudiyah, 36, i. ; 312, ii.
Ma'na wa bajan, 106, ii.
Ma'uuah, 350, ii.
Ma«iyah, 568, i.
Maghrib, 177, ii. ; 464, ii.
Maghfirah, 451, i. ; 564, i.
Mufakbarah, 43, ii.
Miftahu '1-jannah, 348, i.
Mufti, 58, i. ; 367, i.
Mufarribu '1-ahzau, 367, i. <
Mufsid, 286, i. ; 367, i.
Mufassar, 518, ii.
Maf'ul, 530, i. ; 684, i.
Mafqiid, 303, ii.
Maqamu Ibrahim, 156, i. ;
313, ii. ; 337, ii. ; 340, i.
Maqamu '1-Hambali,
338, ii.
Maqamu '1-Hanafi, 338, ii.
Maqamu 'sb-Shafi'I,
338, ii.
Maqam mahmiid, 313, ii.
Muqayazah, 33, i. ; 420, ii.
Maqbarah, 48, i.
Muqtada, 420, ii.
Muqtadl, 420, ii.
Maq^urab, 313, ii.
Muqauqis, 420, i.
Muka', 666, ii.
Mukatib, 419, i.
Mukari, 419, i.
Maktab, 566, ii.
Makr, 187, ii.
Makrah, 58, i. ; 286, i. ; 311, i.
Makkah, 310, i. seqq.
Malla, 419, ii.
Mula'ab (milayeh), 96, i.
Mala^im, 664, ii.
Malamatiyah, 620, ii.
Mala'ikah, 40, ii.
Mulhid, 207, i. ; 419, ii. ;
655, i.
Mulhaq, 419^ i.
Malak, 15, i. ; 484, ii. «*XU
Malik, 74, ii.; 278. ii. ; 548, ii.
Mulk, 283, i.
Malaku '1-maut, 79, ii. ; ^>
222, ii. ; 311, ii. ; 541, i. ;
605, ii.
Malakut, 609, ii.
Maiiki, 286, ii.
Malaug, 312, i.
Millah, 220, i. ; 348, ii. ; 63t>, i.
Mamat, 312, ii.
Mumtani'u Jl-wujud,
113,i.; 693, i.
Mumsik, 419, ii.
Mumkinu 'i-wujud,
113, i. ; 693, i.
Mamluk, 312, ii. ; 596, ii.
Mann, 313, i.
Manat, 191, ii. ; 313, i.
Munajat, 195, ii. ; 420, i. ;
469, i.
Manarah, 313, i.
Manazil, 609, ii.
INDEX.
747
Manasik, 313, i.
Muuafiq, 207, i.; 419, ii.
Munafiqun, 187, ii.
Munaqilah, 128, ii.
Munakafcat, 286, i.
!Manum, 92, i.
Mimbar, 274, ii. ; 329, i. ;
340, ii. ; 349, i. ; 476, ii.
Minhah, 350, i.
MauziJ, 489, ii. ; 492, i.
Mansak, Mansik, 545, ii. ;
551, ii.
Maiisukh, 519, ii.
Muna??af, 420, i.
Mantiq, 106, ii.
Mintaqatu '1-buruj, 201, ii.
Munf, 357, i. ; 420, i.
Munfiq, 420, i.
Munaqqilah, 680, ii.
Manqu$iyah, 569, i.
Munkar, 15, ii. ; 27, ii. ; 46, i. ;
79, ii. ; 420, i.
Man ku bah, 428, ii.
Mania, 313, i.
Mina, 349, i.
Manihah, 313, i.
Muhabiyah, 620, ii.
Muhajir, 367, ii.
Muhajiriin, 16, i. ; 367, ii.
Muhayat, Muhaya'ah, 417, ii.
Mahr, 91, ii. ; 307, ii. ; 318, ii.
322, ii.
Mahru '1-misl, 314, ii.
Maut, 79, i. ;" 347, i.
Mfitah, 380, ii.
Mu'jir, 176, i.
Mu'ajjal, 91, ii.
MuwaJ^id, 426, i. ; 661, ii.
MudiS 83, ii.
Mawaddah, 800, i.
MuVgzin, 42, i. ; 829, ii. ;
866, ii. ; 465, ii.
Musa, 356, i. seqq. ; 440, i ;
475, ii.
Mueiqa, 423, ii.
Muwashshahah. 462, i.
Musi, 667, i.
Mu§a bi-hi, 667, i.
Mu§a la-hu, 667, i.
Muzi^ah, 128, ii. ; 680, ii.
Muwatta', 426, i. ; 570, ii.
Maulid, 346, ii.
Maulidu 'n-nabi, 346, ii.
Maulud, 662, i.
Maulawi, 58, i. ; 346, ii.
Maula, 346, ii.
otUU.
&iU*
^
r^
Jr-
*
IllM
-
Mu'uain, 40, ii. ; 400, i. ;
419, ii. ; 613, ii.
Mu'minun, 40, ii.
Mauhub, 140, ii.
Mauhub lahu, 140, ii. &*
Ma'udah, 846, ii.
Mu'auwal, 518, ii.
Miyan, 353, i. ; 556, i.
Maitah, 49, ii.
Misaq, 61, i.; 353, i.; 647, ii.
Mir, 350, i. ; 556, i.
Miras, 207, i.
Mirza, 352, il
Mlzab, 337, i.
MIzabu 'r-rahmah, 257, i. £*»^
Mizan, 74, ii. ; 201, ii. ; 353, i.
Maisir, 50, ii. ; 133, ii. ; 300, i.
Miqat, 350, i. ; 694, i.
Mikal, 15, ii. ; 348, i.
Mika'il, 15, ii. ; 348, i. ;
440, i.
N, 518, i.
Nabaligh, 427, i.
Najiyah, 569, i.
Nad-'i-'AK, 427, i.
Nar, 109, ii. ; 129, i.
Narawa, 286, i. ; 430, i.
Nasikh, 431, i. ; 519, ii.
Nasut, 431, i. ; 609, ii.
Na$it, 472, i.
Naqus, 430, ii.
Nakib, 428, ii.
Namus, 429, ii. ; 485, i.
Na'ib, 427, ii.
Na'ilah, 191, ii.
Nabatat, 531, i.
Nabbash, 427, i.
Nabaz, 433, ii.
Nubuwah, 486, i.
Nabi, 14, ii.; 427, i.; 449, i.;
475, ii. ; 613, ii.
Nabiyu 'llah, 229, ii. ; 475, ii.
Nabii, 427, i.
Najasah, 427, ii.
flajashl, 427, ii.
Najat, 564, i.
Najd, 17, i.; 427, ii.
Najran, 53, i. ; 428, i.
Najis, 629, ii.
Najsh,428, ii.
Nali r, 427, ii. ; 551, ii.
!V,U
^l>
748
NafehS 428, Ji.
Nakhlah, 428, ii.
, 633, ii.
-, 439, ii. ; 658, it, j 662. i.
Nazr wa uiyaz, 431, ii. f
Nisa' 430, a.;' 677, i.
&iftb,4dO,-&i 577, i.
; 690; ii. 8eq<j.
431, i;
INDEX.
fl
asnas, 137, ii.
Maw', 214, i.
Nasha'id li-Sulainian,
440,i.
Ma|, 431, i. • 518, ii.
Nisab, 73, i. ; 434, ii. ; 552, ii. ;
699, ii.
53,ai. ; 431, i.
>, 684, i.
t- n :
Najsraniyah, 53, i.
Maatur,'432, i.
Nisi, 489, ii. ; 492, i.
Najaa-i-karim, 431, i
Na^uh, 276, i. ; 431, i.
Nasihab, 286, i.
Nitaq, 140, ii.
NazaiTJiyah, 568, ii.
Nifks, 140, i. ; 427, ii. ; 433, ii.
Nifaq, 187, ii. ; 433, ii.
Nttfs, 427, L
Nafkh, 427, i.
Kafs, 427, ii, ; 604. ii. ; 678, i.
Nafsa', 427, ii.
NaJrs ainmarah, 60, i.
Nafs lawwamah, 60, i.
JVai's mutrna'iunab,. 60, i.
Nair* mulhamab, 60, i.
Nalaqah, 308, i. ; 427, i. ; 672, i.
Null, 427, i. ; 434, ii.
Naly, 261, i.
Nafy wa- isbat, 63, i. ;
142.il/
Nuqal, 683, ii. seqq.
Nuqtah, 307, ii.
Naql aahih, 430, i.
Nuqut, 325, ii.
Nuqu'u 'z-zabib, 436, ii.
Naqir, 99, i. ; 658, i.
Nikah, 88, ii. ; 313, ii. ; 433, ii.
575, ii. ; 655, ii.
Nikahu '1-maqt, 677, i.
Nakir, 15, ii. ; 27, ii. ; 46, i. ;
79, ii.; 420,i.: 428, ii.
N'atiiiiz, 4*28, ii. : 464, ii.
NuirmuL l^o, it.
•u»
Nahar, 79, i.
Nihayah, S3, i.
Nabju 4-balagJiah, 427, ii.
Nahr, 546, i,
Nawasikb. 530, ii.
| NawiMb, 431, ii.
'Nub, 434. ii. seqq. ; 440, i. ;
ey
?, 74, ii.
Bfmi
Jfui'ii 'I-qiidSj 301., ii.
Nur-i-Mnhahiinaclij 4^6, ii;
Nau Roz, 127, ii. ; 431, ii. ;
696, i.
Naum, 600, i'i.
Nun, 436, i.
Niyaz, 439, ii.
Niyazu 'Hah, 434, ii.
Niyaz-i-rasul, 434, ii.
Nailu '1-maram, 672, ii.
Niuawa, 4S4, ii.
Niyab, 45, i. ; 434, ii. ; 465, ii
U*
Habil, 2,i. $ 440, i.
ttajai-, 1M, i,
ttadi, 1, ii ; 78, ii.
Harifab, 128, ii.
Harut wa Marut, 167, ii. &>%\*' j
Hai*un, 362, i. ; 440, i. ,- 475, ii.
Hashiinah, 128, ii. ; 680, ii.
Hainan, 360, i.
Hawiyah, 169, i. ; 171, i. ;
625, i.
Hail, 39, i.
Haba', 152> i.
HnbaJ, 181, ii.
Hibah, 140, ii. ; 173, ii.
Hijrah, 174, ii. ; 371, ii. ;
373, i.
Hajiti, 179, i.
Hidayab, 174, i.
| Hudlmd, 283, ii.
i Hady, 154, i. ; 551, ii.
! Hadiyah, 154, i.
Hirrah, 49, ii.
Haft Siiat. 146, ii.
Haft (jiri'at, 489, ii.
Hamz'ab, 685, i.
Hamzatu '1-qat', 685, ii.
Hamzatu '1-wasl, 685. ii
Ilimmah. I 7T», ii.
J^^
749
Huwa. Hu, 181, ii. ; 705, ii. seqq.
'. 169, i. ; 300, ii.
Hawajro?,
Hud, is, i. ; 101, ii.
llauwaz, 681, i.
Hilal, 175, ii. ; 433, i.
Haiyula, 169, ii.
Wajib, 156, i ; 2S6, i. ; 663, i. ;
670, ii.
Wajibu '1-iUiba', 663, i. £W>^
Wajibu '1-ada', 663, i,
Wa'jibii '1-wujud. 11:5, i
663, i. • ttti i,
Waris., 170, ii.
Waridivab, 568, ii.
Wasitab, 664, ii.
Wa'iz, 472, i. : 663, i.
Waqi'ah, 664, i.
Waqifiyab, 569, i.
Will, 663, ii.
Wabib, 140, ii.
Waba', 452, i.
Wabil, 430, ii.
Witr, 434, ii. ; 670, ii.
Wasan, 191, ii. : 664, ii.
VVasani, 190, L; 207, i. ; 664, ii
Wa]d, 610, i. ; 663, i.
Wajbu 'llah, 663, i.
Wujud. 113, i. j 655, ii. ;
693. i.
Wajibun fi 'd-duuya
wa '1-akbirah, 229, ii.
Wabdaniyah, 659, i.
Wabdatu '1-wujudiyah,
659, i.
Waby, 213, ii. ; 485, i.
Wahyu '1-Qar'iin, 213, ii.
Wabyu '1-qalb, 213, ii.
Waby gbair raatlu,
213, ii~ ; 639, ii.
Wadd, 191, ii.
Wudd, 300, i.
Wada'i', 83, ii.
Wadl'ab, 83, ii. ; 659, i.
Wizr, 666, L
Wazir, 666, i.
Waswasab, 665, i.
Wasilah, 604, ii.
Wa^aya, 41, ii. ; 664, ii.
I, 610, i. ; 665, i.
Wa9i, 112, ii. ; 007, i.
Wasiyah, 41, ii. ; 667, I
Wazu1 (wuzu'), 3, i. ; 4, i. ; 81,
329, ).; ii53, i.; 477, ii. ;
693, i.
Wftfifab, 666, i.
Wrt'dah, 61 , L
Wa'/, 609, ii. ; 666, i.
Watit, 79, i.
Waqt, (>64, i.
Waqs, 664, i.
i Waqf, 330, ii. ; 517, ii. ; 664,i
Wuquf, 693, i.
i Wakalab, Wikalab, 663, i.
! Wakil, 12, i.; 314, ii. ; 322, ii. ;
663, i.
Wakil ;ala 'l-wa§iyah,
112, ii.
Wala', 663, i.
Wala'u '1-ataqah, 663, ii.
Wala'u '1-muwalat, 663, ii.
Wilayab, 151, i. ; 316, i.
Wralad, 604, ii.
Waladu '1-halai, 293, i.
Waladu 'z-zina', 39, ii. ;
200, ii. ; 293, i. ; 577, i.
Waladu '1-mula'anab,
293, i.
Walab, 300, ii.
Walaban, 663, ii.
Walwalah, 338. i.
Wall, 74, i.; 278, ii. ; 556, i.
613, ii. ; 663, ii.
Wrall ba'id, 6fi3, ii.
Wall jabir, 663, ii.
Wall 'ahd, 663, ii.
Wall ni'niab, 663, ii.
W^alimab, 663, ii.
Wabhabi, 659, i. seqq.
Wabmiyah, 568, ii.
»UJ\
<0.
-x-** ^
?~~- J.
a«c J.
&+* J.
Yajuj, 440, i.; 540, i.
Ya'juj \va Ma'juj (Yajuj er^u )
wa Majuj), 102, ii. ;
14£, ii.
Yasin, 74, ii. ; 80, ii. : 694, ii.
Yaqfitl, 691, i.
Yn Hu, 693, ii. ; 705, ii. seqq.
Yatlm, 448, ii. ; 694, ii.
Yasrib, 694, ii.
Yabya, 249, i. ; 475, ii. ; 694, i. ;
696, ii. ; 699, ii.
750
INDEX.
Yad, 161, ii.
Yadu 'liah, 161, ii. ; 662, i. 5.
693, i.
Y S, 518, i.
Ya'sub, 694, ii,
Ya'qub, 223, ii. ; 440, i. ;
475, ii.
Ya'uq, 191, ii. ; 695, ii.
Yagkus, 191, ii. j 693, ii.
Yaqt.ln, 694, i.
Yalak (yelek), 94, i.
Yalaralam, 694, i.
Yaman, 17, i.
Yamaniyah, 46, i.
Yamin, 437, i.
Yaminu '1-laghw, 437, i.
Yahud, 235, i. ; 694, i.
Yahuza, 544, i.
Yuhanna, 696, ii.
Yuz, 184, i.
Yueuf, 250, i. seqq. ; 440, i. ;
475, ii.
Yusuf vra Zulaikb^i
250, i. ; 716, ii.
Yusha', 255, i. ; 440, i.
Yufannah (Yephunneh), 48, ii.
Yaum, 79,' i. ; 694, ii.
Yaumu '1-ignain, 79, i. ;
694, ii.
Yaumu '1-ahad, 49, i. ;
694, ii.
Yaumu 'l^arbi'a', 79, i. ;
694, ii.
Yaumu 'LinqitaS 695, i
Yaumu '1-ba'g, ^87, i.
J* y ^
Yaumu 't-taghabun, 695, ii.
Yaumu 't-talaq, 695, ii.
Yaumu 'fc-tanad, 695, ii.
Yaumu ^-salasa', 79, i. ;
694, ii.
Yaumu '1-jam', 695, i.
Yaumu '1-jum^ah, 79, i. ;
VOtf
694, ii.
Yaumu '1-hara, 695, i.
Yaumu '1-hisab, 537, i. ;
695, i.
Yaumu '1-hashr, 168, ii. ;
695, i.
Yaumu '1-kburuj, 695, i.
Yaumu '1-khulud, 695, i.
Yaumu '1-l^amis, 79, i. ;
274, ii. ; 694, ii.
Yaumu 'd-dm, 537, L ;
694, ii.
Yaumil 's-eabt, 79, i. ;
694, ii.
Yaumu 's-sabu*, 695, ii.
Yaumu 'l-'ashura', 694, ii.
Yaumu '1-fasl, 537, L ;
695, i.
Yaumu '1-fitr, 695, i,
Yaumu '1-qarr, 695, i.
Yaumu '1-qiyam, 482, i.
Yaumu fl-qiyamah, 537, i.
695, i.
Yaumu 'n-nahr, 157, ii. ;
192, ii. ; 551, ii. ; 695, L
Yaumu '1-wa'id, 695. i.
Yaurnun ina'lurnun, 695, i.
YIAUUS, 249, ii. ; 440, I ; 475, ii.
**>
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