A
1 A
SfllCTIONABY OF ISLAM
BEING
\ CYCLOPEDIA OK Till-: DOCTBINES, BITES, CEBEMpNIES, AND
CUSTOMS, TooKTiii R WITH TIIH TECHNICAL VXD
TIIKOLOdlCAL TEKMS, OF Till-: MUIIAMMADAN
BY
THOMAS PATRICK HUGHES, B.D., M.R.A.8.
\VITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON
II. ALLKN & CO, 13, WATERLOO PLACK, PALL MALL, S.W.
1895
DEDICATED
(WITH PERMISSION)
TO
THE RIGHT REVEREND THOMAS YALPY FRENCH, D,D.
FIRST BISHOP OF LAHORE,
WITH MUCH AFFECTION AND ESTEEM,
BY HIS LORDSHIP S OBEDIENT SERVANT,
THOMAS PATRICK HUGHES.
PREFACE.
^
THE increased interest manifested in relation to all matters affecting
the East, and the great attention now given to the study of compara
tive religion, seem to indicate that the time has come when an attempt
should be made to place before the English-speaking people of the
world a systematic exposition of the doctrines of the Muslim Faith.
The present work is intended to bupply this want, by giving, in a tabu
lated form, a concise account of the doctrines, rites, ceremonies, and
customs, together with the technical and theological terms, of thu
Muhammadan religion.
Although compiled by a clergyman who has had the privilege of
heing engaged in missionary work afc Peshawar tor a period of twenty
years, this "DICTIONARY OF ISLAM" is not intended to be a contro
versial attack on the religions system of Muhammad, but rather an
exposition of its principles and teachings.
Divided, as the Muslim world is, into numerous sects, it has been
found impossible to take into consideration all the minor differences
which exist amongst them. The Dictionary is, for the most part, an
exposition of the opinions of the Sunni sect, with explanations of the
chief points on which the Shi?h and Wahhabi schools of thought differ
from it. Very special attention has been given to the views of the
Wahhabis, as it is the Author * conviction that they represent the
earliest teachings of the Muslim .Faith as they came from Muhammad
and his immediate successors. When it is remembered that, according
to Mr. Wilfrid Blunt s estimate, the Shiah sect only numbers some
ten milliom out of the one hundred and seventy-five millions of Mu-
hammadans in the ^world, it will be seen that, in compiling a Dic-
tionarv of Muhammadanism, the Shiah tenets must of necessity occupy
a secondary place in the study of the religion. Still, upon all
important questions of theology and jurisprudence, these difference*
have been noticed.
The piesrnt book does not profess to be a .Biographical Dic
tionary. The tfrcul work of ll>n Khailikan, translated into MnHioh by
V! PREPAOE.
Slaiie, supplies this. But short biographical notices of persons con
nected with the early history of Islam have been given, inasmuch as
many of these persons are connected with religious dogmas and cere
monies ; the martyrdom of Husain, for instance, as being the foundation
of the Muharram ceremonies ; Abu Hanifah, as connected with a
school of jurisprudence ; and the Khalifah Umar as the real founder of
the religious and political power of Islam. In the biographical notice
of Muhammad, the Author has expressed his deep obligations to SIR
WILLIAM MUIR S great work, the Life of Mahomet.
It is impossible for anyone to write upon the subject of Muham-
madanism without being largely indebted, not only to Sir William
Muir s books, but also to the works of the late MR. LANE, the author
of Modern Egyptians, new editions of which have been edited by MR.
STANLEY LANE POOLE. Numerous quotations from these volumes will
be found in the present work.
But whilst the Author has not hesitated in this compilation to
avail himself of the above and similar works, he has, during a long
residence amongst Muhauimadaii peoples, been able to consult very
numerous Arabic and Persian works in their originals, and to obtain
the assistance of very able Muhammadan native scholars of all schools
of thought in Islam.
He is specially indebted to DR. F. STEINGASS, of the Univer
sity of Munich, the author of the English- Arabic and Arabic-English
Dictionaries, for a careful revision of the whole work The interesting
article on WRITING is from the pen of this distinguished scholar, as
well as some valuable criticisms on the composition of the QUR AN, and
a biographical sketch of the Khalifah Umar.
Orientalists may, perhaps, be surprised to find that SIKHISM has
been treated as a sect of Islam, but the Compiler has been favoured with
a very able and scholarly article <a the subject by Mr. F. PINCOTT,
M.K.A.S., in which he shows that the " religion of Nanak was really
intended as a compromise between Hinduism and Muhammadanism, if
it may not even be spoken of as the religion of a Muhanimadan
sect/ the publication of which in the present work seemed to be
most desirable,
At the commencement of the publication of the work, the Author
received very valuable assistance from the REV. E. A. P. SHIRREFF,
M.A., Principal of the Lahore Divinity College, as well as from other
friends, which he must gratefully acknowledge.
Amongst the numerous suggestions which the Author received for
PBBFACB. Vli
the compilation of this Dictionary, was one from a well-known Arabic
scholar, to the effect that the value of the work would be enhanced
if the quotations from the Qur an, and from the Traditions, were given
in their original Arabic. This, however, seemed incompatible with
the general design of the book. The whole structure of the work is
intended to be such as will make it available to English scholars unac
quainted with the Arabic language; and, consequently, most of the
information given will be found under English words rather than under
their Arabic equivalents. For example, for information regarding the
attributes of the Divine Being, the reader must refer to the English
Goo, and not to the Arabic ALLAH; for all the ritual and laws
regarding the liturgical service, to the English PRAYER, and not to
the Arabic SALAT; for the marriage laws and ceremonies, to the Eng
lish MARRIAGE, and not to the Arabic MKAH. It is hoped that, in this
way, the information given will be available to those who are entirely
unacquainted with Oriental languages, or, indeed, with Eastern life.
The quotations from the Qur an have been given chiefly from
Palmer s and Rodwell s translations; and those in the Qur anic narra
tive of Biblical characters (MOSES for example) have been taken from
MR. STANLEY LANK POOLE S edition of Lane s Selections. But, when
needful, entirely new translations of quotations from the Qur an have
been given.
The " DICTIONARY OF ISLAM" has been compiled with very con
siderable study and labour, in the hope that it will be useful to many ;
-to the Government official called to administer justice to Muslim
peoples ; to the Christian missionary engaged in controversy with Mus
lim scholars; to the Oriental traveller seeking hospitality amongst
Muslim peoples ; to the student of comparative religion anxious to
learn the true teachings of Islam; to all, indeed, who care to know
what are those leading principles of thought which move aud guide one
hundred and seventy-five millions of the great human family, forty
millions of whom are under the rule of Her Most Gracious Majesty
the Impress of India.
July 23rrf, 1885.
THE ARA.BIO LETTERS IN THTS VOLUME HAVE BEEN TRANSLITERATED
A.S FOLLOWS :
Arabic.
Names,
Roman.
Frotmuciaiion.
,
Alif
A
a, i, n< at the beginning of a word.
V
Ba
B
A.s in English.
Ta
T
A soft dentaJ, like the Italian t.
<>
Sa
s
\ r ery nearly the sound of th in thing.
B
Jim
J
As in English.
C
Ha
H
A strong aspirate.
t
Kha.
Kh
Cluttural, like the Scotch ch in loch.
Dal
D
Soft dental.
$
Zal
I
A sound between dh and z.
y
Ra
E
)
7a
i
3
fa
c*~
> As in English-
U*
Sin
\
Shin
Sh
}
v^
Sad
S
A strongly articulated s\ in Central Asia
j
aa sw.
Jl
Zad
z
Something like the foreign pronunciation
of the tic in that , in Central Asia and
India, z or ?.w.
k
Ta
T
A strongly articulated palatal t.
Za
z
A strongly articulated z.
Am
A guttural, the pronunciation of which
;
must be learnt by ear.
Gliam
Crh
A strong guttural gii.
Fa
F
As in English.
J
Qat
Q
Like ck in stuck
e)
Kaf
K
1
J
Lam
L
r
Mim
M
NQn
N
)As in English.
&
Ba
H
[
j
Watt
W
I
Ya
r
/
-__
Eathah
a
%
~~
Kasrah
i
V As in Italian.
*._
Zanimah
u
)
Himixah
Pronounced as a, i, u, preceded by a yery
slight aspiration.
DICTIONARY OF ISLAM.
AAKON. Arabic Harun
The account given of Aaron in the Qur an
be found in tho article on Moses. In Surah
xix. 29, tho Virgin Mary i* addres*d as tho
Sister of Aaron." [MARY, MO C ES.J
ABAD (J^). Eternity; without
end, as distinguished fromAzal
without beginning.
ABASA (LT^). "Ho frowned."
Tke title of the Lxxxth chapter of the Qur an.
It is said that a blind man, named Abdu Hah
ibn Umm Maktum, once interrupled Muham
mad in conversation with certain -chiefs of
Quraisb. The Prophet, however, took no
notice of him, but frowned and turned away :
mid in the first verso of this Surah, he is
represented as reproved by God for having
done so : " Ho frowned and turned his back,
for that the blind man came unto him."
ABBAS (<j-W*). The son of Abdu
VMutialib, and consequently the paternal
uncle of Muhammad. The most celebrated
of the "Companions," and the founder of the
Abbaside dynasty, which held the Khali fato
for a period of 509 year3, namely, from A.I>.
749 to A.D. 1258. He died in A.H. 82. His
son Ibn- Abbas was also a celebrated autho
rity on Islamic traction? an ! la\v. fins
ABBAS, ABBAKTHUS .1
ABBASJDES. Arabic al-< Abbdsiyah
(dU~\**J\). The name of a dynasty" ot
Khalifahs descended from al- Abbas, the son
.>f Abdu l-Mutt;alib, and a paternal uncle of
Muhammad. On account of their descent
from so near a relation of the Prophet, the
Abbasides had, ever since the introduction of
Islam, been very high in esteem amongst the
Arabs, and had at an early period begun to
excite the jealousy of the Urnaiyade Khalifahs.
who after the defeat of All occupied the
throne of the Arabian Empire. Tho Abbas-
idea had for some time asserted their c aims
to the Khalifate, and in A.D. 746 they com
menced open hostilities. In 749 the Abbaside
Kballifah Abu V Abbas, surnatned as-Saffah,
"the blood-shedder," was recognied as Kha-
lifah at al-Kufah, and Marwan II., the last of
the Cmaiyado Khalifahs, was defeated and
e lain.
Thirty-seven Khalifahs of the Abbaside dy
nasty reigned over the Muhainmadan empire,
extending over the period from A.H. 182 (A.D
749-50) to A.H. 656 (A.D. 1258).
The names of the Abbasido Khalifahs are ---
Abu l- Abbas as-Safiah (A.D. 719;, al-Mansur
(A.I). 754). al-Mahdi (A.D. 770), al-Hadl (A.D.
785), Harun ar Rashid (A.D. 786), al-Amin
(A.D. 809), al-Ma inim (A.D. 813). al-Mu tasim
(A.D. 833), al-Wasiq (A.H. 842),al-Mutawakkil
(A.D. 847 ; , al-Muntasir (A,D. 861), al-Mujjta in
(A.D. 862), al-Mu tazz (A.D. SGfi), al-Mulitad)
(A.D. 86>, al-Mu tamid (A.D. 870), al-Mu ta/.id
(A.D. 892)) al-Muktafi (A.D. 902), al-Muqtadir
(A.D. 908). al-Qahir (A.D. 932), ar-Razi (A.D
934), al-Mnttaqi (A.D 940), al-Mustaqfl (A n
044), al-Muti (A.D. 945), at-Tfii (A.D. 974)
al-Qadir (A.D. 994), al-Qaim (A.D. 1031), al
Muqtadi (A.D. 1075). al-Mustazhir (A.D. 1094),
al-Mustarshid (A.D. 1118), ar-Riishid (A.C
1135), al-Muqtafl (A.D. 1136), al-Mutanji.l
(A.D. 1160), al-Mustazi (A.D. 1170), an-Naen
(A.D. 1180), as-Zahir (A.D. 1225), al-MustanMr
I A.D. 1226), al-Musta sim (A.D. 1242 to A.D.
L258).
In the reign ot ai-.Muata sim HQiaku,grand-
aon of Jinglz Khan, entered Persia and
became Sultan A.D. 1256. In 1258 he took
Baghdad and put the KJhalifah al-Musta siiu to
death. [KHALIFAIL]
ABDAL (J^\). " .Substituies,
pi. of Badal. Certain persons by whom, it is
said, Gcd continues the -world in existence.
Their number is seventy, of whom forty
reside in Syria, and thirty elsewhere. ^Vhon
one dies another takes his place, being* so
1
2 ABDU r/LAEI
appointed by God. It i* one of the signs of
the last day that the Abddl will come from
Syria. (Mishkat, xxiii, c, 3.) No one pre
tends to be able to identify these eminent
persons hi the world. God alone knows who
they are, and where they are.
ABDU LLAH (AUU**). The father
of Muhammad, He was the youngest son of
*Ahdu 1-Muttalib. During the pregnancy of
his wife Aminah, he set out on a mercantile
expedition to Gaza in the south of Palestine,
and on his way back he sickened and died at
al-Madlnah, before the birth of his son Mu
hammad (Kdtibul-Wdqidi, p, 18; Muir s
Life of Mahomet, vol. i. p. 11.)
ABDU LLAH IBN SA D (aW.vt
J^t- ^i) One of Muhammad s secre
taries. It is related that, when Muhammad
instructed Abdu Hah to write down the
words (Surah xxiii. 12-14), " We (God) have
created man from an extract of clay . . .
then we produced it another creation," Abdu
llah exclaimed, " And blessed be God,
the best of creators"; and Muhammad told
him to write that down also. Whereupon
Abdu llah boasted that he had been inspired
with a sentence which the Prophet had ac
knowledged to be part of the Qur an. It is of
him that it is written in the Qur an, Surah vi.
93, "Who is more unjxist than he who devises
against God a lie, or says, I am inspired,
when he i not inspired at all."
ABDU L-MUTTALIBts-lUttjuc).
Muhammad s grandfather and his guardian
for two years. He died, aged 82, A.D. 578.
His sons were Abdu "llah (Muhammad s
father), al-Haris az-Zuhair, Abu Tulib, Abu
Lahab, a 1- Abbas, and Hamza.
ABDU L-QA.DIR AL-JlLANl
(^^\ joUNjifrc). The celebrated
founder of the Qadiriyah order of darweshes,
surnamed PIr-Dastagir. He died and was
buried at Baghdad, A.H. 501.
ABDU RJBAHMAN IBN <AUF
(^2* ^ ^j^cwjttjk**). One of the Com
panions who embraced Islam at a very early
period, and -was one of those who fled to
Ethiopia. He also accompanied Muhammad
in all his battles, and received twenty wounds
at Uhud, He died A.H. 32, aged 72 or 75.
and was buried at Baql u i-Gharqad. the
graveyard of al -Madman.
ABFL. Arabic Hdbll ( rfU), Heb.
an Hebel In the Qur an " the two
eons of Adam " are called Ildbil wtt Qdbll,
and the following is the account given of
them in that book (Surah v. 80-35), together
with the remarks of the commentators in
italics (as rendered in Mr. Lane s Selections,
2nded., p. 53), " Recite unto them the history
of the two sons of Adam, namely, Abel
and Cain, with truth. When they offered
[their] offering to God (AbeTs being a ram, and
Cain s being produce of the earth), and it was
accepted from one of them (Mar is , from Abel;
ABID
for Jire descended from heaven, and devoured
his offering), and it was not accepted from the
other, Cain was enrauedj but he concealed his
envy until Adam performed a pilgrimage, when
he said unto his brother^ I will assuredly slay
thee. Abel said. Wherefore? Cain answered^
Recause of the acceptance of thine offering to
tht exclusion of mine. Abel replied, God only
accepteth from the pious. If thou stretch
forth to me thy hand to slay me, I will not
stretch forth to thee my hand to slay thee ;
for I fear God, the Lord of the worlds. I
de.sire that thou shouldst bear the sin [which
thou intendest to commit] against me, by
slaying me, and thy sin which thou hast com
mitted before, and bou wilt be of the compa
nions of the fire. And that is the recompense
of the offenders. But his soul suffered him to
slay his brother so he slew him; and he
became of [the number of] those who suffer
loss. And he knew not. iv/iat to do with kirn ;
for he was the first dead person upon the face of
the- earth of the sons of Adam. So he, carried
him upon his baek. And God sent a raven,
which scratched up the earth with its biU
and ita talons and raised it over a dead raven
that was with it. until it hid it, to show him
how he should hide the corpse of his brother.
He said, O my disgrace! Am I unable to be
like this raven, and to hide the corpse of my
brother? And he became of [the number
of] the repentant. And he digged [a grave]
for him and hid him. On account of this
ivhich Cain did We commanded the children
of Israel that he who sljould slay a soul (not
for the latter s having slain a soiil or committed
wickedness in the earth, such as infidelity, or
adultery, or intercepting the way^ and tht /ike)
[should be regarded] as though he had slain
all mankind ; and he who saveth it alive, by
abstaining from slaying it. as though he had
saved alive all mankind."
" The occasion of their making this offer
ing is thus related, according to the common
tradition in the East. Each of them being
boru with a twin-sister, when they were
grown up, Adam, by God s direction, ordered
Cain to marry Abel s twin-sister, and Abel to
marry Cain s ; (for it being the common
opinion that marriages ought not to be had
in the nearest degrees of consangtiinity, since
they must necessarily marry their sisters, it
seemed reasonable to suppose they ought to
take those of the remoter degree ;) but this
Cain refusing to agree to, because his own
sister w,as the handsomest, Adam ordered
them to make their offerings to God, thereby
referring the dispute to His determination.
The commentators say Cain s offering was a
sheaf of the very worst of his orn, but
Abel s a fat lamb of the best of hi* flock."
Sale s Koran, I., p. 122.
<ABID O>U). "A worshipper [of
God]." A term generally used for a devout
person. The word frequently occurs in the
Qur an; e.g. Surah ii. 132: "The baptism
{sibghah} of God! And who is better than
God at baptizing ? We are the worshippers
( abidun) of God." The word aibghah is trans-
ABIQ
latdd by Professor Palmer"dye and "dyeing,"
but Sale, following the Muslim commentators,
al-Baizuwi. Jalalu d dm, and llu.sainl, who
say it refers to tho Christian rite, translates it
"baptism." Of hers say that it means. ///mA
or din. the religion of God, with an ndapta-
tation to which mankind are created. See
Lane s Lexicon, f BAPTISM.]
ABIQ (&\). A runaway slave.
[ABSCONDING OF SLAVES.]
ABJAD (^). Tho name oil an
arithmetical arrangement of the alphabet, the
letters of which have different powers from
one to one thousand. It is in the order of
the alphabet as used by the Jews a far as
400, the six remaining letters feeing added
by the Arabians. The letters spell the
words
nbjad hauowfiz hulti halaman
sa j as r/aras/iat stik/iaz zaziyh
The author of the Arabic Lexicon. nl-Qdmux,
.says that tho first .six words are the names
of celebrated kings of Madyan (Midian), and
that the last two words were added by the
Arabians. Some say they arc the names of
the eight sons of the inventor of the Arabic
character, Muramir ihn Murra.
The following is a list of the letters with
their English equivalents, and the power of
each in numbers :
ABLUTION
3
b
s-
j
5
d
j
h
^
w
)
z
)
h
t
t
L
y
tS
dJ
i
J
m
r
n
a
60
s
u*
70
t
t
80
f
vJ
90
(S
100
q
J
200
r
300
sh
J*
400
t
i~s
500
s
^>
600
kh
c
700
z
J
800
z
u*
1)00
m
k
1000
gh
t
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
20
30
40
50
[EXORCISM.]
ABLUTION. Arabic, wazu\ wuzu
(fj*j) Persian, G&rfa** (u^-^j. Ablu
tion is described by Muhammad as "the half of
faith and the key of prayer " (Mixlikat. iii. 3c).
and is founded on tho authority of the Qur an,
surah v. 8, " Believers! when yo prepare
yourselves for prayer, wash your faces and
hands up to the elbows, and wipe ycur heads
and your feet to the ankles."
These ablutions arc absolutely necessary as
n preparation for tho recital of" tho liturgical
form of prayer, and are performed as follows:
The worshipper, having tucked up his sleeves
n little higher than his elbows, washes his
hands three times ; then he rinses his mouth
three times, throwing the water into it with
his right hand. After this, he, with his right
hand, throws -water up his nostrils, snuffing
it np at the eame time, and then blow.s it out,
compressing his nostrils with the thumb and
finger of the left, hand thia being also per
formed three times. He then washes his
face throo tim-s. throwing up the water with
both hands. Ho noxt- washes his n.;ht hand
and arm, a.- high us the elbow, as many times,
causing tho water to ran along his arm from
the palm of the hand to the elbow. an;l in
the same manner he washes too loft. Then
he draws his wetted right hard over the
upper part of his head, raising his turban
or cap with his loft. It" he has a beard, he
then comb!? it with the wetted fingers of his
right hand, holding his hand with the palm
forwards, and passing the lingers through his
board from the throat upwards. He then
puts the tips of his fore-h ngcrs into his ears
an 1 twists them round, passing his thumbs at
the same time round the back of tho ears
from tho bottom upwards. Next, he wipes
his neck with the back of the fingers of both
hands, making the ends of his liners meet
behind his neck, and then drawing them for
ward. Lastly, he washes his feet, as high as
the ankles, and passes his fingers between the
toes. During this ceremony, which is gene
rally performed in less than three minutes,
the intending worshipper usually recites some
pious ejaculations or prayers. For example :
Before, eornmenf. ing the wazff: "I am
going to purify myself from all bodily un-
cleanness, preparatory to commencing prayer,
that holy act of duty, which will draw my
soul near to tho throne of the Most High.
In tha name of God. tho Great and Mighty.
Praise bo to God who has given us grace to
be Muslims. Islam is a truth and intidelity
a falsehood."
When washing the nostrils : - ; my God, if
I am pleasing in Thy sight, perfume ine with
the odours of Paradise. 1
When washing the right hand : " O my
God, on the day of judgment, place the book
of my actions in my right hand, and examine
my account with favour/
When washing the left hand : " my God,
place not at the resurrection the book of my
actions in my left hand.
The Shiya Is, acting moro in accordance
with the text of the Qur an quoted above,
only wipe, or rub (maxah) the feet, instead of
washing them, as do the Sunnis.
The ablution need not be performed before
each of the five stated periods of prayer,
when the person is conscious of having
avoided every kind of impurity since tho last
performance of the ablution. Tho private
parts of the body must also bo purified when
necessary. When water cannot be procured,
or would be. injurious to health, the ablution
may be performed with dust or sand. This
ceremony is called Tni/ammum (</.( .) Tho
washing of tho whoie bodv is neces?nr>/ after
certain periods of impurity. [GHUSJ,.] The
brushing of the teeth is also a religious duly.
[MIMWAK.] The b?ncfits of ablution are.
highly o;iioHt.-d in the sayings of >irr -iru-nad,
He who p-.-rforrnr, the wa . ;ly
will extract all in from his body, even tho..
it may ho lurking under his linger nails." " Tti
ABORTION
ABRAHAM
the day 01 resurrection people shall eorne
with bright faces,, handa and fe>r and there
will be jewels in every place where the waters
of the waziZ have reached. (Mtshkvt. iii. I.)
TDK ABLUTIONS USED IN AFGHAN
ISTAN AND INDIA
VESSELS 10R A15H;TIONS USED IN BGTI-T.
(LAKE S " EGYPTIANS.")
In all the principal mosques there are
tanks, or -wells, which supply water for the
purposes of Legal purification. [PTIKIFICATION.]
ABORTION. Arabic Isqd. There
is- no mention of the subject in the Qur an,
but according to the Fatdwi Alamgiri (TO!.
iv. p. 238), it is forbidden after the child ia
formed in the womb. Muhammad is related
to have ordered prayers to be said over an
abortion, when supplication should be made
for the father and mother, -for forgiveness
and mercy. (Mishkdt, v. c. 2.)
ABRAHAM. Arabic Ibrahim
Cf**W)* One of the six great pro
phets to whom God delivered special laws.
The "Friend of God," Khalilu ilah, to whom
were revealed twenty portions (xahifah) of
Scripture.
Abraham is very frequently mentioned in
the Qur an, together with Ishmacl and Isaac.
The following are Mr. Lane s selections (giving
in italic;* the remarks of Muslim commenta
tors) .-
" JRernember when Abraham said to his
father Azar (this ivns the swiKunf of Terafi),
Dost thou take images as deities ? Verily I
see thee and thy people to be in a manifest
error. (And thus, as We shotved him (he error
of his father and his people, did We show
Abraham the kingdom of the heavens and the
earth, and [We did so] that he might be of [the
number of] those who firmly believe.) And
when the night overshadowed him, he saw a
star (it is t>ai<I that it was Venus), [and] he said
unto his people, who were astrologers, This is
my Lord, according to your assertion. But
when it set. he said, I like not those that set.
to take them as Lords, since it is not meet for u.
Lord to experience alteration and change of
placet, as they are of the nature of accidents
Yet this had no effect upon them. And whea
he saw the moon rising, he said unto them
This is my Lord. But -when it set, he said.,
Verily if my Lord direct me not (if He ran-
firm me not in the right way\ 1 shall assur e tU;
be of the erring people. This was a hint to
his people that they were in error ; but it had no
effect upon them. And when he saw the sun
rising, be said, This is my Lord. This is
greater than the, star and the moon. But when
it set. and the proof had been rendered ntore
strong to them, yet they desisted not, be said
my people, verily I am clear of the [things]
which ye associate with God; namely the
images and the heavenly bodies. So they naiii
unto him, What dost thou worship? fft.
answered, Verily I direct iriy face unto Him
who hath created the heavens and the earth,
following the right religion, and 1 am Dot of
the polytlieists. And his people argued with
him ; [but] he said, Do ye argue with tne
respecting God, when Pie hath directed we,
and I fear not what ye associate with Him
unless my Lord will that aught displeauHg
should befall me? My Lord comprebendetti
everything by His knowledge. Will ye hot-
therefore consider? And wherefore -should
I fear what ye have associated with God
when ye fear not for your having ussooiated
with God that of which He hath not sent
down unto you a proof ? Then which of thr
two parties is the more worthy of safety I ,
Are we, or you f If ye know wha is the mor
worthy of it, f of tow him.- God saith, Th"e>
who have. believed, and not mixed their belief
with injustice (that is, polytheism}, for theso
shall bo safety from punishment, and they ar*
rightly directed." (Surah vi. 74-82,")
" Relate unto tfiem, in the book (that is, the
Qm an^. f he history of Abraham. Verily, he
was a person of great veracity, a prophet.
When he said unto his father Azar, who wor
shipped idols, O my father, wherefore" dost
tliou v/orfihip that which hearefh not, nor
seeth, nor averteth from thee aught, whether
of advantage, or of injury? O my father
verily fja degree] of knowledge hath come
itmo me, that hath not come unfco- tbes :
therefore follow me: [ will direct the into a
right way. O my lather, serve not the devil,
ABRAHAM
by obeying him in serving idols ; for the devil j
is very rebellious unto the Compassionate.
my father, verily I fear that a punishment will
betid* thee from the Compassionate, if thou
repent not, and that thou wilt be unto the
devil an aider, and a companion in hell-fire.
He replied, Art thou a rejector of my Gods,
A braham, and dost thou revile them f If
thou abstain not, I will assuredly assail theo j
with stones or with ill words ; therefore beware
]f me, and leave me for a long time. Abra-
Htm said, Peace from me be on theo ! I will
isk pardon for thee of my Lord ; for He
<s gracious unto mo : and I will separate
nyself from you and from what ye invoke,
ustead of God ; and I will call upon my
Lord : perhaps I shall not be unsuccessful in
calling upon my Lord, as ttt are in calling
upon idols. And when he had separated him
self from them, and from what they wor
shipped instead of God, by goiny to the F/ofy
Land. We gave him two sons, that he might
cheer himself thereby, namely, Isaac and Jacob :
and each [of themj We made a prophet; and
We bestowed upon them (namely, the three).
of our mercy, wealth and children ; and We
caused them to receive high commendation."
(Surah six. 42-51.)
" We gave unto Abraham his direction for
merly, before he had attained to manhood; and
We know him to be worthy of it. When he
said unto his father and his people, What are
these images, to the worship of which ye are
devoted? they answered, We found our
fathers worshipping them, and we have fol
lowed their example. He said unto them.
Verily ye and your fathers have been in a
manifest error. They said, Hast thou come
unto us, with tmth in saying this, or art thou
of those who jest? He answered, Nay, your
Lord (the being who de&rveth to be worshipped")
: the Lord of the heavens and the earth,
who created them, not after the similitude of
anything pre-existing ; and I am of those who
bear witness thereof. And, by God, I will
assuredly, devise a plot against your idols
after ye shall have retired, turning your
backs. So, after they k<id gone to their place
of assembly , on a day when they held a festival.
he break them in pieces with <w vuce, except
the chief of them, upon to/iose i.^k he hung the
axe; that they might return unto it (namely
*he chief) and ace what he had done with the
<)ther*. They said, after thty had returned
and seen what he had done, Who hath done
this unto our gods ? Verily he is. of the
unjust. And some of them, said, We heard a
young man mention them reproachfully: he
is called Abraham. They said, Then bring
him before the eyes of the people, that they
ma;* hour witness against him of his havinfi
done it They said unto kirn, wftfn he had
been brought, Hast thou done this untu our
gods, O Abraham ? He answered, Nay, this
their chief did it : and ask ye luein, if they
[can} speak. And they returned unto them
selves, upon reflection, and said unto them
selves. Verily ye are the unjust, in worship
ping that which spealceth nut. Then they re
verted to their obstinacy, and said. Verily
ABRAHAM 5
thou knowest that these gpeuk iioc : then
wherefore dost thou order us to ask them ? He
said, Do ye then worship, instead of God,
that which doth not pro lit you at all, nor
injure you if ye worship it not ? Fie on you,
and on that which ye worship instead of God I
Do yo not then understand? They said,
Burn ye him, and avenge your gods, if ye
will do so. So they collected ahundance of fire
wood for him, and seljire to it ; and they bound
AbruhtUH, and put him into an engine, and cust
him into the fire. But, tauth God, We said, O
fire, be thou cold, and a security unto Abra
ham ! So nouy/it of him was burned save his
bowls: the heat of thejire ceased, but its light
remained.; and by God s saying, Security.
Abraham was saved from dying ly reason of
it* cold. And they intended against him a
plot ; but he caused them to be the sufferers.
And we delivered him and Lot, the son of hi*
brother Haran, fro pi El- Erdq, [bringing
them] tmto the land which We blessed for tho
peoples, by the abundance of t tft rivers and
trees, namely. Syria. Abraham took up his abode
in Palestine, and Lot in JZl-Mutefikeh, be
tween which is u day s journey. And when
Abraham had asked a son, We gave unt j him
Isaac, and Jacob as an additional gift, be
yond what he had aslced, bdny a 4cw * son ; and
all of them We made righteous persons o.nd
prophets. And We made them models of reli
gion who directed inen by Our command uttfo
Our religion ; and We commanded them by
inspiration to do good works and to perform
prayer and to give the appointed alms ; jud
they served Us. And unto Lot We gave
judgment and knowledge; and We delivered
him from the city which committed filthy
actions ; for they were a people of evil,
shameful doers , and We admitted him into
our mercy; for he was [onej of the righteous.
(Surah xxi. 62-75.)
" Hast thou not considered him who disputed
with Abraham concerning his Lord, because
God had given him the kingdom? And ke
was Nimrod. When Abraham said, (upon his
*ayinq unto him. Who is thy Loi-d, unto whom
ihou /nvitest us ?). My Lord is He who givetb
life and causeth to die, ho replied. I give
life and cause to die* And he MMMMMM! tw f>
men, and slew one of them., and left the other
So when he saw that fie understood not. Abra
ham said, And verily God bringeth the MIH
irom the east : now do thou bring it from the
west. And he tvhc disbelieved was con
founded ; and God directeth not tho oh" ending
people." (Surah ii. 260.;
** And Our messengers caine formerly unto
Abraham with good tidings of Itaac and
Jacob, who should be after him. They said,
Peace. He replied. Peace be on you And he
tarried not, but brought a roasted ralf. Aad
when he saw mat their hands touched it not.
he disliked them and conceived a foar oi
them. They said, Fear not : for we avo sent
unto the people of Lot, tluii toeintty dentroy
fJi in. And hi* wvf Sarah was standing
serving them, and she laughed, rejoicing at til-
tidings of their destruction. And we Rftve he .
good tidings of Isaac; and after lean". Jacob
6 ABRAHAM
She said, Alas ! shall I bear a child when I
am an old woman of nine and ninety years,
and when this my husband is art old man of
a hundred or a hundred and twenty years ?
Verily this ("would be] u wonderful thing.
They said, Dost thou wonder at the com
mand of God? The mercy of God and His
blessings be on you, O people of the house (of
Abraham)] for He is - praise worthy, glorious.
And when the terror bad departed from
Abraham, and the good tidings had come
unto him, he disputed with Us (tJiat is, with
Our messengers ) respecting the people of
Lot; for Abraham was gentle, compassionate,
repentant. And he said unto them, Will ye
destroy a city wherein aw three, hundred be
lievers? They answered, No. He said, And
will ye destroy a city wherein are two
hundred believers c ! They answered. No. He
said, And will ye destroy n, city wherein are
forty believers ? They answ ered, No. He said,
And will ye destroy a city wherein are fourteen
believers? They answered, No. He, said, And
tell me, if there- be, in it one believer t They
answered, No. He said, Verily in it is Lot.
They replied, We know best who is in it. And
when their dispute had become tedious, they
said, O Abraham, abstain from this disputa
tion ; for the command of thy Lord hath come
for their destruction, and a punishment not [to
ba] averted is coming upon them." fSurah >zi.
72-78.)
" And when Our decree for the destruction of
the people of Lot came [to bo executed], We
turned them {that is, their cities) upside-
down ; for Gabriel raised them to heaven, and
let them fall upside-down to the earth ; and
We rained upon them stones ot" baked clay,
sent one after another, marked with thy Lord,
each with the name, of him upon whom it should
be cast : and they [are] not far distant from
the offenders ; that is, the stones are not, or the
cities of the people of Lot were not, far distant
from the people of Mekkeh." (Surah xi. 84.)
" And [Abraham] said [after his escape
from Nimrod], Verily I am going unto my
Lord, who will direct me unto the place
whither He hath commanded me to go, namely,
Syria. And when he had arrived at the Holy
La.nd, he said, O my Lord, give me a son
[who shall be one] of the righteous. Where
upon We gave him the glad tidings of a mild
youth. And when he had attained to the
age when he could work with him (as some
say, seven years ; and some, thirteen), he said,
my child, verily I have seen in a dream that
1 should sacrifice theo (and the dreams of pro
phets are true ; and their actions, by the com
mand of God) therefore consider what thou
seest advisable for me to do. He replied, O
my father, do what thou art commanded:
thou shalt find me. if God please, [of tlie
number] of the patient. And when they had
resigned themselves, and he had laid him
down on his temple, in [the -valley of] Mind,
and had drawn the knife across his throat (but
it produced no effect, by reason of an obstacle
interposed by the divine power), We called unto
him, Abraham, thou hast verified the
vision. Verily thus do We reward the well-
ABRAHAM
doers. Verily this was the manifest trial.
And We ransomed him ivhoni he had been com
manded to sacrifice (and he was Ishmael or
Isaac ; for there are two opinions) with an
excellent victim, a ram from Paradise, the
same that Abel had offered: Gabriel (on whom
be peace I ) brought it, and the lord Abraham
sacrificed it, saying, God is most great / And
We left this salutation [to be bestowed] on
him. by the latter generations, Peace [be] on
Abraham ! Thus do We reward the well
doers : for he was of Our believing servants."
(Surah xxxvii. 97-111.)
" Remember when Abraham said, O my Lord,
show me how Thou will raise to life the
dead. He said, Hast thou not believed ? He
answered, Yea: but / have asked Thc.e that
my heart may be at ease. Ho replied. Then
take four birds and draw them towards thee,
and cut (hem in pieces and mingle together their
flesh and their feathers ; then place \ipon each
mountain of thy land a portion of them, then
call them unto ihee. : they shall come unto
thee quickly; and know thou that God is
mighty [and] wise. And he took a peacock
and a vulture and a raven and a. cock, and did
with them as hatli been described, and kept their
heads with him. and called them ; whereupon
tkc portions flew about, one to another, until
they became complete : then they came to their
heads." (Surah ii. 262.)
" Remember, when his Lord had tried Abra
ham by [certain] words, commands and prohi
bitions, and he fulfilled them, God said unto
him, I constitute thee a model of religion unto
men. Ho replied. And of my offspring con
stitute models of religion. [God] said, My
covenant doth not apply to the offenders, the
unbelievers among them. And when We ap
pointed the house (that is, the JCa l ba/t} to be
a place for the resort of men, and a .place of
security (a man would meet the slayer of his
father there and he would not provoke him [to
revenge],) and [said], Take, O men, the sta
tion of Abraham (the stone upon ivhich he stood
at the time of building the House) as a
place of prayer, that ye. inay perform, behind it
the prayers of the two rafruhs [which are or
dained to be performed after the ceremony]
of the circuiting [of the Ka bah], And We
commanded Abraham and Ishmael, [saying],
Purify my House (rid it of the idols) for
those who shall compass [it], and those who
shall abide there, and those who shall bow down
and prostrate themselves. And when Abra
ham said, O my Lord, make this place a
secure territory (and God hath answered his
prayer, and made it a. sacred place, wherein the
blood of man is not shed, nor is any one op
pressed in it, nor is its game hunted [or shot],
nor are its plants cut or pulled up), and supply
its inhabitants with fruits (which hath been
done by the transporting of at- faif from Syria
thither, when it [that is, the territory of
Makkah] was desert, without soivn land or
water, such of them as shall believe in God
and the last day. He mentioned them pecu
liarly in the prayer agreeably with the saying
of God, My covenant doth not apply to the
offenders. God replied, And J mu supply
ABBAHAM
ABU HANIFAH
him who disbelieveth : I will make him to
enjoy a supply of food in this ivorld, a little
while : then I will force him, in the. world to
come, to the punishment of the fire ; and evil
shall be the transit." (Surah ii. 118-120.)
" And remember when Abraham was raising
the foundations of the House (that I .v, build
ing it), together with Ishmael, and they said.
our Lord, accept of us our building; for
Thou art the Hearer of what is said, the
Knower of what is done. O our Lord, also
make us resigned unto Thee, and make from
among our offspring a people resigned unto
Thee, and show us our rites (the ordinances
of our worship, or our pilgrimage}., and be pro
pitious towards us ; for Thou art the Very
Propitious, the Merciful. (They begged Him
to be propitious to them, notwithstanding their
honesty, from a motive of humility, and by way
of instruction to their offspring.) O our Lord,
also send unto them (that is, the. people, of the
House) an apostle from among them (and God
hath answered their prayer by sending Muham
mad), who shall recite unto them Thy signs
(the Qur dn), and shall teach them the book
(the Qur dn), and the knowlege that it con-
taineth, and shall purify them from polytheism ;
for Thou art the Mighty, the Wise. And
who will be averse from the religion of
Abraham but he who makath his soul foolish,
who is ignorant that it is God s creation, and
that the worship of Him is incumbent on it ; or
who lightly csieemeth it and appfieth it to vile
purposes ; when We have chosen him in this
world a* o.n apostle and a friend, and ho shall be
in the world to come one of the righteous for
whom are high ranks ? And remember when
his Lord said unto him, Resign thyself: he
replied, I resign myself unto the Lord of the
worlds. And Abraham commanded his chil
dren to follow it (namely, the religion) ; and
Jacob, his children ; saying, O my children,
verily God hath chosen for you the religion
ofal-Islnni; therefore die not without your
being Muslims. It was a prohibition from
abandoning Islatn and a command to persevere
therein unto death." (Surah ii. 121-126.)
" When the Jews said, Abraham ivas a Jew,
uinl we are. of his religion, and the Christians
said the. like, [tho following] was revealed:
O people of the Scripture, wherefore do ye
argue respecting Abrabain. asserting that he
was of your religion, when the Pentateuch and
the Gospel were not sent down but after him
a long time? Do ye not then understand the.
falsify of your saying / So ye. O people, have
argued respecting that of which ye have
knowledge, concerning Moses and Jesus, find
have asserted that ye are of their religion :
then wherefore do ye argue respecting that
of vvhich ye have no knowledge, concerning
Abraham? But God knoweth his case, and
ye know if not. Abraham was not a Jew nor
a Christian : but he was orthodox, a Muslim
[or one resigned], a Unitarian, and he was not
of the polytheists." (Surah iii. f>8-60.)
ABSCONDING OF SLAVES.
Arabic Ibuq (jM). An absconded
male or female slave is called Abig, but an
infant slave who leaves his home is termed
?//, a word which is also used for an adult
slave who has strayed. The apprehension of
a fugitive slave is a laudable act, and the
person who seizes him should bring him be
fore the magistrate and receive a reward of
forty dirhams. (Hamilton s Hiduyuh, vol. ii
p. 278.)
ABSTINENCE. Arabic Tagwd
. Is very frequently enjoined in
the Qur an. The word generally applies to
abstinence from idolatry in the first instance,
but it is used to express a life of piety. An
excessive abstinence and a life of asceticism
are condemned in the Qur an, and tho Chris
tians are charged with the invention of the
monastic life. (Surah Ivii. 27.) As for th*
monastic /iff, they invented it themselves."
[MONASTICISM, FASTING.]
ABU ABDI LLAII (AIH.MS yt).
Muhammad ibn Isma IIal-Bukhjiri,the author
of the well-known collection of traditions re
ceived by the Sunnis. [BUKHARI.]
ABU ABDI LLAH AHMAD IBN
HANBAL
[HANBAU]
ABtT ABDI LLAH IBN ANAS
(u~rt e ^^ AlN.x*fty\). [MALIK.]
ABtJ ABDI LLAH MUHAM
MAD IBN AL-HASAN (dW ?\
( ^^\ tf A-^). Known as Imam
Muhammad. Born at Wasit, a city in Arabian
Iraq, A.H. 132. He studied under the great
Imam Abu Hani f ah. and had also studied
under Imam Malik for three years. He is cele
brated as one of the disciples of the Iniiim
Abu Hamfah, from whom he occasionally
differs, as ia seen in the Hidayah. HP died
at Rai, in Khurasan, where his tomb is still
to bo seen, A.H. 181).
ABU BA.KR (/> jt). Of the
origin of his name, thore are various explana
tions. Some think that it means the father
of the maiden," and that he received this
title because he wa.s the father of Ayishah,
whom Muhammad married when she was only
nine years old. His original name was Abdu
1-Ka bah (which the Prophet changed into
Abdu Hah) Ibn Abi Quhufah. He was the
first Khalifah, oi successor of Muhammad.
[SHTAH.J Muhammadan writers praise him
for the purity of his life, and call him as-
Siddiq, the Veracious. He only reigned two
years, and died August 22nd, A.D. 034.
ABU DA tjD (^U ,.1). Sulaiman
Ibn al-Ash as al-Sijistani ; born at al-Basrab
A.H. 202, and died A.n. 275. Tho compiler of
one of the six correct books of Sunni tradi
tions, called the Sunnan Abi Dd ud, which con
tains 4,008 traditions, said to have been care
fully collated from 500,000. [TRADITIONS.]
ABU HANlFAfI (0UN &**. yt).
Abu Hamfah an-Nu man ia the great Sunni
Imam and jurisconsult, and the founder of
8
ABU HURAIRAH
the Hanifi sect His father, Sabit, was a
lk dealer in the city of al Kufah, and
it is said his grandfather, Buta, was a nativ*
of -Kabul. He was bom at al-Kuf*h, A.H. 80
(A.D. TOO), and died at Baghdad, A.K. 150. Ifc
is regarded as the great oracle of Suntu juris
prudence, and his doctrines, with those ol his
disciplea, the Imam Abu Yusuf and the Imam
Muhammad, are generally received through
oat Turkey, Tartary, and Hindustan. It it.
related that Imam Malik said that the Imam
A.hu Hanifah was such a logician that, if he
vrere to assert a wooden pillar waa made of
, he would prove it by argument.
ABU HUfcAIRAH (S^yfc #\). One
uf the most constant attendants of Muham
mad, who from his peculiar intimacy has
related more traditions of ths sayings and
doings of the Prophet than any other indi
vidual. His real name is doubtful, but he
was nicknamed Abu Hurairah en account of
his fondness for a kitten. He embraced Islam
in the year of the expedition to Khaibar, A.H.
7. and died in al-Madinah, A.H. 57 or 59,
iged 78.
ABtT JAHL (J*. $\). An im-
placable adversary of Muhammad. His real
name was Ainr ibn Hishuin, but he was BUT-
named, by the Muslims, Abu Jahl, or the
Father of Folly." He is supposed to be
alluded to in the Qur an, Sfirah xxii. 8.~
" There is a ma^ who disputetb concerning
God without eituor knowledge or direction."
He was a boastful and debauched man, and
wa* killed in the battle of Badr
ABU LAHAB (^oJ #\). One of
iK j sous of Abi Muttalib, and an uncle tr,
M uham?nad. He was a most bilter enemy tc,
t he Pi phet, and opposed the establishment
of Tslion to the utmoat of his power. Hi-
name. was Abdu 1- Uzza, but he was surnamea
by Muhammad, Abu Lahab, The Father of
the Flame." When Muhammad received the
command to admonish his relations, he called-
thein all together, and told them he was a
warner sent unto them before a -grievous
chastisement. Abu Lahab rejected his mis
sion, and cried out, * Mayest thou perish 1
Hast ihou called us together for this ? " and
took up a stone to cast at him ; whereupon the
cxitb Surah of the Qur an was produced :
" Lee the hands of Abu Lahab perish, and
let himself perish !
His wealth and his gains shall avail him
naught.
Burned shall he be at a fiery flame,
And his wife laden with fire wood,
On her nock a rope of palm fibre."
Abu Lahab is said to have died of grief and
vexation at the defeat which his friends had
received at the battle of Badr, surviving that
misfortune only seven days. His body was
left unburied for several days.
2aid and Abu Lahab are the only relatives j
or friends of Muhammad mentioned by name
in the
AD
ABU L-HUZAIL ZUFAR IBN
AL.HUJZAIL (j>.^ ^ ^ j>^ ^>.
Celebrated as the Imani Zufar, and as a con
temporary and intimate friend of the great
\.ruam Abu Hanifah. Ho died at al-Baarah,
A.H. 158
ABU L-QASIM (,*-UK #\). " The
father of Qasira." One of the names of Mo
hammad, assumed on the birth of his son
Qasiin, who died in infancy [MUHAMMAD.]
ABUSIVE LANGUAGE is for-
bidden by the Muslim "law, and the offender
must be punished according to the discretion
of the Qazi. Abu Hanifah says : " If a person
abuse a Musaknan by calling him an ass or
u kog, punishment is not incurred, because
these expressions are in no respect defama
tory of the person to whom they are used,
jt being evident that he is neither an ass
nor a bog. But soroe allege that in our
times chastisement is inflicted, since, in the
modern acceptation, calling a man an ass
or a hog is held to be abuse. Others, again,
allege that it in esteemed only to be- abuse
when the person of whom it is said occupies a
dignified position." According to Abft Hanifah,
the greatest mirnbor of stripes that can be
inflicted for abusive language is thirty-nine.
(Hamilton s Hidayak, vol. ii. 78.)
Muhammad is related, to have said.
" Abusing a Muslim is disobedience to God,
and it is infidelity for anyone to join such an
one in religious warfare." (Mishkdt, xxii. 2.)
ABU TALIB (^VL f\). Muham
mad s uncle and guardian ; the father of
All. He is believed to have died aa he hau
lived, an unbeliever in the Prophet s mission:
but for forty years he had been his faithful
friend and guardian. He died in the third
year before the Hi j rah.
ABU UBAIDAH
AL- JAR RAH One of the Companions, who
was with the Prophet in all his wars, and
distinguished himself at the battle of Uhtid.
He was highly esteemed by Muhammad, who
made him one of the Asharah al-Mubash-
sharah, or ten patriarchs of the Muslim faith.
He died A.H. 18, aged 58.
ABCT YUSUF (oL-,> y t). Known
also as Ya qub ibn. Ibrahim Born at Bagh
dad, A.H. 118, Studied under the Lnarn Abu
Hanifah, and is celebrated, together with the
Imam Muhammad and the Imam Zufar, as
disciples of the great Imam ; from whose
opinions, however, the three disciples not un-
frequently differ, as will be seen upon refer
ence to the Hiddyah. He died A.H. 182.
AD (>Ve). A tribe located -to the
south of Arabia, to .which the prophet Hud ia
said to have been sent. See Qur an, vii. 63:
"And to Ad we sent our brother Hud,
my people, said he, worship God : ye
have no other god than Him : Will ye not
then fea. Him?
"Said tlie ""believing chiefs among bia
ADA
Vt certainly perceive that thon art
f mind ; and wo surely docm Ihce
an impostor.
He said, * O my people ! it. is not unsound-
ness of mind in mo, but I am an Apostle
from the Lord of the Worlds.
4{< The messages ot my Lord do J announce
to you, und I am your faithful counsellor.
" Marvel ye that a waitiing hath come to
you from your Lord through ono of yourselves
that He may warn you ? Remember how he
hath made you the successors of the people
of Noah, and increased you in tnllness of
stature. Remember then the favours of God.
that it may haply be well with you.
" They said, Art thou come to us in order
that we may worship one God alone, and
leave what our fathers worshipped? Then
bring that upon us with which thou threat-
eneat us, if thou be a man >f truth/
"He said. Vei.geance and wrath shall sud
denly light on you from your Lord. Do ye
dispute with me about names that you and
your fathers have given your idols, and for
which God hath sent you down no warranty ?
Wait ye then, and I too will wait with you.
And w delivered him, and those who
were on his side, by our mercy, and we cut
off, to the last man, those who had treated
our signs as lies, and who were not believers."
Also, Surah Ixxxix. 5 : if Hast thou not seen
how thy Lord dealt with Ad at Iram.
adorned with pillars, whose like haye not
been reared in these lands." [HUD, IKAM.]
ADA* (p\3\). Payment ; satisfac
tion completing (prayers, Sc.).
ADAM. Arabic, Adam (^). The
first man. Reckoned by Muslim writers as the
first .prophet, to whom ten portions of scrip
ture (s-ahifah) are said to have been revealed.
Re. is f ist: nguished by the title of $afiyu llab,
or, the " chosen one of God. * He is mentioned
in .the }ur iin in the following Surahs, which
*re taken from Mr. Lane s Selections (new
edition, by Mr. Stanley Lane-Pocle ; Triibner,
1879), with the commentary in italics :
u Remember, Muhammad, when thy Lord
said unto the angels, I am aboxit to place in
the earth a vicegerent to act for me in the
execution of my ordinances therein, namely,
Adam, they said, Wilt Thou place in it one
who will corrupt in it by disobediences, and
will shed blood (as did the. sons of El-Junh,
who were in it; where ore, when they acted
corruptly, God sent to them the angels, who
drove them away to the islands and the moun
tains ), when we [on the contrary] celebrate
the divine perfection, occupying ourselves with
Thy praise, and extol Thy holiness? There
fore we. are more worthy of the vicegerency.
God replied, Verily I know that which ye
know not, as to the affair of appointing Adam
vicegerent, and that among his posteiity will be
the obedient and the rebellious, :tnd the- just will
be manifest among them. And he, created
Adam from the surface of the earth, tnkinu a
handful of every colour that it comprised^ which
VMS kneaded with various water* ;, and he com-
ADAM 9
ptetely formed it, and breathed into it ike soul ,-
so it became an animated sentient btiny. And
he taught Adam the names of all things, in-
/using the knowledge of them into hts heart.
Then He showed them (namely, the ikmys) to
*be angels, and said, Declare unto roe the
names of these things, if ye say truth in y&w
assertion that I will not create any more knov)
ing than ye, and that ye are more worthy of the
Mcegerency. They replied, [ We evio] Thy
perfection 1 We have no knowledge excepting
what Thou hast taught ue ; for -Thou art the
Knowing, the Wise. -,God said, Adam, tell
them their names. And when he had told
them their names, God said, Did I not say
unto you that I know the secrets of the
heavens and the earth, and know what ye
reveal of your words, saying, Wilt thou place
in it, etc., and what ye did conceal of your
words, saying, He will not create any more
generous towards Him than we, -nor a^y inert-,
knowing ? " (Surah ii. 28-31.)
: We created you ; that is, your father Adam :
then We formed you; we formed him, and you
in him: then We said unto the angola, Pro
strate yourselves unto Adam,/>y way of salu
tation ; whereupon they prostrated them
selves, except Iblees, the father of the jinn^
who was amid the angds : lie was not of those
who prostrated themselves. God said, What
hath hindered theo from prostrating thyself,
when I commanded thee ? He answered, J
;im better than he : Thou hast created rue of
tire, and Thou hast created him Of earth.
[God] said, Then descend thoa from it ; thai
is, from Paradise ; or, as some, say, front tk&
heavens; for it is not fit for thee that thou
behave thyself proudly therein : so go thou
forth : verily thou shall be of the contempt
ible. He replied, Grant me respite until th
day when they (that is, mankind) shall be
raised from the dead* He t>id, Thou shall
be of those [-who are] respited : and, in another
verse [in xv. 38> it is said], until the day of
the known period ; that is, until theperiod of the
jirst blast [of the trumpet]. [And the davilj
said, Now, as Thou hast led me into error, I
will surely lay wait for them (that is, for the
sons of Adam) in Thy right way, the way that
leadeth to The-- : then I will surely come upon
them, from before them, and from behind
them, and from their right hands, and from
their left, and hinder them from pursuing the
way (but, faith Ibn Abbas, he cannot come
upon them above, test he should intervene be
tween the servant and God s mercy], and Thou
ahalt not find the great nxunbcr cf them
grateful, or believing. [God] said, Go forth
from it, despised and driven away from,
mercy. Whosoever of them (that is, of man
kind) shall follow thee, I will surely fill .
uell with you ail : with thee, and thy off
spring i and toith men. (Surah vii. 10-17.)
" And we said, Adam, dwell thou and
thy wife (Houuio [or Eve], whom God created
fron a rib of his left side) in the garden, and
eat ye therefrom plentifully, wherever ye
will ; bu approach v.e not this tree, to eat
thereof ; (and it was whea\,or the grape-vine,
or son.e other tree;) for if ye no xo t ye will bo
10
ADAB
of the number o/*the offenders. But the devil.
Iblees, caused them to slip from it, that is
from the garden, by Ms saying unto them, Shall
I show you the way to the tree of eternity ?
And he sware to them by God that he was one
of the faithful advisers to them ; so they ate
of it. and He ejected thorn from from that
state of delight in which they were. And We
said, Descend ye to the earth, ye two with the
offspring that ye comprise [yet unborn] , one
of you (that is, of your offering) an enemy
to another , and there shall be for you, in the
earth, a place of abode, and a provision, of
its vegetable produce, for a time, until the.
period of the expiration of your terms of life.
And Adam learned, from his Lord, words,
which ic ere these; Lord, we have acted
unjustly to oar own souls, and if Thou do not
forgive us, and be merciful unto us, we shall
surely be. of those who suffer loss. And he
prayed in these words ; and He became pro
pitious towards him, accepting hi* repentance ;
for He is the Very Propitious, the Merciful.
We said, Descend ye from it (from the garden}
altogether; and if there come unto you from
Me a direction (a book and an apostle), those
who follow my direction, there shall come no
fear on them, nor shall thej r grieve in the
world to come ; for they shall enter paradise :
but they who disbelieve and accuse our signs
of falsehood, these shall be the companions
of the fire: they shall remain therein for
ever." (Surah ii. 33-37.)
The Muhammadans say, that when they
were cast down from Paradise [which is in
the seventh heaven}, Adam fell on the isle of
Ceylon, or Sarandib, and Eve near Jiddah
(the port of Makkah) in Arabia ; and that,
after a separation of two hundred years,
Adam was, en his repentance, conducted by
the angel Gabriel to a mountain near Mak
kah, where he found and knew his -wife, the
mountain being then named fArafat; and that
ho afterwards retired with her to Ceylon.
Sale.
ADAB (v>^\). Discipline of the
mind and manners ; good education and good
breeding ; politeness ; deportment ; a mode
of conduct or behaviour. A very long section
of the Traditions is devoted to the sayings
of Muhammad regarding rules of conduct,
and is found in the Mishkdtu 1-MasabiJ.t under
the title Bdbu l-Adab (book xxii. M.atthew s
Mishkdt). It includes (1) Salutations, f2)
Asking permission to enter houses, (3) Shak
ing hands and embracing, (4) Rising up, (5)
Sitting, sleeping and walking, (6) Sneezing
and yawning, (7) Laughing, (8) Names, (9)
Poetry and eloquence, (10) Backbiting and
abuse, (11) Promises, (12) Joking, (13) Boast
ing and party spirit. The traditional sayings
on these subjects will be found under their
respective titles, flmu t-Adab is the science
of Philology.
ADIYAT (*^U). "Swift horses."
The title of the 100th Surah of the Quran, the
second verse of which is, "By the swift
chargers and those who strike fire with their
ADORATION
hoofs." Professor Palmer translates it
" snorting chargers."
AD IYATU L-MASURAH (l&*\
Sj9U^). "The prayers handed down
by tradition." Those prayers which were
said by Muhammad, in addition to the regular
liturgical prayers. They are found in diffe
rent sections of the traditions or A.li<idi&.
ADL (J^). Justice. Appointing
what is just; equalising; making of the
same weight. Ransom. The word occurs
twelve times in the Qur an, e.g.. Surah iv. 128,
4 Ye are not able, it may bo, to act equitably
to your wives, even though ye covet it."
Surah ii. 44, " Fear the day whereid no soxil
shall pay any random for another soul." Surah
ii. 123, <; And fear the day when no soul shall
pay any ransom for a soul, nor shall an equi
valent bc received therefrom, nor any inter
cession avail ; and they shall not be helped."
Surah ii. 282. Write it down/az M/u/fy . . .
then let his agent dictate Jaithjully.* Surah v.
105, " Let there be a testimony between you
when any one of you is at the point of death
at the time he makes his will two equitable
persons from amongst you." Surah vi. 69,
"And though it (soul) compensate, with the
fullest compensation it would not be accepted."
Surah v. 115, " The words of thy Lord are
fulfilled in truth unAjmtiw" Surah xvi., 78,
" Is he to be held uqual with him who bids
what is just, and who is on the right way?"
Surah xvi. 92, - Verily God bids you do
justice." Surah xlix. 8, ; * Make peace with
them with equity and be.yw.s-f." Surah Ixxxii.
8, 4< Thy generous Lord, who created theo and
moulded thee and disposed thee ariyht"
AL- ADL (JJN). One of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It signi
fies "the Just." It does not occur in the
Qur an as an attribute of the Divine Being,
but it is in the list of attributes given in the
Traditions. (Mishkdt., book x.)
ADN (o^)- The garden of Eden.
Jannata Adn. The. garden of perpetual
abode. The term is used both for the garden
of Eden, in which our first parents dwelt,
and also for a place in celestial bliss. [JAW-
VATU <ADN.]
ADOPTION. Arabic Tabannl
(or**)- An adopted son, or daughter,
of known descent, has no right to inherit
from his. or her, adoptive parents and their
relatives, the filiation of this > description
being neither recommended nor recognised by
Muhammadan law. Such son or daughter is,
however, entitled to what may be given under
a valid deed in gift or will. In this particular
the Muhammadan agrees with the English,
and the Hindu with the Roman law. (Tagare
Law Lectures, 1873, p. 124.)
ADORATION. The acts and
postures by which the Muslims express
adoration at the time of prayer are similar to
those tised by the ancient Jews (vide Smith s
Dictionary of the Bible, in loco), and consist of
ADULTERY
Ruku". or the inclination of the body, the
hands being placed on the knees ; and Sujud,
or prostration upon the earth, the forehead
touching the ground. [PKAYEK.] The ador<v
tion of the black stone at Makkah forms
an important feature in the ceremonies of the
pilgrimage. [IIAJJ.J
ADULTERY. Arabic zmff (*V*j).
The term zinff includes both adultery and
fornication, but there is a difference iu the
punishment for these offences. [FOHKICATTON.]
Adultery is established before a Qazi, either
by proof or confession. To establish it upon
proof, four witnesses are required. (Qur an,
Surah iv, 1.) When witnesses come forward, it
is necessary that they should be examined
particularly concerning the nature of the
offence. When the witnesses shall have borne
testimony completely, declaring that " they
have seen the parties in the vetu act of carnal
conjunction," the Qaxi passes sentence.
A confession of adultery must be made by
the person who has committed the sin, at
four different times, although, according to the
Imam ash-Shan 4 !, one confession is sufficient.
Some of the doctors hold that if a person
retract his confession, his retraction must be
credited, and he must be forthwith released.
At the commencement of Muhammad s mis
sion, women found guilty of adultery and for-
nioation were punished by being literally
immured Suratu n-nisa (iv.) 19, " Shut them
up within their houses till death release
them, or God make some way for them."
This, however, was cancelled, and lapidation
was substituted as the punishment for adul
tery, and 100 stripes nnd one year s banish
ment for fornication.
When an adulterer is to be stoned to death,
he should be carried to some ban-en place,
and the lapidation should be executed, first
by the witnesses, then by the Qazi, and after
wards by the by-standers. When a woman
is stoned, a hole or excavation should be dug
to receive her, as deep an her waist, because
Muhammad ordered such a hole to be dug
for (Xhandia.
It is lawful for a husband to slay his wife
and her pramvur, if he shall find them in
the very act. If a supreme ruler, such as
a Khaiifah, commit adultery, he is not subject
to such punishment
The state of marriage which subjects a
whoremonger to lapidation, requires that ho
be fret (i.e. not a slave), a Muslim, and one
who has consummated a lawful marriage.
It will be seen that Muhammadan law is
almot-t identical with the divine law of the Jews
with regard to adultery (Deut. xxiii. 22, Lev .
xix. 20): but the Mosaic penalty applied as
well to the betrothed as to the married
woman.
4 AFtr
11
daughter-in-law, granddaughter-in-law. Nor
can any man marry any who stand in any of
these relationships from fosterage. The mar
riage of two sisters at the same time is for
bidden, but the marriage of a deceased wife s
sister is allowed. Marriage with a deceased
brother s wife is very common in Muslim
countries, such marriages being held to be a
very honourable means of providing for a
brother s widow. The marriage of cousins i
also considered most desirable, as being the
means of keeping families and tribes together.
The passage of the Qur an on the subject of
affinity, is as follows (Surah v. 27) :
" Marry not women whom your fathers
have married : for this is a shame, and hate
ful, and an evil way : though what is past
(i.e. in times of ignorance) may be allowed.
* Forbidden to you are your mothers, and
your daughters, and your sisters, and your
aunts, both on the father and nlother s
side, and your nieces on the brother and
sister s side, and your foster-mothers, and
your foster-sisters, and the mothers of your
wives, and your step -daughters who are your
wards, born of your wives to whom ye have
gone in: (but if ye have not gone in unlo
them, it shall be no sin in you to marry
them ;) and the wives of your sons who pro
ceed out of your loins ; and ye may not have
fcwo sisters ; except where it is already done.
Verily, God is Indulgent, Merciful !
" Forbidden to you also are married women,
except those who are hi your hands as
slaves : This is the law of God for you. And
it is allowed you, beside this, to seek out
wives by means of your ealth, with wmodest
conduct, and without fornication. And give
those with whom ye have cohabited their
dowry. This is the law. But it shall be no
crime in you to make agreements over and
above the law. Verily, God is Knowing,
Wise!"
AFFINITY. Arabic Qarabah
The prohibited degrees (hurmalt) with regard
to marriages are as follows : Mother,
daughter, paternal aunt, maternal aunt, bro
ther s or sister s daughter, grandmother,
granddaughter, mother-in-law, step-mother,
AFFLICTION. Arabic fruen
ghamm (^). The benefits of affliction
are frequently expressed in both the Qu ran
and Traditions. For example : Surah ii. 150,
" We will try you with something of fear, and
hunger, and loss, of wealth, and souls and
fruit ; but give good tidings to the patient who.
when there falls on them a calamity, say,
Verily we are God s and veriiy to Him we
return. " This formula is always used by
Muhammadans in any danger or sudden cala
mity, especially in the presence of death.
In the traditions (see Mishkatu l-Masdbih),
Muhammad is related to have said, " A
Muslim ia like nnto standing green corn,
which sometimes stands erect, but is some
times cast down by the wind." * No affliction
Lefals a servant of God but on account of the
sins which he commits,"
AFSUN (ar-^). The Persian
term for Da icak or exorcism. [EXOIICISM.]
AFU (y^). Lit. " erasing, cancel
ling." The word is generally used in Muhain*
inadan books for pardon and forgiveness. It
12
AGENT
occurs eight times in the Qur an, e.g Surah
ii. 286, " Lord, make us not to carry what we
have not strength for, but forgive tis and par
don us and have mercy on ug." Surah iv
46, " Verily God/>ardon* and forgives.
At^Afu is one of the ninety-nine special
names of God. It means " one who erases or
cancels;", "The Eraser (of sins.)-" See Qur an,
Surah iv. 51.
AGENT. Arabic roakil (J^ ; ). One
legally appointed to act for another. For the
Muhaminadan law regarding the appointment
cf agents to transact business, or to negotiate
marriages, see Hamilton s JHiddyak, vol. iii.
p. 1; Baillie s Digest; Banifi Code, p. 75;
Imdmlyah Code, p. 29. The author of the
Hidayah says, u It is lawful for a person to
appoint another his agent for the settlement,
in his behalf, of every contract which he
might lawfully have concluded himself, such
as sale, marriage, and so forth ; " and he then
proceeds to lay down rules for guidance in
such matters at great length. A woman who
remains in privacy and is not accustomed to
go into Court, ought, according to the saying
of Abu Bakf, to appoint an agent and not
appear herself. A slave or a minor may be
appointed agent for a free man.
AL-AHAD O% " The One." A
title given to God. [NAMES OF GOD.]
AHADIYAE (&^). Unity, con-
oord. Al-Akadiyah is a term used by Sufi
mystics to express a condition of the mind.
completely absorbed in a meditation on the
Divine Unity. (See Abdu r-Razzaq s Dic
tionary of ike Technical Terms of the Sufis,
Sprenger a edition.)
AHQAF (t-As^) The name of a
tract of land in Sihr in Yaman, The title of
the XLVith Surah of the Qur an.
AHLU L-BAlT(c^Vj^) "The
people of the house." A term used in t>-(-
Qur an (Surah xxxiii. 33), and in the Hadj$
(Mithlcdt, xxiv. 21), for Muhammad s house
hold.
J*\). A
AHLU L-HAWA
visionary person ; a libertine?
" The people of the book." A term used
in the Qur an for Jews and Christians, as be
lievers in a revealed religion. Some sects of
the Shi ahs include the Majusi (Magi) nnder
this term.
AHMAD (.x**^). The name under
^vhich Muhammad prof esses that Jesus Christ
foretold his coming. Vide Qur an, Surah Ixi.
, "And remember when Jesus the son of
Mary said, children of IsraeU of a truth I
am God s /Vpostle to you to confirm the law
which was given before me, and to announce
an spostle that shall corne after nae, whose
name shall be Ahmad. " Muhammad had, no
doubt, heard that Our Lord had promised a
Paraclfetos (TrapaK\rjTO<z), John xvi. 7. This
title, understood by him, probably froin the
AL
similarity of sound, as equivalent to Periclytoa
(a-epf/fAwro<), he applied to himself with
reference to his own name Muhammad, the
praised or gltnifitd one. Muir thinks that in
somo imperfect Arabic translation of lh
Gospel of St. John, the word rapaKAijros
may have been translated Ahmad, or praised.
(Lift of Mahomet, vol. i 17.)
AHZAB OT^;. " Confederates."
The title of the xxxmrd Surah of the Qur an.
which is said to have been written when
al-Madinah was besieged by a confederation of
the Jewish tribes with the Arabs of Rfakkah.
A.H. 6.
AIYtTB (vjtf). [JOB.]
AJAL (v>^) The appointed time
of death, said to be ordained by God from
the first. Qur an, Surah xxxv. 44, "He
respites them until the appointed time.
When their appointed time comes, verily God
looks upon His servants." [DEATH.]
A JlE 0*^). A terra used in Mu-
hammadan law for a person hired for service.
AJNABI (xs*^). A foreigner;
any person not of Arabia.
AKELIR-I-CHAHAE-I-SHAMBAH
(&^A ^ usJJ). The last Wednesday
of the month of Safar. I* is observed as a
feast in commemoration of Muhammad s
having experienced some mitigation of his
last illness, and having bathed. It was the
last time he performed the legal bathing, for
he died on the twelfth day of the next
month. In some parts of. Islam it is cus
tomary, in th early moming of this day to
write verses of the Qur an, known as the
Seven Satuvfin (q.v.), and then wash off the ink
and drink it &B a charm against evil. It is
not observed by the Wahbabls. nor is its ob
servance universal in Islam.
AKHLAQ (o^). $he plural of
Khulq. Natures, dispositions, habits, manners.
The general term for books on morality,
e.g. Akhldq-i-Jalali, Akhldq-i-Muhsini^ the
name of a dissertation on Ethics by Husain
Wa iz Kashifl, A,H. 910, which has been trans
lated into English by the Rev. II G. Keene
(W. H. Allen & C5o.),
AKHtJND (^^T). A maulawi ; a
teacher. A title of respect given to eminent
j religious teachers. One of the most cele
brated Muhaminadan teachers of modern
tim*9 was the " Akhund of Swat," who died
A.D. 1875. This great religious leader resided
in the village of Sai<}u, in the district of
Swat, on the north-west frontier of India
AKHUNDZADAH (ao\j^). The
son of an Akhund. A title of respect given
to the sons or descendants of celebrated reh
giquf? teachers. [AKHUNP.]
AL (j^). Lit. "offspring, or pos
terity." Used in Muslim works for th* off
! spring 01 Muhammad
ALIM
AL-A LA (J^). "The Most
High." The title of the Lxxxvnth Sarah of
the Qur an, in the second verse of which
the word occurn : " The name of thy Lord th
Jlfost Hiyh is celebrated. "
4 ALAM (,U). A standard or
ensign. A term used for the flags and stan
dards paraded during the Muhanam. [MU-
1IARRAM, STANDARDS.]
ALAM (^). TIu; universe;
world ; condition, state of being.
Alamu l-arwdb . The world of spirits.
1 Alamu l-^alg . The world thin life.
Alamu f-bdqi . The future ."state.
Alamu l-cfzamnh . The highest heaven.
Alamu sh-shdhaduh The visible world.
Alamu l-ykaib . The invisible world.
Alamu Y-i o"M/ . The rational world
The four mystic stages of the Sufis are
Alamu n-ndsut . The present world.
Alamu l-malafcut . The statu of uugHs.
Alamu l-jabarut . The stain >( puwt-T
Wainn l-ldhut . The state of absorption
into the Divinity.
[8UFI1SM.]
ALAM AT (*Ufcp). The greater
signs of the resurrection. [ ALAMATU s
SA AH, RE8URKECTION.J
AL AMATU N -N U B W A H
(iu-jJt d>U^). - The signs of Pro
phecy." A term used for the supposed mi
racles and other proofs of the mission of
Muhammad. The title of a chapter in the
Traditions. (Mishkdt. xxi. c. vi.)
ALAMATU 3-SA AH (**>Wk
icUN). "The* signs of the hour,"
t>. the signs of the tiuio of the Resurrection
and of the Dav of Judgment. The title of a,
section of the Traditions. (Al-tshkvi, xxiii.
i. 3.) [RESURRECTION.]
ALAQ G^ic). "Congealed blood/
The titlo of the xcvrth Surah, the first five
v arses of which are generally allovrec} to be
the earliest portion of the Qur an.
AL-FATYDAK (U^). "The City."
A name sometimes used in the Hadis for
ftfiikkah.
ALCHEMY, Araliic Klmiyu,
(fttj^). According let the Kathfu
z-zunitn, in loco, learned Muslims are not
agreed as to the existence of this occult
science, nor are they of one opinion as to itft
lawfulness, even if it should exist.
ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
Mentioned in the mur iin aa Zu /-Qarnain, i.e.
Ho of the two UoniR with which he i*
represented on his coins. (Surah xviii. 62.)
He seems to have been regarded by Muham
mad as> one invested -with a divine commis
sion: "Verily \v^ y*tiMi5hed his power
upon earth "; but commentators are not agreed
whether to ansiarn to him tfa position of a
Prophet. L zu Vt
AL-HAMD (Wt). "Praise." A
title given to the first Surah, so caik-d tocnuse
its first word is Al-hamd. This chapter is
also called FaJiftfi/i, whitn uirni is used by
modern Muslims ior the Surak wuen it is said
for the benefit of (he dead, At-ltumd being
its moreuMual titlr [rATiUAn |
AL-HAMDV -LrLLAH (*iS j^*J\).
* Prise belongs to God." An ejaculation which
is called Takmid. and which occurs at the com-
/noneemont of the first, ol.aptnr of (ho Qur an.
It is used as an cjar n/atioii of thanksgiving
" Thank Ood 1 " It is veiy often recited with
the addition of RuM*i l- alfimin. " Lord of the
Uai verse. 5 * [TAHMU>.J
Ai.- ALI (J*l\). One of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It moarifl
44 The Exalted One.
ALI (<J^). The son of Abu
r falib, and a couain-^orman to Muhammad.
who adopted him as his son. He married
F&umah, the daughter of Muhammad. Arid
hid by her three sonSj Ha van, Husain!, ;ino
Muhastiin. He was the fourth Khalifah, and
reiifued fj om A.H. 85 to /..ir. +0. lie was
struck with a ppi.soned sword by Ibn Mttljam,
at al-Kufah, and diod after three daya.
aged fifty-nine years. The Fhrahs hold that,
on the death of Muhammad, Ah was entitled
to the Khalifate, and the respective claims of
Abu Bakr, Umar.and Usnian on the pne hand.
and of Ali on the other, gave rise to the
Shi ah schism. Ali is surnamed by the Arabs
Asadu lldh, and by the Persians Sker-i-
Kihuda, i.e. " The Lion cf <!nd." ffBI*Aa.1
ALIF. The letter Alif (\) ia a
monogram frequently placed at the head of
letters, prescriptions, &c. It is the initial
letter of the word Allah f&l)\, "God."
ALIF LAM MIM Th<> Arabic
letters ^N, corresponding to A L M t
which occur at the commencement of *ix
Surah*, namely Suratu 1-Baqaruh (n.). Suratu
Ali Iinrai; (in.;, ^uratu l- Ankabut (xxil.),
Surntu *r-Rum (xxx.), Suratu Luqmiin (xxu.),
and Suratu V-^jjdaL (\xxxii.j. Muhammad
uever explained the meaning of tiie.se myste
rious letters, rmd consequently ihcy aro a
fruitful scarce of perplexity to learned com
ineutators. JaliUu d-din gives an exhaustive
summary of the different views in hin Ilyan
(p. 470). Some suppose they rtand for the
words Alldit, "Aod"; Lutif, "gracious";
Afajld, glorious/ Others say they stand for
Ana lluhu a /awu, "I m the God who knoweth.
Others maintain that they wore not meant to
be understood, and that they weiv inserted
by the Diritie command without explanation,
in order to remind the reader that there wer<*
mysteries which his intellect would never
fathom.
ALU IMRAN (01,4* JT). "The
family of -Inn-fin." The title of the third
chapter of the Qur an,
ALIM C^^), pi. ulamd . A learner
14
AL- C ALIM
man. The term usually includes all religious
teachers, such as Imams, Muftis. Qazis, and
Maulawles ; and in Turkey it denotes the poli
tical party led by the religious teachers.
AL- ALIM >W\. One of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It fre
quently occurs in the Qur an, and means " The
Wise One."
ALLAH (*itt). [GOD.]
ALLAHU AKBAR (^\ aW).
God is great," or " God is most great. 1 An
ejaculation which is called the Takb v, . It-
occurs frequently in the liturgical forms,
and is used when .slaying an animal for food.
[TAKBTR.]
ALMSGIVING. The word gene-
rally used for alms is Sadaqah, or that which
manifests righteousness ; the word zakdt, or
purification,- being specially restricted to the
legal alms. [ZAKAT.] Scidaqdtu l-Fitr are
the offerings given on the Lesser Festival.
The duty of almsgiving is very frequently en
joined in the Qur an, e.g. Surah ii. 274-5.
What ye expend of good (i.e. of well-
gotten wealth), it shall be paid to you
again, acd ve shall not be wronged. (Give
your alms) unto the poor who are straitened
in God s way and cannot traverse the earth.
. . Those who expend their wealth by night
and by day, secretly and openly, they shall
have their hire with their Lord."
The following are some of the sayings of
Muhammad on the subject of almsgiving, as
they occur in the Traditions : " The upper
hand is better than the lower one. The
upper hand is the giver of alms, and the
lower hand is the poor beggar." " The best
of alms are those given by a man of small
means, who gives of that which he has earned
by labour, and gives as much as he is able."
Begin by giving alms to your own relatives."
Doing justice between two people is alms;
assisting a man on his beast is elms ; good
words are alms." "A camel lent out for
milk is alms ; a cup of milk every morning and
evening is alms." Your smiling in your
brother s face is alms ; assisting the blind is
alms." " God says. Be thou liberal, thou child
of Adam, that I may bo liberal to thee." (S*f
Mishkdt; Matthew s edition, vol. i. p. 429.)
ALWAH (cV^ r 1 - of
tables" (of the Law). Mentioned in the
Qur an, Surah vii. 142, * We wrote for him
(Moses) upon the Tables (al-Ah*a&) a monition
concerning every matter."
Muslim divines are not agreed a.s to th<-
n umber either of the tables, or of thy Com
mandments. The commentators JaUUaln say
they were either seven or tn. [TEN COM-
MANPMKKT8.]
AMAL-NlMAH (*~i J*e).. The
Persian" word for Scihtfatu 7-- i .vuz , or record
of actions kept by the recording angels.
fsAHIFATfT "b-A MAL, KtHAMU l.-XATlBIN .]
AMAN (c?^). Protection given
AMULETS
by a Muslim conqueror to those who pay
Jizyah, or poll tax. [JIHAD.]
AMB1YA (*Wt), pi. of Nate.
"Prophets." The title of the xxist Surah.
[PROPHETS.]
AMIN (a**. Hebrew
expression of assent used at the conclusion of
prayers, very much as in our Christian wor
ship. It is always used at the conclusion of
the Suratu 1-Fatihah, or first chapter of the
Qur an.
A 7/iMi," Faithful/ Af-Amin is the title which
it is said was given to Muhammad when
a youth, on account of hi? fair and honour
able bearing, which won th; confidence of the
people.
Amtnu l-Baft, one who wishes to perform
the piJgritm) ge to Makkah.
AMIN AH (**^). Muhammad s
mother. She was the wife of Abdullah, and
the daughter of Wahb ibn Abdi Manaf.
She died and was buried at al-Abwa, a place-
midway between Makkah uud al-Madloah,
before her .son claimed the position of a Pro
phet.
AMIR 0*^), Anglice, Emir, " A
ruler; a commander; a. chief: n nobloman."
It includes the various high offices in a Muslim
state; the Imam, or fthaltfah, bt-iui; styled
A mint *l~Umarff, the ruler of rulers; and
A tnirii V Mu mimn. the commander of the
believers.
AMIRU L-HAJJ (jWt^). The
hief of (he pilgrimage." The otrlcer in charge
of the piigrima to Mukkah. [ITAJ.I.]
AMTRU L-MU MiNlN ( ^\
( j^pA\). <k The Commander of the
Believers." A title which was first given Lo
Abdu llali ibn Jabsii after his exm-;<liuon to
Nuk.hlah, and which was afterwards assutadd
by the Khali fa he (first by s Umar) and the
Sultan* of Turkey. [KHAUFJJ&]
AMR IBN A L- ASt (^*^* ^ ;**).
One of the Companions,- celebrated for his
conquest of Syria-, Palest ine mul Egypt, in the
reigns ot Abu Bakr and Umar. He died
(accordux to an NaWawT) A.K. 13.
AMULETS. ^ Arabic ffama tt
(JIW-), fi anything- suspended " ;
7a*trfj. " A relume ; ffiiab. k< a rover.
Amulets, ahhovi^h of heathen origin, are
-ery Common in Mtthftmmadan countries. The
following are used as aumiets : (1) a small
Qur an, encased in silk or leather, and as-
peuded from the shoulder; (2) a chapter or
Verse of the Qvtr an written on paj-er and
folded in leather or velvet ; (?>) some of th
names of God, or the numerical power (see
ATM AD) of those names; (4) the namfts of pro
phets, celebrated saints, or the numerical power
of the same ; (5) the Muhammadan creed,
engraven on stone or silver. The chapters
of th Qur an generally selected for Amulets
are: Surahs i., vi., xviii., xxxvi., xliv., ly,.
AMULETS
ixvii.. lx\v;ii. Five verses known as the
Ayuiu 7-//7/Z, or " verses of protection." are
a .too frequently inscribed on Amulets. Thej
|V Sfirahs ii. 256 ; xii. 64; xiii. 12; xv. 17:
xxvvii 7. [AYATU L-IUFZ.]
These charms are fastened on the arm or
leg, OS- Husp^mU d round the neck, as a pro-
to. tkx: a^iinsr. evil.. They are also put on
houses sr;d animals, and, in fact, upon any
thing from which evil is to he averted.
Strict ly : according to the principles ot Islam,
only thfi names of GM!, or vorsnt from the
Quran, ^ould be U6.ul for amulets. Informa
tion rei jnlnsg the formation of magic squares
and a m u lots will bj found in the article, on
f X "-ci;?n3. f EXORCISM, OA WAH.]
ANGEL
15
AN AMULET OP THE ATTflTBUTK OP GOD IfiiflZ,
A. KHALI, <ifir?AN SUSPENDED A8 AN AMULET.
AL-AN AM < r WM). "The Cattle."
The litle of the vitb Surah, in verse 1X7 of
which some superstitious customs of the
Meccans. as tc certain cattle, are incidentally
mentioned.
ANANIYAH iMUV). From ana,
" I." "Egotism Al-ananiyoh is a term used
by thft Sufis to express the existence of man.
ANAS IBiV MALIK
The last of the Companions
of Muhammad, and the founder of the sect of
the Malikts He died at el-Basrah. A..H. i).S.
aged 108.
AL-ANFAL (JVtfM). " The Spoils."
The title of the viuth Surah which was
pCCAStooed by * dispute regarding the spoils
takf-nat the battle of Bn.dr, between the young
men who had fought and the old men who
had staved with the ensigns.
ANGEL. Arabic nial ak or malak
sXL. ) . Persian Firishta k (&**.* ) .
t; It is lielieved," says l.hn Majah. " that the
anguls are of a simple substance (created of
light), endowed with life, and ^per-cl,. :md
reason ; nnd that the dinY-rence het-.voen h- iu.
the Jinn, and Shait- ms is a diiTen--iife. of
riK i-ios. Know, he adds, "that tho .-ui^Is
are sanctified from carnal desire and ihc dij-
turbance of anger : thoy disobey not God in
what He hath commanded them, but do v/h.v
they are commanded. Tln^ir food is the colc-
brating of His glory : their drink, the pro
claiming of His holiness ; their conversation,
the commemoration of God, Whose nam<- be
exalted; their pleasure, Bi- worship, and
they are created in different forms mid with
different powers." (Arabian Nig/its. Lane <
edition, \otos to tho Introduction, p. 27.;
Foot of uhfMii are archangels, or, HP iJi-^,
are called in /Vrabie, Kfirublijiin (Cherubim),
namely, Jab, all, or Ji.t>ri/\ (Gabriel), the
angel of revelations; Mikail* or Mikal,
(Michael), the patron of the Israelites :
Isrd/l/. the angel who will sound the trumpet
at the- last day; and Izrall, or . AzratL
the angel of death. Angels are said tu be
inferior in dignity to human prophets, be
cause- all the angelx were commanded to
prostrate themselves before A- tam (Sui-ah ii.
32). Every believer is attended by two record
ing angels, called the Kiramu l-kdtibin, one of
whom records his good actions, and tne other
his evil actions. There are also two angels,
called Mnnkar and Naklr, who examine all
the dead in their graves. Tho chief angel who
has charge of hell is called Malik, and his
subordinates are named Zahani yah , or guards.
A more extended account; of these angels will
be found under their particular titles.
The angels intercede for man : >fc The
angels celebrate the praise of their Lord, and
ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth,
(Surah xiii. 3.J They also act as guardian
angels : ik Each hath a succession of angels
before him and behind him, who watch over
him by God s l>het. ? (Surah xiii. 12.) "Is
it not enough lor you that your Lord aideth
you with three thousand angels sent down
(from on high)?" (Surah iii. 20.) "He
is the supreme over His servants, and sendeth
forth guardians who watch over you, until,
when death overtaketh any one of you, our
messengers receive him and* fail not." (Surah
fi. 61.)
There are eight angels who support the
throne of God, " And the angels shall be on
its sides, and over them on that day eight
shall bear up the throne of thy Lord." (Surah
Ixix. 17.) Nineteen have charge of hell.
" Over it are nineteen. None but angels have
we made guardians of the fire." (Surwh Hxiv
30, 31.)
The names of the guardian angels given in
the book on Exorcism (da u ah), entitled the
Jawdhirv l-Khamsah, are Isrilfll, Jibni il, Kal-
ku il, Darda il, Durbu Il, Raftma il, Sharka Il.
Tankafil, Ismail, Sarakika Il, Kharura IK
Tatall, Ruvall, Hulall, Hamwukil, Itrall,
16
ANIMALS
l, -Ainrirtl, Awa fl, Mika !!, Mahkall,
Harta il, Ata il, Nnrai), NukhaU UXOR-
OI8M.]
ANIMALS. Arabic Hayawfln
{0V*). According to the Qur an,
Surah x*r*. 44, " God hath created overy
Animal of water." " An idea," says Rodwell,
** perhaps derived from Gen. i. 20, 21."
It \s believed that at the Resurrection the
irrational animals will be restored t Hfe, that
they may be brought to judgment, a t\ then be
fitraihilated. See^ Qur an, Surah vl 38,. * No
kiwi of beast is there on the earth, nor fowl
that tiieth with its wings, but is a comuannitv
like von : nothing have We passed over in thu
book (of the Eternal decrees; : then unto their
Lord anal)- t.hey be gathered."
AL-*ANKABQT (^y***^;. "The
Spider The title of the xxixth Surah,
in which there -is a passing- reference tp
this insect in the 4(Hh verse: "The like
ness for those who take to themselves guar
dians besides God is the likeness of the spider
who buildeth her a house; bat truly the
frailest of all houses surely is the house of
the spider
At-AJN$K ( jUS\). "The Helpers,"
term used for the dariy converts of al-
Madinah , but when all tbo citizens of al-
Madinah were ostensibly converted ta Islam,
they were all named Jntfdr, while those
Muslims wno accompanied the Prophet from
M akkahto al-Madinah were called Muk&jir&H,
or exiles. (Mnir s Life of Mahomet., vol iii.
p. 2fi.) [MUHAMMAD.]
ANTIOHBJST. ! MASUU; D-DAJ-
JAL.]
APOSTASY FROM ISLAM.
Arabic irtiddd (^^). According to
Muslim law, a male apostate, or Murtadd, is
liable to be put to death if he continue o bsti-
nate in his error ; a female apostate is not
subject to capital punishment, but she may
be kept in confinement until she recant.
(Hamilton s Bidayah, vol. ii. p. 227.) If
either the husband or wife apostatize from
the faitb bf Islam, a divorce takes place ipso
fertto ; the wife is entitled, to her whole dower,
but no sentence of .divorce is necessary. If
the husband and wife both apostatize together,
their marriage is generally allowed to con
tinue, although the Imam Zufar says it is
annulled. But if, after their joint apostasy,
either husband: or wife were singly to return
to Islam, then* the marriage would be dis T
solved. (Hamilton s ttidayah, vol. ii. p. 188.)
According to Abfi Hanifah, a male apostate
is disabled froth selling or otherwise dispos
ing of his property. But , Abu Yusuf and
Tmatn Muhammad differ from their master
upon this point, and consider a male apostate
to be as competent to exercise every right as
if h- were still in the faith. (Iliddyah, vol.
ii; p. 235
If a hoy under age apostatize, he is not
to -be put to death, but to be im^risoned.^ufttil
he come to lull age, when, if he continue m
the state of unbelief, he most be put tfo aeath.
Neither lunatics nor drtmkards are held to
be responsible for their apostasy from Islam,
(Hidayah, vol. ii. 246.) If a person upon com
putsion become an apostate, his wife is not
divorced, nor are his lands forfeited. If a
person become a Musalman upon compul
sion, and afterwards apostatize, he is not to
be put to death. (Uiddyaki vol. in. 467.)
The will of a male apostate is not valid, but
that of a it-male apostate ia valid. (Hidayah,
vol. iv. 637.)
Ikrimah relates that some apostates, were
brought totheKhalifah Ali,and he burnt them
alive , biit Ibn Abbas heard of it, and said
that the Khalifah had not acted rightly, for
the Prophet had said, " Punish not with God 8
punishment (i.e. fire), but whosoever changes
his religion, kill him with the sword/ (Sahiku
APOSTLE. Arabic rasul
/lawdri (t^)*-). The term rasiil
(apostle or messenger) is applied to Muham
mad, that of hawari being used in tho Qur an
(Surah iii. 4, 5; Surah iv. Ill, 112 ; Surah Jxi,
14) for the Apostles of Jesus. The word
fiiiwari seems to be derived from the ^thiopic
Iioru, ~ to go " ; hawaryd, * apostlie " ; although,
according.to al-Baizawi. the commentator, it is
derived from hawra, "to le white/ inSyriac,
fteuiai^ and was given to the disciples of Jt^sus,
be aays, on account of their purity of life and
sincerity, or because they were respectable
men and wore white garments. In the Tra
ditions (Miskkdt, book i. c. vi. part 2) kaweri
is use<i for the followers of all the prophets.
[PROPHETS.]
AL- AQABAH (M*N). A sheltered
glen near Mina ? . celebrated aa, the sc<sno of the
two pledges, the first nd second pledge of
al- Aqabh. The first pledge was made by ten
men of the tribe of Khawaj and ten of Aus f
when thoy plighted their faith TO Muhammad
thus : " We will not worship any but one
God ; we will not steal ; nor commit adul
tery ; nor kill our children ; nor wiU we
Hlamier our neighbour ; and we will obey the
Prophet of God. The date assigned to this
pledge by Sir W. Mnir is April .21, A.I>. 621.
Tbe second pledge was a few mouths nfter-
wards, when seT^nty-thrde men and two
women came forward, one by one. and took
an oath of fealty to the Prophet. Muhammad
named twelve of the chief of these men,- and
said : " Moses chose from auaongt-t his people
twelve leaders. Ye shall be sureties for tho
rest, eveu as were the Apostles of Jesus : and
t am surety for my people. And the people
answered, Awin, So be it." fMuirs Life of
Mahomet, vol. ii. pp. 216, 282.)
** A successor or
deputy. ;< One who comes last." Al- aqib is
a title giveri to Muhammad as being styled
" the last of the prophets.*
AQILAH (fl*te). The relatives
who pay the expiatory mulct for man
slaughter, or any other legal fine. They must
AQIQAH
be relatives descended from one common
father. (Hamilton s fficfnyah, vol. iv. pages
449, 452; Baillio s Law of Sale, p. 214.)
AQlQAH (&Ufc).- A custom
observed by the Arabs on the birth of a
child ; namely, leaving the hair on tho
infant s head until the seventh day, -when it in
shaved, and animals are sacrificed, namely,
two sheep for a boy and one for a girl. (Mish-
Jrfit, xviii. c. 3 ) It is enjoined by Muhammadan
law, and observed in all parts of Isliim.
AEABIA. Silcldu l- Arab (^
*r>,**\), Jazlratu I- 1 Arab (vyd\ *;*>*) >
Ardbisttin (yV^^ys). The peninsula
bearing, amongst the Arabs, these names is
the country situated on the east of tho Red
Sea, and extending as far as the Persian fiuJf.
The word probably signifies a " ban-en
place, " desert" (Heb. PQIV)-
T T
Ptolemy divides Arabia into three part?,
Arabia Petraoa, Arabia Felix, and Arabia
Deserta ; but Arabian geographers divide it
into TiJirirnnh, al~Hijaz, an-Najd, al- Ariiz,
and il-Y<unan.
The 7-aces which have peopled Arabia are
divided into three sections, al- Arabu l-Bai-
d(th, (fl-^Arabtt f l- e Aribah, and al- Arabu 7-
Mustafribah.
I. Al- Arabu 1-Bd idaJi, are the old "lost
Arabs," of whom tradition has preserved the
names of several tribes, as well as some me
morable particulars regarding their extinction.
This may well be called the fabulous period ol
Arabian history : but. as it has the sanction of
the Qur an, it would be sacrilege in a Muslim
to doubt its authenticity. According to
this account, tue most famous of the extinct
tribes wen; those of Ad, Samiid, Jadls, and
Tasm, all descended in the third or fourth
genei-ation from Shem. Ad, the father of his
tribe, settled, according to tradition, in the
Great Desert of al-Ahqaf soon nfter the con
fusion of tongues. Shaddud his son succeeded
him in the government, and greatly expended,
his dominions. He performed many fabulous
exploits; among others, he erected a magnifi
cent city in the desert of Adari, which had
been begun by his father, and adorned it with
a sumptuous palace and delightful gardens,
in imitation of the celestial paradise, in order
to inspire hit* subjects with a superstitious
veneration for him as a god. This superb
structure was built with bricks of gold and
silver alternately disposed. The roof was of
gold, inlaid with precious stones and pearls.
The trees and shrubs were of the same pre
cious materials. The fruits and flowers were
rubies, and on the branches were perched
birds of similar metals, the hollow parts of
which were loaded with every specier, of the
richest perfumes, so that every breeze that
blew came charged with fragrance from th<>
bills of these golden images. To this para
dise lie gave the name of Iram (see Qur an.
Surah Ixxxix. 6). On the completion o* all
this grandeur, Shaddad set out with a splendid
retinue to admire its beauties. But heaven
ABABIA
17
would not suffer his pride and impiety to go
unpunished ; for, when within a day s journey
of the place, they we re all destroyed by a
terrible noise from the clouds, As a monumei.t
of Divine justice, the city, we are assured,
still stands in the desert, though invisible.
Southey, in his Thalaba, has viewed this and
many of the other fables and superstitions of
the Arabs with tho eye of a poet, a pb; ; o-
opher, and an antiquary. According to at-
Tabari, this legendary palace was discovered
in the time of Mu awiyah, the first Khali f ah of
Damascus, by a person in search of a st- >y
camel. A fanciful tradition adds, that the
Angel of death, on being asked whether, in
the discharge of his duties, an instance hd
ever occurred in which he had felt some com
passion towards his wretched victims, ad
mitted that only twice had his sympathi^i
been awak^n^d -once towards a shipwrecked
infant, which had been exposed on a solitary
plank to struggle for existence with the winds
and waves, and which he spared ; and the
second Htno in cutting off the unhappy Shad-
dad at the moment when almost within view
of the glorious fabric which he had erected
at so much expense. No sooner had the
angel spoken, than n voice from heaven
was heard to declare that the helpless
innocent on the plank was no other than
Shaddad himself ; and that his punishment
was a just retribution for his ingratitude
to a merciful and kind Providence, which
had not only saved his life, but raised him
to unrivalled wealth and splendour. The
whole fable seems to be a confused tradition
of Belus and the ancient Babylon; or, rather,
as the name would import, of Benhadad, men
tioned in Scripture as one of the most famous
of the Syrian kings, who, we are told, was
worshipped by his subjects.
Of the Adites and their succeeding princes,
nothing certain is known, except that they
were dispersed or destroyed in the course of
few centuries by the sovereigns of al-Yaman.
The tribe of Samud first settled in Arabia
Felix, and on their expulsion they repaired
to al-IIijr, on the confines of Syria. Like the
Adites, they are reported to have been of a
most gigantic stature, the tallest being a hun
dred cubits high and the least sixty : and such
was their muscular power, that, with a stamp
of the foot in the driest soil, they could plant
themselves knee-deep in the earth. They
dwelt, the Qur an informs us, " in the caves of
the rocks, and cut the mountains into houses,
which remain to tbip day." In this tribe.it is
easy to discover the Thnraudeni of Diodorus,
Pliny, and Ptolemy.
The tribes of Tasm and Jadfs settled be
tween Makkah and al-Mad!nah, and occupied
the whole level country of al-Yaman, living
promiscuously under the same government.
Their history is buried in darkness ; and when
the Arabs wish to denote anything of dubious
; authority, they call it a fable of T.aBjn.
The extinction of these tribes, accord
j ing to the Quran, was miraculous, and a
! signal example of Divine vengeance. The
1 posterity of Ad and Ramfld hnd abandonee!
8
18
ARABIA
the worship of the trne God, arid lapsed into -j
incorrigible idolatry. They had, been chastised i
with .a threu years * drought, but their hearts
remained hardened. To the former was sent
the Prophet Hud, to reclaim them and preach
the unity of the Godhead. " O m-y people!
exclaimed the prophet, ask pardon of your
Lord j then turn unto Him with, penitence,
(and) HQ will send down the heavens upon
you with. copious rains, and with strength in
addition to your strength will Ho- iuerease r
you." Few believed, and the overthrow of
the idolaters was effected by a hot and suf
focating wind, that blew seven nights and
oight days without intermission, accompanied
with a terrible earthquake, by which their
idols were broken to, pieces, and their houses
thrown to the ground. (See Qur au; Surah vii..
68, xi. 63.) Luqinan,. ^ho, according to 80 me,
was a famous king of the * Adi tea, and who
Hved to the age of seven eagles, escaped, with
about sixty others, the common calamity.
These few survivors gave rise to tribe
called the Latter Ad ; but on account of tlieir
crimes they were transformed, as the Qur an
states, into asses or monkeys. Hud returned
to Hazramaut, and was buried in the neigh
bourhood, where a .small town, Qabr Hud.
still bcar.s his naisi". Among the Arabs, -Ad
expresses the same remote age that Saturn or
Ogyges did among the Greeks ; anything of
extreme antiquity is v,nid to be * 4 as old as
King Ad."
The idolatrous tribe of Samud had the
prophet Salih sent to them, whom IVHerbelot
makes the son of Arphaxad. while Bocnart
and Sale suppose him to be Peleg, the
brother of Joktan. His preaching had little
effect. The fate of the -Adit es, instead of
being a warning, or.ly set them to dig caverns
in the rocks, whore they hoped to escape the
vengeance of winds and . tempests. Others
demanded a sign from the prophet in token of
his mission. As a condition of then belief,
they challenged him to a trial of power,
similar to what took place between Elijah
and the -priests of Baal, a,nd promised to
follow the deity that .should gain the. triumph.
From a certain rook a camel big with young
was to come forth in their presence. The
idolaters wor.e foiled ; for on Salih s pointing
to the spot, a she-camel was produced, with a
young one ready woancd. This miracle
wrought eoriviction in a few ; but the rest, far
from believing, hamstrung the mother, killed
her miraculous progeny, and divided the
tiesh among them. This act of impiety sealed
their doom. * And a violent tempest overtook
the wicked, and they .were found prostrate on
their breasts in their abodes." Qur an,
Surah vii. 71, xi. 64.)
The tribes of Jadls and Tusm owe then-
extinction to. a different cause. A certain
Jespot, a Tasmite, but sovereign of both tribes,
had rendered himself detested by a voluptuous
j;iw claiming for himself a priority of right
over all the bride * jf the .fadlsites. This
insult w;n not lu b* % toforated. A conspira<y
was I oniHvt. i le fcmg and his chiefs were
t<) .MI mtprtarninont. The avengers
ARABIA
had privately hidden their swords in the
sand, and m the moment of mirth and fes
tivity they foil upon the tyrant and his
retinue, and finally extirpated the groater
rJart of liis subjects.
3J. The pure Arabs are those who claim
to be descended from Joktan or Qaht.im. whom
the present Arabs regard as their principal
founder. The members of this genuine
stock are styled al- Arahw VAribsvh, tbc
genuine Arabs. According to their genealogy
of this patriarch, his descendants formed two
distinct branches. Ya rub, one of his sons
founded the kingdonrof nl-Yoman, and Jxu-hum
that of al-Hijax. These two are the only aons
spoken of by the Arabsi Their names do not
uccur in Scripture ; but it has been conjec
tured that they were the Jerah and Hadorain
mentioned by-Mcsofi as among ihe thirteen
planters of Arabia (Gen. x. 1 G).
In the division of their nation into tribe*
the Arabs resemble the Jews. From an early
era they have regained the distinction of sepa
rate, and independent families. This partit ion
was adverse to the consolidation of power or
political influence, but it furnishes onr chief
guide into the dark abyss of their antiquities.
The posterity of Ya rub spread and nmlti
plied into innumerable clans. >%>w ctessi<n
rendered now subdi visions necessary. In the
genealogical tables of Sale, Gagnier. ami
Saiyid Ahmad Khan, arc enuincr;ited nearly
three-score tribes of genuine Arabs, many of
whom became celebrated long before the time
of Muhammad, and some of them retain their.
names even at the present day.
III. The Aralu i-Mtut&ribah, tlie mixed
Arabs, claim to be descended from Islimael
and the daughter of al-Muzaz, King of
al-Hij?iJ5, whom be took to wife, and was of the
ninth generation from Jurhum, the founder of
that kingdom. Of the Jurhumites. till the
time of Ishmael, little is recorded, except the
names of their princes or chiefs, and that
they had possession ,of the territory of ! Hijn/
But as Muljamuiad traces his descent to this
alliance, the Arabs have been moro than
asxially careful to preserve and adorn hi.s
genealogy. The want of a pure ancestry is,
in thei" estimation, more than- compensated
by the dignity of so sacred a connexion ; for
they boast as much an. the Jews of being
reckoned the children of Abraham. This
circumstance will account for .the preference
with which they uniformly regard this branch
of their pedigree, and for the many -romantic
legends thev have grafted upon it. It is not
improbable that the old giants and idolaters
suffered an imaginary extinction to make way
for a more favoured race, ami that Divine
chastisements always overtook those who
dared to invade their cou.secratod terri-
The Scripture account of the expulsion und
Icstiny of tins venei-ated progenitor of the
Arabs is brief, but simple :tnd affecting.
Isum-iM*! Avasj the ^n of Abraham by Hagar,
in Egyptian al^ve. When fourteen years of
ige, hq was ..supplan^d in the hopes and
affections of his father by the birth of Isaac.
ARABIA
ARABIA
19
through whom the promise* were to descend ;
This event made it nec-essary to remove the I
unhappy fcnjale and her child, who were
accordingly ent forth to seek their fortune
in some of the surrounding unoccupied dis-
A small snpply of provision*, *nd
of water on her shoulder, \vj .ill she
carried from the teut of her muster Direct
ing her steps towards her native country, she
wandered with the lad in the wilderness of
Beer-feheba, which was destitute of springs.
Here her utotk failed, and it seemed irupos
Sible to avoid perishing by hunger or thirst.
She resigned herself to her melancholy pro
spects, but the feelings of the mother were
more acute than th agonies of want and
despair. Unable to witness her sons death
she laid him under onr- of the shrubs.
took an affecting leave ol him. and retired
to a distance. - And he went, wl sat
her down over against him. u good way ff
a.s it were M bow-^i,nt ; for she said. Let
we not nee the death of the child. And she
sat ovor against him. ;<nrl liftod tip her voice
and *ept. (f-M-.n. xxi lllj At this moment
au angel directed her to a well of water
close at hand. a discovery to which they
owed the preservation of their live*:. A pro
mise formerly given was ivrvwed. that
sh mael wa* to become a great nation that
he was to be a wild man his hand against
every man, ami every man s hand against him.
The travellers continued their journey to Ihc
wilderness of P:ran. and there took up their
residence. In due time the lad grew to man
hood, and greatly distinguished himself as an
archer, and his mother took him n wile out of
her own land. Here the sacred narrative
breaks off abruptly, the main object of Moses
being to follow the histojfy of Abraham s
descendants through the line of Isaac. The
Arabs, in their version of Ishmael s history,
have mixed a great deal of romance with the
narrative of Scripture. They assort thnt
al-lliji? w.is the district where he settled, and
that Makkali, then an arid wilderness, was the
identical spui whore his life was providentially
saved, and where Hiigar died and was buried.
The well pointed <mt by the wngel. they be-
lievo to be Die famous Zani?ani. of which all
pious Muslims drink to Ibis day. They
make n allusion to his alliance with the
Egyptian woman, by whom ho had twelve
sons (Oen. xxv. 12-18), the chiefs of as many
nations, and (be possessors of separate towns;
but us polygamy was common in his age aud
country, it is not improbable he may have
bad more wivus than one
It was, *ay they, to commemorate the
miraculous preservation of Ishirmcl that (od
commanded Abraham to build the Ka -bah.
and his son to furnish the necessary
materials.
Mul.amniiiduii wnte.rs give tlie following
ncvuiiut of Ishmael and bis descendants :
liibmael was < onstituted the prince and first
high priest of Makknh. awl. during half a
ceniury hf preached lo the incrediilras Arbs
At his deaili, which happened lorty eight
years after ih of A Urn him. :md >n \\w l-)7th
of his age. he was Juried in (he lomb ol his
mother Hagar. Between the erection uf the
Ka bah nd the birth of Iheir Prophet, the
Arabs reckon about 2,740 years. IshrnaeJ
was Micceedvii in th< ro^al niwi iaf:erdotal
oAicc by his -ldost son Nebai. nlthongh the
pedi^ivc of Muhammad is lr*l from Kedar.
a yoongfli brother. Hut his t/imily did not
lonf enjoy thi loub|p authority , lor, in pro
gress of time, the J-urhuinitc* sei^od the go
vernment and Ihe guart|i:inship of the temple,
which they maintained itbont 300 years
These last, again, having corrupted rhf true
wofih)p, were assailed, as a punishment of
their crimes, first by the scimitars of the
UhnjHclilcs. who drove their from Makknh,
nd then by divers uittlanicB. by which
the whole race linally perished. Before
quitting Makkah. however, they committed
every kind of sacrilege and indignity. They
tilled up the Zamzain \vell, after having
thrown into it the treasures and sacred
utensils of the temple, the black ttone, the
swords and cuirasses of Qala ah. the two
golden gazelles presented hy one of the
kings of Arabia, the sacred image of the ram
substituted : for Isaac, and all the precious
mo*;ible$, forming at once the object and
the workmanship of a superstitious dovo-
tiou. F<>r sever J centuries the posterity
of IshmaH kept possession of the &ut>rcme
lignily.
Thtf follow ing HJ the li5t ol chiefs who
are said to have ruled (he Hijaz. and to have
been the lineal ance*tor9of Muhammad, as far
as *Atinan :
A.D. 534 -Abdu Hah, the father of Muhammad.
505 -Abdu 1 Mu Ma lib
47*2 Hashim
439 Abd Mttu-tf
106 Qus.iiy.
373 KiWb,
340 Murrah.
Ji07 Kaab.
27 1 Luw/iiy.
241 Ghalib.
208 Fihr or (>ui jUh.
I7"> Mnlik.
142 an-Na?r.
100 Kinannh.
7<"> Kb u / mm a) <
43 Mutrikah.
10 al-Ya s.
B.C 23 Mur.ar.
56 Ni/.ar.
80 Ma add.
122 -Adum
The period between Ishmael and Adnun is
variously estimated, some reckoning forty,
others only seven. gnei :Uions. The authority
of Abu l-Fidii, who makes it ten, is that gene
rally (allowed by tlit* Arabs, beiiiK founded on
a tradition of one of Muhammad s wives.
Making every allowance, however, lor pwfi i
arehal longevity, even forty generations aro
insulliripui to extend over a spar* at nearly
A500 yeraiH. From Adnan In WuharjoiH
the ^enealovy is coiisiderofl certain, -ompre-
hending twenty-one genera I IOIIK, and nearly
20
ARABIC
160 different tribes, all branching off from
the same parent stem.
(See Abu l-Fida; Gagnier s Vie de Maho
met ; Pocock, SfiKcim. Arab. Hist. ; Saiyid
Ahmad Khan s Essays; Sale s Koran, Prelim*
Die ; Crichton s Hist. Arabia.}
ARABIC. Lisdnu-l- Arah ; Lu-
qhatu l- ( Arab. The classical language of
Arabia is held to be the language of the
Qur an, and of the Traditions of Muhammad,
md by reason of its incomparable excellence
is called &j&\ cd-lurjhah, or "the language."
( See Qur an, Surah xvi. 105, " They say, Surely
<i person teacheth him [i.e. Muhammad]. But
the tongue of him at whom they hint is
foreign, while this [i.e. the Qur an] is plain
Arabic.")
This classical language is often termed, by
the Arabians themselves, the language of
Ma add, and the language of Muzar, and is
a compound of many sister dialects, very
often differing among themslelve*, which
were spoken throughout the whole of the
Peninsula before the religion of Muhammad
incited the nation to spread its conquering
armies over foreign countries. Before that
period, feuds among the tribes, throughout
the whole extent of their territory, had pre
vented the blending of their dialects into one
uniform language ; but this effect of disunion
was counteracted in a great measure by the
institution of the sacred months, in which all
acts of hostility were most strictly interdicted,
and by the annual pilgrimage, and the yearly
fair held at Ukaz, at which the poets of the
various tribes contended for the meed of
general admiration.
Qatadah says that the Quraish tribe used to
cull what was most excellent in the dialects
of Arabia, so that their dialect became the
best of all. This assertion, however, is .not
altogether correct, for many of the children
of the tribe of Quraish, in the time of Muham
mad, were sent into the desert to be there
nursed, in order to acquire the utmost
chasteness of speech. Muhammad himself
was sent to be brought up among the tribe of
Sa d ibn Bakr ibn Hawuziu, descendants of
Muzar, but not in the lino of Quraish ; and he
is said to have urged the facts of his being a
Quraish, and having also grown up among
the tribe of Sa d, as the grounds of his
claim to be the most chaste in speech of the
Arabs. Certain it is that the language of
Ma add was characterised by the highest degree
of perfection, copiousness, and uniformity, in
the time of Muhammad, although it after
wards declined.
The language of the Qur an is universally
acknowledged to be the most perfect form of
Arabic Speech. At the same time we must
not forget that the acknowledged claims of the
Qur an to be the direct utterance of the
Divinity have made it impossible for any
Muslim to criticise the work, and it has be
come the Standard by which other literary
compositions have to be judged, (See Lane s
Introduction to his Arabic Dictionary, am
Palmer s Qur dn.)
AL-A RAF
ARABIC LEXICONS. The first
Arabic lexicon is that which is generally
ascribed to al-Khalil, and entitled Kitiibu l
Ain. The following are the most celebrated
Arabic dictionaries composed after the l Ain.
The Jamharah, by IbnDuraid, died A.H. 321.
The Tahzlb, by al-Azhari, died A.II. 370.
The Afvfttg, by the $ahib Ibn Abbfid, died
A.H. 385.
The Mujuial, by Ibn Faris ; died A.TT. 395.
The Sifrak, by al-Jauharl, died A.H. 398.
The Jd/iii l , by al-Qazzaz. died A.H. 412.
The Mu ab, by Abu Ghalib, died A.H. 436.
The Mufrkam, by Ibn Sldah, died A.H. 458.
The Asds, by a?-Zamakhshari, died A.H.
538.
The Afuffhrib, by al-Mutarrm, died A.H.
610.
The Ubdb, by aS-Sagham, died A.H. 600.
The Lisdnu l- Arab,by Ibn Mukarram,died
A.H. 711.
The Tah-zibu t-Taf&ib, by Mahmud at-
Tanukhi, died A.H. 723.
The Afi$bdh, by Ahmad ibn Muhammad
al-Faiyumi, compiled A.H. 734.
The Afurjhni l-Labib, by Ibn Hisham, died
A.H. 761.
The Qdmm, by al-Fairuzabadi, died A.H.
816.
The Sifrdtt (says Mr. Lane in his Preface
to his Dictionary), is among the books of
lexicology like the gahih of Al-BMarl
amongst the books of traditions; fo.rthe point
on which turns the title to reliance is not the
copiousness of the collection, but the condi
tion of genuineness and correctness.
Two well-known dictionaries, compiled in
modern times in Hindustan, are the Gftiydsu 7-
Luyhat. by Maulawi G_hiyaSu d-din of Rain-
pur, and the Afuntaha. l- Arab, by Abdu r-
Rahlm ibn Abdu 1-Karim of Saflp.ur. These
are both Arabic and Persian lexicons.
The Arabic-Latin dictionary of Jacob
Golius, waa printed at Leyden, A.D. 1653;
that of Freytag at Halle, A.D. 1830-35.
The Arabic-English and English-Arabic
dictionaries extant are
Richardson s Persian- Arabic-English, A.D.
1777.
Richardson s English-Persian-Arabic, A.D.
1810.
Francis Jehnson s Persian-Arabic-English,
A.D. 1852.
Catafago s Arabic-English and English-
Arabic, new edition, 1873.
Lane s Arabic-English, A.D. 1863 to 1882,
imperfect.
Dr. Badger s English-Aribic, A.D. 1881.
Dr. Steihgass s English- Arabic, A.D. 1882.
(u>\j&\). (1) The
partition between heaven and hell, described
in the Qur an, Surah vii. 44, Betwixt the two
(heaven and hell) there is a partition ; and on
al- A raf are men who know all by their marks ;
and they shall cry out to the inhabitants of
Paradise, Peace be upon you i (but) they
have not (yet) entered it, although they so
desire. And when their sight is turned towards
the dwellers in the Fire, they say, O our Lord,
ARAFAH
place us not with the unjust people. " Accord
ing to Sale, al-A rafia derived from the verb
ara/bt, \vhi<-h signifies u to distinguish between
things, or to p&rt them"; though some com
mentators give another reason for the imposi
tion of this name, because, say they, those who
stand on this partition will know and distinguish
the blessed from the damned hv their respec
tive marks or characteristics : and others say
the word properly intends anything that is
eleoated, as such a wall of separation must
be supposed to be. Some imagine- it to
bo a sort of limbo for the patriarchs and pro
phets, or for the martyrs and those who have
been most eminent for sanctity. Others
place here those whose good and evil works
are so equal that they exactly counterpoise
each other, and therefore deserve neither
reward nor punishment ; and these, say they,
will on the last da 3 be admitted into Paradise,
after they shall have performed an act of
adoration, which will be imputed to them us
a merit, and will make the scale of their good
works to preponderate. Others suppose this
intermediate space will be a receptacle for
those who hare gone to war, without their
parents leave, and therein suffered mar
tyrdom ; being excluded from Paradise for
their disobedience, and escaping hell because;
they are martyrs. (2) The title of Surah vii.
(3) A term used by Sixfi mystics to express
a condition of the mind and soul when medi
tating on the existence of God in all things.
ARAFAH (&/0- The vigil of the
Idu 1-Azha, or Feast of Sacrifice", when the
pilgrims proceed to Mount Arafat. [ IDU
L-AZHA.]
ARAFAT (*>U,ft), or Am/ah.
The " Mount of Recognition," situated twelve
jnilesi from Maltkah; the place where tho
pilgrims stay on the ninth day of the pil
grimage, and recite the mid- day and after
noon prayers, and hear the Khutbah or
Sermon. Hence it is a name giyen to the
ninth day of the month Zu 1-Hijjah. Upon
the origin of the name given to this mountain,
Burton says, " The Holy Hill owes its name
to the following legond : When our first
parents forfeited heaven for eating wheat,
which deprived them of their primeval purity,
they were cast do\vn upon earth. The ser
pent descended upon Ispahan, the peacock at
Gabul ; Satan at Bilbays (others say Senrnan
or Seistan), Eve upon Arafat, and Adam at
Ceylon (Sarandib). The latter, determining
to seek his wife, began a journey, to which
the earth owes its present mottled appear
ance. Wherever our first father placed his
foot, which was large, a town afterwards
arose ; and between the strides will always
be country. Wandering for many years, he
came to the Mountain of Mercy, where our
common mother was continually calling upon
his name, and their recognition of each other
gave the place the name of Arafuh."
ARAZI GJ*^). Lit. "lands"; the
sale of lands. Tombs are not included in the
sale of lands. A place or atation for casting
ARCHITECTURE
21
the harvest is not considered to bo amongst
the rights and advantages of land, and there
fore does not enter into the sale of it.
(Baillie s Law of Sale, pages 54, 55.)
[LAND.]
ARCHITECTURE. The term Sara
cenic is usually applied by English writers to
Muhammadan architecture. But though the
style may be traced to the Arabians, they
cannot themselves be considered the inventors
of it. They had, in fact, no distinctive style
of their own when they made their rapid con
quests, but adapted existing styles of archi
tecture to meet the religious and national
feelings of the Muslims.
Muhammad built a mosque at al-Madinah,
but it was an exceedingly simple structure,
and he left no directions in the Qur un or in
the Traditions on the subject.
The typical varieties of the earlier Muham-
madan architecture are those which appeared
in Spain and in Egypt ; its later form
appeared in Constantinople. The oldest
Specimen of Saracenic architecture in Spain is
the mosque of Cordova, which MOW serves as
the cathedral of tho city. It was commenced
by the Khalifah Abdu r-Rahmtn, 78(> A..D.
IN THE SANCTUARY OP THE CATHEDRAL OF
CORDOVA.
with the avowed intention that it should bo
the finest mosque in the world, and Byzantine
architects are said to have been specially
invited to superintend its construction.
The earliest of the Muhainmedan buildings
in Egypt, of which any portions still remain, is
the Mosqua of <Amr at old Cairo, begun
about A.D. 642, but greatly altered or rebuilt
about sixty years later.
On the capture of Constantinople, St. Sophia
was converted by the Muslim conquerors into
their chief Mosque, and made their architec
tural model. The older Saracenic style, as
seen at Cordova and old Cairo, continued to
be the basis of tho new, bxit it was modified
throughout by Byzantine influence. In Persia
22
ARCHITECTURE
\v.e may clearly trae in Mnhammndan bniW
the older Persian type, And in India
IN S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE.
the Saracenic architects showed the same
pliancy in adopting the styles of the various
peoples amongst whom they settled. It thus
happens (says Fergusson, in his History of
Indian Architecture), that we have at least
twelve or fifteen different styles f Muhanv
madan architecture in Central Asia and in
India.
ARCHITECTURE
almost to apparent uisoeunry*, but owing to
the style of the fmtwHishnier.t. this lightness
IN THE I AJ M \11ALL, AGRA.
A Mi-iking and distinctive feature in early
Muhamraadan architecture- is the horse- shoe
arch, which in time gives way to n rasped or
scalloped arch, strictly so termed, the outline
being produced by intersecting semi arches.
Another variety of Saracenic arch is the cir
cular-headed and stilted form. The pillars arc
commonly of exceedingly slender proportions,
IN TUK MOTI MASJItt, AGRA.
oi particular forms Kinds to heighten the
general luxuriance Some have imagined that
Hits element of slenderness in regard to
pillars indicates a tent, origin rtf the style.
This tout -like character has been further kept
up by roncwvr cfihugs and cupolas, embla-
. .cmed with painting anil gilding 1 . LVeorationH
couiposed of journal ojul human figures,
interdicted by Mubaminadun law
ate not found in Saracenic arcbilecfuir
but their geometrical patterns exhibit sin
gular bennty and complexity, inexhaustible
variety uf r oniluu^li ms, aiifl a w wilder fnl
degree ul hainioinous intricacy, arising out of
very simple elements. Lattice or open trellis
EARLY PATHAN STYLE IN THE QUTB BUILDINGS
AT DELHI.
work is another fertile source of tin bell ish
ment, and is similar to the tracery met with
in Gothic buildings. Another characteristic
of Saracenic style is that of the dome. For
the most part domes occur in iiio*<|iies and
tombs, and ar< of Byva ntine origin. Minarets
are also ? special feature in Muhftiuinadan
mosques, and contribute much to (Le pu>-
turesqueness of these buildings. They are
4 ART YAH
found in Tno~qnes ol the Uter Sftraeenic si.ylc.
(See Fen?tiisson s Indian and Eastern Arckitt.c-
IX A KOl SE TN PBSHAAVAH,
. Mr Owen Jnf"> i Athtunbrfi AW*Y. Tfer-
AKlYAH (*i/0. A \md of sale
permitted in Islam, namely, wh on a persoi-
computer what quantity of fruit there its on a
tree and .-oils it before it is plucked. (Mi*h-
ktit. xii e. \,)
AKlYAH (*. (1) A loan, for
ttio u. j " of anything of which f&irz c?mnor i>c
made: .//. the. loan of a horse \R -Art.)-i/>:
the loan of money is (^atz. (2) A #ift. of
vl ifh th - fol lowing is an example: A person
rrmk"s -,\ ^ift to another of the tbttes , t >
palm-tree m his ^arrli-n; but having after
wards somo doubt of the propriety of that
person coining laily to hi, garden v II.M-,
his family xisualiy :iv, and being. ;it the
aamo time unwilling li> depart t roaj his
promist, v to r-tr:iot his Kift, he f/ivos
some ol tli- rlatc^ h ; ;t have already boon
pulled in lieu of thone upon the tree.
(BaiUio s IMW of .S/.-A . p SOO )
AR.K, ISOAH S ( C y tUi). It i^
mentioned i; th. !i-tory of the Delude, as
recorded in the \>ui ;in. in tw> places- Suruh
xi. 3i>, -Bnildthe >!:< under oni ,-< j>i>d after
our revelation," and hin.ih \\iii 27. There
is also supp.)H*ri to IT an allusion to ti. ;ul
in Surjih xxxvi. -U . " And a i^n t: *hm i-
that \v(j bare the,iv nifAprii^ in the l:iden ship.
AI-ltii/uNvi s;i/s that Noah -./;s tw> years
linilding the ark. Mwhicli \\.- JifX* ctii>it - 1< n
5() vitlf, aii<l 30 brand. Mod which va.s made
of Indian pi r. tie-tree ; that it consi.stt-d < \
three storeys, flu- loAvcst for lx.si.sts.tbr
for men and \\ouicii (who v"io M.
from eacli ether), ind the hi^li ^t. \<. < tjird
The afk is said t< linvp rested on Iho tiiouu-
tain al-Ji<li. fN>\H.]
ARK OF THE COVENANT. Tlio
ASHAB 23
Hcbrew worJ for "Ark" is pnfi (i.e.
a chest, a rpff?r), Cbalcl.
Arabic ^y^ , tyV;. See Qur an. Sura),
ii. 24 ik, Tic liffn of his (Saul s) kuiL dojn is
that there shall come unto you the ark
(J dbut)- iu it Minll be srcnnty (or the Shechi
nah, sakimik, Heb. n^^Dtt?
?our
Lord, find the rei:< s of what th<> 1 imily
of Moses :nd the family o( Aaron left ; the
angels shall bear it." J Ullu d din say 1 ;
tbift ark contained the inKi>?eH tf the prophets,
and *> *ent down from heavrn to Adorn,
and at k:j^ lh came to the Israelites, who put
great confidence tLevnin, nd continually car
ried it in jront of their army (ill it w^ taken
by the Ani 1ckitOK But ni ti.is occasion tho
angels bron,,ht it tnrk in thei s^^ht < f all *hr
people, 4i.id pl.<fil it at il.t feet of Saul
(TaJut)* wrho was tJ n-nj-n unanintouslv
rereivod as Kin^.
ARMS, Tho Sale oi. I he salo ol
;ntnoui or warlike stores to rebels, or in their
camp, is forbidden, because soiling arms into
flic hands of rebels is :n ;>.ssistncc to defec
tion. But it i* not forbiddfn to sell the mate
rials for making arms to such persons
fRftmihott fl tlniiifjdti. vfl ii i 1 5. )
AIuSII (^^*;^ / ). ( i .) A loiral term
for eoitipensatiou. (2.) Amulet ; r. lino ; pa--
ticularly thai which is piid for shedding o1
blood. (3.) A gill Tor conciliating the favour
of a judge; a bribe. (4.) Whatever ;t pur
chaser rccencs from a seller after <li<*cnve.r-
iufcT ti fault in ;I;P itrticln
AESH (v>;*)- i he term n.s^-j , r
th" Qur an for the throne of God. Surah ix.
lJJi, k ITp is the Lord of the smyhty rhrnf."
Hus^ini, the eprnnieut!t<(r, sjys the throne
has o,0(X> pillars, and the distance bftwrn
.^ch pillar is 3,000,000 mile?
; ASABAH (i**\ \ legal term
for male rebtliv^s by the tathei s side
agnates.
ASAF (uA<5^). Tin* wnzir or priin<
miniRter < [ Solomon. Alluded to in the
Qnr fm, Surah xxvil. 40, as "He with whom
WUH knowledge of the scripture >fnhti J
in.idan oommeutjitur* say be "*<> the on of
l^.lrkhlya.
ASAK (y^). lie 1 latin g ; handing
douii by tradition. Generally ued for
H uli- related hy one of the (^onn>anions. as
ditin^uisiied frmn one ftf the Projhet s own.
Ar.-ASARTJ SH-8HARTF (/^
c_fij>yiJ^). Tht? sacrod relic. A liair
of either the beard or rtuist;i hi->s ,.f M lbiiin-
ina-l, 01 a frot-print of Hie iM .-.pliet. )r," of
these *;<T.:HI relic:- (n h*ir of his benri; is
<%iiibitol in tli^ i,TCil ir.csiiiie at DeJhi,
another in :i inosque in CaSliinerc.
ASHAB (^W^ pi. oi NflAi/>
Tho C!nmp:iniotif> nr As^ocifltenof Mvihnmm.nl
24 ASHABU
The term .used for a single companion is
vahabi. Concerning the title of " Companion,"
there is considerable controversy as to the
persons to whom it can be applied. Sa id
ibn al-Musaiyab reckoned none a . " Com
panion," but those who had been a year or
more with Muhammad, and had gone on a
warlike expedition with him. Some say that
everyone who had attained puberty, had em
braced Islam, and had seen the Prophet, was
a lt Companion," even though he had attended
Muhammad but an hour. Others, however,
affirm that none could be a " Companion "
unless Muhammad chose him and he chose
Muhammad, and he adhered to the Prophet
at all , times. The general opinion is that
every one who embraced Islam, saw the Pro
phet, and accompanied him, even for a short
time, was a " Companion."
It is related that the Prophet marched to
Makkah with 10,000 Muslims, to Huuam with
12,000, and that 40,000 accompanied him on
the farewell pilgrimage. The number of the
" Companions " at bis death is said to have
been 144,000.
In point of merit, the refugees (Muhdjrrwi)
are more worthy than the auxiliaries (,4no?-) ;
but by way of precedence, the auxiliaries are
more worthy than the later refugees.
The " Companions " have been arranged in
thirteen classes, which are given by Abu 1-Fida
as follows: 1. Those who first embraced
Islam, such as Khadijah, AH, Zaid. and Abu
Bakr, and those who did not delay till he had
established bis mission. II. The Companions
who believed in him after his mission had
been fully established, amongst whom was
Umar. III. Those who fled to Abyssinia.
IV. The first Companions of Aqabah. who
proceeded the Auxiliaries. V. The second
Companions of Aqabah. VI. The third Com
panions of < Aqabah, who were seventy. VII.
The refugees who went to the Prophet after
his flight, when he was at Quba, before the
erection of the temple. VIII. The soldiers of
the great battle of Badr, IX. Those who
joined Islam between Badr and Hudaibiyah.
X. Those who took the oath of fealty under
the acacia tree at Hudaibiyah. XI. Those who
joined after the treaty of Hudaibiyah, but
before the conquest. XII. Those that embraced
Islam on the day of conquest. XIII. Those
who were children in the time of the Pro
phet, and had seen him.
Muhammad frequently commended the
" Companions," and spoke of their excellences
and virtues, a chapter in the Traditions being
devoted to this subject, (3/zx//X;a?, xxiv. o.
xiii.) He i related to have said, "My com
panions are like stars by which roads are
found, for which ever companion vou follow
vou will find the right road."
AL-ASMABU L-FIL (J-Att vW1).
" The Companions of the Elephant." A term
%ised in the Chapter of the Elephant, or the
CVth Surah : ! Hast thou not seen how thy
Lord dealt with the companions of t/ie elephant ?
Did He not cause their stratagem to miscarry ?
AL-ASH ARIYAH
And He sent against them birds in flocks,
small stones did they hurl down upon them,
and he made them like stubble eaten down! "
This refers to the army of Abrahah, tho
Christian king of Abyssinia and Arabia Felix,
said to have been lost, in the year of Muham
mad s birth, in an expedition against Makkah
for the purpose of destroying the Ka hah. This
army was cut off by wmall-pox, and there is no
doubt, as the Arabic word for small-pox also
means " small stones," in reference to the
hard gravelly feeling of the pustules, what is
the true interpretation of the fourth verse of
this Surah, which, like many other poetical
passages in the Qur an, has formed the start
ing point for the most puerile and extravagant
legends.
ASHABU L-KAHF (u&\ s^W^).
" The Companions of the Cave," i.e. the Seven
Sleepers, mentioned in the Suratu 1-kahf, or
Chapter xviii. of the Qur an. The story, as
told by early Christian writers, is given by
Gibbon {Rise and Fall, Chapter xxxi.). When
the Emperor Decius persecuted the Christians,
seven noble youths of Ephesus are said to
have concealed themselves in a cave in the
side of a mountain, where they were doomed
to perish by the tyrant, who gave orders that
the entrance should be firmly secured with a
pile of huge stones. They immediately fell
into a deep slumber, which was miraculously,
prolonged, without injuring the powers of life,
during a period of 187 years. This popular
tale, which Muhammad must have heard
when he drove his camels to the fairs of
Syria, is introduced into the Qur an as a
divine revelation.
ASHABU - SUFFAH (v>U^
J&uW). " The sitters on the bench "
of the temple at Makkah. They are thus de
scribed by Abu 1-Fidft: "They were poor
strangers, without friends or place of abode,
who claimed the promises of the Apostle of
God and implored his protection. Thus the
porch of the temple became their mansion,
and thence they obtained their name. When
Muhammad went to meals, he used to call
some of them to partake with him ; and he
selected others to eat with his companions.
m ASHARAH MUBASHSHAKAH
(Sj-i~* &yi.*). " The ten who received
glad tidings." Ten of the most distinguished of
Muhammad s followers, whose certain entrance
into Paradise he is said to have foretold.
They are Abu Bakr, Utnar, Usman, All,
Talhah, az-Zubair, Abdu r-Rahman, Sa d-ibn-
Abu-Waqqas. Sa id ibn Zaid, AM Ubaidah
ion al-Jarrah. (Mishkdt, book xxiv. c. xx., part
ii.) Muhammad declared it presumption for
anyone to count upon an entrance into
heaven with absolute certainty, but he made
an exception in favour of these ten distin
guished persons.
Ai,-ASH ABlYAH (fytdR). A sect
formed by Abu r i-Hasan Ali ibn Isina il
al-Ash arf. born A.H. 280 (A.T>, 873-4).
AL-ASH ARIYAH
They hold that the attributes of God are
dintmot from His essence, yet in such a
way as to forbid any comparison being
made between God and His creatures. They
say they are not " 4 a/i uor ghair: not of Hi s
essence, nor distinct from it: i.e. they cannot
be compared with any other things. They
also hold that God lias one eternal will,
from which proceed all things, the good
and tbo evil, the useful aud the hurtful. The
destiny of man was written on the eternal
table before the world was created, So far
they go with the Sifatis, but in order to
preserve the moral responsibility of man. they
say that he has power to convert will into
action. But this power cannot create any
thing new, for then God s sovereignty would
beimpaired; MO they say that God in His pro
vidence so orders matters that whenever " a
man desire* to do a certain thing, good or
bad, the action corresponding to the desire is,
there and then, created by God, and, as it
vyere, fitted onto the desire." Thus it seems
as if it came naturally from the >vill of the
roan, whereas it does not. This action l
called Kasb (acquisition), because it is acquired
by a special creative act of God. It is an
act directed to the obtaining of profit or th-
removing of injury: the term is therefore in
applicable to the Deity. Abu Bahr al-Bakil
l&ni, a disciple of al-Ash ari, says: * The
essence or substance of the action is the
effect of the power of God, but its being an
action of obedience, such as prayer, or an
action of disobedience, such as fornication,
are qualities of the action, which proceed
from the power of man. 71 The Imam Al-
Haramain (A.H. 419-478) held "that the
actions of men were effected by the power
which God has created in man." " Abu Ishaq
tl-Isfarayini says: "That which maketh im
pression, or hath influence on action, is a
30inpound -if the power of God and the power
)f man." They also believe that the .word of
Sod is eternal, though they acknowledge that
/he vocal sounds used in the Qur an, which are
,he manifestation of that word, are created.
iThey say, in short, that the Qur an contains
!) the eternal word which existed m the
issenoe of God before time was ; and (2) the
fford which consists of sounds and combiua-
ions of letters. This last they call the created
Thus Al-Ash ari traversed the main posi-
lokf of the Muta/ilites, denying tha!. man can,
>y the aid ot his reason alone, rise to the
cnowledge 01 good and evil. He must exer-
:ise no judgment, but accept all that is re
vealed. He has no right to apply the moral
aws which affect mei, to the actions of God.
t cannot be asserted by the human reason
hat the good will be rewarded or the bad
mniehed in a fnture world. Man must always
ipproach God us a slave, in whom there is no
ight or knowledge to jtidg; of th^ actions of
he Supreme. Whether God will ar-cept th
>enifent sfnner or not cannot be sserti, for
In ip an absolute So-vpr^ign, above iill law.
Sale, from , kn KhnUtin ; /)<> \fn
for die Prflrfrnkv in /slrim, .- .m H.
ASWAD 25
1865 ; Zurijesckichte Abu /-J/ttsan al-ash ttriffi,
von W. Spitta, 1876 : De Strijd over het JJoyum
in den lxtdm tot op El-aah ari, door Dr. M. Th.
Hoiusina, Leiden, 1875 ; and Expose <ie In
Ktfonne de I I slam is me, by M. A. F. Mehren
Leiden, 1878.)
ASHtTBA <V U )- Lit. "the
tenth." A voluntary fast day, observed on the
tenth of the month of Muharram. It is related
that Muhammad observed it, and said it was
a da y _ rea P ec ted by Jews and Christians.
{Afi&nkat, vii. c. vii. 1.)
It is the only day of Muharram observed
by theSunnl Muslims, being the day on which
it i said God created Adaiu and Eve. heaven
and hell, the tablet of decree, the pen, life,
tiud death. It is kept by the Sunnisas a fast.
ASIYAH (l**\). The wife of
Pharaoh. Ouo of the four perfect wornetj
(the Virgin Mary, Khadijnh, and Fafcimah,
being the other three). See Mishkdtu l-Ma-
stibih, xxiv. c. 22. She is mentioned in the
Qur an (Surah Ixvi. 11): " And God striketh
ont a parable for those who believe : the wife
of Pharaoh, wiieii she said, f My Lord, build
for mo a house with Tlieo in Paradise, and
snve tpp from Pharaoh and his works, and
save me from the unjust people."
ASL CJ^). Cause, first principle,
foundation. Aal-wnfar*, "cause and effect."
" fundamental and derivative principle."
ASMA U LLAH (&U\ -U-^). [QOD,
NAMES 0V.]
ASB (>c). The afternoon
prayer. [FKAYEiis.J The title of the cutrd
Suz^ah uf the Qur un.
ASS. According to the Imam
Abfi Hunifjih, the assiaan unclean animal, and
its flesh aud milk are unlawful; nor is zakat to
be given on an ass. (Hamilton s Hidd^ah,
vol. i. Iti, iv. 74, 8ti.)
ASSISTANTS. [ANSAE.]
ASTROLOGY. , Arabic Ilmu n~
nujiiin. Qatitdah says, referring to the Qur an,
that God has created stars for three uses :
(1) as an ornament to the houvena (Surah
Ixvii. 5); (2) to stone the Dovil with (Surah
Ixvii. 5) ; and (3) to direct travellers through
the forests and -on the sea (Surah xv. 16).
Muhammad condemns those who vtuJy the
stars for any other purpose (Mi.skkdt. xxi.
c. iii. pi. in.), and consequently the science of
Astrology i-j not considered lawful in Islam.
ASWAD (^S\). An impostor
who, in the time uf Muhammad,, claimed
!he prophetic off.ro, Hi.s name was Aihalah
ibn iva b, aqd he belongd to the tnbe
of Aua, of which, he WHH an iunuential chir-f
He was suriinmed 7 t u l-Hiimir. or J he
of th^ Ass," * because he used
r, or, "He
* Put p.notbcr
with the veil. 1
26 ATIIKIST
fiequertly to sy. The mastei ol the ass
is coming unto ine," and pretendeu to receive
his revelations from two angels, named ^uhaik
and Shuraik: Being- a good hand at legeide-
rn.un, and Having a smooth tongue, he gained
mightily on the multitude by the strange
(eats winch he shewed them, and the elo-
qun(;*> of his discourse. By these means ho
greatly increased his power, and having mnde
himself master of ^^ajran an<t the territory of
Ta if, on the deaiii of Barthtm. the governor
of Yam an for Muhammad, he seurd that pro
vince also, killing Shahr, the son cf HtUftifcn,
and lakim? to wife his widow A/ad whose
father he had also slain. The new*; beiuy
brought to Muhamni.-id, lie sent to his fj-ieuds
and te the tribe of IJatndaiK a party of whoui
conspiring with Qais ibn Aijii Ya.ghi.ith, who
bore As wad a gmd$e, and with Fir fur. and
Aswad s \vife, broke by night into his house,
where Firuz surprise A him and out of) his
head While dying, it is said that he roared
Jike a bull. t which his guards came to the
chamber cloo but were sent away by his
wile, who told them that the prophet was
on y Agitated by the divine inspiration. This
was done h very night before Muhammad
died. The next morning the conspirators
caused the following proclamation to \M-
rna.de. viz. " I bear witness that Muhammad
is the Apostle of God, and that Aihalu is a
liar " ; and letters *ere immediately sent
away to Muh-iinmad, with an account of
what had been done; but a messenger from
heaven outstripped thrm. and acquainted the
prophet with the news, which he imparted to
his Crintpaiuons a little before his, dealh, the
letters thi>mselv* hot arriving till Abii Bakr
was chosen Khalif It is sairt that Muha-in-
mad on his occasion told those who attended
him that before the Day of Judgment thirty
more impostors, besides Musailimah and As-
wad, should appear. The whole time from
the beginning of Aswad s rebellion to hif,
death was four months.
ATHEIST. [DAHRI.]
ATIRAH (fy^). The sacrifice
offered by the idolatrous Arabs in the month
of Rajab. It was allowed by the Prophet :\i
tho commencement of. his mission, but wan
afterwards abolished. Afiskkdt, book iv. c. "><>.
" Let there bo no Fara* nor ; Atiruh."
,AT-TAHIYAT (^>W^5^). Ln. "the
|>feetingn." A part of the atatoi prayers.
recited after the r J J >ji:l>lriji /- (& Hit, aftrr
every two rak ahs. It is recited whilet ihp
worshipper kneels upon the ground. His left
foot bent under him, he sit^ upon it, ami
places his hands upon his knees nnrl says:
" The adorations (i.e. af-tfthiyatu of the
tongue are for (rod, and also of the body and
of alms-giving. Peace be on t-hee. Prophet,
with the mercy of God and IJis blessing.
Poa-co be upon ns. and upon God s righteous
servants." (Mishkiii, iv., o. -svi.-^ [VHAVKK.]
AUGUKY. [FA L.J
AYATU L-FATH
AULlYA (*^),. pi. of vefc.
" Favourites of God." The expression occurs
in the Quran in the following verse. " Ar nwt
the tavourites of God those on whom no rear
shall tsome, nor shall they be pu to griel ? "
(Surah x. 63).
AUTAD (^ ? V>- Llt - "pyps or
pillars." A term used by the :>lis for the
four Saints, by whom the four corners oi the
world are K atd to he supported.
A UZU BILLAH (&\* VO- An-
clhor mime for the Ta anwwz, or the prayct
in the <laily liturgy : " 1 seek refuge with God
the cursed Satan/
AVENGER OF BLOOD. In the
JMuhsiinmadan law, as in the Jewish, the
punishment for wilful murder Mi left to the
next of kin ; but in the Jewish cor\e
the avenger of Mood was compelled to tnk
the life of the murderer, whilst in t ho Muslim
fade be nuiy accept compensation? vide
Qur jiu. Sin ah it. 173, *() believers! rot-itiaiion
) for blood-shedding is pies<-i-il.ed to
you: top free man for the fj-eo. and the slave
for the rlave, und the woman for Ihp woman ;
but be to whom Ins brotlu-r .shrill make any
remission is to he dealt with cipiitably ; and
a payment should be made to him vyiih
liberality. This is a r<-l:i*;;tion (/.. ol tiie
strict (iV fax td/i oMfi) from vour I>ord. and a
mercy." [IJIHAS.]
AYAH (^A). LU *-a sign, or
miiMfle." The torui us,ed for our of the
smaller portions of vh j r* ha piers of the l v >urVin,
which we call verses. J he munber of verses
i;i often set down after the title of the chapter,
but the verses are not marked in the text as
they are in our English Bibtas. The number
of verses in the <^ur an is variously estimated.
but they :tre generally said to bf aboxt six
thousand two hundred. [QI:U AS.J
AL-A YANU S-SAB1TAH
J*,), pi. of ayn, iu the sense of
"tho essence" of a thin^;. The established
essences. A term used by the 8ufi mystics
io express fitfuri-s ornhlematjc of the names
9 1 God. f Abdu r-Ray./3q .s Uictiotmry of
Toi-hnif.nl Tfniai of the Sufis. Sprenger a
edition.)
AYATU L-FATH (^ ^). Lit.
The verse of victory." The fifty-ninth
verse of the Siiratu I-AnTtUi (vi.) of the
Qur an. Iho powers of this v<rse are said to
be so great, that if a person constantly recile
it he will obtain his ctosires. It is generally
recited with this objoct forty times altor each
season of prayer. It is as follows : * And with
Him are the keys of the secret things ; none
knoweth them but He ; and He knoweth what
ever is on the land and iu the sea ; and no
leaf falleth but He knowcth it ; neither Is there
a grain in the darknesses of the earth- nor a
green thing nor a dry thing, but it is noted in
a clear book."
AY-ATU VHIFZ
27
AYATU h-HF*? rU*rt V ) The
verses of protection " Certain verses of
the Qur an whir-h arc usually insaihfd on
arnulots They are: Surah li ? >0. "And
tfae preservation of both (heaven SUM! earlhj is
no burden unto Hun. Surah xn. l4, " f.iol
is the best proteetor." $iir<h xni. U. " Th^y
uuard him ly th<; command of G->d Siunh
xv. \!. " Wt> guard him from ovi.>ry devil
driven away by stones" Surah XX.VVH. 7,
_\ protection agiMnsi ev-iy rebellious devil."
LKURSI
"The vfM M.- uf i hi-. throne." Veise V5fj of
the M n-atu i-Baqav.in, or chap. u. of the
QniYm. It is i I ,-itod Midiknl. book iv ,
c. xix.. pail in that -All hfard Muham
mad say in h ))ii)pil. (hat person who
repeats the i /v/ii V-A t.c.s/ ,ifter every prayer,
nothing !; (vents hi^n r-nl<?.iing into Paradise
but life; and whoever .savs it when Jie goes to
his bed-chamber, God \villkeep him in -.rifely,
together with his house rnni the house of hH
riei. .dib.mr. Tjie verso is as follow* :--- God !
There is no God hut He ; the Living, the
Abiding. Neither slumber si/,tli Him, ur
sleep. To Rim helongeth whatsoever is in
heaven and whatsoever is in (>a7 t)j. Wh<.> 1^5
he that can intercede with lliin but by lli.s
own permission? If- 1 knoweth what )inlli
bft d before then , and wh it shall h^ .-ii>fr
^hern : yet nought "f Hi i.uu\v;^!!t;c do ih<>y
iomprehend, save what He wilieth. His
THUONK rcaohotir ov^er the heavens ;md the
oarth. and the upholding of butr. burdeneth
Hiin not: IUK! lie i--- the Hi^rii. tii-.; Great."
" The rerse of inheritances." Thu twelfth
verse of the Siirattt n-nis-i. or fourth ohaptwr
ol the C^ur an. It relates to inheritance, and
is the foundation of the Muslim law on the
subject. It is wivnn in the urtiele on Inhe
ritunce. ( iNHtitrrANCE.]
AYIMMATU L-ASMA
" Th: leidiusf names." Tlu; seven principal
uwmes or titles of fJod. nninely :
-4/-//u^f/ . . The Living.
Al vt/irn . . The Krunviug.
Ai Murul . . 1 he Puj poser.
Al^u l The Powerful.
4^- Stint- . The Hearer.
At-I3ajir llu Pt>rr.
Al MutaJcufHn I he Speak er.
AYISHAIJ (SA.U). The daughter
of Alju I akr, and fhe fivotiiite wif of Mu
Ifimad, to wliuui .she was married whi ii
onl.y iiiue yiari of a^o. She survived hei
husbuntmatiy years, raid died at al-Mndinah,
A.H. ,5S (A.I>. (>/8), gcd fJixty-seven, ant)
ohtaiufd tie title of I7i/fl*< l-MtfmiiriH, " The
Mothor of the JBelievers."
AYMAN
, pi of
The
days oi the bright itights," menJionrd <n tl r
(book vii. e- 7, part 3), as days on
whiih Muhammad did not cut. whether liult
i<r or mnrchino. They are the I3tb. 14th,
ind l5th nights of th month. (See Lane s
IJir.t.. p. 284 ,
AYYAMU L-QARR(yB^V). Thn
day of rest after the day of sacrilire et the
AYYAMU N-NAHR (
Tho season of bttrriHce at the
[HA.U.]
AYYAMU T - TASHRtQ
^ r ijd\). The three days after the
feast oi sacrifice at Mina during the Pilgrim
age. &o called brcauso the flesh of the
victims is then third, or because they are not
slain until after *uu-rise. MA ,;. )! 1.01:1. MACK.]
AYY1M (^.V). A legal term for
a woman having no husband, whether she be
H virgin 01 a wid<*.
4 A Z A U U L-Q AJJR ( ; -al\ -r>\^) .
The punishment of the grave." That, -ill
persons, whether believers or not, undergo
some punishment in their graves, is a funda
mental articl ? of the .Muslim belief. These
punishments nro described in the following
Hit lis <jn the fiuthonty of Abu Hnrairah ;
" The Prophet uf God said. When a corpse
is placed in its grave, two biack angels couti
to it. v.-iiii blue eyes. The name of the one is
Mimkur and of tlte other Nakir, and they inter
rogate the dead person concerning the Prophf!
of God. ff ho bo a .Muslim, he will bear
witness to Ix- Unity "? Ucd und the miss-ion
of Muhammad. The angels will then say,
We knew thou wouldst say HO*; and the
vrav( will thei> expand seventy times seventy
yards in lejigth, and seventy times s-jventy in
breadth. A light will then be given for the
grave, and il will be .said, Sleep. 1 Thn the
dead person will say, Shall 1 return to my
brethren and inform th*mi of this? Then
the angels will sayj Sleep like the bride
#rooin, till God .shall raise thee up from the
grave on the Day of Resurrection. 1 But if
the eorpse be that <>f /in unbeliever, it will
he askocf. What .sayest thou about tho
Prophet " and lift will reply, I know
him not. And then the ungels will say.
We knew thou wonldst say o. Then the
ground will be ordered to close in npon him,
and it will break his sides, and turn his right
Hide to bi* loft, and he will etiffer perpetual
punishment till <h)d raise him therelrorn."
In another tradition, recorded by Ana, it is
said, " TLe wicked will be struck with a
rod (witruqak}) and they will roar out> and
theii cries will be heard by all JMu mals flint
may he near tin: grave . \r--pt ing man and tho
genii." (Miitiktlt, hool< I. c. v,).
All Muhaniinadau doc^yrs of the orthodox
schools (whether we apply the U-rm orthodox
to Sun/nor Shr a li) believe in the literal mtei
pre^otiun of these punishments in the. grave,
whit H are said to tnke place 33 iwon as the
party has left the grave-yard. A
AZAL
AZAtt
perusal of the varicms traditions on the sub
ject must convince any unprejudiced mind
that Muhajnmacl intended to teach a literal
interpretation of his sayings on this subject.
It is related that on one occasion, when the
Prophet was riding through a grave-yard, his
male, hearing the groans of the dead, tried to
throw his master. On that occasion, Muham
mad aaid, "If I were not afraid that you
would leave off burying, I would ask (rod to
give you the power of hearing what 1 hear."
Shaikh Abdu 1-Haqq, in his commentary on
the Mishkat, says, "The accounts which are
here given of the punishment of the grave,
are undoubtedly true, and they are not either
imaginary or figurative." (Mishkdt* book i.,
chap. v. ; gee Persian edition with Abdu 1-
Haqq g commentary.)
AZAL (Jj\). Eternity with re
spect to the past, &,<* distinguished from abad
(J^V)> eternity without end,
AZAN (0^). Lit. " announcement."
The call or summons to public prayers pro
claimed by the Mu azzin (or crier) in small
mosques from the side of the building or a.*.
the deor, and in large mosques from the
minaret.
It is in Arabic aS follows :
JjJ.
Allahu akbar! Allahu nlcbar !
akbar! Allah ti akbar ! Ashhaffu an la it aha
ilia ltdfi ! Ashhadu an Id ilaha ilia llah I Ash-
fiai/u anna Mubaminadan rasutu-(la/t ! Ash-
hafia anna Afuhammadan rastilu-Udh ! Hayya
ala f-saldli ! Uayija ala $-?aldti ! flayya i
ala IJbLdl.i! ffayya ala 1-fa.ldh! Allafiu I
akbtrr I AlWw akbar J Hi iidhct ilia Uah !
Which is translated :
"God is most great! God is most great !
God is most great 1 God is most great ! I
testify that there is no god but God! I tes
tify that there is no god but God ! I testily
that Mahammad is the Apostle of God! I
testify that Muhammad is the Apostle .of God I
Come to prayer! Come to prayer! Come to
salvation! Gome to salvation! God is most-
great ! God is most great ! There is no god
but God!"
In the Az&n in the early morning, after the
words, " Come to salvation 1 * is added flLJ\
. r ^\ & * ty-N - r ^\ v+ V
As-saldtv khcnrun mina n-naumif Af-saLdtu
/jatrri mina n-navmi! "Prayer is better
than sleep ! Prayer is better than sleep ! *
The Shi ahs make a slight alteration in the
Azan, by adding the words, *
khairi l- vmaLi { ffayya l ald kfctiri i- l ainali
Come to the best of works ! Come to the
best of works!" and by repeating the last
sentence of the Azan, " There is no god bui
God," twice instead of ouce, as in the Suuin
Azan.
When the Azan is recited, it is usual for
men of piety and religious feeling to respond
to each call, as, for example, when the
Mu azzin cries :
"Allahu akbar! Aliahu akbar! Allah u
akbar ! Allahu akbar ! "
Those who hear it repeat :
- Allahu akbar! Allahu akbar! Allahu
akbar i Allahu akbar!"
The Mu azzin says
" I testify that there is no god bxit God ; I
testify that there is no God but God."
They reply
"I testify that there is no God but God ;
I testify that there is no god but God."
Mu azzin. "I testify that Muhammad is
the Apostle of God."
Reply. " I testify that Muhammad is the
Apostle of God."
Mu azzin. "Come to prayer."
Reply. ; I have no power nor strength but
from God the most High and" Great."
-Mu aazin. " Come to salvation."
Reply. What God will cth will be: what
He willeth noi, willeth not be."
The recital of the Azan must be iliaeued to
with great reverence. If a person be walk
ing at the time, he should stand still; if re
clining; sii up. Mr. Lane., in his Modern
Egyptians, sys. Most of the Mu axziAS of
Cairo have harmonious and sonorous voices,
which they strain to the utmost pitch ; yet
there is a simple and solemn melody in their
chants wtiich is vry striking, particularly in
the stillness of the night." But Va mbery re
marks that " the Turkisliinees most caieiully
avoid all tune arid melody. The manner in
which the Azan is cried in the west is here
(in Bokhara) declared sinful, and the beautiful
melancholy notes which, in the silent hour
of a moonlit evening, are heard from the
slender minarets on the Bosphorus fascinat
ing every hearer, would be listened to by the
Bokhariot with feelings only of detestation."
The summons to prayer was at lirst the
simple cry, " Gome to public prayer." After
the Qiblah was changed, Muhammad be
thought himself of a more formal call. Some
suggested the Jewish trumpet, others the
Christian bell ; but neither was grateful to the
Prophet s ear. The Azan, or call to prayer
was then established. Tradition claims for
it * supernatural origin, thus : While the
matter was under discussion. Abdu Huh, &
Khazrajite, dreamed that he met a man clad
in green raiment, carrying a bell. Abdu Halt,
sought to buy it, saying that it would do well
for bringing together the assembly of the
faithful. "I will show thee a better way,"
replied the stranger; "let a crier cry aloud,
God is most great, &c." Waking from
sleep, Abd u llah proceeded to Muljamrnad, and
told him his dream. (Muir, from Katibu Y-
W&tifa) Hishami recites the story as if
Abdu llah had actually met the man.
Bingham, in his Antiquities (vol. ii.. book
AZAK
viii. ohap. vii.), relates that, in the monastery
ot virgins which Paula, the famous Roman
lady, set up and governed at Jerusalem, the
signal for prayer was given by one going
about and singing Hallelujah 1 " for that
was their call to church, as St. Jerome
informs us.
Tb" AZRII is proclaimed before the stated
times of prayer, either by one of the congre
gation, or by the Mu azzin or crier, who is paid
for the purpose. He must stand with his face
towards Makkah, -with the points of his fore
fingers in his ears, and recite ihn formula
which has been jfiven above
It must uut bo recited by an unclean
person, a drunkard, a madman, or a woman,
AZAR Ojl). Terah, the father
of Abraham. Surah, vi. 74, "And when
AbrahTm said to his father Azxr, Takest thou
images as gods ? "
" The Eastern authors unanimously a^roe
that ho was a statuary, or carver of idols;
and he is represented as the first who made
images of clay, pictures only haying been
in u.j* before, ainl taught that they were to be
adored as gods. However, we are told his
employment was a very honourable one, and
that he was a great lord, and in high favour
with Nimrod, whos^ son-in-law he was, be
cause he made his idols for him, and was
BACKBITING 29
excellent in his art. Some of the llabbios say
Terah was a priest and chief of the order."
(Sale.)
AL-AZARLQAH (to,l>Jt). A sect of
heretics founded by Nafi* ibii al-Azraq. who
say that All was tin iufidol, and that his
assassin was ri^ht in killing him. ( See ash-
StaArattani, ed. Cnretou, p. A<* . Haarbruecker s
translation, I., p. 133-
AL- AZBl (U*d\;. The slit-eared;
one oi Muhammad s favourite: camels.
AL-AZHA
One of the
ninety- nine special names of God. "The
great One."
AZtMAH (***>*). An incanta
tion.
AL AZIZ (j>)*>\)~ One of the
ninety-nine special names ol God, It fre
quently occurs in the Qur an. It me;uis " the
powerful, or the mighty One "
AZEA It, (J*fy)*;. The angel of
Death. Mentioned in the Qur an under the
title of Maluku Y-3fa;/f, Surah xxxii. 11, " Thu
angel of death who is chaiged with you shall
cause you to die." I MA&AHU L-MAUT.]
B.
"RABEf,. Arabic J?V> Ba.KL Men-
tioned once in the Quran, Surah ii. 96:
" Sorcery did they teach to men, and what
had been revealed to the two angels Harut and
Marut at Babil." Babel is regarded by the
Muslims as the fountain-head of the science of
matric. They suppose Harut and Marut to be
two angels who, in consequence of their want
of compassion for the frailties ot mankind,
were .sent down to earth to be tempted. They
bof h .sinned, and, being permitted to choose
whether they would be punished now or here
after, chose the former, and are still sus
pended by the feet at Babel in a rocky pit,
and are the great teachers of magic. (Lane s
Thousand and One Niyli x, ch. iii. note 14.)
Vide Tafvir-i- Azizl in loco
BABU L-ABWAB
Lit. " The door of doors." A term used by the
Sufis for repentance. ( Abdu r-Razzaq s
Dictionary of Fi fi
BABU S-SALAM
" The Gate of Peace." The gateway in the
Sacred mosque at Makkah through which
Muhammad entPrrd when be was elected by
the Qnraish to decide the question as to
which section of the tribe should lift the
Black Stone into its place. It was originally
called the Bab Ban! Shaibah. " the Gate of
the Bauu Shaibah," th* family of Shaibab. ibu
Usman, to whom Muhammad gave the key
of the Ka bah. Burkhardt says that there are
now two gateways called by this name.
Bnrton says, " The Babu VSalain resembles in
ity isolation a triumphal arch, and is built of
cut stono." (Burton s PHyi image, vol. ii.
p. 174. See Muir s Life, of Afuhome.t, pp.
28, 29.)
BABU f N-NISA, (UJt ^\>). "The
Womon s Gate." In later yoars, a Muhammad
added to the number of his wives, he provided
for each a room or house on the same .side of
the mosque at al-Madinah. From these he
had a private entrance into tho mosque, ufled
only by himself, and the eastern gate still
bears in its name, Babu n-Nisa r , the aiemory
of the arrangement. (Muir s Life of Maho~
met, iii. p. 20.)
BACKBITING. Anything secretly
whispered of un absent person which is 1 cal
culated to injure him, and which is true, is
called d /i bn/i, a false accusatioii being ex*
pressed by JSuktun. Abu Hurairah says,
" The qucstiou was put to the Prophet, Do
yon know what Imekbitmg is ? and he replied,
It is saying anything: bad of a Muslim. It
was then said, But what is it if it is true ?
30
BADAWI
BAT
And lie said, If it is true it is Ghibah, and if
it is a false accusation, it is fjuhtan (i.e.
slander}. " (Mishkat, x*ii. c. T.)
The foJlowing are sayings of Muhammad on
the subject: "The best of God s servants
are those who when you meet them speak, of
God. The worst of God s servants are thos^
who carry tales about, to do mischief and
separate friends, and seek out the defects of
good people/ " He who wears two faces in this
world shall have two tongues of fire in the day
of the "Resurrection." "It is unworthy of a
believer to injure people s reputations, or to
curse anyone, or to abuse anyone, or to talk
vainly." "The best atonement you can make
for backbiting is to say, God pardon me
and him (whom I have injured). " Mishkdr,
xxti. c. x.
BADAWl (cSr**)- A name given
to the Bedouin Arabs, or the Arabs of the
desert. Btdnuin is only a corruption of the
plural of this word, which is derived from
jU(i(1w~.t3dth yah< " a desert."
AL-BADI* (*J^) is one of the
nincty-nino special names of God. It means
"Ho f ho originates." It occurs in the Qur im,
Surah ii. 1 1 1, " He is the wonderful originator
of the heavens and the earth; when He
decreeth a matter, Ho doth but say to it,
Be/ and it is."
BAPR, The battle of. Arabic.
ChazA-atu l-Batlr. The first battle of Budr
v:s tVnght. in the month uf Rimazan, A.K.
2 (March, A.D. G24), between Muhammad
ind the Q.uraiah. Many of the principal men
<if the Quraish were slain, including Abu
xlflbl, whose head was brought to the Pro
phet, ud wln-ii it was cast at his feet, he
exclsitnrd, tk It is more acceptable to me than
the choices; eatnel of /VrablH/ After the,
Vmtlle "yarf <ver. sonic of the prisoners were
cruelly rnurdpvcd. Tihvsam says the losses of
the Quraish at Utidr v. ere seventy killed and
seventy prisoners. Tin s victory at Bad* con
solidated the power of Muhammad, and it is
Vcji ?iidci by Muslim historians as one of the
most important events of history. Au account
of this celebrated battle will h* found in the
article oti Mv\itiu)in>uL
The second battle of Bndr was a bloodless
victory, and look place in the month /u I-
Qa dah. A.it 4. ( April A u &V6).
BAMJRA (V^.) A Nf-stoiian
monk whom Muhammad met when he was
journeying back frtm Syria to M^kkah, and
wbo is said to have perceived by various
Jiiyns that he was a prophet. Hi* Christian
name is supposed to have \>vu\\ Serums (QL-
Georgius).
Sprenget- thinks that Bahiirfi remained wiih
; iitihami7jail. anri it has been suggested that
there is an allusion to this monk in the
Qur an, Surah xvi. 105 : u We know th*t
they say, It is only a man who teacheth
him. " Husain tlie comniontator say6 on this
passage that the Prophel was in the habit of
going every everting to a Christian to har
the Taurat and Injtl. 7q/ir-?-7/MJafni;
Sale, p. 223 , Muir s Life of
\ p. 72.)
BAH1RA H (V-.) . ( 1 .) A sTift
she-t{oat or ewe, which had given birth to a
tenth young one. C2.} A. she-camel, the
mother of which bad brought forth ten
females consecutively before her.
In tli<*&6 and similar rases, the pagan
Arabs observed certain religious ceremonies,
sticb ns slitting the animal s ear. A c., all of
which are forbidden in the Quran : t God
hath not ordained any Bahlrah." (Surah v,
Ida.
I
(* , pi. fa buttf ). A sale;
commercial -loaling; harter. Bur .or sale, in
the langttagc cf thu law. .signifies an exchange
of proportv for properly with the mutual con
sent of parties. For \be rules cowerriing
sales and barter, see Hamilton s Hidayah,
vol. ii. 3GO ; Bail lie"? Afuhtirfitnttdaii Law of
Sale. , T!ie fatdwd Atumgiri.
ISale, in its ordinary acceptation, is a
transfer of property in consideration of a
price in money. The word has a more com
prehensive meaning in the Muhammadan
law, and is applied to every exchange of pro
perty lor property with mutual consent. It,
therefore, includes barter as well as sale, and
also loan, when the articles lent are intended
to be consumed, ftad replaced to the lender by
-a Similar quantity of the same kind. This
transaction, which is truly an exchange of
property for property, is termed ifurr, in the
Muhariunndan law.
Between baiter and salo thore is rto essen
tial distinction in usi. systems of law. and
the joint subject mav in general be consider
ably simplified by bring ireatc-fl of. solely as a
sale. A course b*s been adopted in the
Muharmnatlati law, which obliges the reader
to fix his attention on both sides of the con
tract. This mny nt first appear to him to be
an unnecessary complication uf the subject,
but when he becomes acquainted with the
deftnitkm of price, and the rules for the pro
hibition of excess in the exchange of a largo
class of commodities, wbieh apply to every
form of the contract, be will probably be of
opinion that to treat of the subject in any
other w.iy would be attended with at least
equal difficulties
J. ijf. ui hi point which sfcrns to require hia
attention is the meaning of the word " pro
perty " as it occurs in the definition ot sale.
original term (*/), which has been thus
translated, is defined by Muhammadan
lawyers to be - that which can be taken
possession of and secured." This definition
seems to imply that it is tangible or corpo
real, and things or substances are accordingly
the proper subjects of sale. Mere rights are
not jflfil, and cannot therefore be lawfully sold
apart from the corporeal things with whicb*
they rmy happen to bo connected. Of suuli
rights one of tbc most important is the right
BAI
BAI*
31
ol a creditor to exact payment of a debt,
which is not a proper subject of sale. Jn
uiher worde, debts cannot, by t.h Muham-
madnn law. any more than by tho common
UWB of England and Scotland, be lawfully
sold.
Things are commonly divided into niove-
able and immoveable. the latter compre
hending: land and things permanently attached
to it. Hut HIP distinction id not of much im
portance in the Muhammadan lr\v. as the
transfer of land is in nowise distinguished
from that of other kinds of property.
A more important division of things is that
into mifili and knmini. The former are things
which, when th*y happen to perish, are to bo
replaced by on equal quantity of something
similar to them; and th latter are thing."
which, in the same circumstances, are to be
replaced by their value. These two classe?
have been aptly styled "similars" and " dis-
simiiars " by Mr. Hamilton, in hie translation
of the Hiddyuh. Similars are things which
are usually sold or exchanged by weight, or
by measurement of capacity, that is, by dry
or liquid measure; and dissimilnrs are things
which are not sold or exchanged in either of
these ways. Articles which are nearly alike,
and are commonly sold or exchanged by
number or tale, are classed with the first
division of t >ings. and may be termed " simi
lars of tale " ; while .articles which differ mate
rially from each other, yet are still usually
9old or exchanged by number, belong to th>
second division, md may be called dissimi
lars of tale." Dirhams and dinars, the onlj
reined money known to the old Arabs, are
included among similars of weight.
Similars of weight and capacity are dis
tinguished in the Muhammad an law from all
other descriptions of property in a very re
markable wjiy. Wheti one article of weight
is sold or exchanged for another article of
weight, or one of measure is sold or ex
changed for another of measure. th^ delivery
of both must be immediate from hand to hand,
and any delay of delivery in one of them is
unlawful and jrohibited. Where, again, the
articles exchanged are also of the same kind,
ns when wheat is sold for wheat, or gilver for
.silrer, there must not only be reciprocal and
immediate delivery of both before the separa
tion of the parties, but also absolute equality
of weight or measure, according as the articles
are weighable or measurable, and any excess
on either side is also unlawful ami prohibited.
These two prohibitions constitute in brief the
doctrine of reha, cr * usury," which is a marked
characteristic of the Muhammadan law of aalo.
The word reha proporly signifies excess,"
and there are no terms in the Muhnminadan
law which corresponds to tho words " interest "
and " usury," i the sense attached to them
in the English language ; but it was expressly
prohibited by Muhammad to his followers to
derive any advantage from loans, and that
particular kind of advantage which is called
by u interest, and consists in the receiving
back from the borrower a larger quantity
than w* actually lent to him, was effectually
prevented by the two rules nbovu mentioned
Those, hke some other principles <>[ Muhnin-
madan hiw, are applied with a rigoui and
minuteness that may to us seem incommen
surate with their importance, but are easily
accounted for when we know that ihy are
believed to be of divine origin
Similars of weight and capacity havo a
common feature of resemblance, which dis
tinguishes them in their own nature from
other commodities, and marks -with further
peculiarity their treatment in the Muham
madan law. They are aggregates of minate
parts, which are either exactly alike, or so
nearly resemble each other, that the differ
ence between them maybe safely dif regarded.
For this reason they are usually dealt Vilh in
bulk, regard being had only to the whole of a
stipulated quantity, and not to the individual
parts of which it is composed. When sold
in this manner they are said to be indeter
minate. They may, however, be rendered
specific in several ways. Actual delivery, or
production vfith distinct reference at the tirao
of contract, seems to be sufficient lor that
purpose in all cases. hut something short
of this would suffice for iili similars but
money. Thus, flour, or am kind of grain,
may be rendered specific by being enclosed
ia a sack ; or oil, or any liquid, by beinif put
into casks or jars ; and though the vessels
are not actually produced at the time of con
tract, their contents may U<* sufficiently par
ticularised by description of the vessels and
iheir locality. Money is not susceptible of
being thus particularised, and dirimms and
dinars are frequently referred to in the fol
lowing pages as things which cannot be ren
dered specific by description, or specification,
as it is more literally termed. Henco. money
is said to be always indeterminate. Other
similars, including similars of tale, are some
times specific and sometimes indeterminate.
Dissimilars. including those >tf tale^ are always
specific.
" When similars are sold indeterminately,
! the purchaser has no right to any wpooitic
portion of them until it be separated from ;
general mass, and marked or identified us
the subjert of the contract. From, the
luomwfit of offer till actual deliver} , he has
nothing to roly upon but the seller s obliga
tion, which may, therefore, be considered the
direct subject of the contract, iinnilars taken
indeterminately are accordingly termed dayn,
or " obligations," in the Muhammadan law.
When taken specifically, they are cla-ssed
with dissimilar^, under the general name of
j ayn. The literal meaning of this term is
: substance or thing "; but when opposed to
! dayn it means something determinate or spe-
i cific. The subject of traffic may thus be
j divided into two classes, specific and indeter-
minate ; or. if we substitute for the latter tho
word " obligation," and omit the word " spe
cific as unnecessary when not opposed to
indeterminate. " these classes may, according
to the view of Muhammadan lawyers, be
described as things and obligations.
There IK some degree of presumption in using
32
BAV
BA1 1
a word in any other than its ordinary accepta
tion; and it is not without hesitation .that (Mr.
Baillie says?) I have ventured to employ the
werd " obligation " t o signify indeterminate
things. My reasons for doing so are these : first
it expresses the exact meaning of the Arabic
word dayn, and yet distinguishes this use of
it from another sense, in which it is also
employed in the Muhammadan. law ; second,
it preserves consistency iu the law. Thus, it
will be found hereafter that the effect of sale
is said to be to induce a right in the buyer to
the thing sold, end in. the seller to the price,
end that this effect follows the contract im
mediately before reciprocal possession by the
contracting parties. Now, it is obvious that
this is impossible with regard to things that
are indeterminate, if tho things tnemselves are
considered the subject of the contract , and cases
are mentioned where it is expressly stated that
there is no transfer of property to the purchaser,
when similars of weight of capacity are sold
without being distinctly specified, until actual
possession take place. The difficulty, dis
appears if we consider not the thing itself
but the obligation to render it to be the sub
ject of contract ; for a right to the obligation
passes immediately to the purchaser, and the
seller may be compelled to perform it. If we
now revert to the division of things into simi
lars and dissimilare, money which, it has
been remarked, is always indeterminate is
therefore an obligation ; diesimilara, which
are always specific, ?.ve never obligations ;
and other similars, except money, being some
times specific and sometimes indeterminate,
are at one time obligations, and at another
time things or substances.
Before proceeding farther it is necessary to
advert more particularly to the. other sense in
which the word dayn is frequently employed
in the. Mubammadan law. It means strictly
* obligation," as already observed; but the
obligation may be either that of the contract
ing party himself, or of another. lu the
farmer sense deyn is not only a proper sub
ject of tragic, but forms the sole Subject oi
one important kind of sale, hereafter to be
noticed. But when dayn is used to signify
the obligation of another than the contracting
party, it .is not a proper subject of traffic.
and, as already observed, oannot be lawfully
sold. In the following pages dayn has been
always translated by the word " debt " when it
signifies the obligation of a third party, and
generally by the word "obligation," when it sig
nifies the engagement, of the contracting party
himself, though when the things represented by
the obligation are more prominently brought
forward, it has sometimes been found neces
sary to substitute the expression, "indeter
minate things."
Though barter and sale for P price, are con-
ftmnded under one general nurne in the Mn-
hammadau law, it is sometimes necessary to
consider one of the things exchanged as more
strictly the subject of sale, or thing sold, and
the other as the price- In this view the former
is termed mabl*. and the latter $aman. \
or " price," is defined to be dayn ft \
zimmak, or, literally, an " obligation in respon
sibility." From which, unless the expression
is a mere pleonasm, it would appear that the
word dayn is sometimes used abstractly, and
in a sense distinct from the idea of liability.
That idea, however, is necessary to constitute
price ; for though cloth, when properly de
scribed, may, by reason of its divisibility and
the similarity of its parts, be sometimes
assumed to perform the function of price in a
contract of sale, it is only when >t is not im
mediately delivered, but is to remain for some
time on the "responsibility of he contracting
party, that it can be adopted for that pur
pose.
It is n general principle of the Muham-
niaiaa law of sale, founded on a declaration
of the Prophet, that credit cannot bo opposed
to> credit, that is. that both the things ex
changed cannot be allowed to remain on tho
responsibility of the parties. Hence, it is
only with regard to one of them that any
stipulation for delay iu its delivery is lawful
Price, from its definition above given, admits
of being left on responsibility, and accord
ingly a stipulation for delay in the payment
of tiie price is quite lawful and valid. It
follows that a stipulation for delay in the
delivery of the things sold cannot be lawful.
And thid is the case, with the exception
of one particular kind of sale, hereafter
to be noticed, in which the thing sold is
always indeterminate*, aud the price is paid
in advance. It may, therefore, be said of all
specific things when tha subject of sale, that
a stipulation for delay in their delivery is
illegal, and would invalidate a sale. The
object of this rule may have been to prevent
any change oi the thing sold before delivery,
aud the disputes which might ia consequence
ariao between the parties. But if they were
allowed to seleot whichever they pleased of
the articles exchanged to stand for the price,
and the other for the thing sold, without any
regard to their qualities, the object of the
last-mentioned rule, whatever it may have
been, might be defeated. This seems to have
led to another arrangement of things into
different classes, according to their capacities
for supporting the functions of price or of
the thing sold in a contract of Bale. The first
class compre heeds d irhams and dinars, which
are always price. The second class comprises
the whole division of dissimilars (with the
single exception of cloth) which are always
the thing sold, or subject of sale, in a con
tract. The third class couiprises, first, all
similars of capacity ; second, all similars of
weight, except dirhanis and dinars and,
third, all similars of tale. The whole of this
class is capable of supporting both functions,
and is sometimes the thing sold, and some
times the price. The fourth class comprises
clpth, and the copper coin called fttttts.
Sale implies a reciprocal vesting of the
price in the seller find of the thing sold in
the purchaser. This, as already remarked, is
called its legal-effect, and sale may be divided
into different stage;; or degrees of complete
ness, according as this effect is immediate,
BAP
suspended, invalid, or obligatory. Thus, salt?
must ilrst of &11 be duly constituted or con
tracted. After that, there may still be some
bar to its operation, which occasions a sus
pension 01 its effect. This generally arises
from a defect of power in the seller, who may
not be fully competent to art for himself, or
may have insufficient authority, or no autho
rity whatever, over the subject of sale. Tn
this class of sales the effect is dependent on
the assent or ratification of some other person
than the party actually contracting. ^ut
whether the effect of a sale be immediate or
suspended, there may be some taint of ille
gality in the mode of constituting it, or in its
subject, or there may be other circumstances
connected with it, which render it invalid.
The Causes of illegality are many and
various. But even though a sale should be
unimpeachable on the previous gronnds, that
is, though it should be duly constituted,
operative or immediate in its effect, and free
from any ground of illegality, still it may
not be absolutely binding on the parties.
This brings us to another remarkable pecu
liarity of the Muhammadan law, viz. the
doctrine of option, or right of cancellation.
The Prophet himself recommended one of his
followers to reserve a locus penitentix, or
option, for three days in all his purchases.
This has led to the option by stipulation,
which may be reserved by either of the
parties. But besides this, the purchaser has
an option without any stipulation, with
regard to things which he has purchased
witnout. seeing, and also on account of defects
in the thing sold The greatest of all defects
ia a want of title or right in the seller. The
two last options to the purchase constitute
a complete warranty of title and against all
defects on the part of the seller, in which
respect the Muhammadan more nearly re
sembles the Scotch than the English law of
sale.
There are many different kinds of sale.
Twenty or more have been enumerated in tha
Nikayah. of which eight are mentioned and
explained. Four of these, which have refer
ence to the thing sold, may require some
nonce in this place. The first, called Mu-
qayazahi is described as a sale of things for
things, and correspondb nearly with barter;
BAI (
33
but the word " thing " (-ayri) v
opposed
to obligations, and muqayazah is therefore
properly an exchange of specific for specific
things. So that if the goods exchanged were
on both sides or on either side indeterminate,
the transaction would not, T think, be a.
mitqdyazah, though still barter. The second i
sale Is called far/, and is defined to be an
exchange of obligations for obligations. The
usual objects oi ihis contract ane dirhams and
dinars, which being obligations, the defini
tion is generally correct. But an exchange of
money for bullion, or bullion for bullion, i also
a surf, and every sale of an obligation for an
obligation is not a $arf, so that the definition
is redundant as well as defective. It is essen
tial to the legality of this kind of sale, that
both the things exchanged should be delivered
and taken possession of before the separation
of the parties, and that when they are of the
.same kind, as silver for silver, or gold for
gold, they should also be exactly equal by
weight. These rules are necessary for the
avoidance of reba, or " usury," as already ex
plained ; and the whole of forf, which is
treated of at a length quite disproportionate
to its importance, may be considered a a
continued illustration of the doctrine of re 61.
The third kind of sale is salam. It has been
already observed that there can be no lawful
stipulation for a postponement of the deliv^y
of the thing sold, except under one particular
form or sale. The form alluded to is salcnn.
This word means, literally, an advance";
and in a $alam sale the price is immediately
advanced for the goods to be delivered at a
future fixed time. It is only things of the
class of similars that can be sold in this way.
and as they must necessarily be indetermi
nate, the proper subject of sale is an obliga
tion ; while, on the other hand, as the price
must be actually paid or delivered at the
time of the contract, before the separation of
the parties, and must, therefore, even in the
case of its being money, be produced, and in
consequence be particularised or specific, a
salam sale is strictly and properly the sale of
an obligation for a thing, as defined above.
Until actual payment or delivery of the price,
however, it retains its character of an obliga
tion, and for this reason the price and the
goods are both termed " debts," and are
adduced in the same chapter as examples of
the principle that the sale of a debt, that is,
of the money or goods which a person is
under engagement to pay or deliver, before
possession, is invalid. The last of the sales
referred to is the ordinary exchange of goods
for money, which being an obligation, the
transaction is defined to be the sale of things
for obligations.
There is another transaction which comes
within the definition of sale, and has been
already noticed, but may be further adverted
to in this place. It is that which is called
Q,arz in the Arabic, and " loan " in the "English
language. The borrower acquires an abso
lute right of property in the things lent, and
comes under an engagement to return an
equal quantity of things of the same kind.
The transaction is "therefore necessarily
limited to similars, whether of weight, capa
city, or tale, and the things lent and repaid
being of the same kind, the two rules already
mentioned for the prevention of re&a, or
" usnry," must be strictly observed. Hence
it follows that any stipulation on the part of
the borrower for delay or forbearance by the
lender, or any stipulation by the lender for
interest to be paid by the borrower are alike
unlawful.
Notwithstanding the stringency of the rules
for preventing usury, or the taking any inter
est on the loan of money, methods were found
for evading them and still keeping within the
letter ,.f the law. It had always been con
sidered lawful to take a pledge to secure the
repayment of a debt. Pledges were ordi-
34
BAI*
AJ>BA I8
narily of movable property ; when given as
security for a debt, and the pledge happened
to perish in the hands of the pawnee, the debt
was held to be released to tho extent of the
value of the pledge. Land, though scarcely
liable to this incident, was sometimes made
the subject of pledge, and devices were
adopted for enabling the lender to derive
some advantage from its possession while in
in the state of pledge. But the moderate
advantage to be derived in this way does not
seem to have contented the money-lenders,
who in all ages and countries have been of a
grasping disposition, and the expedient of a
sale with a condition for redemption was
adopted, which very closely resembles an
English mortgage. In the latter, the condi
tion is usually expressed in one of two ways,
viz. either that the sale shall become void,
or that the lender shall resell to the seller, on
payment of principal and interest at an
assigned term. The first of these forms
would be inconsistent with the nature of sale
under the Muhammadan law, but a sale with
a covenant by the lender to reconvey to the
seller on repayment of the loan seeins to
have been in use probably long before the
form was adopted in Europe. It is probable
that a term was fixed within which the re
payment should be made. If repayment
were made .at the assigned term, the lender
was obliged to reconvey ; but if not, the pro
perty would remain his own, and the differ
ence between its Value and the price or sum
lent might have been made an ample compen
sation for the loss of interest. This forni of
sale, which was called Bavu l-wctfa, seems to
have been strictly legal according to the most
approved authorities, though held to be what
the law call.3 abominable, as a device for
obtaining what it prohibits.
In constituting sale there is no material
difference between the Muhummadan and
other systems of law. The offer and accept
ance, which are expressed or implied in all
cases, must be so connected as to obviate any
doubt. of the one being intended to apply to
the other. For this purpose the Muham
madan law requires that both shall be inter
changed at the same meeting of the parties,
and that no other business shall be suffered
to intervene between an offer and its accept
ance. A very slight interruption is sufficient
to break the continuity of a negotiation, and
to terminate the meeting in a technical sense,
though the parties should still remain in per
sonal communication. An acceptance after
the interruption of an offer, made before it
would be insufficient to constitute a sale.
This has led to distinctions of the meeting
which may appear unnecessarily minute to a
reader unacquainted with the manners, of
Eastern countries, where the people are often
very dilatory in their bargains, interspersing
them with conversation on indifferent topics.
It is only when a meeting has. reference to the
act of contracting that its meaning is thus
liable to be restricted ; for -when the word
occurs in other parts pf the law, as,, for
instance, when it is said of a $<jrf contract
that the things exchanged must be taken pos
session of at the meeting, the whole period
that the parties may remain together is to be
understood. As personal communication may
be inconvenient in some cases, and impossible
in others, the integrity of the meeting is held
to be sufficiently preserved when a party who
receives an offer by message or letter declares
his acceptance of it on receiving the cotmnti-
nication and apprehending its contents.
When a sale is lawfully contracted, the
property in the things exchanged passes im
mediately from a.nd to the parties respec
tively. In a legil sale, delivery and possession
are not necessary for this purpose. Until
possession is taken, however, the purchaser is
not liable for accidental loss, and the seller
has a Hen for the price on the thing sold.
Delivery by one party is in general tanta
mount to possession taken by the other. It
is, therefore, sometimes of great importance
to ascertain when there is a sufficient deli
very : and many cases, real or imaginary, on
the subject, are inserted in the Fatdwd
Alamglrit It sometimes happens that a
person purchases a thing of which he is
already in possession, and it then becomes
important to determine in what cases his
previous possession is convertible into a pos
session under the purchase. Unless so con
verted, it would be held that there is no
delivery under the sale, and the seller would
of course retain his lien and remain liable for
accidental loss,
Though possession is not necessary to com
plete the transfer of property under a legal
sale, the case is different where the contract
is illegal ; for here property does not pass till
possession is taken. , The sale, however,
though so far effectual, is still invalid, and
liable to be set aside by a judge, at the
instance of either of the parties, without any
reference to the fact of the person complain
ing being able to come before him with what
in legal phraseology is termed clean hands.
A Muhammadan judge is obliged by his law
to interfere for the sake cf the law itself, or,
as- it is more Rolemnly termed, for the right
of God, which ii is the duty of the judge to
vindicate, though by so doing he may afford
assistance to a party who personally may
Have no. just claim to his -interference. (TO*
M uhammadan L&w of Sale, according to the
Haneffee Cod .from the Fatawu Atamgiri by
Neil B. E. Baillie. Smith, Elder & Co".,
London.)
BAIL. Arabic &\** kafdlah. Bail
is of two descriptions : Kafdtah bi- n-nqfs, or
" security for the person "; Kafdlah bi- l-mdl t OT
" security for property." In the English courts
in India, bail tor the person is termed
ffdzir-zamani,&nd bail for property Zainatiah..
or " security. 1 Bail for the person is lawful
except in cases of punishnfent (ffudud) and
retaliation (Qifds^. (Hiddyah, vol. ii. p, 576.)
AL-BA IS (**Wtt). One of the
ninety-nine special names of Ged. It means
BATTU L-HAMD
HP who awakes " : " The Awakener " ( in
tho Day of Resurrection^.
BAITU L-IJAMD (*++)\ <**).
" The House of Praise." An expression which
occurs in the Traditions (Mishkat v. 7).
When the soul of a child is taken, God says,
" Build a house foi my servant in Paradise
and call it a house of praise,"
BAITU L HARAM ( r w\ <^~>).
" The Sacred House " A name given to the
Mecca n mosque. [MASJLDU L-HARAM.]
BAITU L-HIKMAH (*+<<J\ ^).
Lit. " The House of Wisdom." A term used
by Sufis for the heart of the sincere seekers
after (od. ( Abdu r-Razzaq s Dictionary of
Sufi Terms.)
BAITU L-LAH (W >*). "The
House of God." A name given to the Mecca n
mosque. [MAS JIDU L-HARAM. J
BAITU L-MAL (JUH ^,). Lit.
" The House of Property." The public trea
sury of a Muslim state, which the ruler is not
allowed to use for his personal expenses, but
only for the public good
The sources of income are : (I) Zakdt, or
the legal tax raised upon land, personal pro
perty, and merchandise, which, after deduct
ing the expense of collecting, should be ex
pended in the support of the poor and destitute.
(2) The fifth of all spoils and booty taken
in war. (3) The produce of mines find of
treaaure-trove (4) Property for which there
is no owner. (5) The Jizyak, or tax levied
on unbelievers. (HUda-vah^ Arabic ed . vol i.
p. 452.)
AL-BAITU L-MA MUR (o~J\
jjwutt). Lit. " The Inhabited House."
A house in the seventh heaven; visited by
Muhammad during the Mi raj or night-
journey. It is said to be immediately over
the sacred temple at Mnkkah.
BAITU L-MIDRAS (u-
"The House of Instruction." A term (used in
a tradition given by Abu Hurairah) for a
Jewish school. (Mishkal, xvii. c. xi.) In
rra
AL-BAITU L-MUQADDAS
&**&). "The Holy House." A
name given to the temple at Jerusalem.
[AL-MAS/IDU *L-AQSA.]
BAITU L.QUDS (^afiJl o~*).
Lit. " The House of Holiness." A term used
by the $ufis for the heart of the true seeker
"after God when it is absorbed in meditation.
( Afcciu r-Razzaq s Dictionary of Sufi Terms.}
BAI U L- WAFA (.UjH *). The
word wafa means the performance of a pro
mise, and the Bui u I- Wafu. is a sale with a
promise to be performed. It is, in fact, a
pledge in the hands of the pawnee, who is
not^its propritoj . nor is he free to make use
of it wiiuout th& pernaissior. of Ilia owner.
BANUN 35
There are different opinions about th legality
of this form of sale, but it is now the common
form of mortgage in use in India, where it ia
usually styled Bai* li-l-wafd. (See Baillie s
Muhammadan Law of Sale, p. 303.)
al-BAIYINAH (&JV). Lit. " The
Evidence." A title given to the xcvurth
Surah of the Qur an, in which the word
occurs.
BA<L(J*0,Heb.^jnn> i.e. "Lord."
The chief deity worshipped by the Syro-
Phcenician nations. It is known to the
Muhammndans as an idol worshipped in the
days of the Prophet Elisha. (See Ghiydgu V-
Lughah.)
BALAAM. There is said to be an
allusion to Balaam in the Qur an, Surah vii.
174, " Recite to them the story of him to
whom we gave our signs, and he departed
therefrom, and Satan followed him, and he
was of these who were beguiled."
The commentary of the Jalaiain says that
he -was a learned man amongst the Israelites,
who was requested by the Canaanites to
curse Moses at the time when he was about to
attack the Jabbdrun or " giants," a tribe of the
Canaanites. Balaam at first retused to do so
but at last yielded, when Vcaiuable presents
were made to him. (See Tufs iru V-./a/a/ain,
p. 142.)
BALAD (^?)- I M- ^ n j country,
district, or town, regarded as an habitation.
Al-BaJad,the sacred territory of Makkah. A
title given to the xcth Surah, in which tho
word occurs.
BALIGH (JV*). "Of years of legal
maturity; adult." [PUBKRTY.]
BANISHMENT. Arabic v-^
Taykrib. Expatriation for fornication Is
enjoined by Mubammadan law, according to
the Imam ash-Shan" *I, although} I is not allowed
by the other doctors of the law, and it is also
a punishment inflicted upon highway robbers.
BANKRUPT. There is no pro
vision in the Muhammadan law for declaring
a person bankrupt, and BO placing him beyond
the reach of his creditors ; but the Qazi can
declare a debtor insolvent, and free him from
the obligation of zakdt and almsgiving.
BANOISRA IL (JJ} r \f*). "The
Children of Israel." A title of the xvnth
Surah or chapter of the Qur an, called .-Jso
Suratu I-Afi rdj.
The plural of ibn
Sons ; posterity ;
.BANUN
(Heb. Q^3
tribe." The word is more familiar to English
readers in its inflected form Bani. The tribes
whose names occur frequently in tho early
history of Islam* and are mentioned in the
Traditions, are the Banu-Qur^is/t, Burtu n-
2Vq/; ar, />in/ - Quraizah, B .tnu Ki tdnah
BAPTISM
BABNABAS
Banu- Amir, Banu - Asad, Banu - Fazdrali,
Banu-Lihyun^ Banu-Tamim* BanH-Uinaiyah.
Banu-Zahrah, and Banu-Israd.
BAPTISM. The only allusion to
baptism in the Qur aJi is found in Surah ii.
132: "(We have) the baptism of Clod, and who
is better to baptise than Uod?" The word
here translated baptism is $ibp/iah.. lit.
"dye," which, the commentates kl-Jalalain
and al-B&izawi say, may, by compai (son, refer
to Christian baptisiri, " for," says al-Baizawi,
" the Nasara (Christians) were in the habit of
dipping their offspring in a yellow water which
they called al-Ma /nudn/ah arid said it purified
them arid confirmed them as Christians" (Sec
Tafslru I Jalafain and 1 ctfsiru l-JlaizduJi, in
loco.)
AL-BAQI
One
. of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It means
" He who remains ; " " The Everlasting One."
The title of the second Surah of the Quran,
occasioned by the story of the red heifer
mentioned in verse 63, "When. Moses said to
his people,, Clod oommrmdeth you to Sacrifice
a oo w."
BAQMJ L-GHARQAD(^) g-A).
or for shortness al-Baqi (~i?j\). The
buryiug-ground at ai-Mdinau,which Muham
mad used to frequent at uigut to pray for for
giveness for the dead. (W&hkdt, iv. c. 28.)
BARA AH (fc>V)- " Immunity, or
security." A. title given to the ixth Chapter
of the Qur an, called also Siirota t Taubuh,
" The Chapter of Repentance." Tt is remark
able as being the only .Surah without the
introductory form, "In the name of Ciod, the
Merciful, the Compassionate. Various reason;-:
are assigned for this omission. .Some com
mentators say that the prayer of mercy is not
placed at the head of a chapter which speaks
chietly of God s wrath
BARAH-I-WAFAT (^U. 6 ; V).
Btirah (Urdu) twelve," and Wafut. The
twelfth day of the month Rabtoi 1-Awwai,
observed in commemoration of Muhammad s
death.
It seems to be a day instituted by the Mu-
hammadans of India, and is not observed
universally amongst the Muslims of all coun
tries. On this day Fdtihahs are recited for
Muhammad s soul, and both in private houses
and mosques portions of the Traditions and
other works in praise of the Prophet s excel
lences are read,
The Wahhabis do not observe this day, as
it is believed to he an innovation, not having
been kept by the early Muslims.
AL-BARA IBN AZIB (^ *\^\
*-*Ac). One of the Companions who
accompanied Muhammad at the battle of the
Ditch, and in most of his subsequent engage
ments He assisted in conquering the district
of Rai, A.H. 22, and was with the Khali lah
All at the battle of the Camel, A.H, 36."
ALBART (c^UI). "The Maker."
One of the ninety-nine special names of God.
It occurs in the Qur an, Surah lix. 24 : " He is
God the Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner
His are the excellent names."
BAK1QAH (^). Lit. "Refulgence,
lightning." A term used by the Sufis for that
enlightenment of the so.ul, which at first comes
to the true Muslim as an earnest of greater
enlightenment. ( A,bdu r-Razzaq s Dictionary
nf Sufi 7Wa.)
BARNABAS, the Gospel of. The
Mubammadans assert that a gospel of Bar
nabas existed in Ajabic, and it is believed by
some thai Muhammad obtained his account
of Christianity from this spurious gospel.
" Of this gospel the MoriscoeB in Africa
have a translation in Spanish, and there is in
ttie library of Prince Eugene of Savoy a
manuscript of some antiquity, containing an
Italian translation of the same gospel, made.
it is supposed, for the use of renegades. This
book appears te be no original forgery of the
Muhamiuadans, though they have no doubt
interpolated aud altered it since, the better to
serve their purpose; and in particular,
iu.sUad of the Paraclete or Comforter (St.
.John xiv. 16,26 xv. 2t> . xvi 7). they have
in this apocryphal gospel inserted the word
Periclyte, that 13, " the famous or illustrious,"
by which they pretend their prophet was
foretold by name, that being the signification
of Muhammarl m Arabic; aud this they say
to justify that passage in the Qur an (Surah
HL) where Jesus is formally asserted to have
foretold b^s coiniug, under bis other name of
Ahmad, which is derived from the sucae root
as Muharnmau, and of the haute import.
From these or some other forgeries of the
same stamp, it is that Muhammadans quote
several passages of which there are not the
lea.st footsteps in the New Testament"
(Sale.)
After Mr. Sale had written the extract
whicL wu have quoted, he inspected a Spanish
translation of the Italian copy ot this apocry
phal gospel, of which he gives the following
account/: -
fi The book is a moderate quarlo. in Spanish,
written in a very legible hand, but a little
damaged towards the latter end. It contains
two hundred and twenty-two chapters of un
equal length, and four hundred aud twenty
pages ; and is said, in the front, to be trans
lated from the Italian by an Aragoman
Moslem named Mostafa de Aranda. There is
a preface prefixed to it, wherein the discoverer
of the original AIS., who was a Christian
monk called Fra Marino, tells up that, having
accidentally met with a writing of Irena&us
(among others), -wherein he speaks against
St Paul, alleging for his authority the gospel
of St. Barnabas, he became exceedingly desi
rous to find this gospel and that God, of his
mercy, having made him very intimate with
Pope Sixtns V., one clay, as they were toge
BARNABAS
BARNABAS
tber in that Pope s library, his Holiness fell
asleep, and he> to employ himself, reaching
down a book to read, the first be laid his
band on proved to be the very gospel he
wanted ; overjoyed at the discovery, be
scrupled not to hide his jirixe in his sleeve,
and on the Pope s awaking, look leave oi~ him,
carrying with him that celestial treasure, by
reading of which lie boram a convert to
Moharnmadanism.
" This Gospel of Barnabas contains a com
plete history of Jesus Christ, from His birth
to His ascension, and most of the circum
stances of the four real gospels are to be
found therein, but many of them tnrnod, and
some artfully enough, to favour the Muham-
madan system. From the design of the
whole, and the frequent interpolation, 6 ! of
stories and p.i^ag^, wherein Muhammad is
spoken of and foretold by name, a-> the mes
senger of God, and this great prophet who
was to perfect the dispensation of Jesus, it
appears to b> a most bare-faced forgery. One
particular 1 observe therein induces me to
believe it, to have been dressed up by a rene
gade Christian, slightly instructed in hi.-? DOW
religion, and not educated as a Muhaimnadan
(unless the fault be imputed to the Spanish,
or, perhaps, the Italian translator, and to the
original compiler). T mean Ihu giving to
Muhammad the title of Messiah, and that not,
once or twice only, but in several places ;
whereas, the titleof Messiah, or, as the Arabs
write it, al-Masih, i.e. Christ, is appropriated
to Jesus in the QurYw, and is constantly
applied by the Muhanwiadans to him, and
never to their own Prophet. The passages
produced from, the Italian MS. by M. de la
Monnoye are to be seen m this Spanish ver
sion almost word for word."
The Rev. Joseph White, D.I)., in his Bamp*
ton Lectures of 1784, gives a translation of
those chapters in this spurious Gospel of Bar
nabas, which relate to the supposed cruci
fixion of Judas in the place of our Lord,
and which wo insert :
"Judas came near to the people with whom
Jegus wan, ,ir,d when He heard the noise He
entered iuto the house where the disciples
slept. And God. seeing the fear and danger
Of Hi .servant, ordered Gabriel and Michael
and Rafail and Azrail to carry Him out of the
woild
" And they came in all haste, and bare Him
out of the window which looks towards the
south. And they placed Him in the third
heaven, where He will remain blessing God,
in the company of angels, till near the end of
the world." (Chapter 216.)
" And- Judas the traitor entered before the
rest into the place from which Jesus had just
been taken up. And the disciples were
sleeping. And the Wonderful God acted
wonderfully, changing Judas into tho same
figure and speech with Jesus.
We believing that it was He. said to him.
Master, whom seekest thou? And he said to
them, smiling, Ye have forgotten yourselves,
since ye do not know Judas Iscanot
"At this time the soldiery entered; and
seeing Judas &n like in every respect to Jesus
laid hands upon him," &r>. (Chapter 217.)
" In whifih (Chap. 218) i related the passion
of Jmlas the traitor.
" The soldiers afterwards took Jndn<? and
bound bun, notwithstanding he said with
truth to them that he was not Jesus. Anl
soldiers mocked him saj ing, Sir, do not be
afraid ; for we are come to make thoe King
of Israel : and we have bound thee, because
we know thou hast refused the kingdom. And
Judas said, Ye have lost your senses.
" I came to show you Jesus, that ye mi.-jht.
take Him and yo Lave bound me. who nm
your guide. The soldiers lost, their patience,
hearing this, and they began to go with him,
Striking and bnrtetmg him, till they reached
Jerusalem." &c. <\ (Chapter 218.)
"They carried him to Mount Calvary,
where they executed criminals, and crucified
him, <*t Hoping him asked for the greater
ignominy. Then he did notning but cry out.
O my God, why hast thou forsaken me, that
T should die unjustly, when the real male
factor bfUih escaped ? I say in truth that he
was so like in person, figure, and gesture to
Jesus, that as many an knew Him. believe.!
firmly that it was He, except Peter, loi
which reason many left his doctrine, believing
that it had been false : as He had said that
He should noi die till the end .if the world.
" But those who stood firm were oppressed
with grief, seeing him die whom they under
stood to be Jesus : not recollecting what He
had told them. And in company witn His
mother, they were present at his death, weep
ing continually. And by moans of Joseph
Abartmatbaaji (szV), they obtained from the
president the body of Judas. And they took
him down iiom the cross, burying him
with much lamentation in the new sepulchre
of Joseph ; having wrapped him up in linen
and precious ointment^. (Chapter 219.)
They all returned, each man to his
house: and he wh.-t writeth, with James and
John, -" int with the mother of Jesus to
Nazareth. And the disciples, who did not
Tear God with truth, went by night and stole
th body of Judas, and hid it ; spreading a
report tlial He (i.t. Jesus) had risen again,
from whence sprung great confusion among
the people.
" And the High Priest commanded, under
pain of anathema, that no one should talk of
him : and on this account raised a great per
secution, banishing some, tormenting others,
and even stoning some to death : because it
was not in the power of anyone to be silent
011 this subject. And then came news to
Nazareth, that Jesus had risen again. And
he that writeth desired the mother of Jesus
to leave off her lamentation. And Mary
said, Let us go to Jerusalem, to sec ii it is
truth. If I oe Him I shall die content.
(Chapter 220).
: The Virgin returned to Jerusalem with
him that writeth, and James and Joiin, the
same day that the decree of the High Priest
came out
And as she feared God, though She knrw
38
BARNABAS
the command was unjust, she entreated those
who talked with her not to speak of her Son.
Who can ay, how we -were then .affected?
God, who knows the heart of rnfcn, knows
that between the grief for the death of Jadas,
whom we understood to be Jesus, and the
pleasure of acting him risen again, we almost
expired. And the angels who were the
guardians of Mary went up to heaven the
third day, and told Jesus what virus passing.
And He, moved with compassion for His
mother, entreated of God that He might be
seen by His disciples. And the Compas
sionate God ordered His four favourite angels
to place Him within His own house, and to
guard Him three days ; that they and they
only might see Him. who believed in His doc-
tiine. Jesus descended, surrounded with
light, into the house of His mother, where
were the two sisters, Martha and Mary, and
Lazarus, and he that writeth, and Jqhn and
Jaruos, and Peter. And when they saw Him,
they fell with their faces on the earth as if
dead. And Jesus lifted them up, saying,
Fear not, for I am your Master. Lament not
henceforth, for I am alive. They were asto
nished at seeing Jesus, because they thoxight
Him dead. And Mary weeping said, Tell me,
my Son, why, if God gave Thee power to raise
up the dead, did He consent that Thou
shouldest die, with so much reproach and
shame to Thy relations and friends, and so
much hurt to Thy doctrine, leaving us all in
desolation? Jesus replied, embracing His
mother, Believe me. for 1 toll thee the truth,
I have not been dead; for God has reserved
Me for the end of the world, tn saying this
He desired the angel s to manifest themselves,
and to tell how He had passed through every
thing. At the instant they appeared like four
suns ; and all present prostrated themselves
on the ground, overcome by the presence of
the Hflgels. Aud Jesus gave to all of them
something to cover themselves with, that they
migLt be able to hear the angels speak.
And Jesus said to His. mother. These are
the Ministers of God. Gabriel knows His
secrets : Michael fights with His enemies ;
Asr-iiicl will cite all to judgment-; and Azrael
receives the souls. Aud the holy ai.gels
told how they had, by the command, of God,
taken up Jesus, and transformed Judas, that
be might suiter the punishment which he
wished to bring on Jesus. And he that
writeth said, Is it lawful for me to ask of
Thee, in the same manner as when thou wast
in the world? A.ud Jesus answered. Speak.
Barnabas, what thout wishest.
" And he said, 1 wish that Thou wouldeet
left me how God, being &o compassionate,
could afflict as so much, in giving us to
understand that Thou wast he that suffered,
for >e> hive been very /tear dying ? And
T ho . boii;, s prophet, why did He suffer
The* lo f/.U undar disgrace, by (apparently)
placing T hv t <>ti r cross, and between two
robbeic ? J^ru.r. uu.,weved, Believe Me, Bar
nabas, let tue tault b<.- over so small God
chastiseth it -with much punishment. And as
my tnotber and faithful dibciples loved roe
BAKZAKI1
with * little earthly love, God chastised that
love by this grief ; that He might not chastise
ft in the other world. And though I was
innocent, yet as they called Me God, and His
Son, that the devils might not mock Me on
the Day of Judgment, He has chosen that I
should be mocked in this world.
"And this mocking shall last till the holy
Messenger of God (i.e. Muhammad) shall
come, who shall undeceive all believers.
And then He said, Jnst art Thou, God 1 and
to Thee only bolongeth the honour and glory,
with worship, for ever." (Chapter 221.)
And then He said, Barnabas, that thou
by all means write my gospel, relating every
thing which has happened in the world con
cerm ng Me ; and let it be done exactly; in
order that the faithful may be undeceived,
knowing the truth. He that writeth said,
Master, I will do it as Thou commandest me,
God willing: but I did not see ail that hap
pened with Judas. Jesus answered, Here
stand Peter and John, who saw it, and will
relate it to thee.
"And He told James and John to call the
seven apostles who were absent, and Nico-
demus, and Joseph Abarhcatheas (sic), and
some of the seventy-two disciples. When they
were come, they did eat with Him; and on
the third day He commaridedthem all to go to
the mount of Olives with His mother : because
He was to return to heaven. All the apostles
and disciples went, except twenty-five of the
seventy-two, who had Bed to Damascus with
fear. And exactly at Ynid-day, while they
were a"ll in prayer, Jesus came with many
angels (blessing God), with so much bright
ness that they all bent their faces to the
ground. And Jesus raised them up, saying,
Fear not your Master, who comes to take
leave of you; and to recommend you to God
our Lord, by the -mercies received from His
bounty: and be He with you!
" And upon this He disappeared with
the angels ; all of us remaining amazed at the
great brightness in which he left us."
(Chapter 222).
AL-BARR (^\). One of the ninety-
nine special names of God. In its ordinaVy
sense it means " pious," or " good." As
applied to God, it means " The Beneficent
One."
BARTER. [BAI .]
BARZAKH (ej^). (1) A thing
that intervenes between any two things; a
bar; an obstruction- or a thing that makes a
separation between two things. In which
sense it is used in the Qu ran in tavo places.
Surah xxv. 55, " He hath put an interspace
between them (i.e. the two seas), and a barrier,
which it is forbidden them to pass." Surah
IT. 20, "Yet between them (the two seas) is a
barrier." ,
(2) The interval between tbe presort life
and that which is to come. See Qur an,
Surah xxiii. 99, "And say, My Lord, I seek
refuge with Thee from the meltings of the
devils, aadlaeek reiuge with Thee from their
BA S
BA7AQ
39
presence. Until when death comes to any
one of them, he says, My Lord ! send me
buck (to life), if haply I may do right in that
which I have left. Not so ! A mere word that
he sp: j afcs ! But behind them there is barzakh
(a bar), until the day when they shall be
raised. Am? when the trumpet shall be
blown, there shall be no relation between
them on that day, nor shall they beg of each
other then." Upon this verse the commentator
Bi/<iwi aavs : " Kurzakk is an intervening state
, (#<? //, a ban-ier ) between death and the Day
of Judgment, and whoever dies enters it." The
commentator Husain remarks : " Barzabh is
a partition (warn*) between the living and the
Day of Judgment, namely, the grave in which
they will remain until the resurrection." The
commentators al-Jalalain speak of it as a
hajiz, or intervening stnte between death
and judgment. Abdu r-Raz/aq in his Dic
tionary of Technical Terms of the, Sufis
(Spronger s Edition), gives a similar defini~
tion.
The word is employed by Mnhammadan
writers in at least two senses, some using it for
the place of the dead, the grave, and others
for the state of departed souls between death
and judgment.
The condition of believers iu the grave is held
to be one of undisturbed rest, but that of unbe
lievers one of torment : for Muhammad is
related to have said, " There are appointed
for the grave of the ut believer ninety-nine
serpents to bite him until the Day of Resur
rection." (Mishkat,\. c. 5, p. 12.) The word
seems generally to.be used in the sense of
Hades, for every person who dies is said to
enter al-Barzakh.
BA S (^-**). Lit. " Raising." (1)
The Day of Resurrection. (2) The office of
a messenger or prophet.
BASE MONEY. The sale of one
pure dirh-am and two base ones in exchange for
two pure dirhams and one base one is lawful.
By two base ones (ghalatain), are to be
understood such as pass amongst merchants
bat are rejected at the public treasury.
(fliddyah, vol. ii. 560.)
al-BA?lR.Go-*H). One of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It fre
quently occurs in the Qur an. and moans
" The All-seeing One."
BASIRAH (S,--?). Lit. " Penetra
tion." The sight of the heart as distinguished
from the sight of the eye (Ba*drah or Ba?ar).
A term used by theologians to express that
enlightenment of the heart whereby the
spiritual man can understand spiritual things
with an much certainty as the natural man
can see objects with the sight of the eye.*
The word occurs twice in the Qnr an, Surah
xii. 108, " This is my way ; I cry unto God,
routing on clear evidence. ," Surah Ixxv. 14,
" A man shall be evident* against himself.
AL-BASIT (kAj31). One of the
-aine gpociul names of God. tt means
" He who spreads, or stretches out," and
occurs in the Qur an, Surah xiii. 15. Af
applied to God, it means, " He who disrmnfcnft
riches," Ac,
BASTARD (\*$\ jJj waladn- z-mnii).
An illegitimate child has, according to Mu-
haimnadan law, no legal father, and conse
quently the* law does riot allow the father to
interfsro with his illegitimate child, even for
the purposes of education. He cannot inherit
the property of his father, but he is acknow
ledged as the rightful heir of his mother
(Baillie s Digest, p. 432). The evidence of a
bastard is valid, because ha is innocent with
respect to the immorality of his parents ; but
the Imam Malik maintains that bis testimony
is not to be accepted with respect to a charge
of whoredom. (Flidayak, vol. ii, 692.)
BATHING, The Arabic term for
ordinary bathing is (J A) gliasl, and
that ior the religious purification of the whole
body ghitsf. In all large mosques, and in most
respectable dwellings in Muhammadan coun
tries, there are bnt ring-rooms erected, both
for the ordinary purposes of bathing and
for the religious purification. An account
of the legal purification will be found in the
artiolo GHUSK. Although purifications and
bathing form so essential a part of the Muslim
religion, cleanliness does not distinguish
Muhammadanp, who are generally in this
respect a striking contrast to their Hindu
fellow subjects in India; According to the
saying of Muhammad, decency should be
Observed in bathing, and the clothes from the
waist downwards should not be taken off at
such times. (Mish/cat, iL c. iv.)
BATIL (JW 7 ). That which is false
in doctrine.
AL-BATIN (^Wtt). (1) One of the
ninety-nine special names of God. It means
" that which ia hidden or concealed," " The
Hidden One," or " He that knows hidden
things." (2) A term used in theology
for that which is hidden in its ji^aning, in
contradistinction to that which is evident.
BATlTL (J~?). Lit. "Aahoot or
offset of a palm-tree cut off from its mother
tree ; "a virgin " (as cut off or withheld from
men). The term al-Bntul is applied to
Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, because
she was separated from the other women of
her age by her excellences. Heb. nSVrQ
Bfthulah.
BA tTg (*ysV,). A Syriac word,
NrWl (* * "P etition prayer"),
which, in the dictionary at-Qdmun, is said to
mean the Christian Easter ; and also prayers
for rain, or the Istisqn of the Christians.
(Majmu t- Bihar, p. 101.)
BAZAQ or BAIQ (u-M- ^ pro
hibited liquor. The juice of the grape boiled
40
BEARD
BELIEVERS
until a quantity leas than two-thirds evapo
rates.
BEARD. Arabic &J lihyah or
&J zaqan. The beard is regarded
by Muslims as the badge of the dignity of
manhood. The Prophet is related to have
said, "Do tbe opposite of the polytheists and
let your beard grow long." (Mish/cdt, xx, iv.)
And the growing of a beard is said to be
Fitrah, or one of those customs which have
been observed by every Prophet. [FITRAH.]
BEAUTY, Female: " The maiden,
whose loveliness inspires the most impas
sioned expression in Arabic poetry and prose,
is celebrated for her slender figure : she is
like the cane among plant?, and is elegant as
the twig of the oriental wiliow. Her face is
like the full moon, presenting the strongest
contrast to the colour of her hair, which (to
preserve the nature of the simile just em
ployed) is of the deepest hue of night, aud
descends to the middle of her back. A rosy
blush overspreads the centre of each cheek ;
and a mole is considered an additional charm.
Tho Arabs, indeed, are particularly extrava
gant in their admiration of this natural beauty-
spot, which, according to its place, is com
pared to a globule of ambergris upon a dish
of alabaster, or upon the surface of a ruby.
The eyes of the Arab beauty are intensely
black, large, and long, of the form of an
almond ; they are full of brilliancy : but this
is softened by a lid slightly depressed, and by
long silken lashes, giving a tender and languid
expression, which is full of enchantment, and
scarcely to be improved by tbe adventitious
aid of the black border of the kuhl , for this
the lovely maiden adds rather for the sake of
fashion than necessity, having what the Arabs
term natural kuhl The eye- brows are thin
and arched, the forehead is wide, and fair as
ivory ; the nose straight, the mouth small ;
tbe lips are of a brilliant red, and the teeth
; like pearls set in coral." The forms of the
bosom are compared to two pomegranate? ;
the waist is slender ; the hips are wide and
large ; the feet and hands small ; the fingers
tapering, and their extremities dyed with the
deep orange-red tint imparted by Hie ^o.ives
of hi rind.
The following is the most complete analysis
of Arabian beauty, given by an unknown
author, quoted by Al-Ishaqi :- -
" Four things in a woman should be hlftr.k. :
the hair of the head, the eye-browy, the eye
lashes, and the dark part of the eyes : four
white : the complexion of the skin, tLo white
of the eyes, the teeth, and the legs ; four red:
the tongue, the lips, the middle of the checks,
and the gumz; four round: the head, the
neck, the fore-anna, and the ankles ; four
lony . the back, the fingers, the arms, and the
legs : four wide : the forehead, the eyes, the
bosom, and the hips - } four /?;ie : the eye-brows.
the nose, the lips, and the fingers ; four thick:
the lower part of the back, the thighs, the
calves of the legs, and the knees ; four smalt:
the ears, the breasts, the hands, and the feet."
(Lane s Arabian Niyhts, vol. i. p. 25.)
BEGrOINGr. It is not lawful for
any person possessing sufficient food for a
day and night to beg (Durru l-Mukhtar, p.
108), and it is related that the Prophet said :
" Acts of begging are scratches and wounds
with which a man wounds his own face." "It
is better for a man to take a rope and bring
in a bundle of sticks to sell than to beg."
" A man who continues to beg will appear in
the Day of Judgment without any flesh on
his face." (Mishkdt, Book vi. chap, v.)
BEINGS. According to Muham-
madan belief, there are three different species
of created intelligent beings : (1) Angels
(SfalffMa&y, who are said to be created of
light; (2) Genii (Jinn), who are created of
fire; (3) Mankind (Insan). created of earth.
These intelligent beings are called Zauru Y-
Uqfil, or " Rational beings," whilst unintelli
gent beings " are called Ghair Zawl V- UquL
ffoytauani-Ndtiq ia also a term used for
rational beings (who can speak), and
Haynwdni- Ajam for all irrational creatures.
[JINN.]
BELIEVERS. The terms used
for believers are Mu min, pi. Mu minun.: and
Muslim, pi. Muslimun. The difference ex
pressed in these two words ia explained in tbe
Traditions, in a Hadi$ given in the Sahih of
Muslim (p. 27), where it is recorded by TJmar,
as having been taught by Muhammad, that a
Mu"min is one who baa iman, or " faith ;"
Faith being a sincere belief in God, His
angels, His inspired books, Hi.s prophets, the
Day of Resurrection, and the predestination
of good and evil; and that a Muslim is one
who is resigned and obedient to the will of
God, and bears witness that there is no god
but God, and that Muhammad is His Apostle,
and is steadfast in prayer, and gives zak.at,
or legal alms," and fasts in the month of
Raraazan, and makes a pilgrimage to the
Temple (Bait) at Makkah, if he have tbe
means.
The rewards in store for the believer are
as follows fsee Suralu "l-Baqarah, Surah ii.
76):-
" They who have believed and donj the
things that be right, they shall be the inmates
of Paradise, therein to abide for ever.*
Swat n-Nisd, Surah iv. 60
;t Those who have believed, and done the
things that are right, we will bring them into
gardens neath which the rivers flow therein
to abide eternally ; therein shall they have
wives of stainless purity: and we will bring
them into shadowing shades."
&tiratu l-A^rdf, Surnh vii. 40:-
" Those who have believed and done the
things which are right, (we will lay on no one
a burden beyond his power) these shall be
inmates of Paradise : for ever shuJl they abide
therein ;
"And will we remove whatever rancour was
in their bosoms : rivers shall roll at their feet ;
and they shall say, Praise be to God who
hath guided u>- hither! We t^d not been
guided had not God guided ns! Of a surety
BELLS
BESTIALITY
41
the Apostles of our Lord came to us with
truth. 1 And a voice shall cry to them, This
is Paradise, of which, as the meed of your
work;*, ye are made fieirs.
" And the inmates of Paradise shall cry to
the inmates oi the Fire, "Now have we found
what our Lord promised us to be true. Have
yc too found what your Lord promised you to
be true? And they shall answer, Yea.
And a Herald shall proclaim between them :
The curse of God be upou the evil doers,
"Who turn men aside from the way of
God, and seek to make it crooked, and who
believe not in the life to come !
" And between them shall be a partition ;
and on rhu well al-A raf, shall he men who
will know all, by their token.*, and they shall
cry to the inmates of Paradise, Peace be on
you ! but they shall noi yet eater it, although
they long to do so.
" And when their eyes are turned towards
the iumates of the Fire, they shall say,
our Lord ! place us not with the offending
people.
" And they who are upon al-A raf shall cry
to those whom they shall know by their
tokens, Your amassings -and your pride have
availed you nothing.
" Are these they on whom ye sware God
would not bestow mercy 1 / Enter yc into
Paradise ! where no fear shall be upon you.
neither shall ye put to grief.
" And the inmates of the fire shall cry to
the jnmates of Paradise Pour upon us some
water, or of the refreshments God hath given
you? They shall they, -Truly God hath
forbidden both to unbelievers."
For a further descriptions of the Muham-
madan future state the reader is referred to
the article PARADISE, which deals more
directly with the sensual character of the
he.iYen supposed to be in store for the
believer in the mission of Muhammad.
The following is description i-f the
believer which is given in the C^ur an. Surattt
i-Afu-nrin .n, the xxinrd Surah, v. 1 :
" Happy now the Believers,
Who humble themselves in their prayer.
And who keep aloof from V3in words.
And -wh" ure doers of alms-deeds (zakrit),
And who restrain their appetites,
(Save with their wives, or the slaves whom
their right hands possess ; for in that case
they shall be free from blame :
But they whose desires reach further than
this are transgressors :)
And who tend well their trusts and their
covenants,
And wno keep them strictly to their
prayers :
These <diall be tne heritors, who shall in
herit Paradise, to abide therein for ever."
BELLS. [NAQTJS.]
BENEFICE. [WAQF.]
BENEFICENCE (Arabic i^U-
sizmdhfth) is commended by Muhammad as
one of the evidences of faith. (Mishkdt. Book
i. c. i. part 3.)
Amr ibn Abarauh reUtes : "I came to
the Prophet and said. O Prophet, what in
Islam ? And he said, It is purity ol speech
and hospitality. I t en said, And what >*
faith ? And he said, Patience and bene-
ficence"
BENJAMIN. Heb. \^\^ Arabic
^W-4 Binydmin. The youngest
of the children of Jacob. He is not men
tioncd by name in the Qur an, but he is
referred to in Surnh xii. 69, "And when they
entered in unto Joseph, he took his brother
(< .e. Benjamin) to stay with him. He said
Verily I am thy brother, then take not that
ill which they have been doing. And when
he had equipped them with their equipment,
he placed the drinking-cup in his brother s
pack," &c. [ JOSEPH. J
BEQUESTS. Arabic &~cj wasiyah,
pi. wasut/d. A bequest or will can be made
j verbally, although it is held to be better to
execute it in writing. Two lawful witnesses
are necessary to establish either a verbal
bequest or a written will. A bequest in favour
of a stranger to the amount of one-third of
the whole property, is valid, but a bequest to
any amount beyond that is invalid, unless
the heirs give their consent. If a person
make a bequest in favour of another from
whom he has received a mortal wound, it is
J not valid, and if a legatee slay his testator the
] bequest in his favour is void. A bequest
j made to part of the heirs ia not valid unlese
the other heirs give their consent. The
bequest of a Muslim in favour of an unbe
liever, or of an unbeliever in favour of a
Muslim, is valid. If a person be involved in
debt, legacies bequeathed by him are not
lawful. A bequest in favour of a child yet
unborn is valid, provided the frotus happen to
be less than six months old at the tim ^f th
making of the will
If a testator deny his bequest, and the
legatee produce witnesses tc prove it, it is
generally held not to be a retractation of it. If
a person on his death-bed emancipate a slave,
it takes effect after his death
If a person wili that " the pilgrimage in-
| cumbent ou him be performed on his behalf
j after his death, his heirs must depute a
person for the purpose, aud supply him with
the necessary expenses. (Hamilton s Hidayah.
vol. i?. 466.)
BESTIALITY is said by Muslim
jurists to be the result of the most vitiated
appetite and the utmost depravity of senti
ment. But if a man commit it, he does not
incur the Hndd, or stated punishment, as the
act is not considered to haye the properties
of whoredom ; the offender is to be punished
by a discretionary correction (TV sir). Ac
cording to Muslim law, the beast should be
killed, and if it be of an eatable species, it
; should be burnt. (Hidayah, voL U- 27.)
j 06o-. According to the Mosaic code, a man
I guilty of this crime was surely to be put to
i death. (Ex. xviii. 19.)
6
42
BETROTHAL
BETROTHAL. [KTHTBAH.]
BFAH (***>). A Christian church.
The word occurs in a tradition in the Mishkat
(iv. c. tJi. 2), and is translated by Abdu 1-
Haqq " Kallsah." [CfiUJftCH.]
BID 4 AH (*CAJ). A novelty or in
novation in religion ; "heresy ; schism.
BIER. Arabic *jW jindzah and
januzah. The same word is used for the
"corpse/ the bier, and the funeral. In most
Muhamniftdan, countries the ordinary charpoy,
or -bedstead," is used for the bier, which, in
the case of a female, is covered with a canopy.
[BURIAL.]
BIHISHT .(-*). The Persian
word for the celestial regions. [PARADISE,
JANNAH, FIRDAU8.]
BILADU L-ISLlM (,JUH ^).
" The countries of Islam." A term used in
Muhaniraadan law for Muslim countries. It-
is synonymous -with the term Darn 1-Islam.
[DARU L-ISLAM.]
BTLAL ( j&O- The first Mu azzin
or caller to prayer appointed by Muhammad.
He was an Abyssinian slave who had been
ransomed by A*bu Bakr. He was tall, dark,
and gaunt, with negro features and bushy
hair. Muhammad honoured and distinguished
him as the "first fruits of Abyssinia." He
survived the Prophet.
BILQlS (v^A). The Queen of
S?.bV, who visited Solomon and became one
01 his .-queens. An account of her. as it is
given in the Quran, will be found in the
story of King- Solomon, [SOLOMON,] .
BINT LAB0N (^ **). " The
daughter of a milk-giver." A female camel
two years old: so called because the mother
is then suckling another foal. The proper
age for a camel given in zakut. or " legal
alms, 4 for camels from thirty-six m number
up to forty-five.
BINT MAKHlZ (Jte* ^).
"The daughter of a pregnant, " A female
camel passed one year; so called because
the mother is again pregnant. This is the
proper age for a camel given in zakat, Of
" alms," for camels from twenty-five in number
up to thirty-five.
BIOGRAPHERS OF MUHAM
MAD. Although the Qur an may be said to
be the key- stone to tbe biography of Muham
mad, yet it contains but comparatively few
references to the personal history of the Pro
phet. The Traditions, or Ahadis, form the
chief material for all biographical histories.
[TRAWTIOM.] The first who attempted to
compile an account of Muhammad in the
form of a history, was az-Z\thrI, who died
A.M. 124, and whose work, no longer extant,
ie mentioned by Ibn Khailikan. The earliest
biographical writei-8 whose works are extant
5re Ibn Ishaq, A.H 151; Al-WaqidT,. -A.H.
BIRTH
207; Ibn Hisham, A.H. 2l8; Al-Bukhar!
(history), A.H. 256; At-Tabari, A.H. 310.
Amongst more recent biographies, the most
noted are those by Tbnu 1-Asir, A.H. 630. and
Isma il Abu l-tkla , A.H. 732. Abu 1-tlda s
work was translated, into Latin by John
Gagnier, Professor of Arabic at Oxford, A.D.
1723, and into English by the lie v. W. Murray,
Episcopal clergymen at Duffus in Scotland,
and published (without date) at Elgin. The
first life of Muhammad published in English
is that by Dean Prideaux, which first ap
peared in 1723. and afterwards passed through
several editions. Dr. Sprenger commenced a
life of Muhammad in English, and printed the
first part at Allahabad, India, A.D. 1851 ; but
it was never completed. - The learner! author
afterwards published the .whole of his work
in German, at Berlin, 1869. The only com
plete life of Muhammad in English which has
any pretension to original research, is the
well-known fjife of Mahomet , by Sir William
Muir, LL.D. (First Edition, four rols., Londe n,
1858-61 ; Second Edition, one vol., London
1877).
BIOGRAPHY, A Dictionary of
.
Biography ie called
-- " -
a smdv
r-rijal-(iit. " Tber-Names.of .Men"). - The most
celebrated of these is, amongst Muslims, thai
by Ibn Khallikan, which h&$ .always been
considered a work of the highest importance
for the civil and literary history of thft Mu-
hammadan people. Ibn Khailikan died AH.
681 (A.D. 1282), but hirf dictionary received
numerous additions from subsequent writers.
It has been translated into English by Mac-
Guckin De Slane (Paris, 1843).
BIRDS. It is commonly believed
by the Muhamma dans that all kinds of birds,
and many, if not all, beasts, have a language
by which they communicate their thoughts to
eaqh other, and in the Qur an (Surah xxvii.
16) it -is stated that King Solomon was taught
the language of birds.
BI R ZAMZAM ( r yj />). The
well of Zamzarn [ZAM-ZAM.]
BI R MA CNAH (^*>- A ). The
well of Ma unah. A celebrated spot four
marches from Makkah, where a party of
Muhammad s followers were slain by the
Banii Amir and Banu Sulaim. Be professed
to have received a special message from
heaven regarding these martyrs, whioh runs
I thus : w Acquaint our people that we have
met our Lord. He is well pleased with us,
and we are well pleased with Him." It is a
remarkable verse, as having for Some reason
or other been cancelled, and removed from
the Qur an. (Muir s Life of Mahomet, vol.
iii. p. 207.)
BIRTH, Evidence of. According
to the Imam Abu Hamfah, if a married woman
should claim to be the mother of a child, her
claim is not to bo valid unless the birth of
of the child is attested by the testimony of
one woman. But in the case of * father, mas-
B1SHARAH
BRIBERY
43
tyuch as the claim of parentage is a matter
which relates purely to himself, Ids testimonj^
alone is to be accepted.
The testimony of the midwife alone is suf
ficient with respect to birth, but with regard
to i)areniayt , it is established by the fact of
the mother of the child beincr the wife of the
husband.
If tlie woman be in her idduh P DDAH}
from a complete divorce, the testimony of the
midwife is not sufficient with respect to birth,
but the evidence of two men, or of one man
and two women, is requisite. (Hamilton s
Hidnyak, vol. iii. p. 134.)
It is also ruled that it is not lawful for a
person to give evidence to anything which he
has not seen, except in the cases of birth,
deufh, and nxn riaye. (Vol. ii. 076.)
BISHARAH (6,^): [BTJSURA.]
BI SHAR< (ft* ^>)- Lit- "With-
put the law." A teun :.j:pHed to those
mystics who totally disregard tbe teaching of
the Qur au. .Antinom-ans. i son.j
BISMTLLAH (S$\ r ~>). Lit. " In
the name of God." An ejaculation frequently
usuu at the commencement of my under
taking. There are two forms of the Bis-
millah :
1. Bi- smi Ift ili r-rahmani Y-raAiw, i.e.
"In the name of God. the Compassionate, the
Merciful." This is used at the commencement
of meals, putting ou new clothes, beginning
any new work, and at the commencement of
books. It occurs at the head of every chapter
or surah in the Qur au, with the exception of
the ixth (i.e. the Suratu l-Barffah).
2. Bi- smi llahi llaiii t-oJcbar, i-c. "In the
name of God. God the Most Great." Used at the
time of slaughtering of animals, at the com
mencement of a battle, &c., the attribute of
mercy being omitted on such occasions.
The formula Bi-srni //a/a r-rahmani V-
rah un is of Jewish origin. It was in the first
instance taught to the Quraish hy Umaiyah
of Ta if, the poet, who wus a contemporary
but somewhat older than, Muhammad, and
who, during his mercantile journeys into
Arabia TVtr-w.i and Syria, had made himself
acquainted with the sacred books and doc
trines of Juws and Christians. (Kitabit V-
Agtiam. lo, Delhi ; quoted by RodwelL)
BIZ A AH (<kU>). A share in a
mercantile adventure. Property entrusted to
another to be employed in trade.
BLACK STONE. [AL-HAJARU L.
A8WA.D.]
BLASPHEMY. Arabic ^ kufr.
Lit. " to hide " (the truth). It includes a denial
of any of the essential principles of Islam.
A Muslim convicted of blasphyrv is sen
tenced to death in Ivluhamnjadan countries.
[APOSTASY.]
BLEEDING. Arabic <^W- hljd-
iituh. The two greor cm-es recommended ~T
Muhammad w<j e blooci-ifumg and
honey; and ho taught that it was unlucky to
ho bled on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday,
the most lucky day" being Tuesday, and the
m>Jt,t lucky date the seventeenth of the
month. (JUiikfeSt t xx - c - !)
BLIND, The. Arabic A ma, pU
C/myaji. It is not incumbent upon a blind
man to engage in Jihad, or a religious war.
And, according to the Imam AbuHanifah, the
evidence of a blind person is not admissible,
but the Imam Zufar maintains that such
evidence is lawful when it aiYocts a matter in
which hearsay prevails- Salea and purchases
made by a blind person are lawful. (Hamil
ton s ffidayak, vol. ii., pp. 141, 402, GB2.)
BLOOD. The sale of blood is
unlawful. (Hamilton s ffidaya/t, vol. iL
p. 428.)
BLOOD, The Avenger of.
BLOOD, Issue of. [ISTIHAZAH.]
BOASTING. Arabic 6^ uu mw/iZ-
t/iarah. Muhammad is related to have said,
" I swear by God, a tribe must desist from
boasting of their forefathers: for they are
nothing more than coals from holl-iire (i.e.
they were idolaters) ; and if you do not -leave
oft boasting, verily you will be move hateful
in the sight of God than a black-beetle. Man
kind are all the 0ons of Adam, and Adam was
of the earth" (Mishfcdt, xxii. c. 13.)
BOOKS OF MOSES. [TAURAT.]
BOOKS, Stealing. The hand of a
thief is not to be cut off for stealing a book.
whatever be the subject of -which it treats,
because the object of the theft can only be the
contents of the book, and not the book itself.
But \ft, it is to be observed, the hand is
to be cut oil for stealing if an account book,
because hi this oase it is evident that too
object of the theft is not the contents of the
book, b\it rbe paper and material of which
the book is made. (HanoJiton s Hiduyuh t vol.
ii. 1*2.)
BOOTS. [SHOES.]
BREACH OF TRUST. Arabic
&U^ khjyCLnah. The punishment of
amputation of the band is not inflicted for a
breach of trust. Atd if a guest steal the pro
perty of hifl host whilst he is staying in his
house, the hand is not cut oft. Branch of
trust in Muslim law being a less offence than
ordinary theft, the puuisbmfnt for broach
of trust is left to the discretion of the judge.
(Hamilton s Ridayah, vol. ii. pp. 93-10;:.)
BRIBERY (Arabic V ; riahwnh)
is not mentioned in the < A ur ar.. In the fratawa
Al crmgiri \*Q is stated ii,,v presents to magis
trates are of various kinds; for exampU: it a
present be made in order to establish a friend
ship, it is luwtul ;but if it tip given to iutfaence
the decision of the judge in the donor s
favour, it is unlawful. Ifc is also said, if a
present be made to a judge from a flense of
44 BU AS
fear, it is lawful to give it, but unlawful to
accept it. (Hamilton s Hidayafi, vol. iii
p. 332.}
BU AS, Battle of. Arabic *A*> vp-
Harb Bu df. A battle fought between the
Banu Khazraj and Banu Aus, about six
years before the flight of Muhammad from
Makkah.
BUHTAN (<^#). A false accu
sation ; calumny.
The word occurs twice in the Qar an :
Surah iv. 112 : ki Whoso commits a fault or
sin, and throws it upon one who is innocent,
he hath to bear calumny (buhtdn) and mani
fests in.".
Surah xxiv. 15; "And why did ye not say
when ye heard it. * It is not for us to speak of
this ? Celebrated be Thy praises, this, is a
mighty calumny (buktdn)" [BACKBITING.]
Heb. nm he we P f "
BUKA (AS
Weeping and lamentation for the dead. Immode
rate weeping and lamentation over the graves
of the dead is clearly forbidden by Muham
mad, who is related to have said, Whatever
is from the eyes (i e. tears), and whatever is
from the heart (i.e. sorrow), are from God ;
but what is from the hands and tongue is
from the devil. Keep youraelvea, O women,
from wailing, which is the noise of the devii. 1
(Misltkdt, v. c. vii.) The custom of wailing at
the tombs of the dead is, however, common in
all Muhammadan countries. (See Arabian
Niyhts, Lane s Modtrn Egyptians, Shaw s
Travela in Barbary.) BURIAU]
BURIAL
BURAQ (JVV Lit ; "The bright
one." The animal upon which Muhammad is
said to have performed the nocturnal journey,
called Mi -raj. He was a white animal, be
tween the size of a mule and an ass, having
two wings. (Majma u l-Bihar, p. 89.) Mu
hammad s conception of this mysterious animal
is not unlike the Assyrian gryphon, of which
Mr. Layard gives a sketch. [MI KAJ.]
A short
title given to the well-known collection of
Sunni traditions by Abu * Abdu llah Muham
mad ibn Isma il ibn Ibrahim ibn al-Mughirah
al-Ju fi al-Bukhari, who was born at Bukhara,
A.H. 194 (A.D. 810), and died at the village of
Kbartang near Samarqand* A.H. 256 (A.D.
870). His compilation comprises upwards of
7,000 traditions of the acts and sayings of the
Prophet, selected from a mass of 600,000. His
book is called the ffafrih of al-Bukhdri, and
is said to have been the result of sixteen
years labour. It is said that he was so
anxious to record only trustworthy traditions
that he performed a prostration in worship
before the Almighty before he recorded each
tradition.
BUJOJTU NASSAR (>
** Nebuchadnezzar." It is thought by Jalalu
d-din that there is a reference to his army
taking Jerusalem in the Qur an, Surah xvii. 8,
And when the threat for the last (crime)
came (to be inflicted, we sent an enemy) to
barm your faces, and to enter the temple as
they entered it the first time." The author
of the Qamus says that Bukkt is " son," and
an idol," i.e. " the son of
BULAS (u-ty). Despair/ The
name of one of the chambers of hell, where
the proud will drink of the yellow water of
the infernal regions. (hKshka,t t xxii. c 20.)
THE ASSYRIAN
(Layard ii. 459).
BURGLARY i& punished as an
ordinary theft, namely by the amputation of
the hand, but it is one of the niceties of Mu
hammadan law, according to the Hanafi code,
that if a thief break through the wall of the
house, and enter therein, and take the pro
perty, and deliver it to an accomplice standing
at the entrance of the breach, amputation of
the hand is not incurred by either of the
parties, because the thief who entered the
house did not carry out the property.
(Hidayah, vol. ii. 103.)
BURIAL OF THE DEAD (SjW
Jinazah or JandxaJi). The term Jandzah is used
both for the bier and for the Muhammadan
funeral service. The burial service is founded
upon the practice of Muhammad, and varies
but little in different countries, although the
ceremonies connected with the funeral proces*
fiion are diversified. In Egypt and Bukjjara, for
instance, the male relations. and friends of the
deceased precede the corpse, whilst the female
mourners follow behind. In India and Afghan
istan, women do not usually attend funerals,
and the friends and relatives of the deceased
walk behind the bier. There is a tradition
amongst some Muhammadans that no one
should precede the corpse, as the angels go
before. Funeral processions in Afghanistan
are usually very simple In their arrange
ments, and are said to be more in accordance
with the practice . of the Prophet, than
those of Egypt and Turkey., It is considered
a very meritorious act to carry the bier, and
four from among the near relations, every now
and then relieved by an equal number, carry
it on their shoulders. Unlike our Christian
custom of walking slowly to the grave, the
Muhammadans carry their dead quickly to
the place of interment; for Muhammad is
related to have said, that it is good to carry
the dead quickly to the grave, to cause the
righteous person to arrive soon at happiness,
BURIAL
BURIAL
45
and if he be a bad man, it is well to put
wickedness away from one s shoulders. Fu
nerals should always be attended on foot ; for
it is said that Muhammad on one occasion
rebuked his people for following on horse
back. "Have you no shame?" said he,
" since God s angels go on foot, and you go upon
the backs of quadrupeds ? " It is a highly
meritorious act to attend a funeral, whether
it be that of a Muslim, a Jew, or a Christian.
There are, however, two traditions which
appear to mark a change of feeling on the
part of the Prophet of Arabia towards the
Jews and Christians. " A bier passed by the
Prophet, and he stood up ; and it was said to
the Prophet, this is the bier of a Jew. It is
the holder of a soul, he replied, from which
we should take warning and fear. " This
rule is said to have been abrogated, for, 4< on one
one occasion the Prophet sitting on the road
when a bier passed, and the Prophet disliked
that the bier of a Jew should be higher than
his head, and he therefore stood up." (Misk-
Jcdt, \ c. v.) Notwithstanding these con
tradictory traditions, we believe that in all
countries Muharamadans are wont to pay great
respect to the funerals of both Jews and
Christiana
The Muhammadan funeral service is not
recited in the graveyard, it being too polluted
a place for so sacred an office; but either in
a mosque, or in some open ppaco near the
dwelling of the deceased person or the grave
yard. The owner of the corpse, i.e. the
nearest relative, is the proper person to
recite the service; but it is usually said by
the family Imam, or theQazi.
The following is the order of the service:
Some one present calls out,
" Here begin the prayers for the dead."
Then those present arrange themselves in
three, five, or seven rows opposite the corpse,
with their faces Qi blah -wards (i.e. towards
Makkah). The Imam stands in front of the
ranks opposite the head (the Shi ahs stand
opposite the loins of a man) of the corpse, if
it be that of male, or the waist, if it be that
of a female.
The whole company having taken up
the Qiyam, or standing position, the Imam
recites the Niyah,
44 1 purpose to perform prayers to God for
this dead person, consisting of four Takbirs"
Then placing his hands to the lobes of his
ears, lie says the first Takblr.
" God is great 1 "
Then folding hi hands, the right hand
placed upon the left, below the navel, he
reoites the Subftdn :
" Holiness to Thee, God,
And to Thee, be praise.
Great is Thy Name.
Great is Thy Greatness.
Great ie Thy Praise.
There is no deity but Thee. 1
Then follows the second Takbir :
God is great ! "
Then the Dttrud :
"OGod, have mercy on Muhammad and
apon his descendants, AS Thou didst bestow
mercy, and peace, and blessing, and com pas
sion, and great kindness upon Abraham and
upon his descendants.
" Thou art praised, and Thou art great 1
"0 God, bless Muhammad and bis de
scendants, as Thou didst bless and didst have
compassion and great kindness upon Abrn-
ham and upon his descendants."
Then follows the third Takblr : -
" God is great I "
After which the following prayer (Z)u o) is
recited :
O God, forgive our living and oar dead
and those of us who are present, and those
who are absent, and our children, and our full
grown persons, our men and our women.
God, those whom Thou dost keep alive
amongst us, keep alive in Islam, and those
whom Thou causest to die, let them die in
the Faith."
Then follows the fourth Takbir :
" God is great ! "
Turning the head round to the right, he
says :
" Peace and mercy be to Thee."
Turning the head round to the left, he
gays :
"Peace and mercy be to Thee."
The Takblr ia recited by the Imam aloud,
but the Subhan, the Saldm, the Durud, and
the Du d, are recited by the Imam and the
people in a low voice.
The people then seat themselves on the
ground, and raise their hands in silent prayer
. in behalf of the deceased s soul, and after
wards addressing the relatives they say, " It
is the decree of God." To which the chief
mourner replies, " I am pleased with the will
of God." He then gives permission to the
people to retire by saying, " There is permis
sion to depart."
Those who wish to return to their houses
do so at this time, and the rest proceed to
the grave. The corpse is then placed on its
back in the grave, with the head to the north
and feet to the south, the face being turned
towards Makkah. The persons who place
the corpse in the grave repeat the following
sentence : " We commit thee to earth in the
name of God and in the religion of the Pro
phet."
The bands of the shroud having been
loosed, the recess, which is called the lahd, is
closed in with tmburnt bricks and the grave
filled in with earth. [GRAVE.] In some
countries it is usual to recite verse 57 of the
xxth Surah of the Qur an as the clods of
earth are thrown into the grave; but this
practice is objected to by the Wahhabis, and
by many learned divines. The verse is as
follows :
"From it (the earth) have We (God)
created you. and unto it will We return you.
and out of it will We bring you forth the
second time."
After the burial, the people offer a fatihah
(ie. the first chapter of the Qur an j in the
name of the deceased, and again when they
have proceeded about forty paces from the
grave they offer another fuhhah ; for at this
46
BURIAL
juncture, it is said, the two angels Munkir
and Nakir examine the deceased as to his
faith. [PUNISHMENTS OF THE GRAVE.] After
this, food is distributed to beggars and reli
gious mendicants as a propitiatory offering to
God, in the name of the deceased person.
If the grave be for the body of a woman, it
should be to the height of a man s chest, if for
a man, to the height of the- waist. At the
bottom of the grave the recess is made on the
side to receive the corpse, which is called
the Id/rid or lahd. The dead are seldom
interred in coffins, although they are not pro
hibited.
To build toijabs with stones or burnt bricks,
or to write a verse of the Qur an upon them,
is forbidden in the Hadis ; but large stone
and brick tombs are common to all Muham-
tnadan countries, and very frequently they
bear inscriptions.
On the third day after the burial of the dead,
it is usual for the relatives to visit the grave,
and to recite selections from the Qur an.
Those who can afford to pay Maulavis,
employ these learned men to. recite the whole
ol the Qur an at the graves of their deceased
relatives ; and, the Qur an is divided into
sections to admit of its being recited by the
several Maulavis ai. once. During the days
of mourning the relatives abstain from wear
ing any article of dress of a bright colour,
arid their soiled garments remain unchanged.
A. funeral procession in Egypt is graphic
ally described by Mr. Lane in his Modern
Egyptians. We give the account as it con
trasts strikingly with the simple processions
of Sunni Muhammadans in India.
" The first persons are about six or more
poor men. called ; Yamanlyah," 1 mostly blind,
who proceed two and two, or three and three,
together. Walking at a moderate pace, or
rather slowly, they chant incessantly, in a
melancholy tone, the profession of faith
( There is no deity but God ; Muhammad is
Ood s Apostle; God favour aod preserve him ! ).
They are followed by some male relations
aud friends of the deceased, and, in many
cases, by two Or more persons of some sect
of <3arweshes, hearing the flags of their order.
This is a general custom at the tuneral of a
darwesh, Next follow three or four or more
schoolboys ; one of them carries a tnushqf
(or copy of the Qur an.), or a volume consist-
ng of one of the thirty sections of the Qur an,
placed upon a kind of desk formed of palm-
;itioks, and covered over, generally with, an
fltubroidered kerchief. These boys chant, in a
higher and livelier voice than the Yamamyah,
usually some words of a poem called the
Hashriya-h, descriptive of the events of the
last day, the judgment, &c. The school
boys immediately precede the bier, which
is borne head-foremost. Three or four
fronds of the deceased usually carry
it for a short distance: then three -or four
ji^pi Trends bear it a little further; and
fhea these are in liky nr-nner relieved. Casual
passengers, also, oftea take part in this ser
vice, vruidi is e a itemed highly meritorious.
:.IJT. bier wrJI. the female mourner? .
BURIAL
sometimes a group of more than a dozen, or
twenty; with their hair dishevelled, though
generally concealed by the head- veil ; crying
and shrieking, as before described ; and often,
the hired mourners accompany them, cele
brating the praises of the deceased. A.nong
the women, the relations and domestics of the
deceased are distinguished by a strip of linen
or cotton stuff or muslin, generally blee,
bound round the head, and tied in u single
knot behind: the ends hanging down a few
inches. Each of these also carries a hand
kerchief, usually dyad blue, which she some
times holds over her shoulders, and at other
times twirls. with both hands over, her head,
or before her face. The cries of the women,
the lively chanting of the youths, and cue
deep tones uttered by the Yamamyah. com
pose a strange discord.
" The funeral procession of a man of wealth,
or of a person of the middle classes, is some
times preceded by three or four or more
cam els $ bearing bread and water to give to
the poor at the tomb, and is composed of a
more numerous and varied assemblage of
persons. The foremost of these are the
Yainanlyah, who chant the profession of the
faith, a,s described above. They are generally
followed by some male friends of the deceased,
and some learned and devout persons who
have been invited to attend the funeral. Next
follows a group of four or more faqihs, chant
ing the Suratu l-An am (the vith chapter of
the Qur an); and sometimes, another group,
chanting the Surat Ya-sln (the xxxvith
chapter) ; another, chanting the Suratu 1-
Kahf (the xvrirth chapter); and another
chanting the Suratu d-Dukhan (the xiivtk
chapter). These are followed by some mun-
shids, singing the Burdah ; and these by
certain persons called Ashabu *l-Ahzab, ? who
are members of religious orders founded by.
celebrated shaikhs. There are generally four
or more of the order of the Hizbu VSadat, a
similar group of the Hizbu sh-Shazilj, and
another of the Hizbi\ "sh-Sha rawi ; each group
chants a. particular form of prayer. After
them are generally borne two or more half-
furled flags, the banners of one or other of
the principal orders of darweshes. Then
follow the schooi-boys, the bier, and the
female mourners, as in the procession before
described, and, perhaps, the led horses of the
bearers, if these be men of rank. A buffalo,
to be sacrificed at the tomb, wjhere its flesJh
is to be distributed to the poor, sometimes
close3 the procession,
" The funeral of a devout shaikh, or of one
of the great Ulama, is still moxe numerously
attended, and the bier of such a person is riot
covered with a shawl. A wall is further
honoured in his funeral by a remarkable
custom. Women follow his bier, but, instead
of wailing, as they would .after the corpse of
an ordinary mortal, they rend the air with the
shiill and quavering cries of joy called
zaghari.t ; and if these cries are di.-seou unuir"!
but for a minute, tho bearers of the l>r pro
test that they cannot proceed, that <-. super
natural power riv{.- tbt-rr. to the .^xl on
BURIAL
BURNING
47
which they viand. Very often, it is said, a
wall * impels the hearers of bis corpse to a
particular spot. The following anecdote,
describing an ingenious mode of puzzling a
dead saint in a case of tin.- kind, was related
to me by one of my friends. Sorn* men were
lately bearing the corpse of a waif to a tomb
prepared for it in .the great cemetery on the
north of the metropolis, but on arriving at the
gate called Babu- n-Nasr, which leads to the
cemetery, they found thernsewos unable to
proceed further, from the cuiso above-men
tioned. It seems. said one of the bearers,
4 that the shaikh, is determined not to be
buried in the cemetery of Babu n-Nnsr, and
what shall we do? They- were all much
perplexed, but being as obstinate as the saint
hinrsolf, they did not immediately yield to hia
caprice. Retreating a few paces, and then
advancing with a quick step, they thought by
such an impetus to force the corpse through
the gateway ; but their efforts were unsuccess
ful ; and the same experiment they repeated in
rain several times. They then placed the
bier on the ground to rest and consult; and
one of them, beckoning away his comrades to
a distance beyond the hearing of the dead
saint, aaid to them, Let us take up the bier
again, and turn it round several tfmes till the
shaikh becomes giddy ; he then will not know
in what direction wo are going, and wo may
take him easily through the gate. This they
did ; the saint was puzzled as they expeofeq,
and-quietly buried in the place which he had
so striven to avoid.
" In the funerals of females and boys, the
bier is usually only preceded by the Tainani*
yah, chanting.the profession of the faith, and
by some male relations of the deceased ; and
followed by the female mourners ; unless the
deceased were of a family of wealth, or of
considerable station in the world ; in which
case, the funeral procession is distinguished
by some additional display. I shall give a
short description of one of the most genteel arid
decorous funerals of this kind that 1 have
witnessed : it was that uf a young, unmarried
lady. Two men, each bearing .1. largo, furled,
green Hag, headed the prcctssiun. preceding
the Yatnaniyab, who chanted in in unusually
low unci solemn manner. These faqlrs, who
were in number about eight, were followed by
a group of fakihs. chanting a chapter of the
QiTj-V>>i. Next .ifier the latter was a man
bearing a large, biancb of Nnbq (or lote-
tree\ an rmbJerji of the deceased. On each
side of IMUJ walked a person bearing a tall
fit. iff or cane, to the Wp of which were at
tached Severn 1 hoops ornamented with strips
of various coloured paper. These were fol
lowed !>y fvo Turkish soldiers, side by sido.
one bearing, on a small round tray, a gilt
silver qumqum of rose-wsiter, and the
other bearing, on a similar tray, a mibkbarah
of gilt silver, in which some odoriferous sub
stance (as benzoin, or frankincense ) was
purning. These ve-iae.lu dilTuned the odour of
thriv content:; on the way, and were after
wards utfetj to perfume the sepulchral vault.
Passengers -.veie occasionally sprinkled
with the rose-water. Next followH fn.i
men, each of whom bore, upon a urn* II fn-y,
several sma-11 lighted taper. >[ wax, >tuok In
lumps of p;iste of 4 hinn2. Tin* b:er AT.
covered with rich shawlj, and it* sh^li d MM.
decorated with handsome orfioirnr. ,n of the
head, having, besides the saia, * qi
almas (a long ornam-nt r,f g.Jd a l <! M-
inonds worn over the forehead), and, nj>on its
fiat top, a rich diamond qurs. T!, (. * *i-i-
the jewels of the deceased, or \v-iv. p-;rh*| -s.
as is of Ion the case, borrow^? for !i.-
sion. The fmale in-jurners, fnumiM ;i!,ei:t
se^en or ^i^jht. clad in the usual ru.-nr ;
the ladies of Kg-ypt (with the U
covering, V.cj. followed the hit>r, not oti foot
as is tho common custom in funeuU ;i rliis
country, but mounted on hJ^h-Sftddle
and only the last two or three of 1
wailing ; these being, probably, hir>d niui" n^-r
In another funeral-procession of n female, t)i.
daughter of a Turk of high rank, tho Ynma-
nfyah were followed by six slaves, walking
two by two. The tirst two slaves bon- c.-ct.
a silver qumqum of rose-water, which they
sprinkled on the passengers; and one of ihein
honoured me so profusely as to v/(>t my
dress very uncomfortably; after which, he
poured a small quantity into my hands ; an^ 3
I wetted my face with it, according to custom.
Each of the next two bore a silver niibkjjiraii.,
with perfume: and the other two carried a
silver Tizqi (or hanging censer), with burning
charcoal of frankincense. The jewels on the
shahid of the bier were of a gostly description.
Eleven ladies, mounted >n high-saddled agues,
together with several naddabuhs, followed.
BURNING THE DEAD. There
is no express injunction, in either the Qur an
or the Traditions, regarding the burning of
dead bodies, although the burning of the
living is strictly forbidden. For Muhammad
fiiiid, "Punish not with God s punishment
(which is fire), tor it is not fit. for anyone to
punish with tire but God." (AfisJtltirt. xiv
c. v. part 1.)
The teaching of the Traditions te th.it a
dead body is as^fully conscious of pain as o
living body, for Ayishah said, that IhePropLet
said, " Tim breaking of the bont-.s of a corpse
is the same as doing it in life." (Mis tknt, v.
c. vi. part 2.)
It is, therefore, pretty clearly established
that cremation of the dead k* strictly forbidden
by the Muhamiuadnn religion. There is,
however, nothing to confirm the hnpr- ssion
that the burning of a corpse in any way pre
vents its soul entering parndi&e.
BURNING TO DEATH is strictlj
fOfbidden by Muslim law. Ikrimah relates
that some apostates from Islam w*r< brought
to thfr KJjalifah All, and he burnt them ; and
when Ibn 4 Abb3s heard of it, he said. " IhfJ
they bntn brought to me, I would not h;>ve
burnt them : for the Prophet said, Punish
not with God s punishment. Verily it i.^ n< t
fit for anyone to punish with fire but (iod. "
. xiv. c. v. part 1.)
48
BtTEQA*
BURQA (*)?) The veil or cover
ing used for the seclusion of women when
walking abroad. [VEILING OP WOMEN.]
BURtJJ (ej,0- Lit - "Towers,"
which some interpret as real towers wherem
the angels 1 keep watch. A term used for the
twelve signs of the zodiac. [SIGNS OF THE
ZODIAC.] Al-Buruj is the title of the Lxxxvth
Surah of the Qur an.
BURYING OF THE BEAD. It
is said by commentators that God taught
mankind to bury their ead when " God sent
a crow to scratch the earth, to show him
(Cain) how he might hide his brother s body."
(Quran, Surah v. 34 ; Tafsir-i- Husaini , in
loco.) The custom of burying their dead is
universal in Islam. The ceremonies con
nected with funerals will be found in the
article on Burial. [BURIAL.]
BURYING-GROUND. Arabic V s "
magbarat or maqoarah, " The place of graves."
Persian Qabr-gah, or Qabristdn. They are
sometimes spoken of by religious Muslims as
Marqad, a "cemetery" or " sleeping- place,"
but the name has not obtained a general
CALEB
application to buriai-grounds in the East as it
has in the West. They are generally situated
outside the city, the graves being covered
with pebbles, and distinguished by headjstones,
those on the graves of men being with a
tarban-like head. The graves are dug from
north to south. The grave-yards are usually
much neglected. The Wahhabis hold it to
j be a meritorious act, in accordance with the
j injunctions of the Prophet, to neglect the
graves of the dead, the erection of brick tombs
being forbidden. (Hidayah, Arabic ed., vol. i.
p. 90) A grave-yard does not become public
property until the proprietor formally makes
a gift or bequest of it. (Hidayah* vol ii. f
p. 357.)
BUSHRA ( v5r ^). " Good news ; "
"the gospel." A word used in the Traditions
for the publication of Islam. (MishkatjVtiv.
c i.) " Accept good news, O ye sons of
Tamhn," which -Abdu 1-Haqq says means
" embrace Islam."
[BAI .J
BUYING.
BU3URG (c%) Lit. " great." A
I Persian word used in the East for a saintly
person, an old man, or a person of rank.
C.
CJ2SAR. The Arabic and Persian
form of the Latin Caesar in Qaisar. The
word occurs in the traditions of the Sahihu /-
Muslim (vol. ii. p. 99 j, where it is applied to
the Emperor Heraclius, who received a letter
from Muhammad inviting him to Islam, when
he was at Edessa on his way to Jerusalem,
August, A.D. 628. The origin of the title is
uncertain. Spartianus, in hia life of Aelius
verus (c. ii.), mentions four different opinions
respecting its origin: (I) That the word sig
nified an elephant in the language of the Moors,
and was given as a surname to one of the Julii
because he had killed an elephant ; or (2) That
it was given to one of the Julii because he had
been cut (ca^sus) out of his mother s womb
after her death ; or (3) Because he had been
born with a great quantity of hair (ixiesaries)
on his head ; or (4) Because he had azure-
coloured (caesii) eyes. Of these opinions the
second is the one adopted by the Arabic-
Persian Dictionary the Ghiyasu l-Lughdt.
The first of the Julian family who occurs
in history as having obtained the surname of
Cfesar is Sex. Julius Gcesar, praetor in B.C.
208. It was first assumed aa an imperial
title by Augustus as the adopted sou of the
dictator, and was by Augustus handed down
to his adopted son Tiberius. It continued to
be used by Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, as
members, either by adoption or female
descent, of Caesar s family ; but though the
family became extinct with Nero, succeeding
emperors still retained it as part of their
titles, and it was 1h practice to prefix it to
their own name, as, for instance, /mperator
C<Ksar Domitianus Auyuslus. The title waa
superseded in the Greek Empire under
Alexis Commenus by that of Sebastocrator
In. the west, it was conferred on Charles the
Great, and was borne by those who succeeded
him on the imperial throne. Although this
dignity came to an end with the resignation
of Francis II. in 1306, the title Kaiser is still
assumed by the Emperors of Austria and
Germany, and more recently by the Queen of
England as Qftifor-i-HoM^ or Empress of
India.
CAIN. Arabic J?Vs Qabil (Qabil).
The account. of Cain and Abel as given in the
Qur an, Surah v. 30. will be found in the
article ABEL. The Commentators say that
the occasion of making the offering wa.s as
follows : Each of them being born with a twin
sister, Adam by God s direction ordered Cain
to marry Abel s twin sister, and Abel to marry
Cain s, but that Cain refused. They were then
ordered to submit the question by making a
sacrifice, and Cain offered a sheaf of the very
worst of his corn, whilst Abel offered the best
futted lamb of his flock. (Tafsiru l-Baizaun,
in toco.)
CALEB. Arabic Kdlab. The son
i ;f Jephunneh (JYufannah). He is not men-
i rioned in the Qur an, but hia name occurs ia
j the Tafsiru, l-Baizdwi, m Surah iv. 13
CALF
CALF, GOLDJHJN, The, which, the
Israelites worshipped, is mentioned live times
in the Qur an. Surahs ii. 48, 88; iv, 152;
vii. 146 ; xx. 90. In Surnh xx. 90, the person
who made it is said to )>e as Samiri [MOSES.]
CALIPH.
CALUMNY is expressed by the
word Qhibak, which means anything whis
pered to the detriment of an absent person,
although it be true. Bullion , expressing a
false accusation. It ie stricaly forbidden in
both the Qur an and H&dls. [GHIBAH.]
CAMEL. Arabic IJnl In the
Qur an (Surah Ixxxriii, 17), the institution of
camels to ride upon is mentioned as an
example of God s wisdom and kindness : " Do
(hey not look then at the camel how she is
created." A& a proof of the great usefulness
of the o&mel to tlie Arabian, and of the
manner in which its very existence has in
fluenced his language, it is remarkable that
in almost every page of the Arabic Dic
tionary Qamiis (as also in Richardson s
edition), there, is some reference to a camel.
Camels are a lawful sacrifice on the great
festivals and on other occasions. And al
though it is lawful to slay & camel by &xkh,
or by merely cutting its throat, the most
eligible method, according to Muslim law, in
to slay a camel by nahr, or by spearing it in
the hollow of the throat near the breast bone.
because, says Abu Qanifah, it is According to
the sunnah, or practice of Muhammad, and also
because Lu that pant of the throat three blood
vessels of a camel are combined Hamil
ton s ffidtyah, voL iv. p. 72.) There is zakdt,
or legal alms, on camels. [ZAKAT.] Muham-
mndon law rules that the person who leads a
string of camels is responsible for anything
jiy one of the camels may injure or tread
down. (Ibid., iv. 379.)
CANAAN. Arabic Knfun. Ac-
cording to al-Jal/Uain and al-Bukiwi, the
commentators. Canaan was the unbelieving
son of Noah, but, according to the Qja.tav
dictionary, the grandson, who was drowned
in the flood, and whose case is recorded in
the Qur an (Surah xi. 44). He is $aid to be
a son of Noah s wife Wa ilah, who was an in-
fidf 1. " And the Ark moved on them amid
waves like mountains: and Noah called to
hie sou for he was apart * Embark with us,
my child I and be not with the unbelievers/
He said, * I will betake me to a mountain thai*
shall secure me frojc the water. He said,
None nhali be seeme this day from the
decree of God, save him en whom He shall
nave mercy/ And a wave passed between
them, and ho was among the drowned."
CAPTIVES. Asir, pi. Uttdro, and
t/taro \ With respect to captives, the Imam,
of leader of the army, has it in his choice to
slay them, " because the Prophet put cap
tives to death, and also because shying them
terminates wickedness " ; or, he may if he
clioose. make them filaves. It is not lawhil
CATTLE 4&
for the Imam to send captives back to th-;i
home and country, because that would be to
strengthen the cause of infidelity against
Islam. If thf-y become Muslims after their
capture, they must not bo put to death, but
they may be sold after their conversion. A
converted captive must not be suffered to
return to his country, and it is not lawful to
release a captive gratuitously. The only
method of dividing plunder which consists of
slaves, is by selling them at tho end of the
expedition and then dividing the money.
(Hidayak, ii. 160.) fvLmxr.]
CARAVAN. Persian Kdrwa*
Arabic QflfilaJi. As the roads in the ER.AI
are often unsafe and lead through dreary
wastes, merchants and travellers associate
together for mutual defence and comfort.
Those companies are called both Jcarwan
and f/djilafi. The party is always under the
direction of a paid director, who is railed
Karwan- or Qafi la h- #<!*/. If ai caravan u
attacked on the road, the Muhammadan law
allows the punishment of cruoifixion for the
offence. (Hidaynh^ vol. ii. 131.) But it is a
curious provision of the Muslim law that if
some of the travellers in a caravan commit,
a robbery upon others of the same caravan,
punishment (re of amputation) ii not in-
cnrred by them. (Vol ji. 137.)
CAKRION (Arabic Matiahj is for-
bidden hi the Qur en, Surah il 80. " That
which dicth of itself* and blood, and iwine s
flesh, aud thai over which any other name
than that of God hath been invoked, is for
bidden. But he who shall partake of them
by constraint . without lust or wilf ulntss, no
sin shall be upon him."
CASTING LOTS. Zalam, or
casting lots by shooting arrows, was an
ancient Arabic oust en , winch is forbidden by
Muhammad in bis Qnr an, Surah v. 4 ; but
gv^ah, or casting lots, in its ordinary sense,
ia not forbidden, for A.yishah relates that
when the Prophet went on a journey, he used
to cast lots as to which wife he should take
with him. (Mishk&t Babv Y-(jofam.)
CATS. Arabic Sirrah. Accord
ing to a Had is of Abu Qtxtadah, who was one,
of the Companions, Mohammad said, " Cats
are not impure, they keep watch around us."
He used water from which a cat had drunk
for his purifications, aud his wife Ayishah
ate from a vessel from which a oat had eatan.
(AfzsMft, book iii., c. 10, pt. 2.)
CATTLE. Arabic An am. They
are said in the Qur an to be the gift of God .
Sdrah xL 79, " God it is who hath made for
you cattle, that ye may ride on some and eat
others."
Cuttle kept for the purpose of labour, such
as carrying burthens, drawing ploughs, &o.,
are not subject to zukat, neither is there zakai
on oaitlf who are left to forage for ono half
year or more. (Hidayak, i. 18.)
Al-An am is the title of the sixth Surah of
the Qur an.
7
50
CAVE
CAVE, The Companions of the
(Arabic- Ashabu l-lcdkf). or.the Seven Sleepers
of Ephesus, form the subject of one of the
chapters of the Qur an, Surah xviii. 6.
[ASHABU VKAHP.J
CELIBACY ( Arabic Paula])),
although not absolutely condemned by Mu
hammad, is held to be a lower form of lifo to
that of marriage. It is related that Usrmwi
ibn Maz un wished to lead a celebate life, and
the Prophet forbade him, for, said ho, " When
a Muslim marries he perfects his religion."
it, book xii. c. xx.)
CEYLON. Arabir; SaranJib. r i he
Commentators say tint when Adam and Eve
were cast out of Paiftdisd, Adain fell on the j
island of Ceylon, and Eve near Jidda h iu I
Arabia, and that after separation of 200 j
years, Adam was, on his repentance, con-
ducted by the angel Gabriel to a mountain
near Makkali, where be found am! knew his
wife, the mountain being named Arafali : and
that afterv;ards he retired with her to Ceylon,
when they continued to propagate their
species. (D Herbelot. Bihl. Orient., p. 55.)
CHASTITY. " Neither thoir (the
Muslims ) tenets nor their practice will in
any respect hear to come into competition
with Christian, or even with Jewish morality
.... For instance, wo cull the Muslims
chaste because they abstained from indis
criminate profligacy, and kept carefully
within the bounds prescribed .13 licit by
their Prophet. Bat those bounds, besides the
utmost freedom of divorce atid change of
wives, admitted an illimitable licence of co
habitation with all that the right hand of
the believer might possess, or, in other
words, with any possible number of damsels
he might choose to purchase, or receive in
gift, or take captive in war." (MxuYs Life of
Mahomet, vol. i. 272. [CONCUBINAGE, SLATES.
MTJT AH, DIVORCE, MARBTAGE.]
CHARITY, as fa implies tenderness
and affection, is expressed by h,uhb, or Inahab-
bah ; as it denotes almsgiving, it is fadayah.
He who is liberal and charitable to the poor
is called muhibbu l-fuqara 1 .
CHEEUBIM. Arabic KarMi, pj.
Karubln ; Lit. " Those who aro near." Heb.
D^LV^3- 1h fl wor ^ karubln is used by the
commentator al-Baizawi, for the angels men
tioned in the Qur an, Surah xl. 70: "Those
around it (the throne of God; celebrate the
praise of their Lord, and believe in Him and
ask pardon tor those who believe." AI-BaizawI
says the Karubin are tho highest rank, and
the first created angels. Husain savs there
are 70.000 ranks of them round the throne of
God. (Tafxtru Y-/fcnt*MPi, Ta/siru Hufioin,
in loco.}
CHESS. Arabic Shatranj. Ac
cording to the Hidayah, </& is an abomi
nation to play at chess, dfco. or any other
CHILDREN
game, for if anything be etake.2 it ia
gambling (w a **? ?), which is expressly for r
bidden in the Qur an; or if, on the other
hand, nothing be hazarded, it is useless and
vain. Besides, the Prophet has declared all
the entertainments 0f a Muslim to bo vain
except, threr. : the breaking 1 in of his harse, tho
drawing of his bow, and playing and amusing
himself with his vrives. Several of the
learned, however, deem tho game at chess
lawful as having a tendency to quicken the
understanding. This in the opinion of ash-
S/wfi L If n man play ut chess for a, stake, it
destroys the integrity of bis character, but if
he do not play for a stake, tna intdgritv of hi*
character is not affe^.tad. (Hamilton s- Uida-
yah, \oLiv. p 122. "}
CHILDREN.. Arabic Avl&d.
Thc?e aro no special injunctions in the
Qur an rfcgarding the customs to be ob
served at the birth of an infant (eireuinci-
sion not being even once mentioned in that
book), nor with reference to the train
ing and instruction of the young: but tho
subject is frequently raf erred to in the Tra
ditions and in Muhammadn books on Ethics
Muhamrnadang have so largely incorporated
the customs of the Hindus in India with their
own, especially those observed at the births of
children, that it is sometimes difficult to dis
tinguish those which are special characteris
tics of Islam ; many of tho customs recorded
in Herklot s Mtutabnati*) for example, being
;nerely those common to Hindus as well as
Muhauimadan.?. We shall, however, endea
vour to describe those ^which are generally
admitted to have some authority in the pre-
copts of the Muslim religion.
(1.) At tlte birth of a child, after he has
been properly washed with water and bound
in swaddling clothes, ho is carried by the mid
wife to the assembly of male relatives and
friends, who have met on the occasion, when
-the chief Maulawl, or some person present,
recites the Azan, or summons to prayer
[AZAN], in the infant s right ear, and the
Iqdrnan., which is the Aziin with the addition
of the words, " We aro standing up for
prayers" [IQAMAH], in the left ear ; a custom
which is founded on the example of the Pro
phet, who is related to have done so at tho
birth of his grandson Hasan (Mishkvt, book
xviii. c. iv. 2). The Maulawl then chews n
little date fruit and inserts it into the infant s
mouth, a custom also founded upon the ex
ample of Muhammad. (Mishkat, book xviii.
c. iv. 1.) "this ceremony being over, alms are
distributed, and fdti/iah* are recited for -the
health and prosperity of the child. According
to the traditions, the amount of silver given
in ahm should be .of the same weight as
the hair on the infant s head tho child s
head being shaved for this purpose. (Mish-
kdt, ibid., part 2.) The friends and neigh
bours then visit the home, and bring presents,
and pay congratulatory compliments? on .the
joyful occasion.
(2.) The naminq of the child should, accord
ing to the Traditions (Mishkat, i&iW.), be
CHILDREN
CHILDREN
51
on ihe jevcnth day ; the clnld being
either nurncd after somP meruber of the
family, or flftr some saint vpnfimlecl by ihe
fnmily, Of sfcme iijimr suggest od by the an
Apinovis hour, tho planet, Oi lln Sl$n of th
todiac. [ExcucCiaM.j
(:.) On this, the tuveuih day, it observed
Abw iho Ceremony of .rlg/ /c A, established by
Muhnimnad himself (fidbu I AtjlqnJt in
Arabic Ed. S* l.dh of Abu Daud. VDl. li. p 30)
U ronsists of a saeritica to God; 11 the name
of th frhild. of two he-gouts for a boy, and
one he goat for a girl. The goa-t$ must bo
not Above a year oW, and without apot or
bJernuh. Tht? animal is dre^f-d and cooked,
miri whilst luw friends eat of it they oiler the
following prayer: "0 God! I olfer to the;*
instead of my own offspring, lifr for life,
blood, for blood. head for head, bont for bone,
bair fpr h<-iir, .sVin for skin. In the uame cf
thr ;rr*at God, I do sacrifice, this goat 1 "
(4.) I ho mother is purified ou tlie forlitf/i
liny, when shs is at libcity to go about us
usual, and it is on this day that the infant is
generally placed in the swinging cradle pecu
liar tc> eastern households. It is a day nf
some rojoicir rtmongsi. the members of the
H.irain.
(5.) As soon as the ehilO is a bir to talk, or
when lie has attained the ago of four years,
four taor.ihd, and four days, ho is taught -the
*w/JaA;*thAft is, to ror-ite the inscription
which occurs at the commenf enu nt of tlu
(^ur au : Bi- smi l/dhi V-m/tJ<?/</ r-ruftttn."
li\ the iiMne of God the Mprfu-il. the <ha-
fciouK. AiU r this ceremony, t>:<^ <"Likl is sout
to school and taught the alpha ftt. amd to
r*c-ile certain chapters of the (^xir iui by rote.
(6.) Aocorrting to tho opinion of Sunni
doc-turs, the drettmcvnon of the bilcl .shoul> t
take plac-e in hi.s seventh year ; tho opera-
lion beui generally performed by iho barber.
[ciKOL HCiSiON.] The child is not re-quired tn
observe all tho eufetwnrf of the Muslim law
uutil he has arrivod at puberty [>UBKRTI~J ;
but it is )ield jneuinbeut on parents and
guardians to teach him tho prayers an soon
as ho bun been circumcised.
(7.) The time when the child has finished
le.citiny the whole of the Quran, once tbrouh,
is also r*^ arded afi an important epoch in the
life of a child. On this occasion the scholar
make* hi* obeisance to his lutor and presents
nirn vitn tray* of a^octineats, a suit of
clutue*, and money.
As \\o have already remarked, tho mat ruc
tion of youth is a frequent subject of
discussion in books of Muslim Etltrcs.
The following, which is taken from the
Akhldq-i-Jaldli, is an interesting (specimen
of Muhammadan ideas on the subject :
The first requisite- i*. to employ a proper
nurse of a -well-balanced ten, pertinent, for
the qusilitie.s, both temperament a r and spiri
tual, of tho nurse are commutiirated to the
infant. Next, since we are recommended by
the Traditions to give the name on the seventh
day (after birth), the precept had better be
conformed to. In delaying it, however, there
is this advantage, that time is given for a
deliberate selection of an appropriate naroe.
>\>r, if -wo give the child an ill-ansorted ono.
hia -whole life IH embittered in c.onaequoncr
ifoucu caution iu deter)nin|ng thnnamo is one
of the parent s obligations towards hi off
spring
11 we would prevent the child s acquiring
culpable habits, we must apply ourselves to
educate him as soon 5s weaned, l^or though
men havo a capacity for perfection, the ion
Jency to vice is naturally implant:d in the soul.
The first requisite is to restrain him abso
lutely from all acquaintance with thore ex
cesses which arc characterised as vice. For
the mind of children is like a clear tablet,
equally open to any inscription. Next to that,
he should be taught the institutes of religion
and mien of, propriety, and, according as hi
power and "capacity may admit, confined to
their pract ice, aud reprehended and restrained
from their noglccU . Thus, at the uge of
seven, we are told by the Traditions to enjoin
him merely to say his prayers ; at the age of
ton, if he omits them, to admoiiish him by
blows. By praising the good und censuring
the bad, we should render -him emulous, of
riglrt and apprehensive of wrong. We should
commend him \vhcn he performs a creditable
action, arid intimidate him -when he commits
a reprehenuible one; and yet we should avoid,
if possible, subjecting him to positive cen
sure, imputing it rather to oversight, lest he
grow audacious. If he keep bis fault u
*ecvet, we are not to rend away the disguise :
but if he do so repeatedly, we must robuko
him severely in private, aggravating tho
heinousneKS of such a practice, and intimmat-
ing,hiru from its repetition. \Ve must beware,
however, oi too much frequency of detection
:iud reproof, for fear of his grow ing. u Red to
censuio, and rontnieting a habit of reckless
ness; nod thus, according to the proverb,
Men grow pager for that which is withheld,
feeling a tendency to repeat the offence. For
these rasons> -we should prefer to work by
enhancing tho attraction of virtue.
On ineul. drink, and line clothing, he must
be taught to look with contempt, and deeply
impressed wivh tlw conviction that it is the
practice of women only to priz.e the colour
ing antl AgurinK of dress : that men ought to
hold themsolvos Above it The proprieties or
meal-taking are those in which he should be
earliest instructed, as far as he can acquit
them. Ho should bo made to understand that
the proper end of eating is health and not
gratification; that food and drink are a sort
of medicine for the cure of hunger and thirst .
and just as niedk inrj aro only to be taken m
tho measure of need, according aa sickness
may require their influence, food and drink
mo only to be used in quantity authcient to
satisfy hunger and remove thirst. He should
be forbidden to vary his diet, and taught to
prefer limiting himself to a single dish. His
appetite i-hould also be checked that he may
be HHtisfied with meals at the stated hours.
X.et him not be a lover of delicacies. He
should now and then be kept on dry brelid
only, in order that in limo of need ho may be
52
CHILDREN
able to subgigt- o that. Habits like these arc
better than riches. Let his principal meal be
made in the evening rather than the morning,
or he will be overpowered by drowsiness and
lassitude during the day. Flesh let him have
sparingly, or he will grow heavy and dull.
Sweetmeats and other such aperient food
should be forbidden him, as likewise all
liquid at the time of meals. Incumbent as it
is on all men to eschew strong driuks, there
are obvious reasons why it is superlatively so
on boys, impairing them both in mind and
body, and leading to anger, rashness, auda
city, and levity, qualitiea which such a prac
tice is sure to confirm. Parties of this nature
he should not be allowed unnecessarily to
frequent, nor to liHten to reprehensible conver
sation. His food should not be given to him
till he hati despatched his tasks, unless suf
fering from positive exhaustion. He must be
forbidden to conceal any of his actions, lest
he grow bold in impropriety ; for, manifestly,
the motive to concealment can be no other
than an idea that they are culpable. Sleep
ing in the day and sleeping overmuch at night
should be prohibited. Soft clothing and ali
the uses of luxury, such as cool retreats ju
the liot season, and fires and fur in the cold,
he should be taught to abstain from; he
should be inured to exci Cise, foot- walking,
horse -riding, and all other appropriate accom
plishments.
Next, let him learn the proprieties of con
versation and behaviour. Let him not he
tricked out with trimmings of the hair and
womanly attention to dress, nor be presented
with ring s till the propar time for wearing
them. Let him be forbidden to boast to Lip
coinpajxious of his ancestry or worldly advan
tages,. Let him be restrained from speaking
untruths or from swearing in. any ease, whether
ci ue or false ; for an oath is wrongful in any
one, and repugnant to the letter of the Tradi
tions, saving when required by the interest
of the public. And even though oaths may
be requisite to men/to- boys they never can
bo so. Let him ho trained to silence, to
speaking only when addressed, to listening in
tbe presence of his elders, and expressing
himself correctly.
For LH instructor he should have a man of
principle and intelligence, well acquainted
with the discipline of morals*, fond of cleanli
ness, noted for stateliness, dignity, and huma
nity, well acquainted with the dispositions of
kings, with the etiquette of dining in their
company, and with the terms of intercourse
with all classes of mankind. It is desir
able that others of his kind, and especially
sons of noblemen, whose manners have
always a distinguished elegance, should be
at school with him, so that in their society
he may escape lassitude, learn demeanour,
and exert himself with emulation in his
studies.- If the instructor correct him with
blows, he must be forbidden to cry, for that
is the practice of slaves and imbeciles. On
the other hand, the instructor must be care
ful not to resort to blows, except he its wit
ness of an offence openly committed. When
CHILDREN
compelled to inflict them, it is desirable ii
the outset to make them sxnaU in number and
great iupain ; otherwise the warning is not so
efficacious, and he may grow audacious
enough to repeat the .offeuce.
Let him be encouraged to liberality, and
taught to look with contempt on the perish
able things of this world ; for more ilfcmnoB
from the love of mouoy than from the simoom
of the, desert or the serpont of the field. The
Imam al-Ghazzall, in commenting 011 the text,
ft Preserye me and them from idolatry," says
that by idols is here meant gold and silver ;
and Abraham s prayer is that he and hia
descendants may be kept far removed front
the worship of gold and silver, and from
fixing their affections on them ; becauso the
love of these was the root of till evil. In his
leisure hours he may be allowed to play,
provided it does not lead to excess of fatigue
or the commission of anything wrong.
When the discerning power begins to pre
ponderate, it should be explained to him that
the original object of worldly possessions ifi
the maintenance of health ; so that the body
may be made to last the period requisite to
the spirit s qualifying itself for the life
eternal. Then, if he is to belong to the
scientific classes, let hiin be instructed in. the
sciences Let him l>e employed (as soen arf
disengaged from studying the essentials of the
religion) in acquiring the sciences. The best
course is to ascertain, by examination of the
youth s character for what science or art he
is best qualified and to employ him accord
ingly ; for, agreeably to the proverb, "All
facilities are not created to the same person ";
eveiyone is not qualified lor every profess-
sion, but each for a particular one.
This, indeed, is the expression of a prin
ciple by which the fortunes of man and. of the
world are regulated. With the old philoso
phers it was a practice to Inspect the horo
scope of nativity, and to devote the child to
that profession, which appeared from the
planetary positions to be suitable to his
nature. When a person is adapted to a pro
fession, be can acquire it with little pains ;
and when unadapted, the utmost he can do is
but to waste his time and defer his esta
blishment in life. When a profession bears
an incongruity with his nature, and means
and appliances are tmpropitioua, we should
not urge him to puisne it, but exchange it for
some other, prodded that there ift no hope at
all of succeeding with the first ; otherwise it
may lead to his perplexity. In the prosecu
tion of every profession, let him adopt a
system which will call into play the ardour
of his nature, assist him in preserving health,
and prevent obtusity and lassitude.
As soon as ho is perfect in a profession,
let him be required to gain his livelihood
thereby ; in order that, from an experience
of its advantages, he may strive to master
it completely, and make full progress in
the minutiae of its principles. Aiid for this
livelihood he must be trained to look to
that hononrable emolument which charac
terises the well-connected. He must not
CHILD STEALING
depend on the provision afforded by Lie
Either. For it generally happens, wheu the
sons of the wealthy, by the pride of their
parents opulence, are debarred from acquir
ing a profession, that they sink by the vicis-
aitudes of fortune into utter insignificance.
Therefore, when he has so far mastered his
profession as to earn a livelihood, it is expe
dient to provide him with a connort, and let
him depend on his separate earning. Tho
King* of Fars, forbearing to bring thoiv sous
up surrounded by domestics and retinue, sent
them off to a distance, in order to habituate
them to a life of hardship. The Dilernite
chiefs had the same practice. A person bred
upon the opposite principle can hardly be
brought to good, especially if at all ad
vanced in yez.rs ; like hard wood which is
with difficulty straightened. And this was
the ansv;ir Socrates gave, when asked why
his intimacies lay chiefly among tho young.
In training daughters to that which befit*
them, domestic ministration, rigid seclusion,
chastity, modesty, and the other qualities
already appropriated to women no care can
be too groat. They should be made emulous
of acquiring the virtues of their sex, but must
be altogether forbidden to read and write.
When they reach the marriageable age, no
time should be lost in marrying them to
proper mates. (See Ak}ildq-i-Jaldli, Thomp
son s ed.)
CHILD STEALING. The hand
of a thief is not to be out off for stealing a
free-born child, although there be ornaments
upon it, because a freo person is not property,
and the ornaments are only appendages ; and
also because the thief may plead that he took
the child up when it was crying, with a. view
to appease it. and to deliver it to the nurse.
But Abu Yusuf does not agree with IJanifah. ;
for he says where the value of the ornaments
amounts to ten dirma, amputation is incurred.
Amputation is also inflicted for stealing an
infant slave, because a slave is property,
although Abu Yusuf says it is not. (JJida
yaJi, ii. 91.)
CHOSEOES. Arabic Khusraw.
The King of Persia to whom Muhammad
sent a letter inviting him to Islam. He is
Said to be Nausherwan. (See Ghiya#u V-
Lughat in loco; refer also to Mutr s Life of
Mahomet, vol. ii. 54 n.)
CHRIST. [JESUS CHRIST.]
CHRISTIANITY and CHRIS
TIANS. Arabic, Na$rdniyah, " Christianity";
the terms used for Christians being N&frdn,
pi. Nasaru, or Jtatm.
Christianity seems to have been widely dif
fused in A rabia at tho time of Muhammad,
According to Cauasic de Perceval, who quotes
from Arabic writers, Christianity existed
amongst the Baiiii Taghlfb of Mesopotamia,
the Bauii Abdu 1-Qais, the Banu HSria of
Najran, the Banu Ghassan of Syria, and
other tribes between al-Madinah and al-
Kufah.
CHRISTIANITY
53
The historian Philostorge;, {Uist. Eccl.
lib. 1, o. 8) tells us that a monk named Theo-
philus, who was an Indian bishop, was seat
by the Emperor Constance, A.D 42; to the
Himyarite King of Yaman, and obtained per
mission to build three Christian churchc* for
those who professed Christianity ; one ut
Zafar, another at A<Un, and a third at Hur-
muz on the Persian Gulf. According to the
same author, the Christian religion was in
troduced into Najran in the fifth contury. A
bishop sent by the Patriarch of Alexandria
was established in the city of Zaf or, and we are
told by Muslim authors, quoted by C&ussin de
Perceval, that a Christian church was built, at
$an a which was the wonder of the age, the
Roman Emperor and the Viceroy of Abyssinia
f uriiishing the materials and workmen for the-
building. Thtt Arabs of Yaman were ordered b v
the ruler of Abyssinia to perform a pilgrimage
to this new ehurch instead of to the Ka bah ;
an edict which is said to have been restate*!
and to have given rise to tho M War of the Ele
phant," when Abrahah, the Viceroy of Egypt,
took an oath that he would destroy "the
Mecoan teinpie, and marched at the head of
an army of Abyssinians, mounted on an
elephant. This M War of the Elephant"
marks tho period of Muhammad s birth.
[MUHAMMAD.]
The Christianity of this period ia described
by Mosheiui as " expiring under a motley and
enormous heap of superatitious inventions,
with neither the courage nor the force to raise
her bead or display h<-v national charms to
a darkened and deluded world." Doubtless
much of the success of Islam in its earlier
stage was due to the state of degradation into
which the Christian Church had fallen. The
bitter dissensions of the Greeks, Nestorians.
Eutyohians, and Monophyeites are matters oi
history, and must have held up the religion o(
Jesus to the ridicule of the heathen world.
The controversies regarding the nature and
person of our Divine Lord had begotten <i
sect of Tritheists, led by a Syrian philoso
pher named John Philoponus of Alexandria,
and are sufficient to account for Muhammad s
conception of the Blessed Trinity . The wor
ship of the Virgin Mary bad also given rise to
a religious controversy between the Antiduo-
Mariauites and the Oollyridians ; the former
holding that the Virgin was not immaculate,
and the latter raising her to & position of a
goddess. Under the circumstances it is not
surprising to find that tho uiina of the Arabian
reformer turned away from Christianity aud
endeavoured to construct a religion on the
lines of Judaism. [JUDAISM.]
Al-Bai?awi aud other Muslim commenta
tors, admit that Muhammad received Chris
tian instruction from learned Christians.
named Jubra and Yasara (al-Baizawi on
Surah xvi. 105), and that ou this account the
Quraish said, " It is only some mortal that
teaches him I " For the Traditions relate
that Muhammad used to stop and listen to
theao two Christians as thoy read aloud the
Books of Moses (Taurat) and the New Testa
ment (InjiZ). But it IB remarkable that Mu-
54 CHRISTIANITY
hammad should, after all, have obtained such
a cursory knowledge of Christianity. For
from the text of the Qur an (extracts of
which are subjoined), it is evident that he wan
under the impression that the Sacrament of
Baptism was Sibgkuh, or the dyeing of the
Christians clothes ;. and if the Chapter of tho
Table refers to the Sacrament of the Lord s
Supper (which is uncertain), it was " a table
seut out of heaven that it may be a recurring
festival/ The doctrine of the Trinity is sup
posed to be a Tritheism of God, Jesus Christ,
and the Virgin Mary; and a proof against
the Divinity of Christ is urged from the. fact
that He and His mcther "both ate food."
Tlie crucifixion is denied, and Mary the
mother of Jesus is confounded with Mary the
sister of Aaron. Such mistakes and omissions
coutd only arise from a most imperfect, ac
quaintance with the ordinary institutions and
beliefs of the Christian communities, wilb
"whom Muhammad must have been brought
in contact. The gentler tone and spirit of
the Christians seems to have won the sym
pathy of Muhammad, and his expressions
regarding them are less severe than with
reference to the Jews ; but the abstruse cha
racter of their creed, as shown in their end
less schisms regarding the nature of the
Trinity and the person of Christ, and the
idolatrous character of their worship, s still
seen in the ancient Syrian and Coptic
cli arches, led him to turn from Christianity
to Judaism as a model whereby to effect the
reformation of a degraded and idolatrous
jjeople like the ancienjj; Arabians. The
Jewish and Mosaic character of Muhammad s
svstem will be treated of in another place.
JUDAISM.]
The following selections from the Qur un
will show the actual teaching Of that book
regarding Christianity. In the whole of the
Qur an there is not a single quotation from
tho New Testament, and it is noticeable that
nearly all the allusions to Christianity are
contained in Meccan Surahs ; Surah ii. being
according to Jalalu d-din Suyuti, one of the
earliest chapters given at Makkah, and
Surah v. the last.
Surah v. #5 :*~
Of all inert thou wilt certainly find the
/ows, and those who join other gods with
God, to bo tho most intense in hatred of those
who believe; and thou shalt certainly find
those to bo nearest in affection to them who
say, We are Christians. This, because
there are amongst them priests ((jisslsun^)
and monks, and because they are not
proud."
Surah ii. 59 :
" Verily, they who believe (Muslims), and
they who follow the Jewish" religion, and the
Christians, and the Sabeites whoever of
these belioveth in God and the last day, and
doeth that which is right, shall have their
reward with their Lord: fear shall not
come upon thorn, neither shall they be
griaved."
(The same vert,* occurs again in Kurtih v.
74.)
OHRTSTI &N1TY
Surah ii. 105 :-
Andtney say, None but Jews or Chris
tiana shall enter Paradise: This; is their
wish. SAK : Give your proofs if .ye speak
the truth. But they who set their face
with resignation Godward, and do what is
right, their reward is with their Lord ; no
fear shall como on them, neither shall they
be grieved. Moreover, the Jews say, ^ The
Christians leaa on naught : On naught
lean the Jews, say the Christians. Yet
both are readers of tho Book. So with like
words say they who have in> knowledge.
But on the resurrection day, God shall
judge between them as to that in which
they differ. And who comm uteth a gu-utor
wrong ihitn he who JiinrU-mh God s name
from being remembered in His temples
and who hastetii to ruin them? Such men
cannot enter them but with fear. Theirs
is shame in thi.s world, and a severe tor
ment in the next. The East and tho West
is God s: thei-efore, whichever way ye turn.
there is the face of Cod. Truly God is
immense and knoweth all. And they say,
God hath a son : No I Praise be to
Him 1 But Jli.s. whatever i^ in the Heaven*
and the Earth I All obeyeth Hun, sole
maker of the Heavens and of tho Earth !
And when Ho decreeth a thing, He only
saith to it. ( Be, and it is. And they who
have no knowledge say, * Unless God speak
to us, or thou shew us a sign ....! So,
with like words, said those who wcro
before them : their hearts aru alike.
Clear sighs have we already shown for
those who have firm faith. Vorily, with
the Truth have we sent thee, a bearer
of good tidings and a warner: and of the
people of Hell thou shalt not bo questioned.
But until thou follow their religion, neither
Jews nor Christians will bo .s;iiisiit>rl with
thee. SAIT: Verily, guidance oi God,---
that is the guidance ! And if, after
k the Knowledge, which hath reached
thee, thou follow their desires, thou shall
tind neither helper nor protector against
God/
Surah iv. 150 :
" Nay, but God hath scaled them up for
their unbelief, so that but foA\ believe
A.nd for their unbelief, and for thoir
having . spoken against Mary a grievous,
calumny .and for their saying, * Verily we
have slain the Messiah (J/iwU), Jesus ( /so)
the son of Mary, an Apostle of Gad. Yel
they slew him not, and they crucified him not,
but they had only his likeness.. And they who
differed about him were in doubt concerning 1
him. No sure knowledge bad they about
him, but followed only an . opinion, anJ
they did not really slay him, but God took
him up to Himself. And God is Mighty,
Wise!"
Surah ii. 130 :
" They say, moreover, < Become Jews or
Christians that ye may ha ye the true
guidance. . SAI : Nay 1 the religion of
Abraham, the sound in faith, and not
one of those -who join gods with God I
CHRISTIANITY
Say yo: Wo beliovo in God and that
which hath been sent down to us, and
that which hath been -sent down to Abra
ham and Ishinael and Isaac aiid Jacob and
tbo tribes: and that which hath been
trivou to Moses and to Jesus, aud that
which was. given to the prophets from their
Lord. No difference do .wo make between
any of them : and to God are wo resigned
(Muslims). If, therefore, they boliove oven
JM ye believe, then have thoy true guid
ance ,* but if they turn back, then do they
cut themselves otT from you : and God will
suffice to protect thee against them, for Hi
JH the Hearer, the Knower. The Baptism
of God, and who is better to baptize than
God ? And Him do wo serve."
Surah v. 75 :-
" They surely are Infidels who say, God
i the third of throe : for there is no God
but one God : and if thoy refrain not from
rtiat they-, say. a grievous chastisement
fthall light on such of them as aro .Infidels.
Will thoy not, therefore, be turned unto
God, and ask pardon of Him? since God
is Forgiving, Merciful! Tho Messiah, Son
of Mary, is but aji Apofitlo ; other Apostles
have flourished before him ; and his mother
was a, just person: they both ate food.
Behold! how we make clear to them the
signs ! then behold how they turn aside I
SAT: Will ye worship, beside God, that
whiclf can neither hurt nor help? But
God! He only Heareth, Knovreth. SAY:
people of the Book I outstep not bound?
of truth in your religion; neither follow
the desires of those who have already
gone astray, and who have caused many to
go astray, and have themselves gone astray
from the evennoss of the way. Those
among the childrou of Israel who believed
not were cursed by the tongue of I>avid,
nd of Jesus, Son of Mary. Thia, because
they were rebellious, and became transgres
sors : they forbade not one another the
iniquity which they wrought! detestable
are their actions 1 "
Surah v. 18 :
"And of those who say, We aro Chris-
tiahs, hav-e we accepted the covenant. But
they too have forgotten a part of what they
were taught ; wherefore we have stirred up
enmity and hatred among them that shall
last till the day of the Resurrection ; and in
the end will God tell them of their doings.
people of the Scriptures I now is our
Apostle come to you to clear up 1 to you
much that ye concealed of those Soriptnres,
and to pasB over many things. No\\ hath
a light and a clear Book come to you from
God, by which God will guide him who
shall follow after His good pleasure to
paths of peace, and will bring them put of
the darkness to the light, by His wijl: and
to the straight path will He guide them.
Infidels now are they who say. Verily
God is al-Masih Ibn Maryara (the, Messiah,
uen of Mary) ! SAT: And who could aught
obtain from God, if He choso to destroy
ulrMasih Ibn Mary urn, and bis mother, and
CHRISTIANITY
55
all who are on the earth together? For
with God is the sovereignty of the Hca
vens and of the Earth, and of all that in
between them 1 He. createth what He will ;
and over all things is God potent. Say
tho Jews and Christians, Sons are we
of God nnd His beloved. SAT : Why then
doth Ha chastise you for your sins Y Nay!
yo are l/ut a part of the men whom He
hath created I "
Surah v. 58 :
"0 Believers! take, not tho JoWs K or
Christians as friends. They are but otoo
another s friends. If any one of you takoth
them for his friends, he surely is one of
them! God will not guide the evil-doers-.
So shalt thou bee the diseased At heart
speed away to them, an,d say, We fear lent
a change of fortune befall us. But haply
God will of Himself bring about some vic
tory or event of Hia- own ordering : then soon
will they ropent them of their secret imagin
ings."
Surah xxii. 18 :
" Aa to those who believe, and the Jews,
and the Su belles, and the Christians, and. the
Magians, and those who join other gods with
God, of a truth, God shall decide between
them on the day of resurrection: for God is
witness of all thing.- "
Surah v. 1,12:
" Remember when the Apo&tlos said
Josus, Son of Mary ! is Thy Lord able to send
down a furnished TABLE to us out -of
Heaven ? He eaid Fear God if ye be
believers. Thev said We desire to eat
therefrom, and to have our hearts uN*un-i ;
and to know that thou hust indeed ^pokm
truth to us, and to be witnesses tuoreor
Jesus, Son of Mary, said-~-*O God, our
Lord ! send down a table to us out >of Hea
ven, that it may become a recurring festival
to us, to the first of us and to the lust oi us,-
and a sign from Thee ; and do Thou nourish
us, for Thou art the bet of nourishers.
And God said Verily, I will cause it to
descend unto you ; but whoever .among yo;i
after that shall disbelieve, I will surely
chastise him with a chastisement wherewith
I will not chastise any other creature.
And when God shall aay-^- O Jesus, Son
of Mary, hast Thyu said unto mankind
" Take me and my mother as two Gods,
beside God ? " He shall say Glory be unto
Thee ! it is not for me to say that which J
know to be not the truth; had 1 said thn ,
verily Thou wouldest have known it : Thou
knowost what is in me, but 1 knov. not v,h;.t
fe in Thee; for Thou well knowest things
unseen I "
Surah xix. 35 r-
"This is JpfniF,.the son of Mary; this is a
statement of the truth concerning which they
doubt. It boNoometh not God to boget a
son. Glory be to Him ! when Ho decroeth
a thing, He only naith to it, Be, and it i.
And verily, God is my Lord uud your
Lord ; adore Him then. This is the right
way. But Tho Scots have fallen to variance
among themselves about Jews : bat \voo.
5j6 OHBTSTIANITT
because of the assembly -of a great day, to
those who believe not I "
The only New, Testament samta mentioned
by uame in the Qur an, are John the Baptist,
Zacharifls, and the Virgin Mary.
In the Mishkdtu kMasobtft, there are re
corded in the traditional sayings of Muham-
mml, about six apparent plagiarisms from the
New Testament; but whether the/ are the
plagiarisms of Muhammad himself or of those
who profess to record his sayings, it is impos
sible to tell :
Abu Hurairah says the Prophet said, " Of.
the seven persons whom God, in the last day,
will draw to Himself, will be a man who has
given alms and concealed it, so that his left
hand knoweth uot what the. right hand
doetfu* (Book i. c, viii, pt. 1 ; oorap
Matt, vi a)
Again : " God accepts not the prayers of
those who pray in long robes." (Book i
c. ix. pt. 2 ; comp. Matt. xii. 38.J
Again : {f The doors of the celestial regions
shall not open to them (the wicked) until :i
camel pasfc through the eye of a. needle. "
(Book v. c. iii. pt. 8; comp. Mark x.
26.)
Abu ITmamab relates that the Prophet
said, "Blessed be Him who bath seen roc.
And blessed be hint who Imth not seen me
and yet hath believed." (Book xxiv. c. xxvi.
pt. 8 ; comp. John xx. 20.)
Mn ai mates that the Prophet said, " Do
.unto all men as you would they should do
unto you, and reject for others what vou
would reject for yourself." (Book i. o. i.
pt. 8 ; Matt. vii. 12.)
Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet
said, " Verily God will say in the day of re
surrection, O ye sons of men 1 I was sick and
ye did not visit me. And the sons of men
will say, O Thou defender, b <-./ r-ould we
visit Thee, for Thou art the Lord of the
nuf verge, and art free from sickness ? And
God will say, O ye sons of men, did you not
know that such a one of my servants was
sick and ye did not visit him," 4rc. &c.
(Book v. o. L pt. 1 ; comp. Matt. xxv.
21.)
Although it would be difficult to prove it
froiu the text of the Qur an, the general
belief of Muhamuiadans is that Christiana
are not in a state of salvation, and Laga, or
the "blazing fire $ " mentioned in Surah ikx,
15, is, according to the Imam al-Baghawi,
reserved for them.
The condition of a Christian m a Muslim
state is that of a minimi, or one who pays
tribute to a Muhammadan governor, for
which he enjoys protection. He is allowed
to repair any old church which may have
been in existence at the time the country was
subdued by Islam, but he is not allowed to
erect new ones ; for," says Ab& Hanifah,
* the construction of churches or synagogues
iu Muslim territory is unlawful, being for
bidden in the Traditions." It also behoves
the Iiuam to make distinction between Mus
lims and Zzmmis (i.e. Christians, Jews, and
others paying tribute). It is therefore not
CHOECHBS
allowable for them to ride upon horses or
use armour, or to wear the same dresses
as Muslims." The reason for this, says
Abu Hanifah, "is that Muhammadans are
to be held in honour and jSimnut are
not."
The wives also of Zimmis are to be kept
apart from those of Muslims on the public
roads and baths. And it is also ordered
that a mark should be placed on their
doors, in order that when Muslim beggar. 1 ?
come to them they should not pray fo
them !
The learned have ruled that a JZimn ;
should not be allowed to ride at all, except
in cases of necessity, and if he be thus of
necessity allowed to ride, he should dismount
when he meets a Muslim- (Htdayah, vol. ii.
219.)
A judge when he administers an oatb
to a Christian, must direct him to say :
" I swear by God who eeitt the Gospel to
Jesus."
It is a singular ruling of the Muhamnrndau
law that a claim of parentage made by a
Christian i? preferable to a claim of bonaage
advanced by a Muslim. Abu Hanifah sayB
if a boy be in tna possession of two men, the
one ti Muslim and the other a Christian, and
the Christian assert, that the boy it hie sou,
and the Muslim assert that he is his slave,
he must be decreed to be the son of the
Christian and free, because although Islam is
the superior religion, there can be no balance
between the claim of offspring and the cJnim
of bondage. (Idem* vol. iv. 133.)
Sir William Muir, referring to Muhammad s
reception of the Banu Hanifah and other
Christian tribes, A.H. 9, says, On the depar.
ture of the embassy the Prophet gave
them a vessel with some water in it running
over from his own ablutions, and said to
them, When ye reach your country break
down your church, sprinkle its site with thip
water, and build a Masjid in its place/ These
command* they carried into effect, and aban
doned Christianity without compunction.
To another Christian tribe he prohibited the
practice of baptism; so that although the
adults continued to be nominally Christian,
their children grew up with no provision but
that of the Qur an. . ... It is no wonder
that Christianity, thus insulted and trampled
under foot, languished and soon disappeared
from the peninsula." (Life of Mahomet, vol.
iv. 219.)
CHURCHES. Arabic Bta h and
Karitsah, which -terms include equally
churches and synagogues. The construction
of churches or synagogues fji Muslim terri
tory is unlawful, this being forbidden in the
Traditions ; but as for places of worship which
belonged to tho Jews or Christians before
the country was conquered by the Muham
madan power, they are at liberty to repair
them, because the buildings cannot endure
for ever, cud, as the Imam of the Muslim
army has left these people to the exercise of
their own religion, it is a necessary inference
CIRCUMCISION
that ho has engaged not to prevent them
from building or repairing their churches or
synagogue*. If. however, they attempt to
remove these, and to build them in a place
different from their former situation, the
Imam must prevent them, since this is an
actual construction. Monasteries and her
mitages are under the same law. Places of
prayer within their dwellings are allowed to
be constructed, because they are merely an
appurtenance to a private habitation. What
is here said is held to be the rule with
regard to citiea, but not with respect to vil
lages, because as the " tokens of Islam " (i.e.
prayer, festivals, Ac.) appear in cities, zimmis
(i.e. thoee paying tax for protection) "should
not be permitted to exhibit the tokens of
their infidelity in tno face of Islam. But as
the tokens of Islam do not appear in vil-
lt, os, the erection of churches and syna
gogues is not prohibited there. But the Imrim
Abu Hanifah held that this exemption merely
applied to the village of Kusa, where the
greater part uf the inhabitants were zimmis.
He adds that in the country of Arabia. Jews
and Christians are prohibited from construct
ing synagogues and churches, either in cities
or vil!ageK, according to the saying of the
Prophet, " Two religions cannbt exist in the
country of Arabia." (HidayaJi, book is. c. viii.)
If a Jew or a Christian, being in sound
health, build a church or a synagogue and
then die, such building is an inheritance, and
descends to the heirs of the founder. Accord
ing to Abu HanifAh, it is i\ pious appropria
tion ; but, his two disciples hold such erections
to be sinful, and only to be considered as or
dinary property. If a Jew or a Christian will
that his house after his death shall be con
verted into either a synagogue or church, the
bequest is valid. (Hidayah, book lii. c. vi.)
The following tradition related by Talaq
ibn All tyfishkat, iv. c. viii. 2) exhibits" Mu
hammad ** determination to destroy Christian
churches : " We told the Prophet that there
was a church on our ground ; and we re
quested the favour of his giving us the water
which remained after ho had performed wazu.
And the Prophet called for water, performed
wazu and washed out his mouth ; after which
he poured the water for us into a vessel and
ordered us to return, saying, When you
arrive, destroy your church (Arabic ii A),
and pour this water on the spot, and build a
moaque there."
CIRCUMCISION. Arabic Khitdn,
khitanah, or khatnah. Circumcision is not
once alluded to in tho Qur ftn. The omission
is remarkable, and Muslim writers do not
attempt Any explanation of it. It is held to
be tttffiuzA, or founded upon the customs of
the Prophet (Fatdwu Alamgirl, voL iv.
p. 237), and dating its institution from the
time of Abraham. There is no authentic
account of the circumcision of Muhammad,
but it is asserted by some writers that he was
born circumcised. This, however, is denied by
the most eminent scholars. (Haddu i-Makhtar,
vol. y. p. 835.)
CLEAN ANIMALS
57
In the Sahlhu LBukhari, p. 931, a short
chapter is devoted to the subject of khilan,
or " circumcision," in which there are three
traditions :
Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet said
one of the observances of FUrah is circumci
sion.
Abu Hnrairah relates that the Prophet
said that Abraham was circumcised when he
was eighty years old.
Said ibn Jubair relates that it was asked
of Ibn Abbas, " How old were you when the
Prophet died ? " He said, " I was circumcised
in the days when it occurred." And Jnbair
says they did not circumcise in those days
until men were full grown.
It in recommended to be performed upon a
boy between tho ages of seven and twelve, but
it in lawful to circumcise a child seven days
after bis birth. In the case of a convert to
Idam from some other creed, to whom the
operation may be an occasion of great suffer
ing, it can be dispensed with, although it is
considered expedient and proper for all new
converts to be circumcised. In all cases an
adult is expected to circumcise himself, as it
is a shame for an adult person to uncoter
himself to another.
The circumcision of females is also allowed,
and is commonly practised in Arabia. (JPa-
tdwa AUirngirii vol. iv. p. 237.)
The barber is generally the person em
ployed for the circumcision of boys, and the
operation as practised by Muhnmmadans in
India is performed in the following mauuer.
A bit of stick is used as a probe, and carried
round and round between the gl&ns and pre
puce, to ascertain the exact extent of tha
fraenum, and that no unnatural adhesions
exist. The fox^skinis then drawn fo /wards
and a pair of forceps, consisting oi a couple
of pieces of split bamboo, five or six inches
long and a quarter of an inch thick, tied
firmly together at one end with a string to
the extent of an inch, applied from above in
an oblique direction, so as to exclude about
an inch and a half of the prepuce above and
three-quarters of an inch below. The for
ceps severely grasping it, causes a good deal
of pain, but this state of suffering does not
continue long, since the next thing to be done
is the removal, which is done by one stroke
of the razor drawn directly downwards. The
haemorrhage which follows is inconsiderable
and easily stopped by the application of
burnt rags and ashes.
According to several Muhammad an doctors,
there were seventeen of the prophets bom in
a circumcised state, namely, Zakariya, Shis,
Idris. Yusuf, Hanzalah, Isa, Musa, Adam,
N T uh, Shu aib, Sam, Luf;, Salih, Sulaiman,
Yahyn, Hud, and Muhammad. (Durru V-
Mukhtdr, p. 619.)
CLEAN AND UNCLEAN ANI-
MALS. All quadrupeds that seize their
prey with their teeth, and all birds which
seize it with their talons, are unlawful
(frardm), the Prophet having prohibited man
kind from eating them.
8
58 CLERGY
Hyon. !S And foxes, being both included
jnder tho class of animals df prey, are un-
Irtwlul. (This is tho doctrine of Abu Hanifah,
but ash-Shall j holds that they are lawful )
BlepbviTits and weasels are also animals ot
prey. Pelie-am and kites are nbommable
(tnatcruh), because they devour tlesd. bodies.
Crowd which feed or* grain are /nv/iiiJi, or
indifferent, but cavrion crows and invent) are
unlawful. Abu Hauifah says the magpie to
indifferent (mubtijf,^ but tho Imam Yusrif snys
il is . iboxuiuable (iufiferu/i).
Crocodiles and otters and wftsps, ?vnd. in
general, all insects are makrul or abomin
able. The ass and the mule ajv both unlaw
ful. According to Abu Hanilalx and Malik,
Horse-fleah \a unlawful,, but ash-Shafi i says
it JH indifferent. The ileslt ol hares is also
indifferent.
No animal that live in the water, except
fidb. is lawful. Cut Malik allows them.
Fishes dying vf themselves ate \mlawfut.
and so are all animals who are not plain by
%0.f>uh. (Hidayit.lt, vol. iv. p. 74.) [XABAH.]
It must be observed that iu Muhammadan
law animals are either lialuL " lawful," or
muftd^ inditi oreni," or mohuft, "aborain-
ablb " (.(?, -which ia condemned but still is
lawfi^l), or haram, "uuiu^ful."
CLERGY. The Christian clergy
axe saoijtioned ia bho Qiu <>n v.ith fxprossions
rti comparative piaise. Sirrah v. 86: * Thon
wilt surely iind that the strongest ai ermi ty
a^:tii>st those who believe are Uu* J \vs. nnd
the idolaters ; and thou wilt find those to be
nearest in affection to them who say * We
arc Ohristiiiaa : that ift because them arc
unoii^st them priests (gisst*iri) and uiowk -
and b< j cauf>e they are not proud."
The Muhamiaudane have no class of people
occupying the precise position of priests or
clergy, Although the Imums. or leaders of
prayers in the public Assembly, are persons of
learning appointed by the congregation. In
Central Asia, it is usual to set apart a learned
man (-well skilled in theology) b^ Ijinding the
turhaii round his head, the aet being per
formed by a leading 1 inaul.iwi ot scholui
In Turkey and the western portion of
Islam, those who are qualified to give an
(/pinion in religious matters, and to take the
lead in guiding tho people in spiritual affairs,
are rlied "ulamff (pi. of l alim}. a teiw \\hich
has, n Hindustan and Central Asia. <i^uuieci
the form of mavltteui, a word derived froin
maula, " lord."
The recognised offices in Islam correspond
ing to that of a priest or religious teacher,
are, Imam, Muftl t and Q?t. Imam (in addi
tion to 1 its being used for the Khalifh, or
Caliph, in the Traditions), is the person who
leads the public prayers, an office answering
to the Latin Anti3t.es. This official is ap
pointed either by the congregation, or "by the
parish or section of the town or village, who
frequent the mosque in which be lend* the
prayers. Mufti is the legal adviser, who
decides difficult religious questions, and
assists the Q,dzi, or judge. Quziia the judge
COMMANDMENTS
and the administrator of the law The
appointments of Mufti and Qrizi Jtro in
the hanus of the Muslim j/overnment ol the
olacc, ll is usual for the QU/.J 10 taka
the lead in prayers at funerals, svhiH tlvs
1m am of tha parish, generally performs the
iituh t or reli^ioas service at mn triages
[MAtCRJAGE."]
These offices are not necessarily hereditary,
buf it is usual in Muhammadan couiitrip^
for them to pass from father to HOO. In
India at tho present time there are farnilifia
who retain the titles of Mufti and Qt<,
althougi) the duties connected with those
oJEcoK sre no longer performed by thorn.
CAUTION (Arabic ffatar) is
enjoined by Muhammad^ who is related to
have said. A Muslim is not bitten twice at
the* same hole. He is no perfect man who
has not fallen into trouble, forthrroKno skil
ful physician but experience." k * When a man
has spoken,. antl has then looked first to bis
right and then lo his left, whal ht Las buid
is sacred to those present and they must
not disclose it to oluer.s." (Afishkat^ xxii
c. xviii.)
COINAGE. [MONEY.]
COLLECTOR OF TAXES. Arabic
Anhir. a collector of tJie tenths; ond Aim
mulasadfiit/, a collector of aims.
The Khalifah is to allow ilVe officer em -
jiJoyed in tho collection of the -fakni. as much
ovit oC it :rt *;s in proportion to his labour, and
*viH remunerate liiin&elf and iiis Hssibla/its.
Hitfoyab, voi u p. 54.)
COMMAJSTMTENTS, The Ten.
Li the Qur jm it is staled that God gave
Moses certain monitions on labtes (.of stone),
and also that be gave him nine elect bigus
(See Surah vii. 1*?. aiwi Surah xvii. 103.)
These two statements have perplexed the
commentators y*rry nincli, and every efi oi t is
made by them to vecencile the nine. sgns
with the Te.n Coin/mmd merits, althoagii il is
evident from the Quran itself, thai t be nine
clear signs refer to the miraolos of Mosev.
[PLAGUES OP EGYPT.]
According to ibet Tr^rliHons, t\& Prophet
himself was a Jitlle confused in the mailer,
and nifty to some extent h responsible for the
mistakes of tbc PonuncutiiloHonlii& book, tor
it is refated < Mishkot, book i. p. it. pi i?) thai
a Jew came to the Prophet and asked him
about the nine(&ic / wonders which appeared
by the hands of Moses. The Propliet Said.
44 Do not associate anyilinig with God do not
steal, do not commit adultery, do not kill do
hot take an innocent before the king to
fee killed, do not practise magic, do not take
interest, do not accuse an innocent woman of
adultery, do not run away in battle, ancl
especially for you, O Jews, not to work on
the Sabbath." Abdu l-Haqq remark* on
this tradition tha 1 the Jew asked about the
nine (*t c) miracles (ox plagues) of Egypt, and
the Prophel gave him the Tea Command
ments.
COMVANDEK
OONODJBtNE
A. comparison of the Tun Commandment i
ivea by the groat Jewish law-giver with those
recorded in tho above tradition and iu tlv
vith Surah of tho Qur an. verse 152, will show
how imperfectly the Arabian Prophet -.v.is
acquainted with tho Old Testament serif -
tores.
The eomiaentatofe l.Iusain, who wrote ft>n
hundred vear.-, aero, saya tho following VCIS^.H
ia the Suratu l-An am (\ \.} n>v thoc Ten
Coinmindincnis which in ever* >iiRpon?atir>n
are inrumh-nnt on mankind. ml ranr.ot be
al to^ai ed t leaning undoubtedly tho Ten
Oomnunuments ^iven to Mosos;
" SAT ( orris, I will rohearso what your Jjord
hath iriudv) binding.cn youH ) that ye nssigu
not aa^ht to Hjm t>s partner: (2) and that vo
lie o-A (o yourperonts: (:j) and thftt ye slay
not your children, because of poverty; for
them and for you will wo pro% ide? (1) and
that ye come not ne*ii to pollutions, outward
or inward (fi) and Hiat ^re slay not :niyinr.
whom God Ii.it h forbidden you, unless fo-
a just cause This hath he enjoined on
you, to the iirtent that ye mny understand.
(6) And come not nigh to the substance of
the orphan, but to improve it. until be <*ooie
of ago : (7) and ux* a full measure. and i
just balance : We will not ta,k a *onl beyond
its ability. (8) And when ye give judgment,
observe justice, even though it IHJ the affair
of a kinsman, (9) and fnlfil the covenant of
Gcd. This hath God enjoiied you for your
monition And, Hhis ia my right wny.
Follow itthen : CIO) and follow notofA<r paths
leat ya be MtMrtd from His path. This
hftth He enjoiued you .thnt vo may fear Him."
COMMANDER OF THE FAITH-
FUL. Arabic .\mi-rn I- Ma? mini n
#*\). A title given ky tho
in the first instance to trw first Kba-
lifah, j\;)Ci Bukr. and afterwards retained by
s\ioce?di)ig .Xhalifah?, It is assumed by
airaot?t any Mubjnmarlan ruler in the pro
<6PV a jv.
GOMMKNTAEIES.
COMMERCE. Arabic
(fyr\- Commerce and merchandise
are aid in tho Qor an to be of God." Surnh
xvii. 68: "It IK yonr l^ord who drives the
ahipa for vou in tho sea that yo may seek
fter T)lntv from HJLO ; verily He is ever mer
ciful to you. And ivhert- distress touches you
m the sea, those whom- ye call up.on, except
Him, stray away from yoa; but whjsn Up has
brought you safe to shore, ye also turn "away
(from God) ; for man is evi-r nn^mtefiil."
Zakui is dye on m<jrchandiBO of evory
tern i>tion f in proportion to 5 yer cent.
COMPANIONS, The [ASHAB.]
COMPULSION. Arabic Dcrdh
Muharainado.D lar makes
for persons acting under ccmpul-
whan tho person who compels has it in
his power to execute what bo orders, be be
a king or a thief. (Hiddyah, v,>L iii. p. J 3 .")
K.q. a person foiled into :i f..ntrart \\\-.\\ d...
solve it. A .Mn-hm may hiwfuliv oat fo<>:
which is prohibited if ho be com;. oiled to .10
so, being threatened with los>- of lifv or limb.
Nor is ,-i Mu-:lim guii*y . sin wh / declares
himHe!f .-n ;iiilj,>li". ,r whcu iho losr- c-i a limb
or oi in " ;s u:ronto:i.>tl. \c.-jrcuuj? to tu-
liuiim Abu ll;i:rf,i!i, i: a Muslim ho oiapftl!e.i
t;) divorro his wife, tlve divorce is valid; bui
n-ith him the .then thrf 1 Imams are not
ngrood in tills rr-liniy.
CONCUBINE. Ar.ibic Svrriyah
(&i|-), pi. &.ifui-i. The 3fuhaniind!an
r -ii^iun ;^peii!i to j^ive ahn.tst
license to < unuubiijaje. provided ihe
be a sln je. ajid nat a free Muslim
Those female s Lives must he
tAkeiv rnptive m war, -(2) or purchased by
ironi-y. 3^ or ihe descendsnts of sla^c%.
liven married womeu. if tKrn in war, are,
according to n Jnjutiction of the Qur nn
Sur^h i?. 28, entirely at- the disposal of th(*
Mu-diiii conqueror. "(Un awfulJ to yon it**
married women, exr.spt such a your rijbt
hand possess -.i.t. taken in waivov^pui-ohnseri
slaves)." T hi? institution oi concubinage Is
founded upon the exfa|.lc of Muhammad
himself, who took 5;hnah thf Jewess as l-,is
concubine fri- ihs l.-^ilt- wuii tb* Enn.
Quraizah (A.H. . r >;, ; ; nc: ahi< Mmi* tLti Coyi.
vho was sent him as 3 slavp by tbe irvoi nov
of Egypt.
Should H concubine bear her macfer a
child, the MnliamuiHUan law ruJeS ihai cho
and her otf spring trre ivso fac u ire*; For a
further treatment of .this pubject, see arti le
on I.A vbs.
Amongst the Shi ahs, the temporary mar
riage callod Mwah exhibit^tbe wor6t form
of concnbrnagp.. [MTJT AU.]
It i mtpr^sifng to compare tlio condition
cf the concnbiac uud^r Muslim law jrd
the Mosaic. Under the lav of Mnsos. a
cubitu" would generally ho cltLor a
girl bouglit of her father, or a Gentile cip iv t -
taken iu war. ISo that .whjUt tbe -Mub.im
madan law forbids concubinage ivlth a. fee
woman, tho Mosaic law panniUecJ it and UgtR-
lated for it. See Exodus xxi. ; I; -j JJIAII
sell his daughter to be a maid-servant, rru
shall not go out as men-servants do. If the
pleae not her master who hath betrothed h*r
to himself, then nball lie let her ne redacmod ;
to sell her unto a strange nntionho sha.ll hare
no pnwer,seoinrhc hath den It -rtec<?it fully with
her."
With regard to femaJe Hlavc.ei takou iu -.vai,
ihe Mocaic Uw ruled. I^mt. xxi, 10: Wj,,. n
tiiou jost to war . i^iinst tbinr- jnoniies.
and the Lord thy ^Ood hath deliviv-a tneci
into thine hands, and UIOM hum taken them
captive, and secst a beautiful woman, and
hast a desire unto her, ch-r. tuou wouidst
havr her to thy wife: theu tuau fhalt brinj;
her to thino nome, *<. . And it shall V
if thou have nodelix* - f- her, then thou -* .
let her go whither she wiH out thon li.->J
not neli her."6 <
60
CONGREGATION
CONGREGATION. The Assembly
of people in a mosque is called Jam ak
e term also ^S use( * "* Afghan
,
istan for the mosque itself.
There are special rewards for those Mu-
hanimadans who assemble together for the
stated prayers; for Muhammad has said,
M The prayers which are said in a congrega
tion increase the rewards of the worshipper
twenty-seven degrees." " Say your prayers
in a congregation, far a wolf does not eat the
sheep except one has strayed from rhe flock."
(Miskkat, book iv. ch. xxiv.)
The Sunni style themselves Ahlu Sunnah
wa Jam ah, i.e. " the people of the traditions
and of the congregation," in contradistinction
to the ShI ahs, who do not worship in a con
gregation unless the Imam, or leader, be H
man entirely free from sin. [IMAM.]
The word jam ah is. also used for an
assembly of people collected to decide a quee-.
tion of law or theology, the yia being their
decision, more frequently called ijmd u V-
ummak.
CONSCIENCE. There is no word
in the Qur an which exactly expresses
the Christian conception of conscience. The
word nqfs (jj~&)> which, according to Arabic
lexicons, expresses very much the same idea
as the Hebrew ifiv ne P hS ^ " life
spirit, breath" (Job xii.-21), seems to be used
in the Qur an to convey the meaning of con
science, although English translators render
it " soul." Muslim theologians say there are
four kinds of .consciences spoken of in the
Qur an : (1) Na/s tawwamah, the " self-
accusing soul or conscience " (Surah Ixxv. 3).
(2) Nafs ammdrah, the " soul or conscience
prone to evil" (Surah xii. 53). (8) Nafs
mvtma innah, the "peaceful soul or con
science " (Surah Ixxxix. 12). (4) Nafs mul-
harnmah, the " soul or conscience in which
is breathed both bad and good" (Surah
Ixxxiv. 27.)
It occurs also in the sense of conscience in
the Traditions (Mishkat, book i. cb. i. pt. 3) :
" When anything pricks your soul (nafs} for
sake it," Abdu 1-Haqq, in his Persian com
mentary on the Mishkdt) renders it by zdt,
but the English word conscience would seem
to express the precise idea. In Persian Mu-
hammadan works, as well as in common con
versation, the word nafs ia now used in its
evil sense, of desire or^ passion, but it must
be evident that this is not its Q ar anie men n-
ing. The word JUJ simmah, which in later
Arabic, together with p*** zamir, is used
to express conscience, has in the only pas
sage where it occurs in the Qur an a decidedly
different meaning, e.g. Surah ix. 8, 10, where
it means clieutship. Sale and Bodwell both
translate it " faith," but Palmer more accu
rately renders it " ties of elientship."
CONVERSATION, The follow
ing instructions are given in the Qur an re
garding talking and conversation. Surah
CONVERSATION
xxxi. 17, "Be moderate hi thy walk, and
lower thy voice ; verily the most disagreeable
of voices is the voice of asses.* Surah ii.
77, " Speak to men kindly." In the Tradi
tions, Ibn Mfcs ud relates that Muhammad
said, May those people go to the fire of hell
who speak much."
On the subject of conversation, Faqir Jani
Muhammad As ad, the author of the cele
brated ethical work entitled the Akhl&k-i-
Jaldli, p. 288, days:
"He should not talk much, for it is a sign
of levity in feeling and weakness in judgment,
and tends to lower him in point of considera
tion and position. We are told that the Pro
phet used to observe the strictest medium in
his language ; so much so, that, in the most
protracted interviews, you might have counted
the words he uttered. Buzurg Jauiihr uerd
to say, When you see a person talking much
without occasion, be sure he is out of bis
senses. Let him not give yent to expres
sions till he has determined in his own mind
what he is going to say. When anyone is
relating a story, however well known to the
listener, the. latter is not to intimate his ac
quaintance with it till the narrative ie con
cluded. A question put to others he must
not himseli reply to ; if put to a body of
which he is a member, let him not prevent
the others; and if another ifi engaged in
answering what himself could answer better,
let him keep silence till the other s statement
is completed, and then give his own, but in
such sort its not to annoy the former speaker.
Let him not commence his reply till the
querist/s sentence is concluded. Conversa
tions and discussions which do not concern
him, although held in his presence, he is not
to interfere in; and if people conceal what
they are saying, he must not attempt furtively
to overhear. To his elders he should apeak
with judgment, pitching his Voice at a medium
between high and low. Should any abstruse
topic present itself, he should give it per
spicuity by comparison. Prolixity he should
never aim at, when not absolutely required ;
on the contrary j let it be his endeavour to
compress all he has to say. Neither should he
employ unusual terms 01* far-fetched figures.
He should beware of obscenity and bad lan
guage ; or if be icust needs refer to an inde
cent subject, let him be content witb allusion
by metaphor. Of all things, let him keep
clear of a taste for indelicacy, which tends to
lower his breeding, degrade bis respectability,
and bring him into general disagreement and
dislike. Let his language upon every occa
sion correspond with the exigency of his posi
tion ; and if accompanied by gesticulation of
the hand or eye or eyebrow, let it be only of
that graceful sort which his situation calis
for. Let him never, for right or wrong, en
gage in disputes with others of the company ;
least of all with the elders or the triflers of
it : and when embarked in such dispute, let
him be rigidly observant of the rules of
candour.
"Let him not deal in profound observation
beyond the intellect of those he is addressing
CONVERTS
CORRUPTION
61
but adapt his discourse to the judgment of his
hearers. Thus even the Prophet has declared ,
We of the prophetic order are enjoined to ad
dress men in the measure of their understand
ings : and Jesus (hlessed be he) said, * Use not
wisdom with the unwise to their annoyance
(St. Matthew vii. 6 ?). In all his conversation
let him adhere to the ways of courtesy.
Nver let him mimic anyone s geutures,
actions, or words, nor give utterance to the
language of menace.
" When addressing a great person, let him
begin with something ominous of good, as the
pennanonce of his fortune, felicity, and so
forth.
" From all back -biting, carping, slander,
and falsehood, whether heard or spoken, let
him hold it essential to keep clear; nay, even
from any partnership with those addicted to
such practices. Let him listen more than he
speaks. It was the answer of a wise man to
those who asked him why he did so,
* Because, said he, God has given me two
ears and only one tongue ; which was as
much as to say, Hear twice as much as you
speak. "
CONVERTS TO THE MTJHAM-
M ADAN RELIGION. According to the author
of the Hiddyah (vol. ii. 170), if a hostile in
fidel embrace Islam in a hostile country, his
person is his own, and he is not made a slave,
not- can hi? children be enslaved. His pro
perty is alto his own. But it is not so in the
case of one who has been lirst conquered and
then embraces Islam, for hie own person and
hi children become slaves, and his wives are
at the mercy of the victorious Muslim, whilst
bin lands also become the property of the
State.
COVENANT. The word in the
Qur Sn and the Traditions for God s Cove
nant with His people is Misag. Muham
mad taught, both in the Qur an and in the
Traditions, that in the beginning God called
all the souls of mankind together aud took a,
promise (uKZ ditzA) and n covenant (mtfag) from
them.
The account of this transaction is given as
follows in the Qur an, Surah vii. 171 :
"Thy Lord brought forth their descendants
from -the reins of the sons of Adam and took
them to witness against themselves, Am I
not. said He, your Lord ? They said, * Yes,
we witness it. This we did, lest ye should
say on the Day of Resurrection, Truly, of
this were we heedless, because uninformed.
" Or lest ye should say, k Our fathers,
indeed, aforetime joined other gods with our
God , and we are their seed after them : wilt
thou destroy us for the doings of vain
men ? "
But the story as told in the Traditions is
more graphic :
" Ubai ibu Ka b relates, in explanation of
the verse in the Suratu 1-A raf (verse 171) :
When God created (the spirits of) the sons
of Adam, he collected them together and
made them of different tribes, and of different
appearances, and gave them powers of speech.
Then they began to speak, and God took
from them a promise (u>a r/<rA),and a covenant
(mi<7), and said, Am I not thy Lord?
They all answered and said, < Thoa art,
Then God said, Swear by the seven hea
vens and the seven earths, and by Adam your
father, that you will not say in the resurrec
tion, We did not understand this. Know ye
therefore that there is no Deity bat Me, and
there is no God but Me. Do not associate
anything with Me. I will verily send to you
yonr own apostles who shall remind you of
this Promise and of this Covenant, and I will
send to you your own books.* The sons of
Adam then replied, 4 We are witnesses that
Thou ait our Lord (Rabb), and our God
(Allah). Thore is no Lord but Thee and no
God but Thee. Then they confessed this
and made it known to Adam. Then Adam
looked at them and beheld that there were
amongst them those that were rich and poor,
handsome and ugly, and he said, Lord
why didst Thou not make them all alike ?
And the Lord said, Truly I milled it thus in
order that some of my servants may be
thankful. Then Adam saw amongst his pos
terity, prophets, like unto lamps, and upon
these lamps there yrere lights, and they were
appointed by special covenants of prophecy
(nabuvoaJi) and of apostleship (raA<z/a/i).
And thus it is written in the Qur an (Surah
xxxiii. 7), Remember we have entered into
covenant with the Prophets, with thee Mu
hammad, and with Noah, and with Abraham,
and with Musa, and with Jesus the Son of
Mary, and we made with them a covenant.
Aud (continues Ubai) Jesus was amongst the
spirits." (Mishkai, Arabic Ed. Babu 1-Qadr.)
COVERING THE HEAD. There
88 no injunction in either the Qur an or Tra
ditions as to a man covering his bead during
prayers, although it is generally held to be
more modest and correct for him to do so.
With reference to women, the law in impe
rative, for Ayishah relates that Muhammad
said, " God accepts not the prayer of an adult
woman unless she cover her head/ (Afishkat,
iv. c. ix.)
CORRUPTION OF THE SCRIP-
TURES. Muhanxmadans charge the Jews
and Christians with having altered their
sacred books. The word used by Muham-
madan writers for this supposed corruption of
the sacred Scriptures of the Jews and Chris
tians is Tahrlf.
The Imam Fakhru d-din Rozi, in bis com
mentary, Tafsir-i-Kabir, explains Tabrif to
mean " to change, alter, or turn aside any
thing from the truth." Muslim divines say
there are two kinds of ta^rlj\ namely, tak-
rif-i-ma nawi, a corruption of the meaning ;
and tahrif-i-laf$ii a corruption of the words.
Muhammadan controversialists, when they
become acquainted with the nature of the
contents of the sacred books of the Jews and
Christians, and of the impossibility of recon
ciling the contents of the Qur ao with those of
62
CORRUPTION
the sacred Scripture*, charge the Christians
witb the t(t!irif*i-hrfzi They Bay the
Christians have expanded tVm word akmad
from the prophecies, and have imortod the
expression "Son of God." and the story ol
the- crucifixion, death, and resurrection of our
blessed Lord. This view, however, is not the
one held by the most celebrated of the Mns-
lira communtatorfl.
The Imam Muhammad IsmaMJ al -Bukhari
fp. 1127, lino 7). records that l.bn -A.bhaK said
that "the word Talirif (corniptioto) signifies
to change* a thing from its original nature;
ard that thero is no man who could c.tjrrupt
a single word of what proceeded from Gof ! ,
e that tho Jews aud Christians could cornir i.
only by misrepresenting the wettning of the
words of Gorl."
Tbn Mazar and Ibn AM ttariro stale, in the
commentary known as the fafslr , Dvrr-i-
Ma*$it.T* Uiat they have it on tho aiithpnty of
ibn Miuiiynh. thai the Jawraf (i.e. the hook ;
of MOPCS), arid the /it pi (is. the Gospels), are
in the $sm. .e .state <">f purity in which they wore
sent down from boa .von, find thai no nltera-
fious had boon mo.de in Ihew- hut that the
Jews we ro wont to deceive the people by un
sound arguments, and by wresting the sense
of Scripture.
Shah Wfthyu Hah, in bi.s commentary, th
/Vu?v 7 -Knhi. . and also Ibn Abbas, support
the sanjft view.
This appe ua to ** Hie correcl interpret u
tion of the various ver es ol the tjur an
charging the Jovs \yth having corrupted (he
uaeamng of the sacred Scriptures.
For example, Siiratu A.li fniran fiii ), 72:
4 There are certainly some ot tfoera who veJ
the. Scriptures pervorsely, that ye may think
what they read te be really in the Scriptures
yet it is not iri the Scriptures ; and they say
this 15? from Ood, but it. is not from God : and
fchey spert.k that which is false concerning dad
against their own knowledge."
Tbe Iirani Fakhjru d-d in. in his commen
tary on this verso, and TO any others of the
same character V hi ell oc ur iu the Qur an,
ays it refers to a iahnf-t-ma -nair^ and that
it. does not in can that the Jws altered thp
text, but merely lh;t : they made, alterations
in the course of reading
But whilst all the old commentators who
most probably had never seen a copy of tho
sacred books of the Jews and Christians, only
charge them with a fafirif-t ma naiof, all
modern controversialists amongst the Mo-
hftinumdnns contend for a tafirl/*t-lafzS, as
beinff tlie only solution of the difficulty. .
la dealing- with such opponents, the Chris
tian divine wiJl avail himself of tbe Following
arguments :
1. The Qur on does not charge the Jews
ailid Christians with corrupting the text of
that racred buoks ) and man y > learned Mus-
lirn comrneMl/riorM admit that eurb is not the
case
fc 2. The Qar au asserts that rbo lioly Scrip
tures of the Jews and Christians existed in
the dys of Muhamyiad, Who invan aJjly
speaks of them with reverence Dd re&jtecl.
CP^EATION
3 There now exist manulsoripiti oitue OW
ond ^ew Testaments of ri earlier date than
tha/t of Muhammad (A.I>. Gl/ "S2.)
4. There are versions of the Old and New
Testament now exl,ant, which existed heforo
Muhammad ; for .example, the t?opM;agin;, the
Latin Vulerate. the Syriao. tbi> Coptic, flnd
the Armoiiiao versions.
5. ThoHoxTTpUi, or Octapla of Origen. vhich
dates foul ceoturiefl before Atfuhainmad, giTOf
various vei sion^ of the Old Testament Scvip-
turos in paralloj :<dumns.
*?. The Syrian < hristians o^ St. Thorn})*, : f
Ma hi bar and Travancom, in the south of
India, who were separated from th.o west-ei-n
vvorld for centuries, possess tho aamo Scrip
iures,
7. In tho works ( of Justin Martyr^, who
lived fignj A i>. 103 lo 167, there are nume
rous quotations from our sn-cred books, whicb,
prove that thay wore p\flcIy.Uia sa.mo ft?
these we have now -The samo irttiy ho said
of othor early Christian writers.
Mubairwmdan controvorsin lists of the pre
sent day urge that the numerous readings
v.-hich exist in the Christian books are 4 proof
that they have been corruptec). But those do
not affect, in the least, the main points at
issue between tho Christian arnl ihc Muslim.
The Divine Sonsbip of Christ, the Fathor-
hood of God, the GvuciGxion. Death, and Re-
stir reel Jon of Christ and the Atonement, are
all clearly stated in almost every book of the
Now Twstarnnnt, whilst t.hoy are rejected by.
tho Quran.
Tho most plausible- of modern objections
urged by Muslim divines is, that the Chris
tians have /o.v/ the /?/>/ which, was sent down
from heaven to Jesus ; untl that th New Tes
tament contains merely the Hod^, or Suhnaii
the t radii ions handed down by Matthew,
Marli. Luke, John. Paul, and others ft is,
of course, a mere assertion, unsupported by
any proot . but it appears to b a line of
argument which conunouds ilself to many
modern Mustims.
CREATION. Arabic Khalquk. The
following are the allusions to the Creation which
occur in the Qar an, Surah J. 37-. "Of ol*d We
(God^ ct* ald tho bqaveua and the earth and all
that is between them in six days, and no wea
riness touched Us.** Surah xli 8 5 "Uo.^
indeed tiiebelieve in Him who in two days
created the earth ? DP yeassign Him equals?
The Lord of tho World is fie. And ]le bin It
placed 011 the arth the iirm mountains- which
tower above it, and tie hath blessed it, ami
distributed its noufUhments throughout it
(for the cravings of all are alike), in (our
days. Then lie applied HimsHf to the
heaver, which wa but srnoko and to it and
to (he earth He said. "Curne ye, in obedience
or against your will?" and they both said,
u We come obedient." And He completed]
them as seven heavens in two days, and iw
each heaven madp known its office; anil W<ji
furnished the lower heaven with lights and
guardian angels. This is the disposUloa ofj
the AJmig-hly, the all knowing one "
CREED
OEUBLTt
xvl. 3. * He created the heavens and tho
earth U set forth his trulh, hi-^U In Him be
exalted above Hio^o l; Ihey join with Him!
Man hath He vrcated out >l n noist germ . yet
lo! man is an op*u CM v liter. And th0 oafttM I
for you hath He n-oatod them, A,c. . . .
Shall He who h.iili created be a* he who
hath not creatod ? Will ye not consider t T
Suiah xiii 2: " It is Cod who Inth reared the
heavens without pillnrs, iliou canst behold .
then seated Himself upon Jis throne, and
imposed Jaws on (he sun xnrl moon , each
travel loth to its appointath & > o\\. He ordereth
all things. He, muketh His signs cleat.
Haply ye will have firm taith in a, meeting
with your Lord. And He it is who bath out
stretched the earth, and placed on it the firm
mountains, and rivers; and of everv fruit He
hath placed on it two kinds. He causeth the
mght to enshroud the -day" Surah xxxv
I? God created you of dust then of tltt*
germs ot life tbcn made you two setes. 1
According to the Traditions (Afixhteuf, xxiv
r. i. pt. 3) T God created tho e^rth on Satur
day, the hills on Sunday, ihc trees on Monday,
all unpleasant things on Tuesday, the Ivjrht
on Wednesday; thp boasts on Thursday and
Adam, who was the J-ist of Creation, was
created after the time of afternoon praveraori
Friday.
CREED. Thp Mnhammadan Creed,
or* Kulitnulu . $/> shaAadaft (shortly Kali*nqk) is
the well known formula : -
i testify that there is no doity but
God, and Muhammad iv Ibe Apostle ot
God "
ft is the belief of Mnluiiniuathus that the
first part of this creed, which is called the
mafi wa t jfW, namely. Thorn to no deity but
God," has heen tho expression of belief of
every prophet sinco the dva >f Adam, and
thai the second portion has boon ehangod
according lo tho dispensation ; for o:< mple.
lhat in the days of Moses it would be
There is no deity Out God, nad Moses is
the Converser with Ood." in tbo Christian
dispensation it wa^ : "TVicro is no deity
but Ood, and Je.sus is I he Spirit of
God.
Jabir relates that Muhammad aaid ** the
keys of Paradise are bearing witness that
there is no deity but God.
The recital of the Kahmah* or Creed, is
the first of five pilbirs of practica 1 religion in
Islam; and when anyone is con verted to
Isiitm he is .required to repeat this formula.
and the following are the conditions required
of every Muslim with reference to it :
1. That it shall be repeated aloud, at
least once in a life- time.
2. That tho meaning of it ehall be fully
understood.
3. That it shalj be believed in " by tho
heart."
4. That it shall be professed until death
5. That it shall be recited correctly
6 That it shall be always professod and
declared without hesitation
CSfcaM*/ 7- Wk
CREMATION, [WBVIHO TUB
DEAD.]
CRESCENT. The figuro of the
cresoenl is the Turkish symbol, and hence it
ha* hof,n regarded by Europeans - the spe
cial emblem of tho Muhammad an religion,
although it is unknown to the Muhmnmadans
of tho East Thiei ligure, however, did not
originate with tho Turks, bnt it was the
symbol of sovereignty in the city of Bvzun-
tium previous to the Muslim conquest, ns
may J)C seen from the medals (truck in
honour of Anguslus Trajan and others. The
crescent has been the symbol of three dif
ferent orders of knighthood; tho first of
which was instituted by Charles .1.. King^f
Naples A.D. 12tftt: tho second in 144S by
Rent: ot Anjou : the third by Sultan Selim
in 1801 It must have been adoptod by Mu
h/immadan* fot t.hn first time upon the over
throw of the Byzaatine Empire by Muhammad
JI , .ind it is nuvr y;enev^Hy used by (he
Turks s the insignia of their creed
CROCODILE. Arabic Tim*A
The flesh of a crocodile i? .unlawful for food
to a Muhaminadan. (Hamilton s Hniayah
iv 7-1,
CROSS, The. Arabic As-SaM>. The
poi an dories the cracifixion of our blessed
Lord (cRUCtnxioNj. and it is related by al-
Wftcjidi thuf MuharnmAcl had such a rcpug
nance to the focm of the crosn tha( he broke
everything; brought into his house wich thai
figure upon it. (Muir, iii .61.) According to
Abu Hufainih, Tho Prophet Pui<I. " fswoai by
hortveu, it is near, when Jos UK the Son of M:ny
will descend from heavun upon your people -i
just kjnj^, and Ho will break lite rrov.v, and kill
the swino. (A/4feii ( xxiii.C.vi) The Imam
Abn Y^usnf says tlwt. if a cross or a crucifix is
stolen from H church, Amputation (the punish
ment lor theft y is not incurred ; but if it is
slolen from a private dwelling it is rbefl.
( Hauiiltoa s ffttlayu/i, vol. ii. \>. OO.^)
CltUCIFIXTON. The
of tho Lord Jesus Christ is dcniod by the
teaching of the Q.ur an. pfCVMCBBD*.] Tt is
a punishment saactioned by the Muhamraa-
clau religion for highway robbers. (Hauiil
ton s Hicfaija/i.\ol ii. UJl.)
CKUEL.TY. A striking instance
of the cruelty of Muhammad s cbarrrtor
occurs in a tradition given in tho fjafilfiu /,
Bukhitrl (p. 1019). Anas relates, "Some
of tho people of the tribe of fjkl came to the
Prophet and embraced Islam ; hut the air of
al-Madiriyli did not ugfe with Iheui, and thc/j
wanted to U>ave the place. And the Prophet
ordered them to go where t lie camels gtven in
alms were .-is^euibled. and to drink their mlk
wln ch they did, and recovered from their
sickness. But *fter this they became apo
states, and renounced Islam and stole fh<*
camels. Then the Prophet sent gome people
after I hem, and they were seized and brought
64
DABBATU L-ABZ
back to al-Madinah. Then the Prophet
ordered their hands and their feet to be cut
off as a punishment for theft, and their eyes
to be pulled out. But the Prophet did not
stop the bleeding, and they died." And in
another it reads, " The Prophet ordered hot
irons "to be drawn across their eyes, and then
to be cast on the plain of al-Madanab ; and
when they asked for water it was not given
them, and they died."
Sir William. Muir (vol. iv. p. 307) says :
}< Magnanimity or moderation are nowhere
discernible as features in the conduct of Mu
hammad towards such of his enemies as
failed to tender a timeiy allegiance. Over
the bodies of the- Quraish who fell at Badr he
exulted with savage satisfaction ; and several
DAMASCUS
prisoners, accused of no crane but of scepti
cism and political opposition, were deliberately
executed at his command. The Prince- of
Khaibar, after being subjected to inhuman
torture for the purpose of discovering the
treasures of his tribe , was, with his cousin,
put to death on the pretext of having trea
cherously concealed them, and his wife was
led away captive to the tent of the con
queror. Sentence of exile was enforced by
Muhammad with rigorous severity on two
whole Jewish tribea at a 1-Madfnah; and of a
third, likewise his neighbours, the women and
children were sold into distant captivity,
while the men, amounting to several hundreds,
were butchered in cold blood before his
eyes."
D.
DABBATU L-ARZ
Lit. "The Reptile of the Earth." "A monster
who shall arise in the last day, and shall cry
unto the people of the earth that mankind
have not believed in the revelations of God
(vide Qur an, Surah xxvii. 84) : " And when
sentence falls upon them we will bring forth
a beast out of the earth, that shall speak to
them and say, * Men of our signs would not
be sure. 1 " According to the Traditions he
will be, the third sign of the coming resurrec
tion, and will come forth from the mountain
of Sufah. (Mishkdt, xxiii, c. iv.) Both Sale
and Rodwell have confounded the Oabbatu
1-Arz with Al-Jasaasah, the spy, mentioned
in a tradition by Fatfmah (Mish/edt, xxiii.
c. iv.), and which is held to be a demon now
in existence. [AL-JASSASAH.] For a descrip
tion of the Dabbah, see the article on the
RESURRECTION.
DABUE Gr*>). "The West
wind. A term used by the Sufis to ex
press the lust of the flesh, and its overwhelm
ing power in the heart of man. (Abdu r-
Razzaq s Dictionary of Sufi Terms.)
DAHHA (Uj). Plural of the
Persian *J, ten. The ten days of the
Muharram, during which public mourning for
AH and his sons is observed by Shl ah
Muhaminadans. (Wilson s Glossary of Indian
Terms.}
Ap-DAHB ( vft>jM), "A long space
of time." A title given to the Lxxvith
chapter of the Qur an ; called also Sflratu 1-
Insan, " The Chapter of Man." The title is
taken from the first verse of the chapter:
" Did not there pass over man a long apace of
time?"
DAHKl (vsy* )- One who believes
in the eternity of matter, and asserts that
the duration of this world is from eternity,
and denies the Day of Resurrection and Jndg-
ment ; an Atheist. ( Qhiydgu 1-LugAat, in
loco.)
DAIN (et^). A debt contracted
with some definite term fixed for repayment,
as distinguished from qarz, which is used for
a loan given without any fixed term for re
payment. [DEBT.]
DAJJAL (JWv>). Lit. "false,
lying." The name given in the ElaAIs to
oertain religious impostors who shall appear
in the world ; a term equivalent to our use
of the word Antichrist. Muhammad is related
to have said there would be about thirty.
The Maaihu d-Dajjdl, or "the lying
Christ," it is said, will be the last of the
DajjdlS) for an account ot whom refer to
article on MASIHU D-DAJJAL.
DALlL ( J^). " An argument ; a
proof." Dalll burhdni, " a convincing argu
ment,** Daltl qapi, " a decisive proof."
DAMASCUS. Arabic Dimashq
According to Jalalu d-dm Suyiiti, Damas
cus is the second sacred city in Syria,
Jerusalem being the first; and some have
thought it must be the "Irani of the
columns" mentioned in the Qur an, Sftrah
Ixxxix. 6, although this is not the view of
most Muslim writers. [IRAM.] Damascus is
not mentioned in the Qur an. With regard to
the date of the erection of the city, Muham-
rnadan historians differ. Some say it was
built by a slave named Dimashq, who be
longed to Abraham, having been given to
the patriarch by Nimrod ; others say Di
mashq was a slave belonging to Alexander the
Great, and that the city was built in his
day.
Damascus was taken by Khalid in the
reign of the Khalifah Umar, A.H. 18. and it
became the capital of the Umaiyade Khalifahs
under Mu awiyah, A.H. 41, and remained the
chief city of Islam until the fall of that
DAMASCUS
DAMASCUS
dynasty, A.II 132, when the Abbflflsides moved
their capital first te al KufaJi and then to
Bagdad.
The great mosque at Damascus was erected
by Abdu I Malik ibn M*rwn, rbe fifth Kha
lifab ol the Umaiyades. It was commenced
A.H. 86 and finished in ten year*, being
erected on the rain* of an ancient Greek
temple nnd ot a tihrj^tiai- church.
The account, as given by .Talaio d -din
8uytifi< in his Ifistury of the Temple of Jwit-
sulem, * curious and interesting. ^Mowing that
for a time the Muslims and Christians wor
shipped in the same building together.
Here fin Dam&aeus) all the servants of
God joined, ana built a Church to worship
Hod in. Some say. however, mat this church
was built by the Greeks : for *Abdu llilh Ibn
Abbas, having marched against Damascus and
besieged it. demolished the wall*, after he had
entered the city by storm. Then there fell
down a stone, haying certain letters inscribed
thereon in th Greek language. They there
fore sent to bring a certain monk who could
read Greek ; but he said, Bring me in pitch
the impression of the letters on the stone,
which he found to be as follows : Woe unto
chee, mother of shame! Piou is he who
inflicts upon thee with usury the ill which
God designs for thee in retribution. Woe unto
thee from five eyes, who shall destroy thy wall
after four thousand years/ Now", Abdu llah s
entire name was Abdu llah Ibn All Ibn Abdi
ilah Ibn Abbas Ibn Abdu 1-Muqallib.
" Again, the historian Ibn Isahii- says r
When God hud granted unto the Muslim:*
the possession, as conquerors of the whole of
Syria, He gtanted them among other cities
thai of Damascus with its dependencies. Thus
God sent dewn His meroy upon them, and the
commnnder-in-ohief of the army (besieging
Dan.ascus), who was cither Abu TJbaidah or,
as aonu say, Khalid Tbn al-Walid. wrote a
treaty 01 capitulation and articles of sur
render By these he settled and appointed
founeeu churches to remain in the hands of
the Muslim*. The chnrch of -which we havr
spoken above wa* left open and free for
future consideration. This was on the plon
that Khwlid had entered the city at the
sword s point by the eastern gfcto; but th.v
the Christians at tlir yamo time were allows!
to surrender by Abu Uhaidah; who ontei*d
at the .vtstcr gate, openod under articles.
This cnused dissension; but at length it was
agreed that half the place should be regarded
as having capitulated .ind half as stormed.
" The .Muslims therefore . < ok .this church.
and Abu Ubaidab made it into n mosque
He* was afterwards appointed Emu of Syria.
and wae the n rt who prayed here, nil the
company of Companions praying after him
in the open area, now called the Companions
Tower; but -t\\* wall must then bnve been
cut through, hard by the leaning tower, if
the Companions leally prayed in the blessed
precinct. At first the Christians and Mus
lims entered by the .same jjate, which was
the gate of Adoration and Prayer, over
against the Qiblah, where tbe great tower now
3 finds. Afterwards the Christians changed
and went into their church bv the gate facm
the west : f be Muslims takim? the rifht-hmtd
mosque. But tbe Christians were not uf-
ferred to chant aloud, or recite their books
or strike their bells (or clappers), m order
to honour the Companions with reverence nnd
fear. Aiso, Mu awiyah built in his lav? a
house for the Amir, right ooposjfw ho
mosque. Here he built a giemi cbauol.
This palace was noted for Us perfection.
Here Mu itvriyuli dwelt forty years: nor did
this state of things change from V.H. K to
A.H. bt>. Rut Al-Walid Ibu Abdu 1-Mulik
began to think of destroying tho churches.
and of adding c ome to thoae already in the
hands of the Muslims, so as w construct one
great mosque ; and this because Borne of th-i
Muslims were sore troubled by hearing the
recitations of the Christians from tho Gospel
and their uplifted voices in prayer. He de
signed, therefore, to remore them from th<
Miife lhns and to annex tbio t*pui 10 tiie other,
so as to make one great mosqu^. Thereiure
he called for the Christians, und asked them
whether they would depart from those places
which wore in their hands, receiving in ex
change greater portions in lieu thereof ; and
ftlso retaining four charchos not mentioned in
thp creac} the Church of Maria, the (jhxirch
of ihe Crucified, just -within the eastern gate,
the ohur ch Tallu 1-Habu, an(i the Church of
the Glorious Mother, occupied previously lv
the burnishers. This, however, they vehe
mently refused to do. Thereupon tho Khali -
fan said, Bring me then the treaty which
you pos*e*s since the time of the <iora-
punionti. Tney brought it, tbereiore, and it
was read in al-Walid s presence : when, io !
tbe Church of Thomas, outside tne ^ar*j ^f
Thomas, hard by tbe riror, did not enter inVo
tbe treaty, and was oti of thufo culled the
greater of churchos left upon (tot future
disposal). -There, he said, this will I
destroy and convert it into a mosque. They
said, Nay, let it alone, O commander of th*>
Faithful, even although not mentioned amon^
the churches, for wo are content that you t;ikf
the chapel of the church/ To this *ree-
ment, then, he held them, and received iroiu
them the Qnbbah (or chapel vault, dome) 01
the chnrch. Then he summoned workmen
able to pull clown, and assembled all the
amirs, chiefs, and great men. But the Chris
tian bishops and priests coining, said,
commander of tho Faithful, wo find in our
books that whosoever shall demolish this
church will go md. Then said the Khali-
fab, And I am very willing to be mad with
God s inspiration : therefore no one flill
demolish it before me. Then he ascended
the western tower, which hnd two spirei.
and contained a moiwstic cell. Here ho
found a monk, whom he ordered to dencend.
The monk making difficult.^*, and linger
ing, nl-Walid took bim bv <be t>ck f hi*
neck. anl ceased not pushing him until
he hnd thrown bim down stairs. Then be
ascended to the most lofty spot in the^h ir"H
above the great altar, cali**<l the Ahar if
9
66
DAMASCUS
the Martyrs. Hero he <eLsed iho ends of
his sash, which was of ft bright yellow colour,
and fixed Ihora into his bell. Taking, then,
an ate into his hand, he struck against the
very topmost stone, and brought it down.
Then ho, called the amirs, and de.sired them
to pull down the building as quickly as pos
sible. Hereupon all the Muslims shoaled,
God is great ! three times ; also the Chris
tians loudly cried out \vith their v/ailing and
woe upon the steps of ./airuri, where they
had assembled. Al-Walid therefore desired
the commander Of his guard to inflict blows
upon them until they should depart, which he
did. The Muslims then demolished all that
the Christians had built in the great square
here altars and buildings and cloisters
until the whole square was one flat surfaco.
He then resolved to build a spiendid pile, un
rivalled for boamy of architecture, which
none could hereafter surpass. Al-Walid
therefore commissioned the most eminent
architects and mathematicians to bxxild the
mosque, according to the model they most
preferred. His brother chiefly moved and
stirred him up to this undertaking, :.md next
to him presided Snla-iman *Abdu I- Malik.. It
is said that d,J-Wa!M sent to the . king of
Greece to demand stone masons and ot-hor
workmen, for tno purpose of building this
mosque in the way bo desired, Bonding-, word,
that if the king refused, he would overrun
his territory with his anny, and reduce to
utter ruin every church in h \s domin ions, even
the Church of the Holy City, and the Church
of Edessa, and utterly destroy every vestige
of the Greeks still remaining The king of
Greece, sent, therefore, numerous workmen,
with a ^ letter, expressing himself thus: * If
thy father k no wet h what tlioudoest, and per
mits it, tneri truly 1 accuse him of disgraceful
couduet, and blame him more than thee. 11
he understandcth it not, but thou only art
conscious, then i Maine thee above him.
Wnen tho letter came 10 al-Watotl, be \vished
I o reply unto h and assembled several per
sons for consultation. One oi those was a
well-known poet. \vho said, ; I will answer
him, O Commander of the Faithful ! out of
the Book of God. So said ai-Walid. Where,
then, is that answer? He replied this verse,
David and Salomon lo i they assume, a
right to tne corn-field, a right to the place
where the people are shearing their sheep.
Also, we are witnesses of their decree; for Solo
mon hath given us to understand it, and both
(David and Solomon; ha ve come to us :t v judffep
and learned men. Al-Walid, by this reply,
caused great surprise to the king of Greece.
A-i-Firsuk alludes to this in these verses :
" I have made a separation between the
Christian* and their churrhes, and between the
people who shine and those who are in dark
ness. "
. "1 neglected for a season thus to apportion
their happiness, 1 being u procrastinating vin
dicator of their grievances."
** Thy Lord hath made thee to resolve
upon removing their churches from those
mosques wherein good words are recited."
DAMASCUS
" Whilst they were together in one place
! some were praying and prostrating themselves
on their faces, slightly separated from others
who, behold ) were adoring God and idols. 1
How shall the people of the Cross unite to
ring- their belb. when the reading of top
Qiir ari is perpetually intermingled?
* I resolved then to remove tbern, just /t
did those wise men when they decreed taetn-
solves a right to the seed-field and the
flocks."
"When al-WalTd resolved to buikl the
chapel which is in the midst of the cloister,
called the Vulture s Chapel (a name given
to it by the country -people, because the por
tioos on each side look like two wings), he dug
deep at the four corners of the intended
chapel, until the <?arne to sweet and limpid
water. Here they first placed the foundation
of. the wall of the vineyard. Upon Ibis they
built with stouo, nd when the four cerners
were oi sufficient height, they then buit!
thereon the chapel ; butfil fell down again
Then said al-Walid to some one of the mathe
maticians, who well knew the plan of the
Vultures Chapel, -1 wish you to bmld this
chapel: for the injunction of God hath been
givpn aie. and I am confident that no ono but
tlivsolf may build it. He therefore built the
four corners, and covered them with wir-ker,
and disappeared for a whole year. al-Walid
not knowing where he was. Aiter a year.
al-Wa .ul du^ down to the four corner foun
dations Then he (/^. the architect 1 ) said
* Do not be in a hurry, O commander of the
Faithful ! Then he found the mathemati
cian, who had a man s head with him. He
caine to the four corners, and uncovered the
wicker work, and lo ! all that had been buill
above ilr> eattb had fallen down, until they
wc/o on a level with the earth. So he said
From this (work have 1 come). Then he
proceeded to build, and firmly fixed and sup
ported a beautiful fabric
Some person also saul al-Walid wished to
ocmstrnct a brilliant chapel of pure gold,
whereby the rank of the mosque might he
magnified. Hereupon the superintendent said
unto him. You cannot effect this. Upon
which ai-Wallfl struck him fifty, blows with a
whip, sayiug, Am i then incapable of effect
ing this? Tho man replied, -Certainly
Then he said, 1 will 1 , then, fihd onfc a way to
know the truth, firing forth all the gold
thou hast ; which he did: and al-Walid
melted it. and foi-nied.it- into-. one large brick
which contained one thousand pieces of gold
[>ai the man said, * O Commander of the
Faithful! we shall require se many thousand
bricks of this sort if t.hoo dc-st possess them :
noi Will this suilice for our work. Al-Waikd
i seeing that he was true and just, presented
him with fifty dinars^ and whoft aJ-Walid
roofod the great precinct, lie. adorned the
roof, as well as the whole extent of the pave
ment, with a surface of gold. Some of al-
Walid s family also said unto him, They twho
come after thee will emulate th?e in rendering
t he outer roof ot this mosque more commodious
every year. Upon this al- Walfd ordered all the
DAMASCUS
DAMASCUS
lead ol the country to he collected together, in
order to construct therewith an exterior out
ward covering, answering lo the interior,
which should be light upon the roof, and on
the sido-posts that supported the roof. So
I hoy collected lead throughout all Syria and
many other countries ; and whilst they were
returning, they wt*t with a certain woman
who possessed ,a wei^ut of lead a weight of
many talents. Tho.y began lo chaffer with
I. bo woman for it. but she reinsert to sell it,
except, for its vfceight in silver. So they
wrote to the Commander of the FaiMiful, in
forming him of this, who replied, -Buy it
from her, even lor its weight in silver. When,
then, they offered thia mn unto her, she
said, Now that you have agreed to my pro
posal, and arc satisfied to give the weight in
silver. J giv the weight as an offering unto
Ood, (o setve for the roof of the mosrruc.
Hereupon they marked one corner of the
weight with the impression of a seal. This
is God s. Some say the woman was au
Israelite ; some say that they sought for
lead in open flitches or holes, and came to a
Stone .sepulchre, within which wa* a leaden
SHpulchrr, whence thy brought forth a dead
body, and laid jt on the ground. Whilst drag
ging it out, the head fell to the ground, and
the neck being broken . much blood flowed
forth from the- mouth, whfch terrified them
80 much, that they rapidly tied away. This
i is said to have been the burial-place of King
Saul. Also, the guardian of the mosque came
I unto al-Walid and said, O Commander of
1 the Faithful! men say that al-Walid hath ex
pended the money of the treasury unjustly.
Hereupon al-Walid dosired that all the
people should be summoned to prayer. When
I all were assembled. al-Waiitt mounted tho
I pulpit, and said. * Such and such reports have
j reached me. Thou he said, *0 Uniar Ibn
al -Mnhajir ! stand up and produce the money
of the treasury. Now it was carried upon
tnules. Therefore, pieces of hide being placed,
in the midst, beneath the chapel, he poured
out a 11 the gold and silver, to such a height,
that those who stood ou either side could not
[see one another. Scales berug then brought
lout, the whole was weighed, when it was
found that the amount would suflice for the
j public use for three years To come even if
I nothing were added to the amount Then all
line people j-ejoiced, praising ami glorifying.
God for this. Then aid tho Khalifah, 6
(people of Damascus ! you boa^t among men
lol" four things : of your air, of your water, of
Ivuur cheerfulness, and of your gracefulness.
IWoiJd that you would add to these a, fifth, and
Jbecotne of the number of those who praise
jGoil, and are liberal in his service. Would
^tbat thus changing, you would become thank
ful suppliants.
In the Qiblah ot iuis mosque were
( three golden scimitars, enamelled in lapis
lazuli. Upon each scimitar was engraved
^he following sentence, In the name
[of God, the Morcttul and Compassionate I
I There is no god but God. ,He is the ever-
living the seJf-bub.sisting Being, who never
slumbers nor sloop.*. There is no god but
God. llo has o partner. We will never
adore any but our Lord, the one God. Our
faith is Islam, and our Prophet is Muhammad.
This mosque was built, and the churches
which stjood on the site of the chapel were
demolished, by order of the servant of God,
tho Commander of the Fait hi ul, nl-Walid Ibn
Abdu 1-Malik Ibu Ma-rwan, in the month
2 ii 1-Qa-dab, A.H. 86. Upon another tablet
was inscribed, tho whole of the first chapter
of the Qur au. Here also were depicted tho
stars, then the morning twilight, t/hcn the
spiral course of the sun, then the way
of living which obtained after the arrival
of the Faithful at Damascus. Alsoj it is said,
that all the Uoor or this mosque was divided
into small slabs, and that tho stone (carving)
of the walls extended, to tho utmost pin
nacle. Above was a great golden vine, and
above this were splendid enamelled knobs of
green, red, blue, and white, whereby wore
figured and expressed all countries and
regions, especially the Ka-bah, above tho
tower; also all the countries to the right and
left (of Makk:ib), aud all the most beautiful
shrubs and trees of evury region, famous
either for their fruits or flowers The roof
had cornices of gold. Here was suspend od
a chain oi gold aud silver, which branched off
into seven separate light*. In the tower of
the Companions w<jre two stone-r-beryl
Tsome $a.y they were tho jewels called pearls);
they were called l The Little Ones. When
the candles were put out, they inflamed the
eyes by tbeifr brilliant light. In the time of
alAmmlbn ar Rashid, Sulaimnn, captain of
(be guard, vvas sent by thai Kjbalifah to Da-
mascus. to steal those stones aud bring them
to him ; which he did When al-Ma mun dis
covered this, he sent ; hen> to Damascus, as a
proof of his brother s misconduct. They
afterwards again vanished, and in thcii place
is a glass vessel In this mosque all tho
gates, from the dome (gallery) uuto the en-
tianc. are open, and have no bars or locks.
Ovor each is a loose curtaiu. In like manner
there is a curtain upon all the walls at far as
1 he-bases of the golden vin, above which are
the enamelled knobs. The capitals of the
pillars were thickly covered with dead gild
ing. Here were also small galleries, to look
down from, enclosed on the four sidos of tne
skirting wall. Al-Walid also built tho
I northern minaret, now called the Bride
groom s Tower. As to the western gallory,
that existed many ages before, in oacb
comer of this was a cell, raised upon very
lolly walls, and used by tho Greeks as an
observatory The two northern of those fell,
and ihe I wo opposite remained. In the year
740, part of the eastern had been burnt. It
then fell down, but was built up anew out of
the Christians money, because they had me-
dilated the d-jstructiou (of it) by firo. It then
was restored after a most beautiful plan.
This is the tower (but God knows) upon
which Jesus sou of Maria will alight, for Mu
hammad s reported to have said, 1 &aw
Jesus 3on of Maria come forth from near the
68
DAMASCUS
white minaret, east of the mosque, placmg
his hjinds upon the wings of two ngel3,
firmly bound to him. Upen him was the
JUtrine glory (the Sltechina.it). He was marked
by the red tinge of baptism. This is the
mark, of original sin Jesus (it is also said)
shall come forth from the White Tower by
the eastern gate, ami shall enter the mosque.
Then shall the word come forth for Jesus to
fight with \miclm8t at the corner of the
city, as long a.s it shall please God. Now,
when this mosque (the slaves mosque) was
completed, there was not to be found upon
the face of the earth a building more beau
tiful, more splendid, more graceful, than this.
Chi whatever side, or area, or place, the spec
tator looked, be still thought thatside or spot
the most preferable for beauty. In this
mosque were certain talismans, plac.ed therein
Since the time of the reeks ; so that no veno
mous or stinging creature could by any means
obtain entrance into this enclosure, neither
yerpent, scorpion, beetle, nor spider. They
say, also, that neither sparrows nor pigeons
built their nests there, nor was anything to be
found there which could annoy people. Most,
or all, of those talismans were burnt by the
lire that consumed the mosque, which fire
took place in the night of Sha -biui, A.H. 461.
Al-Walid J reqnently prayed in the mosque.
One night (it is related) he said to his
people, * 1 wish to pray to-night in the
mosque; let no one remain there whilst I
pray therein. So when he came unto the
gate of the Two Moments, he desired the
gate to be opened, and entering in, he saw a
man standing between the gate of the Two
Moments and the gate of St. George, praying.
Ho was rather nearer to the gate of St.
George than to the other. So the Khalifab
said anto his people, Did not charge you
that no one should remain whilst I was pray
ing- in the mosque? Then one of them said.
() Commander of the Faithful! this is St
Cieorge.who prays every night in the mosque/
Again, one prayer in this mosque equals
thirty thousand prayers,
* Again- A certain man, going out of the
gate of the mosque which is near the Jairun,
met Ka b the scribe, wlio said, Whither
hound? He replied, To the Baitu l-Mu-
qaddas, therein to pray/ Then said Ka b, *J
will show you a spot wherein whosoever
prayeth shall receive tho same blessings as if
he prayed in the Baitu l-Muqaddas. The
man, therefore, went with him. Then Ka b
showed him the space between the little
gate from whence you go to Abyssinia, that
is, the space covered by the arch of the
(yate, containing about one bandied yards,
to the west and said, Whoso prayeth within
those two points chali be regarded as praying
within the Baitu l-Muqaddas. Now, th its spot
is said to he a spot fit to be sought by pilgrim*.
Here, it is asserted is the head of Joiin, Bon
of Zacharias (Peace be with him , ). For al-
Walid ibn Muslim being desired to show
where John s head wavS to be found, pointed
with his hand to the plastered pillar the
fourth from the east corner Zaid Ibn Wakad
DAMASCUS
says, * At the time it was proposed to build
the mosque of Damascus 1 saw the head of
John, son of Zachariaa, bronght forth from
underneath one of the corners ol the chapel.
The hair of the head was unchanged. lit
says in another place, Being nominated by
*l-Walkl superintendent of the building, we
found a caye, of which discovery we informed
al-Walld H* came, therefore, unto us at
night, with a wax taper in his hand. Upon
descending we found an. elaborately carved
little shrine, three within three (j .e. within
the first a second, within the second a third).
Within, this last was a sarcophagus, and
within this a casket; within which was the
head of John, son of Zacharias. Over the
casket was written, * Here is the head of John,
sou of Zacharias. Peace he with him I " By
al-Walid s command we restored the head to
the spot whence it had been taJceiu The
pillars which are above this spot are inclined
obliquely to tho others to distinguish the
place. There is also over it a pillar with a
head in plaster. He asserts again, that
when the happy event occurred of the con
quest of Damascus, a certain person went up
the stairs -which led to the church, then
standing where tho mosque now stands.
Here the blood of John, son of Zaoharias was
seen to flow in torrents and to boil up, nor
did the blood sink down and become still
until that seventy thousand had been slam
over him. The spot where the head was
found is now called al-Sakasak fperhaos, the
Nail of the Narrow Cave),
" In the days of Uxuar, the Christians re
quested that he wouJd confirm their claim to
the right of meeting in those places which al-
Walid had taken from them and converted
into mosques. They, therefore, claimed the
whole inner area as their own from Omar.
The latter thought it right to restore them
what al-Walid had taken from them, but
upon examination he found that the churches
without the suburbs were not comprehended
in the articles of surrender by the Compa
nions, such, for example, as the great Church
of the Monastery of Observants or Carmelites,
the Church of the Convent behind the Church
of St. Thomas, and ail the churches of the
neighbouring villages. Uuaar therefore gave
them the choice, either to restore them the
churches they demanded, .demolishing in that
case all the other churches, or to leave those
churches unmolested, and to receive from
them a full consent to the free use of the open
space by the Muslims. To this latter pro
posal they, after three days deliberation,
agreed; and proper writings were drawn
up on both sides. They gave the Muslims a
deed of grant, and "Uinar gave them full
security, and assurance of protection. Nothing
was to be compared to this mosque. It
is said to be one of the strongholds of
Paradise, and that no inhabitant of Damascus
would long for Paradise when.be looks upon
his beautiful mosque. Al-Ma mun came to
Damascus, in company with his brother al-
Mu tasim, and the Qiizi Yahya Ibn Aksam.
Whilst viewing the mosque he said, * What is
DANCING
DARU L-HARB
69
the most wondrous sight here ? His brother
said, These offerings and pledges. Tho Qa^I
Said, The marble and the columns. Then said
al-Mu rmm, The moat wondrous thing to me
ii!, whether any other could he built at all like
this. " (Hist. Temple of Jerusalem, by Ja.lalu
d-din, translated by Reynolds, p. 407.J
D A N C I JN G . Arabic Raqs
Dancing is generally held to be unlawful,
although it does not appear to he forbidden
in either the Qur an or the Traditions, but
according to al Bukhara (Arabic od., p. I35j f
the Prophet expressly permitted it on the
day of the great festival. Those who hold it
to be unlawful quote the following verse from
the Qur an, SuraJbi xvii. 39, " Walk not proudly
on the earth," as a prohibition, although it
does not seem to refer to the subject.
The Sufis make dancing a religiouH
exercise, but the Sunni Muslims consider it
unlawful. (Htddyalu s-Sd il. p, 107.)
DANIEL. Arabic D&niyaJ,. A
prophet celebrated amongst Muhammadans
as an interpreter of, dreams. He is not men
tioned in either the Qnr an or the Traditions,
bat in the (fascist , l-Ambiya, p. 231, it is
stated that in the reign of Rufchtu Naf$ar
(Nebuchadnezzer) he vraH imprisoned ; and
when he was in prison, the king had a dream
which he had forgotten, and hearing that
Daniel was an interpreter of dreams, he- sent
for him. When Daniel was in the presence
of the King, he refused to prostrate, saying,
it was lawful to prostrate alone to the Lord
Almighty. For this he nearly lost his lift),
but was spared to interpret the king s dream,
which was as follows " He saw a great idol,
the head of which was of gold, ahove the
oavel of silver, below the navel of copper, the
legs of iron, and the feet of clay. And Sud
denly a stone fell from heaven upon the idol.
ind ground it to powder, and mixed all the
substances, so that the wind blew them in all
directions ; but the stone grew gradually, and
to such an extent that it covered the whole
earth." The interpretation of it, as given by
Daniel is said to be this : The idol rep resented
different nations : the gold was the kin^dou;
of Mebuciuuinaczar, the silver the kingdom
of his son, the copper I; he Romans, the iron
the Persians, and the clay the tribe Zauzan.
from which tho kings of Persia and "Rome
should be descended: the great stone beir^
a religion \viiich shcuid apread itself o>er the
whole cartb in the last day.
DAll (,U). "A house, dwelling,
habitation, land, country." A word which i.v
used, in various combinations, e.g. :--
ad-Ddr . The abode the city of
til-Mad mah.
ad-Duruin . The two abodes- -thla
world and the next.
Dam l-adab . A sent of learning: H
university.
Da.ru l-baqd . The abode which re-
maiaeth heaven
Ddru V /ana The abode which pusseth
away oarth.
V-(/Aarwr . The abode of delusion --
the world.
Dnru {-Awn . The vale of tears the
earth.
Ddru l-iblilff . The abode of temptation
the world
Ddru l-khildfak The seat of the Imam or
Khahfah capital
Duru I kulub A library.
Dart/ t-khuUt The Lome of eternity-
Paradise,
arf- Darn Vna ww The bleased abode PJ
radise.
Ddf\i l-gaztV . The Qaei s court.
Ddru ah-shffa A hospital.
Ddru V*urr The abode of joy Para
dise.
Dtirv -z-zarl) . A mint.
Ddru tf-fiyd/ah A banqueting-roorn.
[DARU L-BAWAR, DAU I-HA.HR, DARU V
ISLAM. DARU L-QARAH, DAJtIJ S SALAJt, DARU
S-SALTANAH, DARU S-SAWAB.]
DARGAH (^). A royai court
(Persian). In India it is a tenn used for a
Muhammadan ahrine or tomb of some reputed
holy person, and which is the object of pil
grimage and adoration. (Wilson s Glossary of
Indian Terms. ,)
BAE.U L-BAWAR (_>^ ^u).
Lit. The abode of perdition/* A term used
for hell in the Qur an, Surah xiv. 33: "And
have made their people to alight at the abode
of perdition?
DARU L-HARB (^r-*^ ^)
"The land of warfare.* According to the
Dictionary Ck\yd*v. l-Lughdt. Ddru l-hdrb
is cc a country belonging to infidels which ha?
not been subdued by Islam." According tc
the Qdmus, it is ** a country in which peace
has not neen proclaimed between Muslims
aud unbelievers/
In the Fo-tuwa Alumyiri, vol. ii. p. 854, it is
written that; a Ddru, l-harb becomes a Ddru
l-Jddm on one condition, namely, the promul
gation of the edicts of Islam. The Imam
Muhammad, in bis hook called theZiyddah,
says a Ddrv I- 1 slain again becomes a Daru I-
fiarb, according to Abu. Hanifah, on three
conditions, namely (1) That Ihe edicts of t.hc
unbelievers lie promulgated, and the edicts ol
l.slam be suppressed ; (2} That the country in
question bo adjoining a Ddru l-harb and no
other Muslim couutry lie between .them
(that i. when the duty of Jihad or religious
war becomes moumbent on them, and they
have not the po*er to cany it on). (3) That no
protection (//id) remains for either a Muslim
or H zimnri: viz. that cirnc/rtu l-awwal, or tKa,t
lirs l protection which was given them wlienthc
country was first conquered by Islam. The
Imams Yusuf and Muhammad both say that
when the edicts of unbelievers are promul
gated in a country, it is suPUcient to consti
tute it a Ddru I-fiurb.
In the Raddu. L-Miikhtur, vol. iii. p. 391, it
is stated, u If thr edicts of Islam remain in
force, together with the edicts of the be
lievers, thon the country cannot be said to be
70
DABU L-ISLAM-
a Dnru l-karh? The important question as
to whether a. country in the position of Hin
dustan may l).e considered a Ddru t- 1st am or
a Daru 7 -harb has b een fully discussed by
Or W. W. Hunter, of the Bengal Civil .Ser
vice, in his work entitled. Indian JtJusvl/nanfi,
which is the result of careful inquiry as to
the necessary conditions of a Jihad, or a
Crescent ade instituted at the time of the
excitement which existed in India in
I8?0-71,iu consequence of a Wahhabi con
spiracy for the overthrow of Christian rule in
that country. The whole matter, according
lo the Sunru Wusulinans, hinges upon the
question whether India is Oarv l-harb. " a
land of warfare." or Daru I -Islam."* land
of Islam,"
The Muh.cs belonging lo the Manifi and
Shafi i sects at Makkah decided that, " as long
as even syrae of the peculiar observances of
Islam prevail in a country, it is Daru Y-Ys/n/w."
The decision of the Mufti yf the Mliliki seel
was very similar, being to the following effect :
" A country does not becotno Ddru /-/<#>//
as soon as it passes into the hands of the
infidels. but when all or tnost of the injunc
tions of Islam disappear therefrom. 1
Tno Uw doctors of North India decided
that, the absence of protection and liberty
to Musulmans is essential in a Jihdd, or reli
gions war, and also that there should be a
probability of victory to the armies of Isiuin."
The Shi* ah decision on the subject was as
follows: ;< A Jihad is lawful only when the
armies of Islam are led by the rightful Imain.
when arms and ammunitions of war and ex
perienced warriors are ready, when it is
aguinu the enemies of God. when ho who
makes war is in possession of his reason, and
when he has secured the permission of his
paronU, and has sufficient money to meet the
expenses of his journey."
Tb Sunnis and ShT ahs alike believe in
the eventual triumph of Islam, when the
whole world shall become followers of the
Prophet of Arabia : but whilst the Surmis
are. of course, ready to xindertako thf.
accomplish tne*it of (Jus g-reat end. whenever
I here is a probability of victory to the Mu-
sulmatis," the Shi ahs, true to the one great
principle of their sect, must wait until the
appearance ot a righiiul Imam.
DARU Ci-ISLAM (VJu .iW fa.
" Land of Islam." According lo the tiurJdu Y-
Mukhfdr, vol. iiji-r.p. 391. it is a conntry
in which Vhe edaeU of Islam arc fully pro
mulgated.
In a state brought under Muslims, all those
who do riot embrace the failh are placed
under. certain disabilities. They r,an worship
Qo<j according to their own customs. j/n>#/f//?rf
they are not idolater* ; bxit it musf be done
without any ostentation, and. whilst -cliuTiches
and synagogues may be repaired.vo new place
of worship can be erected " The construction
of churches., or synagogues, m Muslim \frri~
tory i unlawful, this being forbidden in the
Traditions ; but if places of worship bclqng-
ing to Jews, or Christian^ be dsti-oyeil. w
DAUGHTFBS
fall into decay, they are at liberty to repair
them, because buildings oannot endure for
ever."
Idol temples must be destroyed, and
idolatry suppressed by force in all countries
ruled according, to Strict Muslim law. . (/7-
dayati, vol. ii p. 219.)
For furlher particulars, see article IXARU
L-IIARB.
DARU I.-QARAR
" TJie abode that abideth." Au oxpression
which occurs in the Qur an. Surah xl. 42: "0
my people I this present life i& only a passing
joy, bul the life to come is ike mansion that
DARU S-SALAM
* The abode of pence," An expression which
occurs in the Qnr Sn, Surah vi. 127: -For
them is a. dvwltiny of peace with their Lord I
and in recompense for tVteir works, shall IJe
be their proloclcv."
DARU S-SALTANAH
" The seat of government." A term given to
the capital of a province, or a Muslim state
DARU S-SAWAB (^ytt ; U).
" The house of recompense" A name given
to the Jannatu A.dn. or Garden of Eden, by.
the commentator al-Baizawi.
DARVESH, DARWfSH Cu^)-
A Persian word for a religious mendicant. A
dervesh. It is derived from the word dni\
a door": Hi v>ne who goes Jrom door to
door. Amongst religious Muhanimadans. the
darvesb is called a Ja^ir, which i^ (he word
generally used for religJoas mendicant orders
in Arabic books. The subject is, theiofoi e,
considered in tho article, on J:AQIIJ.
DACGHT.I2U8. Arabic
pi. Banat; Heb. Bath (j^). In
the law of inheritance, the position of a
daughter is socured by a verse in the Qur an,
Surah "iv. 12 : - With regard to your children.
God has commanded you to give the sons the
portion of two daughters, and if there be
daughters, more than two, then Ihey shall
have two-thirds of that which their father
hath left, but if she be an only daughter she
shall have fchettaif."
The Siriyiffuh explains t ho above as
follows:
" Daughters begotten by the deceased take
in three eases: half goes to one only, and two-
thirds to two or more: and. if there be a
sou. the male has the share of two females,
and he makes them i esiduaries. Tho son s
tUrnghtcrs are like the daughters begotten
by the deceased : and they may be in six
cases: half goes to one only, and two-thirds
to two or moi-e, on failure of daughters be
gotten by the deceased ; with a single daugh
ter of the deceased, they have a sixth, com
plcting (with the daughter s half) two- thirds :
but, with two daughters of the deceased, they
have uo share of the inheritance. unle& there
be. in an equal degree with, or in a lower
DAVID
71
degree than them, a boy. who makes them
residixaries. As t> 1lie remainder between
them, the male has the portion of iwo
females; and all of v tho sons daughters nrr;
excluded by the son himself,
" If man l?av three son s daughters,
some of thm in lower degrees than others,
nnd three daughters of the son of another
son, some of them in lower degree than others,
and three daughters of the son s son of
another son. some of thorn in tower degrees
than others, as in the following table, this is
called the case of
Third set.
Son.
Son
Son
First set. Second set.
Son. Bon.
Son, daughter Sou.
Son. daughter. Son, daughter
Son.. daughter. Son, daughter Son. daughter.
Sou, daughter Son, daughter.
Son, daughter.
"Here the eldest of the first line has none
eqnal in degree frith her the middle one of
the first line ia equalled in degree by the
eldest of the second, and the youngest- of the
first line is equalled by the middle one of
the second, and by the eldest of the tliiid line;
the youngest of the second line is equalled
by the middle one of the third lino, and the
youngest of the third sot has no equal in
degree. When thou hast comprehended this,
then we say: the eldest of the first line !:HS a
moiety; the middle one af the first I m- ban
a sixth, together with her equal in degree, to
make up two-thirds ; and those in lower
degrees never take anything*, unless there be
a son with them, who makes them resirhia-
rios, both her who is equal to him in degree.
and her who is above him, but who is not
entitled to a fhare; tho^c belo\v him are ex
cluded." (Ramsay s ed. As-StruJu/a//.)
The age of puberty, or majority, of a
daughter is established by Hie usual si-rns 01
womanhood ; but in the absence of these signs.
according to Abu Hanifah. she is not of age
until she is eighteen. But the two I m a in 5,
Muhnmmad and yfisuf. fix the age ar fifteen.
and with this opinion the main *h-SljatiM
agrees.
With regunJ tj d daughter s freedom in ?;
niarmge contrarl. Shaikh -Abdu l-Har^. m
his commentary on the Traditions (vol. iii,
p. tO- 1 )), says, "All the learned doctor are
ngrerd thar ji virgin daughter, until she has
arrived at the age of puberty, is entirely a!
the disposal of her father or lawful guardian,
but that in theeveni of a woman having been
left H wjdow ufior she has attained I he age
of pubertv, she 19 entirely at liberty o marry
whom she Jikes " There s, however, h* says
fioaio difference of opiaion ast Lc I he free
dom of a girl who has not been married and
has am oet I at tin- aye of puberty. Abu
Hnnitiili mles that she is entirely froe t rom
the control of her guardian with regard t-o her
marriage. but ash-Shati f rules otherwise.
Again, as regards a widow who is not of
as?e. Abu Hanifah says she cannot marry
Mithout her guardian s permission but ash-
Shafi i says she is fre
{ According to tlio teaching of the Prophet
" a virgin d^uptter gives hr consent TO ma
riago by *i fence . He alio taught that a
womart ripe in years shall have her consent
yaked. and if f,Ue remain silent her silence is
consent, bin if she do not consent, she .shall
not be forced." But ibis tradition is also to
be compared with another, in which he said,
There i* no marringo without ihc permission
of the guardians. (Mifhkat. xiii. c. iv. pt. 2 )
Honce the difTerence between the learned
doctors on this subject.
The author of the AMHt/-j-JatiiJt says it IH
not advisable to teach girls to read and write
and this us the general feeling amongst
Miibammadans in all pam of the world,
although it is considered right to enable
them to recite IhoQur un and the liturgical
prayers.
The father or guardian is to be blamed who
does not marry his daughter at an eaily age.
for Muhammad is related to have said " It
is written In the Beok of Moses, that who
soever does not marry his daughter when Hh0
I hath reached the age of twelve years is re
sponsible for any sin she may commit."
The ancient Arabs utfed to call the nngnh
tliP: M lAUghturs of Ood." ;ind objected ttron^ly
ns the Badawis do in the present day. to
female otTspring, and they used lo/bnry their
infant daughters a livu. Theae pr^cvkws Mu-
hammad reprobates in the QUI- HQ. Surah xvi.
59: ** And they ascribe daughters unlo H d !
Glory be to Him! But they desiro Ihem nol
for themselves. For when the birth of a
daughter i* auuouneecj to any one of them
dark shadows setili- on his fac. e.and he is sad;
ho hidolh him from the people bccaueo of
the ill tidings. Shall be keep it with disgrace,
or burv it in the dust ? Aro nol their judg
ments wrong ?
Mr. HoUw^ll remariia on this verse : "1 hua
Kat)binistn teaches that to be a woman is a
groHl degradation. The Tnodern Jow says in
biH Daily l^-ttyers. fol. . r ,. <;, - v 13iessedai-tlhou,
(> Lord our O<jd ? King of tbn Univei^ ! wlio
hath not made unr- a \\uujan"
DUMAtl (**,*}. A lorrifitfd town
held by theChrist-irtii d.iof Ukaidar, who was
defeated ly the Muslim general Klmlid. and
by him converted to Muhftmmadamsm, A.M. 9
I .nl the mercenary character of TJkaidar s
conversion led him to revolt afti r Muham
mad s death XMuir s Life of Muhm/tet. vol
iv. p. 191.)
DA V I D . Arabic Dawvd, or
Duuuil. A king of Israel and a 1 i-ophet
to whom God revealed the Zabifr, or Book
of Psalms. [ZABUH.] Ho bn& no special
title or Ifalimnfi, as all Muslims are agreed
that he was not a law-giver or the founder
of a dispensation. The account of him in
the Qur an is exceedingly meagre. It is
given ns follows, with the commentator -
remarks traslald in italic* by Mr. Lane :
An<l God gave him (DttvtJ) the kingship
over tin r/if/c/rcfi of [fratt, aud wisdom, after
the death of Samuel and Sau/, and they
72 DAVID
[namely these two gifts] had not been given
together to any one before him ; and He taught,
him what He pleased, as the art of making
coats of mail, and the language of birds And
were it not for God s repelling men, one by
another, surely the earth had becom* corrupt j
by the predominance of the pofytfai*t* and the
slaughter of the Muslims "W ike ruin of the
places of worship: but God is beneucent to
the peoples, and hath repelled some by others*
(Surah ii. 227.)
" Hath the story of the two opposing parties
come onto thee, when they ascended over the
walls of the orutory of David^ having been pre
vented going in unto him by the door, because of
his being engaged in devotion? . When they
went in unto David, and he wag frigM*ned at
them, they euid. Fear not: we are two oppos
ing parties, .ft is said that they were two
parties of more than one each \ and it is said
that they- were two individuals, c/tiyela, ivho
varne as ttao litigants, to admoniah DavirL ivho
had ninety -nine vrives, and had desired the wife
of a person why had none but her, and married
her and taken her as his wife. [One of them
said.J One of us hath wronged the other ;
therefore judge between us with arufch, and
be not unjust, but direct? us into the righ*--
way. Vorily this my brother in religion liar
nine -and -ninety ewes, and I had owe ewe ; anc
he said, Make me her keeper. And he over
came me in the dispute. And the other con
fessed him to have spoken truth. [David]
said, Verily he hath wronged thee in demand
ing thy ewe to add her to his. ewes ; and verily
many associates wrong one another except
those who believe and do righteous deeds :
and few indeed are they. -And Lhe two angel&
said, ascending in their [proper or assumed]
forms to heaven* The man hath passed sentence
aycinst himself. So David was admonished.
And David perceived that We had tried him
by his tne of that woman ; wherefore he asked \
pardon of his Lord, and fell down bowing
himself (or prostrating himself}, and repented.
So We forgave him that ; and verily for him
[was ord tuned] a high rank with Us (that is.
an increase of good fortune in this world), and
[there shall be for him]) an excellent retreat i
in the >w>rld to come." (Surah xxxviii. 20-^24.)
" We compelled the 7nounUin,s to glorify
Us, with David, and the birds also, on his com
manding them to do so, when he experienced
languor ; and We did this. And We taught
birn the art, of making coats of mail (for
before his time plates of metal were used) for
you oniony mankind in general, that they
might defend you from your suffering in
warring with your enerrri.es. Will ye then,
people of Mecca, be thankful for Afy
favours, believing the apostles r" Surah xxi.
79, 80.}
Sale observes that Yahyathe commentator,
most rationally understands hereby the divine
revelations which David received from God,
and not the art of making coats of mail,
The fause of his applying himself to this. art
is thus related in the Miriiiu z-Zaman : He
used to go forth in disguise : and when he
found any people who knew him not. he ap
DA WAH
preached them and aaked them respecting
the conduct of David, and they praised him
and prayed for him ; but one day, as he was
asking questions respecting tiiniseif as usual,
God sent to him an angel in th form of a
human being, who said. " An excellent man
were David if he did aot take from th*- public
treasury." Whereupon the heart of Oavid
was contracts, and he begged ot God to
render him independent : so He made iron soft
to him, and it became in hia bands as thread :
and he used to sell a coat of mail for fou
thousand [pieces of rnoney whether gold o
silver is not said], and with part of this he
obtained food for himself, and pail he gave in
alms, .and with part he fed his family- Hen^e
an excellent coat of mail fs often (failed by
the Arabs " Dawudi." i.e. " Davidean." (See
Lane s translation of Th* Thousand and One
Nights, chap. yiii. note 5.)
David, it is said, divided his time regularly,
setting apart one day for the service of God,
another day for rendering justice to his
people, another day for preaching to them,
and another day for his own affairs.
.DA WA (^^). A claim in a law
suit. A claim or demand. (See Hamilton s
Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 63.)
DA< WAH (V*>). Lit. " A call, in-
vocation (i.e. of God s help)." A term used to
express a system of incantation which >s held
to be lawful by orthodox Muhamma.dans ;
wnilst sihr, " magic," and Kahdnah. * fortune -
celling," are said to be unlawful, the Pro
phet baviug forbidden both.
From the Muslim books Jt appears chat
Muhammad is believed to nave sanctioned the
use of spells and incan^tionK. so iong as the
words n.sed were only those of the names ot
God, or of the good angels, and of the good
genii ; although the more strict amongst
them (the Wahhabis, for example,) would say
that only an invocation of God Himself was
lawful teaching which appears to be more
in accordance with that of Muhammad, who
is related to have said. " There is nothing
wrong in using spells so long as you do not
associate anything with God." (Mishlciit. xxi.
c. i.) It is therefore clearly lawful to use
charms and amulets on which tne name of
God only is inscribed, and to invoke the help
of God by any ceremony, provided no one is
associated with Him.
The science of da^wah has, rum.-**-:, ^een
very much elaborated, and in many respects
its teachers seem to have departed from the
original teaching of their Prophet on the sub
ject.
In India, the moat popular work on da wak
is the Jawdhint t-Khamsah, by Shaikh Abu
U-Muwayyid of Gujerat. A.n. 9o6, in which he
says the science is used for the following
purposes. (1) To establish friendship or
enmity between two persons. (2) To cause
the cure, or the sickness and death, of a per
son. (3) To secure the accomplishment of
one s wishes, both temporal and spiritual,
(4) To obtain defeat or victory in battle.
T)A WAH
Thin book is largely made up of Hindu
customs which, in India, have become part of
Muhamuiadanism ; but we shall endeavour
to confine ourselves to a consideration of
those sections -which exhibit the so-called
science as it exists in its relation to Islam.
In order to explain this occult science, we
shall consider it under the following divisions:
1. The qualifications necessary for the JwiY,
or the person who practices it.
2. The tablos required by the teacher, and
their uses.
3. An explanation of the terms nifdb t xakat, *
ushr. qtifl, daur, bazl, khatm, and sari u Y-
ijdoa/i, and their uses.
4. The methoda employed for commanding
the presence of the genii.
I. When anyone enters upon the study of the
science, he must begin by paying the utmost
attention to cleanliness. No dog, or cat, or
any stranger, is allowed to enter his dwelling-
place, and he must purify his house by burn
ing wood-aloes, pastiles, and other sweet-
scented perfnmes. He must take the utmost
care th.it his body is in no way defiled, and he
nnist bathe and perform the legal ablutions
constantly. A most important preparation
for the exercise of the art is a forty-days fast
(chillu}, when he must sleep on a mat spread
on the ground, sleep as little as possible, and
not enter into general conversation. Exor
cists not unfrequently repair to some cave or
retired spot in order to undergo complete
abstinence.
The diet of the exorcist must depend upon
DA WAH
73
the kind of asma, or names of God he intends
to recite. If they are the asmau l-jaidliyak,
or " terrible attributes " of the Almighty, then
he must refrain froui.tlie use of meat, fish,
egg^ honey, and musk. If they are the
uxma u l-JamUfyakt or " amiaile attributes,
he must abstain from butter, curds, vinegar,
salt, and ambergrise. If he intends to recite
both attributes, ho must then abstain from
such things as garlic, onions, and assafoetida.
It is also of the utmost importance that the
exorcist should eat things which are lawful,
always speak the truth, and not cherish a
proud or haughty spirit. He should be care
ful not to make a display of his powers before
the world, but treasure up in his bosom the
knowledge of his acquirements. It is con
sidered very dangerous to his own life for a
novice to practice the science of exorcism.
II. Previous to reciting any of the names
or attributes of God for the establishment of
friendship or enmity in behalf of any person,
it is necessary to ascertain the initials of his
or her name in the Arabic alphabet, which
letters are considered by exorcists to be con
nected with the twelve signs of the zodiac,
the seven planets, and tho four elements.
The following tables, which are taken from the
Javjdhiru l-Khamsah, occur, in a similar form,
in all books on exorcism, give the above com
binations, together with the nature of the per
fume to bo burnt, and the names of the presid
ing genius and guardian angel. These tables
may be considered the key to the whole
science of exorcism.
Letters of the Alphabet arranged
according to the Abjad [ABJAD],
with their respective number.
1 1
2 V
3 e
4 o
5 4
The J^peoial Attributes or Names
of God.
dU1
Allah.
&
J3d</i.
+
./ami .
0^
Dayydn.
gil*
Hadi.
The Number 01 the Attribute.
66
113
114
65
20
Tiie Meaning 01 the Attiibute.
God.
Eternal.
Assembler.
Reckoner.
Guide.
The Glass of the Attribute.
Terrible
Amiable.
Terrible &
Amiable
combined.
Terrible.
Amiable.
The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of
the Letter.
Friendship.
Love.
Love.
Enmity
Enmity.
The Elements. (Arba ah <And?ir.)
Fire,
Air.
Water. Earth.
Fire.
The Perfume of the Letter.
Black Aloes
Sugar.
Cinnamon.
Red Sandal.
White
Sandal.
The Signs of the Zodiac.
(#*./.)
Hamai.
Ram.
Junta
Twins.
Saratan.
Crab.
Saur.
Bull.
If omul.
Ram.
The Planets.
i Kuwakib.)
Znhal.
Saturn.
Mtishtari
Jupiter.
Mirrikh.
Mars.
Shunt*.
Sun.
Zuhrah.
Venus.
The Genii- (Jmn.)
Qayupush.j Danush.
. Nulush.
Twayush.
Hush.
The Guardian Angels. (M uvntklrit.}
Israfil.
JibriU
KalkaU
Dard-tU
Durball.
10
74
DA WAH
Letters of the Alphabet arranged
according to the Abjod [AB.TU/],
with theii respective number
6 )
7 3
t
l
9 1
\
10 ^
The Special Attributes or Names
of God. .
Jj
Wall
k
c^
JJaqq.
^
TaKir.
U--v>
YrtStH.
The Number of the Attribute.
46
87
108
215
130
The Meaning of the Attribute.
Friend.
Purifier.
Truth.
Holy.
Chief.
The Class of the Attribute
Amiable
Combined.
^ornbiut fl.
Terrible.
Amiable.
The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of
the Letter.
Love.
Love.
Hatred.
Desire.
Attraction.
The Elements.
(Arba l ah <And$ir.)
Air.
Water.
Earth.
Fire.
Air.
The Perfume of the Letter.
Camphor.
Honey.
Saffron.
Musk.
Roso
Leaves
The Signs of the Zodiac.
(Buruj:)
Jaueff.
Twins.
Sarafan.
Crab.
Jady.
Goat.
HamuL
Ram.
Mlzan.
Scales.
The Planets.
(Kctwdkib )
1 Uif md.
Mercury.
Qfiinar.
Moon.
Zuhal.
Saturn-
Mmhtari.
Jiipiter.
Jf/rngg.
Mars.
The Genii. (Jinn.)
Puyiish.
Kapixsh.
Ayush.
Badyush.
Shahbiish.
The Guardian Angel.
(Muwakkil.}
Raftmall.
Sharka il.
Tankafil.
Tshma Tl.
Saraklka il.
Letter? of the Alphabet arranged
according to the Abjad [ABJAD].
with their respective number
20 csJ
30 j
40 p
.-.o o
y,,
The Special Attributes or Names
of God.
Jtf
Ka.fl.
ugj
Lunf.
ClXU
Malik.
.4
**+..
Sawi*.
The Number of the Attribute.
Ill
129
00
286
180
The Meaning of the Attribute.
Sufficient
Bpiiignant.
King.
Light
Hoarer.
The Class of the Attribute.
Amiable.
Amiable.
Terrible.
Amiable..
Combined.
The Quality, "Vice, or Virtue of
the Letter.
Love.
Separation.
Love.
Hatred.
Desire.
The Elements,
("Arba uh Mna.vz r.)
Water.
Earth.
Fire.
Air.
Water.
The Perfume of the Letter.
White rose
leaves.
Apples.
Quince.
Hyacii th
afferent
kind R of
Scents.
The Signs of the Zodiac
(Burui.^
*Aqrab.
Scorpion,
Sour,
JBull.
Asad
I Aon.
.Mlzan.
Scales.
Qays.
Arche .
The Planets.
( K(t,ii (ikib.)
Shams.
Sun.
JZtifirtiti.
Venus.
(Stand.
Mercury.
i.jflwa.r.
Moon.
Zvfr/l.
Saturn.
The Genii. (Jinn.}
Kadyush.
Adyush
Majbush.
DamalyuRh
Fa y" sh.
The Guardian Angels.
( Mutuakkil *
Kharura il.
Tata il.
Buya ii.
1 Hula il.
Ham-
wakt!
JU WAH
75
Letters of the Alphabet ursngfltl
according to the Abftul [ABJAD],
with their respective number.
70
80 ^
00 ^
100 j
200 }
The Special Attribute* or Nmc*
of God.
>
All
cU*
PattaA
M^
Samvrf
Mill
Qfdir.
Rath.
The Number of the Attribute
110
489
134
305
202
The Meaning of iho Attribute.
Exalted.
Opener.
Epta-
blinbod.
Powerful.
Lord.
The Class of the Attribute.
Terrible.
Amiable.
Terii ble.
Combined.
Terrible.
The Quality, Vie-, ov Virtue of
the Letter.
Kiches
Enmity.
intimacy
Desire.
Friend
ship.
The Elements.
(Arba k ah Anusir )
Earth,
Fim
Air.
Water.
Earth
The Perfume of the Letter
White
Pepper
Walnut
Nutmeg.
Orange.
RosewHler.
The Signs of the Zodiar.
( Bur il j.)
Sutnbulah.
Virgin.
,1.>W
Lion
Mizdrt.
Scales.
Hut
Fish.
tiumbhlah
Virgin.
The Planets.
(Kawdkib.)
Mugtnari.
Jupiter.
MirM.
Mars.
Stem*
Sun,
Zvhrah.
Von us
Utorid.
Mercury.
The Genii.
(Jinn.)
Kashpiisli.
talyiish.
Kulapiish.
Sbamyush
Rahush.
The Guardian Angels.
(Mnwalckil)
Luma il
Surhma il.
Ahjmail
Itra il
Auiwakil
Letters of the. Alphabet arranged
according to the Abjud [ABJAD],
with their respective number
300 Jh
4(X) ^-j
500 i,
000 t
The Special Attributes or Names
of God.
&*
S/iafi-
*+\f
tfzwwah.
i^y
$dbit.
^\*-
Khaliq.
The Number of the Attribute.
460
40!)
903
731
Tbe Moaning of the Attribute.
Accepter,
Forgiver.
Stable.
Creator.
The Class of Lh? Attribute.
Amiable,
Amiable.
Terrible
Combined.
The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of
! the Letter.
Enmity.
Sleepless
ness.
Hatred.
Love.
1 The Elements.
{Arb*ah Aiiatir.)
Fire.
Air.
Water
Eaith
The Pcriucne of the Letter.
White Aloes.
Amber.
White Aloes
Violet.
The Signs of the Zodiac.
( Buritj.)
A grab.
Scorpion.
Dalw.
Watering Pot.
Hui
Fish.
./tuly
Goal.
The Planets.
(Katuiikib.)
Qftmar.
Moon.
ZuhaL
Saturn
Mvshtari
Jupiter.
MirriM.
Mars.
The Genii. (Jinn.)
Tiibhyush.
Latyush.
Twahyush
Dalayuah.
The GuarJiutj Angels.
(JtftflMttA)
Amra iL
!
Azrall.
Mfka il.
MabkaU
76
DA WAH
Letters of the Alphabet arranged
acco rding to the Abjad [ABJAD],
with their respective number.
700 j
800 ^6
900 t
1000 ^
The Special Attributes or Names
of God.
w*
Zakir.
Zarr.
^
rs -i
yptt/wr.
(Mafiir.
,The Number of the Attribute.
921
1001
1106
1285
The Meaning of the Attribute.
Retueiuberer
Punisher.
Evident.
Great
Forgiver.
The Class of the Attribute.
Combined.
Terrible.
Terrible.
Amiable.
The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of
the Letter.
Hatred.
Hatred.
Enmity.
Conva
lescence.
The Elements.
(Arba cth Andfir. )
Fire.
Air.
Water.
Earth.
The Perfume of the Letter.
Sweet
Basil.
Laburnam.
Jasmine.
Cloves.
The Signs of the Zodiac.
(Burij.)
Qfau.
Archer.
2)alw.
Watering
Pot.
ffit.
Pish.
Hut.
Fish.
The Planets.
(Kaicakib.)
Shams.
Sun.
Zuhrah.
Venus.
l Utarid.
Mercury.
Qmiar.
Moon.
The Genii.
(Jinn.)
Twakapush.
Ghayush,
Ghafuoush.
Arkupush.
The Guardian Angel.
(MuwakkiL)
Harfcall.
Ata iL
Nura IL
Nukha fl,
The sex of the signs of the Zodiac (buruf) has been determined as in the following table.
Between males and females exists friendship;, between males and hermaphrodites sometimes
friendship sometimes enmity; between females and hermaphrodites the most inveterate
enmity : -
FEMALES. HEBMAPHfcODTTES.
. Burj-i-Savr. Twins .
. Burj-i-Afizdn. Virgin
, Burj-i-Saratcin. Goats .
Watering
Pot .
MALES.
Ram
. Bwrj-i-Hamal.
Bull .
Lion.
. Burj-i-A&ad.
Scales .
Scorpion
. Burj-i- Aqrab.
Crab .
Fish .
Archer
. Burj-i-Hut.
. Burj-i-Qaus.
Burj-i- Sumbulah .
Bwj i-Jady.
Bwrj-i-Dalu).
Astrologists have determined the relative dispositions of the planets (kawaklb) to be as
follows : V
Venus
and
Satui-n.
Venus
and
Moon.
Jupiter
and
Venus.
Jupiter
and
Sun.
Sun
and
Moon.
Jupiter
and
Moon.
Sun
and
Veuus.
> Friendship.
Moon
and
Vlcrcury.
Saturn
and
Mercury,
Jup iter
and
Mercury.
Mars
and
Mercury.
Venus
and
Mercury.
Mars
and
Venus.
Sun
and
Mercury.
\ Mixed Friendship and
> Enmity or Indiffer-
) enee.
Satuni
and
Sun.
Saturn
and
Moon.
Mars
and
Moon.
Mar?
and
Sun.
Saturn
and
gun.
Jupiter
and
Mars.
Jupiter
and
Saturn.
C Enmity.
DA WAH
The four elements (arba ah anusir) stand in relation to each other as follows :
77
Water and Water.
Fire and Firo.
art.h and Earth.
Air and Air.
V Friendship.
Fire and Air.
Air and Water.
) Mixed Friendship and
) or Indifference.
Enmity
Fire and Water.
Fire and Earth.
Earth and Water.
I Enmity
As an illustration of the use of these tables,
two persons, Akram and Rahimah, conteiu-
plato a matrimonial alliance, and wish to
know if it will bo a happy union or other
wise
The exorcist must first ascertain if the
elements (iwlaftth andsir). the BIJTOS of the
zodiac (buruj ), Jtnd the planets (Icfiwakib) , are
amicably or inimitably disposed to each other
in the cases of these two individuals, and also
if there is a combination expressed in the ism
or name of God connected with their initial
letters.
In the present instance the initial letter of
Akram is alif, and that of Rahimah, rd, and
a reference to the foregoing tables will pro
duce the following results :
Akram. Rahimah.
Initial letter.
Alif V.
Raj
The quality of
the letter.
Friendship
Friendship.
The element.
Fire.
Earth.
The attribute.
Allah
Rabb.
Tho quality of
the attribute.
Terrible.
Terrible.
The planet.
Saturu
Mercury.
The sign of the
zodiac.
The ram.
The virgin.
The perfume.
Black aloes.
Rose water.
The genius.
Qayupush.
Rahush.
The angel.
Israfil.
Amwakil
In considering this case, the exorcist will
observe that there is a combination in the
attributes of God, both belonging to the asmtfu
Ljaldliya/i, or terrible attributes- There is also
a combination in the quality of the letters,
both implying friendship. Their respective
planets, Saturn and Mercury, show a combi
nation of either mixed friendship and enmity,
or, perhaps, indifference. The sign of the
zodiac, the ram being a male, and that of the
virgin a hermaphrodite, show a possible alter
nation of friendship and enmity between the
parties. Tho elements, fire and earth, being
opposed, imply enmity. It therefore appear*
that there will be nothing agfcinfitthesetwoper-
Sona, Akram and Rahimah forming a matrimo
nial alliance, and that they may reasonably ex
pect as much happiness from their union as
usually falU to the lot of the Human race.
Should the good offices of the exorcist be re
quested, he will, by incantation, according 1 to
the table given, appeal to the Almighty a.s
Allah and Rabb, all in the aid o( the ^.snii
Qayupush and Rahuah, and of the guardian
angels, Israfil and Amwakil. The perfume* he
will burn in his numerous rocit.ls will be black
aloes a.nd roso-water, and so bring about a
speedy increase in the happiness of the per
sons of Akram and Rahimah !
III. As we have ; lrady explained, the in
cantations used by exoroists consist in tho
recital of either the names or attributes of
God, or of certain formulae which are given ir
books on the subject. In tho Jauiahiru /-
KkamsaJif there were many forms of incanta
tion, but wo select the following one to illus
trate the subject :
Sutbhtinaku / Id ildha illd onto, ! fiabba-
atin ! wa wdri&ahu, ! wa rdziqaJiu ! ioa
rdfamahu !
Glory be to Thee ! There is no deity but
Thee! Tho Lord of All I and the Inheritor
thereof I and the Provider therefor ! and the
Merciful thereon 1
This incantation consists of forty-four
letters, exclusive of vowel points, as is shown
by tho following table :
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
H
15
16
17
18
u*
Sin
60
Ba
2
Ha
8
AW
1
Nun
50
Kaf
20
Lam
30
Alif
1
Alif
1
Lain
30
Ha
5
Alif
1
Lara
30
Lam
30
Alif
I
Alif
1
Nun
50
Ta
400
78
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
38
34-
35
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
DA* W All
Itt
200
Ba
2
Ba
2
Kaf
20
La in
30
Lain
30
Shin
300
Ya
10
"H am x ul i
1
Wan
6
Wau
r>
Alif
i
Ea
200
Sa
500
Ha
5
Wau
6
Ra
200
Alif
1
Za
7
Qil
LOO
Ha
5
Wau
6
Ea
200
Alif
1
Ha
8
Mim
40
Ha
5
2613
In reciting such an invocation, units are
reckoned as hundreds, ten s as thousaad-s, hun
dreds as tens of thousands, and thousands as
hundreds of thousands.
In the above formula
Its ni?db, or fixed estate, is tho
number of letters (i.e. 46) put
into thousands = . . . 4,500
Its zakdtf or alms, in tho half ol
the nifdb added to itself,
4,500 and 2,250= C,75.t>
Its Mft-A?-, or tithes, is half of the
above half added to the nfikai^
6,750 and 1,125= 7,875
Cts qitfl, or lock, is hall of 1,125- 568
I ts daur, or circle, is obtained by
adding to its qufl the sum of
the ushr and theii doubling
r he. total :
6G3
7,875
8,438
8,438
Its bitzi t or gtft, io the h*ed
number ,
In khatm, oi seal, is the fixed
number
It a sari u l-ijdbak, or speedy
answer, is the fixed number
Total
16,87(5
7,000
1,200
12,000
DA WAB
After the exorcist has recited tho formula
tho above number of times, he should, in
order to make a reply more certam, treble
the ni$db, making it 135,000, and then add
2,613, the value of the combined number of
letters, making n total of 187,613 recitals.
Tho number of these recitals should be divided
as nearly as possible in equal parts for each
day s reading, provided it be completed within
forty days. By a rehearsal of these, says our
author, the mind of the exorcist becomes com
pletely transported, and, whether ustaep or
awake, he finds himself accompanied by
spirits and genii (jinn) to the highest heavens
nd the lowest depths of earth. These spirits
then reveal to him hidden mysteries, and
render souls and spirits obedient to the will
of the exorcist.
IV. If the exorcist wish to command the,
presence of genii in behalf of a certain person,
it is generally supposed to be effected in tho
folio win* manner. He must, first of ail, shut
himself up in a room and fast for forty days,
lie should besmear the chamber with reicf
ochre, and, having purified himself, should sil
on a small carpet, and proceed to call the
genius or demon. He must, however, firsl
Knd out what special genii are required to
effect his purpose. If, for example, he is
about to call in the aid of these spirits in be
half of a person named Bahrain (tU$>) he will
find out, first, the special genii presiding over
the name, the letters of -which are, omitting
the vowel points, B H R A M Upon refer
ence to the table it will be seen tbat they are
Danush, Hush, Rahush. Qayupiish, and Maj-
bush. He must then ilud out what are the
special names of God indicated by these
letters, which we Una in the fcabloarea/-/>Yjf/,
" the Eternal," al-Had~i, - the Guide," ar-lfabb
"the Lord," Allah, "God," al-Maltt, " the
King," He must then ascertain the power of
the letters, indicating the number of times for
the recital, which will be thus j
B, 2 equal to 200
H. 5 500
R, 200 20,000
A. 1 100
M, 40 ., 4,000
Total
* 1.800
The exorcist should then, in order to call
in Ute help oi the genii, recite the following
formula, not fewer than 24,800 times:
YS Dannshu! for the sake of the Eternal
One!
Ya Hiishu ! for the sake of the Guide 1
Ya Rahushu! for the sake of the Lord !
Va Qayupushu 1 for the sake of Allah !
Ya Majbusbu ! for the sake of the King I
The exorcist will perform this recital with
his face turned towards the house of the
object he wishes to Affect, and bum the per
fumes indicated according to the tatle for th
letters of Bauram u name.
There are very many other methods of
performine this exorcism, but the foregoing
will sn/lice is A specimen of tho kind of set
( MAG re. J
DAY
DAY. The Muhammadan day
commences at<vin-*ot; our Thursday oven-
ing, for example- be i\x tho beginning of the
Muslim Friday. The Arabic Ywtm denotes
th;< day of twenty-jY.nr hours, and X<r/</\ tho
day in coMtvmli-itiuc-tiori to the night (fail).
The day-- i f tho week aro as follows :
Y futnu I tiluifl. liri-.t -d;iy. >iun!:iy.
YcNUitU l-isnttin. secoili; ilay. M":;il i\.
Yt/t/wu ..-.saA/.syF, third day, Tue>ri;iy.
Yuumit 7- nrha\ fourth day, Wednesday.
Yavrnu V-A Art/w/x, Thursday.
Yuuinu l-j ini-uh. Day ->f Assembly, Friday.
\<tumu s-sabt, Sabbath -day, Saturday.
Of tin- days of the week, Monday, Wednes
day, Thursday, and KrMay, are estceuied
good nnd -luspi -i. us : the others evil.
(Qaniin-i-/y,/di/i, p. 40;-5.) Friday is the spe
cial day appointed by Muhammad for meet
ing in the chief mosque for public worship.
[FEIDAY. J
DAY OF JUDGMENT. |
KFCTION.1
PEATH. Arabic Maut; Wa/Oi.
It is distinctly taught 1-1 the Qur iui that
tho horn- of -loath is fixed for every living
creature.
Surah xvi. 03 : "If God were to punish men
for their wrong-doing, Hu \vould not leave on
the earth n singlo living creature ; but He
respites thorn until a stated time : and when
their time comes they cannot delay it an
hour, nor ran they hasten it."
Surah iii. 182: -Every poul must taste
death, and ye shall ouiy be paid your hire on
the day of resurrection."
Surah L 17 : " The agony of death shall
oomc in truth, that is what thon didst shun."
In the Traditions, Muhammad has taught
that it is sinful to wish for cleat, 11 : - Wish not
for death, not even if thoxi art a doer of good
works, for poradventure thou mayest increase
them with an increase of life. N or even if
thon art a pinner 1 , for with increase of life
thou inayest obtain God s pardon."
One day the Prophet said: ""Whosoever
loves to meet God, God will love to mo>. t him.
and whoever dislikes to meet God. God ^"U
dislike to meet him." Then ^Ayishah said.
" Truly we all dislike death and consider it &
great affliction." The Prophet rcplii.-d, " Thou
dost not understand me. When deutu oom.es
near a bolievcr, then God gives him n spirit of
resignation, and so it is that there is nothing
which a believer likes so much as d<"ith.
Al-Bara ibn Azib, ono of tho Companions,
says :
" I came, out with the Prophet at the
tunerai of one -f iho assistants, and we arrived
just .it the grave, before thoy hud. interred
Uie body, anc 1 the Prophet sat down, c.nd we
sat around aim with our heads down, and
were so silent, thai you might sav that birds
were sitting upon our heads. And thoro was
a stick in .lie Prophet s hand with which he
kept striking the ground. Then he raised his
Dead ind said twice QJ thrice to his compa- I
nions, Seek the protection of God froru the
DPATH
79
punishments of the gi.ive. After that In-
said: Verily, when ; Muslim separat.-th
from the world aud bringeth his soul to futu
rity, angels descend to him from tho i-elostml
regions, whose faces aro white. You might
.say thoir faces aro the sun, and they have .<
shroud of tho shrouds of paradise, and pe>
fumes therefrom. So thoy sit apart from the
deceased, as far as the eyes can Ree. After
which the Angel of Death (Mnhiku l-Mfittt)
comes to tho deceased and sits at his head,
and says, O pure soul, come forth to God s
pardon and pleasure. 1 Then the soul comes
out, issuing like water from a bag, and the
Angol of Death takos it ; and when he takes
it, tho angels do not allow it to remain in his
hands for the twinkling of an eye. But when
the Ansfel of Death has taken the soul .f a
servant of God, he resigns it to hit* assistants,
in whose hands is a shroud, and they put It
into the shroud and with the perfumes, when
a fragrance issues from tho >-oul like tho smell
of tho best musk that is to be found on tho
face of tho earth. Thou the angels carry it
upwards, and they do not pass by any con
course of angels who do not say, WiiaL i
1 Iiis pure RouJ, and who is owner of it ? " An-
they say, " Such a one, the son of such a ^>ne
<-alling him by the best names by whi -h in-
was known in the world, till they reach tho
lowest region of heaven with him. And tho
angels ask the door to be opened for him,
which is done. Then angel.s follow it through
ea" h heaven, tho angel of one region, to thoso
oi the next, and so on till it roaches the
seventh heaven, when God says, Write lh<
name of My servant in Illiyun, and i - eturr;
him towards the eartn, that is, to his bodv
which is buried in the earth, benause I hav>;
created man from earth and return him to it,
and will hrmg him out from it again as I
brought him out at iirst." Then tho SQU!S ar-
returned into their bodies, when two angels
[MI NK.AK ana NAKIK] come to the dead man
and cause him to sit up, ana say to him,
Who is thy Lord ? " Ho replies, - r My Lo. d
is God." Then they say, " What is thy reli
gion? He says, "Islam." Then iney say,
What is this mau who is sent to you ? " (i.?.
the Prophet). He says, " He is the Prophet
of God." Then they say, "What is your proof
of his mission,;" He says, * i read tiie book
of God, and believed in it, and 1 proved it to
be true." Then a voice ealN mit from tho
culc.stial region.- , * AIv servant hath spoken
trur>, therefore thro., for him a bed from
Paradise, and dress him in clothes from Para
dise, and open a door for him towards Para
dise. Then peace and perfumes come for
him from Paradise, and his grave is enlarged
for him as far as the eye can bee. Then a
man with a beautiful face comes to itin.i,
elegantly dressed, aud perfumed, and he says,
Be joyful in that which hath made thee, so.
this is the day which was promised thee.
Then the dead person says to him, ; " Who art
thou, for thy face is perfectly beautiful ? : Aru.
the man replies, "I am thy good deeds."
Then the dead person cries out, "O Lord,
hasten the resurrection for my s.ike ! "
80
DEATH
" But, continued the Prophet, * when an
infidel dies, and is about to pass from the
world and bring his soul to futurity, black-
faced angels come down to him and with
them sackcloths. Then they sit from the
dead as far, as the eye can see, after which
the Angel of Death conies in order to sit at
his head, and says. " impure soul ! come
forth to the wrath of God." Then the soul is
disturbed in the infidel s body. Then the
Angel of Death draws it out as a hot spit is
drawn out of wet wool
"* Then the Angel of Death takes the soul
of the infidel, and having taken it, the angels
do not allow It to remain with him the twink
ling of an eye, but they take it in the sack-
oloth, and a disagreeable smell issues from
the soul, like that of the most fetid carcass
that can be met with upon the face of the
earth. Then the angels carry it upwards and
do not pass by any assembly of angels who
do not ask whose filthy soul is this. They
answer such an one, the son of such an one,
and they mention him by the worst names
that he bore in the world, till they arrive
with it at the lowest heaven, and call the door
to be opened, but it cannot be done. Then
the Prophet repeated this verse : The doors of
the celestial regions shall not bte opened for them,
nor shall they enter into paradise till a camel
passes through the eye of a needle. 1 Then God
says, * Write his history in Sijjm, which is the
lowest earth ; then his soul is thrown down
with violence. Afterwards the Prophet re
peated this verse : Unite no partner with
God, for wjtoever unite th tjods with God is like
that which fatteth from high, and the birds
snatch it away, or the wind wafleih it to a dis
tant place. Then his soul is replaced in his
body, and two angels [MUHKAR and XAKIR]
come to him and set him up, and say, Who
is thy Lord ? He says, Alas ! alas ! I do
not know. Then they say, What is thy
religion ? He says, Alas ! alas ! I do
not know.* And they say to him, What is
the condition of the man who is sent down to
you ? He says, * Alas ! alas ! I do not know. 1
Then a voice conies from above, saying, He
lieth ; therefore spread a bed of fire for him
and open a door for him towards hell. Then
the heat and hot winds of hell come to him,
and his grave is made tight upon him, so as to
squeeze his ribs. And a man with a hideous
countenance comes to him shockingly dressed,
of a vile smell, and ho says, * Be joyful in
that which maketh thee miserable ; this is
the day that was promised thee. Then the
dead man says, Who art thou ? Thy face
is hideous, and brings wickedness. He says,
I am thy impure actions. Then the dead
person says, Lord, delay the resurrection
on my account! "
The ceremonies attendiug the death of a
Muslim are described as follows by Jafir
Sharif in Herklot s Qanun-i-Jsldrn, as fol
lows:
Four or live days previous to a sick man s
approaching his dissolution, he makes his will
in favour of his son or any other person, in the
presence of two or more -witnesses, and either
DEATH
delivers it to others or retains it by him. In
it he likewise appoints his executor. When
about to expire, any learned reader of the
Qur an is pent for, and requested to repeat
with a loud voice the Surah Ya Sin (or chap,
xxxvi.), in order that the spirit of the man,
by the hearing of its sound, may experience
an easy concentration. It is said that when
the spirit was commanded to enter the body
of Adam, the soul having looked into it once,
observed that it was a bad and dark place,
and unworthy of its. presence! Then the
Just and Most Holy God illuminated the body
of Adam with " lamps of light," and com
manded the spirit to re-enter. It went in a
second time, beheld tbe light, and saw the
whole dwelling, and said, " There is no pleas
ing sound here for me to listen to," It is
generally understood from the best works of
the mystics of the East, that it was owing to
this circumstance that the Almighty created
music. The holy spirit, on hearing the sound
of this music became so delighted that it
entered Adam s body. Commentators on the
Qur an, expositors of the Traditions and
divines have written, that that sound re
sembled that produced by the repeating of
the Suratu Ya Sin ; it is therefore advisable
to read at the hour of death this chapter
for tranquillizing the soul
The Kalirnatu sh-shahadah [CREED] is
also read with an audible voico by those
present. They do not require the patient
to read it himself, as at such a time he is
in a distressing situation, and not in a fit
state of mind to repeat tho Kalimah.
Most people lie insensible, and cannot even
speak, but the pious retain their mental facul
ties and converse till the very last. The fol
lowing is a moat serious religious rule amongst
us, viz. that if a person desire the patient to
repeat the Kaliruah, and the sick man ex
pire without being able to do so, his faith is
considered dubious; whilst the man who
directed him so to do thereby incurs guilt.
It is therefore best that the sitters-by read
it, in anticipation of the hope that the sick
man, by hearing the sound of it, may bring
it to his recollection, and repe&t it either aloud
or in his own mind. In general, when a per
son is on tho point of death, they pour &har-
hat, made of sugar and water, down his throat,
to facilitate the exit of the vital spark, and
some procure the holy water of the Kainzam
well at Makkah. The moment the spirit has
fled, the mouth is closed; because, if left
open, it would present a disagreeable spec
tacle. The two great toes are brought in
contact and fastened together with a thin slip
of cloth, to prevent the legs remaining apart
They burn perfumes near the corpse. Should
the individual have died in the evening, the
shrouding and burial take place before mid
night ; if he die at a, later hour, or should
the articles required not be procurable at
that late hour, he is buried early on the fol
lowing morning. Tho sooner the sepulchral
rites are performed the better, for it is not
proper to keep a corpse long in the house,
and for this reason the Prophet said that
DEATH
if he way a good man, the sooner he is buried
the more quickly n# will reach heaven ; if a
bad man, he should be speedily buried, in
order that his unhappy lot may pqt fall upon
others in the house ; as also that the relatives
of the deceased may not, by holding the
corpse, weep too much or go without food.
There are male and female washers, whose
province it is to wash and shroud the corpse
for payment. Sometimes, however, the rela
tives do it themselves. In undertaking the
operation of washing, they dig a hole iu the
earth to receive tho water used in the pro
cess, and preveut its spreading over a large
surface, aa some men and women consider it
bad to tread on such water. Then they place
the corpse on a bed, country-cot, plank or
straw. Some women, who are particular in
these matters, are afraid eVen to venture near
the place where the body has been washed .
Having stripped the corpse and laid it on its
back, with its head to the east and feet to the j
west, tbey cover it with a cloth reaching, if it
be a man, from the navel to the calve* of the
legs, if a woman, extending from the cheat to
the feet and wash it with warm or ^ith cold
water. Th/ raiae the body gently ind rub
the abdomen four or five times, thon pour
plenty of water, and -wash oF P. 11 the dirt and
filth "with soap, <feo., by means of flocks of
cotton or cloth ; after which, laying the body
on the sides, they waeh them ; then the back,
and thereat of the body ; but gently, because,
life having but just departed, the body IK
gtill warm and not insensible to pain. After
this they wash and clean it well, so that no
offensive smell may remain. They never
throw water into the nostrils or mouth, but
clean them with wicks of cloth or cotton.
After that they perform wttxu for him, i.e.
they wash his mouth, the two upper xtremi-
ties up to the elbows, make numaf.i [MASAH]
on his head, and throw water on bis feet ;
these latter constituting the four parts of the
wufii ceremony [ABLUTIONS], They then put
some camphor witb water into a now large
earthen pot, and with a new earthen pot
they take out water and pour it three times,
first from the head to the feet, then from the
right shoulder to the feet, lastly from the left
shoulder to the feet. Every time that a pot
of water is poured the Kalimatv. itti^hahadah
is repeated, either by the person washing or
another. Having bathed the body and wiped
it dry with a new piece of cloth, they put on
the sbroud. The shroud consists of three
pieces of cloth, if for a man, and five if for a
woman.
Those for men comprise. 1st, a lungl, or
tzar, reaching from the navel down to the
knees or ankle-joints ; 2nd, a qamis, or
kurta, or fl//; its length i* from the neck to
the knees or ankles; 3rd, a lifa/ah, or sheet,
from above the head to below the feet.
Women have two additional pieces of cloth :
one a sinah-band, or breast-band, extending
from the arm-pits to above tho ankle- joints :
the other a damni, which encircles the bead
once and has its two ends dangling on each
side, The manner ol shrouding is as follows
DEBT
81
having placed the shrouds on a new mat and
fumigated them with the amoko of perfumes,
the lifafah is spread first on the mat, over it
the Itaigi or tzar, and above that the qami$ ;
and on the latter the *inah-b>tnd, if it be a
woman ; the damni is kept separate and tied
on afterwards. The corpse must be care-
t ully brought bjr itself from the place where
it was bathed, and laid in the shrouds. Sur-
mah is to be applied to the eyes with a tent
made of paper rolled up, with a ring, or with
a pice, and camphor to seven places, viz. on
the forehead, including thenoso, on tbe palms
of the bauds, on the knees "nd great toes,
after which the different shrouds arts to be
properly put on one after another as they lay.
The colour of the shroud is to be white; no
other is admissible It is of no consequence,
htmevtr, if a coloured clotu is spread
over the bior; which., after the funeral, or
after the fortieth day, is given away to the
fagir who resides in the bury ing-ground, or
to any other person, in- charity. Previous to
shrouding the body, they tear shreds from
the cloths for the purpose of tying them on ;
and after shrouding the body, they tie 9ne
band above the head, a second below the feet,
and a third about tho ohest, leaving about six
or seven fingers 5 breadth of cloth above the
head and below the feet, to admit of the ends
being fastened. Should the relict of the
deceased be present, they undo the cloth of
the head and show her Ma face, and get her,
in presence of two witnesses, to remit the
dowry which he had settled upon her ; but it
is preferable that she remit it while he is still
alive. Should the wife, owing to journeying,
be at a distance from him, she is to remit it
on receiving the intelligence of his demise.
Should his mother be present, she likewise
says, " The milk with which I suckled thee I
freely bestow on thee"; but this is merely a
ctastom in India ; it is neither enjoined in
books of theology nor by tho law of Islam.
Then they place ou the corpse a flower -sheet
or merely wreaths of flowers. [GRAVE,
BI/BIAL.]
DEATH, EVIDENCE OF. The
Miihammadiiii law admits of the evidence of
death jivon m a court of justice being merely
fry report 01 hearsay. The reason of this is
that death is an event of such a nature a6 to
admit, tho privacy only of a few. But some
ha^e advanced that, in cases of death, the
information of one man or woman is auf-
Rcient, u because death. IB not seen by many,
9ino, as it occasions horror, the sight of it is
avoided."
If a person say he was present at the burial
of another, this amounts to the same as an
actual sight of his death, (Hidayah, vol. iv.
p, 673.)
DEBT. In Muhammadan law
there are two words used for debt, Dain
((i**^)* or mone y borrowed with some fixed
term of payment, and qurz (^^). or money
lent without any definite understanding as to
11
82
DECORUM
DELUGE
its repayment. Imprisonment, for debt is
allowed. (Hidayah, vol. j i. p. 624.)
Upon the decease of a debtor, the }w
deroands that after the payment of the
funeral expenses, his just debts must be paio
before payment of legacies.
To engage in a JihSd or religious war, is
sajd by Muhammad to remit every sin except
that of being in debt. [.MHAD, I>A*N,
DECOKUM, or modesty of demea
nour between the b^x^s, is srri^tly enjoined in
Muslim law, and a special chapter is devoted
to it in the Dw ru l~A!uk/ttor and oth . r works
O"n Muham.mad.in law.
A man is not allowed to look a* K. v/oman
except at her hands *nd face nor is he ullov/ed
bo touch her. Bataphysician is permitted to
oxerciBe the rl-uH^ of his i>roi>ssio;i without
restriction.
A. judL Q "in the exercise of his olac^ may
look in the face of a woman, awl v,-itnessc3
ire uttder 1ht> sain*) necessity.
DECREES OF COD, Tho. Arabic
Barter or Taq&r. [pjiEucstm \TTON.J
D?tfT/S v7ritt.en r/Cfds ave, ae-
cording to Mtthammadan lav. or tbr?6 kinds:
I. Mit9tabl/t+i-martMm, or re^-uUr docum*nrs,
f;uch fiS are executed on paper, and h^-v* 1
regular title, superscription, &c.. wbioh. are
equivalent to oral, declarator whether th?
person be nreJenl: -^r absant. "If. Muatobln -i-
(jhoir-i-i iPrsuM. or irregii.U .v documents.
such 33 ire not .<ritir-.ii on pnpw. bnt, u.pon a
wall or th^ l-3f of a ires, or upon paper with
out any title or ftuperscriptidn or signature
IU. Chair- f-jHiisfr/bli-, writings which are
not documents in any sense, such as are de
lineated in the air or in the water by Hi*
motions of n <imnb person.
DFPENDANT. Arabic mvdda a
upon him."
The author of the Hidayah (vol. iii. p. 63>
says a defendant is a person who, if he shouH
wish to avoid the litigoiion. :s cunrelUble to
sustain it S om? l-.nve defined e plaintiff, wit . 1
respect to any .irficle of property, io he j
7>:sO i ^vlio, from his bein<? disseized of fh :
Said arVulp, hs co I ight to it but by ir-c
establi-^unepJ.. ot proof; arU de;cnda;n io
be a pel-son who has a p!ea cf n^h" ?o that
article frora his seizing or posae^sion j/ it.
The Imam Muhammad h;is ssid th.it a
defendant is a person who denies. This is
correct ; hut it require;-, 3 skill and ki"nr ledge
if jurisprudence to distinguish the J<-.ii9v iri
n suit, as the reality and not the appaarance
is efficient, and it frequently happens thnt a
j.erson is iu appearance the plaintiff., whilst ;r
raality he is ^he defendant. Thus, 9 trustee,
when he .jnys no tho owijor of the deposit, " I
hsiva restorcii t-o jro a vo ir (TepoaJt," appftuni
) be j>la ; ;iti(t, inaswmch fs ho pk^i - h ?-
utrn of ih-? deposit; \^ n\ re.ility hr> is >,he
.atVndnnt, iirr-ij ^v ri-*nie6 the ob%fiin of
"t3poii3ibility, and hence his asstition, COTO-
buirtl< ii by an o^tir ; must l>c credited.
T) E L I B E K A T I O N (Arabic
ta anni ^^} is enjoined "by Mu
hammad in the Traditions. We is related to
have said, Deliberation in yoor ender-
takings is pleasing to God; and hurry \fajalah)
is pleasing to the devil." "Deliberation is
bast in everything except in the things con
cerning eternity."
DELUGE, The. Arabic Tufa/i
(cgtftjk). The story of the deluge is
iven by Muhammad in his Quran: to the
Arabians as a " secret history* revealed to
then ;Surah xi. 51). The following are the
allusioos to it in the Qiir Hn:
Surah Ixix 11 :
(< Wlie the Flood rase high, we bar* yo in
the Ark,
"That we might ;ike thai event a warn
ing to you, ru tl .fit- ihe let airing ear might
retain it."
Stirah liv. 9 :~
"Before them the peuulo of Noth treated
the truth a* -j li^, jr j*rvait did tiiey charge
with falsehood, and s^id, ^Ddmoniac ! aud /he
vas rejecled.
"Th^n cric-d IIP to his Lord, * Verily, they
prevail against me ; com* tliou therefore to
my succour.
" So we opened the gates of Heaven with
water which fell in torrents.
" And we caused the eartb ^o break tottli
with springs, and thoir waters met by settl.il
decree.
And we bare him on a vessel made with
planks and nails.
" Under our eyes it floated on : a recom-
penGO fo him who had b^r-n rejected with un
belief.
And we left jt a sign: but, is there any
one who receives the warning ?
ic And how great was my v^n^eance and toy
menace ! "
Surali <i. S3:
" And it was revealed unto Noah : Verily,
none of thy people shall believe, savo they
who have bolieved already : ih"refere be not
thou grieved at their doings-
"But boild tho Ark ar>.-ir eur eye !jd
Hfter our revelation : and pi* :c not with me
for the evil doers, foi I u^v re to be
drowned.
" So he built the Ai-k ;. and whenever I he
chiefs of his people pn >(! U^v theyriaughed
him to scorn: said he, 4 Tb0Ufh ye laugh at
us, we truly slio.ll laugii at yott, sver as ye
Idugh at us ; and in the eud y shni) know
" On whom a punishment uhall come in&t
^hall shame him; and on whera shall light a
lasting punishment/
"Tftiis was ft until our sentence came te
pass, and th& earth s surface boiled up. We
seid. Carry into it one pair of every kind, and
thy family, except him on whom sentence
bath before been passed, and those who have
believed. Bnt there believed not with him
*xcept a few.
* And he said, Embark ye therein. In
the name of CM be its coarse and its riding
DEMONS
DRHJ81T
83
at anchor 1 Truly my Lord ia right Gra
cious, Merciful
And the Ark moved on with them amid
waves like mountains: and Noah c;illd to
his on for he was apart Embark with
us, O my child! and be not with the un
believers.
* He said, I will betake me to a mountain
that shall secure me from the water. H*
*aid, * None shall b* secure this day fit>m th
decree of God, KA TO him on whom He shall
have mercy. And a wavo passud between
them, and M WHS among the drowued.
"Audit was said, 6 Earth. sw.liow v.p
thy water ; and cease, Heaven I And the
wator abated, and the decree WAS fulfilled,
and the Ark rested upon al-.Judl; and it w:x.s
K-H, A vaunt ! ye tribe of the wicked !
" And Noah, called on hi* Lord and aid,
U Lord! verily my son 13 >f my family : and
!< rorniso is true, and Ihou art the most
jut of judges.*
H said, Noah 1 verily, lie ia not of thy
family: in this thon aotest not aright. Ask
JMI of me tiutt- whereof thou kuo\vest nought :
1 wtuu thee that thou becomanot of tho igno
rant.
He said. * To thee verily, uiy Lord, do I
repair lest I ask that of thee w heroin I have
no knowledge: unless iiiou /orgivo roe and
be merciful to me I shall be one of the
lost.
* Ifc wns SAJd to him. vj rfunU 1 fbhark with
peace from Us, and with blessings ou thoe
and on peopled from those who are with theo ;
but as for part, we will suffer them to enjoy
theniiclvcf:, but afterwards they shall suffer
a grievous uuni^tneut from uto beiuflictod.
* This is a secret history which -we reveal
to theo. Thou didst not know them, thou nor
thy people before this."
DEMONS. [DEVILS, GENII.]
DEPORTMENT. Arabi? t1mu
l-mu d&fiuruk (iij4Aji*J\ ^4c). Persian
nishffsf u Iwrkkasi. Tho Traditionists take
some uin to explain the precise manner in
which their jfoophel walked, sat, slept, and
rose, but their .accounts are not always uni
form and consistent. For example, \\hibit
All bad relates that he saw tho Prophet
I ueping on his back with one leg over the
other. JuKir Bays the Prophet distinctly for-
Kj io it.
Modesty of deportment is enjoined in the
) r un. .Surah xvii. 3ft: Walk not proudly
on MIA fartt-," whicb tlie commentators say
in">u that tiisbt>!iever 14 not to ty^s his head
of his ?n.:c n3 ho walks. Surah ixv. 04:
The ser/^nta of th^ Merciful Ono are thot><
v/Jio v.>... i,;, on tho earth lowly, and wh*n
tJ- ignorflni . i dress thtui say, * Peace I"
Pfu|7i ! I MubatniTjad Art }. t n> author
of the c*>i-bratcd ethical work, ttw ^(li^ /-i-
fo fi gives the .following advice an regards
general <Jii>ortiniit:
M should not hurry ;<a he >vlk^, lor
that ).< a sign of levity ; neither should ho be
unreasonably tardy, for that is a token of dul-
ness. Let hiui neither stalk like the uver-
bnaring, nor u^ttute himself in the way of
woman ftnd eunuchs; but constantly observe
the middle course. Let him avoid going
often hack wards and forwards, for that be-
tokons bewilderment ; and holding his head
downwards, for that indicates a mind over
come by sorrow and anxiety. In riding, no
less, the same medium ia to be observed.
Whon ho sits, let him not extend his feet, nor
put one upon another. Ho must nevor knee]
except in deference to his king, his preceptor.
,nd his father, or other such person. Let
him not rest his head on his knoe or his baud,
for that is a mark of dejeotiou and indolence.
Neither let him hold his neok awry, nor in
dulge in foolish tricks, suoh as playing with
his lingers or other joints. Let him avoid
! wlsting round or stretching himself. In spit
ting and blowing his nose, let him be oareful
that no one sees or hears him ; that he blow
it not towards the Qibiah,nor upon his hand.
his skirt, or sieave-lappet.
" Wheq he enters an assembly, let him sit
neither lower nor higher than his proper sta
tion. If he be himsHlf the head of the party,
he can sit as he likes, for his place must be
the highest where fer it may be. If he haa
inadvertently taken a wrong place, let him
exchange it for his own as soon as he dis
covers his mistake: should his own be occu
pied, he inu^t return without ititurbing others
or annoying himself
** In the presence 01 his male Or female
domestics, let him never bare anything but
his hands and his face: the parts from his
knee to his navel let him never expose nt all ;
neither in public nor private, oxcopt on occa
sions of necessity for ^ablution and the like,
( Vide Gen. ix. 20 : Lev", xvii, G, xx. 11 ; Deut.
xxii. 30.)
" Jle must not sleep in the presence of other
persons, or lie on his back, particularly as
the habit of snoring is thereby encouraged.
" Should sleep overpower him in the midst
of a party, let him get up, if possible, or else
dispel tho drowsiness by relating some story,
entering* on some debate, and the like. But
if he is with a set of persons who sleep them
selves, let him eithor bear them company or
leave them.
" The upshot of the whole is this : Let him
so behave as not to incommode or disgust
others ; and should any of these observances
appear troublesome, let him reflect, that to
be formed to their contraries would be still
more odious and still more unpleasant than
any pains which their acquirement may cost
him." Afchlaq-i-Jatdli, Thompson s Transla
tion, p. 292.)
DEPOSIT (Arabic
), pi. wadai ), in the kn^u:tu of
the law, signifies a thing entrusted to the
care of another. The proprietor of the thiij;
is called mudi , or depositor; the person en
trusted with it \s-muda ,or trustee, and the
property deposited is wadi uh, which lite
rally means the leaving of a tUntf wit r
another.
84 DEVIL
According to the Hidayufi, the following
are thfe rules of Islam regarding deposits.
A trustee is not responsible for deposit
unless he transgress with respect to it. If
therefore it be lost whilst it ia in his care, and.
the loss has not been occasioned by any fault
of his, the trustee has not to make good the
loss, because the Prophet said, "on honest
trustee is not responsible"
A trustee may aieo keep the deposit him
self or he may entrust it to another, provided
the person is a member of his own family,
but if he gives it to a stranger he renders
himself responsible.
If the deposit is demanded by the depo
sitor, and the trustee neglects to give it up,
it is a transgression, and the trustee becomes
responsible.
If the trustee mix the deposit (as of grain,
il, Ac.) with his own property, iu such a
manner that the property cannot be separated,
the depositor can claim to share equally in
the whole property. But if the mixture be
the result of accident, the proprietor becomes
a proportionate sharer in the whole.
If the trustee deny the deposit upon de
mand, he is responsible in case of the loss of
it. But not if the denial be made to a
stranger, because (says Abu Yusui)the denial
may be made for the sake of preserving it.
In the case of a deposit by two persons,
the trustee cannot deliver to either his share,
except it be in the presence of the other. And
when two persons receive a divisible article in
trust, each must keep one half, although these
restrictions are not regarded when they are
held to be inconvenient, or contrary to custom.,
DEVIL, The. The devil is believed
to be descended from Jaun, the progenitor of
the evil genii. He is said to have been named
Azazil, and to have possessed authority over
the animal and spirit kingdom. But when God
created Adam, the devil refused to prostrate
before him, and he was therefore expelled
from Eden. The sentence of death was then
pronounced upon Satan ; but upon seeking a,
respite, he obtained it until 4ho Day of
Judgment, when he will be destroyed. (Vide,
Qur an, Surah vii. 13.) According to the
Qu ran, the devil was created of fire, whilst
Adam was created of clay. There are two
words used in the Qur an to denote this great
spirit of efil: (l; Shaitdn
aii Arabic word derived from skatn,^ opposi
tion," ... " one who ppposes ; (2) Iblis
(u-sM, Sta/?oXos) "devil," from balas, a
wicked or profligate person," i.e. the wicked
one." The former expression occurs in the
Qur an -fifty-two times, and the latter only
nine, whilst in some verses (e.g. Surah ii. 32-
84) the two words Shaitdn and Iblis occur
for the same personality. According to the
Afajma u I -Bikdr, shaitdn denotes one who is
far from the truth, and iblls one who is with
out hope
The folio wing is the teaching of Muhammad
n the Traditions concerning the machinations
of the devil (Mishkat, book i c. iii.):
DIKAE
" * Verily, the devil enters into man as the
blood into his body.
" * There is not one amongst you but has an
angel and a devil appointed over him. The
Companions said, * Do you include yourself in
this ? He said, Yes, for me also ; but God
has given me victory over the devil, and he
does not direct me except in what is good.
" There is not one of the children of Adam,
except Mary and her son (Jesus), but is
touched by the devil at the time of its birth,
hence the child makes a loud noise from the
touch.
" Devil rests his throne upon the waters,
and sends his armies to excite contention and
strife amongst mankind ; and . those in his
armies who are nearest to him in power and
rank, are those who do the most mischiof,
One of them returns to the devil and says,
* I have done so and so and be says, You
have done nothing ; after that another comes,
and says. *ldid not quit him till I made a
division between him and his wife ; then the
devi! appoints him a place near himself, and
says, You are a good assistant.
" The devil sticks close to the sons of
Adam, and an angel also ; the business of the
dovil is to do evil, and that of the angel to
teach him the truth : ami he who meets with
truth and goodness in his mind, let him know
it proceeds from God, and let him praise God ;
and he who finds the other, let him seek for
an asylum from the devil in God.
" Then the Prophet read this verse of the
Qur an : The devil threatens you with
poverty ii ye bestow hi charity ; and orders
you to pursue avarice ; but God promises you
grace and abundance from charity/
" Daman said , O Prophet of God! indeed
the devil intrudes himself between me and
nay prayers, and my reading perplexes me.
Then the Prophet said, * This is a demon
called Khanzab, who casts doubt into prayer :
whon you are aware of it, take protection
with God, and spit over your left arm three
times. Us.maYJ said, Be it so ; and all
donbt and perplexity waa dispelled."
DEVIL, The Machinations of the.
DIBAOHAH <X*Wo). "Tanning.*
According to the Traditions, tho skins of
animals are unclean until they are tanned.
Muhammad said, " Take nothing for any
animals that shall have died until you tan
their skins. * And again, " Tanning purifies.
(Mishkdt, book iii. c. xi. 2.)
DIMASHQ (o-*-o). [DAMASCUS.]
DIN ((^o). The Arabic word for
" religion." It is used especially for the reli
gion of the Prophets and their inspired books,
but it ie also used for idolatrous religion.
[RELICHON.]
DINAR G^)-. Greek
A gold coin of one misqdf weight, or ninety-
six barley grains, worth about ten shillings
DJKHAM
DITOH
85
According to Mr. Hussey (Ancient Weights,
p. 142^, the average weight of the* Roman
denarii, at the end of tht Commonwealth was
sixty grains, whilst the English shilling con
tains eighty grains. Mr, Lane, in his Arabic
dictionary, says, "its weight is soventy-one
barley-corns and a half, nearly, reckoning the
daniq as eight grains of wheat and two-fifths ;
but if it bo said that tha daniq is eight grains 1
of wheat, then the dinar is sixty- eight grains
of wheat and four-seventhe. It is the same
as the minqdi" The dinar is only mentioned
once in the Qur an, Surah ii. 66 : " And borne of
them if thoxi entrust them with a dinar , he
will not give it back." It frequently occurs
in books of law.
A GOLD D1NAJ1 OF fflEKACUUS, A.D. 621. WEIGHT SIXTY GRAINS. ACT0AL 31Z&.
A GOLD DINAR OF THE CITY OF OHA3NI, A.M. 616. ACTUAL SIZE
him (Joseph) for a mean price, dirhams
counted out, and they parted with him
cheaply."
DIEEAH (Sjj). Vulg. durrah.
A scourgo made either of a flat piece of
leather or of twisted thongs, and used by the
public censor of morals and religion, called
the muhiasib. This scourgo is inflicted either
tor the omisuion of the daily prayer, or for
the corrimittaJ of sina, which are punishable
by, the law with the infliction of stripes, such
as fornication, scandal, and drunkenness. It is
related that the Khalifah Uxnar punished his
son with tho dirrah for drunkenness, and that
he died from its effects. ( Tarikh-i- Khaniis<
vol. ii. p. 262.)
The word used in the Qur an and Hadis foi*
this scourge is jatdaft. and in theological
works, saut ; but dirrah is now the word
generally used amongst modern Muslims.
A silver coin, the shape of which resembled
that of a date stone. During the caliphate of
Umar, it was changed into a cirenlar form ;
and in the time of Zubair, it was impressed
with the words Allah, " God," barakah " bless
ing." Hajjaj stamped upon it. the chapter of
the Qur an called IkhUa (cxii.), and others
say he imprinted it with his own name.
Various accounts are given of their weights ;
some Raying that they were of ten, or nine, or
aix, or five misqdis , whilst others give the
weights of twenty, twelve, and ten qirdts,
asserting at the eame time that Urnar had
taken a dirham of each kind, and formed a
coin of fourteen qirdts, being the third part
of the aggregate sum. (Blochmann s Aln-i-
Akbari, p. 36.)
The dirham, although it is frequently men
tioned in books of law, only occurs once in
the Qur an, Surah xii. 20, "And they sold
* s -
A DIRRAH USBD BY A MOUTASI8 IN THB PESHAWAR VALLEY,
DITCH, Battle of the. Arabic
Qhuawatu l-Khandaq (j^*3^ ^).
The defence of al-Madinah against the Banu
Quraizah, A.H. 5, when a trench was dug by
the advice of Salman, and the army of al-
Madinah was posted within it. After a
month s siege, the enemy retired, and the
almost bloodless victory is ascribed by Mu-
bammad in the Qur in to the interposition of
Providence. Surah xxxiii. 0: "Remember
God s favours to yov when hosts came to you
86 DIVINATION
and we sent against them a wind and hosts (of
angels), that ye could not see, but God know
what ye were doing." fMmr s Life f>f Maho-
met, vol. iii. p. 258.)
DIVINATION. Kahanah, or for-
telling future events, is unlawful in Islam.
Mu awiyah ibn Hakim relates : * I said to
the Prophet, O Messenger of God, we used
to do some things in tbe time of ignorance of
which we are, not sure now. For example,
we used to consult diviners about future
events? The Prophet said, Now that you
have embraced Islam you must not consult
them. Then I said, f And we used to take
bad omens ? The Prophet said, - If from a
bad omen you are thrown into perplexity, let
it not hinder you from doing tho -work you
had intended to do.* Then I said, And we
used to draw lines on the ground ? And the
Prophet said, * There was one of the Prophets
who used to draw lines on the ground, there-
ford if you can draw a lino like him it iv
good, otherwise it is vain. "
*Ayishah Bays "the people asked tho Pro
phet about diviners, whether they spoke true
or not. And he said, You must not believe
anything they say. The people then said,
But, Prophet ! they sometimes tell what
is true? The Prophet replied, Because
one of the genfi steals away the truth and
carries it into the diviner s ear; and the
diviners mix a hundred lies to one truth. "
[MAGIC.]
DIVORCE. Arabic i_
In its primitive sense the word I llu-q meau<
dismission, but in law it sigrJues a r^leas*-;
from the marriage tie.
Tbe Muhammadau law vi divorce \\>
founded upon express injunctions contained
in the Qur an, as well as in the Traditions.
and its rules occupy a very largo section in
all Muhammadan works on jurisprudence.
I. The teaching of the Quran on the subject
is as follows :
Surah ii. 226 :
" They who intend to abstain from tbeir
wives shall wait four months; but if they go
back from their purpose, then verily God is
Gracious, Merciful :
** And if they resolve on a divorce, then
verily God is He who Hearst h, Knowcth.
" Tbe divorced shall wait the result, until
they have had their courses thrice, nor ought
they to conceal what God halh created in
their wombs, if they believe in God and the
last day; and it will bo more jusi in their
husbands to bring them back when in this
state, if they desire what is right. And it is
lor the women to act as they (the husbands)
act by them, in all fairness ; but the men are
a step above them. God is Mighty, Wise.
" may give sentence of divorce to your
wives twice: Keep them honourably, or put
them away with kindness. But it is not al i v/od
you to appropriate to yourselves nught of
what ye have given to them, unless both fear
that they cannot keop within the bounds set
up by God. And if ye fear that they can-
DIVORCE
not observe the ordinances of God. no
shall attach to either of you for what the
wife shall herself give for her redemption.
These are uie bounds of God: therefore over
step thorn not ; for whoever ovorsteppeth the
bounds of God, they are evil doers.
But if the husband give sentence of divorce
to her a third time, it is not lawful for him to
take her again, until she shall have manned
another husband ; and if he also divorc? her
then shall no blame attach to them if they
I return to each other, thinking that they can
I keep within the bounds fixed by God. And
these are the bounds of GK>d; Ha rnaketh
them clear to those who have knowledge.
" But when ye divorce womeu, and the tim*
for sending them away is come, either retain
them with generosity, or put them away with
generosity : but retain them not by constraint
so as to be unjust towards them. He who
doth so, doth in fact injure himself. And
make not the signs of God a jest ; but remem
ber God s favour towards you, and the Book
and the Wisdom which He hath sent down
to you for your warning, and fear God, and
know that God s knowledge embracoth every
thing.
" And when ye divoroo your wives, and
they have waited tho prescribed time, hinder
them not from marrying the husbands when
they have agreed among themselves in an
honourable way. This warning is for him
among you who believeth in God an^ in tbe
last day. This is most pure for yon, and most
decent. God fcnoweth, but ye know r;c*.
" Mothers, when divorced, shall yiv& suck
to their children two full years, if tho futher
desire that the suckling bo computed; and
such maintenance and clothing a a is fair for
them, shall devolve oo the father. No per
son shall be charged beyond hi* tnsaua. A
mother shall not be pressed unfairly for her
child, nor a father for his child : Ai>d the
same with the father s heir. But if they
choose to wean the child by consent it ml by
bargain, it shall be no fault in thorn. And if
ye choose to have a nurse for year children,
it shall be no fault in you, in case ye p^y
what ye promised her according to that \vbich
is fair. Fear God, and know thai God sooth
>vhat ye do.
14 It shall be no crirric in. yon if ya divorce
your wives so long as ye have not consum
mated the marriage, nor settled any doAvry on
them. And provide what is needful for them
he who is in ample circumstances accord
ing to his means, and he who is straitenod,
according to his means with fairness: Thfc
is binding ou those who do what is right
" But if ye divorce them before conr.wM-
matiow, and have already settled a dowry <j\\
them, *;<: shult yioe them haJf of what ya <i iv;
settled, unless they make a release, or !ia
inako a, release in >fhose hand is the mamaga
tie. But if ye rnako.a release, it- will be
nearer to piety."
Surah L\v. 1.-
"0 Prophet! when ye drvorco women.
OTVOKOE
ilivcree them at their special tin?es. And
rtokor fhosotimea exactly, and fear God your
Lord. Put them not forth from their houses,
nor nHow thorn to depart, unless they have
comM tterJ proven adultery. This is the
precept ol* God ; and whoso transgvesseth
the precept i God, assuredly imperilleth hi.s
own self. Thou knowest not whether, after
this, God my not cause something new to
occur whicfc niffv briny you together <taain>
"And -when they have reached their set
rime, then cipher keep them frith kindness, or
u kindness part fror; tiif 1 . A;>d take up
nrvoBCK
87
right witnesses froru j-ji.-cr:-. vju. and bear
witness as unto God. Tkin in a caution for
him who believeth hi God :md in the latter
day. And whoso feareth God, to him will He
grant a prosperous issne, and will provide for
nim whence he reckoned not upon it.
"And for him who pnlteth his trust in
Him will God be all-sufficient. God truly will
attain his purpose. For everything hath (aocl
assigned a period.
" As to such of your wives as iiave no nope
of the recurrence of their times, if ye have
doubts in regard to them, then reckon throo
months, and let the same be the term of
those who have not yet had them. And as
to those who are with child, their period shall
be until they are delivered of their burden.
God will make His command easy to Him who
feareth Him.
" Lodge the divorced wLorevor ye i < J ge, r>i -
cording to your means ; and distress then
not by putting them to straits. Ami if l;h*y
ore pregnant, then be at aha^t-s for !hem U!i
they ara delivoroc of l.heir bn-dan :
they suckle your children, ihor p<-y ihtia
theii hire nnd consult amour; your.si-1 -,vs. and
act generously : And if herein yc meet vi(h
obstacles, then let nnothcr femnla suckle for
him. r
II. The teaching of* Muhamm^tiJ, nn f
general Subject vf Diuotcc is tt^rw-J in - ! ^
Tradition* M follows :
Tho thing wLjch ; i lav. di 1 oiu dtnjilztd by
God it. divoi ..v.
" Th v/omnn v/h:; asks bor iiusl>and to
divor --.? l;-:r without a cauP^ tb \nf\\ of
} > arhdi k - i^ /orbidden her."
" j he./e are thre-3 thiugo \ -i.ol*. whethor
\x ..? in joke or in earnest. H nil f>o consi
dered serious and effectu !. n. . T-*: riage.
divorce, and taking a wife back.
"Every diverce is lawful except : i ui.H-
man s." *
u Cui scd be the second husband who makes
the wife (divorced) lawful for ht first hus
band, and cursed be the first husband for
whom she is made lawful"- (Mishkat, xiii.
IIL Sunrii Muh.<anniadan Doctors are not
agreed as to the Mornl S^ttu.f ofJ)ivorr.e.
The Imam ash-Slu~Prl. rttfernng ro the
three kinds of divorce (\viii<* ; j will be after
wards explained), says: " TVc-y HTP onexcep-
iionftblo and legal because Jiv. re-? is m itself
* lawful act, whonco it ii tiui certain laws
uave been instituted respecting it; and this
legality prevents any idea of danger b:in;r
annexed to it. But, on the other hand, i! ^
Imam Abu Hanlfah and his disciples say
that divorce is in itself a dangerous and dig-
approved procedure, ns it dissolves marriage^
an institution which involves many circum
stances both of a spiritual as well as of a
tomporaj nature. Nor is its propriety t all
admitted, but on the ground of urgency of
release from an unsuitable wife. And in reply
to ash-Shafi i, they say that the /eoWzVy .if
divorce does not preept its being considered
dangerous, because it involves matters of both
a spiritual and temporal character.
The author of the tfharfiu 7- WiqayaJi. \.. \ ( ,,
Mays : * Divorce Is au abominable transac
tion in the sight of God, therefore suh an
act should only take place from necessity,
and it is best to only "ik tho one sentence
of divorce (i.*?. taldfju /.-{ittstui).
IV. The Su/mi Law of Divorce : Divorcf
may be given either in the present time, or
may be referred to some future period. It
may bo pronounced by the husband either
before or after the comnniTuation of the mar
riage. It may be either givr^i i n writing or
verbally.
The words by which divorce can be given
ire of two kinds: -Snrl/i, or "express," as
when the husband says, Thou ><.::.* divorced "
and kinayah, or "metaphorical," as when he
says, " Thou art free; thou art cut oft; veil
yourself I Arise ! seek for a mate," <Src. &c.
Divorce is divided into ^alaqu n-sunnfth, or
tuat which is according to the Qur ari and the
Traditions, and //<% Y-6adi , cu- a novel or
heterodox divorce, which, altriongh it iscon-
"idored lawful, is not considered religion*.
Tataqn s-suwwh is either tbe fiftfan^ or * the
most laudable," or hnsftrt, the * laudable " me
thod, falaqu l-afisan, or the most laudable
method of divorce, is when the husband once
expressly pronounces to his enjoyed but nn-
pregnant wife the sentence, " Thou ai-t di
vorced ! " when she is in j?w/ir or a state of
purity, during which bo has b;i<i go carnal
connection with h<?r, and then leuv^s her to
complete tlio prescribed idduh, or * 4 period of
three months." Until the oxpir.ition of the
>iddaki the divorce is ievoo:tbl, but after the
period is complete, it is irreversible, and if
the husband wishes to take his \\if<? back,
they must go through the ceremony of tuar-
riage. But it must be 1 observed that afier
the taldqu l-ahsan, the woman is not, aa hi
the other kinds of divorce, compelled to marry
another man, and be divorced before she can
return (-. her former husband. All that is
required is ;. rd-inarriago. The author of the
Hiddyah aays this modu of divorce is called
u/tsan, or " most laudable," becjtufie it was
usually adopted by the Companions of the
Prophet, and also because it loaves it in the
nov^r ot- the iiusband to take his wife back,
and s! t thus remains a lawful subject for re-
marri*. e o \\ >.<\\. Some European writers on
MuhHirmadunism have overlooked this fact
in condemning the Muslim sys *in of If /oiv<\
The (tfCtfftft^oMni, or"lav!<?ble
98 DIVORCE
is when the husband repudiates an enjoyed
wife by three sentences of divorce, either ex
press or metaphorical, giving one sentence in
each tuhr, or "period of purity." Imam
Malik condemns this kind of divorce, and
says it is irregular. But Abft Hanlfah holds
it to be hasan, or " good."
The taldqv V-6arfi , or " irregular form of
divorce," is when the husband repudiates his
wife by three sentences, either express or
metaphorical, given them one at a timer
" Thou art divorced I Thou art divorced 1
Thou art divorced ! w Or, " Thou art free I
Thou art free! Thou art free!" Even
holding up three fingers, or dropping three
stones, is held to be a sufficiently implied
divorce to take legal effect. The Muslim
who thus divorces his wife Is hold, in the
Hidayah, to be ac offender against the law,
but the divorce, however irregular, takes
legal affect.
In both these kinds of divorce, badi 1 and
bason^ the divorce is revocable (Vq?**) after the
first and second sentences , but it is irrevocable
(bffiri) after the third sentence. After both
fyasan and badi 1 divorces, the divorced wife
cannot, under any circumstances, return to
her husband until she has been married, and
enjoyed, and divorced by another husband.
Muhammadan doctors say the law has insti
tuted this (somewhat disgraceful) arrange
ment in order to prevent divorces other than
laldqu l-afysan.
A husband may divorce his wife without
any misbehaviour on her part, or without
assigning any cause. The divorce of every
husband is effective if he be of a sound un
derstanding and of mature age ; but that of
a boy. or . lunatic, or one talking in his sleep,
is not effective*
If & man pronounce a divorce whilst in a
state of inebriety from drinking fermented
liquor, such as wine, the divorce takes place.
Repudiation by any husband who is sane and
adult, ia effective, whether he be free or a
slave, willing, or acting: under compulsion ;
and even though it were uttered in sport or
jest, or by a mere slip of the tongue,
instead of some other word. (Fatatoa-- Alam-
<7tr?, voL i. p. *97.)
A sick man may divorce hia wife, even
though, he be on his death-bed.
An agent or agents may be appointed by a
husband to divorce bis wife.
In addition to the will and caprice of the
husband, there are also certain conditions
which require a divorce.
The following are causes for divorce, but
generally require to be ratified by a decree
from the Qa$i or " judge n :
(1.) Mb. That Is, when the husband has
been by any cause deprived of hie organ of
generation. This condition is called majbub.
In this case the wife can obtain instant divorce
if the defect occurred before marriage. Cases
of evident madness and leprosy are treated in
the same way. Divorce can be obtained at
once.
(2.) //muzA, or "impotence." (This in
cludes ratq, " vulva i /npervia cceunti " ; and
DIVORCE
qarn t u vulva anteriore parte enascena.**) In
cases of impotency in either husband or wife,
a year of probation can be granted by the
judge.
(3.) Inequality of race or tribe, A woman
cannot be compelled to marry a man who be
longs to an inferior tribe, and, in case of such
a marriage, the elders of the superior tribe
can demand a divorce ; but if the divorce is
not demanded, the marriage contract remains.
(4.) Insufficient dower. If the stipulated
dowry is not given when demanded, divorce
takes place.
(5.) Refusal of Isld?n. If one of the par
ties embrace Islam, the judge mast offer it
to the other three distinct times, and if he or
she refuse, to embrace the faith, divorce takes
place.
(6.) Za n, or - imprecation." That is,
when a husband charges his -wife with adul
tery, the charge is investigated, l-ut if there
is no proof, and the man swears his wife is
guilty, and the wife swears she is innocent, a
divorce must be decreed.
(7.) Tiff, or "vow." When a husband
makes a vow not to have carnal intercourse
with bis wife for no less than four months,
and keeps the vow inviolate, an irreversible
divorce takes place.
(8.) .Reason of property. If a husband be
come the proprietor of his wife (a slave), or
the wife the proprietor of her husband (a
slave), divorce takes place.
(&) An invalid marriage of any kind, arising
from incomplete ?ufcdh. or "marriage cere
mony," or from affinity, or from consanguinity.
(10.) Difference of country For example,
if a husband flee from a ddru f l-fazrb, or " land
of enmity," i.e. " a non-Muslim country," to a
darn I- Islam, or "country of Islam," and his
wife refuse to perform hijrah (flight) and to
accompany him, she is divorced.
(11.) Apostasy from Islam. The author of
the Raddu l-Mukhtdr (vol. ii. p. 643) says :
" When a man or woman apostatises from
Islam, then an immediate dissolution (faskk)
of the marriage takes plaoe, whether the
apostasy be of the man or of the woman,
without a decree from the Qdzi." And again,
(p. 645), " If both husband and wife aposta
tise at the same timo, their marriage bond
remains ; and if at any future time the parties
again return to Islam, no re-marriage ia <
necessary to constitute them man and wife;
but if one of the parties should apostatise
before the other, a dissolution of the marriage
takes place ipso facto."
Mr. J. B. S. Boyle, of Lahore, says : " As ,
relevant to this subject, I give a quotation
from Mr. Currie a excellent work on the [
Indian Criminal Codas, p. 445. The question j
is as to the effect of apostasy from Islam npon
the marriage relation, and whether sexnal
intercourse with the apostate renders a per- j
son liable to be convicted for adultery under j
Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code. A. and
B., Mahommejdans, married under the Ma-!
fiommedan law, are converted to Christianity
The wife, B., is first converted, but continues j
to lr?e with her husband ; subsequently the
DIVORCE
husband, A., is converted. Subsequent to
the conversion of B., A. and B., still living to
gether as husband and wife, both professing
Christianity, B. has sexual intercourse with
C. Will a conviction hold against C. under
Section 497 ? Both Macnaghten and Baillie
say the marriage becomes dissolved by apos
tasy of either party, and Grady, in his version
of Hamilton s Hidayah> p. 66, says : " If
either husband jor wife apostatize from the
faith, a separation takes place, without
divorce ; according to Abu Hanee/a and Abu
Yoosuf. Imam Mahonuned alleges if the
apostasy is on the part of the husband.
M Apostasy annuls marriage in Haneefa s
opinion, and in apostasy separation takes
place without any decree of the magistrate.
Cases -which might decide this point have
been lately tried both at Lucknow and Allah
abad : at the fbrmer place in rn Afxul Hoztin v.
Had(?. Bc.yvm, and at the latter Zuburdust
Khan v. Wife. But from certain remarks to
be found in the judgment of the High Court,
N. W. R, the Cvmrts of Oudh and N. W. P.,
appear to differ on the moat essential point.
The point before tho Ondh Court was (Hadee
Begum s plea) that her marriage contract was
dissolved by reason of her own apostasy, a
sufficient answer to a suit brought; by her
Mahommadan husband for restitution o! con
jugal rights ; i.e. Does the apostasy of a Ma
hommedan wife dissolve a marriage contract
against tho express wish of a Mahommedan
husband in dar-ool-harb (laud of war)? for
India, it is contended, is not, under its present
administration, dar- or>l-Ielam (land of safety).
The Oudh Court held (admitting that apos
tasy by the husband dissolved the marriage
and freed the wif) that apostasy by the wife
did not free her if her husband stied for resti
tution of conjugal rights. They argued that
apostasy by the wife, without the wish of the
husband, could not be entertained; in fact,
that as regards her husband s volition, the
apostasy could not exist, and would not be
recognised. That a suit for restitution of
conjugal rights before the competent court of
the time, seemed to thorn to be equivalent of
the suit before the Cazee (Judge). The Oudh
judges, in the absence of distinct precedent,
say they fell back on the customs of the
people amongst whom they lived. The Ondh
Court evidently considered there was an
essential difference between apostasy of a
man and apostasy of a woman, of the hus
band or tho wife ; also between apostasy to a
faith in a book and apostasy to the idol wor
ship Mahommed and his followers renounce.
Dos such an essential difference exist ? The
point before the High Court N. W. P. was :
Can a Mihommcdan professing Christianity
subsequent to his marriage with a MuSsnl-
mani, according to the Mahommed an law,
obtain a decree for dissolution of that mar
riage under Act IV. of 1869, bis wife having
subsequently to him professed Christianity,
and they under their new faith having lived
together as man and wife ? or whether the
wife s contention is sound, that her marriage
was cancelled by her husband s apostasy?
DIVORCE 89
They held the apostasy of the husband dis
solved the marriage tie. Thia the Oudh
Court admits, but the point before the
Oudh Oourt waa not before tht High
Court, N T . W. P. ; nevertheless from comments
made by the High Conrt, N. W. P., on the
Oudh decision, they evidently did not agree
with the finding ooine to by the latter Court,
on, the point before it.
" Now, Mr. Carrie asks in the above extract,
does such an essential difference exist be
tween apostasy to a book that is, to ulcitube*
faith and apostasy to idol worship ? Answer
ing this question necessitates a few remarks
upon the judgments above mentioned. Ac
cording to Mahommedan law, a man may
lawfully marry a kitabeeah, but marriage
with a Pagan or polytheist is unlawful. But
the principle in Mahommedan law is, that
wt >n one of the parties turns to a state of
religion that would render the marriage con
tract illegal if it were still to be entered into,
what was legal before is made void. A Ma
hommedan woman, becoming a kitaltetih,
does not render the marriagB void, for there
is nothing to render the marriage contract
illegal if it were still to be entered into ; but
if the Mahommedan woman becomes an idol
atress, the marriage is void, for the woman
has turned to a state of religion that would
render the marriage contract illegal if it were
still to be entered into : a Mahommedan woman,
becoming a Christian, consequently, would not
be separated from her husband, because she
belongs to the religion of the book, that is,
a kitatec faith. If a Iritabeeah becomes an
idolatress, the marriage is dissolved, but if
she change from one religion to another, and
still remain a kita&eenh, the marriige is not
vitiated. So far the Oudh Court is correct in
its decision, that the Mahommedan wife s con
version to Christianity did not render the mar
riage null and void, but that a suit for resti
tution of conjugal rights would lie; and
taking tho case of C. having sexual inter-
course with B. the wife of A. converted to
Christianity, a conviction under Section 497,
Indian Penal Code, would hold good. But
with all deference, I do not think that tbo
Oudh Court is correct when it states that
apostasy by the wife without the wish of the
husband could not be entertained; in fact,
that as regards her husband s volition, the
apostasy could not exist, and would not be
recognised.
" So far as regards a woman s apostatising
to a kttabee faith, this holds good ; but if a
woman turus to Pagauisui, ipso facto the mar
riage is void, and does not depend upon tho
volition of the husband (having regard to tho
principle Vre have adverted to above), so that
the husband under such circxunstances could
not maintain a suit for conjugal rights, nor
would a conviction hold good again.it C.,
under Section 497, Indian Penal Code for
sexual intercourse with B.. the wife of A., who
has apostatised to Paganism. The decisions
of the two Courts, however, seem correct, on
tho principles of Mahommednu law, as to the
effect of a hnsband apostatising from Islam.
12
90
DIVORCE
DIVORCE
By Mahommedan law, a marriage by a female
Moslem with a man not of th Mahommedan
faith is unlawful: applying the principle
quoted before, the man haying turned to a
state of religion that wotild render the eon-
tract illegal if it were still to be entered into,
the marriage ib void. The apostasy of the
husband dissolves the marriage tie; conse
quently there does exist an essential dif
ference between apostasy of a man and of a
woman, of the apostasy of the husband or the
wife; also bplv. pt. u apostasy to a faith in &
book, that is, a revealed religion Laving a
book of fafth, and apostasy to the idol wor
ship Mahoinmed and his followers renounce.
Th l.i \v- allow A Jj. person the right to cease to
be a Mahownedan in the fullest sense of the
word, :inii to become a Christian, and to
claim for himself and hia descendants all the
right s and obligations of a British subject."
(Hogq v. . (irW riicai/1 &c.. 2, Hydds /feporff,
3. Manual of Lawn relating to Mvh<inwui-
dans and their Relations of Life, )
V. In addition to the forma of divorce
already explained, there are three others of a
peculiar nature, called khula\ mubant ah, ami
filar.
The form of divorce known as khitla*. is when,
a husband aud wife disagreeing, or for any other
cause, the wife, on payment of a compensation
or ransom to her husband, is permitted by
the law to obtain from him a release from the
marriage tie. The khuld is generally effected
by the husband giving hack tho dower or par!
thereof. When the aversion is on the part of
(he husband, it is generally held that he
Should grant Iris wife s request without com
pensation; but this is purely a matter of con
science, and not of law.
Mitbdra dh is a divorce which if. effected by
a mutual release.
jfttSr, from ?ttAr, "back," is a kind of
divorce which is effected by a husband liken
ing his wife to any part or member of the
body of any of his kinswomen within the pro
hibited degree. As for example, if ho were
to 8ay to his wife, "Thou art to me iike tho
back of my mother;" The motive uf tho
husband in saying so must bo examined, and
if it appear that he meant divorce, his wife is
not lawful to him until he have made expia
tion by freeing a slave, or by fasting two
months, or by feeding sixty poor men. (See
Qnr an, Surah Iviii. 4.)
f For the Sunn! Law of Divorce, see the
Hid&iiah and its Commentary, the Kifnyah ;
Dnmt I Mvkhtar and its Commentary, the
Rnddit r-MukJjt(ir\ the Fatdwa-i- Alamgiri
Hamilton s English Edition, Hidayah ; Taf/ore
Luw Lectures, 1873.)
VL The Ski ak law of Divorce differ* only
in a Tew- particulars from that of the Sunnis.
A ccording to Shl ah law, a man must be an
adult of understanding, of free hoiee and
will, and of design and intention, when he
divorces his wife. A marked contrast to the
licence and liberty allowed by the SunnI
law. Nor can the Shfah divorce be effected
in any language of a metaphorical kind. It
must be express and be pronounced in Arabic
^if the husband understand that language),
and it must be spoken and not written. A
divorce amongst the Shi ahs does not take
effect if given implicatively or ambiguously,
whether intended or not. It is also absolutely
necessary that the sentence should be pro
nounced by the husband in the presence of
two just persons as witnesses, who shall hear
and testify to tU0 wording of the divorce.
(For tho Shi ah law of divorce, see Shir*atu
Wffinn; Tafrriru l-Ahkam; Mafatlh , Mr.
Neil Baillie s Digest, of Muhammadcui Laui;
Imaminit Code : Tugore Law Lectures, 187/f..)
VII Compared with the Mosaic Law.
When compared with the Mosaic law, it will
bo soon that by the latter, divorce was only
sanctioned when there was " some uncleanne^>s "
in the wife, and that whilst in Islam a husband
can take back his divorced wife, in the law of
God it was not permitted. See Dout. xxiv. 1-4.
" When a man hath taken a wife, and mar
ried her, and it come to pass that she find no
favour in his eyes, because he hath found
some uncleanness in her ; then lot him write
her a bill of divorcement, and give it in her
hand, and . -end her out of his house.
" And when she is departed out of his house,
she may go and be another man s wife.
"And (/ the latter husband hate her, and
write her a bill of divorcement, and giveth it
in her hand, and serideth her out of his
house : or if tho latter husband die, which
took h. v to he. his wife ;
" Her former husband, which sent her
a. way, m;.y not take her again to be his wife,
sifter that she is defiled; for that is abomina
tion before the Lord ; and thou shalt not
cause the land to sin, which tho Lord thy
God.giveth thee for an inheritance."
The ground of divorce in the Mosaic law
was " some un cleanness in her." There were
two interpretations of this by the Jewish
doctors of the period of the New Testament.
Tire School of Shammai seemed to limit it to
a moral delinquency in the woman, whilst
that .of Hillcl extended it to trifling causes.
Our Lord appears to have regarded all tho
lesser causes than fornication aft standing on.
too weak a ground.
Matt. v. 32: "But I say unto you, that
whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for
the cause of fornication, causeth her to com
mit adultery : and! whosoever shall marry her
that is divorced committeth adultery."
It will be seen that Muhammad adopted
the teaching of the School of Hillel, omitting
the bill of divorcement, which was enjoined in
Deut. xxiv. 3, thereby placing the woman
entirely afc the will and caprice of her husband.
Burkhardt tells us of an Arab, forty-five
years old, who had had fifty wives, so
that he must have divorced two wives and
married two fresh ones on the average every
year. We have cases of Muhammad s own
" Companions " not much better. This is the
natural and legitimate effect of the law.
Sir William Muir (Life of Mahomet, vol iii.
P- 305) says : The idea of conjugal unity i
utterly unknown to Mahometans, except
ing when the Christian example is fey.chanco
DIWAN
UUWEIi
9J
followed; and even there, the continuance of
the bond is purely dependent an the will of
the husband. ... I believe the moral* of
Hindu society, where polygamy is less encou
raged. to be sounder, in a very marked
degree, than that of Mahometan-society. 1
PIWA N (oV)- ( l ) In Muhiim-
tnadan law, the word signifies an account- or
record book, and also the bags in which the
Qazi s records are kept. (2) It is also a
^ourt of juKtioe, a royal court. (3) Also a
ninister of state; the chief oflieer in a Mu
laioinadfui state ; a finance minister. (4) In
British courts a law-suit is called diiodni, when
it refers to a civil suit, in contradistinction to
aujduri, or " criminal suit." (5) A colloe-
ion of odes is called a diwan, e.y. Diwan-i-
i*, " the Poems of llafi&.
, .
DIYAH (*>>). A pecuniary com
pensation for any offence upon the person.
DOGS (Arabic kalb, pi. kiltib-, Heb.
are uno can animals; for according to
a tradition by Abu Hurairah, Muhammad said
that when a dog drinks in a vessel, it must
be washed seven times, ami that the first clean
sing should bo with earth. (Mishkat, book
iiL c. ii. pt. 1.)
"Most people bolievethat \vl*en a dog howls
near a bouse it forebodes death, for it is
said, a dog can distinguish the awful form of
Azra il, the Angel of Death." (Burton s
Arabia, vol. i. p. 290.)
Ibn *Umr says that dogs used to come into
the Masjid at Makkah in the time of the
Prophet, but tho Companions never purified
the mosque when the dog was dry.
TiiB.Imam Abu Yuauf holds that the sale
of a dog that bites is unlawful, whilst the Imam
ash-Shafi I has said that the sale of a dog
is absolutely illegal, because the Prophet said
the wages of whoredom and the price of a dog
are forbidden. Abu Hanifah holds that dos
which are trained to hunt or watch may be
lawfully sold. ^Hamilton s Hidaynh* vol. H.
p. 548.)
It is lawful to hunt with a trained dog
and the sign of a dog being trained is that he
catches game three times without killing it.
The dog must be lot slip with the ejaeulation :
Bismillabi l/dhi Akbar ! "In the name of God,
the great flodl" when all game seized by him
becomes lawful food. This custom is fo\indod
upo-n a verso ia- the Qur an, Surah v. 6 :
u Lawful for you are all good things and what
ye have taught beasts of prey to catch, train
ing them like dogs;. ye teach them as God
taught you. And mention the name of God
over it."
Rules for hunting with dogs will be found
in Hamilton s Hidoyah t vol. iv. p. 170.
DOG STAR. Sirius, or the dog
star, was an object of worship amongst the
aucient Arabs, and is mentioned in the Qur an,
under the name of ash-Sht ra, Surah, liii. 50:
" He (God) is the Lord of the Dog Star."
DOWER. Arabic, inahr
Heb. (^pflb) Dower is considered by
some lawyers to be an effect of^ the marriage
contract, imposed on the husband by the law
as a mark of respect for the subject of the
contract the wife; while others consider
that it is in exchange for thn usufruct of the
wife, and its payment is necessary, as upon
the provision of a support to the wlf depends
the permanency of the matrimonial connec
tion. Thus, it is indispensable a fortiori, so
much so, that if it were not mentioned in the
marriage contract, it would be still incumbent
on the husband, as the law will presume it by
virtue of the contract itself, and award it
upon demand being made by the wife. In
such case, the amount of dowor wi!l be to the
extent of the dowers of the women of her
rank and of tho ladies of her father s family.
Special beauty or accomplishments may, how
ever, be pleaded for. recovering a larger
award than the customary dower, wheie the
amount of dower is not mentioned in the con
tract. There is no limit to the amount of
dower; it may be to a very large amount,
considering the position and circumstance ( f
the bridegroom, but its minimum is never less
than ten dirhams so where it ia fixed at a
lesser amount, the law will augment it up to
ten dirhams. The dower need not mToriably
be in currency, or even in metal ; everything,
except carrion, blood, wine, and hog. Also
the bridegroom s own labour, if he i a free
man, being hold by the law to bo a good dower.
Dower is generally divided into two parts,
termed jau f oj[/al t " prompt/ and miiujjal)
"deferred." The mu ajjnl portion is exigible
on entering into the Contra ct, while the / <//-
jal part of the dower is payable xipon dissolu
tion of the contract. Although the first part
is payable, and is sometimes paid, at the
time the contract is entered into* yet it has
been the general practice- (nt least in India)
to leave it unpaid, and so like an on -demand
obligation it remains due at all times thrf
vrife s right to thd same not being extinguished
by lapse of time; The wife $ (or her guar
dian s) object in leaving the exigible part of
the dower unrealised, seems to be that there
may always exint a valid guarantee for the
good treatment of her by her husband. The
women of the respectable* classes reserve their
right arid power to demand their exigible
dowers till such time as occasion should re
quire the exercise thereof. The custom of
fixing heavy dowers, generally hyond th
hnsbrmd s means, especially in India, seems
to be based upon the intention of checking
the husband from Ill-treating his wife, and,
above all, from his marrying another woman,
as also from wrongfully or causelessly di
vorcing the former. For in the owe of divorce
the woman can demand the tall payment of
the dower. In the evont of the death of the
husband, the payment of the dower has tn*
ftft claim- on the estate after funeral ex
penses ; the law regarding it as a just debt:
(Ttrgore Law Lectures, 1873, p* 841; Htddyak,
vol. i. p. 122.)
DREAMS
92
DREAMS. Arabic h
mandm (f^-) ; rwwa fy#). The term
used for ft bad dream is Wm, and for an ordi
nary dream tnaudm, ruya being used to express
.i heavenly vision. [RUYA.]
According to the traditions, the Prophet is
related to have said, " A. good dream is of -God s
favour and a ba.d dream is of the devil ; there
fore, when any of you dreams a dream which
ie such a& he is pleased with, then he must not
(ell it to any but a beloved friend ; and when
he dreams a bad dream, then let hiifa seek
protection from God both from its evil and
from the wickedness of Satan ; and let him
a pit three times over his left shoulder, and
not mention the dream to anyone; then,
verily, no evil shall come nigh him." " The
truest dream is tho one which you have about
day-break." " Good dreams are one of the
parts of prophecy." (Mis/ikrit) xxi. o. iv.)
DRESS. Arabic libas
Decent apparel at the time of public worship
is enjoined in the Qur an, Svirab vii. 29: * O
children of Adam ! wear your goodly apparel
when ye repair to any mosque." Excess in
apparel and extravagance in drees are re
proved, Surah vii. 25: * We (God) have sent
down raiment to hide your nakedness, and
splendid garments ; but the raiment of piety,
this is the best."
According to the Hidayah (vol. iv. p. 92), a
dress of silk is not lawful for men, but
women are permitted to wear it. Men are
prohibited from wearing gold ornaments, and
also ornaments of silver, otherwise than a.
silver signet ring. The custom of keeping
handkerchiefs in the hand, except for neces
sary use, is also forbidden.
The following art some of the sayings of
the Prophet with regard to dress, as recorded
in the Traditions. Mishkat, xx. c. i. : * God
will not look at him on the Day of Resurrec
tion who shall wear long garments from
pride.* " Whoever wears a silken -garment
in this world shall not wear it in the next."
M God will not have compassion upon him
who wears Inng trousers (i.e. below the
ankle) from pride/ "It is lawful for the
women of my people to wear silks and #old
ornaments, but it is unlawful for tJie men."
" Wear white clothes, because they are the
cleanest, and the most agreeable ; and bury
your dead in white clothes."
According to the Traditions, the dress of
Muhammad was exceedingly simple. It fs
said he used to wear only two garments, the
izor, or " under garment * which hung down
three or four inches below his knees, and a
mantle thrown over his shoulders. These
two robes, with the turban, and whit*> cotton
drawers, completed tho Prophet s wardrobe.
His dress was generally of white, but ht also
wore green, red, and yellow, and sometimes a
black woollen dress. It is said by some tra
ditioniats that in the taking of Makkah he
wore a black turban. The end of his turban
used to bang between his shoulders. And he
used to. wrap it many times round his head.
DRESS
It is said, "the edge of it appeared below
like the soiled clothes of an oil dealer."
He was especially fond of white-striped
yamaul cloth.* He once prayed in a silken
dress, but he cast it aside afterwards, saying.
"it doth not become the faithful to wear
silk." He once prayed in a spotted mautle,
but the spots diverted hia attention, and the
garment was never again worn.
His sleeves, unlike those of the Eastern
choga or kkaftdn, ended at the wrist, and he
never wore long robes reaching to his ankles.
At first, he wore a gold ring with the stone
inwards en his right hand, but it distracted
his attention when preaching, and he changed
it for a silver one. His shoes, which were
often old and cobbled, were of the Hazrauaaut
pattern, with two thongs. And he was in the
habit of praying with bis shoes on. [SHOEH.]
The example of Muhammad has doubtless
in Aliened the customs ol bis followers in the
matter of dress, the fashion of which has re
mained almost ihe same in eastern Muharo-
madan countries centuries p.st ; for although
there are varieties of dress in Eastern as well
as in European countries, still there are one,
or two characteristics of dress which are
common to all oriental nations which have
embraced Islam, namely, the turban folded
round the head, the white cotton drawers, or
full trousers, tied round the waist by a run
ning string ; the qatms, or " shirt," the hh&f-
tan, or " coat," and the lunyi, or " scarf." The
qamif is the same a the kttoneth of the He
brews, and the \Hrwv ot the Greeks, a kind of
long shirt with short sleeves, the ends of
which extend over the trousers or drawers,
reaching belov, the knees. The Caftan
answers to the iJcbrc v, * wi7 (I Sam.
xviii 4), a tunic worn as an outer garment.
The Jewish -J^j Jbeged, or fl/ftfe? simlah,
: v T :
must have been similar, to the quadrangular
piece of cloth still worn as a scarf in Central
Asia, and called a fungi, and similar to the
t al><T of the Egyptians. It is worn in various
ways, eilher wrapped round the body, or worn
over the shoulders, and sometimes folded as
a covering for the head.
The dress of Muhammadans in Egypt is
very minutely described by Mr. Lan* in his
Mortem Egyptians^ vol. i. p. 36,
The dress of tbfe men of the middle and
higher classes of Egypt consists of the iol-
i;;wng articles. First a pair of full drawers
of linen or cotton tied round the body by a
running string or band, the ends of which are
embroidered with coloured silks, though, con
cealed by the outer dress The ^drawers
descend a little below the knees 0r to the
ankles ; but mny of the Araos wilV not wear
long drawers, because prohibited by the Pro
phet. Next is worn a qamis or l< shirt," with
very full sleeves, reaching to the wrist ; it is
made of linen of a loose open texture, or of
cotton stuff, or of muslin, or silk, or of a
mixture of silk and cotton in strips- but
all white. Over this, in winter, or in cool
weather, most persons wear a sudeyree, which
DRESS
is a short vest of cloth, or of striped coloured
silk, or cotton, without sleeves. Over the
shirt and the audeyref, or the former alone, is
worn a Jong vest of striped silk or cotton
(called kaftan) descending to the anklea, with
long sleeves, extending a few inches beyond
the fingers ends, hut divided from a point a
little above the wrist, or about the middle of
ttie lore-arm, so that the band is generally ex
posed, though it tnay be concealed by the
sleeve when necessary, for it is customary to
cover the hands in the pre-sonce of a person of
high rank. Round this vest is wound the
girdle, which is 9 coloured shawl, or a lon#
piece of white-figured muslin.
The ordinary outer robe is a long oloth
coat, of any colour, called by the Turks
jubbah, but by th- Egyptians gibbeh, the
alecves of which reach not quite to the wriat.
Some persons also wear a btneesh, which is a
robe of cloth wfth long sleeves, like those of
the faiftdn, but more ample : it is properly a
robe of ceremony, and should be worn over
tho other cloth coat, but many pe/sons vear
it instead of the gibbeh.
Another rob*}* called /orayeeyM, nearly re
sembles the bentesh, it haa very long sleeves,
b\it these are not slit, and it is chiefly worn
by men of the learned professions. In cold 01-
cool weather, a kind of black woollen cloak,
called abayeh, is commonly woru. Sometimes
this is drawn over the head.
In winter, also, many persons wrap a muelin
or other shawl (such as they ose for a tur
ban) about the head and shoulders. The
head-dress consists, first, of a small clone-
fitting cotton cap, which ia often changed;
next a tarboosh, which is a red cloth cap. also
fitting close to the head with a tassel of dark-
blue silk at the crown ; lastly, a long piece
of white muslin, generallf figured, or a kash-
mere shawl, which is wound round the 1a,r-
boosh. Thus is formed the turban. The
DRESS
93
oold weather wear woollen or cotton aueka,
The shoes are of thick rod morocoo, pointed,
and turning up at the toes. Some persons
also wear inuer shoes of soft yellow morocco,
and with soles of the same ; the outer shoes
are taken off on stepping- upon a carpet or
mat, but not the inner ; for this reason the
former are often worn turned down at the
heel
The costume of tb.e men of the lower
orders is very simple. These, if not of the
very poorest class, wear a pair of drawers,
and a long and full shirt or gown of blue
linen or cotton, or of brown woollen stuff,
open from the neck nearly to the waist, and
having wide sleeves. Over this aorne wear a
white or red woollen girdle ; for which ser
vants often substitute a broad red belt of
woollen stuff or of leather, generally contain
ing a receptacle for money. TheJr turban is
generally composed of a white, red, or yellow
AN EGrPTIAK MAULAWI (LANE),
kashmere shawl is seldom worn except in cool
weather. Some persons wear two or three
tarbooshes one over another. .\ shereef (or
descendant of the Prophet) wears a green
turban, or is privileged to do so, but no other
peraon; and it i not common far any but a
shereei to wear a bright green dress. Stock
ings are not in use, but somo fow persona in
AN ECYPTfAN PEASANT (LAKE).
woollen shawl, or of a piece of coarse cotton
or muslin wound round a tarboosh, under
which is a white or brown felt cap bat many
are so poor, as to have jio other cap than the
laitw, no turban, nor even drawers nor shoes,
but only the blue or brown shirt, or merely A
few rags, while many, on the other hand, wear
a sudtyiee under the blue shirt, and some, par
ticularly servants in the houses of great men.
wear a white shirt, a sudeyree, and a. kaftan,
or gibbeh, or both, and the blue shirt ovr
all. The full hiees us of this shirt are surae-
times drawn up by means of a cord, which
DRESS
DfiESS
passes round each shoulder and crosses be
hind, where it is tied in a knot. This custom
is adopted by servants (particularly grooms),
who have cords of crimson or dark blue silk
for this purpose.
In cold weather, many persons of the lower
classes wear an abayah, like that before de
scribed, but coarser and sometimes (instead
of being black) having broad stripes, brown
*nd white, or blue ftnd -white, but the latter
rarely. Another kind of cloak, more full than
the abayeh, of black or deep blue woollen
stuff, Is also very commonly worn, it is called
diffeeyoh. The shoes are of red or yellow
rnorocco, or of sheep-skin. Those of the
groom are of dark red morocco. Those of the
door-keeper and the water-carrier of a private
house, generally yellow.
The Muslims are distinguished by the
colours of their turbans from the Copts and
-the Jews, who (as well as other subjects of
the Turkish Sultan who are not Muslims)
wear black, blue, gray, or light brown tur
bans, and generally dull-coloured dresses.
The distinction of sects, families, dynasties,
tc., among the Muslim Arabs by the colour
of the turban and other articles of dress, is of
very early origin. There are not many dif
ferent forms of turbans now worn in Egypt ;
that worn by most of the servants is pecu
liarly formal, consisting of several spiral
twists one above another like the threads of
a screw. The kind common among the
middle and higher classes of the tradesmen
and other citizens of the metropolis and large
towns is also very f onn.il, but less so than
that just before alluded to.
The Turkish turban worn in Egypt is of a
more elegant fashion. The Syrian is distin-
tinguished by its width. The Ulama and men
of religion and letters in general used to wear,
as some do still, one particularly wide and
formal called a inukleh. The turban is much
respected. In the houses of the more wealthy
classes, there is usually a chair on which it
is placed at night. This is often sent with
the furniture pf a bride as it is common for
a lady to havo one xipon which to place her
head-dress. It is never used for any other
purpose.
The dress of the women of the middle and
higher orders is. handsome and elegant.
Their shirt is vjary full, likfe that of the men,
but shorter, not reaching to the knees ; it is
,i!so, generally, of the same kind of material
as the men s shirt, or of coloured crape,
sometimes black. A pair of very wide trou
sers (called s/n/j/n) of a coloured striped
stuff, of silk and cottonj or of printed or
plain white muslin, is tied round the hms
under the shirt, with a dikkeh ; its lower ex
tremities are drawn up and tied just- below
the knee with running strings, but it is suf
ficiently long to hang down to the feet, or
almost to the, ground, when attached in this
manner. Over the shirt and shintiyan is worn
H long vest (called ye/e&), of the ?<aine mate
rial as the latter; it nearly resembles the
kaftart of the men, but is more tight to the
nody and arms; the sleeves atso are longer,
and It is made to bution down tba front from
the bosom to a little below the girdle, instead
of lapping over ; it is open, likewise on each
side, from the height of the hip downwards.
In general, the^yelek is cut in such a man
ner as to leave half of the bosom uncovered,
except by the shirt, but many ladies have it
made more ample at that part, and according
to the most approved fashion it should be of
sufficient length to reach to the ground, or
should exceed that length by two or three
i inches or more. A short vest (called anteree)
reaching only a little below the waist, and
exactly resembling -a yelek of which the
lower part has been cut off, is sometimes
worn instead of the latter. A square shawl,
or an embroidered kerchief, doubled diago-
i nally, is put loosely round the waist as a
girdle, the two comers that are folded to
gether hanging down behind ; or sometime*
the lady s girdle is folded after the ordinary
Turkish fashion, like that of the men, but
more loosely.
Over the yelek is worn a gibbeh of cloth or
velvet or silk, usually embroidered with gold
or with coloured silk ; it differs in form from
the glbbeh of the men. chiefly in being not so
wide, particularly in the fore part, and is of
the same length as the yelek. Instead of tm s,
a jacket (called saltahj, generally of cloth or
velvet, and embroidered in the same manner
as the gibbeh, is often worn.
The head-dress consists of a takeeyeh and
| tarboosh, with a square kerchief (called
faroodeeyeh*) of printed or painted muslin or
one of crape, wound tightly round, composing
what is called a rab.tah. Two or more such
kerchiefs were commonly used a short time
since, and still are sometimes to form the ladies
AX KGYFnAN LADY (LANE).
turban, but always wound in a high fiat
shape, very different from that of the turban
of the men. A kind of crown, called fairs,
find other ornaments,are attached to the ladies
head-dress. A long piece of white rnualin,
embroidered at each end with coloured 8 ilk a
DRESS
DRESS
95
and gold, or of coloured crape ornamented
with gold thread, <fec., and spangte*, rests
upon the head, and hangs down behind,
nearly or quite to the ground ; this is called
tarha/i, it is the head- veil; the face- veil 1
shall presently describe. The hair, except
over the forehead and temples, is divided into
numerous braids or plaits, generally from
eleven to twenty-five in number, but always
of an uneven number; these hang own the
back. To each braid of hair are usually
added throe black silk cords with liltlo orna
ments of gold, Ac., attached to tbum. Over
the forehead the huir is cut rather short, Init
t\vo full locks hang down on each side of thi?
face ; these arc often curled in ringlets and
sometimes plaited.
Few of the ladies of Egypt wear stockings
of socks, but many of them wear mezz (or
inner shoes) of yellow or red morocco, some
times embroidered vrith gold. Over these,
whenever they step off the matted or carpeted
part of the floor, they put on baboog (or
slippers) of yellow morocco, with high-pointed
toes, or use high wooden clogs cr pattons-
generally from four to nine inches in height,
and usually ornamented with mother-of-pearl
or silver, drc.
The riding or walking attire is called tez-
yttreh. Whenever a Jady loaves the bouse,
she wears, in addition to what has been ibove
gown: it it* of silk, generally of pink or
rose or yiolnt colour. Next is put on the
burka or face-veil, whic"h is a long strip of
white muslin, concealing the whole of the face
except the eyes, and reaching nearly to the
feet. It is suspended at the top by n narrow
band, which passes up the forehead, and
which is sewed, as are. also the two upper
corners of the veil, to a band that is tiod round
the head. The lady then covers herself witb
a habarah, which, for a married lady, is com
posed of two breadths of glossy, black silk,
each ell-wide, and three yards long ; these
are sewed together, at or near the selvages
(according to the height of the peraon) the
seam running horizontally, with respect to the
manner hi which it is worn ; a piece of narrow
black ribbon is sewed inside the upper part,
about six inches from the edge, to tie round
THE INDIAN BURKA. { A. F.
described, first, a large, loose gown (called
tob or seble/i), the sleeves of which are nearly
equal In width to the whole length of the
THE EGYPTIAN HABARAH.
the head. But some of them imitate thp
Turkish ladies of Egypt in holding the front
pnrt so as to conceal all but that portion of
the veil that is above the hands. The un
married ladies wear a habarab of white silk,
or a shawl. Some females of the middle
classes, who cannot afford to purchase a ha-
barah, wear instead of it an eezdr (rrar),
which is a piece of white calico, of the same
form and size as the former, and is worn in
th same manner. On the feet are worn short
i boots or socks (called khuff), of yellow mo-
rocco, and over these the baboog. The dress
of a large proportion o( those women of the
lower orders who are not of the poorest class,
consists of a pair of trousers or drawer*
96 DRSSS
(similar inform to the shintiyan of the ladiea,
but generally ol plain -white cotton or linen),
a blu* linen or cotton shirt (n ot quite so full
as that of the men), reaching to the feet, a
burka of a kind of coarse black crape, and a
dark blue tarhah of muslin or linen. Some
wear, over the long shirt, or instead of the
latter, a linen tob, of the same form as that
of the ladiea ; and within the long shirt, some
wear a short white shirt : and some, a sudey-
ree also, or an anteree. The sleeves of the
tob are often ttirned up over the head ; either
to prevent their being incommodious, or to
supply the place of a tarhah. In addition to
these articles of dress, many women who are
not of the very poor classes wear, us a cover
ing, a kind of plaid, similar in form to the
habarah composed of two pieces of cotton,
woven in small chequers of blue and white,
or cross stripes, with a mixture of red at each
end It is called milaych] in general it is
AH INDIAN ZAJ4ANA LADT.
worn in the same manner aa the habarah, but
sometimes like the tarhah. The tipper part
of the black burka is often ornamented with
false pearls, small gold coins, and other little
fiat ornaments of the same metal (called bark);
sometimes with a coral bead, and a gold coin
beneath ; also with some coins of base silver
and more commonly with a pair of chain
tassels of brass OT silver (called oyoon)
attained to the corners. A square black silk
kerchief (called asbeh), with a border of red
and yellow, is bound rouud the head, doubted
diagonally, and tied with a single knot behind ;
or, instead of this, the tarboosh and faroodee-
DBESS
yeh are worn, though by very few women of
the lower classes*
The best kind of shoes worn by the
females of the lower orders are of red
morocco, turned up, but generally round, at ,
the toes. The burka and shoea are most
common in Cairo, and are also worn by many
of the women throughout lower Egypt ; but
in Upper Egypt, the burka. ia very seldom
seen, and shoes are scarcely less uncommon
To supply the place of the former, when necca- ;
sary, a portion of the tarhah is drawn before \
the face, so as to conceal nearly all the coun
tenance except one eye.
Many of the women of the lower orders,
even in the metropolis, never conceal their
faces.
Throughout the greater p&rt of Egypt, the
most common dress of the women merely con
sists of the blue shirt or tob and tarhah. In
the southern parts of Upper Egypt chiefly
above Akhmeetn, most of the women envelop
themselves in a large piece of dark-brown
woollen stuff (called a hulaleeyek), wrapping it
round the body and attaching the upper parts
together over each shoulder, and a piece of
the same they use as a tarhah. This dull
dress, though picturesque, is almost as dis
guising as the blue tinge which women in
these parts of Egypt impart to their lips.
Most of the women of the lower orders wear
a variety of trumpery ornaments, such as ,
ear-rings, necklaces, bracelets, &c., arid some
times a nose-ring.
The women of Egypt deem it more incum
bent upon them to cover the upper and back
part of the head than the face, and more
requisite to conceal the face than moat other
parts of the person. I have often seen
women but hilf covered with miserable rags,
and several times females in the prime of
womanhood, and others in more advanced
age, with nothing on the body but a narrow
strip of rag bound round the hips.
Mr. Burckhart, in his Notes on the Bedouins
and Wahabys (p. 47), thus describes the dreas
of the Badawls of the desert :
In summer the men wear a coarse cotton
shirt, over which the wealthy put a kambar,
or "long gown," as it is worn in Turkish
towns, of silk or cotton staff. Most of them,
however, do not wear the kombar, but simply !
wear over their shirt a woollen mantle.
There are different sorts of mantles, one very
thin, light, and white vooilen, manufactured
at Baghdad, and called mtsoumy. A coaraer
and heavier kind, striped white and brown
(worn over the meeoumy), is called abba.
The Baghdad abbas are most esteemed, those
made at Hainan, with short wide sleeves, are
called bvush. (In the northern parts of
Syria, every kind of woollen mantle, whether
white, black, or striped white and brown, or
white and blue, are called meshlakk^ I have
not seen any black abbas among the Aeneaes,
but frequently among the sheikhs of Ahl el
Shemal, sometimes interwoven with gold, and
worth as much as ten pounds sterling. The
Aenezes do not wear drawers; they walk and
ride usually barefooted, even the richest of
DBK88
them, although they generally esteem yellow
boats and red shoes. All the Bedouins wear
on the head, instead of the red Turkish cap,
a turban, or square kerchief, of cotton or
cotton and silk mixed ; the turban it* called
keffit ; this thy fold about the head so that
one cornor falls backward, and two other
corners hang over the foro part of the shoul
ders ; with these two corners they cover their
faces to protect them from the SUITS rays> or
hoi wind, or rain, or to conceal their features
if they wish to be unknown. The keffie is
yellow or yellow mixed with green. Over the
keffic the Aenezes tie, instead of & turban, a
corcr round the bead ; this cord is of camel s
hair, and called akal Some tie a handker
chief about the head, and Jt is- then called
shuife, A few rich sheikh* wear shawls on
their heads of Damascus or Baghdad manu
facture, RtripM red and white* they some
times alao use red caps or taklf (called in
Syria tttrbouth\ and under those thoy wear a
smaller cap of camel s hair called maaraka
(in Syria arkye, where it is generally made of
rino cotton stuff).
DRESS
97
A BEDOUIN (BADAWI) OF THK DESERT.
The Aenezes are distinguished at first sight
from all the Syrian Bedouins by the long
tressoe of their hair. They never shave
their black hair, but cherish it from infancy,
till they can twist it in tresses, that hang
over the cheeks down to the breast : these
tresses, are called keroun. Some few Aen*xs
wear girdles of leather, others tie a cord or
a piece of rag over the ehirt Men and women
wear from infancy a leather girdle around the
naked waist, it consists of four or five thongs
twisted together into a cord aa thick as one s
finger. I hear-] that the women tie their
thongs separated from each other, round the
waist. Both metn and women adorn the
girdles wi*h pieces of ribands or amulets. The
Aenezes called it hhakou ; the AW el Shemal
call it bernm. In summer the boys, until the
age of seven or eight years, go stark naked;
but I never saw any young girl in that state,
although it was mentioned that in the interior
of the desert the girls, at that early age, were
not more encumbered by clothing than thoir
little brothers. In wintor, the Bedouins wear
ovr tho shirt a pelisse, made of several sheep
skins stitched together; many wear these
skins even in summer, because experience has
taught them that Ihe more warmly a perscm
is clothed, tho less he suffers from the <mn.
The Arabs endure tho inclemency of the
rainy season in a wonderful manner. While
everything around thorn suffers from the
cold, they sleep barefooted in an open ent,
where tho fire is not kept up beyond mid
night. Yet in the middle of summer an Arab
Bleeps wrapt in his mantle upon tho burning
Sand, and exposed to the rays of an intensely
hot sun. The ladies dress is a wide cotton
ge on of u dark colour, blue, brown, or black ,
on their hoads they wear A kerchief called
xhaitber or mekroune, the young females having
it of a red colour, the old of black. All the
Ranalla ladios wear black silk kerchiefs, two
yards square, called shale kns ; these are made
at Damascus. Silver rings are much worn
by the Aeneze ladies, both in the ears and
noses; the ear rings they call terkie (pi U-
raky), the small nose-rings shedre, the larger
(some of which are tbreo inches and a half in
diameter), khezain. All the women puncture
their lips and dye them blue ; this kind of
tattooing they call bertoum. and apply it like
wise in spotting their temples and foreheads.
The Serhhan women puncture their cheeks
breasts, and arms, and the A rumour women
their ankles. Several men also adorn their
arms in the same manner. The Bedouin
ladies half cover their faces with a dark-
coloured veil, called nekye, which is so tied
as to conceal the chin and mouth. The
Egyptian women s veil (berkoa) is used by
the Kebly Arabs. Round their wrists th
Aenezo ladies wear glass bracelets of various
colours ; the rich also hare silver bracelets
and some wear silver chains about the neck
Both in summer and wintor the men and
women go barefooted
Captain Burton, in his account of Zanzibar,
(rol. i. p. 382), says :
The Arab s head-dresa is a himmeh 01 ko-
fiyyah (red fez), a Surat calotte (ajiyyah), or
a white skull-cap, worn under a turban
(kiUmba) of Oman silk and cotton religiously
mixed. Usually it is of fine blue and white
cotton check, embroidered and fringed with
broad red border, with the and* hanging in
98
DRESS
DRESS
unequal lengths over ore shoulder. The
eoitiure is highly picturesque. The ruling
family and grandees, however, have modified
its vulgar folds, wearing it peaked in front,
aucl some w nat resembling a tiara. The essen
tial body-clothing, and the auocedaneum for
trousers is an iiur (nyuo yakv Chini), or loin
cloth, tucked in at the waist, six to seven fet
long by two to three broad. The colours are
brickdust and white, or blue and white, with
a silk border striped red. black, and yellow.
The very poor wear a dirty bit of cotton
girdled by a hakatt or kunddvi, a rope of
plaited thongs ; the rich prefer a fine embroi
dered stuff from Om an, supported at the waist
by a silver chain. None but the western
Arabs admit the innovation of drawers (surit-
wali). The Jama or upper garment is a collar-
less coat, of the best broad-cloth, leek-green
or some tender colour being preferred. It is
secured over the left breast by a silken loop,
and the straight wide sleeves are gaily lined.
The kizhdo is a kind of waistcoat, covering
only the bust; some wear it with sleeves,
others without. Thedishdashes (in Kisawa-
hili Khanzu), a narrow-sleeved shirt buttoned
at the throat, and extending to midshin, is
made of calico (baftah)., American drill and
other stuffs called doriyah. tarabuzun, and
jamdani. Sailors are known by khuzerangi,
a coarse cotton, stained dingy red-yellow,
with henna or pomegranate rind, and rank
with ware (bastard saffron) and. shark s oil.
Respectable men guard the stomach with a
hizdm, generally a Cashmere or Bombay
shawl ; others wear sashes of the dust-
coloured raw silk, manufactured in Oman.
The outer garment for chilly weather is the
long tight-sleeved Persian jubbeh, jokhah, or
caftan, of European broad-cloth. Most men
shave their beads, and the Shafeis trim or
entirely remove the moustache^.
The palms are reddened with henna, which
is either brought from El Hejaz, or gathered
in the plantations. The only ring is a plain
cornelian seal and the sole other ornament is-
a talisman (hirz, in Kisawahili Hirizi). The
eyes aro blackened with kohl, or antimony of
El Sham here, not . Syria, but the region
about Meccah and the mouth crimsoned by
betel, looks as if a tooth had just been knocked
out.
Dr. Eugene Schuylor. in his work on Turk
estan (vol. i. p. 122), says :
The dress of the Central Asiatic is very
simple. He wears, loose baggy trousers,
Qsually made of coarse white cotton stuff-
fastened tightly round the waist, with a cord
and tassel ; this is a necessary article of dress,
and is never or rarely taken off, at all events
not in the presence of another. Frequently,
when men are at work, this is the only gar
ment, and in- that case it is gradually turned
up under the cord, or rolled up on the legs,
so that the person is almost naked. Over
this is orn a long shirt, either white or of
some light-coloured print, reaching almost to
the feet, aud with a very nai-row aperture for
the neck, which renders it somewhat difficult
to pat the head through, The sleeve? are
long and loose. Beyond this there is nothing
more but what is called the chapan, varying
in number according to the weather, or the
whim of the person. The chapan is a loose
gown, cut very sloping in the neck, with
strings to tie it together in front ; and inor
dinately large sleeves, made with an immense
gore, and about twice as long as is necessary ;
exceedingly inconvenient, but useful to con
ceal the hands, as Asiatic politeness dictates.
In summer, these are usually made of Rus
sian prints, or of the native alatcha, a striped
cotton material, or of silk, either striped or
with most gorgeous eastern patterns, in bright
colours, especially rd,. yellow, and green. T
have sometime* seen men with as many as
four or five of these gowns, even in anramer
they say that it keeps out the heat. In
winter, one gown will frequently be made of
cloth, and lined with line lamb-skin or fur.
The usual girdle is a large handkerchief, or a
AN AFGHAN CHIEF. (A. F. Hole.)
miiall shawl; at times, a long scarf wound
several times tightly ronnd the waist. The
Jews in places tinder native rule are allowed
no girdle, but a bit of rope or cord, as a mark
of ignominy. From the girdle hang the acces
sory knives and peveral small bags and
pouches, often prettily embroidered, for
combs, money, &c On the head there is a
skujl-cap ; these in Tashkent are always em
broidered with silk; in BukharA they are
usually worked with silk, or worsted in cross-
stitch in gay patterns. The turban, called
tchilprtch. or " forty turns," is very long ; and
if the wearer has any pretence to elegance, It
should be of fine thin material, which is
chiefly imported from England. It requires
considerable experience to wind one properly
round the head, so that the folds will be well
made arid the appearance fashionable. One
extremity is left to fall over the left shoulder,
but is usually, except at prayer time, tucked
in over the top. Should this end be on the
right shoulder, it is said to be in the Afghan
style.. The majority of turbans are white
particularly sd in Ta fchkerit, though white i*
BfiESS
especially the colour of the mullahs and roli-
jfious people, whose learning is judged by the
size of their turbans. In general, merchants
nrefer blue, striped, or chequered material.
I
AN AEGHAN MULLAH.
At hoiot the met* usually go barefooted,
but on going out wear either a ?ort of slipper."
with pointed toes and very small high heeds.
or loof? soft boots, the Sole arid upper being
made of the same material. In the street,
one must in addition pnt on either a slipper or
golosh, or wear riding-boots made of bright
green horso hide, with turned-up pointed
toes and very small high beels.
The dress of the women, in .shape rmd
fashion, differs but little from that of the
men, as they wear similar trousers and shirts,
though, in addition, they have long gowns,
usually of bright-coloured silk, \vhich, extend
from the neck to tho ground. They wtr
an innumerable quantity of necklaces, and
little amulet^, pcudautp in their hair, and
ear-rings, and occasionally even * nosc-ricg.
This is by no moane so ugly as Is gtupposeJ : a
pretty girl with a torquoisering in one nostril
is not at all unsightly On the contrary, there
is something piquant, m it. Usually, when
outside of the houses, all respectable women
wear a heavy black voil, reaching to their
waists, made of woven horse-hair, and over
that is thrown a d. irk blue, or green k/ialutt,
the sleeves of which, tied together at the
ands, dangle behind. The theory of this dull
dress is, that the women desire to escape ob
servation, and certainly for that purpose they
have devised h* most ugly and unseemly
99
costume that could he imagined. They are,
hov/f v*-r, veiy inquisitive, rind occasionally in
bye-streets one is able to get a good glance
at them before they pull down then* veils
The d/vss of the citizens of Persta has been
often dftscnbttd, both by ancient and modern
traveller-. That of the men has changed
/ery materially within the last cnntury. The
tuvhan, a.s a head-dress, is now worn by none
but the Arabian inhabitants of that country.
The Persians wear u Jong cap covered with
lamb s wool, the appearance of which 1$
sometimes improved by being encircled with
a cashmere shawl. The inhabitants of the
principal towns are fond of dressing richly
Their upper garments are either made of
chmU, silk, ov cloth and are often trimmed
with gold or silver Uce ; they also wenr bio
cade , and in winter their clothas ar linec
with, furs, of which they import a great
vanity. Ft H not :uM>mary for any peison,
except the king to wear jewels ; hut. nothing
can exceed the proiusion which he displays
of those ornaments j and bid subjects ee eru
peculiarly proud of this part of royal magni
ficence. They assert that when the monarch
is dressed in his most splendid rohes, and is
seated in the sun, that the eye cannot gaze on
the darling- brilliancy of his attire.
DRINKABLES. Arabic asknbah
(L^A.1) There is a chapter in the
Traditions devoted to this subject, and en
titled Babu l-Ashriltah. The example of Mu
hammad in bis habit ot drinking, having in
fluenced the Eastern world in its habits, the
following traditions are noticeable. Anae
Says tf the. Prophet ha.-", forbidden drinkiogf
water standing, and that he used to take
breath three times in drinking; nd would say
drinking in this way cools the stomach,
qneuohes the thivst and gives health and
vigour to the body.
Ibn A.bbai< says the .Prophet forbade
drinking water from the mouth of & leather
bag.
Umra Salimah says "the* .Prophet, said,
He who drinks out of a silver cup drinks of
bell firf " (&**&& h.u.w rix c iii.)
DRINKING VESSELS. There
are /ourdriukuig vessule which Muslims were
forbidden by their Prophet to drink out of
jbk. i ,c.i )/iantoni. a "green vessel ";
large gourd hollowed out: naqir.a.
cup made from the hollowed root of a tree :
muzctjftat, a vessel covered with pitch, or with
a glutinouo Bubsrancc. These four kinds of
vessels seem to have been used for fJHnkmg
wine, hence the prohibition
When a dug drinks irom a vessel used by
man, it should he washed seven t<i.cs
(Mishfc-it, book iii. c i*. pt. i.)
DROWNING. Arabic yha.ru j
(&f) I* i* * strange anomaly in
Muhaiiinmdan law. according to the teaching
of Abu Hani fab, that if person cause the
death of another by immersing him under
w&ter until he die, the offence does not
100
DETTNKSKNBSS
amount to murder, and retaliation (gt>a#)is not
inourred. The arguments of the learned divine
are as follows : First, water is analogous to
a small stick or rod, as is seldom or ever
used in murder. Now, it is said in the Tradi
tions that .death produced by a rod is only
manslaughter, and as in that a fine is merely
incurred, so here likewise. Secondly, retalia*
tion requires the observance of a perfect
equality ; but between drowning and wound
ing there is no equality, the former being
short of the latter with regard to damaging
the body. [MUBDEB.]
DBTJNKENNESS. Shurb (v^)
denotes the state of a person who has taken in
toxicating liquor, whilst svkr (^L) implies a
state of drunkenness. Wine of any kind being
strictly forbidden by the Muslim law, no dis
tinction is made in the punishment of a wine-
drinker and a drunkard. If a Muslim drink
wine, and two witnesses testify to his having
done so, or if his breath smell of wine, or if
he shall himself confess to having taken wine,
or if he be found in a state of intoxication, he
shall be beaten with eighty stripes, or, in the
case of a slave, with forty stripes. (Hiddyah,
vol. ii. p. 67 ; Mtshkat, bk. xv. c iv.) [KHAMR.]
DRTTZES. A heretical mystic sect
of Muhammadans, which arose about the be
ginning of the eleventh century in the moun
tains of Syria. They are now chiefly found
in the districts of Lebanon, and in the neigh
bourhood of Damascus. They were founded
by al-Haklm, the fanatical Khalifah of the
Fafcimite race, who reigned at Cairo, assisted
by two Persians named Hamzah and al-Darazi,
from the latter of whom the sect derives its
name.
De Sacy, in his Expose de la Religion des
Druzes, gives the following summary of their
belief:
"To acknowledge only one God, without
seeking to penetrate the nature of His being
and of His attributes ; to confess that He can
neither be comprehended by the senses nor
defined by words ; to believe that the Divinity
has shown itself to men at different epochs,
under a human form, without participating in
any of the weaknesses and imperfections of
humanity ; that it has shown itself at last, at
the commencement of the fifth age of the
Hejira, under the figure of Hakim Arur
Allah ; that that was the last of His mani
festations, after which there is none other to
be expected ; that Hakim disappeared in the
year 411 of the Hejira, to try the faith of His
servants, to give room for the apostasy of
hypocrites, and of those who had only em
braced the true religion frdm the hope of
worldly rewards; that in a short time he
would appear again, full of glory and of
majesty, to triumph over all his enemies, to
extend His empire over all the earth, and to
make His faithful worshippers happy for
ever ; to believe that Universal Intelligence is
the first of God s creatures, the only direct
production of Bis omnipotence; that it has
appeared upon the earth at the epoch of each
BOTZES
of the manifestations of the Divinity, and has
finally appeared since the time of Hakim
under the figure of Hamza, son of Ahmad ;
that it is by His ministry that all the other
creatures have been produced ; that Hamza
only possesses the knowledge of all truth,
that he is the prime minister of the true reli
gion, and that he communicates, directly or
indirectly, with the other ministers and with
the faithful, but in different proportions, the
knowledge and the grace which he receives
directly from the Divinity, and of which he is
the sole channel ; that he only has immediate
access to God, and acts as a mediator tc the
other worshippers of the Supreme Being;
acknowledging that Hamza is he to whom
Hakim will confide his sword, to make his
religion triumph, to conquer all his rivals,
and to distribute rewards and punishments
according to the merits of each one ; to know
the other ministers of religion, and tho rank
which belongs to each of them ; to give to
each the obedience and submission which is
their due ; to confess that every soul has
been created by the Universal Intelligence;
that the number of men is always the same ;
and that souls pass successively into different
bodies ; that they are raised by their attach
ment to truth to a superior degree of excel
lence, or are degraded by neglecting or giving
up religious meditation ; to practise the seven
commandments which the religion of Hamza
imposes upon its followers, and which prin
cipally exacts from them the observance of
truth, charity towards their brethren, the
renunciation of their former religion, the most
entire resignation and submission to the will
of God; to confess that all preceding reli
gions have only been types more or less per
fect of true religion, that all their ceremonial
observances are only allegories, and that the
manifestation of true religion requires the
abrogation of every other creed. Such is
the abridgment of the religious system taught
in the books of the Druses, of which Haitian
is the author, and whose followers are called
Unitarians."
There is a very full and correct account of
the religious belief of the Druzos in the .Jfr-
searches into ike Religions of Syria, by the
Rev. J. Wortabet, M.D. In this work Dr
Wortabet gives the following Catechism of
the Druzes, which expresses their belief with
regard to Christianity :
" Q. What do ye say concerning the goapel
which the Christians hold ?
" A. That it is true ; for it is the sayings
Of the Lord Christ, who was Salman el Pha-
riay during the life of Mohammed, and who ia
Hamzeh the son of AH not the false Christ
who was born of Mary, for he was the son of
Joseph.
" Q. Where was the true Christ when the
false Christ was with the disciples ?
" A. He was among the disciples. He uttered
tho truths of the gospel and taught Christ,
the son of Joseph, the institutes of the Chris
tian religion ; but when Jesus disobeyed the
fcrtie Christ , he put hatred into the hearts of
the Jews, so that they crucified him.
DU A
DYBB
101
44 What became of him after the crucifixion ?
A. They put him into a grave, and the
trne Ohriet came and stole him, and gave out
the report among men that Christ had risen
out of the dead.
" Q. Why did he act in this manner?
" A. That he might establish the Christian
religion, and confirm its followers in what he
had taught them.
" Q. Why did he act in such a manner as to
establish error ?
" A. So that the Unitarians should be con
cealed in the religion of Jesoa and none of
them might be known.
Q. Who was it that came from the grave
and entered among the disciples when the
doers were shut ?
" A. The living Christ, who is immortal,
even Haxnzeh, the eon and slave of our Lord.
" Q. Who brought the gospel to light, and
preached it?
" A. Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.*
"Q. Why did not the Christians acknow
ledge the unity of God ?
" A. Because God had not so decreed.
** Q. Why does God permit the introduction
of evil and infidelity ?
11 A. Because He chooses to mislead some
from, and to guide others, to the truth.
Q. If infidelity and error proceed from
Him, why does he punish those who follow
them ?
" A, Because when He deceived them, they
did not obey Hi?".
" Q. How can a deluded man obey, when
he is ignorant of the true state of the daae ?
A. We are not bound to answer thia
question, for God is not accountable to his
creatures for his dealings with them."
DU A (A*j). "Prayer." The word
du ff is generally used for supplication, as dis
tinguished from falat, or the liturgical form
of prayer, e.g. Qur an, Surah xiv. 42 : "0 my
Lord ! make me and aay posterity to be con
stant in prayer (salaf). O our Lordl and
accept my supplication (rfu cf). [PBAYERS.J
DU AM-MA Stm (*-* * L - 0U )-
Lit. "Recorded prayer." A term used for
prayers which were offered up by the Pro
phet, and have been handed down in the
Traditions.
DU A U L-QUNtJT (*yuW .V0j),
called also the Qunutu V- Witr, " The prayer
said standing. 1 A form of prayer recited after
the qarffah in the night prayer. Recited by
some sects in the early morning. It is found
in the Traditions. It is as follows :
" O God, we seek help from Thee, and for
giveness of sins.
" We believe in Thee and trust in Thae.
* We praise Thee. We thank Thee. We
are not unthankful.
" We expel, and we depart from him who
does not obey Thee.
We serve Thee only, and to Theo do we
pray.
" We seek Thee, we prostrate ourselves and
we serve Theo.
14 We hopo for Thy morcy. We fear Thy
punishments.
"Surely Thy Judgments arc upon the
infidels."
DUALISM. Professor Palmer,
following the remarks ol cl-Baizawi the
commentator, says there ie a protest against
the dnalistic doctrine that Light and Dark
ness were two co-eternal principles, in the
Qur an, Surah vi. 1: "Praised be God who
created the heavens and the earth, and brought
into being the Darkness and the Light."
(Palmer s Qur an, vol. i. p. lift ; al-Bai?w? m
Zoco.)
"The
Smoke." The title of the xuvth chapter of
the Qur an, in which the -words occur (dfch
verse) : " Expect thou the day when the
heaven shall bring a palpable smoke."
DULDUL (Jd*>). The name of
the Prophet s mule which he gave to AIL
DUMB, The. Arabic abkam (f&\\
pL buhn,
The intelligible signs of a dumb person
suffice to verify bis bequests and render them
valid ; he may also execute a marriage con
tract, or give a divorce, or execute a sale or
purchase, or sue or incur punishment by signs,
but he cannot sue in a case of qi ?a?, or reta
liation for murder. This rule does not apply
to a person who has been deprived of speech,
but merely to one who has been born dumb
(Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 568.) A dumb person can
also acknowledge and deny the faith by a sign,
AD-DURBATU L-BAI2A (*,.Ut
*U*JV). Lit. The pearl of light." A
term used by Sufi mystics to express the
dqlu l-awvcal, the first intelligence which
God is said to have created at the beginning
of the animate world. ( Abdn V-Razzaq s
Dictionary ef$*fl Terms.)
DTOtTD (^o ; a Persian word.
Arabic a$-Salat (V- 9 ^). A benedic
tion , imploring mercy. A part of the stated
prayer, recited immediately after the Tashah-
hud. whilst in the same posture. It is as fol
lows : " God, have mercy on Muhammad and
on his descendants, as Thou didst have mercy
on Abraham and on his descendants ! Tbou
art to be praised, and Thou art great 1 O
God, bless Muhammad and his descendants aa
Thou didst bless Abraham and his descen
dants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art
great." The merits of this form of prayer
are said to be very great ; for, according to
Anas, the Prophet said, " He who recites it
will have blessings on his head ten times, ten
sins will be forgiven, and he will be exalted
ten steps." (Mishkdt, book iv. c. xvii.)
[PRATBB.]
DtfZAKE ()r>)- The Persian
word for. hell. [HELL.]
DYER. According to the Iinam
Abu Hanifah, a dyer of cloth is at liberty to
102
DYING
detain it until he receive his hire for dyeing 11 ;
and if the cloth perish in his hands whilst it
is detained, be is not responsible. (Siddya/i,
vol. iii. 320.)
DYING, The. Very special in
structions are given in Muslim books as to
the treatment of the dying. In the Burnt Y-
Mukhtdr (p. 88), the friends of the dyiug are
recommended, if possible, to turn the head ef
the dying person towards Makkah ; but if this
be not convenient, hie feet should be placed
EARTH
in that direction and his head slightly raiaed.
The Kalimatu sh~$hahddah should then be
recited, and the Surah Ya-SIn (xxxvi.) and
Snratu V-Ra d (xiii.) should be read from
the Qur an. When the spirit has departed
from the body, the mouth Should b tied up
and the eyes closed and the arms straight
ened, and the body should be perfumed, and
no unclean person should be suffered to
approach the corpse. Immediate steps should
then be taken for the washing of the corpse
[DEATH,]
E.
EAK-RINGS ; NOSE-RINGS. In
the East it is the universal custom of Mu-
hainmadan women to wear cat-rings, and they
are not unfrequently worn by young men and
children. Gold ear-rings are, however, for
bidden in the Traditions : for Abu Htt.raira.h
relates that the Prophet said, " Whoever
wishes to pat into the ear or the nose of a
friend a ring of hell fire, let him put in the ear
or the nose of his friend a gold ring . .
let your ornament be of silver." And Asm*
bint Yazld relates the same tradition. (Mi*fi-
kdl, book xx. c, 11, part 2.)
BAB AND NOSE KINGS
EARTH, The. Arabic arz
Muhammad taught his followers that just as
there are seven heaven^ [HEAVEH] one above
another, so there are seven earths one beneath
another, the distance between each of these
regions being five hundred years journey.
(Mishkat, book xxiv. c. i. part 3.)
In the (Jur an the earth is said to be stretched
out like a carpet or bed (Sftrah ii. 20 j xiii. 8 ;
Ixxviii. 6), which expression the ancient com
mentators understood to imply that the earth
was a vst plane, but circular ; and (Surab
xxxix. 67) to be but a handful in the sight
of God, which in the last day shall be changed
into another earth (Surah xiv. 49).
The earth is believed by Mtthammadan
writers to >e surrounded by a great ,sea
called crl Btfhi n 7- M wAit, or the circumambient
ocean, which is bounded by the mountains of
Qaf. The extent of the earth is said to be
equal to a journey of five hundred years;
two hundred years jonrney being allotted to
the sea, two hundred to the uninhabited
desert, fcighty to the country of Gog and
Magog ( Ya/uj wet Afitjuf) and the rest to the
civilised world. Certain tsrrce tncoymia in the
midst of the mountains of Qaf are said to be
inhabited by the jinn, or genii. According to
i some. Makkfth (or Jerusalem according to
others) is situated in.the centre of the earth.
On the Mnfiit is tho Arshtt l-Ibhs, or " Throne
of Satan." The western portion of the Muhit
is often called the Bab.ru z-jhtlmat, or ** Sea
of Darkness." and in the south-west corner
of tha earth is the Fountain of Life of which
al-Khizr drank, and in. virtue of which he
still lives, and will live till the Day of Judg
ment. The mountains of Qaf which bound
the great sea Mnhit, form a circular barrier
round the whole earth, and are said to be of
green chrysolite, the colour of which the Pro
phet said imparts a greenish tinb to the sky.
The general opinion is that the mountains of
Qaf bound our earth, but some say there are
countries beyond, each country being a thou
sand years journey*
The seven earths, which are five hundred
years journey from each other, are situated
one beneath the other, and each of these
seven regions has its special occupants.
The occupants of the first are men, genii,
and animal*; the second is occupied by the
suffocating wind which destroyed the infldel
tribe of Ad (Surah Ixix. 6); the - third is
filled withjfche stones of hell, mentioned in the
Qur iin (Surah ii. 22 ; Ixvi. 6) as " the fuel of
which is men and stones " ; the fourth by the
sulphur of hell ; the fifth by the serpents of
hell ; the sixth by the scorpions of hell, which
are in size and colour like black mules, and
have tails like spears ; and the seventh by
ttw devil and his angels. Our earth is said
to be supported on the shoulders of an angel,
who stands upon a rock of ruby, which rock
is supported on a huge bull with four thou-
EARTHQUAKE
EATING
103
and eyes, and the saint number of ears,
noses, mouths, tongues, and feet; between
every ono of each is a distance of five hun
dred years journey. The name of thus bull
is Rujuta, who is supported by an enormoufi
fish, the name of which is BaJiamut,
The above is but brief outline of the
Mnhammadan belief as regard* the earth *
formation; but the statements of Mnham
madan commentators are so wild on the
subject, that it seems quite useless to quoti
th*m as authorities, for they Contradict each
other in endless variety.
EARTHQUAKE, The. Arabic
a-Zal*alah (jW> The title of the
xcfxth Surah of the Qur an, iu which it is
Staled that HH earthquake will take place at
the commencement of tho sign* of the last
day:
" When the Earth with her quaking ghal
quake
" And the Earth shall cant forth her bur
dens,
And man shall say. What aileth her?
On Uiat day shall *he tell out ber
tiding,
* BecauBc thy Loid shall have hi spired her.
- On that day shall men come forward in
thronr* to behold their works,
** And whosoever sh&ll have wrought HE
.ttom s weight of good shall behold it,
" And whosoever shall hare wrought an
tom s weight of evil shall behold it. 1
EATING, According to the Tra
ditions, Muhammad ;inp havo been enjoined
by their Prophet to eat jn God fl nama, to
return thanks, to eat with their right band,
and with their shoes off, and to Hck the
plate when the meal is finished. The follow
ing we some of Muhammad s precepts on the
subject:
"The Devil has povror over that food
which is eaten without remembering God,"
"Repeat the name of God. Eat with the
tight hand and oat from before vou."
11 When a man comes into a house at meal
time, and remembers the name of God, the
devil sys to his followers, There is no place
here for you and me to-night, nor is there any
aupper for us."
" When anyone eattf he mutt not wash his
fingers until he has fir$i licked them,*
"Whoever eats a difth and licks it after
wards, the dish intercedes vith God for
him"
" When victuals aro placed before you, oat
them with your shoes off, because taking; off
your shoes will ease your feet. 1 ( AbcJn II-
Haqq adds, "and do it ont, of respect to the
food.")
" Whoever eate from a plate and licks it
afterwards, the dish says to him, May God
free you from hell as you have freed me
from the devils licking me. 1 "
Qatadah says that Anas said : " The
Prophet did not eat off a table, as is the
manner of proud men. who do it to avoid
bending their backs." (Minhlc&t, Arabic ed.
Baku T-Apimak.)
The following directions are given for cat-
ing, by Faqir Muhammad; As ad, the author
of the A^hlaq-i-JaldlL (Thompson s English
TranElatiou, p. 294):
" First of all. ho should wash h i# hands
DINING
104 EATING
mouth, and nose. Before beginning he should
say, < In the name of God (BismiUSX) ? and
after ending he must say, Glory to God
(Al-kamduliltdK). He is not to be in a hurry
to begin, unless he is the master of the feast ;
he must not dirty his hands, or clothes, or
the table-linen ; he must not eat with more
than three fingers, nor open his mouth wide ;
not take large mouthfuls, nor swallow them
hastily, nor yet keep them too long mi-
swallowed. He must not suck his fingers in
the course of eating ; but after he has eaten,
he may, or rather ought, as there is scripture
warrant for it.
" Let him not look from dish to dish, nor
smell the food, nor pick and choose it. If
there should be one dish better than the rest,
let him not be greedy on his own account, but
let him offer It; to others. He must not spill
the grease npon his fingers, or so as to wet
his broad and salt He must not eye his com
rades in the midst of hie mouthfuls. Let him
eat from what is next him, unless of fruit,
which it is allowable to eat from every quarter.
What he has onoe put into his mouth (such
as bones, &c.), he must not replace upon his
bread, nor upon the table-cloth; if a bone
has found its way there, let him remove it
unseen. Let him beware of revolting ges
tures, and of letting anything drop from his
mouth into the cup. Let him so behave,
that, if anyone should wish to eat the relicts of
his repast, there may be nothing to revolt him.
BATING WITH JEWS
11 Whero he is [a guest, he must stay his
hand sooner than the master of the feast;
and whenever the rest discontinue eating, he
must act in concert with them, except he be
in his own house, or some other where he
constitutes part of the family. Where he is
himself the host, he must not continue eat
ing when the rest have stayed their hands, -so
that something may be left for anyone who
chances to fancy it.
" If he has occasion to drink in the course
of his meal, let him do it softly, that no noise
in his throat or mouth may be audible to
others. He must not pick his teeth in the
view of the company, nor swallow what his
tongue may extract from between them ; and
so of what may be extracted by the tooth*
pick, let him throw it aside so as to disgust
no one.
" When the time comes for washing his
hands, let him be exceedingly careful in
cleansing his nails and fingers. Similar
must be his particularity hi washing his
lips, mouth, and nostrils. He must not void
his rheum into the basin ; even the water in
which his mouth has been rinsed, let him
cover with his hand as he throws it
away.
"Neither must he take the turn from
others in washing his hands, saving when he
is master of the entertainment, and then he
should be the first to wash."
WASHING THE HAND8.
EATING WITH JEWS OB
CHRISTIAN& In Muhammadan countries,
where the people have not bean brought in
contact with Hindus, with caste prejudices,
Muslims never hesitate to eat with Jews and
Christians, provided the drink and victuals
are such as are lawful in Islam. Since the
British occupation of India, the question has
often been raised, and few Muhammadans will
eat with Englishmen, Syud Ahmad Khan,
C.S.L, has. written a book, in which he proves
that it is lawful for Muhammadans to eat with
both Christians and Jews, and his arguments
would seem to be in accordance with the
teaching of the Qur an. Surah v. 7 : " Law
ful for you to-day are the good things, and
the food of thd people of the Book (i.e. Jews
and Christians) is lawful for you, and your
food is lawful for them."
Al-BaizawI, commenting on this verse,
ECLIPSE
EDEN
105
says t " This verse includes all kinds of food,
that which is slain lawfully (zabh} or not, and
this verse is of common application to all
the people of the Book, whether Jews or
Christians. But on one occasion Khali/ah
All did not observe its injunctions with re
gard to the Banu Taghlib. a Christian tribe,
because ho said these people wore not Chris
tians, for they had not embraced anything of
Christianity excapt wine-drinking. And he
does not include amongst the people of the
book, the Majusis, although he included the
Majusis with the people of the Book when
he took the poll-tax from them, according to
a tradition which Muhammad gave regarding
the Majfisis, viz. Treat the Majusis as you
would treat the people of the Book, but do
not marry with thorn, nor eat what they
slay." (Tafsrru l-Baizdwl, p 216.)
The commentators, al-Kamalan, say the
only question raised was that of animals
slain by. Jews and Christians, and the learned
are all agreed that animals glain by them are
lawful. (Tafsvm l~Jalalain wa l-Kamdlain,
p. 98.)
The following Hadla is given in the $ahih
Muslim on the subject : Abu Sa labah related,
" I said, Prophet of God I Verily we live in
a land belonging to the people of the Book
(i.e. Jews or Christians) ; is it lawful, for us
to eat out of their dishes? The Prophet
replied, The order for dishes is thie : if you
can get other dishes, then eat of them ; but if
ye cannot, then wash those of the people of
the Book and eat from them."
The Imam Nawawi, the commentator on
the Sahih Muslim, says Abu Da ud has
given this Hadis in a somewhat different
form to that hi the text. He says : * Abfl
Sa labah relates, we were passing through
tho country of the people of the Book (i.e.
Christians), and they were cooking pigs
flesh in their dishes, and drinking wine from
their vessels." " For * (continues Nawawi),
<* the learned are all agreed that it ia lawful
to cat with Jews and Christians unless their
vessels are polluted with wine or pork, in
which case they must be washed before they
are used." (#& Muslim wa Sharhu Na-
w/aici, p. 146.)
ECLIPSE. The Arabic k&usuf
(*jj <t) is used to denote either an
oolipse of the sun or of the moon (vide Mish-
kdt. book rv. o. li.) j but it is more specially
applied to an eclipse of the moon ; and kusuf
(*jU~) for an eclipse of the sun (vide
Richardson s Dictionary). Special prayers,
consisting of two rak ahs, are enjoined in the
Traditions (Misfikdt, book iv. c. li.) at the
time of an eclipse of either the sun or
moon.
Abdu lleh ibn Abbas says : There waa
an, eclipse of the sun in the time of the Pro
phet, and he recited prayers^ and the people
recited after him ; and he stood up for a long
time, as long as anyone would be repeating the
Chapter of the Cow (i.e. Surah ii.). Then he
performed a long ruku 4 after which he raised
up his head and stood a long time, which
was under the first standing ; after which be
did the second ruku , which was the same as
the first in point of time; then he raised bit*
head up from the second ruku ; and per
formed two prostrations, as is customary
Then he stood up a long time, in .the second
rak ah, and this was shorter than the first
standing, in the first rak ah ; after which he
did a long ruku in the second rak aH, and
this was under the first ruku , in the first
rak ah. After this, he raised up his bead,
and stood a long time ; and this was shorter
than th first, in the second rak ah
Then he did a long ruku 1 ; and this was
not so great as the first, in the second
rak ah. Then ho rose up, and performed two
prostrations ; and after repeating the creed,
and giving the salam. he concluded his
prayers. And the sun was bright. And the
Prophet said, * Verily, the sun and moon are
two signs, amongst those which prove the
existence of God, and are not eclipsed on
account of the life or death of any person;
and when ye see this, remember God. The
Companions said, * Prophet ! We saw you
about to take something in the place where
i you stood in prayer, after which we saw you
draw back a little. And the Prophet said,
"J saw Paradise, and gathered a bunch of
grapes from it; and if I had taken it and
given it to yon, verily you would have eaten
of it as long as the world lasts. I also saw
hell, and never saw such a horrid sight till this
day ; and 1 saw that they wore mostly women
there. And the Companions said, O Pro
phet, why are most of the people of hell
women ? * He said, * On account ef their
infidelity : not on account of their dis
obedience to God, but that they are ungrate
ful to their husbands, and hide the good
things done them ; and if you do good to one
of them perpetually, after that, if they see
the least fault in you, they will say, I never
saw you perform a good work. " (Afishkdt,
book iv. c. iL)
EDEN. Arabic Adn (<$J*), which
al-Baizawi says means " a fixed abode." The
Hebrew *W is generally understood by
Hebrew scholars to mean " pleasure " or
delight."
The word Adn is net used in the Qur an
for the residence of our first parents.the term
used being a^/awnoA, a the garden " : although
tho Muslim Commentators are agreed in
calling it the Jannatu Ada, or "Garden of
Eden/ The expressions. Jannutu Adn. " the
Garden of Eden" and Janndtn /4fo, "the
Gardens of Eden," occur ten times in the
Qur an, but hi each case they are used for
the fourth heaven, or stage, of celestial bliss.
[PABA.D18E.]
According to the Qur an, it seems clear
that Jannatu *Adn is coruridered to be a
place in heaven, and not a terrestrial para
dise, and hence a difficulty arises as to the
locality of that Eden from which Adam fell
Is it the same place as the fourth abode of
14
106
EDUCATION
celestial bliss ? or, was it a garden situated in
some part of earth? Al-Baizawi says that
some people have thought this Eden was
Situated in the country of the Philistines, or
between Faris and Kirman. But, he adds,
tha Garden o Eden is the Dam *-ctieft, or
<f tbe House of Recompense," which IP a
stage in the paradise of the heavens ; and
that when Adam aud Eve were cast out oJ
Paradise, Adain fell on the isle of Ceylon, or
Sarandib, and Eve near Jiddah in Arabia;
and after a separation of 200 years, Adam
was. on his repentance, conducted hy th f
Angel Gabriel to a mountain near Makkah,
^hers he knew his wife Eve, the mountain
being thence named A.rafa.h. (i.e. " the place
of recognition); and that he afterwards j
retired with her to Ceylon, where they con
tinner! to propagate their species.
Muhammad Tahir (Majma u t-Bthor, p. j
225), in remarking upon the fact that in the
Traditions the rivers Jaihftn and Jaihan are
said to he rivers in "the garden 1 (al-Jan
7i aft), says the terras are figurative, and mean
that the faith extended to those regions and
made them rivers of paradise. And in
another place (/</ew, p. 164) the same antbor
says the four rivers Satkdn (Jaxartes),
Jcttfitin (JThen), Fvrdt (Euphrates), and iVz/
(Nile), are the rivers of Ptradiao, and that
the rivers Saihan and Jaihan are not tho
saraa as Jaihnn and Jaihan, hut that these
fear rivers already mentioned originally came
from Paradise to this earth of ours.
EDUCATION. Education without
religion is to the Muharamaclan mind an
anconaly. la all books of Tradition.* there
are sections specially devoted to the con
sideration of knowledge, but only so far as
ir, relates to a knowlfihe of God. and of
" God s Book: (See Satii/lu l- Bukhdn . Babu Y
( /n) Tbe people v?ho read tbe " Book of
God " are, &ccoi-ding to tbe sayings <;f the
Prophet, described as " assembling together
in mosques, with light anrl contforfc descend
ing upon them ? fcha grace of God covering
them, and tbe angels of God encompassing
them round a.bout." The chief aim. and
object of education in Islfm) is, therefore, to
obtain a knowledge of the religion ot Mu-
hamroad, and anything beyond this is con
sidered superfluous, and even dangerous.
Amongst Muhammadan religious leaders
there have always* been two classes those
vrho aifect the ascetic and strictly religious
life of mortification, such as the Sufi mystics
and the Faqirs [FAQIK] ; and those who, by a
careful study of the Qnr an, the Traditions,
and the numerous works on divinity, have
attained to a high reputation for scholarship,
and fi-Te known in Turkey as trie *Ulamd\ or
" learned, * and in India, as Maulawls.
Amongst Muhaimu&cUnp generally, a know
ledge of science and variotis branches of
s ocular learning is considered dangerous to
the faitb, and it is, discouraged by the reli
gious, although some assert that Muhammad
has encouragp:! learning of all kinds in the
Qur au, by tbe following verse, Surah ii. 272 ;~
EDUCATION
" He giveth wisdom to whoia He will, and
He to whom wisdom is given hath had much <
good given him.
Mr. Liana, in his Modern Egyptians, says:
f The parents seldom devote much of their ;
time or attention to the intellectual education
of their children^ generally contenting tlietn- 1
selves with instilling into their youm; mir-iiUa
lev-? prineipier. of religion, and then Bttbimttiifl
r.hem, if they can afford to do .so, to the in4
sti uotion of a school. As early as possible,]
the child is tough* to say, 1 testify that \
tberd is no deity but God. and I testify that
Miilwtmiiad is God s Apostte- He receives:
also lessons of "religious pride, and learns to]
hate the Christians, and all other sects buti
his own. as thoroughly afi does the Muslim in]
advanced a^e
In connection with till mosques of Impofl
.iince. in all parts of Islaro whether Tur-|
key, ISgy pi, Persia, or India, there ar<> rn-.ill
schools, either for the education of children,
or For the training of students of divinity.,
The child who attend? these se.minn.ries is
first taughb his alph&het, which he Jeainaj
froni a small board, on which tho letters are]
written by the teacher. He then becomes)
acquainted with the numerical value of t-aciH
letter. [ABJAD.] After this ho learne toj
writs down the ninety-nine names of God, ancM
other simple words taken from the Qur arus
[frOn. j When he has mastered the spoiling!
of words, hf proceeds to learn the first 1
chapter of the Qur an, then the last chapter,
and gi*a dually reads through the whol^j
Quran i: Arabic, which he usually does with-;
out understanding a word of it. Haviagj
finished the Qur an. which is considered an
incumbent religious duty, the pupil is in
structed in the elements of grammar. andJ
perhaps a iew simple rules of arithmetics
To this iri added a knowledge of one Hindu
stani, or Peraiau book. The ability ir read
a single PerpiJin book like the GvUntini QV\
7? j . ; .v?f, is eoasidsred in Centra! Asia to be^
the sign of a liberal education. The ordi-i
iiary schoolmaster ia generally a man oft
little learning, the learned Maulawi usually.!
devotuig himself to the str.cly of divinity, i
and not to the education of tha young.
Amongst students of divinit} , who are ealleeM
talabar.n (sing, tittib) */~ z/i, or " seekers after^
knowledge," the usual course of study is as
follows; a&-$arf> graaanaatical inflection; an
nahw, syntax ; at- mantiq, logic : al-budb, arith
metic ; al-jabr we t-mugobaloJi, algebra ; afc
mrvna ton i-baydn* rhetoric and versification ;
al~Jiqn* jurisprudence; <zl- aqffid, scholastic^
theology ; ot-tafulr^ commentaries on the*
Qur an ; l ilmu l-u$vl, treatises on exegesis,
and the principles and rules of interpretation
of the laws of Islam , ai~ahadis, the traditions
and ooraicentaries thereon. These are usually
regarded as different branches of learning,
and it ia not often that a, Manila wl, or Alim^
attains to the knowledge of each section. For
example, a scholar will be celebrated an
being wall educated in al-ahddis, but he may
be weak ir> cd-jiqh. The teacher, when in
structing his v pupils, seatfi himself nn the
EDUCATION
EDUCATION
107
jjronnd witb his hearers ail seated round him
ji & ring-. Instruction in mosques IB usually
pi veil in the early morning-, after the morning
prayer, and continues some thr&0 01 foui
n.ours. It is again renewed for a short time
jiftfr the mid-day prayer.
i Stuflonls in rcogques are generally sup
ported by the people of the pariah, (each
mosque baring its section or parish), who
pa,n be called upon for food for all the in
InatPtt of a mosque every morning and even
ing. Not ^infrequently mosques are endowed
Uith laud, cr rents of shops and houses, for
phe payment of professors. Mr. Lane speaks
pf A mogquo in Cairo, which had an eucJ.jw-
menk for the support of three hundred blind
(tudents. The great mosque (iLAzhar, in
3airo, sx the largest and mo*t influential seat
yf learning in Islam. Tji 1875 when the
present witter visaed c, it hnci ->x many art
5,000 tudents gathered from all putt. of
the Mtibammadan world.
In India almost every mosque of impor
tance has its class ot students of divinity, but
they are nob established for the purposes of
general education, but for the training of
Students of divinity whc -will in time become
the Imams of mosques. Some of tho Mania-
vrla are men held in great reputation n?
Arabic scholars, bat they are, a<J a rule, very
deficient in general knowledge and informa
tion. Whether we look to India, or Persia., or
Egypt, or Turkey, tha attitude of Muhii ji-
mftdanisru is undouotedly one JH dirr.c
gotiismto the spread of secular education.
Much hna been made by some writers of
the liberal patronage extended to literature
and b cienre by Abdu r-Hahmiw and his suc-
A M173LIV SCHOOL.
Khalifabs of Oarrlova ifi the Middle
Ages, But ihoTD wa3 nothing original, or
ic, in the literature ihii* patronised, for
as Processor Uerberweg veniatks in hie His
tory of Philosophy, " the whole philosophy of
the Arabians was a form of Aristotelianistn
tempered wore or less with Nee-Platonic con
ceptions." The philosophical works of the
Greeks and their works of medical and phy
sical science, ware translated from Greek
into .Arabic by Syrian Ohrifitians, and not by
Arabian Muslims. Muharnmadany cannot be
altogether credited with these Ijterary under
takings.
Al-Maqqarl, in his History of the Dynasties
of Spain., has an interesting notice of educa
tion, in that country, in which ho -wvites :
" Respecting the state of science amonp: the
Andalnsians (Spaniards), we must own in
juatioe that the people of that country were
the most ardent lovers of knowledge, as well
as those who best know how to appreciate
and distinguish A learned man and an igpo-
rant oce ; indeed, science was so rnurh es
teemed hy them, lhat whoever had not been
endowed by God with the necessary qualifica
tions to acquire it, Hid everything- in his
power to distinguish hirnsiolf. and eonces.1
from the peoplo his want of instruction ; for
an ignorant man was at all times looked
upon as an ohject of the gre&test contempt,
while the learned man, on the contrary, was
not only respected by all, nobles and plebeians,
but wae trusted and consulted on overy ooc&-
108
EGGS
sion ; his name was in every mouth, his
power and influence had no limits, and he was
preferred and distinguished in all the occa
sions of life.
" Owing to this, rich men in Cordova, how
ever illiterate thoy might be, encouraged
letters, rewarded With the greatest munifi
cence writers and poets, and spared neither
trouble nor expense in forming large collec
tions of hooks ; so that, independently of the
famous library founded by the Khalifah al-
Hokim, and which is said by writers worthy
<rf credit to have contained no less than fpqr
hundred thousand volumes, there were in
the capital many other libraries in the hands
of wealthy individuals, where the studious
could dive into the fathomless sea of know
ledge, and bring up its inestimable pearls.
Cordova was indeed, in the opinion of every
author, the city in Andalus where most
books were to be found, and its inhabitants
were renownad for their passion for forming
libraries. To such an extent did this rage
for collection increase, says Ibn Sa*Id, that
any man in power, or holding a situation
under Government, considered himself obliged
to have a library of his own, and would spare
no trouble or expense in collecting books,
merely in order that people might say, Such
a one has a very fine library, or, he possesses
unique copy of such a book, or, he hag a
copy of such a work in the hand- writing of
such a one."
EGGS. According to the Imam
Abu Hanlfah, if a person purchase eggs and
after opening them discover them to be of
bad quality and unfit for use, he is entitled
to a complete restitution of the price from
the seller. (Hidayah, yoL ii. p. 415,)
E&YPT. Arabic MIST (y). The
land of Egypt is mentioned several timas in
the Qur an in connection with the history of
Joseph and Moses. In the year A.H, 7 (A.I>.
628), Muhammad sent an embassy to al-Mu-
qauqis, the Roman Governor of Egypt, who
received the embassy kindly and presented
the Prophet with two female Coptic slaves*
ELEMENTS. Arabic al- Andsiru
l-arba ah (3-*^ j-Uatt), " The four
elements M of fire (nar), air (hawa), water (ma*),
and earth (arz), from which all creation
mineral, animal, and vegetable is produced.
The respective properties of these elements
are said to be as follows : Fire, hot and dry ;
air, hot and cold ; water, cold and wet ;
earth , cold and dry. A knowledge of the
properties of the four elements is required in
the so-called science of Da wah. [DA WAH,]
ELEPHANT, The year of. Arabic
<2w% >l-m (J*d\ r U). The year in
which Muhammad was born. Being the
year in which Abrahatu 1- Ashram, an Abys
sinian Christian and Viceroy of the King of
San a. in Yaman marched with a large army
and a number of elephants upon Makkah,
with the intention of destroying the Ka bah.
He was defeated and his army destroyed in
ELOQUENCE
so sudden a manner, as to give rise to the
bgend embodied in the cvth Surah of the
Qur an, which is known as the Chapter of the
Elephant.
Professor Palmer says it is conjectured
that small-pox broke out amongst the army.
[ASHABU L-
ELIJAH. Arabic Hyw
Ilyiisin ((j^J^\) ; Heb.
Testament, HXwxs. A prophet men*
tioned In tho following verses in the Qur an :
Surah xxxvii. I23> ".Verily Ilya* (jEUias)
was of the Apostles ; and when he said to his
people, \Vm ye not fear, Do ye call upon
Ba i and leave tae best of Creators, God
your Lord, and the Lord of your fathers in the
old time? But they .called him a liar;
verily, they shall surely be arraigned, save
God s sincere servants. And we left him
amongst posterity. Peace upon Hyasln
(Ellas) verily, thus do we reward those who
do well ; verily he was of otir servants who
believe."
Surah vi 85 :" And Zachariah and John,
and Jesus, and Ilyas, all righteous ones."
Al-Baizawi s&ys, * It has been said that this
Ilyae, is the same as Idris, prefather of Noah.
whilst others say he was the son of Yasin
and descended from Aaron, the brother of
Moses."
ELISHA. Arabic al- Yastf
Heb. - Elisha is mentioned
twice in the Qur an, under the name al-
Yasw.
Surah xxxviii. 48: "And remember
Ishmael and Elisha, and jgu *l-kin, for each
was righteous."
Sfirah vi 85, 86 : " And Zachaiiah, and John,
and Jesus, and Elias, all righteousness ; and
Ishmael and Elisha and Jonah and Lot, each
havo We preferred above the worlds."
The Commentators give no account of him
except that he was the son of Ukktub>
although the Bible says he was the son of
Shaphat. Husain says he was Ibtiu l-ty uz
(the son of the old woman).
ELOQUENCE. The Arabic word
al-Baydn (0WH)i which is defined in
the Qmydjtu l-Lugk/ah. as speaking fluently
and eloquently, occurs once in the Qur an,
Surah Iv. 3: **Ke created man: he hath
taught him distinct speech." The word also
occurs in the Traditions, and it is remarkable
that although the Qur an is written in rhythm,
and in a grandiloquent style, that in the Tra
ditions the Prophet seems to affect to despise
eloquence, as will be seen from the folio whig
Ahadi$ : Ibn Umar says the Prophet said,
" May they go to hell who amplify their words."
Abu Umamah relates that the Prophet said,
" Eloquence (al-baydn) is a kind of magic.*
Ibn Mas ud relates that the Prophet said,
" Vain talking and embellishing^ (bay an) are
two branches of hypocrisy." Amr ibn al-
AsJ relates that the Prophet said, "I have
EMANCIPATION
BTBBNITY
109
baa/i ordered to speak little, and verily it
is beat to speak little." (AfMJfcaf, book
xxii. o. ix.)
EMANCIPATION OF SLAVES.
Arabic Pttiq (^^}. The emancipa
tion of slavea is recommended by the Pro
phet) but the recommendation applies exclu-
sirely to slaves who are of the Muslim faith.
He is related to have said : " Whoever frees
a Muslim slave God will redeem that person
from hell-fire member for member." (Mish-
kat, book xiii c. xix.) It is therefore laud
able hi a man to release his slave or for a
woman to free her bond- woman, in order that
they may secure freedom in the next world.
(JRidayah, vol. i p. 420.)
ENFRANCHISEMENT. In an
orthodox Muhammadan state, only those
persons who have embraced the Muslim
faith are enfranchised ; all others are called
upon to pay a poll tax (jizyah), for which
they obtain security (amdnj. Those residents
in a Muslim country who are not Muham-
xuadans are expected to wear a distinctive
dress and to reside in a special part of the
village or town in which they live. Slaves
who may embrace the Muslim faith do not
become ipso facto enfranchised, unlesa their
master be an unbeliever, in which case their
becoming Muslims secures their emancipation.
JBfmrust or persons not Muslims in a Muslim
state, cannot give evidence against a Muslim.
(See Durru l-Mukhtdr, in loco.)
ENOCH. [IDBIS.]
ENTERING INTO HOUSES. To
eater suddenly or abruptly into any person s
home or apartment, is reckoned a great inci
vility in aU eastern countries. With Muham-
madans it is a religious duty to give notioe
before you enter a house. The custom is
founded upon an express injunction in the
Qur an, Surah xxiv. 57-61 :-
" O ye who believe ! let your slaves and
those of you who have not come of age, aak
leave of you, three times a day, ere they come
into your presence; before the morning
prayer, and when ye lay aside your garments
at mid-day, and after the evening prayer.
These are your three times of privacy. No
blame shall attach to you or to them, t/ after
these times, when ye go your rounds of at
tendance on one another, they come in without
permission. Thus doth God make clear to
you His signs : and God is Knowing. Wise I
" And when your children come of age, let
them ask leave to come into your presence,
as they who wore before them asked it.
Thus doth God make clear to you his signs :
and God is Knowing, Wise.
* As to women who are past childbearing,
and have no hope of marriage, no blame shall
attach to them if they lay aside their outer
garments, but so as not to shew their orna
ments. Yet if they abstain from this, it will
be better for them : and God Heareth,
Knoweth.
"No crime shall it be in the blind, or in the
lame, or in the sick, to eat at your table* : or
in yourselves, if ye eat in your own houses, or
hi the houses of your fathers, or of your
mothers, or of your brothers, or of your
sisters, or of your uncles on the father s side,
or of your aunts on the father s side, or oi
your uncles on the mother s side, or of your
aunts on the mother s side, or in those of
which ye possess the keys, or hi the house of
your friend. No blame shall attach to you
whether ye eat together or apart.
"And when ye enter houses, salute one
another with a good and blessed greeting as
from God. Thus doth God make dear to you
His signs, that haply ye may comprehend
them."
The following are the traditions given in
the Mishkat on the subject (book xxiL c. 11.) :
Muhammad is related to have said. " Do not
permit anyone to enter your home unless he
gives a salam first" Abdu 11ah ibn Mas^ud
says the Prophet said, " The signal for your
pormission to enter is that you lift np the
curtain and enter until I prevent you." Abdu
Hah ibn finer says, " Whenever the Prophet
came to the door of a house, he would not
stand in front of it, but on the side of the
door, and say, The poace of God be with
you. " <Aj|a ibn Yasar says the Prophet told
him to ask leave to enter even tho room of his
mother.
ENVY. Arabic flasad (Ju->).
The word occurs twice in the Qur an.
Surah ii. 108 : Many of those who have
the Book would fain turn you again into un
believers, even after ye have once believed,
and that through envy. 1
Surah cxiii. : " I seek refuge ..... from
the evil of the envious when he envies."
EPHESUS, The Seven Sleepers of.
[ASHABU L.-KAHV.]
ESOP. The Luqman of the Qur an
is generally supposed by European Writers to
be Escp. Sale is of opinion that Maximus
Planudes borrowed the greater part of his lif a
of Esop from the traditions he met with in
the East concerning Luqmac. [&CQBUK.]
ETEBNITY OF PUNISHMENT.
The Muhammadan religion teaches that all
Muslims (i.e. those who havo embraced the
religion of their Prophet) will be ultimately
saved, although they will suffer for their
actual sins in -a purgatorial hell But those
who have not embraced Islam will suffer a
never-ending torment in ** the fire" (<m-ndr>
Surah ii. 37 : " Those who misbelieve and
call our signs lies, they are the fellows of
hell, they shall dweD therein for ever"
(khdlidun).
Surah xi. 108, 109 : " And as for those who
are wretched -why in the tire shall they groan
and *ob! to dwell" therein for ever (J&atidunj
as long as the heat 6ns and the earth endur*.
Al-Baizawi says the expression " as long as
the heavens and the earth endure," is an
Arabic idiom expressing that which is
eternal.
110
EUOHARFST
Ibn AraM (died A.D, 6S8), in his book
Ftisa$a l-ffik&m, says the word khatidiv the
verses quoted above does not imply etc.r;-iK.l
duration, bat <> period, or age. of long dura
tion. Ai-Bftiiiwi, th commentator, also
admits that the literal meaning of the word
only expresses a period of extended dura
tion , but the JalS,lan and Husaiu both con
tend that its meaning is that of abadl^ or
" never ending," in which no being will be
annihilated, and which no one can over
escape
It is also to be observed that this vjord
Itfutlid is that used for the eternity of bliss of
those in Paradise , ~
$iitrrth xi. 110; "As for those who are glad
why in Paradise ! to dwell therein for ever "
EUCHARIST, on LOAD S
SUPPER, ft J B 3 singular omission in tjse
Qur an, that there ig no direct allusion to this
Christian institution.
Both Sale and ftodweH think lliii, there is
a reference to sb in. tfaa following passages in
the Qur an, Surah v 112-114- ~
" Remember when the Apjptie& !aid :
Jesus, Son of Mary, is thy Lord able to send
down % table (nuFidah, a table. especially one
covered with victaalfn to us out of heaven ?
He said, Fear God if ye be believers, They
iaid We desire to eat therefrom, toid tc
have our hearts assured ; and *.o kuovr that
bhou "haif t indeed Spoken truth to xis. and \vt
be witnesses thereof Jes.nSj Son of Mary,
said God oar Lord! send down, a table
to us out of heaven, that it may become a, re
curring festive i to us., to the first of us. and
to the last of us, and a sign from Thee : and
do Thou. nourish us, for Thon art the best of
nourishers. "
MuiUiin commentators are not agreed as !/>
the meaning of tuese verses, but none of then
suggest the institution of th Lord s Snpjper
as n explanation.. The interpretations are
as confuted as the -revelatunu
According to the Inaam .al-Baghwi f *Am-
mar ibn Yasir said that the Prophet said It
was Jle&h and bread which was sent dowi
from heaVen; hui> bRcnuse ths Christians to
whom it was. Heist were unfaithful, it was
taken away, aisd they hftf-ntrie pigs ana
monkeys !
Ibn A.bbns saya taat, after a thirty days
fast, a table was sent down with seven io&ves
and seven Bshes, and the -wliole company of
disciples ate and vvei-a filled (St. Matt. arv.
34). The ooniVijcntatftrs al-Jalalan alao
give tries?* two explaratioi:s5. and the SRCTH-
menb of the I/ord s Sapper is never ones sug
gested by any Mns]rra doctor in explanation
of the above verses
EUNUCH. Arabic &hflji (cs**-)-
Although in ali partjs of the East, it is usual
for -wealthy Muhammad axis to keep an esta
blishment of eunuchs to guard the female
members of ihe household, it has been strictly
forbidden by Muhammad for any. of his fol-
luvrcrs to make themselves smeh, ot to make
EVIDENCE
others. Us.mau ibn Martin caaie to imn and
said, " Prophet I permit me to become a.
eunuch." Bnt Muhammad said, " Bb is not
of my people who makes another aeusoofe or
becomes so himself. The manner in which
my people become eunuchs is to exorcise
fasting," (Mfskkdt, book iv. c. viii.)
EVE. Arabic
[ADAM.]
_ EVIDENCE. Arabic Kk*k&dal
(fo\o6). The law of evidence i& very
clearly laid down in ai! MahJnuui&&U) books
of law, especially in tho tftdeyak, and the
JJurru, l-MiiKJktar, and ii is interesting to
observe the difference between tbs Uw of
evidence as provided for in the law of Mopes,
and that iaM down in Muhaminadan bseks.
In the PenUtteuch two witnesses at least
were required to aatafolisb, any charge (Nmn.
XXXY 30), and the witness vrho withheld the
truth was censurod (Lev, v. 1), svhilst slan
derous reports and officious witnesses were
disco uragod (Ex, xxiii. 1; l/ev. xix. 16), and
i$lse witnesses were punished with, the punish -
jaent due to tho o .So nee they sought to esta
blish fDent. xix. 16). According to Josephus.
vyomen and slaves were not admitted to give
evidence. (Ant. iv, e, B, H. 1^)
The Bunni U>v f as explaiaea by the H
of the ffiddydh (vol. iii. p. 664), is in
respects tho same as the Jewish Anil i<
It in the duty .0.- v^iiut?tse^ to i>ea^ it^u
tnony, and it is not lawful for 1 them to conceal
it, when the party concerned demands it from
them, Beoa use it is written in tfc5 (^ur jin.
clurab. ii. 282, if Let not, witnesses withho!^
their e-videtice \vhen ifc is demanded of them,"
And again-, * Oonceal aot/ your testimony.,
for whoever concottle its fcestiifeMny i an
offender.!*
The requisition of the party is a condition,
bec.auiie the delivery of evidence is the right
ot" the party requiring it, and therefore re:-its
upon his re^xiisiti.011 of it. as is tho case with
respect to all other rigiity.
In case? Inducing corporal punishment,
witnesses are at liberty eii,Ker to give or
withhold their testimony as they please,
because in .such case they are diatrfccted.be-
tweeu two laudable actions; twunely, the
estftbliabment of the pnnisbineilt, and the
preservation of tho criminal s character, f jae
concealment of vice ia, moreover, prefet able:
because the prophet said to a person that had
borne testimony. * Verily, it would Lave been
better for yotti if you had concealed it": and
also because he else where said, Whoever
conceals the rices of ids brother Muslim > shall
have ti veil drawn over his own crimes in both
worlds by God" Besides, it ha been incul-
lated both by the Prophet and his Compa
nions HS commendable to assist iu the pre
vention of corporal pruiiEhmentj and this i,s
in evident argument for fche concealment of
.<uch evidence as tends to establish it. It is
iuciunhent, however, in the case of theft, tc*
bear ovt dftD.ee to the proptriij) by te.tiiytRg
EVIDENCE
EVIDENCE
111
that " a certain person took such property,"
in order to preserve the right of the pro
prietor; but the word taken muat be used
instead of stolen, to the ond that the crime
may bo kor>fc concealed; besides, if the word
stolen wero ufltd, the thief would be rendered
liable to amputnticm; and as, where amputa
tion is incurred, there is no responsibility foi
the property, the proprietors right would l>e
destroyed.
The evidence required in a case of whore
dom is inAiof four men, as has been ruled in
the Quran (Surah xxiv. JJ; and the testi-
naony of a woman iu such a. case i.s not ad
initted, because ar-Zuhrl snys, "in tho time
of the Prophet and his two immediate suc
cessors, it was an invariable rule to exclude
tfc evidence of women in all cases inducing
punish meut or retaliation," and also because
the testimony ot women involves a degree o*
doubt, as it is merely a Substitute for evi-
deoce, beius accepted only where the testi
mony of mon cannot he had : and therefore
L is not admitted in any "matter liable tv
<irop from the existence of a doubt.
The evidence required in other criminal
cases is that of two inon, according to the
text of the Qur an ; and the testimony of
women is not admitted, on the strength of
tile tradition of az-Zuhrl above quoted. In
all other cases the evidence required Js that
ei two men, or of one man and two women,
whether the caae relate to property or to
other rights, such a* mitrrtay9 t divorce.
agency, creditor ship, or the like. Ash-Shafi I
has said that Ih^ evidence of one man and
two women cannot be admitted, excepting in
crvses that relate to property, or its depen
dencies, such as hire, MtT, and so forth ;
because the evidence of women fs originally
inadmissible on account of their defect of
understanding their want of memory and
incapacity of governing, whence it is that
their evidence is not admitted in criminal
The evidence of one woman is admitted in
cases of hirth (as where one woman, fo:~
instance, declares that a cerUin woman
brought forth a certain- child). In the same
manner also, the evidence, of one woman is
autiicieiit with respect to virginity, or with
respect to the defects of that part >( a.
woman v. hich is concealed from man. The
principle of the law in tlnse cases is derived
from a traditional saying of the Prophet :
The evidence of women is valid with
respect to such, things a* it is not fitting for
man to behold.." Aph-Shafi i holds the evi
dence of four women to bo a necessary cou
ditiou in such cases,
Th* evidence of a woman with rospcct to
istikldl (tbft noise made by a child at it?
birth), is not admlttnblo, in the opinion of
Abu Hannah, so far as relates to th osta-
blishinent of -,he right oi heritage in tho
child ; because this noise is of . nature- to b^
known or discovered by men; but is admis
sible st> far as relates to the nc^6B>;itv of
reading funeral prave^-s ovr,- the child :
because these praters aro merely a matter of
religion: in consequence of her evidence,
therefore, the funeral prayers are to he
repeated over it The two disciples, Mu
hammad and Abu Yusut, maintain that the
evidence of a woman is sufficient to establish
the right of heritage altfo , because the noise
in quastiou being made <tt the birth, none but
wonum can oe auppo.-ed to be present when
it is made. The evidence of a woman there
fore, to this noise, is the same as her evidence
to a living birth ; and as the evidence of
women in the one case is aduiissihie.se also is
it tn trie ut/h*-r
in an ngiitfl whether of property or other
wise, the probity of the witness, and the use
nf the word ashhadu, " 1 bear witness," is
absolutely requisite, even in the case of the
evidence of womnn with re.spect to birth a,rd
the like. If. therefore, a witness should s cj y
"I know," or 1 know with certainty/ with
out making use of the word aihhadu, in th d
case his evidence cannot, be Admitted. With
respect to the probity o r the witness, it is in
dispensable, because it is written in the
Qur an, Sfirah Ixv, 2, Take the evidence of
two just- men": and also because the probify
of the witnesses induces a probability of the
truth
If tho defendant throw a reproach on th
witnesses, it i<* in that case incumbent en the
Qaai to institute an enquiry into their chi-
racter ; because, in the same manner as it is
probable that a Muslim abstains from falst
hood us being a thing prohibited in the reli
gion he professes, so also is it probable tha f
one. Muslim will not unjustly reproach
another.
It is not lawful tor a person to give evi
dence to such things ap he has not actually
seen, excepting in the oases of birth. <ieath
mairiage, and cohabitation.
But if a person, in any of tho above cases,
^ive,* ovHeru-e 7"rom creditable hearsay, it i?
requisite that he give it in an wtsolut*
mauner, by aaying. for instance, " 1 b?ar tes
timony that A. is the. sru of B," and not, " I
bear testimony so and so, becauss. I havu
heard it" foi in !H:ir u^st; th O-\z\ cannot
accept it
The te -.i-imony of any per9<m who is pro-
pertytbrf is to say, a slave, male or female
is not admissible; because testimony is of
an authoritative nature ; and a a slave has
no authority over bis own person, it follow-,
that he can have no authority over other* , u
fortiori.
The testimony of . porson that has been
punished for slander i maflmissible, becaupe
it is said in tho Qur an, Surah xxiv. 4,
But a.- to those who acc\i.s married per
?ous of whoredom, and T>roduce not four wit
nesses of the fact, scourge them with four
score stripes, iind receive not their tostimony
for over; for such are infamous prevari
cators, excepting tbosa who fthall after
wards repent."
If an inf,del who ha^ wutiVrod puaicliment
{or sliinder should afterwards bec( rn< (.
Mn^lim, his evidence is then adiu ssible ; for
although, on afCvu^.t of Uie sa.id puaiehnient,
112
EVIDENCE
he had lost the degree in which he was before
qualified to give evidence (that is, in ail
matters that related to his own sect), yet by
his conversion to the Muslim faith he
acquires a new competency ia regard to
evidence (namely, competency to give evi
dence relative to Muslims), which he did not
possess before, and which is not affected by
any matter that happened prior to the cir
cumstance which gave birth to it.
Testimony in favour of a son or grandson,
or in favour of a father or grandfather, is not
admissible, because the Prophet has so or
dained. Besides, as there is a kind of com
munion of benefits between these degrees of
kindred, it follows that their testimony in
matters relative to each other is in some
degree a testimony in favour of themselves,
and is therefore liable to suspicion.
So also the Prophet has said, " We are
not to credit the evidence of a wife concern
ing her husband, or of a husband concerning
his wife ; or of a slave concerning his master ;
or of a master concerning his slave; or,
lastly, of a hirer concerning his hireling."
The testimony of one partner in favour of
another, in a matter relative to their joint
property, ie not admissible; because it is in
some degree in favour of himself. The tes
timony, however, of partners, in favour of
each other, in matters not relating to their
joint property, is admissible, because in it
there is no room for suspicion. The testi
mony of a person who has committed a great
crime, such as induces punishment, is not
admissible, because in consequence of such
crime he is unjust. The testimony of a
person who goes naked into the public bath
is inadmissible, because of his committing a
prohibited action in the exposure of his
nakedness.
The testimony of a person who receives
usury is inadmissible; and so, also, of one
who plays for a stake at dice or cheas. The
evidence of a person guilty of base and low
actions, such as making water or eating his
victuals on the high road, is not admissible ;
because where a man is not refrained, by a
sense of shame, from such actions as these,
he exposes himself to a suspicion that he
will not refrain from falsehood.
The evidence of a person who openly
inveighs against the Companions of the Pro
phet and their disciples is not admissible,
because of his apparent want of integrity.
It is otherwise, however, where a person
conceals his sentiments in regard to them,
becanae in such case the want of integrity is
not apparent.
The testimony of swnmw with respect to
each other is admissible, notwithstanding
they be of different religions.
The Imam &bu Hanifah ie of opinion that
a false witness must be stigmatised, but not
chastised with blows. The two disciples are
of opinion that he iimst be scourged and oon-
fined; and this also ia the opinion of ash-
Shafl I.
The mode of stigmatising a false witness is
this: If the witness be a sojourn? in any
EXECUTOR
public street or market-place, let him be
sent to that street or market place; or, if
otherwise, let him be sent to his own tribe or
kindred, after the evening prayers (as they
are generally assembled in greater numbers
at that time than any other); and let the
stigmatiser inform the people that the Qazi
salutes them, and inform*? them that he has
detected this person in giving false evidence ;
that they must, therefore, beware of him
themselves, and likewise desire others to be
ware of him.
If witnesses retract their testimony prior
to the Qaai passing any decree, it becomes
void; if, on the contrary, the Q&zi pass a
decree, and the witnesses afterwards retract
their testimony, the decree is not thereby
rendered void.
The retraction of evidence is not valid,
unless it be made in the presence of the
Qazi.
EVIL EYE. I ? abatu l- Ain (*M
Mohammad was a believer in
baneful influence of an evil eye. Asme?
bint Umais relates that she said, O Pro
phet, the family of Jafar are affected by the
baneful influences of an evil eye ; may I use
spells for them or sot?" The Prophet said,
Yes, for if there were anything in the world!
which would overcome fate, it would be
an evil eye." (JftsA&d*, book xad. c. i.
part 2.)
EXECUTION. The Mufcamma-
dan mode of execution is as follows : Thtij
executioner (jalldtf) seizes the condemned
culprit by the right hand, while with a sharp
sword or axe he aims a blow at the back of
the neck, and the head is detached at the
first stroke. This mode of execution is still,,
or was till lately, practised in Muharoniadaw
states hi India.
if a Qazi say, I have sentenced such a
person to be stoned, or to have his hand cut
off, or to be killed, do you therefore do it : it
is lawful for that person to whom the Qazi
has given the order to carry it out.
And according to Abu Hanifah, if the Qazi
order the executioner to cut off the right
hand, and the executioner wilfully cut off thi
left, he is not liable to punishment. Bui
other doctors do not agree with him.
EXECUTOR. Arabic Wasi
a term also used for the testator
oMl l ala l wastycLk (2J\ <J
An executor having accepted fcis appointment
in the presence of the testator, is not after
wards at liberty to withdraw, and any aci
indicative of his having accepted the positio
of executor binds him to fulfil his duties.
A Muslim may not appoint a slave, or
reprobate (fesig) or an infidel as his executoi
and in the event of his doing so, the Qaa
must nominate a proper substitute. But 1
none of the testator s heirs have attain*
their majority, a slave may be appointed a
executor until they are of age.
If joint executors have beeu .appointed an
KXILES
EXTRAVAGANCE
one of them die, the QSzI must appoint a.
substitute in dffice.
In the cases of infants or absent heirs, the
executor is entitled to possess himself pro
tern, of their property, but be cannot trade
with his ward s portion.
If a person die without appointing an
executor, the next of kin administers the
estate, and it is HM arrangement of Muslim
law that his father is his executor and not
his eldest son. ((Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 554.)
EXILES, The. [MUHA.TIRTJN.]
EXISTENCES. The Arabic word
wvjud {*>)*)), expresses a substance,
or esseuce, or existence. According to Mu-
hammfldan writers (see uA*ya$u r l-Ln$hah ).
existences . are of three kinds : Wajibu 7-
wujitJ, "a necessary existence," <.</. Almighty
God : wiunkinu /-u-/rf, " a possible exist
ence," K.<J. the humnn kind $ mumtani u 7
wvjvd, " an impossible existence," c,.y. a
partner \vith the Divine Being.
These terms are used by Muhammadan
acholarb when discussing the doctrine of the
EtArna.1 Trinity with Christian Evangeli
EXPIATION. The doctrine of
expiation or atonement for neglected duties.
sins of omission and commission, is distin
guished in the Muslim religion from the doc
trine of sucriflco ; sacrifices being strictly
confined to the Idu l-A /iha , or Feast of
Sacrifice in tho month of pilgrimage
Thor* are two words employed in the
tyur an to express the doctrine of expiation :
kajfarak (Sjltf). from kafr, "to hide"; and
ftdyaJt (IJki), froui Jidff, " to exchange, or
ransom,"
(1) Kaffctrah occurs in the following
/erse ;
Surah v. 4-9:
41 And therein (Ex. xxi. 23) have m enacted
for them, Life for life, an eye for eye. and
nose /or fiosfl, and ear fop ear, nnd tooth for
tooth, and for wounds retaliation: Whoso
sbatl compromise it us alms shall have there
in the erpiation of his sin; and whoso will
not Judgo by what God hath sent down sucl
are ihe transgressor "
Surah v. 91 :
ff (Jod will not puuish y^u fora mistake;)
-word " your oaths: but he will punish yon
in regard to an oath taken seriously. Its ex
piation shall be to faed ten poor persons with
such middling food as ye feed your own
families with, or to clothe them ; or to set
;rec a cjiptive. Bot ho who cannot tind
means, shall fast three days. Thin is tb>
erpiativn of your oatlis \vber- ye shit 11 have
sworn. ^
Surah v. OG :
" believers ! kill no gomo A mie ye are on
pilgrimage. Whosoever among you shall
purposely kill it. shall compensate for it in
domestic animals of equal value (according
to the judgment of two iust persons among
you), to OH urought is n rTcring to the
Ka*bah ; or in expiation th<TO >f shall feed thn
poor; or as the equivalent of tfliis s hall f^s
that he may taste tho Hi consequence of Ins
deed. God forgivc>b wliat is past; but vlio
ever doctb it a^ain, God will tAke vetr- *;inre
on him; for God is mightv nnd v?i\e*Hnr > * is
His."
(2) Ft if yah oceura in tbo following versos :
Surah ii. 180:-
4i But lie amongst you v?ht> 13 ill, or on K
journey, then let him fast another number uf
days; and those who are fU to fast aud do not,
the expiation of this shall be tho mainten M-CO
Of a poor man. And he who of his ivwn
accord performeth a good work, shall d"riv,
good from it : and good shall it be for you ^
fast if ye knew it."
Stairfthiv 192:
Accomplish the pilffrinuga and Visitation
of the holy places In honyur of God : and (I
ye be hemmed in by toes, send whatever oft er*
mg shall be 1ho eafiest : ai;d shavo not your
beads until the orriiifi: lench tho place of
sacrifice. But whoever nmonw yen is sick, or
hath an ailment of th* bead, must erjtiatc
by fasting, or alms, or n offering "
Surah Ivii. 13 :
On that day the hypocrites, both mn and
women, shall say to tiio*o who believe,
Tarry for s, that we rnny kindle our li^rht
at yours/ It shall be said, Return ye back,
and seek light for yourgalvos. But between
them she-H be set a wall witb a gateway, wilbiu
which shall be the Morry, otrtl in front, witli-
out it, the Torment. Tbey shal) ery to them,
Wore we not with you? They shall r.y,
Yes I bu* ye led your. -elves into temptation
and ye delayed, and yd doubted, a ad -be
good things jo .n sved deceived you, till the
doom of God arrived: abd the deceiyer de
ceived you in regard to God.*
"On thai df>y. rh?refore, no cjcpiution eimll
be ^aken fvntr you or frofr, thos^ who be
lieve not : yo ir abode Ihe Are I Tli is shall
be your master: and wiHched the journey
thither ! "
(3) In. theological books th* ^rtrrn kaffvrati*.
z-tufiuli. the atonement forpif.p," is used for
tbtodntiei of ui-ayer. fasting. alm^;Vinjr, anc ;
oilgrimage. There is also a popul*; snyingthu
tiuiirttti l-yubur is kufiuraln i-ztmilb. i.e. fh
visiting of shrinks oi the saints is on atone
ment for sins.
Theologians define iue terms tM/faroktoA
fidtjuh as ox pressing thai ex.piation which is
<ln a fo God. whilst //>/"/ and qifaf are that
vhich is Hio to m:in. [KINKS, hACRiKiOES.J
For that expiation which is mado by free
ing A alavc, tho word, taltr n i^ used, a wore
which Implies setting a alavc free for GodL
sake, although i.be word doe? no: in any S.>D.
menu a ransom or atonement for sin. Jt
occurs in tbc Qur an, SDrah iv. 94, " NMioso-
over kilU a believer by mistke let bin
r neck (i.e. a. Muslim slave).
EXTR A. VAGA JSTCE. Arabic L <lf
Aj^} An extravagant pfirsoa or
15
114
BYES
Srodigal is musrif, or mu&assir, and is oon-
emned in the Qur an:
Surah xvii. 28, 29 : " Waste not wastefnlly,
for the wasteful were ever the brothers of
ibe devil and the devil is ever ungrateful to
his Lord,"
Surah vii. 29 : " O sons of men, take your
ornaments to every mosque ; and eat and
drink, but be not extravagant, for He loves
not the extravagant."
EYES, Arabic l Ayn (<^**) ; pi:
Uyun, A yun, A yan. " If a pelrson strike
another in the eye, so as to force the member
with its vessels oat of the socket, there is no
retaliation in this case, it being impossible to
preserve a perfect equality in extracting an
eye. But if tbe eye reiaain in its place, and
the sight be destroyed, retaliation is to be
inflicted, as in this case equality may be
effected by extinguishing the sight of the
offender s corresponding eye with a hot iron."
(Bidayak, iv. 294.)
There is fc tradition by Mslik that the diyah
or "fine" for blinding one eye is fifteen camels/
(Mishkat. book xiv. 167.) [EVIL EYE.]
EZEKIEL. Arabic Hizqll. Not
rofmtioned by name, but there is generally
supposed to be an allusion to Ezekial s vision
of the dry bones (Ezek. xxxvii. 1) in the
Qur an, Surah ii. 244 :
" Dost thou not look at those who left
their homes by thousands, for fear of death ;
and God said to them Die, and He then
quickened them again? "
Al-Baizawi says that a number of Israelites
fled from their villages either to join in a
religious war, or for fear of the plague, and
were fltruck dead, but Ezekiel raised them
to life fgain.
The Karnalan say he is perhaps the same
as g 1-Kifl [zv !
LZBA. Arabic l lfmir. The son
of Sharahya , the scribe. Mentioned only
FA L
once by name in the Qnr &n, Surah is.
30 :
" The Jews say Uzair (Ezra) is a son of
God."
Al-Baiza/wI says that daring the Babylonish
captivity the taurat (the law) was lost,, and
that as there was no one who remembered
the law whon tLo Jtsws returned from cap
tivity, God raised up Ezra from the dead,
although he had been buried a hundred
years. And fchnt when the JOWP aw him thus
raised from the dead, they said he must be
the son of God.
This story is supposed to have been ren-
vealed in the Qur an, Surah it 261 :
" [Hast thou not considered] him who
passed by a city (which was Jerusalem),
riding upon an ass, and having with him a
basket of figs and a vessel of the juice of grapes
and he was Uzair, and it was falling down
upon its roofs, Nebuchadnezzar having ruined
it ? He said, wondering at the power of God,
How will God. quicken this after its death ?
And God caused him to die for a hundred
j years. Then He r&ieed Win to life : and He
said unto At w, How long hast thou tarried
here ? He answered I have tarried a day, or
part of a day. For he slept in the first part of
the aay, and was deprived of his /i/e, and was
reanimated at sunset. He said Nay, thou
hast tarried a hundred years : but look at
thy food and thy drink : they have not be
come changed by time: and look at thine
ass. And he beheld it dead, and UK bones white
and shining. We have done this that thou
mayt&t know, and that We may make thye a
sign of the refturrecti m unto men. And look
at the bones of thine ass, how We will raise
them ; then We will clothe them with flesh.
#o he looked at them, and they had become put
together, and were clothed with Jlesh, and life
u>as breathed into ft, and it braytd. There
fore when it had been made manifest to him
he said, I know that God is able to accom
plish everything."
FAI (^i). Booty obtained from
infidels. According: to Muhammad ibn Tahir,
/a* 5 is booty taken from a country which snb-
twts to Islam without resistance, as distin
guished from gjianimah, or plunder. The
Khallfah Umar said it was the special pri
vilege oitihe Prophet to take booty as well as
y>< undo privilege not permitted to any other
prophet.
Anf ibn Malik says the Prophet used to
divide booty on tho same day he took it, and
would give two shares to a man with a wife,
and only one share to a man without one.
(JlM/Uwt, book xvii. c. xii.)
FAITH. [IMAN.J
FAI?-I-AQDA3 (y-Jll oM, Per
sian) Communications of divine
grace made to angels and prophets and other
superior intelligences.
AL-FAJR (^t), The Daybreak."
The title of the i.xxxixth Surah of the
Qur an, in the first verse of which the word
occurs.
FA L ( j^). A good omen, as dis~
tinguished from tiyarah, " a bad omen."
Muhammad is related to have said, "Do
not put faith in a bad omen, but rather take
a good one." The people asked, " What is a
good omen ? w And he replied, " Any good
word which any of you may hear."
Ibn Abbas says, "The Prophet used to
take good omens by men s names, but he
would not take bswi omens."
Qaij an ibn Qabisah says, " The Prophet
forbade taking omens from the running of
animals, the flight of birds, and from throw
ing pebbles, which were done by the idoiators
of Arabia." (Mishkat, book xxi. e. ii.)
It is, however, very commonly practised
AL-FALAQ
amongst the Muhamuiadan^ of India. For
example, if & portion stait out on an impor
tant journey, and he meet a woman first, he
will lake it ap a bad oraen, and if he meet a
ma a he Tvill regard it * a <;ood ono.
Ai-FALAQ (OM-*-K), "The Day-
break." The title of the cxruth Surah of the
QurVin. The word sigrdnes cleaving, and de
notes the breaking forth o( the light from the
dark/I-
FALL Th* (of Adam). IB known
amongst Rfutilitn writers as zalfafu Adam,
" the ftjli," or *// / ot Adam. The terra zallnh,
" slip" or "error." bein# applied to pro-
pbettf, but not zuuib, " a sin." vhich they say
Prophets do riot oornrait.
The following is the account, of Adam s
lt stij)" ae given in tbeQur au, Siimh ii. 33:
" And yr* said, O Adam ! dwell rhou and/
thy wife in tlto Garden, and eat yo plentifully
therefrom -wherever ya Hit: bat lo this tree
come cot nig-h, lest yo become of ~.h trans
gressor*.
"Bat I?atan made thorn slip (azaJJtihunw^
from it, and caused their banishment (rom
tiit ptactf in which they were. And we said,
4 Got ye down, the one of ,vou an ouerny to the
others and ihere shall be for you in th*
eartli & dwelling-place, and a provision for a
time. *
gftiMb vH 18-24:
a And,O Adam! dwell thou and thy Wife
Jn Para d is*?. t,nH ^at ye whence ye will, bat f-o
this tree approach not, lest ye become of thd
auju->t, doers.
** Then Satan whispered them to show
them their nakedness, which had "been" bidden
from them boih. And he said, This ireo
bath yonr Tjord forbidden you, only tost fe
ftiionfd become angels, or lest ye sbonJd be
come immortals. 1
" And be hware to them both, Verily 1
aui vaito you one who connuellath aright/
" So he bt-guilcd them by deceits, and
when thoy hnd Ueicd of the trf^j. their naked
ness appe fired u> them, and they began to
sew together upon thuraselvee tbo leaves of
the g-arden. And their Lord culled to them,
* Did I not forbid you thin tvoe, and did i not
.say to you, M Verily. Satan is your declared
enemy " ?
" They suid. " our Lord I With ourselves
Ua? we dealt unjustly: if thon forgive us
not and have pity on ns, wo shall surely be
vf tboRe who perish.
He Si/id- Get y down, the one of yon an
enemy to the other ; and oa earth dhall be
youi dwplHng, and your provision for a
season.
Ho aid, On it shall ye live, and on it
shall y* diw, and from it shal] ye be taken
forth. *"
Sutah xx. 114-120 ;
14 And of old We made a covenant with
Adam ; but he forgat if; and we lound no
flrmtibfld vf}iurpo*t in him.
* And when We said to the angels, Fall
down and worship Adain, they worshipped
all. eavo EMi, who refused , and We said.
FAQIE
115
O Adam I this truly is a foe to thoe and to
thy wife. Let him not therefore drive you
out of the garden, and ye become wretched ;
" For to thee is it granted that thou shall
not hunger therein, neither shalt thou be
naked ;
* And that thou ebalt not thirst therein,
neither shalt thou parch with heat ;
"But Satan whispered him: said he, O
Adam ! shall I shew thee the tree of Eternity,
aud the Kingdom that faileth cot ?
"And they both ate thereof, and their
nakedness appeared to them, aud they began
to sew of the leave* of the Garden to cover
them, and Adam disobeyed his Lord and
weut astruy
* Afterwards his Lord chose him for him
self, And \* as turned towards him, and guided
him."
The Muslim Commentators are much per-
ploxftd as to the scene of the fail of Adam.
Prom the text of the Qur an it would appear
that the Paradise spoken of was in heaven
and not on earth ; and the tradition, that uhen
Adam was cast forth he fell on the island of
Ceylon, weuld support thi view. But al-
Baizawi says some say the Garden of Eden
was situated either in the country of the
Philistines or in Paris, and that Adam was
cast out of it and sent m the direction of
Hindustan. But this view he rejects, ind
maintains that the Garden of Eden was in the
heavens, and that the iall occurred before
Adam and Eve inhabited this earth of ours.
[EDEN.]
The Muhurninadan commentators are silent
as to the erTects of Adam s fall upon the
human race.
FALSE WITNESS. Tbe Imam
Abu HanifaK is of npinMn that * false wit
ness mn*t be publioiy stigmatised, bnt not
ch stilted with blows: but the Imams ixsh-
Shttfi-i, Fusuf, and Muhammad are of opinion
that he should be scourged and imprisoned.
In the Law of Moses, a false witness was
published with the punishment of the offence
it sought to establish. Deut. . Ilk " Thou
shalt do onto him as he had thought to do
unto his hrrthor." [EVIDENCE.]
FAN A f>Ui). Extinction. The
last stage in the $ufiistic journey, [su-
FIIteM.]
FAQIH (Mi). A Muharnmadan
lawyer or theologian. The term is still re
tained in Spanish as alfaqui. [FIQH.]
FAQIE (ytf). Persian darw&h.
The Arabic word/sr^ir signifies " poor"; but
it is need in the sense of being in need of
mercy, and poor iu the sight of God, rather
than in need of worldly assistance. Darwesh
is a Persian word, derived from dar, " a
door," i.e. those who beg from door to door.
The terms are generally used for those wno
lead a religious life. Religious faqirs are
divided into two great classes, the ba *Ar
(with ihe Uw), or those who govern their
conduct according to the principle^ of Islam ;
TAQ.I n
a.ti. I the bes/tar 1 (without, the tav*;, or those
who Jofpot rule their lives according to the
principles of any religions creed, although
they caU themselves Musulmans. The for
mer are called */*, or travellers on the
orders who perform the zikrs, described ic
the article /.IKK,
The AJajgub fakirs are totally absorbed in
religious reverie. The Azad shave their
boards, whiskers. moustach ios. eye-brows, and
eye-lashes, and lead lives of Celibacy.
Tho Azad and Maf*u& faqirs can scarcely
be said to bfc Muhammadans, as they do not
say the regular prayers or observe tho ordi
nances of Islam, so that a description of their
various sects does not fall. within the limits of
this wofk. The Salik faqirs arc divided hito
very numerous orders ; bur their chief differ
ence consists in their sifs ilah. or chain of
succession, f^otu their great teachers, the
j<jhalTfnhs Abu Bakr and Ali. who ar said
to have bean the- founders b/ the religious
order of faqirs.
It is impossible to become acquainted with
all the rules and ceremonies of the numerous
Oi-dars of /aqiis; for, like those of the Free
masons a ad other secret societies, they are
not divulged to the uninitiated.
The doctrines of the darwesh. orders aro
those of the Sufi mystics, and their religious
ceremonies consist of exercises called zikrs, or
" recitals." [ZIKR, SUPIISM.]
M. D Ohsson, in his celebrated work on tht?
Ottomnn Empire, traces the origin of the
order of faqira to the time erf Muhammad
himself :--r-
" In the first year of the Hijrah, forty-five
citizens of Makkalt jDined themselves to as
many others of ai-M sJ.dmab.. They took an
Oath of fidelity to the doctrines of their Pro
phet, and formed a sect or fraternity, the
obfect of which was to establish among
themselves a community of property, and to
perform every day certain religious practices
in a. spirit of penitence and mortification. To
distinguish themselves froiti other Muham-
rnadans, they took the name of SufiS.
[ftUFiisn.] This name, which later -was at
tributed to the ruoat seahous partisans of
Islam, is the same still in use to indicate! any
Musuhnan who retires from the world to
study, to lead a life of pious contemplation,
and to follow the most painful exercises of an
t Xggerated devotion. To the name of SufJ
thay addedSalso that of faqlr, because their
maxim was to renounce the goods of the
Mrlh, and to liVe in an entire abnegation of
all worldly enjoyments, following thereby the
words of ^the Prophet, al-faqru fokhri, or
Poverty is my. pride, Following their ex
ample, Abu Bakr and AIT established, even
during the life-time of the Prophet and under
hi3 own eyes, religious orders, over which
each presided, with Zikra or -peculiar reli
gious exereises, established by them sepa
rately, and 2. vow taken by each of the volun
tary (Hsclpiefc forming them On his decease.
FAQIK
Abu Bakr made over his office of president to
one Sabnanu 1-Farisi, and AH to al-Hasanu
l-Basrr,.and each of these charges were con
secrated under the title KhaFIfah, or suc
cessor. The two first successors followed
the example of the Khalifahs of Islam, and
transmitted it to their successors, and these
in turn to others, the, most aged and vener
able <jf their fraternity. Some among them,
led byihe delirium of the imagination, wan
dered" away from the primitive rules of their
society, and converted, from time to time,
these fraternities into a multitude of religious
orders.
" They were doubtlessly emboldened in
this enterprise by that of a reeluse who, in
the thirty-seventh year of the Hijrah (A..D
657; termed the fivst order of anchorets ot
the greatest austerity, named [Jwais al-Karnm,
a native of Karu, in Yaman, -who one day
aunoum c-d that the archangel Gabriel had
appeared to hito in a dream, and in the
aamw of the Eternal God commanded him to
withdraw from the world, and to give hirnsel/
up to a life of contemplation and penitence.
This visionary pretended also to have received
from that heavenly visitor the plan of his
future conduct, and tho rules of his institu
tion. These consisted in a continual absti
nence, in retirement from society, in an aban
donment of the pleasures of innocent nature,
and in the redul of an infinity of prayers
day and night (gilcrs). Uwais even added to
these practices. He went so far as to draw
out his teeth, In honour, It is said, of the
Prophet, vho httd lost two of his own in the
celebrated battle of Uhud. He required h>~
disciples to make the same sacrifice ~H>
pretended that all those who w<m|d be espe
cially favoured by heaven, and really called
to the exercises of bis Order, should lose
their teeth in a supernal aval tn-iinj^r; that an
angel .should draw out thoip teeth whilst in
the midst of a doep sleep ; and that on awaken
ing they should find them by their bednjcle,
The experiences of such a vocation wero
doubtless too severe to attract many prose
lytes to the order ; it only enjoyed, a certain
degree of attraction for fan&tic.s ;rad credu-
lousjj- ignorant people during the first days
of Islam. Since then it ha? remained in
Yaman, -where it originated, and v/hore its
partisans wore always bat few m number."
It was aboufc A.H. 4U (A..U. 766), that the
Shaikh^. Alwan, a tnyatic renowned for his
.eligbus fervour, founded the first regular
Dfdef of faqns, now Known as the Alwaniffafi,
with its special rules and religious exercises,
although- similar associations of men without,
strict rules bad existed from the days of Abu
Bakr, the firet Kjjallfah. And although
thei is the formal declaration of Muham
mad. " Let there be no unonasticism in Islam,"
still the inclinations of Eastern races to a
solitary and a contemplative life, carried it
evD against th<? positive opposition of ortho
dox Islam, and now there is scarcely a
maulavn o? learned man of reputation in
lalau> vfho is not a member of some religious
order.
FAQIft
&ach century gave birth to new orders,
named after their respective found?rs, but in
the present day there is no means of ascer
taining the actual numbftr of these associa-
PA.Q1U
11?
tjoi.s of mystic Muslims. M, D OhssoM, lu
the work already quoted^ gives a list of
thirty-two orders, out it is by no means com
prehensive.
No
Name of the
Order.
PuunoVr.
Place of the
Founder s Shriue
Date.
A.H.
Date
A. I..
1
Aiwa my ah . .
Shaikh. Alwan . . .
Jcddiih .
HO
7CO
2
Adfiamiyah .
Ibrahim ibn Adhaui
Damascus . .
IG1
777
i)
Bastamiyali .
Bayazid Baatami
Jftbal BaBtam
261
ctf4
I
Saqatiyah
Sirri Ssqati . .
Baghdad
295
W7
5
Q.adiriyah
Abdu I-Qfulir Jilani
Baghdad . . .
5<5l
U66
8
Rufaiv- ih . .
Saiyid Ahmad Rufai .
Baghdad
51 B
1182
7
Suhrwardi) .h
Shihabu d-Din
Baghdad
602
1205
S
Kabrawiyal .
N nitrin *d-l)in . ,
Khawaziin . . .
617
1220
u
ShawJiyah
Abu *l-l?a9an .
Makkah
656
1258
10
Maulawiyah .
Jalalu d Din Ruini .
Conyah . . .
672
1273
11
Bada.wiyftfa . .
ibn UFitan Ahmad
Tanta, Egypt
675
127
12
Naqshbandiyah
Pir M .ihammad
Qrisri Arifan
719
1310
13
Sadiyah
Sadu d-Din . .
Damascus
73<>
1335
LI
Bftkbtashfyah
Haji ttakhtasb .
Kir Sber
736
1357
15
Khalwatiyah
IJinar Khalwati .
C*sarea
900
1397
(tf
Zainiyah
Zuinu M-Din
Kufah .
833
1438
17
Babaiyah
Abdu M-Ghani .
AdriHtiuple .
870
1465
18
Bahratniyah
Haji Bfthrarni . .
Ancrora .
376
1471
10
Ashrofiyah .
Ashraf fiami . ,
Oh in Iznie
890
1493
20
Bakriyah . .
Aba Bakv Wnfai
Aleppo . . -.
902
14%
21
Sunbuliyah .
Sunbul Yusuf Bulawi
ConstHntinople
936
1529
22
G u) alia ni yah .
Ibrahim Gul.sbani
Cairo
940
1533
23
i;>hii Bashiyah
Santns i d-Din . .
Magnm.i
951
1544
24
Umra Sunaniyan .
Shaikh Umn. Sunan
CoMf>tantiiioplo
959
1552
25
Jalwatiyah .
Pir Uftadi . . .
Bvoosa .
988
ISflO
26
Asharjiyah .
Hasaou T d-Diu .
Constantinople
L001
1692
27
Shiimsiyah .
Siiamsu d-Din
Madinah . .
1010
1801
23
Suii^.n IJrumtyah .
Alitu Saaan Uiumi . ,
Alwali .
1079
1668
29
Niyazivah
Mutiamtnad Niyaz .
Lermios
1100
1694
30
M.uradiyah .
Murd Shami . . .
Coristantinople
1132
1711)
3!
Nuruddiniyait
Nuru d-Din . . ,
Constantinople
1HQ
1733
32
Jftznaliyuh
.Tamaht d-Din .
Constantinople
1164
1750
Throe of those orders, the Bastainiynh, th
Naqshbandlyah. and tho Bakhtashiyuh, de
A BASTAMI SHAIKH.
from the original ordui etblishcd by
the first KJialifah, AbQ Bakr. Tbo fourth
,
The Naqshbandlyah, who are the follo
of Khwajnh Pir Muhammad Naqshband,
KhalTfah. c Air. gave birth to all the others.
Each order has its tiitilok^ or chain c>f suc
cession, froiu one of tlieae two great
foundera,
follower.*
aro
M. v^ry numerous order. They usually per
form the Zikr-j-ftjKifi, or silent dflv.otiimfl.
clescribod in the account of ZIKR.
The first duty of the members of this
Order is to recite, daily, particular prayers,
called the khdtiin Mtatvjayan ; once, at least,
the fsliyhjur (Prayer for Forgiveness) ; seven
times the *aiamat; heven timed the FatthoJt
([tret chapter of the Qur itn); nine time.s the
chapter of the Qur un called Inshirdh (Chapter
xciv.); lastly, tlie IM/us (Chapter cxii.).
To these arc added the ceremonies culled
Zikr. [/.IKE.]
For those recitals they meet together once
a week: Ordinarily, this is on Thursdny,
and after the fifth prayer of tho day, so
that it occurs after niht fall. In c.-i^h C ty,
suburb, or quarter, the tmvmbfcrs of this
association, divided into ditT<vent bodies,
assemble u.1 the bou^e of Mieir respsctiv^ pir
or sliaikh., where, seated, they perform their
118
FAQIR
pious exercises with the most perfect gra-
tity. The shaikh, or any other brother in
his stead, chants the prayers which constitute
the association, and the assembly respond ia
chorus, Hu (He)," or " Allah 1 " In some
cities, the Naqshbandivah have especial
halls, consecrated wholly to this purpose,
and then the shaikh only is distinguished
from the other brethren by a special turban.
The Bakhtashiyah was founded by 9
native of Bokhara, and is celebrated us
being the ordor which eventually gave birth
to the fanatical order of Janissaries. The
symbol of their order is the mystic gtrdlo,
which they put off and on seven times,
saying:
1. * I tie up greediness, and unbind gene
rosity."
2. " I tie up anger, and unbind meekness.*
3. * I tie up avarice, and unbind piety."
4. I tie up ignorance, and unbind the foai
of God."
5. " I tie up passion, and unbind the love
of God."
6. " T tie up hunger, and unbind (spiritual)
contentment."
7. " I tie up Satanism and unbind Divine-
ness."
The Maulawiyah are the incut popular reli
gious order of faqlrs iu the Turkish empire,
THE MAULAWl OR DANCING DARWKSH.
They are called by Europeans, who witness
their aikrs and various religious perform
ances "at Constantinople and Cairo, the
* dancing/ or " whirling " darwesb.es. They
were founded by the Maulawl Jalalu d-din
ar-Rumi, the renowned author of the Afa&nawi.
a book much read in Peria, and, indeed, in
all parts of Islam,
They have service at their takyah, or " con-
Tent/ every Wednesday and Sunday at two
o clock. There are about twenty performers,
with high round felt capt and brown marities
At a given signal they all fall flat on their
faces, and rise and walk slowly rouud and
round with their arms folded, bowing and
turning slov?Jy several timea. Tbvy then ehel
THE MAULAWl OK OANCrSO DARWESBt
off their mantles and appear in long bell-
shaped petticoats and jackets, and then begin
to spin, revolving, dancing and turning with
extraordinary veloefty [ZIKR.]
THB MAULAWl OR DANCING DARWBgH.
The Qadiriyah sprang from the celebrated
Saiyid <Abdu 1-Qadir, sumamed Pir-i-Dasia
gir, whose shrine is at Bagdad. They preo-
tise both the Zikr-i-Jall and the gUtr-i-
Khafi. Most of the Sumii Maulawis on the
north-west frontier of India are members of
this order. In Egypt it is most popular among
fishermen.
The Chishtiyah are followers of Mu mu d- <
din Banda Nawaz, eurnamed the Givi ;
dafdz, or the " long-ringletted*" His shfin j
is at Oalburgak.
The Shl ahs generally become faqirs of this \
order. They are partial to vocal music, fo?* j
the founder of the order remarked that
FAQ.1R
singing watt the food and support of the soul
They perform the Zikr-i-Jali, described in
the article on ZIK.IL
The Jalallyah were founded by Saiyid
Jal&!u d-dln, of Bukhara. They are met
with in Central Asia,. Religious mendicants
are often of this order.
The SuhrwardTyah are a popular order in
Afghanistan, and comprise a number of learned
men. They are the followers of Shihabu d-
dm of Suhrward of al- Iraq. These are th
most noted orders of ba shar* faqirs.
The be sAar* faqirs are very numerous.
The most popular order in India is that
of the Murdiriyah. founded by Zinda
Shah Murdar, of Sy ia, whose shrine is at
Makanpur, in Oudh. From these have sprung
the Malang faqirs, who crdwd the bazaars of
India. They wear their hair matted and tied
in a knot. 7 he Rufanyah order is also a nume
rous one in some parts of India. They prac
tise the most severe discipline, and mortify
themselves by boating their bodies. They are
known in Turkey and Egypt as the * Howl-
ing Darweshes.*
Another well-known order of darwoshes is-
tbe Qalandarlyah, or" Wandering Darweshes,"
founded by Qalandar Yusuf al-AndalusT, a
PAQIB
119
A QALANDAB.
native of Spain. He wnsfor a time a member
of the BakJitawhTs ; but having been dismissed
from the ordr, ho establish cJ one of his own,
with the obligation of perpetual travelling.
The Qslamlpr faqir is a prominent character
In Eastern romance.
Bach order is established on different prin
ciples, and has its mlos and statutes and
peculiar devotions. These characteristics ex -
tend even to the garments worn by their fol-
lowora. Each order has, in fact, a particular
dress, and amongst the greater part of them
this is chosen so as to mark a difference in
that of the shaikh from that of the ordinary
members. It is perceived principally in the tur
bans, the shape of the coat, the colours, and tho
nature of the stuff of which the dresses are
made. The shaikhs wear robes of green or
white cloth ; and any of those who in winter
line them with fur, use that kind called petit
gris and zibaline martin. Few darweslies use
cloth for their dress. Black or white felt dresses
called abd\ such as are made in some of the
cities of Anatolia, are the most usual Those
TH SHAIKH OF THE DANCING DAKWE8HK6 AT
CAIRO. (From a Photograph.)
who wear black felt are the Jalwattia and
the Qadiris. The latter have adopted it for
their boots, and muslin for their turbans.
120
FAQIR
Souie, such as the Maulawi* and the BakrTs,
wear tall caps called kutahs, made also of felt :
and others, such as the Rufaus, use short
caps called Taqfyah. ^ o wn ieh is added a
coarse cloth. Tho head-dress of almost all
the clarwesbes is called try, which signifies
a "crown." These turbans are of different
forms, either from the manner in which the
muslin is folded, or by the euk of the cloth
which covers tho top of the head. The cloth
AN EGYPTIAN FAKIK. (From Photograph. )
is in several gores. Some nave four, as the
Adharais ; some six. as the Qadhis and
the Sa dls : the Guishanis have eight : the
Bakhtashis twelve ; and the Jalwatis eighteen.
><N EGYPTIAN FAQIK. (From a, Photograph.)
The darweshes carry about with them one
or other of the following articles t a small
FAQIB
crooked stick or iron, which the devote*
places under his arm-pit or forehead, to leai
upon when he meditates, or an iron or Imisj
bnr on which there is d little artificial hand
wherewith to scratch his unwashed body, i
bag made of lamb-skin, a kashkul or beg
gar s wallet.
Generally, all the darweshes allow theii
beards nod mustaebios togrow. Some of th<
orders the Qadiris, Rufa Ts, Khalwatis, Gui-
shanis, Jalwatis, and the Nuru d-dlnJs still
wear long hair, in memory of the usage of th<
Prophet and several of bis disciples. Some
allow their hair to fall over their ehculders
others tie it up and put it under their turban,
Whilst private Musulmans are in the habii
of holding rosaries of beads as a pastime, the
darweshes do the same, only in a spirit oi
religion and piety. These rosaries hav<
thirty- three, sixty-six, or ninety-nine beads,
which is the number of the attributes of the
Divinity [GOD]. Some havo them always ic
their hands, others in their girdles ; and al
are required to recite, several times during
the day, the particular prayers of their order,
[TASBIH.]
The individual who desires to enter an
order is received in an assembly of the fra
ternity, presided over by the shaikh, \ho
touches his hand and breathes in hia ear
three times the words, " La ilaha ilia Hah "
(" There is no god but God "), commanding
him to repeat them 101, 151, or 301 tiroes
eacli day. This ceremony is called the
Talgin. The recipient, faithful to the orders
of his chief, obligates himself to spend his
time in perfect retirement^ and to report to
the shaikh the visions or dreams which bu
may have during the course of his novitiate.
These dreams, besides characterising the
sanctity of his vocation, and his spiritual
advancement in the order, serve likewise as
so many supernatural means to direct the
sheikh regarding the periods when he may
again breathe in the ear of the neophyte the
second words of the initiation, * Yd Allah t n
("O God! "), and successively all the others
to the last, " Yd Qahhdr ! " ( avengeful
God J "). The full complement of this exer
cise is called ChiHek, or " forty days," a
period sometimes, even longer, according to
the dispositions, more or less favourable, of
the candidate. Arrived at the last grade of
his novitiate, he is then supposed to have
fully ended hia career, called TakmiJu- V
Suful, and acquired tho degree of perfec
tion for his solemn admission into the corps
to which he has devoted himself. Duringf
all his novitiate, the recipient bears the name
of Muriel, or " Disciple," and the shaikh who
directs him in this pretended celestial career
cakes the title- of MtinsJritf, or " Spiritual
Guide."
The founder of the Alwania laid out thai
first rules of this novitiate ; they were sub-
seqnentiy perfected by the institution of the
Qsi.diria, and more ao by the Khalwatis.
The darweshes of these two last societies are*
distinguished in some countries by the deco- 1
ration of their turban, on the top of which
FAQJfc
<ire embroidered the words " LeT rlahn ilia
lloh " (There is no god but God).
The tests of tho novice among- the Maula-
wis se&m to be still more severe, and the
reception of these dervishes is attended with
ceremonies peculiar to their order. The
aspirant is 7-equired to labour in the convent
Or toJcyah 1,001 successive days in the lowest
gr&de, on which account he is called tho
knrru kdnk (jackal). If be fails in this
service oul/ one day, oi is absent one
night, he is obliged to recommence his. novi
tiate. The chief of the kitchen, or </s/i/V-
AasAf, one of the moV notable of the dar-
weshes, p^|5ents him to the shaikh, wbo^
seated in an angle of the .sofa, receiva hiru
aivuH 4 general assembly of all the darwesbos
of tho convent. The candidate kissea the
hand of tb shaiklj, and takes a seat before
him on a mat, which covers the fleor of the
ball., The chief of the kitchen places bis
right baud on the neck, and his loft hand oo
the forehead of the novice, whilst the shaikh.
takes off hir. cap and holds it ovr his beftd,
reciting th*? following Pers mn rUsUch* th* com
position of tho founder of the order :
>; It is true greatness and felicHy to close
the heart to s*li human passions; the aban
donment of the vanities of this world is the
bappy effect of the victorious strength given
by the grace of our Holy Prophet."
These verses are followed by the exor
dium of the Takbir, Afahu okbor God is
ijreat." after \\hich the shaikh covers the
bend of the new davwesh, who now rise?: and
places himself wi&b th<? AshjibashI in the
middle of the hall, whej O they assume the
nost humble posture, their hands crossed
upon the breast, the left ~foot over tho - rigrbt
root, find- tho head inclined towards thaleft
ihonMer. The shaikh address^ thes* words
rp \\\f* liead of the kitchen:
" May the services of this riarwesh. thy
Brother, he Mgro^ab e to the throne of l)
EteKml, iii-d ;n th- -ryes of cur PTr fthe
fouivler of tbe ord< j r); may hi^ satisfaction,-
lis felicity, und his glery o^row in this nest
>f the humble, in the rt-ll of the poor;
let us ercla. iii ff" in h 011011 f o\lr
PAQ1K
121
They answer "// /" ;nid the accepted
novice, dri sinsr from his place,
band of the shaikh, who at this
undresses to him soinn jjutcrn*>J exhortmions
on the Rubjeut of the duties of his HPW condi-
rion. :iud closes by ordering all tho darweshes
jf tha meeting to recop.nise und embrace their
new brother.
The following 13 said to bt? the usual
method of admitting a liuhftanuubUB to the
order of a ba <hof faqiv in India. JUviri^
fn-fct performed the legal ftbhitions, the murid
[disciplel <f?nts himself before the uiurshit.!
[Spiritual guide). The tnurshid then takes
the murid s right hand, and requires of him
\ confession of sm according to the following
form ;
" I o.sk toriv<nS4 >! the great God than
Whom there is no other deity, the Eternal,
the Everlasting, thr. Living One: I turh to
Him for repentance, and beg His grace and
forgiveness."
Thfs, or a similar form oF vtrpomancp, is
repeated several times. The tnund then
repeat^ after the rnurshid :
" I beg- for the favour of Ood and of the
Prophet, -and I take for my, guide to God
ouch H one (here naming the murshid) not to
change or to separate from him. God is our
witness. By the great God There i& no
deity but God. Amen "
The murshid end t.he murid then recite
the first chapter of the Qur an, and the uiurfd
concludes the ceremony by kissing the
hand.
After the initiatory rite, (he murid under
a series of instructions, including- tho
ij itr.?, which be la required to repeat dcily.
The murid frequently visits his murshid and
sometimes the murshids ptoceeJ on a circuit
of visitation to their disciples. The place
where these holy men" sit dcwi: to instruct
tha people is ever aftrverus h^ld <;acrod, a
small flag is hoisted on a tree, and it is fenced
in. Hurh places ar-? called " taki/ n i, and nrQ
profccted and kept tree fnnry pollution by
soioe fa ilr *-ngegecl for the purpose.
Another account of Ih? admission of a
murtdyor disciple." into the order of Qnrli-
rfyah faqirs. is given by Tawakfcul Reg inthe
Having been, mtroftuceti 07 Akhund
Mulla Mubamroad to SbaiKh Mulia Sbah, my
heart, tb.ruugh freqneot intercourse with
him, ws filled with such a burning- desire
to arrive at a true knowledge of the mystics]
science, that 1 found no sleep by nigh I, nor
rest by day. When the initiation commenced.
T paa-s^d the whole night, without sleep, and
repeated innumerflb!- 1 tims the Siirato M-
IMilas :-
Say : He is Ood aon ;
Gotl the etornl :
He brgetteth non, nnd He Is not be
gotten :
Arid the i " > like unto Hiru.
"all ti? ii.y
" Who?ot*r repeats this Suii . t on hunriif-u
tiroes oat; 3ccot p i;-:n nil his ^u\vs. I :lc,si:-cd
thai; tho shaikh should bostow on ino hia
lovt. No ^oonei h-id i linisj-j-u my task.
rh>in the heirt of t^e shaikh heoamw full of
sympathy forme. On the following night f
was conducted to his presence. During tb*
"whole of that ni^ht he OODfefelltnutoa his
ttiouehts on me, whilst 1 3v mys,.->lf up ;>
inward meditation Three niglits passtui i <
tin s way. (>n the fourth ipht tho shaikji
Mid: I*t Mulla SanghTm and Saiih Brg,
who ere very susceptible to ecstatic Q0M>-
!i "r.s. apply their spiritual Rnerg-ios to Ta-
wakkul bp-2f.
f - Thoy d d so, whilst I passed fbe whole
night in meditation, wit.n my face turned to
ward Makkah. As th morn ino Jrevs- near,
a little liftht came into my mmd, out I could
not, di;1inuish form or c olour. After the
morning- prayers, T was taken to the fhaikt
who hado me nforn; him of my uienta!
3l?te I repliod that I had seen a light witb
16
122
FAQIR
my inward eye. On hearing this, the shaikh
became animated and said : 4 Thy heart is
dark, but the time is come when I will show
myself clearly to thee. He then ordered
me to sit down in front of him, and to im
press his features on my mind. Then having
blindfolded me, he ordered me to concentrate
all my thoughts upon him. I did so, and in
an instant, by the spiritual help of the shaikh,
my. heart opened. He asked me what I saw.
I said that I saw another Tawakkul Beg and
another Mulla Shah. The bandage was then
removed, and I saw the shaikh in front of
me. Again they covered my face, and
again I saw him with my inward eye.
Astonished, I cried: *0 master i whether I
look with iny bodily eye, or with my spiritual
sight, it is always you I see. I then saw a
dazzling figure approach me. The shaikh
told me to say to the apparition, What is
your name? In my spirit I put the ques
tion, and the figure answered to my heart :
<I<am *Abdu 1-Qadir al-Jilani, I hare already
aided thee, thy heart is opened. Much
affected, I vowed that in honour of the saint,
I would repeat the whole Qur an every Friday
night.
" Mulla Shah then said : The spiritual
world has been shown to Ihee in all its
beauty. I then rendered perfect obedience
to the shaikh. The following day I saw the
Prophet, the chief Companions, and legions of
saints and angels. After three months I en
tered the cheerless region in wbk-h the
figures appeared no more. During the whole
of this time the shaikh continued to explain
to me the mystery of the doctrine of the
Unity and of the knowlege of God ; but as
yet he did not show me the absolute reality.
It was not until a year had passed that I
arrived at the truo conception of unity* Then
in words such, as these I told the shaikh of
my inspiration, * I iook upon the body as
only dust and water, 1 regard neither my
heart nor my soul, alas 1 that hi separation
from Thee (God) so much of my life has
passed. Thou ivert 1 and I knew it not.
The shaikh wa* delighted, and said that the
truth of the union with God was now clearly
revealed to ine. Then addressing those who
were present, he said :
a Tawakkul Beg learnt from me the doc
trine of the Unity, his inward eye has been
opened, the spheres of colours and of images
have been shown to him. At length, he
entered the colourless region. He has now
attained to the Unity ; doubt and scepticism
henceforth have no power over him. No one
sees the Unity with the outward eye, till the
inward eye gain* strength and power. "
Each institution imposes on its darweshes
the obligation to recite certain passages at
different times of the day in private, as well
as in common with others. Several ha.ve
also practices which are peculiar to them
selves, and which consist in dances, or rather
religious circular movements. In each con
vent there is a room consecrated to these
exercises. Nothing is simpler than its con
struction; it contains no ornaments of any
nature ; the Huddle of the room, turned to
wards Makkah, contains a nicho or mifyrdb, in
front of which is a small carpet, mostly made
of the skin of a sheep, on which the shaikji of
the community reclines ; over the niche the
name of the founder of the order is written.
In some halls this inscription is surmounted
by 7 two others one containing the Confession
of Faith, and the other the words " Bismil-
lah," &c. (" In the name of God, the most
Clement and Merciful.") In others are seen
on the wall to the right and the left of the
niche tablets, on which are written in large
letters the name of God (Allah), that of Mu-
hainiuad, and those of the four first Khalif ahs.
At others are seen the names of al-Hasan
and al-Husain, grandsons of the Prophet,
and some verses of the Qur an, or others of a
moral character.
The exercises which are followed in these
halls are of various kinds, a description of
which is given in the account of ZIKB.
The more zealous faqirs devote themselves
to the most austere acts, and shut themselves
up in their cells, so as to give themselves up
for whole hours to prayer and meditation;
the others pass very often a whole night in
pronouncing the words Hit and Allah^ or
rather the phrase. La ildha ilia, V/aA. So as
to drive away sleep from their eyes, some of
them stand for whole nights in very uncom
fortable positions. They sit with their feet
m the ground, the two hands resting upon
their knees : they fasten themselves in this
attitude by a band of leather passed over
theii neck and legs. Others tie their hair
with a cord to the ceiling, and call this usage
Chillehi There are some, also, who devote
themselves to an absolute retirement from
the world, and to the most rigid abstinence,
living only on bread and water for twelve
days successively, in honour of the twelve
Imams of Ihe race of AH. This retirement is
called Khalwah. They pretend that the
shaikh Arnr Ehalwatf was the first to fol
low it, and that he often practised it. They
add that one day, having left his retirement,
he heard a celestial voice saying, "O Ainr
Khalwati, why dost thou abandon us ? and
that, faithful to this oracle, he felt himself
obliged to consecrate the rest of his days to
works of penitence, and even to institute an
order under the name of Khalwatis, a name
signifying " living in retirement." For this
reason, darwesbes of this order consider it
their duty, more than any others, to live in
solitude and abstinence. The more devoted,
among them observe sometimes a painful
fast of forty days consecutively, called by
them al-artyaun (forty). Amongst them all
their object is the expiation of their skis, the
sanctification of their lives, and the glorifica
tion of Islam ; the prosperity of the state, and
the general salvation of the Muhammadan
people. The most ancient and the greatest
of the orders, such as the Alwanis the Ad-
hamis, the Qadins, the Kufa is, the Naqiih-
bandia, the Khalwatis, &c., are considered as
the cardinal orders ; for which reason thev
call themselves the /$&, or " Originate, "
FAQIB
They give to the others the names of the j
Fwru , or " Branches." signifying thereby
secondary ones, to designate tbeir filiation
or emanation from the drat. The order of
the Naqshbandis and Khalwatis hold, how
ever, the first rank in the temporal line ; the
one on account of the conformity of its sta
tutes to the principles of the ten first con
fraternities, and to the lustre which causes
the grandees and principal citizens of the
empire to incorporate themselves in it ; and
the other, because of its being the source of
the mother society which gave birth to many
others, In the spiritual line, the order of
the Qadiris, Maulawis, Bakhtashis, Rufa is,
and the Sa dis, are the most distinguished,
especially the three nrst, on account of the
eminent sanctity of their founders, of the mul
titude of the miracles attributed to them, and
of the superabundance of the merit which is
deemed especially attached to them.
Although all of tbem are considered as
mendicant orders, no darweeh is allowed to
beg, especially in public. The only exception
is among the Bakhtashis, who deem it meri
torious to live by alms ; and many of these
visit not only private houses, but even the
streets, public squares, bureaux, and public
houses, for the purpose of recommending
themselves to the charity of their brethren.
They only express their requests by the
words " Skayid Uttdh? a corruption from
tt Shayun li-Uah? which means, " Something
for the love of God." Many of these make it
a rule to live only by the labour of their
hands, in imitation of Haji Bakhtaeh. their
founder; and, like him, they make spoons.
ladles, graters, and other utensils, of wood or
marble. It is these, also, who fashion the
pieces of marble, white or veined, which are
used as collars or buckles for the belts of
all the darweahes of their order, and the
kcuhJculs, or shell cups, in which they are
obliged to ask alms.
Although in no wise bound by any oaths,
all being free to change their community, and
even to return to the world, and there to
adopt any occupation which may please their
fancy, it is rarely that anyone makes use of
this liberty. Each one regards it as a sacred
duty to end his days in the dress of his order.
To this spint of poverty and perseverance, in
which they are sp exemplary, must be added
that of perfect submission to their superior.
This latter is elevated by the deep humility
which accompanies all thejr conduct, not
only in the interior of the cloisters, but even
in private life. One never meets them any
where but "with head bent and the most
respectful countenance. They never salute
anyone, particularly the Maulawis, and the
Bakhtashis, except by the exclamation, " Ya
Hu I " The words At bi- Uah, " thanks to God,"
frequently are used in their conversation : and
the more devout or enthusiastic speak only
of dreams, visions, celestial spirits, super
natural objects, Ac.
They are seldom exposed to the trouble
and vexations of ambition, because the mo. n
ancient danreahea are those whc may aspire
PARAQL1T
123
to the grade of skuii&h, or superior of the
convent. The shaikh* are named by their
respective generals, called the Raisu 1-
Mnsha ikh (chief of shaijchs). Those of the
Maulawfo have the distinctive title of Che-
leby Efendi. All reside in the same cities
which contain the ashes of the founders of
their orders, called by the name of Astaneh
signifying ; the court." They are aabordi-
nate to the Mufti of the capital, who exer
cises absolute jurisdiction over the^n. In the
Turkish Empire the Shaikjm l-Islam bas the
right of removing all the generals of the Ca
rious orders, even those of the Qadiris, the
Maulawis, and of the Bakhtashis. although
the dignity be hereditary in their lamiJy, on
account of their all throe being sprung from
the blood of tbu same founders of their
orders. The Mu/t i has likewise the right to
confirm the shaikhs who may Ue noinijiated
by any of the* gouerals of the orders.
(3eo The Denrighf.s or Oriental Spiritualism,
by John P. Brown ; Malcolm s Persia ; Lane s
Modern Egyptians : D Ohsson s Ottoman Jm-
pire ; Ubicini s Letters on Turkey : Herkk>tt s
Mu*almaau\ Tazkiratv l-Auliyd. by Shaikh
Farldu d-Din aP
FAQR (/>). The life of a Faqir
or an ascetic.
FAR A (&*). The first-born of
either camels, sheep, or goats, which the
Arab pagans used to offer to idols. This
was allowed by the Prophet at the com
mencement of his mission, but afterwards
abolished. (Mishkdt, book iv. c. 50.)
FARl IZ (o^V), pi. of Fwrlzah.
" Inheritances. " A term used for the law of
inheritance, or flmu t-Farffiz. Farizah means
literally an ordinance of God, and this, branch
of Muslim law is so called because it is esta
blished fully in the Qur an, Surah iv. [IKHK-
FAJRAQ (j/). Lit. " Separation."
Faraq-i- Avowal is a term used by Sufi
mystics to express that state of mind in which
the soul is drawn away from a contempla
tion of God by a contemplation of his crea
tion ; and faraq-i-?ani (the second separa
tion) is when the soul is constantly contem
plating the stability of the creation with the
eternity of the Creator. ( Abdu r-Razzaq s
Dictionary of Sufi Terms.}
FARAQLlT (WjVi) The Arabic
rendering of the Greek irapaxA7/ros, u Para
clete." Muhammadan writers assert that it
is the original of the word translated A.(unad
in the following verse in the Qur an. Surah
Ixi. v. 6:
"And call to mind when Jesus, son of.
Mary, said : O children of Israel I Verily I
am an Apostle of God unto you, attesting the
Taurdt revealed before me, and giving good
tidings of a Prophet that shall come after
whose name is Ahmad."
Aijmad is another derivative of the root to
which Muhammad belongs, signifying, like it,
1 24 FARSAKH
"the Praised." It is not improbable that in
some imperfect copies of St. John xvi. ?
Tra,pdi<\r)To<; may. have been rendered TTC/H-
K-A.VTO9, which in some early Arabic, transla
tion of the Gospel may have been translated
Ahmad, Li the Majma u l-Bibor, a wort
written three hundred years a?o, the word
faraqlit is said to me&A distinguisher b-
tween truth and error The word also occurs
sovrera! times in the -well-known ShT ah work,
the Hat/ (tit Y-Qw//76 (#ife Merrick l transla
tion, page 80). The author says, * ; It i* well
known that his (The Prophet s) name in th*
Taurar is Afiiaaawad, In the gospels (Injil)
Tabtab, and in Lne Psaims (ZobSr) Warnk-
teet" And sgah (p 308), "God said to
Jesns, Son of my handmaid . . . verii\
1 will send the chosen of prophets, Ahioad.
whom I Ijaye Selected of all my creatures.
even Feffafatf my friend and servant.
[JBSUS.J
FAESAKH (cV>- Persian Far-
sang. A land measure which recurs in M-
hemaiadsn books of law, ft is a league ot
18.000 feet, pr three and a half miles in
length.
FAKWA.H (V)- An Arab of the
nu JuEflm and Governor of Amman, who
1*3 represented by tradition (upon imperfect
evidence) as one of the early martyrs of
Ularn. Having be*>n converted to Islam, the
Roman authorities crucified him, (Muir fl
Liff of Mahomet, vol. ii. p. 103.)
FAR? (</y)- Thai, which is obli
gatory A term u;oc for those rules and or-
dinauees of religion which ar* said to have
been established and enjoined by C.Jod Him
self, cs distinguished from tbose which are
established upon Hie praeept or practice cf
the Prophet, u no) w>p*h a r e filled sunnah.
FAJ?Z KIFA l (<jJ\tf u*^. A
command which is imyoratlve (jurx) upon.
&il .Muslims, Lvt which if one person in eight
or ten performs it., it is sullieiem (kifa i), or
Equivalent to ail having performed it.
Thy are generally heitl to be ftv<^ in num
ber : (i) To rotui-i . salutation : (2) To jifc.ii-
the sick and inquire after their welfare; fS)
Te follow a bier on fW to the grave : (4) To
accept an ujviisition to dinner; (5) Replying
to 4 sneeze. [SNBBZIHG.]
They are also said to ho six or seven m
number, whn there are added one or two
of the following: (1) To give advice when
aeked tor it; (I) To help a Muslim tc
verif/ hh oat.lv; (3) To assist a person in
distress. A.bdu 1 -Haqq says this last injunc
tion applies to all cases, wbelber tihat of
Muslim or an infidei. (Mishko.t, book v. cM
part I.)
FARZU *L-*AJN ((^ yifi). An
injunction or ordinance the obligation of
which extends to every Muslim, as prayer,
fd sting 1 , Af.
FA SID (ou*\i). A seditious or re
bellious person
FASTING
FASJQ (<>* J. A term usea ju
Muhamniaclan lav* for a reprobate person
who neglects docornm in his dress and beha
viour. The acceptance of sueh a person s evi
dence is not admissible. He is not regarded
as a Muslim citizen, although ho may profess
Ealam.
FASTING. Arabic Saum ( f y)\
Persian Rozah ( 6 jj>). Fasting was
highly commended by Muhammad as ait
fttonomeut for in. The following are the
fast5 founded upon the example of the Pro
phet and observed by devout Muslims;
(1) The thirty-days of the mouth of JRama-
zan. This mouth s fast is regarded as a
divine institution, being enjoined in the
Qur an ( Surah ii. 180) and is therefore corn
pulsory. [RAMAZAN.]
(2) The day l Askurd\ The tenth day of
the month Muharram. This is a voluntary
fast, but it is pretty generally observed by all
Muslims, for Abu Qatadah relates that the
Prophet said he hoped that the fast of
Asijura would cover the sins of the cotuing
year. (Mis/Jcdt, book vii .eh. vii. pt. 1.)
[ ASHURA .J
(3) The six days following the Ida V-J^ jr.
Abu Aiyiib relates thai the Prophet said,
" The person who fasts the month of Rama-
Kan, and follows it up -with six days of the
month of Shawwal, will, obtain the rewards of
a continued fas*," (Mishk&ti book v. ch. vii.
pt, 1.)
(4) The Monday and Tharsday of every
week are recommeVided as fast days, as dis
tinguished from the Christian fast of Wed
nesday. Abu Hurairah relates that tbe Pro
phet said, " The actions of God s servants
are represented at the throne of Gcd on
Mondays and Thursdays." (Mishkat, book
vii. ch. vii. pt. 2.) These days are only
observed by strictly religious Muslims.
(5) The month of Sba ban. vAyishah re
lates that " the Prtjphet o&ed Sometimes to
fast part of this month find SOmetunea the
whole." \Mishkat, book vii. ch. vii. pt. ].).
ft 3s seldom observed in the present day.
(6) The 13th, I4(h, .tad 15tli of each
month. These days arc* termed ai-vayanw. V-
biz, i.e. the bright doy^, and were observed by
Muhammad himself as fasts. (Mhhkat, hook
vii. ch. vii. pt. 2) These nre generally ob
served by devout Muslims-
(7) Fasting" alternate days, which Muhurn-
road Sflid w^S th fast observed bj r David.
King of Israel. ( ftfisJfkat, book vii. cb. vii.
pt. l .)
In the Traditions, fasting is commended by
Muhammad in the following words :
" Every good act lhat a man does shall
eceive frotn ten to fjeven hundred rewards,
.nit th rewards of fasting arc beyeud hounds,
for fasting- is for GoJ alone, and Ho will give
its rewards.*
" HP who faats abandons the cravings of
his appetites for God s sake."
u There ai-e two pleasures in fasting-, one
when the person who fasts breaks it, and the
other in the next world when he meets his
FATE
Lord. The very smell oi tbo mouth of
keeper of a fast is rnors agreeable to God
than tho smell of musk."
" Fasting- is a shield."
:i Wiaeo any ot you fast utter no bad worri*,
nor raise ytxir voice in strife. If anyone
ah use one who 13 lasting, let him refrain from
replying; let him say that he IE keeping a
fast," (Mtshkcit. book vii. cli. i. pt. 1.)
FATE. [PREDESTINATION. I
AL-FATH (es*H), "The victory. 1
The title of the XLvmth Surah of the Quran,
in the first verse of which t.he word occurs.
(t Verily We (God) have given thee an obvious
victory, tbdt Ood may pardon thee thy for
mer .in d later sm. 1
Professor Palmer say a " Soqj* of thr com
mentators take this to mean sins committed
by Muhammad before .his call and after it.
Others rofei* tha word to the Unison with tho
Coptic handmaiden Mary, and to bis mar
riage with Za J nab, the \vife of his adopted son
Zaid." N T one of the commentators we have
consulted, including al-Bai2awI, al-Jalalan,
al-K&malan, and Husain, give the last; in
terpretation, They all say it refers to his
sins before and after his.ctfil lo the Apostle-
ship.
FATHER. In the tktnm law of
inheritance, a father is a sharer in the pro
perty of his son or son s son, taking one-sixth,
but *if his son dio unmarried and without
issue, the father is the residuary and takes
the whole.
According to the law of <fi$a? or reta^ia-
tion, if a father take the life of hie son. he is
hot to be slain, for the Prophet has said,
"Retaliation musJ. not be erecuted upon tbe
parent for his offspring"; and Aba Hanlfnh
adds, "because as the parent is the efficient
cause of his child s existence, it is not proper
that th* child should require or be the occasion
of tli? father s dentJj "; whence it is that a son
is forbidden to shoot his father, when in tht:
trmy of the enemy, or to throw a. atone at
hitti, if suffering lopidutiou for adultery.
In tho law of evidence, the testimony of d
father for or ogainst his child IR not admitted
in a court of law.
AL-FATIHAH (*-uM). Lit. "The
opening one." The first chapter of the
Qur an, called also the Surcrtu l-Ham<f< or
th^ "Chapter of Praise." It is h*ld in great
veneration by Muhammadanr,, find .* used by
them very much as the Faternffster is recited
by Roman Gatholies. It is related over sick
persons as a means of healing flnd also
fecited as an intercessien for the souls of tho
departed, anrl orcur.s in each ruk ah of tho
daily prayer. Muhan(id is related to lutve
said it was the greatest Surah in the Qur nn.
and to have called it the Qur anu l- Ai tm, or
the " exalted reading." It is also entitled
th:-. Satfrf-Mavtm or Jhe "seven rv.itaK"
as it contains Seven verses; also fJinmu /
Quran, the < Mother of the Qur ftn." Accord-
AL-FATIMIYAH
125
ing- to a saying of the Prophet, the fiitihah
wa3 revealed twice; once at Makkah and
once at al-Madinah. The Amln is always said
at the conclusion of this prayer.
The following transliteration of the AraMc
of the Fatihah into English characters may
give some idea of the rhybbm in which the
Qur an is written :
Al-tuimrhi fi~ /lahi fobbi l- atamin.
Ar-rahmani r-rahlm.
MLaliki yaumi 4-din.
fiiako na bvdu, wa-iuaka nasfa in.
ihdina $-$irata I-w
Strata. Ua$wa arfamta
Grhatri l-magfifutti *alaihim t wait z-
Which iu translated by llodwoll in his English
Qur an as follows:
u Praise be to Ood, Lord of all the world 3 :
The Compassionate, the Merciful !
King on the E>ay of Judgment !
Thoe do we worship, and to Thee do we
cry for help !
Guide Thou us on the right path !
The path of fhose to whom Thou art
gracious I
Not of those with whom Thou art ah
gered, nor of those who go astray."
FATIMAK (W,U). A daughter
of Muhammad, by his.iirat wife KhadTjah.
She married Ali Vhe cousin of Muhammad, by
whom she h:id three sons,al-fiasan, al- Husain,
and al-Mnhshi; the latter died in infancy.
From the two former are descended the pos
terity of the Prophet, known as Saiyids.
FRtimah died six months after her father.
She is spoken of by the Prophet, ns one of the
four perfect women, and is called r/-/fe#/?/, or
"the Virgin," by whi^b is meant one -who hart
renoonced the World, also Fdtimatu z-
zuhrff, or <f the beautiful Fatimah."
There are three women of the name of
Fatimah mentioned in rhe Traditions: (I)
Patimah, the daughter of Muhammad ; (2)
The mother of All; (3) The daughter of
Ham/a.h. the uncle of Muhammad.
AL-FATIMI Y A H (4^UI\). The
Fatimides." A dynasty of Khalifahs who
tigno<l over Egypt and North Africa- froru
A.D. 903 to A.O. U7T. They obtained Jhe
parne frotn the pretensions of thp founder of
their dynasty Abu Muhammad Ubaidu
Mali, who asserted that ho was a SMvid,
and descended from Fatiunah, the daughtor
of che Prophet and s AIT. His opponents de
clared he was the grandson of a Jew of the
Magiau religion.
There were in all fourteen KhalTfah.n ot
this dynasty :
1. *Ul>aidn lf<i/i, the first Faliniide rvuali-
fah, was born A.D. 882. Ha*. IMS? inourrcd the
displeasure of al-Muktftfi, the reigning Abab-
sidt? Khallfah. ne was obliged to wander
through various parls of Africa, till through
forltmate cirrnmstanres he waa raised in
A.O. 910 from a dungeon in Segelmessa to
soveroign power. He assumed the title of
al-Mahdl. or "the Director of the Faithful. 1
126
AL-FATIMIYAH
[MAHDI.] He subdued the Amirs in the
north of Africa, who had become independent
of the Abassides, and estabiiched Ms autho
rity from the Atlantic to the borders of
Egypt. He founded Mahadi on the site of
the ancient Aphrodisium, a town on the coast
of Africa, about a hundred miles south of
Tunis, and made it his capital. He became
the author of a great schism among the Mu-
hamniadans by disowning the authority of
the Abassides, and assuming the titles of
Khalif ah and Amiru 1-Mu minm, " Prince of
the Faithful." His fleets ravaged the coasts
of Italy and Sicily, and his armies frequently
invaded Egypt, but without any permanent
success.
(2) Al-Qa im succeeded hia father in A.D.
933. During his reign, an impostor, Abu
Yazid, originally an Ethiopian slave, advanced
certain peculiar doctrines in religion, which
he was enabled to propagate over the whole
of the north of Africa, and was so successful
in his military expeditions as to deprive al-
Qa im of all his dominions, and confine him to
his capital, Mahadi. which he was besieging
when al-Qa hn died.
(3) Al-Man$ur succeeded his father in
A.D. 946, when the kingdom was in a
state of the greatest confusion. By his valour
and prudence he regained the greater part of
the dominions of his grandfather Ubaidu
Rah, defeated the usurper Abu Y azid, and laid
the foundation of that power which enabled his
son al-Mu izz to conquer Egypt.
(4) Al-Mu izz (A.D. 955) was the most
powerful of the Fatimide Khalif a hb. He was
successful in a naval war with Spain, and
took the island of Sicily; but his most cele
brated conquest was that of Egypt, which
was subdued in A.D. 972. Two years after
wards he removed his court to Egypt, and
founded Cairo. The name of the Abasside
Khalif ah was omitted in the Friday prayers,
and his own substituted in its place ; from
which time the great schism of the Fatimide
and Abasside Khalifahs is more frequently
dated than from the assumption of the title
by Ubaidu llah. The armies of al-Mu izz
conquered the whole of Palestine and Syria as
far as Damascus.
( 6) Ate Aziz (A.D. 978). The dominions re
cently acquired by al-Mu izz were secured to
the Fatimide Khalif aha by the wise govern
ment of his son, al- Aziz, who took several
towns in Syria. He married a Christian
woman, whose brothers he made patriarchs
of Alexandria and Jerusalem.
(6) Ai-H&fdm was only eleven years of age
when he succeeded his father in A.D. 996.
He is distinguished even among Oriental
despots by his cruelty and folly. His tyranny
caused frequent insurrections in Cairo. He
persecuted the Jews and Christians, and
burnt their places of worship. By his order
the Church of the Resurrection at Jerusalem
was destroyed (A.D. 1009). His persecutions
of the Christiana induced them to appeal to
their brethren in the West, and was one of
the causes that Jed to the crusades. He
carried his folly so far as to seek to become
AL-FATIMIYAH
the founder of a new religion, and to assert
that ne was the express image of God. lit
was assassinated in A.X> 1021, and was suc
ceeded by his sou.
(7) A%-tihir (A.D. 1021) was not so cruel*
as his father, but was addicted to pleasure
and resigned all tlie cares of government tc
his Vizirs. IB his reign the power of th^
Fatimide Khalifahs began to decline. Thew
possessed nothing but the external show ol<
royalty ; secluded in the harem, they were
the slaves of. their vizirs whom they could
not remove, and dared not disobey. In addi
tion to the evils of misgovernment, Egypt
was afflicted in the reign of az-Zahir with
one of the moat dreadful famines that evei
visited the country.
(8) Al-Mu8tan?ir (A.D. 1037) was only nin*
years old when he succeeded his father. The*
Turks invaded Syria and Palestine in hie
reign, took Damascus and Jerusalem (1076), ,
where the princes of the house of Ortok, e
Turkish family, established an independent
kingdom. They advanced to the Nile with
the intention of conquering Egypt, but were*
repulsed.
(9) Al-Musta l ti (A.D. 1094), the second aou^
of al-Mufltansir, was seated on the throne by
the all-powerful Vizir Afzal, in whoso hancU
the entire power rested during the whole ei
al-Musta li s reign. The invasion of ABM
Minor by the Crusaders in 1097 appeared tc
Afzal a favourable opportunity for the reco
very of Jerusalem. Refusing to assist th*
Turks against the Crusaders, he marched
against Jerusalem, took it (1098), and de
prived the Ortok princes of the sovereigntj
which they had exercised for twenty years
His possession of Jerusalem WHS, however, o
very short duration, for it was ttfken in tht
following year (1099) by the Crusaders
Anxious to recover his loss, be led an hn
mense army in the same year against Jena
salem, but was entirely defeated by the Cm
saders near Ascalon.
(10) Al-Amir (A.JD. 1101).
(11) Al-Hafiz (A.D. 1129).
) Az-Zafir (A.D. 1149).
13) A.l-Fiz (A.D. 1164).
During these reigns the power of the Fati
mides rapidly decayed.
(14) Ate Azid (A.D. 1160) was the last
Khalifah of the Fatimide dynasty At tht
commencement of his reign Egypt wai
divided into two factions, the respectiv<
chiefs of wbich, Dargham and Shawir, dia-
puted for the dignity of Vizir. Shawir im
plored the assistance of Nuru d-dln, who sen
an army into Egypt under the command o
Shirkuh, by means of which his rival wai
crushed. But becoming jealous of Nuru d
din s power in Egypt, he solicited the aid ol
Amauri, King of Jerusalem, who marcaec
into Egypt and expelled Shirkuh from th<
country. Nuru d-din soon sent anothei
army into Egypt under the same commander
who was accompanied by his nephew, tht
celebrated Salahu d-din (Saladin). Shlrkul
was again unsuccessful, and was obliged tc
retreat. The ambition of Amauri affordec
PATQ
shortly afterwards a more favourable oppor
tunity for the reduction of Egypt. Amauri,
after driving Shirkuh out of the country,
meditated the design of reducing it to his own
authority. Shawir, alarmed at the success
oi Amauri, entreated the assistance of Nuru
d-dln, who sent Shirkuh for the third time at
the head of a numerous army. He repulsed
the Christians, and afterwards put the trea
cherous Vizir to death. Shirkuh succeeded
to his dignity, but dying shortly after, Sala-
din obtained the post of Vizir. As Nuru M-
din was attached to the interests of the
Abassides, he gave orders for the proclama
tion of al-Mustahdi, the Abasside Khallfah,
and for depriving the Fatimides of the Khali-
fate. Azid, who was then on a sick-bed,
died a few days afterwards. [KHAUFAH.]
FATQ(J^). Lit. l; Opening." A
term used by Sufi mystics to explain the
eternity of matter, together with its develop
ment in creation. ( Abdu r-ttazzaq s Diet.
of Sufi Terms. )
FATE AH (M). Lit. "Languor,"
or "Intermission. (1) The interval between
the supposed revelation of the icvith Surah
of the Qur an and the Lxxrnh and xcmrd
Surahs. It ie during this period that the
powers of inspiration of the Prophet are said
to have been suspended, and it was then that
he contemplated suicide by intending to cast
himself from Mount Hira . The accounts of
this interval are confused and contradictory,
and various are the periods assigned to it,
viz. from seven month? to seven years.
I (2) The term is also used for the time
which elapses between the disappearance of
<! a prophet and tho appearance of another.
^ ( Gkiydfu l-Ltighak in loco. )
f (3) A term used by Sufi mystics for a de-
islension in spiritual life. ( Abdu r-Razzaq s
. of Sufi Term!,.)
FIDYAH
127
, "The Opener "
[of that which is difficult.
I One of the ninety-nine names or attributes
Li God. it occurs in the Qur an, Surah
kxxxiv., "For He is the opener who knows."
J FATWA (^r*)- A religious or
Judicial sentence pronounced by the Khallfah
Jor by a Mufti, or Qazi. It is generally
Jwjitten. The following ie a fatwa delivered
Jby the present Mufti of the Hanafi sect at
JMakkah in reply to the question as to
j whether India is a Ddru /-Islam. Fatwas are
generally written in a similar form to this,
but in Arabic :-
" All praises are due to the Almighty, who
v is Lord of all the creation !
O Almighty, increase my knowledge !
As long as even some of the peculiar
observances of Islam prevail in it it
is the Daru 1-Islam.
The Almighty is Omniscient, Pure and
High!
This is the Fatwd passed by one who
hopes for the secret favour of tht Al-
mighty, who praises God, and prays for
blessings and peace on his Prophet.
(Signed) JAMAL IBN ABDo L-I.AH
SHAIKH *UMARO *LHANAFI, the
present Mufti of Makkah (the
Honoured).
May God favour him and his father."
FAFJDAR (jWj*). An officer of
the Moghul Government who was invested
with the charge of the police, and jurisdiction
in all criminal matters. A criminal judge.
Faujdari is a term now used in British courts
for a criminal suit as opposed to diwanl, or
civiL
FATJTCT L-HAJJ (&J\ ,). The
end of the Pilgrimage. [PILGRIMAGE.]
FAL (JA*). Lit. "That which
remains over and above : redundant." A
word used in the Qur an for God s grace or
kindness. Surah ii. 244: "God is Lord of
grace to men, but most men give no thanks."
The Christian idea of divine grace, as in the
New Testament, seems to be better expressed
by fayz-i-aqdas.
FAJZCTLI (J^). Lit. "That
which is in excess.* A term used in Muham-
tnadan law for anything unauthorised, e.g.
bai -i-fazu/i, is an unauthorised sale. Niktih-
i-fay.vl". is an unauthorised marriage, when
the contracts are made by an unauthorised
agent.
FEAST DAYS. Arabic id (^) ;
dual *iddn ; plural a-ydd. The two great
festivals of the Muhammadans are, the /</
V-Fitr, and the 7<fo l-Azjid. The other fes
tivals which are celebrated as days of Ire-
joicing are, lhe^Skab-i-Bardt, or the fifteenth
day of Sha ban ; the NaU Moz, or New Year 5 *
day; the AJchir-i-Chahdr Shamba, or the
last Wednesday of the month of Safar; the
Laylatu y r-Raghffib, or the first Friday in
the month of the month Rajab ; the Maulud,
or the birthday of Muhammad.
An account of these feasts is given under
their respective titles.
FEMALE INFANTICIDE, which
existed amongst the ancient Arabians, was
condemned by Muhammad. Vide Qur an :
Surah xvi. 60: "For when the birth of a
daughter is announced to any one of them,
dark shadows settle on his face, and he in
sad. He hideth himself from the people be
cause of the bad news : shall he keep it with
disgrace or buiy it in the dust ? Are not
their judgments wrong.
Surah xvii. 83 : " Kill not your children for
foar of want : for them and for you will We
(God) provide."
Surah Ixxxi. 8 : " . . . And when the dam
sel that had been buried alive shall be asked
(at the Day pf Judgment) for what crime she
was put to death."
FID YAH (*i*). A ransom. From
Jidff, "to ransom," to exchange." An expia-
128
FIG
FIRDAUS
tlon for sin, or for duties unperformed. Tiw
word occurs three tiraee in the Qur an t
Surah ii. 180: "For those who are able to
keep it (the fast) and ypt break it, there shall
be as an expiation th* n;aiutenan<e of a pool-
man.*
Surah ii. J92: " Perform the pilgrimage
and the visitation of the holy places. . . . Bgl
whoever among yon is sick, or hath an nil.
ttriflnt of the head, most trpiafe by fasting, or
alms, or a sacrifice.
Sarah I vii. .14: "On that day (the Day of
Jadgment) ao expiation shall be Uken from
you (i.e. the hypocrites) or from those who
do not believe ; your abode is Ibe fire."
T b ; e other word used in .the Qur an for the
same idea is kaffarah. fKAfpARAR, EXPIA
TION. J
FIG. Arabic at-Tin (^\). The
title of the x.cvth Surah of the Qur an, so
called because Muhammad makes the Al
mighty swear by that fruit in the first verse.
Al-Baiawi says God swears by tigs because
of their great use. They are most excellent,
because they can be eaten at once, having no
stones, they are easy of digestion, arid help
to carry off the pbiegin, and grflvl .in the
kidneys* or bladder, and remove obstructions
of the liver, and also *m-e piles wid gout.
(Tftfslru l-Baizaivi. in foc/,\.
JB IJAR (jM). Lit. ; That which
s unlawful. A fcenn fHvftfi fcfrft itt*riefl of sacri
legious wars carrier on between the Quroish
anrt the B;vnu HawSzin, when Mnham*n>id
was o- youth, about A.D. 580-590. (Muir,
vol. ii. 8.)
AT.-FJLL (J*a\)\ The title of the
cvth Surah of the ^.ur au. as it gives an
account of the AsMbu /-/"*/, ov - People of
the Elephant/ } ELEPHANT.]
FINES. Arabic Diyah (M- A
term, which, in its strictest sense, rctsans a
sum exacted for any offence upon the pel-sou,
in consideration lor the olairfi of qisos, or
retaliation; not being insisted upon. (This
does not apply to wilful murder.) A full and
complete Hue ia that levied upon a person for
manslaughter, vvbich consists of either onfi
hundred ten) a. it. camels or ten thousand dir-
hama (silver^), or one thousaud dinars (goldj.
The fine for slayiog a ^voraan is half that
for claying a man, * because tb^ rank of a
woman it, Lower than that of a man, so alsr
her faculties and uses ! " The fine for slay
ing a zinrmi (be he a J^w, Christian, <w ido
later) is the same as for slaying a Muslim.
A complete fine is also levied for the
destruction of a nose, or a tongue, or a virile
member, and also, if a person tear out the
beard, or the hair of tuc scalp, or the whiskers,
or both eyebrows, so that they never grow
again." because the beauty of the countenance
is thereby effaced."
A complete fine, is due tor any fellow parts,
as for two eyefi, tvrp lips, &c.. and one half the
line for one- single member.
For oach finger, a tenth of the complete
line is. due. and as every
joints, a Uiird of the fine for the whole ? due
fur each joint,.
Tb.e fine fo?- a tooth is a twentieth of the
complete fine.
A half fine is due for mer^lv destroying 1 the
nf,f. of a limb, but if a person strike another ia
any way so as to completely destroy the beauty
of his person, a complete fine must be paid.
Wounds on the face, viz. irons the crown of
the head to the chin, are specially treated.
and are termed sftijoj. Of sfn jaj, or u face
wounds, * there are ten : (1) hfirifah, or such
as draw no blood a mere serat^h; (?) ddmi-
yah, a scratch wh)"ch draws blood, without
causing it to ilow, f3) riamlyah, a scratch
which causes blood to ilow ; (4) baz^oh t a out
through the skin ; (5) mvialahimah,. a cut
to the flesh ; (6) simhaq, a wound reaching
into Hie pericranium; (7) miizihah, a wound
wh.ch lays bare the hone; (d) hnshimah, a
fracture of the skull; (9) muvitkitah. a frac
ture which Causes the removal of part of
the sknll: (10) omrno-h^ a wound extending
to the brain.
FOT n airmifdi wound, a third of the rom
p)ete iin^ is due. Khteeo ca.nels are due for
a, munakifah, fcen for a hdshimah, five for a
nr~>iilifjh. and so on.
All other wounds on other parts of r.he
body may b^ aiijusied for according to the
above scale, but are left to tha decision of
tne jud^e.
Kor further information o?i the subject see
* Babu 1-Diyah in tha iturru l-MukMar, or
the tJififtyah, or the fatawa, Alamyiri, or the
FIQH. (^a*j. TIe <logmfltic theo
logy of the Muslims. Worsts on Muhammad a u
law-, whether civil or religious. The books most
read by the SunnTs are the Hidayoh, written
by a learned man named Ali ibn Abl Bakr,
A.H. 593. part of which has been .translated
by the late Colonel, Charles Hamiltdn; the
Dam l-
l-JMukhtSr, by Ala u d-din, A.M.
i.ho Sharhu I- \Vi(/ai/a/i. by Ubaidu llab ibn
Mas-iid, A.M. 745; the Raddu V Mvhttt by
Saiyid Muhammad Ainin ibn Abidi d-d7n,
and the Fat Jam Alan/i/iri Amongst the
Imaimyah School, or Bhi-fths, the principal
works are Kitabu sh-Sharai , by Abu 1-
Haaah All (A.H. 326); the Aluqni* fT / Fiyk,
by Abu Ja-far (A.H. 360); the^ Shara-fit *l-
Islam, by Siiailvh Najmu d-JTn (A.H. 679);
and she J ainru l> ( Abhdsi, by Baha u d-dln
(A.M. 1031).
FlEASAH (^*yj, or farSsak. A
ufl t^rr/i for the enlighterunent of the heart,
A penefcraiiou into the seorets of t)ie tm-
known. .titan \l-firvsok< " The acieuce ol
ph-ysiognomy."
(!<>Ucil."
FIBAS.H
In Muhamraadan law " a wife."
FTR AUN
FIEDATJS
[PHAEOAH.]
y.^). The highest
stage of celestial bliss. Ti j .\RADi8.J
FIKE
FIRE. Arabic nar (ft). (1) The
term cm nar, the fire," is generally uaed in
the.Qur an and the Traditions for "hell."
$) In the Quran (Surah xxxvii. 25* ; the
power of GoU is declared ad Ix ing able to
give fire out of a green tree." On which
il Bai/:i.wi say.* " the Uoual way of getting
ire is by rubbing two pieces oi ^o^d tug-
iJier one "f which ij markh and the olher
afar, and they produce iiro, although both
ihe dtkks are grem (X) The burning io
ieath. of human beings is condemned by
MuliumDia 1, who atiid JLet no one puiush
A-ith th<> punishment of lire but God."
FIRSTBORN. Although, the
Arabian legislator followed the Mosaic Jaw
n ao many of lu legal jnacinioms he
aa* Carefully avoided j*uy legislation as to
he righu of primogeniture although it formed
iuch a markrd feature in tiia Pentateuch, in
.Ahich tho first-born of man and bca.st wero
Iie votf.d to God. aifcu were redeemed with a
. In the Muslim law of inheritance all
:he sons ahare HqucJly, whiUi in ihe Mosaic
iyw vac eldest sou received a viouUV portion
>f the jjitiujr s iuherit&ncc ^Doxu. xxi. 17.^
In cae3 of chief ahip, or monarchy the
jjle:st &on usually iniioiii.*, biu ii rests eix-
ireiv upi>n his iitnessj for the position. Very
,>Iien ;ho aidcit ou is passed by and a
rounder br^th tr aeloci.<>l as rulei This was
Uao tho case uruoitghi the Jows when Solo
tton .iucjx?d<>.d 1m father i the KinKdon;
[I Kings i 30, ii. 25>;
Tho "uriou., fact thai Muk^muiM mad n<
)ro\isiuii ior these righu of primogejuture,
liave arisen irora hii havis.p, hai no sou
J survive him
FISH ArabK samak (*&+*). (1)
fish which, ujing ot ihriuaeives. iloat upon
the surface of *Jhe water, are abominated,
to Ai>u Hauifah. Ash bhauu
Mahk saj- they aro inaiiicreat -\bu
iiv-s Uiut !\h Hhioh are killed
>y acciaerit are kwful. but such a* dif
af lli(Jtisulve3 without any accident are un-
awful. There are, howovor. uiuereta opiuioi^
o which die u/ cxtxr-.me heat ur
cold.
In the law of sale, it U not lawful to
sell fish which u not \i.t cutr^hl. nor is it
.awful to aoll iish which the vendor muj
caught and afterwards thrown into u
tunk
\Vhibi tbo destruction of nil animals.
ia ouo. is forbidden during the
, fishing in UIM afjn ju* permitted by
the Qu ran. Surah \. J7 . " Lawful for yon i*
the Kauie of the sea/
FIVK SKN3KS
129
F1TAJM (&*)-. pi. oi yrfW*.
; siriica ; coiunwtions.
term specially uso.ci tor Uiose wara and
commotion* which snail procude Uie Ik-sur
reclioix. A chapter is devoted to the subject
in all the booke oi traditions, (bee ^a/^Ai/ V
\\ill bv; Khalilnhs aiier me that will not go
the atxaigLt rv>ad in which 1 have gone, nor
will follow my ex.ir.tpic. but m those time*
tlicie -\\ili bd the hearts of devils in the bodies
oi ia,n. jliuuifcth tlicu .;aju ;o him, **0
Plophvt. niiat shall 1 do u J livi- to sec
tho^e d?.j s ? And llw Prophot said, " 01y
him who haa the- ru^o ovor you, c?en though
he flog your back and tuLo ^ our money."
Sui*:\.i.h. in a tradition /iVorfied in at-Tir-
and Abu JJa ud , huud that Muh<imn,ad
Ihut the suc^.^iion vouldtac t or thirty
and tiiat tho ">four rightly dirrjcted
" relgued exactly that time: Abu
liakr, two yoar* ; Umar. tent Uaman.
twelve: and Ali <JT M
, A mover of leader 4>f s^cUtioja is cailpd
uayltl or rebel.
FIT RAH (*>*) Lit "Xature."
Oextain ancle* ui uractices 01* the prophets
bofor* vbf jii .w 01 .Muuiiu;.iul uhic u have
utnjxjui* fcT iUi I-i. by him.
4 A\ijhah rulatco that tho Prophet satd :
There are ton ^ualuies of tho prophets
! clipping the mustacluos. so that they do not
I oiit ir the inouth not cutting or .shaving the
board, cleansing Ihe ;eeth (i.e. miwak],
cleansing tho no&triis wiiii water at the
usual ablutions, cutting the uails, cleaning
Ihe linger joinU, [julling out iho hairs undor
the arm pits, shaving the hair of ihe privates
vu.shing with water alter passing urine, and
cloansing th^ raouUt. with wator t the lirae
of hutiiiion " ^S -e Sahitiu Muslim.;
The nu^e 5 5 io be washed out wivn water
becanae it I . supposed that the devil resides
in the nose during the night , See MishxJi.)
There is a <iiapter in (hi? Ai-uta of the
P-xrsees. containing inruoctioiis aa to the
paling of ihe nails o/ tb/- hand A and feet.
VIVE FOUNDATIONS OF
ISLAM. (l j ShaliAduh. or bearing mtuc^
that there is no deity but God ; ^2^ .Siu. Jf, r
ihe observance of the five stated periods of
prayer : (Oy Zakal, K lvir t fle ^K 31 ^"
a year ; ^4) Suum, faatinjf durrn^ the wi.oie oi
o montn of liamazaii;
^
BuJcharl f p 1045: Sahzhu Muslim p 3o8.y
Muhammad is related to ha v- ->H4<J The:
Uio montn of liamazaii; o, t&j* the pil-
grimajre to >Iakkub once in. a Uie-time
They arc ui.^ caUod the uve fuuudauons of
j)rontc, aj distuiguisb^d from the six foun-
d&tioixi of fuilti [ISLAM IMtAN ]
FIVE KEYS OF SECRET
KXOWLEI>GE, which. an. witL God alone are
said to be found in the la^l v ry> of the Stiruh
Lu<jmiui i xxxist, 34" of tbr Quran "God .
rtith Him is ^J j the Knowledge of the Hour;
V 2) and He end. Ji dowu rain. ; V 3j and He
kuora\eui what is in the wombs; (4) but n;
soul kuj-%. ih what ahall bo on the laurrow j
(b) noithor kuo-weiJti any soul in -what Und h
shall joe. Vriiy God is knowui.or a -id in
formed of nil"
FIVE SENSES, Ihe. Arabic a/-
t. ((Jut-tnia k (&+*& u*\*<J\).
to Muba;nrnadan welters, there aie
xternal uWnr"> ions^s. and live- !
130
FOOD
(bdtini) senses. The former being those five
faculties known amongst. European writers as
seeing (bafirak). hearing (sdmtfah), smelling
(shdrAmah ), taste (foV<?oA), touch (Ldmisah).
The latter : common sense (biss-i-mvshtctrok^
the imaginative faculty (guwat-t-khaudC), the
thinking faculty (t/uwat-i-rnuta^arnfah) , the in
stinctive faculty (guwat-t-wdAimak), the re
tentive faculty
FOOD. Arabic ta am (^),. pi.
atiimak. The injunctions contained in the
Qur an (Surah ii. 167) respecting food are as
follows : " O ye -who believe ! eat of the good
things with which we have supplied you, and
give God thanks if ye are His worshippers.
Only that which dieth of itself, and blood, and
swine s flesh, and that over which any other
name than that of God hath been invoked,
hath God forbidden you. But he who shall
partake of them by constraint, without desire,
or of necessity, then no sin shall bo upon him
Verily God is forgiving and merciful."
Surah v. 92. t " O Believers I wine (kkamr) and
games of chance, and statues, and divining -
arrows are only an abomination of Satan e
work ! Avoid them that ye may prosper."
The other injunctions concerning food art-
found in the Traditions ?vnd sayings of Ma
hamraad.
No animal, except fish rulocusts, is lawful
food unless it be slaught r*3 according to the
Muhamiuadan law, nan-^iy, bj r drawing th?
knife across the throat a/l c :. : ting the wind
pipe, the carotid arteries, ari<; the gullet, re
peating at the same tiiae tte words " JBfsmi
lldhii Alla.hu akbarf ?... " In the name of
God, God is great." A. dean animal, so slaugh
tered, becomes lawful food for Muslims,
whether slaughtered by Jews, Christians, or
Mubammadans, but animals slaughtered by
either an idolater, or an apostate from Islam,
is not lawful
Za.bh, or the slaying ui animals, is of
two kinds. Jkhtiydrl^ or "of choice, aod
Iztirari) or of necessity. The former being
tne slaughtering of animals La the name
of God, the latter being the slaughter effected
by a wound, us in shooting birds or animals,
in whieh case the words Bfsmi lidhi, Alidhu
akbar must be said at the time of the dis
charge of the arroTr from the bow or the
shot from the gtm
According to tho Hidayah* ail quadrupeds
that eize their prey with their teeth, and all
birds which seize it with their talons are un
lawful, because the Prophet has prohibited
mankind from fcatiu^ them. Hyenas, foxes,
elephants, weasels, pelicans, kites, carrion
crown, yavenb, crocodiles, otters, asses,
mules, wasps, and in general all insects, are
forbidden. But there is seme doubt as to the
lawfulness of horses flash. Fishes dying ot
themselves *ie also forbidde.
The prohibition of wine in the Q.ur an under
the word kharrrr is held tn exclude all things
which havy an. intoxicating tendency, such as
opium, chars, bhang ; and tobacco.
A Muslim can have no religious scruples
to oat with a Christian, aa long as the food
FORNICATION
eaten i? of a lawful kiiid. Saiyid Ahmad i
Khan Bahadar C.S.I., has vmUen a treatise
proving that Itfuliammadons can eat with the
AMr^"Kitd b i namely, Jews or Christians. The
Muhammad ans of lndia.,)whilflt they -will eat;
food cooked by idolatrous Hindus, reiuse to
touch that cooked either by Natirs or Eure
pean Christians ; and they often refuse to
allow Christians to draw water from the
public wells, although Hindus are permitted
to do BO. Such objections arise solely from
jealousy of race, and an unfriendly feeling
towards the ruling power. In Afghanistan i
and Persia, no such objections exist : and no
doubt much evil has been caused by Govern- 1
ment allowing Hindustani Muslims to ereate
a religious custom which has no foundation
whatever, except that of national hatred to
their English conquerors. [BATIKS.]
FORBIDDEN FRUIT, The. Men-
tioned in the Qur an, Surah ii, 33 : ** And we
(God) said, <0 Adam, dwell them and thy wife
in Paradise and eat therefrom amply as you
wish j hut do not draw near this tree (shaja-
rafi }."
Ctfueeroiug mi* iree, the Commentators
ha^-e various opinions. Husain says some
say^ it was a fig tree, or a vine, but most
people think it was a grain of -wheat
irom a wheat stalk. [ADAM, FALL.]
FORGIVENESS. [PARDON,
FORGIVENESS OF INJURIES.
Enjoined in the Quran in the following
words (Surah xlii. .38) : " Let the recompense
of evil be only a like evil but he who for-
giveth and maketh peace, shall find his
reward for it from God ; verily He loveth not
those who act unjustly. And there shall be
no way open (i.e. no blame) against those
who, after being wronged, avenge themselves.
-. . . . Whoso beareth -wrongs and forgiveth~
this is a boiuiden duty."
FORNICATION. Arabic zina (fy) f
The -word zinff includes both fornication witb
an unmarried person, and adultery with a
married person. [ADULTERY.]
The sin of fornication must be established,
as in the case of adultery, either by proofs or
by confession.
To establish it by proof, tour witnesses are
required, and if any person bring an accusa
tion against a -woman of chaste reputation
and fail to establish it, he must be punished
with eighty stripes. [QAZF.]
When a person for conscience sake con-i
fosses the sin of fornication, the confession
mast be repeated four times at four different
appearances before a qazi, and the person con
fessing must be very exaot and particular as
to the circumstances, so that there can be noj
mistake. A self -accused person may alaoj
retra-ct the confession at any period before, orf
during, the inflation of the punishmeut. and
the retractation must be accept f-n
The punishment for fornication is one hun~]
dred stripes (or fifty 1 or a slave). Thei
FORTUNE-TELLING
scourging to be inflicted upon a man fltp,nd-
ing and upon a woman sitting; and the
woman ir not to be stripped. It should be
done with moderation, with a, strap or whip,
I whit fi has no knots upon it, and tht3 stripos
i should be given not all upon the &:ui:o par*
I of the body. [DIB.RAH.]
in some countries banishment is added to
the punishment of scourging tor fornication,
especially if the sin is often repeated, so ae to
i constitute common prostitution.
The law is founded upon the following
i vre in the Qur an, Surah xxiv. 2-5 :
Tne whore and the whoremonger scourge
eacti or them wjtb a.n hundred stripes ; aud
l&f. iK>h compassion keep you irom carrying wit
tno sentence of God, if ye believe in God and
the laat day; And let Homo of the faithful
witness their chastisement,
The whoremonger shall not marry otfter
than .<?. whore or an i<iolalrosn ; and the whore
shaii not marry other than a whoremonger
or an idolater. Suoh af fiances are forbidden
to the faithful,
" They who defame virtuous women, and
bring not four witnesses, scourge them with
i fourscore stripen, and receive ye not their tes
timony for ever, for th^na a^e t6rveree
I persons
> n Save those wbn afterwards repent and
live virtuously: tor truly God is Lenient,
Merciful J "
The Muhammadan law ttirfcj-/) from JtTv ink
law witia regard to fornication : set Exodus
xxii. 16, 17 : ** If a man entice a maid that
is not betrothed, and lie v/ith her. be shall
surely anaow her to be his wife. If her lather
utterlv refuse to give her unto him, he shall
pay tnoney according to the dowry of virgins "
Bent xxii. 25-29: " 11 a damsel that is a
i virgin bo betrothed unto 3. husband, and a man
find her in tb* city and lie with her. then ye
shall bring them out unto ttin *te 01 the city,
and ye shall stone them with stones that they
die: v>i* damsel because she cried not, being
in the city, *nd the man because he hath
humbleo. hia neighbour s wife ; BO shalt thou
put away evij from among you. But if a man
find a betrothed damsel in the field, and the
roan force her and lie with her, then the man
only that lay with her shall die. But unto
the ciamsei shalt tbon do nothing: there is in
tne darns*! no sin worthy of death. ... If a
man find a dacisel that is a virgin, which is
not betrothed, and lay hold on her, and lie
with her, and they be found, then the man
that lay with her shall give unto the dwu-
wel 8 father fifty shekels of silver, and Bhe
sh&ll bw his wife: because he hath humbled
her, be may no1 put her away all his
days."
FORTUNE - TELLING. Arabic
kah&nah (&\y Mu aAviyab ibn
Bakam relates thai he asked the Prophet if
it were right to consult fortuuu- tellers about
future events, and he replied. ^ Siuea you
have embraced Islam, you must not consult
them [MAOIC.J
FRIDAY 181
h FOSTERAGE. Arabic razd ah.
rizd ah (^U ; ). According to Abu
Hamfah, the period of fosterage is thirty
months ; but the two disciples, Yusut and Mu
hammad, hold it tf, be two years, whilet
Zufar maintains that it is throe years. Fos
terage with respact to the prohibitions
attached to it ia of two kinds ; first, where
a woman takes u strange child to nurse, by
"which all future matrimonial connection
between that child and t,h* woman, or. her
relations within .the prohibited degrees, is
rendered illegal ; secondly, where a woman
nurses two children, male and female, upon
the same milk, which prohibits any jature
matrimonial connection between them. For
further particulars on this subject, see Ha
milton s JFfiddyah, vol. i. page 187.
FOUNDLING. Arabic tagit (M).
L^t. " That wbk h is picked up." The per
son vho finds the child is called the mul-
taqit. Tho taking up of a foundling is said
to be a laudable and generous act, end where
the finder sees that the chiid a life is iu peril,
it is an incumbent religious duty. (Uiddyab,
vol. ii p. 252.)
The maintenance of a toxmdling in ueij-a.ye>i
I rota the pubh o treasury, but the finder if
not to demand anything for hi? trouble and
expense, but after the finding of the child
has been reported to the magistrate, the child
i* legally placed under the care of the mul-
taqit, and supported by the state. A found-
l.mg is declared to bo free, and not a slave.
ana unless he be found on the land or pro
perty of a Jew or Christian, he is declared
a Muslim. But If the child be found on the
property of a Jew or CLriatian, he will be de-
elared a- Jew or Christian as the case may
be. The rnuitaffif, cannot contract the found
ling in marriage -without the sanction of the
magistrate, but ho may send him to school
and in eveiy respect see to his education and
training without consulting the magistrate.
FBLDAY. Arabic J urn? ah, (W>).
Tho Day of Assembly," The Muhammadan
Sabbath, on which they assemble in the Jdmt-
Maajid. or chief mohque, and recite two
rik abi. of prayers and listen to the oration,
oi- khutbah at the time of mid-day prayer
Muhammad claims in the Traditions to hve
established Friday RS a day of worship by
divine command. He says, "Friday was or
dered && a di vine day of worship both for the
Jew a od Christian, but they have actad con
trary to thtt command The Jew .fixed
Saturday and the Christian fixed Sunday."
According to the name traditions, Friday is
" the best day on which the sun rises,
the day on which Adam was taken into
Paradise and turned out of it, the day on
which he repented and on which he died. It
wiH also be the Day of Resurrection."
There is also a certain hour on Friday
(known only to God) on which a Muslim
obtains all the good ho asks of the Almighty.
Muhammad prayed that God may put a seal
on the heart of every Muslim who through
132
FRIENESH1P
negligence onuia prajerfbr tnrec successive
Fridays. Muhammad sai-i .
" Ulioev^r bathes on Kri lai &ua comes io
truycrs in the begnuung und comes on fuof
and set* near the Jmaia and listens to the
khuibah, and says nothing playful, but sita
iilcnt, evnry j>iep he touk will gel the rewards
of u "whole year a voxs-hippia^ and regards of
one year s fast and one vtrar * prayings at
night."
There aro ihr^e description* 01 people
present on Friday, on? oi ;hem *ho comes
W-he masjid talking iritlin^K, and thia la
vhui !: tfotb instead of rewards; ani there is
a man who is pros^m lor m&ku<^ f>uuulica
lions, and ho asks God. and i! lie >vilU lie
$ivt% him, if no;, refuses; the third a man
^io :uu,u<i3 to hear the kl^utbah and is
silciiL aud do^s not incommode aurone, and
thia Friday covers hi* sins till the next, and
three dav. a longer ; for God say.*. Whoever doth
on* 1 good act will receive U:n in return.
(Misfikdi. book iv. c. xliii-y [KHUTBAU ]
FRIENDSHIP with Jews and
Christians is condemned in the v^ur an, Surah
v. 56 " ye who believe lake not the Jews
an-J Christians for your friend* ^or patrons)
they are the friends oi each other; but
whoso amongst you takes thutn ior Irienia
vorilj he ia o them, and, voriiy. Ootl ^ruid...-
not an unjust people"
FRUITS OF THE EAKTB are
4 G^ribosl in. the Qur an as evidences of Oodo
love ua.l care for his creatures.
Surah vi 14*2:
44 lie it is vvho produccth tf&ruons of iae
viiio tvollised oud uatrelhsod, and the paim
troes, aud thi- corri of various food, and olhed,
and pomegranates, like and unlikf.- t Eat. jf
thair fruit when they bear iruit. and pay liie
due thcreoi on the day o/ its ingatheriu^
and bo noi prodigrJ, for God lovtih not the
prodigal."
Surah xili. 3: ~
" And Rf- it is who hath outstrf tched the
earth, and placed on it the iirm mountains.,
and rivers : and of wvery fruit Tie hath placed
on it tvo kmds Jle causeth the night to
enshroud tho day Verily in this are signs
for those who xaueev.
** And on ilio earth hard by each othi are
its various portions: gardens of . grapes and
com, and palm tieea single or clustered.
Though watured by tho same water, yet
so axe make v.. more excelleni as food than
other. Verily in all ibis are signs for those
who understand /
FUGITIVES. (1) A fugitive slave,
eitfcor male or female, is caUed obiq (v5* 0- !
The capture of a fugitive slave is a laudable j
I *
5 LIFE
, and thr captor is entitled to a renard of
brty iiirharas. <2 X A fugitive en account of
religion is called mukdjir ( ft- 1 -**). Hpftciai
blessings are prc tnif-ed t j.hos" who flee their
country on account of thrir orm^ Muslims.
Surah Jv. 101 : * Who:;ot vor iir<!R in ihe
wav ui (iovi aii.iil i:nd in ihe earth a 3pa^iotiu
refuge."
Surah xxii.&7: "Those who flee in God *
way and then are Uain or die, God will pro-
vMt Uicjjni viih a godly providicTi.* [SDAVEa
MVHA-JIK.j
FULS (cr^J. An idol (or an idol
drvid^o bon\5cn the profession of idolairy
and Christianity. Di-svroyed b^ Aii b> order
of Muiiammau, A.H. 630. iMuir* voi iv. p.
177.)
FUNEKAL. Arabic janazak (^^J
FUR AT (^ *). Tlie rirer
Euphrates, said to be one of the rivers of
Edeii. [EOEN : j
AL-FURQAN (fi)\i/J\) (1) Th>. title
of the xxvth Surah of the Qur an. (2) One
of the titles of the Qur an (Surah ii. 181 j i
iu. 2 5 xxv. 1). (3) The titl^ given to the
Taurat revealed to Moses (Surah ii 50 ; x*i |
49> ^4j The ric;ory on the day of the battle j
of iiadr (Surah viil. 42; (5) A term used by
Sufi myaiics for a dwtiu^uishing- between
truth and error-
M-jhammadan kxieograp&era aro \uiani-
mous in iutvrpretating the vrord furqan to
aiean xhut v/hich dUtinguiahes between good j
and evil, lawful and unlawful . The Jev?8 use
ihf word ptrck, or pirka, from the same roolj
to den jle a section or portion of acriplure.
FUSSILAT (c^Ui). Lit. Were
nxnde plahi. A titi of th; xi.iat Surah
tlie Qur an from the word occurring in the
second verse. The Surah is abo known as
the Hdmltn as-Sajdali to distlnguah it irom the
Surah juuaind, -\yhuhis aUo called as-Sajdak.-,
or * Adoration. 1
FUTURE LIFE The immortality
of the soul and the i*eality of a future hfo are
very distinctive doctrines tif tlie religion of
Muhamm&d, and very nuiceroua are tho
references to it in the Qur an The whole
sysieci of I&lain is based upon the belief in
the future ezisteu^e of the soul of man. A
description of the special character of this
future life vfill be found in the article on
PARADISE.
The terms generally used to express a
future life arc Darn 7 Ak&iral, Dam l-Baq$
Daru l-Uqba,
GARB
GENII
133
tiABR -.V 5 )
U A b K I E L . Arabic Jibrail
(^V*)- Iii the Qur an Jibril t.J*r* )
Ilf Angelic bei& who is supposed to have
be-r. tlio medium of the rrvfiiarbn of the
Qur in to .Muhammad He is ineuuoncd
)iUy twice hi th< Qur on b% name auravu i-
Baqarali ii. 91 "-Whoso u lur; eiiejny of
J^-bricl for he hath by God s leavt> caused
to deoond on thy heart the confirmation of
previous revelations, &c. And again in
.Sura u VTahrim Ixvi.-j: Go.! is hia Pro-
ttv:tor, and Gabriel." He is, however, sup
posed to be spoken ol m Surahs ii. HI, 254;
v 109 ; xvt 1<M, a.s - the Hol\ Spiril, Rinu
l-Qudu* ; in Surah xxvi 193, "as the Faith-
rul Spirit," ur-RuitU l-Ain*s* . and in I m. 5, as
"one terrible in power. ShaJidu V <jmr-a.
Tlie accounv of Gabrioi s first appearance
to Muhammad is related as follow* by Abu
1-Fida ** Muhamnittd was wont to retire to
Mcrunt Hird for a- month every year, ^hen
the yoar of bi; mission came, he went to
Mount Hira in the mouth of Ratnazan for tb*
jmi Dofle of sojotutuiig there, having his
family with him and thore he abode ixntil
the night arrived ui which God was pleased
to bkso him Gabriel came to him, and said
to .him. Reeuo! And he replied, What
shall I incite ? And he said, Reciv- thou.
in the name of thy .Lord who rrtwued. Created
man from elotaof blood. Recite thou ! Fpr
the Lord ia most Beneucenl. Who hath
taught vhe u3^ of the pen. Hath taught
man that *hich ho knoweth not. - After
thU the Prophet vent to the middle of
the mountain, and ht^rd a voice front heavou
which daid, Thuu art tlie Mesaeu^er of God
and 1 din Gabriel. He continued standing in
his place to contemplate Gabriel until bo
withdrew n [QUBA^ . j
Sir William Muir says ; H is clear that at
a later p\riod at least, if not from the first,
Mahomet confounded Gabriel with the Holy
Ghost The idea may have amen from some
aucL misapprultpjiaion as the following. Mary
conceived Jesas by l.he power of the Holy
Ghost, which overshadowed her. But it wta
Oabrwl who visited Mary to announce the
ooocoptioii of the Saviour. The llolj Ghost
A&S therefore another name for Gabriel. "We
need hardl\ -wonder at this ignorance when
Mahomet swm to have belioved that
Christians held Mary lo be the Uiird person
intheTiiuityl"
With reference to the verse quoted above,
from the Suiatu l-Baqar.)h, Sale says the
Commentators say that the Jews asked what
angel it wan that brought the Our an to Mu-
hanin>ad, and on being toid that it was
Gabriel, they replied that he was their
enemy and the messenger of wrath and hxhr-
mem; but that if it b*i bean Michael they
would have believed on him, because tfaitt
angel was their fricud, and the messenger of
peace and plenty
It is also important to observe that the
only distinct (LMortion of Gabriel being the
medium of divine revelation, occurs in a
Mad. um all Sur-ih
Gabriel io called iuMusUm books ar-y u/iM V-
/! *<///<, v The Supreme Spirit " ; <v-Raliu V- Mu~
karrum. * T he Honoured Spirit ", Ruhu l~riq<i
The Spirit of casting into"; Ruhu Y-Q/</<W
-The Holy Spirit"; and ar -JRubu I- Ami*.
* The Faith lu I Spirit.
GAMBLING (Arabic wiawtr,
j L* forbidden in tlu
Surah ii. 216 : " They wiii ask thae con
cerning wine, and games of chance. Say both
is a great sin,, and advantage also, to men,
but their sin is greater tiiau their adv*.u
tage."
Surah v. 93 : " UniT would Satan sow
hatred und strife amontf you. by witic- aud
games of chance, and turn you asiio from
the remembrance of God, and from prayer .
Wiliyo not, therefore, abstain from taeti- .
The evidence of a gambler 13 not admis
sible in >t MnhutTUTKidan court of taw. bccauio
^ajuiii^ Is o t^reai crime. (//ictav uv< *
p. 6H8"
O A liDE~L>l . Arabic jannak \ &* ) ;
Heb. , pi Q">2^ ^- u T ^ e Q ar aa tJCie
of our first parenis is cill<x1
Al-jannak. the uard^W and nol ./r.w///
Adn, or the Garden of Kdeu. Janwtn
Atln being the fourth stage of celestial bliss.
A/-/anndi. " the yardens." is a term frequantly
uaod in the Qur ar for the state of heavenU
jov , and the utagca of paraduse, which ar?
eight, are known as (lj The Burden oi
eternity. (2) The dw-ftLLn^ of pu?co. (3) The
dwelling which abideth, (i y The yai<len ol
Edon- (5^ Thp garden of refuge. (&) Thr
garden of delight, (7) The garden of liiiyii-
(8) 1 ho Qurdfh of Paradise- TPARADIME.!
GENII. Arabic jinn (c^
jdnn (0^). Muhammad was a
believer in the existence of good and evil
genii and haa left a record of bis belief in the
LX&imd Chapter cf his vjnran, entitled the
^urutu "Jinn. It opena Lhus :
hAY J t hath been reveaiea to rae that i.
company of JIM N listened and said, Verily.
we have heard a marvoUoue diRcours
(Qur an) ;
"It guideih to the trutii; wherefore we
believed in it. and we wili not henceforth join
uny being witb our Lord ;
"And He, may the majesty of our Lord
be exalted I iiath taker, no spoaae neither
hdth he any offspring
184
GENII
" But the foolish among us hath spoken of
God thEt which is unjust :
" And vee verily , thought that no one
amongst men or jinn would have uttered a
ie against God.
There are indeed people among tr^n who
have sought for refuge unto people among
jiun : but they only ir, created their folly :
"And they thought as ye think, that God
would not raise any from the dead.
" And tho Heavens did we essay, but
found them filled with a mighty garrison, and
with flaming darts;
" And we sat on some of the seats to listen,
hut whoever listeneth findeth an ambush
ready for him of flaming darts."
The following exhaustive account of the
M">iamtnadan belief on the subject is taken
from the writings of the late Mr. Lane (the
learned author of the Modern Egyptian* and
of Notes on the Arabian JVipitp), but slightly
aJtered to meet the requirements of the pre
sent work.
According to a tradition from the Prophet,
this apecies consists of five orders, namely,
Jann (who are the least powerful of all), Jinn ?
Shaitans (or devils), Ifrite, and Marids. Tho
laat, it is added, are the most powerful ; and
the Jann are transformed Jinn, like as certain
apes and swine were transformed men. It
must, however, be remarked that the terms
Jinn and Jann are generally used indiscrimi
nately as names of the whole speoies, wbotbur
good or bad, and that the former term is the
more common. Also, that Shai^an is com
monly used to signify any evil genius. An
Ifrii is a powerful evil genius ; a Marid* an
tfvil genius of the most powerful class, Th?
Jinn (but, generally speaking, evil ones) arc
called by the Persians Deves, the moat
powerful ovil Jinn, Naraha (which signifies
"males/ though they are said to be males
and females); the good Jinn, Ptrw?, though
this term is commonly applied to females.
In * tradition from the Prophet, it \ said,
u The Jann were created of a smokeless fire. *
Tho word which aignifiefl * a smokeless fire
has been misunderstood by some as meaning
"the flame of fire."" Al-Jaukarl (in the SikaK)
renders it rightly ; and says that of this fire
was the Shaitan or Iblis created. Al Jann
\K sometimes used as & name ior Iblis, as in
the following verse cf the Qur an ( Surah xv.
27) : " And the Jann [the father of the Jinn,
i,6. Tblis] we had created before [i.e, before
the creation of Adam] of the fire of the
SamDm [i.e. <:! th-i fire without ssnoke]."
Jann also signifies " a serpent," as in other
piu-aagas of the Qur an, and is used in the
same book as synonymous with Jinn. In the
last senee it is generally believed to be used
in the tradition quoted in the eomoienceiaem
of this paragraph. There are several appa
rently contradictory traditions from the Pro-
paet, v?hieh are reconciled by what has been
above stated ; in one it is said that Iblis was
be father of all the Jann and Shai$axz. ; Jana
being here synonymous with Jinn ; in another,
that Jann was the father of all the Jinn, here
Jann being used u* * name for /6#*.
GENII
<lt is held," says al-Qaawjm. "that the
Jinn are aerial animals, with transparent
bodies, which can assume various forms.
People differ in opinion respecting these
beings ; some consider the Jinn and Shaijtana
a unruly men, hut these pereons are of the
Mu tazllahs fa sect of Muslim treethitikenjjj
and some hold that God, who&e name be
exalted, created the angels of the light of
fire, and the Jinn of its flame [but this if* at
variance with the general opinion], and the
Shaitana of its ftroke [which is also at,
variance with t-tte common opinion] ; a-nd that
[all] t-iaese kinds of beings are [usually j in
visible to men, but that they assmne what
forms they please, and when thtor form be
conioe, condensed they are visible. This last
remark illustrates several* descriptions of
gonii in the Arabian Nights, where the form
oi the monster is at first undefined, or
tike an enormous pillar, and then gradually
assumes a human shape and less gigantic
It is said that God created the Jann (01
Jinn] two- thousano years before Adam [or.
according to some writers, much earlier"!, and
that there are believers and infidels and every
sect among them, as among utejj. Some say
tha.t a prophet named Yusuf was eiit lo tho
Jinn; others, that they had only preachers or
admonisherH ; others, again, t/hat seventy
apostles were sent, before Muhammad, to
Jinn and men conjointly. Jt is commonly
believed that the preadamite Jinn were co-
versed by forty (or, according to soice,
seventy-two) kings, to each of whom the
Arab writer* give the name of Sulaiman (or
Solomon); and that they derive their appel
lation from the last cf these, who was called
Jarm ibn Jann, and who, some say, built the
Pyramids of Egypt.
The following account ol tee preadanme
Jinn is given by al-Qazwini:
"It ia related in histories that a raos of
Jinn in ancient times, before the creation of
Adam, inhabited the earth, and covered it,
the land and the sea. and the plains* and tha
mountains ; and the favours of God were mul
tiplied upon them, and they hed government,
and prophecy, and religion and law ; but they
transgressed and offended, and opposed, their
prophets, and made wickedness to abound in
the earth i wnereupou God, whose name be
exalted, sent against thorn an army of angels,
who took possession of thw earth, and di ove
away the Jinn to the regions of the islands,
and made many of them prisoners; am >
those who were made prisoners was Azazii
(afterwards called Iblis, from his despair),
and a nlaughter was madr among them. At
that time, Azazii was yuung ; he grew up
among the angels [and probably for that
reason was called one of them]* and became
learned in their knowledge, and assumed tho
government of them ; ad his da^s -were pro
longed until he became their chief ; and thus
it continued foi a long time, until the affair
between him and Adam happened, as God,
whose name be exalted, hath said, When we
said unto the Angels. Worship, ve Adam, and
GENII
falTI worshipped except Iblls, [who] was
[one] of the Jinn. (Surah 1. 40)."
Iblis. we are told by another authority,
was sent as a governor upon the earth, and
judged among the Jinn a thousand years,
after which he ascended into heaven, and re
mained employed in worship until the crea
tion of Adam. The name of Iblis \vaa origi
nally, according to some, Azazil (as before
mentioned), and according to others, al-Haris ;
his patronymic is Abu Munnah or Abu I-
fihirnr. It is disputed whether he was. of
the angels or of the Jinn. There aro three
opinions on this point : (1) That ha was of the
angeia, from a tradition from Ibn Abbas ;
(2) That be was of the Shamans (or evil
Jinn), as it is said in tb Qur Sn, "Except
Ibl ia [who] was [one] of the Jinn " ; this was
the opinion of al-Hasanu l~.Ba$rf, and is that
.commonly held : (3) That he -was neither of
the angels nor of the Jinn, but created alone
of fire. Ibn Abbas founds his opinion on
tne same text from which al-Hasanu 1-Basri
derives his : " When we said unto the angels,
worship ye Adam, and [all] worshipped ex
cept Iblis, [who] was [one] of the Jinn
(before quoted) ; which he explains by say
ing" that the most noble and honourable
among the angels are called " the Jinn," be-
causo they are veiled from the eys of the
other angels on account oi tbeir superiority ;
and that Iblis was one of these Jinn. He
adds, that he had the government of the
lowest heaven and of the earth, and was
called the Ta us (lit. "Peacock") of tho
angels ; and that there was not a spot in the
lowest heaven but he had prostrated himself
upon it ; but when the Jinn rebelled upon the
earth, Gk>d sent a troop of angels, who drove
them to the islands and mountains ; and Ibils
being elated with pride, ad refusing to pro
strate himself before Adam, God transformed
him into a Shaitan. But this reasoning is
opposed by other verses, iut which Iblla is
represented as saying, " Thou hast created
me of fire, and has created him [Adam] of
earth." It is therefore argued, " If ho were
created originally of fire, how was he area ted
of light ? for the angels were [all] created of
light." The former verse may bo explained
by the tradition that Iblis, having been taken
captive, was exalted among the angels; or,
perhaps, there is an ellipsis after tho word
" Angls " : for it might be inferred that the
command given to the Angels was also (and
a fortiori^ to be oibeyed by the Jinn.
According to a tradition, Ibiis and all the
Shaiaus are distinguished from the other
Jinn by a longer existence. " The Shaitans."
it is added, " are the children of Iblis, and
die not but with him; whereas the [other")
Jinn die before him. though they may live
many centuries. But this is not altogether
accordant with the popular belief : Iblis and
many other evil Jinn are to survive mankind,
bat they are to die bofore the general resur
rection, as also even the angels, tho last of
whom will be the Angel of Death, Izrfi il.
Yet not all the evil Jinn are to live thus long.
Many of them are killed by shooting stars,
GENII
135
hurled at them frem heaven ; wherefore, the
Arabs, whim they see a shooting star (shiha.b),
often exclaim, May God transfix, the enemy
of the faith ! Many also are killed by other
Jinn, and somo even by men. The fire of
which the Jinn is created circulates iu hia
veins, in place of blood ; therefore, when he
receives a mortal wound, this fire, .issuing
from hifl veins, generally consumes him to
ashes.
The Jinn, it has been already shown, iu-v
peaceable. They also eat and drink, and
propagate their species, sometimes in conjunc
tion with human beings ; in which latter caso.
the offspring partakes of the nature of both
parents. In all those respects they differ
from the angel a. Among the evil Jinn nre
distinguished the five sone of their chief,
lblu ; namely, r f ir, who brings about calami
ties, losses, and injuries ; al-ASvar, who *i\-
couravres debauchery: Sut, who suggests lies :
DM ..si ai. who causes hatred between man and
wife ; and Zalotnbfir, who presides over places
of traffic.
The most common forms and habitations
or places of resort of ibe Jinn must now be
described. The following traditions from the
Prophet, are to the purpose :
The Jinn are of various shapea, having the
forms of serpents, scorpions, liout*, wolves,
jackals, &c. The Jinn are of three kinds
one on the land, one on the sea, and one in
the air. The Jinn consist of forty troops,
each troop consisting of six hundred thou
sand. The Jinn are of three kinds one have
wings and fly ; another are snakes and dots
and the third move about from place to place
like men. Domestic snakes arc* asserted to
be Jinn on the same authority.
The Prophet ordered his followers to kill
serpents and scorpions if they intruded at
preyers ; but on other occasions, he seeuis to
have required b rst to admonish them to
depart, and then s if thoy remained, to kill
them. The Doctors, however, ditfer in opinion
whether all kinds oj snakes or serpents
should be admouisbod first; or whether any
should : for the Prophet, say they, took a
covenant of tho Jinn [probably after the
above-mentioned command], that they should
not enter the houses of the faithful; there
fore, it is argued, if they enter, they break
their covenant, and it D6Oomd8 lawful to kill
them without previous admonishment. Yet
it is related that Ayishah, ono of tho Pro
phet s wives, having killed a nerpent in her
chamber, wag alarmed by a dream, and fear
ing that it might have been a Muslim Jinm, as
it did not enter her chamber, when she was
undressed, gave in alms, as an expiation,
twelve thousand dirhama (about 300), the
price of the blood of a Muslim.
The Jinn are said to appear to mankind
most commonly in the shapes of serpents,
dogs, cats, or human beings. Iu the last
case they are sometimes of the stature of
men, and sometimes of a size enormously
gigantic. If good, they are generally resplen-
dently handsome ; it evil, horribly hideous.
They become invisible at pleasure (by a rapid
ISO
GENII
extension or rarefaction of the particles
which compose them), or suddenly uiiuppear
ia th< oarth or air. or through n so JJd wall.
Vianv Muslims in the present day protest
to liavft secu and held intercourse with
thorn
The Zaubrrah which is a, whirlwind that
f au.es the sand or dust in the form oi a
piJLu- of prodigious height, often seen sweep
ing across the doserts. and jitlds, is believed
to be caused by tho flight oi an ovil genii
To defend themselves from a Jiim thu
"riding in the whirlwind, the Arabs often
eselaim, - Iron,! iron! (Iladld! ffctdid!}
or, "Ironl thou unlucky! (Hadid! yd
Afoskumf). as th^ Jinn are suppOKed to have
a great dread of that metal ; or they exclaim.
Uod is most great 1 " (Alldhu akbar /) A
similar superstition prevails with respect to
the waterspout at sea.
It is believed that the .chief abode of the
Jinn is in the mountains oi Qaf, which are
supposed to encompass the -whole of our
I j.rth. But they are also believed to pervade
ho solid hx>dy of our earth, and the firma
ment and to choose, as their principal places
of resort, 01 of occasional abode, oaths,
VfHils. the latrina. ovens, ruined houses,
inarket-plao -.. the juncture? of roads, the sea,
nnd rivers.
The Arabs, therefore, when they pour
water, ifcc., on the ground, or enter bath, or
let down a bucket into a well, or visit the
latrina, and on various other occasions*, say,
u Permission ! " or " Permission, ve blessed ! "
(l^n \ or tzn yd MulMfraJcitn The evil
spirits Cor evil genii\ it is said, had liberty to
enter any of the seven heavens tiii the birth
of Jesu.*, when they were excluded from throe
of them. On the birth of Muhammad, they
were forbidden the other four They con
tinue, however* to ascend to the confines of
the lowest heaven, and there listening to tho
conversation of the angels respecting things
decreed by God. obtain. .knowledge of futurity,
which they sometimes impart to men, who
by means of talismans or certain invocations
make them to serve the purposes oi magical
performances.
What the Prophet said of Iblis in the fol
lowing tradition, applies also to the evil Jinn
over whom ho presides : His chief abode
[among men] ia the bath; his chief places of .
rosort are tho markets and junctures oi roads ;
his food is whatever i killed without the
name of God being pronounced over it ; his
Irink. whatever is intoxicating ; his MURK/HI,
the nmmar (a musical pipe), i.e. any musical
instrument) : his Qnr an. poetry ; his written
character, the marks made iu geomancy j
his speech. fttia**hood ; his .snares are
women.
That particular genii presided over par
ticular places, was the opinion of the early
Arabs. It is said iu the Qur an (Siiran
Ixxii. 6), " And there were ceitain men who
sought .refuge with certain of the Jinn. " In
the commentary of tha Jalalun, I rind the
following remark on these words : " When
they halted on th*ir journey, in a place of
GENJJ
fear, each man said, I seek refuge with the
ierd of this place, from the miachisl of bis
foolish onei ! " In illustration of ibis, 1 may
insert the following tradition, translated from
ai-Qazwini "It is related by a certain
narrator of traditions, that he d*-; cendud 4nto
a valley with his shep, and a wolf carried
off a ewe from among \hem; and hearo.se,
and raised his voice, and cried. P inhabitant
of the valley I whereupon he heard ; voice
saying, wolf, restore to Mm his sheep i
and the wolf came with the ewe, and left her,
and departed." The same opinion is held by
the modem Arabs, though probably they do
not use such on invocation.
A similar superstition, a relic of ancient
Egyptian credulity, still prevails among the
people of Cairo It is believed that each
quarter of this rity ha* its pecnliar guardian
genius, or AgathuUscniun. which has the form
of a serpent
It has already, beun mentioned th&t sumo oi
the Jinn are Muslirna, and others infidels The
good acquit themselves of tho imperative
duties of religion, namely, prayers, alms
giving, lasting during the month of Rama-
/.oil, and pilgrimage to Makkah ami Mount
Arafat, but in the performance of ihcae
duties they are generally invisible to human
being*.
No man. it is said ever obtained &ur& ab
solute power over Ihe Jinn as Sulaiman ibn
Da ud (Solomon, the son of David). This lie
did by virtue of a most- wonderful talisman.
which is said to have come down to him from
heaven It was a sealing ring, upou which
was engraved u the most x rea l name " uf God
[AL rsMu i A-ZAM ], and was partly composed
of brass and partly of iron. With tho br&sabe
stamped hjs written commands to tho good
Jinn , with the iron (for a reason before men
tioned) those to the evil Jinn or devils
Over both orders he had unlimited power, as
well its over the birds and the winds, and, as
is generally said, he wild beasts. His wazir,
Asaf tho sou of Barkhiyah, is also i-Mid to
have been acquainted with the most great
name." by uttering which the greatest mira-
clca may be performed, even that oi raising
the dead. By virtue oi tbi* name, enpraved
on his ring. Sulaiman compelled tho Jjnn to
assist in building the temple oi Jerusalem,
and in various other works. Maity of the
evil genii be converted to the true faith, and
many others of this class, who remained
obstinate in infidelity, ho.couiiut-d in
He is said to have been monarch of
whole earth. Hence, perhaps, the name of
Sulaiman is given to the universal monarchr
ol the preadamite Jinn; unless the story oi
his own universal dominion originated from
confounding him with those j-uigs of the
Jinn.
The injuries relalod to have been inhictet
upon human beiiu/s by evil genii ;<ro ot vArionn
kinds. Genii aie auid to havo oftf-n carried
otf be?mtiful women, whom they tt,ivo forcibly
kept as then wives o> voncubincs. Maiicioua or
disturbed genii are assort* off on to station
themselvea on Ihe oofi. o*- at the v?iiidowp
GKNIi
of houses, and lo throw down bricks and
stones on persons passing by. When, they
take possession ul an. uninhabited house,
they 3eldom fail to persecute terribly any
person who ^0^3 to reside in it. They ar<
also very apt to pilfer provisions. <frc. Many
learned and devout persons, to secure their
property from such depredations, repent the
words. " Jn the name of God, the Compas
sionate, the Merciful ! " on locking tho doora
of thoir houses, rooms, or closets, and on,
covering the bread -banket, or anything con
taining food. During the month of Ramazun.
the evil genii are believed to bo confined in
prison; anJ. th/roforo, on tho. last night of
that month, with the samo view, women
Hornet hues repeat the words above mentioned,
and sprinkle alt upon tho floors of the apart
ments of thoir houses.
To complete this sketch of Arabian myth
ology* an account must b^ added of several
creatures generally b?lk> v od to be of inferior
orders of th5 Jinn. One of tho.se is tli<
(iliuK which is commonly regarded as a kind
of Shaitan, or evil genii, that eats anen. ft ml
.-: also described by some, as a Jinn, or an
enchanter, v. U-> assumes various forma. The
Gituls :u< *aid to appear in the forms of
various animals, and of human beings, and in
many monstrous shapes : to haunt burial
grounds and otner secjueaturcd spots ; to iocl
upon dead Human bodies; and to kill ami
devour anv human creature who has the
misfortune to fall in their way; ..ueuce tho
term * Ghul " is applied to any cannibal.
An opinion quoted by a oetobrated author
respecting the CJaul is, that it in a demoniacal
animal, which passes a solitary existence in
I he deserts, resembling both man and brute;
that it appears lo a person travelling alone
in the night and in solitary places, and, bein^
supposed by him to be itself a- traveller,
lures him out oi bis way. Another opinion
stated by him is this: that, -when the Shai-
tans attempt to hear words by stealth [from
the confines of tho lowest heaven] . they are
struck by shooting tars. and somo are burnt :
.some falling into a sea, or rather a large
nver (bukr ). become converted into croco
diles : and some, falling upon the land, be
come GJiuls. The same author adds tho -fol
lowing tradition : " The (ihul is any Jinn
that is opposed to travol*, Hamming various
forms and uppearam 1 * * ; ,-ud affirms that
iovcral ot in- Companions, of thu Prophet
saw Ghula in their travels; and thai Uniar
among thorn .->Hw . (J uitl while on a journey
to Syria, before lalaui, and struck it with hi-,
sword."
It appears that " Ghul is. properly speak
ing, a name wlv given io a female demon of
the kind ftbovfl d*.iciibi.<i ; the male is called
rQutrub." it j s sttij that these beinyn. and
tho Qtiaddar, or (fharror, and other .similar
creatures, which will presently l>e mentioned,
fire the offspring of Iblia and of a. wife whom
God created for him of the fire of the Sniuum
(which here signifies, as in an instance
bt f ore mentioned, a. smokeless tiro"); and
that they sprang from an exg. The feinal e
GENII
137
(rhui, it is addjct, appears io men iu the
deserts, m various lorrn. i, couvcrbos with
ihciu. and souintluie^ prostitutes hrsolf to
them.
Tlie Si : lat. or Si-la , is another demoniacal
oreaturo. described by aomo [or rather, by
most authors] as oi tho Jinn. It is said that
it is mostly found in forests ; and that when
it captures a man, it makes him lance, and
plays with him as the cat plays with th j
mouse. A man of Isfahan assorted that
many bwngs of this kind abounded in his
touutry ; that sometime tho wolf v*ouUi
hunt ono of them by night, aii l uevour it, and
that, when it had seized it, the .Si bV would
;ry out, " Come to my help, for the wolf do-
vourt-th inel" or it would cry. "Who will
liberate me? I have a hundred dinars, ami
ho shall receive them ! " Bui th<* poopU>
kuowiuK Uiat it was the cry of the Si ! , n^
one woul J liberate it; and so the woi
vvuitid eat it.
An island in ihe sea of C iiiii4t(alu
" tho island of the Si hV," by
from its being said to be inhabited by the
demons so named ; thoy are described as
creature* of hideous forms, supposed to be
Hhaitons, tho offspring of kuman beincjii arid
Jinn, who eat men.
The Ghaddar i another overture of t siiui-
lar natuio, described as being found in th-
borders ot al-Yauian, and sometimoa in Tiha-
mah, and in the upper parts of Kgypt. It ia
said that it entices a man lo it, and either
tortures him in a manner not to be described,
vr merely terrifies him, and leaves him.
Tho Dalhan i.s also a demoniacal being, in
habiting the islands of the seas, having tho
form oi a man. uu.l riding on au ostrich. It
eats the flesh of men whom th sea casts on
tho shore from wrecks, Some say that ^.
l)alhan once attacked a ship on the :;.-:i . ..; >
desired to take the crew j but they conteiuio-H
with it ; whereupon it uttered n cry whiol.
caxiaod them to fall ou their faces, and it
took them.
The Shiqq is another demoniacal creature,
imving tiic form ot half a human being (like
a man divided longitudinally , : auJ it i bo-
lie ved that the Xasnus is tho oiTjprinx oi a
Shiqq and of a human being. The
appears to travellers ; sxncl it was a
this kind who killed, and was kilted by A 1-
tjamah, the son of bafwan. the son of UiRti-
vah, of whoin it is well known that he waa
killed by a Jinn. So ays al-QazwIni
The Nasnas (ai>ovo mentioned) as described
as resembling half a human being ; having
half a head, half a body, one arm, and out
lo^, with which it hops with much .isrihty ; as
bo in,* found ai (lie woods of :u- Vaman. aud
being endowed with speech ; " but God, 1 il ii
added. - i.-i all knowing." it is said that it ij
found in H&zramaui as wcllasal-Yamun : arm
that one was brought aliveto al- MuuvwakkiL It
resembled a man in form, excepting that il h;:-;
but half a face, which was in its breast, and
a tail like that of a sheep. The people cf
liazramaut, it is added, eat it ; and its flush
ia sweet. It is only generated iu. their countn-
18
138
GENTILES
A maw vhc v.-ent thre asserted that he saw
a captured Nasnaw, which cried out formerly,
conjuring him by God and by hims^f.
A raoe of people whose head ia in tne
breast, is described as inhabiting an island
called Jabah ^supposed to* bo Java), in the
sea of Hind, or India. A kind of Nasnas is
also described as inhabiting the island of Kaij,
in the sea of China, .and bavin? wings like
those of the bat,
The Hatif is a being thai is heard, but not
.seen , arid is often mentioned by Arab writers,.
It is generally the communicator, of some
intelligence* in tho "way of advice, or direction,
or warning. (See .Lane s Modern Egyptians ;
Lake s Note* on the Arabian
GENTILES. Arabic Umnu
from mm, "a mother"); pi. ummtyun, lit.
"Ignorant as new-bovn babes." Hebrew
D^il- According to fcl-Bai/.ftwi, all the
peotyle of the earth viio do not !K>,s3esf a
divine Book. In the Qur an, the term is spe
cially applied to -the idolaters of Arabia.
Surah ixii. 2: "He (God) it is who sent
unto the Gentiles a Prophet, amongst them to
recite to them His signs, and to purify them,
and to teach them the Book, the wisdom,
although they wre before in obvions error."
GEORGE, St. (JIBJI8, AL-KHJZR.j
AL-QHABAH (JLtUUt). "The
desert." A name given to the open plain
near .1-Madinah-.
(JitABN (<$**).
in sales.
Fraud or deceit
A species of
demon said to be found on the borders of
al-Yaman. [GJENIL]
(iHABIR (>tJ*). A festival .of
the ShI abs on the 18th of the month of Zu 1-
Hijjah. when three images? of dough filled
with honey are made to represent Abu Baki ,
Umar, and *Usman, which are stuck with
knives, and the honey is sipped as typical of
the blood of the usurping Khallfahs. The
festival is named from Qhadlr^ " a pool, * and
the festival commemorates, it is said, Muham
mad having declared All his successor at
Qhatftr JKkum, watering place midway
between Makkah and al-Madmah.
OHAJB (s-**). Lit. " Secret,"
The terms rhaibu l-Huwwah, " Secret es
sence," and al- Ghaibv l-Mutfaq, " the absolute
unknowable," are used by ufl mystics to
express the nature of God. ( Abdu r-Raz-
zaq s Diet, of Svfl Terms.}
QHAIRAH (S^i). ".Jealousy."
Muhammad is related to have said, ** There
is a kind of jealousy (gZtatraA) which Ged
likes, and there is a kind of jealousy which
he abominates. The jealousy which God
likes is when a man has suspicion that his wife
or iblave girl comes and sits by a stranger ;
the jealousy which God abominates is when
without cause, a man harbours in his heart a
GHASB
bad opinion of his wife." (Misklcat, book
xiii. e. XT. pt 2.)
QBAIR-I-MAHDI (^j^yfe). Lit.
Without Mahdi. M A smali sect who believe
that the Imam Mahdl will not reappear. They
say that one Saiyid Muhammad of Jeypore
was the real Mahdi* the twelfth Imam, anc
that he has now gene nevev more to return
T hey venerate him as highly as they do thft
rophet, and consider all other Muslims to
he unbelievers. On the night called Lailatu
1-Qadr, in the month of Ramazan, they meet
and repeat two rak ah prayers. After that act
of devotiou is over, they say: "God is Al
mighty, Muhammad is our Prophet, the
Qur n arul Mahdl are just and true. Imam
MahdT is oome and gone. Whosoever disbe
lievea this is an infidel." They are a TJ jj
fanatical eect. (See Qanun-i-fslam^)
GHAMAEAT (*V^), plural o)
gtemrak, u abyss." A word used to express
the agoniet; of death. It occurs in the Quran,
Surah vi. 98: fi But couldst thoti see when
the ungodly aift in the floods of (hath (gka
mardtu l-inaut}, and the angels reach forth
their hands, saying, Yield up your souls :
this day shall ye be recompensed with a hu
miliating punishment. "
"Tbe Tnde-
One." One of the ninety-nine special
or attributes of God, expressing the
superiority of the Almighty over the neoes-
siiias and requirements ol mankind. The
word occurs in the Qur an, Surah Ix. 6, and
is translated by Palmer, * He is rich."
CfHASB (s ^). " Using by force;
usurpation."
Gha$b, in its literal sense, means the for
cibly taking a thing from another. In the
language of the law it signifies ibe t: king of
the property oi another which is valuable
and Kacred, without the consent ot the pro
prietor, in such a manner as to destroy the
proprietor s possession of it, whence it is
that usurpation is established by exacting
service from the slave of another, or by put
ting a burden upon the quadruped of another,
but aot by sitting upon tho oarpfit of
another ; because by the use of the slave
of another, and by loading the quadruped of
another, the possession of the proprietor is
destroyed, whereas by sitting upon the car
pet of another the possession of the pro
prietor is not destroyed It is to be observed
that, if any person knowingly and wilfully
usurp the property of another, he is held in
law to be an offfcnder, and becomes respon
sible for a compensation. Jf ? on the con
trary, , he should not have made the usurpa
tion knowingly and wilfully (as where a per
son destroys property on the supposition of
its belonging to himself, and it afterwards
proves the right of another), he is in that
ease also liable for a compensation, because
a compensation is the right of men ; but he is
not an offender, as his erroneous offence is
cancelled. (Hidayah. vol iii. p 622.)
AL-OHASEIYAH
GHUsL
189
Ooverinp, Overwhelming." A name gjvon to
the LxxAvmth Surah of the Qur an. the word
oomrriug in th" first verse for tho Day ol
Judgment : " Has there come to thee tho
story 01 the overwke/mtng ? "
OJJASIL (J-Vi). A washer 01
the dead." An official Is generally appointed
for this purpose by the Imam of the parish.
A tribe of
Arabo inhabiting the western side of rhe
Syrian Jescrt m the time of Muhammad.
(Sec Muir r, Life of Mahdmet. vol. i. D.
cbcxxiii.)
CiJiAl JL .i AJS (^ULt). An Arabian
tribe descent! from Qais.
OTTATTs /vA>/). Lit. "One to whom
Wi r -m\ err tor help." A media to.-. A title
givHii 1.0 a >^"^nTTjnadan saint. k<nu uold
it to bu tut hii ,*:tia T , r.rder of sauotity, whilst
others regard it as necouu in rank to that of
fb*tb> According to the GJuya#u t-Luyhah
it is an inferior rank of sanvtiry t^o thai
ot .Jitt..
" wrath." A word used
Qur an for the wrath of God! e.tr . Surxh iv
96: "God *ha!l !>o angry with him.
(o^)- One who tifftus ui
the ojiuse of IJain. A hero : <i warrior. One
wiio ftlayu mi model. It is also litta of
distinct i U conferred ry Muslim ruJers upoti
general a nuri warriors of renown. In the
Turkish Empire the title of Qhazl implies
ometuing similar to our "Field Marshal."
Pbo Prophet is related to have said,- "God is
Nponsor for him who go^ forth to fight iu
the road of God, for His satisfaction and tor
that of His Prophet. Ue shall, if he be
not killed, return to hi: >iome with plunder
and rewards. And if he die, his reward is
paradise." (Mishkdt, bouk xvii. c. 1.)
QHAZWAH (50-*). A miiitarv
force when it is lead by eithei an Apcstle
SasuT) i.i an Imam. A sinaU force com-
i/iand rj cl by one of the Imam s hentenants i M
-artyah, ui- brigade. (See Qhiyd$n l-Lughah,,
n loco. }
Abu
Hamid Muhammad ibn Mnh^uimaa ibn
Ahmaa ai-Qhazzali, i a ^velJ -nown Sunni
doctor suriiHjiifou tfayatu (-Islam ( u the proof
of Islam "). lie was u native of Tiis. nd for
sometime a proiessor in the college at Nai-
sapiu. jjorn A.H. 450 (A.D. 1058), died A.fl.
505 (A.n. 1111). at Tus. His -exposition
on tho nature of God will be fonrd in tho
article oof. His great theological work is
the Jfyy&u Ulumi d-Din.
OBIBAH . (At*-*). " Sia^oor ;
calumny." Anything whispered of an absem
person to his detriment, although it be true.
(Bufitatt expressing a false accusation., 1
GMbah is conuemn^n in thi Qur an
xJix.. 12) : "O beik veis, avoid ir^u-Di sus
picions, or some suspicuis arc .<. crime ;
uoither let one of you traduce (gJvla t -~ Another
in his absenee." A chapter i<* U>vovrt to
the condemnation of backbit Jr^g .n<i valumny
in the Traditions (mde. Miskka.t y ixv.K xxii.
oh. x.)
(>*-*) An Arahiau
trfbo in the time of Muhammad wno inha^
bited a tract of country in the vicinity of al-
Madinah. They were descendants of Abu
Zarri 1-Glxifari.
GHISHAWAH (^UA). Lit. "A
Covering." \ dimness in the eye. 4 -word
used in tho Qur an for spiritual fauwuittett.
Surah ii. ti : " Their hearts and thoir ears
hath G.jJ bealed up. and over their eyes in a
c.r> wring. "
The water,,
blood, and matter, supposed by Muhamma
dans o run down the. skin and flesh of tne
damm.a in hell. See Qur an, Surah Ixlx. 36 :
"No frinnd ahail he havo here mac day,
nor fco>{
(Jj*). A man-devouring
of the woods. A species of Jinn
[f, KKi!.]
QHULAM (<&*), pi. ifcilrtwh. *
boy uuder ago. A term used in modern
Muslim for a slave, the legal word being
abd. It occurs iu ,ne Quran for a son.
Surah iii. 42 : " She (Mary) said, * How can
I have a son when a man hM r >. r<>Mohod
me?"
1BULAT (*). LiL "The Zea.
Juts. 7 A title given to a leading seot of tho
Shi ^Lt* WHO, through then bxcessive zeal for
the Imams, have raised them auov* the
degree of human being*
UJJDLtJL r,!^). Detraudmg o 4
p\\rloinu^ tti^ pan of tho lawful plunder in
a jikt-d nr religious war. Forbidden in the
Qur an. Surah iii. 155: " Exit he who shaU
defrmid, shall come forth with his defraud-
in?r on ih<* day of the resurrection : then shall
rwory *uui be paid what it hath merited, and
I t hev fnall not be treated with injustice.* 1
QjbiUKAB (s^V 5 ;. Lit. " A crow."
Gf&trdbu I Buin: "The ci ov/ ot s;parition. >>
A term used by the JjJufl mystics for a certain
state of separation from God. cAOUu r-
Razzaq s Diet, of Sufi Terms.)
QHUERAH (V*). A fine ot hve
hundred dirhams. A slave of that value. It
is the fine lor a person striking a Avoman
so as to occasion t> miscameg* (Hidaitah,
vol. iv. p. 552.)
(JHUSL (LMO . a^ distiuguishea
irom yhasl (washing) is tnt, religious act of
bathing the whole body alter a legal im*
purity. It is founded upon the express in
junction of the Qur an, Surah v. 9 : * If ye art.
polluted then purify yourselv
Alnd the
140
GHU8L MASNtfN
Traditions most minutely relate the occasions
on which the Prophet performed the cere
mony of rjlusl, or bathing. Tho Muslim
teachers of oil. sects are unanimous in pre
scribing the washing of the whole body aiter
the following acts, which render the body
jtmaby ox impure : (1) ffat/z. menses; (2)
nifds. puerperimn: (8) jimc , coitus; (ij
ihtilam. pollutio nocturna. It is absolutely
necessary that every, part of the body should
be cashed, for All relates that the Prophet
said. <* He who leaves but one hair unwashed
on his body, will be punished in hell accord
ingly." (Mishkdt, book ii. c. viii.)
<fflUSL MASNUN foyu^
Lit. " "Washings which are Sunnah."
Such washings are founded upon the Sun-
jiah, or precept and practice of Muhammad,
although, they are ubt supposed to bo of
divine institution. They are four in number :
(1) Upon the admission of a convert to
Islam : (2) Before the Friday prayers and o.n
tlie great festivals: (3) After washing, the
dead; (4) After blood-letting. (See Sakihj
/-Bukhari, p. 39. Ttibu l-Ghusl.) Akrimab
relates that people came from al- Iraq and
asked Ibn Abbas if he believed that bathing
011 Fridays was a divine institution, and Ibn
Abbas replied, u No, but bathing is a great
purifier, and I will tell you how the custom
of bathing began. The people were engaged
in daily labour and wore blankets, and the
people sweated to such a degree ns to cause
a bad smell, so the Prophet said. . O mon !
bathe ye on Fridays and put some scent on
your clothes. 1 " (Matthew s Mishkat. vol i.
p l&O. from the Hadia of Abu Da ud.^
GIANTS. There is but one allu
sion to giants in the Qur an, namely, to the
tribe "Ad. who are spoken of as men " with
lofty statures" (Surah Ixxxix. 6J, and the
commentator. Shah -Abdu l-A/iz of Delhi,
says they were men of not Jess than twelve
yards in stature According to a tradition in
tho Kitdbu *k-Shafah by the Qa/1 Ayaz
(p, 65), Adam was sixty yards in height.
In the Ghtydsu l-Lughaii, a giant named Uj
is mentioned, who was born in the ilays of
Adarn and lived until the time of Moses, a
period of 3,500 years, and that he was so
high, that the flood in the days of Noah only
reached to hjs waist. There are traditions
and stories of giants whoso graves; p-dst unto
the present day, throughout t-ho whole of
Asia Opposite the Church Mission House at
Peshawur in a gravr nino yards long, which
is held in great reverence, by both Muharii-
madans and Hindus. De la Belle, in his
Travels in Persia, vol ii, . 8i). mentions
several which exist in Persia Giant graves in
Hindustan are numerous.
GIDEON. In the Q.ir an there is
evidently a confusion in one passage between
the story .of Saul as told herein, and tho
account of Gideon given in 11 i c Old Testament,
as the following extracts wiil ihow :--
"And when Saul mavchoci forth with his
forces, he said, * God will le.st you by a river :
GNOSTICS
He who drinketh of it shall not be of my
band ; but he who shall not taste it, drinking
a drink out of the hand excepted, shall be of
my band. And, except a few of them, they
drank of it. And when they had passed it,
he and those who believed with him, the
former said, * We have no strength this day
against Goliath (Jalut) and his forces : But
they who held it as certain that they must
meet Gorl, said, How oft, by God s will, hath
a small host vanquished a numerdus. host !
and God is with the steadfastly enduring. "
(Surah ii. 250.)
Which compare with Judges vii. 5 :
" So they brought down the people unto
the water 3 and the Lord said unto Gideon,
Every one that lappeth of the water with his
tongue, as a dog lappeth, him shalt thou set
by himsolf ; likewise every one that boweth
down upon his knees to drink. . . . Tho Lorfl
said. By the three hundred men that lapped will
I save you, and deliver the Midianites into thine
hand "
GIFTS. Arabic hibah (A-A), pi.
hibdt. A deed oJ gift. The term hibah in
the language of Muslim law means a transfer
of property made immediately and without
exchange, He who makes the gift is called
the wdhib, or donor; the thing given, mauhub
and the person to whom it is given is mauhub
laha.
Muhammad sanctioned the retraction of a
gift when he said, "A donor preserves his
right to his gift, so long as he does not obtain
a return for it." Although there is another
tradition which gays: "Let not a donor re
tract his gifi : but let a father if he pleases
retract his gift to his son." Ash-Shafi i
maintains that it is not lawful to retract a
gift, except it be from a father to a son. All
the doctors are agreed th- ft to retract a gift
is an abomination, f or Muhamuiad said : " The
retraction of a gift is like oating one s spittle,"
The general opinion is that a gift to a
stranger may be retracted, but not a gift to
a kinsman. A retracted gift, by the mutual
consent of the parties, should be effected by
j a decree of the Qa?ii, or judge. (Hiddyah,
; vol. iii. p. 21)0.)
GIRDLE. Arabic nitiiq (d*>)-
; Amongst the Bakhtashis and .several other
I orders of faqirK. investiture with a girdle is
the ign of incorporation into the order. Tho
Bakh.tasb.is say that Adarn was the first to
wear the* girdle worn by them, and after bin,
fifteen other prophets wore it in succession.
viz. Seth, Noah, Shu aib, Job, Joseph, Abra
ham, Husha% YushaS Jirjis, Jonas, Salih.
Zakariah, al-Khizr, Ilyas, and Jesus. (Brown s
Dervishes, p. 145. )
GNOSTICS. The singular cor
respondence between the allusions to the cru*
cifixion in the Coran, and the wild specula
tions of the early heretics, have led to the
conjecture that Mahomet acquired his notions
of Christianity from a Gnostic source. Bui
Gnosticism had disappeared from Egypt
GOD
GOD
141
before the sixth ceuwory, and there is no
reason for supposing that it had at any time
gained footing in Arabia. Besides, there is
no afiinity between, thesupernaturalism of the
Gnostics and Docetse, and the rationalism of
the Goran. According to the former, tho
Deity must be removed far from the gross
contact of evil matter ; and the- /Eon Christ,
which alighted upon Jesus at His baptism,
must ascend to its native regions before the
crucifixion. With Mahoinet,on the contrary,
Jesus Christ was a more man wonderfully
born, indeed but still an ordinary man, a
servant of tho Almighty, as others had been
before him. But although there is uo ground
for believing that Gnostic doctrines were
taught to Mahomet, yet some of the strange
fancies of those heretics, preserved in Syrian
tradition, may have come to the ears of his
informants (the chief of whom, even on
Christian topics, sown to have been Jews,
unable probably to distinguish heretical fablr
from Christian doctrine), and htivo been by
them adopted as a likely and convenient
mode of explaining away that which formed
the groat barrier between Jews and Chris
tians." (Muir s Life oj Ma/iot/mt. now ed.
p. 101. j
GOD. The name of the Creator of
the Universe in the Qur an is Allah, which is
the title given to the Supreme Being by Mu-
hammadans of every race and language.
Allah is supposed to be derived from ildh
a deity or god, with the addition of the deli
nito article al- -Ai-iJuk, "the God " or, ac
cording to some authorities, it is from Idh, z>.
A/-/ah< tho secret one/ But Abu Ham fah
says that just a.; tho essence of <*od is un
changeable, so i.- His name. *\u>\ that Alt ill
has f;v.>: 11 llio j,:mi<j of tL( Ktcnuu Beu:,.;.
(>Si:o (Jh>i/ -:.-..l<. I L-i. jlt<th.*)
AlliiJ, nuy be a". Ar;ibio rendering of the
Hebrew *?$ i-.L and the unused root
u/, * to l>e strong." or from p
L
gular l-.-.i ,u of Q^n /ft- It ^ expressed in
Persian and Hindustani by the word Khiull.
derived from the Persian Mnul, self; the
self -existing one.
Another word very frequently used for tho
Almighty in the Qnr an is Hubh* which i
generally translated in Knglish versions of tho
Qur an, Lyrd." It t.ccms : stand in tlu
relative position of lLo Jehovah of tho Old
Testament and tho Kvpios of the New Testa
ment. Tho word is understood by Muslims
to mean * the sustaincr," but it is probably
derived from the Hebrew
stronghold," or from its root rab. which, ac-
coi-ding to Gescnius- means " n multitude," or
anything of size or importance.
Tho title Alhih IH called the Isinu z-ZaL
r, the essential name of God. all other titles.
moluding Rabb. bcii^; considered Axmii u V
titfat, or iittiibutes " of the Diviuo Bein^r.
Those attribute are called al-
cr tho "oxcelleut namu*." iae oxpres^on
icc-urs in the Qur an (Surah vii. 179), "But
God a are excellent, name*, cull on Him
thereby. This verse is commented upon in
tho Traditions, and Abu Hurairah s;>\ ; tl.ru
Muhammad said, "Verily, them ore ninety -
nine names of God, and whoever reciu-s tli. .<
shall enter into Paradise.
In the same tradition these names (ur
attributes) &re given as follows:
1. Ar-Rtihman . The Merciful.
2. Ar-Rubwi . . The Cornpasuiunati
3. Al-Mnlik . . The King.
4. Ai-Qyddus. . Tht. Holy.
5. Ax-tialaii> . . The Peace.
fi. Ai-Mu min . The Faithful.
7. Al-Mnhaimin . Tlie Protector.
S. Al- -Aziz . . Tho Mighty,
i). Al-Jabbnr . . Tho Repairer.
10. Al-MutukaMir . The Great.
11. Al-Kkdliy . The Creator.
12. Al-Bdri . . Tho Maker.
13. AI-Mu$awtvir . The Fashioner.
11. AL-(^hfiff i u- . The Forgiver.
15. Af-Qfihnar . Tho Dominant
JG. Al-Wakkib . The Uestowor.
17. Ar-Rautxmq . Tho Provider.
18 Al-Fatfa/t . The Opener.
1U .ll- Atim . . The Knower.
20. Al-Qflbiz . . The Kestraincr.
21. Al-tdsit . . The Spreader.
"22. M-KhaJif . . The Abaser.
2:1 Ar-Effi . . Th,- Exalter.
2-1. A/-Mifisr; . . Tin- Hoiiourer.
25. AI-Muzil . . r l*h. Destroyer.
20. As-ffani- . . Tho llearer.
27. Al Ba$lr . . The Seer.
28. .U-Hdki.n. . The Ruler
29. Al- Adl . . The Just.
30. Al-JMti/ . . Thi Subtle.
31. Al-Kha(nr . . Tho Aware.
82. Al-tfafo* . . The Clement.
3^. Al- : Azln, . . Tho (fraud.
31. Al-GhajT r . The Forgiving.
35 4*&-te*i . Tin? Grateful.
3C. Al. Ali . . The Exulted.
37. .ii-Kabir . Tho (.treat.
:W. Al-Haflz . . The Guardian.
30. ALMvqii . . The ;-trengthon ; f
40. Al-Haslb . . The Ueckoner.
41. M-Jalil . . The Maje,ti-.
42. Al-Kanni . . Th : Jeneroua
43. Ar-/taf/ib . , The Watcher.
44. At-Mujib . . The Approver.
45. Al- \Viisi* . . The Comprehensive.
40. Al ILiLlm . . The Wise.
47. Al- \Vndnd . The Loving.
48. Al-Majtd . . The Olori-jus.
49. Al-Bai$ . . The Raiser.
50. Ash-ft/M/iid . The Witness.
51. Al-JIuqq . . The Truth.
;>2. A/- Wukil . . The Advocate.
53. Al- fawi . . The Strong.
54. Al Matin . . The Finn.
55. Al Wall .. . The Patron.
60. Al Hamid . . Th. Laudable.
57. Al Muhsi . . The Counter.
58. Al-Mubdt . . Tho Beginner.
59. Al-Mu Kl . . The Restorer.
60. Al-JMnhi/i . . The Quickoner.
142
GOD
61. Al-Mumit .
62. Al-gaiy .
63. Al-Qaiyum,
64. Al-Wajid .
65. Al-Mojld .
66. ALWabid -
67. Ab-Samad
68. Al-Qadir
69. Al-Muqtadir
70. Al-Muqaddim
71. Ai-
72. Al-Awwal.
73. Al-Akhir .
74. Az-gdhir .
76. Al-Batin .
76. Al- Wati .
77. Al-Muta ati
78. Al-Barr .
79. At-Tauwdb
The Killer.
The Living.
The Subsisting.
The Finder.
The Glorious.
The One.
The Eternal
The Powerful.
Th* Prevailing,
The Bringing for
ward.
The Def error.
Tn First.
The Las*
The Evident.
The Hidden.
Tne tiovwaor.
Tho Exalted.
The Righteous.
The Accepter of
Repentance.
80. Al-Muntagim . The Avenger.
81. AlsAftw . . The Pardoner.
82. Ar-Ra nf . . The Kind.
88. MaLiku 1-MuUc . The Ruler ol the
Kingdom.
84. Zu l-Jaldti wa /- The Lord of Majesty
Ikram . . and Liberality.
85. Ai-Muqnt - - Tii Equitable.
86. Al-Jdmi* . . The Collector.
87. Al- Qhani . . The Independent.
88. At-Mughri . The Enrichu
89. Al-Mu>ti . . The Giver.
90. Al-Mdni< . . The Withholder.
91. Az-Zarr . The Distrebser.
92. An~Ndfs . . Tli<j Profiler.
93. Am-Niir The Light.
94. Al-Hadi . . The Guide.
95. Al-Ba,di* . . The Incomparable.
96. Al-Baqi . The Enduring.
97. Al- Wdrig . . The Inheritor.
98. Ar-Ra*kid . . The Director.
99. A$-$abur . . The PatieTif.
The list either begins or closes with Allah,
thus completing the number of one hundred
names, which are usually recited on a rosary
in the ceremony of Zikr [ZIKB], as well as at
all lei&iue moments, by devout Muslims. The
Wahhabis do not use a rosary but count
the names on their fingers, which they say
was the cuivo f <i the Prophet, for from the
Traditions it appears that Muhammad dm
not use a rosary.
According to the Traditions (Miahkdt, book
x, c. i.). the Almighty has an " exalted
name " known aw the Ismu l-A z&m, which
Muhammad is related to have said was
either in the Suratu l-JJaqarah, the second
chapter of the Qur an, 158th verse, or in the
Suratu Alt Imrdn, the thi- f chapter, first
verse. The names of God -Ahich occur in
these two Tdrses are ar-Rahman, "the Mv 1
ciful," ar-Rahim^ " The GuUipassionate," /-
Ilaiy, " the Living," and al-Qaiyum, " the
Subsisting." There is, however, another tra
dition, from which it would appear that the
name may be either al-Abad^ " the One," or
a$-Samad, "the Eternal."
Abdu 1-Haqq, in his remarks on the.se
traditions, says that it is generally held, ac-
GOD
Cording to a tradition bj ayisnari. t>>at thin
great name is known only to the prophet*
and other saintly portions. Tne compiler oi
the Kitdb t t-Ta rtfdt eays it is none othew
than t.b uamo of Allah.
The Prophet having said that wnoevei
cabs upon. God by this name shall obtain all
his desires (Mishkdt; book x. o. i. pt. 2). the
various sects of faqirs arid mystics t^oul
much time in endeavouru\<? to ascertain what
the name reallj is [DA WAH], and \>ht. ipoisotf
who is able to assert that he has obtained!
this secret knowledge possesses great im
fluence ovei the minds of the superstitious.
Tuere can be little doubt that the discus
sion regarding this exalted name has arisen
from the circuiartiance that Mvihainmaci b-J
eame awaxo of the fact that tho uwa uevep
reciteu tiio great name of Jehovah, nnd spon
of it as "the great and terrible name." " ^e
peculiar name " of God.
Ihe attributes of God y.-. oppressed m tli*
nmety-nine names, are divided into th
"l-jfilallyah, or the glorioua attribute^
- -
the asmffu l-jantdllyafi. or thft tei-rible attri^
butoe. Such jfmc.s as ar-Makrm, " the Mr-
ciful," al-Karim, " the Kind," and al
" tho Forgiver," belonging to the tonner ; ana
ai-Qav>i. "the Strong," al- Muntaqim, "the
AYer^ti," nnd al-Qddir, "the Powerful," to
the latter.
In praying to God it is prxal for the .wor
shipper to address the Almighty by tha|
name or attribute which he wishes to
t<\ For tsjkKXnpie, if praying for paron,
will address God as either al- Afuw, "th
lard oner/ or nt-Td>nvdb, * the Receiver oi
A belief in me existence oi God, His Unity*
Hi* Absolute Power, and in the other essen
tial attributes of an Eternal and Almighty
Being, i the m^st important part of the
Muslim religion, ana is .supposed to be
pressed in the two clauses of the well-knowa
formula : -
iJ ildha li-Ld. l-lahu.
There is no deity But Allah.
The first- clause, " There is no deity," id
known as the Nafl, or that which is rejected,
and the second clause, " But Allah," as the
J$bdt. or that which is established, the
termiVrt/ Z wa-I$bdt being applied to the first
swo clauses of the Muslim s Kctlimak, on
The teaching of Muhammad in his Qur an
HB to the nature of God, twins such an im
portant consideration m an exposition ol
Iftlaia, that no apology io needed for full and
lengthy quotations from that book on tho
subject.
The following verses are arranged 10
chronological order according to Jaldlu d*
din as-Suyutfs list :
Suratu l-Ikhld$. Chapter cxui.
(One of the earliest chapters of the
Qur an )
41 Say, He is Goa, one i v#od]
" God, the Eternal.
GOD
GOD
148
" He begottetb not nor is begotten,
" And there is none equal unto Him."
Suratu l-A ( raf. Ohaptm vii. 62.
(Given at al-Madihah.)
"Verily your Lord is God. who crontud the
eavens H"rt the earth in six days: tauu He
scendea the throne. HH cauaeth the night
o cover th day it fMloweth it swiftly: and
Te created the sun and the moon and the
,tars. uiadt subject utterly to His command.
>o not the whole creation and command be-
ongtoHim? Blessed be God, the Lord of
j -he Worlds/
buratu Marram. Uliaptor xix. 91-96,
(Given at Makkah.)
: "They Kay. * The Compassionate hath
gotten offspring -. To have dono an impious
i .hing.
! "It wanteth little but that" th heavens be
fe.-euv thereat, and that the earth cleave
asunder, and that th> mountains fall down in
I pieces.
I " For that they have attributed offspring
fito the Compassionate, when it beseemeth not
I the Compassionate to get offspring.
j " There is none of all that are in the hea-
||vens and the earth but he shall come unto
the Compassionate as a servant. He hath
known them and numbered them with an
fcfTflc/ numbering-
And each of them shall come unto Him
Ion the day of resurrection, aloue.
I " Verily those who hav believed and have
done the things that are right, on them, the
Compassionate will bestow [His] love.
Suratit. V-T/z /r. Chapter xv. 16-25.
(Given at Makkah.)
" We (God) have placed in heaven the ttvvuc
igns of the Zodiac, and adorned them for the
beholds-* >itk the constellations ;
" And Wx have guarded them (by means of
shooting stars) f^om every accursed devil.
Excepting uini who listened by btealth,
whom a manifest shooting star pursueth.
We have also spread forth the earth, and
thrown thereon firm mountains, and We have
xsed to spring fo^h in it every kind [of
aori thing] \veighed.
* And We have provided ior yovi therein
neeesaaiies of life, and for him whom ye do
And tbfiro is not a thing but the store
houses thcreoi are with Us and We send it
not down save in determined quantities.
We als-., =wnd tho fertilizing winds, and
We send down wave^ from heaven, and give
you to drink thereof : and y ar not the
storerj? of it.
And verily We givo life and death, and
Wo are the heirs of nil the creation.
We also know those who have gone
Before you, and We know tnose who follow
f or [you].
And veriK hv Lord will MMO&bfotiMn
together: for iJeis Wise. Knowing ."
Suratu V-^n dm. Chapter vi. 59-64
rGivenat Makknb.)
" With Him are the keys of the hidden
things : none knoweth them but He : and He
knoweth whatsoever is on the land and in
the sea, and there i alleth not a leaf but H
knoweth it, nor a grain in the dark parts of
the earth, nor a moist thing nor a drv thing,
but [it is noted] in a distinct writing
" And it is He who taketh your souia at
night, and knowoth what ye have gauiua m
the itay ; then He reviveth you th?rin, that
an .-.,.;. lintel time may be fulfilled. Then
unto Him shall ye return: theu ^" He
declare unto yo-u what ye have done
" And He is the Supreme over His sc-^vanU,
and He sendeth watchers over you, until
when death Cometh unto any one of you, Our
messengers take his sonl. and they fail
not.
" Then are uey returned unto God their
Lord, the Triiu. Doth not judgment hnloiig
to Him i And He 1s the most quick ,;f
reckoners.
" SAT, Who dclivereth yov from the uarK-
nessos of toe land and of the tp*. when ye
supplicate Him numbly and in secret, saying,
( If Thou deliver an from then*. ~u,nger8 t we
will assni-odly be of [the muiioor of] the
thankful ?
"SAY, God delivereth you from Lhem and
from every affliction."
Tb., 95-10^ :
"Verily God cnr.pt/D the gram to com?
forth, and the dato-Rtono : He brinteth forth
the living iruiu the dead, and He bringeth
forth tbe dead from the living : This is God ;
then wherefore are ye turned away ?
He causeth l-Le dawn to Appear, and hath
ordained the night for rest, and the aun and
the juootj for reckoning time: this is the
appointment of the Mighty, the Wise
"And it is lie who hath ordained for you
the stars, that ye may be guided bv theuj JH
the darkness of the land and of the "n : We
nave clearly shown the sitrns of O.n ^ower
unto the people who know
" And it is He who hath prou uetta you
from one soul, and ih*r<> is a place of rest and
of storing : We have clearly shown the signs
to the people who understand.
A*H it ir He who hath sent down water
from heaven, and We have produced thereby
the germs of everything, and We have caused
the green thing to come forth therefrom, from
which We draw forth grains massed; and
from the palm-tree, from its fruit- branch,
clusters of datos heaped together : and ear-
dens of grapes, and the olive and the pome
granate, like one another and not like. Look
s-e at their fruits when i/ney bear tmit, and
their ripening. Verily therein are signs unto
the people who believe.
* Yet they, have set up the Jinn as partners
of God. though He hath, created them, and
without knowledge txavo they falsely attri-
imtfd t< Hi in sons and daughters. Extolled
be Hiw purity, and high be He exalted above
thflt which they attribute [to Him] 1
" He is the Author of the heaveii and the
earth. How then snould Ho have offspring,
when He hath no consort, and hath created
everything and knowetb everything ?
This is God your Lord. There is no God
but He, the Creator of everything : therefore
144
GOD
GOD
worship ye Him; and He is guardian over
ovflrything.
* The eyes see Him not. but Ho seeth the
yea : and He is the Gracious, the Knowing. *
* Suratu Earn Ixraif. Chapter Ixvii. 1-4.
(Given at Makkah.)
" Blessed be He in whose hand is the domi
nion and who is all powerful ;
"Who hath created death and life, that
lie may prove you, winch of you [will be]
best in works : and He is the Mighty, the
Very-Forgiving : -.,.
Who hath created seven heavens, one
above another. Thou seest qot any fault in
the creation of th* Compassionate. But lift
up the eyes again to hmren. TJost thou see
any fissures ?
"Then lift up the eyes again twice; the
.sight shall return unto thee dull and dim,"
uratu L Ankabul. Chapter xxix. 40-43.
(Given at Makkah. j,
u The likeness of those who take to them
selves Tutelars instead. of God is UK the like
ness of the spider, which uiaketh for herseli
i dwelling; and the frailest of dwellings
surely is the dwelling of the spider ! If they
know !
ki Verily God -kuoweth whatever thing the/
invoke in His stead ; and He is the Mitrhty.
the Wise,
" And these parables we propound unto
men ; but none understand them except the
wise.
God hath created the heavens and th >
earth in truth: verily therein i.sawgn untu
the believers."
Suratu l-Baqara/t. Chapter ii. 157-1CO.
(Given at al-Madinah.)
And your God is One God : there is no
god but He, the Compassionate, the Merciful.
Verily in the creation of the heavens uu<l
vhe f arth, and the varying of night and day
und the ship.s that course upon the sea laifai
v ith what is profitable to mankind, and th<?
water that God hath sent down from heaven,
quickening the earth thereby after its death,
and scattering about it all kinds of beasts;
and in the changing of the winds, and the
clouds that are compelled to do service be
tween heaven and earth, are aisms unto a
people who understand,
" Yet among men are those who take to
l hem,se}ves, beside God, idols, which they
love us with the lovo of Gyii . but those who
have boiieved are more loving towards God
than the** iowa-rd* their idols"
Ih,, MO;
Qy<l Ibeio ia no God but Ke, the
Uyer-iiivmg, the Ever-Bub^tmg. Slumber
aoizoth -Him not, nor sloop. To Him be
longeth whatsoever is iu the* lleuvtvus nnd
vbataoeYor is in the Earth. Who i* he that
<kall intercede with Him, unless by If is por-
iftission? He knoweth what [hath been]
before them ;uid what [shnll hj after them,
and they Khali not compass aught of Hia
knowledge save what Hu willeth, ilU Throne
convpreJbtwdotb tho Heaven;* and (ho Karth;
and the care of them burdeneth Him not
Aod He is the High, the Great,
Ali Imran, Chapter m. 2a.
(Given at al-Madinah )
" Say, God, to wnom belongeth dominion,
Thou givest domini9n to whom Thou wilt,
and from whom Thou wilt Thou takest it
away ; Thou exaltest whom Thou wilt, and
whom Thou wilt Thou humblest. In Thy hand
is good. Verily Thou art all-powerful.
" Thou causes! the night to pass into the
day, and Thoxi causest the day to pass into
the night ; and Thou bringest forth the living
from the dead, and Thou bringest forth the
dead from the living ; and Thou givest sus
tenance to whom Thou wilt without mea
sure."
Suratu r-Rtfd. Chapter xiii. 13.
("Given at al-Madmah. ;
It is He who -inaketh the lightning to
appear unto you, [causing] four and hope of
ruin, and formoth the pregnant clouds.
" And the thunder prociaimeth His per-
foctiooi with Hi--i praise : and [likewise] the
anfrels, in fear of Him. And Ho aendeth the
thunderbolts, and striketh with them whom
He pleaseth, whilst they dispute concerning
God ; for He is mighty in power."
Suratu ii-NincT. Chapter iv. 51.
(Given af al-Madinah.)
" Verily God will not forgive the associat
ing with Him [any other being as a srod], but
will lorgive other sins unto v/hom He
pleaseth: tmd whoso associatoth [anatherj j
with God bath wrought a great wickedness."
The following is an interpretation of the ^
Muslim belief in the existence and nature of ]
God by the famous scholastic divine, the
Imam al Gha/zali, in his book entitled al- j
Maqsadu V asna, an extract trom which i
Ocklcy has translated from PocccIS* Specinwi
Hisiarice Arabum :
"Praise be to GodthoCroa.tor aijd Restorer
of all things ; who dooa whatsoever Ho
pleases, who is master of the glorious throne
and mighty force, and directs tis sincere aer- 5
van Is iuto the right way and the straight
path . who favoureth them, who . have once ]
borne testimony to the unity, by preserving j
their confessions from the darkness of doubt
and hesitation ; who directs them to follow
Ills chosen apostle, upon whom be the bless
ing and ponce of God ; and to go after Hia
most honourable companions, to whom he I
hath vouchsafed His assistance and direction
which is revealed to them in His essence and j
operations by the excellencies of His atlri- j
butes, to the knowledge whereoi no maul
attains but ho that hath been taught by hear- j
ing. To these, aa touching His essence, He J
makcUi known that He in one. and hath no 1
partner j singular, without anything like j
Him ; uniform^ having no contrary; separate,
having no equal. Ho is ancient, having no
first ; eternal, having no beginning ;
inif for ever, having no emJ ; font-inning
eternity, without any termination. He per-
si* u, without oeaaing l j be ; remains with*
oul failing, and never did cease, nor over shall
cease to be described by glorious attributes,
uOr is subject to any decree ao as to be de
termined by any precise Limits or set
GOD
GOD
145
but is the First and the Last, and is within
and without.
"(What Qod is not.) He, glorified be His
name, is not a body endued with form, uor a
substance circumscribed with limits or deter
mined by tno&Hure ; neither does He resemblo
bodies, as they are capable of being measured
or divided. Neither is He a substance, neither
do imbstauces exist in Him ; neither is He an
accident, uor do accidents exist in Him.
Neither is he like to. anything that exists,
neither is anything 1 like to Him; nor is h
determinate in quantity nor comprehended by
bounds, nor circumscribed by the difference*
of situation, nor contained in the heavens.
He sits npon the throne, after that manner
which He Himself hath described, and in that
.tame sense which He Himself means, which
is a sitting far removed from any notion of
contact, or resting upon, or local situation;
but both the throne itself, and whatsoever is
upon it, ore sustained by the goodness of bin
power, and are subject to the grasp of His
hand. But He is above the throne, and above
all things, even to the utmost ends of the
earth ; but so above as at the game time not
to be a whit nearer the throne and the
heaven; since He is exalted by (infinite)
degrees above the throne no less than He in
exalted above the earth, and at the same
time is near to everything that hath a being ;
nay, nearer to man than their jugular veins,
and is witness to everything : though His
nearness is not like the riearneas of bodies,
as neither is Hie essence h&e the essence of
bodies. Neither dotb He exiaf; in anything,
neither doth anything exist in Him ; but He
is too high to be contained in ony place/, and
too holy to be determined by time : for He
was before tiin and place were created, and
Is now after the same maiiuer as He always
was. He is also distinct from the creatures
by His attributes, neither is there anything
besides Himself iu His essence, nor is His
essence in any other besides Him. He is too
holy to be subject to change, or any local
motion; neither do any accidents dwell rn
Him, nor any contingencies befall Him ; but
He abides through all generations with His
glorious attributes, free from all danger \:\
dissolution. As to the attribute fi perfec
tion, He wants no addition of Hid perfection.
As to being, Ho is known to exist Vy U - rt
apprehension of the understanding : and H*
is seen as He is by an ocular intuition, v^nirh
will be vouchsafed oat of His uterc? and
grace to the holy in the eteraai mansion, com
pleting their joy by the vision of His glorious
presence.
" (Hit power.) He, praised be His nemo,
is living, powerful, mighty, omnipotent, not
liable to any defect or impoteuce; ueitbor
slumbering nor sleeping, nor bedng obnoxious
to decay or death. To Him belongs the
kingdom, and the power, aud the might.
His is the dominion, and the excellency, aud
the creation, and the command thereof. The
heavens are folded up in His right hand, and
all creatures are couched within His grasp.
His excellency consists in Hi* creating and
producing, and His unity in. communicating
existence and a beginning of being. He
created men and their works, and measured
out their maintenance and their determined
times. Nothing that is possible can escape
His grasp, nor can the vicissitudes of things
elude his power. The effects of his might
are innumerable, aud the objects of his know
ledge infinite.
(//t.y knowledge.) He, praised be Hifl
name, knows all things that can be under
stood, and comprehends whatsoever comes to
pass, from the extremities ot the earth to the
highest heavens. Even the weight of a pis
mire could not escape Him either in earth or
heaven; but He would perceive the creeping
of the black pismire in the dark night upot
the hard stone, and discern the motion of ac
atom in the open air. He knows what i*
secret and conceals it, and views the Mmcep
tions of the minds, and the motions ot
the thoughts, and the inmost recesses of
secrets, by a knowledge ancient and eternal,
that never ceased to be His attribute IVOTO
eternal eternity, and not by any new know,
ledge, snperadded to His essence, either in
hering or adventitious.
* (// tut//.) He, praised be His name,
doth will thoso things to be that are, aud dis
poses of all accidents. Nothing passes in th^
empire, nor the kingdom, neither little nor
much, nor small nor great, nor good nor evil,
nor profitable cor hurtful, nor faith nor in
fidelity, nor knowledge no. ignorance, nor
prosperity nor adversity, nor increase nor de-
civ.ase, nor obedience nor rebellion, but by
His determinate counsel and decree, aud His
definite sentence and will. Nor doth the
wink of him that seeth, nor the subtlety of
htm that thinketh, exceed the bounds of His
will ; but it is He who gave all things their
beginning ; He is the creator and restorer, the
sole operator of what He pleases ; there is no
reversing His decree nor delaying what He
hath determined, nor is there any refuge to
man from his rebellion against Him, but only
His help and mercy ; nor hath any man any
power to perform any duty towards Him, but
through His love and wilL Though men,
gmiii, angels and devils, should conspire to
gether either to put ono single atom in
motion, or cause it to cease its motion, with
out His will and approbation, they would not
he able to do it. His will subsists in His
essence amongst the rest oi His attributes,
and was from eternity one of His eternal
Attributes, by which He willed from eternity
i-hr existence of those things that He had
decreed, which were produced in their proper
season according to His eternal will, without
any iff ore or after, and in agreement both
with His knowledge and will, and not by me
thodising of thoughts, nor waiting for a
proj.cr time, for which reason xio one thing
is in Him a hindrance from another.
(Hi* hearing and fight.) And He, praised
be His name, is hearing and seeing, and
heareth and seeth. No audible object, how
still soever, escapeth His hearing ; nor is any
thing; visible so small as to escape his sight
19
146
GOD
for distance is no hindrance to His hearing,
nor darkness to His sight. He sees without
pupil or eye-lid, and hears -without any pas
sage or ear, even as He knoweth without a
heart, and performs Hib actions without the
assistance of auy corporeal limb, and creates
without any instrument, for His attributes
(or properties) are not like those of men, any
more than His essence is like theirs.
" (His word.} Furthermore, He doth apeak,
command, -forbid, promise, and threaten by an
eternal, ancient word, subsisting in His
essence. Neither is it like to the word of the
creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice
arising from the commotion of the air and the
collision of bodies, nor letters which are sepa
rated by the joining together of the lips or
the motion of the tongue. The Qur an, the
Law, the Gospel, and the Psalter, are bopks
sent down by Him to His apostles, and the
Qur an, indeed, is read with tongues, written
in books, and kept in hearts : yet as subsist
ing. in the essence of God, it doth not become
liable to separation and division whilst it is
transferred into the hearts and the papers.
Thus Moses also heard the Word of God
without voice or letter, even as the saints be
hold the essence of God without substance
or accident. And since these are his attri
butes, He liveth and knoweth. is powerful
and willeth and operateth, and seeth aud
speaketh, by life and knowledge, and will and
hearing, and sight and word, not by His
simple essence.
" (His works.} He, praised be His name,
exists after such a manner that nothing be
sides Him hath any being but what it> pro
duced by His operation, and floweth froin His
jastice after the best, most excellent, most
perfect, and most just model. He is, more
over, wise in His works, and just in His
decrees, But His justice is not to be com
pared with the justice of men. For a man
may be supposed to act unjustly by invading
the possession of another ; but no injustice
can be conceived by God, inasmuch as there
is nothing that belongs to any other besides
Himself, so that wrong is not iniputable to
Him as meddling with things not appertaining
to Him. All things, Himself only except ed,
genii, men, the devil, angels, heaven, earth,
animals, plants, substance, accident, intel
ligible, sensible, were all created originally by
Him. He created them by His power out of
mere privation, and brought them into light,
when as yet they were nothing at all, but He
alone existing from eternity, neither was
there any other with Him. Now He created
all things in the beginning for the manifesta
tion of His power, and His will, and the con
firmation of His word, which was true from
all oteriiity. Not that He stood in need of
them, nor wanted them; but He manifestly
declared His glory in creating und producing,
and commanding, without being 1 under any
obligation, nor out of necessity. I/oving kind -
ness, the showing favour end gvace, and
beneficence, belong to Him; whereas it is in
His power to pour forth, upon men a variety
of torment* , and aiftict them with various
GOB
kinds of sorrows and diseases, which, if He
were to do, His justice could not be arraigned,
nor would he be chargeable with injustice.
Yet he rewards those that woi ship Him for
their obedience on account of his promise und
beneficence, not of their merit nor of necessity,
since there is nothing which He can be tied
to perform ; nor can any injustice be sup
posed in Him, nor can He be under, any obli
gation to any person whatsoever. That His
creatures, however, should be bound to servo
Him, ariseth from His having declared by the
tongues of the prophets that it was due to
Him from them. The worship of Him is not
simply the dictate of the understanding, but
He sent messengers to carry to men His com
mands, and promises, and threats, whose
veracity He proved by manifest miracles,
whereby men are obliged to give credit to
them in those things that they relate."
Included iu the attributes of God as given
in His ninety nine titles or names, there are
the Haft ft/dl, or Seven Attributes ; Muham
mad al-Barq&wl has expressed them as
follows :
(1) Haydt, or Life. God Most High is
alone to be adored. He has neither associate
nor equal He is* free from the Lei perfections
of humanity. He is neither begotten nor
does He beget. He is invisible. He is with
out figure, form, colour or part. His exist
ence has neither beginning nor end. He ii
immutable. If He so wills, He can annihilate
the world in a moment of time and, if it seem*
good to Him, recreate it hi an instant,
Nothing is di fftcuit to Him , whether it he the <
creation of a fly or that of the s.ftven heavens
He receives neither profit nor loss from what
ever may happen. If all the lufidels became
believers and all the irreligious pious, He
would gain no advantage. On the othei
hand, if all Believers became infidels. He
would suffer no loss.
(2) <llm, or Knowledge. He has knowledge
of all things hidden or manifest, whether if*
heaven or on earth. He knows the nnoibei
of the leaves of the trees, of the grains o
wheat and of sand. Events past and future
are known to Him. He knows what enters
into the heart of man and what He utters
with His mouth. He alone, except those tc
whom He has revealed them, knows the in
visible things. He is free from forgetf illness
negligence and error. His knowledge
eternal : it is not posterior to His essence.
(3) Qudrah, or Power, He is Almighty
If He wills, He can raise the dead, maki
stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the heaveue
and the earth, and recreate of gold or o
silver thousands. similar to those destroyed
He can transport a man in a moment of turn*
from the east to the west, or from the weal t<
the east or to the seventh heaven. His
power is eternal a priori and a posteriori.
is not posterior to His essence.
(4) IrddaJi. or Will. He can do what H
wills, and whatever He wills comes to pass
He is not obliged to act. Everything, good oj
evil, in this world exists by His will. He will
the faith of the believer and the piety of th<
GOD
religious. If He -were to change His will
there would be neither a true believer nor a
pious rn^n. He willeth also the unbelief of
the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked
and, without that will, ttiere would neither
be unbelief nor irreligion. All we do we do by
His will: what He willeth not does not come
to pass. If one should ask why God does
not will that all men should believe, we
answer : " We have no right to enquire about
what God wills and does. He is perfectly
free to will and to do what He pleases." In
creating unbelievers, in willing that they
nhould remain in that state; in making ser
pents, scorpions and pigs : in willing, in short,
all that is evil. God has wise ends in view
which it is not necessary that we should
know. We znuefc acknowledge that the. will
of .God in eternal and that it is not posterior
to His essence.
(5) >Sa* , or Hearing. He hears all sounds
whether low or loud. He hears without an
car, for His attributes are not like those of
men.
(6) Bdsar. or Seeing. He sees all things,
even the ateps of black ant on a black-stone
in a dark night ; yet He has no eye as men
have.
(7) Kaldm, or Speech. He speaks, but not
with a tongue as men do. He speaks to some
of His servants without the intervention of
another, even as He spoke to Moses, and
to Muhaimnad on the night of the ascension
to heaven. He speaks to others by the instru
mentality of Gabriel, and this is the usual way
in which He communicates His will to the
prophets. It follows from this that the
Qur an is the word of God , and is eternal and
uncreated. (Sale s Faith of Islam.")
With regard to the Muhammadan belief in
the Supreme Being, Mr. Palgrave, the well-
tnown Oriental traveller, thus expresses
himself :
" There is no god but God," are words
simply tantamount in English to the nega
tion of any deity save one alone ; and thus
much they certainly mean in Arabic, but
the imply much more also. Their full sense
is, not only to deny absolutely and unre
servedly all plurality, whether of nature or of
person, in the Supreme Being, not only to
establish the unity of the Unbegetting andUn-
begot, in all its simple and uhcommunicable
Oneness ; but besides this, the words in Arabic
And among Arabs imply that this one Su
preme Being is also the only Agent, the only
Force, the only act existing throughout the
universe, and leave to all beings else, matter
or spirit, instinct or intelligence, physical or
unora.1, nothing but pure unconditional passive-
ness, alike in movement or in quiescence, in
action or in capacity. The sole power; the
eolo motor, movement, energy, and deed, is
God ; the rest is downright inertia and mere
instrumentality, from the highest, archangel
down to the simplest atom of creation. Hence,
in this one sentence, is summed up a system
which, for want of a better name, I may be
permitted to call the Pantheism of Force, or
of Act, thus exclusively assigned to God, Who
GOD
U7
absorbs it all, exercises it all, and to Whom
alone it can be ascribed, whether for preser
ving or for destroying, for relative evil or for
equally relative good. I say relative, be
cause it is clear that in such a theology, no
place is left for absolute good or evil, reason
or extravagance, all is abridged in the auto
cratical will of the One great Agent: tic
vofo, sic jubeo, stet pro ratiom volunta* : or,
more signiBcantly still, in Arabic- Kema
yesk&o (ka-md yasha. v) % <as He wills it, to
quote the constantly recurring expression ot
the Goran.
" Thus immeasnreably and eternally exalted
above, and dissimilar from, all creatures,
which lie levelled before Him on one common
plane of instrumentality and inertness, God is
One in the totality of omnipotent and omni
present action, which acknowledges no rule,
standard, or limit, save His owu sole and
absolute will. He communicates nothing to
His creatures, for their seeming power and
act ever remain His alone, and in return He
receives nothing from them; for whatever
they may bd, that they are in Him, by Him,
and from Him only. And, secondly, no supe
riority, no distinctiou, no pro -eminence, can be
lawfully claimed by one creature over its
fellow, in the utter equalisation of their un
exceptional servitude and abasement ; all are
alike tools of the one solitary Force which
employs them to crush or to benefit, to truth
or to error, to honour or shame, to happiness
or misery, quite independently of their indi
vidual fitness, deserts, or advantage, and
simply because He wills it, and as He
wills it.
" One might at first sight think that this
tremendous Autocrat, this uncontrolled and
unsympathising Power, would be far above any
thing like passions, desires, or inclinations. Yet
such is not the case, for He has with respect
to His creatures on main feeling and source
of action, namely, jealousy of them, lest- they
shculd perchance attribute to themselves
something of what is His alone, and thus en
croach on His ail-engrossing kingdom. Hence
He is ever more prone to punish than to
reward, to iniiict pain than to bestow plea
sure, to ruin ^than to build. It is His sin
gular satisfaction to let created beings conti
nually feel that they are nothing else th&n
His slaves, His tools, and contemptible tools
also, that thus they may the better ac
knowledge His superiority, and know His
power to be above their power, His cunning
above their cunning, His will above their
will, His pride above their pride ; or rather,
that there is no power, cunning, will, or pride,
save His own.
" But He Himself, sterile in His inacces
sible height, neither loving nor enjoying aught
save His own and self -measured decree, with
out son, companion, or counsellor, is no less
barren of Himself than for His creatures, and
His own barrenness and lone egoism in Him
self is the cause and rule of His indifferent
and unregardmg despotism around. The
first note is the key of the whole tune, and
the primal idea of God runs through and
148
GOD
GOG AffD MAGOG
modifies the whole system and creed that
centres in Him.
" That the notion here given of the Deifcy,
monstrous and blasphemous as it may appear,
is exactly and literally that which the Goran,
conveys or intends to convey, I at present take
for granted. But that it indeed is so, no one
who baa attentively perused and thought over
the Arabic text (for mere cursory reading,
especially in a translation, will not suffice),
can hesitate to allow. In fact, every phrase
of the preceding sentences, every touch in this
odious portrait, has been taken, to thp best of
my ability, word for word, or at least mean
ing for meaning, from the Book. the truest
mirror of the mind and scope of its writer.
"And that such was m reality Maho
met s mind and idea, is fully confirmed by
the witness-tongue of contemporary -tradition.
Of this we have many authentic samples : the
Saheek ($aAiA), the Commentary of Beydauri*
(al*Baiz<iwi), the Mislikat ul Mosabih and
fifty similar xvorks, afford ample testin ony on
this point. But for the benefit of my readers
in general, all of whom may not huve drunk
equally deep at the fountain-heads of Islamic
dogma, I will subjoin a specimen, known
perhaps to many Orientalists, yet too charac
teristic to be here omitted, a repetition of
which I have endured times out of number
from admiring and approving Wahhabis in
Nojed.
"* Accordingly, when God so runs the
tradition : I had better said, the blasphemy
resolved to create the human race, He took
into His hands a mass of earth, the same
whence all mankind were to ho formed, and
in which they after a manner pre-existed; anc t
having then divided the <}tod into two equa
portions, He threw the one half into hell,
saying, These to eternal fire, and I car/-,
not"; and projected the other half into hea
ven, adding, "and thereto Paradise, I care
not." (See MishkHtu Jfo*iM$ Babut l-
Qfidr.}
Commentary would here be superfluous,
But in this w e have before us the adequate
idea of predestination, or, to give it a truer
name, pre-damnatiou, held and taught in the
school of the Goran. Paradise and hell are
at once totally independent, of love or hatred
on the part of the Deity, and of merits or de
merits, of good or evil conduct, on the part
of the creature ; and, in the corresponding
theory, rightly so, since tho very actions
which we call good or ill-deserving, right or
wrong, wicked or virtuous, are m their ss-
aence all one and of one, and accordingly
merit neither praise nor blame, -punishment
nor recompense, except and sirapH r<.f*,ev fclie
arbitrary value which the all-regulating will
of the great despot may choose to assign cr
impute to fcham. In a word, He burns one in
dividual through ail eternity amid red-hot
chains and seas of molten fire, and seats
another in the plenary enjoyment of an ever
lasting brothel between forty celestial concu
bines, just and equally for His own good
pleasure, and because He wills it.
" Men are thus all en one common level,
here and hereafter, in their physical, social,
and moral light the level of slaves to one
sole Master, of tools to one universal Agent.
But the equalising process does not stop
here : beasts, birds, fishes, insects, all parti
cipate of the same honour or debasement ; all
are, like man, the slaves of God, the tools
and automata of His will ; and hence .Ma
homet is simply logical find self -consistent
when in the Goran he informs his followers,
that birds, beasts, and the rest are * nations
like themselves, nor does any intrinsic dis
tinction exist between them and the human
, pecies. except what accidental diversity the
4 King, the Proud One, the Mighty, the Giant/
&c. f as he styles his God, may have been
pleased to make, just as He willed it, and so
long as He may will it.
"However, should any one think himself
aggrieved by such association, he may con
sole himself by reflecting that, on the other
hand, angels, archangels, genii, devils, and
whatever other spiritual beings may exist,
are no less on his level also ; and that if he
himself be no better than a camel, he is, how
ever, no worse than Gabriel or any seraph.
And then, over all and above all, t There is
no god but God. " (Central and JKastern
Arabia., vol i. p. 365.)
GOO AND MACrOGK Arabic
Ydjiij wa Mdjuj, also spelt Ma juj
wa Ya j&j (***"V> $J**0 -A- barbarous
people of Central Asia,, perhaps the Turko
mans, who are in the Qnr an represented as
doing evil in the land in the days of gu 1-
Qarnain (or Alexander). See Surah xviii.
" they said, Zu 1-Qarnain ! verily Gog
and Magog waste this land ; shall we then pay
theo tribute, so thou build a rampart between
us and them ?
* Ho said, Better than yov.r tribute is the
might wherewith my Lord* hath strengthened
mo ; but help me strenuously, and I will set a
burner between you and them
" Bring me blocks of iron, - until v/hen it
filled the space between the uin ntain sides
* Ply/ said he, * your bellows, - until when he
had made it red with heat (fire), he said,
Bring me molten brass that I may pom* upon
And Gog and Magog were not able fco
scale it, neither were they able to dig
through it.
" This, said he, is a mercy from my
Lord. *
They are also apuken of in Surah auu. 95,
96, as a people who shall appear in the last
days :
" There is a ban on e?ery city which we
shall have destroyed, that they shall not
(i Until a way is opened for Gog and Ma
gog, and they shall hasten from every higrh
land."
Al-BaizawI says Yajuj and Majiij are two
tribes descended from Japheth the son of
Noah, and some say Yajuj belong to the
Turks and Majuj to the Jile. (Comp
GOLD
Ezekiel xxxviii. 2 ; xxxix. 1 ; R*Y. xvi. 14 ;
xx. 8.)
GOLD. Arabic zahab (s-^) ; Heb.
^nt* The zakat imposed upon gold is upon
twenty mi^ah one-half misqal. and upon
every four mis.qals in excess, one qirai;, because
the alms upon gold is owe fortieth of the whole.
This is due upon all gold, whether it be in coin
or in ornaments. But ash-ShalH says it is
not due upon the ornaments of women or the
rings of men. (Hidayah, vol. L p. 27.)
The sale of gold is only lawful when it is
exactly equal in point of weight, for Muham
mad said, " Sell gold for gold, from hand to
hand, at an equal rate according to weight,
for any inequality in point of weight is usury."
(Idem, vol. ii. 552.)
" It is not lawful for a man or woman to eat
or drink out of gold or silver vessels. " ( Idem ,
vol. vi. 86.)
GOLIATH. Arabic Jdlut O>yW).
The giant whom King David slew. Men
tioned in the Qur an, Surah ii. 261 : " And
when they went forth to battle against Jaiut
and his army, they said, * Lord, give us
patience, and strengthen our feat, and help us
against the infidels ! Therefore they dis
comfited them by the will of God, and David
slew Jalut."
The commentators have not ventured to
give any account of Jalut.
GOMORRAH. Arabic Ghamurali
Not mentioned by name in
Qur an ; but Sadum wa Qhenaurdh are un
derstood to be the "overturned cities" re
ferred to iii Surahs ix. 71, Ixix. 9.
GOOD WORKS. Arabic a-s-SaH-
fait (vaWA * \\). According to the
teaching of the Qur an, good works without
faith will not .save Yrom the torments o/
hell
Surah xviii. 10&-6 : u Shall we tell you who
are they that have lost their labour most :
whose efforts in the present life have been
mistaken, and who deejned that what they
did was right ? They are those who believed
not in the sign* of the Lord, or that they
should ever meet Him. Vain, therefore, are
their works : and no weight will we allow
them on the day of Resurrection."
Faith in the above is belief in the mission
of Muhammad : all Muslims being considered
in a state oi grace, no matter what their actions
may be. With reference to the good deeds of
Muslims, the following is the teaching of
Muhammad, as recorded in the Traditions
(Mithkdt, book x. chap, iii.):
"Whon a man is brought to Isiani and h.e
performs it well, God covers all his former
sins, and he gets ten rewards for every good
act, up to seven honored, and even more than
that, whereas the reward of misdeeds is as
one to one, unless God passes that over like
wise."
" There are three persons whope actioa*
are not written ; one a person asleep until he
awak.cs ; the second a boy not arrived at
GKANDtfATHER
149
puberty ; the third, a madman until he re
covers his reason."
" Verily, God recordeth both tne good tif-eds
and the evil ducds. He who .has proposed to
do evil und did not do it, for hire Got re
cordeth one perfectly gocu. deed. And h> -ho
intended to do good and put. his intentions
into practice, /or him God recordetU from ten
to seven hundred good deeds (according to
their merits). And he who intended to do
evil but did it not, Goa recordeth one good
act, ; out be who intendeth to do evil and doeth
it, for him God recordetb. one evil dred."
"Verily, the condition of that person who
does evil and after that ;M-OCJ deeds, is like the
condition of a mar< with tight armour on,
:vhich has troubled him. He does oue good
deed and the rings 01 the armour become
open. Ho does another good deed, and the
armour falls from bis body,"
"Verily there was a man amongst those
who were before you to whom the angel of
death came to take his eonl, and he was
asked * Have you done any good act? He
said i* answer, I do not reiueuiner that I
nave done aay good. It was said to him,
* Look well ixitu yourself, and consider if you
have done any good work. He sa)d, 1 do
not f5ad any good in myself, except that I
used to buy and sell in the \vut id And used to
claim my right from tho rich, but allowed
them their leisure to pay me when they liked,
and I forgave the poor. Theu ^od brought
that man into paradise,"
" An adalt jrsas was i orgiven, who passed
by a dog at a well,, and the dog was holding
out his tonguo from thirst, which was near
killing him. Ths woman drew oft her boot
and tied it to the end of her voil, and drew
water for the dtg, and gav* hin.- to drink, and
she was forgiven on account oi tUat act. It
was asked tho Prophet, * Verily, are there le-
WATila for our doing good to quadrupeds, and
giving them water to drink ? He said, There
are rewards for benefiting every .\nimal
having a moist liver. "
" Youv smiling in your brother * face is
alms : r.rid your exhorting mankind to vir
tuous deed"? ;fc altoa ; and your prohibiting
the iorbiiMea ie alms ; and your showing men
the road when they lose it is alms ; and your
assisting the blicd is alms ; and your removing
stones, thorns, .%nd bones, whioh are inconve
nient to man is alms; and your pouring
water from your bucket into that of your
brother is ihas for you. *
GOSHAH-NT.&HIN (c^ *+?)
Lit. ;i Or<e who it/ m u corner." A Pi nai
term for a devout ftr-son who in reti
?tgages m the contemplation of the Deity
GOSPEL. Arabic Jnjll (J^)-
A term applied to the whole of the New Tes
tament scriptures. [NEW TBSTAMKKT.]
GRAMMAR. [ILMU T-ADAB.]
GRANDFATHER. Arabic jadd
(j^>. If a father die without appoint
ing vn < xc-< utor, the grandfather represents
150
GKANDMOTHEB
the father And in making contracts of mar
riage, the grandfather has precedence of an
executor, although the executor takes prece
dence in managing the property. (Hidayah,
vol. iv. p. 555.) In case of the father being
poor, it is the duty of the grandfather to act
for his grandchild in the distribution of alms,
&f, (Idem, vol. ii. p 244.)
GRANDMOTHER. tw&Acjaddah
(5.x?.). If the mother of an infant
die, the right histanaJi, or guardianship, rests
with the maternal grandmother in preference
to the paternal; but if she be not living, the
paternal grandmother has the right prior to
any other relation. The paternal grandmother
is also entitled to a sixth of the effects of a
child of her son, it tho child s mother be dead,
as being the mother s share. (Hidduah. voL i.
p. 386.)
GRAVE. Arabic qabr (>5) ; Heb.
""Op* ^ke graves of Muhaminadans
are so dug as to allow the body to lie with its
face towards Makkab ; consequently in India
they are dug from north to south. It is usual
to dig a grave the depth equal to the height of
the breast of a middle-sized man, and to make
a recess at the bottom, which is called lafad, in
which the body is placed. The body having
been placed in this recess, it is closed with
unburat bricks, and the grave is filled with
earth and a moand raised over it.
The Traditions of Muhammad, as well as
the works of Muslim doctors, all teach that
a dead body is conscious of pain, and there
fore great care is taken to prevent any pres
sure upon the body.
*Amir relates that his father Sa d ibn Abi
Waqqas said, on his death-bed, "Make a
lakd for me towards Makkah, and put nnburnt
bricks upon my grave, as was done in the
case of the Prophet (Sftfrihu Muslim, p. 21 11
Sufyan at-Tammar relates that he " saw the
Prophet s grave, and the top of it was like a
camel s back/ (Safafiu V- BMdrl.)
Ibn Abbas says " a red cloth was placed
upon the Prophet s grave." (Misttkat, book
v. c. vi.)
Jabir says " the Prophet prohibited build
ing with mortar on graves, and also placing
inscriptions upon them." (AlishJcdt, book r.
c. vi.) But notwithstanding this tradition
(which is acted upon by the Wahhabis),
nmsonry tombs are most common in all pails
of Islam, and form some of the moet striking
specimens of Muhammadan architecture.
[TOMBS.]
GRAVE, The Punishments of the.
[ AZABU L-QABR.]
GREEKS. Arabic ar-Kum G>jN),.
by which is meant the Byzantine or Eastern
Empire. In the xxxth chapter of the Qur an.
entitled the Suratu V-JSi, or the % " Chapter
of the Greeks," there is a reference to the
defeat of the Byzantine power by the Per
sians with a supposed prophecy of future sue*
cesses. The chapter begins thus :
"Alif, Lam. MIm. THE GREEKS have
been defeated
GBEEKS
" In a land hard by : But after their defeat
thev shall defeat their foes,
" In a few years. First and last is. the
affair with God. And on that day shall the
faithful rejoice
%< In the aid of their God : He aidetb whom
He will : and He is the Mighty, the Merciful.
" It is the promise of God : To his promise
God will not be untrue: but most men know
if not."
Following al-Baiziiwi, the Jalalan, and
other commentators, Sale remarks that
The accomplishment of the propbecy con
tained in this passage, which is very famoua
among the Muhammadans, being insisted on
by their doctors as a convincing proof that
the Qur an really came down from heaven, it
may be excusable to be a little particular.
The passage is said to have been revealed
on occasion of a great victory obtained by the
Persians over the Greeks, the news whereof
coming to Makkab, the infidels became
strangely elated, and began to abuse Muham
mad and his followers, imagining that this
success of the Persians, who, like themselves,
were idolaters, and supposed to have no
scriptures, against the Christians, who pre
tended as well as Muhammad to worship one
God, and to have -divine scriptures, waa an
earu.est of their o *n future successes against
the Prophet, and those of hi a religion, to
check which vain hopes it was foretold in the
words of the text, that how improbable soever
it might seem, yet the scale should be turned,
in a few years, and the vanquished Greeks
prevail at, remarkably against the Persians.
That this prophecy was exactly fulfilled, the
commentators fail nut to observe, though
they do not exactly agree in the Recounts
they give of its accomplishment, the number
of years between the two actions being not
precisely determined. Some place the vic
tory gained by the Persians in the fifth year
before the Hijra h, and their defeat by the
Greeks in the second year after it, when the
battle of Badr was fought ; others place the
former irf the third or fourth year before
the Hijrah, and the latter in the end of the
sixth or beginning of the seventh year after it,
when the expedition of al-Hudaibiyah was
undertaken. The date of the victory gained
by the Greeks in the first of these accounts,
interferes with a story which the commenta
tors tell, of a wager laid by Abu Bakr with
Ubaiy ibn Khalf, who turned this prophecy
into ridicule. Abu Bakr* at first laid ten
young camels that the Persians should re
ceive an overthrow within three years, but on
his acquainting Muhammad with what he had
done, that Prophet told him that the word
ferf , made use of in this passage, signified no
determinate number of years, but any number
from three to nine (though some suppose the
tenth year is included), and therefore advised
him to prolong the time and to raise the
wager, which he accordingly proposed to
Ubaiy, and they agreed that the time assigned
shoxxld be nine years and the wager a hun
dred camels. Before the time was elapsed,
Ubaiy died of a wound received at Uhud, in
GROVE
GUARDIANSHIP
151
the third yea -of the Hijiah; but tbe event
TttjFterwards showing that Abu Bakv had won,
h received the camels of Ubay s heirs, and
breught them in triumph to Mohammitd.
History informs its- that the successes of
jKh.osru Parvix, King of Persia, who carried
tor a terrible war agHinst. the Creek empire,
to revenge tbe death of Maurice, his father-
in-law, slain by Phoctis, were 7017 great, and
|pontrmied in an uuinlx-.rrnpted course for two-
iftiid-twenty years. Particularly in the year
lof Christ 6*15. about the beginning of the
sixth year before the Hi] rah. the Persians,
Having the preceding year conquered Syria,
made themselves masters of Palestine and
took Jerusalem, which seem* to be that signal
advantage gained over the Greeks mentioned
in this passagej as agreeing best with the
terms hero used, and most likely to alarm the
Arabs by reason of theii vicinity to the scene
ol action : and there was so little probability
at that time, of thr Greeks being able to re
trieve their losses much less to distress the
Persians, l.hat in the i ollowing years the
anas of t,he latter made still farther and
more considerable progresses, and at length
they 1, tid siege to Constantinople itself. But
in the year 625, in which the fourth year of
the Hijrah began, abut ten years after the
taking of Jerusalem, the Greeks, when it was
least expected, gained a remarkable victory
over the Persians, and not only obliged them
to quit the territories of the empire, by car
rying .he war into their own country, but
drore them to the last extremity, ynd spoiled
the capital city al-Madayin; Heraclius en.
joying thenceforward a continued aeries of
good fortune, to the deposition and death of
Kbosru, (Sale s Koran, in loco.)
GROVE, The. Arabic Aikak (**$).
The AftwbtL l-Ai/eak, or " the people of the
Grove," are mentioned four times in tbt
Qur*an, Surahs xv. 78, xxvi. 176. xxviii. 21 ,
1 13, as being a tribe or cl*ss of people who
treated the prophets as liars. The following
particulars regarding them are given in Surah
xxvi. 170:
" The people of tbe grove of Mady an treated
the Apostles as liars.
** When Shu aib tbeir brother said to them,
Will ys not fear God ?
" I truly am your trustworthy Apostle.
"Fear God. then, and obey me :
" No reward ask I of you for this : my re
ward is of (;he Lord of the Worlds alone."
GUARDIANSHIP. Guardianship
over a minor is of two kinds: loitoijah
(&&) or guardianship of the property and
education aud Marriage of the ward, and
hizanak, (&^), or guardianship over the
rearing and bringing up of the child.
Guardians are either 30 by natural right or
by testament, or by appointment by a judge.
The guardianship of a minor for tho ma
nagement and preservation of his property
devolves 6rst on his or her fathor, then on
the father s executor, next on the paternal
grandfather, then on bis executor, then on
the executors of such executors, next on the
ruling power or his representative, the Qa?i,
or judge. In default of a father, father s
father, and tbeir executors, ax above, all of
whom are termed near guardians, it rests in
the Qazi to appoint a guardian ot an infant s
property. The otbev paternal kinsmen who
are rfimed remote kindred, and the mother
suocecu. according to proximity, to the guar
dianship of an infant for the purpose of edu
cation and marriage j they have no right to
bt* guardians of his property, unless ap
pointed to be so by the ruling authority, or in
the original proprietor s will, proved by com
petent witnesses. The mother s right of
guardianship is, however, forfeited upon her
being rorn^rvied to a stranger, but regained
vmeu she is divorced by him, and has again
become a widow.
In default of the mother as well as of the
paternal kindred cf a minor, his maternal
relations are, according co proximity, entitled
to g-uardianship for the purposes of educa
tion and marriage, and not for the manage
ment of bis property, unless so appointed in
the late, owner s will or by the Qazi.
The general rule is that a guardian, execu
tor, or nnyone who has the care of the person
and property of a minor, can enter into a
contract which is or likely to be advantageous
and not injurious to his ward.
A guardian may sell or purchase moveables
on account of his ward, either for an equiva
lent or at such a. rate as to occaaion an incon
siderable loss, but not at sucb a rnto &s to
make the loss great and apparent, (ffidayaft
vol, iv. p. 553.)
A guardian Is allowed to borrow money for
tbe support atvd education of his ward, eyen
by pawning 1 the minor s property ; the debt so
contracted must be paid out of his (the.
minor fl ) estate, or by him when he comes of
age.
It is not lawful. for a guardian to pledgr
into his own hands goods belonging to h<
ward on account of a debt due to hin or into
the hands of hie child being an infant, ot
into the hands of his slave bein a merchant
ynd. free from debt. (Hid&yak* vol. iv. p.
214.)
A father can pswn the goods of his infant
child into his own hands lor a debt due from
the child, or into the hands of another of his
children being an infant.
A father may also pav, ii on account of his
own debt the goods belonging to. his minor
son. who on coming of age will redeem the
^oods discharging the debt, and h\vc a claim
on the father for the sum.
The contract of pawn entered irit.o by a
father wvth respect to his minor child s good
cinuot be annulled by to minor, even if it
were not for bis own debt or for lus own
benefit
The mother is, of all the persons, tbe best
entitled to the custody (hitdna/i) of her infant
child during marriago and after separation
from her husband, unless she be an apostaN?,
or wicked. - or unworthy to be trusted.
i vol. i. p. 728.)
152
GUARDIANSHIP
HABIB AN-NAJJAE
Next the mother s mother how high soever
}$ cutif/ied to the custody (frizdnak) of a
child; failing her by death, or marriagi-
to a stranger, the full sister is entitled ;
failing her by death or marriage to a
stranger, the half-sister by the mother. On
failure of her in the same way the daughter
of the full sister, then the daughter of the
halt-sister by the mother. Next the maternal
aunt in the same way, and then the paternal
aunts also in like jnaunev. (Fatdwd-i~*J[tain-
giri, vol. i. p. 728.)
An wnm~i-u)alaa (or n, female slave who has
home a child to her master), when emanci
pated, obtains the right of taking her child.
(Hidayah, vol. i p. 889.)
When it is necessary to remove a boy from
the custody of women, or there is no woman
of his own people to take charge of him, he
is to be given up to his agnate male rela
tives (a?aiaA). Of these the father is the
first, then the paternal grandfather, how-
high soever, then the full brother, then the
half-brother by the father, then the son of the
full brother, then the sou of the half-brother
by the father, then the full paternal uncle,
then the half paternal uncle by the father,
then the sons of paternal uncles in the same
order. But though a boy may be given up to
the sou of his paternal unele, a giri should
not be entrusted to him
No male has any right to the custody of a
female child, but one who is within the pro
hibited degrees of relationship to her ; and an
*ajdbah who is profligate has no right to her
custody. (Fatawd-i- Alamym, vol. i p. 729.)
A female s custody of a boy terminates
when be is seven years old, and of a girl at
her puberty.
Male custody of a boy continues till pu
berty, of a female not only till puberty, but till
she can be safely left to herself and trusted
to take care or* herself.
When a, female has neither father nor
grandfather nor any of her afdbah to take
charge of her, or the asdbah is pro tiig ate, it
is the duty of the judge to take cognizance of
her condition; and if she can be trusted to-
take care of herself, he should allow her to
live alone, whether she be a -virgin or a s ntyi-
<iah, and if not, he should place her with some
female aroin, or trustee, in whom he has con
fidence ; for* he is the superintendent of all
Muslims. ^FatdwU t "Alamgtn, vol. i. p. 780.)
When a mother refuses to take charge of a
child without hire, it maybe committed to
another.
A boy or girl having passed the period of
hizdna-h, has no option to be with one parent
in preference to the other, but must neces
sarily thenceforth remain in charge of the
father. (Hiddyah, vol. L p. 389.)
Be/ore the completion of iddah, or disso
lution of marriage, the proper place of $? ?<z
nak is that where the husband and wife live,
and the former cannot take away the child
out of the custody of the latter. After com-
pletion of her gY/daA, and separation from her
husband, a woman can take her child to the
place of her nativity, provided the marriage
had been contracted there, or it is so iieai
from the place of separation or husband s
residence, that if the husband should leave
fche la bter iu the mox ning to visit the child,
he can. return to his residence before night.
There is also no objection to her removing
with the child from a village t6 the city or
chief town of the district, the same being ad
vantageous to the child, and in no respect
injurious to the father. If the child s mother
be dead, and its hizanak or custody has
passed to the maternal grandfather, she can
not remove the child to her own city, though
the marriage had taken place there. Other
women than the grandmother are like her in
respect to the place of hizdnah.
When an umm t -walnd\in been emancipated,
she has no right to take her child from the
city iii whicb the father is residing.
^Hiddyah, vol. i. ; Fatdwd-i- AlamginiVol. L;
Durrv l-Mukhidr t p. 846: Jami v. V-Jftetfz;
Tagttre Lecture*, 1879; Bailie s Digest, p.
Arabic xaif
GUEST.
(UOSPITALITV.]
OTRZ G^). (1) The Persian
word for the mtraqahj or iron mace, where
with the iafidel dead are smitten in tlieir
graves by the angels Munkar and Nakir.
[ AZABU L-QABR.}
2) An iron mace pointed at one end and
having a knob at the other covered with
spikes, and used by the Gurz Mar, or Rula!
faqirs, for striking against thoir breasts in
their devotional exercises.
p. 291.)
H.
HABA (A*). "Dust," especially
the finer particles which fly about and are
only conspicuous in the sun s rays.
A term used by the ufi mystics for those
portions of matter (hayula) which God has
distributed in creation. (*Abdu r-Razzaq s
Diet of Sufi Terms.)
HABIB A
" Habib the Carpenter," whose story is told
in the Qur an (Surah xxxvl 12), as follows :
"Set forth to them the instance of the
people of the city (i.e. of Aatioch) wbr-n the
Sent Ones csme to it.
" When we sent two (i.e. John and Jude)
* HABIB AN-NAJJAK
unto the.ij and tuey charged them both with
hupo6ture--therefoTe with a. thiid (i.e. Siinon
Pef.er) we strengthened them : and they s-aid.
* Verily wt? are the Srnt unto yon of God?
l( They said., * Yc HIT. only men like us :
Nought l-aih tJie God of Mn>- v ,-^-ni a own.
I Ye do nothing but lie/
"They 7aid, Our Lord knoweth that we
I aic .;ureiy scut unto you;
" f To proclaim a clear jnessage is our only
I 1 duty.
u They f?aid, Of a truth we augur ill trout
1 you; if yr desjst not we will surely stone you,
I and a grievous punlvhment will surely befall
I yon r rom us.
e; They said, Your augury of ill is with
I yourselves. Will ye be warned? Nay, ye
I are an erring- people.
** Then from the end or the city a man (?;e.
. Hahlb, Hu 1 (Mi-pcntcr) came running 1 He
I said < my people! follow the Sent Ones ;
u Follow those who ask net of you a re-
Jl compe.nce uitd who aro rlgbtly guided.
*** And v. hy sliould I not worship Him who
} made me, and to whom ye shall .be brought
I back ?
" Shall I Ukegods beside Him? if t.Ve
God of mercy be pleased to afdict me, thou-
r interceKSi on will not avert from me aught,
I nor will they deliver.
ct * Truly then should I be in a mauif.es t error
"Veriiy. in your Lovii have 1 believed j
I tlierefo" ^ hear me. 5
-It wai said to him. Enter thovt into
1 Paradise " (j,v. after they had stoned him to
H dfialh). And he said, *0h that my pfop lc
i knew
" How gracious God h atlt been to me and
1 that He hatli made me one of //ft honoured
: ones"
"But no army sent we down out of hoavfit;
I if ter his ./eJc//jnor were we .then sending down
|! or// -angels
u There wa, but one shout from. Gabriel,
p and lo ! they wore extinct.
" Oil! the misery that rests upon my ser-
I rants ! No apostle cometh to them but they
t laugh him to seorn."
Al-Baizawi, the oommentatorj a&yi- the
i people of the City of Antioch were idobiers,
i and that Jesus sent two of his disciples, Yahya
I and Y"\5nas( John and Jude)to preach to them.
i Aud when they nr rived, they met Habih, the
I carpenter, to whom they made Icnowti th*ir
I miHsi on. Habib said, ** What, signs can yc
show that ye are sent of God ? ;> And the di.s-
i siples replied, u "We can heal the sick and
give sight to thoso who are born blind, and
i cure, the leprosy." Then Habib brought his
sick sou to them and they laid their bunds
upon him and he was healed. And Habrb
believed on Jesus, and lie made known the
gospel to tho people of the city. Many of the
people vhen came to the disciples* and were
also he.alsd. The news then reached the ear
of the governor of the city, and he. sent for
the two disoiples and they preached, to him.
He replied, " Is your God different from our
God?" They s;- id "Yes, He it is who
made thee and ih v gods.* The governor then
HADIS QUDSI
168
| .;<!!( them a\vay and out them in prison
j When they were in prison, Tesussent Suam uu
(Si uioii Peter), and he came secretly and made
friends with the servants of rhe governor, and
in u rm; gained access to the governor s pre
sence, a.nd performed H, miracle in the pre
sence of the governor by .raising a child vrhe
j had been dead seven days. The child when
! raised from the dead, said he had seen Jesus
Christ. i:i heaven, and that he had interceded
for tho three disciplss u prison. The
governor believed and many others with
him. Those whe did not believe raised a- dls
turbancc in the. city, and Hablb the carpenter
exhorted Umn to believe. For this hp w
*t oned, and, having died, entered into Paradise.
rUbib s tonib is still seen at Antioch.and is
visited by Mnhamrruidang as a shrino.
HABTL ( J***). [ABEL.]
HABVVAH (V*). The posture of
sitting with the legs rmd thigha contractor
towards the belly the back bent forwards,
and supported lit that position by the arm.":
crossed over the kneea. Muslims are for-
bidden to sit in this posture during the re
cital of the Khutbah on Fridays {M.inhkat
!>ook iv. p. 45, pt. 2> as it inclines to drowsiness
HA DAS MA?JO.). State of an un
clean person, of on? .viio has not performed
the usual abluiious bofot >, prayev.
HADD (*), pi. ftudud. In its pri
mitive sense hadd signifies " obstruction,"
whent H a porter or gate-keeper is called
hadddd or " obstructer," from his office of
prohibiting people from entering. In Jaw it
expres.se- the punishments, the limits of which
havo, been defined by Muhammad either in the
Quran or in the fjtadlg. These punish in cuts
are (1) Tor adultery, stoning j (2) For forntna-
iion, a itundred stripes ; (8) For ike false
accusation of a married person with adultery
(or Q<U/), eighty stripes j (4) For apostasy,
deaih; ;5) For drinking win?,, eighty stripe* .
(6) For thfftt the cutting off of the rigbt hand ;
?) Foi- highway robbe.ru : lor simple robbery or
the Highway, the loss of hands audinet; foi
robbery with murder, death, either by tin
word or by crucifixion. (ffidayaJt. voL ii.
p. 1. [PUNISHMENT.]
Aj>HADlD (J^*J\). "Iron." The
title of the Juvuth Surah of the Qur an in
which the word occurs (verse 26): " Wig sent
J own iron, in which are both keen violence and
dvtuitage to men,"
HADIS (*>W). What happens
for the Rrat time; new, fresh. That which
is born in time as opposed to qadi-m, or that
which is without a beginning, as God.
HAI/IS (*j8u**), pi. ahadis. [TRA-
DITIOW.]
HADIS QUDS! (^-tfu^). A
divine saying. A t.*rm used tor a kadis whicn
rcJotes A revelation from God in the language
of the Prophet. An example is found in the
Mishk&t (book f. c. i. pt. I ) : " Abu Hurairah
said, l The Prophet of God related tbes-e words
20
154
HADIYAH
AL-HAJAEU L-ASWAD
of God, "The sons oi Adam vex me, and
abuse the age, whereas I am The AGE
itself : In my hands are all events : I have
made the day and night/""
HADIYAH (^JUD). A present or
offering made to persons of consequence,
kmgs or rulers.
HADY (e^)- Cattle sacrificed at
Makkab during the Pilgrimage, as distin
guished from animals sacrificed on the Great
Festival, which are called uzfcya/i. These
animals are branded and sent off with Strings
round their nocks, as offerings to the sacred
temple. They may be bullocks, or camels, or
sheep, or goats. (Mishkdt, book XL c. viii.)
HAFIg (ItfW). Lit. "A guardian "
or protector. (1) One of the names of God,
id-Hafi? : , (2) A governor, e.g. Hdfizu I -Bait;
the guardian of the Makkan temple. (3) One
who has committed the whole of the Qur an
to memory.
Usman relates that the Prophet said:
" The best person amongst you is tie wbo^Jms
learnt the Quv an and teaches it, (Mistikdt*
book vil. c. i.) In the east it is usual for
blind men to commit the Qur aa to memory,
and to thus obtain the honourable distinction
of Ha-fa.
HAFSAH (XH. One of Muham
mad s wives. She was the daughter of Umar.
and the widow 6f Khunaia, an early convert
to Islam. She married Muhammad about six
months after her former husband s death.
During the lifetime of the Prophet she was a
person of considerable influence in his coun
sels, being the daughter of Umar. She sur
vived Muhammad some years, and ha.s re
corded several traditions of his sayings.
HAGAE. Arabic Hajar O^*).
The slave wife of Abraham and the mother
of Ishmael. Al*Baizawi says that Hajar was
the slave girl of Sarah, the wife of Abraham,
and she admitted her to Abraham, and from
her was born Ishmael. Sarah became jealous
of Hajar (because, she had a son), and she
demanded of Abraham that he should put
both the mothor and. child away, and he sent
them away in the directioa of Makkah, and
at Makkan God produced for them the spring
Zamzam [ZAMZAM] When the tribe of Jur-
hum .jaw that there was water in that place,
they said to Hajar. " If you will share with
ne the water of this spring, we will share with
you the milk of our herds," and from that
time MakkaJh. became a place of importance.
(Tafoini 1-BaizdwL p. 424.)
HAIR, Arabic sha r, eha ar (/*>),
Heb,
The sale of auman hair is unlawful in the
same manner as the use of it for auy purpose
ia unlawful. Being a part of the human
body, it is necessary to preserve it from dis
grace, to which an exposure of it to sale
necessarily subjects it. It is related in the
traditions that God ha;* cursed women who use
false hair. (Hidayah, voL ii. p. 439.) [MEAD 1
HA rrlYAH (*WU). A sect of
Muslims founded by Ahmad ibn Ha it, who
said there were two Gods, one whose exis
tence is from eternity (qadbn), i.e. Allah,
and tho other who is created in time (mufod-
daa), i.e. a) -Ma slh, (Christ), and that it ia he
who will judge the world in the last day.
And he. maintained that this is the meaning
of the words which occur in the traditions :
" God created taan in bis own image." (Kitdlni
l-Ta rifdt, in loco.)
HAIWAN (0^). The animal
creation : which in divided into haiwdn ndtiq^
or rational beings ; and haiwan sdkit, or
irrationat beinga. FANIMALS, BEINGS.]
Ai-HAIY (&J\) } Hob. TT, " The
Living One." One of the ninety nine attributes
of God. The term frequently occurs in the
Qur an.
HA*I?AH (^?v^) A menstruoug
HAJAR
AL-HA.TARU X-A8WAD
(o^jjty. Lit. " The Black Stone."
The famous black atone which forms part of
the sharp angle of the Ka bah in the temple
at Makkah. Mr. Burkhardt says, It is au|
irregxxlar oval, about seven inched in dia
meter, with an undulating surface, composed;
of about a dozen smaller stones of different
si^es and shapes, well joined together with a
small quantity of cement, and perfectly well
smoothed ; it looks as if the whole bad been
broken into as many pieces by a violent bfow,
and then united again. It is very difficult to
determine accurately the qualify of this
stone, which has been worn to its present
surface by the millions of touches and kisses
it has received. It appeared to me like a
lava, containing several small extraneous par
ticles of a whitish and of a yellow substance.
Its colour is now a deep reddish brown ap
proaching to black. It is surrounded on alt
aides by a border composed of a substance
which I took to be a close cement of pitch
and gravel of a similar, but not quite the
same, brownish colour. This border servei
to support its detached pieci-H ; it is two ori
three inches in breadth, aud ripes a little
above the surfac.e of the stone. Both the
border and the stone itself are encircled by A
silver band, broader below than above, and on
the two sides, with a considerable swelling
below, as if n- part of the atone were hidden
under it. The* lower pare of the border it
studded with silver nails."
Captain Burton remarks, " The colour ap
peared to me black and metallic, and the
contre of the stone was sunk about twoinchei
below the metallic circle. Round the sides
was a reddish brown cement, almost level
with the metal, and sloping down to the]
middle of the stone. The band is now a
massive arch of gold or silver gilt. I found
the aperture in which the stone is, one span
and three fingers broad.*
According to Ibn AbbaS, Muhammad said
HAJB
HAJJ
155
the black stone came down from Paradise,
and at the time of its descent it was whiter
.than milk, but that the sins of the children of
Adam have caused it to be black, by their
tonching it. That on the Day of Resvrrrec-
tiou, when it will have two eyes, by which it
iwill soe and know all those who touched it
and kissed it, and when it will have a tongue
to speak, it will give evidence in favour of
ithose who touched and kissed it.
i Maxhnug Tyrius, who wrote in the second
century, *ays " The Arabians pay homage to I
know oot what god, which they represent by
o quadrangular stone, ? alluding to the Ka bah
! or temple which contains the black stone.
The Guebnrs or Ancient, Persians, assert
ithat the Black Stone was amongst the
ijmges and relics left by Mahabad and his
kuccoKSors in the Ka bah, and that it was an
jemblem of Saturn. It is probably an aero-
Jlite. and owes its reputation, like many others,
(to its fall from the sky. Itp existence as an
lobject oi adoration in an iconoclastic religious
System, can only be accounted for by Muham-
imad s attempt to conciliate t>he idolaters of
;! Arabia.
$ A complete list of the falls of aerolites and
meteoric stones through the atmosphere, is
roublishwd in the Edinburgh Philosophical
Mourned, from a v/ork by Chladni in Gorman,
tin which the subject is ably and f uily treated.
r3E_i*
A M I """^
THE TL4JAJLU L-A8WAD.
HAJB (s-^^). A le^ai term iu
[the Muhamraadan lav/ of inheritance, signify
ing the catting off of au heir from his portion.
HAJI (^U), also hajj. A person
who has performed the hajj, or pilgrimage to
Makkab. It is retained as a title of honour by
those who have performed the pilgrim age ,e.^.
ffdji Qdsim, i.e. * Qasim the Pilgrim." [HA.TJ.]
HAJJ (g^). Lit. "Betting out,"
tending towards." The pilgrimage to Mak-
kah performed in the month of gu 1-Hijjab.
or the twelfth month of the Miihanxmadan
year. It is tho fifth pillar of Muhammadan
practical religion, and an incumbent religious
duty, founded upon express injunctions in
the Qur au. According to Muhammad it is a
divine institution, and has the following autho
rity in the Qur an for its due observance :
(It is noticeable that all the verses in the
Qur an with regard to the pilgrimage are in the
later SuraJis, wlien they are arranged in their
chronntogical order.)
Surah xxii. 28 :
And proclaim to the peoples a PILGRIM-
AGE (bajj). Let them come to thee on foot
and on every fleet cainel, arriving by every
deep defile ;
" That they may bear witness of its bene-
fitfl to them, and may make mention of God s
name oa the appointed days (i.e. the ten first
days of gu 1-Hijjah), over the brute beasts
with which He hath supplied them for sus
tenance : Therefore eat thereof yourselves,
and feed the oeedy, the poor:
u Then let them bring tho neglect of their
persons to a close, ana let them pay their
vows, and circuit the ancient HOUSP.
This do. And he that reepecteth the
sacred ordinances of God, this will be host
for him with his Lord."
Surah ii. 153 :
** Verily, us-$afe and al-Marwah are among
the signs of God -. whoever then m&keth a pil
grimage (bajf) to the temple, or visiteth it,
shall not be to blame if he go round about
them both. And as for Lim who of his own
accord doeth what is good God is Grateful,
Knowing/
Idem, 102:
k( Accomplish the pilgrimage (/y/) and
the visitation ( ( uwah) tor God : and if ye be
hemmed in by foes, send whatever sacrifice
shall be the easiest, and shave not your heads
until the offering reach the place of sacrifice.
But whoever among you ia sick or bar. an
ailment of the head, must expiate by fasting,
alms, or an offering.
" Aud when ye are safe from foot, he who
contents himself with the visitation Qrtmnth)
until the pilgrimage (bajf), shall bring what
ever offering shall be the easiest. But he
who findeth nothing to offer, shall fast three
days in the pilgrimage itaelf, and seven days
when yc return : they shall be ten days in
all. This is binding on him whose family
bhall not be present at the sacred Mbsquo (al-
tyajsjidv 4 I-hardni). And fear God, and know
that God is terrible in punishing.
" Lei tho pilgrimage be made in tho months
already known (?.;. Sh.iwwal, 2u 1-Qa dah,
and Zfi 1-]ijjah) : whoever therefore under-
taketb. the pilgrimage therein, let him not
know a woman, uor transgress, nor wrangle
in the pjlgrijiiage. The good which ye do,
God knoweth it. And provide for your
journey / but the best provision is the fear of
God : fear me, then, men of understanding !
" It shall be no crime in you if ye seek an
increase from your Lord (i.e. to trade) : and
when ye pass swiftly on from Arafat, then
rwueinber God near the holy temple (at-Ma$-
jidtt l-bardm) ; and remember ftiin, because
He hath guided you who before this wore of
those who wcut astray :
" Theu pass on quickly whore the people
quickly pass (i.e. from Araiat), and ask par
don of God, for God is Forgiving, Merciful.
*And when ye have finished your holy
rites > remember God as ye remember your
own fathers, or with a yet more intense re
membrance I Some men there are who say,
our Lord ! give ns our portion in this
156
HAJJ
HAJJ
world : but such shall have no portion in the
next life :
" And some say, our Lord ! give us
good in this world and good in the next, and
keep us from the torment of the fire.
" They shall hare the lot which they have
merited : and God is swift to reckon.
" Bear God in mind during the stated days :
but if any haste away in two days (i..e. after"
r.be #;"), it shaJJ bu no fault in him : And it
any tarry longer, it shall be no fault in him,
it he fear God. Fear God, then, and know
that to Him shall ye be gathered."
Surah iii.90:
"The first temple that was founded for
mankind, was that in Bakkah (i.e. Makkah)
Blessed, and a guidance to human beings,
" In it are evident signs, even the standing-
place of Abraham (Maqunm Ibrahim): and he
who entereth it is safe. And the pilgrimage
to the temple, is a service due to God from
those who are able to journey thither."
Surah v. 2.
" Believers ! violate neither the rites of
God, nor the sacred month, nor che offering,
nor its ornaments, (i.e. on the necks of ani
mals), nor those vrho press on to the sacred
bouse (al-Baitv 1-Hara-iri), s.eeking favour
h cm their Lord and his good pleasure in them."
The performance of the pilgrim age is in
cumbent upon srery Muslim, oc.ce in his life-
timo, if he be &rz adult, free, sane, "well in
health, and ha* suincient money for the e,x-
penses of the journey and for tho support of
his family during his absence.
If a woman perform the pilgrimage she
must do it in company with her husband, or
& near relative (marram). If she can obtain
the protection of a near relative and has i.ho
necessary expenses for the journey, it is not
lawful for her husband to prevent her perform
ing the pilgrimage. This mafiram is a near re
lative whom it is not lawful for her to marry,
The Imam ash-Shan I denies the necessity
of such attendance, stating that the y.uran
makes no such restriction. His objection is,
however,, met by a Tradition. " A certain
man came to the Prophet and said : My wife
is about to make the hajj, but 1 am called Lo
go on a -warlike expedition. The Prophet
said: r Turn away from the wax aad accom
pany thy wife in the hajj "
.For a lawful hajj there are three actions
which uesfane. and five which are wajib : all
this rest are sunnah or inusialidbb. Thofarz
are: to wear no other garment except the
ifyrqm-; to stand in Arafat ; to make the
fciwaf, or circuit round the Ka f bah.
The wajib duties are : to etay in al-Muzdali-
fah ; to run between Mount as-Safaand Mount
al-Marwah ; to perform the Ramyu r-Rijam,
or the casting of the pebbles ; if the pilgrims
are non-Mecca.ns, to make an extra tawaf\ to
shave the head after the pilgrimage is over.
The hajj must be made at the appointed
season. Surah ii. 193: "Let tho pilgrimage
be ruade in the mouths already known."
These months are Shawwal, Zu l-Qa dah^and
the first ten days of Zu 1-Hijjah. The actual
hajj must be in the month Zii 1-Hijjah, but
the preparations for, and the niyah^ or in
tention of the hajj can be made in the two
preceding months. The umrah, or ordinary
visitation PUMRAH], can be done at any
time of the year except on the ninth and
four succeeding days of Zu l-Hijjah. On
each of the various roads leading to Mak
kah, there are at a distance of about five
or six miles from the city stages called
Mlqat. The following are the names. On
the Madinah road, the stage is Called Zii 1-
Hallfah ; on the Iraq road, Zatu Arq ; on the
Syrian road, Hujfah ; on the Najd road,
Qarn ; on the Yaman road, Yalamlain.
THE PILOHIM.
The following is the orthodox way of per
forming, the pilgrimage, founded upon the ex
ample of the Prophet himself. (See Sabfyu *<-
Bukhari, Kitabu l-Manasik, p. 205.)
Upon the pilgrim s arrival at tho last
stage near Makkak, he bathes himself, and
performs two rak ah prayers, and then divest
ing himself of his clothes, he assumes the
pilgrim s sacred robe, which is called ikmm.
This garment consists of two seamless wrap
pers, one being wrapped round the waist, and
the other thrown loosely over the shoulder,
the head being left uncovered. Sandals may
also be worn, but not shoes or boots. After
he has assumed the pilgrim s garb, he must
not anoint hiy head, shave any part of his
body, paro his nails, nor wear any other gar
ment than tho ihrdin. The pilgrim having now
entered upon the hajj, faces Makkah, and
makes the riiyah (intention), and says : " O
God, I purpose to make the hajj ; make this
service oa-sy to me and accept it from me."
He then proceeds on his journey to the sacred
city apd on Ms way, as well as at different
periods in the pilgrimage, he recites, or sings
with o. loud voice, the pilgrim s song, called
the Talbiyah. (a word signifying waiting or
HAJJ
standing for orders). In Arabic it runs thus
j (as given in tne Sahifa l-Bukhdri, p. 210) :
" Labbaika ! A Udhuinma ! Labbaika !
Labbaika 1 La Shdrika laka ! Labbaika !
Tnna l-faamda wa n-ni ( mata laka, wa I-
mulku laka !
Ld shdrikn laka ! "
Which, following the Persian commentator,
Abdu 1-Haqq, may be translated as follows :
I stand up for Thy service, O God ! I
stand up!
I stand tip ! There is no partner with
Thee ! I stand up !
Verily Thine is the Praise, the Blessing
and the Kingdom !
There is no partner with Thee ! "
Immediately on his arrival at Makkah ha
performs legal ablutions in the Masjidu 1-
haram, and then kissos the black stone (al-
Hajaru l-asvrad). He then encompasses the
Ka bah seven times ; three times at a quick
step or run, and four times at a alow pace.
These acta are called the tawafo&& are per-
f 02 mod by commencing on the ri^bt and
leaving the Ka bah on the left. Each time
as the pilgrim passes round the Ka bah, he
touches the Ruknu 1-YamanI, or the Yamani
corner, and kisses the sacred black stone. He
then proceeds to the Ma qamu Ibrahim (the
place of Abraham), where he recites the 119th
verse of the nnd Surah of the Qur an, " Take
yo the station of Abraham for a place of
prayer," and performs two rak ah prayers,
after which he returns to the black stone and
kisses it. He then goes to the gate of the
temple leading to Mount as-$afa, and from it
aocends the hill, reciting the 163rd verse of
tha iird Surah of the Qur an, "Verily as-Safa
and al-Marwah are the signs of, God." Having
arrived at the summit of the mount, turning
towards the Ka bah. he recites the following :
" There is EC deity but only God ! God is
great! There .- no deity but God alone!
HP hath performed His promise, and hath
aided His servant and b.th put to flight the
hosts of infidels by Himself alone ! "
These words are recited thrice. He then
ruriH from the top of Mount as-afa to the sum-
.> Mount al-Marwah seven times, repeating
Uie aforesaid prayers on the top of each hilL
This i* the sixth day, the evening of which
is spent, at Makkah, where he again, encom
passes the Ka bah.
Upon the seventh day he listens to the
khutbah, or oration, in the great mosque, in
which are set forth the excellences of the
pih/rimage and the necessary duties required
of al 1 true Muslims on the following days.
On the eighth day, which is caflnd Tarwi-
yah, he proceeds with his fellow pilgrims to
Mina, where he stays and performs the usual
services of the Muslim ritual, and remains
the night.
The next day (the ninth), after morning
prayer, ho proceeds to Mount Arafat, where
he recites the usual prayers and listed to
another khutbah. He then leaves for al-Mus:-
dalifah, a place midway between Mina and
Arafat, where he should arrive for the sun
set prayer.
FtAJJ
157
The next day, the tenth, is the Yaamv n
Nahr, or the "Day of Sacrifice," known all
through the Muslim world and celebrated as
the /<&. l-Azfrd. Early in the morning, the
pilgrims having said their prayers at Muzda-
lifah, then proceed in a body to three pillars
in Mina, the first of which i* called the
Shailanu l-Kabir, or Great Devil. The
pilgrim casts seven stones at each of
those pillars, the ceremony being Called the
Ramyu r-R?jdm, or casting of stones. Hold
ing the rajin, or pebble between the thumb
and fore- finger of the right hand, the pilgrim
throws it at a distance of not less than fifteen
feet, and says " In the name of God, the
Almighty, I do this, and in hatred of the
devil and his sbarne." The remaining six
stone3 are thrown in the same way. It "is
said that this ceremony has heeu performed
ever since the days of Abraham. The pil
grim then returns to Mina and performs the
nacrifice of the Idu /-Azlid. The victim may
be a sheep, or a goat, or a cow, or a camel,
according to the means of the pilgrim.
Placing its head towards the Ka bah, its
fore-legs being bandaged together, the pil
grim stands on the light side of his victim
and plunges the knife into its throat with
great force, and cries with a loud voice,
"Alldhu Akbar!" "God is great! God,
accept this sacrifice from me !
This ceremony concludes the pilgrimage,
and the bdji or pilgrim then gets himself
shaved and his nails pared, and the ihrdin
or pilgrim garment is removed. Although
the pilgrimage is over, he should still rest at
Makkah the three following days, which are
known as the Ayydmu t-Tashrlq^ or the days
of drying up of the blood of the sacrifice.
Three well-earned days of rest after the
peripatetic performance of t^e last four days.
Before he leaves Makkah he should once
more perform the circuits round the Ka baL
and throw stones at the Satanic pillars at
Mina, seven times. He should also drink of
the water of the xamzam well.
Most Muslims then go to al-Madinah, and
make their salutations at the sbrino of Mu
hammad. This i& regarded as an incumbent
duty by all except, the Wahhabid, who hold
that to make the visitation of the Prophet s
tomb a religious ceremony i;> shirk, or aaso-
ciatiug the creature with God.
From the time the pilgrim has assumed
the ihrarri until he takes it oQ, he must abstain
from worldly affairs and devote hunself. entirely
to the duties of tho hajj. He ia not allowed
to hunt, though he may catch fish if he can.
"O Believers, kill 110 game while ye are on
pilgrimage." (Surah v. 96.) The Prophet
also fcfjid : " He who shows the p 3,ce where
game is to be found, is equally *s bad art the
man who kills it." The haji must not scratch
himself, lest vermin be destroyed, or a hair be
uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he
must rub himself with the open paim of his
hand. The face *ud head must be left un
covered, the Lair on he h*ad and beard un
washed and uncut, "Shave, not your heads
until the offering reach the place of sacrifice."
158 HAJJ
(Surah ii. 192.) On arriving at an elevated
place, on descending a valley, on meeting any
one, on entering th6 city of Makkah or the
sacred temple, the haji should continually
repeat the word " Ldbbaika, Labbaika " ; and
whenever he sees tho Ka bah he should recite
the Takbir, " God is great 1 " and the Ta fiJi
" There is no deity but God 1 "
The pilgrimage known as the hajj, as has
been already stated, can only bo made on the
appointed days of the month of gu 1-Hijjah.
A visit at an other time is called tho Umrah.
If the pilgrim arrives as late
the ninth day, aad is in time to spend that
day, he can still perform the pilgrimage legally.
The pilgrimage cannot be performed by
proxy by Sunni Muslims, but is allowed by
the Shl ahs, and it is by both considered a
meritorious act to pay the expenses of one
who cannot afford to perform it. But if a
Muhammadan on his death-bed bequeath a
sum of money to be paid to a certain person
to perform the pilgrimage, it is considered to
satisfy the claims of the Muslim law. If a
Muslim have the means of performing the
pilgrimage, and omit to do so, its omission is
equal to a kabirab, or mortal sin.
According to the saying of the Prophet
(Miskkdt, book xi. ch. 1), the merits of a pil
grimage to Makkah are very great :
" He who makes a pilgrimage for God s
Bake, and does not talk loosely, nor act
wickedly, shall return as pure from sin as the
day on which he was born. 5 " Verily, they
(the hajj and the umrah) put away poverty
and sin like the fires of a forge removes
dross. The reward of a pilgrimage is para
dise." " When you see & pilgrim, solute and
embrace him, and request bim to ask pardon
of God for you, for his own sins have been
forgiven and his supplications will be
accepted."
For a philological and technical explana
tion of the following terms which occur in
thia account of tho Ijajj, refer to the words
as they occur in this dictionary : AB&FAH,
AYYAMU T-TASHRIQ, HAJAIUT L-ASWAD, HAJJ,
IlIBAM, MAKWAH. MA8J1DU L-HAKAM, MAQAMU
IBRAHIM, MAUKAM, MIQAT, MUZDALIFAH, TA-
WAF, UMHAH, KAMYU L-JIMAB, ZAMZAM, TAL-
BIYAH, BUK. WI] l,-YAMAI, TARWIAH, KHUT-
BAH,- IDU L-AZHA, SAT A.
The Muslim who has performed the pil
grimage is called a haji, which title he retains,
e.g. Haji Qa^im, the Pilgrim Qusim,
Only five Englishmen are known to have
visited Makkah, and to have witnessed the
ceremonies of the pilgrimage : Joseph Pitts,
of Exeter, A.I>. 1678; John Lewis Burck-
hardt, A.TX IS 14 : Lieutenant Richard Bui-ton,
of the Bombay Army, A.D. 1853; Mr. H.
Bieknoll, A.D. 1862 ; Mr. T. F. Keane, 1880.
The narratives of each of these " pilgrims "
have been published. The first account in
English of the. visit of a European to Makfab,
is that of Lodovico Bartema, a gentleman of
Rome, who visited Makkah in 1503. His
narrative was published in Willes and Eden s
Decades, A.D. 1555,
Professor Palmer ( a Introduction " to the
HAJJ
Qur an,p. liii.) says : " The ceremonies of the
pilgrimage could not be entirely done away
with. The universal reverence of the Arab
for the Kaabah was too favourable and
obvious a means for uniting all the tribes
into one confederation with one common pur
pose in view. The traditions of Abraham the
father of their race, and the founder of Mu
hammad s own religion, as he always declared
it to be, no doubt gave the ancient temple a
peculiar sanctity in the Prophet s eyes, and
although he first settled upon Jerusalem as
his qtblah) he afterwards reverted to the
Knabah itself. Here, then, Muhammad found
a shrine, to which, as well as at which, devo
tion had been paid from time immemorial;
it was one thing which the scattered Arabian
nation had in common the one thing which
gave them even tho shadow of a national
feeling ; and to have dreamed of abolishing
it, or even of diminishing the honours paid to
it, would have been madness and ruin to Ms
enterprise. He therefore did the next best
thing, he cleared it of idols and dedicated it
to the service of God."
Mr. Stanley Lane Poole (Introduction to
Lane s Selections, p. Ixxxiv.) remarks :
" This same pilgrimage is often urged as
a sign of Mohammad s tendency to supersti
tion and even idolatry. It is asked how the
destroyer of idols could have reconc led his
conscience to the circuits of the Ka/bah and
the veneration of the black stone covered
with adoriug: kisses. The rites of the pil
grimage cannot certainly be defended agauist
the charge of superstition: but it is easy to
see why Mohammad enjoined them. They
were hallowed to him by the memories of
his ancestors, who had beon the guardians of
the sacred temple, and by the traditional re
verence of all his people; and besides this tie
of association, which in itself was enough to
make it impossible for him to do away with
the ritee, Mohammad perceived that the wor
ship in the Ka bah would prove of real
value to his religion. He swept away the
more idolatrous and immoral part of the
ceremonies, but he retained the pilgrimage
to Mekka .and the old veneration of the
temple for reasons of which it is impossible
to dispute the wisdom He well knew the
consolidating- effect of forming a centre to
which his followers should gather ; and hence
he reasserted the sanctity of the black stone
that came down from heaven ; he ordained
that everywhere throughout the world the
Muslim should pray looking towards the Ka
bah, and he enjoined him to make the pil
grimage thither. Mekka is to the Muslim
what Jerusalem is to the Jew. It bears with
it all the influence of centuries of associations
It carries the Muslim back to the cradle of
his faith, the childhood of his prophet ; it re
minds bim of the struggle between the old
faith and the new, of the overthrow of the
idols, and the establishment of the worship of
the One God. And, most of all, it bide him
remember that all his brother Muslims ?.ro
worshipping towards the same sacx*ed spot,
that he k one of a great company of be-
HAJJ
HA.TJ
159
lievers, united by one faith, filled with the
same hopes, reverencing the same tiling, wor
shipping tho same God. Mohammad showed
liia knowledge of the roligioas emotions in
man when he preserved the sanctity of tho
temple of Islam,"
Tho Alakkan pilgrimage admits of no other
explanation than this, that the Prophet of
Arabia found it expedient to compromise with
Arabian idolatry. And hence we find the
superstition and silly easterns of the Hajj
grafted on to a religion which professes to be
both monotheistic in its principle, and icono
clastic in its practices.
A careful and critical study of Islnm will,
we think, convince any candid mind that at first
Muhammad intended to construct his religion
on the linos of the Old Testament. Abraham,
the true Muslim, was his prototype, Moses
his law-giver, and Jerusalem his Qibfah. But
circumstances were ever wont to change not
only the Prophet s revelations, but also hi,s
moral standai-ds. Makkp.h became the Qib-
lah : and the spectacle of the Muslim world
bowing in the direction of a black stone,
whilst they worship the one God. marks
Islam, with its Makkau pilgrimage, as a reli
gion of compromise,
Apologists of Islam have endeavoured to
shield Muhammad from the solemn charge of
having " forged the name of God," but we
know of nothing which can justify the act of
giving the stupid and unmeaning ceremonies
of the pilgrimage all the force and solemnity
of a divino enactment.
Tho Wahhftbis, the Puritans of Islam, re
gard the circumambulatiou of the Prophet s
tomb as superstitious (as shirk, or associating
something with God, in tact), but how can
they justify the foolish ceremonies of thc-
hajj ? If reverence for the Prophet * tomb if,
shirk, what are the runnings at ae-Safa and
al-Marwah, the atonings of the pillars, and the-
kissings of the black stone? No Muslim
has evor yet attempted to give a spiritual
explanation of the ceremonies of tho Makkau
pilgrimage, for in attempting to do so he
would be charged with the heresy of tthirfc !
Mr. W. S. Blunb in his Future of Islam,
has given some interesting statistics regard
ing the pilgrimage to Makkah in the year
1880, which he obtained during a residence at
Cairo, Damascus, and Jiddah. The figures,
he says, are taken principally from an official
record kept for some years past at Jiddah, and
checked as far as European subjects are
concerned, Ly reference to the consular
agents residing there.
TABLE OF THIS MKCCA PILGRIMAGE OF 1880.
Nationality of Pilgrims.
Arriving by
Sea.
Arriving by
Land.
Total of Mnssul-
man population
represented.
Ottoman subjects including pilgrims from
Syria and Irak, but not from Egypt or
Arabia proper
8,500
1,000
22,000,000
Egyptians
5,000
1,000
5,000,000
Mogrebbms ("people of the West"), that
is to say. Arabic-speaking Muasalmans
from the Barbary States. Tripoli, Tunis.
Algiers, and Morocco. These are always
classed together and are. pot easily distin
guishable from each other .
6,000
18,000,000
Arabs from Yemen
3,000
2,500,000
., Oman and Hadramuut
3,000
S.OOOiOOO
Nejd, Assir, and Hasa, most of
them Wahhabites .
5,000
4,000,000
Hejaz, of these perhaps 10.000
Meccane ....
22,000
2,000,000
Negroes from Soudan . ...
2,000
10,000,000 (?)
,, Zanzibar .....
1,000
1,500,000
Malabari from the Cape of Good Hope .
150
Persians .......
5,000
2,500
8,000,000
Indians (British subjects) .
Malays, chiefly from Java and Dutch subjects
15,000
12,000
40,000,000
30,000,000
Chinese .......
100
15,000,000
Mongols from the Khanates, included in the
Ottoman Haj
6,000,000
Lazis, Circassians, Tartars, Ac. (Russian
subjects), included in the Ottoman Haj
^-
5,000,000
Independent Afghans and Beluchis, included
in the Indian and Persian Haje .
j
3,000,000
Total of pilgrims present at Arafat
93,250.
Total Census of Islam
175,000,000
160
HAJJATU L-WADA.
HAJJATU L-WADA (eUj
The last or farewell pilgrimage performed by
Mubp.mtnad, and which is taken as the model
of an orthodox hajj. It is called the Hajjv,
l-Akhar t OT Greater Pilgrimage, in the Qur an,
Surah ix. 3. (See Mishkat, book xi. ch. lii.,
and Muir a Life of ?rfalioJnet,} It is supposed
to have commenced February 23 r A.D. 632.
HAJJ MABEtTR O^r* &*> A n
approved or accepted pilgiimage (frfishkUt,
book xi. en. i. pt 2). A pilgrirnmage to
Makkah pcrf orp^ol .icrording to the condi
tions Of Mils ?!*. I ,*
HAJtAM . (^). An arbitrator
appointed by a qazT to settle disputes. It is
not lawful to appoint either a slave or an
unbeliever or a slanderer, or an infant, as au
arbitrator, (ffid&vak, vol. ii. p 638.)
According to the Quran, Surah iv. 39,
domestic quarrels should be settled by an
arbitrator : if ye fear a breach between the
two (i.e. husband and wife) then appoint an
arbitrator from his people, ?.nd an arbitrator
from her people.*
Al-Hakam, the Ahitrator, is one of the
ninety-nine attributes of God, although it is
not so etn ployed in the Qur sn.
HAKIM (>*W). A just ruler/*
The term Ahkamu l-Hdkimin, " the Most Just
of Rulers, is used i or God, Qur an, Surah
xcv. 8 j also, Khairu J l-Hdkirnln^ i.e.. " Best of
Rulers," Surah vii. 86.
HAKIM (,&), pL hukemti ; Heb.
Lit. " A wise person." (1) A
philosopher. (2) A doctor of medicine. ^3)
Al-Hakim, v The Wise One." One of the
ninety-nine attributes of God It frequently
occurs in the Qur an, e.g. Sfirah ii. 123 : " Thott
art the Mighty and the Wise ! "
HAL (J^)* A state, or condition.
A term used by the Sufi mystics for those
thoughts and conditions which come upon the
heart of man without his intention or desire,
such as sorrow, or fear, or pleasure, or desire,
or lust. If these conditions are stable and in-
transient, they are called molkah or maqam
but if they are transient and fleeting, they
are called hdl, (Abdu r-Razzaq s Dictionary
of Sufi Terms.}
A state of ecstasy induced by continued
contemplation of God. It is considered a
divine gift and a sure prognostication of
speedily arriving at The Truth."
Professor Palmer says (Oriental Mysti
cism, p. 66), " This assiduous contemplation
of startling metaphysical theories is exceed
ingly attractive to an Oriental mind, and not
unfrequently- produces a state of mental
excitement akin to the phenomena observed
during the recent religious revivals. Such
ecstatic state IB considered a sure prognosti
cation of direct illumination of the heart by
God, and constitutes the 6fth stage (in the
mystic journey) called hdl or ecstasy."
HALAL (J2W). Lit. " That which
is untied or loosed. * That vrhich is lawful,
AL-HAMD
as distinguished from /.laram, or that which is
unlawful.
AL-HALTM ^). " The Clement."
One of the ninety-nine attribute* of Got!. ^ It
occurs in the Qar an, ,.17. Surah ii. 225 : " God
is forgiving and clement"
IIAMA IL" (J*W). Lit "Things
suspended * An amulet or charm [AWDLUT.]
HAMALAH (8u-*). Compensa-
tion fonnanslaugbtcr or murder, called also
diuah. [DIYAH.]
HAMALATU ^L-ARSH (U~+^
JJyJV). Lit. " Those who bear the
throns." Certain angels mentioned in ttit
Q.ur aa, ISurah xl. 7 : " Those who bear the
throne (i.e. the Hamalatti *!- Ar.sh) and those
around it (i.e. the Karubm) celebrate the
praise of their Lord, and believe in Him, ami
ask pardon for those who believe/ 1
Al Bagh&wI. the commentator, says they
are eight angels of the highest rank. They
are sc tall that their feet stand on Uie lowest
strata of the earth and their beads reach
the. highest heavens, the ujniverse does not
reach up t-o fcheir Rvels> and it is a journey
of seven hundred years troi/i their ears to
their shoulders. (Al Bat/hawi, Bombay
edition, vol. ii, p. 23.)
HAMAN (<.jU*.Ub), The prime
minister of Pharaoh. Mentioned ui fhe
Q.nr an in three different chapters.
Surah xxviiL 7: "For sinners were Pha
raoh and Haman."
Surah xxix. 38 j " Korah (Qaruii) and Pha-
r.ioh and Haman S with proofs of his mission
did Moses coma to them and they behaved
proudly on tho earth."
Surah xi 88:
| "And Pharaoh said, Hainau, build for
me a tower that I may reach the avenues;
" The avenues of the heavens, and may
mount to the God of Moses, for 1 verily deem
him a liar.* "
Some European critics think that Muliani-
mad has here made Haman the favourite of
Ahasuerus and the enemy of the Jews, the
vizier of Pharaoh. The Rabbins make this
vizier to have been Korah, J ethro, or Balaam.
(Midr. Jalkut on Ex. ch. 1, Sect. 162-168.)
In tho Mishkat (book iv. ch. i. pt. 3), there
is a tradition that Muhammad said he who
neglects prayers will be in hell with Korah,
Pharaoh, Ham an, and Ubaiy ibn Khali (an in
fidel whem Muhammad slew with his own
hand at the battle of Uhud.J
AL-HAMD (*+*&}> the " Praise."
A title of the first chapter of r.he Qur an*
According to Kitabu l-Ta/rifat, "praise"
(hamd) of God is of three kinds :
(1) Al-hamdu l-Qauli, the praise of GoA
with the tongue, with those attributes
which He has made known Himself, (2) Ai>
ham<Jlu l-Fi t li,the praise of God with the bodj
according to tho will of God. (3) Al-kamd&
l-Hali,ihe praise of God with the heart aiul
spirit.
AL-HAMID
HANIF
161
AL-HAMID Om^H). "The Laud-
able." The One worthy of praise. One of
the ninety-nine attributes of God. It fre
quently occurs in the Qur an, e.g. Surah xi.
76, " Verily He is to be. praised"
HA MlM (<** U). Seven Surahs
of the Qur an begin with the letters A, f m,
and are called al-Hawamlm. They are the
XL, XLI, xiii, xuir, XLIV, XLV, and XLVI.
Various opinions are held by Muhammadan
commentators as to the meaning of these
mysterious letters. Jalalu d-din as-Suyufcl
in his ft<idn> says these letters are simply
initial letters, the meaning of which is known
only to God, but Ibn Abbas says the
letters ^ , aad ^ in, stand for jUl^M ar-
Jfahmdn, "the Merciful." one of the attributes
of God.
Mr. Rodwell, in his Introduction to the
Koran, says, " Posaibly the letters Ha, Mim,
which are prefixed to nunnrous successive
Suras were private marks, or initial letters,
attached by their proprietor to the copies
furnished to Said when effecting his recension
of the text under Othman. In the same way,
the letters prefixed to other Suras may be
monograms, or abbreviations, or initial letters
of the names of the persons to whom the
copies of the respective Suras belonged."
HAMBAU L-ASAD (jU3\ y*).
A village or small town, the scene of one of
Muhammad s expeditions against theQuraish.
Baring reached this spot he kindled five
hundred fires to make the Quraish believe
that the pursuing force was very large, and,
contenting himself with this demonstration,
he returned to al-Madinah, from which it was
about 60 miles. According to Burton, it is
the modern Wasitab.
" At Hnmra al Asad, Mahomet made pri
soner one of the enemy, the poet Abu Ozza,
who had loitered behind the rest. He had
been taken prisoner at Bedr, and, having five
daughters dependent on him, had been freely
released, on the promise that he would not
again bear arms in tho war against the,
Prophet. He now sought for mercy :
Mahomet ! be prayed, * forgive me of thy
grace. Nay, verily, said the Prophet * a
believer may not be twice bitten from the
(same hole. Thou shalt never return to
Mecca, stroke thy beard and say, I have
again deceived Mahomet. Lead him forth to
execution 1 So saying, he motioned to ft
bystander, who with his sword struck ofi the
captive s head." (Muir s Life of Afdkomtt,
new ed. p. 276.)
HAMZAH (S>4~). Muhammad B
uncle, who embraced Islam and hec&tne one
of its bravest champions. He was at the
battle of Uhud and slew Usman, one of the
leaders of the Quraisli, but waa soon after
wards himself killed by a wild negro named
Wahshi, and his dead body shamefully muti
lated. At his death Muhammad is recorded
to have gaid that Hamzah was u the lion of
God and of His Apostle/ The warlike deeds
of Hamzah are recorded in Persian poetry, in
which he is celebrated as Amir Hnmzah.
HAMZIYAH (%*^). A sect of
Muslims founded by Hamzah ibn Adrak, who
say that the children (infants) of infidels will
be consigned to the Fire of Hell, the general
belief of Muhammadans being that they will
have a special place in al-A raf. (Kitdbu t-
Trtrifat, in loco.)
HAN AFT (j**.), HANtl I (o*~-).
A member of the sect of SunnTs founded by
the Imam Abu Hanlfah. [ABU HANIFAH.]
HANBAL. [IBN HANBAL.]
HANBAL1 (Ji^). A member of
the Hanbali sect of Sunuu Muslims. [IBN
HANBAX.]
HAND. Arabic yad (Ju->), pi.
ayddi. Heb. T-
(1) It is a rule wtfch Muslims to honour the
right hand above the left ; to use the right
hand for all honourable purposes, and the
left for actions which, though necessary, are
unclean. The hands must be washed before
prayers [ABLUTIONS] and before meala.
(2) The expreftsionyorfu lldh, the " hand of
God," occurs in the Qur an :
Surah v. 69 . " The Jews say, God s hand
is fettered ; their hands are fettered, for they
are cursed."
Surah xlviii. 10 : God s hand is above
their hands,"
There ia a controversy between the ortho
dox Sunnis and the Wahhabis regarding the
expression, " God a hand." The former main
taining that it is a figurative expression for
the power of God. the latter holding that it is
literal ; but that it is impossible to say in what
sense or manner God has a hand ; for as
the essence of God is not known, how can the
manner of His existence be understood ?
HANDKEECHIEFS. The custom
of keeping a handkerchief in the hand, as ia
frequently practised, is said to be abominable
(makruk}. Many, however, hold that it is al
lowable, if done from motives of necessity,
This, says Abu Hanifah, is approved ; for the
practice is abominable only when it is done
ostentatiously. (Hiddyah, vol. ; p. 95.)
HANIF CU^Jta.), pi. Hunafd\ Lit.
" One who is inclined/ (1) Anyone sincere
in his inclination to Islam. (2) One orthodox
in the faith (3) One who is of the religion
of Abraham. (See Mdjma u l-Bihar, in loco.)
The word occurs ten times in the Qur an.
I. Six times for the religion of Abra
ham:
Surah li. 129: They say, Be ye Jews or
Christians *o shall ye be guided I Say : Not
so ! but the faith of Abraham, the Hani/,
he was not of the idolaters."
Surah iii. 60 : " Abraham was not a Jew
nor yet a Christian, but he was a Hanif re
signed, and not of the idolaters."
/dero, 89: " Follow the faith of Abraham,
a Jfanif t who was not of the idolaters."
21
162
HAQIQAH
Surnh vi. 162 Tho faith ot Abraham.
the Hunlf. he was not of the idolaters."
$drah svi. 121 : Verily Abraham was tvn
Imam a tlanif. ani -was not of the idolaters."
Surah vi. 79: (Abraham said) "1 have
turned my iace to Him who criginatcd the
heaven and the earth as a Hanif and I am
not of the idolaters. >r
II AVur times /or OJQO sound iii the
faith
SiiraJQ x. 105 : " Make steadfast thy face io
the religion as a Hanlj . and be not at.
idolater.
Sijrah xjdi. 32 : * ; Avoid speakjuy falsely
being Hanifs to (jod;. not associating aught
with Him."
Surah xoTiii, \ : < -Being sincere in religion
unto Jliiu. us llmifs, atvl to be atcadffcsl \\\
prayor/
gurah xxx 29: "Set iliy face steadfast
low a I d* the religion, as a. Hanif.*
III.-- The term was also applied in the
eariy stages of Islam, and before Mohammad
claimed tho position of an inspired prophov, to
those who had endeavoured to search for the
truth among the mass of con dieting dogmas
and superstitions af tho religions luai rxisted
in Arabia. Aocongst these Hamfs. were \Yo-
rgqaju. the Prophet s cousin, and Zaid ibu
Atni, surnamea tho Enquirer. 1 hey wore
knowji as Uaoifs. a word which originally
meant 4i inchning enc s steps toward any
thing," and therefore signified either a con
vert or a pervert. Muhammad appears train
the above verses (-when chronologically
arranged), to have first used U for the reli
gion oi Abraham, but altervvards for any
sincf re professor of Islam.
1IAQIQAII (*M0. " Truth; sin-
cerity.
(I) The essence of a thiog as meaning 1 that
by being- -which a thing 1 is what it ii. As
when \ve say tliat a rational animal is the
haqiqal of a huffiAtt being, (See Kilatiu t~
Ta-rifal.)
("2) A Avord or phrase used in itn projxn
cr oi i^nial secae, as opposed to that ^, hich is
figurative. A speech without trope OY
i
(U) 1 he sixtii stage in tht* mystic jouruey
of the $ufi, wKen ho is supposed to receive
a re\ (\Luiou of the true nature of the Ood-
huad, and to have arrived at * the Truth
AL - HAQIQATU L MUHAM-
MADIYAH (*o^fe^J\ ^s^V). * Tie
essence of Muhauuniid, the Nar i-
i, 01 the Light uf Muhainmad,
which is "believed to have boon created before
al things. (Kiiii lj t- TariKi. in k>cu.,
Th \Vahhabii do not beUeve in th<j pre-
exift ence of their Prophet, and the ductrine
is most, probably an invention of the Sufi
mystics in the otriy stages oi Islan^.
According to the hnarn ^astu Jbini (Mu-
nalub-i-laduniya. vol. i p 12). at ia reiated bv
Jahiribn "Audi Huh ai-Apsari ttitit the Pro
phet said " The iirst thing created waa the
ught of your Pjohpet, which was created
HAQQU L- ABD
from the light of God. This light of ttiine
roajned about wherever God willed, and when
the Almighty resotyed to make the world, ho
divided this light of Muhammad into four
portions; from the first he created the Pen
(0/uM); from the second, iho Tablet (laahj
from the third, the highoat heaven and the
throne of God ( k ursA) ; the fourth portion was
divided uuo four sections ; from th^ lirst were
created the Uaatalutu l- Ank, ox the eight
angola who .support the throne of God ; from
the .second, the hursi, or lower throne of Godj
from the third, tho angob; :*nd the fourth,
beitiy divided into four sulxiividions, from it
wei*y civatod (1) the firmaments or seven hea-
vtnat, (2) ihi earth, (3) the seven paradisos
and seven hells, (4) and again from a (otirth.
sectioii wore created (I) the ight of the
eyes, (2) tho light of the rniud, (S) the light
oi the love oi tho Unity of pod, (4) the re
niaining- -portion of creation."
The author of the Hayutu l-Qitiub, a iihi-ah
book of traditiom (St Alerriek s transialion,
p. 4) ; says the tradationa respecting the crea
tions from this I^ght of Muhammad aix- nume
rous and discordant, but that the di^i-epan
ciea may possibly jic reconciled by -referring
the diverse dates to different eras in the pro
cess of creation " Tfie holy light of Mu.
hummad." ho says "dwelt under the empy
rean seventy tiirc thousand years, and the^
resided seventy thousand years in Paa a
di&c. Afterwards it rested another period cl
seventy tiioxisand years under the celestial
U\>e called Sidrutu / Mitntahu, and, emi
grating ironi het\on to heaven, am red ut
lungtb in tho lowest of thuse colestiaj. man-
sioiib, where it remained until the Moat High
willed the creation, of Adam."
(A very Curious account of. the abaurd bo
Uef of the Shi ahs on this subject will Uc
found in Mr. Meniek a oditioii of iho Hiyjis.
l-Qnlub; Bostou, I860.)
HAQIQ1 (^M-). "Literal/ as
opposed to that which is mftjazt or. i!gurs-
live.
i;IAQQ (^.). "Truth, juslico."
A ierm used in theology for that whicU-is
tine,ey. The word of God; religion. In law
it implies that which is due. A thing decreed ;
a claim. By the Sufi mystics U is aiway^
used for the Divine Essence j God.
Al-Haqq* " The Truth/ One of theniaety-
aino attributes of God.
Lit. "The
aureiy fuipciiding. v The title of the i.xixth
Surah of the ^ux an, in which the word
occurs in the opeflini< verse : u The mevit-
i *ble ! (aL-Haqy tttu!\. What is the mevit-
ablo? " The word is understood by all com
rncntators to mean the Day of Resurrection
and Judgment It does not cccur in nv
other portion of the Qur an.
HAQQTJ L- ; ABD (***& &Sj. " Tho
right of tho .slave (oi God^." In kw the right.
of- an. injured individual to demand redress
and justice.
HAQQU LLAIl
HAR1M
163
flAQQU LLAH flUI &&gt;.). "The
right of God." In Jaw, the retributive chas
tisement which it is the duty of a magistrate
to intlict for crime and offences Against mora-
l(iy and religion. In theology it moans
prayer, alms, fasting, pilgrimage, and other
religions duties.
HAQQU L-YAQlN (&*a<*\ &*).
" A conviction of tho truth." A term used
by the $ufl mystics for a state in which the
seeker after truth has in thought and reflec
tion a positive evidence of lus extinction and
of his being incorporated in the Essence of
Qod. [YAQIN.]
HAQQU N-NAS (^-Ul\ ^). "The
right of men." A term hi law implying <b
same as Haqqu l- Abd.
IJARAM r^), pi, Jfuram. 4i That
which is sacred. (1) Al-flaram. ihe aacr>d
precincts of Makkah or al-Madinah. .(2)
2/ara/w, the apartments of women in a Mu
hammad an household. f~n \niM.l (3) II arum.
y). Lit. "prohibited."
That which is unlawful. The word is used
in both a good and a bad sense. e.g. Baitu >l
hardn}. tho sacred house; and J\f-dlu l-hara/tt,
unlawful possessions. Ibnu. t-hardm, an ille
gitimate sou ; Shahru l-/iar4m, a sacred
month.
A thing is said to be hardm when it is for
bidden, as opposed to that which is fatal, or
lawful. A pilgrim is said to be hardm as soon
as he has put on. the pilgrim s garb.
Jfardmu lldfi Id ajf a in is a form of oath
that a man will not lo a thing.
HARAMU L - MADINAH ( rr --
jLo^). The sacred boundary of al -
MadiuaH within which certain acts are un
lawful which arc lawful elsewhere, v The
Imam Abu Hanifah says that although it is
respectful to tho position oi the sacred city, as
tho birth pkiro of the Prophet, not to bear
arms, or kill, or out grass, &c., still it b not,
as in tho case of Makkah, an incumbent reli
gious duty. According to n. tradition by <Ali
ihn Abi Talib (Mahkdt, book xi. ch. xvi.),
the- JfudufJu V-/7r</;, or sacred limits of H!
Aludioah are from Jabal Air to Saur. Ac
cording to Burton, the diameter of tho rlar.-m j
Ls froiu ten tc ; twelve miles. (El Medina it ,
a/id Meccah, voL i. p. :iC2.)
HARAMU MAKKAH (*SU rr ).
The sacred boundary of Makkah within which
certain acts are unlawful which are lawful
elsewhere. It is not lawful to carry arms, or
to fight within its limits. Its thorns must |
not be broken, nor its game molested, nor j
must anything be taken up which has fallen !
.on the ground, unless it is done to restore it
Lo it owner. Tts fresh grass or even its !
dry gras must not be cut ; except the bog
rush (tztchir ), because it is used for black
smith s fires and for thatching houses. (A
tradition bv Ibn Abbas. Mithkaf. book xi.
ch. xv. pt. 1). Abdu i-Hnqq says that when
Abraham. " the friend of God," placed the
black stoiio at the time of the building of the
Ka bah, its oast, west, north, and south
quarters became bright with light, and that
wherever the brightness extopdVd itself be
came the lladiidu l-J/urain, or tho limits of
the sacred city. Thoso h miU are marked by
manors or pillars on ail sidca, cxi-t?pt on the
Jiddah and Jairanah roads, regarding wliich
there is some dispute*, as to the exact dis
tance.
HAREEM. [HARIM.J
HA RES. Arabic arnab, pi. ardnib.
Heb. niTjW. The flesh of the hare
is UwJoL for the Prophet ate it, ami com
manded his companions to do so (Uidttyah,
vol. iv. p. 75). A difference of opinion has in
all ages existed as to the value of the bare
as an article of food. The Greeks and
Romans ate it in spito of an opinion that pre
vailed that it was not wholesome. In tho
law of Moses, it is specified amongst tho un
clean animals fLev. xi. 6 ; Dout xjv. 7). The
Parseos do not oat hare s iiesh, nor do tho
Armenians.
HARF (^). (1) An extremity,
verge, or border. (2) A letter of tho alpha
bet. (3J A paxticle in grammar. (4) A
dialect ot Arabia, or a. mode of expression
peculiar to certain Arabs. The Qur An is
said to have been revcaied in seven dialects
(sab-ul ahruf}. [QURAN.] (5) A term used by
tho Sufi mystics for the particle of any true
essence*
HARIM, or HAREEM Q* A ). A
word used especially in Turkey, Egyjit, and
Syria, for the female apartments of *a Mu-
hammadan household. In Persia, Afghan
istan, and India, the terms haraitujah, mahult-
sardi and zandnuh are used for the same place.
The seclusion of women being enjoined in
the Qnr an (Surah xxxiii 65), in all Muham-
madan countries it is the rule for respectable
vomeii to remain sccJudod at homo, and not
Lo travel abroad unveiled, nor to associate
with men otliej than their husbands or such
male relatives as are forbidden in marriage
by reason of consanguinity. In consequence
of theso injunctions, which have all the iorce
of a divine enactment, the female portion of
a Muhammadan family always resides in
iipartments which are in an inclosed court
yard and excluded from pubb c view. This
inclosure is called the Acrri/w, and sometimes
haram, or in Persian zandmih-, from xafl, a
* woman " ). Mr. Lane in his Modem Kgyp-
tians, has given a full account of the Egyptian
hnjum. We are indebted to Mrs. Meer Ali
for the following very graphic and interesting
description of a Muhammadan zananah or
harim in Lucknow.
Mrs. Meer Ali was an English lady who
married a Muhainmadan gentleman, and re-
ided amongst the people of Lucknow for
twelve years. Upon the death of her hu-
barid, she retnrne-l to England, and
164 HABIM
her Observations on the Musalmans of India,
whieh was dedicated, with permission, to
Queen Adelaide.
" The habitable buildings of a native Mu-
hammadan home are raised a few steps from
the court ; a line of pillars forms the front of
the building, which has no upper rooms ; the
roof is flat, and the sides aid back without
windows, or any aperture through which air
can be received. The sides and back are
merely high walls, forming an enclosure, a-nd
the only air is admitted from the fronts of
the dwelling-place facing the court-yard. The
apartments are divided into long halls, the
extreme corners haying small rooms or dark
closets purposely built for the repository of
valuables or stores ; doors are fixed, to these
closets, which are the only places I have seen
with them in a zananah or mahall (house or
palace occupied by females) ; the floor is either
at beaten earth, bricks, or atones: boarded
floors are not yet introduced. As they have
neither doors nor windows to the halls, warmth
o* privacy is secured by means of thick wadded
curtains, made tt> fit ech opening between the
pillars. Some zananaks have two rows of
pillars in the halls with wadded curtains to
each, thus forming two distinct halls, as
occasion may serve, or greater warmth be
required ; this is a convenient arrangement
where the establishment of servants, slaves,
&c. is extensive.
" The wadded curtains are called pardahs ;
these are sometimes made of woollen cloth,
but more generally of coarse calico, of two
colours, in patchwork style, striped, van-
dyked, or in some other ingeniously contrived
and ornamented way, according to their indi
vidual taste.
" Besides the pardahs, tho openings between
the pillars have blinds neatly made of fine
bamboo strips, woven together with coloured
cords ; theso are called chicks. Many of them
are painted green , others are more gaudy,
both in colour and variety of patterns. These
blinds constitute a real comfort to everyone
in India, as they admit air when let down,
and at the same tiiue shut out flies and other
annoying insects ; besides which, the extreme
glare is shaded by them a desirable object
to foreigners in particular.
" The floors of the halls are first matted
with the coarse date-leaf matting of the
country, over which are spread shajjranjis
(thick cotton carpets, peculiarly the manu
facture of the Upper Provinces of India, woven
in stripes of blue and white, or shades of
blue) j a white oalieo carpet covers the shafc-
raaji on which the females take their seat
" The bedsteads of the family are placed,
during the day, in lines at the back of the
halls, to be moved at pleasure to any chosen
spot for the night s repose; often into tb
open court-yard, for the benefit of the pure
air. They are all formed on one principle,
differing only in size and quality ; they stand
about half a yard from the floor, the legs
round and broad at bottom, narrowing as
they rise towards the frame, which is laced
over with a thick cotton tape, made for the
HABIM
purpose, and plaited in ehecquers, and thus
rendered soft, or rather elastic, and very
pleasant to recline upon. The legs of these
bedsteads ar in some instances gold and
silver gilt, or pure silver ; ethers have enamel
pakitinga on fine wood; the inferior grade*
have them merely of wood painted plain and
varnished. The servauts bedsteads are of the
common mango- wood without ornament, the
lacing of these for the sacking being of elastic
string manufactured from the fibre of the
cocoa-nut.
" Such are the bedsteads of every class of
people. They seldom have mattresses : a
white quilt is spread on the lacing, over
which ti calico sheet, tied at each corner of
the bedstead with cords and tassels ; several
thin flat pillows of beaten cotton for the
head ; a muslin sheet for warm weather, and
a well wadded razai (coverlid) for winter is
all these children of Nature deem esaentia.1 to
their comfort in the way of sleeping-. They
have no idea of night-dresses ; the name suit
that adorns a lady, is retained both night and
day, until a change be needed. The single
ai-ticle exchanged at night is the dupatja (a
small shawl for the head), and that only
when it happens to be of silver tissue or em
broidery, for which a muslin or calico sheet
is substituted.
The very highest circles have the same
habits in common with the meanest, but
those who can afford shawls of Cashmere,
prefer them for sleeping in, when the cold
weather renders them bearahle Blankets
are never used except by the poorest pea
santry, who wear them in lieu of better gar
ments night and day in the winter season;
they are always black, the natural colour of
the wool. The quilts of the higher orders
are generally made of silk of the "brightest
hues, well wadded, and lined with dyed mus
lin of assimilating colour ; they are usually
bound with broad silver ribands, and some
times bordered with gold brocaded trim
mings. The middling classes, have fine
chintz quilts, and the servants and slaves
coarse ones of the same material ; but all are
on the same plan, whether for a queen or the
meanest of her slaves, differing only in the
quality of the material, The mistress of the
house is easily distinguished by her se&t of
honour in the hall of a zarsanah, a Tnasnadnoi
being allowed to any other person but the
lady of the mansion. The maenad carpet is
spread on the floor, if possible near to a
pillar about the centre of the hall, and is
made of many varieties of fabric gold cloth,
quilled silk, brocaded silk, velvet, fine chintz,
or whatever n>ay suit the lady s taste, cir
cumetances, or convenience. It is about two
yards square, and generally bordered or
fringed, OE which is placed the all-important
masnad This article may be understood by
those who have seen a lace-maker s pillow in
England, excepting only that the masnad is
about twenty times the size of that useful
little article in the hands of our industrious
villagers. The masnad IB covered with gold
cloth, ailk, ^elvet, or calico, with square pil-
HABIM
Iowa to correspond, for the elbows, the
knees, Ac. This is the seat of honour, to be
invited to share which, with the lady-owner,
is a mark of favour to an equal or inferior :
when, a superior pays a visit of honour, the
prided seat is usually surrendered to her, mid
the lady of the house takes her place most
humbly* on the very edge of her own carpet.
Looking-glasses or ornamental furniture are
very rarely to be seen in the zananah, even of
the very richest females. Chairs and eofas
are produced when English visitors are ex
pected ; but the ladies of Hindustan prefer
the usual mode Of sitting and lounging on the
carpet; and as or tables, I suppose not one
gentlewoman of the whole country has ever
been seated at one ; and very few, perhaps,
have any idea of their useful purposes, all
their meals being served on the floor, where
dastarkhwans (table-cloths we should call
them) are spread, but neither knives, forks,
spoona, glasses, nor napkins, ao essential to
the comfortable enjoyment of a meal amongst
Europeans. But those who never knew such
comforts have no desire for the indulgence,
nor taste to appreciate them.
On the several occasions, amongst native
society, of assembling in large parties, as at
births and marriages, the halls, although ex
tensive, would be inadequate to accommodate
the whole party. They then have awnings of
white calico, neatly nounced with mnslin,
supported on poles fixed in the court-yard,
and connecting the open space with the great
hall, by wooden platforms which are brought
to a line with the building, and covered with
sha^ranji, and white carpets to correspond
with the floor-furniture of the hall ; and here
the ladies sit by day and sleep by right very
comfortably, without feeling any great incon
venience from the absence of their bedsteads,
vrhich could never be arranged for the accom
modation of so large an assemblage nor is it
ever expected,
M The usually barren look of these almost
unfurnished hails, is on such occasions quite
changed, when the ladies are assembled in
their various dresses ; the brilliant display
of jewels, the glittering drapery of their
aress, the various expressions of countenance,
and different figures, the multitude of female
attendants and slaves, the children of all
ages and sixes hi their variously ornamental
dressed, are subjects to attract both the eye
and the mind of an observing visitor ; and the
hall, which when empty appeared desolate
and comfortless, thus filled, leaves nothing
wanting to render the scene attractive.
" The buzz of human voices, the happy
playfulness of the children, the chaste sing
ing of the domnlx fill up the animated pic
ture. I have sometimes passed an hour or
two in witnessing their innocent amusements,
without any feeling of regret for the brief
sacrifice of time I had made. I am free to
confess, however, that I have returned to my
tranquil home with increased delight after
having witnessed the bustle of a zananah
assembly. At first I pitied the apparent
monotony of their lives but this feeling has
HA.RIM
165
worn away by intimacy with the people, who
are thus precluded from mixing generally
with the world. They ai*e happy in their
confinement ; and never having felt the
iweets of liberty, would not know how to
use the boon if it were to be granted them.
As the bird from the nest immured in a cage
is both cheerful nd contented, so are these
females. They have not, it is true, many
intellectual resources, but they have natu
rally good understandings, and having learned
their duty they strive to fulfil it. So far
as I have had any opportunity of making
personal observations on their general cha
racter, they appear to me obedient wives,
dutiful daughters, affectionate mothers, kind
mistresses, sincere friends, and liberal bene
factresses to the distressed poor. These are
their moral qualifications, and in their reli
gious duties, they are zealous in performing
the several ordinances which they have been
instructed by their parents Or husbands to
observe. If there be any merit in obeying- the
injunctions of their law-giver, those whom I
have known most ultimately, deserve praise
since they are faithful in that they profess.*
" To ladies accustomed from infancy to con
finement, this kind of life is by no means irk
some : they have their employments and their
amusements, and though these are not exactly
to Our taste, nor suited to our mode of educa
tion, they are not. the less relished by those
for whom they were invented. They perhaps
wonder equally at some of our modes of dis
sipating time, and fancy we might spend it
more profitably. Be that as it may, the
Muslim ladies, with whom "I have been long
intimate, appear to me always happy, con
tented, and satisfied with the seclusion to
which they were born ; they desire no other,
and I have ceased to regret they cannot be
made partakers of that freedom of inter
course with the world we deem so essential
to our happiness, since their health suffers
nothing frora that confinement, by which they
are preserved from a variety of snares and
temptations : besides which, they would deeui
it disgraceful in the higbeet degree to mix
indiscriminately with men who are not rela
tions. They are educated from infancy for
retirement, and they can have no wish that
the custom should be changed, which keeps
them apart from the society of men who are
not very nearly related to them. Female
society is unlimited, and that they enjoy
without restraint.
" Those females who rank above peasants
or inferior servants, are disposed from prin
ciple to keep themselves strictly from obser
vation; all wbo have any regard for the
character or the honour of thejr house, se
clude themselves from the eye of strangers,
carefully instructing their young daughters
to a rigid observance of their own prudent
example. Little girls, when four years old,
are kept strictly behind the pardah (lit.
"curtain"), and when they move abroad it
is always in covered conveyances, and under
the guardianship of a faithful female domestic,
who is equally tenacious as the mother to
166
HAftIM
HAB1M
preserve the young lady s reputation unble
mished by concealing her from the gazo of
men.
"The ladies of zananah. life are not re
stricted from the society of their own BOX;
they are, as t have before remarked, extra
vagantly fond of company, and equally as
hospitable when entertained. To be alone is
a trial to which they are seldom exposed,
every lady having companions amongst her
dependants ; and according to her means the
number in her establishment is regulated.
Some ladies of rank have from two to ten
companions, independent of slaves and domes
tics : and there are some of the royal family
at Lucknow who entertain in their service
fwo or three hundred female dependants, of
all classes. A well-filled zananah is a mark
of gentility ; and even the poorest lady in the
country will retain a number of slaves and
domestics, if she cannot afford companions ;
besides which they are miserable without
society, the habit of associating with numbers
having grown up with infancy to maturity :
to be alone, is considered, with women .thus
situated, a real calamity.
" On occasions of assembling in large par
lies, each lady takes with her a companion
besides two or three slaves to attend upon
"her, no one expecting to be served by the
servants of the house at which they are
visiting. This swells the numbers to be pro
vided for ; and as the visit is always for threo
days and three nights (except on */rfs. when
the visit is confined to onet day), some fore
thought must be exercised by the lady of the
house, that all may be accommodated in
such^a manner an may secure to her the re
putation of hospitality.
"The kitchen and offices to tho zananah.
1 have remarked, occupy one side of the quad
rangle ; they face the great or centre hall
appropriated to the assembly. These kit
chens, however, are sufficiently distant to
prevent any great annoyancefrom the smoke
-I say smoke, because chimneys have not
yet been introduced into the kitchens of the
natives,
" The lire-places aro all on tho ground,
something resembling stoves, each admitting
one saucepan, the Asiatic style of cooking
requiring no other contrivance. Roast or
boUed joints are nevnr seen at the dinner of a
native; a leg of mutton or sirloin of beef
would place the hostess under all sorts of
difficulties, where knives and forks are not
understood to be amongst the useful appen
dages of a meal. The varieties of their dishes
are countless, but stews and curries are the
chief ; all the others are mere varieties. The
only thing inr the shape of roast meats are
small lean cutlets bruised, seasoned and ce
mented with pounded poppy seed. Several
being fastened together on skewers, they
are grilled or roasted over a charcoal fire
spread on the ground, and then called kabdbt
which wore 4 ^niplies roast meat.
** The kitchen of a zananah would be ins
adequate to the business of cooking for a
large assembly; the most choice dishes only
(for the highly-favoured guests), are cookoc
by the. servants of the establishment Th
needed abuudanfce required in entertaining i,
large party is provided by a" regular bazin
cook, several of whom establish tbomsoivet
in native cities, or wherever there is a Mus
lim population. Orders being previous!}
given, the morning and evening dinners are
punctually forwarded at the appointed hours
in covered trays, each tray having portions of
the several good things ordered, so that there
is no confusion in serving put the feast on its
arrival at the mansion. The food thus pre
pared by the bazar cook (jidnbai, he is
called),: is plain boiled rice, sweet rice, kklr
(rice-milk), mutanjan (rice sweetened with
the addition of preserved fruits, raisins, <fec.,
coloured with saffron), solans (curries) ofi
many varieties, some cooked with vege
tables, others with unripe fruits with on
without meat; pufdos of many sorts, kabdbs,
preserves, pickles, chatnis, and many other >
things too tedious to admit of detail.
" The broad in general use amongst natives <
is chiefly unleavened: nothing in the likeness
of English bread is to be seen at their meals ;
and many object to its being fermented with
the intoxicating toddy (extracted from a tree), i
Most of the native broad is baked on iron
plates over a charcoal fire. They have many i
varieties, both plain and /ich, and some of i
the latter resembles our pastry, both in>!
quality and flavour.
" The dinners, 1 have said, are brought into
the zananah, ready dished in the native-
earthenware, on trays ; and as they neither
use spoons nor lorks, there is no great delay
in setting out the rneal where nothing is re
quired for display or effect, beyond the ex
cellent quality of the food and its being well
cooked. In a large assembly all cannot dine
at tho dastarkhwdn of the lady hostess, even
if privileged by their rank ; they are, there
fore, accommodated in groups of ten, fifteen,
or more, as may be convenient: each lady
haying her companion at the meal, and her
slaves to brush off the intruding flies with
a chauri, to hand water, or to fetch or carry
any article of delicacy from or to a neighbour*
ing group. The slaves and servants dine in
parties after their ladies have .finished, in
any retired corner of the court-yard - always
avoiding as much as possible the presence of
their superiors.
" Before anyone touches Ihe meal, water is
carried round for each lady co wash the hand
and rinso the mouth. It is deemed unclean
to eat without this form of ablution, and the
person neglecting it would be held unholy.
This done, the lady turns to her meal, saying.
" Bismillah ! " (In the namo or to the praise
of Godl), and with the right hand conveys
the food to her mouth (the left hand is never
used at meals) ; and although, they partake
of every variety of food placed before them i
with no other aid than their fingers, yet the j
mechanical habit is so perfect, that they
iittither drop a grain of rice, soil the dross, nor
retain any of the food on their fingers. The
custom must always be offensive to 9 foreign
IIARIM
eye, and the habit none wculd wish to copy;
vel everyone "who witnoasca must admire
the neat way in which eating is accomplished
by theae really 4 Children of Nature/
" The repast concluded, the lolu (vessel
with water;, and the la jyan (to receive the
water in ai tor rinsing the hands and mouth),
are passed round. To every person^ who.
having announced by the Ash -Shukru lillah !
(All thank* to God \) that she has finished,
the attendants presetu first the powdered
peas, called t>esan, which answers tho pur
pose of soap in removing grease, &c. jfrom the
fingers --and then the water in due course.
Soap has not even yet been brought into
fashion by the natives, except by the washer
men ; 1 have often been sui-prised that thoy
have not found the use of soap a necessary
article in the nursery, where the only sub
stitute I huvo ^een U the powdered pea.
Lotas and iaggsuw are articles in use
with ^11 classes of p<x>plo ; they mnat bo poor
indeed who do not .bonst of one, at least, in
their family. They are always of metal,
either braas, er copper lacuuered over, or
zinc ; hi aomo cases as with the nobility,
silver and even gold are cnovevted iulo these
useful anises oi native comfort.
China or glass i* comparatively but little
used : water is their only beverage, and ibis
is preferred, in tho Absence of metal basins,
out of the comtnou red earthen katora (cop
shaped like a vase).
China disheo, bowU, and basins, are used
for serving many of the savoury articles of
food in : but it is as caramon in the privacy
f the palace, as well as in the huts of the
peasantry, to see many choice things intro
duced at meals served up in the rude red
earthen plaitf-r ; many of the delicacies of
A&iuac cookery being esteemed more palat
able from the earthen flavour of tho new
vessel in which it io served.
China tea-sets are veiy rarely found in
tho Knnimah, tea being used by the -natives
more at a medicine than a refreshment, ex
cept by such gentlemen UK have frequent
intercourse with tho " >?ahib Log " (English
gentry), among whom thoy acquire a taste
for this delightful beverage. The iadios,
however, must nave a severe cold to induce
them to partake o) the beverage even as a
remedy, but by no meana as a luxury. I
imagined that the inhabitants of u zananah
were badly deficient- in actual comforts, when
J found, upon my iirat arrival in India, that
there were no preparations for breakfast
going forward . everyone seemed engaged in
pan eating, and smoking tho huqqah, but no
break! UK t after the morning uamaz. 1 was,
however, soon satisfied that they i elt no sort
of privation, I*B the early meal so common in
Europe bus never been introduced in Eastern
circles. Their first meal is agoou substantial
dinner, at ten, eleven, or twelve o clock , after
\*hiuh follows pan and the huqqah; io this
succeed a a sletip of two or three hours, pro
viding it does not impede tho duty of prayer
--the pioutf. I oujrht to remark, would give up
every indulgence which would prevent the
I1ABUT WA AlARUT
167
discharge of this duty. Tho second meal
follows in twelve hours from the iirst, and
consists of tn. same substantial fare 5 after
which thoy usually sleep again nm.il the
dawn of day is near at hand
" The /ivy^a/t (pipe) is :iluj<jst in ^c-ueraiu3C
with females It is a common practice with
ihe lady of tho house to prenout the huqquii
she is smoking i-j hu 1 favoured guest. Tnia
mark of attention i- always to bo duly ap
preciated ; but such is tho deference paid to
parents, that a son can ravely be persuaded
by an indulgent father or mother to smoke a
huqqah in their revered presence ; this praia-
worthy feeling originates liot in fear, but rcul
genuine respect. Tbe parents entertain for
their son the most tender regard; and the
father makes him both his companion and
his Irieud ; yet tho most familiar t/nJcarmonts
do not lessen tho feeling of rovcronce a good
son entertains for his father. This is om>
among Ihe many samples of patriarchal life,
and which I can never witness in real life,
without feeling respect for the persons who
follow up tue patterns 1 have been taught
to venerate in our Holy Scripture
Tbc huqqah (pipe) as an indulgence or a
privilege, is agr at detinerof etiquette. In the
presence of tho king or reigning nawab. no
subject, however high he may rank in blood
or ruyftl favour, can presume to smoke. In
native courts, on ritatc occasions, hnqqalm are
presented only to the Governor- General, the
Coxnmander-in.f hiof, or the Resident at his
court, who are considered equal in rank, and
therefore entitled to the privilege of smoking
with him ; and they cannot consistently resist
the intended honour. Should they dislike
smoking, a hint is readily understood by tho
huqqah bardar to bring the huqqah, cliarged
with tho materials, with put the addition of
nre. Applications of the munhndl (mouth
piece) to tho mouth, indicates a sense of the.
honour conferred." {Observations on the Alu-
satmdns of fndta, voL i. p, 304.)
HAEIS (*&^). A surname which
frequently occurs amongst " the Companions.^
In the Tnqrlbii t~Ta*&ib t there are not fewer
that sixty-five persons of this name, of whom
short biogra]>hical notes are given.
Haris ibn Naufal ibn nl-Haris ihn Abdi 1-
Muttalib. was a Companion of .some conse
quence; he lived close to the house of tho
Prophet, and had frequently to make room
ab tho Prophet s Llarim extended itself
[HOUSES.]
Hails ibn Hieham ibn al-Mughirah. i.v
another Companion, who lived at Makkah.
IFaris sou of Suwaid ibu Sainit, tho poet,
was executed at Fl.md.
A sect of
Muslims founded by Abu 1-liaris, who in
! opposition to tho sc-et Abaziyah, said it was
; not correct to say tho acts ol men were not
, ih* acts of Go l. (Kitdbu t-T<erifdt..in loco.)
HARUN (^y^)- [ \ARON. ^
HAK.UT WA MAR0T (^ ^ J; U
5) U). Two aii^cii inuationed in
168
HASAD
the Qar an. They are said to be two angels
who, in bonsequence 6f their compassion for
the frailties of mankind, were sent down to
earth to be tempted. They both sinned, and
being permitted to choose whether they wou Id
he ptmiahed now or hereafter, chose the
former, and are still suspended by the feet
at Babel in a rocky pit, where they are great
teachers of magic.
The account of these two angols in the
Qor an, is given in Surah ii. 96 :
"They (the Jews) followed what the devils
taught hi the reign of Solomon: not that Solo
mon was unbelieving, but the devils were un
believing. Sorcery did they teach to men,
and what had been revealed to the two
angols, Harut and Marut, at Babel. Yet no
man did these two teach until they had said,
We are only a temptation. Be not then an
unbeliever. From these two did men learn
bow to cause .division between man and wife:
but unless by leave of God, no man did they
harm thereby. They learned, indeed, what
would harm and not profit them ; and yet
they knew that he who bought that art should
have no part in the life to come ! And vile
the price for which they have sold themselves,
if they had but known it 1 "
HASAD (J^). "Envy, malevo
lence, malice." It occurs twice in the Qur an.
Surah ii. 103 : " Many of the people of the
Book (i.e. Jews and Christians) desire to
bring you back to unbelief after ye have be
lieved, out of seljish envy, even after the truth
hath been clearly shewn them."
Surah cxiii. 5 : " I seek refuge .... from
the enoy of the envious when he envies."
AL-HASAN (y *N). The fifth
Khalifah. The eldest son of Fatinaab, the
daughter of Muhammad,, by her husband the
Khalifah AH, Bom A.H, 3. Died A.H. 49.
H* succeeded his father All as KhalJfah
A.H. 41, and reigned about six months. He
resigned the Caliphate in favour of Mu a-
wiyah. and was eventually poisoned by his
wife Ja dah, who was suborned to commit
the deed by Yazid, the son of Mu awiyah, by
a promise of marrying herj which promise he
did not keep. Al-Hasan had twenty children,
fifteen sons and five daughters, from whom
are descended one aeotion of the great family
of Saiyids, or Xiords, the descendants of the
Prophet. The history of al-Hasan, together with
the tragical death of his brother ai-Husain,
form the plot of the miracle play of the Mu-
harram. [KUSAIN, MSJJSARRAM, SAIYJDD.]
HASHIM (,%-ALjfc). The great
grandfather of Muhammad. Born, according
to M. C. de Perceval, A.D. 464. Sprenger
places his birth in A,D. 442. He married Sal-
mah, by whoia he had a son, Abdu 1-Mutta-
lib the father of Abdu llah, who was the
father of Muhammad. The authol 1 of the
Qdmus says Hashim s original name WAS
Amr, but he was surnamed Hashim on
account of his hospitality in distributing
bread (hashm, to break bread) to the pilgrims
atMakkah.
HAUZU *L-KAtJ8AR
H ASHR 0^) . Lit. " Going fort
from one place, and assembling in another
Hence the word is used hi the Qur an in t*
senses, viz. an emigration and an assembl
e.g. Surah lix. 2 : "It was He who drove fort
from their homes those people of the boo
(i.e. Jews) who misbelieved, at the first em
gration." (Hence al-Hashr is the title of it
Lixth Surah of the Qur an > Surah xxvi
17 : " And his hosts of the jinn and men a
birds were ass&nblecf for Solomon.*
The term Yaumv l-H&shr is therefo:
used for the Day of Resurrection, or the d
when the dead sHall migrate from the:
graves and assemble for judgment. It occui
in this sense in the Qur an, Surah 1. 42 :
" Verily we cause to live, and we cause t
die. To us shall all return.
" On the day when the earth shall swiftl
cleave asunder over the dead, will this gath&
ing be easy to Us.
AL-HASIB (n.... ..,.. ft). "Th
Reckoner," in the Day of Judgment. One <
the ninety-nine attributes of God. The titl
occurs in the Qur an three times.
Surah iv. 7: "God sufficeth for takin
account."
Idem, 88 1 * God of all things takes a
account."
Surah xxxiiL 39 : " God is good enough a
reckoning up."
HASSAN (oL-^-e.) The son o
Sab it. A celebrated poet hi the time of Mv
hammad, who einbraced Islam. He is sai
to have lived 120 years, 60 of which wei
passed in idolatry and (TO in Islam.
It ia related in the Traditions that the Pr(
phet on the day of battle with the Ban
Quraigah; cried out, "0 Hassan ibn Sabi
abuse the infidels in your verse, for veri
Gabriel helps you ! " (Mishkat> book xxl
ch. ix. pt. 1.) {[POETRY.]
HATIB IBN <AMK (^
An early convert to Islam, and one of tl
most trusted of Muhammad s followers. 1
distinguished himgelf at the taking of Makka
HAULANU L-HAUL (J^t e V
" A complete year." A term used in Muhaxc
madan law for the period property must be i
possession before zakat is required of ij
(Hiddyah. vol. i. p, 2.)
HAUZU L-EAUAB (/y3\ ^\
A pond or river in Paradise. According 1 1
Muhammad s sayings in the Tradition I
! (Afishkat, book xxiii. ch. xii.), it is more thai
a month s journey in circumference, its water I
are whiter than snow and sweeter than hone I
niix*id with, milk, and those who drink of ;]
shall never thirst. The word lcau$ar OCCUM
once in the Qur an, namely in Surah cviiij
which derives therefrom its title, and wher]
its translation and meaning is doubtful
" Verily, we have given thee al-Kau$a,r" All
Baizawi, the commentator, says it eithe
means that whioh is good or abundant; oj
the pond al-Kau&ar which ia mentioned m tW
Traditions.
HAWA
HAWA OH*) " Desire, love ;
hankering after A term used by the $ufi
inystios for lust, or unholy desire, flawd-i-
Naftdni, the lust of the flesh " ; Ahl~i-Hpv)d,
" a sceptic, an unbeliever.
HAWA JIM
Assaults, shocks." A term used by the
Sufi mystics for those thoughts of the heart
which enter it without desire or intention.
( Abdu Y-Razzaq s Diet, of Sufi Terms.)
HAWAJIS ((>V). "Thoughts/
A term used by the Sufi mystics for the
worldly thoughts of the heart. ( Abda V-
Bazzaq s Diet, of Sufi Terms.)
JJAWALAE (*V). A legal term
signifying the removal or transfer of a debt
by way of security or corroboration from that
of the original debtor to that person to whom
it is transferred. (Hidayah, roL ii. p. 606.)
HAWAMlM (^V*)- A- tiiie S ivetl
to the seven chapters of the Qnr n which
begin with the letters 5 Ha * Mim, namely >
XL, Surata 1-Mu min ; XLI, Suratu Fusailat ;
XLII, Suratn sh-Shur XLIU, Suratu 1-Zukh-
ruf; XLIV, Suratu d O.kh,an; xiv, Suratu
1- Jasjyah ; XLVI, Suratu 1-Ahqaf .
For an explanation of the letters H M at
the commencement of these Surahs, see
HA MIM.
It is related in the Traditions that a man
said to the Prophet, " I am old, and my
memory is imperfect, and my tongue is stiff ;"
and the Prophat replied , " Then repeat three
of the Surahs beginning with H& Mim."
(Mishkat, book viii. ch. i, pt, 3.)
HAWABI (w5;V)- T he word used
in the Qur an (Surahs iii. 45 ; Ixi. 14)
for the Apostlea of Jesus. Al-Baizawi, the
Mnhammadan commentator, says it is derived
from fruwar, " to be white," and was given to
the disciples of Jesus, either on account of
their purity of life and sincerity ; or because
they were respectable men and wore white
. garments. In the Traditions (Mishkat, book i.
ch. vi. pt. 1") it is used for the followers of
all tbe Prophets. The word ta&y be derived
from the JEthiopic hworyra, " to go, to be
Sent."
AL-MAWASSU L - IQJAMSAH
(kv-wsH^j^). [FIVE SENSES.]
HAWAZIN (<-sy). A great and
warlike tribe of Arabia in the days of Mu
hammad, who dwelt between Makkah and
aJj-Ta if. Muhammad defeated them at the
battle of Hunain, A.H. 8. a victory which in
the Qnr an, Sarah ix. 26, is ascribed to an
gelic aid. (See Muir s Life of Mahomet, new
ed. p. 432.)
HAWIYAH U. A division of
hell The bottomless pit for the hypocrites.
Qur an, Sfcal ci. 6, " But as for him whoso
balance is light, his dwelling shall be
Bauoiyah "
AL-HAZABATU L-KHAMS 169
HAWK, The. Arabic ba z (jVj), saqr
(/). It is lawful to hunt with
hawks provided they are trained. A hawk is
held to ho trained whoa she obeys the voice
of her master. [UUNTING.]
HAYA (oL~). Shame, pudency,
modesty." The word does not occur in the
Qur au, but in the Traditions it is said, "Alluhu
hayiyun," i.e. " God acts with modesty." By
which is understood that God hates that which
is immodest or shameless. Muhammad is re
lated to have said, " Modesty (fay a ) brings
nothing but good." (Mishkdt, book xxii.
ch. xix.)
HAYAT (Sj**). Life." The
word frequently occurs in the Qur an, e.g.
Surah xviii. 44, " Wealth and children are an
adornment of the life of this world." Surah
ii. 25, " For you in retaliation is there life, O
ye possessors of mind ! "
Al-Haydtu d-dunyd, "the worldly life," is a
term used in the Qur an for those things in
this world which prevent from attaining to
the eternal life of the next world.
Surah ii, 80: " Those who have bought
this worldly life with the future, the torment
shall not be lightened from them nor shall
they be helped."
HAYtfLA (Jr*-*)- "Matter."
The first principle of everything material.
It does not occur in cither the Qur an or the
Hadig.
HAYZ (oW-^). Menses. [MEN
STRUATION.]
HAZAE ()**) According to
Arabic lexicons, the word means vigilance or
a cautious fear, but it only occurs twice in
the Qur an. and in both instances it implies
terror.
Surah ii. 18: "They put their fingers in
their ears at the thunder-clap for fear of
death." (Jfazara V.Af*w#.) Jden, 244:
" Doet thou not look at those who left their
homes by thotfffclidf ./tor/fear of death,"
According to the
itdbu t-Ta*rifat, al-hazardtv l-Kfiamsu 7-
Ilahiyah, or " the five divine existences," is a
term used by the Sufi mystics for the follow
ing:
t. Hazrcttu l~ghaibi 7-tftM|taf, That ex
istence which 5s absolutely unknown, i.e.
God
2. ffaxrutu sH-Bhahadati V-mut/aqah, Those
celosthhl -(ajrani) and terrestrial (ajsam) ex
istences which are evident to the senses.
i}. ffaxratu Calami f l anvah That existence
whiob. consist* of the spiritual -world of angels
and spirits.
4. fiazrutu l alatni V*msfo/, That existence,
which is "tli"! unseen world, where there TB the
true likeness of everything whioh exist* on
the earth.
6. Hazratu l-jamtah, The collective exis
tence of the four already mentioned.
22
170
HAZIR ZAMINI
HELL
HAZIR ZAMINI
Bail for tbe person, which, according to the
Iraam Abu Hanlfah, is lawfuL Bail for pro
perty is called nidi zaminl.
HAZRAH (V^) J&&. " Presence."
This title of respect has no equivalent in
English, as it is employed in a variety of ac
ceptations. Applied to an officer of rank, it
would mean -your honour " ; .to a clergyman,
" your reverence " ; to a king, " your majesty. 1
When applied to the names of prophets,
apostles, or saints, it expresses the sacrednesa
of his office and character, i.e. our Saviour is
called flazratu ( l$a, .and the Virgin Mary,
ffazratu Mwyam. The word is much used
in Persian theological works. It is seldom
used in this sense in Arabic books, ffazratu
Y/tfA, " the presence of God," is an Arabic
term in prayer.
HEAD. Arabic ra*,ra (<j*\)). Heb..
CJfcO. The author of the Raddu Z-
Muhtdr, vol. i. p. 670, says : " It is abominable
(makruli) to say the prayers with the head
uncovered, if it be done from laziness, but it
is of no consequence if a MusUui say INK
prayers with his head uncovered from a sense
of humility and nnworthiness. But still it is
better not to uncover the head, for humility
is a matter connected with the heart."
Amongst Muhammadans it is considered a
sign of disrespect to receive a visitor with
the head uncovered ; consequently on the
approach of a visitor the turban or cap is
immediately placed on the head.
There is no general custom as to shaving
the head or otherwise. In Afghanistan, Mu-
htttamadani generally shave the bead, but the
Baluchi* and many other Muslim tribes wear
long hair,
The Egyptians. ; have all the rest of the
hair, or leave only a small tuft (called
gk&tkak) upcn the crown of the head. Mr.
Lane says : This la.st custom (which is almost
universal among them) \& said to have ori
ginated in the fear that if tbe 31uslim should
fall into the hands of an infidel, and be slain,
the latter might cut off the head of his
victim, and finding no hair by which to hold
it, put his impure hand into the mouth, in
order to carry it, for the beard might not be
sufficiently long ; but was probably adopted
from the Turks, for it is generally neglected
by the BadawTs, and the custom of shaving
the head is of late origin among the Arabs in
general, and practised for the sake of cleanli
ness.
HEAVEN. Arabic Samtf
Persian A*muu (t)U-\) ; Heb.
which expresses the firmament as distin
guished from Firdaus. or Paradise, the abodes
of blisa. [PARADISE.] In the Qur an it is
stated that there are seven paths, or stages,
in heaven. Surah xxiii. 17 : " And we have
created above you seven paths, nor are we
heedless of the creation." By which the com
mentators understand that they are paths of
the angels and of the celestial bodies. The
creation (A the heaven is declared to be for;
God s glory and not for His pastime. Surah;
xxi. 16 : " We created not the heaven and the
earth, and that which is between them, by
way of sport/
It is the general belief th.it at the last day
the heavens will fall, but that they are now
upheld by God s power. Surah xxii. 64 : " Ho
holds up the heaven from falling on the earth
save at His bidding."
According to the traditions (Mixhkat< book
xxiv. ch. \ii._), Munainmad during the mi raj,
or night journey, passed through these seven
heavens, and they are stated to be as fol
lows : (1) That which is of pure virgin silver
and which is Adam s residence; (2) of pure
gold, which is John the Baptist s and Jesus ;
(3) of pearls, which is Joseph s ; (4) of
white gold, which is Enoch s ; (5) of silver
which is Aaron s ; , (6) of ruby and garnet,
which is Moses ; (7) which is Abraham s.
These accounts are, however, most confused ;
for in some books and according to popular
tradition; the fourth and not the second
heaven is assigned to Jesus.
This view is in harmony with the seven
spheres of Ptolemy, the first of which is that*
of the moon, the second Mercury, the third
Venus, the fourth the Sun, the fifth Mars, the.
sixth Jupiter, the seventh Saturn; each ol
which orbs was supposed by the ancients to
revolve round the earth in its proper sphereJ
Muhammad aaid the distance between each!
heavenly region ia five hundred years journoj J
(Mishkdt, book xxiv. ch. i. pt. 3).
The Rabbis spoke of two heavens (cf.l
Deut. x. 14), " The heaven and the heaven of <
heavens," or seven (OTTO, avpavavs ovsrtvfs
apiOfjioixTL KOT fTravuftacriv, C/tf*., Alex.
Strom., iv. 7, 63). "Rescb Lakiseh dixit
Heptem esse coolos, quorum nomina sunt,
1. velum ; 2. expansum; 3. nubes ; 4. habita-
culum ; 5. habitatip ; 6. sedes fixa ; 7. Araboth.
(See Wetstein. ad. 2 Cor. xii. 2). St. Paul s
expression, " ecus rpirov ovpavov," 2 Cor.
xii. 2, has led to somo discussion, for Grotius
says the Jews divided the heaven into three
parts. (1) Nubiferum, the atmosphere; (2)|
Attriferum, the firmament ; and (3) Einpy-
reum, the abodo of God. But the statement,
however, does not seem to be supported by
any known llabbiuic authority.
HEBER. [HUD].
HEGIRA. [HIJRAH.]
HEIRS. Arabic wdris
waraf.dk. [INHERITANCE.]
HELL. The place of torment is
most frequently spoken of. in the Qur an and
Traditions as an~Ndr, " the fire," but the
\\ordJuhvnnajn occurs about thirty times. It
is said to have seven portals or divisions.
Surah xv. 44: "Verily, hell (juhamicnn) is
promised to all together (who follow Satan).
It has seven portals, and at every door there is
a separate party of them/
The Persian word used for. hell in books of
theology is dozakh.
HELL
HEL1.
171
The seven divisions of hell are given by
14 nslim commentators at* follows :
1. Jahannam (p*&*), yecwa, the purga-
ibrial hell for all Muhammadans. For accord-
ng to the Qur an, all Muslims will pass
through the regions of heH. Surah xix. 72 :
There is not one of you who will not go
lown to it (hell), that is settled and decided
ay thy Lord."
3. Laza (^^). Surah xpvii. 5 : " For Lazd,
ragging by the scalp, shall claim him who
urned his back and went away, and amassed
hoarded."
3. Al-HutamaJi (<UlO\). Surah civ. 4:
"Nay I for verily he shall be flung into
il-Hutainah ;
And who shall teach thee what al-Huta-
nahis?
" It is God s kindled fire,
" Which shall mount above the hearts of
\e damned;
" It shall verily rise over them like a
ault,
"On outstretched columns."
4. -Sa tr ( 7**). Surah iv. 11 : " Those who
our the property of orphans unjustly, only
levonr into their bellies fire, and they broil in
a ir."
(The word occurs in fourteen other places.)
5. Saqar (y*-). Surah liv. 47: "The
ers are in error and excitement. On the
,y when they shall be dragged into the fire
n their faces f Taste ye the touch of saqar 1 "
Surah lxxi\. 44 1 "What drove you intp
aqar f "
6. Al-Jaf,um (f+*^\). Surah ii. 113:
Thou shalt noj be questioned as to the fel-
ows of al-Jahlm " (Ashdbu l-Jahim).
(The word occurs in twenty other places).
7. Huwiyah (*Jj^*) Surah ci. 8: "As
or him whose balance is light, his dwelling
tiall be Hdwiyah."
The Muhammadan commentators, with that
tter reckkstmess which so characterizes
leir writings, distribute these seven stations
follows (see al-Bayhatvi, ul-B<n~dwl, and
thers) : (1 ) Jahannam, the purgatorial hell
or Muslims. (2) Laid, a blazing fire for
hristians. (3) Al-Hutamah, an intense fire
or the Jewa. (4) Sa-ir, a flaming fire for tho
abians. (5) Saqar, a scorching fire for the
lagi. (6) Al-Jahlm, a huge hot fire for ido-
terH. (7) Hdwiyah, bottomless pit for the
ypocritos. A reference to the Qur an will
rove that there is not the least reason for
ssigning these regions to their respective
enants beyond the sentence already quoted :
At each portal a separate party."
The teaching of the Q.ur dn (which is chiefly
onfineJ to those Surahs which, chronologi-
ally arranged, are the earliest), is as fol-
owsr^
Surah Ixxiv. 26-84 (generally held, to be the
econd Surah compoed by Muhammad, and
elating to al-Walid Ibn al-Mughirah, a person
f note amongst the. jinbelieving Makkans) :
" We will Kurely cast him into Saqar.
And who shall teach thee what Saqar is ?
" It leaveth nought, it spareth nought,
"Blackening the skin.
" Over it are nineteen angels.
" None but angels have we made guardians
of the fire (ushdbu -?) : nor have we made
this to be their number but to perplex the
unbelievers and that they who possess the
Scriptures may be certain of the Truth, and
that they who believe may increase their
faith ;
And that they to whom the Scriptures
have been given, and the believers, may not
doubt ;
" And that the infirm of heart and tho
unbelievers may say, What meaneth God by
this parable?
" Thus God misleadeth whom He will, and
whom lie will He doth guide aright : aiyl none
knoweth the armies of thy Lord but Himself :
and this is no other than a warning to man
kind."
Surah Ixxxviii. 1-7:
" Hath the tidings of the day that shall
overshadow reached thee ?
" Downcast on that day shall be the coun
tenances of some,
" Travailing and worn,
" Burnt at the scorching fire,
" Made to drink from a fountain fiercely
boiling.
" No food shall they have but the fruit of
zari (a bitter thorn),
Which shall not fatten nor appease then
hunger. "
Surah Ixxviii. 21-30 :
" Hell (Jahannam) truly shall be a place
of snares,
" The home of transgressors,
" To abide therein ages ;
" No coolness shall they taste therein noi
any drink,
"Save boiling water and running soros ;
" Meet rocompence !
"For they looked not forward to their
account ;
"And they gave the lie to our signs
charging them with falsehood ;
" But we noted and wrote down all :
" Taste this then : and we will give you
increase of nought but torment. "
The above are all Madinah Surahs com
posed in the earlier stage of Muhammad s
mission. The allusions to hell in the Mak-
kan Surahs are brief and are in every case
directed against unbelievers in the Prophet a
mission, and not against sin ; e.g. Surah ix.
6D, " God hath promised to the hypocrites
(i.e. dissemblers as far as Islam was concerned},
men and women, and unto the unbelievers
hell-fire to dwell therein for ever."
The teaching of Mu/iammad in the Tradi
tions is much more specific, but it is impos
sible to assign a date for these traditions,
even assuming them to bo authentic. They
are given on the authority of ai-Bukhurl and
Muslim (MishJcdt, book xxiii. ch. xv.):
" The fire of the world is one part of
seventy parts of hell fire. It was said. O
Prophet of God 1 verily the fire of the world
would be sufficient for punishing * The Pro-
172
HELL
phet replied, Hell-fire has been made more
than the fire of the world by sixty-nine parts,
every part of "which i like the fire of the
world/"
" Verily, the easiest of the infernale in
punishment, is he who shall have both his
shoes and thongs of them of fire, by which
the brains of his head b oil, like the boiling
of a copper furnace ; and he will not suppose
that anyone is more severely punished than
himself; whilst verily, he is tbo least so."
"On the Day of Resurrection, the most
luxurious of the world will be brought, and
dipped once into the fire ; after that it
will be said, O child of Adam, did you
ever see any good, or did comfort ever pass
by you in the world ? He will say, I swear
by God I never saw any good, nor did com
fort ever come near me. And a man of the
severest distresses and troubles in the world
will be brought into paradise ; and it will be
said to him, O son of Adam, did you ever
see any trouble, and did distress ever como to
you in the world ? And he will say, I swear
by God, O my Lord, I never suffered troubles
in the world, nor did I ever see hardship. "
" There, are some of the infernals that will
be taken by the fire up to their ankles, and
some up to their knees, and some up to their
waist, and some up to their necks."
" Hell-fire burnt a thousand year* so that
it became rod, and burnt another thousand
years till it became white ; after that it burnt
a thousand years till it became black ; then
bell fire is black and dark, and never has any
light."
"Verily, hot water will be poured upon
the heads of the infernals, and will pene
trate into their bellies, and will cut to pieces
everything within them ; so that they will
come out at their feet : and this is the mean
ing of the word qf God, * Boiling water shall
be poured on their heads, and everything in
their bellies shall be dissolved thereby, after
that, they will be made as they were."
" The infernals shall be drenched with
yellow water, draught after draught, and it
will be brought to their mouths and they will
be disgusted at it ; and when very near, it
will scorch their faces, and when they drink
it it will tear their entrails to pieces. God
says, < They who must dwell for ever in hell-
fire, will have the boiling water given them
to drink which shall burst their bowels ; and
God will say, If the infidels complain of
thirst, they shall be assisted with water like
molten copper, which will fry their faces ; it
will be a shocking beverage. "
For most of these circumstances relating to
hell and the state of the damned, Muhammad
was in -all probability indebted to the Jews and,
in part, to the Magians, both of whom agree
in making seven distinct apartments in hell.
(Niskmat hayim, f. 32 / Gemar. Antbin,
f. 19; Zokar. a>d, Exod. xzvi. 8, <fec. and
Hyde de R&1. Vet. Pers., p. 245), though they
vary in other particulars.
The former place an angel as a guard
over each of these infernal apartments, and
suppose he will intercede for tho miserable
HELL
wretches there imprisoned, who will openly
acknowledge the justice of God in their con
demnation. (Midvash, Yalkut Slicmuni, pt. 11,
f. 116.) They also teach that the wicked
will suffer a diversity of punishments, and
that by intolerabl cold (Zohar. ad. Exod-
jpi>.) as well as heat, and that their faces
shall become black (Yaikut Shemuni, ubi
sup. f. 86) ; and believe those of their own
religion shall also be punished in hell here
after according to their crimes (for they hold
that few or none will be found exactly righ
teous as to deserve no punishment at all,)
but will soon bo delivered thence, when they
shall be sufficiently purged from their sins
by their father Abraham, or at the interces
sion of him or some other of the prophets,
(Nisktnat hayim , f. 82 ; Gemar. Aruoin, f. 19.)
The Magians allow btit one angel to pre
side over all the seven hells, who is named
by them Vanand Yaz&d, and, as they teach,
assigns punishments proportionate to each
person s crimes, restraining also the tyranny
and excessive cruelty of the devil, who would,
if left to himself, torment the damned be
yond their sentence, (ffyde, de Re4. Vet.
Pf.rs. p. 182.) Those of this religion do also
mention and describe various kinds of tor
ments -wherewith the wicked will be punished
in the next life ; among which, though they
reckon extreme cold to be one, yet they do
not admit fire, out of respect, as it seems, to
that element, which they take to be the re
presentation of the divine nature, and there
fore they rather choose to describe the
damned souls as suffering by other kinds of
punishment, such as an intolerable stink, the
stinging and biting of serpents and wild
beasts, the cutting and tearing of the flesh
by the devils, excessive hunger and thirst,
and the like. (See Eundem, ibid., p. 399;
Sale s Pre. Dis.)
The author of the SJiar]j.u, l-Mvwdqif,
p. 586, also says : " It is agreed amongst all
orthodox Muslims that all unbelievers, with
out exception, will be consigned to the fire for
ever, and that they will never be free from
torment." " But," he adds. " there are cer
tain heretics, who call themselves Muslims,
who deny the eternity of the torment? the
fire. For, they say, it is an essential property
of all things fleshly that they come to an end.
And, moreover, it is not possible for a thing
to exist which goes on burning for ever. But
to this we reply that God is all powerful
and can do as He likes."
The sect called as-Samamiyah, founded by
Samamah ibn Ashras an-Numairl, eay : " The
Jews, and Christians, and Majtisi, and Zana-
diqah, will, after the Day of Judgment,
return to dust, juat as the animals and the
little children of unbelievers do." (S/uirftu 7-
Muwaqif) p. 638.)
The same writer says (p. 687) : " Besides
those who are unbelievers, all those (Muslims)
who are sinners and have committed great
sins (kaba ir), will go to hell; but they will
not remain there always, for it has been said
in the Qur fin (Surah xcix, 7), " He who does
an atom of good shall see its reward."
HELPERS
HIBAH
173
With reference to the verso in the Qur an,
rhich distinctly states that ail Muslims
shall enter hell (Surah xix. 78, " There is
lot one of you that shall -not go down to it "),
al-Kamalan, the commentators, say, that ac
cording to extant traditions, all Muslims will
enter hell, bat it will be cool and pleasant to
those who have not committed great sins ;
, according to some writers, they will
frimpiy pass along the bridge Sirdt, which is
>ver tho infernal regions.
HELPERS, The. [ANSAB.]
HERACLIUS. Arabic Hiraql
J*r*). The Roman Emperor to whom
Muhammad sent an embassy with a letter in
viting him to Islam, A.H. 7, A.D. 628
In the autumn of this year (A..D. G 28), He
raclius fulfilled his vow of thanksgiving for the
wonderful success which had crowned his arms
in Persia) ; he performed on foot the pilgri
mage from Edeesa to Jerusalem, whore the
true cross, recovered from the Persians, was
with solemnity and pomp restored to the
Holy Sepulchre. While preparing for this
ourney, or during the journey itaelf, an un-
:outh despatch in the Arabic character was
aid before Heraclius* It was forwarded by
.he Governor of Bcstra, into whose hands it
had been delivered by an Arab chief. The
jpistle was addressed to the Emperor him
self, from Mahomet the Apostle of God, the
e impression of whose seal could be de-
jiphered at the foot. In strange and simple
accents like those of the Prophets of old, it
summoned Heraclius to acknowledge tho mis
sion of Mahomet, to oast aside the idolatrous^
worship of Jesus and his Mother, and to re-
urn to the Catholic faith of the one only
Jed. The letter was probably cast aside, or
>r9served, it may be, as ti strange curiosity,
;ho effusion of some harmless fanatic."
Muir s Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 383.)
Tradition, of course, has another story.
Now the Emperor was al this time at
lims, performing a pedestrian journey, in
Tilfilmont of the vow which ho had made,
hat, if the Romans overcame the Persians, he
would travel on foot from Constantinople to
Aolia (Jerusalem). So having read the
etter, he commanded his chief men to meet
lim in the royal camp at Hims. And thus
addressed them : Ye chiefs of Rome !
[)o you desire safety and guidance, so that
your kingdom shall be firmly established,
md that ye may follow the commands of
Jesus, Son of Mary ? And what, O King 1
shall secure us this ? Even that ye follow
-tie Arabian Prophet/ said Heraclius, Where-
npon they all started aside like wild asses of
;he desert, each raising his cross and waving
t aloft in the air. Whereupon Heraclius.
despairing of their conversion, and unwilling
,o lose his kingdom, desisted, saying that he
lad only wished to test their constancy and
aith, and that ho waa now satisfied by this
display of firmness and devotion. The cour
iers bowed their beads, and so the Prophet s
despatch was rejected." (Katibu V- Wdqidi.
p. 50, quoted by Muir, in & note to the above
passage.)
The letter written by Muhammad to Hera
clius is, according to a tradition by Ibn
Abbas, as follows :
" In the name of God the Merciful, the
Compassionate. This letter is from Muham
mad the Messenger of God, to Hiraql, chief of
ar-Rum. Peace be upon whosoever has gone
on the straight road! After this, I say,
verily I call thee to Islam. Embrace Isliim
that ye may obtain peace. Embrace Islam
and God will give thee a double reward If
ye reject Islam, then on thee shall rest the
sins of thy subjects and followers. O ye
people of the Book (i.e. Christians) come
to a creed which is laid down plainly between
us and you, that we will not serve other
than God, nor associate aught with Him, nor
take each other for lords rather than God.
But if they tarn back, then say, * Bear wit
ness that we are Muslims. " (Qur an, iii. 57.)
(See Sahihu Muslim, p. 98.)
The Shl*ah traditions give the above letter
almost verbatim. (See Menick s Hayafu /-
Quliib, p. 89.)
; Not long after, another despatch, bearing
the same seal, and couched in similar tanas,
reached the court of Heraeliu*. It was ad
dressed to Harith "VTL, Prince of the Bani
Ghass&E, who forwarded it to tho Emperor,
with an address from himself, soliciting per
mission to chastise the audacious impostor.
But Heraclius regarding the ominous voice
from Arabia boneath hia notice, forbade the
expedition, and desired that Hatith should
be in attendance at Jerusalem, to swell the
imperial train at the approaching visitation
of the temple. Little did the Emperor
imagine that the kingdom which, unperceived.
by the world, this obscure Pretender wag
founding in Arabia* would in a few short
years wrest from his grasp that Holy City
and the fair provinces which, with so* much
toil and so rauch gloiy, he had just recovered
from the Persians ! * (Muir s Lift of Afako-
met,p. 884.)
(For the Shi ah account of the embassy to
Heraclius, see Merrick s tfccrito Y-Qtto,
p. 88.)
HERMAPHRODITE (Arabic J^-,
Khunsa) is a person who is possessed of
the organs of generation of both man and
woman, and for whose spiritual existence the
Muhammadan law legislates (vide Hiddyah,
vol. iv. p. 669). For example, it is a rule,
with respect to equivocal hermaphrodites,
that they are required to observe all the
more comprehensive points of the spiritual
law, but not those concerning the propriety
of ^vhich, in regard to them, any doubi exists
In public prayer thoy must, take tbeir station
between the men and tho women, but in other
respects observe the customs of women.
(Idem, p. 561.)
HIBAH (*A). A legal term in
Muhammadan law, which signifies a deed of
gift, a transfer of property, made immediately
and without any exchange. [GIFTS ]
174
HIDAD
HID AD (*>\JL_^). "Mourning."
The stale of a widow who abstains from
scents, ornaments, &c., on account of the
death* of her husband. Hiddd must be ob
served for a period of four months and ten
days. (Hiddyah, voLi. p. 370.)
HID AYAH (*tj*). Lit. "Quid-
ance." The title of a well known book on
Sunnl law, and frequently quoted in the pre
sent work. There are many Muhammadan
works entitled al-Hiddyah, but this is called
Hiddyah /iY-/H?, or "a guidance in parti
cular points. -It was composed by the
Shaikh Burhanu d-dm All, who was born at
Marghlnan in Transoxania about A.H. 530
(A.D. 1135), pod died A.H. 593.
There is ati English translation of the
Biddyak (omitting the chapters on Prayer
and Porification), by Charles Hamilton, four
volsl, London-, A.D. 1791.
HIFZU L- AHD (J**N M*). Lit.
"The guarding of the covenant." A term
used by the Sufi mystics for remaining firm
in that state in which God has brought them.
( Abdu J r-Razzaq s DicL of Sufi Terms.)
HIGHWAY ROBBERY Arabic
qat u t-tariq (&W j*k*). Persian
rahzani. Highway robbery is a very heinous
offence according to Muhammadan law, the
punishment of which has been fixed by tho
Qur an (Surah v., 37): " The recompense of
those who war against God and His apbstle,
and go about to enact violence on the earth,
is that* they be slain or crucified, or have
their alternate hands and feet out off, or be
banished the land." According to the Hidd
yah, highway robbers are of four kinds, viz.
(] ) Those who are seized before they have
.robbed or" murdered any person, or put any
person in fear. These are to be imprisoned
by the magistrate until their repentance is
evident. (2) Those who have robbed but have
not murdered. These are t.o have their right
havw and left foot struck off. (3) Those who
hmve ccirimitted murder but have not robbed.
These are punished with death. (4) Those
who have committed both robbery and mur
der. These are punished according to the
option of the magistrate. If he please, he
can first cut off a hand and foot, and then
put them to death by the sword, or by cruci
fixion; or he may kill them at once without
inflicting amputation. If any one among a
band of robbers be guilty of murder, the
punishment of death must be inflicted upon
the whole band,
HIJAB (v^.). A partition or
curtain. Veiling or concealing.
(1) A term used for the seclusion of women
enjoined in the Quran, Surah xxxiii. 53 :
* And when ye ask them (the Prophet s
wives) for an article, ask them from behind
a curtain : that is purer for your hearts and
for theirs."
(2). A ,term used by the Sufi mystics for
that which obscures the light of God in the
soul of man. ( Abdu r-Razzaq s Diet, of
Sufi Terms.}
HIJEAH
HIJAZ ( jW-). Lit. " A barrier ,or
anything similar by which two things are sepa
rated." The name al-ffijazis given to that tract
of country which separates Najd from Taha-
mah, and is an irregular parallelogram about
250 miles long and 150 miles wide. It may be
considered the holy land of the Muhainma-
dans, for within its limits are the sacred cities
of al-Madinah and Makkah, and most of its.
places are someway connected with the his
tory of Muhammad. It is a barren district
consisting of sandy plains towards the shore
and rocky hills in the interior; and so desti
tute of provisions as to depend, even for the
necessaries of life, on the supplies of other
countries. Among its fertile spots is Wadi *
Fatimah, which is well watered, and produces
grain and vegetables. Sajrah abounds in date
trees. At-Ta if, seventy-two miles from Mak
kah, is celebrated for its gardens, and the
neighbourhood of al-Madmah has cultivated
fields. The towns on the coast are Jiddah
and Yambu , the former being considered the
port of Makkah, from which it is distant
about fifty-five miles, and the latter that of
al-Madinah. Al-Hijaz, is bounded eastward by
a lofty range of mountains, which,near at-T. a if f
take the name of Jabalu 1-Qura. The scenery
there is occasionally beautiful and pictu
resque ; the small rivulets that descend from
the rocks afford nourishment to the plains
below, which are clothed with verdure and
shady trees. The vicinity of Makfcah is bleak
and bare; for several miles it is surrounded
with thousands of hills all nearly of one
height ; their dark and naked peaks rise one
behind another, appearing at a distance like
cocks of hay. The most celebrated of these
are as-Safa, Arafah and al-Marwah, which
have always been connected with the religious
rites of the Muhammadan pilgrimage.
HIJE (;^)- In its primitive sense
means interdiction or prevention.
(1) In the language of tb.6 law it signifies
an interdiction of action with respect to a
particular person, who is either an infant, an
idiot, or a slave. (Htddyah,\ol. iii. p. 468.)
(2) Al-Hijr is a territory in the. province of
al-Hijaz between al-Madinah and Syria, where
the tribe of Samud dwelt. It is the title of
the xvth Surah of the Qur an, in the 80th
verse of which the word occurs : K The inha
bitants of al-Hijr likewise accused the mes
senger of God of imposture."
HLJRAH (S^*). Lit. migration."
(I) The departure of Muhammad from Mak
kah. (2) The Muslim era. (3) The aat of
a Muslim leaving a country under infidel
rule. (4) Fleeing from sin.
The date of Muhammad s flight from Mak
kah was the fourth day of the first month of
Rabi , which by the calculation of M. Caus-
sin de Perceval was June 20th, A.D. 622.
The Hijrah, or the era of the " Hegira," was
instituted seventeen years later by the Khalifab
Umar, which dates from the first day of the
first lunar month of the year, viz. Muharram,
which day in the year when the era was esta
blished fell on Thursday the 15tii of July
HIKMAH
A.D. 622. But although Uraar instituted the
official era, according to at-Tabarl, the cus
tom of referring to events as happening
oefore or after the Hijrah originated with
Muhammad himself.
Professor H. H, Wilson in his Glossary of
Terms gives the following method of ascer
taining the Muhammadan and Christian
years :
Multiply the flijrah year by 2,977, the diffe
rence between 100 solar and as many lunar
Muhainmadau years ; divide the product by
100, and deduct the quotient from the Hijrah
year; add to the result 021,569 (the decimal
being the equivalent of the 16th July, plus
! 12 days for the change of -the Kalendar) ; and
j the quotient will be the Christian year from
1 the date at which the Muhammadan year
1 begins; thus, Hij. 1269 x 2-977 = 3777-8, which
i; divided by 100 = 37-778 and 1209-37-778 =
j 1281-222; this + 621-669 - 1852-791, the
i decimals corresponding to 9 months and
15 days, i.e. the 15th of October, which
is the commencement of the Hij. year 1269.
ii The reverse formula, for finding the corre-
u spending Hijrah year to a given Christian
i| year, is thus laid down : Subtract 622 from
, the oiyi-ent year; multiply Uie result by
1 1-0^07 ; cut off two decimals and add -46 ;
the sum will be the year, which, when it has
a surplus decimal, requires the addition of
1: thus, 1852-622 = 1230; 1230x1-0307 =
1267 -761 ; 1267-76 + -40^ 1268-22 ; add there-
Xcre 1, and we have the et^uivalent Hijrah year
1269.
The Persian era of Yezdogird commenced
on June 16th, A.D. 632, or ten years later
than the Hijrah.
HIKMAH (&-+-.*). Al-hikmah,
"the wisdom," is a term used by the Sufi
mystics to express a knowledge of the
essence, attributes, specialities, and results
of things as they exist and are seen, with tho
study of their cause, effects, and uses. This-
ia said to be the wisdom mentioned in the
Qur an, Surah ii. 272: "Ho (God) bringeth
the wisdom (al-hikmuh} unto whom He wil-
Eth."
The $iifls say there are four kinds of
wisdom expressed in the term al-tiikmuh :
(1) Al-hikmatu f-Afantitqah, " spoken wis
dom," which is made known in the Qur an.
or in the Tariqah " the Path * (i.e. the Sufi
path).
(2) Al-hikmutu l-imtxkutuh, " unspoken
wisdom. 5 Such as understood ouly by Sufi
mysties, and not by the natural man.
(3) Al-hikmatu 1-majhulah. unknown wis
dom," or those acts of the Creator the wisdom
of which is unknown to the creature, such as
the imliction^ of pain upon the e features of
God, the death of infants, or the eternal fire
of hell. Things which wo believe, but which
we do not understand.
(4) Al-biktnalu l-jdmi oh, * collective wis
dom," or the knowledge of the truth (kagq),
and acting upon it, and the perception of
error (6a/i7) and the rejection of it. ( Abdu
r-Razzaq s Diet, of Su/l Terms.)
HIRE 176
HILAL (JS^). The new inoon.
A term used for the first three days of the
month.
HILF (<-Ala*). An oath ; a vow.
An affidavit. Hilfndinnh, a written solemn
declaration, ffa/if, one who takes an oath.
HILFU L-FUZtfL (Jjj*n u^).
A confederacy formed by the descendants of
Hashim,. Zuhrah, and Taim, in the house of
Abdu Hah ibn Jud an at Makkah, for the
suppression of violence and injustice at the
restoration of peace after the Sacrilegious
| war. Muhammad was then a youth, and Sir
I William Muir says this confederacy " aroused
an enthusiasm in the mind of Mahomet,
which the exploit* of the sacrilegious war
failed to kindle."
HILM (^). Being mild, gentle,
clement. Restraining oneself at a time when
the spirit is roused to anger. Delaying in
punishing a tyrant. (Kitdbu t-Ta rl/dt.)
Hence a.l-IIalim, the Clement, is one of the
attributes of God.
HIMA G^). Lit. " guarded, for-
bidden." A portion of land reserved by the
ruler of a country as a grazing ground. (See
Mi&hkdt, book xii. ch. i. pt. i.) " Know ye
that every prince has a grazing ground which
is forbidden to the people, and know ye the
grazing place (hima) is the thing forbidden
by Him to men.
HIMMAH OUA). "Resolution.
strength, ability." A term used by the Suf-
mystics for a determination of the "heart to
incline itself entirely to God. ( Abdu r
Hazzaq s Diet, of Suf i Termx.)
HINJSTA 0^). The Lawsonia
y or Eastern privet, used for dyeing-
the hands and feet on festive occasions,
[MARRIAGE.] Muhammad enjoined the use
of hinna , and approved of women staining
their hands and feet with it. He also dyed
his owji beard with it, and recommended" its
use for this purpose (Mmhkut, book xx. c. 4..)
It has therefore become a religious custom.
and \s-sunnuh.
HIQQAH (&^). A female camel
turned three years. The pmger age for a
camel to be given iu zalcdt, or legal alms, for
camels from forty-six to sixty in number.
H1RA (.y.). The name of a
mountain near Makkah, said to have boon
the scene of the first revelation given to
Muhammad. [MUHAMMAD. ]
H1RAQL (Jiy*). Herachus the
Roman Emperor, to whom MuhammAd sout
an embassy, A.H. 7, A.I. 028.
HIKE. The Arabic tenn ijarah
} which means the use and en
joyment of property for a time, includes hire
176 HIBE
rental, and lease. The hirer is termed o;Vr,
or mu jir. The person who receives the rent
ia the musta jir.
The following are some of the chief points
in the Sunn! law vrith regard to ijarah, and
for further particulars the reader mast refer
in English to Hamilton s Hiddyah, v.ol. iii.
p 312, or in Arabic to such works as the
Dvrru l-Mukhtar, FatdwH i- Alamgiri, and the
Maddu l~Muhidr.m which works it is treated
in the Bdbu l-Ijarah.
A contract of hire, or rental, or lease, is
not ralid unless both the usufruct and the
hire be particularly known and specified,
because there is a traditional saying of the
Prophet, " If a pei-son hire another let him
first inform him of the wages he is to
receive."
A workman is not entitled to anything
until his work is finished, but the article
wrought upon may be detained until the
workman be paid his full wages, and the
workman is not responsible for any loss or
damage in the article during such detention.
If a person hire another to carry a letter to
al-Baarah and bring back an answer, and he
accordingly go to al-Baarah and there find
the person dead to whom the letter was ad
dressed, and come back, and return the
letter, he is not entitled to any wages what
ever I This strange ruling is according to
Abu Hanifah and two of his disciples, but
the Imam Muhammad says the messenger
fcught to be paid.
It is lewful to /(ire a house or shop for the
purpbs of residence, although no mention bo
made of the business to bft followed in it. and
the lessee is at liberty to carry on any busi
ness he pleases, unless it be injurious to the
building. For example, a blacksmith or a
fuller must not reside in the house, unless it
is previously so agreed, since the exercise of
thoae trades would shake the building.
It is lawful to hire or lease land for the
purposes of cultivation, and in this case the
hirer is entitled to th us of the road lead
ing to the land, and likewise the water (i.e.
his turn of water) although no mention of
these be made in the contract
A lease of land is not valid unless mention
is made of the article to be raised on it. not
only with a view to cultivation, but also for
other purposes, suchf as building, and so
forth, Or the leasr of the land may make
declaration to the effect ; " 1 Jet the land on
this occasion, that the lessee shall raise on
it whatever he pleases,
II a person hire unoccupied laad for tho
purposes of building or planting, it is lawful,,
but on the term of the lease expiring it is
incumbent on the lessee to remove his build
ings and trees, and to restore the land to the
lessor in such a state as may leave him no
claim upon it, because houses or trees have
no specific limit of existence, and if they were
left on the land it might be injurious to the
proprietor. But it is otherwise when the
land is hired or leased for tbe purpose of
tillage, and the term oi the lease expires at
a time when the grain is yet unripe. In this
KIZANAH
case, the grain must ba suffered to remain
upon the ground at a proportionate rent,
until it is fit for reaping.
The hire of an aninial is lawful, either for
carriage, or for riding, or for any use to
which animals are applied. And if a person
hire an animal to carry a burden, and the
person who" lets it to hire specify the nature
and quantity of the article with which the
hirer ia to load the animal, the hirer is at
liberty to load the animal with an equal :
quantity of any article not triore troublesome j)
or prejudicial in tbe carriage than wheat,
such as barley, &c. The hirer is not at j
liberty to load the animal with a more pre- i
indicia! article than wheat (unless stipulated ;
beforehand), such as salt or iron. For a
hired animal perishing from ill-usage, the
hirer is responsible.
(For the sayings of Muhammad on the nub"
ject of hire and leases, refer to the Miskkdt,
tabu Z-Ijdrah.)
HIES (u*^). "Avarice, greed,!
eagerness." Derivatives of tht> word occur
three times in the Qnr an. Sura h ii. 90:
" Thou wilt Snd them (the Jews) the greediest
of men foi- life." Surah iv. 128 : " And je may
not have it at all in your power to treat your
wives with equal justice, even though you be
anxious to do so," Surah xii. 104 : And yet
most men, though thou ardently desire sf, will
not believe.**
HISS (u^-). u "Understanding j
sense." Hiss hdtin, internal sense : hiss $dhtr,\
external sense; hiss mwhfariie, common sense.
HIZANAH (&U^). Al-htzdnah it
the right of a mother to the custody of her !
children. " The mother ia of all persons the
best entitled to the custody of her infant
children during the connubial relationship as
wall as after its dissolution/ (Fatawa-i- Atam*
girl* vol. i. p. 728.)
When the children are no longer dependent
on the mother s care, the father ha* a right
to educate and take charge of them, and is
entitled to the guardianship of their person in
preference to the mother. Among the Ha-
nafiK, the mothw is entitled to the custody of
her daughter until she arrives at puberty ; ;
but according to tbe other three Sunn? sects,
the custody continues nil I she is married.
There is difference of opinion as to the
extent of the period of the mother s custody \
over her male children. The Hanafls limit it 1
to the child s seventh year, but the Shaft Is j
and Malakis allow the boy the option of re
maining under his mother s guardian/ship
until he has arrived at puberty. Among the
Shi ahs, the mother is entitled to the custody j
of her children until they are weaned, a 1
period limited to two years. After the child
is weaned, its custody, if a male, devolves on
the father, if a female, on the mother. The
mother s custody of the girl continues to the
seventh year.
The right of hizdna/i ia lost by the mother
if she is married to a stranger, or if she mis-
HOLY SPIRIT
HOUB8 OP PRAYER
177
HORSES. Arabic faras
iail ( J**>), pi. khuyul. Muhammad s
ffeetion for horses was very great, a,s was
natural to an Arabian. Anas says there was
lothing the Prophet was so fond of as women
nd horses. Abu Qatadah relates that Mu-
lamniad said : " The best horses are black
with white foreheads and having a white
pper. lip." But Abu Wahhab says the Pro-
ahet considered a bay horse with white fore-
tead, white fore and hind legs the best. An
nstance of the way in which the traditionists
ometimes contradict each other I ( AlisJJcut.
book xvii. c. ii.)
In the Hidayah (Arabic edition, vol. Mi.
432) it is said that horses are of four
:inds : (1) Birzaun. Burzun, a heavy draught
orse brought from foreign countries. (2}
Atiq, a first blood horse of Arabia. (3)
5Tq;?n, a half-bred horse wnose mother is an
Arab and father a foreigner. (4) A half -bred
Conducts heraelf, or if ehe changes her domi- j
file so as to prevent the father or tutor from (
Dxercising the necessary supervision over the j
ahild.
Apostasy is also a bar to the exorcise of
the right of hizdnah. A woman, consequently,
who apostatizes from Islam, whether before
or after the right vests in her, is disentitled
from exercising or claiming the right of
kizdnafi in respect to a Muslim child.
The custody of illegitimate children ap
pertains exclusively to the mother and her
relations. (Personal Lato of Mvhanunadan* . j
by Synd Amir Ali, p. 214.) [QUARDIAK- |
3HIP.1
HOLY* SPIRIT. Arabic Ruhu I- \
Quds (y-Jtft c^)- The Holy Spirit is j
nentioued three times in the Qur an. In the
jfiralu *n-Nahl (xvith, 104), as the inspiring
igent of the Qur an : " Say, The Holy Spirit
^Drought it down from thy Lord in truth."
Vnd twice in the Suratu 1-Baqarah (mid,
U and 254), as the divine power which aided
he Lord .fesus : " and We strengthened him by
[j he Holy Spirit " (in both verses).
) The Jalalan. al-Baizawi, and the Muslim
commentators in general, say this Holy Spirit
wan the angel Gabriel who sanctified Jesus, nnd
constantly aided Him. and who also brought
the Qur an down from heaven and revealed
It to Muhammad.
I For a further consideration of the subject,
nee SPIRIT.
HOMICIDE. [MURDER.]
HONEY. Arabic <udl ( J~*). In
he Qur an it is specially mentioned as the
<if t of God. rfiirah xvi. 70: "Thy Lord in-
pired the bee. Take to houses in the moun- I
ains, and in the trees, and in the hives they
mild. Then eat from every fruit and walk
a the beaten paths of thy Lord/ There
eometh forth from her body a draught
varying in hue, in which is a cure for
nan."
horse whose father is an Arab and whose
mother is a foreigner.
In taking a share of plunder, a horseman
is entitled to a double share, but ho is not
entitled to any more if he keep more horses
than one.
HOSPITALITY. Arabic ziydfah
(&W*). It is related that Muhammad
said :
" Whoever believes in God and in the Day
of Resurrection must respect his guest."
" If a Muslim be the guest of a peoplo and
he spends the whole night without being en
tertained, it shall be lawful for every Muslim
present to take money and grain necessary
for the entertainment of the man."
" It is according to my practice that the
host shall come out with his guest to the
door of his house." (Mishkdt, book xix.
oh. ii.)
Hospitality is enjoined its the Qur an.
Surah iv. 40 : " Show kindness to your
parents, and to yonr kindred, and to orphans,
and to the poor, and to yonr neighbour who
is akin and to your neighbour who is a
stranger, and the companion who is strange,
and to the, son of the road.
HOUR, The. Arabic
(cLJ\). A term frequently used ID
the Qttr an for the Day of Judgment.
iSurah vi. 81 : " When t/te hour comes sud
denly upon them.
Surah vii. 186 : " They will adk you about
the hour for what time it is fixed."
Surah xv. 85: "Verily the hour ia surely
coming."
Surah xvi. 7i : ki Nor is the matter of M
hour aught but as the twinkling of an eye, or
nigher still."
Surah xxii. 1: "Vsrily the earthquake of
tl,*e hour is a mighty thing."
Surah liv. 46 : " Nay the hour is their pro
mised time J and the hour ia most aevere and
bitter."
HOUES OF PEAYEE. The
terms " Hours of Prayer " and " Canonical
Hours," being used in the Christian Church
(see Johnfton g Engl. Cafions and Canons of
Cuthbert, ch. 15), we shall consider undw
this title the stated periods of MuTiammadan
prayer. [FRAYBB.] They are five : (1) fcgr
(^i), daybreak ; (2) %uhr ( j6^), when the
sun begins to decline at midday , (3) Asr
(y**) t midway between zuhr and mayfaib;
(4^ Maghrib \^^), evening; (6) <Ishd
(oWLfi), when the night has closed in. Ac-
cording to the Traditions (Mishkdt, book
jcxiv. ch. vii. pt. 1). Muhammad professed to
have received his instructions to say prayer
five times a day during the Mi raj, or the
celebrated night journey to heaven. He said,
God first ordered him to pray fifty times a
day, but that Moses advised him to get the
Almighty to reduce the number of canonical
hours to ftve, he himself having tried fifty
23
178
HOUSES
times for his own people with very ill
success!
tt is remarkable that there is but one
passage in the Qur an, in which the stated
hours of prayer are enjoined, and tkat ii
jnetiiiona only four and not five periods
Suratu r-Rum, xxx. 16, 17 : " Glorify God when
it is AveaiBj? (TJWM*?), and at morning (fubft), -
and to Him be praise in the heavens and in
the avth, and at afternoon ( s o*Ai), and at
noon-tick ($ukr). n But al-Jalalan, the eom-
meiuators say all a*e agreed that the term,
"when it is matff" (evening or night), in
cludes both auhset and after sunset, and
therefore both the nutghrib and i*Aa prayers
are* in eluded.
Three hours of prayer wara obeeived b^
thw Jews, David says, "Eveniog morning.
and at noon will I pray." (P<*. lv. 17.)
Daniel " kneeled upon his knees three
times u day." These three hours of the
Je?re seena to have been continued by the
Apostles (see Acts iii. 1), and were transmitted
to the early church in succeeding agoa, for
Tertullian speaks of "those common hours
which mark the divisions of the day, the
third, sixth, and ninth, which we observe
_ I
HOUSES
in scripture to be more solemn than the
rest." (/> Orat., c. 25.) And Clement of
Alexandria says, " If same fix stated hours
of prayer, as the third, sixth, and ninth, the
man of knowledge prays to God throughout
his whole life.* 1 (Stem. 1. viL c. 7, sect. 40.)
Jerome says, " There are three times in which
the knees are bent to God. Tradition assigns
the third, the aixtb, and the ninth hour."
(Com. X Daw., c. vi. 10.)
In the third century there seems to have
been Jive stated periods of prayer, for Basil
of Cappadocia speaks of five hours as suit
able for monks, namely, the morning, the
third hour, the sixth, the ninth, and the
evening.- (jRegulcefusiu* Tract. Hegp. ad Qtt.,
37, sections 3--6.)
It is therefore probable that Muhammad
obtained his idea of five stated periods of
prayer daring his two journeys to Syria.
But he changed the time, as will be seen
from the table annexed, which was drawn up
by Mr. Laae at Cairo, and shows the times of
Muhammad an prayer with the apparent
European time of sunset, in or near the lati
tude of Cairo at the commencement of each
zodiacal month :
Maghrib
Sunset,
Iska
or
Nigbt.
Fajr
or
D&ybreak.
ZuHr
ov
Noon.
A#r
or
Afternoon.
Muslim
Time
"; "
Tteft,
7 4 j.f,
|6 58
<? 31
6 4
5 37
5 15
6 4
Jtoe. 1
Muslim
Timo.
MuaKm
1 -i t-.
Muslim
Time.
Jtuw
July 22
Aug. 23
Sept. 23
Oct. 23
Nov. 22
Dec.
21
Hay 21
ApL 20
1
Tiyi OA
21
JfJ
Ki
c *
[
1 34
1 30
1 22
1 18
1 18
1 22
1 24
8 6
8 30
9 24
10 24
11 18
11 59
12 15
4 56
5 7
5 29
5 66
*> 28
45
o 5S
8 13
8 43
9 4
9 24
9 35
f> 41
9 43
N.B. Tke time of noon, according to Muhammad an reckoning, OH any particular day, sub
tracted from twelve, gives the apparent time of sunset on that day according to European
reckoning
HOUSES.
"bvy&t; dar (
pi
Arabic bait
*), pt di-wlr. d<~tr ;
In the time of Muhammad
the houses of the Arabs were made of
a framework of jarld, or palm-sticks, co
vered o^er with a cloth of caxiibfa hair, or
t curtain of a similar stuff, forming the door.
Those of the better class were made of walls
of unbaked bricks, and date-leaf roofs plas
tered over with inud and clay. Of this <**-
floriptioa were the abodes of Mnhair.i; ";>,
family. (Burton. YO! i. p. 438.)
Sir "William Muir, translating fi-oia vhe
accouat given by the secretary of al-Waqidi
{Life of Mahomet, now ed., p. 646), says:
Abdaliftli ib i Yazfd relates, that he saw
the bouse in rcbieh the wives of the .Prophet
dwelt at tlw -iixna Trhen Qmar ibn fAbd) ftl*
taeti g-feraer ol Medina (about A.H.
100) demolished them. They were built oft
ttnfeaiBt brick u and. had separate apartments
made of palm branches, daubed (or built up)
with x-iua ; ho comtted nine houses, each
having se^.tritte apartments in the space from
the hon.se of Aye^ha,and the gate of Mahomet
to the house of Aema, daughter of Hoseiu.
Observing the dwelling-place of Omm Sahna,
he questioned her grandson concerning it;
and be told him that when the Prophet w
absent on the expedition to Duma, Ora
Sainm built up an addition to her house wi
a wall of unburnt bricks. When Mahomet
returned, he went in to her, and asked what
new building this was. She replied, I pur-
poaed, O Prophet, to shut out the glances of
men thereby I Mahomet answered, * O Oruic
Salrna J verily the most unprofitable thing
that eateta up the wealth of a believer is
building/ A citizen of Medina present s*t
HOUSES
the time, confirmed this account, and added
that the curtains f Anglo -Indies, pur das) of
the doors were of black Lair cloth. He was
present, he said, when ths despatch of the
Caliph Abd al Malik (A.H. 86-88) was read
aloud, commanding that these houses should
be brought within the area of the Mosque,
and he never witnessed sorer woeping than
there was amongst the people that day. One
exclaimed, I wish, by the Lord! that they
would leave these houses alone thus as they
are ; then would those that spring up here
after in Medina, and strangers from the ends
of the earth, come and see what kind of
building sufficed for the Prophet s o^n abode,
and the sight thereof would deter men from
extravagance and prida
" There were four houses of ucbnrnt bricks,
the apartments being of palm-brnches ; and
HOUSES
179
COCfi
HOOIH BOOM
l
,
THf OU7EK
A
Qb
COURT
%
m
Hi
**Mi
ROOM
STOftf.
fvvi/
c
|
THE HAR/M.
^
o
^
I
moot*
AOOM
ss
THB USUAL PLAN OF AN ORDDfABY HOCSB IN
CXNTRAL ASIA.
five houses made of palm-branches built up
with mud and without any separate apart
ments. Each was three Arabian yards in
length. Some say that they had leather cur
tains for the doors. One could reach the roof
with the hand. The house of Hftritha was
next to that of Mahomet. Now, whenever
Mahomet took to himself a new wife, he
added another house to the row, and Haritha
was obliged successively to remove his house
and build on the space beyond. A)) last this
was repeatfld so often, that the Prophet said
to those about him, Verily, it shaineth me
to turn Hftritha over and over again out of
his house. "
The houses of the rural poor in all parts of
Islam, in Turkey, Egypt, Syria, Arabia.
Persia, Afghanistan, and India, are usually
bulit either of mud or of unburnt bricks. In
mounUinoas parts of Aghanistan they are
built of stones (collected from the bed* of
rivers) and tnnd. They are generally one
storey high, and of one apartment in which
the cattle are also housed. The roofs
are flat and are formed of mud and straw
laid upon branches of trees and rafters. The
windows are small apertures, high up in the
wall*, and sometimea grated with wood.
A MUHAMMABAN HOUSE IN PKBHAWUB.
There are no chimneys, but m the centre of
the roof there is an opening to emit the smoke,
the fire being lighted on the ground in the
centre of the room. In front of the house
there is an inclosure, either of thorns or a
mud wall, which secures privacy to the
dwelling. A separate building, called in Asia
a hujrah, or guest chamber, is provided for
male visitors or guests ; this chamber being
common property of the section of the vil
lage, except in the case of chiefs or wealthy
land-owners, who keep b^ujrahs of their own.
In towns the houses of the inferior kind do
not differ much from those in the villages,
except that there is sometimes an upper
storey. In some parts of Afghanistan and
Persia, it becomes necessary for each house
holder to protect his dwelling, in which case
a watoh tower, of mud, )s erected close tc th
house.
180
HOUSES
The injunctions of Muhammad regarding
the seclusion of women have very greatly in
fluenced the plan and arrangement of Muham-
raadan dwelling-houses of the better class
throughout the world, all respectable houses
being so constructed as to seclude the female
apartments from public view. In cities such
as Cairo, Damascus, Delhi, Peshawur, and
Cabul, the prevailing plan of dwelling-houses
is an entrance through a blank wall, whose
mean appearance is usually relieved by a
handsome door-way and a few latticed win
dows. A respectable house usually consists
HOUSES
rate q&a/i described by Mr. Lane in his
Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 39, which is either
j on the ground or upper tioor. Within tho
j first enclosure will be the stables for horses
and cattle, and in its centre a raised dais
as seats for servants and attendants. It
should be noticed that thare are no special
bed-rooms in Eastern houses. Male visitors
and friends will sleep in the verandahs of tho
outer court, or on the diwan in the upper
court.
The harim or women s apartments in the
inner court is entered by a small door. It is
A MUHAMMADAN HOUSE IN CAIRO.
(Lane.}
of two courts, the first being that used by the
male visitors and guests, and the inner court
is*, tho barim or zananah reserved for the
female members of the family. Facing the
outer court ,will be an upper chamber,- or
bald kfranah as it is called hi Persian, the
VTTcpuJoVf or Upper room of the New Testa
ment, in which there will be a diwdn, or
raised seat or eofa, upon which tho inmates
can sit, eat, or eleep. This is the oisual re-
Oeptkm room In Asia, this balu khanah
seems to take the place of the more elabo-
INTERIOR- OF A MOHAMMADAN HOUSE IN
CAIRO. (Lane.)
a quadrangle with verandahs on each of the
four sides, formed by a row of pillars, the
apertures of which are usually closed by/
sliding shutters^ Tho back of the rooms
being without windows, the only ah- being
admitted from the front of . the dwelling
place. The apartments are divided into long
rooms, usually four, the extreme corners
having small closets purposely built as store-
rooms. On festive occasions these verandah
rooms \yiH be spread with handsome carpets,
carpets and pillows being almost the only fur-
HOUSES
HUD
181
nituro of an Eastern dwelling, chairs being
a modern invention. The roofs of these rooms
are flat, and as the top is fenced in with a
barrier some four feet high, the female mem
bers of the household sleep on the top of the
house in the hot weather. [HAKIM.]
In no point do Oriental habits differ more
from European than in the nse of the roof.
Its Hat .surface, hi fine weather the usual
place of resort, is made useful for various
hausehold purposes, as drying corn, hanging
tip linen, and drying fruit.
Li the centre of the inner court or hariin.
there is usually a well, so that the female do
mestics are not obliged to leave the seclusion of
the harini for water-carrying. In a largo court,
of a wealthy person, there is usually a raised
dais of either stone or wood, on which car
pets are spread, and on which the ladios sit
or recline. In the better class of dwellings,
there are numerous courtyards, and special
ones are devoted to winter and summer uses.
la Peabawur, most respectable houses have
on underground room, called a taJji khdnah,
where the inmates in the hot weather sleep at
mid-day. These rooms are exceedingly cool
[ , and pleasant on hot sultry days.
Over the entrance door of a Muhammadan
i dwelling it is usual to put an inscription,
i either of the Kalimah, or Creed, or of some
I verse of the Qur an.
We have only attempted to describe.
I briefly, the ordinary dwelling-houses of Mu-
j . hammadanb, which are common to all parts
I of the Eastern world ; but in large wealthy
I cities, such as Damascus, Cairo, Delhi, and
i Lucknow, there are very handsome houses,
i which would require a longer description
I than our space admits 6f. For Mrs. Meer
1 Ali s account of a Muhammadan harrm or
. zanauah, sec IIARIM
HOUSES, Permission to enter.
I Arabic iaii zdn (Q\SX~\). To enter
I suddenly or abruptly into any person s
I house or apartments, is reckoned a great
I incivility in the East, and the law on this sub-
I ject is very distinctly laid down in both the
I Qur an and the Traditions.
Surah xxiv, 27-29 >
" ye who believe 1 enter not into other
I houses than your own, until ye have asked
I leave, and have saluted its inmates. This
will be best for you : haply ye will bear this
I in mind.
" And if ye find no one therein, then enter
I it not till leave bo given you ; and if it be
I said to you, * Go ye back, then go ye back.
\ This will be more blameless in you, and God
knoweth what ye do.
" There shall be no hartn in your entering
houses in which no one d \\elloth, for the
supply of your needs : and God knoweth
wha,t ye do openly and what ye hide."
The trailitionistn record numerous injunc
tions of Muhammad on the subject. A man
asked the prophet, "Mast I ask leave to
go in to see my mother?" He said, " Yen."
Then the man said, Bat I stay iu the same
hou.se with her ! " The Prophet said : " But
you must usk pennission even if you stay in
the samo house/ Thnn the man said, ""But
I wait upon her ! " The Prophet said : " What !
\vouM you like to see her naked ? You must
ask permission."
The Khalifah -Umar .said it was according
to thp teaching of the Prophet that rf you
salam thr*o times and get no reply, you must
then go away from the house.
Abu Hura irah says that the Prophet said :
When anyone .sends to call you then you
can return with the messenger and enter the
house without pel-mission." (Mishkat, book
xxii. ch. ii. pt. 2.)
HIT, HUWA (y). The personal
pronoun of tho third person, singular, mas
culine, HE, i.e. God, or He is. It occurs in
the Qur an in this sense, e.tj. Surah iii. 1, &\
y& 3\ <ri\ 3 Alldhu id iidha ilia #,-, God,
there is no god but HE," which sentence is
called the nafy wa isbdt (or that which is re
jected, there is no god r and that which is
affirmed, " but He. The word is often used
by Sufi myptics in this form : ^ U yfc U *> \j
Jb ^\ yfc V* ^Jjo JJ yd hu. yd hu, yd man Id
ya lamu md hu illd hu, " Ho (who is). He
(who is), O He whom no one knows what He
Himself is but Himself." Some commentators
have supposed the word f]u to stand for the
exalted name of God, the Ismu l-a zam, which
Muslim doctors say is only known to God.
[JEHOVAH. ISMD I.-A ZAM.]
HUBAL or HOBAL (J**). The
great image which stood over tho well or
hollow within tho Ka bah. In the cavity be
neath were preserved the offerings and other
treasures of the temple. (At-faburt, p: 6,
quoted by Muir,) Tho idol was destroyed by
Muhammad at his final conquest of Makkah,
A.H. 8, A.]). 030. " Mounted on (his camel) Al
Caswa, ho proceeded to the Kaabah, reve
rently saluted with his staff the sacred stono
and made tho seven circuits of the temple.
Then pointing with, the staff one by one to the
numerous idols placed, around, he commanded
that they should be hewn down. The great
image of Hobal, reared as the tutelary deity
of Mecca, hi front of the Kaabah, shared the
common fate. Truth hath come, exclaimed
.Mahomet, in words of the Goran, as it fell
with a crash to the ground, and falsehood
hath vanished; for falsehood is evanescent."*
(Surah xvii. 83). See Muir, Life of Mahomet,
new ed. p. 422. It is remarkable that there
is no distinct allusion to the idol in the whole
of the Qur an
HUBS G^"*^). Any Request for
j pious purposes. A tonu used in Shfsh law
for wnqf. Anything devoted to tho service
of God. (See Baillie s Jindtwca Cndc,
P. 2 ,-r.)
H"Ql> (>*)*) A prophet said to
have 1 tjon sent to the tribe of Ad. Al-
182
HUB
HUJJAH
Bai?awi says he was, according to some, the
son of Abdn llah, the son of Rabah, the son
of Khalud, the son of Ad, the son of <Ans
the 8on of Iram, the son of Sam, son of Noah,
or, according to others, Hud was the son of
Shalah, son of Arfakhshad, son of Sam, son
of Noah. D Herbelot thinks he must be the
Jleber of the Bible (Judges iv. 1.)
The following are the accounts given of
Jbini in the Qur an, Surah vii 63-70 :
" And to Ad we sent their brother Hud.
O nay people, said ho, worship God: ye have
no other God than Him: will ye not then
fear Him ? Said the unbelieving chiefs among
his peopie, We certainly perceive that thon
art unsound of mind, and verily we deem
thee an impostor. He replied, O my people !
there is no unsotmdness of mind in me, but I
am an apostle from the Lord of the worlds.
The messages of my Lord do I announce to
you, and I am your faithful counsellor. Mar
vel ye that a warning b^th come to you from
your Lord through one of yourselves that
He may wars you? But remember when He
made you . the stteoessora of the people of
Noah, and increase 1 you mtullness of stature.
Remember then ine favours of God ; happily
it shall be well with you. They said, Art
thou come to us in order that tve may wor
ship one God only, and desert what our
fathers worshipped ? Then bring that upon
us with which thou threatenest its, if thou be
a man of ta*uth.* He replied, Vengeance
and wrath shall suddenly light on you from
your Lord- Do ye dispute with me about
names that you and your fathers have given
those idols, -and for which God hath sent yon
down no warranty ? Wait ye then, and I too
will wait with you. And We delivered
him and those who were on his aide by our
mercy, and we cut off to the last man those
who had treated our signs as lies and who
were not believers."
Surah xi, 52-68:
"And unto Ad We sent their brother Hfid.
He said, * my people, worship God. Ye
have no God beside Hun. Lo, ye are only
devisers of a lie, my people 1 T ask of
you no recompense for this ; verily my recom
pense is with Him only who bath made me.
Will ye not then understand ? And my
people! ask pardon of yc.ur Lord; then
turn unto Him with penitence ! He will send
down the heavens upon you with copious
rains. And with strength in addition to your
strength will He increase you ; but turn not
back with deeds of evil. They replied, O
Hud, thou hast not brought us proofs of thy
mission, and we are not the persons to aban
don our goda at thy word, and we believe
th&e not. We can only say that some of our
gods have smitten thee with evil, He said,
Now take I God to witness, and do ye also
witness, that I am innocent of that which ye
associate (in worship with God) beside him
self. Conspire then against me altogether
and delay me not; Lo, I trust in God, my
Lord and yours No moving creature is there.
which He holdeth not by its forelock. Right,
truly, is the way in which tay Lord goeth. So
if ye turn back, then 1 have already declared
to you that wherewith I was s.at to you, and
my Lord will put another people in your
place, nor shall ye at all injure Him ; verily,
my Lord keepeth watch over all things.
And when our doom came to be inflicted, We
rescued Hud and those who had like faith
with him, by our Special mercy ; and We
rescued them from the rigorous chastise
ment. And these men of Ad gainsaid the
signs of their Lord, and rebelled against His
messengers and followed the bidding of every
proud contumacious person ; followed there
fore were they in this world by a curse ; and
in the day of the Resurrection it shall be said
to them, Did not, verily, the people of Ad
disbelieve their Lord ? Was it not said,
Away with Ad, the people of Hud ? * "
Surah xxvL 123-139 :
" The people of Ad treated the Sent Ones
as liars. When their brother Hud said to
them, Will ye not fear God? I truly am
your apostle, worthy of all credit ; fear God
then and obey me. I ask of you no reward
for this, for my reward i of the Lord of the
worlds alone. Build ye a landmark on every
height, in pastime ? And raise ye structures
to be your lasting abodes? And when, ye pul
forth your power, do ye put it forth with
harshness ? Fear ye God, then, and obey me ;
and fear ye Hun who hath plentoously be
stowed oxt you, ye well know what ? Plen-
teously bestowed on you flocks and children,
and gardens and fountains. Indeed, I fear
for you the punishment of a great day/ They
said, It is the same to tts whether thou warn
or warn us not j verily this is but a creation
[tale] of the ancients, and we are not they
who shall be punished, So they charged
him with imposture and We destroyed them.
Verily in this was a sign : yet most of them
believed not."
AL-rjKJDAIBIYAH (***#). Ai-
Hudaibiyah, a well on an open space on the
verge of the Haram or sacred territory, which
encircles Makkah. Celebrated as the scene of
a truce between Muhammad and the Quraish
known as the truce, of al-Hudaibiyah, when the
Prophet agreed not to enter Makkah that
year, but to defer his visit until the next,
when they should not enter it with any wea
pons save those of the traveller, namely, to
each a sheathed sword. (Muir, from Kdtibu
/- Waqidi.)
The treaty is referred to in the Qur an as
" a victory," in the XLvmth Surah, 1st verae :
" We have given they an obvious victory." A
chapter which is said to have been revealed
on this occasion and to have foretold the
final taking of Makkah, which happened two
years afterwards. (8ea at-Baizawl, ta
HUJJAH (***). An argument ;
a proof." The word occurs in the Qur an.
Surah ii. 145 : " Turn your faces towards it
(the Ka bab.) that men may Kave no
HTJJJATU L-HAQQI
HtTKM
183
(against you, save only those of them who. arc
(unjust."
Surah vi 84: "These are our arguments
which we gavo to Abraham against bis ,
people."
Surah vi. 150 : " God s is the perfect argu-
(hujjatu l-baliyJiaJi).
HTTJJATTT L-HAQQI ALA L-
ALQ (^\ j* &JH VO- Lit.
" The demonstration of truth upon the crea
ture." A term used by the Sufi mystics for
the Insdnu Y-fcami/, or the * perfect man;
as Adam was when he proceeded from the hand
of his Maker, and when he became a demon
stration of God s wisdom and power before
I the angels of heaven. As is stated in the
Qur an, Surah ii. 20: "Thy Lord said lam
I about to place a vicegerent (^Ao/f/oA) in the
earth. (Abdn Y-Razzaq s Diet, of $&f\
Term*.)
HUJBAH (^). The "chamber "
in which Muhammad died and was buried,
which was originally the apartment allotted
to *Ayishah, the Prophet s favourite wife. It
is situated behind the Masjidu n-Nabi, or
Prophet s mosque, at al-Madumh, and is an
irregular square of fifty-five feet, separated
from the mosque by a passage of a bo at
26 feet. Inside the Hujrah are supposed to
be the three tombs of Muhammad, Abu Bakr,
and Umar, facing the south, surrounded by
stone walls, without any aperture, or, as
others say, by strong planking. Whatever
this material may be, it is hung outside with
a curtain, somewhat like a four-post bed.
The outer railing is separated by a darker
passage from the inner, and is of iron filagree,
painted green and gold. This fence, wbich
connects the columns, forbids passage to all
men. It has four gates, the Babu l-Muwa-
jihoh (the Front Gate), the Babu Fafcimah
(the date of Fatfmah), the Babu ah-Sbam
(the Syrian Gate), and the Babu VTaubah
(the Gate of Repentance). The Syrian Gate
is the only one which is not kept closed, and
is the passage which admits the officers in
charge of the place. On the south prn side of
the fence there are three STUM! v/in-lows
about a foot square, which nro sud to l>o
about three cubits from the head of the Pro
phet s tomb. Above the Hnjr -reen
dome, surmounted by a large yilfc crtncwnt,
springing from a series of globes. Within
the building are the tombs of Muhammad
Abu Bakr, and Umar, with a space reserved
for the grave of our Lord Jeaus Christ, whom
Muslims say will again visit the earth, and
die and be buried at al-Madinah. The grave
of Fafcimah, the Prophet** daughter, is sup
posed to be in a separate part of the build
ing, although some say she was buried in
Baqi. The Prophet s body is said to be
stretched . full length on the right side, with
the right palm supporting the right cheek,
the face fronting Makkah, Close behind him
ia placed Abu Bakr, whose face fronts Mn-
Ijiamtoad s shoulder, and then Umar, who
occupies the same position with respect to
his predecessor. " Amongst Christian his
torians there was a popular .story to the
effect that Muhammadans believed the coffin
of their Prophet to be suspended in the air,
which has no foundation whatever in Muslim
literature, and Niobuhr thinks the story must
have arisen from the rude pictures Hold to
strangers. Captain Burton gives the an
nexed plan of the building.
1. Muhammad.
2. Abu Bakr.
3. Umar.
4. The space for the tomb of Jesus
6. Fafcimah.
It is related tnai Muhammad prayed that
God would not allow his followers to make
his tomb an object of idolatrous adoration,
and consequently the adoration paid to the
tomb at al-Madinah has been condemned by
the Wahhabis and other Muslim reformers.
In A.D. 1804, when al-Madinah was taken
by the WahhttbJs, their chief, Sa ud, stripped
the tomb of ail its valuables, and proclaimed
that all prayers and exclamations addressed
to it were idolatrous. (See Burton s Pitgri-
maqe, vol. ii; Burckhardt s Arabia and
WaMdbis.)
The garden annexed to the tomb is caller}
ar-JRcvfofi* which is a title also given by
some writers to the tomb itself.
Abft Da ud relates that al-Qasim the grand
son of >bfi Bakr came to Aytsbah and said,
"0 Mother, lift up. the curtain of the Pro
phet s tomb and of his two friends, Abf Bakx*
and Umar. ond she uncovered the graves,
which were neither high nor low, but about
one span in height, and were covered with
red gravel. (Afithkdt, book v. ch. vi. pt. 2.)
A L. H U J TJ R A T (^Ij-^-^Jt).
Chambers." The title of the xuxth Surah
of the Qar an, in which the word occurs.
HUKM (^), pi. ahkam. " Order ;
command ; rule ; sentence ; judgment, of
God, or of the prophets, or of a ruler or
judge." It occurs in different senses in the
Qar an, e.g. :
Surah u i. 73 : " It beseemeth net a man,
that God should give him the Scriptures and
the Judgment and the Prophecy, and that
184
HULTTL
HUB
then he should say to his followers, Bo ye
worshippers of me, as well as of God ; but
rather, Be ye perfect in things pertaining to
God, since ye know the Scriptures and have
studied deep. "
(Both Sale and Rodwell translate the word
al-liuLm, " the wisdom," but Palmer renders
it more correctly, " the judgment.")
Surah xii. 40 : " Judgment is God s alone :
He bids you worship only Him."
Surah xxi. 79 : " To each (David and Solo
mon) we gave judgment and knowledge."
Al-Iiukmu sh-Sfiar l l, " the injunction of the
law," is a terra used for a command of God,
which relates to the lifo and conduct of an
adult Muslim. (Kitdbu t-Ta i rlfdi i in loco.)
HTJLtfL (J^). Lit. " descend
ing : alighting ; transmigration." A Sufi
term for the indwelling light in the soul of
man.
HUMAN SACRIFICES. There
is no trace in the Qur ftn or Traditions of the
immolation of human beings to the Deity as a
religious rite. But M. C. de Percival (vol. ii.
p. 101) mentions a Ghassanide prince who was
sacrificed to Venus by Munzir, King of Hira .
Infanticide Was common in ancient Arabia,
but it seems to have been done cither, as
amongst the Rajputs of India, from a feeling
of disappointment at the birth of female
children, or to avoid the expense arid
trouble of rearing them. The latter seems
to have been the ordinary reason ; foi- we
read in the Qur an, Surah xvii. 38 : "Kill
not your children for fear of poverty."
("INFANTICIDE.]
AL-HUMAZAH (V*tt). " The
slanderer." The title of the civth Surah df
the Qur an, so called because it commences
with the words : " Woe unto every slanderer"
The passage is said to have been revealed
against al-Akhnas ibn Shariq , who had been
guilty of slandering the Prophet.
HUNAIN (c^~). The name of a
valley about three miles to the north-east of
Makkah, where in the eighth year of the
IJijrah a battle took place between Muham
mad and the Banu Hawazin, when the latter
were defeated. In the Qur an, the victory of
Hunain is ascribed to angelic assistance.
Surah ix. 25: "Verily God hath assisted
you in many battle-fields and on the day of
Hunain."
HUNTING. Arabic said
Heb. -rig. There are special rules
laid down n Muslim law with regard to hunt
ing. (See Hamilton s Hidayah t vol. ivi p. 170.)
It is lawfiil to hunt with a trained dog. or a
panther (Arabic fahd, Persian yuz, which is
an animal of the lynx species, hooded Mid
trained like a hawk), or a hawk, or a
falcon.
The sign of a dog being trained is Ms
catching game three times without eating it.
A hawk is trained when she attends to the
call of her master. If the dog or panther
eat any part of the game it is unlawful, but
if a hawk eat of it, it ia lawful ; out
if the dog merely eat the blood and not the
flesh, it is lawful. If a hunter take game
alive which his dog has wounded, he must
slay it according to the law of Zabh, namely,
by cutting its throat, with the head turned
Makkah-wards, and reciting, " In the name of
the Great God I " The law is the same with
respect to game shot by an arrow.
If a sportsman let fly an arrow (or fire a
gun) at game, he must repeat the invocation,
" In the name of the Great God I "
And then the flesh becomes lawful if the
game is killed by the shot. But if only
wounded, the animal must be slain with the
invocation. Game hit by an arrow which has
not a sharp point is unlawful, and so is that
killed by throwing pebbles.
Oatne killed by a Magian, or an apostate,
or a worshipper of images is not lawful,
because they are not allowed to perform
zabfr. But that slam by a Christian or a Jew
is lawful.
Hunting is not allowed on the pilgrimage
nor within the limits of the sacred cities of
Makkah and al-Madlnah.
<AdI ibn Hatim (Mishkat, book xviii. ch. i.)
gives the following tradition on the subject of
hunting :
" The Prophet said to me, When you send
your dog in pursuit of game, repeat the name
of God, as at slaying an animal ; then if your
dog holds the game for you, and you find it
alive, then slay it ; but if you find your
dog has killed it, and not eaten of it, then eat
it ; but if the dog has eaten any of it, do not
you eat it, for then the dog has kept it for
himself. Then if you find another dog along
Avith yours, and the game is killed, do not
eat of it ; for verily you cannot know which
of the dogs killed it ; and if the other dog
killed it, it might so be that when he was let
loose after the game, the name of God might
not have been repeated. And when you
shoot an arrow at game, repeat the name of
God, the same as in slaying an animal ; then
if you lose sight of the game, and on finding
it perceive nothing but the impression of
your own arrow, then eat it if you wish ; but
if you find the game drowned, do not eat of
it, although the mark of your arrow should
be in it. "
HUE (jyv), the -plural of haura.
.The women of Paradise described in the
Qur an, e.g. Surah Iv. 66-78 j
" Therein shall be the damsels with retiring
glances, whom nor man nor djinn hath
touched before them :
" Which then of the bounties of your Lord
will ye twain deny?
< Like jacynths and pearls:
Which, <fec.
" Shall the reward of good be aught but
good?
" Which, <fcc.
.AI-H0SAIN
"And bosido theso shall be two other
gardens :
Which, &c.
" Of SL dark green :
Whicb, <tc.
" With gushing fountains m each :
Which, <fcc.
" la each fruits and the palm and the
pomegranate :
Which, &c.
" Tn each, the fair, the beauteous ones :
"Whicb, &c.
" With large dark eyeballs, kept closo in
their pavilions :
Which, Ac.
ki Whom man hath never touched, nor any
djinn :
Which, &c.
" Their spouses on soft green cushions and
on beautiful carpets shall recline:
" Which, &c.
k Blessed be tho name of thy Juord, full of
roajesty and glory-"
AL.HfJSAIN
185
The second
eon of Fatiinah, the daughter of Muhammad,
by bor husband All, tht? fourth Khalifa b.
A brother to al-ffaaan, the fifth Khalifah.
According to the Shi ahs, ho was the third
Khalifab. He was bora A.H. 4, and died t
Karbala A.H. til, being cruelly .atom in hi
conflict with YazTd, tho seventh Khali f ah,
according to the Sunnis.
The martyrdom of al-Husairi is celebrated
by the Shi ahs every year during the first ton
dayg of the Muharram [MUHAKRAMJ ; nn
account of his tragic death is therefore
necessary for understanding; tho intensity of
feeling with which tho a^t^ea and incidents
of the last days of the "Irnam HuKain are
enacted in the " Miracle Play," a translation
of which has bef-n given in English by Sir
Lewis Pelly. Tho following account is
taken from the Preface to this work, p. xi
segq. -
Shortly after (Uo accession of Yo/acl
(Yassid). Hus.ain received at Mecca secret
messages from the people of Cufa (ftl-Kiifah).
entreating him to place him/Job? at tho htad
of the anny of the faithful in Babylonia,
Yezid, however, had full intimation ot the
intended revolt, and lone before Uusuin nukl
reach Cufa, tho too essj governor of that
city had been replaced by Obaidallah {Ubai
du llah ibit Ziyud^, the resolute ruier of Bus
bur. ih (al- Basrah), who by his rapid measures
di. sconce rlod tho plans of the cojispiratorw, nnU
drove them to ft premature outbreak, und tht-
Mnrrondor of their leader Mabliin. Tbo latter
foresaw ihft ruiu which be had brousrht on
liuiain ar<J shod bitter tearH ou tbat account
when captured. Bis bead was etruc-k off find
icnl to Yezid. On Husain arrivina: t the
confines of Babylonia, he was met by liarro
(al Hurt), \vbo had been sent out by Qbaidal-
lah with a body of horaenlen to intercept
1 us approach. Uusain, adtlrts^int? them, Us
erted his title to Jbe Califate, and invited
them to eabmit to him. Harro replied, We |
are coinuunded as soon j.s we meet vou to
bring you directly to Cufa into the pros<-nco
of Obuidallah. the son of tfiyaa. llmain
answea-od, [ would Hoonor di than submit
to that, nnd gave the word to hi mcr. to
ride on; hut ifaiTo wheeled about arid inter
cepted them. At tho namo time, ilarro said,
1 havu no commission to tigat v/itu von. but
I am coramaTide.l not to pirt with you until
T have condurtcd you into >ofa ; but he
bnd-> Husain to uhooso any road into that
city that did not go directly back to Mecca.
and ^ do you, Baid ho, write to Yezid or
Obaldaliah, and L will vrite to )baidallab,
and perhaps it may please God I may mm
with something that may bring rae off \vith
out my home? forced to an extremity on your
account. Thn ho rntmarod Iii0 forcD a little
10 ullo\y llu/jaiu TO lead iho way towards
Cufa, and Hnain took tho i.oad that lends by
Adib and Cadisia. Tliis was on Thursdny
iho Ifc of MohTT^rum ( Muharram"), A.H. (il
(,v.f>. <>80j. When night came on, lie scill coo-
tiimcd his march all throi^h the nightr, As
he rode on ho nodded a little, and WKluue
again, said. Men travel by night, and Lh*
destinies travel toward them ; this I know
to be a message of death.
"In the morning, after prayers were ovor,
be jnended his pace, and a 1 ? he rode un there
came up a horseman, who took no notice cf
him, but saluted Uarro. and delivered to
him ?v letter, giving orders from Obaidal
lah to lead Husain and his men into place
where was neither tcwn nor fortifications,
<md there leave them till the Svrian fo^ea
should surround them.
" This was on Friday tle 2ad of Mohurraui
The day after. Amer ( Umar ibn Sa id) carac
upon them with four thousand rnon, who
were on their march to Dailam. They hod
Ixjcu onoamped without tbo waits of Cufa.
and when Obaidallab heard of IJusain s
coming, IK? commanded Amer to defer his
maroU to Daiiam and go against Husain.
But one and all d-)ssu;<dod him licware
that you go nut against Hnsain, and rebel
against your Lord, and out off mercy from
you, for \ou had better be depi ived of the
dominion of the whole world than meet yonr
Lord with the blood of Ha?;in upon you.
Amer was t aiu to acquiesce, but upon Obai
dallah renewing his i-omnaana with threats,
be uirtrohed against Husain, nod came up
with hiua, aa aforesaid, on Satxu-day tbo 3rd
df MohuiTum.
On Awer Keudinr? to inquire of Hnsair
what brought him thither, the latter replied
The Cufans wroto to mo; but since they
reject me, I ain willing to return to Mecca.
Amer wan glad when ho heard it, and said, I
hopo to God I may ho excused from fight m^
againPt him. Thon 1. a wrcte to this purpose
to ObaidaJlah; but Obaidallah sternly r
plied, Get lu>t<A-een him and the river, nud
Amor did so : und tho name of the place
wbero he cut Husain olT from tho Euphrates
was called K>rbela (Karbala): Kerb (an
guish) and /. /<i (vexation), Troubl? p.nd
affliction. said Husain when he heard it.
l Then Husain nought a conference .witb
24
186
AL-HUSAIN
AL-HUSAIN
Amer, in which be proposed either to gc to
Yezid, to return to Mecca, or, as some add,
but others deny, to fight against the Turks.
Obaidallah was at first inclined to accede
to these conditions, until Shamer stood up
and swore that no terras should be made -with
Husain, adding significantly that be had been
informed of a. long conference between Husaiu
and Amer.
" Then Obaidallah sent Sha.ro er with orders
to Amer, that if Husain would surrender un
conditionally, he would be received ; if not,
Amer vraa to fall upon him aud his men, and
trample them under bis feet. Should he
refuse to do so, Shamer was to strike off
Amer s bead, and himself command the
attack against H visa in.
"Thus passed Sunday, Monday, Tuesday.
Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, the 4th,
6th, 8th ; Yth, bth, and -9th of- Mohurrmn.
On the evening of the $tb, Amer drew up his
forces close to Hueain s camp, and himself
roie up to Husain as he was sitting h? the
door of his tout ju&t after thw evening prayer,
and told him of th*> conditions offered by
Obaidaiiah. Husain desii-ed Atner to give
him time unt.il the next morning, when he
would make his answer.
" Iri the night his sister came weeping to
bis bedaide, end, awaking him, exclaimed,
Alas for the desolation of my family ! my
mother Fatiusa is deed and my father Ali.
and my brother H&gau. Alas for the destruc
tion that Is paat ! and aUs for the destruction
that is to come I Sister, Husain replied,
4 put year trust iu (rod, auji know that man
is born to die, and that the heavens shall not
remain ; everything shall pass away but th$
presence oi God, who created all things by
His power, and shall make them by His
power to pass away, and th*y shall return to
Him alone. My father was hotter thaa me,
and my mother was better than me ; and my
brother was better than me ; and they and
we and all Muslims have an example in the
Apost/le of God, Then he told his men
that Obaidallah wanted uobody but him, and
that they should go away to their homes.
But they said, God forbid that we should
ever see the day wherein we survive you !
Then he commanded them to eord their tents
close together, and make a. line oi thcm s so
as to keep out the enemy s horse. And he
digged a trench bellied his camp, which he
filled with wood to be sat on fire, eo that
he could, only be attacked in front. The rest
of the night he spent in prayer and supplica
tion, while the enemy H guard patrolled all
night long round ncd round his oamp.
The next morning both sides prepared for
the slaughter, Husain first washed and
anointed himself with musk, and several of
his chief men did the like; and one asking
them what it meant. Husain replied plea
santly, Alas ! there is nothing between us
and the black-eyed girls of Paradise but that
these troopers coiue down upon us and slay
us! Then he mounted his horse, and set
the Coran before him, crying, *O God, Thou
art my confidence in every trouble and my
hope in every adversity! and submitted him
self to the judgment of his companions before
the opened pages of the nacred volume. At
this his sisters and daughters began to weep,
when he cried out in bitter anguiab self-
reproachfully, -God reward th eon of
Abbas, hi allusion to advice which his
cousin, Abdullah ibn Abbas, had given him,
to leave the women behind in Mecca. At
tbis moment a party of the enemy s horse
wheeled about and came up to Iluaaiu, who
expected to be attacked by them. But it was
Harro,.who had quitted the ranks of the
Syrian army, and had cow come to die with
Hasahi, and te.stify his repentance before
men aud God. As Harro rode .into the
doomed <jamp. he shouted back to Arner,
* Alas for you ! Whereupon Amer com
manded his men to bring up the colours.
As soon as they were set in front of the
troops, Shamer shot an arrow into the camp,
saying, liear witness that I Rhot the tirst
arvcw./ and so the fight began oa both sides
It raged, chiefly in a series of single combats,
until uoon-d&y, when boi-h sides retired to
prayer, Llusain adding to the usual office the
Prayer of Fear, never usetl but in ea&es
of extremity. When shortly afterwards the
fight was renewed, Husiiin was struck on th
head by a sword, Faint with the loss of
blood, he sat down by his tent and took upon
his lap his little son Abdullah, who was ftt
once killed by a flyi.ug arrow. He placed the
little corpse upon the ground* crying out,
We come from God and we return to Him.
O God, give me strength to bear these mis
fortunes. Growing thirsty, he ran toward
the Bophratea, where, as he stooped to drink,
an arrow struck him in the mouth, Raising,
his hands, a 51 besmeared aad dripping with.
blood, to heaven, he stood for awhile and
prayed earnestly. Hia little nephew, a beau
tiful child, who went up to kiss him, had his
hand cut off with a sword, on which Husain
again wept, saying, Thy reward, dear child,
is -with thy forefathers in the realms of bliss.
Hounded on by Shamer, the Syrian troops
how surrounded him; but Htisain, nothing
daunted, charged thexn righi arid left. In the
midst of the fighting, his nister came between
him and his slayers, crying cut to Aiuer,
hew he could stand by and see Husain slain.
Whereupon, with tears trickling down his
beard. Ainer turned his face away ; but
Shamer, with threats and curses, set on his
soldiers again, and at last one wounded
Husain upon the hand, and a second gashed
him on the neck, and a third thrust him
through the body with a spear. No sooner
had he fallesn to the ground than Shamer rode
a troop of horsemen over his corpse, back*
wards and forwards, over and over again,
until it was trampled into the very ground,
a scarcely recognisable muss of mangled flesh
and mud.
" Thus, twelve years after the. death of his
brother Hasan. Husain. the second son of
Ali, met his own death on the bloody plain
of Kerbela on Saturday the 10th day of
Mohumun. A.H. 61 (A.D 630;.
HUSBAND
From al-Hasaiu and his brother al-Hasan
iare derived the descendants of the Prophet
known throughout Islam as Saiyids. [SAI-
YTD, HASAN. ML HARKAM.]
HUSBAND. Arabic zauj ( 6l j).
A husband is not guardian over his wife any
further than respects the rights of marriage,
inor does the provision for her rest upon him
iany further than wiih respect to food, cloth
ing, and lodging (Hidayaii, vol. i. 63), but he
may be imprisoned for the maintenance of his
wife (Ibidem, vol. ii. p, 628) The evidence of
ij husband concerning his wife is not accepted
py tbe Sunnis. but it is allowed in Shrah law
! /6., vol. ii. p. 685). The Muhammad-ait
aw demands that a Muslim husband shall
Bride equally with each of his wives, unless
iino ^ ie brstow hr*r rityht upon another wife.
JY6..vol i. p. 184.)
tlUSNU L-KEULQ (jte*\&~*.).
f A good His posit k>n." Abu Harairah re-
ates that -.w of the Companions once asked
amuiHii, < What is the best thing that
ias bee u <<i\?ii to man?" and Muhammad
epliec, " A good disposition." Muhammad is
Iso related to have said that the "heaviest
tiing which vrill be put in the scales Of a
flusliui in thus Day of Judgment is a good
Us position." (Mishkat. book xxii. ch. xix.
t. 2.)
AJL-HUTA.MA.H (WO1). A divi-
ion of Hell, mentioned in the Qur an, Surah
iv. :
* Woe to every backbiter.
*Who amaweth wealth and storeth it
gainst the future 1
"He thinketb surety that his wealth shall
e with him for ever.
** Nay ! for verily h shall be flung into al-
HYPOCRITES
187
" And who .shall teach thee what
ah is ?
" It ia God s kindled fire,
u Which shall mount above the hearts of
te damned ;
It shall verily rise over them like a
ault,
" On outstretched columns."
The Imam al-Baghawi says it is the divi-
ion of Hell specially reserved ior the Jews.
HUWAIRLS (^^). One of the
itizens of Makkah, who was excluded from
xe general amnesty on the taking of Makkah,
consequence of his having pursued Zainab.
uhammad s daughter, while endeavouring to
EFect her escape from Makkah- He wa*
fterward* seized and slain by All.
HTJZAIFAH (&aJ^). The *ou of
al-Yamun. He was a " aworn companion"
of the Prophet, one of the most eminent of
i the Ashab, ami it is recorded by Muslim the
Traditionist, that he was specially instructed
by the Prophet. His father, al- Yamau, also
called Hisf or Husail, was likewise a com
panion, who fell at Uhud. Huzaifah died
in the time of All s Khalifate, A.H. 36. (See
Taqribu t-Tahztb. p. 61.) Sir William Muir
says he waa tho Companion who firat sug
gested to Usmiin the necessity of the recen
sion of the Qur an, A.H. 33. (Life of Afahomtt.
new ed. p 556.)
" Hodzeifa, who bud warred both in
Armenia and Adzerbaijan, and had observed
the different readings of the Syrians, and of
tho men of Irac, was alarmed at the number
arid extent of the variations, and warned
Othtuan to interpose and stop the people
before they should differ regarding tbeir
scriptures, as did the Jews and Christians. "
HUAIL (JaJ*). The ancestor of
the Banu Huxail. a tribe distinguished in the
annals of war and poetry, and, as we learn
from Burckhardl, still occupying under the
j same name the environs of Makkab. (Traveln
in Arabia, vol. i. pp. 63, 66.)
HYPOCEISY. Arabic riyd
nifdq (3^), mahr (/^), muddhanai
(&AW). When there is an allusion
to hypocrisy in tho Qur an, it refers to that
class of people known as al-Munafiqun, or
tho hypocrites of al-Madlnah, who in the
duya of the Prophet professed to follow him,
whilst secretly they opposed him fKUirA-
FIQUN], vide Surahs ii. 7; xxxiii. 47 ; tvii. 13.
But in the Tradition? we have the following
with reference to this sin. bfiishkat, book i.
ch. Hi. pt. 3) :
* The signs of hypocrisy eve throe : speak
ing falsely, promising and not performing, and
being perfidious when trusted."
k There are four qualities, which being
possessed by anyone, constitute a complete
hypocrite ; and whoever has one of the four
has one hypocritical quality till he discard*
it: perfidy when trusted, the breaking of
agreements, speaking falsely, and prosecuting
hostility by treachery."
HYPOCRITES. Arabic
A term applied by
qun
Muhammad u> those residents of al-Ma-
dlnah who daring his first stay in that city
ostensibly joined Islam, but in secret were
dia affected.
188
TBAHTTAH
IBN MAJAH
I.
. A.- sect of
libertines who consider all things lawful.
IBAQ (jjM). The absconding of
slaves. Tbe fugitive slave being termed abiq,
or, if he be an infant. *//, or tlic strayed
uue. The restorer oi H fugitive lavo is en
titled to a reward of forty dirhama. hut no
reward is given for the restoration of a
Atraved infant slave [SLAVERY.]
IBAZ1YAH (4**^), A sect of
Muslims founded by Abdn llab ibn Ibaz, who
said that if a man commit a kalnrak or great
sin, be is an infidel, and not a believer.
(Kitdbu t-TrffifdtJn tdco.)
IBLTS (u~*l>V). [DEVIL.]
iBN ABBAS (u-We.tV). AJ du
ilah, the oldest son of Abbas, and a cousin of
Muhammad. One of tho most celebrated of
the Companions, am! the relator of numerous
traditions. It is said that the angel Gabriel
appeared to him, when he was only ten yoars
old, and revealed to him the ineanmg of the
Qur an, which accounted for his intimate
acquaintance with the letter and meaning of
the book. He was called Twynmanu l-Q,nrdn<
or "the interpreter oi the Qur an." He was
appointed Governor of al-Basrah by the
Khalifah *AH, which ofllco be held for some
time. He: retained to the Hijaz and died t
at-TA if A. ii. 68 (A.D. 687), aged 72 years,
IBN UANBAJL (J^- 0*\), The
Imam Abii Abdi Ilah Ahrnad ibn ftanbal,
the founder of the fourth orthodox sect of the
Soimift. was born at Baghdad A.II. 164, A.D. 780,
where he received bis education under Yazid
ibn, llariin and ^ahya ihn Sa ; kl. On a*h-
Shafri coming to Baghdad (>.n, 1U5), Ibn
Hanbal attenuod the lectures delivered there
by that doctor, and was instructed by him in
1 lie traditions. In process of tune he acquired
a high reputation from his profound know
ledge of both the civil and spiritual law, and
particularly for the extent of his erudition
with respect to the precepts of tho Prophet;
of which it is said lhal he could repeat above
a million. His fame began to spread just at
the Limo -when the disputes ran highest con
cerning tho nature of the Qxvr an. which some
held to have existed from eternity, whilst
others maintained it to be created. Unfortu
nately tor Ibn Hanbal-the Kiuliiah ai-Mu tasici
was of the latter opinion, to which this doctor
refusing to subscribe, be Wits imprisoned and
severely .scourged by the JS. ha hi ah a order.
For this hard usage, indeed, he afterwards
received som satisfaction from al-Muto-
wakkilj the sot* of al-Mn casini, who, upon
succeeding to the throne, issued ,1 decree of
general toleration, leaving every person at
liberty to judge for himself upon tbl, j point-
Thia tolerant Khalifah set the persecuted
doctor at liberty, receiving him at his Court
-with the most honourable marks of distinction,
and oflbrinsf him a componsatoiy present of
L.OQO pieces of ^old, which, however, ho
refused to accept- After having attained tho
rank of Imam, he retired from the v\-orld %
and led a rocluse life for several years. He
died A.H 241 (A.u. 855), aged 75. He ob
tained so hi#h a reputation for .sanctity, that
hi* tuneral was attended by a train of 300,000
men and 60.000 women ; and it is asserted as
a kind of miracle, that on the clay of his
decease no fewo-- than 20X)00 Jews and
Christiana embraced the faith. Fox about a
century after bis death, tho sect of Ibn
llanbal wwo numerous and even powerful ; and
uniting to their zeal a large proportion oi
fanaticism, became at length so turbulent and
Ironblesomo as to require the strong &nn oi
Goverimwnt to keep th>m hi order. Like
most other fanatical sects > they dwindled
I away in process of time, and are now to be
I met with only in a few parts of Arabia.
I Although orthodox in their other tenets?, there
was one point on which they differed from
j the rest of the Muslims ; for they asserted
that God had actually .set Muhammad upon
his throne, and constituted him his substitute
in the government of the Tini verse; an asser
tion which was regarded with horror, as au
impious blasphemy, and which brought them
into great disrepute. Thi*, however, did not
happen until many years after ibn Hanbal f *
decease, aud i hi no degree attributed to him.
fie published only two works ot note : one
entitled tho Hfusnad, which is said to contain
a bove iX),000 traditions selected from 750,000;
and another, a collection of apothegms, or
proverbs, containing uiany admirable prcooptsj
upon the government of the paBsions. He
had several eminent pupils, particularlv
Ismail aMJukhari and Muslim Ibn Du iid.
His authority is "but seldom quoted by any of
the modern commentators on jurisprudence.
The modern "Wahhabis are supposed to
follow (to some extent) tho teachings of
Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
KHALIXKAN
The weli-knowu Mtihainoiaaan biographer.
He drew his descent from a family of Bulkb.
He was born at Arbelah. but resided at
Damascus, -where he filled the oih co of chief
Qazi, and died A.H. 681 (A.D. 1282). Hir,
biographical dictionary has been translated
into English by Baron de Slane. (Paris 1843.)
Thb biographical notes in the present work
are chieft from Ibn Khallil? fin s work-
IBN MAJAH (^u &\). Abu
Abdi Ilah Muhammad Ibn Yazid Ibn Majah
al Qazwini was maulawi of the tribe of
Rabi ah, and a celebrated Haifiz of theQur an,
and in known as the compiler of the fcitdbu *.
Swnan, or "Book of Traditions This work
IBN MAS UD
IBRAHIM
189
U counted one of the six Sahib*, or authentic (
collections of Hadls Born A.H. 200 (A.D. 824). j
Died A.n. 273 (A.D. 88C).
IBN MAS tJD (ay*-~ e?t). Abdu I
, llah ibn Mas ud, 4i a companion ol consider
able note. Ono of the illustrious ten"
( Asharah Mnbaahsliarah} to whom Muham
mad iave an assurance of Paradise. Me was ;
{present at the battle of Badr and subsequent j
t n^agementg. Died at al-Madlnah A.H. 32. j
iagod 60.
MTJUAM (*%A* &V). The
Muslim who slew the Khalifah AH. The
(author of the Haydiu LQultib (Merrick f*
I Transition, p. 204) aays when All was
inaityred bv Ibn Muljarn his neJ.ostial likeness
(i.e. in the -Alamu l-Mi$dl) appeared woundod
lalco; wherefore angels visit tho similitude
i morning and livening and curse the name of
Ibn Muijam.
IBN SAIYAD OW &\). A rnys-
iteiious personage n">_>o liysd in the tuno of
MttluunTnad, nnd who wa=i mistaken by some
people for ad Dajjalu 1-Masih, or the Ant
ichrist. AbJu Mlaqq says some say ho was
a Jew of al-Madinah named ; Abdn llah.
Ibn CJmar relates that the Prophet went
to Ibn Saiyad, accompanied by & party of
his companions, and found him playing with
boys; and at this time he had nearly reached
puberty r and Ibn Saiyad had no intimation
of tho coating of the Prophet and the com
panions, till the Prophet struck him upon the
back, and said, " Do you bear witness that .1
am the Prophet of God ? Then Ibn Saiyad
looked at the Prophet find said, " I bear
witness that you are the Prophet of the
illiterate." After that he said to the Prophet.
" Do yon bear witness that I. am the Prophet
of God ? " Then the Prophet pressed him
with both his hands and said. " I believe in
God and His Prophets": and them said to
Ibn $aiyad. -What do you lock at?" He
said Sometimes a person comes to me
tolling the truth ; and sometimes another
pei-son telling lies ; like ap magicians, to
whom devils bring truth and falsehood." The
Pro]) he t said, iV The Devil couu-s to you. and
brings you m w, false and true." After that,
the Prophet said, ; Verily, 1 ha-ve concealed a
revelation froin. you " (which wan the one in
^Yhic.b there is mention of the smoke; ; and
Ibn Saiyad *aid, "Is it the one with tho
smoke ? " Then the Prophet said, Begone !
you cannot .surpass your own ilegreo ! " Ibn
Umar .^aid. "0 Prophet of God! do YOU
permit me to strike off Ibn Saiyad s bead? "
He said. l IE Ibn Saiyad be Dajjal, you will
not be ublo lo lull bun . because Jesus will, he
his slayer : and if he is not Dajjal there can
be no good in your killing him. After this
the Prophet :;nd Ubaiv ibn Ka b alAnari
weal towards some date trees belonging to
Ibn baiyiid and the Prophet hid himself
behind In branches, to listen to what he
would say before Ibn $aiyad discovered him.
Aiid at this time Ibn Sajyad WPS lying upon
hift bed, with H sheet over his fuco. talking to
himself; and his mother saw the Prophet
standing behind the branches of tho tree*,
and said to her son. " Muhamnvdis atandiug."
At thia he bocame silent ; and the Prophet
said. " Had not his mother informed him he
would have said ttoniethiiiji -o have disco vorad
what ho is." Thou the Prophet repeated,
" Prai.sed be God. by that which is worthy of
him" ; and then mentioned Dajjal and said,
a Verily. I fear for you from Dajjal; there is
no Prophet but he alarmed his people about
him. Verily, Noah frightened his people
about Dajjal ; but I will tell you a thiti^ to
the matter of Dajjal, which no one Prophet
ever Void his people : know that he is blind,
and that verily God in not blind."
Abu Sw -id nl-Khudri says: u lbn S5aiyad
asked the Prophet about the earth ol Paradise :
and ho said. The earth of Paradise is iu
whiteness like flour twice sifted and in smell
liko puro musk. And I accompanied Ibn
aiyfid from al-Madmah to Makkah; and bo
said to me, What trouble I have experienced
from people s supposing me Dajjal I Have
yon not heard. Ibn Saiyad. the Prophet
of God Fay, "Verily, Dajjal will have no
children" ? and I have ;. and verily, the Prophet
has Raid. u Dajjal ia an infidel," and 1 am a
Muslim : and the Prophet said, Dajjal will
neither enter al-Madinah nor Makkah " : and
verily, I am going from al-Madinah and intend
going to Makkah. After that, Ibn $aiyad
said, in the latter part of his ?peech. Beware:
I swear by God. t know the place of Dajjal s
birth, and where he stays; and 1 know his
father and mother, Then tbis made me
doubtfui ; and I said, v May the remainder of
your days be lost to you. A person present
said to Ibn $aiyad, ; Would you like to be
Dajjal? " Ho said, If 1 possessed what
Dajjftl i? described to have, such as the power
ol leading astray, 1 should uot dislike it.
Ibn Umar says : ; I mot Ibn Haiyad
he had swollen eyes, and I aidd. < 11 ow long
has this been ? lie said. * I do not know.
I said. Do not know, now that your eyes arc
iu your head ? He said. If God pleased He
could create i>yes in your limbs, and they
would not know anything about it : in thia
manner also, man is so employed as to be
insensible to pains. Then Ibn $aiyad made
a noise froi/i his nose, louder than tho braying
of an ass." (Jfo&Ew, book xsiii. ch. v.)
IBN TJMAK (f* &\\ Abxi
v Abdj "r Rahman -Alxlu ^ah, son yf Untar
the celebrated KhalU ah, was one of the most
eminent of the " ompanions " of Muham
mad. He embraced Islam with his father
when he VMS only eight years old. For a
period of sixty yours he occupied the leading
position as a traditionbt. and al-Bukhan. the
collector of traditions says the most authentic
are those given on the authority of Ibii Umar.
He died at Makkuh A.H. 73 (A.D. 6^2). aged
d 1 ybars.
IBRAHIM (/***</) The patriarch
Abraham. [ABBAHAM.]
190
IBRAHIM
IBRAHIM (r**yV. The infant
son of Muhammad by his slave girl, Mary
the Copt. Born A.H. 8, died A.H. 10 (A.D.
631).
*TD 0^). [FESTIVAL.]
IDAN (&\**). The Dual of Id,
a festival. The two festivals, the Ida 1-
Fitr, and the Idu 1-Azha.
MDDAH (5J). Lit. "Number."
The term of probation incumbent upon a
woman in consequence of a dissolution of
marriage, either by divorce or the death of
her huaband. After a divorce the period is
three months, and after the death of her
husband, four months and ten days, both
periods being enjoined by the Qur an (Surah
Ixv. 4 ; ii. 234.)
TDalH (aV&ufc). Lit. " A place of
festival." A Persian term for the musaUd, or
praying-place, set apart for the public prayers
said on the two chief festivals, viz. Idu 1-
Fifcr, and Idu 1-Azsha. [ IDAK.J
IDIOTS. Arabic majnun ( or^*).>
inty anm. Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egypti
vol. i. p, 288, says :
11 An idiot or a fool is vulgarly regarded by
them as a being whose mind is in heaven,
white his grosser part mingles among ordi
nary mortals ; consequently he is considered
an especial favourite of heavea. Whatever
enormities a reputed, saint may commit (and
there are many who are constantly infringing
precepts of their religion), such acts do not
affect his fame for sanctity; for they are
considered as the results of the abstraction
of his mind from worldly things ; his soul, or
reasoning faculties, being wholly absorbed in
devotion, so that his passions are left without
control. Lunatics who are dangerous to
society are kept in confinement ; but those
who are harmless are generally regarded as
saints. Most of the reputed saints of .Egypt
are either lunatics, or idiots, or impostors."
IDOLATRY. The word used in
the Qur an for idolatry i* shirk (c^fc) and
for an idolater, munhrik (.cd^i-), pi. mushri-
ic&n. In theological works the word wa$um
is used for a.n idolater (was.an. an
.
gyptians,
idol), and ibddutu V-owfton
for idolatry.
In one of the earliest Svxrahs of the Qur &n
(when, -chronologically arranged), lii. 35-43,
idolatry is condemned in the following lan
guage :
"Were they created by nothing? or were
they the creators of themselves ?
"Created they the Heavens and Earth?
Nay, rather, they have no faith.
" Hold they thy Lord s treasures ? Bear
they the rule suprerr-e ?
"Have they 7 a ladder for hearing the
angels? Let anyone who hath heard them
bring a clear proof of it.
"Hath God daughters and ye sons?
" Askest thou pay of them? They are
thi; aselves weighed down <rith debts.
IDOLATRY
" Have they such a knowledge of the secret
things that they can write them down ?
" Desire they to lay snares for thee ? But
the snared ones shall be they who do not
believe.
" Have they any God beside God ? Glory
be to God above what they join with Him."
But r.hey are. in a later Surah (nearly the
In Rt), ix. 28, declared unclean, and forbidden
to enoei the sacred temple at Makkah. That
was after Muhammad had destroyed the
j idols in his last pilgrimage to the Sacred
House.
" Believers I only they wno join gods
with God are unclean I Let them not, there
fore, after this their year, come near the
sacred temple. And if ye fear want, God, if
He please, will enrich yon of His abundance:
for God is Knowing, Wise."
In a Surah given about the same tiroe
(iv. 51, 116), idolatry is declared to be the un
pardonable sin :
" Verily, God will not forgive the union of
other gods <vith Himself! But other than
this will H^ forgive to whom He pleaseth.
And he who nniteh gods with God hath de
vised a great wickedness."
"God truly will not forgive the joining
other gods with Himself. Other sins He will
forgive to whom He will : but he who joineth
gods with God, hath erred with far-gone
error."
Nor is it lawful for Muslims to pray for the
souls of idolaters, as is evident /rom Surah
ix. 114 :
." It Is not for the prophet or the faithful
to pray for the forgiveness of those, even
though they be of kin, who associate other
beings with God, after it hath been made
clear to them that they are to be the inmates
of Hell.
" For neither did. Abraham ask forgiveness
for his father, bnt in pursuance of a promise
which he had promised to him : but when it
was shewn him that he was an enemy te God,
he declared himself clear of him. Yet
Abraham was pitiful, kind.
Sir William Muir says (Int. p. ccxii.) that
" Mahomet is related to have said that Amr
son of Lohai (the first Kbozaite king, A.D.
200) was the earliest who dared to change
the * pure religion of Ishmael. and set up
idols brought from Syria. This, however, is.
a, mere Muslim conceit. The practice of
idolatry thickly overspread the whole penin
sula from a much more remote period."
From the chapters from the Qur an, already
quoted, it will be seen that from the very
first Muhammad denounced idolatry. But the
weakness of his position compelled him to
move cautiously. The expressions contained
in the al-Madinab Surahs, given when Mu
hammad could not enter Makkah, are much
more restrained than those jn the Surahs
given after the capture of Makkah and the
Destruction of the idols of the Ka bah.
At an early period (about the fifth year)
of his mission, Muhammad seems to have
contemplated a compromise and reconciliation
with Makkan idolatry. Sir William Moir
IDOLATRY
(quoting from af.-T^bart t pp. 140-142. and
Kdtibu /- Waqidi, p. 40), says :
" On a certain day, the chief men of
Mecca, assembled in a group beside theKaaba,
discuased, as waa their wont, tho affairs of
the city. Mahomet appeared, and. seating
himself by them in a friendly manner, began
to recite in their hearing Sura liii. The
chapter opens with a description of the first
visit of Gabriel to Mahomet, wad then un
folds a second vision of that angel, in which
certain heavenly mysteries were revealed.
It then proruxk :
And sea ye not lAt and Ozza,
And Man fit tho third besides?
" When he had reached this verse, tbn
devil suggested to Mahomet an exm-ession of
thoughts which had long possessed bis soul,
and put into his mouth words o* reconcilia
tion and compromise, the re relation of such
as he had been yearning that God niisfht send
unto Lis people, namely:
These are the exalted females,
And verily their intercession is to be ooped
for.
" TheCoreifih were astonished and delighted
with this acknowledgment of their deities ;
and as Mahomet wound up the Sura with the
closing words,
Wherefore bow down bofore God, and
serve Him,
the whole assembly prostrated themselves
with one accord on the ground and wor
shipped.. Walid alone, unable from the in
firmities of age to bow down, took a handful
of earth and worshipped, pressing it to his
forehead.
" And all the people were pleased at that
which Mahomet had spoken, and they began
to say, Now we know that it is the Lord
alone that giveth life and taketh it away,
that createth and supporieth. And as for
these our goddesses, make intercession with
Him for us ; wherefore, us thou hast con
ceded unto them a portion, wo are content to
follow thee.*
" But their words disquj tued Mahomot, and
he retired to his house. Jn the evening
Gabriel visited him. and the Prophet (as was
his wont) recited the Sura unto him. And
Gabriel tsaid, What is this that thou hast
done? thou ha,sl repeated before tb^ people
words that I never gave ivat o thee." So Ma
homet grieved sore, and feared the Lord
grenVly; ami ho said, I have spoken of God
that which he hath not said. But the Lord
comforted His Prophet, and restored his con
fidence, and cancelled the verse, and revenled
the true rending thereof (as it now stands),
namely :
And see ye not Lat and Ozz,
And Mauat the third besides ?
WhaV ! shall there bt male progeny unto
you, and female unto him V
That weve indeed an unjust partition !
They are na,ught but names, which ye and
your fathers have invented, &c.
"Now, when the Coreish heard this, they
spoke among themselves, saving, * Mahomet
bath repented his favourable mention of the
IDOLS 191
rank of our goddesses with the Lord. He
hath changed the same, and brought other
words instead. So the two Satanic vars**
were in the mouth of every one of the unbe
lievers, and they increased their malice, and
stirred them up to persecute the faifchfnl with
still greater severity." (Sir VV. Muirs Life
of Afrthomet, nw ed. p. 86, seyfj.)
The Commentators do not rofer to this cir-
cuujstauco, and pious Muhammadur.s would
reject the whole .story, but, as Sir VV. Muir
says. "the authorities arc t .. irong to be
impugned."
These narratives of at-Tabari and the
secretary of al-Wtiqidi are fully borne out in
the facts of Muhammad s subsequent com
promise with the idolatrous feelings of the
people ; for whilst he removed the images
from the Ka bah. he at the samo ri ne retained
the black stone as an object of superstitious
reverence, and although fay destroyed fsafund
NtVilah, the deities of as-Safa and al-Mafwau,
h still retained the "runnings to and fro,"
and the storings of the pillars/ as part of
tho sacred rites of what was intended to be a
purely theiatic and iconoclastic system. The
most singular feature in the fctichism of
Arabia was the adoration paid to tmshapen
stones, and Muhammad found it impossible
to construct his religion without some com
promise with the popular form of idolatry.
It is a curious circumstance that so much of
tuv, zeal and bigotry of the Wnhhnbi puri
tans is directed against the shirk, or idolatry,
of tho popular veneration for tombs and other
objects of adoration, and yet they see no ob
jection to the adoration of the black stone,
.and those other strange and peculiar customs
which form part of the rites of the Makkan
pilgrimage.
IDOLS. Arabic wasan (&)), pi.
a ttsdn,. also sanam (/***), pi. afndm,
both words being used in the Qur an. Ten of
the idols of ancient Arabia are mentioned by
uamo in the Quran, viz. :
Surah iv. 52 . " Hast thou n<>t observed
those to whom a part of the Scriptui es hath
been given? They believe in ttl-Jibt and
af-JTJg/tiif, and say of the infidels, < These are
raided in a better path than those who hold
the faith."
Surah liii. 19 : " Have ye considered al-Ldt,
al- Uzza. end Manat the third ? "
Surah Ixxi. 21 : They have plotted a great
plot and Siiid. Yo shall surely not leave yonr
gods : ye snail surely neither leave Wadd, nor
Smca. 1 ^ nor * y agjiii$, nor Yn Ttij, nor Nti/ir, and
they led a stray many."
Al-Jibt and at-Tayhut (the latter also men
tioned in Surah ii. 257, 259) were, according to
Jalalu ? d-din, two idols of th Quraish whom
certain renegade Jews honoured in order to
please the Quraish.
Al-Lat was tho chief idol of the Banu
Saqff at at Ta if. The name appears to be
the feminine oi Allah, God.
AL- ( Uzza has been identified with Venus, but
it was worshipped under the form o/ an acacia
tree, and was the deity of the Banu Gjh.at.afan
192
IDBIS
Manut was a largo sacrificial stone wor
shipped by the Bauu Khoza ah and Bum
Huzail,
The iivo idols, Wndd. >*<?, lagtuls,
Yfruq, rfad JVasr, the commentators say,
were originally tive persons of eminence in
the time of Adam, who after thoir deaths
were worshipped in the form of idols.
Wadd was worshipped by the JiuiiL Kalb
in the form of a man. and is said to have ro-
prosented heaven.
Smo& was H female deity of tho Bairn
Hstiudan.
Yaglius was a deity of the Bami Mazhij
*nd .in the form of a lion.
Yuhlg was an idol of the Bairn Murad in
tho shape of a horse.
Nasr waSi as its name impliefl, an irrtftge
oi an eagiq, and worshipped by Himyar.
It is said (according to "Burkhardt, p 1J4)
that at the time of Muhammad s suppression
of idol worship in tho M.tkkau t ample, there
were not fewer than <Jt>0 idols in existence.
The chief of the minor deities wua #tt6o7,
an. image of a mat,, and said to have been
originally brought from Syria, Other well-
Irnown idols were lta.fi an idol on Mount
as-Safa, -and Nailah. an image on Mount al-
Marwah, as part of tho 
