^ till avoiojif J, .
PRINCETON, N. J. ^7W
Division
Section-
f¥0
.S3Z-
A
Dictionary of the Bible :
INCLUDING
BIOGRAPHY, NATURAL HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY,
ARCHilOLOGY, AND LITERATURE.
WITH TWELVE COLORED MAPS
OVER FOUR HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS.
EDITED BY
PHILIP SCHAFF, D.D., LL.D.,
Profjcssor in thk Union Theological Seminary, New York.
PHILADELPHIA:
AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL U.NION,'
1122 Chestnut Street.
NEW YORK- 8 axd 10 BIBLE HOUSE, ASTOR PLACE.
CHICAGO; 73 RANDOLPH STREET.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, hy the
AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
PREFACE.
This Dictionary aims to be a useful companion in the study of the
Scriptures by furnishing, in convenient alphabetical order and in popular
form, tlie condensed results of the most recent investigations in biblical
literature, history, biography, geo:;raphy, topography, and archaeology.
The American Sunday -School Union first publislied a Bible Dictionary in
1831 under the editoi-ship of the late venerable Dr. Archibald Alexander, of
the Theological Seminary at Princeton, which was revised by F. A. Packard,
LL.D., in 1837, and again by the same in 1855. It served a good purpose
in its day, but biblical learning has since made such vast progress that an
entirely new work, with neVv illustrations and maps, was needed,
I have been effectually aided in the preparation of this volume by several
competent scholars. The Rev. S. M. Jackson and ^Ir. Clemens Petersen
have devoted nearly two years' uninterrupted labor on it in my library,
and prepared under my direction most of the historical, biographical, and
archfeological articles ; the Eev. Edwin AV. Rice wrote the geographical
and topographical articles, and supervised the selection and preparation
of the illustrations and maps, crediting them to their proper sources; the
Rev. W. P. Alcott has had charge of the department of natural history.
The editor has also had the co-operation of the Rev. David Schley Schaff,
the late Rev. Isaac Riley, the Rev. Moseley H. Williams, and S. Austin
Allibone, LL.D., in otherwise perfecting the work.
The full-page colored maps at the end of the Dictionary were prepared
and engraved specially for it by the Messrs. W. & A. K. Johnston, of Edin-
burgh, Scotland, whose reputation as geographers is a sufficient guarantee of
the accuracy and scholarship of these important aids to the student.
Following this Preface the reader will find a list of standard works on
biblical learning which have been chiefly consulted and are occasionally
referred to under the principal topics.
The multiplication of Bibles and Bible helps in our age and country is
truly astonishing, and furnishes the best evidence of the divine origin and
power of the Book of books.
PHILIP SCHAFF.
Union Theological Seminary, New York,
April, 1880.
LIST OF COLORED MAPS.
[these will be found at the end of the volume.]
9.
10.
11.
12.
Distribution^ of the Descendants of Noah after thk Deluge.
Canaan in Patriarchal Times.
Egypt, Anciejjt and Modern.
Sinai and the Route of the Israelites to Canaan.
Canaan as Divided among the Twelve Tribes.
Kingdom of David and Solomon, and the two Kingdoms of Israel and
JUDAH.
Lands op the Jewish Captivities, including the four great Empires
on the Euphrates.
Palestine in the Time of Christ.
Journeys op St. Paul.
Modern Palestine, showing its Physical Features.
Environs of Jerusalem.
Modern Jerusalem, indicating also its Ancient Divisions.
LIST OF MAPS NOT COLORED.
Sketch-map op Abana and Pharpar .
Plan of Alexandria
Sketch-map of Arabia .....
Sketch-map of Assyria and Mesopotamia .
Plan of Babylon
Sketch-map of Canaan before the Conquest
Sketch-map of Cyprus
Sketch-map of Decapolis ....
Sketch-map of Egypt
Sketch-map op Route of the Exodus .
Sketch-map of Sea op Galilee .
Sketch-map of Greeck
Plans of Ancient Jerusalem
Sources op the Jordan ....
Course op the Jordan from the Sea op Galilee to
Map of Macedonia
Sketch-map of St. Paul's Bay . . .
Sketch-map of Nineveh ....
The Holy Land during the Monarchy (based on Smith and Grove
The Salt or Dead Sea ....
Outline-map of Mount Sinai
Plans of the Temple-area ....
Plan op Herod's Temple ....
the
Dead Se
11
39
61
81
91
. 156
. 212
. 226
. 254
. 294
. .320
. 347
. 447
. 477
. 478
. 534'
. 660
. 613
646, 647
. 753
. 807
. 854
. 856
[An Index of Illustrations will be found at the end of the book,]
LIST OF WORKS ON BIBLICAL LEARNING MADE
USE OF IN THIS DICTIONARY.
1. Dictionaries and Concordances to the Original Languages.
WiLHELM Gesexius: Hebidisches u. Chalddisches-Handworterbuch uber das Alte Testamen',
8th revised ed., by Miihlau u. Volck (Leipzig, 1S78), also iiis Thesaurus. Hebrew Lex-
icon, translated from the Latin and edited by Edward Robinson (1854; 20th ed., New
York, 1872).
Julius Fuerst : A Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon, translated by Samuel Davidson (4th ed.,
Leipzig and London, 1871).
Edward Robinson : A Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament (New York, 1850).
C. L. W. Grimm : L*;xicon Grceco-Latinum in Libros Novi Testamenii (2d ed., Leipzig, 1879).
Herrmann Cremer: BibUsch-Theologisches Worterbuch der Xeutestamentlichen Grdcit'dt ('Jd
revised ed., Gotlia, 1872); Engl, transl. by W. Urwick ; Biblico-Greek Lexicon (Edin-
burgh and New York, 1878).
G. V. WiGRAM : The Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee- Ojncordance of the Old Testament
(3d ed., London, 186*3; 4 parts, 2 vols.); TAf HebraisCs Vade Mecum (Loudon, 1867); The
Englishman's Greek Concordance of the Xeu- TestamoU (5th ed., London, 1868).
C. F. Hudson : A Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament, revised
and completed by Ezra Abbot (3d ed., Boston, 1875).
Abr. Trommius : ConcordaiUiw Graeae Versionis LXX. Inlerpretum (Amstel, 1718 ; 2 vols,
folio).
William Henderson: Dictionary and Concordance of Scriptural Names (Edinburgh, 1869).
2. General and Special Introduction to the Old and New Testaments.
K. F. Keil: Einleiiung in das A. Test. (Frankfnrt, 2d ed., 1859); English transl. with Sup-
plementary Notes, by Principal G. C. M. Di)nglas (Edinburgh, 1869 ; in 2 vols.).
F. Bleek: Einleitung iu's A. T. (2d ed., Berlin, 1865); translated into Engrlish by G. H.
Veuables (London, 1859 ; in 2 vols.). Bv the same: Einleitung i)i's N. T. (2d ed., Berlin,
1866); translated by Rev. W. Urwick (Edinburgh, 1870; in 2 vols.).
Ed. Reuss : Einleitung in's N. T. (5th ed., Braunschweig, 1874).
W. M. L. De Wette: Historisch-kriiische Einleiiung in die Bibel (8th ed., Berlin, 1869).
E. H. Plumptre: The Bible Elucalor (London and New York, 1876-78 ; 4 vols.).
E. C. BISSEL : The Historic Origin of the Bible (New York, 1873).
3. Bible History and Theology.
The Works of Philo and Josephus.
Philip Schaff: History of the Apostolic Church (New York, 1853; revised ed., 1880).
Heinrich Ewald: Geschichte des Volkes Israel (3d ed. ; Gottingen, 1864-1868; 8 vols.).
Rabbi Raphall: Post-Biblical History of the Jews (New York, 1866 , 2 vols.).
Conybeare and Howson: Life and Epistle^s of Si. Paul (London, 1853 ; often reprinted).
William Brown: The Tabernacle: Its Priests and Services. With diagrams, etc. (Edin-
burgh, 1872).
George Rawlinson: The Five Gieat Monarchies of the Eastern World (2d. ed.; London and
New York, 1873; 3 vols.).
Thomas Lewin : The Life and Epistles of St. Paul (revised ed. ; London, 1875 ; 2 vols.).
A. P. Stanley : History of the Jewish Church (London and New York, 1876 ; revised ed.,
1880, 3 vols.).
A. Edersheim : Jewish Social Life in the Days of Christ (London, 1876).
F. W. Farrar: Life and Epitiles of St. Paul (London and New York, 1879 ; 2 vols.).
C. F. Schmid: Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments (Stuttgart, 1853).
5
LIST OF WORKS.
G. F. Oehlek: Theologie des Alien Teslamenls {Tilhingen, 1863).
H. ScHULTZ: Theologie des Allen Testaments (Frankfurt; 2d ed., rewritten, 1878).
J. J. Van Oosterzee : Theology of the New Teslame)it (London, 1870).
Paul Scholz : Gotzendienst u. Zauberwesen bei den alien Hebrdern (Regensburg, 1877).
Jf,. Bible Lands, especially Palestine.
Hadrian Reland (profe.ssor in Utrecht ; died 1718) ; Paleslina ex monumentis veleribus
illustrala (Traj., 1714; 2 vols.).
H. Maundrelt. : Aleppo to Jerusalem, and Cairo to Mount Sinaifhy Rt. Rev. R. Clayton
(London, 1810).
A. H. Layard : Nineveh and its Remains (London, 1849 ; 2 vols.).
Edward Robinson (professor in Union Theological Seminary, New York; died 186.3):
Biblical Researches in Palestine and the adjacent Regions : A Journal of Travels in the
Years 1838 and 1852, by E. Robinson and Eli Smith (new ed., Boston, 1856; 3 vols.
Published sinuiltaneou.>-ly in America, England, and Germany); Physical Geography
of the Holy jMnd (New York, 1865).
W. M. Thomson- (American missionary in Beirut): The Land and the Book (Edinburgh
and New York, 1859; 2 vols. A new and enlarged edition in 3 vols., with superior
illustrations, will be published by the Harpers, 1880).
John Wilson : T/i.e Lands of the Bible (Edinburgh, 1845; 2 vols.).
Carl Ritter (who made thorough and comprehensive studies of the subject, although
he nevervisited the country): Vergleichende Erdkunde der Sinai- Halbinsel, von Paleslina
und Syrien (Berlin, 1848-.'>5, 4 vols.f. Parts 14-17 of the second edition of the autlior's
great work. Die Erdkunde. Abridged translation by W. L. Gage (New York and Lou-
don, 1866; 4 vols.).
W. F. Lynch: Exploration of the Jordan and the Dead Sea (U. S. Expedition). (Philadel-
phia, 1849.)
Carl von Raumer: Paldstina (Leipzig, 1835; 4th ed., 1860).
Arthur P. Stanley (Dean of Westminster, who visited the Holy Land in 185.3, and
with the prince of Wales, 1861): Sinai and Palestine in Connection with their Histoi-y
(London and New York, 1853; 6th ed., 1866).
H. B. Tristram (Canon of Durham): The Land of Israel ('with special reference to its
physical features) (London, 1865; 2d ed., 1866); Bible Places: or, The Topography of
the' Holy Land (London, 1871 ; new ed. 1875) ; The Land of 3Ioab (London, 1873).
J. Macgregor : Rob Roy on the Jordan (London and New York, 1870).
E. H. Palmer: The Desert of the Exodus (Cambridge and London, 1871 ; 2 vols.).
J. L. Porter: Giant Cities of Bashan (New York, 1873).
George Smith: Assyrian Discoveries (New York, 1875).
British Palestine Exploration Fund : Our Work in Palestine (London, 1875).
H. J. Van Lennep: Bible Lands : their Modem Customs and Manners illustrative of Scripture
(New York, 1875).
C. R. Conder: Tent-Work in Palestine (London and New York, 1878 ; 2 vols.).
Philip Schaff: Through Bible Lands: Notes of Travel in Egypt, the Dcseii, and Palestine
(New York and London, 1878; revised and enlarged, London ed., 1880).
J. (t. Wilkinson : Manners and Customs of the -Ancient Egyptians. New ed. ; revised by
Samuel Birch, LL.D. (London, 1878; 3 vols.).
E. W. Lane : Manners and Customs of the Modem Egyptians (London, 1836 ; 5th ed., 1871).
Samuel Manning : Land of the Pharaohs (London, 1878); Those Holy Fields (London, 1879).
S. C. Bartlett : From Egypt to Palestine (New York, 1879).
British Palestine Exploration Fund: Quarterly Statements (hondon, l^&'i, sqq.).
American Palestine Exploration Society: Occasional Reports (iHevi York, 1872, sg^.).
Deutscher PaI/ESTINA-Verein : Zeitschrift (Leipzig, 1878, .997.).
J. L. Porter: Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine (London, Murray, 1875).
K. Baedeker: Pule.<itine and Syria, Handbook for Travellers (Ijdipzig. 1876, etc.). German
and English. By the same: Handbook for travellers in Egypt and Sinai (Leipzig, 1878).
F. R. and C. R. Conder: A Handbook to the Bible (London and New York, 1879).
6
LIST OF WORKS.
5. Topography of Jenisalem.
George Williams : The Holy City (2d ed., London, 1849; 2 vols.).
Dr. Titus Tobler (a Swiss physician and very accurate archaeologist ; died 1877) : Topo-
graphic von Jerusalem (Berlin, 1854; 2 vols.).
J. T. Barclay, M. D. : The City of the Great King ; or, Jerusalem as it Was, as it Is, and as
it Is to Be (Philadelphia, 1858).
E. PiEROTTi: Jenisalem Explored. Trans, by Bonney (London, 1864; 2 vols, quarto. The
second vol. contains plates).
The Recovery of Jerusalem (London and New York, 1871). Contains the reports and
journals of Captains Wilson and Warren, etc., relating to the recent excavations of
the Palestine Exploration Fund during the preceding three years; with an Introduc-
tion by Dean Stanley.
Walter Besant and E. H. Palmer : Jerusalem, the City of Herod arid Saladin (London,
1871j.
Charles Warren (captain of Royal Engineers ; late in charge of the explorations in the
Holy Land): L'nderground Jerusalem {London, 1876).
Dr. Carl Zimmermanx : Karten und Plane zur Topographic des Alien Jerusalems (Basel,
1876).
Bernhard Neumann (a Jewish physician who resided in Jerusalem fifteen years) : Die
heilige Stadt und deren Bewohiier (Hamburg, 1877;. Instructive for modern Jerusalem.
6. Bible Maps.
Samuel Clark : Biblical Atlas. Index of geographical names by George Grove (quarto;
London, 1868).
William Smith: Atlas of Ancient Geography, Biblical and Classical. Ekiited by William
Smith, D. C. L., LL.D., and George Grove (folio; London, 1874).
7. Natural History and Mineralogy of the Bible.
Petrus Forskal: Flora uEgyptiaco-Arahica (Havnise [Copenhagen], 1775).
C. W. King: Antique Gems a/id Rings {London, 1860).
S. Tenney: Natural HLstory of Animals (New York, 1865).
H. B. Tristram : Natural History of the Bible (New York, Pott, Young & Co.).
J. D. Dana, LL.D.: A System of Mineralogy (New York, 1869).
J. G. Wood : Bible Animals (London, 1869).
E. LoOMis, M. D. : A Treatise on Meteorology (New York, 1872).
J. T. Moggridge: Harvesting-Ants (London, 187.3).
Edmond BoissiER : Flora Oriental is {Basli^: now issuing).
J. G. Wood: Animal Kingdom (London and Boston, 1870).
Bohn's Xaturalisfs Library. Edited by Sir William Jardine, F. R. S. E., etc. (Edinburgh
and London, 1858, ■'^qq. ; 40 vols.).
CasselVs Natural History. Edited by Dr. P. M. Duncan, F. R. S. (London and New York,
1878-1880).
8. History of the English Bible.
B. F. Westcott: History of the English Bible (London, 1868).
John Eadie: History of the English Bible (London, 1876; 2 vols.).
W. F. MouLTON : History of the English Bible (London, Paris, and New York).
John Stoughton : Our English Bible (London, 1878).
H. Stevens : The Bibles in the Cazton Exhibition (London, 1878).
9. Commentaries.
J. P. Lange: Commentary on Old and New Testaments. Anglo-American edition (New
York and Edinburgh, 1864 to 1880 ; 25 vols.).
The Bible (Speaker's) CommerUary (London and New York, 1871-1880; 8 vols.; 2 more
to follow). Edited by Canon F. C. Cook
H A. W\ Meyer : Konimentar zum N. T. (Gottingen ; last ed. 1878, sqq.).
7
LIST OF WOKKS.
C. J. Ellicott : Neiu Testament Commentary for English Readers (London, 1878 ; 3 vols.).
J. B. Lightfoot: Commentary on the Epistle to the Galaiians (2cl ed., London, 186G) ; Com-
mentary on the Epistle to the Philippians (3d ed., Loudon, 1873) ; Commenlai-y on the
Epistle to the Colossians, Philemon (London, 1875).
A. P. Stanley : St. PauVs Epistles to the Corinthians (4th ed., London, 1876).
Philip Schaff: Popular Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament (New York, fiist
vol., 1879 ; 3 more vols, will complete it).
J. J. S. Pekowne : The Psalms (2 vols., London, 3d ed., 1874).
A number of other commentaries, German and English, on the Old and New Testa-
ments, have been used more or less. Among these the German commentaries of
Keil and Delitzsch, translated in Clark's Library, and the Scotch of Jamieson, Fausset,
and Brown, deserve mention.
10. Biblical Oyclopcedias.
(a) ENGLISH WORKS.
William Smith: Dictionary of the Bible (London, 1863, 3 vols.). Am. ed. complete, with
a number of original contributions and biographical supplements by Prof. H. B.
Hackett, D. D., and Ezra Abbot, LL.D. (New York, 1868-70 ; 4 vols.).
J. KiTTO: Cyclopcedia of Biblical Literature. 3d. ed. by W. L. Alexander, I). D., of Edin-
burgh (London and Philadelphia, 1860 ; 3 vols.).
P. Fairbairn : The Imperial Bible Dictionary, Illustrated (Edinburgh, 1867 ; 2 vols.).
M'Clintock and Strokg : Cyclopcedia of Biblical Theology and Ecclesiastical lAteraiure
(New York, 1867, sqq. ; to be completed in 10 vols.).
J. Ayre : T?ie Treasury of Bible Kmioledge (new ed., London, 1870).
Potter's Bible Encyclopcedia. Edited by W. Blackwood, D.D., LL.D. (Philadelphia, 1876;
2 vols.).
A. R. Fausset: The Englishman's Bible Cyclopcedia {hondnri, 1878).
T. S. Baynes: Encyclopcedia Britannica (9th ed., Edinburgh, 1873, sqq.).
(h) GERMAN WORKS.
G. B. Winer : Biblisches Realworlerbuch (3d ed., Leipzig, 1819 ; 2 vols.).
H. Zeller (with Fronmiiller, Ilainlen, Klaiber, Leyrer, INIerz, T). Volter, L. Volter, Wun-
derlich, etc.): Biblisches Worterbuch filr das christliche Volk ("id ed., Gotha, 1866; 2 vols.").
D. Schenkel (in connection with Brucb, Diestel, Dillmann, Fritzsche, Gass, Graf, Haus-
rath, Hitzig, Holtzmaun, Keim, Lip.sius, Mangold, Merx, Noeldeke, Reuss, Roskoft",
Schrader, Schwarz, Schweizer): Bibel-Lexikon (Leipzig, 1869-75 ; 5 vols.).
Ed. G. Aug. Riehm (aided by G. Baur, Beysclilag, Delitzsch, Ebers. Kamphausen, Kleinert,
Scblottmann, Schrader, Schijrer) : Handirorterbuch des Biblischen Altertitms. With
many illustrations (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1875, sqq.).
Herzog and Plitt: Real-Encykloprcdipfiir Protest. Theologieund Kirche. (New ed., Leip-
zig, 1876, sqq. To be completed in 15 vols. The first edition had 22 vols.).
8
Dictionary of the Holy Bible.
A AND O. or ALPHA and OMEGA,
the first and the last letters of the Greek
alphabet, are used in the 0. T. of Je-
hovah, Isa. 41 : 4 ; 44 : 6, to express
his eternal deity in opposition to the
vanity of idols, and in the X. T. of
Christ four times, Rev. 1:8, 11 ; 21 :
6 ; 22 : 13, vpith the explanation : " the
beginning and the end, the first and the
last." It became soon afterward a fa-
vorite symbol of the eterunl divinity of
our Lord, and was extensively used,
either alone, or more frequently in con-
nection with the cross and the monogram
of Christ in its various forms as
a((0
(0
A^(0
AA'RON (mountaineer, or more prob-
ably, from another root, enlightened), the
first high priest of the Jews; eldest son
of Amram, the grandson, and Joehebed,
the daughter, of Levi; brother of Mir-
iam, who was several years older, and
of Moses, who was three vears younger.
Ex. 6 : 20 ; cf. 2 : 1, 4 ; 7': 7 : Xum. 26 :
59. The family of Aaron belonged to the
Kohathite branch of the tribe of Levi,
the most numerous and powerful. This
gave them prominence, so that the lead-
ership naturally feil to them. When first
mentioned he is called, Ex. 4 : 14, the
"Levite," which implies that he was a
recognized leader in his tribe, and, as
the first-born son, he would be the
priest of the household. Aaron's wife
was Elisheba, daiTghter of the prince of
Judah, and he had four sons, Xadab,
Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. Ex. 6 :
23. The greater portion of his life is
passed over in siljence by the Bible
writers, and he was eighty-three years
old before he is introduced to us. Moses
AAR
had timidly declined to be the leader of
his people out of captivity, and had as-
signed as a reason that he was "slow of
speech and of a slow tongue," Ex. 4:10;
whereupon God tells him that Aaron,
his brother, was coming toward him,
evidently under divine direction, and
that he would act as his mouthpiece,
because he possessed in a high degree
popular gifts of speech and argument.
Thus brought together, and under-
standing their respective functions, the
brothers started for the court of Pha-
raoh, and from that time on Aaron
played a very prominent part in the
drama of Israel's deliverance. Side by
side Moses and Aaron stand before the
Lord, before Pharaoh, before the en-
raged elders of Israel. Furnished with
words, Aaron utters them in these
several presences, works miracles, and
evinces courage. His work was by no
means easy, but he carried it on suc-
cessfully.
On the way to Sinai the battle with
Amalek was fought, and Aaron joins
Hur in holding up the weary arms of
Moses. Ex. 17:9, 13. With his two
sons, Xadab and Abihu, and seventy
of the elders of Israel, he and Moses
saw the Lord. Ex. 24. But when Moses
was not with him, then he showed him-
self weak, and it will always be told, to
his discredit, that he made the golden
calf — not, indeed, as a substitute for
Jehovah, but rather as a concession.
He proclaimed a feast to the Lord, but
the people ran into great excesses, and
as Moses was descending from the
mount it was the noise of the dancing
and music which so raised his anger.
Ex. 32. Notwithstanding this griev-
ous sin Aaron and his sons were con-
secrated as the first priests of the Israel-
9
AAR
ABA
ites. Ex. 40:12-15; cf. Ex. 28 ; Lev. 8.
See Prikst. He was forbidden to mourn
for his sons, Nadab and Abihu, who were
destroyed for offering strange fire. Lev.
10. Miriam, becoming jealous of Moses'
wife, probably because her influence was
weakened, induced Aaron to murmur
against Moses on the ground that he
assumed too much authority. Aaron
deeply repented when' rebuked, and
joined with Moses in a prayer for Mir-
iam's recovery. N-um. 12. See Miriam.
Twenty years later the Lord interposed
to vindicate Aaron's authority against
Korah and his company, and by a mir-
acle, the budding rod, confirmed the orig-
inal choice. Num. 16, 17. The plague
which broke out was stopped by Aaron's
atonement. He stood between the liv-
ing and the dead.
Aaron fell under the influence of
whichever strong nature was nearest
to his at the time. So he was carried
away by Moses into sin at the waters
of Meribah, and in punishment they
were both kept out of the Promised
Land. Aaron died first, upon Mount
Hor, from whence he could obtain a
distant view of Palestine, and there,
in the presence of Moses, who stripped
him of his priestly garments and put
them u])on Aaron's son, Eleazar, the
first high priest, who for nearly forty
years had discharged his sacred office,
in spite of his faults thus highly ex-
alted, fell, at the age of one hundred
and twenty-three, under the dominion
of the universal conqueror, and was
buried upon the mountain. Num. 20 :
2:5-29. A Mohammedan mosque marks
the 8u])posed grave of Aaron, on one
of the two tops of Mount Hor, which
is near Petra, in the desert. See Hor,
Mount.
Aaron is called the ''saint of the
Lord " with reference to his ofiioial
character, Ps. 106 : Ifi. but. as the most
superficial study of his life shows, he
was far from perfect. He was a better
servant than master. He was weak in
command, but faithful in duty. He
yielded like wax to the impressions of
the moment. Yet it may readily be
believed that the people loved him,
perhaps more than Moses, and that
the mourning over his death, which
lasted thirty days, Num. 20 : 28. was
sincere. One of the fasts of later Ju-
10
daism was one in his memory, held
on the first day of the fifth month,
Ab, our July or August.
The Jewish priesthood began in the
family of Aaron and remained its posses-
sion, though not uninterruptedly, in the
line of Eleazar; it passed into the family
of Ithamar, the brother of Eleazar, in the
person of Eli ; but, in consequence of the
excesses of Eli's sons, God declared that
it should be taken from his family, 1 Sam.
2 : 30, and this prophecy was fulfilled in
the time of Solomon, who took the priest-
hood from Abiatbar and restored it to
Zadok, of the line of Eleazar. 1 Kgs.
2 • 27.
AA'ROIVITES. 1 Chr. 12 : 27.
Levites of the family of Aaron : the
priests who served the sanctuary. Elea-
zar, Aaron's son, was their chief. Num.
4 : 16.
AB. See Month.
ABAD'DON (destruction), the He-
brew name for the angel of the bottom-
less pit, and answering to the Greek
name Apollvon, the destroyer. Rev. 9:11.
ABAG'THA (derivation doubtful;
probably God-given), one of the seven
chamberlains of the court of Ahasuerus.
Esth. 1:10.
AB'ANA (stony), a river of Da-
mascus, 2 Kgs. 5:12, and supposed
to be identical with the Amana of
Song Sol. 4 : 8. Probably the mod-
ern Barada, which the Greeks called
the Chrj'sorrhoas (r/olden stream). It
rises in the mountains of Anti-Libanus,
about 23 miles N, W. of Damascus, runs
through the city in several streams or
canals, thence across the plain, and 18
miles east of Damascus falls by several
branches into the marshy Bahrct-el-
Kiblii/eh, or so-called " Meadow Lakes."
The river is a clear, limpid, copious, and
perennial stream, and is the chief source
of the fertility of the plain of Damascus,
making it a garden in the desert. It
falls J 149 feet, and waters 800 square
miles of territory containing about 14
villages.
AB'ARIlH (nioiintnins beyond, or of
the fords), a range of mountains east
of tiie river Jordan, in the land of Moub,
opposite Jericho. Num. 27 : 12; 33 :
47 ; Deut. 32 : 49. Nebo, Peor, and
Pisgah belong to this range. In Jer.
22 : 20 the word is translated " pas-
sages." Ije-abarim in Num. 21 : 11
ABB
ABE
Sketcli-Map of the Abana and Pharpar Rivers.
means heaps or rniuK of Ahar'tm, and
was near the same range.
AB'BA, the Chaldee form of the
Hebrew word ah, s\gmiym% father. Ap-
plied to (jrod in the New Testament by
Christ, Mark 14 : 36, and by Paul, Rom.
8:15; Gal. 4 : 6. The syllable ah, in
the sense of "possessed of," *' endowed
with," frequently occurs in the compo-
sition of Hebrew proper names; e. g.
Abner, Absalom.
AB'DA (servant, Chaldee form). 1.
Father of Adoniram. 1 Kgs. 4 : 6.
2. Sonof Shammua, Xeh.ll: 17; called
Obadiah in 1 Chr. 9 : 16.
AB'DEEL {sen-ant of God), father
of Shelemiah. Jer. 36 : 26.
AB'DI {my servant). 1, A Merarite
Levite, and ancestor of Ethan the singer.
1 Chr. 6 : 44.
2. A Levite of the same family, father
of Kish. 2 Chr. 29 : 12.
3. One of the sons of Elam, who had
taken a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 26.
AB'DIEL (servant of God), a chief
of Gad. 1 Chr. 5 : 15.
AB'DOfi {servile). l.AnEphraim-
ite who judged Israel, Jud. 12 : 13-15;
perhaps the same with Bedan of 1 Sam.
12 : 11.
2. A Benjamite, son of Shashak.
1 Chr. 8 : 23.
3. A Benjamite, son of Jehiel, of Gib-
eon. 1 Chr. 8 : 30 : 9 : 36.
4. A son of Micah, one of Josiah's
officers, 2 Chr. 34 : 20 ; called Achbor.
2 Kgs. 22 : 12, 14.
AB'DON (servile), a city in the
territory of Asher, assigned to the Le-
vites. Josh. 21 : 30 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 74. It
may be located at the modern Ahdeh,
ruins 10 miles N. E. of Accho.
ABED'-NEGO (servant of Nerjn,
perhaps the same as Nebo, the Chal-
dean name of the planet Mercury, who
was worshipped as the scribe and inter-
preter of the gods), the Chaldee name
given by an officer of the king of Baby-
lon to Azariah, one of the four youths
mentioned in the book of Daniel who were
taken captive at Jerusalem, b. c. 604, and
carried to Babylon, where they were
trained for the royal service. Dan. 1 : 7.
The names of the others were likewise
changed. Daniel was called Belteshaz-
zar ; Hananiah, Shadrach ; and Mishael,
Meshach. Daniel, promoted in conse-
quence of his interpretation of the king's
dream, secured positions for his three
companions. These three are immortal
because on the occasion of the dedica-
tion of a golden image by Nebuchad-
nezzar they refused to bow down and
worship it. Accordingly, they were cast
into a burning fiery furnace, from which
they were miraculously delivered un-
scathed. Dan. 3. See Daniel.
A'BEL (Heb. Hehel -\. e. breath,
11
ABE
ABI
vapor), the second son of Adam and
Eve, so called perhaps from the fleeting
character of his life, or because, since
Cain was not the protnised seed, as Eve
expected at his birth, life itself seemed
of little worth; it was but "a vapour,
that appeareth for a little time, and
then vanisheth away." (ien. 4 : 2. He
was a keeper or feeder of sheep, and in
process of time brou:^ht of the firstlings
or first-fruits of his flock an off'ering
unto the Lord. God accepted his offer-
ing and gave him evidence of it. Heb.
11 : 4. Not so with Cain. Either his
sacrifice, or the manner of presenting
it, offended God, and the offering was
rejected. I John 3:12. Cain, exceed-
ingly angry, and filled with envy,
embraced an opportunity when they
were in the field together to take his
brother's life. Gen. 4.
Our Saviour distinguishes Abel by
the title " righteous." Matt. 23 : 35.
lie is also one of the faithful ''elders"
mentioned in the Epistle to the Hebrews,
ch. 11, and is justly called the first
martyr.
A'BELi (mendoir), a prefix in the
names of several places, as below.
A'BISiJj, of the vineyards, see mar-
gin, Jud. 11 : ?)Z, or '•])lain of the vine-
yards," as the text reads, was a place
east of the Jordan, perhaps the present
MerJ Ekheh.
A'BEL, AND A'BEL-BETH-
MA'ACHAH {hieadiiw of ihe houne
of oppresHion), a town in the north of
Palestine near Damascus, probably the
modern Ahil-ef-KiDiih, a ruin on a
stream north of the waters of Merom.
It was attacked by Joab, 2 Sam. 20 :
14, 1.0 ; by Benhadad, 1 Kgs. 15 : 20 ; and
by Tiglath-pilesc-. 2 Kgs. 15 : 29.
A'BEL-MA'I>I {me<,f{ow of wn-
trrn), another Jiainc for Abel-Beth-
Maachah. 2 Chr. 16 : 4.
A'BEL-MEIIO'LAII {wendow
of ihe ddnrc), a j)lace in the .lordan val-
ley between the Sea of (Jalilcc and the
Dead Sea. 1 Kgs. 4 : 12. Gideon
Pursued the Midianites near it, Jud.
: 22 ; and it was the home of Elisha.
1 Kgs. 19 : 16. Van do Velde locates
it 1(1 miles south of liethshean ; ('onder,
in Wndi/ Mdleh, on the road from Bei-
san to the Jor<lan, at A'ni //clinch.
A'BEL-MIZ'KAIM (wcdow of
Ji</i/j)t),n name given by the Canaanites
12
to the floor of Atad, where Joseph
mourned for his father, Jacob. Gen.
50 : 1 1 . It was " beyond " — that is, west
of —the Jordan, as the writer was on the
east side. Some place it at Beth-hog-
lah, or near Jericho ; others think it
was near Hebron.
A'BEL-SHIT'TIM (meadow of
the aeaciiiH), the name of the last halt-
ing-place of the Israelites before enter-
ing Canaan, and in the plain of Moab,
near the Jordan. Num. 33 : 49. It is
also called Shittim. Num. 25 : 1.
A'BEL, STONE OF. 1 Sam.
6:18, A place near Beth-shemesh,
where the ark of the Lord was .set
down.
A'BEZ {tin ? or hfty), a town of Is-
sachar. Josh. 19 : 20. Some think it
the same as Thebez, Jud. 9 : 50, near to
En-gannim and Shunem ; others iden-
tify it with Kiiebiz, three miles S. W.
of Ikanl. Conder suggests el-/ieida.
A'BI (/rfMe;- = progenitor), the mo-
ther of Hezekiah, 2 Kgs. 18 : 2 ; called
more fully Abijah. 2 Chr. 29 : 1 .
ABI'A, ABI'AH, and ABI'JAII
{whoae father in Jehovah) are all the
same name.
ABI'A. 1. Abijah, king of Judah,
so called in 1 Chr. 3 : 10; Matt. 1 : 7.
2. The Greek form of Abijah. head of
one of the courses of priests. Luke
1 : 5. See Abijah.
ABI'A, COURSE OF. Luke 1 :
5. In 1 Clar. 24 we have an account of
the divisions of the priests into twenty-
four classes, courses, or orders, who
ministered at the altar in rotation. The
courses were distinguished by the name
of the most prominent member of the
family from which the course was taken.
The eighth of these courses fell to the
family of Abia or Abijah ; and to this
course belonged Zacharias, the father of
John the Baptist.
ABI'AH. 1. Second son of Samuel.
rSam. 8:2; 1 Chr. 6 : 28.
2. The wife of Ilezron. 1 Chr. 2 : 24.
.3. Son of Becher, Benjamin's son. I
Chr. 7 : 8.
A'BI-Al/BON {father of Ktretn/th,
i. e. utroiit/), one of David's warriors,
2 Sam. 23 : 31 ; called Abiel. 1 Chr.
11 : 32.
ABI'AS APH {father of gatherimf,
i. e. (/nthered), a Levite, one of the
sons of Korah, and head of one of the
ABI
ABI
Korhitic families, Ex. 6 : 24 ; called i
Ebiasaph in 1 Chr. 6 : 37 and 9 : 19. !
ABI'ATHAR ( Juther of nbiui-
(hnice, i.e. lihenil,), the tenth high priest
of the Jews, and fourth in descent from
Eli. 1 Sam. 22 : 20. He was the son of
Ahimelech, and the only one who escaped
when Doeg at Haul's command slew the
jiriests at Nob in revenge for Ahimelech's
service to David in inquiring of the
Lord for him, and in giving iiim the
shew-bread to eat, and (loliath's sword.
1 Sam. 22. Abiathar fled to David at
Keilah, and -told him what Saul had
done. David received him, and he af-
terward became high priest. Thus
there were two high priests in Israel at
the same time — Abiathar, in the party
of David, and Zadok, in the party of
Saul, 2 Sam. 8:17; but, in c )nscquence
of his supporting Adonijah in his pre-
tensions to the thronfl of David, Solo-
mon, upon becoming king, thrust Abi-
athar out of the priesthood, 1 Kgs. 2 :
27, and conferred the office exclusively
upon Zadok. See Zadok. Thus was
fulfilled the word of (iod to Eli, 1 Sam.
2:31; for Abiathar was the last of the
priests of the house of Ithamar, to which
Eli belonged ; and Zadok, who succeed-
ed him, was of the family of Eleazar;
and so the priesthood passed into its
former channel. Abiathar, mentioned
in Mark 2 : 26, has been supposed by
some to be the same with Ahimelech.
The most probable solutifjn of the dif-
ficulty is, perhaps, that Abiathar and
Ahimelech may have been hereditary
names in the family, and therefore were
both borne by the same person. Hence
the name Abiathar, being that of David's
friend, would be more commonly used
than Ahimelech. This theory also ac-
counts for the substitution of one name
for another in 2 Sam 8:17; 1 Chr. 18:
16, and 1 Chr. 24 : 3, 6, 31. The facts
to which the Gospel alludes in the pas-
sage cited are fully stated in 1 Sam. 21.
XUl'D X, OK AMVDWK father of
l'))oic/f:df/e, i. e. mine), a son of Midian.
Gen. 25 : 4 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 33.
AB'IDAN (ffither of the judge),
prince of Benjamin. Num. 1 : il ; 2 :
22 ; 7 : 60, 6.^ ; 10 : 24.
ABI'EL {father of utrenrfth, i. e.
etrouf/). 1. The father of Kish and
Ner, grandfather of Saul and Abner. 1
Sam. 9 : 1 ; 14 : 51.
2. One of David's warriors. 1 Chr. 11 :
32. See Ani-AMio.v.
ABIE' ZEU (the father of help, i.e.
helpful], the eldest son of Gilead, .Josh.
17 : 2 ; Num. 26 : 30 ; or of a sister of
(iilead, 1 Chr. 7 : 18; founded a family
at Ophrah, from which sprang Gideon.
Jud. 8 : 32.
ABIEZ'RITE {the father of help),
a family descended from Abiezer. Jud.
6 : 11, 24; 8 : 32.
AB'IGAIL {father, i. e. nource, of
jo;/). 1. The wise and beautiful wife
of the churlish and wicked Nabal, a
wealthy man of Carmel. 1 Sam. 25:3.
When her husband had exposed him-
self to the anger of David by his rude
and conlemjttuous treatment of his mes-
sengers, Abigail hastened to meet him
while he was on his way with four hun-
dred men to revenge the insult. She
managed the affair with so much pru-
dence as to pacify David and obtain
his blessing. About ten days after her
return the Lord visited Nabal with
sickness, and he died, and Abigail be-
came David's wife.
2. One of David's sisters, married to
Jether, and mother of Amasa. 2 Sam.
17:25: 1 Chr. 2: 17.
ABIIIA'IL (father of fitrruff/h, i. e.
the ntnnif/ one). 1. The father of Zuriel,
''chief of the . . . house of the families of
Marari." Num. 3 : 35.
2. The wife of Abishur. 1 Chr. 2 : 29.
3. The son of Huri, of the tribe of
Gad. 1 Chr. 5: 14.
4. The wife of Rehoboam. 2 Chr.
11:18.
5. The father of Esther. Esth. 2:15;
9:29.
ABI'HU (u-hone father in He, i. e.
God), the second son of Aaron, who
with his elder brother, Nadab, his
father, and 70 of the elders of Israel,
went upon Mount Sinai with Moses.
Ex. 6:23; 28:1. Ho was afterward
set apart by (Jod, with his brothers,
Nadab, Eleazar, and Ithamar, to the
yjriesthood. Soon after they entered on
their sacred duties, Nadab and Abihu
violated (iod's commands respecting the
manner of offering incense, and were in-
stantly consumed. Lev. 10 : I, 2. This
event happened in the wilderness of
Sinai. The nature of their offence is
very obvious ; they used common fire
instead of the fire which burnt contin-
13
ABI
ABI
ually upon the altar of burnt-offering,
and some suppose they were drawn into
this presumptuous sin by the too free
use of wine. Their father and brothers
were forbidden to make public mourn-
ing for them. .
ABI'HUD {who>se father is Judah,
i. e. r€)wwn), the son of Bela and
grandson of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 3.
ABI'JAH {whose father is Jehovah).
1. A son of Jeroboam I., king of Israel,
who died under interesting circum-
stances in early life. 1 Kgs. 14 : 1.
See Jeroboam.
2. Abijah or Abijam, 2 Chr. 13 : 1,
the son of Rehoboam and Michaiah,
succeeded his father as king of Ju-
dah B. c. 959. He made war against
Jeroboam, king of Israel, for the pur-
pose of getting back the kingship of the
ten tribes, and defeated him, with a loss
of 500,000 men. These figures are prob-
ably through a mistake made too large:
the loss, it is likely, was not greater than
50,000. lie began to reign in the 18th
year of Jeroboam, and was succeeded by
his son Asa in the 20th year of Jeroboam,
so that he reigned only a part of three
years. The apparent contradiction in
respect to the parentage of this person,
as it is given in 1 Kgs. 15 : 2 and 2 Chr.
13 : 2, may be explained by supposing
that his mother Maachah (or Michaiah)
was the daughter of Uriel and the
granddaughter of Absalom, who is called
Abishalom. 1 Kgs. 15 : 2. The term
"daughter" is given in the Bible to
other relatives than one's own child:
e. f/. to a niece, granddaughter, or great-
granddaughter.
3. The head of one of the courses of
priests, 1 Chr. 24 : 10; Neh. 12 : 17 ;
termed Abia in Luke 1 : 5.
4. The mother of Hezekiah, 2 Chr.
29 : 1 ; also called Abi in 2 Kgs. 18 : 2.
5. One of the priests who "sealed the
covenant ;" i. e. appended their seals
unto it to signify that they were parties
to it. Neh. 10: 7.
6. A priest who returned with Zerub-
babel from Babylon. Neh. 12:4, 17.
ABI'JAM (father of the sea, i. e. n
viarititiie person). 1 Kgs. 15 : 1, 7, 8.
See Abtjah (2).
ABILE'NE (from Ahifa), a small
district of Palestine on the eastern slopes
of Anti-liibanus, of which Abila on the
river Barada was the capital. It was
14
governed by Lysanias in the time of
John the Baptist. Luke 3 : 1.
ABIM'AEL (father of Mael), a
descendant of Joktan, and supposed
progenitor of the Arabian tribe Mali.
Gen. 10:28; 1 Chr. 1:22.
\.Bim.'^\j¥:.QU.{ father of the Icim,).
1. A king of the Philistines at Gerar.
Gen. 20 : 2. Being deceived by Abra-
ham, he took Sarah, Abraham's wife,
to be his wife. God warned him, how-
ever, in a dream of Sarah's relation to
Abraham, and thus withheld him from
the commission of sin, because he did it
in ignorance. Gen. 20 : 6. Abimelech,
having rebuked Abraham, restored
Sarah to him with many gifts, and of-
fered him a dwelling-place in any part
of the land. God afterward remitted
the punishment of the family of Abim-
elech.
2. At a subsequent period, Abimelech,
a successor of the preceding, was de-
ceived in like manner by Isaac, respect-
ing his wife Rebekah, while they dwelt
in Gerar during a time of famine in Ca-
naan. Gen. 26.
3. A son of Gideon, who, after the
death of his father, persuaded the men
of Shechem to make him king. Jud.
8 : 31 ; 9 : 1 8. He afterward put to death
seventy of his brothers who dwelt in his
father's house at Ophrah, leaving only
Jotham, the youngest, alive. On learn-
ing of his exaltation to the kingship of
the Shechemites, who had formed them-
selves into an independent state, Jotham
told them the fable of the trees, Jud. 9 :
7, etc., which is the oldest fable extant.
The Shechemites in the third year of
his reign rebelled against him during
his absence, but he put the revolt down
on his return. Shortly afterward, while
storming the fortress of Thebez, he was
mortally wounded by a piece of a mill-
stone thrown upon his head by a woman
from the top of a tower. That it might
not be said a woman slew him, he called
to his armor-bearer to stab him with his
sword, and thus he died. Jud. 9 : 54-57.
4. A son of Abiathar. 1 Chr. 18 :
16.
5. The name given to Achish in the
title of Ps. 34.
ABIN'ADAB (father of nobleness,
i e. noble). 1. A Levite of Kirjath-
jearim, with whom the ark of the Lord
was deposited when it was brought
ABI
ABN
back from the Philistines, 1 Sam.
7:1 and 1 Chr. 13 : 7.
2. The second of the eight sons of
Jesse, and one of his three sons who
followed Saul in battle. 1 Sam. 16 : 8.
3. One of Saul's sons who was slain
at the battle of Gilboa. 1 Sam. 31:2.
4. The father of one of the twelve
officers appointed by Solomon to ])ro-
vide alternately, month by month, food
for the king and hi% household, I Kgs.
4:11.
AB'INER [father of Uyht). 1 Sam.
14 : 50, margin, same as Abner.
ABIN'OAM [fither of pleasant-
ness), the father of Barak. Jud. 4 : 6,
12; 6:1, 12.
ABI'RAM (father of height, i. e.
renoicned). 1. One of the sons of Eliab,
the Reubenite, who were destroyed with
Korah for a conspiracy against Moses.
See Korah. Num. 16 : 1.
2. The first-born of Hiel the Beth-
elite. 1 Kgs. 16:34. His death at the
time his father began the rebuilding of
Jericho fulfilled the first part of Joshua's
curse. .Josh. 6 : 26.
AB'ISHAG {father of error), a
fair woman of Shunem, in the tribe of
Issachar, who was selected by the ser-
vants of David to minister to him in his
old age and to cherish him. 1 Kgs.
1:15. After David's death and the as-
cension of Solomon to the throne, Adon-
ijah desired Abishag in marriage, but
Solomon perceived his policy (see Anos-
ijah), and caused him to be put to death.
1 Kgs. 2 : 25.
ABISH'AI [father of a fjift),
the eldest s(in of Zeruiah, David's
sister, and among the chief of his
mighty men. 2 Sam. 2 : 18. He ac-
companied David to the camp of Saul,
and counselled him to take Saul's life,
which David refused to do, 1 Sam.
26 : 5-12, and was probably with David
during the latter's wandering life. He
was associated with Joab in the assassi-
nation of Abner. 2 Sam. 3 : 30. The
victory over the Edomites in the valley
of Salt, which is ascribed to David in
2 Sam. 8 : 13, is ascribed to Abishai in
1 Chr. 18 : 12. Probably Abishai actu-
ally obtained the victory , but as he was
an officer under David, it might also
with propriety be spoken of as David's
achievement. Abishai. with Joab his
brother, attacked and defeated the Svr-
ians and the children of Ammon. 2 Sam.
10. David appointed him, in conjunc-
tion with Joab and Ittai, to the command
of the people when they went forth to bat-
tle against Israel in the wood of Eph-
raim. 2 Sam. 18 : 2. He afterward res-
cued David from the giant Philistine,
Ishbi-benob, whom he smote and killed.
2 Sam. 21:16, 17.
ABlSH'ALO>I [father of peace),
father of Maachah : called Absalom in
2 Chr. 11 : 20, 21, and undoubtedly the
same person. 1 Kgs. 15 : 2, 10.
ABISH'UA [father of deliverance).
1. Son of Phineas the high priest. 1 Chr.
6:4, 5, 50; Ezr. 7:5.
2. A descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr.
8:4.
AB'ISHUR [father of the wall, i. e.
strontjhold), a descendant of Judah.
1 Chr. 2 : 28, 29.
AB'ITAL [whose father is the dew),
one of David's wives. 2 Sam. 3:4;
1 Chr. 3 : 3.
AB'ITUB (father of goodness), a
descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8:11.
ABI'UD [whose father is Jndah),
a descendant of Zerubbabel, mentioned
in our Lord's genealogy. Matt. 1:13.
AB'NER (father of Uyht). the son
of Ner, was a first cousin of Saul, and
a faithful and distinguished general
of his armies. 1 Sam. 14 : 50. We
first hear of him, particularly, as the
captain of the host, of whom Saul in-
quired concerning the stripling, David,
whose victory over Goliath had excited
his astonishment ; and after a little time
Abner introduced David to Saul, with
the head of the giant Philistine in his
hand. 1 Sam. 17 : 57. It was through
the want of vigilance in Abner that
Saul's life was placed in David's power
in the wilderness of Ziph. 1 Sam.
26. See David, Saul. After David
was anointed king of Judah, Abner
procured the appointment of Ish-bo-
sheth, Saul's son, as king of Israel ; and
in process of time the army of David,
under Joab, and the army of Israel,
under Abner, arrayed themselves on
either side of the pool of Gibeon. While
occupying this position twelve men of
each army met and fought desperately.
This contest was followed by a general
battle, which resulted in Abner's defeat.
He fled, but was pursued by Asahel,
who •' was light of foot as a wild roe."
15
ABO
ABR
When in the heat of pursuit, Abner
counselled him to desist, and threatened
to turn upon him and slay him if he did
not . but Asahel refused to turn aside,
and Abner, •" with the hinder end of the
spear," smote him so that he died. Joab
and Abishai were also engaged in the
pursuit, but at Abner's entreaty they
desisted and returned. 2 Sam. 2.
As David's strength increased, the
house of Saul, though faithfully served
by Abner, became gradually weaker,
till at length Ish-bosheth charged Abner
with an offence against Sauls family.
2 Sam. 3:7. He had taken Rizpah,
the concubine of Saul, into his harem,
and this act was interpreted according
to Oriental ideas as an attempt to seize
the throne. He was exceedingly irri-
tated by the charge, and immediately
forsook the interests of Saul's house and
espoused the cause of David, David re-
ceived him cordially, and sent him away
in peace to persuade Israel to submit to
David's government.
While he was gone on this errand,
Joab returned ; and hearing what had
been done, he went to the king and
warned him against Abner as a spy and
traitor. Soon after, and without Da-
vid's knowledge, Joab sent for Abner;
and when he arrived, took him aside
privately, and murdered him in revenge
of the death of his brother Asahel ; and
they buried him in Hebron The esti-
mation in which he was held by the
king and people appears from the sa-
cred history. The king wept and re-
fusel his food, and all the people wept;
" And the king said unto his servants,
Know ye not that there is a prince and
a great man fallen this day in Israel ?"
2 Sam, 3 : .38,
ABOM'INABLE, ABOMINA'-
TION. 1. An abomination, or an
abominable thing, is a thing hateful or
detestable, as the employment or call-,
ing of shepherds was to the Egvptians,
Gen, 46:;U,
2, Under the Mosaic law those ani-
mals and acts are called abominable
the use or doing of which was pro-
hibited. Lev. 11 : 18 and Deut. 23 : 18,
3, Idolatry of every kind is especially
denoted by this term. Jer, 44 : 4 and
2 Kgs. 23:1.3,
4, So of sins in general. Isa. 66 : 3.
The Abomination of Desolation, Matt
16
24 : 15 and Dan. 9 : 27 and 12 : 1 1, prob-
ably refers to the ensigns or banners of
the Roman army, with the idolatrous,
Boman Staudards. {After Fairbairn's "Impe-
rial Dictionary.")
and therefore abominable, images upon
them, the approach of which would warn
the city of its desolation. When the city
should be besieged, and these idolatrous
standards should be seen " in the holy
place," or, more strictly, in the vicinity
of the holy city, thus threatening a com-
plete conquest and speed}' destruction,
it would be time for the men of Judea
to flee to places of refuge to save them-
selves from tribulation and death. The
words are hard to interpret. To the ex-
planation given it is objected that unless
the standards were worshipped they
would not properlj' be " abominations."
Others say the words refer to the " inter-
nal desecration of the temple by the
Jewish zealots, under pretence of de-
fending it,"
A'BRAM (father of elevation),
A'BRAHAM Ifatliei- of a multitude),
the greatest, purest, and most venerable
of the patriarchs, held in equal rever-
ence by Jews, Mohammedans, and Chris-
tians, Gen, 11 : 27, The leading trait in
his character is unbounded trust in God ;
hence he is called "the friend of God"
and " the father of the faithful," He was
the son of Terah, born at Ur, a city of
Chaldea, which has been identified with
Miiffhcir. The family was probably idol-
atrous, but all trace of monotheism may
ABK
ABE,
not have been lost. Abram would seem
always to have been the consistent ser-
vant of the one God. While he was
dwelling in his father's house at Ur, God
directed him to leave his country and kin-
dred and go to a land which should be
shown him ; promising, at the same time,
to make of him a great nation, an 1 to
bless him, and to make his name great,
and that in him all the families of the
earth should be blessed.
Obedient to the heavenly calling,
Abram took Sai'ai his wife, and, with
Terah his father and other members of
the family, left Ur to remove to Canaan,
ftnd stopped at Haran in Mesojiotamia.
There Terah died. Abram, who was
then seventy-five years old, with his
wife and Lot, his nephew, pui-sued his
journey to Canaan; and having reached
Siehem, one of the okk'st cities of Pales-
tine (see Shechem), the Lord appeared
to him, and repeated his jjromise to give
him the land. Gen. 12 : 7.
A grievous famine soon visited the
country, and Abram was obliged to go
into Egypt. Fearful that Sarai's beauty
might attract the notice of the Egyp-
tians, and that, if they supposed her to
be his wife, they would kill him to se-
cure her, he proposed that she should ■
pass for his sister. It happened as he
expected. The servants of Pharaoh, the
king of Egypt, commended her beauty
so much that he sent for her, and took
her into his house, and loaded Abram
with tokens of his favor; but the Lord
punished him severely, so that he sent
away Abram and his wife, and all
that he had. His stay in Egypt was
probably very brief.
Having become very rich in cattle,
silver, and gold, he returned from Egypt
to Canaan, and encamped between Bethel
and Ai, in Southern Palestine. Lot, his
nephew, had been with him. and shared
his prosperity; and it happened that
his servants fell into some strife with
the servants of Abram. Their pro])erty
being too great for them to dwell together,
Abram generously proposed to his ne-
phew to avoid controversy by an ami-
cable separation. He offered Lot his
choice of the territor3', on the right or
left, as it pleased him — a rare illustra-
tion of meekness and condescension.
Lot chose to remove to the eastward,
and occupy that part of the fertile plain
of Jordan where Sodom and Gomorrah
stood, hax-^ng, perhaps, a desire to quit
the wandering life.
Then the Lord appeared again to
Abram, and renewed the promise of the
land of Canaan as his inheritance in
the most explicit manner. He thence
removed his tent to the oak-groves of
Marare in Hebron. In an invasion of
the cities of the plain by several of the
petty kings of the adjoining provinces,
under the leadership of Chedorlaomer,
king of Elam, Sodom was taken and
Lot and his family carried captive.
AYhen Abram received intelligence of it
he armed his trained servants, born in
his house (three hundred and eighteen
iu number), defeated the kings, anl
brought Lot and his family back to
Sodom ; restoring to liberty the cap-
tives who had been taken, with all their
property, of which he generously refused
to take any part as the reward of his
services or as the spoils of victory. On
his return he was met by Molchisedek,
king of Salem and priest of the most
high God. to whom he gave a tenth of
all that he had. Gen. 14. See Mel-
CHISEDEK.
While in Hebron the Lord appeared
again to Abram in a vision, repeated to
him the promises, and accompanied
them with the gracious declaration of
his favor. He appointed a certain sac-
rifice for him to offer, and toward night
caused a deep sleep to fall upon him,
attended by a horror of great darkness,
during which there were revealed to him
some of the most im])ortant events in his
future history and in that of his poster-
ity, which were all accomplished in due
time and with wonderful exactness. The
revelation related — 1. To the captivity
of Israel I)y the Egyptians and their se-
vere and protracted bondage : 2. To the
judgments which Egypt should suffer
because of their oppression of God's
chosen people, and the circumstances
under which they should leave Egypt:
3. To Abram's death and burial; and.
4, to the return of his posterity to the
promised land.
In the same day the covenant respect-
ing the land of promise was renewed and
confirmed with the strongest expressions
of divine favor. Sarai, however, was
childless, and she proposed to Abrnham
that Hagar, an Egyptian woman living
17
ABR
A BR
with them, should be his concubine ; by
whom he had a son, called Ishmael.
He was then in his eighty-sixth j'ear.
Gen. 16.
At ninety-nine years of age he was
favored with another remarkable vision.
The Almighty was revealed to him in
such a manner that he was filled with
awe and fell upon his face, and we are
told that " God talked with him." The
promise respecting the great increase of
his posterity and the possession of Ca-
naan was repeated in the most solemn and
explicit terms ; his name was changed
from Abram (a liujh. father) to Abraham
[fdther of a (jreat multitude), and the
circumcision of every male child at eight
days old was established as a token of
the covenant between him and God.
See CiucuMCisiox. At the same time the
name of Sarai {my princen)/) was changed
to Sarah {the prt»cf^«s), and a promise
was given to Abraham that Sarah should
have a son and be the ijiother of nations
and kings.
It seemed so entirely out of tlie course
of nature that they should become pa-
rents at their advanced age that Abra-
ham, filled with reverence and joyful
gratitude, fell upon his face " and sai<l
in his heart. Shall a child be born unto
him that is a hundred years old ? and
shall Sarah, that is ninety years old,
bear?" Nevertheless, against hope he
believed in hope ; an I being not weak
in faith, he staggered not at the promise
of God, but was fully persuaded that
what he had promised he was able also
to perform ; and his faith was imputed
to him for righteousness. Rom. 4 :
lcS-22.
Abraham, finding that the blessings
of the covenant were to be bestowed on
his future oftsjtring, itnmediately thought
of Ishmael, in whom he had probably be-
fore supposed the promises were to be
fulfilled, and he uttered the solemn and
affer^ting prayer, " 0 that Ishmael might
live before thee!" God heard him, and
almost while he was yet speaking an-
swered him by making known to him
his great purposes respecting Ishmael.
Gen. 17: 20 and 26: 16.
As soon as the vision had closed,
Abraham hastened to obey the divine
command, and with Ishmael, his son,
and all the men of his house, was cir-
cumcised in the self-sauic day. He was
18
not long without another divine commu-
nication. As he sat in the door of his
tent in the heat of the day three men
approached him. He received them
with all the courtesy and hospitality
customary in the East, and after they
had refreshed themselves they inquired
of him respecting Sarah and repeated
the promise respecting the birth of her
son.
It was on this occasion, or in connec-
tion with these circumstances, that a
divine testimony was given to the pa-
triarchal character of Abraham. Gen.
18: ly. It was because of his faithful-
ness that he was favored with a revela-
tion of God's purposes respecting the
devoted cities of the plain, and with
an opportunity to plead for them : and
it was for Abraham's sake, and probably
in answer to his prayers, that Lot and
his family were rescued from the sudden
destruction which came upon Sodom.
After this, Abraham removed to Ge-
rar, perhaps because the Amorites, Avith
whom he was in alliance, had been
driven from Hebron by the Hittites.
Here he made a second attempt to have
Sarah taken for his sister. See Abim-
ELECii. Here, also, the prediction was
fulfilled respecting the birth of a son.
Sarah had a son, whom he called Isaac,
and who was duly circumcised on the
eighth day.
When Isaac was weaned, Abraham
made a feast. Ishmael, being then a
lad of thirteen years, mocked Isaac,
quite possibly without malicious intent.
This roused the jealousy of Sarah, who
urged Abraham to drive out II agar and
her son. Abraham, although unwilling
to do this injustice, at last obeyed at the
command of God. Thus it came to pass
that the prophecy of the wild life Ish-
mael was to lead was realized. Gen.
21:10-1;].
Abraham so obviously enjoyed the
favor and blessing of (iod in all that ho
did that Abiinelech, the king, ])roposed
to make with him a covenant of jierpet-
ual friendslii]i : and a matter of wrong
about a well, of which Abimelcch's ser-
vants had violently deprived Abraham,
was thus happily ailjustod. This trans-
action was at a place which was there-
after called Beer-sheba {the well of the
oath, or the well of Hwearing). Gen. 21 :
23-31.
ABS
ABS
The events of many years are now ' ham's native country and from among
passed over in silence, but the scene his own kindred. This enterprise ter-
next related shows how worthy Abra- minated successfully, and every desire
ham was to be called the father of the of the patriarch respecting Isaac's mar-
faithful. He was commanded to take riage was answered. Gen. 24.
his son, his only son, Isaac, then a Abraham married a second time and
young man, and to offer him up for a had several sons, but he made Isaac his
burnt-oflfeving upon a distant mountain, sole heir, having in his lifetime distrib-
AVithout an inquiry or murmui'ing word, uted gifts among the other children, who
and with a prompt submission, Abra- ■ were now dispersed. He died in peace
ham obeyed the command. A journey at the age of one hundred and seventy-
of three days was accomplished. Every five years, and was buried by Isaac and
preparation for the offering was made, Ishmael inthesamesepulchre with Sarah,
and the knife was uplifted to slay his : in the cave of Machpelah. Gen. 25:8. It
son, when his purpose was arrested by I is now in the possession of the Moham-
a voice from Hea-
ven requiring him
to spare the lad.
A ram was pro-
vided in the neigh-
boring thicket,
which he took an I
offered up; and,
after having been
favored with spe-
cial tokens of the
divine approba-
tion, he returned
with his son to
Beer-sheba. This
grand trial and
proof of the patri-
arch's faith took
place upon Mount
M o r i a h (or, as
others suppose, on
Mount Gerizim).
In commemoration
of it he gave to the
place the name Je-
hovah-jireh {the
Lord icifl provide),
intimating a general truth respecting
the divine faithfulness and care, and in
prophetical allusion to the great sacri-
fice which was to be offered for the sins
of mankind. Gen. 22:14.
At the age of one hundred and twen-
Abraham's Oak, near Hebron. Gen. 13 : 18.
medans, and jealously guarded by them
as a most sacred spot beneath the great
mosque of Hebron. See Machpklah.
On Abraham's 0:ik, see Hkbron.
Abraham's Bosoh. See Bosom.
AB'SAIiOm (father of peaoe) was
ty-seven years Sarah died, and Abraham I the third son of David by Maacah,
purchased the cave of .Alachpelah, in the I daughter of Talmai, king of (leshur!
field of Ephron at Hebron, for a family 2 Sam. 3 : 3. He was remarkable for his
burial-place, and there buried his wife. ; beauty, and for his hair, which is said
to have weighed 200 shekels when cut
off every year. But if the royal shekel
equal the sacred shekel, this would make
6 pounds, which is incredible. The dif-
ficulty is not removed by rediicing the
value of the shekel one-half or one third.
19
Gen. 23: 19,20
Isaac had now arrived at mature age,
and Abraham called one of his servants,
probably Eliezer. Gen. 15 : 2. and made
him promise to obtain a wife for Isaac,
not among the Canaanites, but in Abra-
ABS
ABS
The simplest explanation is that by the
error of a copyist the 200 was written
for 20, the difference between the figures
being very slight in Hebrew notation.
Absalom's fair sister, called Tamar,
having been violated by Amnon, his
half-brother, he meditated revenge,
since he was her natural avenger ; and
after brooding over the outrage for two
years, he at last took Amnon's life at a
feast to which he had invited him, and
then at once fled to Talmai, his mater-
nal grandfather, at Geshur, Avhere he
stayed three years.
Joab, in order to secure Absalom's
return and restoration to his father's
favor, employed a woman of Tekoa to
appear before David and feign a case
similar to the situation of Absalom, and
having obtained his decision, to apply
the princii)le to the real case. After a
favorable decision was obtained in the
feigned case, the woman began to plead
for Absalom's return. The king sus-
pected Joab's concern in the plot, and
the woman confessed that it was wholly
planned by him. David, however, di-
rected Joab to go to Geshur and bring
Absalom back to Jerusalem, but would
not receive him into favor nor admit
him to his presence, nor did he see his
face for two years more.
Wearied with his banishment. Absa-
lom often attempted to obtain an inter-
view with Joab, but for some cause Joab
was not disposed to go to him. To
compel him to come, Absalom resorted
to a singular expedient: he directed his
servants to set fire to Joab's fields.
Joab immediately came to Absalom, was
persuaded to plead with the king in his
liehalf, succeeded in his effort, and Ab-
salom was received into full favor.
Absalom then showed the object of
his ambition was to obtain his father's
throne. He was jealous of the favor
his father gave to Solomon. Bath-sheba's
son, for. since he was the oldest living
son of David, he was by birth the right-
ful heir to the kingdom. To this end
he lived in great pomp, procured char-
iots ami horsemen and other a])])endages
of royalty, and stood in the public places
courting the favor of the peoj)le by flic
meanest arts, {)ersiuiding them that their
rights were not regarded by the govern-
ment, and that it would be for their in-
terest to elevate hiui to j)0wer. that equal
20
justice might be administered to all. By
these and other means Absalom stole the
hearts of the men of Israel.
In pursuing his traitorous design, and
with a pretended regard to filial duty, he
asked his father's permission to go to
Hebron and pay a vow which he said
he had made. The unsuspicious king
consented, and Absalom immediately
sent men throughout Israel, Who were,
at a given signal, to proclaim him king
in Hebron. He also took two hundred
men with him from Jerusalem, though
they did not know his plan, and then
sent for Ahithophel, who was David's
counsellor, that he might have his ad-
vice and assistance. Absalom's party
increased rapidly, and intelligence of
' the conspiracy was communicated to
the king, and so alarmed him that he
fled from the city.
1 At length David persuaded Hushai to
\ go to Absalom, who had now come back
j to Jerusalem with his party, and become
j his servant, and when opportunity oc-
I curred to give such counsel as should
; defeat Ahithophel's plans and bring
confusion and discomfiture upon Absa-
lom. By a train of providential inter-
positions Absalom's ruin was hastened.
j Before David's men went out to battle
i with the revolted party, he gave tliem
: special charge respecting Absalom, and
commanded them to deal gently with
[ him for his father's sake. The two par-
I ties met in the wood of Ephraim, and
■ the battle was bloody. Absalom rode
i upon a mule, and in passing under the
j thick boughs of an oak he was caught
by his head in the fork or angle of two
branches, and the mule passed onward,
j leaving him suspended in the air. Joab,
' one of David's chief captains, being in-
\ formed of it, took three darts and thrust
them through the heart of Absalom
I while he was yet alive in the midst of
: the oak : and they took his body and
cast it into a pit in the wood, and cov-
ered it with stones.
I ABSALOM'S PLACE, orPIL-
LAR, was in the " king's dale." or val-
; ley of the Kedron. 2 Sam. 18 : 18.
j "The Tomb of Absalom," now stand-
ing east of Jerusalem, at the foot of
Mount Olivet, is supposed by the Jews
J to have been erected between Absalom's
' ca]iture and his death, and is pelted by
them with stones, as they pass by, in
ACC
ACH
execration of his treason ; but the monu-
ment betrays Graeco-Latin architecture
Absiilom's Tomb. (From original riiolographs.
Bonfils.)
(especially the Ionic columns), and is
not mentioned before A. D. 333.
AC'CAD {fortreim), one of the four
cities in the kingdom of Nimrod. Gen.
10:10. It was in the land of Sbinar,
and George Smith locates it at Aijuili,
on the Euphrates, north of Babylon.
Rawlinson places it at Aker-Knf, 10
miles west by north of Bagdad. Others
had regarded it as identical with Ctesi-
jihou.
AC'CARON, the same as Ekron.
AC'CHO {hetited Hand), a seaport-
town of Phoenicia, about 80 miles north
of Mount Carmel, given to Asher. Jud.
1 : 31. In New Testament times it was
called Ptolemais. Acts 21 : 7. It now
has about 6000 inhabitants, and is call-
ed Acre (Arabic, Akkn).
ACEL'DAMA [field of blood), the
" potter's field "' purchased with the
money given to Judas for betraying
Christ. Matt. 27 : 7 ; Acts 1 : 18, 19.
Tradition locates it on the southern
slope of the valley of Hinnom, south-
west of the supposed pool of Siloam.
ACHA'IA (trouhle), a Roman prov-
ince in the New Testament times nenrly
co-extensive with the modern kingdom
of Greece. Paul visited the churches in
that region. Acts 18 : 12, 27 ; 19 : 21 ;
Rom. 15 : 26 ; 16 : 5 : 2 Cor. 1:1; 9:2;
11 : 10 : 1 Thess. 1 : 7, 8. For its towns
see CoRi.vTH. Cenchuea.
ACHA'ICUS (heloufjinri to Achain),
a Christian mentioned in 1 Cor. 16: 17.
A'CHAN", OR A-'CHAR (tn„it,ler),
son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah,
whose concealment of a part of the
spoils of Jericho in violation of the di-
vine command, Josh. 6:18, brought de-
feat upon his countrymen at Ai. Josh.
7:18; 1 Chr. 2:7. He was providen-
tially convicted, and with his family was
stoned to death, and his property, to-
gether with their remains, was burnt.
The valley in which this event occurred
was called after him. See Acnoif.
A'CHAZ, Matt. 1 : 9, the Greek form
of Ahaz.
ACH'BOR (»io»«e). 1. The father
of Baal-hanan, king of the Edomites.
Gen. 36: 38, 39; 1 Chr. 1 : 49.
2. An officer of Josiah. 2 Kgs. 22 :
12, 14 ; Jer. 26 : 22 ; 36 : 12 ; called Ab-
don in 2 Chr. 34:20.
A'CHIM ( Hebrew form is Jachin,
a contraction of Jehoiachin, tlie Lord
will establiah), an ancestor of Christ.
Matt. 1:14.
A'CHISH (^erpeut-rhnrmer f), a
king of Gath. called Abimelech in the
title of Ps. 34, to whom David fled
twice. The first time, being in danger,
he feigned madness, whereupon he was
dismissed. 1 Sara. 21 : 10. The sec-
ond time Achish received him cordial-
ly because of his supposed hostility to
Saul, gave him Ziklag. and took him on
his campaign against Saul, but finally
dismissed him, with commendations of
his fidelity, because of the mistrust of
his princes. 1 Sam. 27, 29.
The Achish to whom Shimei went
seeking for his servants may have been
this same king, but much more prob-
ably his grandson, since David's first
flight took place fifty years before. 1
Kgs. 2:39, 40.
ACH'METHA, a city of Media.
Ezr. 6 : 2. See Ecbatana.
ANCHOR (trouble), a valley near
Jericho where Achan was stoned. Josh.
, 7 : 24. Probably the Wudi/ Kelt.
21
ACH
ADA
ACH'SA (auklet), daughter of Ca- I
leb, the son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2 : 49. !
ACH'SAH {anklet), the daughter
of Caleb the son of Jephunneh, married
to Othniel, her cousin or uncle (who took
Kirjath-sepher or Debir), in accordance
•with Caleb's promise to give her hand to
whomsoever should first smite the city.
Achsah after her marriage obtained the
upper and lower springs, with the fields {
in which they were, in addition to her
dowry. Josh. 15 : 15-19 ; Jud. 1:11-15.
See Othmet,.
ACH'SHAPH (enchantment), a city
of Canaan, Josh. 11 : 1 ; 12 : 20, allotted to
Asher. Josh. 19: 25. Some have located
it at Khui/a, near Mount Carmel : Rob-
inson at El-Kenaf, above the sources of
the Jordan ; Conder at Vasif, on the
edge of the maritime plain, south-east
of ez-Zih.
ACH'ZIB ifahe). 1. A town of
Asher, Josh. 19 : 29, now ez-Zib, 20
miles north of Acre, on the Mediterra-
nean.
2. A city of Judah, Josh. 15 : 44 ; Mic.
1 : 14 ; perhaps identical with Chezib.
Gen. 38 : 5. Conder locates it at the
modern Ain Kezheh.
ACRAB'BIM. Josh. 15: 3, mar-
gin. See Maaleh-acrabbim.
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES,
the fifth book in the New Testament.
It is supposed to have been compiled
by Luke the evangelist in Rome, during
Paul's imprisonment or shortly after, a.d.
6.3, and may be regarded as a continua-
tion of his Gospel. It contains the history
of the Christian Church from Jerusalem
to Rome, or the establishment of Chris-
tianity among the Jews by Peter, and
among the Gentiles by Paul. It begins
with the ascension of Christ and the out-
pouring of the Holy »Spirit, and concludes
with the first imprisonment of Paul in
Rome, 61 to 6.3. It is the first history
of the Christian Church, and contains
the only trustworthy account of the mis-
sionary labors of the apostles.
The book of Acts has been subjected
to very rigid and critical examination
in connection with the apostolic Epistles,
and the genuineness of both is proved
by coincidences so minute and yet so
undesigned, so obvious and yet so re-
mote, that no unprejudiced mind can
entertain a doubt of their truthful-
22
The period of time embraced in this
history is about thirty-three years, and
includes the reigns of the Roman em-
perors Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and
Nero. See the Missionary Map at the
close of the volume.
AD'ADAH {boundary, ox festival),
a town in the south of Judah, Josh. 15 :
22 ; probably either the modern el-Folca
or Ada dak.
A'DAH {ornament). 1. One of the
two wives of Lamech in the line of Cain.
Gen. 4:19.
2. One of Esau's wives, a Hittitess,
daughter of Elon, Gen. 36 : 2, 4, etc.;
called Rashemath in Gen. 26 : 34.
ADAI'AH {whom Jehovah adorns).
1. The maternal grandfather of King
Josiah. 2 Kgs. 22 : 1.
2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 41.
3. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8:21.
4. A priest. 1 Chr. 9:12.
5. A descendant of Rani who had taken
a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 29.
6. Another descendant guilty of the
same offence. Ezr. 10:39.
7. A man of Judah. Neh. 11 : 5.
8. An ancestor of Maaseiah, a cap-
tain who supported Jehoiada. 2 Chr.
23:1.
ADALI'A {stronq of heart?), a son
of Haman. Esth. 9 ': 8.
AD'AM {red earth), a city in the
Jordan valley near Zaretan. Josh. 3 :
16. It has been located at ed-Dnmi-
yeh, but Drake suggests Khirhet-el- Ham-
rath, or '' the red river," 1 mile south of
Tell Sarem.
ADAM {red, or earth -horn). Theword
is used in the Bible in two senses :
1. Man generically, including woman
(in the English Version translated man).
Gen. 1:26, 27; 5:1; 6:1; Job 20 :
29; 21:33; Ps. 68:18; 76:10.
2. Man historically, or, as a proper
name, Adam individually, the first man,
who was at the same time the re])resent-
ative man. Gen. 2:7; 3:8. Adam was
not born, but created ; not in feeble,
helpless infancy, but in the maturity of
his physical and intellectual nature ;
not a sinful, diseased, dying creature,
but pure and free from sin, yet liable to
temptation and in need of trial in order
to be confirmed in his innocence. He
was the crown of creation, made on the
sixth day, after the vegetable and ani-
mal world. Adam was the root of hu-
ADA
ADA
inanity, and all that affected him affect-
ed hiri posterit}'. His sin tainted their
blood and poisoned their nature ; while
the Saviour promised to him was the
Saviour of all who came after him. His
mortality in consequence of sin has re-
mained as a permanent fact in man ; his
immortality in consequence of faith
upon the promised Saviour will be
shared in by all of like belief. In him
God put humanity to the test. If Adam
had kept his first estate, the world
would never have been darkened by
sin and guilt.
Adam was also the beginning of a
new order of beings. He was of the
earth, earthy — the earth is called uda-
vifth in Hebrew in Gen. 2 : 7 — dust from
dust, as to his physical organization,
but into him God had breathed a living
soul ; he was an immortal spirit, made in
the very '* image and likeness of God."
This is the noblest conception of man.
The " image of God " means man's per-
sonality, his rational, moral, and im-
mortal nature, which is destined for
the glory and communion of (jod and
for everlasting felicity. It also includes
dominion over the creatures.
God created Eve to be a help meet
for Adam. He dreamt of woman, and
awaked to find her at his side. The
pair lived together in hap|)iness and
innocence, the keepers of a garden
which yielded abundantly of fruit and
flowers for their nourishment and pleas-
ure. The fruit of one tree only, the
tree of the knowledge of good and evil,
was forbidden to them. But the pro-
hibition piqued their desire. Eve lis-
tened to the specious arguments of Satan,
who had ■come to her under the form of
a serpent ; " she took of the fruit there-
of, and did eat, and gave also unto her
husband with her; and he did eat." (ren.
3:6; comp. 2 Cor. 11 : 3 ; 1 Tim. 2 : U ;
John 8 : 44.
In this simple language does the
Bible describe the most momentous
event in history previous to the birth
of Christ. For then happened the Fall ;
sin was let loose to ravage the world : a
blight had fallen upon the race. The
first proof of sin was shame. The
wretched folly of all attempts to cover
sin is symbolized by the fig-leaf aprons
of our first parents : they were no cov-
erings at all. The second proof of sin
was their fear before God. They stood
condemnel, and owned his dreadful
sentence just. They were banished
from Paradise. The ground was cursed
fo-r their sake. In the hardship of toil
and labor, in the care and sutfering of
childbirth and parentage, they began to
feel at once the woes their transgression
involved. All the burdens of life, the
heavy cross, sickness, disaster, trouble,
death, come from the action of that fa-
tal day. They are the dread remind-
ers of our fallen state. Our first i)a-
rents involved all their posterity in that
ruin they first experienced.
But in the narrative of the Fall there
stands also the promise of a deliverer,
the woman's seed ("the son of Mary),
who should crush the serpent's head —
that is, destroy the power of sin and
Satan. Gen. 3 : 15. This promise,
which is called the '' first gosj)el," was
fulfilled in the Crucifixion. Christ is
the second Adam, as Paul shows in llom.
5 : 12 fli". and 1 Cor. 15 : 4j. He undid
the work of the first. He abolished the
power of sin and death for believers, and
brought life and immortality to light
through the gospel. 2 Tim. 1 : 10. The
redemption by Christ is the glorious
solution of the fall of Adam. Christ
has given us much more than we lost
by Adam. Paradise regained is better
than Paradise lost, and can never be
lost again. God in his infinite wisdom
and mercy overruled the fall of man
for the revelation of his redeeming love,
which in turn calls out the deepest grat-
itude and bliss of the redeemed.
" III Chririt tlie tribe of Adam lK)ast
More bles-siiigs tnaii their father lost."
AD'AMAH (earth), a fortified city
of Naphtali, Josh 19 : 36, and north-west
of the Sea of Galilee ; probably Arimnh.
AD'AMANT. Eze. 3 : 9. This
word means the uncnnqucrabie, and de-
notes some very hard stone. The same
substance in Jer. 17 : 1 is called din-
moucl, which it cannot be, for the He-
brew name there used is never men-
tioned with precious stones. Probably
it was the mineral emery, one of the
hardest of rocks.
AD'AMI (earth, or human), a place
on the border of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 33 ;
probably the modern ed-Davn'eh.
A'DAR (hei(fht), a town on the
southern bour|.dary of Judah, Josh.
23
ADA
ADM
16 : 3, and the same as Hazar-addar,
Num. 34:4; possibly the modern Ain
el-Kndeirat.
A'DAR. See Month.
AD'ASA, OR HAD'ASHAH, a
town in Judah, Josh. 15: '-M , which Jo-
sephus locates near Beth-horon.
AD'BEEL {miracle of Goil), a son
of Ishmael. Gen. 25:13; 1 Chr. 1 : 29.
AD'DAN(«fo»j/). Ezr. 2:59: called
also Addon. Neh. 7 : 61. Its site is
unknown.
AD'DAR {chief), a son of Rela, 1
Chr. 8:3: called Ard in Num. 26 : 40.
AD'DER. The word translated
thus in various passnges of the Bible
does not always mean what the English
word denotes. 1. In Gen. 49 : 1 7 it in-
dicates a venomous serpent (perhaj)S the
cerastes, or horned snake) which lurks in
the path. The usual habit of the ceras-
Horned Cernstes. {Fiom specimen in British Museum.)
tes is *' to coil itself on the sand, where
it basks in the impress of a camel's foot-
mark, and thence suddenly to dart out
on any passing iininial. So great is the
terror which its sight inspires in horses,
that I have known mine, when I was rid-
ing in the Sahara, to suddenly start and
rear, tren)bliiig and persjiiring in every
limb, and no persuasif)iis would in-
duce him to proceed. I was quite un-
.•)ble to account for his terror until I'
noticed a cerastes coiled up in a depres-
sion two or throe ]»nies in fiont, with its
basilisk eyes steadily fixed on us, and
no doubt preparing for a spring as the
horse passed." — '/'rixfriDn.
2. In Ps. 58 : 4 and 91 : I.", the Egyp-
tian cobra is ])robaldy meant, for it is
found in southern Palestine, dwells in
holes, is used by snake-charmers, and is
very dangerous. This is the animal
24
seen on Egyptian monuments, symbol-
izing immortality, and alwaj'S connected
with the winged globe. In the former
passage above, there is reference to the
fact that there are serpents of some
kinds or particular individuals which
will not yield to the charmer. Though
capable of hearing, they iri/l not hear,
and are pro])erly termed " deaf."
3. Still other kinds of serpents are
referred to under this name in Ps. 140 :
3 ; Prov. 23 : 32 — species of viper, it is
thought.
AD'DI {oi-iirnneuf), one of the pro-
genitors of Christ. Luke 3 : 28.
A'DER (y/ocA), a Benjamite. 1 Chr.
8:15.
AD'IDA, a fortified town overlook-
ing the low country of Judah and near
Jerusalem, noticed in 1 Mace. 12 : 38,
and used by Vespasian in his siege of
Jerusalem ; probably the same as
Hadid. Ezr. 2 : 33. Conder lo-
cates it at the modern Hnditheh.
A'DIEL {ornament of O'od).
1. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4 : 36.
2. A priest. 1 Chr. 9:12.
3. The ancestor of David's
treasurer, Azmaveth. 1 Chr. 27 :
25.
A'DIN (delicate), one whose
descendants returned with Zerub-
babel. Ezr. 2:15; 8:6; Neh. 7 :
20: 10:16.
AD'INA (slender), a Reuben-
ite, one of David's warriors. 1
Chr. 11:42.
AD'INO THE EZNITE. 2 Sam.
23:8. Sec .Tashobkam.
A DITHA'I.^ {doulde hnotj/), a town
of .ludah. Josh. 15 : 36 : afterward called
HAOin. which see.
ADJURE'. 1. To bind under a
curse. Josh. 6 : 26.
2. Solemnly to require a declaration
of the truth at the peril of (iod's dis-
pleasure. jMatt. 26 : 63. Such is the in-
terpretation of the language of the high
priest. *• I adjure thee." etc., or, " I put
thee to thy oath," addressed to our Sa-
viour when he declined to answer the
false accusations of his persecutors.
Compare 1 Sam. 14: 24 and 1 Kgs. 22 :
16 with Josh. 6:26.
AD'LAI (jtiHtice of Jehorah), the
father of one of David's chief herdsmen.
1 <'hr. 27:29.
AU'MAH (earth, or fortrenx), one of
ADM
ADO
the five cities in the vale of Siddim
taken by Ohedorlaomer, Gen. 10 : 19 ;
14 : 2, and destroyed with Sodom. Deut.
29:23: Hos. 11:8.
AD^IIATHA {earthy ?), one of
the seven Persian princes. Esth. 1 : 14.
AD'XA (plensitre). 1. One who
married a foreign woman. Ezr. 10 : 30.
2. A priest. Neh. 12: 15.
AD'XAH (jjleasitre). 1. A Manassite
captain of Saul who followed David.
IChr. 12:20.
2. A captain of Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr.
17 : U.
ADOX'I-BE'ZEK. Jud. 1 : 5.
Lord or king of Bezek. a city of the
Canaanites. See Bezkk. His name
was a title, not a proper name. He
fled from the armies of Judah, but was
caught and his thumbs and great toes
cut off, so that he could neither figlit
nor flee. He was then carried to Jeru-
snlem, where he died. He seems to
have regarded tlie maiming he suffered
as a just requital of his own cruelty, he
having mutilated seventy kings or chief-
tains in the same inhuman manner.
ADOXI'JAH {my Lord is Jehorah).
1. David's fourth son. 2 Sam. 3:4. He
was born at Hebron, and after the death
of his brothers, Ainnon. Chileab, and Ab-
salom, he made pretensions to the throne
of his father, because he was then the
oldest living son of David. He prepared
himself- with horses and chariots and
other marks of royalty, and took counsel
with Joab and Abiathar how he could
best accomplish his purpose. Bath-
sheba. Solomon's mother, fearing that
her son's title to the throne might be dis-
turbed, immediately informed the king
of Adonijah's revolt; and Xathan the
prophet h'aving confirmed the statement
of the matter, David gave Bath-sheba the
strongest assurances that her son should
reign after him ; and he caused Solomon
to be anointed and proclaimed king amid
general rejoicings. 1 Kgs. 1 : 31).
Adonijah was just ending a feast when
he heard the noise of the shouting, and
Jonathan came in and told him all that
had taken place. His guests fled pre-
cipitately, and Adonijah himself ran
and caught hold of the horns of the
altar, which from long-existent custom
was regarded as a place of safety. But
Solomon sent for him. and pardoned him
on condition that he showed himself "a
worthy man." 1 Kgs. 1 : 52. This was
an act of rare clemency.
After David's death, Adonijah per-
suaded Bath-sheba to ask Solomon, her
son, who was now on the throne, to give
him Abishag for his wife. This request
was, according to Oriental court-eti-
quette, equivalent to a fresh attemj)t on
the throne. So Solomon caused him to
be put to death by the hand of Benaiah.
1 Kgs. 2:25.
2. A Levite in Jehoshaphat's time. 2
Chr. 17 : 8.
3. One who sealed the covenant. Xeh.
10:lfi.
ADON'IKAM {lord of the enemy),
one whose descendants came back with
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2: 13; 8 : 13; Neh.
7:18.
ADONI'RAM. See Adoram.
ADON'I-ZE'DEK {ford >f Jus-
tice), the Amorite king of Jerusalem at
the time the country was entered by the
Israelites. Josh. 10: 1. The name was
probably the official title of the Jebusite
kings of Jerusalem. Hearing of Josh-
ua's victories over Ai and Jericho, and
finding that the inhabitants of Gibeon,
one of the most important cities of the
kingdom, had made a league with him,
he called four other kings of the Am-
monites to his aid and laid siege to
Gibeon, with a view to destroy it as a
punishment for their conduct.
But Joshua came to the assistance of
the Gibeonites ; hailstones fell upon the
armies of the five kings, and after a
hard battle they were overthrown. See
.TOSHTA.
Adoni-zedek, with his allies, fled to a
cave at Makkedah, in which they were
soon discovered and brought before
.Joshua, who caused them to be slain
and hanged on separate trees until even-
ing, and then their bodies were taken
down and cast into the cave in which
thfv had concealed themselves. Josh.
10 I 27.
ADOP'TIOX is an act by which a
stranger is received into a man's family
as his own child, and becomes entitled
to the peculiar privileges of that con-
nection as fully and completely as a
child by birth. So Moses was adopted
by Pharaoh's daughter, Ex. 2: 10, and
Esther by her cousin Mordecai. Esth.
2:7.
In the figurative use of the term by
25
ADO
ADU
the sacred writers it indicates that in-
timate relation of the believer to God
which follows regeneration and conver-
sion from sin to holiness, when we are
received into the family of God and
are made, by grace, his children or
sons, and heirs of God and joint-heirs
with Christ. Gal. 4 : 4, 5 : Rom. 8 : 14-17.
ADORA'IM {duiihle mound), a city
of Judah fortified bj^ Rehoboam, 2 Chr,
11 : 9; suppose.d to be the modern Dura,
about 6 miles west of Hebron.
ADO'RAM, contr. from ADOX-
I'RAM {lord of he!,jht.). J. An officer of
the customs under David. 2 Sam. 20 : 24.
2. An officer of Kehoboam's treasury
(perhaps the son of the former), who was
stoned to death by the people of Israel
who followed Jeroboam. 1 Kgs. 12 : 18.
Some suppose him to have been the
same with Adoniram, 1 Kgs. 5: 14, who
was over the customs in Solomon's reign,
and that the people were so indignant at
the oppression they had suffered through
his agency that they took this method
of revenge.
ADORA'TION. The word means
to prct)/ to, and is properlj' a]iplied to the
worship of God. Among the Hebrews
adoration b}' outward act was variou»ly
performed. We gather from different
Scripture passages that it consisted in
putting off the shoes, bowing the knee
or the head, or in slowly prostrating the
body by first falling on the knees and then
bending the body until the head touched
the ground. But these forms of adora-
tion were not limited to the worship of
Jehovah. The Eastern mode of saluta-
tion is very obsequious, and so between
an inferior and a superior the same cer-
emonies would be performed, and also
between equals. Similar was their con-
duct in the worship of idols when seek-
ing the good-will of one whom they had :
offended. Kissing the hand of an idol '
was a common mode of adoration.
These acts were often repeated more
than once. In the New Testament we
read that our Lord was treated with j
these outward signs of respect and rev- •
erence. So, too, in the case of Peter, !
to whom Cornelius prostrated himself. I
See Worship. |
ADRAill'MELECH {king of fire). \
1. An idol-god of Sepharvaim, sup-
posed to represent the sun, while an- I
other idol, called Anammelech, repre- '
26
sented the moon. 2 Kgs. 17:^^1. Sac-
rifices of living children were made to
these idols, as to Moloch.
Adrainmelecli. {From Kimrud. After Layard.)
2. A son of Sennacherib, king of As-
! Syria. Isa. 37: 38. He and his brother,
! Sharezer, killed their father while he
was in the act of idolatry. Their mo-
tive for this parricidal deed is not
known. They both fled to Armenia,
! and Esar-haddon succeeded to the crown.
1 ADRAMYT'TIUM, named from
Adramys, brother of Croesus, a seaport-
town of Mysia, Acts 27 : 2-5, oji a bay
of the ^gean Sea north of Smyrna. It
is now a poor village known as Adrnmyti.
A'DRIA. Acts 27: 27. The northern
part of the Ionian Sea between Greece,
Ital}', and Sicilv.
A'DRIEL.' SeeMERAB.
ADUIj'IjAM {justice of the people,
or hiding- or reating-phtce), a cave not
far from Bethlehem in which David hid.
I Sam. 22 : 1 ; 2 Sara. 23 : 13 ; 1 Chron.
II : 15. Tradition has located it in
Wady Khureitiiii, east of Bethlehem.
The cave is said to be well fitted for a
robbers' hold, being dry and airy and
full of intricate passages. The greatest
length of this cave is 550 feet. Lieut.
Conder, however, places the cave of
Adullam in the valley of Elah, not far
from the city of Adullam, about 13
miles west from Bethlehem. Near it
are numerous caverns, each as large as
an ordinary cottage, which would give
room for David and his band. He
ADU
AGA
states that the great caverns at Beit Jib-
ri)i, which some have regarded as the
cave of Adullam, are damp, cold, and
full of bats and creeping things, and
carefully avoided by the cave-dwelling
peasants, while the smaller caves north
and west of Adullam are almost constant-
ly in use, and are from their position
strong and defensible. A row of these
caves has been found north and west of
the city of Adullam capable of holding
200 to 300 men. M. (ianneau first sug-
gested this location in 1S72, from the
resemblance of the, modern name Aid el-
J/ii/eh, and it seems to answer the re-
quirements of the Scripture narrative.
ADUL^LiAIU, a royal city of the
Canaanites allotted to Judah, Gen. 38 :
1 : Josh. 12 : 15 : 15 : 35 ; fortified by
liehoboam, 2 Chr. 11 : 7 ; repeopled
by the Jews after the Captivity, Neh.
11 : 30. See also Mic. 1 : 15. Ganneau
and Conder locate it in Wadi/ es-Snnt,
about 2+ miles south of Socoh or Sho-
coh, where they found heaps of stones
and ruined walls, called Aid el-Miifeh.
ADUL'TERY, the crime forbid-
den in the seventh commandment. Ac-
cording to Jewish law, it is the unlawful
intercourse of a man, whether married
or not, with a married or betrothed
woman not his wife. The crime was
punished in patriarchal times, if Tamar's
be a specimen case, by burning. Gen.
38 : 24, or at least capitally. Under the
Mosaic law in the case of the free
woman both oS'enders were stoned.
But a bondwoman thus guilty was to
be scourged, and the man must make a
trespass-oflering. Lev. 19 : 20. 22. The so-
called '•' water of jealousy," by which the
guilt of the accused woman was proven or
refuted, was simply some •' holy water,"
or that from the laver which stood near
the altar in an earthen vessel, into which
dust from the floor of the tabernacle
was sprinkled. This mi.Kture was given
to the woman, who was solemnly charged
by the priest with an oath of cursing.
If she was guilty, then by divine inter-
position— for it contained nothing in-
jurious— this test proved her guilt.
If innocent no effect was produced.
The accuser in these cases was the hus-
band. Num. 5: 11-31. There is no case
of the use of this tef?t in Scripture.
Adultery is the only ground of divorce
recognized by our Lord. Matt. 5 : 32.
j Adultery is used in the Bible in a
I spiritual sense to denote the unfaithful-
, ness and apostasy of the Jews, because
the union between God and his people
was set forth as a marriage. In the
N. T. " an adulterous generation "
means a faithless and God-denying
people.
ADU^I'MIM {red ones), an ascent
or steep pass. Josh. 15 : 7, on the road
from Jericho to Jerusalem, upon the
south side of the Wady Kelt, " over
against Geliloth " or Gilgal. Josh. 18:
17. Our Lord in the parable of the
Good Samaritan probably refers to this
dangerous pass. Luke 10 : 30-30.
ADVOCATE, OH PAR'A-
CLETE. 1 John 2 : 1. One who
pleads another's cause, a counsellor,
an intercessor. It is the term used by
Christ to describe the oflice of the Holy
Spirit, John 14:10: 15:26; 16:7, but
translated in A. V. '• Comforter." It is
also applied to Christ as our intercessor.
1 John 2 : 1. The forensic office of
advocate was unknown among the Jews
before their subjection to the Romans;
then they were obliged to conduct their
trials before the Roman magistrates
after the Roman manner. Their ignor-
ance of their conquerors' law compelled
them to employ advocates or lawyers
speaking Greek and Latin. Such an
advocate was Tertullus. whom the Jews
hired to accuse Paul before Felix. Acts
24:1. See Trial.
.E'NEAS, oil E\E'AS, the para-
lytic at Lydda healed by Peter. Acts
9 : 33, .34.
^'NON. See E.vov.
AFFIN'ITY. 1 Kgs. 3 : 1. Re-
lation by marriage, in contradistinction
from consanguinity, which is relation
by birth. The degrees of affinity which
should prevent marriage under the Mo-
saic law may be found in Lev. 18 : 6-17.
See Marriagk.
AG'ABUS (possibly locust), a
prophet who foretold in Antioch while
Paul and Barnabas were there, a. d.
43. Acts 11 : 28. A famine took place the
following year. It was probably limit-
ed to Judaaa, where it was severe. The
poor Jews were relieved by Helena, the
queen of Adiabene, who bought corn
for them out of Alexandria. Aid was
sent to the Christians in Jerusalem from
Antioch. Acts 11 : 29. Many years after,
27
AG A
AGR
Agabus met Paul at Cesarea, and wsiined
him of the sufl'crings lie would endure
if he went to Jerusalem. Acts 21 : 10.
A'GAG { fidiiu) was probably the
title of the Amalekite kings, like Pha-
raoh of the Egyptian rulers. Two kings
of this name are mentioned in 8eri|)ture.
1. In Num. 24 : 7, the way in which
this A gag is referred to indicates that
he was very powerful, above all other
kings known to lialaam.
2. An Agag who was captured by Saul,
but was spared, contrary to the ex))ress
prohibition of Jehovah. He was after-
ward brought to Samuel, who hewed
him in pieces. This act was not only
the execution of the divine order, but
it would seem an act of retributive jus-
tice as well, since Agag is charged with
infamous cruelty. 1 Sam. 15: S, 'Mi.,
A'GAGITE. Haman is called an
Agagite, perhaps because of his ancestry.
Esth. 3:1.
A'GAR. See Hagar.
AG'ATE. Ex. 39 : 12. A precious
stone, variegated chalcedony, translu-
cent or opaque. It is often banded
in delicate ])arallel lines, waving or
zigzag in their course, and of white,
tendon-like, wax-like, pale and dark
brown, black or sometimes bluish colors.
It is sometimes clouded, and at other
times presents a group of figures dis-
posed with so much regularity as to
seem like a work of art, showing trees,
plants, rivers, clouds, buildings, and
human beings. The name is su])posed
by some to be derived from the river
Achates, in Sicily, where the stone was
formerly found in great abundance.
The agate of Isa. 54: 12 and Eze. 27 :
16 (a different Hebrew word) was doubt-
less the nihi/. The agate was the second
stone in the third row of tlie high priest's
breastplate. Ex. 28:19.
AG'EE ifiKjItivc), the father of one
of David's mightv men. 2 Saui. 23: 11.
AG'RICULTUUE. In its special
sense, and as here employed, the term
denotes the cultivation of grain and
other field crops. In a broader mean-
ing, the threefold business of many ag-
riculturists includes, besides such culti-
vation, the keeping of Hocks and herds,
antl horticulture.
nixtfui/. — To dress and keep the gar-
den of Eden was the hapj)y cuiploymeiit
given to man at his creation. After
28
the Fall, Adam was driven forth to till the
ground as the tirst farmer. This was
also the employment of Cain, but Abel
was a keeiier of sheep. After the Flood,
" Noah began to be an husbandnuin, and
he planted a vineyard." The patriarchs
and their descendants, till their settle-
ment in Palestine, gave little attention
to agriculture. Joseph's words compre-
hensively describe their occupation:
" The men are shepherds, for their trade
hath been to feed cattle." With the pos-
session of the cultivated lands of the Ca-
naanites, the Hebre\vs adojited a more
strictly agricultural life, and. in general,
the methods of farming of those whom
they conquered. Pastoral cmploj'mcnts
were, however, never wholly abandoned.
The tribes east of the Jordan were
possessed of "a ver}' great multitude
of cattle," and in Judt^a and all the
more hilly districts shepherds always
abounded.
Soil. — Palestine is divided agricultu-
rally, and as to all its physical condi-
tions, into four districts: 1. The mari-
time plains, including the rich coast-
lands of (raza, Sharon, etc., with a mild
and equable cliniate, under which even
the orange and banana flourish. 2. The
valley of the Jordan, reaching from the
waters of Merom to the southern end
of the Dead Sea, having a tro])ical tem-
perature. 3. The hill-country between
these divisions eastward of Carmel, bi-
sected by the rich plain of Jezreel. and
bosoming many fertile vales, such as
those of Nazareth, Shechem, Samaria,
Hebron, but often rising, especially
southward, into bleak moors and high-
lands, where snow sometimes falls in
winter. 4. Pera^a, the rolling and often
mountainous plateau east of the Jordan
valley, not very different in climate frum
the last division, but in soil more fertile.
In this last region Dr. iMerrill re])orts
the tillable area of the Hauran (ancient
Bashan) to be 150 by 40 miles in extent,
and one vast natural wheat-field. Here
he has ''seen a peasant plough a furrow
as straight as a line, one and even two
miles long." In Argob and Trachonitis
he describes the largest lava-betl in the
worlil, covering 400 or .'>00 square miles,
and the source of inexhaustible fertility.
Of Palestine west of the .Jordan, which
is less in extent than the State of V^er-
mont, Captain Warren says: "The soil
AGR
AGR
is so rich, the climate so varied, that
within ordinary limits it may be said
that the more people it contained the
more it may. Its ])roductiveness will
increase in proportion to the labor be-
stowed on the soil, until a population of
fifteen millions may be accommodated
there."' By others we are told that the
very sand of the shore is fertile if wa-
tered. The soil of Palestine is enriched
by the disintegration of the rocks, which
are commonly limestone, often quite
chalky.
Seasons. — Of these there are practi-
calh' but two — the rainy and the dry —
nearly divided from each other by the
vernal and autumnal equinoxes. The
showers begin to fall in November, at
the latest, and the rains of the winter
months, except it be February, are
heavy. These are "the former rain"
of Scripture, which rarely fails, while
"the latter rain" of March and early
April is more uncertain ; and as the
filling of the ears of grain depends upon
it, this "latter rain" is eagerly expected.
Job 29 : 23 ; Zech. 10 : 1. Storms in
Palestine are ordinarily brought by the
west or south-west wind. 1 Kgs. 18 :
44: Luke 12:54.
Without question, this country was in
Bible times better supplied with forests
and orchards than now, and its climate
was more humid and equable. The
hills were generally terraced and pro-
vided with reservoirs, as abundant ruins
testify, and the sudden torrents, which
now wash away what little soil they
find, were, by these means and others,
dispersed and absorbed by the ground.
jNIany of the most rugged districts were
covered with vineyards and olive-or-
chards, so- that Deut. 8 : 7-9 is but a lit-
eral descripti<jn of what the land once
was, and, in particular localities, still
remains. Unlimited extortion, in ad-
dition to heavy taxes upon every crop
and every tree, even to the oak upon the
hills, the unrestrained pillage of the har-
vests by Bedouins, with other causes, are
fast abandoning this fertile land to de-
nudation, drought, and the desert.
Calendar of Labor. — There have been
few changes in the art or instruments of
agriculture in Western Asia since ancient
times. The present tense may therefore
ordinnrily be used for the ])ast. Plough-
ing and sowing grain begin Avith the
rainy season, and, as the ground does
not freeze, continue, when the weather
permits, till March. Then are sown the
podded and garden plants, the meltons,
and all the crops which demand a warm-
er soil. Barley-harvest quickly follows
the cessation of the latter rain, and then
wheat-harvest. The remaining crops
having one after another been brought,
to perfection and gathered, the droughts
of summer now end most agricultural
operations till the ingathering of tiie
fig, the olive, and the grape in August
and September. Occasionally, during the
busy season, the husbandman tents upon
the land he cultivates. Ordinarily, his
home is in some village or walled town,
perhaps miles away from his farm. In
the early morning he walks or rides to
his labor, the patient ass or the camel
bearing his light ploughs and other im-
plements. Thus in the parable the
" sower went forth to sow." So varied
is the character of the soil and climate
within short ranges as often greatly to
prolong the season of planting and har-
vesting. Grain frequently requires I'e-
planting or replacing with other crops.
Where there are permanent streams or
opportunities for irrigation, sowing fol-
lows harvest, crop succeeds crop through
the entire year, and the promises of Lev.
26 : 5 and Am. 9:13 are verified.
Crops. — In this fertile soil, with an
almost unparalleled variety of climate
and exposure, between such points as
Jericho, Hermon, and Gaza, there is op-
portunity for the cultivation of nearly
all plants either of the torrid or tempe-
rate zones : and we find in the Bible, for
such a book, a v^y extended botanic
list. The variety of cultivated species
was, however, much less than now.
Wheat, barley, millet, and spelt (not
rye) were the only cereals. Beans and
lentiles were staples, while flax, cucum-
bers, fitches, cummin, and the onion fam-
ily were often extensively cultivated.
Jewish writers mention peas, lettuce,
endives, and melons as ancient garden-
plants. Fruit- and nut-bearing trees
were cultivated for the most part within
enclosures.
Methods and Listnunents. — As popu-
lation increased, irrigation, by conduct-
ing water to the crops from brooks and
reservoirs, became more common. The
painful Egvptian labor of raising a sup-
2!)
AGR
AGR
ply from a lower level was rarely neces-
sary. Such passages as Jer. 9 : 22 show
that the use of dung as manure was not
uncommon. In Jer. 4 : 3 ; Hos. 10:12
there is reference to the practice of leav-
ing the land fallow for a time. The
former passage, with many others, re-
minds us of the great variety and abun-
dance of thorny plants in Palestine, said
to be one mark of a fertile soil. Rota-
tion of crops seems to have been prac-
tised to some extent.
The instruments of agriculture are
particularly described under their re-
spective titles. Oriental ploughing does
not turn a sod, but merely scratches the
earth to the depth of three or four inches
at most, which is all the primitive and
light plough and the small cattle of the
East can do. Often — always in the case
of new ground — a second ploughing
crosswise was practised; and this is re-
ferred to by the word " break " in Isa.
28:24. Steep hill-sides were prepared
for planting wi'h the mattock or hoe. an
iron-pointed instrument of wood resem-
bling in shape the modern "pick." Isa.
7 : 25. Good farmers ploughed before the
rains, that the moisture might be more
abundantly absorbed. The seed, being
scattered loroadcast upon the soil, was
ordinarily ploughed in, as is still the
custom. Light harrowing, often with
thorn-bushes, completed the process.
In wet ground the seed was trampled in
by cattle. Isa. 32 : 20. After its plant-
ing there was commonly little further
labor bestowed upon the crop till it was
ready for the harvest. Weeds Avere re-
moved by hand when it was safe to do
so. Matt. 13 : 28, 29. Irrigation was
sometimes necessary. As the ingather-
ing drew near, the fields must be pro-
tected by the watchman in his lodge
from the wild boar and other beasts, and
from human marauders. The newly-
scattered seed and the ripening crop also
required to be defended against great
flocks of birds. Matt. 13 : 4.
Grain when ripe was, in more ancient
times, plucked up by the roots. Later,
it was reaped by a sickle resembling our
own, either the ears alone being cut off
or the whole stalk. The sheaves were
never made into f^hocks ; but this word
in Scripture use denotes merel}' a loose
An Egyptian Thresliing-Floor. (From Eiehm.)
heap of them. Laborers, animals, or
carts bore the harvest to the threshing-
floor, where, as elsewhere described, the
grain was separated from the ears and
winnowed. More delicate seeds were
beaten out with a stick. Isa. 28 : 27.
Pccttharities. — Agriculture was rccog-
30
nized and regulated by the Mosaic law
as thechief national occupation. Inalien-
able ownership — under Gt)d — of the soil
was a fundamental ])rovision, and rent-
ing the ground till the year of jubilee wa.s
alone possible. " The land shall not be
sold for ever: for the land /« mine ; for
AGR
AHA
ye (ire strangers and sojourners with
me." Lev. 25 : 8-16, 23-35. The en-
couragement such a provision gave to
agricultural improvements cannot be
exaggerated.
That the land must rest one year in
seven was another remarkable and most
beneficent requirement. Lev. 25 : 1-7.
The Jews were forbidden to sow a field
with divers seeds. Deut. 22 : 9. For
example, wheat and lentiles must not
be mixed, nor areas of them meet. The
rabbis describe with minuteness how to
vary the position of crops, yet avoid ac-
tual contact between them, and prescribe
at least three furrows' margin between
such divers kinds. The joking together
of an ox and ass was prohibited, but is
common enough among the present in-
habitants. Horses were never used for
farm- work.
Vineyards are enclosed in walls, and
gardens are usually protected in the
same way, or by banks of mud taken
from ditches. Otherwise, in agricultu-
ral districts the absence of all fences or
enclosures is, and always was, in striking
contrast to our own practice, A brook
or a cliff may serve as a boundary, but
ordinarily large stones almost covered
by tl)e soil are the landmarks. Deut.
19 : 14. Exceedingly beautiful to the
eye arc the vast fertile areas of Pales-
tine, checkered only by cultivation. As
cattle find jiasture through most of the
year, there are no proper barns to be
seen. Grass is cut in watered places
with a sickle for '' soiling," and stock is
fed with this or with grain when the
fields are dried up. More commonly,
during periods of scarcity, the flocks
and herds are driven to other feeding-
grounds. Booths are sometimes pro-
vided for inclement weather, and at
night cattle are driven into caves or
folds.
The permission to pluck and eat a
neighbor's grapes or grain, but not to
put the former in a vessel nor use a
sickle on the latter, is not to be forgot-
ten. Deut. 23 : 24, 25. There was also
merciful provision that the poor might
glean in the vineyard and harvest-field,
and that something should be left for
them. Lev. 19 : 9, 10; Deut. 24 : 1 9.
Altogether, the agricultural laws of the
Pentateuch have been unapproached in
their wisdom and beneficence by any
similar legislation on record. See Gar-
den, Mowing, Plolgh, Seasons, Thresh,
Vines, etc.
AGRIP'PA. See Herod (3, 4).
A'GUR (oM asitenihler, i. e. of irixe
men), a sage mentioned in Prov. 30:1.
Nothing is known of him. The rabbins
identified him, but groundlessly, with
Solomon.
A'HAB (fathers brother). 1. Sev-
enth king of Israel, B. c. 919-896. 1
Kgs. 16 : 29. Son and successor of Omri.
He reigned twenty-two years. His
capital was Samaria. He married .Jeze-
bel, daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre,
who had been priest of Astarte, but had
seized the throne of his brother. Being
a weak man, he was ruled by his am-
bitious and daring wife. Idolatry was
set up in Israel. Ahab built a temple
to Baal in Samaria, and Jezebel main-
tained at her own cost 400 prophets
of Astarte. These were allowed to be-
come the relentless persecutors of the
servants of Jehovah, so that true relig-
ion was almost extinct. In punishment
God sent three years of drought. Eli-
jah had prophesied this event, and at
its termination appeared before the king,
challenged the false prophets to a trial
of power, demonstrated their feebleness,
and caused them to be slain. Ahab was
deeply impressed, and might have yield-
ed, were it not for Jezebel, who threat-
ened the life of Elijah, and by her en-
ergy prevented a reaction in favor of
Jehovah. Sec Em.iah. Ahab had a taste
for splendid architecture ; this he showed
by building an ivory palace and several
cities. But it was on the city of Jezreel he
seems to have spent the most attention.
The desire to beautify it led to the af-
fair of Xaboth's vineyard. This he
coveted, that he might add it to his
pleasure-grounds in .Jezreel. But Xa-
both refused to part with the land for
money or in exchange, for he was for-
bidden by the Levitical law. Lev. 25:
23. Ahab took the refusal to heart.
But the scheming Jezebel secured Xa-
both's murder under orders marked with
Ahab's seal. And thus the land passed
into his hands. See Naboth. The
Lord by Elijah denounced Ahab and
Jezebel, and foretold the extinction of
their house. But Ahab's remorse and
repentance secured the postponement
of the sentence. 1 Kgg. 21.
31
AHA
AHA
Ahab fought three wars or campaigns
with Ben-hadad II., king of Syria, in
the first two of which, only a year apart,
both defensive, he was victorious. The
second victory put Ben-hadad into his
hands, and he was able to exact very
favorable terms of peace — viz. that
all the Israelitish cities lost should be
restored, and in Damascus Jewish of-
ficials should be permanently settled in
their own houses, in order that they
might look after the interests of Ahab
and his subjects. This is what is meant
by making "streets"' in Damascus.
1 Kgs. 20 : 34. For letting Ben-hadad
go he was strikingly rebuked by a
prophet, and the failure of his hopes
prophesied. It was indeed foolish, since
no])ledge had bfen given by Ben-hadad :
and ungrateful, because God, who had
given the victory, was not consulted.
For the next thne years the kingdom
had peace. But then Ahab in conjunc-
tion with Jehoshaphat. kingof Judali, his
son-in-law, fought Ben-hadad the third
time, in order to recover Kamoth-gilead,
which Ahab claimed belonged to him.
Lying prophets encouraged him in his
enterprise, but at Jehoshaphat's request
Micaiah, the prophet of Jehovah, was
called, who foretold his death. Ahab
in anger imprisoned Micaiah, but still
was so impressed that he took the pre-
caution to disguise himself: but a cer-
tain man drew a bow at a venture and
smote him, so that at eventide he died.
His body was carried to Samaria; the
dogs licked up his blood as a servant
washed it from the chariot. Thus the
prophecy of Elijah was partially fulfilled,
but Tuore exactly in the case of his son,
Ahab left three children by Jezebel, all
of whom died violent deaths ; also, by
other wives, seventy sons, who were
slain by Jehu.
2. Ahab, a false prophet, who de-
ceived the captive Israelites in Bab-
ylon, and was burnt by Nebuchad-
nezzar, B. r. .')i)4. Jer. 29 : 22.
AHAR'AH {after the. brother), the
third son of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8:1.
AHAR'HEL {hehiud the breast-
work), a desccnilant of Judah. 1 Chr.
4:8.
AHAS'AI fi>robably a contraction of
Ahaziah, inhoni Jt-horah ho/'/n). a ])ricst,
N<;h. 11:13; called Jahzcrah in 1 Chr.
9:12.
AHAS'BAI (/ iciU coujide in Je-
hovah), the father of one of David's
warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 34.
AHASHVE'ROSH. Ezr. 4 : 6,
margin : Hebrew form of Aliasucrus.
AHASUE'RUS (probably //o»-
ki)Kj), the Hebrew form of Xerxes,
the name, or perhaps only the title, of
one Median and two Persian kings men-
tioned in the Old Testament.
1. The father of Darius the Median,
and the same with Astyages. Dan. 9 :
1.
2. Supposed to be the son and succes-
sor of Cjrus, probablj^ Cambyses, who
reigned seven years and five months
from B. c. 529. Ezr. 4 : 6,
3. The husband of Esther, undoubted-
]j the Xerxes of profane history. Esth.
1:1. The story of his acts of caprice
and cruelty recorded in the book of Es-
ther agrees exactly' witli what we other-
Avise know of his character, for once he
scourged the sea and beheaded the engi-
neers because a storm carried away their
bridge, and was guilty of many other
crimes. In the third year of his reign
he called a council of his nobles, very
likely for the purpose of arranging the
invasion of Greece. The meeting lasted
six months, and was followed by a munif-
icent feast, on the seventh day of which
he commanded liis queen, Vashti, to
show herself unto liis drunken nobles.
This she properly refused to do, where-
upon he deposed her. Four years after,
he married Esther. The interval is ac-
counted for by supposing the war with
Greece intervened. See Esther.
AHA'VA {water), a place or river
where Ezra collected the returning ex-
iles and proclaimed a fast. Ezr. 8: 15,
21, 31. Kawlinson suggests that Aha-
va was identical with Ava and Ivah,
the modern Hit, on the Euphrates, east
of Damascus.
A'HAZ ( po^neifsor). 1. Eleventh king
of Judah, son of Jotham, whom he suc-
ceeded. 2 Kgs. 16 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 1. Ho
reigned sixteen years, B. c. 742-726. Ho
was a gross idolater, and even sacrificed
his chihiren to the gods. He remodelled
the temple to fit it for idolatrous rites.
He kept chariot-horses dedicated to the
sun. This course brought upon him
and his kingflom severe judgments,
tiod made them to flee before their ene-
mies. Their allies often proved un-
AHA
AHI
faithful, and involved them in great dis-
tress.
\ Early in his reign, probably the sec-
ond year, Pekah, king of Israel, and
Rezin, king of Syria, who, just at the
close of Jotham's reign, had confeder-
ated for the destruction of Judah, in-
vaded the kingdom with a powerful
army and laid siege to Jerusalem.
Isaiah foretold their overthrow and
inspired the king. Isa. 7. But the
allies, though defeated at Jerusalem,
captured Elath, wasted Judah. and car-
ried 200,000 into captivity ; the proph-
et Oded caused these to be restored.
Ahaz in his extremity made a league
with Tilgath-pilneser, king of Assyria,
who freed him from his enemies, but at
the cost of the Judaic kingdom, which
became tributary, and Ahaz sent him
all the treasures of the temple and his
palace, and appeared before him in
Damascus as a vassal. Neglecting the
warnings of Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah,
he ran to even greater e.Kcesses in idol-
atry, and indeed so lowered himself in
the popular esteem that when he died
he was refused a burial with his royal
ancestors. 2 Chr. 28 : 27. His only
permanent service to his people was the
introduction of the sun-dial, which was
probably connected with the Assyrian
astrology and necromancy.
2. A son of Micah, the grandson of
Jonathan. 1 Chr. 8 : 35, 36 ; 9 : 42.
AHAZI'AH {irfiom Jehovah S(i8-
taiiis). 1. The son and successor of
Ahab, and eighth king of Israel, b. c.
896-895. 1 Kgs. 22 : 40. He was an
idolater, and for this reason, when he
attempted to unite with Jehoshaphat
in the gold-trade with Ophir, God
caused the ships to be broken in port
at Ezion-geber, not allowing this union
between his friends and foes. See Je-
hoshaphat. Under him Moab rebelled.
A fall through a lattice, probably from
the window of his chamber in his pal-
ace in Samaria, occasioned his death.
Characteristically, he sent to inquire at
Ekron of Baal-zebub whether his injury
would be fatal. Elijah met the messen-
gers and told them that he would die.
The king sent to take Elijah, and thus
two companies of soldiers were destroy-
ed. But with the third, Elijah went
and told the king in person of his
speedy death. 2 Kgs, 1.
3
2. Called also Azariah, 2 Chr. 22:6,
and Jehoahaz, 2 Chr. 21 : 17, was a son
of Jehoram and Atlialiah, and fifth kin^
of Judah, and at the age of twentj^-two
succeeded his father as king of Judah.
2 Kgs. 8 : 25. He continued the idol-
atry of the house of Ahab, and was
governed by the advice of his infamous
mother. His reign lasted only one
year, b. c. 884. He allied hiuiself with
his uncle, Jehoram, king of Israel, and
attacked Hazael, king of Syria, who de-
feated them at Ramoth-gilead. Je-
horam was severely wounded and car-
ried to his palace in Jezreel. There
Ahaziah visited him. Israel meanwhile
rebelled under Jehu. The two kings
went out to meet him, and Jehu killed
Jehoram. Ahaziah fled, and was pur-
sued to the pass of Gur, where he was
mortally wounded, but escaped, and died
at Megiddo. In this way the slightly
differing accounts, 2 Kgs. 9 : 27 and 2
Chr. 22 : 9, can be reconciled.
AH'BAN (brother of the wise), a de-
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 29.
A'HER {after, followiuff), a Benja-
mite. I Chr. 7:12.
A'HI [brother). 1. A Gadite. 1 Chr.
5: 15.
2. An Asherite. I Chr. 7:34.
AHI'AH (friend of Jehovah). 1.
Supposed b^' some to be the same with
Ahimelech, 1 Sam. 21 : 1. was the son of
Ahitub, and his successor in the priest's
office. 1 Sam. 14 : 3, IS. See Ahim-
elech and Ahiti'B.
2. The son of Shisha, one of Solomon's
scribes or secretaries. 1 Kgs. 4:3.
3. A descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr.
8:7.
AHI'AM [father's brother), one of
David's warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 33 j 1
Chr. 11 : 35.
AHI'AIV [brotherly), a son of Shemi-
dah. 1 Chr. 7:19.
AHIE'ZER [brother of help). 1.
A prince of Dan. Xum. 1:12; 2 : 25 ,•
7 : 66 ; 10 : 25.
2. A Benjamite chief who joined Da-
vid. 1 Chr. 12 : 3.
AHI'H UD [brother, i. e. friend, of
Judah, i. e. renoicii), the prince of the
tribe of Asher. Num. 34:27.
AHI'HUD (different name in He-
brew from the above, brother of union), a
descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 7.
AHI' J AH (brother, i.e. friend, of Je-
33
AHI
AHI
hovah). 1. A prominent prophet, called
the Shilonite from his place of residence,
who foretold to Jeroboam the disruption
of the kingdom and the assignment of
the ten tribes to him. 1 Kgs, 11 : 29-39.
The prophecy is referred to 1 Kgs. 12:
15 ; 2 Chr. 10 : 15. To the wife of Jero-
boam the same prophet subsequently
announced not only the fate of the sick
child, but that of the nation. 1 Kgs.
14:1-18. A part of this latter proph-
ecy Baasha realized. 1 Kgs. 16 : 29. He
left annals of Solomon's reign. 2 Chr.
9 : 29.
2. The father of Baasha, the king. 1
Kgs. 15 : 27, 33 ; 21 : 22 ,• 2 Kgs. 9 : 9.
3. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr.
2:25.
4. One of David's " valiant men.'' 1
Chr. 11 : 36.
5. The Levite"over the treasures of
the house of God and . . . the dedicated
things." 1 Chr. 26 : 20.
6. One who sealed the covenant. Neh.
10 : 26.
AHI^KAM (brother of the enemy),
a son of Shaphan, and the father of
Gedaliah, was an officer at the court of
Josiah and Jehoiakim, and one of those
whom Josiah sent to Huldah the proph-
etess to inquire of her concerning the
book of the law which had been found
in the temple. 2 Kgs. 22 : 12. He after-
ward protected the prophet Jeremiah.
Jer. 26:24. See Jkhkmiah.
AHI'LiUD (firother of one horn, so.
before him), the father of Jehoshaphat,
the official recorder of the reigns of
David and Solomon. 2 Sam. 8 : 10 ; 20 :
24; 1 Kgs. 4:3; 1 Chr. 18:15. The
father likewise, in all probability, of
Baana, one of Solomon's twelve com-
missariat officers. 1 Kgs. 4:12.
AHIM'AAZ {brother of wrath). 1.
The father of Saul's wife Ahinoam. 1
Sam. 14 : 50.
2. Son and successor of Zadok the
priest.
During the revolt of Absalom, Za-
dok and Abiathar, the high priests, stay-
ed in Jerusalem with Hushai, David's
friend; while Ahiinaaz and Jonathan,
the son of Abiatliar, stationed them-
selves at En-rogel, a short distance from
the city, and the jdot was that all that
Hushai should hear respecting Absa-
lom's plans he should communicate to
Zadok and Abiathar, and they to their
31
sons Ahimaaz and Jonathan, by whom
the intelligence should be communicated
to David. 2 Sam. 15 : 36. As soon as
Absalom had rejected the counsel of
Ahithophel, and adopted that of Hushai,
Zadok and Abiathar were promptly in-
formed of it, and directed their sons to
go with all possible haste to David and
tell him to cross Jordan at once. A
woman bore the message. Seeing her
speak to the men, and noticing that
they ran off with haste, a lad informed
Absalom of the suspicious event, and
accordingly he ordered a pursuit. When
they came to Bahurim, they concealed
themselves in a well. The woman of the
house covered the mouth of the well
with a blanket, on which she spread corn
to dry ; and when Absalom's messengers
came up in the pursuit, and inquired
Avhere they were, she told them that
the 3'oung men had passed on. Thus
they escaped, and while their pursuers
returned to Jerusalem they hastened
to David with their message. 2 Sam.
17:15-22.
At his own urgent request, Ahimaaz
was employed to carry the intelligence
of Absalom's death to David, his father.
He outran Cushi, who had been previ-
ously despatched on the same errand.
Before he had delivered his message,
howevei', Cushi came up, and made
known the sad event. 2 Sam. 18 : 19-33.
See David.
3. A son-in-law of Solomon, and one
of his commissariat officers. 1 Kgs. 4 :
15.
AHI'MAN {brother of a r/ift). 1.
One of three Hebronitic Anakim. Num.
13 : 22, defeated and killed by' Caleb
with the help of Judah. Josh. 15:14;
Jud. 1:10.
2. A Levite porter. 1 Chr. 9 : 17.
AHIM'ELECH {brother or friend
of the Iclny). 1. The son of Ahitub. and
his successor in the priesthood at
Nob. 1 Sam 21 : 1. He gave David
some of the shew-bread and the sword
of Goliath when he fled from Saul.
For this offence he and all the priests at
Nob were slain at the instigation of
Docg the Edomite. 1 Sam. 22: 11.
Sec Abiathar.
2. A Hittite who wns one of David's
friends during his flight from Saul.
1 Sam. 26:6.
AHI'MOTH {brother of death), a
AHI
AHU
Kohathite, 1 Chr. 6 : 25 ; called in v. 35,
Mahath.
AHIIV'ADAB {brother of the voble,
i. e. noble brother), one of Solomon's
commissariat officers. 1 Kgs. 4 : 14.
See Abiathar.
AHIN'OAM {brother of pleasant-
iiesH, i.e.jjleasant). 1. The daughter of
Ahimaaz, and the wife of Saul. 1 Sam.
14:50.
2. A woman of Jezreel, and one of
David's wives. 1 Sam. 25 : 43. She
was taken captive by the Amalekites
in the siege of Ziklag, and afterward
rescued from captivity by David, 1
Sam. 30 : 5, 18. She lived with him
while he was king of Judah in Hebron,
and was the mother of Amnon, his eld-
est son. 2 Sam. 2:2; 3:2; 1 Chr. 3:1.
AHI'O {brotherly). 1. A son of
Abinadab, who, with his brother Uz-
zah, was intrusted by David with the
transportation of the ark from Kirjath-
jearim to Jerusalem. 2 Sam. 6:3; 1
Chr. 13 : 7. See Uzzah.
2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 14.
3. Another Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 31 ;
9 : 37.
AHI'RA {brother of evil), the prince
of the tribe of Naphtali. Num. 1 : 15 ;
2:29: 7:78, 83; 10:27.
AHI'RAM {brother of the high), a
son of Benjamin, Num. 26 : 38 ; called
Ehi in Gen. 46:21, and was possibly
the same as Aher. 1 Chr. 7:12. His
descendants were called Ahiramites.
Num. 26:38.
AHIS'AMACH {brother of sup-
port), a Danite, the father of Aholiab,
one of the architects of the tabernacle.
Ex. 31:6; 35:34; 38:23.
AHIS.H'AHAR {brother of the
dawn), a great-grandson of Benjamin.
1 Chr. 7:10.
AHI'SHAR {brother of the singer),
the controller of Solomon's household.
1 Kgs. 4:6.
AHITH'OPHEL {brother offool-
inhness), a native of Giloh, and the
familiar friend, companion, and coun-
sellor of David. Ps. 55 : 12-14; 2 Sam.
15 : 12 ; 1 Chr. 27 : 33. He was the
grandfather of Bath-sheba. Cf. 2 Sam.
11 : 3 with 23 : 34. His wisdom seemed
superhuman. 2 Sam. 16 : 23. Absalom
persuaded him to join in the conspiracy
against his father, David ; but the cun-
ning measures which Ahithophel pro-
posed for the accomplishment of Absa-
lom's ambitious plans were all defeated
by the counsel of Hushai. Ahithophel,
seeing that the probable issue would be
the utter ruin of Absalom and his cause,
which would almost necessarily involve
his own destruction, returned at once
to Giloh and hanged himself. 2 Sam.
17 : 23.
AHI'TUB (brother of goodness). 1.
The son of Phinehas, and grandson
of Eli. 1 Sam. 14 : 3. Some suppose
that he succeeded Eli in the priesthood.
See Ahimelech.
2. The son of Amariah, and the father
of Zadok. 1 Chr. 6 : 8.
AH'LAB {fatness, fertility), a
town in Asher held by the Canaauites,
Jud. 1 : 31 ; probably the place known
later as Gnsh Hulnb or Chaleb, and
which Robinson locates at el-Jish, near
Sofed, north-west of the Sea of Galilee.
AH'IiAI {woidd God!), daughter of
Sheshan ; married to his slave Jarha : an-
cestress of one of David's mighty men.
1 Chr. 2:31. 34, 35; 11:41.
AHO'AH {friendship of Jehovah ?),
a grandson of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8:4.
AHO'HITE, from Ahoah, a pa-
tronymic of some of David's warriors.
AHO'LAH {her tent), AND
AHOL'IBAH {m;i tabernacle in
her), the names of imaginary harlots;
symbolically used for Judah and Sa-
maria. Eze. 23 : 4, 5, 36, 44.
AHO'LIAB {tent of his father),
son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan,
who, with Bezaleel, was divinely ap-
pointed to construct the tabernacle and
its furniture. Ex. 35 : 34.
AHOLIB'AMAH {tent of the
height). 1. A wife of Esau, and daugh-
ter of Anah, Gen. 36 : 2, etc. She was
the same with Judith, daughter of
Beeri. 26 : 34. Judith was perhaps
her original name.
2. The name appears in the genea-
logical list, Gen. 36 : 41 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 52,
but it is the name of a district, and not
of a person.
AHU'MAI {brother of water, i. e.
piiHill(tninions), a descendant of Judah.
1 Chr. 4: 2.
AHU'ZAM {their possession), the
son of Ashur. 1 Chr. 4:6.
AHUZ'ZATH (possession), a par-
ticular friend of Abimelech, king of
Gerar, who attended him when he met
35
AI
ALA
Isaac, and made a treaty with him at
Beer-sheba. Gen. 26 : 26.
A'l {heap of ruins). 1. A city of the
Canaanites, (ien. 13 : o ; taken by Joshua,
Josh. 7 : 2-5 ; 8 : 1-29 ; also called Aiath,
Isa. 10 : 28, and Aija. Neh. 11 : 31.
Abraham pitched his tent between Hai
and Bethel. Gen. 12: 8. The two cities
were so far apart that Joshua could
place an ambush west of Ai unseen by
the men of Bethel, while he was in the
valley north of Ai. The city of Ai was
east of Bethel, and about 9 miles north
of Jerusalem. It is named 38 times in
the Bible. It is now Halyan.
2. A city of the Ammonites not far
from Heshbon. Jer. 49 : 3.
AI'AH {hawk). 1. The father of
Rizpah, Saul's, concubine. 2 Sam. 3 :
7; 21:8,10,11.
2. The son of Zibeon, 1 Chr. 1 : 40 ;
called Ajah in Gen. 36:24.
AI'ATH. Isa. 10 : 28. Feminine
form of Ai, and probably the same as
Ai.
AI'JA. Neh. 11 : 31. See Ai.
AIJ'ALON. See Ajalon.
AIJ ELETH SHA'HAR {hind
of the dawn). These words occur in the
title to Ps. 22, and probably " indicate,
not the subject-matter of the poem, but
rathor a time for the guidance of the
precentor." "There was some poem or
lyrical composition extant which bore
the name of Aijeleth Shahar — similar
names have frequently been given to
poems in the East — and according to the
well-known measure of that the chief
musician was to sing or chant the
psalm." — Ayre: Treasury of Bible
Knojcledije.
A'lN {eye, sprinf/). 1. A place, or
probably a fountain, and one of the
landmarks on the eastern boundary of
Canaan. Num. 34:11. It is now known
as A in el-Azy, a remarkable spring, one
of the sources of the Orontes, and about
10 miles west of Riblah.
2. A city of southern Palestine, first
given to Judah, Josh. 15 : 32. afterward
assigned to Simeon, Josh. 19 : 7, and
then to the Levites, Josh. 21:16; 1
Chr. 4:32. The same place as Ashan, 1
Chr. 6 : 59, and possibly as En-rimmon.
Neh. 11: 29.
AM All. See Aiah.
AJ'ALON {plare of f/azef/es). 1. A
Leviticai city of Dan, Josh. 19 : 42 ; made
36
a city of refuge, Josh. 21 : 24 ; held by
the Amorites, Jud. 1 : 35 ; noticed in the
wars with the Philistines, 1 Sam. 14:
31 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 18 ; fortified by Reho-
boam, 2 Chr. 11: 10; then in the terri-
tory of Benjamin, as the Danites had
extended their territory farther north.
See Jud. 18 : 1. Being on the border of
the two kingdoms, it is sometimes men-
tioned as in Ephraim, 1 Chr. 6 : fifi, 69,
and sometimes as in Judah and Benja-
min. 2 Chr. 11 : 10 ; 28 : 18. Its modern
name is Yalo, a small village about 14
miles west of Jerusalem, and north of
the JaiFa road.
2. A valley. Josh. 10 : 12, near the
above city, now called Merj Ihn Omeir,
which is broad and very beautiful. There
Joshua fought a great battle. See Gibkon.
3. A town in Zebulun. possibly named
after Elon the judge, who was buried
there. Jud. 12 : 12. Its site may be
the modern Jahni.
A 'KAN {sharp-sighted ?), a descend-
ant of Esau, Gen. 36 : 27 ; called Jakan
in 1 Chr. 1 : 42.
AK'KUB {insidious). 1. A descend-
ant of David. 1 Chr. 3 : 24.
2. One of the porters at the east gate
of the temple. 1 Chr. 9:17: Ezr. 2 :
42; Neh. 7:45; 11:19: 12:25.
3. One of the Nethinim whose fam-
ily returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 :
45.
4. A Levite who assisted Ezra in
explaining the law. Neh. 8 : 7.
AKRAB'BIM {scorpions), a range
of hills on the southern boundary of
Judah, Num. 34 : 4 ; Josh. 15 : 3, and on
the border of the territory of the Amor-
ites. Jud. 1:36. The "ascent of"
and the "going up to" Akrabbim is
the famous " Scorpion Pass," where the
route from Petra to Hebron passes out
of the Ghor, or Wadij, el-Filcreh. At
the upper end of this winding valley,
10 miles from Maderah, is a wild ascent
now called Nakh Kareh, which is regard-
ed as the ancient Akrabbim or " Scorpion
Pass." Scorpions still abound in the
region. It was also called Maaleh-
acrabbim. Josh. 15 : 3.
AI/AB ASTER. Matt. 26:7. A
white mineral, easily carved and sus-
ceptible of a fine polish. It v.as of two
distinct kinds. One was a pure variety
of gypsum or sulphate of lime, the rock
which is often ground into plaster of
ALA
ALE
Paris. Oriental alabaster was carbon-
ate of lime, a mineral of the same
chemical composition as most of the
marbles. It was highly valued for its
translucency and fur its variety of red-
dish or grayish streakings. The name
"alabaster" is from Alabustrun, in
Egypt, where this material was found,
and where vessels were manufactured
from it for holding perfumes. Vases
of the same mineral for containing
ointments or cosmetics were found at
Nineveh by Mr. Layard. The well-
known sculptured slabs from that city
are of alabaster of the gypsum kind.
The druggists in Egypt at the present
place in Asher. Josh. 19 : 26. The
name seems to be preserved in the
Wady Melik, which joins the Kishon
not far from the sea and near Mt.
Carmel.
ALE'METH {covering), a Benjam-
ite. 1 Chr. 8 : 36 ; 9 : 42.
AL'EMETH, and AL LE-
METH, the same as Alameth {cover-
i»(j), a Levitical city of Benjamin, 1 Chr.
6 : 6U ; called also Almon, Josh. 21 : 18 ;
probably the modern A Unit, 4 miles
north-east of Jerusalem, and about I
mile north-east of Anata, the ancient
Anathoth.
ALEXAN'DER {mnu-defemhr). 1.
The son of iSimon the Cyrenian.
Mark 15: 21.
2. A distinguished Jew who,
with others, took part against
Peter and John. Acts 4: 6.
'i. A Jew of Ephesus who took
a conspicuous part in the contro-
versy between Paul and the popu-
lace of that city, and attempted,
without success, to quell the com-
motion. Acts 19 : 33.
4. A coppersmith and apostate
from Christianity, whom Paul
mentions in terms of severe re-
proach. 1 Tim. 1 : 19. 20 and 2
Tim. 4 : 14.
ALEXANDER THE
GREAT, the famous king of
Macedonia and conqueror, died
B.C. 323. He brought Europe and
Asia into contact, made the Greek
Alabaster Vases. {From the British Museum.) the ruling language of civiliza-
The iDscriptioD on the centre vessel denotes the quantity it holds, tion, and thus unCOnsciously pre-
day use vessels of this substance for the
purpose of keeping medicines and per-
fumes. -Theocritus, an ancient profane
historian, speaks of gilded alabasters
of Syrian ointment. The phrase " she
brake the box," used Mark 14 : 3, is
supposed to mean that she broke the
slender neck of the sealed bottle or
pitcher. Thus the offering was very
costly and appropriate. Box was for-
merly used in a more general sense than
now. The word is said to come from
the )cond of the same name, and at first
was used for any vessel formed from
that material.
ALi'AMETH (cnvenug), another
form of Alemeth, which see. 1 Chr.
7:8.
ALAM'MELECH {king's oak), a
pared the way for the spiritual conquest
of the gospel. He is not mentioned by
name in the canonical books, but in the
Apocrypha, 1 Mace. 1 : 1-9 ; 6 : 2, and
Head of Alexander the Great. (On a coin of
Lysimachus, king of Thrace.)
is meant in the prophecies of Daniel,
where he is represented first as the
belly of brass in Nebuchadnezzar's
37
ALE
ALE
dream of the colossal statue, 2:39, and
then in the vision of Daniel, under the
figures of a leopard with four wings,
and a one-horned he-goat, to indicate
his great strength and the swiftness of
his conquests, 7:6; 8 : 5-7 ; 11 : 3, 4.
He succeeded his father, Philip, b. c.
336, conquered Syria, Palestine, Egypt,
destroyed the Persian empire and sub-
stituted the Grecian, but died at the age
of 32, from the effects of intemperance,
in Babylon, and was buried in Alexan-
dria, which he had founded, b. c. 332.
His conquests were divided among his
four generals. Josephus relates that
after the siege of Tyre he visited Jeru-
salem ; and being shown the prophecy
of Daniel concerning himself, he grant-
ed the Jews everywhere the most im-
portant privileges. But the heathen
historians ignore this event.
ALEXAN'DRIAjthe Grecian cap-
ital of Egypt, founded by and named
after Alexander the Great, B.C. 332.
Sitiuttiou. — It was a noted seaport of
Lower Egypt, and was situated on a
low, narrow tract of land which divides
Lake Mareotis from the Mediterranean,
and near the western mouth of the Nile,
about 120 miles from the present city
of Cairo.
History. — Soon after its foundation by
Alexander it became the capital of the
Ptolemies and the Grecian kings reign-
ing in Egypt, and one of the most pop-
ulous and prosperous cities of the East.
Its harbor could accommodate vast na-
vies, fitting it to become the commercial
metropolis of the entire Eastern world.
In front of the city, on the island of
Pharos, stood a famous light-house,
named after the island and noted as one
of the Seven Wonders of the world.
Alexandria numbered, in the days of
its ancient prosperity, 600,000 inhabit-
ants (half of them slaves), and ranked
next to Athens in literature. It had the
greatest library of ancient times, which
contained upward of 700,000 rolls or
volumes. The portion in the museum,
consisting of 400,000 volumes, was
burnt in B. C. 47. The additional or
"new library" in the Serapeum, after-
ward increased to about 500,000 vol-
umes, including the original 300,000
volumes, was destroyed by the fanatical
vandalism of the Saracens in A. i). 640.
At Alexandria the 0. T. was translated
38
into the Greek by seventy learned Jews
(hence called the " Septuagint), in the
third century before the Christian era.
The Alexandrian Greek dialect, known
as Hellenistic Greek, was the language
used by the early Christian fathers, and
is still the study of the biblical scholar
in the pages of the N. T. Alexandria was
the birthplace of Apollos, Acts 18 : 24,
and in the apostle Paul's time, it carried
I on an extensive commerce with the coun-
! tries on the Mediterranean. Acts 6:9;
27 : 6 ; 28 : 11. The city was the home
of Philo, who there blended the Mosaic
religion with the philosophy of Plato.
Mark founded there a Christian church,
which in later years became a patri-
archal see, outranking Jerusalem and
Antioch, being itself afterward out-
ranked by Constantinople and Rome. In
its catechetical school — the theological
seminary of those days — Clement and
Origen taught the Christian religion, in
opposition to the false philosophy of
the Gnostic sects. In Alexandria
originated the Arian heresy denying
that Jesus Christ was divine, and there
Athanasius, the " father of orthodoxy,"
firmly opposed the false and defended
the true doctrine of the deity of our
Lord. From A. n. 300 to 600" the city
was second only to Rome in size and
importance, and was the chief seat of
Christian theology. It was conquered
by the Saracens under Caliph Omar
about A. D. 640, when it began to decline.
The rising importance of Constanti-
nople, and the discovery of an ocean
passage to India by way of Cape Good
Hope, contributed to its further ruin,
until it was reduced from a prosperous
city of half a million to a poor village
of only 5000 to 6000 inhabitants. The
plan of Alexandria on the next page is
taken from Fairbairn's Imperial Dic-
tionary of the Bible.
Prenent Condition. — It is now an im-
portant city of 200,000 inhabitants (in-
cluding 50,000 Franks), and is connected
with Cairo by a railway, and also with
Suez, on the Red Sea. The city has a
new artificial harbor with a breakwater
two miles long. Among the ancient
monuments to be seen are the Cata-
combs, the Column of Diocletian, 94
feet high and named " Pompey's Pil-
lar " — not from the famous Pompey, but
from a Roman prefect who erected the
ALE
ALL
column in honor of the emperor Diocle-
tian— and one of the two obelisks or
" Needles of Cleopatra," which, however,
belong to the time of the Pharaohs and
were brought from Heliopolis. One was
transferred to London in 1878, and now
adorns the embankment of the Thames :
the other is to be removed to the city of
New York (ISSO).
ALEXANDRIANS. Acts 6 : 9.
Jews from Alexandria at Jerusalem,
where they had a synagogue by them-
selves, or perhaps the Libertines and
Cyrenians worshipped with them.
AL'GUM, SeeALMCG.
ALI'AH (wicketbiess). See Alvah.
ALI'AN {tall}. 1 Chr. 1 : 40. See
Alvax.
A'LIEN. See Stranger.
AL'LEGORY. Gal. 4 : 24. A fig-
ure of speech, nearly resembling the
parable or fable, common in the Scrip-
tures and among all Oriental nations.
It properly means a figurative speech
which, under the literal sense of the
words, conveys a deeper spiritual mean-
ing. But the literjil 6r historic sense
is not necessarily denied. Paul gives
two examples of allegorical interpreta-
tion— the rock in the wilderness of
which the Israelites did drink, and which
spiritually or mystically means Christ,
1 Cor. 10:4; and the story of Ilagar
and Sarah. Gal. 4 : 24, 25. In v. 25 the
best critical authorities leave out "Agar,"
and thus rid the verse of much of its dif-
ficulty, for it is not asserted that Agar
is. but that Sinai is, a mountain in Ara-
bia. See Parable.
ALLELU'IA, Rev. 19 : I.or HAL-
LELU'JAH, a Hebrew word signify-
ing Praise ye ihe Lord. It was a com-
mon exclamation of joy and praise in
the Jewish worship, and begins and con-
cludes several of the Psalms, as 106, 111,
112, 113, 117, and 135. The Psalms 113
to 118 constituted, according to Jewish
enumeration, the HnUcl, which was
sung on the first of the month and at
the Feasts of Dedication, Tabernacles,
Weeks, and of the Passover.
ALLI'ANCE. The Jews were in
intention a peculiar people, designed to
live apart from all other nations. But
they frustrated this design, and leagued
themselves in off"ensive and defensive
treaties with the surrounding govern-
ments. We know so little of the details
39
ALL
ALM
of these affairs that we cannot always
be sure just when they took place. But
it is noticeable that the decay of the
Jewish state in purity is synchronous
with a desire to receive outside help.
They left God for man. Before the state
arose, alliances were indeed formed by
the patriarchs, Gen. 21 : 27-32; 26 : 28,
29 ; 31 : 44—54, but the}"^ were of very lim-
ited extent. When the Israelites invad-
ed Palestine they were forbidden to ally
themselves with the inhabitants, but the
Gibeonites fraudulently made a treaty
with them, to which Israel abode faith-
ful. Josh. 9. David and Solomon made
an alliance with Tyre, 2 Sam. 5 : 11 ;
1 Kgs. 5 : 1-12, but it was for pacific
ends. When, however, the disruption
took place, both Judah and Israel look-
ed to neighboring states for assistance
in their '' intestine internecine wars."
By means of these foreigners idolatry
was introduced, the national purity
eventually destroyed, and the anger of
God thus excited.
Alliances were made by an oath be-
tween the parties, who in solemn fashion
passed between the parts of an equally-
divided victim. Gen. 15:10; Jer. 34 :
18-20. A feast followed. Gen. 26 : 30 ;
2 Sam. 3 : 20. Salt, symbol of fidelity
to this day in the East, was used ; hence
the phrase ''covenant of salt." Num.
18 : 19 ; 2 Chr. 13 : 5. Once made, these
alliances must not be broken. Josh. 9 :
18; the punishment for so doing was
severe. 2 Sam. 21 : 1 ; Eze. 17 : 16.
ALi'LON {a)i oal:), a place on the
boundary of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 33 ;
probably should be rendered the " oak-
forest." See Zaanannim.
AL'IjON {an oak), the son of Je-
daiah. 1 Chr. 4 : 37.
AL'LON-BACH'UTH {oak of
lueepiiiy), an oak tree near Bethel, under
which Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, was
buried. Gen. 35 : 8.
ALMO'DAD {i)nmeamrahle), the •
Joktnnite. «;en. 10:26; 1 Chr. 1: 20.
AL'MON. Josh. 21:18. See Ale-
met h.
ALi'MOND {Aiinji/daliifi com mil nh),
a tree resembling the peach in size, leaf,
flower, and fruit. The fruit is green,
almost pulpless, and shrivels off in Sep-
tember, leaving the nuts, for which the
tree is chiefly valued, and which the sons
of Jacob carried down to the governor
4U
of Egypt, a country where almonds seem
to have been rare. Gen. 43: 11. ''Hazel,"
in Gen. 30 : 37, probably denotes this
tree. The bowls of the sacred candle-
stick were made like unto almonds, Ex.
25:33, by which name of "almonds"
English workmen to this day call the
pieces of glass used to ornament branch-
candlesticks. Aaron's rod that budded
yielded this fruit. Num. 17 : 8.
In January, before flowers appear on
other trees, they adorn the naked twigs
of the almond. Hence the allusion of
the poet:
"The hope, in dreams of a happier hour,
Tliat alights on Misery's brow,
Springs out of tlie silvery almond-flower,
That blooms on a leafless bough."
The Hebrew name for this tree, doubt-
less suggested by its early blooming,
means hasten, which explains Jer. 1:11,
12 : ■' The word of the Lord came unto
me, saying, Jeremiah, what seest thou ?
And I said, I see a rod of an almond
[hasteii] tree. Then said the Lord unto
me, Thou hast well seen : for I will
hasten my word to perform it." The
allusion in Ecel. 12 : 5 is by some
thought to refer to the beautiful resem-
blance of the almond tree when in blos-
som to a hoary head. But as these
Almond. (From M'm. Sviith.)
flowers, though white in contrast with
])each-bloom, are still pinkish, the opin-
ion now prevails that " as the almond
ushers in the spring, so do the signs re-
ferred to in the context indicate the
Jinsttiuiutj of old age and death."
ALM
ALT
A L'MON-DIB'LATHA'IM
{liidimj of the two Jiy-takefi), one of the
halting-places of the Israelites near
the river Arnon ; probably the same as
Beth-diblathaim. Num.' 33 : 46, 47 ;
Jer. 48 : 22.
ALMS, ALMS DEEDS. The
word is not found in the Authorized
Version of the Old Testament, but is
frequent in the New Testament. The
duty was, however, enjoined very strict-
ly upon the Jews, who by law were re-
quired always to leave gleanings in the
fields that the poor might be fed. Lev.
19 : 9, 10 ; 23 : 22 : Deut. 15 : 11 ; 24 :
19; 26:2-1:J: Ruth 2 : 2. Every third
year the tithe of the produce of the
farmers was to be shared with the
Levite, the fatherless, the stranger, and
the widow. Deut. 14 : 28. Alms-crivinjr
IS a subject of praise in the Old Testa-
ment; e. y. Job 31:17; Ps. 41:1 and
112 : 9. In the temple there was one box
for the reception of alms to be dedicated
to the education of the poor children of
good family. Alms-giving was a part of
Pharisaic practice. Our Lord did not
rebuke them for it, but for their self-
satisfaction in the performance. Matt.
6:2. In Acts 10 : 31 ; Rom. 15 : 25-27 ;
1 Cor. 16 : 1-4 the Christian mode of re-
lieving the wants of others is set forth.
AL'MUG TREES, IKgs. 10:11,
AL'GUM TREES, 2Chr. 2:8; 9:
10, 11. Two forms of the same word.
A' precious wood used for musical in-
struments or cabinet-work. Being or-
dered by Solomon, it was brought from
Ophir to Tyre, and thence with cedar of
Lebanon to Jerusalem. As to what
almug-wood was there are many theo-
ries, but some of the best authorities
believe it to have been the red sandal-
wood of India.
ALICES. Ps. 45:8: Song Sol. 4:
14. We may infer that aloes was some
fragrant and costly wood or gum entire-
ly different from the medicine which we
know by that name. It is believed to
have been brought from India, and was
used in embalming the dead. John 19 :
39.
Lign-aloes — that is, wood-aloes. Num.
24 : 6 — is a translation of the same He-
brew word, but probably means a differ-
ent plant. Balaam appears to refer to
a well-known tree whose qualities might
illustrate the condition of the Israelites
— possibly, to some kind of odoriferous
cedar.
Aloes (Aquilaria agallocha. After Dr. Blrdwood.)
I A'LOTH, a place or a district
j which, with Asher, was in charge of
, Baanah, one of Solomon's officers ; per-
haps it should be Bealoth. 1 Kgs. 4:16.
AL'PHA. See A and 0.
ALPHE'US {exchauije ?). 1. The
father of the apostle James the Less,
Matt. 10 : 3, and husband or father of
Mary. John 19 : 25. Others make him
the uncle of Jesus by identifying him
with Cleophasand calling his wife a sister
of the mother of Jesus ; but it is more
likely that ''the sister of the mother of
Jesus," mentioned John 19 : 25, was
Salome, the mother of John, who was at
the cross, according to the svno[itical
Gospels. Matt. 27 : 36 ; Mark'l5 : 40.
2. The father of Levi or Matthew.
Mark 2:14.
AL'TAR. Gen. 8:20. A structure
appropriated exclusively to the offering
of sacrifices, under the Jewish law.
See Sackificks. Though sacrifices were
offered before the Flood, the word altar
does not occur until the time of Noah's
departure from the ark.
Altars were of various forms, and at
first rude in their construction, being
nothing more, probably, than a square
heap of stones or mound of earth.
The altar on which Jacob made an of-
fering at Berhel was the single stone
which had served him for a pillow dur-
ing the night. Gen. 28 : 18. Primarily
for sacrifice, they seem at times to have
been built for a witness merely, to mark
the spot of God's appearance or other
41
ALT
ALT
memorable event. Gen. 12 : 7 ; Ex. 17 :
15, 16; Josh. 22:10-29. The altar
which Moses was commanded to build,
Ex. 20 : 24, was to be made of earth.
If made of stone, it was expressly re-
quired to be rough, the use of a tool
being regarded as polluting, Ex.20:
25, but this refers only to the body of
the altar and that part on which the
victim was laid, as is evident from the
directions given for making a casing of
shittim-wood and overlaying it with
brass for the altar of burnt-offering.
It was also to be without steps. Ex.
20 : 26. See also Deut. 27 : 2-6 and
Josh. 8 : 31. The law of Moses forbade
the erection of altars except in the
tabernacle ; yet even pious Israelites
disobeyed the letter of this law, for
Gideon, Samuel, David, and Solomon
are mentioned as setting up altars. The
temple altar was an asylum ; e. g. 1 Kgs.
1 : 50. Altars were used in idol-worship ;
and because they were often erected on
high places they acquired the name of
"high places."
The structures are different, as well as
the apparent ornaments and uses. On
representations of them are projections
upward at each corner, which represent
the true figure of the horns. Ex. 27 : 2 ;
1 Kgs. 2:28; Rev. 9:13. They were
probably used to confine the victim.
Ps. 118:27.
The altars required in the Jewish
worship were :
1. "The altar of burnt -offering,"
or the " brazen altar," in the taber-
nacle in the wilderness. This altar
stood directly in front of the principal
entrance. It was made of shittim-wood
(acacia), seven feet and six inches
square, and four feet and six inches
high. It was hollow and overlaid with
plates of brass. The horns — of which
there was one on each corner — were of
wood, and overlaid in the same way.
A grate or net-work of brass was also
attached to it, either to hold the fire or
to support a hearth of earth. The fur-
niture of the altar was all of brass, and
consisted of, 1. a shovel to remove the
ashes from the altar ; 2. a pan to re-
ceive them ; 3. hnninn for receiving the
blood of the victims and removing it ;
4. hnnkn for turning the sacrifice ; 6.
fire-paiiH, or perhaps cenxerfi, for carry-
ing coals from the fire or for burning
42
incense. At each corner was a brass
ring, and there were also two staves or
rods overlaid with brass, which passed
through these rings, and served for car-
Altav of Buint-Offeriiig in the Tabeiuacle.
rying the altar from place to place.
The altar is described in Ex. 27. The
" compass " referred to, v. 5, was a ledge
running all around the altar about mid-
way from the ground — affording a con-
venient place for the priest to stand
while offering sacrifice — supported by a
brass net-like grating. The fire used
on this altar was kindled miraculously
and was perpetually maintained. It
was also a place of constant sacrifice.
In the first temple, which in its gen-
eral plan was constructed after the pat-
tern of the tabernacle in the wilderness,
the altar of burnt-offering stood in the
same relative position as in the taber-
nacle. It was much larger, however,
being thirty feet square and fifteen feet
high, its particular plan being appoint-
Altai- of Bnrnt-Offeiing in the Temple.
(From Sureiihusius's Miehtui.)
ed expressly by divine authority. It
was made entirely of bronze plates,
which covered a structure of earth or
stone. 2 Chr. 4:1. In the second tem-
ple it occupied the same position, though
it was still larger and more beautiful than
in the first. An inclined plane led in
each case up to the altar, since express
command forbade the Jews using steps.
Ex. 20 : 26.
2. The " altar of incense," or the
"golden altar," stood within the holy
ALT
AMA
]ilace and neai" to the inmost veil. Ex.
30 : 1-6. It was made of the same
wood with the brazen altar, and was
eighteen inches square and three feet
high. The top, as well as the sides and
horns, was overlaid with pure gold, and
it was finished around the upper surface
Altar of luceuse.
with a crown or border of gold. Just
below this border four golden rings were
attached to each side of the altar, one
near each corner. The staves or rods
for bearing the altar passed through
these rings, and were made of the same
wood with the altar itself, and richly
overlaid with the same precious metal.
Upon this altar incense was burned
every morning and every evening (see
Incense), so that it was literally per-
petual. Ex. 30 : 8. The *' altar of in-
cense " in Solomon's temple was made
of cedar overlaid with gold. Neither
burnt-sacrifice, nor meat-oifering, nor
drink-offering, was permitted upon this
altar, nor was it ever stained with blood,
except once -annually, when the priest
made atonement. Lev. 16: 18, 19.
AL'TAR TO THE [AN] UN-
KNOWN GOD, referred to by Paul.
Acts 17 : 23. There were in Athens several
altars with this inscription, which were
erected during a plague, the Athenians
believing they had unconsciously offend-
ed some divinity, but not knowing whom.
AL-TAS'CHITH [destyoy not).
These words are in the titles to Ps. 57,
58. 59 and 75. and are probably '' the
beginning of some song or poem to the
tune of which those psalms were to be
chanted.''
A'LUSH (a crowd of men, or place
of wild beaata), an encampment of the
Israelites on their way to Sinai, and the
last before Rephidim. Num. 33 : 13, 14.
See Rephidim.
AL'VAH iwick-edness), a chief of
Edom. Gen. 36 : 40. Called Aliab in
IChr. 1:61.
AL'VAN {tfdl), a descendant of
Sier the Horite. Gen. 36:23. Called
Alian in 1 Chr. 1 : 40.
A'MAD ( people of duration), a town
ofAsher. Josh. 19 : 26. Robinson sug-
gested that it might be located at Shefa
Amar, on a ridge of Haifa. Drake pro-
poses to identify it with Umm el- Amid.
A'MAL {labor), an Asherite. 1 Chr.
7 : 35.
AM'ALEK (dweller in a valley),
the son of Eliphaz, and grandson of
Esau, chieftain or "duke" of Edom.
i Gen. 36 : 16. The Amalekites were not
I named from him, for they existed long
, before. Gen. 14 : 7. Arabian tradition
makes him the son of Ham.
AM'ALEKITES. 1 Sam. 15 : 6.
A powerful people of uncertain origin,
first mentioned in connection with the
invasion of Chedorlaomer. Gen. 14 : 7.
They are called. Num. 24: 20, the first
of ail the nations. They were signally
defeated in a contest with the children
of Israel at Rephidim, and for oppos-
ing the progress of Israel they became
objects of God's judgmr nts. They were
afterward defeated and repulsed by Gid-
eon, Jud. 7 : 22, and by Saul, 1 Sam. 15,
and by David, 1 Sam. 30, till at last
the word of the Lord was fulfilled to
the very letter, and their name was
blotted from the earth. 1 Sam. 30 : 17
and 1 Chr. 4 : 43.
A31'ALEKITES, COUNTRY
OF THE, a region lying between
Canaan and Egypt, chiefly south of the
mountains of Judah, and from Mount
Sinai eastward to Mount Seir and the
Salt Sea. Gen. 14 : 7 : Ex. 17 : 8 : Num.
13 : 29 : 14: 25. For the physical fea-
tures and character of the region see
Sinai.
AH ALEKITES, MOUNT OF
THE. Jud. 12:15. A mountain or
hilly district in Ephraim, probably so
named from an early settlement of the
Amalekites or a later invasion by
them.
A'MAH (gathering-place), a city in
the south of Judah. Josh. 15 : 26.
Wilton and others would join this word
48
AMA
AMA
with Hazor in the preceding verse, and
read *' Hazor-Aman," but ancient au-
thorities do not support this view. Its
precise location is unknown.
AM'ANA, OR AMA'NA {peren-
in'al). 1. Margin, same as Abana. 2
Kgs. 5:12. See Abana.
■2. A ridge or peak of the Lebanon
range, in which the river Amana or
Abana has its source. Song. Sol. 4 : 8.
AMARI'AH {naid, i, e. promised).
1. Son of Meraioth, a descendant of
Aaron in the line of Eleazar, and
father of Ahitub, whose son, Zadok, was
made high priest, bringing back the of-
fice to his family. 1 Chr. 6 : 7, 52.
2. A high priest later on. 1 Chr. 6:11.
3. A Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 23 : 19 ;
24 : 23.
4. The head of one of the twenty-four
courses of priests. 2 Chr. 31 : 15 ; Neh.
10 : 3.
5. One in Ezra's time. Ezr. 10 : 42.
6. An ancestor of Zephaniah the
prophet. Zeph. 1:1.
7. One of the family of Perez. Neh.
11:4.
AM'ASA (« burden). 1. A son of
Jether (or Ithra) and Abigail, and
nephew of David. He joined in Ab-
salom's rebellion, and was appointed his
commander-in-chief. 2 Sam. 17 : 25.
Being defeated by Joab, and Absnlom
being killed, he submitted to David, and
was made captain of the host in room
of Joab, his cousin, whose part in the
death of Absalom and general lack of
respect brought him into disfavor.
When Sheba revolted David sent Amasa
to assemble the people within three
days, but his tardiness, owing, perhaps,
to his unpopularity, obliged David to
despatch his household troops under
Abishai in pursuit of the rebel. Joab
joined his brother, and meeting Amasa
on the latter's return, under pretence of
saluting him killed him and put him-
self again in supreme command. 2 Sain.
20:10. See Joab.
2. A prince of Ephraim, son of Had-
lai, in the reign of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28: 12.
AMAS'AI {hnrdenKome). 1. A Le-
vite, one of the sons of Elkanah. 1 Chr.
6 : 25.
2. The chief of a party that came to
David at Ziklag. 1 Chr! 12 : 18.
3. One of the priests who blew the
trumpets before the ark. 1 Chr. 15:24.
44
4. A Kohathite in the reign of Heze-
kiah. 2 Chr. 29 : 12.
AMASH'AI {burdensome), a priest
of the time of Nehemiah, Neh. 11 : 13.
Some suppose him to be the same as
Maasiai. 1 Chr, 9:12.
AM AS I'' AH {whom Jehovah bears),
the son of Zichri, captain of 200,000
men under Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 16.
A M A Z I ' A H {whom Jehovah
8tren(jfhens). 1. The eighth king of Ju-
dah, the son and successor of Joash,
commenced his reign in his twenty-fifth
year, and reigned twenty-nine years,
B. c. 839-809. 2 Kgs. 14 : 1-20. He
served the Lord, but not perfectly. He
first slew his father's murderers, but
not their children, thus observing the
Mosaic law. 2 Chr. 25 : 4.
At the commencement of his reign,
he showed an outward regard to the
law of the Lord, but by power and
ambition he fell into a snare, and was
destroyed by violence. Amaziah re-
solved to make war upon the Edomites,
who had revolted from the kingdom of
Judah several years before. 2 Kgs. 8 :
20. He raised an army of 300,000 men
from among his own subjects, an<l
hired 100,000 men of Israel, for whose
services he paid 100,000 talents of sil-
ver— the first example in Jewish his-
tory of a mercenary army. Before he
commenced the expedition, however,
he was directed by divine authority
to dismiss his hired soldiers, or if he
did not he should certainly fall before
his enemies. After some hesitation he
sent them home. Amaziah met the
Edomites in a place called the Valley
of Salt, and gained a signal victory
over them, slaying 10,000 and taking
10,000 prisoners. Elated by his suc-
cess, and forgetful of God who had
given him the victory, he set up the
idols of his vanquished enemy as his
own gods. The anger of the Almighty
was kindled against him, and in a mes-
sage God exposed and rebuked his sin.
2 Chr. 25:15. The king was already
hardened enough to question the au-
thority of God's messenger, and even
to threaten him with death. Thus
given up to follow his own devices, he
sought occasion of war with Jehoash,
king of Israel. Tho answer of the
king to the challenge was given in
the form of a fable expressive of the
AMB
AMI
utmost contempt, and contained at
the game time a severe rebuke to the
king of Jiulah for his pride and vain-
glory. Undeterred, he met the array
of Israel at Beth-shemesh, in Judaea,
but his army was completely routed,
and he was taken prisoner. Jehoash
then proceeded to break down a sec-
tion of the city wall six hundred feet
in length, and marched through the
breach, j»lundered the temple of its
gold and silver vessels, seized the
king's treasures, and taking such host-
ages as he pleased returned in triumph
to Samaria. 2 Kgs. 14. About fifteen
years after this disgraceful defeat, Ama-
ziah fled from Jerusalem to Lachish to
escape a cons})iracy ; but he was fol-
lowed to the place to which he fled
and put to death, and his body taken
back to Jerusalem and buried with
his fathers. His name is omitted in
the genealogy of Christ.
2. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4: 34.
3. A Levite. 1 Chr. 6:45.
4. A priest of the golden calf at Beth-
el who complained against the projihet
Amos to Jeroboam, king of Israel, and
tried to effect his banishment. Amos
7: 10-17. See Amos.
AMBAS'SADOR, a person of the
highest rank. n]ipointed to re])resent his
government in the transaction of busi-
ness with a foreign power. The earliest
mention in the Bible is in the case of the
Edomites, Num. 20 : 14, to whom Moses
sent '' messengers," also in the case of
Moab, the Amorites, the Gibeonites, and
other tribes. See Num. 21 : 21 ; Josh.
9:4; Jud. 11:17-19. In the days of
the kingdoms they are more frequently
mentioned. -An injury upon them was
an insult to their king. 2 Sam. 10:5.
Their mission was often pacific or con-
gratulatory, as in the latter incident.
Paul calls gospel-preachers the ambas-
sadors of Christ. 2 Cor. 5 : 20.
AM'BASSAGE. Lukel4:.S2. A
public message. The term may include
the messenger or ambassador as well as
his message.
AM'BER. Eze. 1:4. 27; 8:2 (bet-
ter clectrum, or hr></ht f/old //'"»). Fos-
sil gum, a beautiful bituminous sub-
stance, susceptible of a fine polish,
varying in color, but chiefly yellow and
orange. It is mined in Prussia, and
also washed ashore by the waves of the
Baltic Sea. The word here used prob-
ably denotes electnun, a metal composed
of gold and silver and held in high es-
timation among the ancients. In the
passages cited the allusion is simply to
the color of amlier, and does not neces-
sarily imply that it is indestructible by
fire.
AMEN' (literally, true, firm ; met-
aphorically, faithful), used to denote
assent or entire acquiescence, impress-
ing the stamp of absolute truthfulness
upon the statement. Deut. 27 : 15. It
was used as the solemn aflirmative re-
sponse to an oath. The word was often
repeated. It is a matter of tradition
that in the temple the "Amen" was
not uttered by the people, but that in-
stead, at the conclusion of the priest's
prayers, they responded, " Blessed be
the name of the glory of His kingdom
for ever and ever." Of this a trace is
su]i]>osed to remain in the concluding
sentence of the Lord's Praj-er. Comp.
Rom. 11 : 30. But in the synagogue and
private houses it was customary for the
people or members of the family who
were present to say " Amen " to the
prayers which were offered by the min-
ister or master of the house, and the
custom remained in the earlv Christian
Church. Matt. 6 : 13; 1 Cor. 14 : 16.
Doxologies and private praters were
ap})ropriately closed with *' Amen." It
is sometimes translated eerily, and was
frequently used by our Saviour when
he was about to utter some distinct, im-
portant, and solemn truth. Its repeti-
tion, '• Verily, verily, I say unto you "
(in John) strengthens the assertion.
The promises of God are amen, be-
cause they are made sure and certain in
Christ. 2 Cor. 1 : 20. Amen is one of
the titles of our blessed Saviour, Rev. 3 :
14. as he is the faithful and true witness.
AM'ETHYST. Ex. 39: 12; Rev.
21 : 20. A precious stone consisting of
crystallized quartz, of a purple or blu-
ish-violet color. Oriental amethyst, a
variety of sapphire, is probably included
under this latter name.
A'lII {a builder), one who returned
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 57. He is
termed Anion in Neh. 7 : 59.
AMIN'ADAB FOR AMMIN'A-
DAB. Matt. 1:4; Luke 3 : 33.
AMIT'TAI {true), the father of Jo-
nah. 2 Kgs. 14 : 25 ; Jon. 1:1.
45
AMM
AMM
AM'MAH {head, or water/an), a
hill in front of Giah, near Gibeon, to
which Joab pursued Abner. 2 Sam. 2 :
24. See also Metheg-ammah.
AM'MI, explained in the margin
correctly, "my peo])le." Hos. 2:1.
AM'MIEL {people of God). 1. The
spy from Dan. Num. 13 : 12.
2. The father of Machir, of Lo-debar.
2 Sam. 9 : 4, 5 ; 17 : 27.
3. The father of Bath-sheba, 1 Chr. 3 :
5 ; called Eliam in 2 Sam. 11 : 3.
4. The sixth son of Obed-edom, and a
temple-porter. 1 Chr. 26 : 5.
AMMI'HUD {people ofjudah). 1.
An ancestor of Joshua through Elish-
ama, the chief of Ephraim in the Wan-
dering. Num. 1:10; 2 : 18 ; 7 : 48, 53 ;
10:22; 1 Chr. 7:26.
2. A Simeonite. Num. 34:20.
3. A Naphtalite. Num. 34:28.
4. Father of Talmai, king of Geshur.
2 Sam. 13 : 37.
5. A descendant of Pharez, son of Ju-
dah. 1 Chr. 9 : 4.
AMMIN'ADAB {one of the people
of the prince). 1. The son of Ram or
Aram, who was the great-grandson of
Judah, and father of Elisheba, the wife
of Aaron. He was in the line of Christ's
ancestors. Ex. 6 : 23 ; Num. 1:7; 2 :
3; 7:12,17; 10 : 14; Ruth 4 : 19, 20 ;
1 Chr. 2:10.
2. A Kohathite, and chief of the 112
sons of Uzziel. 1 Chr. 15 : 10-12.
3. Put for Izhar, probably by copyist's
error, in 1 Chr. 6 : 22.
AMMISHAD'DAI {one of the peo-
ple of the Almifjhiy), the father of Ahi-
ezer, prince of Dan. Num. 1 : 12 ; 2 :
25; 7:66. 71: 10:25.
AMMIZ'ABAD {j)eople of the
Giver, i. e. Jehovah), an officer in Da-
vid's army. 1 Chr. 27 : 6.
AM'MON, AND AMMONITES,
LAND OF, etc., a mountainous coun-
try on the east side of the Salt Sea,
reaching from the river Arnon to the
Jabbok. Num. 21 : 24 ; Deut. 2:19, 20.
It lay to the north of the land of Moab;
and "the land," "borders," or "cities"
of the children of Amnion arc noticed
over 15 times in Old Testament history,
and frequently with Moab. The precise
extent of their country cannot be deter-
mined, as they appear to have led a, wan-
dering, predatory life similar to that of
the wild Arab tribes now in that region.
46
Gilead was the best portion of their
land. Among the cities held by them,
sometimes, apparently, in common with
Moab, were Heshbon, Rabbah, and Min-
nith. The land which the king of Am-
nion claimed in the time of the Judges,
Jud. 11: 13, once belonged to a "king
of Moab." Num. 21 : 26.
AMMONITES, or CHIL-
DREN OF AM'MON, Gen. 19:38,
were the descendants of Ben-ammi, a
son of Lot. He was born in the neigh-
borhood of Zoar, but his posterity spread
northwardly and occupied the mountain-
regions of Gilead, between the rivers
Arnon and Jabbok. Originally their
possessions were bounded north by the
river Jabbok, west by Jordan, south by
Arnon, and stretched eastwardly into
Arabia. The Amorites, under Sihon,
their king, expelled them from the rich-
est part of their possessions, which lay
between the two rivers ; but Moses re-
covered it from the Amorites and di-
vided it between Reuben and Gad.
The western boundary of the Ammon-
ites then became a branch of the river
Jabbok (on which their capital city,
Rabbah or Rabbath-Ammon, stood),
and the mountains of Gilead bounded
them on the east, while the main stream
of the Jabbok continued to be their
northern boundary, and the land of
Moab the southei-n. This last is in-
tended by the kingdom of Amnion as
used in the sacred history.
The children of Amnion were gross
idolaters. Jud. 10:6. Their chief idol
was Molech, the same with Milcom, and
their history is full of the judgments
which their sins brought upon them,
though they were spared, by God's ex-
press command, when Israel passed by
them from Egvpt, because Lot w.is their
progenitor. Deut. 2:19; 2 Chr. 20 : 10.
Three hundred years afterward the kin^
of the Ammonites made war upon the
Israelites, under the pretence that they
had taken their land, Jud. 11 : 13, and
after a severe battle the Ammonites
were routed with great slaughter. In
the beginning of Saul's reign, 1 Sam.
11 : 1, the Ammonites, under Nahash,
their king, attacked Jabesh-gilead, but
proposed to spare the inhabitants pro-
vided they would all consent to lose the
right eye. During the time allowed for
their answer they collected a sufficient
AMM
AMO
force to meet the Ammonites, and so
completely routed them that two of
them were not left together. Fifty or
sixty years after this one of the kings
of the Ammonites died, and David, who
seems to have been under some obliga-
tion to him, sent a message of condo-
lence to his son and successor. This
friendly act was not received kindly,
and the messengers of David were
grossly abused and insulted. See Ha-
NUN. Expecting that David would at-
tempt to revenge the insult, they ob-
tained large supplies of men from the
Syrians ; and when David heard of
their preparation for war, he sent Joab,
with a chosen troop from the army of
Israel, to meet them. The result was
fatal to the Ammonites. They and their
allies were subdued, and tied. Kabbah,
their capital, and all the rest of their
cities were afterward destroj'ed by the
Israelites, the king's crown was taken
from his head and put on David's head,
and tlie people were reduced to a state
of abject servitude. 2 Sam. 12:26-31.
In this condition they remained till the
reign of Jehoshaphat, when they united
with the Moabites and others and made
war upon Judah, and were miraculous-
ly cut off. 2 Chr. 20. Jotham fought
and prevailed against them, and made
them tributary for several years. Many
Jews sought refuge among them in the
time of the Captivity, but they do not
seem to have decreased their hostile feel-
ing. The most dreadful judgments were
threatened against them and their chief
city because they seized and occupied a
part of the territory of Israel, Jer. 49 :
1-6, and again because they insolently
triumphed 6ver the Israelites in the days
of their captivity, Eze. 25 : 2-7, 10 ; and
every threat was executed to the very
uttermost in due time, as profane his-
tory abundantly attests. " During the
time of the Maccabees various battles
were fought between the Ammonites
and the Jews; and during the changes
that ensued, first under the Grecian, then
under the Roman supremacy, the Am-
monites lost their independent posi-
tion, and gradually became amalgama-
ted with the general Arab population."
They were a cruel, remorseless, nomadic
peoj)le. To their god Molech they offered
human sacrifices. See Molech. AVhere
their capital once stood is now the vil-
lage of Amman, 20 miles south-east of
the modern town of es-Salt.
AM'MON-NO. See No.
AM'NON (/„ithf,d). 1. The eldest
son of David, who was guilty of vio-
lating the chastity of his half-sister,
Tamar. 2 Sam. 13 ; 1 Chr. 3 : 1. See
Absalom.
2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr.
4:20.
A'MOK {(Jeep), a priest who re-
turned with Zerubbabel. Xeh. 12 : 7,
20.
A'MON, OR A'MEN [the hidden), an
Egyj)tian god, one of the eight of the
first order, and the chief of the Theban
triad. Nah. 3 : 8, margin. He is repre-
Arnoii. {After Wuk
sented as a man clad in a linen tunic,
gathered nbout the waist by a belt. In
one hand he holds the symbol of life, in
the other the staff of authority, and on
his head is a cap with two high plumes.
A'3ION {hnilder). 1. Governor of
Samaria under Ahab. 1 Kgs. 22:26;
2 Chr. 18:25:
2. The fourteenth king of Judah, son
and successor of Manasseh. He was
47
AMO
AMK
twenty-two years old when he began
to reign, and he reigned two years
in Jerusalem. 2 Kgs. 21:19. Zepha-
niah gives a vivid picture of the degra-
dation of the kingdom under this wicked
king. He was murdered by his servants
and succeeded by his son Josiah.
AM'ORITE (moHutainee)-}, LAND
OF THE. The mountainous districts
between the Jordan and the Mediter-
ranean were the portion of the Amorites
before Canaan came into the possession
of the Israelites ; the land of the Ca-
naanites being the low plain-country.
The Amorites also extended their terri-
tory, so that it atone time reached to the
foot of Hermon and embraced all Gilead
and Bashan. Deut. 4 : 47-49 ; 3 : 8, 10.
For the physical features of this land see
Canaan, Bashan, and Gilead.
Ai^'ORITES, correctly EM'OR-
ITES {invuntaineerH), a Syrian tribe
descended from Canaan, and among
the most formidable of the tribes with
whom the Israelites contended. Gen.
13:16. They were of gigantic stature
and great courage. Am. 2:9. They
first inhabited the hill-country south
of Jerusalem, the barren and rocky
land in which David took refuge; but
from there they went into better posses-
sions, and at the time of the Conquest
they inhabited one of the most fertile
districts of the country, being bounded
on three sides by the rivers Arnon, Jab-
bok, and Jordan. See Ammonitks. The
Israelites asked permission of their king
to travel through their territory, prom-
ising to injure nothing, not even to
draw water from their wells; but it was
refused. The Amorites collected and at-
tempted to oppose their progress, but
were defeated, and their territory taken
and divided between the tribes of Reu-
ben and Gad. Josh. 13: 15, 21, 24, 27.
Nothing more is heard of them in the
Bible, except occasionally as moving in
small bands.
A'MOS {burden), one of the lesser
prophets, herdsman of Tekoa, a small
town in the tribe of Judah, about 12
miles south of Jerusalem. Am. 1:1. He
lived in the reign of Uzziah, king of
Judah, and of Jeroboam II., king of
Israel, about eight hundred years be-
fore Christ. He was a contemj»orary
of Ilosea. While employed as a herds-
man he was divinely appointed to
48
prophesy against Israel. This kingdom
then was in its heyday of prosperity,
but by reason of its idolatry rife with
the seeds of ruin. It was Amos's duty
to speak plain words upon the evils of
the state. Being driven from Bethel
upon the false representation made to
the king by the idolatrous priest Ama-
ziah, Am. 7 : 10-17, he returned to Te-
koa. The time and manner of his death
are uncertain.
Ajios, Prophecy of, is the thirtieth in
the order of the books of the Old Testa-
ment, and is full of interest and instruc-
tion. It may be considered as a soi't of
continuation of Joel's. It is a unit. It
begins with the declaration of God's
judgments against Israel's neighbors.
But in this storm of fury Judah does
not escape while Israel stands the brunt
of it. 1-2 : 6. The sins of Israel are
rebuked. 2 : 6-6 : 14. The rebukes are
followed by a series of symbols, which
are interpreted. 7 : 1-9 : 7. But the
book closes with the promise of good.
The " tabernacle of David '' is to be re-
stored. Thus the beauty and perpetuity
of the Christian Church are foretold.
It has been remarked as a peculiar fea-
ture of this prophecy that it abounds
with illustrations drawn from husband-
ry and the scenes of rustic life; it cer-
tainly contains some of the most per-
fect specimens of sublime thought and
beautiful expression that are to be found
in any language.
A'MOZ {Htr<in<j), the father of Isaiah.
2 Kgs. 19 : 2 ; Isa. 1 : 1. Jewish tradi-
tion makes him the brother of Amaziah,
king of Judah.
AMPHIP'OLIS {xround the citij),
a chief city of the southern portion of
Macedonia under the Romans. The
river Strymon flowed on both sides of
the city, hence its name. It was 33
miles south-west of Philippi, and 3
miles from the sea. Paul and Silas
passed through it. Acts 17:1. Nen-
Khorio, or Neictou-u, a village of about
100 houses, now occupies a portion of
the site of Amphipolis.
Ai>I'PLIAS, a Christian at Rome
whom Paul salutes. Rom. 16 : 8.
AM'KAM (redl), a descendant of
Seir. 1 Chr. 1:41.
AM'RAM (people of the exalted).
1. A Levite, father of Moses. Ex.6:
18-20.
AMR
ANA
2. One who married a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10 : 34.
AM'RAPHEL. Gen. 14:1. The
Hamite king of Shinar, or Baby-
lonia, who confederated with other
kings and made war on Sodom and
the other cities of the plain, plunder-
ing them and making prisoners of
their inhabitants. Among the cap-
tives was Lot, Abraham's nephew.
Gen. 14:9-16. See Lor.
AM'ULET. The superstitious cha-
racter of the Oriental nations has in all
periods led them to fear the attacks of
imaginary foes, and so, in order to pro-
tect themselves, they wear charms of
one sort and another. These amulets
are indirectly and directly referred to
in the Bible j e. g. when in the form of
Egyptian Amulets. (In the Brifif^h Miifteuvi.)
1. Oold. 2. Ring with the word " heiilth " inserted.
3. Scarabaeus. 4. Cornelian serpent's liead. 5. Porce-
lain eyes. 6. Gold pendant, inlaid.
ear-rings. Gen. 35:4; Jud. 8:24;
Hos. 2:13. But more commonly they
were worn suspended from a necklace
as a gem with an inscription or figure
of a god upon it. Chnrms consisted
likewise of words written upon papy-
rus or parchment rolled up tightiv
4
and sewed in linen ; perhaps these
are meant by the " tablets " of Isa. 3 :
20. Phylacteries, some suppose, de-
rived their sanction from the danger
of idolatrous practices to, which this
custom gave rise.
AM'ZI (strong). 1. A Levite.
1 Chr. 6:46.
2. A priest. Xeh. 11 : 12.
A'XAB {j)lac€ of grapes), a place or
town of the Anakim, Josh. 11 : 21 ; 15 :
50 : now Anab, 10 miles south-south-west
of Hebron, though Lieutenant Conder
places it much farther west.
A'NAH (dusiceriiig), the father of
Aholibamah. one of Esau's wives. Gen.
36 : 2, 14, 24. The discovery of some
icartu spriiign (although in the A. V. the
word is translated mules) is attributed
to him.
ANAHA'RATH (gorge, or jmsit), a
city of Issachar, Josh. 19 : 19, probably
in the northern part of that territory.
Meskarah, and also en-Xaurah, just east
of Little Heruion, have been suggested
as the site of Anaharath.
ANAI'AH (tchom Jehovah ansicers).
1. A priest. Neh. 8 : 4,
2. One of the "heads" of the peo-
ple who sealed the covenant. Neh.
10 : 22.
AN'AKIM (Anak, sing,, ueck-
chaiit ; Anakim, plur., hmg-uecked per-
sons), a race of giants, the descend-
ants of Arba, who gave the name of
Kirjath-arba, city of Arba, to the city
which the Jews called Hebron. The
name Anak belongs to the race, not to
an individual. The race was divided
into three tribes, called in common
the Anakim, and remarkable for their
fierceness and stature. In the time
of the Conquest they occupied the
territory between Hebron and Jeru-
salem. Josh. 11:21, 22. Their gigan-
tic size had terrified the spies JMoses
sent out. Num. 13:28, but the}' were
defeated by the Israelites, who entered
into their possessions, Hebron becom-
ing the portion of Caleb. Josh. 14 :
15. See (tiants.
AlVAM'MELECH. See Adram-
MEr.FCH.
A'NAPf (a cfoiid), one who sealed
the covenant. Neh. 10 : 26.
ANA'NI (irh())i> Jehovah covers), a
descendant of David. 1 Chr. 3: 24.
ANANI'AH (whom Jehovah rovers),
49
ANA
AND
an ancestor of one who helped to build
the wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 23.
ANANI'AH {whom Jehovah covers),
one of the towns in which the Benja-
mites dwelt after the Captivity. Neh.
11 : 32. The modern village Beit Ha-
niiia, about 3 miles north of Jerusalem,
corresponds well in name and situation
to this ancient town.
ANANI'AS (the Greek form of Han-
aniah, lohotn Jehovah has gracionsli/
(jiveii). 1. One of the professed con-
verts to the Christian faith under the
preaching of the apostles. Acts 5 : 1-
10. When the disciples had thrown
their property into a common stock,
Ananias sold his estate and brought
a part of the purchase-money, pre-
tending it was the whole proceeds of
the sale. Being charged by Peter
with his sin, he fell down dead upon
the spot. His wife Sapphira, who was
privy to the fraud of her husband, but
ignorant of his dreadful end, being
asked for how much their estate had
been sold, confirmed the falsehood
which Ananias had told, and instant-
ly met the same doom.
2. A primitive devout disciple who
lived at Damascus, and was commis-
sioned to visit Paul soon after his con-
version and restore him to sight. Acts
9 : 10-18 ; 22 : 12-16. Tradition makes
him subsequently the bishop of Damas-
cus, and a martyr.
3. The son of Nebeda?us, appointed
high priest by Herod, king of Chalcis,
A. D. 48. Acts 23 : 2. In A. d. 62 he
■was sent to Rome to answer a charge
of oppression preferred against him
by the Samaritans. He was, how-
ever, acquitted, returned, and resumed
his office. Paul was tried before him,
A. D. 55. He was likewise one of the
apostle's accusers before Felix and be-
fore Festus. Acts 24 : 1 ; 25 : 2. See
Paul. He was shortly after depose!,
but retained much power until at the
breaking out of the Jewish war, when
the Sicarii set fire to his house and
compelled him to flee, but followed and
killed him, A. i). 67 (Josephus, Jewish
Warx, ii. 17, 9).
A'NATH (nuHwer), father of Sham-
gar, one of the .Iiidgcs. Jud. 3 : 31 ; 6 : 6.
AIVATH'KMA (nft apart, devoted).
In its usual acceptation it means the de-
voting c)r an animal, person, or jilace to
50
destruction. Lev. 27 : 28 ; Josh. 6 : 17-21 .
Paul uses it in the sense " cut olf, ac-
cursed." Rom. 9:3; Gal. 1:8, 9. Hence
in ecclesiastic language it means " ex-
communicated, cut off from the church."
Anathema Maranatha is a Syriac
exclamation signifying. Let him be ac-
cursed, llie Lord is at hand, a reminder
that at the coming of the Lord rewards
and punishments would be meted out.
1 Cor. 16:22.
AN'ATHOTH {answers). 1. A
son of Becher the Benjamite. 1 Chr.
7:8.
2. One who sealed the covenant.
Neh. 10 : 19.
AN'ATHOTH {answers, or echoes),
a Levitical city in Benjamin, Josh. 21:
18 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 60 ; the birthplace of Jer-
emiah, Jer. 1:1; 11:21, 23; 32:7-9;
on the route of the Assyrians, Isa. 10 :
30 ; some of its people returned with
Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2 : 23 ; Neh. 7 : 27 ;
now a village of about 20 houses, 4 miles
north-east of Jerusalem, and called Ana-
fn. Tradition incorrectly locates Ana-
thoth at Kiiriet-e(-En((b, near Abii (Josh,
and between Ramleh and Jerusalem.
ANCH'OR. Acts 27 : 29. The an-
chor was formerly cast from the stern
of the ship. In the passage cited refer-
ence may be had to an anchor with four
flukes or arms, such as are sometimes
used by boats in shallow water ; or it
may mean four distinct separate anchors.
The above represents a common anchor
with two flukes or arms. There is a
strong shank c, at one end of which are
two arms b b, terminating in flukes a a.
At the other end of the shank is the
stock (/, supplied with a ring to which a
cable can be attached. The stock is de-
signed to give such a direction to the
falling anchor that one of the flukes shall
enter itself firmly at the bottom. See
Ship.
AN'DREW (manlj/). one of the
twelve ajtostlcs, John 1:40, the son of
AND
ANG
Jonas and brother of Simon Peter, was a
native of Bethf^aida, in Galilee, by trade
a tisherman, and originally a disciple
of John the Baptist, whom he left to
follow our Saviour. When he had found
the Messiah, he forthwith sought his
brother Simon and brought him to
Jesus, and soon after they both attached
themselves to the little band of his dis-
ciples and followed him till the close of
his ministry. The events with which
Andrew was particularly connected are
recorded in Matt. 4 : 18-20 ; Mark 13 : 3 ;
and John 1 : 35-40 ; 6 : 3-13 : 12 : 22.
Tradition says he preached the gospel in
Scythia, Greece, and Asia Minor, and was
crucified on a cross of a peculiar shape
(hence St. Andrew's cross) in Achaia.
ANDRONI'CUS {victorious man),
a Roman Christian whom Paul salutes
in Rom. 16 : 7.
A'NEM {two fonntai)is), a Levitical
city of Issachar, 1 Chr. 6 : 73 ; probably
the same as En-gannim of Josh. 19:
21 : 21 : 29. It has been identified with
the modern Jeniit, on the border of the
plain of .Jezreel. See En-Gannim (2).
A'NER {l^oi/), one of the three Amor-
ite chiefs who joined Abraham in the
pursuit of the four invading kings. Gen.
14:13.
A'NER {hoi/), a Levitical city in
Manasseh, west of the Jordan, 1 Chr.
6:70: supposed bj' some to be the same
as Taanach, Jud. 1 : 27, and Tanach.
Josh. 21 : 25.
AN 'GEL. Gen. 24 : 7. This word,
both in the Greek and Hebrew lan-
guages, signifies a messenger, and in
this sense is often applied to men. 2
Sam. 2:5: Luke 7 : 24 and 9 : 52. When
the terra i» used, as it generally is, to
designate spiritual beings, it denotes
the ofiice they sustain as the agents by
whom God makes known his will and
executes his government.
Our knowledge of such beings is de-
rived wholly from revelation, and that
rather incidentally. We know, from their
residence and employment, that they
must possess knowledge and purity far
beyond our present conceptions, and
the titles applied to them denote the
exalted place they hold among created
intelligences. Christ did not come to
the rescue of angels, but of men.
Comp. Heb. 2:16. The angels are rep-
resented as ministering spirits sent
forth to do service to the heirs of sal-
vation. Heb. 1:14. They appear at
every important stage in the history
of revelation, especially at the birth of
Christ, Luke 2:9-13, in his agony in
Gethsemane, Luke 22 : 43, at his resur-
rection, Matt. 28 : 2 ; Mark 16 : 5 ; Luke
24 : 4, and at the final judgment.
Matt. 13 : 41 .
Of their appearance and employment
we may form some idea from the follow-
ing passages — viz. Gen. 16 : 7-11. Com-
j.are Gen. 18 : 2 : 19 : 1 with Hi'b. 13 : 2 ;
Jud. 13:6: Eze. 10 ; Dan. 3 : 28 and
6:22: Matt. 4:11: 18 : 1 0 and 28 : 2-7 ;
Luke 1:19: 16 : 22 and 22 : 43 : Acts
6:15; 12:7: Heb. 1 : 14 j 2:16; 2 Thess.
1:7 : Rev. 10: 1. 2, 6.
Of their number some idea mav bo
inferred from 1 Kgs. 22 : 19 : Ps.68 :
17 ; Dan. 7:10; Matt. 26 : 53 ; Luke 2 :
9-14; 1 Cor. 4:9; Heb. 12:22.
Of their strength we may judge from
Ps. 103 : 20 : 2 Pet. 2 : 11; Rev. 5:2;
18:21 ; 19:17.
And we learn their inconceivable
activity from Jud. 13 : 20 ; Isa. 6:2-6;
Matt. ^13 : 49 ; 26 : 53 ; Acts 27 : 23 ;
Rev. 8:13.
There is also an order of evil spirits
ministering to the will of the ])rince
of darkness, and both active and pow-
erful in their opposition to God. Matt.
25:41.
It would seem the proper inference
from Matt. 18:10 that every believer
had a guardian angel. The same idea
is suggested in other passages, as Ps.
91:11. 12; Luke 15:10: Acts 12:15.
They are the companions of the saved.
Heb. 12 : 22, 23 : Rev. 5 : 1 1 , 1 2. They are
to sustain an important office in the
future and final administration of God's
government on earth. Matt. 13:39;
25 : 31-33 ; 1 Thess. 4 : 16. But they
are not proper objects of adoration.
Col. 2:18; Rev. 19:10.
Angel of his Presence, Isa. 63 : 9,
by some is supposed to denote the high-
est angel in heaven, as Gabriel, who
stands "in the presence of God," Luke
1:19: but others believe it refers to the
incarnate Word.
Angel of the Lord, Gen. 16 : 7, is
considered, by some, one of the com-
mon titles of Christ in the Old Testa-
ment. Ex. 23:20. Compare Acts 7:
30-32 and 37, 38.
51
ANG
ANK
AxGEL OF THE Church. Rev. 2 : 1.
The only true interpretation of this
phrase is the one which makes the an-
gels the rulers and teachers of the con-
gregation, so called because they were
the ambassadors of God to the churches,
and on them devolved the pastoral care
and government.
Angel of Light. See Devil.
AN'GER, a strong emotion, which
is sinful or otherwise according to its
object and motive. When ascribed to
holy beings it is used figuratively to
denote high displeasure at sin. In
this sense good men may be angry and
sin not, Eph. 4 : 26 ; Neh. 5 : 6 ; cf. 2 Pet.
2 : 7, 8 ; and even God is said to be
"angry loith the wicked every day."
Ps. 7:11. Unjustified anger is reck-
oned among chief sins, and as such is
severely rebuked. Eph. 4:31; Col. 3 : 8,
and numerous passages in Proverbs.
A'iVIAM {s!(/hinfj of the pcoiile), a
Manassite. 1 Chr. 7 : lu.
A'NIM {fonntahis), a town in the
mountains of Judah. Josh. 15 : 50.
Khirbet el-,Jif has been suggested as
the site of Anim, but it is more proba-
bly at the modern village of el-Ghitwcin,
about 10 miles south-west of Hebron.
AN'IMAL. The Hebrews distin-
guished between clean and unclean
animals, allowing the use of some in
sacrifice for food, and forbidding it
in the case of others. For the list
see Lev. 11.
AN'ISE. Matt. 23:23. Properly
dill {A»ethH))i graveole»8), an annual
herb bearing small aromatic seeds used
in medicine and cookery. Ancient
writers mention it as cultivated in
Egypt; it grows in the Greek islands,
and occurs at the present day in Pales-
tine, both in gardens and wild, or at
least uncultivated in fields. — Tristram.
Another plant {Pimjiiuefla anisnni) of
the same family has been considered,
with less probability, to be the anise of
the Bible.
The tithe of this herb was scrupu-
lously paid by the Pharisees. A Jewish
writer says thntthe seed, the leaves, and
the stem of dill are subject to tithes.
See Mint.
ANK'LET. Though this word does
not occur in the A. V., anklets are re-
ferred to in Isa. 3:16, 18, 20. They
were worn upon each leg and were as
52
0 ?/ «."^-
Anise. (After Tristram.)
common as bracelets upon the arms,
and were made of much the same ma-
Anklets.
1.2,3,4. Egyptian Anklets. 5. Modern worn by
diincin(;-B;irls. '6. 7. Assyrian, of iron anrt bronze.
(From Nineveh. Now in British Museum.)
ANN
ANO
terials. The musical tinkling and jing-
ling which they made as the wearers
walked were no doubt the reasons for
their use. The ornamental step-chains
worn b^' females, according to Gesenius,
caused the short and mincing walk al-
luded to by the prophet in verse 16.
Lane speaks of these ornaments as
now worn in the East.
AN'NA (grace), a prophetess,
daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of
Asher. Luke 2 : 36. Her husband hav-
ing died after she had been married
seven years, she devoted herself to the
Lord, and was very constant in her at-
tendance on the services of the temple.
She did not, however, live in the temple
itself. At eighty-four years of age she
listened to the prophetic blessing which
Simeon uttered when he held the infant
Redeemer in his arms, and joined in it
with great fervor.
AN'NAS, the son of Seth, and a
high priest of the Jews. He was ap-
pointed by Quirinus, governor of Syrin,
A. n. 7, and was removed by Valerius
Gratius, procurator of Judaea, A. n. 2.3.
The oflfice was originally held for life,
but in Judaea's degenerate and depend-
ent position it was one of the spoils of
office, to be given to the ruler's favorite,
and to be taken away upon the loss of
favor. After his deposition Annas con-
tinued to hold tlie title: and although
Caiaphas, his son-in-law, was the actual
high priest, he was the ruling })Ower.
This explains the reference in Luke 3 :
2. This power he retained for nearly
fifty years, having had five sons in suc-
cession in the high priest's office. Our
Lord was brought first before Annas on
the night-of his seizure. John 18: 13-
24. The guilt of Christ's crucifixion
rests most upon Annas, since Pilate
tried to shield him, and Caiaphas was
but his tool. Annas is mentioned as
the president of the Sanhedrin, before
whom Peter and John were brought.
Acts 4 : 6.
ANOINT'. Gen. 31:13. The first
biblical instance is in the passage
cited, and it signifies in that connec-
tion the pouring of oil upon the stone
which Jacob had set up for a pillar.
Gen. 28:18.
The anointing of persons, places,
and things with oil or ointment of a
I)articular composition was a mode
of consecration prescribed by divine
authority, 'and extensively practised
among the Hebrews. Ex. 28 : 41. The
ingredients of the ointment, embra-
cing the most exquisite perfumes and
balsams, are minutely given, Ex. 30 :
23-33, and the common use of it was
expressly forbidden. Ex. 30 : 33.
It was customary at festivals, and on
other great and joyful occasions, to
anoint the head with fragrant oils ; hence
it became a sign of joy or happiness;
the omission of anointing was therefore
a sign of grief. For instances see
Ruth 3 : 3 ; 2 Sam. 14 : 2 ; Ps. 23 : 5 : 92 :
10; Eccl. 9:8: Matt. 6 : 17. Proph-
ets, 1 Kgs. 19 : 16; 1 Chr. 16 : 22,
priests, and kings were solemnly anoint-
ed, and thus set apart to their respect-
ive offices. Of the anointing of the lat-
ter we have frequent accounts. 2 Sam.
19 : 10 ; 1 Kgs. 1 : 39 ; 19 : 15, 16. The
perfumed oil or ointment was usually
poured upon the head of the person. It
was sometimes done privatelvbva proph-
et, 1 Sara. 10 : 1 : 16 : 1-13; 1 Kgs. 19:
16:2 Kgs. 9 : 1-6, and was a symbolical
intimation that the person so anointed
would at some future day ascend the
throne. After the monarchy was es-
tablished the anointing was done by
the priest, J Kgs. 1 : 39, probably in
some public place, 1 Kgs. 1 : 32-34,
and. at least on one occasion, in the
temple, surrounded by the royal guards.
2 Kgs. 11: 12, 13. David was anointed
three times — privately by Samuel be-
fore Saul's death, to give him a claim
to the throne, 1 Sam. 16:1-13; again
publicly as king over Judah in He-
bron, 2 Sam. 2:4 ; and finally, over the
Avhole nation. 2 Sam. 5:3. In re-
gard to the priest's anointing, at first
it was part of the induction into office
of any priest, Ex. 40 : 15 ; Num. 3:3,
but afterward it was a rite practised
only in the case of the high priest.
Lev. 8 : 12 ; Ps. 133 : 2.
It was common to anoint the person,
or some part of it, as the head, feet,
hair, etc., for the sake of health or
cleanliness, or as a token of respect,
and also in connection with religious
observances. Mark 6 : 13; Luke 7 :
46; John 12 : 3. When practised to
show respect, the most expensive ma-
terials were used, and the ceremony
was performed in such a manner as
53
ANT
ANT
to denote the most humble and sub-
missive reverence. *
The anointing of the sick with oil was
also common. The healing properties
of oil are well known; and though the
cures wrought by the disciples of our
Lord were obviously miraculous, they
still employed the ordinary means of
cure. Mark 6 : 13. The apostolic di-
rection, Jas. 5 : 14, respecting the anoint-
ing of the sick shows us that, together
with prayer, the appropriate means of
healing should be employed in depend-
ence upon or in the name of the Lord.
The ceremony was not in its nature ob-
ligatory, and surely no sufficient warrant
for the rite of "extreme unction."
The bodies of the dead were often
wrapped in spices and ointments to
preserve them from corruption. Mark
14 : 8 ; 16 : 1, and Luke 23 : 56.
The terms "anoint," " anointed," and
"anointing" are employed also spirit-
ually to illustrate the sanctifying influ-
ences of divine grace upon the soul. 2
Cor. 1:21 ; 1 John 2:20,27.
To anoint the eyes with eye-salve, Rev.
3 : 18, is a figurative expression for the
gift of spiritual illumination.
The Anointkd, or Messiah, who is
constituted our High Priest and Interces-
sor, was anointed with the Holy Ghost,
of which anointing that of the priests
under the Jewish dispensation is sup-
posed to be typical. Ps. 45 : 7 ; Isa.
61:1 ; Dan. 9:'24; Luke 4:18,21; Acts
4 : 27 and 10 : 38. See Messiah.
ANT. Prov. 6 : 6 and 30 : 25. A small
insect remarkable for industry, econ-
omy, and architectural skill. These
creatures are called by an inspired
writer " exceeding wise," Prov. 30 : 24,
and Cicero was so filled with wonder at
their wisdom that he declared they must
have mind, reason, and memory.
The ants were described by the an-
cients " as ascending the stalks of ce-
reals and gnawing otf the grains, while
others below detached the seed from the
chaff" and carried it homo; as gnawing
off the radicle to prevent germination,
and spreading their stores in the sun
to dry after wet weather." The pro-
verb "As provident as an ant" was no
less common among the people of the
Mediterranean shores than " As busy as
a bee" is with us. llesiod spoke of the
time —
54
" When the provident one [the ant] harvests the
grain."
Naturalists and commentators for a long
time have been accustomed to deny the
truth of such ideas. It is, however, now
acknowledged that in such warm cli-
mates as Palestine these insects are dor-
mant but a short time during the cooler
season, and that they do store up large
quantities of grain and seed, and dry
them after rain. The writer has often
seen in Judaea a quart or two of chaff"
and seeds upon ant-hills. This the ants
were bringing out to dry in the morn-
ing, and carrjnng into their nests as it
grew damp toward night.
J. T. Moggridge, F. L. S., advances
proof to confirm the ancient view, in the
case of two species common around the
Mediterranean. He has discovered the
granaries, sometimes excavated in solid
rock, in which the seeds are stored. He
has seen the ants in the act of collecting
seeds, and traced seeds to the granaries;
he has seen them bring out the grains to
dry after a rain, and nibble off" the rad-
icle from those which were germinating,
and feed on the seed so collected. From
these granaries Mr. M. collected the seeds
of fifty-four species of plants. In one
instance the masses of seeds of clover
and other small plants taken from a sin-
gle nest weighed, by careful estimate,
over a pound. That the amount of
grain gathered by ants was not un-
worthy of notice appears from the fact
that the Mishna, or traditionary law
of the Jews, adjudicates upon the own-
ership of such stores when found by
the ])eople.
Of the 104 species of European ants,
only two are known to store seeds. But
these two, called " harvesting-ants," are
abundant in the Levant; hence the fa-
miliarity of the ancients with them.
The jjrudence of this insect, as well as
its industry, may therefore properly in-
struct us. That the ant is in every re-
spect " exceeding wise" is evident from
its history and habits, which have been
investigated by modern naturalists.
Their habitations are constructed with
regular stories, sometimes to the num-
ber of thirty or forty, and have large
chambers, numerous vaulted ceilings
covered with a single roof, long galler-
ies and corridors, with pillars or columns
of very perfect proportions.
ANT
ANT
The materials of their buildings, such
as earth, leaves, and the fragments of
wood, are tempered with rain, and then
dried in the sun. By this process the
fabric becomes so firm and compact that
a piece may be broken out without any
injury to the surrounding parts ; and it
is so nearly impervious that the longest
and most violent rains never penetrate
more than a quarter of an inch.
They are well sheltered in their cham-
bers, the largest of which is placed nearly
in the centre of the building. It is much
higher than the rest, and all the galleries
terminate in it. In this apartment they
spend the night and the cold months,
during which they are torpid, or nearly
so, and require not the food which the}'
lay up.
To illustrate their industry and im-
mense labor, it is said that their edifices
are more than five hundred times the
height of the builders, and that if the
same proportion were preserved between
human dwellings and those who build
them, our houses would be four or five
times higher than the pyramids of
Egypt, the largest of which is four hun-
dred and eighty feet in height, and re-
quires a base of seven hundred feet
square to support it. The largest of
one species of ant (the South American)
does not stand more than a quarter of an
inch high, while their nests or houses are
from twelve to twenty feet high, and
large enough to hold a dozen men.
AN'TICHRIST. This word oc-
curs only in the Epistles of John. Ety-
mologically, it may mean either one who
is opposed to Christ or one who sets
himself up in the place of Christ. Comp.
''anti-pope-," "rival-king." A compar-
ison of the four passages in which the
word is found, 1 John 2 : 18, 22 : 4:3 ;
2 John 7, shows that John meant to
designate various persons holding heret-
ical opinions in regard to the incarnation
of Christ. '* Every spirit that confesseth
not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh
is not of God : and this is that xpirit of
antichrist." 1 John 4 : 3. He directs
his warnings against this spirit as an
existent evil : " Even now are there many
antichrists," 1 John 2:18; '"Even now.
already is it in the world." 1 John 4 : 3.
We know that in John's day there were
in the Church false teachers who denied
the union of the divine and human in
Christ and resolved the history of Christ
into a mere phantom or myth. Puch
were Cerinthus and the early Gnostics
(who have their followers in the modern
assailants of the gospel history).
But this use of the word by the apos-
tle does not exhaust its meaning. It
can be also applied to all enemies of
Christ, and to all those doctrines and in-
fluences which tend to set up against Iho
simplicity of gospel truth the traditions
or speculations of men, thus weakening^
or destroying the force of the former.
We should not confound the antichrist
of John's Epistles with the beasts from
the abj'ss. or the antagonistic world-
powers described in Daniel and in Rev-
elation. More nearly related to anti-
christ, and yet distinct, is " the man of
sin." 2 Thess. 2 : 3.
AN'TIOCH (from Antioclus), the
name of two cities in New Testament
times.
1. Antioch in Syria, founded by Se-
leucus Xicator, about 300 b. c, and
enlarged and newly walled by Anti-
ochus Epiphanes.
Coin of Antiochiis Epiphanes.
Situation. — This city was about
300 miles north of Jerusalem, on the
left bank of the river Orontes, 16+ miles
from the Mediterranean, in a deep
pass between the Lebanon and the
Taurus ranges of mountains. It was
sometimes called *'the gate of the
East," being on the highway from
the countries on the Mediterranean to
Mesopotamia and Arabia.
Bihlicol History. — Next to Jeru-
salem, no city is of greater interest or
importance in apostolic history than
Antioch in Syria. At this place the
disciples were first called Christians,
Acts 11: 26; it was an important cen-
tre for the spread of the gospel. Acts
13 : from it Paul started on his mis-
sionary journeys, Acts 15 : 36 ; 18 : 23 ;
important principles of Christian faith
and practice were raised and settled
55
ANT
ANT
through the church at Antioch, Acts
14 : 26, 27 ,• 15 : 2-30 ; Gal. 2 : 11-14.
It was made a " free " city by Pom-
pey, was beautified by the emperors
with aqueducts, baths, and public
buildings ; and in Paul's time it
ranked third in population, wealth.
and commercial activity among the
cities of the Roman empire. Chris-
tianity gained such strength there,
that in the time of Chrysostora, who
was born at Antioch, one-half of
the 200,000 inhabitants of the city
were Christians.
Antioch ill Syria. (Aj'ter Canaag.
Present Condition. — Antioch has been
besieged and plundered 15 times, and
7 times destroyed by earthquakes, yet
the remains of its ancient walls as-
tonish the traveller. They were 50
feet high and 15 feet tliick. The
old town, which was 5 miles long, is
now represented by a mean, shrunk-
en-looking place of about 6000 popu-
lation, called Antalcieh. An earth-
quake in 1872 overthrew nearly one-
half of the houses; since then almost
a new town has sprung up, and near
by is a silk-factory, and on the river
water-wheels for irrigating the gar-
dens. Through the Lake of Antioch
flows the Ntthr el-Aswud, or " black
brook," the Melancs of classic history,
which empties into the Orontes 3 or 4
miles above Antioch, Though the
modern city is on a beautiful and
exceedingly fertile ])lain between the
mountains, and watered by the Oron-
tes, the interior of the town appears
56
From Lew'uis "Life oj Jiit. tauL")
to consist "of dreai'Y heaps of ruins,
and unsightly, patched, and dilapida-
ted houses, interspersed with rubbish
and garbage." (See Baedeker's Pales-
tine and Syria, p. 578.)
2. Antioch in or near Pisidia was
also founded or rebuilt by Seleucus
Nicator. It was situated on a ridge —
Strabo calls it a ''height" — near the
foot of the mountain-range, and by
the northern shore of Lake Eyerdir.
Paul preached there. Acts 13 : 1 4 ; 14 : 21,
and was persecuted by the people,
2. Tim. 3:11. It was formerly erro-
neously located at Ak-shcr, but has
lately been identified with Ynl(d)atvh,
directly east of Ephesus and north-
west of ancient Tarsus. Ruins of
walls, theatres, and churches still ex-
ist there.
AN'TIPAS (prob. contr. Antipa-
ter, for, or like, the father), a martyr
of the church in Pergamoa. Rev. 2 :
13. Tradition makes him its bii>hop.
ANT
APO
ANTIP'ATRIS (for Ma father),
a city built by Herod the Great in
honor of his father, Antipater. It
was on the road from Jerusalem to
Csesarea, Acts 23 : 31, about 26 miles
gouth-east of the latter and 16 miles
north-east of Joppa, according to
ancient authority. Some have located
it at Kefr Saba, on the plain. 40 miles
north-west of Jerusalem ; Wilson and
Conder place it at Kala'ut lias el 'Ain,
ruins between Lydda and Caesarea, 30
miles south-east of the latter and 11
miles north-east of Joppa. The old
Roman road from Jerusalem runs to
this place, and thence to Ciesarea.
" One of the finest springs in the
country is near." It did not seem
probable to Wilson and Conder that
any large town like Antipatris had
been at Kefr Saba.
ANTO'iVIA, a castle or fortress
built by Herod, north-west of the tem-
ple in Jerusalem, and named by him
after his friend Antony. It may be
the " castle " referred to in Acts 21 :
34.
ANTOTHI'JAH (amwers of Je-
hovah), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 24.
AN'TOTHITE, THE, a native
of Anathoth. 1 Chr. 11 : 28 ; 12 : 3.
A'NUB (confederate), a descend-
ant of Judah. i Chr. 4:8.
APEL'LES, greeted and com-
mended by Paul. Rom. 16 : 10. Tra-
dition makes him afterward bishop of
Smyrna or Heraclea.
APES. 1 Kgs. 10 : 22. Probably a
generic term for a variety of animals
of the monkey -tribe. The rude re-
semblance of these creatures to the
human race, both in figure and physi-
cal capacity, is well known. Apes are
not natives of Palestine or adjacent
regions, but were among the articles
of merchandise imported from Ophir
in Solomon's ships.
The ape was an object of worship
among the Egyptians, and is still such
in many parts of India. We have an
account of a temple in India, dedi-
cated to the worship of the ape, sup-
ported by seven hundred columns not
inferior to those of the Roman Pan-
theon. An ape's tooth was found by
the Portuguese when they pillaged the
island of Cej'lon many years since,
and so desirous were they to redeem
it as an object of devout worship that
the kings of the country offered near-
ly seventy-five thousand dollars for it.
In other temples of India, as trav-
ellers inform us, not less than 10,000
apes are maintained as sacred ani-
mals.
A'PHEK (streiifjth), the name of
several towns.
1. A royal city of the Canaanites
whose king was slain by Joshua.
Josh. 12 : 18. It was near Hebron,
and probably the same as Aphekah.
Josh. 15 : 53.
2. A city of Asher, Josh. 19 : 30, in
the north of Palestine, near Sidon, Josh.
13 : 4 : supposed to be the same as Aphik,
Jud. 1 : 31, and the classical Aphaca,
noted in later history for its temple of
Venus : now Aflcn, near Lebanon.
3. A place where the Philistines en-
camped before the ark was taken, 1 Sam.
4:1; north-west of Jerusalem and near
Shocho, now Belled el-Foka.
4. A place near Jezreel, in Issaehar,
where the Philistines were, before de-
feating Saul, 1 Sam. 29 : 1, and cannot
be identified with No. 3, as some have
suggested.
5. A walled city in the plains of Syria,
on the road to Damascus. 1 Kgs. 20 :
26, 30: 2 Kgs. 13 : 17. It was about 6
miles east of the Sea of Galilee; now
called Fik.
APHE'KAH (strong place), fem-
inine form of Aphek. Josh. 15 : 53. See
Aphek (1 ).
APHI'AH (refreshed), one of Saul's
progenitors. 1 Sam. 9 : 1.
A'PHIK. Jud. 1 : 31. See Aphek
(2).
APH'RAH (fawn, or dust), a place
in the low-country of Judah. Mic. 1:
10. It has been identified by some with
Ophrah, but there is evidence that it was
west or south-west of, and not far from,
Jerusalem.
APH'SES (the dispersion), ih^ head
of the eighteenth of the twenty-four
courses of priests. 1 Chr. 24:15.
APOCALYPSE, the Greek word
for revelation, used of the Revelation
of John. See Revklatiox.
APOCRYPHA (hidden), the
name applied most commonly to the
uncanonical books that have been
added to the Old Testament.
1. Old Testament Apocrypha. — They are
57
APO
APO
fourteen in number. I. 1 Esdras ; II. 2
Estlras : III. Tobit ; IV. Judith ; V. The
rest of the chapters of the book of Esther,
which are found neither in the Hebrew
nor in the Chaldee : VI. The Wisdom
of Solomon; VII. Ecclesiasticus, or the
Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach;
VIII. Baruch; IX. The Song of the
Three Holy Children; X. The History
of Susanna; XI. The History of the
Destruction of Bel and the Dragon ;
XII. The Prayer of Manasses, King
of Judah; XIII. 1 Maccabees; XIV.
2 Maccabees. They do not exist in He-
brew, but were written in Greek, mostly
in Alexandria. Though often quoted by
the fathers, they were not esteemed as
highly as the Scriptures. They are of
great value as conveying historical
information and containing many in-
structive sayings and examples. They fill
up the gap between the Old and New
Testaments. But they are without di-
vine authority, and cannot be used in
support of any doctrine or practice.
They are found in the Sej)tuagint. the
Vulgate, and all Roman Catholic Bibles,
since all but the two books of Esdras
and the Prayer of Manasses were pro-
nounced by the Council of Trent a part
of the canonical Scriptures. They were
likewise printed in Protestant Bibles
and by the British and Foreign Bible
Society until 1826, when, after a long
controversy, it resolved to omit them
from all future editions. The American
Bible Society followed its example.
2. New Testamoit Apocri/phd. — These
are various spurious gospels, histories,
biographies, and epistles. They are never
printed in Bibles. They are immensely
inferior to the genuine books. Many of
them are pious frauds, perpetrated with
the design of enhancing the glory of
Christ and his apostles, but by their
nonsensical stories they not only ut-
terly fail of their object, but rather
bring their heroes into contempt. They
confirm, however, the canonical Gospels,
as counterfeits presuppose the genuine
coins. See Canox.
APOLLO'NIA [helnnghuf to
ApoKo), the name of several places in
Europe and Asia, of which Apollonia
in Illyria was the most celebrated.
But the Apollonia through which Paul
])assed. Acts 17 : 1, was a city of Mace-
donia, about liO miles east of Thessa-
68
lonica, and 30 miles south-west of
Amphipolis. Lewin locates it at the
modern Poliva.
APOL'LOS {helomjimi to Apollo),
born at Alexandria, in Egypt, of Jew-
ish parents, and described as an elo-
quent man and mighty in the Scrip-
tures. Acts 18:24. As one of John's
disciples he had been instructed in the
elements of the Christian faith, but
coming to Ephesus, A. n. 54, during the
temporary absence of Paul, was more
fully taught the doctrines of the gospel
by Aquila and Priscilla, who had them-
selves been favored with the company
and instruction of Paul at Corinth and
on a voyage from that city to Ephesus.
He afterward preached with abundant
success in Achaia and at Corinth. Paul
had already been instrumental in estab-
lishing a church there, to the care of
which Apollos succeeded. 1 Cor. 3 : 6.
The members of it were divided into
parties, some being particularlj' partial
to Paul, others to Apollos, and others
still to Cephas or Peter. The rebuke
of the apostle, 1 Cor. 1 : 12, is directed
against these partialities, in all which
the power and grace of God seemed to
be overlooked or disregarded. When
Paul wrote his Epistle it is likely
Apollos was either with him or near
him, probably at Ephesus, A. n. 57.
From 1 Cor. 16:12 we learn that in
consequence of these dissensions Apol-
los absolutely declined to go to Corinth.
It has been remarked as an exemplary
trait of character of these two eminent
apostles that the contentions of their
respective friends and admirers had no
effect on their love and respect for each
other. They both refrained from visit-
ing the church while it was distracted
with such prejudices and partialities,
though a worldly ambition might have
selected it as the field and the season
of self-aggrandizement. Apollos is last
mentioned Tit. 3 : 13, and very aff'ection-
ately. He was probably a more brilliant
man than Paul. Some scholars consider
him to have been the author of the
Epistle to the Hebrews. But this is
a mere conjecture; no exact proof can
be given.
APOL'LYON. See ABAnnox.
APOS'TLE (ojie aeut forth). 1.
This term was given originally to the
twelve chief disciples of our Lord.
APO
APP
Matt. 10 : 2. Their names were Stmox
Petkr. An'drew, Jami:s, and John (sons
of Zebedee) ; Philip, Bartholomew,
Thomas, Matthew. James, and Lebbeus.
who is also called Judas or Jude (sons
of Alpheus); Simon the Canaansean (or
Zealot) and Judas Iscauiot. Christ's
charge to them is recorded in Matt. 10 :
5-42, All the known circumstances of
their history will be found under their
respective names.
Speaking generally, the apostles were
of the lower, but not the lowest, class of
the people. They were all laymen.
Their learning was rather of life than
of books, and yet it is probable they
possessed the rudiments of an educa-
tion. Religious percei)tions and piety
they doubtless possessed. Yet they
needed much instruction and a miracu-
lous endowment before they were able
to do the work of the gospel. The Acts
of the Apostles tells us of their first in-
dependent labors. Paul was called as
an apostle, 7 years after the resurrec-
tion of Christ, on the way to Damascus.
He was not of the Twelve, but was of
equal authority. Gal. 1 : 1, 12, 1(5; 2 : 9.
The office and commission of apostles
were remarkable in the following par-
ticulars: (1.) They were all required to
have been eye- and ear-witnesses of what
thej' testified, es])ecially of the resurrec-
tion of Christ. John 16: 27; Acts 1 : 21,
22 and 22 : U, 15 ; 1 Cor. 9 : 1 and 15 :
8: 1 John 1 : 3. (2.) They were all
called or chosen by our Saviour himself.
Luke 6:13; Gal. 1 : 1. Even Matthias
is not an exception to this remark, as
the determination of the lot was of God.
Acts 1 : 24-26. (3.) They were inspired.
John 16 : 13. (4.) They had the power
of miracles. Mark 16 : 20 ; Acts 2 : 43 ;
Heb. 2:4; Rom. 15 : 18, 1 9 ; 2 Cor. 12 : 1 2.
The word "apostle" is also used in a
wider sense of Christian heralds of the
gospel. 2 Cor. 8 : 23 : Phil. 2 : 25. (A. V.
in both cases translates '• messenger.")
2. The term apostle is also applied to
our Saviour, Heb. 3:1, and with singu-
lar propriety, as in the character of
Messiah he is emphatically the Sent
of God.
APOTH'ECARY. See Perfume.
AP'PAIM {the nofitvih), a descend-
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 ; 30, 31.
APPAR'EL. See Clothes.
APPEAL'. The right of appeal
was acknowledged in the Jewish law.
Deut 17 : 8, 9. For matters of contro-
versy might be referred for final adjudi-
cation to " the priests, the Levites. and
unto the judge that shall be in those
days," in the place chosen of God. But
this is not, properly speaking, such an
appeal as our law recognizes. Yet we
find traces of the principle in the days
of the Judges, Jud. 4 : 5, and of the
kings. 2 Sam. 15 : 3. Jehoshaphat es-
tablished a permanent court before which
all cases might come. 2 Chr. 19 : 8.
This court was re-established by Ezra.
Ezr. 7 : 25. The Sanhedrin in later
times was the court of final appeal.
By the Roman law every accused citi-
zen had a right to carry his cause be-
fore the emperor at Rome, by appeal
from the judgment of the magistrate.
Acts 25:11.
AP'PHIA, a Christian woman ad-
dressed by Paul in Phile. 2. From the
connection in which she stands, preced-
ing a masculine name and linked so
closeh' to Philemon, it has been reason-
ably conjectured that she was Philemon's
wife.
AP'PII FO'RUM {mnrl-et-i)lnce
of Ajipiun), a place on the famous Ap-
pian Way, 43 miles south-east of Rome,
where the disciples met Paul. Acts 28 :
15. It was at the end of a canal, and
hence filled with taverns and boatmen.
Its ruins are still seen near Trepmit!.
APPLES, APPLE -TREE
(Hebrew, breath'nuj forth). Song Sol.
2:3-5; 7:8; 8 : o"; Joel 1:12. Spoken
of in the Scriptures as excellent ''among
the trees of the wood," of pleasant
shadow, with sweet, beautiful, and fra-
grant fruit. The Hebrew word, by its
meaning, is thought to emphasize the
latter property. The apple proper is
rare in Syria, and its fruit is inferior.
Writers have urged the citron, orange,
quince, and apricot as the trees meant.
The fruit of the latter two alone is spe-
cially aromatic, and of these the quince
is not sweet in taste.
The apricot is everywhere abundant
in the Holy Land, and of it Tristram
says : '' Many times have we pitched
our tents in its shade and spread our
carpets secure from the raj'S of the sun."
"There can scarcely be a more deli-
ciously-perfumed fruit than the apricot;
and what fruit can better fit the epithet
59
AQU
ARA
of Solomon, 'apples of gold in pictures
of silver,' than this golden fruit as its
branches bend under the weight in their
setting of bright, yet pale, foliage?"
The expression of Solomon just referred
to, Prov. 25 : 11, is also supposed to
compare /V»j7 in silver baskets, or salvers
curiously wrought like basket-work, and
perhaps representing animals or land-
scapes, to seasonable advice wisely and
courteously administered.
Apple op the Eyk (Hebrew, little
man, or lynpil of the eye). Prov. 7:2;
Zech. 2 : 8. Apple here represents an
entirely different word from the word of
the preceding topic, meaning the front
and most sensitive part of the organ of
vision. The same figure is used, Deut.
32: 10 and Ps. 17 : 8, to denote the most
complete protection and security. And
in Lam. 2:18 the phrase " apple of thine
eye" is figuratively used for tears.
AQ'UILA. Acts 18 : 2. A Jew
born at Pontus, in Asia Minor. Jielng
driven from Rome by a decree of the
government requiring all Jews to leave
that city, he and his wife, Prisciila,
came to Corinth, and were dwelling
there at the time of Paul's first visit to
that city. Acts 18 : 1. They were of
like occupation (tent-makers), and Paul
was received and hospitably entertained
at Aquila's house; and they also accom-
panied him from Corinth to Ephesus.
On some occasion they rendered Paul
very important service, and a very warm
friendship existed between them. Horn.
16:3-5. See Apoi-los.
AR, AND AR OF MO'AB. Num.
21 : 28. The chief city of Moab, on the
cast of the Salt Sea; called also Aroer,
Deut. 2 : 36 ; sometimes used for the
whole land of Moab, Deut. 2 : 29 ; burn-
ed by Sihon. Num. 21:2()-;5(). It has
been placed at Kabbah or Piabbath, but
good authorities regard it as a different
city, and fix Ar on the Arnon, 10 or 12
miles north of Rabbah, at the Wadij
Lcj'itm. See Rabba.h.
A'RA {lion), head of a branch of the
house of Asher. 1 Chr. 7 : 38.
A'RAB (ambush), a town in the
mountains of Judah, Josh. 15 : 52 ; per-
haps the home of the Arbite. 2 Sam.
23 : 35. East of Hebron, at er-Jiabiijeh,
is an ancient site marked by walls, cis-
terns, and ruins, which Conder regards
as the Arab of biblical history.
00
AR'ABAH {burnt up), a word of
frequent use in the Hebrew, though
found only once in the i^^nglish, version.
Josh. 18 : 18. It is the name aj)])lied to
the deep sunken valley which extends
from Mount Ilermon to the Elanitic
Gulf of the Red Sea. This remarkable
depression is about 250 miles long, and
includes the Sea of Galilee and the
Salt, or Dead, Sea. At the time of the
conquest of Canaan, '' the Arabah " re-
ferred probably to the southern portion
of the valley, between the Salt Sea and
the Red Sea, Deut. 1:1; 2:8; in other
passages the word doubtless refers to
the northern portion of that valley along
the Jordan, which the Arabs now call
cl-Uhor. See Joudan. Arabah is now
applied only to that portion of the val-
ley which stretches from the chalk-cliffs
below the Dead Sea southward to the
Gulf of Akabah — Elanitic Gulf. It is
about 100 miles long anJ from 4 to 10
miles wide. The limestone walls on the
west of the valley are from 1500 to 1800
feet in height ; the mountain-wall on
the east side of the valley rises from
2000 to 2300 in height, and in Mount
Ilor to 5000 feet, and is chiefly composed
of granitic and basaltic rock. The sur-
face of the valley is covered with loose
gravel, blocks of porphyry, and is fur-
rowed with torrents, with scarcely a
trace of vegetation. It is oj)pressively
hot, is swept with burning winds, the
Sirocco blowing at some seasons without
intermission, a region dreary and deso-
late. The theor3' that the Jordan once
ran through this valley into the Red
Sea is now held to be untenable. Ara-
bah in Josh. 18: 18 has also been mis-
taken for the name of a city, and con-
founded with Reth-arabah of Josh. 15 :
01; 18:22; but in v. 18 the word has
the article before it in the Hebrew, and
hence refers to the plain, as elsewhere.
Sec also Zi.\, Wildkuness of, and Salt
Ska.
ARA'BIA {arid, sterile), a large
peninsula in the south-western part of
Asia, between the Red Sea, the Indian
Ocean, and the Persian Gulf. Its ex-
treme length from north to south is
about 1300 miles, its greatest breadth
about 1500 miles, though from the north-
ern point of the Red Sea to the Persian
(iulf is only about DOO miles. It has the
sea on all sides except the north. Its
ARA
ARA
area is estimated at 1,030,000 square
miles; and of the three ancient divis-
ions of the country, that known as Ara-
bia Felix was by far the largest and most
important, though it is less frequently
mentioned by the sacred writers than
either of the smaller and northern divis-
ions.
Sketcb-Map of Arabia.
Physical Features — Its main features
are a coast-range of low mountains or
table-land, seldom rising over 2000 feet,
broken on the eastern coast by sandy
plains: this plateau is backed up by a
second loftier range of mountains in the
east and south. The mountains are
generally barren on their sea side: their
outlines are rugged and precipitous;
behind the mountains encircling the
sea-coast lies a ring of sterile desert,
broadest in the east and south, where it
is a waste of burning sand, narrower in
the west and north, where it is rocky.
Within this belt of desert rise table-
lands broken by fertile valleys. This
central plateau includes about one-third
of the Arabian peninsula, the desert an-
other third, and the coast-ranges the re-
maining portion. The Sinaitic penin-
sula is a small triangular region in the
north-western part, or corner, of Arabia.
See SixAi.
Divisions of Arabia. — The ancients
divided it into Petraea, Deserta, and
Felix ; or the Stony, the Desert, and the
Happy or Fertile. Modern geographers
divide Arabia into a number of large
districts, the chief of these being Yemen,
which is the most fertile, and Hadra-
maut in the south, Oman in the east,
Shomer and Sinai, or Negeb, in the
north, Hedjaz, containing the holy
cities of Mecca and Medina, in the west,
and Nej'd in the central district. These
districts are subdivided into upward of
35 smaller provinces. Some are thickly
peopled with an agricultural population
or those living in villages, while others
are held by tribes of wandering Bed-
ouins, each governed by the sheik.
Productions. — The principal animals
are the horse, famed for its form,
beauty, and endurance, camels, sheep,
asses, dogs, the gazelle, tiger, lynx, and
monkey, quails, peacocks, parrots, os-
triches, vipers, scorpions, and locusts.
Of fruits and grains, dates, wheat, millet,
rice, beans, and pulse are common. It is
also rich in minerals, especially in lead.
Biblical History. — Arabia in early
Israelitish history meant a small tract
of country south and east of Palestine,
probably the same as that called Kedem,
or " the^east." Gen. 10 : 30 ; 25 : 6 ; 29 :
1. Arabia in New Testament times ap-
pears to have been scarcely more exten-
sive. Gal. 1:17; 4:25. The chief in-
habitants were known as Tshmaelites,
Arabians, Idumeans, Horites, and
Edomites. The allusions in the Scrip-
ture to the countrj' and its people are
very numerous. Job is supposed to
have dwelt in Arabia. The fortj' years
of wandering by the Israelites under
Moses was in this land. See Sinai.
Solomon received gold from it, 1 Ivgs.
10 : 15; 2 Chr. 9 : U; Jehoshaphat,
flocks, 2 Chr. 17 : 11 ; some of its people
were at Jerusalem at the Pentecost,
Acts 2:11; Paul visited it, Gal. 1:17;
the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah
frequently refer to it. Isa. 21:11-13;
42 : 1 1 : 60:7; Jer. 25 : 24 ; 49 : 28, 29.
See Kedar.
j Secular History. — Arabia in earliest
history was divided into several king-
doms, of which Yemen was the chief.
In the fifth century the northern Arabs
overran Yemen : later, in A. D. 529, came
! the great Abyssinian invasion ; then the
era of Mohammed. 622-632, followed by
the conquests of his followers, who swept
over Arabia, Palestine, Syria, and the
whole of Western Asia. Northern Africa,
and into Europe. In the next century
their power in Arabia was broken and
61
ARA
ARA
lost by dissensions. Arabia was disor-
ganized, but rearranged in 929 ; fur-
nished rulers for Egypt until 1171, in
the time of Saladin ; in 1 517 the Turkish
sultan, Selim I., was invested with the
Mohammedan caliphate, and Arabia be-
came subject to, and has since continued
under, the Ottoman rule.
A'RAD {wild ass), a Benjamite.
1 Chr. 8:15.
A'RAD. Jud. 1:16. A city in the
southern border of Judgea, whose king
opposed the passage of the children of
Israel, and even took some of them
prisoners, for which the inhabitants
wei-e accursed and their city destroyed.
A'RAD (place of /iu/itives), a Ca-
naanitish city. Josh. 12 : 14, on a small
hill now called Tell Arad, about 20
miles south of Hebron. In Num. 21 : 1 ;
33 : 40 the translation should be " the
Canaanite king of Arad."
A'RAH {wandering). 1. A chief of
Asher. 1 Chr. 7 : 39.
2. The man whose descendants re-
turned from Babylon, and whose grand-
daughter married Tobiah the Ammon-
ite. Ezr. 2:5; Neh. 6 : 18 ; 7 : 10.
A'RAM {hif/h rcijion). 1. A son of
Shem. Gen. 10 : 22,' 23 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 17.
2. A descendant of Nahor, Abraham's
brother. Gen. 22:21.
3. An Asherite. 1 Chr. 7 : 34.
4. The son of Esrom, elsewhere called
Ram. Matt. 1 : 3, 4 ; Luke 3 ; 33.
A'RAM {hi;/hla)uh), the elevated
region north-east of Palestine, toward
the Euphrates river. Num. 23 : 7 ,•
1 Chr. 1:17; 2 : 23. It was nearly
identical with Syria. Aram-nahara-
im of Gen. 24:10 is translated Meso-
potamia in the English version, and re-
fers to the region between the Euphra-
tes and Tigris rivers. There were prob-
ably several petty kingdoms included
under Aram, as Aram-zobah, Aram
Beth-rehob, Aram Damascus, Padan-
aram ; all these were gradually ab-
sorbed by that of Damascus, which be- ■
came the capital of all "Aram," or Syria.
See Syria, MESoroTAMiA, and Damas-
cus.
A'RAM-NAHARA'Iltt (//»y/A;«»r?«
of the two rivers). Ps. 60, title. See
Aram.
A'RAM-ZO'BAII. Ps. 60, title.
See All AM.
A'RAN {wild qoat), a descendant of
02
Seir the Horite. Gen. 36 : 28 ; 1 Chr.
1:42.
AR'ARAT {holy land, or high land),
a mountainous region of Asia which bor-
ders on the plain of the Araxes, and is
mentioned (1) as the resting-place of
Noah's ark, Gen. 8:4; (2) as the ref-
uge of the sons of Sennacherib, 2 Kgs.
19 : 37, margin ; Isa. 37 : 38, margin ;
(3) as a kingdom near to Minni and
Ashchenaz, Jer. 51 : 27.
Ararat was a name unknown to Greek
and Roman geographers, as it is now to
the Armenian, but it was known to
others in b. c. 1750 as the ancient name
for a portion of Armenia. In Scripture
it refers to the lofty plateau or moun-
tain-highlands which overlook the plain
of the Araxes. Various views have
prevailed as to the Ararat on which the
ark rested. Tradition identifies it with
the mountain known as Ararat to Eu-
ropeans, called "Steep Mountain" by
the Turks, and Kuh-i-Nuh, or " Noah's
Mountain," by the Persians. It has
two peaks, about 7 miles apart ; the
highest is 17,750 feet, the other about
4000 feet lower. The highest peak is
covered with perpetual snow, and is a
volcano, having had at least two violent
eruptions within a century. The vil-
lage of Argnri, built on its slopes, is
said to be on the spot where tradition
claims that Noah planted his vineyard.
The mountains of Ararat, Gen. 8 : 4, mora
properly refer to the entire range of ele-
vated table-land in that portion of Ar-
menia, and upon some lower part of this
range, rather than upon the high peaks
before mentioned, the ark more probably
rested. For (1) this plateau or range
is about 6000 to 7000 feet high; (2) it
is about equally distant from the Eux-
ine and the Caspian Seas, and between
the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean,
and hence a central point for the dis-
persion of the race; (3) the region is
volcanic in its origin ; it does not rise
into sharp crests, but has broad plains
separated by subordinate ranges of
mountains : (4) the climate is temper-
ate, grass and grain are abundant, the
harvests quick to mature. All these
facts illustrate the biblical narrative,
(ieurge Smith, however, places Ararat
in the southern part of the mountains
east of Assyria {Chaldean Account of
Genesis, p. 289).
ARA
ARC
View of Ararat. {Aj'ter
ARAU'NAH (ark ; a Javfie ash or
pine), OR OR'NAN, was a Jebusite who
lived at Jerusalem and owned a thresh-
ing-place or floor, where the temple was
afterward built. 2 Sam. 24:16. Da-
vid bought it of him because the destroy-
ing angel sent to desolate the nation, in
consequence of David's sin of number-
ing the people, stayed his hand at the
command of (iod just as he had reached
the floor. Araunah refused at first to
receive anything for it, but offered it to
him, together with oxen for sacrifices,
and the timber of the threshing-instru- [
ments for fuel. David refused to receive
them as a gift, as he would not offer to the
Lord that which had cost him nothing.
He therefore bought the oxen for fifty
shekels of silver, 2 Sam. 24 : 24, and
the whole place for six hundred shekels
of gold, 1 Chr. 21 : 2.5, and offered his
sacrifices, which were accepted and the
plague stayed. 2 Sam. 24 : 23 may be
better translated : '* The whole, 0 king, i
does Araunah give unto the King." But |
taking the Authorized Version transla-
tion as it stands, it favors the view of i
some that the expression "Araunah the
king " implies that he was one of the
kings of the Jebusites.
AR'BA. See Hkbrox.
AR'BAH. Gen. 35:27. See Kir-
JATH-ARBAH and Hf.brov.
AR'BATHITE, THE, /. e. na
I'drrot. From lUehm.)
five of the Arabah. 2 Sam. 23 : 31 ; 1
Chr. 11 : 32.
AR'BEL. Hos. 10 : 14. See Beth-
ARBFI,.
AR'BITE, -THE, i. c. native of
Arab. Paarai was so called. 2 Sam.
23 : 35.
ARCHAN'GEL, the prince or
chief of angels. The word only occurs
twice in the Bible, 1 Thess. 4: 16;
Jude 9, and it is generally' believed that
a created, though highly-exalted, being
is denoted bv the term.
ARCHELA'US ( prince of the
people), a son of Herod the Great
by a Samaritan woman. He with his
brother, Antipas, was brought up in
Rome. On the decease of his father,
B. c. 4, the same year that Christ was
born, he succeeded to the government
of Idumea, Samaria, and Judsea, with
the title of ethnarch. His character
was cruel and revengeful. Joseph and
Mary on their return from Egypt nat-
urally, therefore, feared to live under
his government. Matt. 2 : 22. In the
tenth year of his reign he was deposed
by the emperor for cruelty, on charges
preferred against him by his brothers
and subjects, and banished to Vienne,
in Gaul, where he died.
AR'CHI. Josh. 16 : 2. A place
near Bethel, perhaps settled by a colony
from Babylon, and named after Erech
63
ARC
ARC
in Babylonia. Conder identifies it with
the village of 'Aia ' Arek, which is in the
required position.
ARCHIP'PUS {master of the
horse), a Christian teacher addressed
by Paul, Phile. 2. Some think he was
Philemon's son.
AR'CHITE, THE, the designa-
tion always coupled, in the Bible, with
the name of Hushai, David's faithful
friend, 2 Sam. 15 : 32 ; 16 : 16 ; 17 : 5-14;
1 Chr. 27 : 33. It is not certain to what
it refers — ^perhaps to " the districts of
Erech which lay on the frontier of
Ephraim, buc this is mere conjecture."
AR'CHITECTURE arises out of
the necessities of human life, and before
it becomes an art it administers to the
primary demands of civilization. Cain
built a small city. Gen. 4 : 17, and after
the Flood other cities were built. Gen.
10 : 10-12 ; 11 : 1-9. Damascus and He-
bron existed in the days of Abraham.
Remains of Arch of Bridge between Zion and
Mnriali, and near the Jews' Wailing-place.
{From Photograph.)
The patriarchs, being nomads, lived in
tents. During their sojourn in Eg3'pt
the Hebrews became acquainted with
architecture as an art, and they were
compelled by force to take part in the
construction of huge monuments. Ex.
1 : 11. Hence it was natural that their
imagination should be deeply impressed
by Egyptian architecture, and that they
acquired some knowledge of the science
on which it was based. But during
their wan<leringa in the wilderness they
had no opportunity to display it, except
in the construction of the tabernacle ;
64
and at the conquest of Canaan they
found forts and cities prepared by other
hands. Jud. 1 : 16-26.
It was not till the reigns of David
and Solomon that Hebrew architecture
suddenly started into existence. The
influence from Egypt at once made it-
self felt. David enlarged Jerusalem,
improved its fortifications, and built a
palace on Mount Zion, perhaps also the
original walls of the great mosque at
Hebron. Solomon built another palace,
**the house of the forest of Lebanon,"
a palace for his wife, the daughter of
Pharaoh, gigantic water-works south of
Bethlehem, still known under the name
of " Solomon's Pools," and finally the
greatest, and we may say the only great,
monument of Hebrew architecture, the
temple. These buildings were, to a
large extent, erected by Phoenician
workmen, 2 Sam. 5:6-11, and we may
easily' believe that Phoenician taste has
made itself felt in many details. But
so far as it is possible to reconstruct the
temple after the descriptions given of
it in the Bible, it must as a whole have
reminded the spectator of Egyptian
architecture. The remains of an arch
of the bridge between Zion and Moriah,
and the remnants of the old wall, called
the " Wailing-place of the Jews," show
the massiveness of the old Hebrew struc-
tures ; and from the descriptions it is
apparent that everywhere in these build-
ings, the temple as well as the palaces,
the straight line and the right angle
were predominant. But massiveness of
construction and straightnesS of form
are two of the most prominent features
of Egyptian architecture.
The successors of David and Solomon
continued to build, and several kings
of both Israel and Judah are mentioned
as having encouraged architecture. Nor
did the nation as a whole forget the art.
After the return from Babylon the Jews
were able to fortify Jerusalem and re-
build their temple themselves. Ezr. 3:
8-10: 6:14; Nch. 3 ; 6:15. Herod
the (xreat was a great builder, and in-
troduced the Greek and Roman styles
of architecture. The temple recon-
structed by him before and during the
life of our Lord was totally destroyed
in A. D. 70. For further details see Tem-
PLK ; for details concerning the Jewish
architecture, see Dwkkmng.
ARC
ARG
ARCTU RUS. Job
38 : 32. The name of a
constellation in the north-
ern heavens, called Ursa
Major or Great Bear.
ARD {fH,jiticef). 1.
A Benjaniite; called in
Gen. 46 : 21 son, and in
Num. 28 : 40 grandson,
of Benjamin: name
wrif^en Addar in 1 Chr.
8 : 3. His descendants
are the Ardites.
AR'DON (fmfitive),
a son of Caleb, the son
of Hezron, by his wife
Azubah. 1 Chr. 2 : 18.
ARE'LI {heroic), a
son of Gad ; founder of
the Arelites. Gen. 46 : 16 ;
Num. 26:17.
AREOP'AGITE,a
member of the council of
the Areopagus. Acts 17 :
34.
AREOPAGUS
{hiH of Mftrn), a rocky
hill near the centre of
the ancient city of Ath-
ens, and west of the
Acropolis, from which it is divided by
a valley. It had its name from the tra-
dition that Mars (Ares), the god of war,
was tried here by the other gods on the
charge of murder. It was celebrated
iis the place where the great court of
justice, the most ancient and venerable
of the Athenian courts, was held, and
where Paul made his address to the
Athenians. Acts 17': 19-34. Near by
were the temple of Mars, the Parthe-
non, the cohissal statue of Minerva, and
beneath the hill were the caves of the
Furies. There are 16 stone steps now to
be seen, cut into the rock and leading to
its summit, and above the steps there is
a bench of stones excavated in the rock,
forming three sides of a quadrangle and
facing the south. Here the Areopagites
sat as judges, in the open air, and from
here Paul made known to the Athenians
the " unknown God" and converted one
of the judges, Dionysius, who is said
to have been the first bishop of Athens
and the writer of books on mystical
Platonic theology and philosophy.
AR'ETAS. 2 Cor. 11 : 32. The
king of Arabia Petraea at the time
5
View ot' "Maid" Hill," or Aieopagu-^. (From Lewin's "Life of St.
Paul.-)
the governor of Damascus attempted
to apprehend Paul. Acts 9 : 24, 25.
His daughter married Herod Antipas,
but was afterward divorced to make
room for Herodias. In consequence
of this insult, Aretas made war upon ■
Antipas and routed him. The emperor
Tiberius then despatched the governor of
Syria to the assistance of Antipas. with
orders to bring tne Arabian to Rome
alive, or if dead to send his head.
While on the march against him Yi-
tellius learned that Tiberius was dead,
A. I). 37. He then dismissed his troops.
Antipas was soon after banished and
his kingdom given to Agrippa. It is
likely that Aretas was restored to the
good graces of the Romans, and that
Caligula granted him Damascus, which
had already formed part of his pred-
ecessor's kingdom. In this way we
can account for the fact in Paul's life
stated above.
AR'GOB (stoni/), a small dis-
trict of Bashan, east of the Jordan ;
named only four times in the Bible.
It is about 30 miles long by 20 miles
wide, chiefly a field of basalt (black
65
ARI
ARK
rock), elevated about 30 feet above
tbe surrounding plain, and border-
ed by a rocky rampart of broken
cliifs. It once contained 60 strong and
fortified cities, the ruins of many of
them being still to be seen. It is now
called the Lejah.
Hhlory. — Jair took 60 of its cities.
Deut. 3 :4, 5, 14. Absalom fled thither.
2 Sam, 13 : 38. Solomon placed an of-
ficer over its 60 great cities with bra-
zen walls. ] Kgs. 4 : 13. Porter de-
scribes this region as " literally crowded
with towns and large villages ; and
though a vast majority of them are
deserted, they are not ruined. I have
more than once entered a deserted
city in the evening, taken possession
of a comfortable house, and spent the
night in peace. Many of the houses
in the ancient cities of Bashan are
perfect as if only finished yesterday.
The walls are sound, the roofs unbro-
ken, and even the window-shutteis in
their places. These sncient cities of
Bashan ])robably contain the very old-
est specimens of domestic architec-
ture in the wf)rld." (See Giant Cities
of Bfifthan.) But these ruins are now
ascertained to belong to the Roman pe-
riod, and after the Cliristian era. The
American Palestine Exploration Society
has explored that East Jordan region,
and taken photographs of ruins of the-
atres, palaces, and temples.
- ARIU'AI {the utronri), the ninth
son of Haman. Esth. 9:9.
ARID'ATHA (see above), the
sixth son of Haman. Esth. 9 : 8.
ARI'EH {lion), a friend of Peka-
hiah ; killed with him by Pekah. 2 Kgs.
15 : 25.
A'RIEL {lion of God), one of
Ezra's chief men who directed the
caravan which Ezra led from Babylon
to Jerusalem. Ezr. 8:16. Jerusalem
being the chief city of Judah, whose
emblem was a lion, Gen. 49:9, the
word Ariel is applied to that city.
Isa. 29:1.
ARIMATHE'A (heiffhtH), a town
in Judaja, and the home of Joseph, who
begged the body of .Jesus. Matt. 27 :
57 i Mark 15 : 43 : Luke 23 : 51 ; John
19 : 38. An old tradition places it at the
modern Ramleh, but this is generally
discredited. Some identify it with
Kamah ; others, with less pr()V)abilitv,
66
with Renthieh, 10 miles east of Joppa.
See Ramah.
A'RIOCH {lion-liJce). 1. The king
of Ellasar, confederate with Chedor-
laomer. Gen. 14 : 1-9.
2. The captain of Nebuchadnezzar's
guard. Dan. 2 : 14, 15, 24, 25.
ARIS'AI {lion-like), the eighth son
of Haman. Esth. 9:9.
ARISTAR'CHUS {heat ruler),
a Macedonian of Thessalonica who
accompanied Paul upon his third mis-
sionary journey. Acts 20:4; 27:2.
He was nearly killed in the tumult which
Demetrius excited in Ephesus, Acts 19 :
29, and it is said that he was finally be-
headed in Rome. Paul alludes to him
both as his fellow-laborer and fellow-
prisoner. Col. 4:10: Phile. 24.
ARK. The word indicates three
structures. 1. Noah's ark, the vessel
constructed at God's command for the
preservation of himself and family and
a stock of the various animals, etc.,
during the Flood. Gen. 6:14. 2. Moses'
ark of bulrushes. Ex. 2 : 3. 3. And
usually, the ark of the covenant.
1. Noah's Ark. — It was four hundred
and fifty feet long, seventy-five feet in
breadth, and forty-five in height, and
was designed, not to sail, but only to
float when borne up by the waters.
It had lower, second, and third stories,
besides what in common vessels is call-
ed the hold. A door was placed in the
side, and on the roof a series of win-
dows or a window-course in which some
translucent substance may have been
used.
The ark was constructed of go])her-
wood, and covered with bitumen or
pitch to exclude water.
It is doubtful where the ark was
built and as to how long time it took.
The weight of opinion is that it was
from one hundred to one hundred and
twentv years. Compare (Jen. 5 : 32 and
7:6; Gen. 6 : 3 with 1 Pet. 3 : 20.
The ark is supposed to have been
a long, square-cornered boat with a flat
bottom and a sloping roof; and the con-
struction of it has been the subject of
much curious, not to say useless, specu-
lation. The proportions of the ark, as
those recommended by the experience
of centuries of shij»-building, are of
themselves a j)roof of Noah's inspira-
tion. In regard to the capacity of the
ARK
ARK
ark, it was large enough to accommodate
the eight persons of Noah's family, and
all the animals to be saved in it. Some
scholars confine the number of animals
to the species living in the parts of the
world then inhabited by men, excepting,
of course, such as live in the water
or lie dormant. Traditions of the ark
and of the Deluge are found among most
ancient nations. See Flood.
2. Moses's Ark was made of the bul-
rush or papyrus, which grows in marshy
places in Egypt. It was daubed with
slime, which was probably the mud of
which their bricks were made, and with
pitch or bitumen. Ex. 2 : 3.
.3. Akk of the Covenant, Ex. 25 :
10, a chest constructed by the express
command of Jehovah, three feet nine
inches in length, and two feet three
inches in width and height, made of
shittim-wood and covered with plates
of gold within and without. A border
or crown of gold encircled it near the
top, and it was surmounted by the
Supposed form of Ark of the Covenant.
mercy-seat, which was of solid gold,
and answered the purpose of a cover
or lid to the ark. On each end of the
mercy-seat was placed a golden image
representing a cherub facing inwai'd
and bending down over the ark. Two
rings of gold were attached to the body
of the ark on each side, through which
passed the staves or poles, made of the
same wood and overlaid with gold, that
were used in carrying it from jjlace to
place, and these were never taken out.
This ark contained originally and in
design, 1. A golden pot in which the
three quarts of manna were preserved.
Ex. 18 : 33. 2. Aaron's rod, which at
different places miraculously budded
and blossomed and yielded fruit all at
once, Num. 17 : 8 : and, 3. The tables
of the testimony, or the tables of the
ten commandments, written with the
finger of God and constituting the tes-
timony or evidence of the covenant be-
tween God and the people. Deut. 31 : 26 ;
Heb. 9 : 3, 4. Hence it is sometimes call-
ed the ixrk of the testimovy, and some-
times the ark of the covenant. Ex. 25 :
16 and 40 :21 ; It is probable that the
first two were hopelessly lost before the
reign of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 8 : 9. On
the mercy-seat which surmounted the
ark rested the awful and mysterious
symbol of the divine presence. Lev.
16 : 2 ; Num. 7 : 89. When the Israelites
were journeying through the wilderness,
the ark was borne in advance of the
people, and their route was providen-
tially indicated by " the cloud of the
Lord." When the ark set forward,
Moses said, " Rise up. Lord, and let
thine enemies be scattered : and let
them that hate thee flee before thee."
Num. 10 : 33-36.
After the children of Israel had pass-
ed the Jordan, whose waters divided at
the approach of the ark, Josh. 3 : 14-
17, the tabernacle was set up at Gilgal,
and this sacred vessel remained in it for
a season. It was then removed to Shi-
loh, where it was stationary between
three and four hundred years, Jer. 7 :
12-15; and being then taken out and
borne before the array, it fell into the
hands of the Philistines at the defeat
of the Israelites near Aphek. 1 Sam.
4. The Philistines took it to Ashdod
and placed it by the side of their idol-
god Dagon, 1 Sam. 5 : but by severe judg-
ments God avenged his insulted majesty,
and they were compelled to return the
ark to the people of Israel, by whom it
was lodged at Kirjath-jearim. 1 Sam.
6 and 7. When David had fixed his
residence at Jerusalem, the ark was re-
moved thither with sacred ceremonies,
and kept until the temple was prepared
to receive it, 2^am. 6 ; 1 Chr. 15 : 25-28,
on which occasion it is supposed the one
hundred and thirty-second Psalm was
written. Solomon put it in the temple.
2 Chr. 5 : 2-10. Manasseh placed a
67
ARK
ARM
carved image in the house of God,
probably removing the ark to make
wa}'^ for it. Jo?iah, however, restored
it. See 2 Chr. 33 : 7 and 35 : 3.
The second temple did not contain
the ark : whether it was seized among
the spoils when the city vvas sacked, or
whether it was secreted and afterward
destroyed, does not appear. The Jews
think it will be restored when their Mes-
siah appears. Wherever the Jews dwelt
or wandered, they always worshipped
toward the place where the ark of the
covenant rested. Dan. 6:10.
ARK'ITE, THE, a Canaanitish
family settled in Arka, " a Phcenician
town at the north-western base of Leb-
anon, where the worship of Astarte was
practised." Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 15.
ARMAGED'DON (moiuit of Me-
ffiddo), a name used figuratively in Rev.
16: 16, and suggested by the great bat-
tle-field noted in the Old Testament and
now known as the Plain of Esdraelon.
ARiHE'NIA (monntains of Minni ?),
a name in the English version for a
country called Ararat in the Hebrew.
2 Kgs. 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38. Armenia
is in western Asia, between the Caspian
and the Black Seas, and the Caucasus
and Taurus ranges of mountains.
Phi/sical Features. — It is chiefly an
elevated plateau, about 7000 feet above
the level of the sea, the highest peak
being Ararat, the lower portions of the
plateau being broken by valle,ys and
glens, including the fertile valleys of
the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. It is
watered by four large streams, the Aras,
the Kur, the Euphrates, and the Tigris,
and also by numerous lakes, one of the
largest, the salt Lake Van, being over
5400 feet above the sea. Its three moun-
tain-ranges abound in volcanic rocks, in
load, copper, iron, silver, rock-salt, and
mineral s|)rings. The climate is cold
in the highlands, while the heat of sum-
mer is intense in the valleys.
Ilisfori/. — Three districts probably
included in Armenia are mentioned in
the Bible, Ararat. Minni and Ashchenaz.
and Togarmah. ( 1 ) Ararat was a central
region near the range of mountains of the
same name. (2) Minni and^\schenaz, Jer.
61 : 27, districts in the upper valley of a
branch of the Euphrates. (3) Togarmah,
Eze. 27 : 14 ; 38 : 0, was apparently the
name bv which the most, or perhaps the
(is
whole, of the land was known to the
Hebrews. Armenian tradition claims
that Armenia was settled by Hm'k, a
grandson of Japhet, about B.C. 2200. The
land soon became tributary to Assyria,
and so continued until the eighth cen-
tury B, c. ; was again independent until
B. c. 325 ; subject to Macedonia for 130
years ; again free until b. c. 34 ; since
then alternately overrun by Romans,
Persians, Greeks, Kurds, and Turks, and
divided between Russia, Turkey, and
Persia. The people have long been nom-
inally Christian. Religious persecution
and war have driven great numbers of
Armenians from their native land into
Asia Minor and Europe. The present
number of Armenians is estimated to
be from 2.500,000 to 3,000,000, of whom
about 1,000,000 live in Armenia. Its
chief modern tovrns are Erzeroum, Eri-
van. and Van. See Assyria.
AR'MOR. See also War. Weap-
ons or instruments of defence. These
were in general the shield or buckler,
the trnujet, the coat of mail, the greaves,
and the helmet.
Egyptian Shields. {After Rosellini.)
1. The shield or hiicklcr \\{\s probably
one of the earliest pieces of armor, for al-
lusion is often made to it by the earliest
writers. Gen. 15 : 1 ; Ps. 5 : 12 ; 18 : 2 :
47 : 0. It was of various sizes, and usually
made of light wood and covered with
several folds or thicknesses of stout
hide, which were preserved and polished
by frequent applications of oil, Isa. 21 :
5, and often painted with circles of
various colors or figures. Nah. 2 : 3.
Sometimes osiers, or reeds woven like
basket work, were used to stretch the
hide u])on, and sometimes the shield
was made either entirely of brass or
gold, or covered with thick ])late3 of
ARM
ARM
those metals. 1 Kgs. 14:26, 27. It was i
of various forms, but generally circular
or oblong. The shield was held by the
1, 2. Assyrian Mnil. (Xinereh Marbles.) 3.
Part of Chai II Mail. (From Koiii/unjik.) 4. Greek
Cuirass. (Front Teniple Collections.) .5. Persian
Mail.
left arm. The hand passed through
under two straps or thongs placed
thus, X. and grasped with the fingers
another small strap near the edge of the
shield, so that it was held with great
firmness. A single handle of wood or
leather in the centre was used in
later times. The outer surface was
made more or less rounding from
the centre to the edge, and being
polished smooth made the arrows or
darts glance oflF or rebound with in-
creased force ; and the edges wore armed
with plates of iron, not only to strength-
en them, but to preserve the perishable
part from the dampness while lying
upon the ground. In times of peace
the shield was kept in a covering. In
times of engagement the shields were
either held above the head or they were
placed together edge to edge, and thus
formed a continuous barrier.
2. The target was a long shield,
protecting the whole body, larger than
the bucklers above described. 1 Kgs.
10:16,17. It is usually mentioned in
connection with heavy arms, while the
shield is spoken of with the sword, dart,
and other light arms. It probably re-
sembled the great shield of the Romans,
which in some cases was four feet high
and two and a half feet broad, and so
curved as to fit the body of the soldier.
3. The coat of nidil of Goliath, 1 Sam.
17 : 5, covered the body upon and below
the breast and back, and was probably
like a shirt covered with rows of brass
pieces overlapping one another : and
this may have been the usual form.
The habergeon of Xeb. 4 : 16 is a differ-
ent translation of the same word. The
article so called formed part of the high
priest's dress, and *'is supposed to have
been of linen, thickly woven or quilted,
with a binding on the neck, and plated
on the breast with mail."
4. Greaves or boots, I Sam. 17 : 6, were
for the protection of the legs, being made
of brass and fastened by leather thongs
over the shins. They are mentioned only
as a part of the armor of Goliath, and
probably were not in common use among
the Hebrews, though they were almost
universal among the Greeks and Romans.
5. Helmet. This was a cap. the diverse
shapes of which are seen in the figures of
the archers, slinger, bearers of shields.
In early times skins of the heads of
animals were used, but afterward it was
made of thick, tough hide, and some-
times of plated brass, 1 Sam. 17 : 38,
and usually crowned with a crest or
plume as an ornament.
Armor-beauer. Jud. 9 : 54. An of-
ficer selected by kings and generals from
the bravest of their favorites, whose ser-
Egyptian Battle-axes. (From Eosellini and Cham-
pollion.)
vice it was, not only to bear their armor,
but to stand by them in danger and carry
their orders^ somewhat after the manner
69
ARM
ARM
of adjutants in modern service. 1 Sam.
16 : 21 and 31 : 4.
1
1. Egyptian Maces and Clubs. 2. Assyrian
Maces.
ARMS were weapons or instruments
of offence. They were the sword, the
spear or javelin, dart or lance, the boic
l.Thesicord. Gen. 27:40. This was
a short two-edged instrument resembling
what we call a dagger. It wat; carried in
a sheath or scabbard, Jer. 47 : 6 ; Eze.
21 : 9, 30, and suspended to the girdle or
belt. Jud. 3: 16; 2 Sam. 20: 8.
Assyrian Swords or Daggers.
Mo.rblet.)
Assyrian Spears and Bliields. (From Nineveh
Marbles.)
2. Of the spear there were at least three
distinct varieties, which differed chiefly
in length and size. (1.) The spear, par
Assyrian Arcliers beliind a larpe Shield.
Nineveh Marblcn.)
(From
excellence, was a long wooden staff with
a stout metal point at one end. The
Greek spears were sometimes twenty-five
■-- •' I feet long, nnd the Arabs now use them
and arrow, the sling, the </uicer, and the fifteen feet long. They were required to
battle-axe. i be long enough to reacii beyond tiic front
70
ARM
ARM
rank when used by those who were in the
second rank. Goliath's spear was said
to have a staff "like a weaver's beam."
1 Sam. 17 : 7. This largest sort of spear
was used by Saul habitually. It must
have had a metallic point at its butt
end, because it was stuck into the
ground, 1 Sam. 26 : 7, and Asahel was
killed " with the hinder end " of Abner's
spear. 2 Sam. 2:23. It was this kind
of spear, and not a "javelin," which Saul
threw at David and Jonathan. 1 Sam.
18 : 1 1 ; 20 : 33. There was a somewhat
lighter spear, which was carried on the
back when not in use. 1 Sam. 17:6.
(Authorized Version translates target.)
(2.) T\\ej(ii-eUn was a short spear, cast,
as is supposed, with the hand. Num.
25:7. (3.) The dart was still smaller
than the javelin, and used in like man-
ner. 2Chron. 32:5.
3. The arrow was a slender missile
shot from a bow, as in modern days. 1
Sam. 20 : 30. It was used in hunting.
Gen. 27:3, as well as in combat. Gen.
48 : 22. Those who used the bow were
called "archers." Gen. 21:20. Arrows
were originally made of reeds, and after-
ward of any light wood. The hoics were
made of flexible wood or steel, Ps. 18 :
34, and the bowstring of leather, horse-
hair, or the tendons of animals. Bows
were the chief dependence in both an
attack and a defence. The point of the
arrow was barbed like a fish-hook. Ps.
kindled upon the combustible baggage
or armament of the enemy. Ps. 91 : 5 ;
120 : 4. It is said that the coals of the
Egyptian Archer. (Bosellini.)
38 : 2. Job refers to the use of poisoned
arrows. Job 6 : 4, and lire was often con-
veyed by the use of juniper- wood, which
Assj'iian aud Egyptian Quivers and Bows.
juniper-wood retain their heat for a
long time. The Phoenicians and, in
later times, the Spaniards have used
arrows for the like purpose. Arrows
were used in divination. Eze 21 : 21.
Arrows were kept in a case or box
called a qidver, which was slung over
the shoulder in such a position that the
soldier could draw out the arrows when
wanted. The position of the quiver and
bow is seen in a preceding cut. The
drawing of the bow was a test of
strength, and is still so among the
Arabians. Hence the allusion in Ps.
18 : 34.
4. The sUng, 1 Sam. 17 : 40, was an
early weapon of war, by which stones
were thrown with great force and sur-
prising accuracy of aim. This skill
was shown in a remarkable degree by
the Benjamites, who could employ
the left hand in its use with great
adroitness. Jud. 20 : 16. The slingers
71
ARM
ARO
ranked next to the archers in efficiency,
and formed a rer^ular arm ut' the service.
AssTiian Sliiiger.
5. The haftle-n,re, Jer. 51 : 20, was ob-
viously a powerful weapon of war, but
of its ancient form and manner of use
we have now no knowledge.
The term "■ armor," and the various
ofiFeusive and defensive articles com-
prised in it, are frequently used fig-
uratively in the Bible, in Eph. 6 : 11-17,
where the graces of the Christian cha-
racter are represented as the armor of
God, in which he clothes the believer,
and by which he is enabled to fight the
good fight of faith with a victorious
arm.
AR'MY. The armies of the Israel-
ites embraced the whole male population
of the country of twenty years and over.
Num. 1 : 2, 3 ; 26 : 2, and when occasion
required, the entire body was readily
mustered. Jud. 20 : 1-11 ; 1 Sam. 11 :
7, 8. This accounts for the prodigious
numbers which were often assembled.
2 Chron. 13 : .{ ; 14 : 9. See War. The
system was minute. Each tribe consti-
tuted a division with a separate banner
and separate ])osition on the march to
the Holy Land, and as near as ])Ossible
in battle. The army gathered from -the
tribes was divided into thousan<ls and
hundreds under their respective cap-
tains. Num. 31 : 14, The kings had
body-guards. 1 Sam. 13:2; 25:13.
In later times a standing army was
maintained, and in war troops were
souietimes hired. 2 Chr. 26 : 6. But
72
ordinarily the soldiers received no
wages, but were armed and supported.
1 Kgs. 4 : 27 : 10 : 26. Hence their
campaigns were short, and generally
terminated by a single battle. Horses
were not used, it is supposed, until
Solomon's time. The manner of de-
claring war, and the character and
occupation of exempts, are minutely
stated. Deut. 20 : 1-14 ; 24 : 5.
AR'NON (noisy), a stream running
into the Dead Sea from the east, and
which divided Moab from the Amorites.
Num. 21 : 13 ; Jud. 11 : 18. The Arnon
is about 50 miles long ; 90 feet wide, and
from 4 to 10 feet deep at its mouth ; full
in winter, but nearly dry in summer ;
had several fords, Isa. 16 : 2, and " high
places," Num. 21 : 28 ; Isa. 15 : 2 ; is re-
ferred to 24 times in the Bible. Its
modern name is el-MoJib. It runs
through a deep ravine with precipitous
limestone clifi's on either side, in some
places over 2000 feet high. Ruins of
foi'ts, bridges, and buildings abound on
its banks, and fish in its waters; ole-
anders and almond trees bloom in its
valley, and griffons and buzzards may
be seen hovering over its cliffs.
A'ROD (« wild ass), a son of Gad,
founder of the Arodites. Num. 26 : 17.
He is palled Arodi in Gen. 46: 16.
AR'OER (ruins), the name of sev-
eral places.
1. A city on the north side of the
river Arnon, given to Reuben. Josh.
13:9, 16. It belonged to Sihon of the
Amorites, Deut. 2:36; 3:12: 4:48;
Josh. 12 : 2 ; Jud. 11 : 26 ; taken by
Syria, 2 Kgs. 10 : 33 ; possessed by
Moab, Jer. 48 : 19. It is identified with
ruins on the edge of a steep cliff, 13
miles west of the Dead Sea, and called
A ra'ir.
2. A city before Rabbah, built by
Gad, Num. '32 : 34 ; Josh. 13 : 25 ; ])rob-
ably the modern Ayra, 9 miles south of
Ramoth-gilcad.
3. Aroer, in Isa. 17 : 2, if a i)roper
name, must refer to a region near
Damascus.
4. A town in the south of Judah,
1 Sam. 30 : 28 ; now Ar'arah, on the
road iVom (iaza to Petra, and 11 miles
south-west of Beer-shcba. Four wells
are found there,
AROKRITE, THE. Hothan,
the father <.f two of David's "mighty
ARP
ASA
men," was a native of Aroer, but it is
uncertain of which one. 1 Chr. 11 : 44.
AR'PAD, OR AR'PHAD {strong
citij), a town or rejrion in Syria, near
Hamoth, 2 Kgs. 18 : 34; Isa. 10 : 9 ;
dependent on Damas>cus. Jer. 49 : 23.
See Arvad.
ARPHAX'AD isfroiujhold of the
Chaldeen), a son of Shem, ancestor of
Eber, and also, according to Josephus,
of the Chaldseans. Gen. 10 : 22, 24 : 11 :
10-13: 1 Chr. 1: 17, 18, 24.
ARTAXERX'ES {the great xcar-
rior), the name of two kings of Persia
mentioned in the Bible. 1. Ezr. 4 : 7-24,
the king who stop])ed the rebuilding of
the temple because he listened to the
malicious report of the enemies of the
Jews, He is supposed to have been
Smerdis the Magian, the pretended
brother of Cambyses, who seized the
throne b. c. .322, and was murdered af-
ter 8 months.
2. Ezr. 7 : 7 and Neh. 2 : 1 both speak
of a second Artaxerxes, who is generally
regarded as the same with Artaxerxes
Longimanus {i.e. the Long-handed), son
of Xerxes, who reigned B. c. 464—425. In
the seventh year of his reign he per-
mitted Ezra to return into Juda?a, with
such of his countrjnien as chose to fol-
low him ; and fourteen years afterward
he allowed Nehemiah to return and
build up Jerusalem.
AR'TEillAS (contraction of Arte-
madovus, the gift of Artemis, i. e. Diana),
a companion of Paul. Tit. 3:12.
ARTIL'LERY. 1 Sam. 20 : 40.
Any missile weapons, as arrows, lances,
etc. See Arms.
ARTS. Acts 19 : 19. Pretended
skill in the practice of magic, astrology,
etc. See "Astrology.
AR'UBOTH {windows, or court), a
district including Sochoh, 1 Kgs. 4 :
10. See SocHOH.
ARU'MAH {height), a place near
Shechem, where Abimelech lived. Jud.
9 : 41. Perhaps el-Armah, 5 miles south-
east of Nahlous.
AR'VAD {wandering), a small island
2 or 3 miles off the coast of Phoenicia,
related closely to Tyre. Eze. 27:8, 11.
See also Gen. 10 : 18 : 1 Chr. 1 : 16.
Ruins of a huge wall are still found,
and Greek inscriptions graven on black
basaltic columns. The stones are so
immense as to puzzle the best engineers
how to move them. The place is now
called Jinad, and has about 3000 popu-
lation. It appears to have been a city
since the time of Arvad, son of Canaan,
and is probablj' the same as Arpad and
Arphad.
AR'ZA, the steward of King Elah's
house. 1 Kgs. 16 : 9.
A'SA ( physician) was son and succes-
sor of A bijam on the throne of Judah, B.C.
955-914, 1 Kgs. 15 : 8. He reigned for-
ty-one 3'ears. Though educated in the
principles of a false religion, he showed
from the first his decided opposition to
idolatr}', and even deposed his grand-
mother, Maachah, because she had made
an idol in a grove. The first part of his
reign was peaceful, and he improved the
opportunity to purify his kingdom from
idolatry and to build and fortify sev-
eral cities ; and when Zerah, an Ethi-
opian king, invaded his territories with
an army of a million of men and three
hundred chariots, Asa met him at
Mareshah with 580,000 men, and de-
feated him. This battle was one of
the most important in Jewish history.
2 Chr. 14.
At the suggestion of the prophet
Azariah, Asa set about the reformation
of every abuse in his kingdom, and
appointed a solemn festival of thanks-
giving to God, at which all the peo-
ple were assembled, and entered into
a formal covenant with God. Baasha,
king of Israel, finding his subjects too
much disposed to go into Judah and
dwell there, commenced fortifying Ra-
mah, a place near the frontiers of both
kingdoms, with a view to cut off the
passage of emigrants to Jerusalem
and other parts of Judah. Asa,
though he had so long enjoyed the
favor and protection of (jod, was now
tempted to forsake him. Instead of
trusting him for deliverance, as he
had done in years past, he sent to
Ben-hadad, the king of Syria, and pre-
vailed on him, even in violation of a
treaty which existed between Ben-ha-
dad and Baasha, to come to the help
of Judah against Israel. The Syrian
king, won by the presents which Asa
had sent him, immediately attacked
and destroyed several important cities
of Israel. Baasha, finding his king-
dom thus invaded, abandoned the for-
tification of Ramah that he might
73
ASA
ASH
protect the provinces of the interior
I'roui desolation. Asa seized the op-
portunity to demolish Ramah and take
away the stone and timber which were
collected there and use them in the
building of his own cities. In the
mean time, Hanani the prophet was
sent to rebuke him for forsaking Je-
hovah, and to announce his punish-
ment. But Asa was enraged by the
faithful message, and caused the bearer
of it to be imprisoned. 2 Chr. 16 : 10.
In the latter part of his life Asa had
a disease of the feet, perhaps the
gout, but '• he sought not to the Lord,
but to the physicians." We may, how-
ever, accept his sufferings as an ex-
tenuating circumstance for his occa-
sional acts of tyrannj'. He died b. c. 914,
in the forty-first year of his reign, and
was buried with great pomp. 2 Chr.
16:14.
2. A Levite who dwelt in one of the
villages of the Netophathites after
the Captivitv. 1 Chr. 9:16.
AS'AHEL [uhom God vmrJe). 1.
David's nephew, Joab's brother, noted
for swiftness of foot ; one of David's
thirtv heroes : killed hy Abner at the
battle of Gideon. 2 Sam. 2 : 18flf. ; 1
Chr. 11 : 26 ; 27 : 7.
2. A Levite. 2 Chr. 17 : 8.
3. Another Levite. 2 Chr. 31 : 13.
4. The father of one in Ezra's em-
ploy. Ezr. 10:15.
ASAHI'AH (irlinm Jehovah made),
a servant of King Josiah. 2 Kgs. 22:
12, 14. Called Asaiah, the same name,
in 2 Chr. 34:20.
ASAI'AH (u-hnm Jehovah made). 1.
A Simeonite chief in Hezekiah's time.
1 Chr. 4:36, 41.
2. A Levite of David's time, eliief of
the Merari, who assisted in bringing up
the ark to Jerusalem. 1 Chr. 6 : 30, 31 ;
15:6,11.
3. According to 1 Chr. 9 : 5, the first-
born of the Shilonite; called, in Neh. 11 :
5, Maaseiah.
4. 2 Chr. 34:20. Sec Asahiaii.
A'SAPH (coUeeUn-). 1. A Levite
who was a chief leader of the tem-
ple choir antl a poet. 1 Chr. 6 : 3i).
Twelve of the Psalms are attributed to
him — namely, Ps. 50 and from Ps. 73
to 83. He is also spoken of as a
"seer" in connection with David. 2
Chr. 29 : 30 : Neh. 12 : 46. " The sons
74
of Asaph " were probably a school of
musicians.
2. The father of Joah, recorder to
Hezekiah. 2 Kgs. 18 : 18, 37 ; Isa. 36 :
3,22.
3. The keeper of the king's forest
to Artaxerxes. Neh. 2 : 8.
4. A Levite, an ancestor of Mattaniah.
Neh. 11 : 17. Perhaps the same as 1.
ASAR'EEL {whom God has hound ;
i.e. by a)i oath), a descendant of Ju-
dah. 1 Chr. 4:16.
ASARE'LAH
God), a musician,
Jesharelah in v. 14.
ASCEN'SION.
(iipn'qht toward
1 Chr. 25 : 2 ; called
See Christ.
AS'ENATH {favorite of Neith or
Tsis-Neith) (Neith is the Minerva of
Egypt), Joseph's wife, the daughter of
Poti-pherah, priest of On or Heliopolis,
the religious and literary capital of an-
cient Egypt, a few miles south of Cairo.
Gen. 41:'45; 46:20.
A'SER. Luke 2 : 36 ; Rev. 7 : 6.
Greek form of Asher.
ASH. Isa. 44 : 14. Mentioned
only once. The true ash is not a
native of Palestine. This tree, the
wood of which was wrought into the
images of idolatry, is believed to be
a pine.
A'SHAN (smoke), a citv in the
plain of Judah. Josh. 15 : 42 ; 1 Chr.
6 : 59. The Ashan assigned to Simeon
may be another place. Josh. 19 : 7 ;
1 Chr. 4 : 32. Conder proposes to place
one at 'Aseileh, near en-Iiinunon, the
other at Hesheth.
ASH'BEA (I adjure), a name in the
genealogical list in 1 Chr. 4 : 21. Prob-
ably the name of a person ; but if a place,
it should be Beth-ashbea.
ASH'BEL (reproof of God), a son
of Benjamin, ancestor of the Ashbelites.
Gen. 46 : 21 : Num. 26 : 38 ; 1 Chr. 8 : 1.
ASH'CHENAZ. 1 Chr. 1:6: Jer.
51 : 27. See Ashkenaz.
ASH'DOD (stroui/hofd, castle), one
of the five cf»nfederate cities of the Phil-
istines, allotted to Judah. Josh. 15 : 46,
47 ; the chief seat of I)agon -worship. 1
Sam. 5. It was 3 miles from the Medi-
terranean, and midway between Gaza
and Jo])j)a. The pliice is called Azotus
in the is^ew Testament. Acts 8 : 40. It
is now a mean village called Esdud ;
[ near it are extensive ruins.
Histori/. — Built by the Anakim ; not
ASH
ASH
taken by Joshua. Josh. 11 : 22 : allotted
to Judah, 15 : 47 : taken by Uzziah, 2
Chr. 26 : 6 : by Tartan or Sargon, Isa.
20:1; besieged by Psammetichus and
destroyed by the Maccabees : given to
Salome after Herod's death: Philip
preached there, Acts 8 : 40 : bishops of
Azotus or Ashdod are noticed in later
history ; the city is now occupied by
Mohammedans.
ASH'DOTH-PIS'GAH («/>nn^«
of Phgah), a valley or place near Mount
Pisgah, dividing Reuben from Gad.
Deut. 3:17; 4 : 49 ; Josh. 12 : 3. See
Pisgah, Sprixgs of.
ASH'ER (happy). 1. A territory
assigned to Asher. extending from Car-
mel to Lebanon, and about 60 miles long
and 10 to 12 wide, having 22 cities with
their villages. The Phoenicians held the
plain by the sea, and Asher the moun-
tains. Josh. 19 : 24-31 ; Jud. 1 : 31, 32.
2. A place on the boundary between
Ephraira and Manasseh. Josh. 17 : 7.
Some locate it at Vtifiir, 12 miles north-
east of Shechem. Drake suggests Asi-
reh as the more probable location.
ASH'ERAH (straight). See AsH-
TAROTH.
ASH'ES. Gen. 18 : 27. To caver
the head with ashes, or to sit in ashes,
betokens self-abhorrence, humiliation,
extreme grief, or penitence. 2 Sam. 13 :
19; Esth.4:3; Job 2 : 8 ; Jer. 6 : 26 :
Lam. 3:16; Jon. 3:6: Matt. 11 : 21. The
ashes of the altar of burnt-offering on
the days of the great festivals were suf-
fered to accumulate, and then taken away
the next day by a priest chosen b}' lot to
this work. There was a sort of lye made
of the ashes of the heifer sacrificed on
the great day of expiation, which was
used for ceremonial purification. Num.
19:17,18. See Heifer.
A S H ' I M A. 2 Kgs. 17 : 30. The
name of the god the Hamathite colonists
introduced into Samaria; identified with
the Pan of the Greeks.
ASH'KELON, axo AS'KELON
(migration), one of the five cities of the
Philistines ; a seaport-town 10 miles
north of Gaza ; taken by Judah, Jud. 1 :
18 ; visited by Samson, Jud. 14 : 1 9 ; and
its destruction predicted in Jer. 47 : 5, 7 ;
Am. 1:8; Zech. 9:5: Zeph. 2 : 7.
Histort/.—Ash\ie]on was the seat of
worship of the Philistine goddess As-
tarte, whose temple was plundered by
! the Scythians, b. c. 625 ; was the birth-
place of Herod the Great; was taken by
the Franks, A. D. 1099 ; partially de-
stroyed by the Moslems ; rebuilt by
Richard Coeur de Lion; destroyed again
in A. D. 1270. Ruins of walls, columns,
marble pillars, and inscriptions on stone
abound there now, though man}' of the
good building-stones have been dug up
; and used in Jaffa and Gaza. Sycamores,
vines, olives, and fruit trees are found
there, and also 37 wells of sweet water.
Xear the ruins of the old city is Jora, a
village of about 300 population.
ASH'KENAZ {strong, fortified), a.
district probably in Armenia, the home
, of a tribe of the same name. In 1 Chr.
I 1:6; Jer. 51 : 27 it is called Ashchenaz.
See Armenia.
ASH'KEi\AZ. Gen. 10:3. Son
of Gomer, of the family of Japhet, and
the probable ancestor of those who in-
habited the country of the same mme,
Jer. 51 : 27, lying along the eastern and
south-eastern shore of the Black Sea.
The precise district is unknown. See
MlXNI.
ASH'NAH, the name of two cities
of Judah. 1. One about 16 miles north-
west of Jerusalem, Josh. 15 : 33 ; 2. the
other 16 miles south-west of it. Josh.
15 : 43. Conder locates it at Idhnah, but
Ganneau places it at Asalim, near Sara.
ASH'PEXAZ (horse-nose ?), the
master of Nebuchadnezzar's eunuchs,
who showed much kindness and for-
bearance toward Daniel and his three
companions, though at considerable per-
sonal risk. Dan. 1 : 3.
ASH'RIEL (vow of God). See As-
RIEL.
ASH'TAROTH, AS'TA-
ROTH. 1. A city of Bashan, east of
the Jordan, Deut. 1:4; Josh. 9 : 10 : 13 :
31 ; the same as Beesh-terah, Josh. 21 :
27; probably TeU-Ashterah, in Jaulan.
2. {Ashtoreth, sing.; Ashtoroth, plur.
and more usual.) An idol, represented
in the subjoined cut, .Tud. 2 : 13 ; called
the goddess of the Sidonians. It was
much worshipped in Syria and Phoeni-
cia. Solomon introduced the worship
of it. 1 Kgs. 11 : 33. The Greeks and
Romans called it Astarte. The four
: hundred priests of Jezebel, mentioned 1
Kgs. 18: 19, are supposed to have been
employed in the service of this idol ;
and we are told that under this name
75
ASH
ASP
Fignie of Astaiie. ( Rawlinson's ' Herodotus.")
three hundred priests were constantly
employed in its service at Hierapolis. in
Syria, many centuries after Jezebel's
time. The worship of Ashtoreth was
suppressed by Josiah. It was simply
licentiousness under the guise of relig-
ion. The goddess was called the
"queen of heaven," and the worship
was said to be paid to the "host of
heaven." It is usually mentioned in
connection with Baal. Baal and Ash-
toreth are taken by many scholars as
standing for the sun and the moon re-
spectively ; by others as representing
the male and female powers of repro-
duction. Anhernhy which is translated
in the Authorized Version " grove," was
an idol-symbol of the goddess, probably
a wooden pillar.
ASH'TERATHITE, an inhabit-
ant of Ashtaroth beyond Jordan. 1
Chr. 11:44.
ASIl'TEROTH KAR'NAIM
(Ashteroth of (he two hornex), a city of
the giant Kephaim in Bashan, Gen.
14: 5; perhaps modern San'oiiei'u, 30
miles south of Damascus, though Porter
thinks it possibly identical with Kenath
and modern Kini(tw<it. Others suggest
Tell-Anhtcrah, 20 miles east of the Sea
of (ialilee.
ASH'TORETII. See Ashtaroth.
ASH'UR {hhich), the father of
Tekoa: i. e. the founder of the place.
1 Chr. 2:24; 4:5.
ASH'VATH {meaning uncertain),
an Asherite. 1 Chr. 7 : 33.
A'SIA, used only in the New Testa-
ment. It refers, not to the continent of
Asia, nor to "Asia Minor" entire, but
to a small Roman province on the coast,
in the west of Asia Minor, and included
the lesser provinces of Mysia, Lydia,
and Caria ; its capital was Ephesus.
Acts 6 : 9 ; 19 : 10 : 27 : 2 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 19 ;
1 Pet. 1:1; Rev. 1 : 4. All the " seven
churches " were in Asia. See Maj).
A'SIEL {created of God), a Simeon-
ite. 1 Chr. 4:35.
AS'KELON. Jud.l:18. SeeAsH-
KELON.
AS'NAH {thorn-hnHli), one whose
descendants returned with Zerubbabel.
Ezr. 2 : 50.
ASNAP'PER {swift?), one men-
tioned in Ezr. 4:10 as "great and
noble." Who he was is unknown. It
is perhaps best to regard him as the of-
ficial employed by Esar-haddon to settle
the Cuthgeans in Samaria.
ASP. Deut. 32:33: Rom. 3:13.
A small but very poisonous serpent,
Egyptian Cobra. (Naja hage. Aj'lcf Houghton.)
probably the Egyptian cobra, which
dwells in holes. The venom of this
re])tile is cruel, because it is so subtle
and deadly, and requires an immediate
e.xcision of the wounded part. For an
infant child to jilay up i/^ the holo of
ASP
ASS
such a venomous reptile would seem to
be most presumptuous, and hence the
force of the figure used by the prophet,
Isa. 11 : 8, to represent the security and
peace of the Messiah's reign. See
Addkr (2).
AS'PATHA {meanin(j iinceftaiii),
the third son of Haman. Esth. 9: 7.
AS'RIEL (cow of God), the son of
Gilead, founder of the Asrielites.
Num. 26 : 31 : Josh. 17 : 2 : 1 Chr. 7 : U.
ASS. Gen. 22:3. This animal is
among the most common mentioned in
Scripture, and constituted a consider-
able part of the wealth of ancient times.
Gen. 12 : 16 and 30 : 43 ; Job 1 : 3 ; 42 :
12. Asses were sometimes so numerous
as to require a
special keeper.
G e n . 36 : 24 ; 1
Chr. 27 : 30. The
ass and the ox were
the principal ani-
mals of burden and
draught. Ex. 23 :
12. The domestic
ass is indeed a
most serviceable
animal, and in
some respects
preferable k) the
horse. He subsists
on very coarse food
and submits to the
meanest drudgery.
His skin is remark-
ably thick, and is
used at this day for
parchment, drum-
heads, memoran-
dum-books, etc.
The usual color of
asses is red or dark brown, but some-
times they are of a silver white, and
these last were usually appropriated to
persons of dignity. Jud. 5 : 10. So in
Gen. 49 : 11 the allusion to the ass and
the vine imports dignity and fruitful-
ness, and the continuance and increase
of both in the tribe of Judah. There
was a breed of asses far superior to
those that were used in labor, and which
are supposed to be referred to in most
of the passages above cited.
The female, or she-ass, was particu-
larly valuable for the saddle and for her
milk, which was extensively used for
food and for medicinal purposes.
The ass was used in agricultural labor,
especially in earing (ploughing) the
ground and treading it to prepare it
for the seed. Isa. 30:24 and 32:20.
The prohibition, Deut. 22 : 10, might
have been founded in part on the in-
equality of strength between the oX
and the ass, and the cruelty of putting
upon them the same burden, but was
intended chiefly to mark the separation
of the Jews from surrounding nations,
among whom such a union of diflerent
beasts was not uncommon. So service-
able, and indeed essential, to man was
this animal in ancient times that to
drive away the ass of the fatherless is
reckoned among the most atrocious acts
_^>^j^.%
^•^;
The Eastern Ass
. {After Wood. " Animal Kingdom.")
of oppression and cruelty. Job 24 : 3, as
depriving an orphan family of their only
cow would be regarded at the present
day. The attachment of this animal to
its owner is among its remarkable cha-
racteristics. In this respect it closely
resembles the dog. Hence the severity
of the prophet's rebuke. Isa. 1: 3.
The fact stated in 2 Kgs. 6 : 25 shows
that such was the extremity of the fam-
ine that the people were willing to give
an exorbitant price for the head of an
"unclean" animal.
The ass, when dead, was thrown into
an open field, and that part of his flesh
which was not consumed by beasts and
77
ASS
ASS
birds was suflfered to putrefy and decay.
Nothing could be more disgraceful than
to expose a human body in the like
manner. Jer. 22 : lU : 36*: 30.
Our Saviour's entrance into Jerusalem
riding uj)on an ass's colt fulfilled the
projjhecy in Zech, 9:9. It is not con-
sidered in the East less honorable to
ride this animal than a horse. But the
latter is chiefly used for warlike pur-
poses, as the ass is not. This peaceful
animal was approj)riated to the Prince
of peace, who came not as other con-
querors.
The Arabian ass has a light, quick
step. In Persia, Syria, and Egypt
ladies are accustomed to ride on asses,
and they are particularly valuable in
mountainous countries, being more sure-
footed than horses. Their ordinary
gait is lour miles an hour.
The ass in its wild or natural state is
a beautiful animal. It is olten alluded
to in the sacred writings. Job 11: 12;
24 : 5 and 39 : 5-8. Asses usually roam-
ed in herds through barien and desolate
districts. Isa. 32 : 14 ; lios. 8 : 9. One
was recently taken in a pitfall in Astra-
chan, and added to the Surrey zoologi-
cal collection in England. It is de-
scribed as having a deer-like appear-
ance, standing high on the legs, very
active, of a silvery color, with a dark-
brown streak along the back.
AS'SHUR. Gen. 10: 22. The sec-
ond son of Shem. See AssvriiA.
AS'SHUR, a Hebrew form for As-
syria, and in the prophecies and his-
torical books refers to that empire.
See Assyria.
ASSIIU'RIiH (sif'px), descendants
of Dcdiiu, the grandson of Abraham.
Gen. 26 : 3.
AS'SIR {captive). 1. A Levite, the
son of Korah. Ex. 6 : 24; 1 Chr. 6 :
22.
2. A "descendant of Korah, and an-
cestor of Samuel. 1 Chr. 6 : 23, 37.
3. A descendant of David. 1 Chr.
3 : 17.
AS'SOS, a Greek city of Mysia in
"Asia,*' 19 miles south-east of Troas,
and on the Mediterranean Sea. Ex-
tensive ruins of buildings, citadel,
tombs, and a gateway still exist there.
Paul visited it. Acts 20 : 13.
AS'SUR. Ezr. 4:2; Ps. 83:8.
See AssYuiA.
78
ASSUR'ANCE. 1. Of the Un-
PKHSTAXDIXG, Col. 2 : 2, is a full know-
ledge of divine things founded on the
declaration of the Scrijjturis.
2. An Assurance of Faith, Heb. 10 :
22, is a firm belief in Christ, as God has
revealed him to us in the Scriptures,
and an exclusive dependence on him
for salvation.
3. Assurance of Hope, Heb. 6 : 11, is
a firm expectation that God will grant
us the complete enjoyment of what he
has promised.
ASSYR'IA, a great empire of West-
ern Asia, founded by Asshur, Gen. 10:
10, 11, who built Nineveh, Rehoboth (?),
Calah, and Hesen. Assyria proper ap-
pears to have included about the same
territory as modern Kurdistan. The
empire covered at times a far larger
extent of territory, and in its jirosper-
ity nearly all of western Asia and por-
tions of Africa were subject to its power.
I'liifnicdl Featnrcx. — 'I he chief rivers
of Assyria were the Eujihrates and
Tigris. The country was well watered.
On the east and north were ranges of
mountains, the highest covered with
snow. The central portions were along
the fertile valleys of the two great rivers.
There are immense level tracts of the
country, now almost a wilderness, which
bear marks of having been cultivated
and tluckly populated in early times.
Among its products, besides the com-
mon cereals, were dates, olives, cotton,
mulberries, gum - arable, madder, and
castor-oil. Of animals, the bear, deer,
wolf, lynx, hyena, antelope, lion, tiger,
beaver, and camel were common. 'J l.e
fertility of the country is frequently
noted by ancient writers.
liihlicnl H'\Hti»y. — Assyria is among
the earliest countries mentioned in the
I3ible, Gen. 2:14, and is referred to
about one hundred and twenty times
in the Old Testament, though only four
or five of its kings are noticed by name.
Scripture, tradition, and the monuments
of the country unite in testifying that
Assyria was j)eopled from Babylon.
(Jen. 10 : 10, 11. From the time of
Nimrod until two centuries alter the
division of the Israelitish kingdom the
Scrij)tures make no mention of Assyria.
During the rule of Menahem, Pul. the
king of Assyria, invaded Israel and
levied a heavy tribute uj»on it, 2 Kgs.
ASS
ASS
15 : 19 : a few years later, when Pekah
was king of Israel, and Ahaz king of
Judab, Tiglath-pileser, another king of
Assyria, aided Judah in a war against
Israel and Syria. 2 Kgs. 16 : 7-9 ; 15 :
29 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 16. In the reign of
Hoshea the Assyrians under Shalmaneser
again invaded Israel, and after besieg-
ing its capital, Samaria, for three years,
captured it, destroyed the kingdom, and
carried the people into captivity, B. c.
721, and repeopled the land by colonies
from Babylon, Cuthah, and Hamath. 2
Kgs. 17 : 1-6, 24. Sargon, a usurper and
great warrior, succeeded Shalmaneser
as king of Assyria, and perhaps com-
pleted the conquest of Samaria and of
Israel undertaken by his predecessor.
Sargon deposed Merodach Baladan, king
of Babylon, made an expedition against
Egypt, when he captured Ashdod, Isa.
20 : 1-1, conquered Sj'ria, and subdued
a large portion of western Asia. Un-
der Sargon, Xineveh, the capital of the
empire, was repaired and adorned with
a royal palace and many magnificent
buildings. See illustration on p. 80. He
was succeeded by his son, Sennacherib,
about B. c. 704, who became the ^most
celebrated of all the Assyrian kings.
During his reign of 22 years he crushed
the revolt of Berodach Baladan, and
drove him from the country ; car-
ried his conquests into Egypt, Phi-
listia, Armenia. Media, and Edom. He
invaded the kingdom of Judah in the
reign of Hezekiah, and his army was
miraculously destroyed, and he returned
home in shame, and was slain by his
two sons. 2 Chr. 32 : 1-21 ; 2 Kgs.
19 : .'>5-.37. He was succeeded by Esarhad-
don, who reigned 1.3 years, and was suc-
ceeded by Assur-banipal (Sardanapa-
lus), a noted warrior and builder, who
extended -the limits of the empire and
erected a grand palace at Kouynnjik.
After his reign the empire began gradu-
ally to decline, until in b. c. 625 (some
say 606) it was subdued by the Medes
and Babylonians, and the latter became
the dominant power during the great
Captivity. 2 Kgs. 24 : 1 : 25 : 1-8 ;
Dan. 1:1; 3:1; 5:1; Eze. 29 : 18.
See Nineveh and Babylon.
Art, Lanr/nnge, and Relifjion. — The
artistic skill, genius, and magnificence
displayed by the Assyrians in archi-
tecture and in the arts, as shown by
the exhumed remains of their great
cities, are the admiration of scholars.
The massive walls and towers which
surrounded their towns ; the vastness
and beauty of their ruined palaces at
Khoraahad and Konyiutjik ; the elab-
orate finish and adornments of their
temples and other edifices at Nimroad
and Kileh Shei-fjhat ; the sculptures in
marble, stone, bi'onze, and clay ; the
remarkable specimens of transparent
glass vases ; the tables, chairs, and ar-
ticles of luxury for the home ; their
chariots and implements of war, — are
the wonder of explorers of our day.
Canon Rawlinson declares the much-
lauded Egyptians to be vei-y decidedly
the inferiors ot the Assyrians, except-
ing in the one point of the grandeur
and durability of their architecture.
The language of Assj'ria was Semitic,
and in style derived, according tq. Raw-
linson, from the Chaldtean, but of a less
archaic type. It was written without
pictorial representations of objects, and
in the arrow-headed or wedge-shaped
characters, of which over 300 different
signs or characters are now known to
have been used in the Assyrian alpha-
bet. " Their language and alphabet are
confessedly in advance of the Egyp-
tian."— Rawlinson's Five Ancieiit Mon-
archies, 1870, i. p. 247. Of their religion
the same author says it is '• more earn-
est and less degrading than that of
Egypt. Idols and idol-worship pre-
vailed. Of eleven chief gods and an
equal number of goddesses, the greatest
was Asshur, one of whose symbols was
a winged sphere with the figure of a
man armed with a bow issuing from the
centre. Among the other gods were
Bel, Sin the moon-god, Shamas the
sun-god, Ishtar, and Xebo. Their idols
were of stone and clay, and were wor-
shipped with sacrifices, libations, and
offerings, and by fastings of man and
beast. The tablets testify to the atten-
tion given to religion by the learned,
and the records and sculptures indicate
the general spirit of worship prevailing
among the people, while it also shows
their gross idolatry."
Modern Discoveries and General His-
tory.— Concerning the history of the
Assyrian kingdom and empire, compar-
atively little was known previous to
recent discoveries. The researches of
79
ASS
ASS
Botta, 1842-1850; Layard, 1851-1853;
Sir H. Kawlinson, 1850-1867 : Oppert,
1857-1870 ; Lenormant, 1868-1873 ;
George Smith, 1872-1877 ; and those of
Rassam, 1878, — have rescued the an-
nals of that country from obscurity, and
furnished the materials for a trust-
worthy history. These records, to-
gether with the vast buildings, monu-
ments, and grand palaces, were buried
many feet beneath mounds of earth,
and their existence for hundreds of
years was wholly unknown to the world.
By patient excavation the monuments,
,l<HORSABAO ^ t ^^r '
dug up from the mounds, written in
cuneiform or wedge-shaped characters
and in the Assyrian tongue. The in-
scriptions were upon slabs of stone,
which formed the panels of the palace-
walls, on obelisks of stone, on clay tab-
lets, and on cylinders or hexagonal
prisms of terra cotta two or three feet
long. These tablets and cylinders were
undoubtedly a part of the royal library
in the days of Tiglath-pileser and of
other noted kings.
" The Assyrian power was a single
monarchy from the beginning, and
gradually grew
by conquering
the smaller states
around it ; and
there is conse-
quently a uni-
formity in its
records and tra-
ditions which
makes them
easier to follow
than those of the
sister king<lom."
— George Smith,
Ansyria)! Uiviov-
eries, 1 875, p. 447.
A list of 50 As-
syrian kings who
reigned from b. c.
1850 to B. c. 607
has been com-
piled from the
royal tablets by
George Smith.
Of these kings,
t w e n t y - e i g h t
reigned previous
to Tiglath-pileser
I., B. (.1120; fif-
temples, palaces, and other evidences of | teen reigned from Tiglath-pileser I.
Assyrian- greatness have been brought! to Tiglath-pileser II., B. c. 745; and
to light within the past forty years ; ' after his time reigned the following
even large portions of the vast libraries ' seven, four of whom are certainly men-
of her kings have been discovered, the tioned in Scripture history : Shalma-
unknown characters in which they were neser IV., Sargon, Sennacherib, Esar-
written have been deciphered, and the haddon, Assur-banipal, Bel-zakir-iskun,
inscriptions and records translated into and Assur-ebil-ili. The first capital of
modern languages, not only giving a
history of the exploits of this remark-
able nation, but also throwing much
light on its customs, religious life, and
language, and upon the many Scripture
references to Assyria.
A vast mass of documents has been
6
Assyria was Asshur, on the Tigris,
about 60 miles south of Nineveh ; its
second capital, founded or more prob-
ably rebuilt and enlarged by Shalma-
neser I., was Calah or Halah. As Assyr-
ian conquests extended north and east,
the capital was removed to Nineveh,
81
AST
ATH
wliich became a vast city, and accord-
ing to Layard covered the present site
of Kouynnjik, Nimrud, Khorauhad, and
Karamlcs. This space would correspond
to the measurements of the city given
by Diodorus. — Layard : Xineieh, 1849,
vol. ii. pp. 243-247. In his view, Nim-
rud was the original site of Nineveh,
whose founder built a new city at Kileh
Sheryhat. In later periods palaces were
built at K/iorsabad, Karamles, and the
largest of all these structures at A'«»f-
ynitjik. About 630 B. c. the Medes
from the north and the Susianians from
the south invaded Assyria; after a brief
contest they conquered it, and the empire
was divided between the conquerors.
The kingdom of Assyria extended over
a period of 1200 years, though the em-
pire can only at the utmost be consid-
ered to have lasted six and a half cen-
turies, and its ascendency in western
Asia not more than oOO years, b. c. 1125-
625. Of the importance of the recent
discoveries it is said, *' Every spadeful
of earth which was removed from those
vast remains tended to confirm the
truth of prophecy and to illustrate
Scripture. But who could have be-
lieved that records themselves should
have been found which, as to their mi-
nuteness of details and the wonderful
accuracy of their statements, should
confirm, almost word for word, the very
text of Scripture '! And remember that
these were n.) fabrications of a later
date, on monuments centuries after the
deeds which they profe;<sed to relate had
taken place, but records engraved by
those who had actual))' taken part in
the events." — Lavakd : Address in Lon-
don on heiny presented the freedom of the
city, 1854. See Nineveh and Babvi-on.
AS'TAROTH. See Ashtaroth.
ASTROLOGERS. Dan. 2 : 27.
A class of men who pretended to foretell
future events by observing the motions
of the heavenly bodies, which, until a
comparatively late period, were sup-
posed actually to influence human life.
Star-worship prevailed among Eastern
nations, and its priests were astrologers,
ASTRON'OMY (the Imon or scieme
of the btarn). The Bible gi\es evidence
that its writers were students of the
starry heavens, but the Hebrew religion
sternly forbids their worship. Some
of the constellations are mentioned —
82
e. g. the Pleiades, Orion, the " Great
Bear " (Arcturus). Job 9 : 9 ; 38 : 31. The
Jews do not seem to have divided the
stars into planets, fixed stars, and com-
ets. During the Babylonish captivity
they encountered the astronomy as well
as the astrology of the far-famed Chal-
dajans. Indeed, in Chaldtea was the
birthplace of the science. In the case
of the magi. Matt. 2, God used their as-
trology as a means of grace to lead them
to Christ. See Star of Bkthlehkm.
ASUP'PIM, HOUSE OF {home
of yutherinyH). 1 Chr. 26 : 15, 17. It
refers either to the chambers of the
temple, perhaps where the elders sat, or
to some one of the apartments of the
temple where the stores were kej)t.
The word is rendered '^ thresholds " in
Neh. 12:25.
ASYN'CRITUS {ineomparahle), a
Christian in Bome whom Paul saluted.
Rom. 16 : 14.
A'TAD, THRESHING -
FLOOR OF. Gen. 60:10, 11. Its
name was changed to Abel-mizraim,
which see.
AT'ARAH (a crown), one of the
wives of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr. 2 : 26.
AT'AROTH (croions). 1. A town
of Gad, east of the Jordan, Num. 32:
3, 34, about 7 miles north-west of Dibon ;
now the ruin Attdms.
2. A town of Ephraim, Josh. 16 : 2 ;
perhaps the same as Ataroth-adar and
Ataroth-addar. Josh. 18 : 13. It may
be the modern A tarn, (^ miles north-west
of Bethel, though Conder suggests that
it is identical with ruins discovered at
ed-Ddrieh.
3. In 1 Chr. 2 : 54, Ataroth, the house
of Joab, if a place, may refer to one in
Judah, which Schwartz would identify
with Latrum, between Jalfa and Jeru-
salem.
AT'AROTH-AD'DAR (c/w»«
of fame). See Ataroth, 2.
A'TER {shut up). 1. One whose
children kept the temple-gate. Ezr. 2 :
42 ; Neh. 7 : 45.
2. The ancestor of some who came
back with Zerubbabel, and who signed
the covenant. Ezr. 2 : 16 ; Neh. 7:21;
10: 17.
A'THACH (/odyiny-phtce), a town
in the south of Judah ; perhaps the same
as E'hcr. Josh. 19 : 7 : 1 Sara. 30 : 30.
ATHAI'AH (probably same a3
ATH
ATH
Asaiah, whom Jehovah made), a de-
scendant of Judah. Neh. 11 : 4,
ATHALI'AH {afflicted by Jehovah),
granddaughter of Omri, daughter of
Ahab and Jezebel, wife of Jehoram,
king of Judah, and mother of Aha-
ziah. 2 Kgs. 11 : 1 ff. She introduced
Baal-worship into Judah. Her charac-
ter was extremely bad. She advised
her own son in his wickedness, and
after Jehu had slain him (see Aha-
ziAn) she resolved to destroy the chil-
dren of her husband by his former
wives, and then take the throne of
Judah. But Jehosheba, a half-sister
of Ahaziah, secured Joash, one of the
children and heir, and secreted him
and his nurse for six years. In the
seventh year, everything being pre-
pared for the purpose, Joash, the
young prince, was brought out and
placed on the throne. Attracted by
the crowd of people who had assem-
bled to witness the ceremony, and un-
suspicious of the cause, Athaliah has-
tened to the temple. When the pop-
ulace had assembled, and when she
saw the young king on the throne,
and heard the shouts of the people,
and found that all her ambitious de-
signs were likely to be defeated, she
rent her clothes and cried out, *' Trea-
son ! Treason !" hoping probably to
rally a party in favor of her interests.
But she was too late. The priest com-
manded her to be removed from the
temple, and she was taken without the
walls of the city and put to death.
2 Kgs. 11 : 16. See Jehoiada and Joash.
2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 26.
3. One whose son, Jeshaiah, returned
with Ezra in the second caravan from
Babvlon. Ezr. 8 : 7.
ATH'ENS, the name of several
places, but, chiefly of the capital of
Greece, the metropolis of ancient phi-
losophy and art; named from the god-
dess Minerva or Athene. For sketch-
map see Corinth.
Situation. — It was situated about 5
Erechtheum.
Turkish Tower.
Modern City. Temple of Theseus. Souih-westein part of Modern City.
Athens. {After a sketch.)
miles north-east of the Saronic Gulf, I west, the north-east, the south-east, and
in the plain of Attica, the south-east- [ south-west, were four noted mounts,
em portion of the Grecian peninsula. Within the city were four more noted
between the little rivers Cephissus and i hills — the Acropolis, Areopagus or Mars'
Ilissus. The port, Piraeus, is five miles I Hill, the Pnyx, and the Museum,
off. and now connected with the city by j The Acropolis is about 150 feet high,
arailroad. Aboutthe plain, on the north- I with a flat top about 1100 feet long by
^ 83
ATH
ATO
450 feet wide, having a steep ascent on
all sides. West of the Acropolis is
Mars' Hill, of irregular form, and on
which j)ublic assemblies and the chief
courts were held. Upon this hill Paul
preached. Acts 17 : 19, 22. Beneath it
are the Caves of the Furies.
History. — Athens was first settled by
some chieftain, perhaps Cecrops, b. c.
1556, who is said to have been succeeded
by sixteen legendary kings and twelve
archons. Draco made laws for it, b. c.
624. Solon, its noted " lawgiver,"
founded a democracy, b. c. 594. The
city was taken by Xerxes, b. c. 480 ;
but soon after his defeat it reached its
highest prosperity, with a population
of from 120,000 to 180,000. Under the
brilliant rule of Pericles, B. c. 444 to 429,
some of the greatest mastqj-s in philos-
ophy, poetry, and oratory flourished,
and noted buildings and temples, as
that of Zeus, the Odeum, the Parthe-
non, the Propylaja, were projected or
completed. His rule Avas followed by
the Spartan, the Theban, and the
Macedonian supremacy, the age of
Demosthenes, Philip, and Alexander the
Great. In B. c. 140, Athens with Achaia
became a Roman provinne. and so con-
tinued through apostolic times. Since
then it has been subject to the Byzan-
tines, Franks, Venetians, and Turks, as
well as at times independent. Under
the misrule of the Turks it sunk down
to a miserable village, and in 1832 there
was scarcely a house standing. But it
arose with the new kingdom of Greece,
and is now again a beautiful capital,
adorned by new streets and buildings.
prominent among which are the royal
palace, the Greek cathedral, the Rus-
sian chapel, the University, the Library,
and the Museum.
At the time of Paul's visit Athens
was a " free city," under the Roman rule.
It was given to idolatry, having 80,000
idols. Petronius said, " It was easier
to find a god in Athens than to find a
man." Paul calls them "very religious,"
Acts 17 : 22, not "too superstitious," as
our version inaccurately reads. But
Athens never took a prominent place in
church history.
ATII'IjAI (irhnm Jehnvnli nffllftft),
one who had married a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10 : 28.
ATONE'MENT. Literally, nt-one-
84
me)it, or reconciliation ; theologically, the
satisfaction or propitiation brought about
by the death of Christ as the ground of
the accord or reconciliation between God
and man. The word occurs often in
the Old Testament, but only once in the
New (Rom. 5 : 11, where the Greek means
" reconciliation," which is the result of
the atoning death of Christ). The sub-
ject itself is presented in every variety
of form both in the Gospels and in the
Epistles. Rom. 3-8 and Heb. 7-10, in-
clusive.
The great atonement made for sin by
the sacrifice of Christ constitutes the
grand substantial foundation of the
Christian faith. The efficacy of it is
such that the sinner, though by nature
the child of wrath, by faith in Christ is
brought into favor with God, is deliv-
ered from condemnation, and made an
heir of eternal life and glory. The He-
brew word rendered " atonement" signi-
fies " covering," Ps. 32:1, and the Greek
version of this Hebrew word is trans-
lated "propitiation" in our Bible, and
may denote either that our offences are
covered or that we are protected from
the curse, Christ being made a curse
for us. Gal. 3:13. Generally, wher-
ever the term occurs, a state of contro-
versy or estrangement is implied ; and
in relation to the party offended, it im-
ports something done to propitiate.
Gen. 32:20; Eze. 16:63. The idea
of making an atonement is expressed
by a word which signifies " to make pro-
pitiation :" and the apostles, in referring
to the death of Christ, use those very
terms which in the Septuagint version
of the Old Testament are applied to
legal sacrifices and their effect, thus rep-
resenting the death of Christ not only
as a real and proper sacrifice, but as the
truth and substance of all the Levitical
types and shadows — the true, efficacious,
and only atonement for sin, 1 John 2 :
2 and 4 : 10 ; showing that Christ is not
only the agent by whom the propitia-
tion is made, but was himself the pi'o-
pitiatorv sacrifice.
ATONE'MENT, DAY OF. Lev.
16 ; 23 : 27-32. The only Jewish fast-
day ; the annual day of humiliation. It
was kept five days before the Feast of
Tabernacles, or on the tenth day of Tisri ;
i. e. in the early ]>art of Octolnu-. The
fast lasted from sunset to sunset. It
ATR
AUG
was kept as a solemn Sabbath. Once
a year upon this day did the high priest
alone enter the holy of holies. This
was the preparation. It was ordained
that he should bathe himself, and then
dress in holy white linen. He was then
to bring forward his sacrifices, which
must be his purchases — a young bul-
lock for a sin-offering and a ram for a
burnt-oflering. These he offered for
himself and family. Besides these, he
brought forward two goats for a sin-of-
fering and a ram for a burnt-otlering.
These, being for the benefit of the peo-
ple, were paid for out of the })ublic
treasury. The two goats were then led
up to the entrance of the tabernacle and
lots cast upon them, one lot marked ^^ For
.ye//of«/(," the other marked ''FurAznzeJ."
The latter is a phrase of unusual difficulty.
But the best modern scholars agree that
it does not designate the goat, but the
personal beiiuj to whom the goat was
sent. See Goat, Scape. The high jiriest
offered the bullock, carried live coals in
a center from the altar, with a handful of
incense, into the hoi}' of holies. There he
.'sprinkled the blood with his finger upon
the mercy-seat, eastward, and before it
seven times. He then killed the goat
" for Jehovah " and sprinkled its blood
in the same manner. Over the goat
" for Azazel " the sins of the people
were confessed b}' the high priest, and
then it was sent away by " the hand of
a fit man into the wilderness." The
ceremony was now over. Accordingly,
the high priest again bathed, put on his
usual garments, and offered the two
rams.
AT'ROTH icroirus), or "Atroth-
Shophan," as it should probably be reiid
without the comma, "Shophan" being
added to .distinguish it from the "Ata-
roth " or ''Atroth " in the former verse.
It was a city of Gad, near Dibon. Num.
32:35.
AT'TAI (opportiiue). 1. A descend-
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 35, 36.
2. A Gadite chief. 1 Chr. 12: 11.
3. A son of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 11 :
20.
ATTALI'A, a seaport-town of
Pamphylia, Acts 14:25, named from its
founder, Attalus ; later it was called
Sotnlid, and now Adalia.
AUGUS'TUS (venerable), Caius Ju-
lius Caesar Octavianus,.B. c. 62-a. d. 14.
The grand-nephew of Julius Caesar, and
first emperor of Rome. It was he who
gave the order for the enrolment which
was the human occasion of the Bethle-
hemic birth of
Christ. Luke
2:1. He was
one of the
second so-
called trium-
virate, with
Mark Antony
and Lepidus.
After the re-
moval of the
latter he
fought a bat-
tle with Antony at Actiun^ b. c. 31,
defeating him. The senate saluted him
as emperor, and in b. c. 27 conferred on
him the title of " Augustus." He comes
into the New Testament in connection
with Herod, whom he had reinstated in
his kingdom and greatl}' honored, al-
though Herod had espoused the cause
of Antonj'. At Herod's death Augus-
tus divided his kingdom in accordance
Com of AuyuMus ii
Marble Statue of Augustus, found in 1S63 at
Prima Porta, near Korne.
with his will, and even educated two
of his sons, since their relations had
been very intimate. He reigned for-
ty-one years, and was succeeded by
85
AVA
AZA
Tiberius Caesar. Luke 3:1. See C^-
SAR.
A'VA (ruin). Rawlinson would iden-
tify it with Hit, on the Euphrates ;
probably it is the same as Ahava and
Ivah. 2 Kgs. 17 : 24.
A'VEN [uothinffiiess). 1. A plain,
probably of Lebanon. Am. 1 : 5.
2. Same as Beth-aven. Hos. 10 :
5, 8. See Baalbkc.
3. The city of On or Heliopolis, in
E;;ypt. Eze. 30:17.
AVENGE', AVEN'GER. Luke
18:8; 1 Thess. 4 : fi. Vengeance is an
act of justice; revenge is an act of pas-
sion. Hence injuries are revenged,
crimes are avenged. God is avenged
of his enemies when he vindicates his
own law and government and character
and punishes their transgressions. An
avenger is the agent or instrument by
whom the avengeraent is visited on the
ofFen ling party.
AvKXGER OF Blood was a title given
to one who pursued a murderer or man-
slayer, by virtue of the ancient Jewish
law, to avenge the blood of one who had
been slain. He must be a near relative
of the murdered man. Deut. 19 : 6.
A'VIM (ruini), a city of Benjamin,
Josh. 18 : 28 ; probably near Bethel.
A'VITH (;•«(•»»«), 'a city of Edom,
Gen. 36 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 46 ; probably in
the north-eastern part of Mount Seir.
A'ZAL. Zech. 14:5. As the pas-
sage reads in the margin, Azal is not a
proper name ; but if a place at all, it was
on or near Mount Olivet.
AZALI'AH {whom Jehovah re-
served), the father of Shaphan the
scribe. 2 Kgs. 23 : 3 ; 2 Chr. 34 : 8.
AZANI'AH [whom Jehocnh heam),
the father of Jeshua the Levite. Neh.
10:9.
(whom God helps), a
Neh. 12 : 36.
[wliom God help"). 1.
A Korhite who "came to David to Zik-
lag." 1 Chr. 12 : 6.
2. A Levite musician of Davi4's time,
1 Chr. 25:18; called Uzziel in v. 4.
3. A prince of Dan. 1 Chr. 27 : 22.
4. One who had married a foreign
wife. Ezr. 10:41.
5. A priest who lived in Jerusalem
after the Return. Neh. 11 : 13.
AZARI'AH {irhnm Jehovdh helpK^.
1. The grandson of Zadok, and the high
86
AZAR'AEL
Levite musician.
AZAR'EEL
priest during the reign of Solomon. 1
Kgs. 4:2; 1 Chr. 6:9.
2. A chief officer under Solomon. 1
Kgs. 4 : 5.
3. A king of Judah, 2 Kgs. 14 : 21 ;
more generally called Uzziah, which see.
4. A son of Ethan. 1 Chr. 2 : 8.
5. The son of Jehu, son of Obed. 1
Chr. 2 : 38, 39.
6. The son of Johanan, and high
priest under Abijah and Asa. 1 Chr.
6:10, 11.
7. In 1 Chr. 6 : 13 the name is prob-
ably wrongly inserted.
8. A Kohathite, and ancestor of Sam-
uel. 1 Chr. 6 : 36.
9. A prophet who stirred up Asa to
abolish idolatry. 2 Chr. 15 : 1.
10. 11. Sons of Jehoshaphat the king.
2 Chr. 21 : 2.
12. In 2 Chr. 22 : 6 by copyist's error
for Ahaziah.
13. A captain of Judah who helped
Jehoiada. 2 Chr. 23 : 1.
14. The high priest in the reign of
Uzziah who resisted with eighty priests
the king's attempt to perform priestly
functions. 2 Kgs. 14 : 21; 2 Chr. 26:
17-20.
15. An Ephraimite chief in the reign
of Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28:12.
16. 17. Two Levites in the reign of
Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 29 : 12.
18. The high priest in the days of
Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 31 : 10, 13.
19. One who helped to repair the wall
of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 23. 24.
20. A leader in the company of Ze-
rubbabel. Neh. 7 : 7.
21. A Levite who helped Ezra in the
reading of the Law. Neh. 8 : 7.
22. A priest who sealed the covenant,
Neh. 10:2, and "probably the same
with the Azariah who assisted in the
dedication of the city wall." Neh. 12 :
33.
23. In Jer. 43 : 2 instead of Jezaniah.
24. The Hebrew original name of
Abed-nego. Dan. 1 : 6, etc.
A'Z AZ (stroiifj), a Reubenito. 1 Chr.
5:8.
AZAZI'AH (irhom Jehnvnh strenr/th-
ens). 1. A Levite musician in the reign
of David. 1 Chr. 15:21.
2. AnEphraimitechief. lChr.27:20.
3. A Levite who had the oversight
over the tithes and offerings in the reign
of Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 31 : 13.
AZB
AZZ
AZ'BUK [strong devastation), father
of Nehemiah (not the governor). Neh.
AZE'KAH. Josh. 10 : 10, 11 ; 15 :
35. A city of Judah near Shocoh.
Schwarz proposed Tell Zakuriya, in the
valley of Elah ; Conder suggested Deir-
el-Soshek, 8 miles north of Shocoh, also
in the valley of Elah, as the site of Aze-
kah.
A'ZEL (noble), a descendant of Saul.
1 Chr. 8 : 37, 38 : 9 : 43, 44.
A'ZEM (hone), a city in the south of
Judah, Josh. 15 : 29 ; afterward allotted
to Simeon, 19 : 3 : the same as Ezem in
1 Chr. 4:29.
AZ'GAD (stroiifj in fortune). l.One
whose descendants returned with Zerub-
babel. Ezr. 2:12: 8:12: Xeh. 7:17.
2. One who sealed the covenant. Neh.
10:15.
A'ZIEL (ichom God consoles), a Le-
vite porter; shortened form of Jaaziel.
1 Chr. 15 : 20.
AZI'ZA (sfronr/), one who had taken
a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 27.
AZ'MAVETH, probably a place
in Benjamin. Ezr. 2 : 24 ; Neh. 12 : 29;
called also Beth-azmaveth, Neh. 7 : 28 ;
probably modern Hizmeh, north of Ana-
thoth.
AZ'MAVETH (stronrj unto death).
1. One of David's warriors, 2 Sam. 23 :
31 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 33.
2. A descendant of Mephibosheth.
1 Chr. 8 : 36 ; 9 : 42.
3. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 12 : 3.
4. David's treasurer. 1 Chr. 27 : 25.
AZ'MON (stronrf), a place in the
south-western part of Palestine ; perhaps
Kesam or Kesaimeh, Num. 34 : 4, 5 :
Josh. 15 : 4 ; possibly the same as Hesh-
mon. Josh. 15 : 27.
AZ'NOTH-TA'BOR(ern-,orsMm-
mits, of Tabor), a place in Naphtali ;
probably the eastern slope of Mount
Tabor. Josh. 19 : 34.
A'ZOR (a helper), one of our Lord's
ancestors. Matt. 1 ; 13, 14.
AZO'TUS. Acts 8 : 40. Greek
form of Ashdod. See Ashdod.
AZ'RIEL (whom God helps). 1. A
man of renown, head of a house of
Manasseh beyond Jordan. 1 Chr. 5 :
24.
2. The father of a chief of Naphtali.
1 Chr. 27:19.
3. The father of Seraiah. Jer. 36 : 26
AZ'RIKAM (help ar/ninst the enemy)
1. One of David's posterity. 1 Chr. 3
23.
2. One of Saul's posterity, 1 Chr. 8
38 • 9 * 44
3. A Levite. 1 Chr. 9:14; Neh. 11
15.
4. The prefect of the palace to King
Ahaz, who was killed by Zichri, 2 Chr.
28:7.
AZU'BAH (forsaken). 1. The
mother of Jehoshaphat, 1 Kgs. 22 : 42 ;
2 Chr. 20:31.
2. A wife of Caleb, son of Hezron. 1
Chr. 2: 18. 19,
A'ZUR (helper). 1. The father of
Hananiah. the false prophet of Gibeon.
Jer. 28:1.
2. The father of one of the princes
against whom Ezekiel prophesied. Eze.
11:1.
AZ'ZAH (the strony), same as Gaza.
Deut. 2 : 23 J 1 Kgs. 4 : 24 ; Jer. 25 : 20.
See Gaza.
AZ'ZAN (reri/ strong), a chief of
Issachar. Num. 34 : 26.
AZ'ZUR (helper), one who sealed
the covenant. Neh. 10: J 7.
87
BAA
BAA
B.
BA'AL, OR BEL, or BE'LUS
(lord, or inasfer), different forms of the
name of the supreme male divinity of the
Phoenicians and Canaanites,as Ashtoreth
was that of their su])rerae/e/u''/« divinity.
1 Kgs. 18 : 21 ; Isa. 46 : 1; 1 Sam. 12 : 10 ;
1 Kgs. 11 : 33. That the divinities were
derived from astrological fancies there
is little doubt, but it is a question with
what pair of the heavenly bodies we are
to identify them. The common opinion
is that they represent the sun and moon
respectively, while uther scholars say
the}'^ are .Jupiter and Venus. The li-
cense sanctioned — indeed, demanded —
by their worship may have given it at-
tractiveness. At all events, it spread
among the Jews, being introduced into
Israel by Jezebel and by her daughter
into Judtea. Many and severe were the
judgments required to eradicate it.
Bnal side of a gieat Altar in a Temple near
Kunawat (Cahatha), East of the Joid'in.
The frequent use of the word Baal in
the plural form, Baalim, e. r/. Jud. 2:11;
10: 10; 1 Kgs. 18:18; Jer. 9:14; Hos.
2: 13, 17, proves probably that he was
worshipped under his different modifi-
cations. Hence several compounds exist.
1. Ba'al-bk/rith (coreinntt ford), the
form of Baal worshipped by theShechem-
ites after (lideon's death. Jud. 8:33;
9:4.
2. Ba'al-pe'or (lord of the npntin;/,
an allusion to the character of the
rites of worship), the form of Baal-wor-
ship in Moab and Midian shared in bv
88
the Israelites. Num. 25 : 3, 5, 18 : Deut.
4:3; Josh. 22:17; Ps. 108 : 28 ; Hos.
9:10.
3. Ba'al-ze'bub (lord of ihe flji), the
form of Baal worshipped at Ekron. 2
Kgs. 1:2, 3, 6, 16.
Human victims were offered to Baal.
Jer. 19 : 5. Elevated places were se-
lected for his worship, and his priests
and prophets were very numerous.
Sometimes the tops of the houses were
devoted to this purpose. 2 Kgs. 23 :
12 ; Jer. 32 : 29.
The worship of Baal is supposed
to have been general throughout the
ancient British islands, and to this
day there are various superstitious
observances in Ireland, Scotland, and
Wales which very closely resemble the
ancient worship of Baal. A town in
Perthshire, on the borders of the Scotch
Highlands, is called Tilllebeluine — that
is, the eminence or rising ground of the
fire of Baal. An enclosure of eight up-
right staves is made where it is sup-
posed the fire was kindled, and a well
in the vicinity is held in great ven-
eration ; after drinking from it the peo-
ple pass around the temple nine times.
House of Ba'al. 1 Kgs. 16 : 32. Is
the same with the temple (or place of
worship) of Baal. See particularly 2
Kgs. 10:21-28.
BA'AL (lord). 1. A Reubenite.
1 Chr. 5 • 5.
2. A Benjamite, a relative of Saul.
1 Chr. 8 : 30 ; 9 : 36.
BA'AL (lord, or wnsffr), a city of
Simeon, I Chr. 4 : 33 ; called also Bea-
loth, Baalath-Beer. Knobel and Wilton
locate it at Kuruiih ; Conder at Umm
fiai/hlt'h. " Baal " is also used as a prefix
to the names of several places, given
below.
BA'ALAH (nn'Mtrcfts). 1. Another
name for Kirjath-jearim, Josh. 15 : 9,
10, and for Baale of Judah. 2 Sam. 6 : 2,
and for Kirjath-Baal in Judah. Josh.
15:60; 18; 14. See Kiimath-.ikahim.
2. A ])Iace in Judah, Josh. 15 : 29. the
same as Balah, 19 : 3, and Bilhah, 1 Chr.
4 : 29 ; now Deir-el-Be/nh, near (Jaza.
BAA
BAA
3. Ba'alah, Mouxt. Josh. 15 : 11.
Either the same as No. 1, or possibly
a mountain in the north-western part
of Judah.
BA'ALATH, a town in Dan, Josh.
19:-t4:; probably the same that was for-
tified by Solomon. 1 Kgs. 9:18; 2 Chr.
8 : 6. Conder proposes to identify it
with the ruin Bciain, in Wady Deir
linllat ; Canon Cook suggests it may be
near Mount Baalah, or modern Yeb)i(i.
BA'ALATH-BE'ER {lord of the
well). Josh. 19 : 8. See Bkaloth.
BAALBECS OR BAALBEK
(hdl'bek), a magnificent city of Coele-
Syria, and call©<l by the (Jreeks Heli-
opolis, or "city of the Sun." It is
situated in a plain near the foot of
the Aiiti-Libanus range, about 42 miles
north-west of Daniaseus and 8800 feet
above the level of the sea. Its origin
and early history' are unknown. It is
now famous for its colossal ruins, con-
sisting chiefly of two magnificent tem-
ples. The lesser of the two was 225 feet
in length by 120 feet in breadth ; it
was surrounded by rows of immense
columns. 45 feet bigh. standing about 9
feet from the temple walls, the dis-
tance between the columns being from
8 to 12 feet. Robinson counted 19 of
these columns still in place in 1852.
The larger temple, that of the Sun,
was an immense structure, 324 feet long,
and was surrounded by a peristyle of
54 vast Corintiiian columns, about 7 feet
in diameter, and, including capital and
])edestal, 89 feet high. Over these Cor-
inthian capitals the temple was border-
ed with a frieze. The temples were
constructed of limestone or marble and
granite. Some of the stones used in them
are 04 feet long and 12 ieet thick. The
temple of the Sun was built by Antoni-
nus Pius, about A. D. 150.
Baalbec has been identified by some
Cnlnmns of Great Temple.
Ruins of Baalbec.
with Baal-gad, Josh. 11 : 1 7 : 12 : 7 ; 13 :
5 : by others with Bnalath or Baal-ha-
mon, but these identifications are uncer-
tain, and the last is verv improbable.
BA'ALE OF JUDAH, a name
of Kiriath-jearim. See Baalah, 1.
BA'AL-GAD (tmnp of linnl), the
northern limit of Joshua's conquests.
Temple of the Sun.
(From Photographs.)
. Josh. 11 : 1 7 : 12 : 7 : 13 : 5 : probably the
modern /?a»m^ (Caesarea-Philippi. Matt.
I 16 : 18), though some suppose it to be the
famous Baalbec.
; BA'AL-HA'MON {mrdtUude of
I Baal). Cant. 8:11. The place can only
be conjectured ; some identify it with
Baalbec, others with Balamon, in the
BAA
BAB
mountains of Ephraim, north of Sa-
maria.
BA'AL-HA'ZOR ( BnaVs villnye),
where Absalom killed Amnon. 2 Sam.
13 : 23.
BA'AL-HER'MON, a mountain.
Jud. 3 ; 3 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 23 ; a name for one
of the three peaks of Mount Hermon.
BA'ALI [my lord) occurs in Hos.
2:16. The verse retranslated reads:
"Thou shalt call me My husband, and
shalt no more call me My Baal." Baali
is used in a twofold sense : first, Mjj Batd,
the name of the principal god of the Ca-
naanite?; and second, My lord, a usual
name for husband. Tbe idea of the
verse is that so wholly devoted to Je-
hovah shall Israel be that she will not
apply to him even a word which sug-
gests the former idolatry.
BA'ALIM, the plural form of Baal,
which see.
BA'ALIS {son of exaltation), a
king of the Ammonites. Jer. 40: 14.
BA'AL-ME'ON, a town built by
the Reubenites, Num. 33 : 38 ; 1 Chr.
6:8; "a glory " of the Moabites, Eze.
25 : 9 ; called also Beth-baal-meon,
Josh. 13 : 17, Beth-meon, Jer. 48 : 23,
and perhaps Beon, Num. 32:3: now
called Ma'in, 9 miles south-east of Hesh-
bon, where extensive ruins are still
found.
BA'AL-PER'AZIM {lord of de-
feats), a place in the valley of Rephaim,
2 Sara. 5: 20 ; 1 Chr. 14: 11 ; same as
Mount Perazim, near the valley of Gib-
eon. Isa. 28:21.
BA'AL-SHAL'ISHA. 2 Kgs. 4:
42. The English Survey proposed to
identify it with Sin'sia, 13 miles north
of Lydda. Conder favors Kefr Thilth.
BA'AL-TA'MAR {lord of palm
trees), a place near Gibeah, Jud. 20 :
33 ; possibly the same as the palm tree
of Deborah, Jud. 4 : 5, and known later
as lieth-tamar.
BA'AL-ZE'PHON. Ex. 14:2,
Num. 33 : 7. A place near the head, or
on the western shore, of the tJulf of Suez
where the Israelites crossed the Red
Sea. Dr. Ebers identifies it with Mount
Atakah, near Suez; Dr. Brugsch, with
less probability, j)roposes Mount Casi-
us, on the Mediterranean, as the site of
Baal-zephon. The etymology of Ze-
phon is uncertain.
BA'ANA, on BA'ANAH {son of
90
affliction). 1. One of the sons of Rim-
mon, and an oflFicer in the army of Ish-
bosheth, Saul's son. In company with
his brother Rechab, he entered the
house of Ish-bosheth at noonday and
stabbed him as he was lying upon the
bed. Taking the head of their victim
with them, they fled to David at He-
bron, supposing that he would reward
them liberally, but, so far from it, he,
indignant at their cruel and coward-
ly conduct, caused them to be slain,
their hands and feet to be cut off, and
their bodies to be publicly suspended
over the pool at Hebron. 2 Sara. 4 :
2, 5, 6, 9.
2. The father of one of David's war-
riors. 2 Sam. 23 : 29 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 30.
3, 4. Two of Solomon's officers for
provision, 1 Kgs. 4:12, 16.
5. One of Zerubbabel's company on
the Return. Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 7 : 7.
6. The father of a repairer of the
wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3: 4. Proba-
bly also mentioned in 10 : 27 as sealing
the covenant.
BA'ARA {brutish), a wife of Sha-
haraira, a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8:8.
BAASE'IAH {work of Jehovah),
a Gershouite Levite, and an ancestor
of the psalmist Asaph. 1 Chr. 6 : 40.
BA'ASHA {valor), son of Ahi.jah,
of the tribe of Issachar, third king of
Israel, and founder of a dynasty, was
probably of common birth, 1 Kgs. 16 :
2, but rose to the throne by his slaugh-
ter of Nadab, king of Israel, and all
his family while the king was besieg-
ing Gibbethon, a city of the Philis-
tines. 1 Kgs. 15 : 27. By this cruel
act he undesignedly fulfilled the proph-
ecy respecting Jeroboam's posterity.
1 Kgs. 14 : 10. He followed in the
wicked ways of Jeroboam, and was
visited with the most fearful judgments
of God. The warning he received of
the consequences of his conduct, 1 Kgs.
16: 1-5, did not induce him to forsake
his evil courses. He attempted to for-
tify Ramah, but was stopped by the
attack of Bcn-hadad at Asa's prompting.
1 Kgs, 15 : 16-21 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 1-6. He
reigned twenty-four years, b. c. 953-
930. His reign was filled with war
and treachery, and his family and
relatives were cut off according to
thcjirediction. 1 Kgs. 16:3-11. See Asa.
BARBEL {confusion), a city found-
BAB
BAB
ed by Jsimrod as the beginning of his
kingdom, Gen. 10 : 10 ; built on the
plain of Shinar. See Babylox.
BABEL, TOWER OF, named
only once in the Bible, and then as in-
complete. Gen. 11 : 4, 5. It was built
in the plain of Shinar, of burnt bricks,
with "slime" (probably bitumen) for
Birs Nimrud Reconstiucied. {After Lnyard.)
mortar. Jewish traditions and early
profane writers say that the tower
was destroj'ed. The captive Jews at
Babylon imagined they recognized it,
however, in the famous temple of Be-
lus, which some would identify with
the temple of Nebo at Borsippa. the
modern Bir^ I^imriid. Rawlinson
thinks that Birs Nim-
riid cannot be identi-
cal with either the
temple of Belus or
the tower of Babel,
but concedes that it
may be used to show
the probable form of
the Babel tower. The
Birs Nimrnd is one
of the most striking
ruins on the plain,
and is 6 miles south-
west of Hillah, on the
Euphrates. This im-
mense mound is about
2H00 feet in circumfer-
ence and 2H5 to 250
feet high-, and was
built of burnt bricks,
each brick being 12
inches square and 4
inches thick. Several
of them bear an in-
scription of Nebu-
chadnezzar. The
tower is represented
as in the form of
26 feet high, each of the last four being
15 feet high. On the seventh story
was a temple or ark, perhaps with a
statue of the god Belus.
George Smith, the Assyriologist (and
the Eiifi/r/opseilia Britnnuica, vol. iii.
p. 155, ninth edition, adopts Smith's
view), says, '* The Birs Nimrnd is most
probably the tower of Babel of the
book of Genesis." Mr. Smith describes
another ruin called Bahil or Mvjelliba
as the one which in his view covers
the site of the temple of Belus. and
the great tower of Babylon (not Babel).
Birs Sitnrnd seems to have been a tem-
ple dedicated to the heavenly bodies,
and the inscriptions on cylinders found
there record that Nebuchadnezzar re-
built the edifice after it had been left
unfinished by others. Further excava-
tions may solve these unsettled ques-
tions. See Rawlinson's Herodotus, and
George Smith's Assyrian Discoveries,
1875.
BAB'YLON (Greek form of Bahel),
the noted capital of the Chaldaean and
Plan of Babylon,
showing the largest extent. a« civcii by Herodotus, and the smaller, quoted by
Ctesi;is, with the ruius according to Oppert.
a pyramid, built in
seven receding stories, each placed ' Babylonian empires, situated on both
upon the south-weste n side of the one sides of the Euphrates river, about 200
below, and each of the first three being
miles above its junction with the Tigris,
91
BAB
BAB
800 miles from the Persian Gulf, and
about ()() miles south-west from the
modern city of Bagdad. The valley is
broad, an I the Euphrates is now about
600 feet wide and 18 feet deep at this
place.
Extent of the City. — It was the lar-
gest known ancient city in extent.
According to Herodotus, the city was a
vast square on both sides of the Euphra-
tes, enclosed by a double line of walls,
about 56 miles in circuit and including
about 200 square miles. Ctesias and
others make the circuit about 42 miles,
enclosing about 106 square miles. The
walls, according to Herodotus, were
about 333 feet high and 75 feet broad.
Ctesias, quoted by Diodorus, states that
they were 21)0 feet high and built by
2,000,000 men. Later writers, regard-
ing these measurements as incredible,
give the circuit of the walls at about 40
miles, their height at 75 to 190 feet, and
their width at 32 feet, or wide enough
to allow two chariots to pass each other
on the top. M. Oppert and Rawlin-
son as explorers hold that the ruins
warrant the statement of Herodotus as to
the extent of Babylon. Its size — if 200
square miles — largely exceeded that of
any modern city. The area of London
is 122 square miles ; Paris, 30 : Pekin,
50; New York (J 873), 42; and Phila-
delphia, 12'J square miles. The wall of
Babylon was surmounted by 250 towers,
and it had 100 gates of brass. Jer. 51 :
58 : Isa. 45 : 2.
Streets and Dnlldimjs. — Babylon is de-
scribed as cut into squares — some say
676 — by straight streets crossing each
other at right angles, those at the river
being closed by brazen gates, as the
banks of the river were fortified by high
walls; the river was crossed by draw-
bridges and lined with quays ; the two
palaces on opposite sides of the river
were connected by a bridge, and also by
a tunnel under the river. Among the
wonderful buildings were, (1.) Nebn-
zhadnezzKi-'H PoUice, an immense pile
of buildings, believed to be nearly 6
miles in circumference. (2.) The Haiiff-
in<i-G<trdciin, one of the Seven Wonders
of the world, built by Nebuchadnezzar
to please his queen, Amytis, who longed
for her native mountains. These gar-
dens were 75 feet high and covered 3.V
acres, enclosed in an area of larger ex-
92
tent, some say 1000 feet on each side.
Upon this mountain was soil of depth to
support the largest trees, and water was
drawn up from the river by means of a,
screw. (3). The 'J'einple of lielitf!, a vust
])yramid or tower, 600 feet square, hav-
ing eight stages, or stories, and accord-
ing to Rawlinson 480 feet high, with a
winding ascent passing around it, and a
chapel of a god at the top.
Scripture History. — Babylon is named
over 250 times in the Bible. It was
founded by Nimrod, Gen. 10:10; its
builders dispersed, Gen. 11 : 9. Then,
except some allusion to Shinar, Gen.
14 : 1, the Chaldjieans, Job 1 : 17, and the
Babylonish garment, Josh. 7 : 21, it drops
out of Scripture history until the era of
the Captivity. It was often subject to
Assyria, 2 Chr. 33 : 11, and was the res-
idence of at least one Assyrian king.
After the fall of Nineveh, u. c. 625, it
became an independent kingdom, and
under Nebuchadnezzar was enlarged,
beautified, and reached the height ot its
magnificence. See Isa. 13:19; 14:4;
47:5; Jer. 51 : 41, where it is called
*' the glory of kingdoms," " the golden
city," " the praise of the whole earth,"
etc. It was the home of the chief of the
captive .Jews, Dan.l : 1-1, and was taken
by the army of Cyrus under Darius, Dan.
5. Its desolation was frequently foretold.
Isa. 13 : 4-22 ; Jer. 25 : 12 ; 50": 2, 3 ; 51 ;
Dan. 2 : 31-38 ; Hab. 1 : 5-10. It was
t iken by Alexander the Great, who died
there. It gradually became a complete
ruin, fulfilling the prophecy, Babylon
" shall never be inhabited, . . . wild
beasts of the deserts shall lie there."
liiiuiM. — Though for centuries Babylon
has been the source of building-material
for the towns of all the adjacent I'egion,
yet the ruins are very extensive, cover-
ing, according to Oppert, 200 square
miles. Among them are, (1.) The Iln-
hil or Miijellitia, 600 feet square find 1 40
feet high, probably the site of the an-
cient temple of Belus. The mound is
mainly built of sun-dried brick and
filled with burnt brick, the latter bear-
ing the name of Nebuchadnezzar.
(2.) The Kour, or Nebuchadnezzar's
palace, south of finhH, about 2100 feet
long by 1 800 feet broad, and 70 feet
high. It is composed of bricks, tiles,
and fragments of stone. Some of the
bricks are glazed ; others resemble fire-
BAB
BAB
brick, and bear the name of Xebuchad-
nezzar. (o.) The Aitimni, a large
mound, possibly the ruins of the fa-
Sculjituied Lion over a ProPtrale Man. (Dis-
covered in the ruins of Babylon by liich.)
mous hanging - gardens, though more
probably a palace of the earlier kings.
See Rawlinson's Five Ancient Mouar-
chieny 1870, ii. b:'>2. (4.) Birs Nimrinl, 6
miles south-west of Hillah, at ancient
Borsippa, and by many regarded as
covering the tower of Babel. See
Babel.
Many corroborations of Scripture have
Bii-3 Nimriid. (After Flumptre's "Bi.bl.ical Educator.")
been furnished by the Assyrian tablets
deciphered by Oriental .scholars. Near
the hanging-gardens a sculptured lion
standing over a man with outstretched
arms may illustrate the mode of punish-
ment to which Daniel was condemned.
Dan. 6: 16.
George Smith, after a careful explora-
tion, quite decidedly dissents from his-
torians and other explorers in ascribing
so great an extent to Babylon. In his
opinion, there is no ground in the in-
scriptions or ruins for making Babylon
over about 8 miles in circuit, or nearly
the same size as its sister-city. Nineveh.
He regards its shape as a square with
one corner cut off. At the north was
the temple of Belus, now the mound Ba-
hil ; about the centre of the city were
the palace and hanging-gardens, both
now represented, in his view, by the
mound Kanr, as he places the gardens
between the palace and the river.
George Smith concludes that the few
pits and tunnels made in the ruins are
acknowledged to be insufiScient to de-
cide any of the questions as to sites,
which can only be done by satisfactory
excavations, and hence that the " recov-
ery of Babylon is yet to be accom-
plished." Asuyriun Di xcnveri en,
1875, ])p. 55-59. — The modern town
of Hi/lah now occupies a portion of
the space covered by the ruins of an-
cient Babylon, and a telegraph con-
nects it with the city of Bagdad. See
CHALD.f;A. ASSVIUA.
BAB'YLON, in Rev. 14 : 8 : 16 :
I'J : 17 : 5 : 18 : 2, 21, is a symbolical
name for heathen Rome, which took
the place of ancient Babylon as a
persecuting jiower. This is also the
sense given to Babylon in 1 Pet. 5:
Kj by the fathers and many commen-
tators ; but others refer it to Babylon
in Asia, since it is quite possible that
Peter labored for a while in that city,
where there was at that time a large
Jewish colony ; still others maintain
tliat Babylon in Egypt, now called
01 ff Cairn, is meant.
BAB'YLON, PROVINCE
OR KINGDOM OF, the country
of which Babvlon was the capital.
Dan. 2:49: 3": 1, 12, 30; 4:29. Its
boundaries and history are involved
in much obscurity. It was originally
known as the ''land of Shinar " and
the '• land of Nimrod." Gen. 10 : 1 0 ; Mic.
5 : fi. It was chiefly between the Euphra-
93
BAB
BAB
tes and Tigris Rivers. Asshur or Assyria
and Mesopotamia were on the north, Elam
and Media on the east, Chaldasa on the
south. As Chaldsea gained in power
its name was ap])lied to the whole
country, including Babylon. See Chal-
DjEA. The early kingdom of Babylon
is generally regarded as covering an
extent of about 27,000 square miles,
rich of soil and abundant in resources,
the home of one of the earliest civilized
nations. After the time of Nimrod,
Babel or Babylon appears to be dis-
placed in Scripture history by Chaldaea
until the time of Joshua, Josh. 7 : 21 ;
after this both again disappear until
about the time of the Captivity. At
the fall of Nineveh, b. c. 625, Babylonia
speedily extended its sway over most
of western Asia and Egypt, and under
Nebuchadnezzar became a vast empire,
lasting, however, less than a century,
and fell before the Medians under
Cyrus and Darius, b. c. 538, and soon
after dropped out of history as a separate
country.
General History . — Berosus gives a list
of ten mythical kings, including Xisi-
thrus, who ruled Babylonia before the
Flood ; while the inscriptions so far dis-
covered on the tablets and monuments
give three mythical kings before the
Flood, and four after it. From the in-
scriptions, long lists of kings during the
historical period have also been deci-
phered. The earliest list of twelve
kings in this period begins with Izdu-
bar, who is identified with Nimrod by
George Smith. To this list he adds
from the inscriptions the names of six
viceroys, six kings of Ur, five kings of
Karrak, six of Erecli and Larsa, five of
Akkad, and four Elamite kings; and
among the latter is Chedorlaomer of
Gen. 14: 1-17. Five native kings were
contemporary with these Elamite kings,
and twenty other kings ruled successively
until the accession of an Assyrian dy-
nasty in B. c. 1271. The last list given
by George Smith from the inscriptions
covers the period from b. c. 1 150 to 5;59,
and includes Sargon, B. c. 710, Mero-
dach-baladan III., restored B. c. 705,
Esarliaddon, who rebuilt Babylon, B. c.
6S1, Assur])anipal, B. c. 64S, Nebuchad-
nezzar in., the Nebuchadnezzar of
Scri[)tHre, B. c. 605. Amil-maruduk, the
Evil-merodach of the Bible, b. c. 562,
94
and Bel-sar-uzar, the Belshazzar of the
book of Daniel, and who reigned with
his father until the fall of the Babylo-
nian empire, b. c. 538. It is not certain
how fiir back the records of Babylonia
reach, but George Smith regards it as
certain that they reach to the twenty-
fourth century before Christ, and some
scholars would stretch them nearly two
thousand years beyond that early ])eriod.
The civilization, literature, and govern-
ment found in Babylonia two thousand
years before the Christian era could not
have sprung up in a day, but further
explorations only can determine its age.
Among the biblical cities named in the
earliest inscriptions — those of Izdubar —
are Babylon, Cuthah, and Erech, thus
adding new light to the truth of Scrip-
ture history. See (xeorge Smith's Assyr-
ian Discoveries, 1875, chap. 23.
The Babylonian Empire. — Upon the
fall of Nineveh, b. c. 625, the Chaldseans
and Babylonians controlled all the
southern and western portions of the
former Assyrian empire. This Baby-
lonian empire extended, therefore, over
Susiana, Elam, Mesopotamia, Syria
including Palestine and Phoenicia, Idu-
msea, northern Arabia, and lower Egypt.
Among the important cities of the em-
pire were Babylon, Borsippa, Sippara
or Sepharvaim, Isa. 36 : 19, Cuthah, 2
Kgs. 17 : 24, Orchoe or Erech, in Baby-
lonia ; and in the provinces, Susa, Car-
chemish, Harran, Hamath, Damascus,
Jerusalem, Tyre, Sidon, Ashdod, Aske-
lon, and Gaza. Of those in the prov-
inces, Susa was of the first importance,
and may be regarded as the second city
of the empire. It had a royal palace,
where the Babylonian kings spent a
portion of their time, Dan. 8 ; 2, doubt-
less during the heat of summer. The
dominant people in the Babylonian em-
pire were, according to Rawlinson and
others, a mixed race, mainly descendants
of the earlier Chaldajans (who were
chiefly Cushites), mixed with those of
the later Assyrians, who were of the
Semitic type. The Babylonians were
celebrated for their wisdom and learn-
ing, Dan. 1:4; Jer. 50 : 35 ; Isa. 47 : 10,
especially for their knowledge of astron-
omy. They were also a commercial,
avaricious, and luxurious people, Ilab.
2:9; .Jer. 61 : 13; Isa. 47 : 8, though
they were likewise valorous and war-
BAB
BAG
like. Their princes were proud and
boastful. "Is not this great Babylon,
that I have built ... by the might of
uiy power, and for the honor of my
majesty?" was the boastful speech of its
greatest king, Nebuchadnezzar. Dan.
4:30.
In architecture, sculpture, science,
philosophy, astronomical and mathe-
matical knowledge, and in learning the
Babylonians made original investiga-
tions and discovei-ies not surpassed by
any other ancient people. •' To Baby-
lonia," says G. Rawlinson, "far more
than to Egypt, we owe the art and
learning of the Greeks." — Five Ancient
Monarchies, iii. 76.
In religion the Babylonians diflFered
little from the early Chaldeans. Their
chief deities were Bel, Merodach, and
Nebo. The names of these gods fre-
quently appear in the names of noted
princes, as Bel-shazzar, Nabo-polassar,
Merodach - baladan. Evil - merodach,
Abed-nebo or -nego. Their gods were
worshipped with great pomp and mag-
nificence. The temples erected in honor
of the gods and devoted to their wor-
ship were celebrated for their vastness,
and for the massiveness and finish of their
sculptures. Of the precise mode of their
worship little is known. It was con-
ducted by priests, through whom the
worshippers made offerings, often of
great value, and sacrifices of oxen and
goats. Images of the gods were exhib-
ited, probably on frames or sacred ve-
hicles, and, as some suppose, were some-
times set up in a public place, as on the
plain of Dura, Dan. 3:1: but late in-
vestigations indicate that the image
there set up was a statue of Nebuchad-
nezzar. See on this text Canon Cook's
Bible Co^nmentary, 1876. Some of the
principal temples of their gods noted by
Rawlinson were that of Bel at Babylon,
another of the same god at Xiffev, one
of Beltis at Warha or Erech, one of the
Sun-god at Sippara or Sepharvaim, and
one of Xebo at Borsippa.
The empire began with the accession
of Nabo-polassar, b. o. 625 : was in its
greatest prosperity during the reign of
Nebuchadnezzar, lasting forty -four
years, to b. c. 561. See Nkbichadxez-
ZAR. Under the less able rulers who
followed, the power of the empire de-
clined, and it fell a comparatively easy
prey to the Medo-Persians under Cyrus,
B. c. 5.38. See Chald.«a, Assyria, and
Media. For sketch-map see Assyria,
and also map at the end of this volume.
BABYLO'NIANS. See Babylox.
BABYLONISH CAPTIV-
ITY. See Captivity.
BABYLO'NISH GARMENT,
THE (literally, "garment of Shi-
nar " ), which Achan stole at the destruc-
tion of Jericho, Josh. 7 : 21, is described
by Josephus as "a royal mantle all
woven with gold." But no accurate
description is possible. Babylon was
famous for the products of the loom.
BA'CA ( iceepiiKj). The margin reads
" mulberry trees." Ps. 84 : 6. It is gen-
erally supposed to refer to a valley near
Jerusalem, though some later Avriters,
as Robinson and Hackett, are inclined
to regard it as not a proper name, but
a figurative " valley of weeping."
BACH'UITES, the family of
Becher the Ephraimite. Num. 26 :
35.
BADGERS' SKINS. Ex. 25:5;
Eze. 16 : 10. The true badger is rare,
if known, in Arabia. It is believed
that the skins meant were those of such
marine animals as the dolphin, dugong,
and seal. Dr. Robinson writes : " The
superior" (of the convent of Mount
Sinai) "procured for me a pair of the
sandals usually worn by the Bedouin of
the peninsula, made of the thick skin
of a fish which is caught in the Red
Sea. . . . The skin is clumsy and coarse,
and might answer very well for the ex-
ternal covering of the tabernacle which
was constructed at Sinai, but would
seem hardly a fitting material for the
ornamental sandals belonging to the
costly attire of high-born dames in
Palestine described by the prophet
Ezekiel." Tristram adds: "As the
tachaxh (badger) probably included also
the seal, the sandals of the Jewish
women may have been of that material,
and so also may have been the covering
of the tabernacle."
BAG, the English translation of
several quite different words. When
used in connection with money, it means
the long cone-like receptacles in which
coin was packed. 2 Kgs. 12: 10. These
were made of various sizes, each to con-
tain a precise amount of money. We
read that the workmen on the temple
95
BAH
BAL
were paid in bags, which were probably
delivered to them sealed. At this day
in Eastern nations money passes in
bags from hand to hand under the seal
of a banker or other public officer, and
without counting, as it is paid by one
Egyptian Money-bags. (After Wilkinson.)
to another. If the seal is genuine and
unbroken, the exact value of each bag
is known at sight. The shepherd's
*'bag" which David had was probably
one in which the young lambs unable
to walk were carried. The " bag " of
Judas was probably a little box. John
12:6; 13:29.
BAHU'RIM (warn'ors), a place
not far from Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 3:16;
16 : 5 ; 17 : 18 ; 1 Kgs. 2:8; probably
east of Olivet, toward the Jordan.
BA'JITH (home). In Isa. 15 : 2
the Hebrew reads '' the bajith" or " the
temple ;" probably the temple of Che-
mosh,
BAKBAK'KAR (de^trnrfion of the
moinitnin), a Levite. 1 Chr. 9: 15.
BAK'BUK {<i bottle). Among the
Nethinim who returned with Zerubabbel
are mentioned the children of Bakbuk.
Ezr. 2 : ;')! : Neh. 7 : 5:1
BAKBUKI'AH (destruction from
Jch<ivah),a, Levite, Neh. 11 : 17 ; 12: 9, 26.
Arabian J5akt--(jvcii. i Ajt':i- Stehuhr.)
BAKE. The business of baking
in early times was jtrincipally. if not
96
exclusively, the work of women. Lev.
26 : 26 ; 1 Sam. 8:13; 2 Sam. 13 : 8 ;
Jer. 7 : 18. In Rome, as Pliny tells
us, there was no such thing as a pub-
lic baker for 580 years. It seems
probable from Jer. 37 : 21 and Hos.
7:4-7 that public bakers were known
in their day, and inhabited a partic-
ular section of the city of Jerusalem.
See Bread, Oven.
BA'IjAAM {glutton) was the son
of Beor or Bosor, and a native of Pe-
thor, a village of Mesopotamia. Num.
22 : 5. He had a great reputation as
a prophet or soothsayer, and appears
to have been a worshipper of the
one God, coming from the country
of Abraham, where it is in every way
probable that remnants of the prim-
itive monotheism existed to his day.
His history is given in Num. 22,
23, 24, and 31. So great was his
fame that Balak, king of Moab, sent
for him to curse Israel when they were
encamped upon the plains of Moab ;
but he consulted (xod during the night,
and the next morning refused, declar-
ing the Lord had not given him leave.
But Balak sent again, and Balaam at
length obtained the desired jiermission
to go, and went. It was on this jour-
ney that his ass spake. Num. 22 :
28. Arriving, he ordered Balak to
build seven altars, and to offer a bullock
and a ram on each. Then, proclaiming
his intention of speaking only what
(lod showed unto him, he twice went
aside to watch for an augury. God
met him each time and told him what
to say, and on his return he uttered a
blessing instead of the expected curse.
The third time the sacrifices were of-
fered, but Balaam saw that it pleased
the Lord to bless Israel; so, without
seeking an augury, he uttered these
magnificent prophecies, in which Is-
rael's complete supremacy is announced:
" How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob,
Tliy tabernacles. O Isiael !
Aw valleys are tliey spread forth,
A.H gardens bv tlie river side,
.\s lign aloes"w)iich tlie Lord hath planted.
As cedar trees beside the waters.
He sliall flow with water from )iis buckets.
And his seed shall be in many waters,
And )iis kjn<; sliall be higher than Agag,
An<i his kinjidorn shall be exalted.
God. he brin^eth biin forth out of Egypt:
He hath as it were the strength of a bufl^ilo;
IIh shall eat up the nations his adversaries.
And shall break their bones in pieces.
BAL
BAL
And smile them through with )iis arrows.
He couclifd, he lay down as a lion.
And as a lioness, who shall stir him up?
Blessed is he that blesseth thee.
And cursed is he that curseth thee."
Num. 24 : 5-9.
And again
"There shall come forth a Star nut of Jacob,
And a Sceptie shall rise out of Issael,
And shall smite through the corners of Moab,
And break down all the sons of tumult."
Num. 24:17.
The prophecies of Balaam are justly
regarded as some of the most remark-
able in Scripture. But having won the
anger of Baiak by his course, and feel-
ing himself cast out from the people
of God by reason of his sinfulness, he
became desperate, and endeavored to do
as much immediate harm to Israel as
he could, since he could in no wise in-
jure her future. He therefore suggest-
ed that the Moabites destroy the purity
of Israel by seducing the people into
fornication while taking part in the
Avorship of Baal. Num. 31 : 16: cf.
25:1-5, They did so: and the conse-
quence was, a plague broke out among
the Israelites and killed 20.000 of
them. In a subsequent battle fought
by Israel with the Midianites, Ba-
laam was slain. Num. 31 : 8. The
phrase "the doctrine of Balaam," used
in Rev. 2:14, refers to the above-men-
tioned sin.
BAL'ADAN (the name is part of a
sentence meaning " sent the non,"
the name of the god to be substituted),
the father of Merodach-baladan. king
ofBabvlon. 2 Kgs.^0 : 12 ; Isa. 39 : 1.
BAXAH. Josh. 19 : 3. A shorter
form of Baal ah.
BA'LiAK (spoiler), the king of ^Nfoab
who hired Balaam to curse Israel. Num.
22-24: Josh. 24:9; Jud. 11:25; Mie.
6:5: Rev. 2:14.
BAL'ANCES. Lev. 19 : -Sfi. In
the early periods of the world gold and
silver were paid by weight, so that per-
sons employed in traffic of any kind car-
ried with them a pair of scales or bal-
ances and different weights (generally
stones of different sizes) in a pouch or
bag. Dishonest men would carry two
sorts of weights, the lighter to sell with,
and the other to buy with. This explains
the allusions Mic.'6:ll: Hos. 12 : 7.
In pictures on monuments is repre-
sented a balance in which the scales are
simplv a pair of weights. There are
'7
two bags of money which are to be
equalized, one of which is a standard.
Egyptian Balancer weighing Rings of Gold.
(Aj'ter Wilkinson.)
The scribe stands by to register the re-
sult.
BALD'NESS, when voluntary, was
a token of mourning and great dij-tress,
Isa. 3 : 24 : Eze. 7 : IS, or else showed
the conclusion of a Nazarite's vow.
Num. 6 : 9. Natural baldness seems to
have been uncommon. '"Bald head"
was a cry of contempt. 2 Kgs. 2 : 23, be-
cause it was generally caused by lep-
rosy. Lev. 13 : 40-43. The people, and
especially the priests, were forbidden to
make themselves bald, since this was a
heathen custom. Lev. 21:5; Deut. 14:
1: Eze. 44:20.
BAL3I. Gen. 37 : 25. One of the
articles of merchandise which the Ish-
maelites (to whom .Joseph was sold)
were carrying from Gilead to Egypt.
It is worthy of remark that the par-
ticulars of this trading company or car-
avan, their character, couri^e of travel
and freight, though referring to a peri-
od 1700 years before the Christian era,
correspond with wonderful accuracy to
those of similar commercial expeditions
across the desert at the present day.
The balm is supposed to be the pro-
duction of the balm-of-Gilead tree {Unl-
unmodtndron Gileadenie), which grows
about 12 or 14 feet high, with diverging
branches. The resin which it produces
is exceedingly odoriferou-s, and greatly
esteemed in the East for its healing
properties.
It was once an important article of
merchandise among the Eastern nations.
Eze. 27 : 17. Nothing can exceed the
eloquence and tenderness of the lan-
guage employed by the prophet Jere-
miah to express his grief and disap-
97
BAM
BAN
pointment that the chosen people of
God {the daughter of Zion) should re-
main spiritually wounded and diseased,
Avhen there was a healing Balm of un-
failing virtue and a Physician of divine
skill to administer it, and both within
Balm.
(BaUamodendron Gileadense.
Dr. Birdwood.)
After
Jer. 8 : 22 ; 46 : 11 and
their reach
61:8.
BA'MAH (hitjh 2)lace), the name ap-
plied to idolatrous places of worship.
Eze. 20 : 29.
BA'MOTH (hehjJitH). Sec Bamoth-
BAAL.
BA'MOTH-BA'AL {heights of
B<ud), a place in Moab given to Reu-
ben, Josh. 13 : 17, near Dibon ; perhaps
now Jelxl Attftnts.
98
BAND. A band of Roman soldiers
consisted of the tenth part of a legion,
called a ''cohort;" it varied, accord-
ing to the size of the legion, from 400
to 000 soldiers. Matt. 27:27; Acts 21:
31, and elsewhere.
BA'NI {hnilt). 1. A
Gadite, one of David's
warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : H6.
2. AJudite. 1 Chr. 9 :
4.
3. The names of seven
others, mostly Levites.
1 Chr. 6:46; Ezr. 2:10;
10: 29, 34, 38; Neh. 3 :
17: 8:7; 9 : 4; 10:14;
11 : 22.
BAN'ISHMENT.
See Punishment.
BANK. See Monev-
CIIANGi:i?.
BANNER, EN'-
SIGN, STAND'ARD
are translations of words
used indiscriminately by
the sacred writers. A
standard jiertained to
each of the four grand
divisions of the host of
Israel, Num. 1 : 52,
distinguished from the
others by colors and by
an emblematic device.
Thus, according to the
rabbins, the device of
Judfkh was a lion : that
of Reuben was a man ;
thaf of Ephraim, an ox;
of Dan, an eagle. An-
other standard for sub-
divisions, denoted by an-
other word, was probably
nothing more than a
common spear richly
burnished or o r n a -
(BolmmndetidronOpohahrimum. men^gj ^he Egyptian
After Br. Birdwood ) . , P" i i
princes used a standard
like this, surmounted with a ball of gold.
There was another standard in use among
the Jews, which is called a licaron. Isa.
30 : 17. It was stationary, erected on
lofty mountains, and used as a rallying-
token. Comp. Isa. 18 : 3 : 62 : 10 ; Jer.
4: 6, 21 ; 6: 1 : 61 : 12, 27. None of
these standards were flags.
Some writers have supi)oscd that the
ancient Jewish ensign was a long pole,
on the top of which was a grate not un-
Balm.
BAN
BAP
like a chaffing-dish, made of iron bars
and supplied with fire, the size, height,
and shape of which denoted the party or
company to whom it belonged. This
seems rather to describe the night-
torches of Eastern encampments. The
shape, etc., of the Roman standards are
seen under the article Abomination.
BAN'QUET. See Feast.
BAP'TISM, an ordinance or re-
ligious rite which was in use before
Christ's ministry began, but which he
recognized, and which was continued by
his disciples as a Christian ordinance.
Matt. 28 : 19, 20 ; Mark 16 : 16. On
the due administration of this rite, the
use of water in the name of the Holy
Trinity becomes the sign or emblem of
inward purification from sin and un-
cleanness, while the subject of the rite
is introduced into a peculiar relation
to Christ and his Church. Baptism is
in the N. T. what circumcision was in
the Old — a sign and seal of the cove-
nant of grace whereby God promises
forgiveness of sin and salvation, and
man vows obedience and devotion to
his service. See Acts 2:41: Eom. 6 : 3,
4; Gal. 3:27; 1 Pet. 3 : 21. It was
first administered on the day of Pente-
cost. Christ himself did not baptize,
John 4:2, and the apostles received
instead the baptism of fire and the
Holy Ghost. Acts 2. In the case of
Cornelius regeneration preceded water-
baptism. Acts 10 : 44-48 ; while, on the
other hand, in the case of Simon Ma-
gus, water-baptism was not accompa-
nied or followed by regeneration. Acts
8 : 13, 21-23. Nevertheless, God is
true though men should abuse his gifts
and turn his blessing into a curse.
The controversy between Baptists and
Pgedobaptists refers to the subjects and
to the mode of baptism. The former
hold that adult believers only are to
be baptized, and that immersion is the
only valid mode of baptism ; the lat-
ter maintain that children of believing
parents may and ought to be baptized,
and that baptism may be administered
by sprinkling and pouring as well as
by immersion.
Baptism with thk Holy Ghost and
WITH Fire. Matt. 3:11: Luke 3:16.—
The phrase is figurative, and refers to
the outpouring of the Holy Spirit
upon believers, as on the day of Pen-
tecost especially, but often since in
the history of the Church.
Baptism of John the Baptist. —
John was a preacher of righteousness;
his baptism was significant of the in-
ward cleansing which followed repent-
ance, and was introductory to the high-
er baptism instituted by Christ. John
said to his disciples, " I indeed bap-
tize you with water unto repentance:
but he that cometh after me is mightier
than I, whose shoes I am not worthy
to bear : he shall baptize you with the
Holy Ghost, and icith fire." Matt. 3 :
11. He demanded faith in the Mes-
siah, sorrow for sin, and trust in God,
as prerequisites for the administration
! of the rite, which, however, differed
, from Christian baptism in that it im-
plied no belief in the Trinity, nor was
[ it followed by the gift of the Holy
Ghost. Those who had received John's
I baptism were rebaptized. See Acts 19 :
1-6 ; cf. Matt. 3 ; Acts 18 : 25, 26.
Baptism for the Dead. — There is
only one allusion to this practice in the
N. T., in 1 Cor. 15:29: ""What shall
they do which are baptized for the
dead, if the dead rise not at all?
why are they then baptized for the
dead?"' Paul evidently speaks of a
well-known ceremony. Various inter-
pretations have been put upon the
jihrase. It is simplest to say with
Meyer, Paul refers to the belief that
a living Christian could be baptized
for a dead Christian who was unbap-
tized, and the latter would in conse-
quence be accounted baptized and have
part in the eternal joys. This custom,
abandoned by the Church — a proof
that it was condemned by the leaders —
was kept up among heretics, such as
the Cerinthians and Marcionites, and
is practised at the present day by the
Mormons in Utah. Chr^sostom tells
us that when an unbaptized catechu-
men died, a living man was put under
the bed on which the dead body lay.
The priest then asked the dead man
if he desired baptism. The living
man answered in the affirmative, and
was baptized in place of the dead.
The practice, of course, was supersti-
tious, and Paul merely uses it in ar-
gument, but does not approve of it.
Indeed, his use of the third person
shows ♦that the notion of the para-
99
BAR
BAR
mount importance of baptism which
led to the custom was condemned by
him.
Other interpretations of the phrase
have been given. Thus, " If the dead
rise not, then baptism could have no
authority and no tme, because then
Christ did not rise." Again, *' Bap-
tized when death is close at hand."
" Over the graves of the martyrs." " If
there be no resurrection, Avhy art thou
then baptized for the dead — i. e. for the
dead bodies? For in this faith thou
art baptized, believing in the resur-
rection of the dead." ]
BARAB'BAS (>»r.» of Abba), a
noted criminal at Jerusalem who was {
in confinement for sedition and mur- j
der when Christ was condemned. Matt. \
27: 16. It was the custom of the Ro-
mans to release some one prisoner at ;
the time of the Jewish Passover. The i
Jews were permitted to name any one
whose release they desired ; and when i
the choice lay between Barabbas and !
Christ, they chose the robber. Matt.
27:21; Mark 15: 6-11; Luke 23 : 18 ;
John 18:40; Acts 3:U. Pilate was
anxious to save Christ, but at last
released Barabbas.
The custom is said to have prevailed
among the Venetians as lately as the
close of the eighteenth century to
release a prisciner at the annual com-
memoration of our Saviour's resurrec-
tion.
BAR'ACHEL {whom God hath
hlesseif), the father of Elihu. Job
32 ■ 2 6
BARACHI'AH (whom Jehovah
hath blensed), in the N. T. form, Ba-
rachaias. Zech. 1 : 7 j Matt. 23 : 36. See
BKRFrHIAH.
BA'RAK [lifjhtniufi) was the son
of Abinoam, and was di.-^tinguished for
his share in the conquest of Sisera and
the deliverance of Israel from long and
severe oppression. A history of the
transaction and a copy of their sub-
lime triumphal song are given in Jud.
4 and 5. Barak's date cannot be de-
termined, but probably he was a con-
temporary of Shamgar. See Dkborah.
BARBA'RIAN. This term is used
to denote any one who was not a (ireek.
In its scriptural use it does not import
any rudeness or savageness of nature or
manners. Acts 28 : 2, 4 and Ron?. 1:14.
100
BARHU'MITE. 2 Sam. 23 : 31.
See Bahurim.
BARI'AH [fiKjithe), one of Da-
vid's posterity. 1 Chr. 3 : 22.
BAR-JE'SUS was a magician who
resided with Sergius Paulus at Paphos,
on the isle of Cyprus, when Paul and
Barnabas were there. Acts 13 : 6. He
is also known by his Arabic designa-
tion Elymas the Sage. Sergius Pau-
lus was an officer of high rank under
the Roman government, and was anx-
ious to receive religious instruction
from the two missionaries. But Bar-
jesus, seeing that his occupation and
influence would cease wherever the
light of the gospel should come, op-
posed himself to Paul and Barnabas,
and tried to dissuade Paulus from giv-
ing heed to their preaching. Paul
gave him a most severe reproof, im-
mediately after which the wicked man
was struck with temporary blindness
as a rebuke from God. See Sergius
Paulus.
BAR-JO'NA. Matt. 16 : 17. See
Peter.
BAR'KOS { painter), the father of
some of the returning Nethinim. Ezr.
2 : 53 ; Neh. 7 : 55.
BAR'LEY. Ex. 9:31. A well-
known species of grain used for bread,
Jud. 7:13; John 6:9-13, and also as
food for horses and dromedaries. 1
Kgs. 4 : 28. Barley-harvest, Ruth 1 : 22,
usually comes in April — earlier at Jeri-
cho, later on the hills. It precedes
wheat-harvest about three weeks in
Palestine and a month in Egypt. As
human food barlej' was held in low
estimation, which adds significance to
the connection between Gideon and
the barley-cake in the dream which
the man told " his fellow." Jud. 7:13.
"If the Midianites were accustomed
in their extemporaneous songs to call
(iideon and his band 'eaters of barley
bread,' as their successors, the haughty
Bedouins, often do to ridicule their ene-
mies, the application would be all the
more natural." — Thoumou. The same
fact adds force to Eze. 13 : 19, and elu-
cidates IIos. 3-2 and Num. 5: 15.
BAR'NABAS (non of connolatioit),
a Ijcvite of the island of Cyprus, and
an early convert to the Christian faith.
Acts 4 : 36. His o:-iginal name was
Joses, but he derived his usual title
BAR
BAS
from his remarkable powers of exhort-
ing the people and ministering conso-
lation to the afflicted. Barnabas was
one of those who gave up all their
worldly substance and all their strength
and influence to the support and spread
of the gospel. He introduced Paul to
the disciples on the latter's visit to Je-
rusalem, three years after his conver-
sion. Acts 9 : 27. Afterward he brought
Paul from Tarsus to Antioch, and they
labored for two years together with
great success. Acts 11 : 25, 26. They at-
tended together the council of Jerusalem.
Acts 15: 22; Gal. 2:1. Afterward they
se])arated, and Barnabas went on an in-
dependent missionary-tour with Mark.
Acts 15. Some ascribe to him the Epis-
tle to the Hebrews. We have under his
name an epistle, which, however, is of
doubtful genuineness.
BAR'SABAS (so» of Sahn), the
name of two men.
1. Joseph Barsabas, surnamed Jus-
tus, was one of the two candidates for
the vacancy in the apostleship occa-
sioned by the apostasy of Judas. Acts
1 : 2.3. Some identify him with Joses
Barnabas, the companion of Paul. See
preceding article.
2. Judas Barsabas. Acts 15 : 22. He
was appointe<l to accompany Paul and
Barnabas from Jerusalem to Antioch on
an important embass}'. He is called
one of "the chief among the brethren,"
but is otherwise unknown. Some com-
mentators infer from the surname that
he was a brother of Joseph Barsabas.
BARTHOL'OMEW {mn of Tol^
mtii) is supposed to be the same person
who is elsewhere called Xathanael. This
conjecture rests in part upon the fact
that Philip and Nathanael are associ-
ated together by John, and in the par-
allel passages of the other evangelists
Philip and Bartholomew are associated ;
and further, that Bartholomew is not
mentioned in John's list of the twelve,
nor is Xathanael in the list of the other
evangelists. It is therefore in every
way likely that he bore two names, as
so many others did. We know nothing
of his history save the fact of his con-
version, John 1 : 45-51, and his presence
on the Lake of Tiberias when the risen
Lord appeared to him and other disci-
ples. John 21 : 2.
BARTIME'US {son of Timens), a
son of Timeus, who was instantly cured
of blindness by our Saviour in the vi-
cinitv of Jericho. Mark 10 :46.
BA'RUCH {blessed). 1. The sec-
retary of the prophet Jeremiah, was of
a distinguished Jewish family. Jer.
32 : 12. His friendship for Jeremiah
was strong and constant. At his dic-
tation Baruch wrote his prophecies.
These he read before the princes, who
rehearsed them to Jehoiakim, the king,
having previously deposited the writing
in one of the offices of the temple. The
king ordered the writing to be read in
his presence, and he became so much
exasperated that he destroyed the manu-
scripts and gave orders to arrest both
the prophet and his secretary, but they
had concealed themselves. Jehovah,
however, repeated the prophecies to
Jeremiah, with some additions, and a
second time did Baruch write them
down. Baruch was falsely accused of
influencing Jeremiah in favor of the
Chalda^ans, and they were both impris-
oned until the capture of Jerusalem,
B. c. 580. They were afterward forced
to go down to Egypt. Jer. 43 : 6, 7.
2. The name of three other persons,
otherwise unknown. Neh. 3:20; 10:6j
11 : 5.
BARUCH, BOOK OF. One of
the Apocrypha of the 0. T., of uncertain
date and authorship. See Jeremiah,
Epistle of.
BARZIL'LAI (of iron, i. e. strong)
was a wealthy Gileadite, and a fast
friend of David when he was in exile on
account of Absalom's revolt. 2 Sam. 17 :
27. After the rebellion had been sup-
pressed, Barzillai, on account of age, and
probably also from natural and proper
pride, declined David's oflTer to be a resi-
dent of the court, but proposed his son
Chimham should go instead. 2 Sam. 19:
.31-40. David, in his final charge to Solo-
mon, enjoined it upon him to show kind-
ness to Barzilldi's family, and even to
make them members of the royal house-
hold. 1 Kgs. 2:7.
2. The Meholathite, father-in-law of
Michal, Saul's daughter. 2 Sam. 21:8.
.3. The husband of a daughter of
Barzillai the Gileadite, whose descend-
ants returned from Babylon, but in
vain sought admittance to the priest-
hood. Ezr. 2:61; Neh. 7 : 63. 64.
BA'SHAN {liffht soil), a district
101
BAS
BAS
reachin ; f'om Hertnon to Gilead at the
river A in on. an I from the Jordan val-
ley eastward t ) Salcah. It is referred
to aboat 00 times in the Bible.
Piiyslcal FeftturcH. — There are two
ranges of mountain:^, one along the
Jordan valley. ab:)ut ^^OUO feet high,
an )ther irregular range on the east side
of Bash an ; between them are plains
or undulating table-land watered by
springs. The rock of basalt on the
west is broken into deep chasms and
jagged projections ; the hills are covered
with oak-fore-ts, as in former times.
Isu 2:13; Eze. 27 : 6 ; Zech. 11 : 2.
The plain of the Jaulan (Golan of
Scripture) is a vast field of powdered
1 iva and basalt, a fertile pasture to this
d ly. The north-eastern portion of
Bashan, including the Argob of Scrip-
ture, is a wild mass of basaltic rock, 22
miles long b}^ 14 wide, resembling a
" Cyclopean wall in ruins." Fissures
and chasms cut it like a network and it
abounds in caves, yet has much fertile
land. The centre of Bashan was mostly
a fertile plain, and was regarded as the
richest in Syria.
History. — Its early people were the
giants Rephaim. Gen. 14 : 5. Og, its
king, was defeated and slain by Israel,
Num. 21 : 33 ; 32 : 33, and the country
divided ; its pastures, cattle, sheep, oaks,
and forests were famous. Deut. 32 : 14 ;
Ps. 22 : 12 ; Isa. 2:13; Jer. 50 : 1 9 ; Eze.
39 : 18. After the Captivity it was divi-
ded into four provinces : (1) Gaulanitis,
or modern Jaulan ; (2) Argob, or Trach-
onitis, now Lejah ; (3) Auranitis, now
Hanran ; (4) Batanaea. Iturtea was not
strictly a part of Bashan, though taken
by Israel. Under the Roman rule the
division was but slightly changed. The
country is now nominally under Turk-
ish rule, but is really held by tribes of
Arabs, dangerous, warlike, and unsub-
dued.
JiiihiH. — Bashan is almost literally
crowded with cities and villages, now
deserted and in ruins, corroborating
the account in Scripture. Josh. 13 : 30.
There are four classes of dwellings : (1)
the natural cavern fitted up for resi-
dence. (2) Long tunnels descending
obliquely, sometimes 150 feet, at the bot-
tom of which run out a number of pas-
sages or underground streets, 16 to 23
feet wide, lined on either side bv sub-
102
terranean dwellings furnished with air-
holes in the ceilings, each generally
having only one outlet, and that in a
rocky, precipitous slope. (3) Dwellings
cut in the rock and covered over with
stone vaulting; not all of these, however,
belong to early biblical times. Deut.
3 : 4-13. (4) The villages in the Hau-
ran consist chiefly of dwellings built
of handsome well-hewn stone, closely
jointed without cement. Wood was no-
where used. The gates, doors, and
window-shutters are of stone, turning
on stone hinges ; the roofs are also of
stone, resting on supports and arches of
the same material. Some of the gate-
ways are ornamented with sculptured
vines and bear numerous inscriptions
yet undeciphered, while within are stone
cupboards, benches, and candlesticks.
Many of these dwellings belong to an
age since the beginning of the Chris-
tian era, but, though deserted for cen-
turies, seem almost as if the occu-
pants had gone out only for a few
hours. Porter's views on their antiqui-
ty are not accepted. Among its cities
mentioned in Scripture are Golan, Ash-
TEUOTH Karnaim, Ediiki, Salcah, Ker-
lOTH, and BozRAH. See these titles, and
Porter's Giant Citien ( 1 S65-6 ), Five Years
in DamancitH (1860), and Baedeker's
Handlinok of Syria and Palestine (1876).
BASHAN- HA'VOTH- JA'IR
(Bashan of the villages of Jair), the
country of Argob, in Baslian, Deut. 3:
14, containing 60 great cities, and called
Havoth-iair. Num. 32:41.
BASH'EMATH (pleasing), one
of Esau's wives. Gen. 26 : 34 ; 36:3,
10, 13, 17.
Assyrian Basins. {Brilish Museum.)
B A'SIN. It is impossible at this day
BAS
BAT
to tell wherein the basins, bowls, and |
cups so often mentioned together ex-
actly differed, but the basins were
probably small. " The ' basin ' from
which Jesus Avashed his disciples' feet
was probably larger and deeper than
the hand-basin for sprinkling." John
13 : 5.
BAS'KET. The word is the uni- |
form term by which several pictur-
esque Hebrew terms are translated. '
The context will generally enable us to
decide not only on the probable size of \
the "basket," but also on its material.
Thus, that mentioned in Jud. 6 : 19 must
have been of metal, while that iii which [
Paul was let down from the wall at
Damascus was of rope. 2 Cor. 11 : 33. ;
Wicker was, however, probably the |
usual material. They were of all shapes, !
sizes, and for all purposes. The fact is
unfortunately concealed in our version
Egyptian Baskets. (Aftei- Wilkinson.)
that the word for " basket " in the ac-
count of the miracle of feeding the five
thousand, Matt. 14 : 20 ; 16:9 : Mark 6 :
43 ; Luke 9:17: John 6:13, is entirely
different from that similarly translated
in the miracle of feeding the four thou-
sand. Matt. 15:37: Mark 8 : S— an in-
direct but striking proof that there were
two miracles. It is not, however, possi-
ble to tell wherein the difference con-
sisted.
BAS'MATH (pleasiiit/). same name *
as Bashemath. A daughter of Solo- i
mon. and wife of Ahimaaz, one of his '
officers. 1 Kgs. 4:lo.
BAS'TARD. Deut. 23 : 2 forbids j
for ever the entrance of a bastard into j
the congregation — /. e. " from intermar- j
rying with pure Hebrews." But since
concubinage was tolerated, the term
evidently does not apply to one born
out of wedlock. "The Rabbins, there-
fore, are probably right wlien they in-
terpret the word as denoting only those
born of incest or adultery." iSee Con-
CI'BINE.
BAT. Lev. 11 : 19. An unclean beast
whose resting-places are caves, old ruins,
and filthy and desolate places. Hence
the allusion Isa. 2 : 20. It has no resem-
blance to a bird except that it can fly,
but the organs it uses for this purpose
are altogether difi"erent fi'om those of a
bird.
BATH. See Measures.
BATH, BATHING. In Eastern
lands bathing is a necessity as well as a
luxury. It is characteristic of the Mo-
saic cultus that it enjoins such frequent
washings : e. c/. Lev. 14 : 8 ; 15 : 6 : 17 :
15. The high priest on the day of
atonement must pay particular atten-
tion to this regulation. 16 : 4, 24. The
Jews bathed in running Mater or in
pools in courts. It was not until their
subjection to Greece and Eome that
public baths were known. Then en me
in also the luxurious bathing-customs
of those peoples.
BATH'-KOL {dauyhter, voice).
See Prophecy.
B ATH'-RAB'BIM
((lauffhtcr of niani/), a gate of
Hcshbon. near which were pools.
Sons: Sol. 7 :4.
BATH-SHE'BA (dmujl,-
fer of the onth), the duugliter of
Eliam, 2 Sam. 11 : 3, otherwise
called Ammiel, 1 Chr. 3 : 5, Ahithophel's
son. 2 Sam. 23 : 34. She became the wife
of Uriah, an officer in David's army. Her
beauty proved a snare to David, for he
not only committed adultery with her.
but treacherously procured the death of
her injured husband. 2 Sam. 11. The
child of this intercourse died. When the
days of mourning were accomplished,
David married her, and she afterward
bore him three sons besides Solomon.
When Adonijah attempted to seize the
throne, Bath-sheba told the king at the
instigation of Nathan. 1 Kgs. 1:15.
It was to her as queen-mother that
Adonijah went with the fequest for the
hand of Abishag. 1 Kgs. 2 : 13-22. See
Adonijah.
BATH'-SHII'A {daiu/hter of en,
oath), a variant of Bath-sheba : used in 1
Chr. 3:5.
BAT'TERI]VG-RA3I. Eze. 4:
2 and 21: 22. This was a long beam of
strong wood, usually oak, sometimes
connected with a carriage or framework
of heavy timber. One end was shaped
like a ram's head, which when driven re-
peatedlv and with great force against
103
BAT
BEA
the wall of a city or fortification either
pierced it or battered it down. In the
tower of the structure in which the bat-
tering-ram was hung were often posted
Ancient Battering-ram.
archers and slingers, who fired at the
defenders upon the walls while their
comrades were pushing the ram along or
working it against the walls. See War.
BAT'TLE-AXE. See Armor.
BAT'TLEMENT. Deut. 22 : 8.
A wall, parapet, or other structure
around the flat roofs of Eastern houses,
designed as a partition from an adjoin-
ing building or to prevent persons from
falling off. The law required a battle-
ment to be built upon every house. It
is sometimes used in a more extensive
sense to denote the fortifications of a
city. Jer. 5:10. A traveller says that
at Aleppo, where the houses join each
other, the battlemoita are so low that
he could walk over the tops of a dozen
houses without interruption. See Dwell-
ing.
BAV''AI, one who helped rebuild
the wall. Neh. 3:18.
BAY TREE. Ps. 37 : 35. "It
may be questioned whether any ])artic-
ular tree is intended by the Psalmist:
but if so, it must have been an evergreen,
and may possibly be the sweet bay
(LitnruH nohilin), which is a native of
I'alestine. It is not very common, but
may be found in most of the wooded
104
dells of northern and western Pales-
tine."— Tristrtim. The leaves of the bay
are much like those of the American moun-
tain-laurel, but are fragrant when crush-
ed, and often come to our
market packed with figs.
BAZ'L.ITH,BAZ'-
liUTH (a stfipiiiiiij), one
whose descendants were
among the Nethinim who
returned with Zerubbabel.
Ezr. 2 : 52 : Neh. 7 : 54.
BDELL'IUM. Gen.
2:12. After much discus-
sion, it is still impossible
to say whether bdellium is
a mineral, an animal pro-
duction (pearl), or a vege-
table exudation. It is
probably the latter.
There is a gum produced
in the East Indies which
has the same name and is
thought by many to be the
same substance. It re-
sembles myrrh in color,
and is of a bitter taste.
Num. 11 : 7.
BEA'CON. Isa. 30:17. A mark
or signal erected in some conspicuous
place for direction or for security against
danger. See Baxxkrs.
BEALl'AH {Jehovah i^ Baal, i. e.
lord), a Benjamite who joined David at
Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12:5.
BE'ALOTH {nn'ufresses ; plur. fem-
inine form of Baal), a town in the extreme
south of Judah, Josh. 15:24; probably
the same as Baalath-beer, 19:8, the
modern fTin-nuh.
BEANS. Eze. 4:9. The Eastern
plant ordinarily thus known ( Vicin
ftihn) is quite unlike the garden or field
bean of the United States. It is of the
same family, but is an erect annual irifh
a sfout nfeiii, is one of the commonest
field-croj>s of Euro^ie and the Orient,
an<l bears in its pods large coarse seeds
which are fed to animals and much eaten
by the poorer classes. Kidney-beans
are now sometimes cultivated in Pales-
tine.
BEAR. Prov. 17 : 12. The Syrian
bear seems but a variety of the brown
bear of Europe and Asia, though it is
much lighter in color. Its food is seeds,
fruits, and roots, to which it occasionally
adds a goat or sheep. " I gever but
BEA
BEA
once saw the Syrian bear south of Her-
mon : this was in winter, in a rugged
ravine near the Lake of Gennesaret.
Syrian Bear. {After Tristram.)
When we visited Hermon. before the
snow had melted from the top, we found
the snow-ridges trodden in all directions
by the tracks of bears, which were well
known, but not much feared, by the
shepherds : and we also saw their trace
in the snow on Lebanon, They descend
both sides of Hermon and do considerable
damage to the crops, especially the len-
tiles, of which they are very fond." —
Ttistriim. The attachment of the fe-
male bear to her young is very great,
and nothing enrages her so much as
to see her cubs hurt or taken from
her. Hence the allusions 2 Sam. 17 : 8 :
Hos. 13 : 8, and also the passage above
cited.
BEARD. Among the Jews much
attention was paid to the beard. To
show any contempt toward it by
PfyZ
Fig. 1. Egyptian Beards. (After Wilkimon.)
Fig. 2. Beards of As-syrian, and other Nations.
(Afte)' Eosellini and Layard.)
plucking it or touching it, except
from respect or courtesy, was esteemed j
a gross insult, while to kiss it respect-
fully and aflFectionately was regarded as
a signal mark of friendship. Tearing
out the beard, cutting it entirely off,
and neglecting to trim and dress it
were all expressions of deep mourn-
ing. Ezr. 9 : o J Isa. 16 : 2 ; Jer. 41 : 5
and 48 : 37.
The Arabs and Orientals generally
at this day cherish great respect for
the beard. They solemnly swear by
it: and their most significant and
comprehensive phrase to express their
good wishes for a friend is, " May God
preserve your blessed beard !" We are
told of an Arab who was wounded in
the jaw, and chose to hazard his life
rather than to have his beard cut off
that the surgeon might examine the
wound. Hence the keenness of the insult
offered to David's ambassadors. 2 Saui.
10 : 4, 5. The Egyptians were accustom-
ed to shave except when mourning, the
direct opposite to the Jewish custom,
but they wore false beards, made of
plaited hair and graduated according
to rank. The prohibition. Lev. 19:27,
against marring the "corners of the
beard " refers probably to the Arabian
custom of shaving off that portion of
the beard upon the cheeks on a line
with the ears.
BEAST. Gen. 2 : 19. This word
is generally used to distinguish all ani-
mals from man. as in Ps. 36 : 6. Some-
times quadrupeds only are denoted by
it. as Lev. 11 : 2 : and "in Gen. 1 : 24. 25,
it is supposed to refer to creatures that
roam at large. Beasts were created on
the sixth day, and were named by
Adam. Paul describes some of his op-
posers as wild beasts, so furious and
brutal was their treatment of him. 1
Cor. 15 : 32. A similar application will
be found in Ps. 22 : 12-16 : Eccl. 3:18;
Isa. 11:6-8, and in 2 Pet. 2:12 and
Jude 10, to denote a class of wicked
men. " Wild beasts of the islands '
Jer. 50 : 39. etc., seem to be jackals
(literall3% "the howlers," as in Ara-
bic these animals are called " the sons
of howling"). ''Wild beasts of the
desert" probably denote such crea-
tures as the hyena.
Lender the ancient dispensation the
beasts were sometimes made to partici-
pate externally in the observance of
religious ceremonies, Jon. 3 : 7, 8, and
suffered, with men, the judgment of
God. Ex. 9 : 6 and 13 : 15 ; Ps. 135 : 8 ;
105
BEA
BEE
Jer. 7 : 20 and 21 : 6 ; Eze. 33 : 13 ; 38 :
20; Hos. 4 : 3. See Clean and Un-
cle ax.
BEAT'EN OIL. See Olive.
BEAT'EIV WORK. Ex. 25:18.
Not cast, but wrought.
BEB'AI {pateniiil), the ancestor of
some who came back with Zerubbabel.
Ezr. 2:11 ; Neh. 7 : 16. Later on some
more returned with Ezra. Ezr. 8:11.
Four of these came up for censure as the
husbands of foreign wives, 10:28; but
the cognomen was attached to the cove-
nant. Neh. 10 : 15.
BE'CHER (ijoHth). 1. One of Ben-
jamin's sons. Gen. 46 : 21 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 6, 8.
2. A descendant of Ephraim, Num.
26 : 35 ; called Bered in 1 Chr. 7 : 20.
BECHO'RATH [first bom), one
of Saul's ancestors. 1 Sam. 9 : 1.
BED. Gen. 47:31. The floors of
the better sort of Eastern houses were
of tile or plaster, and were covered with
mats or carpets; and as shoes were not
worn on them and the feet were washed,
their floors seldom required sweeping or
scrubbing. Matt, 12 : 44 ; Luke 15 : 8.
Thick, coarse mattresses were thrown
down at night to sleep upon. The
])oorer people used skins for the same
j)urpose. Such beds were easily moved.
Matt. 9 : 6. On two or three sides of the
room was a bench, generally a foot high
and three feet broad, covered with a
stuH'ed cushion. This bench, called the
Asiatic Beds. {From Fellovis's "Asia Minor.")
divan, was used for both lying and sit-
ting upon ; but at one end of the room
it was more elevated, and this was the
usual place of sleeping. 2 Kgs. 1:4;
20:2; Ps. 132 : 3; Am. 3 : 12. But
besides the divan, we find mention of
bedsteads made of wood, ivory, Am.
106
6:4, or other materials. Deut. 3 : 11.
This knowledge of the construction of
Eastern beds relieves of difficulty such
passages as Ex. 8 : 3 ; 2 Sam. 4 : 5-7 ;
Ps. 6 : 6 ; Mark 4 : 21.
Some part of the day-clothing usually
served for bedclothes. Ex. 22 : 26, 27 ;
Deut. 24: 12, 13. The Orientals do not
generally undress before lying down for
the night, but are content to take ott" the
upper part of their clothing and un-
loose their girdle.
Bedsteads were used by the ancient
Egj'^ptians, as we know from the monu-
ments. They also used wooden pil-
lows of the same style as are now in
use in Japan.
The pillow of the Hebrews was proba-
bly a goat-skin stuff"ed with some soft sub-
stance, since one of this sort is common
to-day in Palestine. The pillow meant
in Mark 4 : 38 was a rower's cushion. It
has been conjectured that Saul and Eli-
jah may have used their skin water-
bottles, "■ a cruse of water," for the pur-
pose of a bolster. 1 Sam. 26 : 12 ; 1 Kgs.
19 : 6, margin.
BE'DAD (part), the father of
Hadad, king of Edom. Gen. 36 : 35 ; 1
Chr. 1 : 46.
BE'DAN (servile). 1. In 1 Sam.
12:11 the name of this judge stands
between Jerubbael, or Gideon, and
Jephthah, but probably it is a copyist's
error for Barak, as several of the ver-
sions give it. The difference in Hebrew
is not great.
2. A Manassite. 1 Chr. 7:17.
BEDEI'AH (servant of Jehovah),
one who had married a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10 : 35.
BEE. Deut. 1 : 44. The honey-
j bee is probably the only species alluded
to in the Bible. They must have been
very numerous in Canaan, as honey was
a common article of food, 1 Kgs. 14:3;
Ps. 81 : 16 ; Song Sol. 5:1; Lsa. 7:15,
and commerce. Eze. 27 : 17.
The disposition of bees to take ven-
geance on any one who disturbs their
hive is alluded to in Ps. 118:12.
lsa. 7:18 doubtless finds its explana-
tion "in the custom of the people in the
East of attracting the attention of any
one by a significant hiss, or rather hist."
Zech."lO:8.
We read, Jud. 14 : 8, that "after a
, time," })robably many days, Samson re-
BEE
BEE
turned to the carcass of the lion he had
slain, and saw bees and honey tlierein.
" If any one here represents to himself
a corrupt and putrid carcass, the occur-
rence ceases to have any true similitude,
for it is well known that in these coun-
tries, at certain seasons of the year, the
heat will in the course of twentj'-four
hours so completely dry up the moist-
ure of dead camels, and that, without
their undergoing decomposition, their
bodies long remain like mummies, un-
altered and entirely free from offensive
odor." — CEdiunnn.
Wild bees often deposited their honey
in hollow trees or the clefts of rocks. Ps.
81 : 16 : 1 Sam. 14 : 2.3-27. See Honey.
BEELI'ADA {Baal /.■dowh), a son
of David, 1 Chr. 14 : 7 : called Eliada in
2 Sam. 5:16; 1 Chr. 3:8.
BEEL'ZE-
BUB. The name
properly should be
Beelzebnl in all the
N. T. passages.
Matt. 10 : 25: 12 :
24, 27 : Mark 3 : 22 ;
Luke 11:15, 18, 19.
But this is, some say,
merely because to the
Greek tongue the lat-
ter form was easier.
This name was in
common use among
the Jews in Christ's "
day as a title of Sa-
tan as the ''prince
of the demons." It -
means '' lord of the ^
house." Those who
regard Beelzebu] as a
corruption of Baal-
zebub {lord of flien),
thegod-of theEkron- Well at Beer-sheb.i.
ites, 2 Kgs. 1 : 3, worshipped as the |
patron deity of medicine, interpret it
"lord of dung" or "filth," and explain
the change in the name by the contempt
of the Jews,
BE'ER {icell). 1. Xear the Arnon.
Num, 21:16,18: probably Beer-elim.
2. A town in Judah, Jud. 9:21; proba-
bly el-Bh-eh, 10 miles north of Jerusalem.
BEE'RA (a tcell), an Asherite. 1
Chr. 7 : 37.
BEE'RAH (a irell), a Reubenitish
prince taken captive by Tiglath-pileser.
1 Chr. 6:6.
BE'ER-E'LIM {well of heroes).
Isa. 15 : S. See Beer, 1.
BEE'RI {the well-man). 1. The
father of Judith, one of Esau's wives.
Gen. 26:34.
2. The father of Hosea the prophet.
Hos. 1:1.
BW ETl-l, MI AV-nOK a ell of the
living), a fountain in the wilderness,
south-west of Beer-sheba, Gen. 16 : 7,
14: 24:62; 25:11; not the same as
that in Gen. 21 : 19.
BEE'ROTH {welh), one of four
Hivite cities. Josh. 9:17; now el-Bireh,
10 miles north of Jerusalem. See Beer, 2.
BEE'ROTH OF THE CHIL-
DREN OF JAAKAN. Dent. 10 : 6.
Same as Bene-jaakan, Xum. 33:31;
possibly el-Mat/ein, 60 miles west of
Mount Hor.
(From Palmer's " Desert of the £.rodus.")
BE'ER-SHE'BA, or BEER'-
SHEBA {irell of aeven, or of oath), a
city on the southern border of Canaan,
25 miles south-west of Hebron, on a line
between the uplands and the desert. It
is named 33 times in the Bible; only
in the 0. T.
History. — It was first named by Abra-
ham, Gen. 21 : 31-33, who lived there,
22 : 19 ; was re-named by Isaac, Gen. 26 :
33, and was then a city : visited by Ja-
cob, 28 : 10; 46 : 1; "given to Judah,
Josh. 15:28; afterward to Simeon, 19 :
2; 1 Chr. 4:28; a place where judges
107
BEE
BEH
held court, 1 Sain. 8:2; often noted as
the southern limit of Canaan, as Dan
was the northern — ** Dan even to Beer-
sheba," Jud. 20 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 3 : 20 : 2 Sam.
3:10; 17 : 11 ; 1 Kgs. 4 : 25 ; 1 Chr. 21 :
2, etc. ; a place of idolatrous worship,
Am. 5:5; 8 : 14 ; was peopled after
the Captivity, Neh. 11 : 30 ; was a city in
Jerome's time; now in ruins, but retains
its ancient name, liir-es-sf^bn.
Wells and Eitiiis. — There are two large
wells 300 feet apart, and five smaller
ones some distance down the valley.
The larger of the two chief wells is
]2i feet in diameter and 38 to 45 feet
deep to the water, 16 feet of the lower
portion being dug into solid rock, and
the portion above this rock walled up
with square hewn stones, hard as mar-
ble. The ropes of water-drawers for
4000 years have worn over 140 furrows
in the face of the stones, some of them
4 inches deep. The second well is
smaller, being only about
5 feet in diameter and 42 r_,\^
deep.
vored. They were allowed to glean in
the fields, and to gather whatever the
land produced in the year in which it
was not tilled. Lev. 19 : 10 ; 25 : 5, 0 ;
Deut. 24 : 19. They were also invited to
feasts. Deut. 14 : 29 and 26 : 12. The Is-
raelite could not be an absolute pauper.
His land was inalienable, except for a
certain term, when it reverted to him
or his posterity. And if this resource
were insufficient, he could pledge the
services of himself and family for a
valuable sum. Those who were indi-
gent through bodily infirmities were
usually taken care of by their kindred.
A beggar was sometimes seen, however,
and was regarded and abhorred as a
vagabond. Ps. 109 : 10. In later
times they were accustomed, it would
seem, to have a fixed place at the
corners of the streets, Mark 10 : 46, or
at the gates of the temple. Acts 3 : 2, or
of private houses. Luke 16 : 20.
feet deep. Around the ^
wells are 10 or 12 stone ^(
troughs, of oblong and ii- "nv V^
regular shape, for the use ^^^J
of cattle. All day lonj^ ^'
Arab herdsmen and wo
men are drawing water in
skins to fill the troughs,
as in the days of Abraham
and Isaac.
BEESH'-TERAII
{house of Astdrte), a cit\
of Bashan, Josh. 21 : 27
same as Ashtaroth, 1 Chr
6:71.
BEETLE. Lev. 11
21, 22. Beetles have not
"legs above their feet to
leap withal upon the
earth," neither are they
ever eaten by man. From
Hippopotamus. {After Wood. "Animal Kingdom.")
the connec-
tion, the word probably indicates an in-
sect of the Locust family, which see.
The Egyptians worshipped the beetle
(scartibseus) as a symbol of fertility and
immortality.
BEEVES. Lev. 22: 19. As used in
the Bible, this word is synonj'mous with
"cattle," in its modern use. As they di-
vide the hoof, ami also chew the cud, they
were reckoned among clean animals.
BEGGAR, BEGGING. The
poor among the Hebrews were much fa-
lOS
BEHEMOTH. Job 40 : 15-24.
The word elsewhere translated beasts —
/. e. great beasts — is here given in its
Hebrew form. Evidently this is right,
for Job plainly refers to a beast pre-
eminently (jieat. The animal described
as the behemoth in the passage above
cited was of prodigious size and
strength, and corresponds better with
the river-horse of Africa {Hippopota-
mus amphiblus), than with any other
known animal. It is very probable
that this creature, though not now
BEK
BEL
found in Palestine, may once have in-
habited the rivers of Western Asia.
The average leni^th of the male hip-
popotamus (including a tail about 1 foot
long) is 14 feet. His girth is nearly the
same, and his height at the shoulder is
5 or 6 feet. The huge, uncouth body of
the animal is supported by short, stout
limbs with four toes, each of which toes
has a small hoof. The aperture of his
mouth is 2 feet broad, and his tusks
are more than a foot long. Cutting-
teeth, which retain their sharpness bj'
the same wonderful provision seen in
the squirrel, enable him to mow as
■with a scythe the coarse, tough plants,
aquatic roots, and grasses which are
his food. A stomach capable of con-
taining 5 or 6 bushels of vegetable mat-
ter prepares him to devour enormous
quantities of herbage along river-mar-
gins and prove sadly destructive to
neighboring crops.
Though clumsy on the land, in the
water the movements of the hippo-
potamus are often graceful and rap-
id. For the most part, he loves to
lie *'in the covert of the reods and
fens," or float in the water with only
liis nostrils visible. By way of exer-
cise, he walks at the bottom of the
river or climbs the neighboring hill-
sides ("mountains" of the Bible).
*' The old commentators have made
all sorts of conjectures on the behe-
moth. Some have maintained it was
the elephant, others the wild bufTalo,
others the mammoth or some extinct
pachyderm, others that it is a poet-
ical description of these large crea-
tures generally. But it appears clear
that the description suits the hippo-
potamus exnctly. and it "alone: and
this description has been adopted by
Bochart and most modern critics. We
know from the Egyptian monuments
that this huge animal was hunted
with spears : and noting its place
in the description of the marvels of
creation in Job, just before the levia-
than or crocodile, the sequence seems
to be that, powerful and terrible as is
the hippopotamus, yet it may some-
times be taken with spears : ' But what
canst thou do with the crocodile? Will
spears and barbs avail against him ?' " —
Trlntrnm.
BE'KAH. See Mrasures.
BEL. See Baal.
BE'IjA {n swallowing up, or de>ifrtic-
tioit). 1. A king of Edom, eight gen-
erations before Saul. Gen. 36 : 32, 33 ;
1 Chr. 1 : 43, 44.
2. Beniamin's eldest son. Xum. 26 :
38-40 : I'Chr. 7 : 6, 7 ; 8 : 1-3. In Gen.
46:21 called Belah.
3. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 5 : 8.
BE'LiA {sicalloicing, or destruction).
Gen. 14:2, 8. See Zoar.
BE'LAITES. The descendants
of Bela are so called in Num. 26 : 38.
BE'LIAL {icorthlessness). This
word is applied by the sacred writers to
such lewd, profligate, and vile persons
as seem to regard neither God nor man.
Deut. 13:13: Jud. 19:22, and 1 Sam.
2 : 12. Hence the question of the apos-
tle, 2 Cor. 6 : ]5, to the citizens of Cor-
inth, which was remarkable for its lewd-
ness and profligacy, has great force :
'•What concord hath Christ with Be-
lial," the prince of licentiousness and
corruption ?
BELIEVE\ See Faith.
BELL. Bells were attached to the
bottom of the high priest's robe, that
he might be heard when he went into or
came out of the holy place. Ex. 28 : 33,
35. Many of the Eastern kings and
nobles wear bells in the same manner at
this day, not only for ornament, but to
give notice of their approach. The
Arabian ladies in the royal presence
have little gold bells fastened to their
legs, necks, and elbows, which make an
agreeable sound when they dance. The
"bells of the horses" mentioned in
Zech. 14 : 20 were concave or flat pieces
of brass, still used in the East as orna-
ments upon animals.
BEL'LOWS. The word occurs
once only in the Authorized Version,
Jer. 6 : 29, but the article mutt have
been known before Moses's day, since
without them smelting ores would be
impossible. It is probable that the
Jews had bellows of the same general
appearance as the Egyptians', which
are thus described by Wilkinson : " They
consisted of a leather bag secured and
fitted into a frame, from which a long
pipe extended for carrying the wind to
the fire. They were worked by the feet,
the operator standing upon them, with
one under each foot, and pressing them
alternately while he pulled up each ex-
109
BEL
BEN
hausted skin with a string he held in
his hand." The modern Palestinian
bellows are even simpler, being a mere
skin bag having a pipe fastened at one
Egyptian Bellows. (After CaUliard.)
end : it is pressed between two boards,
and thus the air expelled.
BELSHAZ'ZAR (Bel's pri„ce, or
viaij Bel protect the hiiuj !) was the son or
grandson of Nebuchadnezzar, and the
last king of Babylon. Dan. 5: 1,18. Dur-
ing the siege of the citj' of Babylon he
gave a sumptuous entertainment to his
courtiers, and im]»ious]y made use of
the temple-furniture (of which Nebu-
chadnezzar had plundered the temple at
Jerusalem) as drinking-vessels. In the
midst of the festivities, to the terror of
the king, a hand miraculously appeared
to be writing upon the wall : Mene,
Meiie, Tekel, Uphdisiii. Daniel was
called in to explain the mystery, which,
thus interpreted, proved to be a proph-
ecy of the king's death and the king-
dom's overthrow, which took place in
the course of the succeeding night, when
Darius the Median captured the city.
Dan. 5:25-31.
B'ELT'EHJIAZ'Z AR( Bel's prince,
or Bel j)rotect his life !), the name given
to the prophet Daniel at the court of
Nebuchadnezzar. Dan. 1 : 7. See Dan-
iel .
BEN {son), a porter, a Levite, in
David's time. 1 Chr. 15: 18.
BENA'IAH {whom Jehovah hath
built lip). 1. Son of .Jchoiada, the chief
priest, and distinguished for his enter-
prise and bravery on several occasions,
2 Sam. 23 : 20-23. He was an adherent
of Solomon against the pretensions of
Adonijah, 1 Kgs. 1 : 3(), and after ])ut-
ting Joab to death succeeded to the com-
mand of the army. 1 Kgs. 2:29-35.
110
2. One of David's warriors. 2 Sam.
23:30; I Chr. 11:31; 27:14.
3. A Simeonite chief. 1 Chr. 4:36.
4. A musical Levite in David's day.
1 Chr. 15: 18, 20 : 16:5.
5. A priest in David's reign. 1 Chr.
15:24; 16:6,
6. A Levite, 2 Chr. 20 : 14.
7. A Levite in Hezekiah's day. 2 Chr.
31 : 13.
8. 9, 10, 11. Four persons who had
foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 25, 30, 35, 43.
12. The father of Peiatiah. Eze. 11 :
1, 13.
BEN-AM'MI {son of my 2)eople),
the son of Lot by his youngest daughter,
and the progenitor of the Ammonites.
Gen. 19 : 38.
BEN'E-BE'RAK {son of Uyht-
niiiy), a city of Dan, Josh. 19 : 45, prob-
ably Ibn Ibrak, near cl- Yehudizeh.
BENEFACTORS was a title
given to several rulers, particularly
to two of the Egyptian Ptolemies, who
are called accordingly in the Greek form
Energetes. Hence our Lord's remark,
Luke 22 : 25. It is analogous to our
title " Excellency."
BEN'E-JA^AKAN {children of
Jnakan), a tribe probably descended
from a grandson of Seir the Horite, and
which gave a name to wells where Is-
rael encamped. Num. 33:31,32; same
as Beeroth, and as the wells at el-
Mayin, 60 miles west of Mount Hor.
BEN-HA'DAD {son, i. e. vorship-
j)er, of Hadad). 1. King of Damas-
cus in the time of Asa, king of Judah,
with whom he formed an alliance
against Baasha, king of Israel. 1 Kgs.
15:18. See Asa, Baasha.
2. King of Damascus, and a son of
the preceding. 1 Kgs. 20:1. He was
engaged in numerous wars with Israel,
and once was taken prisoner. 1 Kgs.
20. See Ahab. Afterward he declared
war against Jehoram, king of Israel,
but the prophet Elisha disclosed his
plans so accurately that .Tchoram was
able to defeat them. 2 Kgs. 6 : 8-33.
It was Ben-hadad who sent Naauian to
Elish.a. 2 Kgs. 5. See Elisiia.
In the siege of Samaria, which sub-
sequently took place, that city was
re(luced to the greatest extremity.
The Syrian army, under Ben-hadad,
was lying around the walls, when in
the course of the night they were led to
BEN
BER
conceive that they heard the noise of an
immense army in motion. Supposing
that the city had been succored by
supplies of men and provisions from
abroad, and terrified with the fancied
tumult of their approach, the Syrians
just at daybreak tied for their lives,
leaving their camp, with all their horses,
asses, provisions, utensils, etc., just as
they were, and their garments and ves-
sels scattered all along the road by
which the}' had fled. The citizens of
Samaria were thus unexpectedly relieved
and supplied with an abundance of
food.
The next j'ear, Ben-hadad. being sick,
sent Hazael to inquire of the prophet
Elisha whether he would recover : and
he received for answer that the king
might certainly recover, and j'et would
surelj' die. Hazael also was informed
b}' the prophet that he would be ele-
vated to the throne of Syria, and would
be guiltj' of cnurmous wickedness. The
very next day Ben-hadad was murdered,
and Hazael became king of Sjria. 2
Kgs. 8: 15. See Hazael.
Various successful campaigns again^ t
Ben-hadad II. arc menticned upon the
tablets of the Assyrian king, Shalma-
neser II., b. c. 8.58-823. Ben-hadad. who
is called Ben-hadar, was in league with
Ahab when the firft campaign took
place, as the Bible says. 1 Kgs. 20:34,
3. Another person of the same name,
and son of Hazael. 2 Kgs. 13:3. He
suffered several defeats from the hand
of Jehoash, king of Israel, and was
compelled to relinquish all the land of
Israel which his father, Hazael, had
obtained in conquest. 2 Kgs. 13 : 25.
BEN'-HA'IL («o/* „r the hoxf. i. e.
warrior), one of the ''princes" whom
Jehoshaphat sent to teach the people
the law. 2 Chr. 17 : 7.
BEN'-HA'NAN {son of one <jrn-
cions), a Judite. 1 Chr. 4:20.
BEN'IXU (our son), a Levite who
sealed the covenant. Xeh. 10 : 13.
BEN'- JAMIN ( .s-o» of the rn/ht hand,
i. e. of fortune). 1. The youngest son of
Jacob and Rachel. His mother died ira-
mediateh' after his birth, which took
jilacc near Bethlehem wh'n the family
were on their journey from Padan-aram
to Canaan. With her dying breath she
called him Ben-oni {the son of rot/ sor-
row), but his father gave him the nan:e
he bore. Gen. 35 : 16-18. The relation
between him and Jacob was ever most
tender, particularly after Joseph's sup-
posed death. We know, however, noth-
ing about him personally. The tribe
formed from his descendants exhibited
the traits of courage, cunning, and am-
bition foretold by the dying Jacob. Gen.
49 : 27. It had its portion of the
Promised Land adjoining Judah ; and
when ten of the tribes revolted, Benja-
min continued steadfast in its attach-
ment to Judah, and formed a part of
that kingdom. 1 Kgs. 12:17, 23. Saul,
the first king, and Paul were descendants
of this tribe. 1 Sam. 10 : 21 : Phil. 3 : 5.
2. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 7:10.
3. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr.
10 : 32.
BEN'JAMIN (son of the right hand),
LiA\D OF, the portion of Canaan
between Ephraim, the .Jordan, Judah,
and Ban, containing 20 cities, including
Jerusalem and the famous passes of
Michmash and Beth-horon. See Josh.
18: 11-28. It was about 25 miles long
by 12 wide.
Ph)/sical Features. — This territory
was a hilly country, its general level be-
ing about 2000 feet above the Mediter-
ranean and 3000 feet above the Jordan
valley. It includes mountains broken
by deep ravines. For productions, etc.,
see Canaan, Palestine, and Judah.
Some of the most important events
in Scripture history took place in this
territory, which will be noticed under
the kings of Judah.
BE'NO (his son), a Levite. 1 Chr.
24:2fi, 27.
BE\-0'NI. See Benjamin.
BEN-ZO'HETH {son of Zoheth),
a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:20.
BE'ON. Num. 32 : 3. See Baal-
Meon.
BE'OR (torch). 1. The father of
Bela, king of Edom. Gen. 36 : 32 ; 1
Chr. 1 : 43.
2. The father of Balaam, Num. 22:
5, etc. : wl!ed Bosor in 2 Pet. 2 : 15.
BE'RA (son of evil ), king of
Sodom. <;cn. 14:2.
BER'ACHAH (blessing), a Ben-
iamite kader who joined David. 1
Chr. 12 : 3.
BER'ACHAH, (hfessing), VAL-
LEY OF, where Jehoshaphat cele-
brated tl.e vic-torv over the Moahites,
111
BEE
BES
2 Chr. 20 : 26 ; now Wadi/ Bereikut,
west of Tekua (Tekoa), and about 8
miles south-west of Bethlehem.
BERACHI'AH [whom Jehovah
hath blessed), the father of Asaph. 1
Chr. 6 : 39.
BERAl'AH {u-hom Jehovah cre-
ated), a Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8: 21.
B£RE'A, a city of Macedonia,
Acts 17 : 10-13, on the eastern side of
the Olympian Mountains ; now Verria,
with a population of about 0000, though
some incorrectly give 20,000.
BERECHI'AH {n:hnm Jehovah
hath blesxed). 1. One of David's pos-
terity. 1 Chr. 3 : 20.
2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 9: 16.
3. The father of Asaph, also called
Berachiah. 1 Chr. 15 : 17.
4. A doorkeej^er for the ark. 1 Chr.
15 : 23.
5. An Ephraimite in the days of
Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28:12.
6. The father of a builder of the wall.
Neh. 3:4, 30; 6:18.
7. The father of Zechariah. Zech.
1:1.7.
BE'RED (hail), a place in southern
Palestine, near the well Lahai-roi. Gen.
16 : 14. Grove suggests that it may be
El-Khulasah, 12 miles south of Beer-
g VjoVjo
BERENI'CE. See Beunice.
BE'RI {well), an Asherite chieftain.
1 Chr. 7 : 36.
BERI'AH {in evil, or a gift). 1.
A son of Asher. Gen. 46 : 17 ; Num.
23:44, 45; 1 Chr. 7:30, 31.
2. A son of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 23.
3. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8:13. 16.
4. A Levite. 1 Chr. 23:10, 11.
BERI'ITES, the descendants of
BiCKiAii. 1. Num. 26 :44.
BE'RITES, THE [the people of
the irells), a family mentioned in 2 Sam,
20 : 14, but it is not known who they
were.
BE'RITH (a covenant). Jud. 9 : 46.
See P.AAL-BKUITH.
BERM'CE, OR BERENI'CE
(victorious), was the eldest daughter
of Agrippa, surnamed the Great, and
sister to the younger Agrippa, kings of
the Jews. Acts 25:13, 23; 26:30.
Her first husband was her uncle Her-
od, the king of Chalcis. She appears
in the Acts in connection with her
brother, Agripjja II., with whom she
112
lived in incestuous intercourse after
Herod's death, a. d. 48. To put an
end to the scandal she married Po-
lemo, king of Cilicia, whom she per-
suaded to be
circumcised.
The bond was
soon dis-
solved, and
she returned
to her broth-
er. Subse-
quently, so
rem ark able
were her pow-
ers of attrac-
Bernice. (On a Coin of To- .■ ,
lemo II.) '^'""' '^"^ ^^
BeruicemarriLMt Holemo II., king well p T e -
of a part of Cilicia. The coin was served her
struck iu 5"i! a.d., about llie time , , f v, »
when Paul was at Coriutli witli OCauty, IDat
Aquiia aud Piisciiia. she became
mistress to both Vespasian and his son
Titus.
BERO'DACH-BAL'ADAN.
2 Kgs. 20 : 12. See Merodach-bala-
DA\.
BERO'THAH, and BER'O-
THAI {my Weill), one in the north
of Palestine, Eze. 47 : 16, the other in
the same region, 2 Sara. 8:8. The two
may be the same, and possibly modern
Beirftt, bat more probably farther east,
at Brithen or Bretdn, about 0 miles
south-west of Baalbec.
BER'YJL. Ex. 28 : 20. By the
Hebrew word " tarshish " modern yel-
low topaz is supposed to be meant.
This designation seems to indicate
the place from which it was brought.
Beryl, in the N. T., Rev. 21 : 20, is
probably a different stone, and very like-
ly the mineral now so called, which is
found in Palestine, but was less abun-
dant and more precious in ancient
times than in modern. It is usually
of a light-green color and considerably
opaque.
BE'SAI {sword, or conqueror), an
ancestor to some of the Nethinim. Ezr.
2:40 ; Neb. 7:62.
BESODE'IAH {in the secret of
Jehovah), the father of a repairer of
the wall. Neh. 3 : 6.
BE'SOM. Isa. 14:23. A broom
made of twigs.
BE'SOR. 1 Sam. 30:9-21. A tor-
rent-bed in the south of Judah ; proba-
bly Wady Sheriah, south of Gaza.
BET
BET
BE'TAH {confidence). 2 Sam. 8 : !
8. Called Tibhath. 1 Chr. 18 : 8 : possi-
bly Tibkuth, between Alep^jo and Eu-
phrates.
BE'TEN. Josh. 19:25. A town of
Asher. and east of Ptolemais.
BETH'-AB'ARA {hou^e of the
ford), a place beyond Jordan. John 1 :
28. Some of the best manuscripts read
Bethany same as Beth-abara : possi-
bly at Beth-nimrah, or Nintrini, but
more probably, as Conder thinks, at
Abdrah, a leading ford of the Jordan
on the road to Gilead.
BETH'-A'NATH {house of an-
swer), a place in Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 38 ;
Jud. 1 : 33 ; possibly at Hunin, near
Diblathaim; or at 'AInatha.
BETH-A'NOTH {house of
echo), a city of Judah, Josh. 15:59;
perhaps Beit 'Ainun, 3 miles north-
east of Hebron.
BETH'ANY {house of dates, or
of misery). 1. A village on the eastern
slope of Mount Olivet, about li to 2
miles ("15 furlongs") east of Jerusa-
lem, John 11:18, toward Jericho: the
home of Mary and Martha, whither
Jesus often went. Matt. 21:17: Mark
11:11, 12. It was the home of Simon,
Mark 14 : 3 : the place where Lazarus
was raised from the dead. John 11: 18-
Bethaii}-. {Aj'ter Photographs.)
44 ; and near it Jesus ascended to
heaven, Luke 24 : 50 : named only in
the Gospels, and there eleven times.
Present Appearance. — Three paths
lead from Jerusalem to Bethany — the
first over Olivet, north of its summit ;
the third branches from the first, below
Gethsemane, over the southern slope of
Olivet; the second lies bet'veen these
two. " The name, which signifies ' house
of poverty,' was probably suggested by
its solitary and remote situation, bor-
dering on the desert, or by the fact that
lepers, who are popularly called the
'poor,' once sought an asylum here."
Mark 14 : 3. — Baedeker's Handbook.
The town is now a poor mountain-
8
hamlet of about 20 rude stone houses
inhabited by Moslems. The water is
good, and olive, fig, almond, and carob
trees abound. The reputed sites of
Simon's house and that of Mary,
also "the tower" and the tomb of Laz-
arus, are still pointed out. A church
stands over the tomb. Bethany is now
called el-Azirii/eh. "place of Lazarus."
See SchaflF's Bibfe Lands, p. 276.
2. Some manuscripts read Bethany
for Bethabara in John 1 : 28. See Beth-
abara.
BETH-AR'ABAH (house of
the plain), a city of Judah in the wil-
derness, Josh. 15 : 6, 61 ; counted as a
city of Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 22 : called
113
BET
BKT
Arabah in Jo.sh. 18 : 18, in the valley
of the Jordan near the Dead Sea.
BETH-A'RAM [house of height),
a town of dad in the valley, Jos^h. 13:
27 ; perhaps same as Beth-haran.
Num. 32 : 36 ; now Beit Haran, in
Wathi Sell-. j
BETH-AR'BEL [home of God's
court, or nmljush), probably Arbela or
Irbid, between Tiberias and Sepphoris.
Hos. 10:14.
BETH-A'VEN (house of naught,
or idols), east of Bethel, Josh. 7:2;
18 : 12 ; ] Sam. 13 : 5 ; 14 : 23 ; used as
a name for Bethel, " house of (iod ;"
changed to Beth-aven, '' house of idols," '
llos. 4:15; 5:8: 10:5.
BETH- AZ'31AVETH, a town
in Benjamin : called Azmaveth, Neh. 7 :
28 ; 12 : 29 : Ezr. 2 : 21 ; perhaps Hiz-
nieh, south-east of Jeba.
BETH-BA'AL-3IE ON. Josh.
13 : 17. See Baai.-meox. I
BETH - BA'RAH. Jud. 7 : 24. !
See Bkth-abara. I
BETH'-BIR'EI (hottse of mij eve- ,
ation), a town of Simeon, 1 Chr. 4:31; i
probably same as Beth-lebaoth and Le- I
baoth, Josh. 19 : 6 ; 16 : 32, in the south ,
of Palestine. I
BETH'-CAR (house of lambs), a !
place west of Mizpeh. 1 Sam. 7 : 1. Coij- ^
der locates it at 'Aiu Kdriin. \
BETH-D A'GOxX (houseff Da(,on). !
]. A town in .Judah, near Philistia.
Josh. 15:41. Perhaps at Beit Dajdu. ,
2. A place in Asher. Josh. 19 : 27. '
Ganneau locates it at Dcijiin, south-
west of Ekron ; Conder, at Tell D'tiiik. \
BETH-DIB LATHA'IM (house
of Ji(/-c(tkes), a town of Moab ; same as
Almon-diblathaim. Jer. 48 : 22 ; Num. ;
33 : 46. I
BETH'EL (house of God). 1. A ;
town about 12 miles north of Jerusalem.
Ilistori/. — Visited by Abraham, Uen.
12 : 8 ; 13 : 3 ; marlted by Jacob after his
vision of the ladder, (ien. 28 : 11-19;
31 : 13 ; dwelling-place of Jacob, Gen.
35:1-8; name ap])lied to Luz, Jud. 1 :
22,23 ; before this the city and the altar-
site appear to have had dilfercnt names,
see Josh. 16 : 2 ; Jud. 1 : 22. 23 : (Jen. 28 :
19 ; Samuel jmlgod there, 1 Sam. 7:16;
a place of culf-worship, 1 Kgs. 12: 29;
2 Kgs. 10: 29; called Beth-aven—/. r.
"house of idols," IIos. 10 : 5, S : taken
bv Judah. 2 Chr. 13 : 19 ; home of i
114
prophets, 2 Kgs. 2 : 2, 3 ; of priests, 2
Kgs. 17 : 28; 23 : 15-17; was desolate.
Am. 3 : 14; 5:5, 6 ; settled by Benja-
mites after the Cajitivity, Neh. 11:31;
named about seventy times in the 0. T. ;
not noticed in the N. T. ; now called
Beit in (9 miles south of Shiloh), a vil-
lage of about 25 Moslem hovels, stand-
ing amid ruins which cover about 4
acres. Among the ruins is a Greek
church, which appears to have been
built out of the ruins of an older, and
probably a Jewish, edifice. There are
also the remains of a tower and a very
large cistern. From the top of this
ruined tower the Mount of Olives is
distinctly visible, and Jewish tradition
asserts, no doubt truthfully, that from
the rival temjile of Jeroboam idol-
priests could look down upon the tem-
ple of Solomon at Jerusalem. The spot
is hallowed by Jacob's dream of a lad-
der which reached from earth to hea-
ven, and caused him to exclaim, " How
dreadful is this place ! this is none other
but the house of God, and this is the
gate of heaven." Gen. 28: 17.
2. A town in the south of Judah ;
same as Chesil, Bethul. and Bcthuel.
Josh. 12 : 16 ; 15 : 30 ; 19 : 4 ; 1 Chr. 4 :
30.
3. Mount Bethel, Josh. 16 : 1 : 1 Sam.
13 : 2, a hillv district near Bethel.
BETH-E'MEK (house of the val-
leji), a town of Asher, .Josh. 19 : 27 ; pos-
sibly Aiukah, 8 miles north-cast of A/,/:n.
BET HER, THE MOUN-
TAINS OF. Song Sol. 2 : 17. Prob-
ably near the Lebanon range.
BETHES'DA (house of nierr,,, or
fouu'uf/ u-ofer), a ])ool in .lerusalem near
the sheep-gate or market, .John 5: 2-9;
tradition identifies it with the modern
pool liirh-et-Isrnil, .360 feet long, 120
ieet wide, and 80 feet deej), half filled
with rubbish. Capt. Warren found an
aqueduct leading IVoin it, ])robably into
the Kedron. Robinson, with more jirob-
ability, regards Bcthesda as identical
with the intermittent Pool of the Vir-
gin, outside of the city, above the Pool
of Siloaui.
BETH-E'ZEL (house offnn roof).
Mic. 1:11. Speaker's I'onnuentdr)/ iden-
tifies it with Azal, near Jerusalem.
BETH-GA'DER (house of the
lO(ill), possibly a place; if so, in Judah.
1 Chr. 11: 51. See (jKdkk.
BET
BET
Traditional Pool of Betbesda. {Birket- Isruil. After a Photograph by Bonfils.)
BETH-GA'3IUL {house of camel),
a town of Moab, Jer. 48 : 23 ; now Um-
el-Jenuil, near Bozrah, an unwalled town,
having some of the most remarkable
ruins in that country, houses, streets, I
walls, and gates deserted, but in perfect
preservation. See Jer. 48 : 21-25.
Grove, however, thinks Jemal too far
north-east to be Gamul.
BETH-GIL'GAL. Xeh. 12 : 29.
Same as Gilgal, near Bethel.
BETH-HAC'CEREM (Jwme of
the vine), a place near Tekoa, Jer. 6:1;
Neh. 3 : 14; probably the Fmnk Moun-
tain, 4 miles south-east of Bethlehem.
BETH-HA'RAX. See Beth
ARAM.
BETH-HOGXA, or HOG'-
liAH { pnrtridcfe-houfie), a town of Ben-
jamin, Josh. 15 : 6 ; 18 : 19, 21 ; now
'Ain Hajla, between Jericho and the
Jordan.
BETH-HO'RON {house of the
cave), the name of two places, the " Up-
per" and "Xether" Beth-horon, Josh.
16 : 3, 5, about 3 miles apart, on the
opposite sides of a ravine or steep pass
— the Thermopyla? of Palestine — on the
road from Jerusalem to the seacoast.
The '* Xether '' or lower town was the
most impoi'tant : now Beit Ur et-Tahta.
The Upper Beth-hoi-on is now Beit Ur
BETH-JES'IMOTH, and
JESH'IMOTH {house of tcastes). a
town of Moab. Xum. 33 : 49 ; Josh. 12 :
3 ,: 13 : 20 : Eze. 25 : 9. Schwarz places
it at Beth-Jisimuth, north-eaft of the Dead
Sea and half a mile from the Jordan ;
Tristram, at ev-Rameh, 5 miles north-
east from the mouth of the Jordan.
BETH-LEB'AOTH {house of
lionennes). See Beth-birei.
BETH'LEHEM {house of bread).
1. A town in the " hill-country," about 6
miles south of Jerusalem, situated on a
narrow ridge running eastward, which
breaks down in abrujit terraced slopes
to the deep valleys below. The town is
2o27 feet above the sea. It is one of
the oldest in Palestine.
History. — It was Rachel's burial-pla(j|p
(still marked by a white mosque near the
town), and called Ephrath, Gen. 35:19;
the home of Xaomi, Boaz, and Ruth,
Ruth 1:19; birthplace of David, 1 Sam.
17 : 12 ; burial-place of Joab's familj^, 2
Sam. 2 : 32 ; taken by the Philistines,
and had a noted well, 2 Sam. 23 : 14, 15
fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11 : 6
foretold as the birthplace of Christ, Mic
5:2; the birthplace of Jesus. Matt. 2 : 1
was visited by the shepherds, Luke 2
15-17, and by the magi, Matt. 2. It is
noticed over 40 times in the Bible.
It has existed as a town for over 4000
years. It was a small place until after
the time of Christ ; was improved and
115
BET
BET
its walls rebuilt by Justinian ; had a
famous chiurch in A. d. 600 ; was de-
strojed by the Arabs, rebuilt by the
Franks, again twice destroyed, A. D.
1244 and in 1489 ; rebuilt within the
last two centuries ; now has about 5000
inhabitants, nearly all nominally Chris-
tians, mostly of the Greek Church. The
women of Bethlehem, as also those of
Nazareth (the two homes of Christ),
are exceptionally beautiful, and demon-
strate the superiority of Christian women
over Moslem women. It is now called
Beit-Lahm; is surrounded by nicely-
kept terraces covered with vine, olive,
and fig trees. The church of the Na-
tivity, the oldest in Christendom, built
in A. D. 330 by the empress Helena,
stands over the grotto reputed to be
the place of our Lord's birth, and is
the joint property of the Greeks, Latins,
and Armenians, who have separate con-
vents adjoining it. The "plain of the
Shepherds" is about a mile from the
town. The so-called David's well is
pointed out near the city. A massive col-
Bethlehem. (From Original Photograph by Bonfils.)
umn stands upon the reputed spot where
monkish legends say 20,000 martyred
innocents were buried. The claim of
these places as the true localities where
the biblical events occurred rests wholly
upon traditions covered with the accu-
mulated rubbish of superstition, which
render the identifications of small value.
The chapel beneath the church, how-
ever, was the study of St. Jerome, where
he spent thirty years on his great work,
the Latin version of the Bible, called
the Vulgate, and which is still the stand-
ard version in the Roman Church. The
" holy crypt." the reputed birthplace
of our Lord, is a cave in the solid rock,
twenty feet beneath the great choir of
the church. At the entrance of a long
winding passage cut out of the lime-
stone rock is an irregular-shaped chap-
116
el, containing two small recesses. In the
northernmost of these is a marble slab, on
which a silver star marks the supposed
spot of the Nativity. Hepworth Dixon
( The Holy Laud, 1865, ch. xiv.) not only
accepts this cave as the birthplace of
Jesus, but also tries to prove that it be-
longed to Boaz and was the home of
David. The tradition that Jesus was
born in this cave is very old, and is
first mentioned by Justin Martyr
(about A. n. 140), who was a native
of Palestine. The precise place of
our Saviour's birth, as that of his
crucifixion, has been left in obscur-
ity' by a wise Providence. The greet-
ing of Boaz to the reapers may still
be heard in the fields of Bethlehem.
The farmer now salutes his laborers
with " The Lord be with you !" and
BET
BET
they reply, as in the days of Ruth, *' The
Lord bless thee !" Ruth 2 : 4.
2. A town in Zebulon, Josh. 19 : 15 :
now a poor village, Beit-Lahni, 6 miles
west of Nazareth.
BETH-MA'ACHAH. 2 Sam.
20 : 14, 15. Same as Abel-beth-maa-
chah, Abel-maim, and Abel; now Abel
el-Kanih, a village north-west of Lake
Merom. Grove supposes Maachah
was a petty Syrian kingdom north of
Palestine.
BETH-MAR'CABOTH {how^e
of chariots), a town in the south of
judah. Josh. 19 : 5; 1 Chr. 4 : 13.
Rowland identifies it with el-Murtabeh,
10 miles south-west of Beer-sheba.
BETH-ME'Ox\. See Baal-
MEOX.
BETH-NIM'RAH {home of hop-
nrdn), a fenced city east of the Jor-
dan, Josh. 13 : 27 ; Num. 32 : 3, 30 ; same
as Nimrah, and the modern Ainnim,
on the Jordan, above Jericho. Some
would identifv it also with Beth-abara.
BETH-PA'LET (house offliyht),
a town in the south of Judah; same as
Beth-phelet, Josh. 15 : 27 ; Neh. 11 ; 26 ;
either modern el-Kuseifeh, near Mola-
diih. or rl-Horn.
BETH-PAZ'ZEZ {ho„se of dis-
persion), in Issachar, Josh. 19: 21, west
of the Sea of Galilee; possibly, but
not probably, modern Beit-Jenu.
BETH-PE'OR {temple of Peor),
a place on Pisgah. Deut. 3 : 29 ; 4:46;
34 : 6 : Josh. 13 : 20. See PiSGAH.
BETH'PHAGE {house of green
figs), a place near Bethany, Matt. 21 :
1 ; Mark 11 : 1 : Luke 19 : 29, and possi-
blv west of thiit place.
BETH-PHELET. See Beth-
pa lkt. ■
BETH-RE'HOB {house of Re-
hoh), called Rehob, Num. 13 : 21 : 2
Sam. 10 : 6, 8 ; was near Laish, Jud. 18 :
28; now Hnuiu, on the mountain-side,
about 1000 feet above the plain of
Dan.
BETHSA'IDA (house of fishiug),
a citv of Galilee, near Capernaum.
John 12 : 21; Matt. 11 : 21. Many re-
cent writers urge that there were two
Bethsaidas, since the desert-place where
the 5000 were fed belonged to '" the city
called Bethsaida," Luke 9 : 10, while
after the miracle the disciples were
to go before him unto the other side
to Bethsaida, Mark 6 : 45, which it is
said could not refer to the same
town.
1. If there were two towns of this
name, the first one, in Galilee, was on
the west side of the lake. Robin-
son, Grove, Porter, and others place
it at Ain et-Tahiyhnh, north of Khun
Miuyeh, others at Khan Minijeh.
2. Bethsaida Julias, in Gaulanitis, on
the eastern bank of the Jordan, near its
entrance into the lake.
But it is extremely improbable that two
cities in such close neighborhood should
have borne the same name. Hence Dr.
W. M. Thomson supposes that there was
but one Bethsaida, which was built on
both sides of the Jordan, and places the
site at Abu-Zany, where the Jordan emp-
ties into the Lake of Galilee. The
Sinaitic manuscript omits " belonging
to a city called Bethsaida" in Luke 9:
10; hence, Wilson also holds that there
is no necessity for two Bethsaidas ; and
this seems the more probable view.
The eastern part was beautified by
Philip the tetrarch, and called Beth-
saida Julias (in honor of a daughter
of the emperor Augustus), to distin-
guish it from the western Bethsaida, in
Galilee. — Schaff : Through Bible Lands,
p. 853. See Caperxaum.
BETH-SHE'AN [house of quiet),
BETH'SAN, OR BETH'SHAN,
a city 5 miles west of the Jordan, first
in Issachar, but later in Manasseh.
Josh. 17 : 11 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 29. Saul's body
was fastened to its walls, 1 Sam. 31 :
10, 12; after the Captivity it was call-
ed Scythopolis, and was a chief city
of Decapolis: now Beisan, having
ruins of temples, colonnades, hippo-
drome, theatre, and citv walls.
BETH-SHE'MESH (house of
the sun). 1. A city on the north of
Judah belonging to the priests, Josh.
15:10; 21:16; same as Ir-shemesh
and Mount Heres, Josh. 19:41; Jud.
1 : 35 ; noted as the place to which the
ark was returned, 1 Sam. 6 : 9-20 ; now
a heap of ruins near'Ain Shems, about
14 miles west of Jerusalem.
2. A fenced city of Naphtali. Josh.
19 : 38. Conder proposes 'Ain esh Shem-
sti/eh.
3. A city on the border of Issachar,
Josh. 19 : 22 J perhaps the same as
No. 2.
117
BET
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4. A place in Egypt, Jer. 43 : 13 ; same
as Heliopolis, or On. See On.
BETH-SHITTAH {house of
acacia), now perhaps the village of
Shattah, east of Jezreel. Jud. 7:22.
BETH-TAP'PUAH {Jwnse of
applet), a town of Judah near Hebron,
Josh. 15: 53; now Teffuh, 5 miles west
of Hebron, and noted for olive-groves
and vinej'ards. Traces of the ancient
terraces still remain.
BETHU'EL {man of God), the
son of Nahor, nephew of Abraham,
and father of Laban and llebekah.
Gen. 22:22, 23; 24:15,24,47; 28:2.
His son Laban plays the prominent
part in the narrative,
BE'THUEL, AND BE'THUL.
See Chesil and Bethel.
BETH'ZUR {house of roch), in
the mountains of Judah; built by Re-
hoboam ; its ruler helped to repair Jeru-
salem, 2 Chr. 11 : 7; Neh. 3 : 16; now
Beit Stir, 4 miles north of Hebron.
BET'ONIM, a town in Gad. Josh.
13:26.
BETROTH^ Deut. 28 : 30. A
man and woman were betrothed or es-
poused each to the other when they
were engaged to be married. It is giv-
ing one's troth — i. e. faith or promise —
to marry at a future time.
Among the Jews this relation was
usually determined by the parents or
brothers, without consulting the par-
ties until they came to be betrothed.
The engagement took place very early,
though it was not consummated by ac-
tual marriage until the spouse was at
least twelve years of age.
The betrothing was performed a
twelvemonth or move before the mar-
riage, either in writing or by a piece
of silver given to the espoused before
witnesses. During the interval, how-
ever, from the time of espousals to the
marriage, the woman was considered as
the lawful wife of the man to whom she
was betrothed ; nor could the engage-
ment be ended by the man without a
bill of divorce ; nor could she be un-
faithful without being considered an
adulteress. See Marriage.
BElJ'LiAH {married), a word used
by Isaiah, Isa. 62 : 4, to set forth the
intimate relation of the Jewish Church
to (}()d.
BE'ZAI {conqueror), father of some
118
who returned. Ezr. 2 : 17 ; Neh. 7 :
23: 10:18.
BEZAL'EEL {in the shadoio of
God). A famous artificer who received
wisdom and instruction directly from
God to qualify him for the work of
building the tabernacle and preparing
its various furniture. Ex. 31 : 2.
2. One who had married a foreign
wife. Ezr. 10 : 30.
BE'ZEK {lightning). 1. In the
mountains of Judah, Jud. 1 : 3-5 ; proba-
bly Beit Z'ata, south of Jerusalem.
2. Possibly a district. 1 Sam. 11 : 8,
9. Schwartz places it at Bezik or Ah-
sik ; Conder at Ihzik, north of Tir-
zah.
B E ' Z E R {ore), an Asherite. 1
Chr. 7 : 37.
BE'ZER IN THE WILDER-
NESS, a city of refuge east of the
Jordan, Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20 : 8 ; 21:
36; 1 Chr. 6:78; possibly Bnrazin, 12
miles north-east of Heshbon.
BE'ZETHA, AND BE'ZETH, a
hill in Jerusalem north of Acra and Mo-
riah. See Jerusalem.
BI'BLE. " The Holy Bible " is the
name given to the collection of books
which contains the revelation of God in
the creation, redemption, and sanctifica-
tion of the world ; a history of the past
dealing of God with his people; a proph-
ecy of coming events till the final con-
summation : and a living exhibition of
saving truth in doctrine, precept, and
example for all men and all time. The
name is from the Greek (ra /St^At'a, "the
books"), and means the Book of books,
the best of all books (so used since the
fifth century in distinction from heret-
ical and all uninspired writings). The
collection is likewise spoken of as the
" Scriptures," " the word of God." The
Bible embraces the work of about forty
authors from all classes of society, from
the shepherd to the king, living during
an interval of sixteen hundred years,
but all of the Hebrew extraction, with
the single exception of Luke, whose
Gospel, howev.er, came from Jewish
sources, and whose fame from his as-
sociation with Paul. All forms of
literary composition unite to give the
Bible its unique interest, aside from
its religious iuiportancc. These books,
though differing in age, contents, and
style, represent one and the same sys-
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tern of truth as revealed by God in
its various aspects and adaptations to
the existing wants and progressive un-
derstanding of his people. The Bible
is not a book simply ; it is an insti-
tution. It never grows old ; it renews
its youth with every age of humanity,
and increases in interest and importance
as histor}' advances. It is to the Chris-
tian the only infallible source and rule
of his faitli and conduct ; it is his daily
bread of life, his faithful guide in holy
living and dying, his best friend and
com])anion — far more precious than all
other books combined. It is now more
extensively studied than ever, and its
readers will continue to multiplj' from
day to day to all parts of the earth and
to the end of time. Let us add some
testimonies to its importance.
The eloquent F. ^^' . Robertson says:
"This collection of books has been to
the world what no other book has ever
been to a nation. States have been
founded on its principles: kings rule by
a compact ba:ed on it: men hold it in
their hands when they give solemn evi-
dence affecting death or property ; tlie
sick man is almost afraid to die unless
the Book be within reach of his hands ;
the battle-ship goes into action with one
on board whose office is to expound it:
its prayers, its psalms, are the language
we use when we speak to God ; eighteen
centuries have found no holier, no di-
viner language. The very translation
of it has fixed language and settled the
idioms of speech. It has made the most
illiterate peasant more familiar with the
history, customs, and geography of an-
cient Palestine than wilh the localities
of his own country. . . . The orator
holds a thousand men for half an hour
breathless, a thousand men as one listen-
ing to his single word. But this word
of God has held a thousand nations for
thrice a thousand years spell-bound—
held them by an abiding power, even
the universality of its truth : and we feel
it to be no more a collection of books,
but the Book." The translators of the
A. v., in their Addres.f unto the Header
(reprinted in the Cambridge Paragraph
Bible), say of the Bible: "And what
marvel ? — the original thereof being from
heaven, not from earth : the author be-
ing God, not man : the inditer, the Holy
Spirit, not the wit Of the apostles or
prophets : the penmen, such as were
sanctified from the womb and endued
with a principal portion of God's Spirit;
the matter, verity, piety, purity, upright-
ness ; the form, God's word, God's tes-
timony, God's oracles, the word of truth,
the word of salvation, etc.; the effects,
light of understanding, stableness of
persuasion, repentance from dead works,
newness of life, holiness, peace, joy in the
Holy Ghost; lastly', the end and reward
of the study thereof, fellowship with the
saints, participation of the heavenly na-
ture, fruition of an inheritance immortal,
undefiled, and that shall never fade away.
Hajipy is the man that delighteth in the
Scripture, and thrice happy that medi-
tateth in it daj^ and night I"
The Bible is ordinarily- divided into
I two parts, called the Old and New Testa-
ments. But it would be more accurate
to say " the Old and New Covenants," in-
asmuch as " testament " iuijilies the idea
of a will and the death of the testator.
I In the present article the general ques-
tions in regard to the Bible will be dis-
cussed. The matters relating to the
formation of the collection will be
found under Canox, and the particulars
of the different books under their re-
spective names.
I. The Original Languages of the
Bible.
1. The 0. T. is written in Hebrew, a
Shemitic tongue, differing in most re-
sjiects very widely from the Ja])hetic or
Aryan languages, to which family ours
belongs. The difference is not simply
in vocabulary, but in grammatical struc-
ture, and also in the manner of writing,
which is from right to left, giving rise
to the common saying that Hebrew books
begin at the last page. It is triliteral —
?. e. its words are built up according to
certain rules from roots formed of three
consonants. The verb has only two
tenses, the perfect and the imperfect.
There is no proper declension of nouns,
and only two genders, masculine and
feminine. There are three numbers,
singular, dual, and plural. There are
no compounds, in our sense of the
term; the article, conjunction, and
preposition, expressed each by a single
consonant, are attached directly to the
word. Pronouns undergo a similar
treatment, " whether they are the sub-
Ill)
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ject or object of verbs or dependent |
upon other forms of speech. Thus the j
Hebrew ' and from his hind ' is written
as one word, though it embraces a con-
junction, preposition, noun, and ]>io-
noun ; but this is a mere aggregate, in
Avhich each element retains its separate
force unchanged, not a compound, in
which the several constituents combine
in the expression of one idea." — Prof. W.
N. Green. Hebrew is highly figurative —
pre-eminently fitted for devotion, but
by lack of precision singularly unfitted
for philosophy. It was therefore just
the requisite medium for an introduc-
tory revelation. The 0. T. does not
argue against or analyze or defend any
religion in set phrase, but it fills the
mind with the knowledge of the true
God and inspires the heart in his ser-
vice.
2. The N. T. was written in Greek,
which had, since the Macedonian con-
quest of Alexander the Great, supplanted
Hebrew in common use among the Jews
who dwelt in the Roiuan provinces, and
was the medium of communication be-
tween all parts of the civilized world.
The ancient Greek literature is a peren-
nial source of inspiration and know-
ledge. The language is at once vigorous
and flexible, profound and clear, remark-
ably well suited to express every variety
of thought. It is equally adapted to the
concise, the critical, and the common-
place. In short, every order of mind
can use it appropriately. It was in that
day a better channel than the Hebrew
for a divine revelation, and that of the
highest kind. Hebrew no longer met
the wants of culture. By nature it was
hampered. It was the language of mon-
otlieism, but not of developed trinita-
rianism.
The N. T. Greek is the Macedonian,
and more particularly the Hellenis-
tic, dialect, more or less mixed with
Hebraisms, arising from the fact that
the writers were Jews. In some books
this tinge is very strong, especially in
Matthew, Mark, and Revelation. On
the contrary, the Greek of James and
fiuke, particularly in the preface of
Luke's (iospel and in the latter part of
the Acts, is good and forcible. Paul lias
a style of his own ; broken and involved,
intcrminnble at times, as his sentences
are, they are bold, ])regnant, and lively.
120
But whether with classical finish or
unadorned simplicity, in this language
the apostles addressed their own coun-
trymen and the Gentiles upon the mo-
mentous truths and facts of the ever-
lasting gospel.
II. The Text op the Bible.
The Bible, like the Saviour whom it
presents, is divine-human in its cha-
racter. The written word became flesh,
as well as the personal Word. The eter-
nal truth of God passed through the men-
tal faculties of the prophets and apostles,
and uttered itself in human speech. Its
contents were first in the mind, and then
written out, either directly by the in-
spired man or at his dictation. The
autographs have perished. We possess
at best but copies of other copies. These,
although made with reverent care, are
not free from the imperfections of hu-
man writings. Errors would be per-
petuated and new ones constantly made.
This was pre-eminently the case Avith
the N. T. The number of textual vari-
ations in the Greek N. T. or " different
readings," as they are called, amounts
to 150,000. And yet we may claim that
a special Providence has watched over
the purity and integrity of the text of
Holy Scripture, since only about 400 of
these are of any consequence, the rest
being trifles of spelling, etc., and none
of these 400 affect a doctrine or precept.
1. The Hebrein Bihle of to-day is a
rejDrint of the so-called Masoretic text
— ('. e. the text punctuated and vocalized
by a body of Jewish scholars who lived
at Tiberias, and at Sora in the Euphrates
valley, from the sixth to the twelfth
century, and who committed to writing
the mass of traditional notes of all
kinds called the Masora — /. e. tradi-
tion. Up to the beginning of that
period the Hebrew text was written
without "points," as the vowel-points
are called. These were added, and thus
the pronunciation was fixed. By means
of other marks punctuation and the
tone-syllables were indicated. The sep-
aration of the text into verses by means
of two dots arranged like a colon and
the assortment of the books in a fixed
order had been previously effected. It
is stated that after the Masoretes had
finished their labors all the manuscri])t3
which had not thi.s text were con-
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BIB
demned as " profane and illegitimate,"
which caused most of these rejected
copies to perish. Thus the facts that
there are very few old Hebrew manu-
scripts— the oldest dating from the
tenth century — and that the same text
is found in each, are accounted for. But
happily for the scholars of Hebrew, the
Masoretes marked their corrections
upon the margin instead of inserting
them in the text, and therefore they
are at liberty to reject or use them.
The Hebrew character has changed
from an irregular to a square form. The
Rabbins, however, in their books em-
ployed still another form, which is more
cramped. The manuscripts whose use
is obligatory in the synagogues to-day
are written without jjunctuation-marks
upon rolls, and are very carefully writ-
ten and preserved.
The whole Hebrew Bible wns first
printed in 1488 ; a second edition ap-
peared in 1494. This was the one used
by Luther. All subsequent Hebrew
Bibles have been little more than re-
productions of these two editions.
2. 2'he Greek Nein Testaviciit. — It is
quite in keeping with the character of
Christianity, which is free, active, bold,
and progressive, that the little book
upon which it rests for its initial his-
tory, its theology, and, to a certain ex-
tent, for its polity, should exhibit such
diverse elements at work upon it. and
likewise that the book itself should ex-
ist in so many more or less variant
texts. Superstition, which secured the
Jew a verbatim copy, as far as jiossible,
of his sacred Scriptures, did not oper-
ate to anything like the same extent in
the case of the Christians. They es-
teemed it a great privilege to have the
Gospels and Epistles, but as copies
multiply in the Church we find the
thoughts of the inspired writer are
better preserved than his exact words.
At all events, the " various readings"
increased. A very fruitful source of
variation was the habit of writing at
dictation, for a word incorrectly heard
would be of course incorrectly written.
Then, too, the use of " ligatures," or
combinations of letters, to save time,
the arbitrary signs employed, and the
marks of correction or doubt gradually
worked into the text from the margin,
each and all contribut\;d to destroy the
correctness of the copy. Superfluous
words, filling out one sentence by piec-
ing to it a part of another (e. <j. Bom.
8 : 1 compared with 8 : 4 shows conclu-
sively that the latter clause of ver. 1 is
repeated by inadvertence from ver. 4),
marginal glosses which at last crept
into the text, — these are some of the
unintentional faults of all copies. But
these variations evince the lively inter-
est which all classes took in the book,
and therefore are an indirect proof of
its divinity. They multiply the means
for ascertaining the original reading
and supersede the necessity of conjec-
ture, to which we must often resort in
the case of the ancient classics. So
far from being alarmed at this state
of things, we see in it the hand oT God,
who does not want his Church to be
bound to the letter, but to be free in the
Spirit, and to exercise all its powers of
research upon his holy word.
In the case of the N. T. the number
of manuscripts is very large, consider-
ing the labor and expense of transcrib-
ing. They are divided into two classes:
The micio/s, which are written through-
out in capitals, and with no division of
words or of sentences, and with very few
and simple marks of yjunctuation. The
writing is in columns of uniform width,
from one to four on a page, the letters
filling out the page irrespective of the
completion of a word. The material
was parchment in book-form. The
uncials go down to the tenth century.
The most inijiortant uncial manuscripts
are the Sinaitic of the fourth cen-
tury (discovered by Prof. Tischendorf
in the convent of St. Catherine, on
Mount Sinai, 1859, and published in
fac-simile, 1862), the Vatican of the
same age (in the Vatican Library at
Rome), and the somewhat later Alex-
andrian (in the British Museum, Lon-
don). The second kind of manuscripts,
the cursives, are so called because written
in rnnning-hnnd. The uncial form was,
however, retained for some time after
this in church copies. From about the
eleventh century paper made from cot-
ton or linen superseded parchment.
The style of penmanship and other
peculiarities in writing enable " diplo-
matists," as such experts are called, to
tell the century to which any given man-
uscript belongs. The later manuscripts
121
BIB
BIB
are of little or no critical account since
the discovery of the older or uncial man-
uscripts.
The N. T. in Greek was first 2}yinted
as part of the Complutensian Polyglot,
which Cardinal Ximenes patronized, at
Alcala, the modern name for the Spanish
town Coraplutum, in 1514, but the Poly-
glot was not published till 1522. The
editors, probably in their ignorance, pre-
tended to have relied for the text upon
very ancient manuscripts received from
Rome ; but as a matter of fact, the
manuscripts were comparativelj^ recent
and very inaccurate. The first Greek
'Hestament pitblinhed was that of Eras-
mus, which appeared in 1516. The so-
called " Textus Receptus," or received
text, is derived from the second edition
of Elzevir, published at Leyden, 1633.
It is in the main a copy of Beza's (1565-
1589). The typographical beauty of
the Elzevir edition and its handy shape,
and not its critical merit, determined
its acceptance. In England the text
of Stephens (1550), which is substan-
tially the same with the text of Elzevir,
has often been reprinted and taken as
the basis of critical editions from Mills
down to Tregelles, although Bentley
suggested a new basis from the oldest
sources. The text of the N. T. has
been brought into its present satisfac-
tory condition after long-continued and
patient study, and every Bible student
should thank God for the scholars he
has raised up to do this work. All
honor to the immortal names of Gries-
bach (1754-1812), Lachmann (1793-
1851), Tischendorf (1815-1874), Tre-
gelles (1813-1875), Westcott, and Hort,
for to them are we indebted for the
oldest and purest text of the Greek
Testament which can be attained at
the present day, and which makes a
revision of our English version at once
desirable and safe.
III. Thk Order op thr Books and tiik
Names of their Divisions.
1. The Old Testament.— The Jew-
ish arrangement difi'ers widely from
ours. The N. T. recognizes a division
of the 0. into ''the Law and the
Prophets," Matt. 11:13; 22:40; Acts
13 : 15, etc., which phrase was doubtless
a popular way of K])eaking of tlie whole
book. We also find a longer phrase,
122
" the Law, the Prophets, and the
Psalms," Luke 24 : 44. The Jews
divided their sacred Scriptures into
(a) the Law — /. e. the five books of
Moses, commonly known as the Pen-
tateuch, the five-fold book ; (b) the
Pruphets, divided into the earlier, in-
cluding Joshua, Judges, First and Second
Samuel, First and Second. Kings, and
later, which are subdivided into the
greater — Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Eze-
kiel — and the twelve so-called minor
prophets; (c) The Holy Writings, or
Hagiographa, as they are usually denom-
inated, comprising the Psahns, Prov-
erbs, Job, Canticles, Ruth, Lauientations,
Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra,
Nehemiah, First and Second Chronicles.
In this probably chronological order
the books are arranged in the Hebrew
Bibles.
The Christian division into historical,
poetical, and prophetical books is topi-
cal and more appropriate. It is not
necessary to enumerate the books, as
a full list is appended to almost every
copy of the Bible.
2. The New Testament is divided into
the Gospels, Acts of the Apiostles, the
Epistles, both Pauline and Catholic (the
latter — those of James, Peter, John, and
Jude — so called because not addressed
to particular churches or individuals,
but of universal import), and the Beve-
lati(})i ; or more briefly into the histori-
cal, the doctrinal, and the prophetical
books. The oldest manuscripts vary
in their arrangement. Many ]iut the
Catholic Epistles immediately after the
Acts, while the Sinaitic puts the Pauline
Epistles before the Acts.
IV. Tiii<: Division of the Text into
Chapters and VERsiiis.
The ancient mode of writing was con-
tinuous ; no stops of any kind were
made, nor were words separated. See
article Book. As soon as any break is
made we get the germs of a system of
division, for these breaks will indicate
j)unctuation, and thus serve the second-
ary ])ur])ose of facilitating reference
and remembrance. We find that the
division of the sacred text into sections
was early made as a matter of neces-
sity, but that chapters and verses were
of much later origin.
1. The Old Testament. — The Rabbinic
Specimens of existing MS.S. of the Scriptures.
TDTH ceyce^e]js,c
MycTH f / o N:OCe
4th Cent. Codex Sinaiticus. — 1 Tim iii. Hi.
TO TTjs €V(7e|3eias | fi-vaTrfpLOV l^de late corr.] os e.
Mor€MHceceiT^
4tli Cent. Codex Sinaiticus.— John i. 18.
voyei'T)? 6€o]^ [o ojv corr. J ei? tov.
T -A.eNeinoNil<paaoYN
4th Cent. Codex Yaticanus.— Mark xvi. 8.
(TTa(n<; Kai ov6en ou | &ev etnov e0o)3oui' | to yap:
t
-J vZJMApx^r-tMNdxqroCKAroXorocM
Jr xipocrOMeTMUAieCHMOxoroc .
.5th Cent. Codex Alexandrinus. — John i. 1.
El' apx'f) W ° A070S Kai. o A070S r}v \ npo<; tov 6 eo]v' Kai 9 eo] <; rn> o Aoyosi
vt-fcwf^a^ C«.rr> ■u^vj'Kbxa
S.^i:»^oq
§Tax\*T»V4«/**
/
10th Cent. Cod^x Basiliensis, known to Erasmus, but little used by him,
-Luke i. 1-2 nearly, as in all Greek Testaments.
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division is very elaborate. It origina-
ted in the liturgical use in worship ; and
so, the more the books were used, the
more complete was the notation. The
N. T. quotations from the 0. T. for the
most part are cited with no more specific
reference than to the book from which
the^^ come, but sometimes in other ways :
thus, *' the bush " quoted from in Mark
12 : 26 and Luke 20 : 37 was a familiar
section of our present Exodus, and
was only one of similar terms for other
parts. In like manner, the existence
of a cycle of lessons is indicated by
Luke 4 : 17 ; Acts 13 : 15 ; 15 : 21 ; 2 Cor.
3 : 14, and this, whether identical or not
with the later Rabbinic cycle, must
have involved an analogous arrange-
ment to that subsequently adopted.
Prof. Plumptre, in Smith's Dictionnry
of the Bible says : " The Law was
divided first, much later the Prophets ;
the former into fift.y-four sections, to
correspond with the number of Sab-
baths in the Jewish intercalary year.
But these sections were subdivided to
fit them for reading by different persons
in the synagogue service. The Prophets
were not so uniformly nor so impera-
tively divided. Yet in intention these
sections corresponded to the sections of
the Law, so that they together consti-
tute a 'table of lessons' for Sabbath
public use. Some time in the ninth
century A. d. the sections were divided
into verses."
2. The New Tesfnmeuf. — The Gospels
were divided first about the middle of
the third century (a. d. 220), by Am-
monius of Alexandria, into short chap-
ters, "constructed to facilitate the com-
parison of corresponding passages of
the several Gospels." Later on the
Acts, the Pauline and the Catholic
Epistles, and finally, about a.d. 500, the
Revelation, were thrown into chapters.
Our present division of a/^ the books
in the Bible into chapters is much later,
dating from Cardinal Hugo de St. Cher
(died 126;^), whose (Jmieordatice to the
Viil(/ate popularized the use of verses
likewise. This division was introduced
into the Latin Bible, and afterward into
the (ireek 0. T.
The present system of verses was pre-
pared and introduced by Robert Ste-
j)h«'ns in his Greek Testament, 1551.
While both these divisions arc on the
124
whole well made, there are numerous
places where correction is loudly de-
manded ; chapters begin in wrong
places, and verses end in the midst
of a sentence. These divisions are at
best necessary evils. The reading of
the Bible is interrupted by them, ow-
ing to the practice of ending with a
chapter. Paragraph Bibles are to be
commended, because in tlfem the sec-
tions ai'e arranged according to the
writer's thought, irrespective of the
chapters, and the verses are merely
indicated by numbers on the margin.
No verses are marked in Tyndale, Cov-
erdale, or the Great Bible.
V. The Translations of the Bible.
1. Aiicient Translations.
(a) Into ChaJdee. — Since the Jews,
during the Captivity, had lost command
over Hebrew, it became necessary to
translate the sacred books into their ver-
nacular, the Chaldee. We find a refer-
ence to this state of things in Neh. 8 : 8.
These Chaldee translations and para-
phrases are called Targums (the word
me?ins interpretation), but there is no
one which comprises the whole 0. T.
{b) Into Greek. — The best known is
called the Septuagint, and is commonly
represented in scholarly books by the
Roman numerals LXX. It was made
direct from the Hebrew by a company
of learned Alexandrian Jews in that
city under the patronage of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, and begun B. C. 285. It
is not of equal fidelity throughout.
The name Septuagint — i. e. seventy,
a round number for the more exact
seventy-two — arose from a tradition
that the work was executed in sev-
enty-two days by seventy-two Jew-
ish scholars. The version was made
from Egyptian Hebrew manuscrij)ts,
and probably at different times,
which may account for the inequal-
it}'. As it now stands, it includes
the Apocrypha, but did not at the
beginning. Those books were gradually
added. The LXX. has exerted great
influence, was claimed by the Jews to
be ins])ired, was in universal use
among them in Christ's day, is con-
tinually quoted by the N. T. writers
and by the (Jrcek Fathers, was trans-
lated instead of the Hebrew into
Latin, and is the authority in the
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Greek Church to-day. When the
Christians in debate quoted it against
their Jewish adversaries, the latter
awoke to the fact that their own re-
gard for it was excessive, and there-
fore abandoned it and returned to the
study and use of the original Hebrew.
Though not literal, and perhaps inten-
tionally so, it is very valuable in ex-
plaining the Hebrew text. Other Greek
translations were made by Aquila,
Theodotion, and Symmachus, but they
exist only in fragments.
{(■) Into Si/riae. — A translation into
this language, made by Christians, di-
rect from the Hebrew, called the Peshito
[simple, because it was literal, and not
paraphrastic), was in common use in the
fourth century, but probably dates from
the latter part of the second. It is the
earliest of these direct versions.
{d) Into Latin. — The one called the
Itala, made from the Septuagint, existed
very early in the Latin Church. But the
one which is now the " authorized ver-
sion " in the Church of Rome was made
by Jerome, the most learned Christian
of his day, directly from the Hebrew,
A. D. 385-405. It is called the Vulgate,
and was declared by the Council of Trent
(156o) to be of equal authority with the
original Bible. All Roman Catholic ver-
sions must be conformed to it.
It was very natural that the first
book printed was the Bible. Gutenberg,
the inventor of the art of printing, turned
his skill unto the service of God(1450-55).
Before discussing other versions, we quote
a few lines upon pre-Reformation Bibles :
''The earliest printed Bibles in the mod-
ern European languages were the first
and second German Bibles by Mentelin
and Eggesteyn of Strasburg, of rather
uncertain date, but certainly not later
than 1466. In 1471 appeared at Venice
two translations into Italian — the one by
Malermi, printed by Vindelin de Spira,
and the other by Nicolas Jensen. In 1477
was printed the first X. T. in French, by
Buyer, at Lyons, and the same year ap-
peared the first edition of the 0. T. in
Dutch, printed at Delft by Jacob Jacobs
zoen and Mauritius Yemants zoen. In
1480 was published the splendid Bible
in the Saxon or Low German language,
from the press of Heinrich Quental, of
Cologne, followed by a second edition in
1491, and a third in 1494.^ The Psalms,
in Dutch, first came out in 1480, in small
octavo, and in Greek and Latin in 1481,
while the first Hebrew Pentateuch ap-
peared in 1482. The entire Bible, done
into French paraphrase, was published
by Guyard de Moulins in 1487. A full
translation appeared in the Bohemian
language, printed at Prague in 1488.
The same year appeared the entire 0.
T. in Hebrew from the press of Abra-
ham ben Chayim de' Tintori, at Son-
cino. This chronological arrangement
shows us also many noteworthy points,
such as that nearly all the earliest Bi-
bles were huge folios ; that the first
Bibles printed at Rome and Venice ap-
peared in 1471, and that the sixth Ger-
man Bible, by G. Zainer, in 1475, at
Augsburg, was the first with the leaves
folioed or numbered; that the first quarto
Bible appeared in 1475, printed by John
Peter de Ferratis at Placentia, w hich also
was the first book printed at Placentia;
that the first of Coburger's celebrated
Bibles appeared in Nuremberg in 1475,
and that by the end of the century no
less than thirteen large folio Bibles had
come from this house alone ; that the four
splendid Bibles printed in 1476 all bear
the printers' signatures, though it is dif-
ficult to say with certainty which was the
first; that the first Bible with a distinct
title-page was printed at Venice, by
George de Ravabenis. in 1487, in small
quarto, and that the first Bible in small
octavo — or the poor man's Bible — was
the earliest, or among the earliest books,
from the press of Johann Froben, of Basle,
in 1491.
"Prior to the discovery of America
no less than twelve grand patriarchal
editions of the entire Bible, being of
several dilVerent translations, appeared
from time to time in the German lan-
guage; to which add the two editions
by the Otmars of Augsburg of 1507 and
1518, and we have the total number of
no less than fourteen distinct large fo-
lio pre-Reformation or ante-Lutheran
Bibles. No other language except the
Latin can boast of anything like this
number." — Hexrv Stevens: Bibles in
the Cnxton Exhibition, -p-p. 27, 2S.
Thus, prior to the Reformation, there
were translations of the entire Bible in-
to the principal languages. Still, their
unwieldy size and great cost kept them
from popular use, although, more than
125
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is commonly supposed, they carried a
knowledge of the Word unto the com-
mon people, and thus prepared the way
for better things. These several transla-
tions were from the Vulgate; those now
to be very briefly mentioned were made
after the Reformation, and from the
original tongues.
2. Modern TranHla1to)i8.
[a) Into German. — We have already
seen that there were fourteen editions of
the entire Bible })rinted and circulated
in (jrermany before Luther (148;j-1540)
nailed his theses upon the church-door
at Wittenberg, Oct. 31, 1517. But to
the great Reformer is due the credit of
translating the entire Bible, together
with the Apocrypha, out of the original
tongues. He conceived the idea, and
carried it out by translating the N. T.
while in friendly captivity in the Wart-
burg during 1521. He published the
work in the fall of 1522. Then he be-
gan at the 0. T., and published the
translation in sections as he advanced.
The first edition of the entire Bible ap-
peared in 1534. Ten editions of the
original version were printed. In 1541
he issued an edition in which the first
had been faithfully revised by his col-
leagues and himself. This translation
is that used in Germany to-day. It has
often been remarked that it fixed the
German language and at the same time
established Protestantism.
(h) Into French. — A French version
by Le Fevre was published at Antwerp
in 1530. But there is no national
French version ; that which comes near-
est to it is Olivetan's, which, however, is
sadly defective, though improved by
Calvin, his cousin. This version ap-
peared in 1535 in the village of 8erri-
eres, near Neufchatel, at the expense of
the Waldenses. The existing versions
are by Martin Ostervald and De Sacy.
{<:) Into Dutch. — The States-general's
translation, ordered by the Synod of
Dort (1619), is reputed the most accu-
rate of all present modern versions.
{d) Into /'Jn(/finh. — The story of the
English Bible begins before the Ref-
ormation.
(1.) John dk Wvcmi fk (about 1324-
84), aided by Hereford, was the first to
translate the entire Bible into English.
The greater })art of the translation of
120
the N. T. was made by him ; this ap-
peared in 1581. The 0. T. was princi-
pally the work of Nicholas de Hereford,
but Wyclift'e finished it. Manuscript cop-
ies were multiplied. Many poor priests
went through the country preaching
from this version. The first true text
was not brought out in print before 1850,
in the edition of Forshall and Madden,
in 4 vols. (The earliest printed editions
of the N. T. by Baber and in Bagster's
EiKjlinh Hexapla are not the version of
Wyclifi'e, but of one of his followers).
Wycliffe simply translated from the
Vulgiite, and hence there was need of a
new and independent version. Besides,
the change in the language required it.
The invention of printing rendered it
possible to give the Bible in the vernac-
ular to the masses, but the Roman
Church has never been favorable to
this, knowing full well that Bible study
means independent research and protest
against unscrij)tural traditions. It was
not until the gathering stoi-m of the
Reformation burst upon the deformed
and diseased Roman communion that
the English people received a transla-
tion from the original languages of the
entire Bible.
(2.) For doing this the credit belongs
to William Tvnpale (born 1484), who
was burnt at the stake, a martyr to the
cause of religious liberty, Oct. fi, 1536;
but not before he had by his work won
an imperishable fame. Filled with the
one wish, which he lived to realize — to
give every one who could read English
the opportunity of reading for himself
God's holy word — he endured the con-
tradiction of sinners against himself.
Understanding, as he says, "that there
was no place to translate the N. T. in
all England," he went to Europe in
1524, and carried on his work amid
every sort of difficulty and danger. The
N. T. appeared at Worms in the latter
part of 1525, and arrived in England the
early part of 1526, where it was exten-
sively circulated. Tyndale revised it,
and published in this enforced and
stealthy way several editions under his
personal supervision. He also issued at
intervals various books of the 0. T., and
the manuscript translation of other parts
was just before his death transmitted to
Thomas Poynitz of Antwerp, who finally
delivered them to Jolm Rogers {alias
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Thomas Matthew), who subsequently
edited them.
(3.) Miles Coverdale (1488-1569) is
the next name upon the list. He differed
greatly from his predecessor, Tyndale,
lacking his independence and devotion
and his knowledge of the original lan-
guages, yet on the whole he deserves
well of posterity'. His translation of
the entire Bible appeared Oct. 4, 1535,
prefaced by a fulsome dedication to the
king, Henry VIII. In order to render
the volume more attractive, it was illus-
trated with several woodcuts. It was
avowedly not made from the original
tongues, but from three Latin and two
German translations (viz. the Vulgate,
Erasmus, Pagninus, Luther, and Leo
Juda). The 0. T. was based chiefly on
the Swiss-German (Zurich) Bible, and
the N. T. on Tyndale, although with
many variations. It was printed in
Antwerp at the expense of Jacob van
Meteren,* but published in London.
This translation had but little influence
upon the so-called A. V.
(4.) The*' Thomas Matthew" Bible
was a compilation, although not a me-
chanical one, under this assumed name,
made by JoHX Rogeks (1505-55), Tyn-
dale's friend, who is famous as the first
Marian martyr, burnt at Smithfield, Feb.
4, 1555, from the above-mentioned trans-
lations of Tyndale and Coverdale. It
was published in London, 1537, but
probably printed by Jacob van Meteren
in Antwerp. f The publishers, Messrs.
Grafton & Whitechurch, in some way
interested Archbishop Cranmer in this
edition, who through Crumwell pro-
cured a royal license for it, and this
Bible became the first authorized ver-
sion. And so it came about that this
edition pf the Bible, which was two-
thirds T^ndale's translation, "that had
been again and again publicly stigma-
tized and condemned by authority of
this same king. Henry VIII., and even
actually prohibited seven years before,
was now ' set forth with the king's most
gracious license,' this authorization being
printed in red ink in each separate vol-
ume." Appended to the chapters are
notes : upon this part the editor laid
out his strength.
(5.) Richard Tavener (1505-1575)
*Vide Henry Stevens : Bibles in Caxton EThihi-
<io>i, pp. 38, se^. ^ Stevens, ^.75.
issued a revised edition of the Matthew
Bible in 1539, but it never was widely
used. Its sale may have been stopped
by the publication of the so-called Great
Bible.
(6.) The "Great Bible," sometimes
called Whitechurch's, after one of the
printers' names, or oftener " Cranmer's
Bible," from the mistaken idea that he
was the editor of it, was published in
London, 1539. Its name came from its
size ; its pages are fully 15 inches in
length and over 9 in breadth. Its text is
Matthew's, revised by Coverdale, who
in his singular humility thus revised
his own work. To Crumwell's Protes-
tant zeal and triumphant energy do we
owe the volume. It was devoid of
notes. It was the first edition which
printed in a different type the words not
found in the original. It also derives
interest from the fact that the Scripture
sentences in the English Prayer-book
in the Communion Service, in the Hom-
ilies, and the entire Psalter are taken
from it. In 1540 appeared the Crax-
MER Bible, so called from the arch-
bishop's prologue, but in fact only a
new revised edition of the Great Bible
of the previous year.
(7.) The Geneva Version (1560),
made by the refugees from the Marian
persecution, principally by William
Whittingham (1524-89), whose wife was
Calvin's sister. But the Genevan Bible
must not be confounded with the New
Testament which appeared there in June,
1557, the fruit of the editorial labors
of Whittingham. The Genevan Bible
was begun the January following. The
N. T. had for the first time the division
of verses (following the Greek of
Stephens, 1551), with the numbers pre-
fixed. It had also characteristic mar-
ginal notes, and marks by italics the
words supplied. The Genevan Bible,
having been begun, was caiTied reso-
lutely through. It is not known how
many were engaged upon it, but a large
share of the work fell upon Whitting-
ham, who tarried in Geneva along with
Gilby and Sampson a year and a half
after Queen Elizabeth's accession in
order to complete the work begun dur-
ing the dark days of *' Bloody Mary."
The Bible finally appeared April, 1560,
with a dedication to the queen. The
translation is careful and scholarly
127
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work, based chiefly upon Tyndale and
Cranmer, with many proofs of the
intiuence of Beza. It is really the
first complete direct English trans-
lation from the original Hebrew and
Greek Scriptures. It at once became
widely popular. '' It was printed in
Roman characters, with division into
chapters and verses. It was not a
heavy, unhandy folio like the editions
of Coverdale, Rogers, or the Great
Bible, but a moderate and manageable
quarto. Its marginal notes were a
kind of running comment, vigorous and
lucid, dogmatic and practical. ... It
became at once the people's book in
England and Scotland, and it held its
place not only during the time of the
Bishops' Bible, but even against the
present A. V. for at least thirty years.
It was the first Bible ever printed in
Scotland (1576-79), and it was the
cherished volume in all Covenanting
and Puritan households." — Eadie : The
EiKjUiih Bible, vol. ii. p. 15.
(8.) The Bishops' Bible. — In the early
part of Queen Elizabeth's reign the
Great Bible was allowed to be read in
the churches as the authorized version,
but the Genevan edition was a formi-
dable rival, greatly excelling it in popu-
larity and, besides, in accuracy. Thus
it came about that a revision was de-
manded, and this Archbishop Parker
(1504-75) was anxious to make. He
began it about 1563-64, having dis-
tributed the work to 15 scholars, 8
of whom were bishops, and therefore
the Bible was called '* The Bishops'
Bible," and the book was published in
1568. It contained no word of flattery,
nor even a dedication, but was ornament-
ed with 143 copper-plate engravings of
maps, portraits, coats of arms, etc.; it also
had notes, brief but valuable, generally on
matters of interpretation, but occasion-
ally dogmatic. It was a revision of
the Great Bible, which in turn was
based on " Matthew's " recension of
Tyndale. An eff"ort was made to secure
for the Bishops' Bible the royal sanc-
tion, but ineff'ectually. Convocation,
however, passed a decree in 1571 "that
every archbishop and bishoj* should
have at his house a co])y of the Holy
Bible of the largest volume as lately
printed in London, and that it should
be placed in the hall or large dining-
128
room, that it might be useful to their
servants or to strangers." The order
applied to each cathedral, and, " so far
as could be conveniently done, to all
the churches." The Bishops' Bible
supplanted the Great Bible, but could
not the Genevan, because that was
wide-spread among the peo2)le. The
most important fact in its history is
that it was made the basis for the
recension which resulted in our pres-
ent A. V.
(9.) Roman Catholic Translations. —
The Roman Church has never been
friendly to vernacular translations of
the Scriptures. Hence we should not
expect it would spontaneously make
one ; but when the Genevan version
became so popular in England, it
seemed desirable that, since English
Roman Catholics were sure to fall in
with it, they should be given a correc-
tive in the shape of a translation by
some of the faithful. The N. T. ap-
peared at Rheims, in France, in 1582,
and the 0. T. at Douai (1609-10), al-
though it had been prepared before the
appearance of the N. T., but delayed for
lack of means. The first complete edi-
tion of the entire Bible according to this
recension was published at Rouen (1633-
35). Its translators were good scholars,
but were obliged to take the Latin Vul-
gate as the basis, and to adhere very
closely to it. They accompanied the
translation with polemical notes. On
the whole, the work is inferior to our
version, and disfigured by unintelligi-
ble Latinisms. No efi'ort was made to
give this translation any circulation.
It was issued in an expensive form,
and none of the Church dignitaries
concerned themselves with it. Cardi-
nal Wiseman (Ensm/s, vol. i. ])p. 73-75)
says : " To call the Roman Catholic ver-
sion now in use the version of Rheims
and Douai is an abuse of terms. It has
been altered and modified till scarcely
any verse remains as it was originally
])ublished ; and so far as simplicity
and energy of style are concerned, the
changes are in general for the worse."
The revision was chiefly made by Dr.
Challoner (1750) and by Dr. Troy (1791).
The Catholic version has retained from
the Vulgate some of the oldest and best
readings and a large number of Latin-
isms, some good (as advent, victim, ulle-
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gnry, prevarlcatiou, altercation, fallacy),
others which hav^e never gone into pub-
lie use (as azymes, corbaita, paraaceve,
consubstatitlal, coinquinatton, scenupe-
tjia). It has contributed some improve-
ments to King James's revisers. See ex-
amples in Moulton's History of the Em/-
li^ih Bible, p. 1S7 ( London. 1878). " Noth -
ing is easier," says Dr. Moulton, '' than
to accumulate instances of the eccentri-
city of this revision, of its obscure and in-
flated renderings : but only minute study
can do justice to its faithfulness and to
the care with which the translators exe-
cuted their work."
(10.) The King James's Version
(1611). — The final outcome of this series
of original translations and revisions of
translations of the Scriptures was the so-
called A. v., which for 2 JO years has been
the channel whereby God's truth has
flowed into Anglo-Saxon minds. But
it has been even an instructor in other
things than those of religion, for from
it the language has drawn its stability.
Its style is regarded with admiration
by natives and foreigners alike. It is
the first of English classics. Even se-
ce^ers to Rome admit this, as the sweet
and fervent hymnisf, Dr. F. William
Faber, whose remarkable judgment (of-
ten falsely attributed to Dr. John Henry
Newman) is well worth quoting in full:
" Who will say that the uncommon beau-
ty and marvellous English of the Protest-
ant Bible is not one of the great strong-
holds of heresy in this country ? It lives
on the ear like a music that can never be
forgotten, like the sound of church-bells,
which the convert hardly knows how he
can forego. Its felicities often seem to
be almost things rather than mere words.
Jt is part of the national mind and the
anchor of national seriousness. Nay, it
is worshipped with a positive idolatry,
in extenuation of whose grotesque fa-
naticism its intrinsic beauty pleads
availingly with the man of letters
and the scholar. The memory of the
dead passes into it. The potent tradi-
tions of childhood are stereotyped in
its verses. The power of ail the griefs
and trials of a man is hidden beneath
its words. It is the representative of
his best moments; and all that there
has been about him of soft, and gentle,
and pure, and penitent, and good speaks
to him for ever out of his English Bi-
9
ble. It is his sacred thing, which
doubt has never dimmed, and contro-
versy never soiled. It has been to
him all along as the silent — but oh
how intelligible ! — voice of his guar-
dian angel, and in the length and
breadth of the land there is not a
Protestant, with one spark of religious-
ness about him, whose spiritual biogra-
phy is not in his Saxon Bible. And all
this is an unhallowed power I"
The A. V. is a monument to the
memory of King James I. of England,
but he had no more to do with it
than to appoint the commission, and
did not contribute a penny for its exe-
cution. It was abruptly proposed in
the Hampton Court Conference (Jan.,
1601) by a learned Puritan divine,
the Rev. Dr. Reynolds (1.349-1607).
president of Cor{»u8 Christi College,
Oxford, who suggested to His Majesty
•' that there might be a new transla-
tion of the Bible, because those which
were allowed in the reign of King
Henry VIII. and Edward VI. were
corrufjt and not answerable to the
truth of the original." Bishop Ban-
croft opposed the motion as imperti-
nent, but the vain king, who thought
himself as wise as Solomon, unexpect-
edly and at once agreed to it, and dis-
played his biblical erudition by criti-
cising the previous translations, espe-
cially that of Geneva, vfhich he hated on
account of its marginal notes. He in-
vited a number of distinguished schol-
ars to do the work (.June 30. 1601), but
without any expense to himself. Pro-
fessing his own poverty, he held out
before the revisers the hope of Church
preferment, giving orders to the bish-
ops to that effect, and for tlieir immedi-
ate expenses he called upon the bishops
and chapters to contribute toward tne
requisite amount.
Revision had no attractions for the
clergy nor for the jieople. The Bish-
ops' and Geneva Bibles already in their
hands seemed to answer every purpose.
Accordingly, as far as can be deter-
mined, no one responded to the king's
call for money : yet sin'^e the whole
amount was only about £700, the jtro-
portion from each diocese was really
small. " King .James's version never
cost King James a farthing." At the
chancellor's suggestion, the revisers met
129
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at the universities, where they received
board and lodging free of cost ; and
" at the final revision the 6 or 12 re-
visers received each, according to one
statement, 30 shillings a week from the
Company of Stationers." The work
of revision thus arranged in the sum-
mer of 1G04 was not really begun in
earnest till the spring of 1007, and then
occupied about 2 years and 9 months.
Dr. Reynolds, who had proposed the
work, and who was well qualified to
carry it on, died in that year, just as
his wish was to be gratified. The origi-
nal number of revisers appointed by
the king at the suggestion of some one
unknown, but probably Richard Ban-
croft (1544—1(510), then the bishop of
London, soon afterward the archbishop
of Canterbury, was 54, but owing to
death, declinature, and other causes
there were only 47 actually engaged.
These 47 formed themselves into 6 com-
panies, two meeting at Westminster,
Cambridge, and Oxford respectively.
The following are the rules which
were composed to govern them in their
labors :
"(1.) The ordinary Bible read in the
Church, commonly called 'The Bishops'
Bil)le,' to be Jollowed, and as little altered
as the truth of tiie orij^inal will permit.
''(2.) The names of the prophets and the
holy writers, with tiie other names of the
text, to be retained as nijjh as may be, ac-
cordingly as they were vulgarly used.
" (3.) The old ecclesiastical words to be
kefit ; viz. : the word church not to be tians-
lated congrpgation, etc.
"(4.) When a word hath divers significa-
tions, that to be kept wliich hath been most
commonly used by the most ancient fatiiers,
being agreeable to the propriety of tlie
j)lac(' and the analogy of the faith.
"(5.) Tiie division of the chapters to be
altered either not at all or as little as may
be, if necessity so require.
" ((). ) No marginal notes at all to be affix-
ed, but only for the explanation of the He-
brew or Greek words wiiieh cannot, witli-
oiit some circumlof iition, so briefly and
fitly be preserved in tlie text.
"(7.) Such quotations of places to be or-
iginally set down as sluill serve for tlie fit
reference of one St rii)tiire to anotlier.
"(8.) Every particular man of eacii com-
pany to take the same ehai)ter or cliapters;
and having translated or amended them
severally by himself where be thinkcth
good, all to meet together, confer what tbcy
liavc (lone, and agree for their parts what
shall stand.
"(9.) As any one conifiany hath des-
patched any one book iu this manner, they
i;;o
shall send to the rest to be C(u)sidered of
seriously and judiciously; for His Majesty
is very careful in this point.
"(10.) If any company, upon the review
of the book so sent, doubt or differ upon
any place, to send them word thereof, note
tlie place, and withal send the reasons; to
which if they consent not, the difference
to be coinj)ounded at the general meeting,
which is to be of the chief persons of
each company at the end of the work.
'■(11.) When any place of special obscur-
ity is doubted of, letters to be directed by
authority to send to any learned man in
the land for his judgment of such a place.
"(12.) Letters to be sent from every
bishop to the rest of bis clergy, admonish-
ing them of this translation in hand, and
to move and charge as many as being skil-
ful in the tongues, and having taken pains
in that kind, to send his particular obser-
vations to the company either at West-
minster, rambridge, or Oxford.
"(l.'i.) The directors in each company to
be the deans of Westminster and ("hester
lor that place, and the king's professors
of Hebrew and Greek in either univer-
sity.
"(14.) These translations to be used
when they agree better with the text than
the Bishops' Bible: Tindale's, Matthew's
[Rogers'], Coverdale's, Whitchurch's [Cran-
mer'sl, (xeneva.
"(lo.) Besides the said directors before
mentioned, three or four of the most an-
cient and grave divines in eitiier of rlie
universities, not employed in translating,
to be assigned by the vice-chancellor, upon
conference with the rest of the heads, to
be overseers of the translati(ms, as well
Hebrew as (ireek, for the better observa-
tion of the fourth rule aljove specified."
How closely these rules were followed
it is impossible to say. The secrets of
their sessions have been inviolably kept;
for although the translators were en-
gaged for 6 years, of the incidents of
their labor little can be gathered from
contemporaneous history, and little was
probably known beyond the circle of
the translators. A passing remark of
Selden furnishes nearly all that can
now be known of what may be termed
the private history of our English Bible :
"The translation in King James's time
took an excellent way. That part of the
Bible was given to him who was most
excellent in such a tongue, and then
they met together, and one read the
translation, the rest holding in their
hands some Bible, either of the learned
tongues, or French, 8))anish, Italian,
etc. If they found any fault, they
spoke ; if not, he read on." — Table Talk.
When the revision was completed,
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three copies of the whole Bible were
sent [to London] — one from Cambridge,
a second from Oxford, and a third from
Westminster — where they were commit-
ted to six persons, two from each com-
p.iny, who reviewed the whole. This
final revision lasted 9 months. The
work was at last given up to the printer,
Robert Barker ; the proofs were read
by Dr. Thomas Bilson, bishop of Win-
chester, and Dr. Myles Smith (appoint-
ed bishop of Gloucester in 1612).
The first edition of the A. Y., includ-
ing the Apocrypha, appeared, bearing
date 1611, in handsome folio, in black
letter, with a beautiful frontispiece en-
graved by C. Boel of Richmont. Be- '
sides the translation, there were given
a Calendar, a Tab^e of Lessons, and
elaborate Tables of Genealogies. The
dedication was fulsome in its praise
of James. The preface, entitled "■ The
Translators to the Reader," written by
Dr. Myles Smith, is pedantic, according
to our notions, but written in excellent
English, and important as a clear state-
ment of the principles upon which the
revision was made. The title-page con-
tained the words " Appointed to be read
in the churches " — /. e. of England.
But there is no evidence that this ap-
pointment was ever made by convoca-
tion or Parliament, privy council or the
king. The version " gained currency
partly by the weight of the king's name,
partly by the personal authority of the
prelates and scholars who had been en-
gaged upon it, but still more by its own
intrinsic superiority over its rivals.'' —
Wextcott. The printing of the so-called
A. V. at once stopped the printing of
the Bishops' Bible, though it did not
that of the Genevan Bible, which con-
tinued to be used, especially in Xew
England, until about the middle of the
seventeenth century, when King James's
version was on all hands accepted as the
English Bible.
" When all critical helps and sources
of influence have been taken into ac-
count, the student whose analysis [of the
A. v.] has been most complete will find
most to admire in the work that the
translation or revision of 1607-11 has
given us. The praise he will award to
the revisers will not be indiscriminate
eulogy. He will discover that very
much that they have transmitted to us
was inherited by them from others ; the
execution of different parts of the work
will prove to be unequal, the Epistles,
for example, standing far below the
Pentateuch in accuracy and felicity of
rendering ; many flaws and inconsisten-
cies will reveal themselves ; occasionally
it will be found that better renderings
have been deliberately laid aside, and
worse preferred ; but, notwithstanding,
almost every jjaragraph will bear testi-
mony to the tact, care, diligence, and
faithfulness of the men to whom, in
God's providence, we owe the version of
the Scriptures which has come down to
us consecrated by the associations of 250
years." — Moulton : History of the Eiiy-
lish Bible, pp. 207-8.
The modern edition of the English
Bible is a great improvement vipon that
of 1611. In that year there were two
issues, both incorrectly printed, and
both containing errors which were not
typographical. Much care has been
taken since that date to make the ver-
sion, in grammatical and typographical
correctness, as nearly perfect as possible.
Three editions of the A. V. deserve par-
ticular mention: (1.) Bishop Lloyd's
(London, 17U1), containing, for the first
time, marginal dates, derived princi-
pally from Archbishop Ussher ; (2.) the
Cambridge Bible of 1762, edited by Dr.
Paris: (3.) the Oxford edition of 1769,
edited by Dr. Blayney. " These editors
sought to apply with greater consistency
the principle of denoting additions to
the .original text by italic type, substi-
tuted ordinary forms of words for such as
had, in their opinion, become obsolete,
and made very large additions to the
number of marginal references, which
in our present Bible are said to be seven
times as numerous as in the edition of
1611 [But] as late as 18:^0, Bibles
were often printed with serious want of
accuracy. The last forty years have
witnessed a considerable improvement,
and recent editions have left little to be
desired. The Cambridge Paragraph
Bible, edited by Dr. Scrivener, is the
classic edition of the A. V., and is a
monument of minute accuracy and un-
sparing labor." — MouLTO.v: History of
the English Bible, pp. 209-11.
In the Jubilee Memorial of the Anier-
\ iccDi Bible Society, prepared by Rev.
Isaac Ferris, D. D., LL.D. (New York,
131
BIB
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1867), it is stated (p. 25) that the Amer-
ican Bible Society's Version Committee
in 1847 undertook a " most careful re-
vision of our English text in order to
secure its conformity to the British, so
as to make what should be a standard
edition." Their final report was made
in 1851. But inasmuch as their changes
were many and important, there was a
constitutional objection to the Society's
adopting this revision, and then, more-
over, there was a deep prejudice or re-
luctance to any alteration ; and there-
fore the revision was rejected in 1852.
A new committee was appointed, and the
Bible, as it came from their hands, with
some fruits of the labors of the previous
committee, is now (since 1860) the stand-
ard of the American Bible Society.
VI. The Anglo-American Revision of
THE AlITHOKIZEr) VERSION.
The reasons for desiring a revision
ma}' be thus stated : (1.) During the 268
years since our version was finished the
English language has undergone some
changes; some words have become ob-
solete, and others have changed their
signification. In this way sentences
which conveyed a clear and correct
meaning to our ancestors mislead or
mystify us. It will be sufficient to in-
stance such examples as : to ear for to
plot({/h; to prevent for to go be/ore, to pre-
cede ; to let for to hinder; earriof/e for
hu(j(j(t(fe. (2.) Immense strides have
been made in all biblical studies. The
geography and archaeology of the Holy
Land, the Hebrew and Greek languages,
both in grammar and dictionary, are far
better known now than they could be in
King James's time. The A. V. is very
careless and incjonsistent in the use of the
article, the tenses and modes of verbs.
(3.) The text of the Bible is now in a very
satisfactory state — much nearer the ipsin-
Himii rerhn of the inspired writers than
that known in 1011. " The number of
the various readings." says Prof. Ezra
Abbot, " which have been collected from
more than 500 manuscripts, more than
a dozen ancient versions, and from the
quotations in the Avritings of more than
a hundred Christian fathers, only attests
the exuberance of our critical resources,
which enable us non^ to settle the true
text of the N. T. with a confidence and
precision which are wholly unattainable
1.32
in the case of any Greek or Latin clas-
sical author; [but] in the time of our
translators of 1011 only a small fraction
of our present critical helps was avail-
able." We are able to appreciate this
remark when we remember that the best
texts rely on manuscripts of the fourth
and fifth centuries, while of our Greek
and Latin classics many (e. 7. >^schylus
and Sophocles) are transcriptions from
only one ancient manuscrijjt, and that
not earlier than the tenth century.
The Anglo-American Bible revision
movement originated in the Convoca-
tion of Canterbury, May 6, 1870, by
the appointment of a committee of
eminent biblical scholars and dignita-
ries of the Church of England to under-
take the revision in association with
scholars from other denominations.
The English committee is divided into
two companies, one for each Testa-
ment, who hold monthly meetings in
the Jerusalem Chamber and the Chap-
ter Library at the deanery of West-
minster, London. The American com-
mittee was organized in 1871, on invi-
tation of the British committee, to
co-operate with it. It is similarly
composed of representative scholars
of different denominations, and meets
for several days of each month in the
Bible House, New York. The two com-
mittees embrace about 80 active members
(exclusive of about 20 more who died
or resigned since the work began), and
are in constant correspondence. They
submit to each other portions of their
work as it advances, and will issue
one and the same revision, possibly
with some unessential variations, to be
mentioned in the preface or an ap-
pendix.
The object set before them is to bring
King James's version up to the present
state of the English language without
changing the idiom and vocabulary,
and to the present standard of biblical
scholarship. It is not the intention to
furnish a new reraioii, but merely a con-
servative revision of the received version,
so deservedly esteemed in all churches.
And so slight will be the changes that
the mass of readers and hearers will
scarcely mark them, while a careful
eomi)arison will discover improvements
in every chapter and almost every verse.
The object is to remove acknowledged
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errors, obscurities, and inconsistenuies,
to make a good and faitbtul version bet-
ter and more faithful, and thus to bring
the old Bible nearer the understanding
and make it dearer to the heart of Eng-
lish-speaking Christendom.
The general principles followed by
both committees are as follows:
" (1.) To introduce as few alterations as
possible in the text of the A. V. consistent-
ly with faithfulness.
" (2.) To limit, as far as possible, the ex-
pression of siicli alterations to the language
of the Authorized and earlier English ver-
sions.
'• (3.) Each company to go twice over tlie
portion to be revised — once provisionally,
tlie second time finally, and on principles
of voting as hereinafter is provided.
" (4.) That the text to be adopted be that
for whicii the evidence is decidedly pre-
ponderating; and that when the text so
adopted differs from that from wliicli the
A. V. was made, the alteration be indicated
in the margin.
" (5.) To make or retain no change in
tlie text on the second final revision by
each company except two-thirds of those
present approve of the same, but on the
first revision to decide by simple majori-
ties.
" (6.) In every case of proposed altera-
tion that may have given rise to discus-
sion, to defer the voting thereupon till the
next meeting whensoever the same shall
be required by one-tliird of those present
at the meeting, such intended vote to be
announced in the notice for the next
meeting.
" (7.) To revise the headings of chapters,
pages, paragraphs, Italics, and punctuation.
"(8.) To refer, on the part of each com-
pany, when considered desirable, to di-
vines, scholars, and literary men, whether
at home or abroad, for their opinions."
The new revision of the New Tes-
tament is expected to be completed in
1880 (the fifth centennial of Wycliffe's
Bible), and will be published in vari-
ous styles by the University presses
of Oxford and Cambridge; the Old
Testament will follow soon after. It
will then be for the Christian public
in Great Britain and America to decide,
through the various ecclesiastical au-
thorities, whether the Anglo-American
revision shall take the place, or at least
be used alongside, of King James's Ver-
sion in the churches. If the verdict be
favorable, the British and Foreign and
the American Bible Societies will find it
necessary to so amend their constitution
as to allow them to publish, sell, and give
away the new version as well as the old.
But the present A. \. is so deeply im-
bedded in English and American litera-
ture that it will perhaps never go entire-
ly out of use.
VII. Other Vkrsio.ns, axd the Dis-
TRIBUriOX OF THE BiBLE.
The Bible is now printed in 226 dif-
ferent luutjnaijes or dialects. More than
four-fifths of these versions are the
product of missionary scholarship and
zeal. In many cases the very language
needed to be reduced to a written form
and permeated with Christian thought
before a translation could be made.
The chief agencies in giving the Scrip-
tures this world-wide distribution are:
(1.) Tfie Britinh and Foreign Bible
Society, founded March 7, 1804. Its
predecessors, the most prominent of
which were the " Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge," 161)8, and the
'* Society for Propagating the Gospel
in Foreign Parts," 1701, had cultivated
a much narrower field. The honor of
suggesting a society to send Bibles all
through the world has been assigned to
Rev. Joseph Hughes, a Baptist and
one of the secretaries of the London
Religious Tract Society. Lord Teign-
mouth was the first president. Up to
1878 this society had issued 82,407,062
copies of the Scriptures.
(2.) The American Bible Society,
founded May 8, 1816. The need of a
national society had been felt for some
time, but the obstacles in the way pre-
vented its formation. Hon. Elias Bou-
dinot, LL.D., was the first president.
The society had, up to Jan. 1, 1879, is-
sued 35,621,262 copies of the Scriptures.
Twice as many copies of the Bible
have been circulated in the present cen-
tury in heathen lands as were issued
between the first printed Bible (1450-
' 1455 — no date) and the era of Bible so-
cieties, in 1804, One hundred and forty-
i nine million copies of Bibles, Testaments,
and portions have been distributed by
I the various Bible societies in this and
j other countries since 1804. And thou-
j sands of copies have been privately
I printed. '' The demand for the printed
Bible has always been great. It is sup-
posed that within three years after the
publication of the Great Bible in 1539,
no less than 21,000 copies were printed.
133
BIC
BIR
Between 1524 and 1611, 278 editions of
Bibles and Testaments in English were
printed. In 1611, 1612, 1613, five edi-
tions of King James's Version were pub-
lished, besides separate editions of the
New Testament." — Mnnnal of the Amer-
ican Bible Society, 1876, p. 34.
The enormous demand for the Bible
still continues, and it is a most healthy
sign. The entrance of God's Word
giveth light. It is a veritable miracle
how rapidly its use dissipates moral
and spiritual darkness. As Chancellor
Kent once said : " The general distri-
bution of tlie Bible is the most effectual
way to civilize and humanize mankind;
to purify and exalt the general system
of public morals ; to give efficacy to the
just precepts of international and mu-
nicipal law ,• to enforce the observance
of prudence, temperance, justice, and
fortitude, and to improve all the rela-
tions of social and domestic life."
BICH'RI {youthful), a progenitor
of Sheba. 2 Sam. 20:1.
BID'KAR {son of stahhinrj, i.e. stnh-
her), a " captain " of Jehu who had rid-
den in the chariot with Ahab as an up-
per officer. 2 Kgs. 9 : 25.
BIER. Luke 7 : 14. The bed or
frame on which the dead body is con-
veyed to the grave. Probablj^ it Avas
made (as coffins are in modern times)
more or less expensive in shape and or-
nament according to the circumstances
and rank of the deceased. 2 Chr. 16 :
14. See Burial.
BIG'THA {(fift of God), one of the
"chamberlains " or eunuchs in the ha-
rem of King Ahasuerus. Esth. 1:10.
BIG'THAN, oil BIG'THAXA
{f/ift of God), a chamberlain or eunuch
who, with Teresh, a fellow-eunuch,
sought to lav hand on King Ahasuerus.
Esth. 2: 21 :' 6:2.
BIG'VAI {happy?). 1. "Children
of Bigvai" returned with Zerubbabel,
Ezr. 2:14; Neh. 7 : 19, and others with
Ezra. Ezr. 8:14.
2. One of this name was prominent
under Zerubbabel, and afterward sign-
ed the covenant. Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 7:
7 : 10:16.
BIIj'DAD {hou of strife), one of
Job's three friends who visited him in
his affliction, and whose arguments in
justification of God's dealings occupy
chaps. 8, 18, and 25 of the book of Job.
134
Job 2: 11. See Job. The name Shu-
hite is probably derived from the coun-
try in which he lived, or from Shuah,
son of Abraham and Keturah, whose
descendant he may have been.
BILi'EAM {foreiynera), a place in
Manasseh, 1 Chr. 6:70; same as Ibleam
and Gath-rimmon. Josh. 17:17; 21:
25. Porter would locate it near Megiddo,
on the plain of Esdraelon ; Drake, be-
hind Jenin, on the same plain, and at
the ruin Bclanieh.
BIL'GAH {cheerfulness). 1. The
head, in the time of David, of the fif-
teenth course of the priests. 1 Chr.
24:14.
2. A priest who returned under Zerub-
babel. Neh. 12:5, 18.
BIIj'GAI {cheerfulness), probably
the same with Bilgah, 2. A priest who
sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : 8.
BIL'HAH {timid, modest), the
handmaid of Rachel, and, by Jacob,
the mother of Dan and Naphtali. Gen.
29 : 29 ; 35 : 25.
BIL'HAH. See Balah.
BIL'HAN {modest). 1. A Horite
chief. Gen. 36 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 42.
2. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 7:10.
BIL'SHAN {son of the tonr/ue, i. e.
eloquent), a companion of Zerubbabel
on the Return. Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 7 : 7.
BIM'HAL {son of circumcision, \.Q.
circumcised), an Asherite. 1 Chr. 7 :
33.
BIN'EA {fountain), a descendant
of Saul. 1 Chr. 8: 37:' 9: 4.3.
BINNU'I {a huildin<j). 1. A Levite.
Ezr. 8 : 23.
2. 3. Two who had foreign wives.
Ezr. 10 : 30, 38.
4. A Levite, a builder of the wall.
Neh. 3 : 24.
5. The father of some who returned
with Zerubbabel, Neh. 7 : 15 ; called
Bani in Ezr. 2:10.
BIRDS are mentioned as articles of
food in Deut. 14: 11, and lists of birds
not to be eaten are given. Lev. 11 :13-
19; Deut. 14 : 12-19. In general, the
ravenous kinds feeding on flesh are for-
bidden. From Job 6:6: Luke 11 : 12
we learn that the eggs of birds were also
eaten. In the cleansing of the leper
birds were used in a peculiar way. Lev.
14 : 4-7.
There was a humane l:iw in the Jew-
ish code which forbade the taking a
BIR
BIS
mother-bird, though her young might
be taken. The common mode of tak-
ing birds was with a snare. Ps. 124 : 7 ;
Prov. 7 : 23 : Am. 3:5. A speckled bird,
Jer. 12 : 9, probably means a vulture
(in Hebrew), which, as is well known,
other birds are accustomed to pursue and
attack. Some authors find etymological
reasons for reading " hyena" instead of
'• speckled birds " in Jer. 12 : 9. Many
of the birds of Palestine are similar to
our own, but, strictly speaking, there is
but one species common to both coun-
tries. The house-sparrow (Passer do-
niesticns), which we have received from
England, is found in the towns along
the coast. Of 322 kinds obtained by
Mr. Tristram in the Holy Land, 172 are
also found in England, 260 in Europe,
and 2ti are peculiar to Palestine.
BIR'SHA [son of {jnrUessness), a
king of Uomorrah. Ge^. 14 : 2.
BIRTH. See Children.
BIRTH'DAYS. The custom of
making a feast in anniversary of a birth
is very ajieient. We find reference to
it in Gen. 40 : 20. In regard to the cus-
tom in Egypt, Wilkinson tells us : " The
birthdays of the kings were celebra-
ted with great pomp. They were look-
ed upon as holy, no business was done
upon them, and all classes indulged in
the festivities suitable to the occasion.
Every Egyptian attached much import-
ance to the day, even to the hour, of
his birth." But the Jews, probably on
this very account, *' regarded their ob-
servance as an idolatrous custom."
" The day of our king," spoken of in
Hos. 7:5, was probably his birthday.
It was upon Herod's birthday that John
Baptist was beheaded. Matt. 14 : fi-10.
The .fact that the Herodian family
observed birthdays would be an addi-
tional grievance on the part of the
Jews.
BIRTHRIGHT. Gen. 25:31.
The first-born son among the Jews
enjoyed special privileges above his
brethren, and these privileges were hence
called his birthright, or his right by
birth. Among these privileges were,
consecration to the Lord. Ex. 22 : 29
(" In consequence of this fact — ^that God
had taken the Levites from among the
children of Israel, instead of all the
first-born, to serve him as priests —
the first-born of the other tribes were
to be redeemed at a valuation made
by the priest, not exceeding five she-
kels, from serving God in that capa-
city. Xum. 18 : 15, 16; comp. Luke 2 :
22 If." — Home's Introduction): great
dignity, Gen. 49 : 3 : a double por-
tion of his father's estate, Deut. 21 : 17;
and (in the royal families) succession to
the kingdom. 2 Chr. 21 : 3. Though this
was not invariably the case. Solomon
was a younger son ; so was Jehoahaz,
2 Kgs. 23:31, 36; and so was Abijah.
2 Chr. 11 : 18-22. The eldest son seems
to have been regarded, in the father's
absence, as in some respects his rep-
resentative.
The paternal blessing was also in a
peculiar sense the right of the first-born,
though the right itself and all the bless-
ings of it might be forfeited or trans-
ferred, as in the case of Jacob and
Esau, Gen. 25 : 33, Reuben and Jo-
seph. 1 Chr. 5:1. But whoever enjoy-
ed it was regarded as invested with
great dignity and superiority. The
Jews attached a sacred import to the
title '■ first born."
Hence the peculiar force and appro-
priateness of the titles *• first born,"
'•first begotten," given to the divine
Redeemer. Rom. 8 : 29 ; Col. 1 : 18 ;
Heb. 1 : 2. 4. 6.
BIR'ZAVITH ioUve-nonrce), an
Asherite. 1 Chr. 7:31.
BISH'LiAlI (son of pence), a Per-
sian offi'.'cr in Palestine at the time of
the Return who wrote a letter against
Jerusalem to Artaxerxes. Ezr. 4 : 7.
BISH'OP. ] Tim. 3 : 2. The
original Greek word means •' overseer,"
as Joseph was in Potiphar's house. Gen.
39 : 4, or as the three thousand six hun-
dred men were in Solomon's temple, 2
Chr. 2 : 18, or as Uzzi was of the Le-
vites. Xeh. 11 : 22. In the N. T. the
term is synonymous with firexbi/trr or
elder, with this difference— that bisliop is
borrowed from the Greek and signifies
the function, presbyter is derived from
an office in the synagogue and signifies
the dignitv of the same office. Comp.
Acts 20 : 17, 28 : Phil. 1:1:1 Tim. 3 :
1 ff. ; Tit. 1 : 5 IF. These presbyters or
bishops of the apostolic period were
the regular teachers and pastors, preach-
ers and leaders, of the congregations. We
may imagine, however, that among them-
selves there would be a division made
135
BIS
BLE
according to individual fitness. See \
Elder.
BISH'OPRIC.-Actsl:20; 1 Tim.
3:1. The jurisdiction, charge, or oflSce
of a bishof).
BITHI'AH {duiKjhter, i. e. wor-
shipper, of Jehovah), a daughter of
Pharaoh and wife of Mered. 1 Chr.
4: IS.
BITH'RON {rnviue), a defile or
tract of country east of the Jordan,
toward Mahanaini. 2 Sam. 2 : 29.
BITHYN'IA, a rich Koman prov-
ince of Asia Minor, on the Black Sea ;
named only twice in Scripture. Acts
16:7: 1 Pet. 1: 1.
BITS. See Harness.
BITTER HERBS. Ex. 12:8.
The Jews were commanded to eat the
Passover with a salad of bitter herbs;
and the Rabbins tell us that such plants
as wild lettuce, endives, and chicory
were employed for that purpose, as they
still are by the Arabs in those regions.
The use of them on that occasion was
intended to call to their remembrance
the severe and cruel bondage from which
God delivered them when they were
broiicht out of Egypt.
BIT'TERN. Isa. 34:11. Doubt-
less a correct translation. The bitterns
belong to the heron tribe, and the Ori-
ental species difi"er but slightly from the
American. A solitary bird, its strange
booming note is often heard during
the stillness of the night in fens and
marshes. The language of prophecy,
Isa. 14:23 and 34:11; Zeph. 2:14,
imports the utmost solitude and deso-
lation.
BITU'MEN. Pee Slime.
BIZJOTH'JAH (contempt of Je-
hovah), in the south of Judah, Josh. 15:
28 ; perhaps same as Baalah and mod-
ern j)eir-el-/ie/uh.
BIZ'THA (etnuH-h), one of the
seven "chamberlains" or eunuchs of
Ahnsuerus. Esth. 1 : 10.
BLAINS. Ex. 9:i*. Burning pus-
tules or ulcers, which broke out upon
the Egyptians and all their beasts, and
constituted the sixth ])!ague. " It seems
to have been the black leprosy, a fear-
ful kind of elephantiasis." — Smith.
PerhajKS reference is made to this plague
in Deut. 28: 27.
BLAS'PIIEMY. Col. 3:8. The
word, in its original use, denotes all
lae
manner of detraction or calumny, such
as is expressed by the terms rail, revile,
speak evil, etc. : but in the restricted
sense of the Scriptures and of common
use, it denotes reproachful, irreverent,
or insulting language concerning God
or any of his names or attributes. Lev.
24: 10-16. Whoever thinks of the cha-
racter of God as infinitely holy, just, and
good will not be surprised that this of-
fence was regarded as very heinous, and
was punished by stoning. There is no
reason to suppose that the sin of pro-
fane swearing, so common at this day,
is less odious and ofl'ensive to God than
it was in the time of Moses.
Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost,
Matt. 12 : 32, such as the Pharisees were
guilty of, or were in danger of commit-
ting, when thev ascribed the miracle of
curing the blind and dumb man (who
was also possessed with a demon) to the
agency of Beelzebub or Satan, is de-
clared to be unpardonable.
It is far worse than " grieving the
Spirit." Some persons are a))prehcn-
sive that they have committed this sin
and give themselves up to despair, but
such fears prove that they are still open
to recovery and pardon. The sin against
the Holj' Ghost implies a state of final
and hopeless impenitence, and is com-
mitted by those who have again and
again wilfully resisted the influences
and warnings of the Holy Ghost, and
have made themselves incapable of
repentance, and consequently of par-
don.
BLAS'TUS {sprovt), the chamber-
lain of Herod Agrippa I. Acts 12 : 20.
BLEM'ISH. For a list of cere-
monial blemishes see Lev, 21 : 18-20 ;
22 : 20-24.
BLESS, BLESSED, BLESS'-
ING. Gen. 12:2: 22:17, 18. These
words are of frequent occurrence in the
sacred writings, and their ])articular
force may generally be determined by
the connection. Men are said to bless
(Jod when they ascribe to him the praise
and glory which are due to him. Ps. 134.
God blesses men in bestowing upon them
continually mercies, spiritual and tempo-
ral. Job "42 : 12 ; Ps. 45 : 2. And men
are said to bless their fellow-creatures
when, as in ancient times, in the spirit
of j)rophe('y they predicted blessings to
come ujtou them. This was the kind
BLE
BOA
of blessing which the patriarchs pro-
nounced. Gen. 49. So Moses blessed
Israel. Deut. 33. The form of bless-
ing prescribed by the Jewish ritual,
Num. 6:23-27, is admirably simple and
sublime. It was pronounced standing,
with a loud voice, and with the hands
raised toward heaven. Luke 24 : 50.
National blessings and cursings were
sometimes pronounced. Deut. 27 and
28 ; Isa. 19 : 25.
Thk Clp of Blessixg, 1 Cor. 10 : Ifi,
and Cup of Salvation, Ps. 116 : 13, are
expressions derived from a custom prev-
alent among the Jews at their feasts.
The master of the feast took a cup of
wine in his hand, and solemnly blessed
God for it and for all the mercies which
were then acknowledged. It was then
passed to all the guests, each of whom
drank of it in his turn. The aptness
and force of the figures employed in the
above passages are thus made obvious.
BLESSING, VALLEY OF.
See Bkrachah, Vallev of.
BLIND'NESS is extremely com-
mon in the East, as all travellers in
those lands observe. In Egypt espe-
cially ophthalmia prevails extensively
among children and adults. The in-
fliction of blindness was in old times
a common as well as barbarous punish-
ment or penalty of resistance to a vic-
torious enemy. Jud. 16 : 21 ; 1 Sam.
11 : 2 ; 2 Kgs. 25 : 7. There are several
recorded occasions, when, as translated
in A. v., God miraculously sent blind-
ness. Gen. 19 : 11 ; 2 Kgs". 6:18; Acts
9:8: 13: 11. In these incidents there was
not so much an actual, though tran-
sient, loss of vision as a confusion of
sight — perhaps really a mental confu-
sion, which gave all the uncertainty
of actual blindness, as in Luke 24 : 16.
The word " blindness " is likewise em-
})loyed in a spiritual sense as meaning
the sinner's inability to recognize di-
\ ine truth : e. q. Rom. 11 : 25 ; Eph. 4:18.
BLOOD 'is the fluid of life in the
animal body. Ex. 29:12. Its use was
expressly prohibited to Noah when
everything else was freely given him.
Gen. 9 : 4. By the Jewish law also it
was expressly and solemnly forbidden.
Lev. 17 : 10, etc. The reason of this in-
terdiction is probably because blood was
sacredly appropriated. Lev. 17: 11. Tlie
Jewish ritual abounds- with the use cf
blood, Heb. 9 : 22 ; and the manner of
employing it is stated with minuteness
in Heb. 9 and 10, where also its use
and efl'ects are shown in striking con-
trast with the blood shed upon the cross.
See also Acts 20 : 28 ; Rom. 5:9; Eph.
1:7; Col. 1:14: Heb. 7 : 27 ; 1 John 1 : 7.
The prohibition of eating blood or
animals that are strangled has been al-
ways rigidly observed by the Jews. In
the Christian Church the custom of re-
fraining from things strangled and from
blood continued for a long time. In the
council of the apostles held at Jerusalem,
Acts 15, it was declared that converts from
paganism should not be subject lo the le-
gal ceremonies, but that they should re-
frain from idolatry, from fornication,
from eating blood, and from such ani-
mals as were strangled and their blood
thereby retained in their bodies: which
precept was observed for many ages by
the Church. Acts 15 : 20-29.
The notion that the blood of the vic-
tims was peculiarly sacred to the gods
is impressed on all ancient pagan myth-
ology. See Christ.
Blood, Avenger of. See Avenge,
CiTiKs OF Refugk.
BLUE. See Colors.
BOANER'GES (so»« of thunder),
the name Christ gave to James and
John, probably because of their fiery
zeal; for proof of which, see Luke 9 :
54 : Mark 9 : 38 ; comp. Matt. 20 : 20.
BOAR. Ps.80:13. This is the origi-
nal stock of the common hog, and when
hard pressed is a very furious and for-
midable animal. The wild boar is found
throughout Europe and the neighboring
Wild Boar. (After Tristram.)
parts of Africa and Asia. Travellers tell
us that it is found in great numbers on
the banks of the Jordan, among the reeds
137
BOA
BOO
of the Sea of Tiberias, and generally
auiong the thickets of the Holy Land.
In some districts wild boars are so de-
structive to the vinej'^ards and crops that
it is necessary at times to keep nightly
watch against them. — Hartley : Re-
searches in Greece, p. 2.34.
BO'AZ, OR BO'OZ (lovely), was
a descendant of Judah, Ruth 2:1, and
through him is traced the regular suc-
cession of Jewish kings. Matt. 1 : 6.
Boaz was a man of wealth and of great
respectability. He married Kuth and
begat Obed, the father of Jesse, the
father of David. See Ruth.
BO'AZ {lirely), one of the brazen
pillars erected by Solomon before the
portico of the temple. Its companion
was Jachin. They were named for
their givers or makers, or else had a
symbolical meaning. 1 Kgs. 7:21; 2
Chr. 3 : 17: Jer. 52 : 21.
BOCH'ERU (youth), the son of
Azel. 1 Chr. 8 : 88 ; ' 9 : 44.
BO'CHIM [weepers), so named
from the weeping of Israel. Jud. 2 :
\-^. It was west of the Jordan, above
Gilgal.
BO 'HAN {thumb), a Reubenite.
Josh. 15:6: 18:17.
BO'HAN ithumh), STONE OF,
in the valUy of Achor, between Judah
and Benjamin. Josh. 15 : 6 : 18 : 1 7. The
"stone of the finger/' in W<u1y JJaber,
may be on its site.
BOIIj. See Medicink.
BOL'LED. Ex. 9:81. The ex-
pression Jiax u:as boiled means that it
was podded or nearly in a state to be
gathered, and of course the loss of it was
much more severe than it would have
been ;it an earlier stage of its growth.
BOL'STER. See Bed.
BOND, BOND'AGE, BONDS-
MAN, BONDWOMAN, BOND'-
MAID. See Servant.
BON'NETS. See Clothes, Mitre.
BOOK. What we call books were
unknown to the ancient Jews, at least
in their present convenient form. Let-
ters were engraved on stone, brick, met-
al (as lead and copper), or wood, and
written on cloth and skins, and at a
later period on parchment. Ex. 17:14;
2 Tim. 4:13. Tablets of lead and brass
or copper of great antiquity have been
discovered in modern times.
The earliest mode of preserving in-
scriptions was by engraving on a rock.
Comp. Job 19 : 24. The Sinaitic penin-
sula, especially the Waily Mukatteb (the
"Sculptured Valley"), and the neigh-
borhood of Mount Serbal and Mount
Sinai, are full of rock-inscriptions (call-
ed the Sinaitic Inscriptions).
The lorithnj-table mentioned Luke 1 :
63 was probably a tablet covered with
wax or otherwise prepared to be written
upon. Deut. 27 : 2, 3. Such tablets
were used in England as late as the vear
1300.
Leaves and the bark of trees were also
used, and were often prepared with much
skill. The people of Ceylon write with
a bodkin on broad and thick leaves cut
into narrow slips: and these leaves, be-
ing fastened together, make books which
they call ollas. The missionaries often
prepared tracts in this form before paper
and printing were introduced upon the
island. In Sumatra and among the
Indians of North America bark is still
used for making letters and pictures.
Leather and linen or cotton cloth were
also used. These were prepared in the
form of long rolls, 12 or 14 inches wide,
and fastened at each end to sticks (like
the rollers to which maps are attached),
and which were rolled together till they
met midway. Sometimes these leaves
were connected in the form of modern
books, and opened in the same way. In
this case the sheets were fastened to rods,
and these rods })assed through rings, and
thus formed the back of the book.
The writing was generally in capital
letters and without punctuation or di-
vision of words ; and when used, the
reader unrolled the manuscript as far as
the place which he wished to find, and
kept before him just so much as he would
read.
The pages resembled the following in
their general appearance, though they
were of course wider and longer than
these, and were read fiom right to left:
inthebegi
nnincjwast
hk word an
dthrword
WASWITHf}
ODANUTHK
188
WORDWASG
ODTHKSAMK
W' A SI. NT 11 KB
EGINNINGW
ITH(;<)|)AM,
THINUSWKR
KMAOKRVHI
MANDWITUO
UTHIMWASN
OTANYTHIiV
GMADICTHA
TW'ASMADK
INHIMWASLI
KKANDTHKLI
FKWASTHELI
OHTOKMKNA
NDI'llKI.KJHT
SHINKTHIND
John 1: 1-5.
BOO
BOO
These columns could be divided from
one another and used separately, as we
may cut the columns of a newspaper
which is printed on one side only, and
arrange the extracts as we like. Some-
times the reading was what is called
furrow-wise. The first line was from
right to left, and the second from left
to right, and so on alternately^ like
ploughing a field. The roll or book
of curses which Ezekiel saw was 30
feet long and 20 wide. The writing
was usually on one side, but not al-
ways. Eze. 2 : 10.
When the roll was done with, it was
carefully deposited in a case. The cut
on the next page shows the book of the
Law rolled upon two cylinders, with the
seal at one side.
There were other forms of the scroll,
and also collections of sheets in the shape
of a modern book, secured with rings and
rods.
A very good idea may be formed of
an ancient roll by supposing a common
newspaper to have rods or rollers at the
right and left sides. The reader takes
hold of the rods and unrolls the sheet
until he comes to the desired column.
Thus, in Luke 4 : 17 the phrase " opened
the book " would properly read '' unrolled
the scroll," and in v. 20 for '• closed the
book " read " rolled up the volume " or
" scroll." This shows the force of the
figure, Isa. 34 : 4, where the heavens are
represented as rolled together as sud-
denly as the opposite ends of an un-
rolled scroll fly to meet each other when
the hand of the reader is withdrawn
from it.
A kind of paper was made from the
stalk of an Egyptian vegetable called
papyrus, or paper-reed, which is still
found in various parts of India. See
Bulrush. The stalk was slit with a
needle into plates or layers as broad and
thin as ])ossible. Some of them were 10
or "15 inches broad. These strips were
laid side by side upon a flat horizontal
surface, and then immersed in the water
of the Nile, which not only served as a
kind of sizing, but also caused the edges
of the strips to adhere together as if
glued. The sheets thus formed were
dried in the sun and then covered with
a fine wash, which made them smooth
and flexible. They were finally beaten
with hammers and polished. Twenty
! or more of these sheets were sometimes
connected in one roll.
The pen or style"-' was made of some
hard substance, perhaps not unlike the
1 instruments used by glaziers to cut
glass. Jer. 17 : 1. Upon tablets of wax
an instrument was used, one end of
which was pointed, to mark the -letters,
and the other broad and flat, to make
erasures. Pens or styles of copper are
now used by the Cej-lonese. On a soft
substance like linen or papyrus, the
mai'ks were painted with a fine hair-
pencil, as is practised among the Chi-
nese to this day.
Most of the Eastern nations now use
the reed-pen, which is split with an in-
strument used as we use the penknife.
Jer. 36 : 23. The pith is removed, and
the bark or rind, being split like a quill,
i retains and properly sheds the ink. It
is not hard or stiff" enough to be used
; long without mending. See Pen.
Ink was })repared from a variety of
substances (see Ink), and those who
were skilful in writing wore an ink-
horn fastened to the girdle, Eze. 9 :
2, which is the present mode among
the Persians and the Moors of Bar-
bary. See Inkhor.v.
As tables were unknown, the paper or
other substance written upon was laid
u])on the knees or hold firmly with the
left hand.
A sealed book was a roll fastened
together by a band or string, and a seal
affixed to the knot, Isa. 29 : 11, as seen
in the cut.
Book of the Generation, Gen. 5:1;
j Matt. 1 : 1. signifies the genealogical his-
j tory or records of a family or nation.
Book of the Living, Ps. 69 : 28, and
the kindred phrase, Book of Life. Rev.
21 : 27, are supposed to allude to the
genealogical lists or registers kept by
the Jews, from which the names of the
dead were erased. Isa. 4 : 3. The apt-
ness and force of the figurative use
of the terms are sufficiently obvious.
Books OF Judgment. Dan. 7:10. The
allusion here is probably either to the
practice of opening books of account
to settle with servants or laborers, or
to the custom of the Persian kings to
have a book in which a daily record is
made of special services performed by
* Hence the word style, signifying one's man-
ner ot writing— ea*j/ style, elegant style, etc.
139
BOO
EOT
any of their subjects, and of the re-
wards which were given to the indi-
viduals. Esth. 6 : 1-3.
Book of the Wars of the Lord. Num.
21: 14, Book of Jasher, or the Right-
Book of the Law closed.
Kocs, Josh. 10 : 13 and 2 Sam. 1: 18,
and Book of the Chroxici>es (or an-
nals) of the kings of Judah and Is-
rael, 1 Kgs. 14:19,21), are the names
of ancient writings known to the Jews,
but not preserved in the sacred canon.
BOOTH. See Feast op Taber-
nacles.
BOOT'Y. Moses laid down the
law upon this subject in Num. 31: 20-
30. In regard to the army, Davi<l
made the additional rule that those
who "tarried by the stuff" — the bag-
140
gage-guard — should share equally with
those who fought. 1 Sam. 30 : 24. No
booty could be taken from the Canaan-
ites, as they were all, with all they had,
devoted to destruction. But in wars
outside of Palestine the practice was
allowable. Metallic articles were kept
for holy use. Josh. 6 : 17-19 ; of. Deut.
20:12-18.
BO'OZ, FOR BO'AZ. Matt.l:5;
Luke 3: 32.
BORDER. See Clothes.
BORROW. See Loan.
BOS'CATH. 2 Kgs. 22 : 1. See
Bozkath.
BO'SOM. The dress of the Jews
was such as allowed them to carry with-
in a fold in the bosom of the robe what
could not be carried in the hand. Isa,
40 : 11 ; Luke 6 : 38. It was also used
to denote a place of rest and security.
Hence the term A})ra]iani's honom is fig-
urativel}' spoken of as the abode of Laz-
arus, and means the same as parodise.
Luke 16 : 23 ; comp. 23 : 43. To lean
on the bosom implied great intimacy.
John 13 : 23. The position of John,
leaning on the bosom of the Saviouj-,
was easy and natural, since the com-
pany were reclining at table upon
couches, and the back of his head came
near the bosom of Jesus, who was on his
left. The use of this term, John 1 : 18,
imj^orts the perfect unity of the Father
and Son.
BO'SOR, in 2 Pet. 2 : 15, Greek
form of Beor.
BOS'SES, the prominent or pro-
jecting parts of the buckler, and of
course the thickest and strongest. Job
15:26.
BOTCH, probably the black lep-
rosy, or elephantiasis. Deut. 28 : 27, 35.
See Leprosy.
BOT'TLE. Gen. 21:14. Ancient
bottles were made of the skins of ani-
mals, which were properly dressed for
the purpose. The openings of the skin
were closed exce])t at the neck, through
which the liquor was to be received and
discharged, and which was fastened by
a string, like a bag. They were, of
course, of different sizes and shapes, as
the skins of kids, goats, or oxen might
be used. Bruce describes particularly a
bottle which he saw in Arabia, made in
this manner, of an ox-skin, which would
hold 60 gallons.
BOW
BOZ
Christian missionaries in Eastern
countries frequently speak of the goat-
skins and leathern bottles in which
they carry water in their journeys.
Skill-Bottles. (Ayre.)
Where the travelling is rough and the
vessels likely to strike against each
other, they are made of the strongest
material that can be found. The skins
or bottles used for new wine were of
the freshest and most flexible kind,
in order that they might the better
endure the process of fermentation.
Matt. 9:17.
The effect of smoke on a skin-bottle
would be to blacken and shrivel it.
Ps. 119 : 83. Water or wine put into
such a bottle would all run out. Nearly
Arab Water-Can i.-r.
all the drinking-water now used in Egypt
is brought from the river Xile in skin-
bottles, by Arab water-carriers, as shown
in the picture.
BOW. See Armor.
BOW, a posture. Gen. 37: 10. To
bow down one's self is e.\])res-ive of
great reverence and humility. Gen. 24 :
26, 48 ; 1 Kgs. 1 : 53 and 2 : 19. It was
a common mode of salutation in the
East to kneel upon one knee and bow
the head until it touched the ground.
It is still the custom in many Eastern
nations for subjects to kneel before the
I throne of the king and bow their heads
slowly till they touch the earth.
BOWELS. As we use the terms
heart, bredvt, bosom, so this term is used
by the sacred writers, evidently in a figu-
rative sense, for affections or emotions of
the heart. Col. 3:12; 1 John 3:17.
BOX TREE. Isa. 41 : 19. A
1 small evergreen tree, either the same
i with or closely resembling the shrubby
box of our gardens. One species ( Buxita
longi/olia) is found on Lebanon, and
may once have been common in Pales-
tine. It is believed that the Phoenicians
imported the wood of other species from
Chittim, and used it with ivory for in-
laid work. The perfect proportions of
this tree, its perennial beauty of foliage,
and its utility illustrate the prosperity
and grace which God will bestow on
Zion. rsa.60: 13.
BO'ZEZ,one of two sharp rocks be-
tween Geba and Miehmash. 1 Sam. 14:
1 4, 5. Robinson traced them out in Wadj/
I Sidceineit, but Stanley could not make
them out. Conder suggests EI Honu.
BOZ'KATH, AND BOS CATH
{xtmnj heiijht), a place on the plains of
I Judah. josh. 15 : 39 ; 2 Kgs. 22 : 1.
j Warren propo.-^es Benhit as its site.
I BOZ^RAH {fortress), two cities.
j 1. Bozrah in Edom. Isa. 34 : 6 ; 63 : 1,
which was to become a perpetual waste,
j Jer.49:13: Am. 1:12; Mic. 2:12: mod-
ern Biisaireh, in the mountains of Petra,
20 miles south-east of the Dead Sea.
2. Bozrah in Moab. Jer. 48 : 24.
Judgment has surely fallen upon it.
Porter thinks it the same as modern
Bnzroh. where are the ruins of a mag-
nificent city' nearly 5 miles in circuit,
once having 100,000 inhabitants, but
now only 20 families. It is near the
Hauran. 60 miles south of Damascus.
Portions of its massive walls and towers,
theatre, temples, stone doors nnd roofs,
some of the ruins of the work of the early
inhabitants. perhaps the giants Rephaim,
and more of the work of later Roman
builders, are still to be seen in good state
of preservation. Bozrah at one time had
17 bishops under its archbishop.
141
BRA
BRE
BRACE 'LET. An ornament
(chain or clasp) worn on the arm by
Bracelets. (Bntish Muaeum. From Ayre.)
1. Gold Kgyptian Bracelets. 2. Silver Bracelet.
3. Bronze, with Bell attached, takea from Muniniy of
a Girl. 4. Iron, with Corueliaa Setting. 5. Bracelet ]
of Cowries.
both sexes. Gen. 24:30. Among East-
ern princesses it is a badge of ro^'alty,
and was probably regarded as such in
the time of David. 2 Sam. 1: 10. The
royal bracelet was of much richer ma-
terials, and was worn above the elbow ;
Assyrian Bracelets. (Frovi Nineveh Marbles.
Ayre.)
the common brneelet was worn on the
wrist. Ezo. 16: 11.
BRA.>I'BL.E. Sec Thorns.
BRANCH. This word is oftrn fig-
uratively used by the sacred writers.
Ps. 80:15; Jolin" 15 : :>, 6. It is also
one of the titles of the Messiah. Isa.
11 : 1 comp. with Isa. 63 : 2 ; Zech.
3 : 8 and 6:12. The family of Jes.se is
represented under the figure of the stock
of a tree firmly r()f)ted, and the coming
of Chri>t from the seed of David is
represented as the shooting I'oith of a
branch, which is here called, b3' way
142
of distinction and eminence, "THE
BRANCH ;" for Christ, even in his
common nature, far surpassed all the
house of David in the dignity, power,
and glory of both his person and office.
BRASS. This compound metal was
probably unknown in ancient times, but
bronze, a mixture of tin and copper,
may sometimes be referred to under
this name. That which is called brass
in most passages of the sacred writ-
ings was doubtless what we call cop-
per. Gen. 4 : 22 ; Deut. 8:9. It was
used for a variety of ])tirposes about the
temple, and also for fetters, Jud. 16 : 21 ;
2 Kgs. 25 : 7 ; armor, 1 Sam. 17 : 5, 6 ;
and musical instruments. 1 Chr. 15: 19 ;
1 Cor. 13 : 1. The words hrasn, brazen,
etc., occurring under the words Armor,
Altar, Book, etc., are used in conform-
ity with the common English translation
of the Bible, and not with technical ac-
curacy.
BRA'ZEJV SEA. See Layer.
BRAZEN SERPENT. See
Skrpent.
BREAD. The bread of the Jews
was generally made of wheat. Barley
and other grains were sometimes used.
Jud. 7:13.
The materials were prepared as in
modern days. See Mill, Sievk. The
kneading of the dough was performed
in kneading-troughs, Gen. 18 : (i ; Ex. 12 :
[ 84 ; Jer. 7:18, or wooden bowls such as
j the Arabians use at this day for a like
; purpose, although some suppose that the
I kneading was done upon a circular piece
I of leather such as is now used in Per-
I sia, and which would be more proper-
i ly called a kneading-bag, as it draws
: up like a knapsack. Either of the
utensils would be easily transported.
Very simple leaven was used in the
dough. The loaves were shaped like
a plate, and when leavened were ordi-
narily of the thickness of one's little
finger. See Table. These cakes were
generally baked in either ])ublie or pri-
vate ovens. The fuel was wood or
dried flower-stalks or grass. Other
I modes of baking were, however, used ;
as by spreading the dough u])<)n heat'^d
stones or throwing it into the embers
of the fire. A ])an likewise seems to
have been used at other times. 2 Sam.
13:9. The unleavened bread was very
thin, and was broken, not cut. Lam. 4 :
BEE
BRI
4 ; Matt. 26 : 26 ; Mark 14 : 22 ; Luke
22 : 19. The term bread is often used
for food or provisions in general.
Bread-corn, Isa. 28:28, is used for
wheat, barley, or any other grain from
which bread was made.
The figurative expressions bread of
unrroifs, Ps. 127 : 2, and bread of tears,
Ps. 80 : 5, may denote that the suflFering
of sorrow and the shedding of tears
had become as much a part of the por-
tion of every day as one's daily bread.
So the bread of icickednens, Prov. 4:17,
and bread of deceit, Prov. 20:17, de-
note not only a living or estate obtained
by fraud and sin, but that to do wick-
edly is as much the portion of a wicked
man's life as to ent his daily bread.
BREAK'FAST. See Meals.
BREAST'PLATE. 1. A part of
the official dress of the Jewish high priest.
Ex. 28 : 15. It was a piece of embroi-
dered work, about 10 inches square and
made double, with a front and lining,
so as to answer for a pouch or bag. It
was adorned with twelve precious stones.
See High Priest.
The two upper corners Avere fastened
to the e])hod, from which it was not to
be loosed, Ex. 28 : 28, and the two lower
corners to the girdle. The rings, chains,
and other fastenings were of gold or rich
lace. It was called the memorial, Ex.
28 : 12, 29, inasmuch as it reminded the
priest of his representative character in
relation to the twelve tribes ; and it is
also called the breastplate of
judgment, Ex. 28 : 15, per-
haps because it was worn by
him who was instrumentally
the fountain of justice and
judgment to the Jewish
Church. Others think it is
because the Urim and Thum-
mim were annexed to it. See
Urim and Thummim.
2. The breastplate was also
that article of ancient armor
which protected the breast.
Eph.6:U. See Armor. Its
figurative use in the passage
above cited, and also in Isa.
59 : 17, is sufficiently obvious.
BREECH'ES, a kind
of drawers, reaching from the loins to the
thighs, worn by the priests. Ex. 28 : 42.
BRETH'REN OF THE
LORD. See Brother.
BRICK, Gen. 11 : 3, was a building-
material among the Jews, but the size of
their bricks was much
larger than that of
ours. Bricks found
among the ruins of
Babylon are a foot
square, and resemble
tile rather than brick.
They were usually
hardened by the heat
of the sun, although
kilns were not un-
known. 2 Sam. 12 :
EgyptiHii Brick oi . Tp^ 4.^ • ^■ Nih
!.tamp4d with the I \.' * ' ^' ^^*^-
oval of Thothmes o : 14. in lower
Egypt many pictures
on the walls represent
the Jews making bricks under the lash
of the Egyptian taskmasters, in confir-
III. {British Mu
seum. Ayre.)
>^-T
-m <
Assyrian Biick from Nimroud, insciibf-d with
Shalmaueser's Name and Title. (Ayre.)
mation of the account in the book of
Exodus, 1:11; 5:7-14.
and Captives making Bricks in Etivpt.
BRIDE, BRIDE' GROOM,
BRIDE- CHAMBER. See Mar-
RIAGE.
BRIDLE. See Harness.
143
BRI
BUL
BRIBERS. See Thistle.
BRIG'ANDINE. Supposed to be
"the same with the habergeon and coat
of uinil. Jer. 46:4. See Armor.
BRIM'STONE. Ps. 11 : 6. Sul-
phur, a well-known mineral substance,
exceedingly inflammable, and which
when burning emits a sufibcating smell.
We are told that the cities of the plain
were destroyed by a rain of fire and
brimstone. There is nothing incredi-
ble in this, even if we suppose only
natural agencies were employed. Like
many other travellers, the writer has
pieces of pure sulphur and of asphalt
or mineral pitch, both found in that
vicinity in abundance and highly in-
flammable. Volcanic action might
easily have filled the air with inflam-
mable substances, falling down in
streams of liquid fire u])on those de-
voted cities.
This word is often figuratively em-
ployed. Job 18 : 15 ; Isa. 34 : 9 ; Rev. 21 :
8. Whether the word is used literally or
not in the passages which describe the
future suflFerings of the wicked, we may
be sure that it expresses terrible pun-
ishment.
BROTHER, BRETHREN,
a term which properly denotes the near-
est consanguinity — that is, male children
of the same parents, as in Gen. 4 : 2 and
42:13, but sometimes persons of more
remote kindred or of the same nation.
Gen. 13 : 8 : Esth. 10 : 3 ; Acts 7 : 25, 37
and 13 : 26, or even those who are close-
ly united in affection. 2 Sam. 1 : 26. In
the N. T. the term is more frequently
applied to the spiritual relationship
which the true followers of Christ sus-
tain to him and to each other. Matt. 12 :
50; Rom. 14:10; 2Thess. 2:13.
*' The Brethrkx of the Lord." —
The N. T. repeatedly speaks of brethren
(and also of sisters) of Jesus, and names
four of them — James, Joseph, Simon, and
Judas. There are three theories about the
degree of this relationshij). 1. The sim-
plest explanation is that they were the
full brothersof Jesus, or younger children
of Joseph and Mary. This is the natural
deduction from the context. Matt. 1 : 25 ;
13 : 55. Rut the feeling of reverence
for the virgin mother, the value placed
upon celibacy in the early Church,
the instinctive shrinking from regard-
ing Mary as an ordinary woman, bear-
144
ing children in sorrow, and that, too,
after the Holi/ GJtoxt had overshadowed
her and she had given birth to the Mes-
siah,— have suggested to the Roman and
Greek Churches and to many Protestants
two other theories. 2. That they were
the children of Joseph by a former
marriage. So taught Epiphanius and
the ancient Greek Church. 3. That
they were the children of Mary, the
wife of Alpheus, the supposed sister of
the Virgin Mary, and hence that they
were Christ's cousins, and among the
apostles. So St. Jerome and the Ro-
man Church. Lange has modified this
view by supposing that Alpheus was
the brother of Joseph, and that be-
cause he died early they were adopt-
ed by Joseph into his family, which
is extremelj' improbable. The strong-
est objection to 1 is that Jesus com-
mended his mother to John. John 19 :
26. 2 is not open to any grave objec-
tion. 3 is beset with difiiculties : (1.)
It does violence to the natural and
usual meaning of the word " brother,"
while the N. T. has a special term for
''cousins." Col. 4:10; Luke 1:36. (2.)
It assumes that two sisters had the same
name, Mary. (3.) It fails to explain
how these brethren could also be apos-
tles, while we are told that they did not
believe in Jesus before the resurrection
and treated him rather disrespectfully.
John 7 : 5. (4.) It is probable that
Salome, and not Mary, was the sister of
our Lord's mother. .John 19 : 25. The
natural view furnishes an argument in
favor of the historical character of the
Gospels.
BUCK'LER. See Armor.
BUILD'INGS. See Dwellings.
BUK'Kl [n-nntiny). \. The Danite
chief chosen of the Lord to represent
his tribe in the division of the Land
of Promise. Num. 34: 22.
2. One of the high-priestly line. 1 Chr.
6 : 5, 51 : Ezr. 7 : 4. Probably he was
never the hieh priest.
BUKKI'AH (wnsthiff from Jelio-
voh), the chief of the sixth division of
singers. 1 Chr. 25:4, 13.
BUIj, See Month.
BULLS. Cattle, being often left to
roam for ye.ars at jileasure, became half
wild. In the rich pastures of Bashan
the bulls were strong and ferocious. Ps.
22 : 1 2. In Deut. 14 : 5 and Isa. 61 : 20
BUL
BUR
there is a Hebrew word translated " wild
bull" which is believed to mean the oryx
( Oryx leacoryx), a large and powerful an-
telope still found on tbe borders of Pal-
estine. Its chief means of defence are
its sharp horns, often more than ?> feet
in length, which gracefully curve over
its back, but which in cunfliet, by bend-
ing the neck, are thrown forward. When
entangled " in a net" these horns would
be a great disadvantage.
BULRUSH, RUSH, a large
sedge [ C'l/jjerii'i piipi/ritx) still found upon
Lake Merom and the northern shores of
t;ie Sea of Galilee. It was formerly abun-
dant in Egypt, but has now disappeared.
Upon the upper Nile it is still found, and
it is used b}' the modern Abyssinians
for constructing boats. Ex. 2:3-j; Isa.
18:2.
The bulrush grows in shallow water
or mire. .Job 8:11. It has an unbraneh- •
ing straight, trian-
gular culm, termi-
nating in a large
head (umbel) of
small and somewhat
drooping stems, as
shown in the cut,
bearing the chaffy
fruit on their ex-
tremities. The
stalk is usually
about 10 feet high
and 2 or 3 inches in
diameter at the
base. An area of
papyrus sur-
mounted by its
beautiful tufted
plumes is a fine
sight.
From this plant
paper was first
made and derived
its name. See
Book.
BULWARK.
See War.
BU'NAH (f//V
cretion), one of Ju-
dah's descendants.
1 Chr. 2 : 25. Bulrush.
BUN'NI {hnUt). 1. A Levite. Xeh.
9:4.
2. One who sealed the covenant. Xeh.
10:15.
3. A Levite. Neh. 11 : 15.
10
Bunni is said to have been the Jewish
name of Xicodemus. — Ewddl.
BUR'DEX. This word, when it is
used in connection with some city or
nation (as the burden of Monb, the
burden of JVhiereh, etc.), expresses the
disastrous and calamitous import of
the prophecy. The burden of the des-
ert of the sea (Babylon), the burden of
the valley of vixion (Jerusalem), and
similar expressions, are explained by
tht'ir suViject or connection. Tbe phrase
is frequently used by Isaiah. Isa. 13 : 1 ;
15 : 1. etc.
BURIAL, BURY. Gen. 23:4;
Matt. 26 : 12. It was customary among
the Jews, and ancients generally, for
the children or near kindred to close
the eyes of the dying. Gen. 46 : 4.
A loud and general wailing followed
the decease, John 11 : 19, 31. 33. and
continued many days after burial. The
body of the deceased was washed and
laid out. Acts 9 : 37- It was wrapped
in folds of linen cloth, and the head
bound around with a, napkin. It is
said that Lazarus was bound " hand
and foot with grave clothes," John
11 : 44, and it is 8uj)posed by many
that each limb had its separate wrap-
per, as it was customary in Egypt to
wrap even each finger in a separate
cloth or band, so that hundreds of
yards of cloth are often unwound from
one of their mummies. When thus
bound around, it was placed on a bier,
in readiness to be borne to the grave.
See BiicR, Embalm.
The climate, and the uncleannesg
which was contracted, under the law,
from contact with a dead body, or even
by coming into the same apartment
with it, would naturally lead to the cus-
tom of early interments. In Persia, we
are told, it is not customary to keep the
dead over two or three hours, and the
European Jews universally bury their
dead early. There were many excep-
tions in this respect, however. The
jjractice of embalming was not general
among the Jews, though spices, etc.,
were used in their burials. 2 Chr. 16 :
14; John 19:4(1. Jacob and Joseph,
whose bodies were embalmed, both died
in Egypt, where the art of embalming
was vei-y skilfully practised. In Jacob's
case we are told that Joseph commanded
his servants the physicians to embalm
145
BUR
BUR
his father, and then he was placed in a
cotfin in Egypt, and thence his body was
carried to Machpelah, in Canaan, and
buried. Gen. 50 : 2, 7, ]3. Coffins were
used in Egypt and Babylon, but are un-
known in the East even at the present
day, except when a body is to be con-
veyed to a distant place. See Embalm.
All civilized nations have agreed in at-
tending with some solemnity to the bur-
ial of their dead. Among the Jews the
bier was followed to the grave by the near-
est relations and other friends. 2 Sam. 3:
31 ; Luke 7 : 12. Other persons attend-
ed, and sometimes mourners (or rather
wallers b}" profession) were employed to
attend the body. Jer. 9:17; Eze. 24:
17; Am. 5:16; Matt. 9:23. This is
the custom now in many Eastern na-
tions.
Certain places were appropriated by
the Jews to the purpose of burying the
dead, and they were both public and
private. Gen. 23 : 4; 50 : 13 ; Jud. 8 : 32 ;
16 : 31 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 32 ; 21 : 14 ; 2 Kgs.
23 : 0 ; Jer. 26 : 23. They were usually
selected in gardens, 2 Kgs. 21 : 18, 26 :
John 19 : 41 ; or fields. Gen. 23 : 11 ; or
caves in the sides of the mountains,
2 Kgs. 23 : 16, 17 ; or in rocks, Isa. 22 :
16 ; and to be unburied was regarded as
exceedingly disgraceful. 1 Sam. 17 : 44-
46 ; 2 Kgs. 9:10; Ps. 141 : 7 ; Jer. 8 : 2
and 22: 19. The grave was called the
house or home of the dead. Job
30 : 23 ; Eccl. 12 : 5. The burial-
places were usually in retired
situations, and hence were the
resort of demoniacs. Matt. 8 : 28,
and were usually without the city
walls. Kings and prophets alone,
it would seem, were buried with-
in the walls. Josh. 24 : 30, 33 : 1
Sam.25:l: 28:3; 2 Kgs. 21: IS;
2 Chr. 16 : 14; 24: 16; 33:20;
Nch. 3:16. Though so'itary,
they were selected with reference
to shade, prospect, efc. Gen. 23 :
17 ; 35:8; 1 Sam. 31:13.
The desire to be buried with
one's kindred was very strong, 2
Sam. 19 : 37; and it is remark-
able that the .Jews, as a people, „, , rr u ^ *. t i / a^i^^ a. c^„;^„ ^
,, ^, . ,. . ' 1 r. Plan of Tombs of the Judges. {After de baidcy.)
in all their dispersions and sut-
ferinirs, retain an ardent desire to be force of our Lord's reproof. Matt. 23
to have near their dwelling-house a
small building without door or window,
built of stone or other durable mate-
rial, which was called the sepulchral
house or family mansion for the dead.
The following description of the tombs
of the Judges is taken from Baedeker's
F<ilentine and Syria, p. 238 : On the
western side of the rock there is a small
fore-court, leading to a vestibule, from
which is entered the tomb-chamber.
The portal Avas once capable of being
closed from within. On the left side
of the chamber are 7 shaft-tombs,
above which, at irregular distances,
are 3 vaulted niche-tombs, and at the
back of these again there are several
shaft-tombs. In the western wall is a
niche. Adjoining this Jirst chamber
on the east and south are 2 others,
on about the same level, and 2 on a
lower level. They have tombs on three
sides. A passage with 3 tombs de-
scends from the Jirst to the north-east-
ern chamber, which contains 13 tombs.
The other side-chamber contains no
tomb.
The sepulchres of the Jews were
sometimes expensively built and adorn-
ed or garnished, and were whitened at
short intervals, so as to make them
conspicuous, that they might be avoid-
ed, as contact with them occasioned
ceremonial uncleanness. Hence the
burieil in their own land, especially
around .Terusalein.
It was not i.n usual for a single family
146
27. Sometimes titles or inscriptions
were placed on them. 2 Kgs. 23 : 17.
To build a sepulchre for a man was an
BUR
BYT
expression of respect and honor. Matt.
23 : 2'J ; Luke 11 : 48.
The most famous sepulchres in Pales-
tine are the Machpelah, the burial-place
of the patriarchs, under the great
mosque of Hebron, to which, however,
no stranger is admitted ; the sepulchre
of Joseph, near Jacob's well, in Sa-
Tonib ol' tlie Judges. (From Photog raph by Good.)
maria ; the tombs of the kings and the
tombs of the Judges, near Jerusalem :
and the supposed sejnilchre of Christ, in
the church of the Holy Sepulchre, in
Jerusalem.
BURNING BUSH. See Mosks
and SniTTi>f-wooD.
BURNT- OF'F BRING. See
Sacrifice.
BUSH. Mark 12: 26: Luke 20: 37.
In these passages reference is made to
that section of Scripture in which the
account of the burning bush is to be
found, and not to the hush itself.
BUSH'EL. SeeMEAsrnKs.
BUT'LER, an honorable officer
of the king's household, called ''cup-
bearer" Neh. 1 : 11, it being his duty to
fill and bear the cup or drinking-vessel
to the king. The chief butler had the
charge and oversight of the rest. Gen.
40 : 1-13.
BUT'TER. As this word is used
in the Scriptures, it probably means
sour or coagulated milk, which, when
mingled with water, is still regarded
as a very agreeable and refreshing
beverage by Eastern nations. Gen.
18 : 8. Their butter, such as it was,
might have been sometimes clarified
and preserved in jars, as at the present
day in Asia, and when poured out re-
sembles rich oil.
The figurative expression in Job 29 :
6, *• I washed my steps with butter,"
denotes primarily the abundance with
which the patriarch Avas blessed ; but
it is also supposed by some to refer to
the great quantities of cream which
his herds produced, and which were
trodden into butter. This fanciful in-
terpretation aside, the passage seems
to be self-explanatory, the figurative
allusion to butter having the same
force and effect as that to oil.
The place of butter as a general ar-
ticle of food in the East was supplied
in some measure by the vegetable oil
which was so abundant.
Butter was made by pouring the milk
into a goat-skin, and then shaking or
treading it to and fro in a uniform di-
rection until the separation of the but-
ter took f)lace. The butter mentioned
in Jud. 5 : 25 was probably cream, or a
preparation of which cream was a com-
jjonent jtart. It is not improbable that
the bottle of milk in the passage cited
was no other than a skin which had
been used as a churn, and that the re-
freshment was butter-milk, presented
in the richest vessel that was at hand.
Butter-milk is still esteemed a most re-
freshing beverage by the Arabs.
Butter and honey were used together,
and were esteemed among the choicest
productions of the land. And travel-
lers tell us that the Arabs now use
cream or new butter mixed with honey
as a ])rincipal delicacy.
BUZ {coiUenipt), a territory: per-
haps named from Buz, and probably
in northern Arabia. Jer. 25 ; 23 ; Gen.
22:21.
BUZ (contempt). 1. A son of Abra-
ham's brother Nahor. Gen. 22 : 21.
2. A Gadite. 1 Chr. 5 : U.
BU'ZI (coutempt), the father of Eze-
kiel the prophet. Eze. 1 : 3.
BUZ'ITE, THE. Elihu is so
called, Job 32 : 2, 6 : probably because
he was the descendant of Buz. Gen.
22 : 21.
BYTHIN'IA. See Bithvxia.
147
CAB
CJE
C.
CAB. See Measures.
CAB'BON, a place in Judah. Josh.
15 : 40. Three places have been suggest-
ed as its site — el-Kiifeir, 10 miles south-
east of Ashkelon ; el-Kuheibeh, near Beit
Jib rill ; and Abu Knbus.
CAB'INS, Jer. 37 : 16, or CELLS,
were probably niches or apartments
Avithin the dungeon, for the separate
confinement of prisoners. The idea
conveyed is, that the prophet suffered
the nfost severe and loathsome impris-
onment.
CA'BUL. 1. A place in Asher, Josh.
19:27; now Kabul, 10 miles south-east
of Accho.
2. A name of the land containing 20
cities given hy Solomon to Iliram, 1 Kgs.
9 : 10-13, in a region of Galilee east of
Accho. The word has no special mean-
ing in Hebrew.
C.E'SAR, the official title of the
Roman emj)erors. It is borrowed from
the famous Julius Cicsar. It occurs
about 30 times in the N. T., and is ap-
plied to Augustus, Luke 2:1; Tiberius,
Luke 3:1: Claudius, Acts 11 : 28 ; and
Nero, Acts 25 : 8. Such Jews as were
Roman citizens had the right of appeal
to Caesar, Acts 25 : 11, who was their
ruler. See separnte names.
C.E'SARAUGUS'TUS. See Au-
gustus.
CESAR, CLAU'DIUS. See
Claudius.
C/ESARE'A, the chief Roman city
of Palestine in New Testament times.
It was on the Mediterranean, about 41
miles south of Acre, and 47 miles in a
direct line north-west of Jerusalem.
It had a harbor protected by an arti-
ficial wall or breakwater.
HiHiorij. — Originally it was called
" Strabo's Tower." Herod the Great
built a city there, n. c. 10, and named
it in honor of Augustus Ca:!sar. Ilerod
Agrippa I. died there, Acts 12: 19-23.
Philip the evangelist lived there, 8 :40 ;
21 : 8, Ifi, and Cornelius, 10 : 1-24. Paul
frequently visited it. 9 : 30 ; 18 : 22 ; 21 :
8 ; 23 : 3;> ; was in bonds there two years.
24 : 27 ; it was the official residence of
148
Festus and of Felix. Vespasian was
declared emperor there. It had a learn-
ed school and an episcopal see; was the
birthplace of Procopius ; the residence
for a time of Origen ; of Eusebius, the
historian, who was bishop of Caesarea ;
was a noted city in the time of the
Crusades ; was twice rebuilt by the
Christians ; fell into decay ; and is
now in ruins. It is called JCaisart-
yeh. Large quantities of the building-
stones have been carried to other towns
and used for building. Stanley calls it
the most desolate site in Palestine, with
no signs of human life, and the nearest
road passes at a distance from the ex-
tensive ruins.
C.ESARE'A-PHILIP PI, the
Greek Paneas, now called Bauias by
the Arabs, is a town at the base of Mount
Ilermon, about 20 miles north of the Sea
of Galilee and 45 miles south-west of Da-
mascus. It was the northern limit of our
Lord's journeys, Matt. 16: 13; Mark
8 : 27, and was probably Baal-gad of
Old Testament history. It was here
that Peter, in the name of all the other
apostles, made that fundamental con-
fession of faith in Christ as the Son of
God and the Saviour, and that Christ
uttered the prophecy concerning the
indestructible character of his Church.
Matt. 16 : 1 0 ff. The gushing waters of
the sources of the .Jordan and the im-
movable rocks of Mount Ilermon were
in full view when our Lord spoke those
words, and served to illustrate their
meaning. The landscape is one of the
most beautiful in Palestine, and has
been called the Syrian Tivoli.
Hintori/. — The town is remarkable for
its physical and historical associations.
It was near two important sources of
the Jordan ; its ancient classical name
was P((ucioii, in commemoration of the
sanctuary of the god Pan : it was en-
larged by Philij) the Tetrarch, and
named Ca^'^arca-Philippi to distinguish
it from the other Ca^sarca, on the Med-
iterranean ; later on it was called Ncro-
nian by Herod Agrippa If.; it became
the seat of a bishopric; it was repeatedly
Cfesarea. \^From, a Photograph. Pale.<tine Exploration Fund.)
Csesarea-Philippi, or Banias. {After Photographs of Fiilh and Good.)
Sources ot llje Jordan uear Baiiias. {Ajter Photographs of Frith and Good.)
c^.
CAL
taken during the Crusades. It is now
called Bdiiias, and has about 50 houses,
many ruins of columns, towers, temples,
a bridge, and of a remarkable castle.
The place is now noted for one of
the chief sources of the Jordan, which
rushes in clear crystal springs from be-
neath the rocks of Mount Hermon, and
then flows rapidly to Dan, where it unites
with another source.
C.*:'SAR'S HOUSE' HOLD,
Phil. 4 : 22, was Paul's phrase for the ser-
vants and dependents in the palace of the
Roman emperor, some of whom were con-
verts. It is unlikely that any members
of the imperial family are meant, al-
though the expression (as Lightfoot re-
marks) " might include equally the high-
est functionaries and the lowest menials."
CA'IAPHAS {depression) was the
liigh priest of the Jews, A. D. 27-36, and
therefore at the time of our Saviour's trial.
John 11 : 49, 51. The office was formerly
held for life, but at this time it was filled
and vacated at the pleasure of the Roman
government. The raising of Lazarus
roused the Sanhedrin to action, and
Caiaphas turned their thoughts toward
the execution of the hated and feared
Prophet by deliberately advising his
death on the score of expediency. His
language was unconsciously prophetic.
John 11 : 49-52.
After Christ's arrest he was arraigned
before Caiaphas. A vain effort having
been made to secure false testimony
sufficient for his condemnation, Cai-
aphas at last adjured him to declare
whether he was indeed the Christ, the
Son of God. On Jesus's answering af-
firmatively, Caiaphas pretended to be
so shocked at his supposed blasphemy
that he declared all further witness was
unnecessary to convict him, and the
council unanimously condemned him to
death. Matt. 28: 65-68.
As Caiaphas had no power to inflict
the punishment of ileath, Christ was
taken from him to Pilate, the Roman
governor, John 18 : 28, that his execu-
tion might be duly ordered. See An-
nas. Before Caiaphas, Peter and John
were brought for trial. Acts 4 : 6.
CAIN { poKHcssiuit), the first-born of
Adam and Eve. Gen. 4:1. Welcomed
as the ])romised deliverer, he disap-
])ointed his parents' dearest hopes and
proved to bo of a bad heart, for out of
150
envy because his brother's sacrifice had
been accepted and his own rejected, he
slew his brother. See Abel.
For this crime he was banished from
his home. But God, remembering mer-
cy in the midst of wrath, gave him
some sign or mark whereby he Avould
have protection from attacks likely to
be made upon him as the accursed of
God. He then went to the land of Nod,
to the east of Eden ; after the birth of
his son Enoch (and perhaps other chil-
dren), he began to build a city — j". e. a
village of rude huts, as distinguished
from the movable tents of the nomads.
Gen. 4:16, 17. See Nod.
CAIN (laiice), in the mountains of
Judah, Josh. 15 : 57 ; perhaps modern
Yukhi, south-east of Hebron.
CAI'NAN { j)osseHsioii, or o smith),
1. The sonof Enos. Gen. 6: 9-14 ; Luke
3: 37. He is called Kenan, which is the
correct form, in 1 Chr. 1:2. He lived
910 years.
2. A son of Arphaxad, Luke 3 : 36 ;
but as the name is not found in the He-
brew, it is probably an unwarranted
interpolation into the Septuagint, and
thence copied by Luke into his Gospel.
CAKE. See Bread.
CA'liAH {oid aije), one of the old-
est of Assyrian towns ; founded by
Nimrod, Gen. 10 : 11, and probably for
a time the chpital of the Assyrian king-
dom. Layard, Porter, and Kalisch lo-
cate it at Kileh-Shenjhdt, on the Tigris,
40 miles below Nimroitd, where there is
a vast ruin 3 miles in circuit. The
Rawlinsons. Geo. Smith, and others,
place it at Nimrond, where are ruins cov-
ering about 1000 acres. They indicate
a town in the form of an irregular quad-
rangle, surrounded by a wall, flanked
with towers, and pierced with gates.
The remains of palaces, temples, and a
famous tower or ])yramid form a mound
of ruins, 600 yards long, with a cone
140 feet high. See Assyria and Ar-
CAL'AMUS, Song Sol. 4:14: Eze.
27:19, OR SWEET CALAMUS,
Ex. 30:23, OR SWEET CANE, Isa.
43 : 24 ; Jer. 6 : 20. All probably names
for the same plant. It seems to have been
an aromatic reed brought "from afar
country." Lemon-grass (Aiidropof/ou)
is "a plant of remarkable fragrance
and a native of Central India, where it
CAL
CAL
Reeds. (Schaff's "Popu-
lar Oommentai-y." )
is used to mix with ointments, on ac-
count of the delicacy of its odor." Cal-
amus may ha\e
been a species of
this.
C AL'C O L
(mittoKince), a Ju-
dite, 1 Chr. 2:6;
probably same
with Chalcol. 1
Kgs. 4 : 31. He
was one of the
four sages whom
Solomon excelled
in wisdom.
CAL'DROxN,
a vessel for boiling
flesh for any use,
ceremonial or do-
mestic. 1 Sam. 2:
14; 2 Chr. 35: 13;
Job 41:20; Mic.
3:3.
CA'LEB (ccqinble). 1. The son of
Hezron, of the tribe of Judah, and
father of Hur. 1 Chr. 2:9 (where he is
called Chelubaij, 18, 19, 42, 46, 48.
2. One of the twelve spies sent by
Moses into Canaan. Xum. 13:6. He
and Joshua were the rnly adults born
in Egypt who entered tJie land as con-
querors, because they brought a truth-
ful report, while the other ten were
frightened, told exaggerated stories of
the native population, and spread dis-
content and despair. Caleb and Joshua
assured the people that they might eas-
ily gain possession of Canaan. In return
for these assurances, the people proposed [
t'l stone them. A plague from the Lord '■
broke out. and the lying spies were all
killed. Num. 13 and 14. Forty-five
years afterward, when the conquest
was completed and the land apportion-
ed among the tribes, Caleb, being then
eighty-five years of age. applied to
Joshua for his share, reminding him of
the promise of God. by which he and
Joshua were excepted from the general
curse of the people, and proposed to
take, as his share of the land. Kirjath-
arba, the stronghold of the giants and
the centre of their fortifications. His
request was granted, and he accordingly
attacked and subdued Kiriath-arba. and
thence proceeded to Kirjath-sepher,
another stronghold, afterward called
Debir. Here he proposed to give his
daughter Achsah in marriage to the
man who should capture the city. His
nephew, Othniel, undertook the enter-
prise and succeeded, and received the
promised reward. Caleb's possessions
were called bv his name. Josh. 14 and
15 ; 1 Sam. 30 : 14.
3. A Caleb, the son of Hur, is men-
tioned in 1 Chr. 2 : .50. He may be
identical with the spy.
CA'LEB (a do;/), the district in
Judah, between Hebron and Carmel,
assigned to Caleb. 1 Sam. 30:14.
CALF. Gen. 18:7. A fatted calf
was regarded bv the Jews as the choicest
animal food. I'Sam. 28 : 24 ; Am. 6:4;
Luke 15 : 23. The allusion in Jer. 34 :
18 is to an ancient custom of ratifying
a contract or covenant in the observance
of which an animal was slain and divi-
ded, and the parties passed between the
parts, signifying their willingness to be
so divided themselves if they failed to
perform their covenant. Gen. 15 : 9.
10, 17.
Calf, Moi.tex, Ex. 32 : 4, was an idol-
god prepared bj' Aaron in compliance
with the request of the children of Is-
rael, who had become impatient at the
absence of Moses anddesiied some visi-
ble image or representation of the Deity.
See AAnON. It was probably made of
wood and thickly overlaid with gold.
The golden calves of Jeroboam, 1 Kgs.
12 : 28, were objects of worship set up by
that king in the land of Israel to pi event
the ten tribes from resorting to Jerusa-
lem to worship, and so more elTectually
Bronze Figure of Apis. (Wilkinson.)
to separate them from the house of Da-
vid. One of the idols was in Dan and
151
CAL
CAM
the other in Bethel, the two extremes
of his kingdom. It is supposed this
wicked king had become acquainted
with the forms and objects of idola-
trous wort«hip while he dwelt in Egypt.
1 Kgs. 11 : 40. His sin is almost always
mentioned whenever his name is used.
See Jeroboam.
Calvics of our Lips, IIos. 14 : 2, is
a figurative expression signifying the
fruits of our lips, or our offerings of
praise to God. Calves were used in
sacrifices, and we are to render praises
and thanksgivings to God as the offer-
ing of our lips. Heb. 13 : 15.
CAL'NEH {fortified place?), a city
of Chakhea founded by Nimrod. Gen.
10 : 10; Am. 6:2; probably the same
as Calno, Isa. 10 : 9, and Canneh, Eze.
27:23. Some have proposi'd to locate
Calneh at Ctesiphon, or Kileh-Shei(j/i«t,
on the Tigris, 40 miles below Nimyoiid.
llawlin^on and others, however, place
ancient Asshur at Klleh-Sher(jluit, and
identify Calneh with Niffer. The ruins
at Niffer arc 60 miles north-west of War-
kii, and on the east side of the Eu-
phrates, but 30 miles from the present
course of the river. They are conceded
to be of very great antiquity, and are
divided into nearly equal groups by a
deep ravine or channel, 120 feet wide,
apparently the dry bed of a river which
once ran through the town. Inscriptions
found in the mounds indicate that the
ancient name of the city was Nipur,
probably the JVopher of the Talmud,
and hence the Calneh of Genesis.
CAL'VARY (f<k,tll), the place
where our Lord was crucified, so call-
ed from its conical shape. There is
no Scripture warrant for the popu-
lar phrase ^' Mount Calvary." It was
simj)!y an elevation. Tradition places
the site at the modern church of the
Holy Sepulchre, within the present
walls of Jerusalem. This view is stout-
ly maintained liy (ieorge Williams, Hit-
ter, Kratft, llaumer, Kosen, De Saul-
cy, Se])]), Tischendorf, and several of
the members of the British Palestine
Survey. It is as stoutly disputed by
Robinson, Tobler, John Wilson, Bar-
clay, Thomson, Bonar, Meyer, Ewald,
S. J. Andrews, and others.
The argiimen's turn chiefly on the
course of the second wall of Josephus
— whether it ran so as to include or
162
to exclude the present church of the Holy
Sepulchre. The evangelists place Calva-
rv distinctly outside of the citv in Matt.
28 : 32 ; Heb. 13 : 12 ; John 19 : 20, 41.
The church of the Holy Sepulchre is
inside the present city, which is much
smaller now than in the time of Christ.
To establish the traditional site it must be
proved that the second wall excluded the
church, which is quite improbable. Mr.
Schick and Bishop Gobat of Jerusalem
locate Calvary near the Grotto of Jere-
miah, north-west of the Damascus gate ;
Fisher Howe and Conder, on the Grotto
of Jeremiah ; Barclay suggests a place
near Gethsemane. As in the case of
Moses, so in that of Jesus, it may be best
that the exact place of his crucifixion and
burial remain unknown and out of the
reach of profanation and idolatry.
CAM'EL, a well-known and highly
useful animal in Eastern countries, and
justly called '' the ship of the desert."
it is by the law of Moses unclean. Lev.
11 : 4. The camel is usually about G feet
in height to the saddle. Though he
makes loud complaints when caused to
kneel or receive a load, he is still docile,
and marches on as under a painful sense
of duty. He varies in color from white to
black, but is ordinarily tawny. In the
Bible lands the Arabian or one-hump-
ed camel {Canteliis dromednriiift) is found.
Two-humped camels (C. Bactrifnnis) are
rarely used except in Central Asia.
The feet of this animal are provided
with a tough, elastic sole, which prevents
them from sinking in the sand. His
hump serves as a cushion for loads, Isa.
30 : (i, and a store-house of food against
times of scarcity. There is a large cal-
lus on his breast and three pairs of cal-
luses on his legs, which ])r()tect him
from laceration when kneeling uj>on
sharp stones. His nostrils are adapted
for breathing with safety in a sand-
storm. A horny mouth with divided
upper lip is fitted for the harsh and
thorny shrubs of the desert, which he
seems to prefer to more tender herbage.
The second stomach of the camel, which
is a ruminant animal, is divided into
hexagonal cells, and receives and re-
tains for gradual use the water which is
drunk. On a full supply he can live
even 20 or 30 days. As the camel never
sensibly ])erspires, there is no loss in this
direction. These qualities all combine to
CAM
CAM
adapt the animal to the countries he in-
habits and to the services required of him.
He is, perhaps, more sure-footed than the
ass, more easily supported, and capable
of an incomparably greater burden. He
can carry a load of 600 or 800 pounds
Camel.
at the rate of 30 miles a day, and, on
short journeys, 1000 to 1200 jiounds.
His usual speed is two and a half miles
an hour, but the breed of fast camels
called distinctively dromedaries, Jer. 2 :
23, will travel 100 miles a day.
Like a docile colt, this animal is driven
or led by a rude halter. Crcscent-sha])ed
ornaments of cloth and cowrie-shells, or
even of silver, are often hung to the cam-
el's neck Jud. 8 : 21, 26. The flesh and
milk are used for food (except by Jew*?j ;
the skin and hair are employed for gar-
ments; the bones are cut into various
articles ; and sometimes the dung is
needed for fuel.
The ordinary life of the camel is from
30 to 50 years. Camels were formerly,
and are still, in the East, among the
chief possessions of the wealthy. Gen.
12 : 16 ; 30 : 43 ; 37 : 25 ; Jud. 6 : 5 and
7:12; 1 Sam. 30 : 1 7 ; 1 Kgs. 10 : 2 ; 1
Chr. 5 : 21 ; 2 Chr. 14 : 15 ; Job 1 : 3 and
42:12; Isa. 30:6. 153
The axpression in Matt. 19 : 24 is usu-
ally considered figurative, denotingsome-
thing beyond human power. The same
form of expression is used among the
Arabs and by the Rabbins in respect to
the elephant. Some believe that the ex-
pression refers to the small door in Ori-
ental towns which stands alongside the
large and heavy gate, and is called in
Arabic "the neecUe'n eye." Rolla Floyd
(a well-known Syrian dragoman) told
the writer that till recently it was the
custom to close the gates of Jerusalem
from 12 till 2 on Fridays during Moham-
medan worship, but this small door
might then be used. On one such oc-
casion, Mr. F. was waiting outside the
Jaffa gate for some travellers, when a
train of camels arrived. He saw them
enter the city by unloading each ani-
mal and taking it separately through
"f/je )ieedleH eye."
Another figurative expression occurs
Matt. 23 : 24, in which the inconsistency
of the scribes and Pharisees (who at-
tended to the most unimportant cere-
monies of their religion, Avliile they
were unjust, unmerciful, and faithless)
is compared to one who should very
carefully strain out (not at) a gnat or
other small insect from the liquor he
was about to drink, and yet swallow
an animal as large as a camel. See
DniNK.
Travellers sometimes throw over the
camel, upon the top of his burden, a pair
of panniers, in which they ride, one on
either side. Two boxes like small car-
riage-bodies are often hung upon the
animal in the same manner, and in these
females may ride and be sheltered from
the heat. (? en. 24:64. It is easy to S(e
how Rachel might have concealed her
father's idols. Gen. 31 : 34. The camel
is said to choose ruinous and desolate
places for his habitations, and hence the
force of the projihetic language respect-
ing Rabbah, Eze. 25 : 5 : though the
pro])hccy would be abundantly verified
if the ))lace should merely become a
stopping-place for caravans.
Camki.'s Hair, Matt. 3 : 4, was made
into cloth. 2 Kgs. 1 : 8 ; Zech. 13 : -J.
Sometimes the fabric was wrought of
the finest and softest part of the hair,
and was then a very rich and luxurious
article of dress. A coarser kind was
used for the covering of tents and for
the upper garments of shepherds and
camel-drivers. Travellers tell us that
modern dervish.es wear cloth of this
kind, and also leathern girdles. The
raiment of John the Baptist, Matt. 11 : 8,
was probably of this kind, for it is put
in o])position to no/t raiment ; but some
think it was of prepared camel's hide.
CAME'LEON". See Chameleon.
CA'MOX (xtnlks, or grain f), where
Jair was buried, Jud. 10 : 5 ; east of Jor-
dan, in Gilead.
CA31P. This term is frequently
used in reference to the movements of
the children of Israel, and many pas-
153
CAM
CAM
sages of the Levitical law relate to
things that are to be done within or
without the camp.
The form of encamping, Ex. 16 : 13,
is particularly prescribed in Num. 2.
The tabernacle occupied the centre, and
nearest to this were the tents of the Le-
vi tes, who were intrusted with the prin-
cipal care of it. Num. 3. The whole
body of the people, embracing upward
of 600,000 fighting-men, besides women
and children, were formed in four di-
visions, three tribes constituting a di-
vision, so that the tabernacle was en-
closed in a hollow square. Each of
these divisions had a standard, as well
as each tribe and each of the large fam-
ily associations of which the tribes were
composed. Each tribe had its captain or
commander assigned by God's direction.
NORTH. FOURTH DIVISION. CAMP OP DAN, 157,000.
DAX,
62,700.
ASHER, AND NAPHTALI,
41,500. 53,400.
H CO
O CO
1/3 CO
«
o
MERAUITKS,
3200.
33 GO
^ >
~ >
HI O
COURT
OP THE
TABERNACLE.
KOHATHITES,
2750."
53
O >
O 23
o o
REUBKN,
46,500.
SIMEON, AND GAD,
59,300. 45,650.
SOUTH. SECOND DIVISION. CAMP OP REUBEN, 151,450.
The view of such a mass of people,
maintaining the most perfect order and
subordination, might well excite the
admiration of the beholder. Num. 24 :
2-5. It is not difficult to imagine the
emotions which such a view would
awaken in one who, from the summit
of Mount Peor, looked down upon the
vast congregation of the Lord's people
gathered around the sacred symbols of
his presence.
" How beautiful lire tliy touts, O Jacob !
And tliy tabeniaclfS.'O Israel !
As the v.alleys are they spread forth ;
As gardens by the river's side :
As lisn-aloea whirli •lelmvah hath planted,
As cedars beside the waters."
Num. 24 :5, 6.
154
" Outside of the camp" must all de-
filement and all defiled persons be put.
Consequently, lepers, those defiled by
contact with the dead, captives taken
in war, were ke|)t out for a greater or
less period, and the ashes of the sacri-
fice and all that was not burnt on the
altar were carried out. The dead were
there buried, and there executions and
the burning of the young bullock for
the sin-offering took place. See refer-
ences in order: Lev. 13:46; 14:3;
Num. 12 : 14, 1 5 ; 31 : 1 9 : Josh. 6 : 23 ;
Deut. 23: 10, 12: Lev. 6:11: 8 : 17 ;
10 : 4, 5 ; 24 : 1 4 ; 4 : 12. We are not to
picture an enormous cnmp lying four-
; square, containing regular streets, like
CAM
CAN
a modern military camp, because in
that case these regulations evidently
could not be carried out without a great
expenditure of time. But the Israelites
traversed a country broken up into in-
numerable little valleys, and oftentimes
the host mut^t have stretched along for
miles, but so closely hemmed in between
mountain-sides that to go without the
camp would be but a few ste])S.
In later times, when Israel was set-
tled in the Promised Land, we find
scattered references to camps. They
appear to have been generally pitched
upon high ground. Jud. 7:1,8: 1 Sam.
17 : 4 ; 28 : 4. They were sometimes
intrenched: at other times a barrier
was formed of the .baggage-wagons.
Jehoshaphat established permanent
camps. 2 Chr. 17 : 2.
CA.II'PHIRE. Song Sol. 4: 13. A
shrub, sometimes 10 feet high, growing
in Egypt and other Eastern countries,
and called heinta {Li»cso)iia albn).
The white-and-yellow flowers grow
in clusters, like the lilac, and arc very
fragrant. From the leaves, when dried
Camphire. {Laiesonia alba.)
and pulverized, is made an orange or
reddish dye, with which females stain
their hands and feet. Sonnini says that
Eastern women "are fond of decorating
themselves with the flowers of the hen-
na-pVant : that they take them in their
hands and perfume their bosoms with
them." What we call camphor is an
entirely different substance. It is re-
markable that camphire is still found
growing only at one place in Palestine,
and that Engedi. Song Sol. 1:14.
CA'NAAN (l<m\ humbled), the fourth
son of Ham, Gen. 10:6; 1 Chr. 1:8,
and the progenitor of those peoples who
inhabited the countrj' on the west of the
Jordan. Xoah, his grandfather, cursed
him on awaking from his drunken sleep
because of the conduct of Ilam, his
father. Gen. 9 : 20-25. The difficulty is
easiest solved if we trust a Jewish tra-
dition that Canaan was the one who first
saw his grandfather's shame, and that,
instead of decorously concealing it, he
told his father. His descendants bore
the curse. The Israelites carried on a
war of extermination against them, and
they became, in great measure, servants
or slaves.
CA'NAAN, LAND OF. Gen.
12:5. The country inhabited by the
posterity of Canaan, who were hence
called Canaanites, and which was given
by (lod to the children of Israel, the
posterity of Abraham, as their posses-
sion. Ex. 6:4: Lev. 25:38.
The original boundaries were Mount
Lebanon on the north, the wilderness
of Arabia on the south, and the Arabian
desert on the east. On the west their
possessions extended at some points to
the margin of the Mediterranean. Their
boundaries on this side were partially
restricted by the Philistines, who held
the low lands and strong cities along
the shore. Gen. 10 : 19. Besides the
possessions of the Israelites, the land
of Canaan embraced Phoenicia on the
north and Philistia on the south-west.
Zeph. 2:5. The land of Canaan was
called the laud of Israel, 1 Sam. 13 : 19,
because it was occupied by the descend-
ants of Jacob or Israel ; the holi/ Iniid,
Zech. 2:12; the l<nid of prmin'se, Heb.
11 : 9, because it was promised to Abra-
ham and his posterity as their posses-
sion : the land of Judah. Jer. 39 : 10,
because Judah was the leading tribe;
the laud of the Hehreu-s, Gen. 40: 15, or
the descendants of Eber, an ancestor of
Abraham. The modern name of Pal-
estine, or the land of the Philistines,
was originally applied to the region ly-
ing along the coast of the Mediter-
155
CAN
CAN
ranean, south-west of the Land of Prom-
ise, but in its pre>-ent usage denotes the
whole country bounded by the Jordan
on the east, tlie Mediterranean on the
west, Arabia on the south, and Lebanon
on the north. For physical features,
see Palestine.
the land was inhabited by them and six
other tribes. Canaan was the country fur
which Terah started, Gen. 11 : ,31 ; Abram
dwelt in it ; it was promised to him for
a possession, Gen. 12 : 5. 8, etc. ; Isaac,
Jacob, and the patiarchs made their
home there. Gen. 26-35. It was left
by Jacob because of the
famine; searched by the
twelve spies. Num. 13:2;
viewed by Moses, Deut.
32:49; conquered by
Joshua, Josh. 11:2;^: di-
vided by lot among the
twelve tribes, Josh. 13 : 7 ;
a king of tlie country was
slain by Deborah and Ba-
rakt Jud. 4 : 24. See Map.
In the temple at Kar-
nak, in Egypt, a trij)le list
of 1 18 or llO towns of Ca-
naan has lately been dis-
covered, which is believed
to be a record of an Egyp-
tian conquest of the land
by Thothmes III. previous
to that by Joshua. See the
list of these towns in Con-
der's Tent- Work in Palen-
tine, vol. ii. .344-346. It
is the oldest known record
of Canaanite cities before
the time of Joshua. For
later history see JrnAH,
Kixgdomof; Israel, King-
dom of; and Palestine.
CA'NAANITES,
THE. See preceding
article.
C ANA OF GALI'-
L1EE9 a town noted as
the scene of Christ's first
miracle. John 2 : 1-11. and
of another miracle. 4 : 4fi,
and as the home of Na-
thanael. 21:2. Tradition
places it at h'p/r-Keiina,
about four English miles
north-east of Nazareth,
and the traveller is now
shown an earthen jar,
Previous to its conquest by which is claimed to be one of the
Rob-
Sketch-Map of Can.ian before the Conquest
Hlitorii.
Joshua, Canaan was peopled by several water-jars used at the wedding
tribes, as Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites, inson and others, with greater proba-
Girgasites, llivites. Perizzites, and four bility, identify Cana with Kn a-el-JelU,
others, all early known as Cnnaanites.
Gen. 10 : lo-H». Later, "Cannanites"
abf)ut 9 miles north of Nazareth. It
has a fine situation, and the ruins indi-
appears to designate a separate tribe, and cate the existence in former times of a
156
CAN
CAN
considerable village. Concler suggests
a new location, and proposes to place
Caiia at Reineh, north-east of Xazareth,
and only one and a half miles distant. —
CoNDKR : Teut- Work in Palestine, 1878,
i. p. 154. This lacks confirmation.
CAN'DACE {sovereign of slaves ?).
The name is a title of Ethiopian queens.
Acts 8 : 27. Her chamberlain or treas-
urer, a eunuch, was met by Philip the
evangelist on the road between Jerusa-
lem and Gaza, and converted. See
Philip.
CAN'DLE. Job 18 : 6. Often used
figuratively to denote light generally.
See Lamp.
CANDLESTICK, GOLD'-
E\ — a misnomer, as it held only
lamps — Ex. 26 : 31. It was a splendid
article of the tabernacle furniture, made
of fine gold, not moulded, but '" of beat-
en work," and computed by some to
have been worth, at the modern value
of gold, SoO.OOO. It consisted of a
shaft or stem, supposed to have been 5
feet high, with six branches. The
Golden Caiiiile^iick. (From the Arch of Titus )
branches came out from the shaft at
three points, two at each point, as in
the accompanying cut, and the width
of the whole candlestick across the top
was about three feet and a half. It was
richly adorned with raised work repre-
senting flowers, and also knops or knobs,
and little bowls resembling half an
almond-shell. At the extremity of
each branch there was a socket for
the lamp, and also at the top of the
main shaft, making seven in all. Tongs
to remove the snutf and dishes to receive
it, as well as oil-vessels, were articles
of furniture belonging to the can-
dlestick, and were all made of gold.
The lights were trimmed and supplied
daily with the purest olive-oil. They
were lighted at night and extinguished
in the morning, though some suppose
that a part of them at least were kept
burning through the day. The candle-
stick was so situated as to throw the
light on the altar of inctnse and on the
table of shew-bread, occupying the
same apartment, and from which the
nntural light was excluded.
In Solomon's temple there were 10
golden candlesticks. 1 Kgs. 7 : 49 : 2
Chr. 4 : 7. They were taken to Baby-
lon. Jer. 52:19. In Zerubbabel's tem-
ple there was only one candlestick.
This was removed from Herod's temple
by Titus, and carried immediately before
him in his triumphal entry into Rome.
It is sculptured upon the Arch of Titus,
in Rome. Its after-history is curious.
Titus deposited it in the Temple of
Peace; it was carried to Carthage by
Genseric, A. D. 455; recovered by Beli-
sarius: brought to Constantinople, and
then " respectfully deposited in the
Christian church of Jerusalem," A. n.
533. Nothing further is known of it.
CANE. See Calamus.
CANKER-WORM. Joel 1:4:
Xah. 3 : 15, 1(5. This was one of the
army of destroying insects by which
the land of Judaea was laid waste. It
is thought that the original word means
rather the locust in its larva or cater-
pillar state, when it is even more de-
structive than after it acquires wings
and is about to fly away. Of this Na-
hum's words are very expressive : it
*'spoi!eth and fleeth away."
CAN'NEH. See Calneh.
CAN'ON (literally, a cane, then a
rod of measurement) means the collec-
tion of books of the 0. and X. T. which
form the original and authoritative
written )ule of faith and practice in the
Christian Church.
I. Tfie 0. T. Canon. — Our Bible is a
growth of many generations. Moses put
the " book of the law " in the side of the
ark. Deut. 31 : 26. This book, which
157
CAN
CAN
contained not alone direct precepts. Ex.
24 : 7, but also general exhortations,
Deut. 28:61, and historical narratives,
Ex. 17 : 14, was further increased by the
records of Joshua, Josh. 24 : 26, and
probably by other writings. I Sam. 10 :
25. At a subsequent time collections of
psalms and proverbs were made. The
later prophets, especially Jeremiah, were
familiar with the writings of their pred-
ecessors. But although book was added
to book, there probably was no collec-
tion made containing them all until the
Captivity. According to Jewish tradi-
tion, the formation of the canon of the
0. T. in its present form was due to Ezra
and the men of the " great synagogue."
The division of the 0. T. into three
parts — the Law, the Prophkts, and the
Hagiogkapha — i. e. the remaining sa-
cred writings — ^(see Bible) was not ar-
bitrary or accidental, but was a reflec-
tion of the true historical order of their
composition. The Law is the founda-
tion of the Jewish state; the Prophets
relate the story of the struggles of the
Jews against internal and external dan-
gers, and likewise the revelation of the
divine Mind toward them and their
neighbors; the Hagiographa contain
additional information, and, above all,
the outpourings of the nation's heart
and the expression of their wisdom.
According to Josephus, there were only
22 books in the sacred canon, corre-
sponding to the number of letters in the
Hebrew alphabet. But this short list
was made by combining several books
which we properly separate. Thus, the
two books of Samuel, of Kings, of
Chronicles, formed but one book respect-
ively ; Judges and Ruth, Ezra and Ne-
hemiah, Jeremiah and Lamentations,
were similarly combined; and finally,
the twelve minor prophets were reck-
oned as one book. And although other
lists, slightly different, are given, still
the main fact is testified to that the Jews
had a certain lixed and uniform amount
of writing to which they gave a divine
character and paid peculiar regard.
This list does not include the Apocry-
pha of the Septuagint, which, accord-
ingly, has been excluded from the
Protestant 0. T., though often ])rinted
between the Testaments. The Roman
Catholic Church, however, receives them
as authentic. The British and Foreign
15vS
Bible Society ceased to print them after
1826. The American Bible Society like-
wise omits them.
We may therefore say that the 0. T.,
as we have it to-day, existed shortly
after the Captivity, and that the present
number and arrangement of the books
do not affect its age. since nothing has
been added or omitted which had any
right to be in the canon or the individ-
ual books.
The canon as we have it existed iu our
Lord's day, as is evident from the quo-
tations in the N. T. by him and his dis-
ciples. There are in all 275 quotations
from different books, but, with the ex-
ception of the words of Enoch in Jude,
no book out of the canon is used for this
purpose. ^ye may therefore feel cer-
tain that we have a canon endorsed by
the highest conceivab'o authority. It
should, however, be borne in mind that
the Septuagint version is generally
quoted, even when it differs from the
Hebrew. The apostles were no slaves
of the letter, but used the Scriptures in
the freedom of the Spirit.
ir. The JV. T. Cxnou.— The history
of the collection and authoritative de-
termination of the N. T. canon may be
divided into three periods.
1. Down to A. D. 170. — Paul claimed
for his Epistles "■ a public use and an
authoritative power." 1 Thess. 5:27; 2
Thess. 3:6; Col. 4 : 16; 1 Tim. 4 : 6.
John solemnly warns against any addi-
tions to or deductions from the book of
Revelation. Rev. 22:18, 19. Peter sig-
nificantly puts Paul's Epistles side by
side with " the other Scriptures." 2 Pet.
3:16. Nothing is more striking than the
great difference in contents and expres-
sion between the N. T. and the Chris-
tian writings of the following centuries.
This difference is a subsidiary but con-
vincing proof of the inspiration of the
former. We see in the Apostolic Fath-
ers (a. T). 70-120) evidence of acquaint-
ance with at least the majority of our
present N. T.
The period from A. n. 120-170 has
been termed the age of the apologists.
These efforts to defend the Christian
faith led to a new use of the facts of
Christ's life, and it then became mani-
fest how greatly superior the four Gos-
pels were to all other accounts ; and
accordingly, they were separated and
CAN
CAP
assigned to a place of honor and abso-
lute authorit}'. At the close of the pe-
riod was composed the Muratorian
canon in the West, while about the
same time appeared the Syriae transla-
tion of the N. T. called the Peshito, and
the first Latin versions called Itala.
2. From A. D. 170 to A. D. S03.—X&
the result of the investigations in the
patristic writings of this period, West-
cott declares that the four Gospels, the
Acts, 1 Peter, 1 John, 18 Epistles of
Paul, and the Apocalypse (the Revela-
tion) were accepted by the Church, and,
Avith the exception of the Apocalypse,
have never been questioned since until
modern times. Speaking generally, we
may say that of the so-called *" dis-
puted *' books of the N. T. the Apoca-
lypse was universally received by all
the Christian writers, while the Epistle
to the Hebrews found acceptance in the
Oriental, but not in the Occidental,
Church. Judging from the writings,
*' the Epistles of James and Jude and the
second and third of John were little
used, and the second of Peter was bare-
ly known."
3. Fn,m A. D. SOS to A. T). 397.— At
the close of this period the third Coun-
cil of Carthage, A. D. .397, took place,
memorable as that by which the present
canon of the N. T., with its 27 books,
was ratified. Since that time it has
remained unchanged. Luther revived
doubts concerning some of the 7 books
which Eusebius calls " disputed," es-
pecially the Epistle of James (which he
could not harmonize with Paul's doc-
trine of justification by faith) : but
these were private opinions, and were
not adopted by the Lutheran Church.
All the Protestant Churches agree with
the Grefek and the Roman Churches as
regards the extent of the canon of the
N. T. And this little book contains the
chief wisdom of the world, and will con-
tinue to guide mankind in the way of
salvation to the end of time.
CAN'TICLES. See Song of Sol-
omon.
CAPER'NAUM (tow» o/Nohum). a
city of great interest as the home of Jesus
after he left Xazareth. Though it fills a
large place in the gospel narrative, it is
not once mentioned in O.T. history, nor in
any portion of the Bible except the four
Gospels. It is called Christ's '' own city,"
Matt. 9:1, and it was the scene of some of
his most remarkable miracles, labors, and
discourses. Matt. 8 : 5-14 : 9 : 2 : 17 : 24 ;
J ohn 6 : 1 7-59 ; 4 : 46, etc. Much explo-
ration, study, and discussion have been
given to determine its true site, but the
question is still unsettled.
The gospel narrative throws some
general, though not very definite, light
upon the location of this lost city. It
was (1) a city of Galilee, Luke 4: 31;
(2) by the lake-coast. Matt. 4:13: John
6 : 17, 24 ; (3) with collectors of customs,
and probably a custom-house, Matt. 17 :
24 ; Mark 2 : 1, 14; Luke 5 : 27 compared
with Matt. 9 : 1, 9 ; (4) it had a noted syn-
nagogue, built by a Roman centurion.
Matt. 8:5; Mark 1:21: Luke 7:1,5;
(5) it was joined with Chorazin and Beth-
saida in the woes pronounced upon them
by Christ, and its complete destruction
was predicted, Matt. 11:20-23: Luke
10 : 13-15 ; (6) it has been inferred also
from the Scriptures that Capornaum was
4n the land of Gennesaret, but this is not
certain. Comp. Matt. 14 : 34 with John
6 : 16, 17, 24, 25. These indicate that the
city was on the west side of the Sea of
Galilee, and near its northern end.
Two places have been mainlj' urged
as marking the site of ancient Ca]ier-
naum : (1) Khati Miuyeh, supported by
Robinson (1852), Maegregor (1864),
Porter (1875), Kiepert. Sepp, and by
members of the recent British and Amer-
ican Palestine Exploration Societies
(Kitchener and Merrill) : (2) Tell Hum,
maintained by Dr. Wilson. Major Wil-
son. W. M. Thomson, Stanley, Hep-
worth Dixon, Ritter, Baedeker, De-
litzsch, Plumptre, SchaflF, and others.
Tell Hum is a ruin near the Sea of
Galilee, about two miles south-west of
where the river Jordan enters the sea.
Khan Miuyeh is a Saracen inn on the
northern extremity of the plain of
Gennesaret (el-Ghuiceir), about 5 miles
south-west of the mouth of the Jordan
and 2i to 3 miles below Tell Hum, and
situated near the lake.
Several other places have been sug-
gested : as 'Ain Mudau-ainh, once urged,
but afterward abandoned, by Tristram,
and ruins near Bethsaida Julias ; but
their claims are generally regarded as
not well supported.
The argument from tradition is divid-
ed between Khtni Mt'nyeh, and Tell Hum,
159
CAP
CAP
but prevailingly in favor of TeJl Hum.
Conder ( Tent- Wurk in Palestine, ii. 182)
claims Jewish and Arab tradition for
Khan Minyeh, but Dr. Thomson and
Furrer claim it decidedly for Tell Hum.
The arguments for Khan Mini/eli,
briefly stated, are: (1) It is near the
Geunesaret, from Klian Minvph. (From a Photogi-aph taken for the
Palestine ^Exploration fund.)
sea-shore, while Tell Hum is at some
distance from the shore; (2) it is in
tlie land of Gennesaret, if Gennesaret is
identical with el-Ghnweir ; (3) it is well
located for a custom-house, on the high-
way from Jerusalem to Damascus.
The arguments in support of Tell Hum
mainly arc : (1 ) The extensive ruins, cov-
ering a space half a mile long by a quar-
ter of a mile wide, indicate a large city
like Cajiernaum ; (2) the ruins of a large
synagogue have been discovered there ;
(3) when Christ crossed the lake from
Capernaum, Mark 6 : 3.3, the crowd ran
around the end of the lake to meet him ;
and it is claimeil that Tell Hnm is more
likely, therefore, to have been his start-
ing-point than Khan Mini/eh ; (4) Jose-
phus, wounded on the plain of liatihha,
at the north end of the lake, was car-
ried to Capernaum, most likely the
iiemeKt ])lace — not. therefore, at Khan
Mini/eh, but 'J'ell Hnm ; (5) historical
narratives of the sixth and seventh cen-
turies and the .Jewish and Arab tradi-
tion appear to favor Tell Hnm as (Japcr-
naum ; (6) the identity of name, for Ca-
pernanm means " the village" (Kc/r or
160
AV) "of Nahum," and Tell Hum
means " the mound or ruins of Hum "
— /. e. Nahum.
The strongest argument against Khan
Minjieh is the absence of ruins of suffi-
cient imj)ortance to indicate a city of
the size of Capernaum. The English Sur-
vey party in 18()B
dug up at Khan Min-
i/eh chiefly fragments
of pottery ; Kitchener
in 1877 examined the
more extensive exca-
vations, bringing to
light what appeared
to him to be a wall
of squa red stones.
Robinson conjectures
that the ruins of Ca-
pernaum were trans-
ported to Tiberias, but
Tiberias was already
built when Caper-
naum was in its
prosperity. Those
who place Caper-
naum at Khan Min-
i/eh usually locate
C h o r a z i n at 7V//
Hnm and Bethsaida
at Kt- Tdhiijhah. This theory leaves the
important ruins at Kerazeh to be ex-
plained. As the latter cannot be ig-
nored, they form a strong objection to
Khan Min)/eh. If, however, Capernaum
was at Tell Hnm, then Chorazin was
doubtless at Kerazeh, and no important
ruins remain unexplained.
At present, therefore, the arguments
are strongly in favor of Tell Hnm, but
a final decision of the question must
wait further excavations. The explo-
rations of the English society organ-
ized in 1878-1879 for the j)urpose of
determining the sites of the three cities
may furnish information for the satis-
factory settlement of this question.
Rninx at Till Hnm. — The most re-
markable ruin at Tell Hnm is that of a
Jewish synagogue. Around this, and
up the slope behin<l it. are the remains
of an ancient town; the walls of many
private houses can be traced, and the
appearance of a main street leading
toward ancient Chorazin. The syna-
gogue was al)out 75 feet long by .*')8 feet
wide ; its walls were built of hard white
limestone, almost marble, resting on ba-
CAP
CAP
saltic rock. Portions of columns, pedes-
tals, capitals of the Corinthian order, and
blocks of stone have been uncovered on
its site, and on the lintel of a door a rep-
resentation of the pot of manna was dis-
covered, recalling the words of Jesus:
"Your fathers did eat manna in the
wilderness, and are dead.'' John 6 : 49.
If Tell Hum is Capernaum, then thi?
synagogue was doubtless the one which
Piuiiis at Tell Hum. {From a Photograph. Palest
the pious Roman centurion built, Luke
7:1-10, and in which Jesus taught.
North of the town are two tombs, one
built under ground of limesfone blocks
after the hard basaltic rock had been cut
away ; the other above ground and white-
washed within and without, as in our
Lord's day. Matt. 23 : 27.
The road from Khan Miin/eh to Tc/l
Hum now leads over the rocks at some
height above the lake. It is a narrow
path, more like an ancient conduit than
a road. From this height the view ex-
tends to Tiberias. A short distance
from Klif{)i Miiii/eh by the seashore is
'Ai» et-Tin, or "Fig Spring" (which
Dr. Robinson erroneously identified with
the spring "Kaph a rn a uni.'' mentioned by
Josephus). A mile farther north is the
charming bay Et-Tdhiijhnh, by which
some locate western Bethsaida, but at
which, more probably, was the suburb
and harbor of Capernaum : here is a
very copious fountain abounding in
fish (probably the '' Kapharnaum " of
Josephus), and a large stream which
turns a mill and once watered, through
an aqueduct, the plain of Gennesaret.
The road from Et-Tdbighah continues
11
northward along the bank, on which
several springs and the remains of build-
ings are to be seen, until it reaches Tell
Hum. From thence northward to Keta-
zch, probably Chorazin, is about 2 miles,
and there are traces of a paved road
which connected the city with the great
caravan-road to Damascus. Following
the shore of the lake to the north-west
about 2 miles, whei-e the Jordan emp-
ties into the Sea of
Galilee, is Ahn Ztniy,
which Dr. Thomson
regards as Beth-
saida, the birthplace
of Peter and An-
drew. The ruin of
all these cities has
been so complete as
to render their very
sites doubtful, and
strikingly to remind
us of the fearful pre-
diction of our Lord
concerning them.
Matt. 11 : 21-2H.
CAPH'TOR
(chnplet), the origi-
i»e Explm-ation Fund.) ^^l home of the
Caphtorim or Philistines. Deut. 2 : 23 ;
Jer. 47 : 4 ; Am. 9 : 7. Some have placed
it in Cappadocia, others in Cyprus or in
Crete. It is more probably identical with
6V»/)/(/Hr. and the northern delta of Egypt.
CAPPADO'CIA, the largest and
most easterly province of Asia Minor.
On the north was Pontus. on the east
the Euphrates, beyond which were Ar-
menia and Mesopotamia, on the south
Syria and Cilicia, and on the west Ga-
latia. It was high tab'e-land, inter-
sected by ranges of mountains, sparse-
ly wooded, but good for grain or graz-
ing. Cappadocia was conquered by
Cyrus, ruled by Alexander the Great,
tributary to the Seleucidae, and became
a Roman province, A. D. 17. Some of
its people were in Jerusalem on the day
of Pentecost, Acts 2 : 9, and afterward
Christians of the province were ad-
dressed bv Peter. 1 Pet. 1 : 1.
CAP'TAIN, an officer in the Jew-
ish army whose rank or power was des-
ignated by the number of men under
his command, as captain of fifty or
captain of a thousand, and the com-
mander or chief of the whole army was
called the captain of the host. Deut. 1 :
161
CAP
CAP
15; 2 Sam. 19 : 13, etc. The divisions
of the army were regulated in some
measure by the division of families, as
the heads of families were usually offi-
cers. 2 Chr. 25 : 5. Captains of hun-
A Roman Captuiii or Ceiituiioii.
dreds, or larger companies, were proba-
bly what would be called in modern
phrase staff-officers, and formed the
council of war. 1 Chr. 13 : 1. The " cap-
tain of the guard," Acts 28 : 16, was the
commander of the Praetorian troops at
Rome. See Centurion.
Captain op the Temple, Acts 4:1,
was the chief of the priests and Levites
who kept guard around and within that
sacred edifice. In this non-military
sense is Christ called "Captain" in
Heb. 2:10.
CAP'TIVE. Gen. 14:14. Usually
denotes one taken in war. Among East-
ern nations such persons were treated
with great cruelty, and were subjects
of merchandise. For instances of this
merciless treatment see Jud. 1 : 7 ; 1 Sam.
11 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 2 ; 2 Kgs. 25 : 7. It
is a remarkable fact that though the Is-
raelites dealt in many instances harshly
with those they captured, yet their con-
duct stood out in such favorable contrast
to that of heathen nations tliat the hu-
manity of some even of their worst kings
was reckoned uj)on by their conquered
enemies. 1 Kgs. 20 : li\-'M. The pas-
sage Joel 3 : 3 brings out into mei^an-
162-
choly pi'ominence both the lot of pris-
oners of war and also the contempt
manifested for the Jews. The Bible
(Speaker's) Commentary thus expounds
the verse : " The Jewish prisoners were
held so cheap that a slave-girl was sold
by her captor for a draught of wine, and
a slave-boy was given in place of the
small coin thrown to a prostitute. Dur-
ing the Jewish war Titus took 97,000
prisoners, of whom he publicly sold all
that were under 17 years of age. After
Hadrian's Jewish war four Jews weie
sold for a measure of barley at Hebron."
The Romans sometimes comjjelled a cap-
tive to be joined with a dead body, and
to bear it about until the horrible efflu-
via destroyed the life of the living.
The capture of Judaea b}' the Romans,
A. D. 70, was commemorated by coins
which are shown in the following cut :
Coins to Commemorate the Capture of Judaea.
(Farrar's ''Life of Christ.")
On the left-hanfl coin is seen the emperor Titus ; Ju-
dasa is weeping at the foot of a palm tree. On the
right hand, a Jewish captive with hands tied behind
his buck looks upon a Jewess seated at the foot of a
palm tree.
CAPTIVITY. Num. 21 : 29. A
term usually employed to denote an im-
portant era in the history of the Jewish
people. To punish their rebellions and
idolatries, God suffered them to come
into frequent bondage to surrounding
nations. Six of their partial and tran-
sient captivities took place at an early
period of their history, of which a par-
ticular account is given in Judges.
Soon after the close f>f Solomon's
reign the kingdom Avas divide<l. Ten
of the tribes took the name of *' the
kingdom of Israel," leaving the tribes
of .Judah and Benjamin to constitute
the kingdom of Judah. Each of these
two kingdoms suffered a distinct captiv-
ity. The Jews reckon four national cap-
tivities— the Rab\ Ionian, the Median,
the (irecian, and the Roman.
Pul, B. c. 762, and then Tiglath-piloser,
B. c. 740, kings of Assyria, made war upon
CAP
CAP
the kingdom of Israel and carried a large
number of the people (chiefly those of
the tribes of Reuben, tiad, and Manas-
seh) into captivity, 2 Kgs. 15 : 29 ; J Chr.
5 : 26, and the residue remained under
their own king, but paid tribute to the
trisouers before Saigoii. {^'ineveh Marbles.) '.
Assyrian government. After the lapse '
of 20 years this trilnite was refused, and I
therefore Shalmane.^er besieged and (af- I
ter three years) captured and destioyed I
Samaria, the capital of the kingdom,
and the great mass of the people weie
transported to provinces beyond the Eu-
phrates, B. c. 721. Their fate is a fre-
quent subject of speculation, but noth- ,
ing definite can be determined. Nor '
was the kingdom of Judah long left un- i
Jewish Captives before Darius. {Fiom Ancient
Fersepolis. )
molested. In Hezekiah's reign Senna-
cherib, king of Assyria, took the fenced
cities of Judah, b. c. 71.], and would
have taken Jerusalem had Hezekiah not !
sent him a heavy tribute. 2 Kgs. 18 : 13. '
His next attempt on the city, which oc- I
curred some little time after, was defeat-
ed by a miracle. 2 Kgs. 19 : 35.
Nebuchadnezzar repeatedly overran
the kingdom of Judah, the first time in
the third year of Jehoiakim. He carried
a few captives to Babylon, among whom
were Daniel and his companions, b. c.
605. 2 Kgs. 24:1; Dan. 1:1-4. In the
tenth or eleventh year of Jehoiakim he
came again, b. c. 598, 2 Chr. 36 : 6, and
a third time in the eighth 3'ear of the
reign of Jehoiachin. This invasion re-
sulted in the carrving awav of 10.000
Jews. 2 Kgs. 24: 10-16. The TO years'
captivity began when Nebuchadnezzar,
for the fourth time, invaded Judfea,
B. c. 588. 2 Kgs. 25 : 1. The king. Zed-
ekiah, was taken, his sons slain, the
tt mple burnt and the city despoiled,
and the greater part of the population
carried into Babylonia. Jer. 52:8-13.
During this long captivity the rite of
circumcision was observed, the genea-
logical tables filled, distinctions of rank
maintained, and thus the Jews retained
their nationality intact.
In B. c. 536 the Jews were allowed to
return from Babylon by Cyrus, as a
portion of them did under Zerubbabel,
Ezr. 2 :2, and some time afterward un-
der Ezra. Ezr. 7 : 7, B. c. 458, and Nehe-
miah, Neh. 7 : 66, b. c. 445. Those who
remained in Assyria or scattered over
tl.e Roman empire, but kept up their
national distinctions, were known as
" The Disjtersion," John 7 : 35 ; 1 Pet.
1:1; Jas. 1:1, and afterward were
starting-points for Christianity.
Childke.n of the Captivity, Ezr.
4:1, a common figure of
speech, denoting those who
were in captivity, or per-
haps sometimes literally
their posterity. Ttan ayaiu,
Ps. 126 : 1, turn mray, Jer.
29 : 14, turn hack, Zeph. 3 :
20, or hriuy again, Eze. 16:
53, the capliiUy, are figura-
tive phrases, all referring to
the Jewish nation in b( ndage
and their return to Canaan.
A similar expression is used
to individuals, as in Job
42 : 10 : The Lord turned the captiv-
ity of Job — that is, he released him from
the unusual sufferings and perplexities
to which he had been in bondage, and
caused him to rejoice again in the favor
]63
Bas-relief at
in relation
CAR
CAR
of God. He led captivity captive, Eph.
4 : 8, or '• he led those as his captives who
had made captives of others," is a figur-
ative allusion to the victory which our
blessed Redeemer achieved over sin and
death, b}' whom our ruined race are
brought into bondage. Rom. 8 : 21 ;
Gal. 4 : 24 ; Heb. 2 : 15 ; 2 Pet. 2:19.
CAR'BUNCLE. This term repre-
sents two Hebrew words. The first, Ex.
28 : 17 ; 39 : 10 : Eze. 28 : 13, meaning
Jinshing like lightning, is supposed to be
either the emerald or beryl, both of
which are precious stones of a green
color. " Thy gates of carbuncles," Isa.
64: 12, has reference to a stone shining
like fire — possibly a brilliant species of
ruby.
CARCHE'MISH, or CHAR'-
CHEMISH (citadel of Chemosh), a
chief city of northern Syria, on the
Euphrates, where a great and decisive
battle was fought, in which Nebuchad-
nezzar defeated Pharaoh-necho, 2 Chr.
35 : 20 ; 2 Kgs. 23 : 29 ; Jer. 46 : 2, in
B. c. 605. It was formerly identified
with Circesium, but it is now placed
at Bir, close by the ruins of Hierapolis,
on the Euphrates.
CARE'AH (bald-head), the father
of Johanan. 2 Kgs. 25 : 23. Elsewhere
spelt Kareah.
CA'RIA, a small Roman province
in the south-western part of Asia Minor.
Its cities, Cnidus and Miletus, are men-
tioned in Acts 20 : 15 ; 27 : 7.
CAR'MEL (fruitful, or wooded).
1. One of the most noted mountains in
MoLiDi ^'ai'iiiel,
Bay of Acre. {After Views of G. M. PmccU )
Palestine, a range or ridge about 12
miles long, one end jutting into the
Mediorranean Sea in a bold blutf ovei-
500 feet high, extending thence south-
east until it abruptly breaks off in an
inland bluff over 500 feet above the sea-
level. Itshighestelevation, about 4 miles
from the east end, is nearly 1740 feet.
It is specially noted as being the scene
of remarkable events in the history of
Elijah and Elisha. 2 Kgs. 2 : 25 ; 4: 25.
The scene of the famous contest between
Elijah and the prophets of Baal, 1 Kgs.
18 : 20-42, was near the east end of the
ridge, at el-Mahrakah (i. e. " burnt-offer-
ing ") ; a well is near, and a slippery path
leads down to the Kishon, several hun-
dred feet below. This stream is now call-
164
ed Nahr el- Mukatta ," r'wQx- oi ^\».\i%\\iGr,"
in memory of this event. It is a sacred
mountain alike to Jews. Christians, and
Moslems, and formerly swarm el with
monks and hermits. One tract, known
as the Monk's Cavern, has hundreds of
caves, and a little below is the traditional
cave of Elijah. On the mountain is the
large monastery of the Carmelites, which
affords hospitable accommodation and a
magnificent view. It is now occupied
by eighteen monks. The German col-
ony of Haifa has recently planted vine-
yards on Mount Carmel.
Present Appearance. — Carmel is cov-
ered with a profusion of vegetation,
illustrating " the excellency of Carmel.'
Isa. 35:2. It is still known as Kurnml
CAR
CAS
and Mar Eli/as (Mount St. Elias). The
rugged sides of the ridge are of hard,
dark stone, always steep, often precip-
itous, covered with shrubs of dark, rich
green. These shrubs are chiefly a kind
of pistachio with no berries, the sponge-
laurel, the hawthorn, and the arbutus.
The bare spots are covered with flowers,
as rock-roses, striped asphodel, the daisj^,
and the red and purple anemone. The
horse of the traveller often presses out
a sweet fragrance from the thyme and
mint. Herds of goats are frequently seen
climbing its steep sides, and occasional-
ly a gazelle bounds through the shrubs,
while the fox, jackal, wolf, and a straj'
Avild boar and a panther (vhetah) add to
the animal life of the mountains. The
paitridge and woodcock also abound.
Huge valleys upward of 1000 feet deep
wind tortuously from the main ridge to
the sea, requiring hours to cross to the
opposite summits. The rock is a com-
pact, sandy limestone.
2. A town in the mountains of Judah,
where Saul set a monument, 1 Sam. 15 :
12; 25:2,5, 7,40; 27:3, and Uzziah
had vineyards, 2 Chr. 26 : 10 : now Kur-
viiil, 10 miles south-east of Hebron,
where are ruins of a strong castle.
CAR'MI (vhie-dresser). 1. The
fourth son of Reuben, progenitor of the
Carraites. Gen. 46 : 9 : Ex. 6 : U ; Num.
26 : 6 ; 1 Chr. 5:3.
2. The father of Achan, the " troubler
of Israel." Jos. 7:1. 18.
CAR'PENTER. The first allu-
sion to the carpenter's trade in the
Scriptures occurs in the command to
Noah to build the ark, Gen. 6: 14-16,
and the directions here given presup-
pose quite a considerable skill. The
second time the trade is mentioned
is in the, description of the setting up
of the tabernacle in the wilderness, Ex.
25:23: 27:1-15, where various kinds
of wood-work — the ark, the table, the
altar, the acacia boards, etc. — are spoken
of. From this point and throughout the
holy writings frequent mention is made
of this trade; and though it appears
that both David, 2 Sam. 5:11. and Sol-
omon,'l Kgs. 5 : 6, employed foreign art-
isans, the numerous allusions, in the his-
torical, prophetical, and poetical books of
the 0. T., to the tools, implements, and
methods of this trade, show that the na-
tive craftsmen must have been possessed
of great skill, and the trade itself held in
high esteem among the people.
Joseph, the husband of Mary, was a
carpenter. Matt. 13 : 55, and our Lord
himself worked at the trade, Mark 6 : 3.
" Is not this the carpenter's son ?" yea,
"Is not this the carpenter?" asked the
people, not in contempt, but in wonder.
They implied, however, that they re-
garded him as one of themselves, as no
better than they. But we may be thank-
ful that our Lord is thus called, for the
very word ** is full of meaning, and has
exercised a very noble and blessed in-
fluence over the fortunes of mankind.
It has tended to console and sanctify
the estate of poverty, to ennoble the
duty of labor, to elevate the entire con-
ception of manhood as of a condition
which in itself alone, and apart from
every adventitious circumstance, has
its own grandeur and dignity in the
sight of God." — Farrar : Life of Christ,
ch. vii.
CAR'PUS (frnit), a friend of Paul
at Troas. 2 Tim. 4 : 13.
C AR'RIAGE (from carm, " a car "),
old English for " baggage," luggage re-
quiring to be carried. Jud. 18 : 21 ; 1 Sam.
17 : 20, 22 ; Isa. 10 : 28 : 46 : 1 ; Acts 21 :
15. They "took up their carriages" —
/. e. they packed up their things and
commenced their journey.
CARSHE'NA ({llastrwus '/), one
of the seven highest princes of Persia
and Media. Esth. 1 : 14.
CART. See Wagon.
CASE'MENT. See Window.
CASIPH'IA. Ezr. 8:17. Probably
near Ahava.
CAS'LUHIM {fortijied), a Mizra-
ite people or tribe. Gen. 10 : 14,' 1 Chr.
1:12.
CAS'SIA. Ex. 30:24. The bark of
a tree {Citi)iamo»iit)ii cansia) like the cin-
namon, and one of the ingredients of
the holy anointing oil. It was brought
from India by the Tyrians. The He-
brew refers, in Ps. 45 : 8, to another
kind of spice, remarkable for its fra-
grance, and not yet identified with
much probability.
CAS'TLE, in Acts 21 : 34, 37 ,• 22 :
24 ; 23 : 10, 16, 32, means "the fortress
at the north-west corner of the temple
in Jerusalem. It was called by Herod
the Tower of Antonia, in honor of his
patron, Mark Antony. The temple was
165
CAS
CED
a kind of citadel that guarded Jerusa-
lem, and so the Tower of Antonia was
a fortress that commanded the temple."
CASTOR ANP POLLUX. Acts
28 : 11, In heathen mythology," Castor '
and •'Pollux" were the names of twin
sons of Jupiter who presided over the
Castor and Pollux. {From a Coin of Bruttii.)
destinies of sailors. Hence an image
representing them was often seen on the
prow of ancient ships, like the figure-
heads of modern days. In the case of
Paul's ship, the name was Castor and
Pollux.
CAST OUT, comp. John 9 : 22
and 34, or EXCOMMUIVICATE,
was to cut off from the privileges of
the Jewish Church.
CAT'ERPILLAR {the consumer),
probably another word for locusts in
their immature or wingless state, ap-
pearing in vast numbers and of most
destructive voracity. 1 Kgs. 8 : 37.
Hence they were often employed as the
agents in the execution of (iod's judg-
ments. Ps. 78 : 46 and 105 : 34, and fig-
uratively represent a great multitude.
Isa. 33 : 4; Jer. 51 : 14, 27. They were
regarded as among the most desolating
visitations of God's hand.
CAT'TLE. (ien. 1 : 25. In the
common scrij)tural use of this term it
embraces the tame quadrupeds em-
])loyed by mankintl, as oxen, horses,
she('[), cam(!ls, goats, etc. Gen.l3:2; Ex.
1^. : 29 and 34 : 19 ; Num. 20 : 19 ; 32 :
K), and Ps. 50 : 10, nnd .Job 1 : 3, where
the word translate<l ''substance" would
be more projtorly rendered "cattle."
The allusion in .Tob 36 : 33 is ex-
plained by the well-known fact that
certain animsils of this class arc pecu-
liarly sensitive to the change of air
which precedes rain.
CAUL. Isa. 3 : IS. The attire of
the head, made of net-work and orna-
mented. In Hos. 13 : 8 the word "caul"
\m
denotes the pericni'dinm, or membranous
bag which encloses the heart. This
word in the Pentateuch denotes one of
the viscera, probably the great lobe of
the liver.
CAVE. Caves are very common
in Palestine, and the names of sec-
tions of counti-y were derived from
this fact, as the Hnuran, Eze. 47 : 16, is
caveland, and the Horites are dwellers
in caves. They were made use of as
temporary dwell iny-placen. Gen. 19:30;
as places of convealiiteut, Josh. 10 : 16;
Jud. 6 : 2 ; I Sam. 13 : 6 ; 22 : 1, 2 ;
24:3; 2 Sam. 23:13: 1 Kgs. 18:4;
19 : 9 ; Heb. 11 : 38 : and as burial'
phiees. Gen. 23 : 17, 19 and 49 : 29;
John 11 : 38. Some noted ones are named
in the Bible, such as Adullam, the Mach-
pelah, Makkedah, etc. The manger in
which our Lord was born may have been
a cave. See Tombs and Burial.
CE ' DAR. Undoubtedly several
cone-bearing, evergreen trees are in-
cluded under this title. But ordinarily,
and especially when the full form is
given — cedar of Lebanon — the still fa-
mous tree of that name {Cedrus Llbnni)
is meant. The Scriptures correctly give
its characteristics. Comj). Ps. 92:12;
Eze. 31 : 3-6 ; 1 Kgs. 7 : 2 : 10 : 27 ; Song
Sol. 4:11; Hos. 14 : 6 ; Isa. 2 : 13 ; 10 :
19. It is one of the most valuable and
majestic evergreen trees of Easlern
forests, and is found upon Mounts
Amanus and Taurus, in Asia Minor, and
other parts of the Levant, but in its
greatest perfection on Mount Lebanon.
It grows to the height of 70 or 80 feet.
The branches are thick and long, spread-
ing out almost horizontally from the
trunk, which is sometimes 30 or 40
feet in circumference. Eze. 31 : 3, 6, 8.
Maundrell measured one which was 36
feet and 6 inches in the girth, and 111
feet in the spread of its boughs. The
wood is of a red color and bitter taste,
which is oflTensive to insects, and hence
it is very durable and admirably adapt-
ed for building. A specimen of this
wood in the British Museum is labelled
" Cedar of Lebanon, from Palace of
Nimrod ; 3000 years old." Cedar was
used for the most noble an<l costly edi-
fices, as the palace of Pcrsepolis. the
palace of Solomon, and the temple at
Jerusalem. This timber served not only
for beams for the frame and boards for
CED
CED
covering buildings, but was also wrought
into the walls. 2 Sam. 7:2: 1 Kgs. 6 :
36 and 7 : 12. The gum which exudes
from the trunk and the cones is as soft
and fragrant as the balsam of Mecca.
This tree, there is reason to believe,
once quite covered the mountains of
Lebanon between the heights of 3000
and 7000 feet. Rev. H. H. Jessup has
visited and described eleven distinct
groves of cedars on those mountains,
including, altogether, several thousand
trees.
The principal forest visited by trav-
ellers is 8 hours' ride from Baalbec, on
Cedar Mountain (Jebel el-Arz), about
6300 feet above the sea-level, a little
below the summit. Baedeker (Pa/es^t/ie
and Syria, ji. 505) thus describes it:
" The group occupies the top of a hill
with five culmina4;ing points of various
sizes, on the eastern and western sides
of which runs a water-course. It con-
sists of about 350 trees, the tallest of
which does not exceed 78 feet in height.
The rock on which they grow is white
limestone, and the decaying spines,
cones, and other matter have formed
a dark-colored soil. The oldest trees,
about 9 in number, are on the south-
eastern height. In the midst of the
north-western group stands a Maronite
Cedars of Lebanon.
chapel. Unfortunately, no care what-
ever is taken of these noble trees. The
goats eat all the young shoots, and cedar
branches are even used for fuel, par-
ticularly on the occasion of an annual
festival in August. Countless names
are cut on the trunks of the trees.
... In gloomy weather the sombre
group and its black surroundings
form a weird and wild picture."
In most of the botanic gardens and
arboretums of Europe and America
growing specimens of this monarch of
Eastern forests may now be seen. It
thrives especially well in England. In
the general appearance of its bark and
foliage it is much like the larch, but it
(After Photographs.)
is a far more widely-branching and
massive tree.
Dr. G. E. Post, of BeirQt, Syria, who is
a good botanist, supplies the following
interesting information concerning this
tree : " Tl)e first mention of the cedar
in the Bible is in Lev. 14: 4, G, 49, 51,
52, with the parallel passage. Num.
19 : 6. The children of Israel were
then in £he peninsula of Mount Sinai,
Did the cedar grow in that region ? or
is the cedar there alluded to a differ-
ent tree from the cedar of Lebanon ?
"There are other trees known now in
Syria as cedars. The Aleppo pine is
one, and it is quite probable that this
tree may have grown in that region,
167
CED
CEN
although not more so than that the
cedar itself was there. The juniper
{Juntperus oxycedrns) still grows in the
peninsula of Sinai; and being of the
same family as the cedar, it is allowable
to regard it as the plant here intended.
A species of juniper is known in Eng-
lish by the name of ' cedar.' In view,
however, of admitted changes in climate
in all the countries bordering the east-
ern end of the Mediterranean, there is
nothing to forbid the possibility of the
cedar of Lebanon having once existed
on Sinai. It grows on the Atlas chain
and the mountains connecting Taurus
with the Himalayas, as well as in the
latter groups. May it not have found
in Sinai a connecting station between
its distant homes in the Atlas and the
Lebanon and Himalayas ?
'' Some very foolish things have been
said about the durability of the cedar.
It has been pronounced, perhaps from
trials on specimens taken from Euro-
pean or American trees, a crooked, in-
ferior, perishable wood. In point of
fact, it is notable for toughness, dura-
bility, and adaptedness to the climate
an I circumstances of Syria. There is
no such thing as a rotten cedar.
Branches broken off by the tempests
lie unrotten on the ground. The trunks,
where b irked by travellers or peeled by
the lightning, remain dead, but un-
corrupted. The name of Lamartine,
carved on one of the giant trees 109
years ago, is fresh and legible to-day.
All other woods indigenous to Syria are
liable to the attacks of insects or a kind
of dry rot. Cedar beams are unchange-
able. No greater injury has been done
to Lebanon than denuding it of its kingly
tree. The cedar is a desirable wood for
carving. Isa. 41 : 14. It is hard, fra-
grant, takes a high polish, which devel-
ops a beautiful grain, and it grows
darker and richer by time.
" ' The trees of the Lord are full o/sap ;
the cedars of Lebanon, which he hath
planted.' Ps. 104:16. The aromntic
sap of this tree exudes from the slight-
est scratch, and distills in copal drops
down the bark. If two branches rub
together, they soon unite. Several trees
are often joined in this way through the
superabundance of their vitality.
" ' The righteous shall flourish like the
palm t;ee; he shall gr )w like a cedar
168
in Lebanon.' A palm tree attains its
height in a hundred years or less ; a ce-
dar grows for thousands of years. A
palm tree soon bears fruit and flour-
ishes ; a cedar grows slowly and tarries
long before it bears fruit, but it con-
tinues to bear fruit long centuries after
the palm tree has decayed. It continues
fat and flourishing (green). The cedar
is ever green. Its vitality is equally
apparent in the heat of summer and
the snows of winter. How apt a likeness
of the righteous, who grows in grace as
he lengthens out his years ! The cedar
still bears multitudes of cones when it
lias been riven by lightning, toin and
almost uprooted by the wind. So afflic-
ti )n but develops the graces of the
righteous, and the green branches bear
abundance of fruit when the blighted
ones have been severed and for ever
lost." See Lebanon.
CE'DRON. John 18:1. See Ke-
DRON.
CEIL'ING. We have a description
of the ceiling of Solomon's temple and
palace in 1 Kgs. 6 : 9, 10, 15 ; 7 : 3 ; 2
Chr. 3:5. It was made of planks of
cedar or fir "laid on beams or rests in
the wall." Eastern floors and ceilings
were just the reverse of ours. Their
ceilings were of wood, painted, Jer. 22 :
14, ours are of plaster ; their floors were
of plaster or some sort of tiles, ours are
of wood.
CEJL'LARS. 1 Chr. 27 : 27. Of
cellars such as are common among us
nothing was known in the East, if we
except the chambers which are used in
Persia for the storing of earthen jars
or other vessels of wine. Among the
Hebrews and Greeks these jars were
buried up to the neck in the ground.
The word "wine-cellars" in the passage
cited probably denotes the patches of
ground used to burv wine. See Wine.
CEL'O-SYR'^IA. See Coelo-
Syria.
CEN'CHREA (accurately CEN'-
CHREii^^), the eastern harbor of Cor-
inth, on the Saronic (iulf, and the em-
porium of its trade with the Asiatic
shores of the Mediterranean, about 9
miles east of that city; the western
harbor was Lechjcum. A church was
formed at Cenchrea, of which Phebe
was a deaconess. Rom. 16 : 1. Paul
sailed from thence to Ephesus. Acts
CEN
CEN
18 : 18. The town was full of idolatrous
monuments and shrines. It is now call-
ed Kikriex.
CEIV'SER. Lev. 10 : 1. A vessel
used in the teuiple-servije for the pur-
pose of carrying the fire in which the
incense was burned, taken from the per-
petual supply on the altar of burnt-
oHering. It was sometimes made of
pure gold. 1 Kgs. 7 : 50; 2 Chr. 26 :
It), ly. The censer was held in one
Egyptian Censers. ( Wilkinson.)
hand, and the incense was carried in
the other hand. The priest strewed the
pulverized incense upon the fire, and
the cloud of smoke -ascended up in a
dark volume and filled the apartment
with its fragrance. The word ren-
dered "censer" in ITeb. 9 : 4 means a
golden altar of incense.
CEN'SUS. In the 0. T. there is
mention made of twelve censuses.
1. The earliest was under Moses, in the
third or fourth month' after the Exodus.
Its object was to raise money for build-
ing the tabernacle, each person num-
bered— i. e. every male from 20 years and
upward — being obliged to pay half a
shekel. The census showed there were
60.''..550 men. Ex. 38 : 26.
2. In Num. 1 : 2 there is the order for
a second numbering, in the second
month of the second year after the
Exodus. The result showed the same
figures. Num. 1 : 46. This fact has led
some to suppose that these two number-
ings were in fact one, but applied to dif-
ferent purposes.
3. The next census wns made imme-
diately before the entrance of the He-
brews into Canaan. Num. 26. The
total number of males fit for military
service Avas 601, 7oO. while the Levite
males from a month old were 23,000.
4. For a long time after that there
was no reckoning made. But David,
instigated by Satan, out of mere curi-
osity and ambition to know how large
a people he governed, ordered a count,
which showed that the men of Israel
over 20 years of age were 800,000, and
of Judah" 500,000. 2 Sam. 24:9; 1 Chr.
21 : 1. These are round figures, and do
not quite agree with those of 1 Chr. 21 : 5.
f). Solomon completed the census by
causing the foreigners and remnants of
the conquered nations resident within
Palestine to be numbered. 2 Chr. 2 :
17, 18.
We read of much more frequent cen-
suses after this: 6. Rehoboam, 1 Kgs.
12 : 21 : 7. Abijam, 2 Chr. 13 : 3, 17 ; 8.
Asa, 2 Chr. 14 : 8, 9 ; 9. Jehoshaphat, 2
Chr. 17:14-19: 10. Amaziah, 2 Chr. 26:
5,6; 11. Uzziah, 2 Chr. 26 : 13. All
these must have kept at least an account
of how many could bear arms, since we
find in the passages cited the number of
j their troops. Besides, the numbers re-
ferred to are those of the separate tribes
and companies — e. <j. Jud. 7 : 3; 1 Kgs.
20:15: Jer. 52:30.
12. The last general census was that
made at the time of the Return. Ezr.
2 : 64 and 8 : 1-14 give the numbers of
males in the first and second caravan.
j These figures indicate the importance
j attached to the census, though no sci-
entific use was made of it, as by us.
It would appear that the kingdom of
Judah was most populous under Je-
hoshaphat. The numbers, in propor-
tion to the area of the country, have been
quoted as an objection to the narrative.
But while it must be freely granted that
the population was dense, still the den-
sity has been paralleled, and even ex-
ceeded, in modern times. Palestine, it
should be remembered, was a very fer-
tile land. On the census of Cyrenius,
Luke 2:2, see Taxing, Days of the.
169
CEN
CHA
CENTU'RION. Matt. 8 : 5. The
title of an officer of the Roman army
who had command of 100 soldiers. See
Captain.
CE'PHAS {rock), a Syriac surname
given to Simon, which in the Greek is
rendered Petrosi, and in the Latin Petruti,
both signifying '* a rock." John 1 : 42.
See Peter.
CESARE'A. See Cesaura.
CESARE'A-PHILIP'PI. See
C^sarea-Philippi.
CHAFF. The Hebrew farmer sepa-
rated the corn from the husk by throw-
ing the mixed mass up against the wind.
On account of their weight, the grains
were thrown quite a distance, while the
light chaflFfell immediately to the ground
if not blown entirely away. Hence the
exceedingly forcible image of the wicked
being swept off by the breath of God, Ps.
1 : 4; 35 : 5. In the figurative language
of John the Baptist, the winnowing-
shovel — called in our version a " fan "
— is said to be in the hand of God, and
with it he will thoroughly purge his
floor. Matt. 3 : 12; Luke 3 : 17.
CHAINS. A distinction must be
made between /e<^er.s, which were for the
feet, and clwinx, which were for any part
of the body. Chains were worn for orna-
ment, dignity, or restraint. They were
made of gold for the first two purposes,
and of iron for the last. In the ancient
Orient both sexes wore them ostenta-
tiously. They were put on Joseph and
Daniel as a sj'mbol of sovereignty. Gen.
41:42; Dan. 5 : 29. So to-day kings
wear the chain of the order of the Gold-
en Fleece. Chains were put by the Mid-
ianites upon their camels. Jud. 8:21.
Tiiey were also worn by women as a fas-
tening between the anklets. Isa, 3 : 19.
The chains used on prisoners, Jud. 16 :
21 : 2 Sam. 3 : 34 ; 2 Kgs. 25 : 7 ; Jcr. 39 :
7 ; 52 : II, were fetters. Handcuffs were
also used. The Roman practice was to
bind the prisoner's hand to the hand of
a soldier, or to a soldier by either hand.
Acts 12 : 0, 7; 21 : 33; 28 : K), 20; 2
Tim. 1: 10.
The "chains " which bound the mad-
man of (iadara, Mark 5 : 3, 4, were prob-
ably not of iron, but were ropes. The
iron "fetters" he shivered.
" Chain " is used in Lam. 3 : 7 in a met-
aphorical sense to denote tribulation.
CHALCED'OIVY\ Rev. 21 : 19.
170
A variety of quartz much like the agate,
of pearl}', wax-like lustre, and of great
translucency ; sometimes called white
carnelian. Its name is from Chalcedon,
near Constantinople.
CHALD/E'A, a country anciently
situated on both sides of the river Eu-
phrates, and bordering on the Persian
Gulf. It had an estimated area of 23,000
square miles, ab(»ut the same as the mod-
ern kingdom of Denmark, or half that of
Louisiana in the Mississippi Delta. In
later times, and in a more extended
senf>e, it included a territory about 450
miles long by 100 to 130 miles wide.
It occupied the southern portion of the
great IMesopotamian plain, the most fer-
tile part of that country. It was ren-
dered still more ])roductive by numer-
ous canals, which were used for defence,
for commerce, and for navigation. The
country was naturally divided into two
portions, the larger part lying between
the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, and
the smaller portion lying on the south-
western side of the latter river. It was
also divided into Northern and South-
ern Chalda3a, each having four import-
ant cities. In later times the " land
of the Chaldseans " was applied to
all Babylonia, and to the whole of the
empire over which the Chaldjeans ruled.
Physical Features and Products. — The
chief features of the country were the
rivers, for on all sides it was a dead
level, broken now only by solitary
mounds, old ruins, marshes, and streams.
The summers are hot, the winters rainy,
and seldom colder than 30° F. Wheat,
millet, barley, dates, and fruits of all
kinds were abundant. Its fertility and
productions were proverbial in ancient
times. For sketch-map of Chaldaja,
see Assyria.
lilstorij. — It is noticed in Scripture as
the native country of Abram, Gen. 11 : 31 ;
its peo])lc attacked Job. Job 1 : 17, and
it was the term by wliit-h the empire of
Nebuchadnezzar was sometimes called.
Originally it was the district in the south
of the " land of Shinar " where Nimrod
built four cities. Gen. 10 : 10. Chaldaja
soon extended its influence and sway,
until in the time of Abraham its con-
quests reached nearly to the sources of
the Euphrates, and westward into Ca-
naan and Syria. Among the four great
kingdoms or empires on the Euphrates,
CHA
CHA
secular historians usually place the 1
Chaldjiean as the first in order or earli- [
est, lasting for about ten centuries, from
B. c. 2300 to about b. c. 1300: the Assyr-
ian empire next, lasting about six and
a half centuries, from B.C. 1270 to B. c.
625: the IJabjlonian empire third in or-
der, continuing from about B.C. 625 to B.C.
53vS ; and the Medo-Persian fourth. Some
of these kingdoms in their earlier history
no doubt e.visted conteraporiineously for
a time. Chaldaja and Assyria were at
times indepen lent of each other: hence
tbe order given above applies chiefly to
tliem as empires. The great cities of
the Chaldtean empire were I'r, Ellasar,
]J;ibylon, Erech, Accad. Calneh, Sephar-
A aim, Ahava, and Cutha. Its great rulers
were Nimrod, Urukh,and Chedorlaomer.
The latter marched an army for 1200
miles on a conquering tour to the Dead
Sea, and held Canaanitish nations in
subjection for 12 years. Gen. 10:9;
14 : 1-4. The Chaldaians, according to
Kawlinson and others, were chieflj' of
Cushite origin, while their more north-
ern neighbors were Semitic. After the
lapse of centuries the former lost their
Cushite character, and became a people
scarcely distinguishable from the Assyr-
ians. After their subjugation, in B.C.
1300, they held an insignificant place in
history for over six centuries, but re-
covered themselves in b. c. 625, and es-
tablished a new kingdom, known as the
Babylonian empire. For the later his-
tory see Babylon, Assviua, and Nine-
c'hALK'-STONES. Isa.27:9. A
soft mineral substance resembling what
we call limestone. To make the stones
of the Jewish altars like chalkstones is
to crumble and destroy them,
CHAM'BER. Gen. 43 : 30. ' Usu-
ally, the private apartments of a house
are called chambers. 2 Sam. 18 : 33 ; Ps.
19 : 5 : Dan. 6 : 10. Particular rooms
of this class in Eastern houses were
designated by significant terms.
Guest-chamber. Mark 14: 14. This
we may suppose to have been a spacious
unoccupied room, usually in the upper
part of the house, and furnished suita-
bly for the reception and entertainment
of guests and for social meetings. The
proverbial hospitality of the Jews would
make such ])rovisi()n necessary, and es-
pecially at Jerusalem, in festival sea-
sons, when every house in the city was
the stranger's home. Mark 14 : 15 ; Luke
22 : 12 ; Acts 1 : 13. See Hospitality.
Inxer Chamber. 2 Kgs. 9:2. A
chamber within another chamber.
Little Chamber. 2 Kgs, 4 : 10. An
apartment built upon and projecting
from the walls of the main house, and
communicating by a private door with
the house, and by a private stairway
with the street.
Upper Chamber, or Loft, Acts 9 : 37,
occupied the front part of the building,
over the gate or outer entrance, and was
used to lodge strangers. Comp. 1 Kgs.
17 : 19 and 23 with 2 Kgs. 4 : 10. See
Dwellings.
CHAM'BERING, licentiousness,
wantonness. Rom. 13 : 13.
CHAMBERLAIN. 2 Kgs. 23: 11.
An officer who has charge of the royal
chambers, or the king's lodgings, ward-
robes, etc. In Eastern courts eunuchs
were commonly emploj-ed for this ser-
vice. Esth. 1:10, 12, 15. The word oc-
curs twice in A. Y. of N. T., but entirely
different offices are meant in the Greek.
Blastus. " the king's chamberlain," men-
tioned in Acts 12 : 20, " held a post of
honor which involved great intimacy
and influence with the king." Eras-
tus, " the chamberlain of the city of
Corinth," who sent salutations to the
Roman Christians, Rom. 16 : 23, was
probably the treasurer of the city.
CHAME'LEON. Lev. 11 : 30. A
specie? of lizard of very singular anat-
omy, appearance, and habits. "It re-
mains exclusively on trees (and bushes),
often suspended by its tail to the ex-
tremity of a branch, whence it darts
forth its long tongue, covered with a
viscous fluid, to entrap passing insects.
Each foot is a grasping hand, by which
it clings with great force to a branch,
but it is almost helpless on the ground.
The chief peculiarity of this lizard is
the enormous size of the lungs (whence
arose the fable that it lived on air), and
these, when filled, render the animal
semi-transparent. It has the faculty
of changing color more developed than
in any other lizard, and this change is
influenced, not by the bodies on which
it happens to rest, but by the wants
and passions of the animal. The struc-
ture of the eyes is very wonderful. They
are so prominent that one-half of the ball
171
CHA
CHA
projects out of the head, and not only
can they be moved in any direction,
but each has an independent action :
one eye niay be looking forward, while
with the other the animal examines an
Chameleon. {After Tristram.)
object behind it. The chameleon is
very common in Egypt and the Holy
Land, especially in the Jordan valley."
— Tristram.
CHAM'OIS (pronounced shnm'mi/).
Deut. 14 : 5. The true chamois is be-
lieved never to have lived in Arabia or
Palestine. It is now thought that this
animal of the Bible was a species of
wild sheep {Ocin trayeleplnoi) formerly
abundant among the mountains of Si-
nai, but now apparently confined to i
Africa. I
CHA'NAAIV, Greek form of Ca- |
naan. Acts 7:1. See Canaan, j
CHAN'CELLOR. The word oc- |
curs in Ezr. 4: 8, 17 as the translation j
of the Hebrew lord of counsel — i. e. \
counsellor, royal prefect — the office held \
by Rehum, who was the Persian gover- i
nor in Samaria at the time.
CHANGEABLE SUITS OF !
AP'PAREL. See Cloth i-.s. !
CHANGERS OF MONEY, ou
MON'EY-CHAN'GERS. Matt. 21 :
12; John 2:14. When Judiea became
a province of Rome the Jews were re-
quired to pay taxes in Roman currency,
while the annual tribute for the service
of the sanctuary was the half-shekel :
of Jewish currency. To exchange the
172
one for the other was the business of
the money-changers, like the business
of modern brokers. They stationed
themselves in the courts of the temple,
! the place of general resort for stran-
I gers from every part of the land, and
their oppressive and fraudulent ]>rac-
tices probably justified the allusion of
our Saviour to a den of thieves.
CHANGES OF RAJ'MENT.
See Cloth Ks.
CHANT. See Viol.
CHAP'EL. The word occurs. Am.
7:13, as a mistranslation for SANC-
TUARY, a place of worship. Bethel
is called the king's sanctuary by one
of the idol-priests, because there the
king of Israel paid idolatrous worship
to the golden calves. See Bkthel.
CHAP'ITERS (French dnqjUre),
Ex. 38:38, OR CAPITALS (as they
are called in modern architecture), are
the upper or ornamental part of a
column.
CHAP'MAN (from the same root
as cheu]y, chop), merchant. 2 Chr. 9:14.
In the corresponding passage, 1 Kgs.
10 : 15, spice-nierchcuits.
CHA'RAN. See Haran.
CHAR'ASHIM, VALLEY OF
{riirhie of craftsmen), near by Lvdda.
1 Chr. 4": 14.
CHAR'CHEMISH. 2 Chr. 35 :
20. See Carchemish.
CHAR'GER (old English, from
the French charr/er), that on which a
thing is laid, a dish. Num. 7:13; Ezr.
1:9; Matt. 14 : 8, 11. A shallow bowl
or basin used for receiving the blood at
the preparation of the sacrifices. The
charger in which Herod's daughter
brought the head of John Baptist was
probably a trencher or platter.
CHAR'IOT. Chariots were not
exclusively used for warlike purposes.
In the Bible, instances of a peaceful use
occur, as in the account of Joseph's ex-
altation, (ien. 41:43, and meeting with
his father, 46 : 29 ; Ahab's fleeing before
the coming storm at the command of
Elijah, 1 Kgs. 18:44; Naaman's com-
ing to Elisha, 2 Kgs. 5:9; and the
Ethiopian eunuch's journey homeward.
Acts 8 : 28. But the commoner use was
for war. They are first mentioned in
the Bible in connection wUh Joseph in
Egypt. Later on they formed part of
Pharaoh's pursuing army at the Exodus.
CHA
CHA
And they were part of the offensive
weapons among all nations which tigure
in Bible history. The use of war-chari-
ots was introduced by David. 2 Sam.
8 : 4. This change was obedient to the
altered condition of the people, from a
democracy, which relies upon volunteers
for its defence, .to a monarchy, which
employs a regular army. Solomon had
1400 chariots, and cities fortified for
their safe-keeping. 1 Kgs. 10 : 20 ; 9 :
19. After his day they formed a regu-
lar branch of the military service, and
are frequently mentioned. 1 Kgs. 22 :
34: 2 Kgs. 9: 16. 21; 13:7, 14: 18:24:
23 : 30 ; Isa. 31 : 1. The texts just
Egyptian Chariot. (After Wilkinson.)
quoted also prove that Egypt was the
source whence both the chariot-horses
and the chariots themselves were prin-
cipally drawn. A description of an
Egyptian chariot will therefore be a
description of a Jewish one. The
Egyptian chariot was an ''almost semi-
circular wooden frame with straight-
ened sides, resting posteriori}' on the j
a.xle of a pair of wheels, a rail of wood
or ivory being attached to the frame by
leathern thongs, and a wooden upright
in front. The back of the car was open,
and the sides were strengthened and
embellished with leather and metal
binding ; the floor was of rope net-work,
to give a springy footing to the occu-
pants. On the off-side were the bow-
case, sometimes the quiver, and spear-
case, crossing diagonally : the last named
inclined backward. If two warriors
were in the chariot, there was a second
bow-case. The wheels had usually six
spokes, fastened to the axle by a linch-
j)in, secured by a thong. The horses
had a breast-band and girths attached
to the saddle, but were without traces.
They wore head-furniture, often orna-
mented, with a bearing-rein. The driv-
ing-reins jtassed through rings on each
side of both hoises. Two persons gen-
erally were in a chariot, but there was
sometimes a third, holding the umbrella
of state." — Wil-
kin* s o >f : Ave.
Eyypt., 1879. vol. i.
pp. 222-241: vol.ii.
].p. 201-203. The
Assyrian war-
chariots were near-
ly similar. Some-
times a third horse
was attached, but
in later times this
was laid aside; the
chariot was made
higher, and the
quiver jdaced in
front instead of on
the side. — Lay-
AKI): Nineveh, vol.
ii. pp. 348-354;
A Y i{ K : T r ea 8 . of
J.ih. Kuoicledge.
Chariots armed
with scythes were
used in later times.
Warriors some-
times fought standing up in them, or
else used them to carry them into the
battle, and leaping from them fought
on foot.
The word "chariot" is sometimes
used figuratively ; e. y. in Ps. 68:17 it
means the angelic host. Elisha called
Elijah ''the chariot of Israel and the
horsemen thereof." 2 Kgs. 2:12. The
imagery was borrowed from the phe-
nomena of the miraculous ascent. The
phrase means that Elijah, by his pray-
ers and his counsels, was the true de-
fence of Israel, and better than either
chariots or horsemen.
Captains of Chariots. The phrase
occurs in Ex. 14 : 7 ; 15 : 4 ; 1 Kgs.
173
CHA
CHE
22 : 33. In the first two passages it
means "coinuianders of the highest
rank, chosen specially to attend on the
person of Pharaoh ; probably com-
manders of the 2000 Calasirians, who,
alternately with the Hermotybians,
formed his body-guard. They may
have been, for the most part, known to
Moses." — Bibie (Speaker's) Coinmen-
tary, in loco.
Chariots of the Sun. It was a
Persian practice to dedicate a char-
iot and horses to the sun. These
chariots were white, and drawn proba-
bly by white horses in sacred proces-
sions. This idolatrous practice found
favor in Judah, for it is recorded, to the
honor of Josiah and as a proof of his
zeal, that he took away the horses which
j)revious kings had given to the sun,
and burned the chariots of the sun with'
fire. 2 Kgs. 23:11.
CHAR'ITY (from Lat. caritas,
Fr. charite). In 1 Cor. 13 : 1 and paral-
lel passages the Saxon word love (to
God as well as to man) would better ex-
press the sentiment intended. See Love.
Charity, in the popular acceptation of
the word, is confined to love to suffering
men, or almsgiving. See Alms.
CHARM, CHARMER. See
Addkh, Asp, Divinatiux.
CHAR'RAN. Acts 7:2,4. The
Greek form of Haran, which see.
CHAT'TER. See Crane, Swal-
low.
CHE'BAR, a river in Chaldsea,
Eze. 1 : 1, 3 ; 3:15, etc. ; probably the
same as Habor, and perhaps the royal
canal which connected the Tigris with
the Euphrates, 30 miles above Babylon.
CHE'BEL {cord), a Hebrew topo-
graphical term, Josh. 2:15; 1 Sam. 10 :
5 ; Ps. 16 : 6 ; usually applied to the Ar-
gob. Deut. 3:4, 13, 14; 1 Kgs. 4 : 13.
See under Bashan.
CHEDORLA'OMER {handful
of shearer), the king of Elam, and one
of the four allied kings who subjected
the kings of the five cities of the plain.
These remained in the service of Che-
dorlaomer for twelve years, but in the
thirteenth rebelled. Chedorlaomer sum-
moned the allies, met the five kings,
completely routed them, carried ofi" much
spoil, part of which belonged to Lot.
whom -they likewise captured. Abram
started in pursuit with his own ser-
174
vants, defeated them, was able to re-
cover all the spoil and his nephew Lot.
In the battle Chedorlaomer appears to
have perished. The narrative is given
in Gen. 14.
CHEEK. To be struck upon the
cheek was, among the Hebrews, to bo
grossly insulted. In ])roof see 1 Kgs.
22 : 24 ; Job 16 : 10 ; Ma:tt. 6 : 39.
CHEESE was a common article of
food among the Hebrews. The word
occurs but three times in the Bible, and
in each case the original word is difl'er-
enf . 1 Sam. 17 : 1 8 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 29 ; Job
10 : 10. It is difticuit to decide how far
these terms correspond with our notion
of cheese. In the original the first word
means ''a cutting," "ten sections of
curds," soft cheese; the root of the
second word means "to scrape," im-
plying that the cheese was grated;
while the third word means " curdled
milk." The modern Bedouins use a
kind of coagulated butter-milk, which
is ground when dried hard, and eaten
mixed with butter.
CHE'LAL (perfectiou), one who had
a strange wife. Ezr. 10 : 30.
CHEL'LUH (completed), one who
had a strange wife. Ezr. 10 : 35.
CHE'LUB {fruit-basket, or bird-
cage). 1. One of Judah's posterity. 1
Chr. 4: 11.
2. The father of one of David's offi-
cers. 1 Chr. 27 : 20.
CHELU'BAI (capable), Hezron's
son; same with Caleb. 1 Chr. 2:9, 18,
42.
CHEM'ARIMS (those v-ho go about
in black : i. e. ascetics), Y>riests of false
gods. Zeph, 1:4:2 Kgs. 23 : 5, margin ;
Hos. JO : 5, margin.
CHE'MOSH (snbdner), the na-
tional deity of the Moabites, who were
his people, as the Israelites are the peo-
ple of Jehovah. Num. 21 : 29 : Jer. 48 :
7, 4fi ; called " the abomination of Moab."
1 Kgs. 11 : 7. Solomon introduced, 1
Kgs. 11 : 7, and Josiah drove out. 2 Kgs.
23 : 13, his worship in Jerusalem. Upon
the recently discovered Moal)ite Stone,
King Mesha, 2 Kgs. 3 : 4. attributes to
his god Chemosh his victories. See
Diijox. The same traits of cruelty }>nd
lust ])rove him to have been identical
with Molech, the god of the Amuuin-
ites. Jud. 11 : 24. It was to Chemosh
that Mesha ofi'ered his son. 2 Kgs. 3 :
CHE
CHE
27. The god is also identified with
Baal-Peor. Saturn, or Mars.
CHEXA'ANAH ((/<erc;ia»0- 1.
The father of the false prophet Zedeki-
ah. 1 Kgs. 22 : 11, 24: 2 Chr. 18 : 10, 23.
2. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 7 : 10 ; perhaps
same as the preceding.
CHEN'ANI (contracted from next
name), a Levite who took part in the
purification of the people under Ezra.
Xeh. 9:4.
CHENANI'AH (jc;io»i Jehovah hath
made), a Levite chief in David's reign.
1 Chr. 15:22. 27: 26:29.
CHE ' PHAR - HA AM^^ONAI
(village of Ammonites), a village of Ben-
jamin. Josh. 18 : 24.
CHEPHI'RAH {village), one of
four towns of the Gibeonites, belonging
to Benjamin, Josh. 9:17; 18 : 26 : Ezr.
2 : 25 ; probably now Kefir, 8 miles west
of Gibeon. Conder gives it as Kefiveh.
CHE'RAjV {hjre), a Horite chiefs
son. Gen. 36 : 26 : 1 Chr. 1:41.
CHER'ETHIMS, identical with
Cherethites.
CHER'ETHITES axdPEL'E-
THITES {executioners and eonriers)
formed the bodj'-guard of King David.
2 Sam. 8 : IS :' 15 : IS ; 20 : 7. It is
probable they were mercenaries, origi-
nally Philistines, for Cherethite is con-
nected with Pelethite, which was, it is
likely, only another form of the word
Philistine.
CHE'RITH {gorge), THE
BROOK, a brook or torrent " before
Jordan" where the prophet Elijah was
hid. 1 Kgs. 17 : 5. Its location is much
disputed. Robinson and several others
identify it with Wad}/ Kelt, a swift,
brawling stream, 20 yards wide and 3
feet deep, running into the Jordan from
the west, a little south of Jericho. Some
identify it with Wndy Fusail, a little
farther north, and yet others think it
was some stream on the other, or eastern,
side of the .Jordan.
CHER'UB. Ezr. 2:59; Neh. 7:
61. A place in Babylonia; perhaps
Cheripha of Ptolemv.
CHERUB, CHER'UBIM.
Many derivations have been proposed.
The best are from roots signifying either
" strong " or ''to plough:" hence, terri-
ble. The cherubim were not angels,
since altogether different occupations
are given to them in the Bible. Thus
angels are sent out upon messages, but
the cherubim always are in the presence
of God. They are winged, and are in
appearance like combinations of parts
of different animals. The word first
occurs in Gen. 3 : 24, and is applied to
the guard which was placed over Eden
after the expulsion of fallen man.
" It is remarkable that while there
are precise directions as to their position,
attitude, and material, Ex. 25 : 18, etc.,
and descriptions, 2 Chr. 3:10-13, noth-
ing is said about their shajje, except
that they were winged. On the whole,
it seems likely that the word * cherub'
meant not only the composite creature
Egyptian Winged Figures.
form, of which the man, lion, ox, and
eagle were the elements, but, further,
some peculiar and mystical form." —
Smith : Dittionari/ of the Bible.
According to the primitive concep-
tion, the cherubim were the bearers of
God when he appeared in his glory upon
the earth, Ps. 18 : 10 : so. in Ezekiel's vis-
ion, thev carrA' the throne of God. Eze.
11 : 22 ; cf. 1 : 19 : 10 : IB ff". They are the
'•' wings of the wind," by which God
in the thunder-cloud is borne to the
world. Isa. 19 : 1 : Ps. 104 : 3. Hence
they are the witnesses of his presence :
wherever they are, God is. How appro-
priate, therefore, were representations of
them placed in the tabernacle and tem-
ple! In the former, two golden cheru-
bim stood in the holy of holies, upon
the mercy-seat. Ex. 37 : 8. They were
likewise pictured upon the curtains. 26 :
1, 31; 36 : S, 35. In Solomon's temple
two colossal figures of the cherubim,
overlaid with gold, stood upon the floor
175
CHE
CHI
and overshadowed the ark, which was
between theui, in the holy of holies. 1
Kgs. 6 : 27. They were also carved
upon the doors, upon all the "walls of
the house," and put between represen-
tations of pahn trees. 1 Kgs. 6 : 29, 32,
35 ; 2 Chr. 3 : 7. Indeed, in all parts
did they constitute, with lions, oxen,
and palm trees, the ornamentation of
the temple. 1 Kgs. 7:29, 36. The cheru-
bim, therefore, testified that God was in
the midst of his people.
A second idea which they represent is
that they were the watchers of the places
where God is. They cover his glory from
vulgar gaze; they stand in the service
of the invisible and the unapproachable
God. Comp. Ex. 19: 9, 16; 24:15.
Similar winged creatures are met with
in great variety in the legends and sym-
bols of other peoples of iintiquity, but
the originality of the Hebrew cherubim
is not to be disputed. Still, the forms
which they assumed may have been in
part derived from these nations. Very
interesting is the comparison of the He-
brew cherubim with figures in the Egyp-
tian and Assyrian temples.
CHES'ALON (streiKjth), a place on
the north-west of Judah, Josh. 15:10;
probably Keda, 8 miles west of Jeru-
salem.
CHE'SED iyain), Nahor's son.
Gen. 22:22.
CHE'SIL [fool, or idolatrom), in
the south of Judah, Josh. 15 : 30 ; proba-
bly the same as Bethul and Bethuel and
el-Khulasah, 15 miles south-west of
Beer-sheba.
CHEST. There are two Hebrew
words so translated. The first is applied,
Egyptian Chest or Box.
in 2 Kgs. 12:9.10; 2 Chr. 24 : 8, 10. 1 1,
to the cofier into which the people threw
176
their voluntary contributions for the re-
pair of the temple under Joash. But the
original word in every other place ex-
cept Gen. 60: 26, where it is applied to
Jacob's coffin, means the ark of the cove-
nant. A different word altogether is used
for Noah's and Moses's " ark." The sec-
ond word occurs only in Eze. 27 : 24, and
means a treasure-chest where valuables
are stored.
CHEST'^fUT TREE. Gen. 30:
37. Doubtless the translation here shi)uld
be "plane tree" {Pl<it(uniH orient'ilift).
This tree closely resembles the well-
known American species which we call
sycamore or buttonwood (PlntaiiKS oc-
cideiita/is). The Oriental tree grows
along streams in the north of Pales-
tine, and when long spared attains
great size. Eze. 31:8.
CHESULLOTH (foins, or
Jhntk), a town of Issachar; probably
on the sides of Tabor,- and the same as
Chislorh-'abor. Josh. 19: 12, IS.
CHE'ZIB [fi/iit'j). probably iden-
tical with Achzib and Chozeba. Gen.
38 • 5.
CHI'DON. 1 Chr. 13:9. Called also
the threshing-floor of Nachon, 2 Sam. 6 :
6 ; it was near Jerusalem.
CHIEF OF ASIA. Acts 19 :3].
Certain wealthy persons were appointed
annually in the Asiatic provinces of
Rome to preside over the religious rites,
public games, etc., which they maintain-
ed in honor of the gods, and at their own
expense. They received their title from
the name of the province; as, the chief of
Caria was called cariarch, or of Lycia,
lyciarch, etc. The title is properly " asi-
arch," and was borne, it would seem, af-
ter the duties of the office had been dis-
charged. This explains the reference in
the Acts. These asiarchs, who advised
Paul not to expose himself needlessly to
the fury of the populace in Ephesus, may
well have been friendly to the apostle,
without beinjj Christians.
CHIEF PRIEST. See Prikst.
CHIL'DREN. The term is use.l in
A. X. where "sons" would l)etter repre-
sent the Hebrew or Greek ; as, " the chil-
dren of Abraham," "the children of
Israel," "the children of God." It was
regarded among the Jews as not only
a misfortune, but even a disgrace, if a
married woman wns barren. The more
sons a man had, the more was he es-
CHI
CHO
teemed. The inheritance of the father
was divided equally among all the sons,
except the eldest, who received a double
portion. The daughters got nothing
unless there was no son, in which case
they shared equally the property', and
were forbidden to raarrv out of their
father's tribe. Num. 27 :>-12 ; 35 : 2, 8.
Wills were needless, and therefore un-
known. The authority of the parent
was very great, and children are com-
manded to reverence their parents. The
law allowed children to be sold into
bondage in payment of the parents'
debts. Lev. 25 : 89-41. We tind al-
lusions to the practical working of this
law in 2 Kgs. 4:1 and Matt. 18 : 25.
Child-birth in Eastern countries is
usually, although not always, compara-
tively easy. Gen. 35 : 17 ; 38 : 27 ; Ex.
1:19; 1 Sam. 4 : 19, 20. The new-
born Hebrew child was washed, rubbed
with salt, and wrapped in swaddling-
clothes, Luke 2:7; circumcised on the
eighth day, when the name was given.
Child-birth rendered the woman cere-
monially unclean for 40 days in the case
of a son, and 80 in the case of a daugh-
ter. At the conclusion of the jieriod
she offered for her cleansing the sac-
rifices the Law prescribed. Lev. 12.
Women nursed their own children in
most cases, and did not wean them until
the lapse of 80 months, or even 3 years.
The weaning was made a festive occa-
sion. This custom was very old. Gen.
21:8. Daughters remained under the
care of the mother until the period of
marriage, but boys passed in their
lifth year under the training of the
father. See Education.
CHIL'EAB {like in his father f),
a son of Abigail by David, 2 Sam. 3:3;
called Daniel in 1 Chr. 3:1.
CHILI'ON («/>/.7y), son of Naomi,
and husband of Ruth. Ruth 1 : 2-5 ; 4 :
9, 10,
CHIL'MAD, a place or country,
Eze. 27 : 23 ; perhaps identical with
Kaln-ndha, near Bagdad.
CHIM'HAM. 2 Sam. 19:37. It
is possible he was a son of Barzillai, but
it cannot be certainly inferred from 1
Kgs. 2 : 7, which is sometimes cited to
prove it. Some have supposed that
David gave Chimham a parcel of land
which was afterward known by his
name. Jer. 41 : 17.
12
CHIM'NEY. See Dwellings.
CHIN'NERETH, or CHIN-
NEROTH. Josh. 11:2. A fenced
city of Naphtali, on the lake, or sea,
of the same name; afterward called
Gennesar, and about 8 miles north-west
of Tiberias, according to FUrst.
CHIN'NERETH, SEA OF.
See Galilee, Sea of,
CHI'OS, an island of the ^gean
Sea, 5 miles from the coast of Ionia, in
Asia Minor, It is 82 miles long and
from 8 to 18 miles wide, and noted for
its wines. Paul passed hy it. Acts 20:
14, 15. Its modern name is Scin or
Khin.
CHIS'LEU. See Mo.vths.
CHISXON (crntjjileuce), the father
of Elidad the Benjamite, who was chosen
to represent his tribe in the division of
the land. Num. 34:21.
CHIS'LOTH-TA'BOR, either a
mountain or a place. Josh. 19 : 12. If
the former, it is probably identical with
Tabor ; if the latter, it is perhaps to be
found at Iksnl. 2h miles west of Tabor.
CHIT'TI.>I,orKIT'TIM. Num.
24 : 24 ; Isa. 23 : 1, 12 ; Jer. 2:10; Eze.
27:6; Dan. 11:30. In these passages
the ''isles," "ships," "products," and
'^ people" of Chittim are mentioned or
alluded to ; hence the name has gener-
ally been supposed to mean the island
of Cyprus, though Kitto thinks it a
general term applied to islamls and
coasts west of Palestine. See Cvfrus.
CHI'UN. -Am, 5 : 26. An idol
which the Israelites made and wor-
shipped in the wilderness. See Rem-
PHAX.
CHLO'E {green herb), a Christian
woman, some of whose family told
Paul of the dissensions in the Corinth-
ian church. 1 Cor. 1:11.
CHORA'SHAX. 1 Sam. 30:30.
Probably the same as Ashan {' Aseileh).
CHORA'ZIN, a city named with
Capernaum and Bethsaida in the woes
pronounced by Christ. JMatt. 11 : 20-28 ;
Luke 10 : 13. The identification of
Chorazin depends largely, though not
wholly, upon that of Capernaum. Rob-
inson places it at Tell Hum. but othei's,
with greater probability, fix its site at
Kerdzeh, 2^ miles west of Tell Hum,
and west of the valley of the Jordan.
The ruins cover a large area, and con-
sist of a synagogue, the ornaments be-
177
CHO
CHK
ing cut in black basalt rock, walls of
dwellings, columns which supported the
roofs and doorways, some of them in
a tolerably perfect condition, and a
paved roadway leading to the great
caravan-route to Damascus. See Ca-
pers a im.
CHOZE'BA. 1 Chr. 4 : 22. It
has generally been regarded as iden-
tical with Chezib and Achzib, but Con-
der places Chozeba at a ruin of import-
ance in Wady Arnib, or valley of Bera-
choth, and called Kneizilah, a name
which is almost the exact equivalent for
the Hebrew Chozeba.
CHRIST, JESUS. Matt. 1 : 1.
Christ is the official. Jesus the personal,
name of our Lord. It is from the Greek
word Chn'stoH, which signifies ''anoint-
ed," corresponding to the word Messiah in
the Hebrew. He is called the Anoiuted
in allusion to the custom of anointing
with oil such as were set apart to a sa-
cred or regal office, because by the Spirit
he was anointed to the threefold office
of prophet, priest, and king.
The word " Jesus " is derived from a
Hebrew word signifying *' to save," or
" sent to save." Matt. 1:21: Luke 2 :
11,21. The word "Joshua" has the
same meaning, and is a very common
name among the Hebrews, and should
have been used in Acts 7 : 45 and Heb.
4 : 8 insteaii of " Jesus."
Jesus the Christ is a descriptive
phrase, like John the Bnptist. Matt.
26 : 6:i ; Mark 8 : 29 : 14 : 61 : John 1 :
20, 25, 41 : 6 : 09 : 7 : 41 : 10: 24 : 11:
27; 20:31. The word "Jesus" is
almost always used alone in the (Jos-
pels, while, in the Acts and Epistles,
'' Jesus Christ " or " Lord Jesus Christ "
is the prevailing expression.
The first promise of the Messiah was
given in Gen. 3:15. The Son of God
and all true believers are "the seed of
the woman." Comp. Acts 13 : 2'.\ : Gal.
4:4, and Heb. 2: 16 with John 17:21-
23. The devil and all his servants rep-
resent the serpent and his seed. John
8:44: 1 John 3:8. The temptations,
sufferings, and ignominious death of
Christ, and the fierce opposition and
persecution which his followers have
endured, are significantly described by
the bruising of the heel : while the
complete victory which our Kedeemer
has himself achieved over ein and
178
death, and which his grace enables the
believer also to obtain, and the still
more perfect and universal triumph
which he will finally accomplish, are all
strikingly illustrated by the bruising
or crushing of the serpent's head.
The books of heathen mythology
furnish curious allusions to this pas-
sage of the Bible. In one of them Thor
is represi nted as the eldest son of Odin,
a middle divinity, a mediator between
God and man. who bruised the head of
the serpent and slew him. And in one
of the oldest pagodas of India are
found two sculptured figures, repre-
senting two incarnations of one of
their supreme divinities, the first to be
bitten by a serpent and the second to
crush him.
The promise thus given when man
fell was supplemented by so many par-
ticulars in the course of the centuries
that the coming Messiah was the great
hope of Israel. In type and symbol, in
poetry and prose, in projihecy and his-
tory, the Jews had set before them in
increasing prominence and clearness
the character and life and death of
the promised Messiah, and yet, as a
nation, they grossly misapprehended
his character and the purpose of his
mission. They were accustomed to re-
gard his coming as the grand era in tho
annals of the world, for they spoke of
the two great ages of history, the one
as preceding and the other as following
this wonderful event : but they per-
verted the spiritual character of the
Messiah and his kingdom into that of
a temporal deliverer and ruler.
We find that about the time of the
Messiah's appearance Simeon, Anna,
and others of like faith, were eagerly
expecting the jiromised salvation. Luke
2 : 25-38.
At the appointed time the Redeemer
of the world a])peared. He was born in
the year of the city of Rome 749 — /. e.
4 years before the beginning of our
era — at Bethlehem, in Juda'a, of the Vir-
gin Mary, who was espoused to Joseph:
and through them he derived his descent
from David, according to prophecy. Ps.
89 : 3, 4 and 110: 1. Comp. Acts'2:25,
36 : Isa. 11 : 1-1 0 : Jer. 23 : 5, 6 : Eze.
34 : 23, 21: 37 : 24, 25 : John 7 : 42.
The story of Christ's life is told with
so much simplicity, completeness, and
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CHR
sweetness in the Gospels, and is at the
same time so familiar to every Bible-
reader, that it is not necessary here to
repeat it. In one sentence, Jesus Christ
was the incarnate God, whose coming
was the fulfilment of prophecy ; whose
life was the exemplification of absolute
sinlessness ; whose death was the result
of man's malice, and yet the execution
of God's design and the atonement for
the sins of the world ; whose resurrec-
tion was the crowning proof of his di-
vinity : whose ascension was a return
to his abode, where he ever liveth to
make intercession for us. To prove his
character we have the unanimous testi-
mony of eighteen centuries. " The per-
son of Christ is the miracle of history."
We claim for him perfect humanity and
perfect divinity. He was not only the
Son of man, but the Son of God in one
undivided person. The term " Son of
man," which Christ applies to himself
about eighth' times in the Gospels, places
him on a common level with other men
as partaking of their nature and consti-
tution, and at the same time above all
other men as the absolute and perfect
Man, the representative Head of the
race, the second Adam. Comp. Rom. 5 :
12 flF. ; 1 Cor. 15 : 27 ; Heb. 1 : 8. While
other great men are limited by national
prejudice, Christ is the King of men,
who draws all to him : he is the uni-
versal, absolute Man, elevated above
the limitations of race and nationalitj-.
And yet he is most intensely human.
The joys and sorrows of our common
life are met by his deep and tender sym-
pathy. All love him who know him.
His foes are the cruel, the licentious,
and the malicious. The records of the
evangelists are not elaborate, artistic
pages with many erasures, as if the
writers had toiled after consistency.
They are simple, straight - forward,
guileless testimonies: and yet the im-
pression they leave upon the attentive
reader is that in Jesus Christ the plant
of Humanity bore its rarest flower, the
tree of Life its most precious fruit. It
will be granted that the question of the
justice of this claim turns upon his per-
fect sinlessness. Some have dared to
say that while in the Gospels no sinful
acts are recorded, there may have been
sins which are unrecorded. But with-
out fear he challenged his foes to con-
1 vict him of sin. John 8 : 46. He was
the only man who has made any such
demand. Christ's sinlessness is con-
firmed by his own solemn testimony, the
whole course of his life, and the very
purpose for which he appeared. Self-
deception in this case would border on
madness, falsehood would overthrow the
whole moral foundation of Christ's cha-
racter. Hypocrites do not maintain
themselves under such a strain. But
besides being sinless, he was perfectly
hoiy. He did not simply resist sin : he
blended and exercised actively all vir-
tues. The grandeur of his character
'■ removes him at once from all the sor-
! didness, pettiness, and sinfulness of our
! every-day life. His memory comes to
us with the refreshment of the cooling
breeze on a summer's day. We can
supplicate his help because we have
seen him tried and triumphant, and we
know his strength is great. All human
goodness loses on closer inspection, but
Christ's character grows more pure, sa-
cred, and lovely the better we know him.
But Jesus was likewise the Son of God,
and so he is usually called by the apos-
tles. The perfection of his humanity is
matched by the perfection of his divin-
ity. His Godhead comes out in many
ways. He exercises a supernatural con-
trol over Nature. The waves sink at his
command, the fig tree withers away, the
water turns into wine. By his touch or
word, without a prayer or any recogni-
tion of superior power, the lepers are
cleansed, the blind see, and the lame
walk. Higher yet dots Christ go : he
forgives sins — not with the ostentation
of a presuming charlatan, but sim])ly,
decidedly, gently. He takes from the
sinner his damning load by the same
action which brings back health. He
likewise intercedes with the Father for
men. He claims equality and eternity
with God. Twice God proclaims him
as his Son. Accompanied by legions
of angels, sustained by divine strength,
Jesus of Nazareth lives as the express
image of the Father, conquers the grave,
rises from the dead, and ascends to take
his place as God, blessed for ever.
The Church has the daily experience
of her Lord, who is present always in
the hearts of all true believers. When
souls yearn for cheer, when mourners
cry out for comfort, when men need
179
CHR
CHR
counsel, they seek Jesns ; and they are
supplied from the inexhaustible fount
of his humanity. When the sinner feels
the burden of his sin pressing heavily
and groans for release, when the insolv-
ent debtor falls at the feet of his Lord,
crying, '' Have mercy !" when the saint
is set amid the perplexities of life, when
he enters the valley of the shadow of
death, when he comes to the brink of the
rivei', — these are times when the perfect
divinity of Jesus is proven to the satis-
faction of the soul.
" Behold the God-Man !" cries the
Church ; and this is the exultant ex-
clamation of the soul left to its deepest
instincts and noblest aspirations, the
soul which was originally made for
Christ, and finds in him the solution of
all moral problems, the satisfaction of
all its wants, the unfailing fountain of
everlasting life and peace.
Pernoudl Appearance of Jesus Christ.
— None of the evangelists — not even the
beloved disciple and bosom-friend of
Jesus — has given us the least hint of
his countenance and stature. This was
wise. AVe ought to cling to the Christ in
the spirit rather than to the Christ in
the flesh. Yet there must have been
spiritual beauty in his face. He won
the hearts of his disciples by a word.
We are indeed left to conjecture merely,
but we cannot read in the hints of his
personal power any necessity for taking
Isaiah's description of the suffering Mes-
siah in all its literal baldness. There
was nothing repulsive about Jesus. He
had not the physiognomy of a sinner ; a
supernatural purity and dignity must
have shone through the veil of his flesh.
The first formal description of his
looks dates from the fourth century —
is, indeed, unauthentic, probably a monk-
ish fabrication, and yet, because it is
curious and has had a great influence
upon the pictorial representations of
Jesus, we insert it hero. It is ascribed
to Publius Lentulus, a heathen, supposed
contemporary iind friend of Pilate, in an
apocryphal letter to the Roman Senate :
" In this time appeared a man. who
lives till now — a man endowed with
great powers. Men call him a great
prophet; his own disci])les term him
the Son of God. His name is Jesus
Christ. He restores the dead to life
and cures the sick of all manner of dis-
180
eases. This man is of noble and well-
proportioned stature, with a face full of
kindness, and yet firmness, so that be-
holders both love him and fear him. His
hair is the color of wine, and golden at
the root, straight and without lustre, but
from the level of the ears curling and
glossy, and divided down the centre,
after the fashion of the Nazarenes. His
forehead is even and smooth, his face
without blemish, and enhanced by a
tempered bloom, his countenance in-
genuous and kind. Nose and mouth
are in no way faulty. His beard is full,
of the same color as his hair, and forked
in form ; his e3'es blue and extremely
brilliant. In reproof and rebuke he is
formidable ; in exhortation and teach-
ing, gentle and amiable of tongue.
None have seen him to laugh, but
many, on the contrary, to weep. His
person is tall, his hands beautiful and
straight. In speaking he is deliberare
and grave and little given to loquacity;
in beauty, surpassing most men."
It may be proper to suggest the lead-
ing points and principal references re-
specting the divinity of our Lord.
I. The names and titles of the su-
preme Being are applied to him. John
1:1; Rom. 9:5; 1 John 5 : 20 ; Rev. 1 :
11 : comp. Isa. 6: 1-10 with John 12 : 41.
II. The principal attributes of God
are ascribed to Christ; as, eternity,
John 1:1; 8 : 58 ; Rev. 22 : 13 ; super-
human knowledge, Matt. 9:4; John 16 :
30; 21:17; omnipotence, Phil. 3 : 21 ;
Col. 2 : 9, 10 ; omnipresence, Matt. 18 :
20 ; 28 : 20 : John 3: 13 ; and unchange-
ableness. Heb. 13:8.
III. The works and prerogatives of
God are ascribed to him, such as the
creation of all things, John 1:1,3; Col.
1: 16, 17, and their preservation, Heb.
1:3; forgiveness of sins, Dan. 8:9;
eomp. with Ps. 30 ; Matf . 9 : 2, 6 : Col.
3:13; power to raise the dead and to
judge the world. Matt. 26 : 31-33 ; John
5 : 2-29 : Rom. 14 : 10 ; 2 Cor. 6:10.
IV. He is the object of religious wor-
ship. Phil. 2 : 10, 11 ; Heb. 1:6; Rev.
6: 11-13.
We insert here, as a help in study-
ing the harmony of the four Gospels, the
chronological table of the life of Christ,
from SchafT's Popular Coniiiiottari/ on
the New TeHiament (New York, 1879),
vol. i. p. 18.
CHK
CHR
Outline of the Gospel History.
Year of
Rome.
A. C.
Matthew.
Mark.
Luke.
John.
749
780
780
781
B. C.
5
Dec.
A. D.
27
Jan.
27
28
I. Introduction.
Prefaces
1 :l-4
3 : 23-38
1 : 5-80
2 : 1-52
3 : 1-23
1 :l-5
1:6-
2: 12
2:13-
5:1
5;1
to
6:14
6:71
Genealogies
1 : 1-17
I : 18-25
2 : 1-23
3:1-
4: 11
Antecedent Events
II. Birth and Childhood of Jesus.
III. Our Lord's Introduction to his
Ministry.
From appearance of the Baptist )
To wedding at Cana of Galilee /
IV. First Year of our Lord's Min-
istry.
{According to Andrews, narrated by John
only.)
From the first Passover ) f
1:1-13
To the second Passover] \
V. Second Year of our Lord's Min-
istry
( Wholly in Galilee.)
From the beginning of the min-"]
istry 1
To the feeding of the five thou- |
sand and J
The discourse at Capernaum
4:12-
14 : 36
1 :14-
6 -.bQ
4: 14-
9:17
780
781
27
• 28
IV. First Year of our Lord's Min-
istry.
(According to Robinson.)
From the first Passover, includ-'j
ing the following events, nar- >
rated by the Synoptists: )
Beginning of Ga'lilean ministry...
Rejection at Nazareth and re-)
moval to Capernaum ]"
Call of the four fishermen
Healing of a demoniac at Caper- )
naum )
Healing of Peter's wife's mother...
First circuit through Galilee
Healing of a leper
Healing of the paralytic
Call of Matthew
2:13
to
5:1
5:1
6:14
6:71
4:17
4 : 13-lG
4 : 18-22
1:14
to
2: 14
4:14
4 : 16-31
5 : 1-11
4 : 31-37
4 : 38-41
4 : 42-44
5 : 12-16
5 : 17-26
5 : 27, 28
8 : 14-17
4 : 23-25
8: 2-4
U : 2-8
0:9
Followed bv second Passover
V. Second Year of our Lord's Min-
istry.
From second Passover and the^
Sabbath controversy in Galilee ^
To feeding of five thousand and J
Discourse at Capernaum, including
Events narrated by Luke in
12 : 1-
14:36
2:23-
6:56
6:1-
9:17
/Il:14-
tl3:9
And those narrated by Matthew,
not cited under IV.
782
783
29
Apr.7,
30
VI. Third Year of our Lord's Min-)
istry. V
Until arrival at Bethany )
VII. From the Arrival at Bethany )
TO the Burial of Jesus /
VIII. Resurrection AND Ascension
15 : 1-
20:34
21 : 1-
27 : 66
28
7: 1-
10:52
11:1-
15:47
16
9:18-
19:28
19:29-
23:56
24
7:1-
11:57
12:1-
19:42
20, 21
181
CHR
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The life of Christ has been of late
studied with an eagerness, a keenness,
and a wealth of illustration that argue
well for the future. The question,
"What think ye of Christ?" is asked
to-day with peculiar emphasis. This
new-born interest in the earthly life of
the Founder of the Christian religion
will bear fruit in the increased rever-
ence of believers and the increased re-
spect of his foes.
Christs, False. Matt. 24 : 24. Our
Lord warned his disciples that false
Christs should arise. Not less than 24
different persons of such pretensions
have appeared, and the defence of their
claims to the Messiahship hsLs cost the
Jews a great expense of life and treas-
ure. One of them, Coziba, or Barcho-
cheba, lived early in the second century.
He put himself at the head of the Jew-
ish nation as their Messiah : they ad-
hered to him. The Romans made war
upon him, and the Jews themselves
allow that in their defence of this false
Messiah they lost between 500,000 and
600,000 8onh! In the twelfth century
not less than 8 or 10 impostors appeared
under the same name, and were followed
by great numbers of the Jews. Most of
them were punished for their imposture
Avith death, and usually involved a mul-
titude of their deluded followers in per-
secution and death. The last that
gained any considerable number of
converts was Mordecai, a Jew of Ger-
many, who lived in 1682. He fled for
his life, and his end is not known.
CHRIS'TIAN. Acts 26 : 28. This
was a name given to the followers of our
Saviour, and its proper beautiful mean-
ing is " a follower of Christ." The Chris-
tians called themselves first "disciples,"
" believers," "brethren," "saints." The
name "Christian" originated at Anti-
och. Acts 11 : 26, about the year 42 or
43, and probably (like the names " Naza-
renes" and "(ialilaeans") as a term of re-
proach or contempt. The word occurs
in only three places in the New Testa-
ment— viz. in the two jtassages before
cited and in 1 Pet. 4:16, where it is
implied that the very name was asso-
ciated with reproach and suffering.
Tacitus (b. about A. I). 54), a profane
historian, tells us of the low or vulgar
people called the followers of Christ,
or Christians.
182
The terra Christian is now employed
(] ) in contradistinction to pagans, Jews,
and Mohammedans, and (2) to denote
the open professors of religion, in con-
tradistinction from those who are not
professors. In some countries it is still a
term of bitter reproach, and the assump-
tion of it is attended with persecution,
cruelty, and death.
The Christian religion is received at
the present day (as it is supposed; by
nearly one-third of the inhabitants of
the world— j". e. about 400.000,000 among
1,300,000,000. But in point of intelli-
gence, civilization, and influence on the
world the Christian nations far surpass
all other nations combined. One of the
most recent estimates is the following:
.Tews fi,00t),000
Moliainmedans 160,823,000
Pagans 766,342,000
Roman Catholics 19.5,000,000
Protestants 97,139,000
Greek Catholics 69,692,700
Other Oriental Christians... 6,.500,000
Total 1,302,-196,700
CHRON'ICLES. In its general
signification, this term denotes a chron-
ological history, or an account of facts
and events in the order of time. The
thirteenth and fourteenth books of the
Old Testament, which among the an-
cient Jews formed only one book, are call-
ed the First and Second Book of Chron-
icles, and are in some sense supple-
mental to the two books of Kings, which
precede them, with this difference — that
the Chronicles are written from the
sacerdotal point of view and pre ent
chiefly the fortunes of Jewish worship,
while the Kings are written from the
prophetic view of the history of the
theocracy. They appear to have been
compiled from the national diaries or
journals, and the constant Jewish tra-
dition, which internal evidence sup-
ports, is that they were written by
Ezra. These voluminous diaries are
referred to frequently under different
names, 1 Kgs. 14: 19: 1 Chr. 27:24;
Esth. 2 : 2.3, but are not to be con-
founded with the abstract which con-
stitutes the books to which this article
refers.
The principal object of the author of
these books was to j)oint out, from the
public records, the state of the different
families before the Captivity and the
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distribution of the lands among them,
that each tribe might, as far as possible,
obtain the ancient inheritance of its
fathers at its return. So tljat this por-
tion of the Old Testament may be con-
sidered as an epitome of all the sacred
history, but more especially of that from
the origin of the Jewish nation to their
return from the first captivit}', embra-
cing a period of nearly 3500 years. The
first book traces the rise and propaga-
tion of the children of Israel from
Adam, together with a circumstantial
account of the reign and transactions
of David ; the second continues the
narrative, and relates the progress and
dissolution of the kingdom of Judaea
(apart from Israel) to the year of the
return of the people from Babylon.
Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles should
be read and compared together, as they
relate substantially the same histories,
though with different degrees of par-
ticularity and with different means of
information, so that the whole contains
but one history : and what is obscure or
defective in one part may be explained
or supplied in another.
CHRONOLOGY. We present
here a condensation of the article of
R. S. Poole on this subject in Smith's
Dicliounrij of the Bible.
We must seek a n'n media between
putting absolute reliance upon the bib-
lical chronological data and declaring
them altogether vague and uncertain.
The truth is, the Bible does not give a
complete history of the times to which
it refers : in its historical portions it
deals with special and detached periods.
This accounts for its scantiness and oc-
casional want of continuity. Hence there
is great value in independent evidence
in the X. T. and in incidental evidence
in the 0. T.
Scientific observation of the natu-
ral changes of the weather and the sea-
."ons was probably unknown to the
Jews until the Captivity. But still
these changes must have been noted,
and from these observations we are safe
in deducing their divisions of time.
An hour was the smallest division the
J< ws recognized. The " sun-dial of
Ahaz" — whatever instrument, fixed or
movable, it may have been — implies a
division of the kind. The civil d<ni
was reckoned from sunset, the natural
day from sunrise. The night was di-
vided into three watches, though the
first must be inferred. The " middle
watch '■ occurs in Jud. 7:19; the '' morn-
ing watch" is mentioned in Ex. 14: 24
and 1 Sam. 11 : 11. In the N. T. four
watches are mentioned — the Roman
system ; all four are mentioned to-
gether in Mark 13 : 35 — the late watch,
midnight, the cock-crowing, and the
early watch. The Hebrew tccnk was a
period of seven days, ending with the
Sabbath, which word indeed is often
u.-ed for " week." As the Egyptians di-
vided their month of 30 days into de-
cades, the Hebrews could not have bor-
rowed their week from them ; probably
both it and the Sabbath were used and
observed by the patriarchs. The mouth
was lunar. The first day of it is called
the *• new moon," and was observed as
a sacred festival. In the Pentateuch,
Joshua, Judges, and Ruth we find but
one month, the first, the month Abib,
mentioned with a special name, the rest
being called according to their order.
In 1 Kgs. three other names appear —
Zif, the second, Ethanim, the seventh,
and Bui, the eighth. Xo other names
are found in any book prior to the Cap-
tivity. The i/ear was made up of 12
lunar months, beginning with the first
part of our April. The method of in-
tercalation can only have been that
which obtained after the Captivity — the
addition of a thirteenth month when-
ever the twelfth ended too long before
the equinox for the first-fruits of the
barley-harvest to be offered in the mid-
dle of the month following, and the
similar offerings at the time apju.intcd.
The later Jews had two beginnings to
the year, the seventh month of the
civil reckoning being Abib. the first of
the sacred. The sabbatical and jubilee
years began in the seventh month.
Agricultural considerations probably led
to this anomaly. The snoffoiin do not
appear to have been fixed among the
ancient Hebrews. We find mention of
the merely natural divisions of "sum-
mer and winter," "seed-time and har-
vest." Anciently, their festivaU and
holy-dnys were noticeably few ; for be-
sides the Sabbaths and new moons, there
were but four groat festivals and one fast
— the feasts of the Passover, of weeks,
trumpets, tabernacles, and the fast on the
183
CHR
CHR
day of atonement. But after the Cap-
tivity many holy days were added, such
as the feast of Purim, of the dedication —
recording the cleaiii<ing and rededication
of the temple by Judas Maccabajus —
and fasts on the anniv^ersaries of great
national misfortunes connected with the
Babylonish captivity. The sabbatical
year was a year of rest. It commenced
at the civil beginning of the year, with
the seventh month, at the feast of tab-
ernacles. Deut. 31 : 10. The jubilee
year began on the day of atonement,
after the lapse of seven sabbatical
periods, or 49 years. It was similar to
the sabbatical year in its character,
although doubtless yet more important.
Eras seem to have been used by the
ancient Hebrews, but our information is
scanty. The Exodus is used as an era
in 1 Kgs. 6:1, in giving the date of
Solomon's temple. The era of Jehoi-
achin's captivity is constantly used by
Ezekiel. The earliest date is the fifth
year, 1 : 2, and the latest the twenty-
seventh. 29: 17. The era of the Seleu-
cidas is used in the First and Second
Maccabees, and the liberation of the
Jews from the Syrian yoke, in the first
year of Simon the Maccabee, is stated
to have been commemorated by an era
used in contracts and agreements. 1
Mace. 13 : 41, 42. Regnal jjears seem to
have been counted from the beginning
of the yeai", not from the day of the
king's accession.
We may distinguish different jyeriods
in Jewish history, although we are not
able with accuracy to assign them dates.
1. From Adam to Abram's departure
from Haran. This period is the most
indefinite of all. We have indeed two
genealogical lists — from Adam to Noah
and his S(ms,Gen. 5 : ;>-32, and again from
Shorn to Abram. 11 : 1 0-20. But the Ma-
sorctic Hebrew text, the Septuagint, and
the Samaritan Pentateuch greatly dif-
fer. • The Septuagint makes this period
1000 years longer than the Hebrew.
The question to which list the prefer-
ence should be given is still unset-
tled. 2. The second period is from
Abram's departure from Haran to the
Exodus. The length of this period is
stated by Paul in Gal. 3 : 1 7 to be 4;U)
years, and there is no difficulty in the
way of acccj)ting his figures which can-
not be solved. '?>. The third period is
1S4
from the Exodus to the foundation of
Solomon's temple. We may consider this
period about 638 years, but others reduce
it to one-half. 4. The fourth period is
from the foundation of Solomon's tem-
ple to its destruction. We come now
upon tolerably sure ground ; from b. c.
1000 on we have contemporary evi-
dence. Two interregnums have been
supposed — one of 11 years, between Jer-
oboam II. and Zachariah, and the other
of 9 years, between Pekah and Hoshea.
We prefer, in both cases, to suppose
a longer reign of the earlier of the two
kings between whom the interregnums
are conjectured. The whole period
may be held to be of about 425 years ;
that of the undivided kingdom, 120
years ; that of the kingdom of Judah,
about 388 years ; and that of the king-
dom of Israel, about 255 years. 5. The
fifth period is from the destruction of
Solomon's temple to the return from the
Babylonish captivity. The difficulty in
calculating this period springs from the
prophesied number — the 70 years. Two
numbers, held by some to be identical,
must here be considered. One is the
period of 70 years, during which the
tyranny of Babylon over Palestine and
the East generally was to last, Jer. 35 ;
and the other the 70 years of the Baby-
lonish captivity. The commencement
of the first is the first year of Nebu-
chadnezzar and the fourth of Jehoi-
akim, Jer. 25 : 1, when the successes
of the king of Babylon began, Jer. 46:
2, and the conclusion is the fall of Baby-
lon. The famous 70 years of captivity
would seem to be the same period, since
it was to terminate with the return of
the ca])tives, Jer. 29 : 10 ; and the order
for this was published by Cyrus, who
took Babylon, in the first year of his
reign.
Principal Sijstems of Biblical Ckro-
Holitf/i/. — There are three, long, short,
and Rabbinical. The long chronology
takes the Septuagint for the patriarchal
generations, and adopts the long interval
from the Exodus to the founclation of
Solomon's temple. The short chronol-
ogy— that in the margin of the A. V.,
and derived from Archbishop IJssher
f 1 580-1 65())— takes the Hebrew for the
})atriarchal generations, and makes the
second period to be 480 years. The
Rabbinical chronology accepts the bib-
CHR
CHU
Heal numbers, but makes the most ar-
bitrary corrections.
We subjoin a table in which the
results of some of the more important
of the various chronological schools are
contrasted :
Hales.
R. S. Poole.
W. Palmer
USSHER.
Creation
B.C.
5411
3155
2078
1648
1027
586
B.C.
U421J
fri
(3160)
2082
1652
1010
586
B.C.
5362
3100
2084
16.54
1014
587
B.C.
4004
2348
1021
1491
1012
588
Flood
Abraiii leaves Haran
Exodus
Foundation of Solomon's Temple...
Destruction of Solomou's Temple..
CHRYS'OLITE. Rev. 21 : 20.
The word means " golden stone," and we
thus learn its color. It is quite agreed
that it was the yellow topaz or the beryl
of the 0. T.
CHRYSOP'RASUS. Rev. 21 :
20. A stone of a ''golden leek" or
green color, as its name imports. It
is of a most agreeable hue, opaque, and
extremely hard.
CHUB, a people, probably in north
Africa, and of a land near Egypt. Eze.
30:5.
CHUN. 1 Chr.l8:8. SameasBer-
othai. 2 Sam. 8:8.
CHURCH. The English word (like
the similar terms in the Teutonic, Celtic,
and Slavonic languages) is derived from a
Greek word (KvpiaKOf' iner.ning '• belong-
ing to the Lord" (Chri.«t). "the Lord's
house." Some derive it from a Celtic root
niesining " round," because the temples in
which the first Christian congregations
gathered were circular. In the N. T. the
original word is ecclesia, which means
nn assembly, either secular, Acts 19 : 32,
or religi'ous, Acts 2 : 47, etc. It is ap-
plied either to the whole body of believ-
ers in Christ, the Church universal, Matt.
16 : 18 Eph. 1 : 22. or to a particular
congregation in a local sense, as "the
church at .Jerusalem." Acts 15 : 4 ; *' at
Antioch." 13 : 1 , ''of the Thessalonians,"
2 Thess. 1:1, "at Corinth," 1 Cor. 1 : 2.
The original word is used only twice in
the Gospels, each time by Matthew. 16 :
IS, where it means the Church univer-
sal, and 18 : 17, where it means a local
congregation. The evangelists usually
employ the term " the kingdom of God "
or "the kingdom of heaven" for the
spiritual substance of the Church uni-
versal.
The day of Pentecost is the birth-
day of the Christian Church. From
small beginnings it has spread over all
the earth and been the one permanent
fact amid all temporal changes. To-day
it is the foundation of true civiliza-
tion, virtue, and religion. What the
Christian Church condemns the world
must eventually give up, for darkness
cannot abide the entrance of light.
A distinction must be made between
the real Church of Christ, the genuine
believers, and the outward organization,
which comprises both true and false
friends of Christ. To the former only
do the promises belong.
In the outward sense the Church is
divided into various denominations,
as the Baptist, the Congregational, the
English, the Episcopal, the Greek, the
Lutheran, the Methodist, the Moravian,
the Presbyterian, the Reformed, the
Roman, and other churches. But in
the Bible the word is never used in a
denominational or confessional sense,
or in the sense of a church-building.
CHURCHES, ROBBERS
OF, is the translation in Acts 19 : 37,
instead of "robbers of temples" or
" sacrilegious " persons.
CHURN. See Bittkr.
CHU'SHAN-RISHATHA'IM.
Jud. 3 : 8-10. A king of Mesopotamia,
and an oppressor of the Israelites. 0th-
niel, Caleb's nephew, delivered them
from his dominion.
CHU'ZA (« seer?), the steward of
Ilerod Antipas. His wife, Joanna, was
one of the women who ministered to
186
CIL
CIS
Jesus in life and in death. Luke 8:3;
24:10.
CILI'CIA, the south-easterly prov-
ince of Asia Minor, having Cappadocia
on the north, Syria on the east, the
Mediterranean Sea on the south, and
Pamphylia and Pisidia(?) on the west.
Eastern Cilicia was a rich plain : west-
ern Cilicia was rough and mountainous,
lying on the Taurus range. Its capital
was Tarsus, and many of its people
were Jews. It is frequently mentioned
in the book of Acts. 6:9; 15 : 23, 41 ;
21 : 39 ; 22 : 3 ; 23 : 34 ; 27 : 5 ; and
Gal. 1:21. See Tarsus.
CIN'IVAMON. Song Sol. 4: 14. A
well-known aromatic, produced from the
Cinnamon. (C. zei/lanecum. After Dr. Budwood.)
inner bark of a tree which grows chiefly
in Ceylon, and being peeled oil" and cut
into strips curls up in the form in which
it is u.sually seen. The cinnamon tree
belongs to the laurel family, and attains
the height of 30 feet. Cinnamon was
one of the ingredients of the holy oil,
Ex. 30:23, and was probiibly aji article
of commerce in ancient IJabyion. llev.
18: 13.
CIN'NEROTH. 1 Kgs. 15 : 20.
Same as Chinncreth.
186
CIRCUMCIS'ION {ctitthig round),
a rite or ceremony of the Jewish relig-
ion, which consisted in cutting oif the
foreskin of all males on the eighth day
after their birth. It was established as
the token of God's covenant with Abra-
ham, Gen. 17:9-14, who immediately
subjected himself and all his family to
its observance. The precept of circum-
cision was renewed to Moses, Ex.12:
44 ; Lev. 12 : 3 ; John 7 : 22, 23, requir-
ing that all should submit to it who
would partake of the paschal sacrifice.
Tiie Jews have always been very scru-
pulous in its observance, though it was
omitted in their journey through the
wilderness for some reason. Many
other nations have the rite. It existed
among the Egyptians, the Ethiopians,
the Mexicans, and the West Indians,
and to-day among the Caffres of South
Africa, the Abyssinians, the islanders
of the Pacific Ocean, and the South
American tribes. It is the chief cere-
mony of initiation into the religion of
Mohammed, though it is regarded only
as a traditionary precept, and is not
performed till the child is 13 years old.
The instrument used for this purpose
was a knife, a razor, or even a sharp
stone. Ex. 4 : 2.5 : Josh. 5 : 3.
The design of this requirement obvi-
ously was to fix upon the ]>ersons of all
the natural male descendants of Abra-
ham a distinguishing mark, separating
tiiem from all the rest of the world. As
this rite was peculiar to the Jews, they
are called '" the circumcision." and the
Gentiles "the uncircumcision." Rom.
4 : 1).
The terms " uncircumcised '" and " un-
circumcision " are also used to denote
impurity or wickedness generally, and
''to circumcise the heart" was to become
tractable and docile. Ex. 6 : 1 2, 30 ; Jer.
4 : 4 ; 6 : 10 ; 9 : 26 ; Ezc. 44 : 7 ; Acts 7 :
h\. Jews who renounced Judaism some-
times endeavored to erase the mark of
circumcision by a surgical operation, and
probably Paul a'.ludes to this. 1 Cor. 7 :
18. See CovKNANT, Concision.
CIS'TERiV. The face of the coun-
try and the rarity of rain between May
and September made cisterns indispen-
sable in Judaja. They were mostly pri-
vate property. Num. 21 : 22. Some were
formed by merely excavating the earth ;
others were covered reservoirs, into
CIT
CIT
which the water was conducted ; and
others still were lined with wood or ce-
ment, or hewn out of the rock with great
labor and ornamented with much skill.
When the pits were empty there was a
tenacious mire at the bottom, and they
were used as the places of the most
cruel punishments. It was into such
a pit, probably, that Joseph and Jere-
miah were cast. Gen. 37 : 22 ; Jer. 38 :
6. Large cisterns are now found in Pal-
estine at intervals of 15 or 20 miles.
One of them is described by a modern
traveller to be 660 feet long by 270 broad.
These cisterns were the chief dependence
of the people for water : hence the force
of the allusion. Jer. 2: lo. The city of
Jerusalem was remarkably well supplied
with water, so that during her many
sieges her inhabitants never suliered
from thirst. See Conduit.
Various illust'-ations from the cistern
are given in Scriptu.e. A wheel was
used to. draw up the bucket, and " the
wheel broken at the cistern," in Eccl.
12 : 6, denotes the breaking up of the
vital powers of the humnn body. An
exhortation to due restraint in pleasure
is indicated by " Drink waters out of
thine own cistern." Pro v. 5:15.
CIT'IZENSHIP. The Jew had
no earthly citizenship in the Roman
sense ; his commonwealth was a congre-
gation of believers, governed by the
Lord himself. But Roman citizenship
is referred to in the N. T. This was the
term for the privileges enjoyed by cer-
tain subjects of the Ptoman empire. The
right was obtaineil by inlieritance or by
purchase, Acts 22:28, or by military
service, by favor, or by manumission.
Among the privileges of this position
was. the possessor could not be impris-
oned without trial, Acts 22 : 29, still less
be scourged, Acts 16 : 37, or crucified.
Since to inflict either of these was a
great indignity and severely punished,
the assertion that one was a Roman
citizen was a deterrent. But Jews
who escaped on this account were still
liable to their own law. 2 Cor. 11 :
24. The right of appeal unto Caesar
was one of the privileges of Roman
citizenship. Acts 25 : 11. Paul was a
Roman citizen, and repeatedly availed
himself of his privileges against the
violence of the mob. The words *' I
am a Roman citizen^' had a maoric
' power all over the civilized world, and
even among barbarians.
CIT'Y. It is not very easy to de-
termine by what the Jews distinguished
villages from towns, and towns from cit-
ies. Probably, at first, a number of
tents and cottages formed a village.
They were brought together by family
relationship, by local attraction, and
for mutual defence against more pow-
erful clans or tribes. When their sit-
uation bejame insecure, they began to
protect themselves by a ditch or hedge
or a wall. The advancement from this
rude state to the fortified towns and cit-
ies of ancient days was easy and rapid.
The first city was built by Cain. Gen. 4 :
17. It may he presumed that cities were
always walleJ. Num. 13 : 28. Thej^ were
often (if not always) fortified, and many
of them were very populous. The streets
were crooked and narrow, so that in some
of them loaded camels could not pass
each other, as is the case to-day in
Alexandria, Cairo, Jerusalem, and Da-
mascus. Sometimes, in Asiatic cities, a
broad street, or a section of it, is cover-
ed for the accommodation of merchants
or tradesmen, and such places are called
bnznnrs ; and the prominent branch of
business transacted there gives the name
to the street : as, the woollen-drapers',
coppersmiths', etc. Around the gates
of cities was the principal concourse of
i people, Neh. 8:1; Job 29 : 7 ; and there-
lore these stations were desirable for
booths or stalls for the sale of merchan-
dise. 2 Kgs. 7:1. These square or
open places are probably intended in
2 Chr. 32:6 and Neh. 3:16; 8 : 1, 3.
Some cities were adorned with open
squares and large gardens. One-third
of the city of Babylon was occupied
with gardens. Csesarea, Jerusalem,
Antioch, and other of the largest cit-
» ies, were paved.
Fenced City, 2 Kgs. 10:2, or De-
fenced Cities, Isa. 36:1, a fortified
city. To bxuld a city and to fortify or
fence it, in the Oriental idiom, mean
the same thing. The fencing or fortifi-
cation was usually with high walls, and
watch-towers upon them. Deut. 3 : 5.
The walls of fortified cities were form-
ed, in part at least, of combustible ma-
terials, Am. 1:7, 10, 14, the gates being
i covered with thick plates of iron or
I brass. Ps. 107 : 16 ; Isa. 45 : 2 ; Acts
187
CIT
CIT
12 : 10. There was also within the
city a citadel or tower, to which the
inhabit.ants fled when the city itself
could not be defended. Jud. 9 : 46-52.
These were often upon elevated ground,
and were entered by a flight of steps.
See Gate.
At the time when Abraham came
into the land of Canaan there were al-
ready in existence numerous towns,
which are mentioned in the book of
Genesis — Sodom, Gomorrah, Zoboim,
Adraah, Bela, Hebron, and Damascus.
This last is probably the oldest city in
the world. The spies who were sent to
Canaan brought back an account of well-
fortified cities. In the book of Joshua
we read of no less than 600 towns of
which the Israelites took possession.
When the city of Ai was taken, its in-
habitants, who were put to the sword,
amounted to 12.000, Josh. 8 : 16-25, and
we are told that Gibeon was a still greater
city. 10:2. It is commonly calculated
that in Europe one-third or one-fourth
of a nation is comprised in its cities and
towns. Reckoning the Hebrews, then,
at 3,000,000, it would give about 1250
for the average population of the towns,
and it is probable that half the inhab-
itants dwelt in towns for greater safety.
Now. in Gibeah, Jud. 20 : 15, there were
700 men who bore arms, and of course
not less than .^)000 inhabitants. By a
similar calculation, we conclude that
the 48 cities of the Levites contained
each about 1000 souls. In the time of
David the population of Palestine was
between 5,000,000 and 6,000.000, and
we maj' suppose that the towns and cit-
ies were proportion itely increased. On
the great annual festivals Jerusalem
])re.-!ented a sublime spectacle of count-
less multitudes, when all the males of
the nation were required to be there
assembled. At such times the city
itself was insufficient to contain the
host of Israel, and thousands encamp-
ed around on its outskirts. After the re-
turn from the Babylonish captivity, the
})opulation of the towns may have been
inconsiderable, but the subsequent in-
crease was most rapid ; so that in the
time of Josephus the small villages of
Galilee contained 15,000 inhabitants,
and the larger towns 50,000. At the
same period .Terusalcm was 4 miles in
circuit antl had a population of 150,000.
188
The same author tells us that under
Cestius the number of paschal lambs
was 256,500, which would give about
2,700,000 persons attending the Pass-
over. At the time of the fatal siege of
Jerusalem more than 1.000.000 of per-
sons were shut in by the Romans; so
that the space included by the 4 miles
must have been remarkably economized.
But the number may be exaggerated.
City of David, 1 Chr. 11:5, a sec-
tion in the southern part of Jerusalem,
embracing Mount Zion, where a fortress
of the Jebusites stood. David reduced
the fortress and built a new palace and
city, to which he gave his own name.
Bethlehem, the native town of David,
is also called, from that circumstance,
the city of David. Luke 2: 11.
City of God, Ps. 46 : 4, was one of
the names of ancient Jerusalem, and
its appropriateness is evident from
Dent. 12 : 5.
Holy City. Neh. 11:1. The sacred-
ness of the temple extended itself in
some measure over the city, and hence
Jerusalem itself was called the '' Holy
City," and is so distinguished in the
East at the present day.
CiTiKS OP THE Plain. See Sono^r.
CiTiKS OP Refuge, Deut, 19:7, 9;
Josh. 23 : 2, 7, 8, were six of the Leviti-
cal cities divinely appointed by the Jew-
ish law as asylums, to which those who
had been undesignedly accessory to the
death of a fellow-creature were com-
manded to flee for safety and protec-
tion. The kinsmen of the deceased, or
other persons who might pursue to kill
him, could not molest him in one of
these cities until his offence was inves-
tigated and the judgment of the congre-
gation passed. If he were not within
the provisions of the law, he was deliv-
ered to the avenger and slain. If ho
was, then his life was safe so long as he
lived within the city or in the circuit of
1000 yards beyon;l. There he must re-
main until the death of the high priest
during whose term of office the homicide
was committed. The custom of hfond-
receiiije was deeply rooted among the Is-
raelites, and continues among the A.abs
to this day, and the institution of cities
of refuge was wisely designed to check
the violence of human passion. Several
sections of the Jewish law have relation
to this subject. For the size and situa-
CLA
CLE
tion of the cities, see Num. 35 : 4, 5, 14 ;
the description of jjersons and the man-
ner of killing in cases which entitled
the slayer to protection, Xum. 35 : 15-
25; Deut. 19 : 4-13. For the mode of
ascertaining whether the oflFence was
worthy of death and the consequences
of the judgment, see Xum. 35 : 24-33 :
and for the rules to be observed by the
manslayer in order to avail himself of
the benefit of the city of refuge, see
Num. 35 : 25-28. It is doubtful wheth-
er the trial of the manslayer was had at
the city of refuge or in the vicinity of
the place where the offence occurred.
Perhaps there were two processes, one
introductory to the other, as we have a
preliminary xamination to determine
if the party accused shall be held to an-
swer for his offence. This first process
might have been at the city of refuge.
Jewish writers say that signs were erect-
ed in some conspicuous place, pointing
to the cities of refuge, at every cross-
road, on which was inscribed, '' Refigk,
Refuge." which, with many other simi-
lar provisions, were designed to direct
and facilitate the flight of the unhappy
man who was pursued by the avenger of
blood. There were other sacred places
of refuge, particularly the temple and
the altar of burnt-offerings. Ex. 21 : 14.
Cities with Subl'rbs. Josh. 21:41,
42. This expression is explained by
reference to Num. 35: 1-5. See Treas-
ure-cities, Wam.s.
CLATJ'DA, a small island, 7
miles long by 3 miles wide, in the Med-
iterranean Sea, south of Crete, Acts
27 : 1 6 ; now Gozzo.
CLAXJ'DIA, a Christian woman in
Rome who joins Paul in saluting Timo-
thv. 2 Tim. 4:21.
CLAU'DIUS (hune), the fourth
Roman "emperor, successor of Caius
Coin of Claudius. {British Museum.)
Caligula, A. d.41-54. Acts 11 : 28. Her-
od Agrippa I. was mainly instrument-
al in securing him the throne. Several
different famines took place during his
reign, one of which, predicted by Aga-
bus, was very severe, and lasted three
years. In the ninth or twelfth year of
his reign he banished the Jews, proba-
bly including the Christian converts,
from Rome. Acts 18 : 2.
CLAU'DIUS LY'SIAS, the
chief captain or commander of a band
of soldiers stationed as a public guard
over the temple, who interposed his au-
thority, and thus saved Paul from vio-
lence at the hands of a temple-mob, and
afterward sent him with a strong guard
to the procurator Felix at Casarea.
Acts 21, 22, and 23.
CIjAY. The Hebrew word is used
in the 0. T. in the sense of ordinary
mire in the streets, Ps. 18 : 42 ; at the
bottom of the sea, Isa. 57 : 20 ; in a cis-
tern or subterranean prison. Jer. 38 : 6.
It is also translated "clay'' — /. e. pot-
ter's clay — Isa. 41 : 25 : Nah. 3 : 14. In
the N. T. the word *' clay " is applied to a
mixture of spittle with dust. John 9 : 6,
11, 15. For the use of clay in brick-
making, see Brick ; and in potter^', see
Potter. Clay was also used for seal-
ing. Job 38 : 14. Wine-jars, tombs, and
doors were, and are, sealed with clay.
See Seal.
CLEAN, AND UNCLEAN'. Lev.
10 : 10. These words are applied in
the Jewish law to persons, animals, and
things.
In order to partake of the privileges
of the Jewish Church, the individual
must not only be circumcised, but be
ceremonially clean. How the various
kinds of uncleanness were contracted,
what time it continued, and what was
the process of purification, are partic-
ularly described in Lev. 11-15 : Num. 19,
The division of animals into clean
and unclean existed before the Flood,
Gen. 7 : 2, and was probably founded
upon the practice of animal sacrifice.
Those animals only which divide the
hoof and chew the cud were regarded
as clean. Lev. 11 : 3, 4. The same chap-
ter enumerates a variety of beasts, birds,
reptiles, fishes, and things which are un-
clean. See also Ex. 22:31 ; 34:15,20;
Deut. 14:21. One object of these dis-
tinctic>ns was to guard the Jews against
heathen idolatry. Eating with the Gen-
tiles was regarded as a peculiar aggra-
189
CLE
CLO
ration of the offence of associating with
them. Matt. 9 : 11 ; Acts 11 : 3. Some of
the prohibited animals were unwhole-
some. The Hebrews were taught by
these strict regulations to habitually
regard their relation to God, and to ab-
stain from everything that should offend
his infinite holiness or involve the least
appearance of pollution. The distinc-
tion between clean and unclean ani-
mals and nations was annulled by a
special revelation to Peter. Acts 10 :
y-16.
CLEM'ENT, a fellow-laborer
of Paul, Phil. 4:3; probably the same
who was afterward bishop of Rome and
wrote two epistles to the Corinthians,
which are still extant, and were once
read in some churches.
CliE'^OPAS {I'erij renowned), one
of the two disciples who were met by
Christ on the way to Emmaus. Luke
24 : 18. Some regard him as the same
with Cleophiis.
CLE'OPHAS. John 19: 25. See
Alphkus.
CLiERK. See Town-clerk.
CLOAK. See Clothks.
CLOS'ET. See Dwelling.
CLOTH. The art of making cloth
was known very early. The skins of
animals supplied the place of cloth at
first, but we may suppose that spinning
and needle- work were so far perfected
as to furnish cloth, of a coarse kind at
least, at an early period. Ex. 35 : 25 ;
Jud. 5 : 30. The beauty of dress con-
sisted in the fineness and color of the
cloth. See Sackcloth.
CLOTHES, CLOTH'ING. The
immobility of the East is evinced in
nothing more than in the absence of
any change in dress from generation to
generation. The clothing of the ancient
Hebrews may be known from that of the
modern Orientals. The ordinary dress
consisted of the inner garment, the out-
er yarnient, a yirdle, and sunduls.
1. The inner yarment originally was
a sort of shirt, sleeveless, and reaching
only to the knees. Afterward it was
larger and longer, and with sleeves. A
girdle confined it around the waist. Jud.
14:13. A person with only it on was
said to be naked. 1 Sam. 19:21; Isa.
20 : 2-4 ; John 21 : 7. Its material was
wool, cotton, or linen, varying in qual-
ity according to the taste and wealth of
190
the owner. This inner garment is com-
monly translated in the Bible " coat,"
but "shirt" would be more correct.
2. The yirdle. — When the garments
came to be made long and flowing they
were confined around the loins with gir-
dles, which served not only to bind
A Modern Arab.
A Modern Greek.
them to the body, but also to hold them
when tucked up. This increased the
gracefulness of their appearance and
prevented them from interfering with
labor or motion. Hence " to gird up
the loins " became a significant figu-
rative expression, denoting readiness for
service, activity, and watchfulness, and
"to loose the girdle" was to give way
to repose and indolence. 2 Kgs. 4 : 29 ;
Job 38 : 3 ; Isa. 5:27; Jer. 1:17; Luke
12 : 35 ; John 21 : 7 ; Acts 12 : 8 ; 1 Pet.
1 : 13. This girdle was a belt or band
of cord, cloth, or leather, 6 inches or
more in breadth, with a clasp affixed to
loosen or draw it closer. Sometimes
the girdle was made of linen, Eze. 16:
10, and was often adorned with rich
and beautiful ornaments of metal, pre-
cious stones, and embroidery.
The girdle was used to carry weapons, 2
Sam. 20 : 8, money, and other things usu-
ally carried by us in the pocket. The
Arabs carry their daggers in it, point-
ing to the right side, and through all
the East it is the place for the handker-
chief, smoking-materials, and the im-
plements of one's ))r(»fession. See Ink-
horn. The word translated "purses,"
Matt. 10 : 9, is in other places trans-
lated '• girdle." The girdle not (inly
jirotected the body, but braced it with
strength and firmness. The girdle is
CLO
CLO
supposed by some to have been a chief
article or appendage of the armor ;
hence to have it continually fastened
upon the person is emblematical of great
fidelity and vigilance. And because it
encircled the body very closely, the
Glided for Walking.
perfect adherence of the people of God
to his service is figuratively illustrated
by the cleaving of the girdle to a man's
loins. Jer. 13 : 11. In the same view,
righteousness and faithfulness are call-
ed by the prophet, Isa. 11 : 5, " the gir-
dle" of the promised Messiah.
3. The outer or upper garment, Matt.
21 : 8, or cloak, Matt. 5 : 40, was a square
or oblong strip of cloth, 2 or 3 yards long
and 2 yards wide. Such a garment is
now worn by the Arabs. It was simply
wrapped around the body as a protec-
tion from the weather; and when oc-
casion required, it might be thrown over
the shoulder and under the arm, some-
what like an Indian blanket, and be
fastened with clasps or buckles, two
corners being in froni. which were call-
ed skirts, and were often used as aprons
sometimes are among us. Ex. 12 : 34 ;
2 Kgs. 4 : 29 ; Luke 6 : 38. The Arabs
throw -this garment over the left shoul-
der and under the right arm, and thus
cover the whole body, leaving only the
right arm exposed. This garment was
the poor man's bed-clothing. Ex. 22 :
26, 27 ; Job 22 : 6 ; 24 : 7. This was
probably the cloak and the coat or
linen garment to which reference is had
in Matt. 5 : 40, and, in a more ample
form, was called a rohe, Luke 23:11,
or a mantle. 2 Kgs. 2:8. It is sup-
posed that the fringes, with the blue
ribbon. Num. 15 : 38, were placed on
the corners or borders of this garment.
Matt. 23 : 5. They are seen still on
ancient monuments.
In winter fur dresses or skins were
worn, as at the present day, in Eastern
countries. A dress of sheep- or goat-
skins is, perhaps, meant in 2 Kgs. 1 : 8
and Zech. 13:4. The common skins
of this kind were worn by the poorest
and meanest people, Heb. 11 : 37, but the
fur dresses were sometimes very costly,
and constituted a part of the royal ap-
parel. The word translated "robe,"
Jon. 3 : 6, is supposed to mean a fur gar-
ment. The aheep's clothhig, Matt. 7 : 15,
was considered emblematical of inno-
cence and gentleness, and was the dis-
guise of the false prophets, who were, in
truth, fierce and ravenous as wolves for
the blood of souls. The word trans-
lated "sheets," Jud. 14 : 12, 13, is sup-
posed to denote some kind of garment
worn next fo the skin, and probably
the same which is spoken of under the
general name of "fine linen" in Prov.
31 : 24 ; Isa. 3 : 23 ; and Mark 15 : 46.
See Sheets.
The liuen cloth mentioned in Mark
14 :51 was probably an article of bed-
clothing caught up in haste and thrown
around the body — " a wrapper of fine
linen, which might be used in A^arious
ways, but especially as a night-shirt."
The Arabs use for a conijilete dress by
day the same garment which serves
them for a bed and covering by night.
Deut. 24:13. Such also is the use of
the Highlander's plaid.
The dress of the women diff"ered from
the men's only in the outer garments.
A veil further distinguished them.
It was considered a token of mod-
esty in unmarried women. Gen. 24 : 05,
and of subjection and reverence in
those that were married. 1 Cor. 11 : 3-
10. The robe was often made full, and
when tucked up the front of it would
answer the purpose of a large apron,
which is one meaning of the word
translated "veil." Kuth 3:15. The
Arabs put their hykes or cloaks to a
like use.
Handkerchiefs. Acts 19:12.— Thefe
were common among the Hebrews. The
people of Eastern nations at this day
carry them in their hands, and they
are often wrought beautifully with
the needle.
Aprons, mentioned in Acts 19 : 12,
191
CLO
CLO
were sweat-cloths from the apostle's
body.
4. Saudals and shoes. Deut. 25 : 9 ;
Mark 6 : 9. — The sandal was at first a
flat piece of wood or leather suited to
the sole of the foot, and bound upon it
by straps or strings. The fastening
was called a lutrhct. Gen. 14 : 23.
The common sandal is made of a
piece of hide from the neck of a camel,
and sometimes of several thicknesses
sewed together. It is fastened by two
straps, one of which passes between the*
great and second toe, and the other
around the heel and over the instep.
Hence it appears that the shoe was
easily' slipped off, and that it afforded
no protection from the dust and dirt.
Sandals were never worn in the house.
The takins: off of the shoes was a mark
of reverence shown to exalted persons
and sacred places. At the doors of
Hindoo pagodas and Mohammedan
mosques sandals are collected in great
numbers for the use of strangers.
The necessity of washing the feet
after every walk is obvious, and it was
the first token of hospitality to suj)ply
water for this purj)ose. Gen. 24:32;
Luke 7 : 44. To unloose the straps or
latchets was the business of a menial,
Mark 1 : 7, as was also the washing of
the feet. J ohn 13 : 1-1 6.
The wooden sandal is much worn
in Arabia, Judsea, and Egypt. Though
often expensive and neat, it was usually
a cheap, coarse, and very clumsy article.
The following represent various forms
of sandals which are still in common
use in many countries of the East.
Sandalfl. (From Farrar's "Life of Christ.")
Mitre, Ex. 39 : 28, or bonnet, Ex. 28 :
40, was a part of the sacred dress only,
worn on the head. The Arab women
wear a cap of folded cloth not unlike
the modern turban, and the Hebrew
women wore head-dresses of various
shapes. Isa, 3: 20.
Blue frinffeti were attached to the four
corners of the outer garment to remind
the wearer of God's commandments.
Num. 15 : 37-39. It was one of the
fringes of Jesus's garment whicli is
called the " hem " touched by the woman.
Matt. 9 : 20 ; Luke 8 : 44. For enlarging
these fringes to attract notice Jesus re-
bukes the Pharisees. Matt. 23 : 5.
Change of rtihnenf or tfttrnients. 2
Kgs. 5 : 5, 22. — It is customary in the
East at this day to make presents of
garments; and the Asiatic princes keep
changes of raiment ready made for
192
presents to persons of distinction whom
they wish particularly to honor. The
simple and uniform shape of the gar-
ments makes this custom practicable,
and accounts also for the change of
one person's dress for another's which
is mentioned in sacred history. Gen.
27:15; 1 Sam. 18 : 4. See also Deut.
22:5 ; Luke 15: 22.
Cfiangeable units of npporel, or festal
robes, Isa. 3 : 22, are supposed to have
been made of some thin fabric orna-
mented with embroidery and worn oyer
garments of various colors; of which
beautiful rejirescntations are to be seen
in Indian paintings.
Coat <f many colors. — This was, prop-
erly spesiking. a" shirt of extremities" —
a "shirt"' which reached to the feet — prob-
ably made of fine material. Gen. 37 : 3.
Among the appendages to Jewish
CLO
COA
dress were jewels of gold and silver,
bracelets, necklaces, ear-rings, etc.
Xose- and ear-rings are very common
in the East. The thread, Gen. 14 : 23,
is supposed by some to mean the thread
Eastern Fringed Garment. {From Farrar's
*'Life of Christ.")
on which precious stones were hung for
neck-chains. Eze. 16 : 11. Bracelets were
worn on the arms by both sexes, 2 Sam.
1 : 10, and by females upon the leg also,
Isa. 3 : 19. 20. See Bracelets. Women
in Persia and Arabia wear rings full of
little bells about the ankle. Isa. 3 : 16.
H<()id-nfinors, made of molten brass and
finely polished, were also a common ac-
companiment of female dress. Ex. 38 :
8; Isa. 3 : 23, and were either carried
in the hand or suspended from the gir-
dle or neck. In later times these mir-
rors were made of polished steel.
All the Greeinn and Roman women,
without distinction, wore their hair long.
On this the}^ lavished all their art, dis-
posing it in various forms and embellish-
ing it with many ornaments. In an-
cient medals and statues we see the
plaited tresses interwoven with expen-
13
sive and fantastic decorations so point-
edly condemned by the apostle as proofs
of a vain mind, and as inconsistent with
the modestv and decorum of Christian
women. 1 Tim. 2 : 9, 10 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 1, 3,
4. See Phylacteries.
Rending Clothes. See Rend.
CLOTH, LIN'EN. See Clothes.
CLOUD. The Hebrew words thus
translated bring out the ideas of a
''covering " for the sky, a " darkness,"
or simply a " vapor." The references
to clouds in the Bible will be better un-
derstood when the fact is known that
from the beginning of May to tlie end
of September not a cloud is usually seen,
1 Sam. 12:17, 18; hence their appear-
ance would be phenomenal. The on-
coming of clouds marked the approach
of rain. 1 Kgs. 18 : 44 ; Luke 12 : 54.
"A cloud without rain" was indeed a
proverb for a man whose performance
! belied his promise. Prov. 25 : 14.
Clouds shield the divine Presence, Ex.
16 : 10 : 33 : 9 : Num. 11 : 2o : 1 Kgs. 8 :
10 ; Job 22 : 14 : Ps. 18 : 11 : and in evi-
dence of the divinity of Chi'ist is the
fact that clouds play a part in his re-
corded life and in his future glory.
Matt. 17 : 5 ; 24 : 30 ; Acts 1:9; Rev.
14 : 14. Clouds symbolize transitori-
ness. Job 30 : 15; Hos. 6:4; armies
and multitudes of people, Isa. 60 : 8 ;
Jer. 4:13; Heb. 12 : 1. "A cloudy
day " is a day of calamity. Eze. 30 :
3 ; 34 : 12. Peter likens false teachers
to "clouds that are carried with a tem-
pest." 2 Pet. 2: 17.
CLOUD, PILLAR OF. When
the people of Israel commenced their
march through the wilderness, God
caused a cloud resembling a pillar to
pass before the camp. In the daj-time
it was like a cloud, dark and heavy, and
in the night bright and shining like fire.
It also served as a signal for rest or mo-
tion. Num. 9: 17-23.
CLOUT'ED. Josh. 9 : 5. Worn out
and patched.
CNI'DUS, a Greek city at the ex-
treme south-western corner of Asia
Minor, now in ruins, on Ca2}e CHo.
COAL. There is no evidence that
the Hebrews were acquainted with coal.
They used charcoal for their fires. The
Hebrew words which are translated
"coal" etymologically refer to heat in
genera], usually to fuel of wood, and in
193
COA
COL
I Kgs, 19 : 6 and Isa. 6 : 6 to hot stones.
In the N. T. the Greek words, Rom. 12 :
20 and John 18:18; 21 : 9, refer like-
wise to charcoal.
COAST (from the Latin casta, '' n
rib") is often used in the English Bible
for " border," and has no reference to
the sea. Jud. 11 : 20 ; 1 Sam. 5:6; Matt.
8 : ;u.
COAT. See Clothes.
COCK. See Cock-crowing.
COCK'ATRICE. Jer. 8:17; Isa.
II : 8 ; 14 : 29 ; 59 : 5. The word, in the
Scriptures, evidently denotes a very ven-
omous reptile. The original signifies a
creature that hisses, doubtless some spe-
cies of serpent. Tristram proposes the
great yellow viper, the largest of its
kind found in Palestine, and one of
the most dangerous. On one occasion
he saw one of these vipers spring on a
quail which was feeding : " It missed its
prey, and the bird fluttered on a few
yards, and then fell in the agonies of
death. On taking it up I found that
the viper had made the slightest possi-
ble puncture in the flesh of one of the
wings as it snapped at it. and this h il
caused death in the course of a few sec-
onds." In the passage from Jeremiiih
above cited allusion is made to the un-
yielding crueUy of the Chaldaian armies
under Nebuchadnezzar, who were ap-
pointed ministers of divine vengeance
on the Jewish nation for their manifold
and aggravated si s.
COCK'- CROWING. Mark 13 :
35. A name given to the third watjh
of the night, from miilnight ta day-
break. Some perplexity has been occa-
sioned by the difference between the ex-
pressions in Matt. 26 : 34, " before the
cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice,"
and Mark 14 : 30, '* before the c )ck crow
twice, thou shalt deny me thrice." To
reconcile this seeming variance, it is
stated that there were two cock-crow-
ings — one soon after midnight, and the
other about three o'clock — and that the
last, which was the signal of approaching
day, was spoken of as the cock-croiviiiff.
To this it has been answered that only
one hour elapsed between the denials.
Luke 22 : J9. This is true of the second
and third, but there seems to be no au-
thority for saying it is of the first and
second. It seems most natural to sup-
pose that the phraseology in both cases
194
was substantially the same, and that the
Jews understood by the phrase '' before
the cock crow " the same time which
was denoted by the phrase '• before the
cock crow twice." Both referred to that
cock-crowing which es])ecially and most
distinctly marked a watch or division
of the night. There is no reference to
poultry in the 0. T., and only an inciden-
tal one in the New. Matt. 23 : 37 ; Luke
13 : 34. Some suppose that poultry were
introduced into Judaea by the Romans.
COCK'LE {stlnkiiiy like carriuu).
This word may denote troublesome or
offensive weeds in general. Job 31 : 40.
But the arums, which abound in Galilee
and other Eastern regions, have pre-
cisely the odor indicated by the orig-
inal, and may be the plants meant.
The proximity of these offensive growths
is sometimes scarcelv endurable.
CCE'LE-SYR'IA (hollow Syria),
the great valley between the Lebanon
and Anti-Lebanon ranges of mountains.
See Lkb.vno\ and Svria.
COF'FER, "a movable box hang-
ing from the side of a cart." I Sam. 6 :
8,'n, 15.
COF'FIN. Se- Burv.
COHORT. See War.
COL-HO'ZEH {al/-8eeimj),a. man
of Judah. Neh. 3:15: 11:5.
COL'LEGE. 2 Kgs. 22 : 14. This
word is the translation of what was
probably the name of one of the di-
visicms of Jcrnsalem — viz. ''the lower
citv," built upon the hill Akra.
COL'LOPS. Job 15 : 27. Thick
pieces of flesh.
COL'ONY. Acts 16 : 12. A city or
province planted or occupied by Roman
citizens, as Philippi. Roman laws and
manners naturally prevailed, but the
colony had an independent internal
government. The colonists were in
the beginning all Roman citizens, and
therefore entitled to vote at Rome.
COL'ORS. Gen. 37:3. The art
of coloring cloth seems to have attain-
ed to great perfection among the Jews,
though it did not originate with them,
but with their idolatrous neighbors, the
Phoenicians and Egyptians, the former
supplying the dyes, the latter the mode
of applying them. Four artijicial col-
ors are spoken of in the Bible.
1. Purple, which was derived from a
shell-fish native to the Mediterranean
COL
COM
Sea. The coloring-matter was found in
a small vessel in the fish, and the re^st
of the fish was useless. Purple was
the royal and noble color, indicative of
wealth and station. Jud. 8 : 26 ; Esth.
8:]5: Luke 16: 19: Rev. 17:4.
2. Blue, produced from a similar
source, used in the same way, and for
the same purposes. Ex. 26 : 4 ; Esth. 1 : 6.
3. Scarlet and crimson appear to ex-
press the same color. " The dye was
produced from an insect somewhat re-
sembling the cochineal, which is found
in considerable quantities in Armenia
and other Eastern countries " — ,S'»iith.
The three colors above mentioned, to-
gether with white, were employed in
the tabernacle curtains and in the vest-
ments of the priests.
4. Vermilion was used in fresco-paint-
ing, Eze. 23 : 14, for coloring the idols
themselves, and for decorating the walls
and beams of houses. Jer. 22 : 14.
The natural colors noticed in the Bi-
ble are white, black, red, yellow, and
green, yet only three colors are sharply
defined, white, black, and red. To show
the vagueness of the use of the others,
the tint f/reen (translated '' yellow " in
the A. V.) is applied in the Hebrew to
gold, Ps. 68:13, and to the leprous
spot. Lev. 13 : 49.
COLOS'SE, OR COLOS'S^., a
city of Phrygia, on the Lycus. a branch
of the Maeander. and 12 miles above
Laodicea. Paul wrote to the church
there. Col. 1 : 2, and possibly visited it
on his third missionary journey. See
Acts 18: 23: 19:10. The town "is now
in ruins; there is a little village called
Chronos 3 miles south of the site of
Colosse.
COLOS'SIANS, EPISTLE
TO THE, was written by Paul while
he was a prisoner at Home, a. d. 62. It
is probable that Epaphras, who is spo-
ken of as the minister of Christ in that
place, Col. 1 : 7, came to Piome to con-
sult Paul respecting the scmi-.Judaistic
and semi-Oriental opinions that had
been preached among the Colossians by
Jews who had been tainted by Essenic
Gnosticism. See Essenks. These no-
tions would tend not only to mar the
simplicitv of their belief, hut to obscure
the glory of Christ. Col. 2 : 8-23. To
these damaging errors Paul writes a
refutation. " The occasion, then, of
the Epistle being the existence and in-
fluence of false teachers in the Colos-
sian church, the object of the apos-
tle was to set before them their real
standing in Christ, the majesty of his
person, and the completeness of his re-
dem])tion, and to exhort them to con-
formity with their risen Lord, following
this out into all subordinate duties and
occasions of common life."
The Epistle to the Ephesians, written
at a little later date, is very similar to
it, but more full on the doctrine of the
church. Both were sent from Kome by
the same bearers, TychicusandOnesimus.
COLiT. The young -of camels and
asses are so called. Gen. 32 : 15 ; 49 : 11 ;
Jud. 10 : 4 ; Job 11 : 12 ; Matt. 21 : 2, 5,
7, and elsewhere.
COME BY. In Acts 27:16 this
phrase means '" to secure the boat, so as
to hoist it into the ship."
C O M ' F O R T E R. John 14 : 16.
This word is the English rendering for
Paraclete, and occurs only in the Gos-
pel of John. In four out of the five
passages in which it is used it is ap-
plied to the Holy Ghost, and should
be translated '• advocate " or '• helper."
For the Paraclete does not simply com-
fort, but defends our cause and inspires
our courage. See Advocate.
COMMANDMENTS. See Law.
COxM'MERCE. In some form this
must have existed from the time when
men formed separate communities, and
when the dwellers in cities became de-
pendent upon farmers and foreign na-
tions for food. We find notices of trade
in this way in the time of Abraham,
and particularly in the history of Jo-
seph and of the Egyptian famine. But
foreign trade was not much cultivated
by the Jews. Indeed, they do not seem
to have been in the least a sea-faring
people, for the commercial enterprises
of Solomon and of Jehoshaphat both
ultimately failed. 1 Kgs. 22:48, 49.
But we know that the Jews consum-
ed foreign articles, Xeh. 13:16; Ezr.
■3 : 7, and also supplied foreign coun-
tries, as Phoenicia. 1 Kgs. 5 : 11;
Eze. 27:17; Acts 12:20. Joppa, the
modern Jaffa, the port of Jerusalem,
carried on a busy trade. From it went
vessels to various ports. Isa. 2:16: Jon.
1 : 3. The internal trade was largely
increased by the festivals. The sale of
195
COM
CON
animals for sacrifice and the exchanging
of money were carried on even in the
temple-enclosure, and led to our Lord's
indignant rebuke. John 2: 14; Matt.
21:12.
COMMUNION. 1 Cor. 10 : 16.
Intimate fellowship and communica-
tion, such as is expressed in John 15 :
1-7 and 17 : 10, 21-26 : Rom. 12 : 4, 5 ;
2 Cor. 13:14; 1 John 1:. 3. As the or-
dinance of the Lord's Supper furnishes
both the opportunity for and the motive
to this mutual love and confidence, John
13 : 34; 15 : 12, it is called, by way of
distinction, "the holy communion."
COMPASS, TO FETCH A,
means " to go around." 2 Sam. 5 : 23 ;
2 Kgs. 3:9: Acts 28 : 13.
CONANTAH {whom Jehovah hath
made), a Levite chief. 2 Chr. 35: 9.
CONCIS'ION, a term used sarcas-
tically to denominate the Judaizers who
insisted on circumcision as necessary
for Gentile converts. Phil. 3:2. They
thus pei'vcrted the rite, and therefore,
instead of calling them by the honora-
ble name of the "circumcision," Paul
calls them the '' concision," the " muti-
lation."
CON'CUBINE, by the Jewish
law, a lawful wife of a secondary or in-
ferior rank, and consequently neither
regarded nor treated as the matron or
mistress of the house. Concubines
were either Hebrew girls bought of
their fathers, or Gentile captives taken
in war. Foreign slaves or Canaanitish
women were also illegally concubines.
Concubines were not betrothed or wed-
ded with the usual solemnities and cere-
monies which atten led marriage. They
had no share in the family government,
and the children of the wife were pre-
ferred to the child of the concubine in
the distribution of the inheritance.
Yet the children of the latter were
not counted as illegitimate, but stood
u])on the same footing as those of the
wife in the family, as their names oc-
cur in the genealogical lists. Gen. 22:
24; 1 Chr. 1 : 32. The custom among
the Jews originated in the great de-
sire for children, and therefore it was
that barren wives gave their maid-ser-
vants to their husbands that they might
have children by them. (ien. 16 : 3 : 30 :
4. The law of Moses did not stop the
practice, but modified it. Ex. 21:7-9;
196
Deut. 21 : 10-17. There was no stigma
upon the position. The concubine was
a recognized member of the family;
when she had been a slave previous to
becoming such a one, she still remained
in slavery. Her distinction from the
wife was in her lower social position,
and in her far looser hold upon her
husband. She might be dismissed with-
out any formal divorce. Her unfaithful-
ness was criminal, but not looked at as,
strictly speaking, adultery, and hence
was not so severely punished. Jud. 19 :
2. In the days of the monarchy the
kings imitated their heathen neighbors
in the establishment of harems, and
multiplied the number of wives and
concubines. To seize on the royal concu-
bines for his own use was thus a usurp-
er's first act. Such was probably the
intent of Abner's act, 2 Sam. 3:7, and
similarly the request on behalf of Adon-
ijah was construed. 1 Kgs. 2 : 21-24. —
Smith : Dictionari/ of the Bible.
Where polygamy was tolerated — as it
was among the Jews — the permission of
concubinage would not seem so much at
war with the interests and preservation
of society as we know it to be. The
gospel restores the sacred institution
of marriage to its original character,
Gen. 2 : 24 ; Matt. 19 : 5 ; 1 Cor. 7 : 2,
and concubinage is ranked with forni-
cation and adultery.
CONDEMNA'TION. The term
refers to the sentence pronounced upon
an adjudged criminal. In the sight of
God the race lies under condemnation
because of Adam's inherited sin and
their actual transgressions. Rom. 5 :
16, IS. The law which convicts men
of sin is called the "ministration of
con lemnation." 2 Cor. 3:7, 9. But
the gospel announces deliverance from
sin. John 3 : 18. Therefore it is truly
"good tidings of great joy." Luke 2 :
10. By faith in Christ are we deliver-
ed from condemnation, and are brought
into the glorious liberty of the children
of God. Rom. 8:21.
CON'DUIT (tc'alah in Hebrew).
2 Kgs. 18 : 17 ; 20 : 20 ; Isa. 7 : 3 ; 36 :
2. Used to signify something for con-
veying water, as a " water-course," Job
38 : 25, or a " trench." It probably in-
cluded an aqueduct, such as must have
been used to convey the water from the
Pool of Solomon to Jerusalem. Pilate
CON
CON
built a new aqueduct or repaired that
of Solomon, which still remains.
CO'NEY {the hider), a small animal
(Hi/r<(x Syrinciis) found in Syria and
Arabia, and much resembling the rab-
bit in size, general appearance, and
habits. Ps. 104 : 18 ; Prov. 30 : 26. Its
Hebrew name is appropriate, from its
dwelling in the rocks. The coney,
however, does not burrow, but, like the
rhinoceros and hippopotamus (with
which naturalists class it), has hoofs
rather than nails upon its toes. It is
almost tailless, has short ears, is clothed
in tawny fur, and is a very timid and
harmless creature.
Solomon justly pronounced the co-
neys ** exceeding wise." So great is
their wariness that they have never
been trapped and can but rarely be
shot. They are accustomed to feed in
small companies upon the herbage near
their fastnesses, but it is said they al-
ways tirst post a sentinel, and at a
squeak of alarm, on the least indication
of danger, they all plunge into their
retreats.
The references to this animal in the
Coney. (Hyrax Stpiactis. After Houghton.)
Law (Lev. 11 : 5 ; Deut. 14 : 7) are to be
understood in a popular sense. Though
not strictly a ruminant animal, the
coney, like the hare and rabbit, has a
habit of moving its jaws ns (/'chewing,
while it does not completehj divide the
hoof, as does the ox or deer.
The coney '' is an exceedingly active
creature, leaping from rock to rock with
wonderful rapidity, its little sharp hoofs
giving it a firm hold of the hard and
irregular surface of the stony ground.
Even in captivity it retains much of its
activity, and flies about its cage with a
rapidity that seems more suitable to a
squirrel than to an anirpal allied to the
rhinoceros and hippopotamus. ... It
is a tolerably prolific animal, rearing
four or five young at a birth, and keep-
ing them in a soft bed of hay and fur,
in which they are almost hidden. If
surprised in its hole and seized, the
I Hyiax will bite very sharply, its long,
i chisel-edged teeth inflicting severe
I wounds on the hand that attempts to
grasp it. But it is of a tolerably docile
disposition, and in a short time learns
to know its owner, and to delight in
receiving his caresses." — ./. G. Wood.
I CONGREGATION, an assera-
' bly ; a gathering of people for either
political or religious purposes.
197
CON
CON
1. In the 0. T. [kahal) it denotes
the Hebrew people in its collective
capacity, under its peculiar aspect
as a holy community, held together by
religious rather than political bonds.
Deut. 31 : 30 ; Josh. 8 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 29 : 1,
etc. " Sometimes it is used in a broad
sense, as inclusive of foreign settlers,
Ex. 12 : 19, but more properly as ex-
clusively appropriate to the Hebrew
element of the population. Num. 15 :
15." The congregation was governed
by the chief of the tribes and families,
but from these was selected a council
of 70 elders. Num. 13:2; 11:16. This
was a permanent institution, for these
representatives of the people — who at
first met at the door of the tabernacle
at the call of one silver trumpet, while
the congregation came at sound of the
two. Num. 10 : 3, 4, 7 — became in post-
exilic days the Sanhedrin. Doubtless
these meetings of the elders are often
meant when the term "congregation"
is used. Thus they meet to elect a
king. 1 Sam. 10 : 17. Their decisions
bound the nation. Josh. 9 : 15^ 18.
2. In the N. T. it means the Christian
Church at large or a local congregation,
but in King James's Version the corre-
sponding Greek word (ecvlesia), when
used of a religious assembly, is always
rendered " church," even in Acts 7 : 38,
where it means the Jewish congregation
in the wilderness. King James ex-
pressly commanded the revisers to do
this, in opposition to the Geneva Ver-
sion, which uses the more literal render-
ing " congregation." In Acts 19 : 32,
39, 40 it means simply a popular assem-
bly. See CiiuKCH.
CONI'AH. See Jehoiachin.
CONONI'AH {whom Jehovah hath
set), a chief among the Levites. 2 Chr.
31 : 12 13.
CON'SCIENCE is the inborn sense
of right and wrong, the moral law written
on our hearts which judges of the moral
character of our motives and actions,
and approves or censures, condemns or
justifies us accordingly. Rom. 2:15.
This universal tribunal is established in
the breast of every man, even the hea-
then. It may be weakenetl, perverted,
stupefied, defiled, and hardened in vari-
ous ways, and its decisions are more or
less clear, just, and imperative acconl-
ing to the degree of moral culture. John
198
8:9; Acts 23 : 1 ; 24 : 16 ; Rom. 9:1;
and 1 Tim. 1 : 5.
CON'SECRATE, CONSE-
CRA'TIONo Ex. 32 : 29 ; Lev. 7 :
37. The word means " to set apart for
holy uses." It is applied in the Bible to
both persons and things. The tribe of
Levi was consecrated to the priesthood
with the most solemn and imposing
ceremonies. Vessels, Josh. 6 : 19, prof-
its, Mic. 4: 13, fields. Lev. 27 : 28, cat-
tle, 2 Chr. 29 : 3.3, individuals. Num. 6 :
9-13; 1 Sam. 1 : 11, 28, and nations,
Ex. 19 : 6, were anciently consecrated
or set apart to sacred purposes. See
Priest.
CONVEN'IEXT signifies "becom-
ing," " fitting," " appropriate," in sev-
eral passages : e. q. Prov. 30 : 8 ; Jer.
40 : 4 : Rom. 1 : 28 ; Eph. 5:4; Phile.
8. This is the old Latin sense of the
word.
CONVERSA'TION is never used
in the A. V. in its ordinary sense, but
always denotes " course of life," " con-
duct." Phil. 3: 20 reads "our conver-
sation is in heaven," but the Greek is
properly translated by "citizenship."
What is now called " conversation " is
expressed in the A. V. by "communica-
tion." 2 Kgs. 9:11; Ma'tt. 5 : 37 ; Eph.
4 : 29 etc.
CONVER'SION, or turning from
one state, pursuit, inclination, or direc-
tion to another. Acts 15 : 3. The corre-
sponding Greek term in the N. T. de-
notes a change of mind or heart which
takes place in the sinner when the Holy
Spirit convinces him of his sinfulness,
persuades him to hate sin and to for-
sake it, and to lead a life of holy obe-
dience to Christ. Matt. 3:8; Luke 3 :
3 ; 15 : 7 ; 24 : 47 ; Acts 5 : 31 ; 11 : 18;
20 : 21 : 2 Cor. 7 : 9, 10 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 25 ;
Heb. 6:16; 12 : 1 7 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 9. Con-
version is an act of man, while regenera-
tion, or the new birth, is an act of God,
but both are ]>roduced by the agency
of the Holy Spirit, and usually coincide,
though not always ; for very young chil-
dren may be regenerated, but cannot,
strictly speaking, be said to be converted.
TheScriptures describe mankindas alien-
ated from (lod.as having the understand-
ing darkened, and as dead in trespasses
and sins. Hence the corr('S))on(ling force
and pertinency of the terms by which the
change is described; such as created, re-
CON
COR
neived, Eph. 4 : 23, 24, restored to strjht,
Eph. 1:18; Rev, 3 : 18, and raised from
the dead. John 5 : 21, 24 ; Eph. 2:1.
CONVOCA'TION, sometimes
used with the adjective " holy," denotes
a meeting of a religious character. Ex.
12 : 16 ; Lev. 23 : 2 ; Xum. 28 : IS.
COOK'ING was not carried by the
Jews to any perfection, because meat
did not form part of their ordinary
diet. It was done in early times ex-
clusively, and in all periods of their
historj" usually, by the matron of the
familj', ap]>arently irrespective of her
social condition. Gen. 18:fi: although
professional cooks were sometimes em-
ployed in later times. 1 Sam. 8:lo;
9 : 2'ii. As is evident from the expedi-
tious way in which meals were gotten
up, the animal, usually a kid, a lainii,
or a calf, was cooked immediately after
killing. For roasting, a fire of wood
or else an oven, which was merely a
hole dug in the ground, heated by ashes,
and then covered up, was employed.
When the animal was boiled, which was
the usual way, both in the case of sacrifice
other than the paschal lamVj, Lev, 8 :
31, and for domestic use, it was cut up,
the flesh separated from the bones and
minced, and the bones themselves
broken up, and the whole mass thrown
into a caldron filled with water, Eze,
24 : 4, 5, and boiled over a wood-fire, and
the salt or spices thrown in to season it.
The meat and broth were served up sep-
arately, the latter being used as a sauce
to dip bread into. Gen. 18 : 8 ; Jud. 6 :
19. Vegetables were usually boiled and
served as pottage. Gen. 25 : 29 ; 2 Kgs,
4 : 38. Fish was probably boiled. Luke
24 : 42.— Smith : Diet, of the Bible.
CO'OS, oil COS, 'a small island
north-west of Rhodes, Acts 21 : 1, in
the ^gean Sea ; now called Stauchio,
COPYING. 1 Kgs, 7 : 9. The top
course or finish of a wall. It is usually
of flat or semi-circular bricks or hewn
stone, projecting beyond the face of the
wall, and forming an ornament similar
in effect to the capital of a column.
COPTER, a well-known metal,
once as "precious as gold." Ezr. 8:
27 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 14. The word translated
"copper" in Ezra is elsewhere improp-
erly rendered BnASS, which see.
COR. See Mkasurks.
COR'AL, Eze, 27:16. was an
article of Tyrian merchandise, and is
well known as a marine production,
found in almost every variety of shape
and size, and sometimes increasing to
such an extent as to form the basis of
islands, or to stretch out in dangerous
reefs for many miles. It is capable of
being worked up into beads and other
ornaments : for which use the red spe-
cies is the most valuable. Job mentions
it in connection with pearls. Job 28 :
18.
COR'BAN (offerhuj) signifies a
gift or thing consecrated to God or his
service, particularly in fulfilment of a
vow. Mark 7:11. The Jews permitted
such an abuse to be made of this con-
secration that a child was suifered to
deny the request of his parents, or
withhold assistance from them in their
distress, merely on the pretence that
what they asked or needed was conse-
crated to God.
CORDS. See Ropes.
CO'RE, the Greek form of Korah ;
used in Jude 11.
CORIANDER SEED. Ex, 16 :
31, The coriander plant i Coriandrum
sativxnn) grows wild in Palestine and
neighboring countries, and is often cul-
tivated in the United States, The seeds
are globular, and when dry are pleasant
to the taste and smell, and, incrusted
with sugar, are often sold by confec-
tioners. We are told that the particles
of manna were shaped like coriander
seed.
COR'INTH, the capital of Achaia,
and a renowned and voluptuous city of
Greece, about 40 miles west of Athens, on
an isthmus about 10 miles wide at that
point. It had two sea-ports, Cenchrea,
on the east, about 9 miles distant, and
Lechseum, on the west, only about 2 miles
away. Corinth was about 5 miles in cir-
cuit, and on the south an immense rock}'
mountain called Acrocorinthus rises ab-
ruptly to the height of 2000 feet, upon the
summit of which was a temple of Venus.
It had an extensive commerce, like all
the large towns on the Mediterranean
Sea, and became celebrated fur its
wealth, magnificence, a ad learning. It
was esteemed as the light and ornament
of all Greece, It was, however, no less
remarkable for its corruption and licen-
tiousness. "To live as at Corinth" was
a proverb meaning profligate indul-
1 99
COR
COR
gence, and the name "Corinthian" ap-
plied to a woman was infamous.
Paul preached at Corinth, about A. n.
53, a year and six months. Acts 18 : 1 1 ;
paid it, A. D. 54-57, a short second visit
(" by the way "'), not mentioned in the
Acts, but implied in 1 Cor. 16 : 7 : 2 Cor.
12: 13, 14; 13: 1, where he speaks of
Coiinlh and Aciocoiinthus.
an intended ihird journey to Corinth,
which coincides with that in Acts 20 :
2 ; and spent there the three winter
months, from 57 to 58, during which he
wrote the Epistle to the Romans. Acts
20 : 2, 3 ; comp. 1 Cor. 16 : 6 ; Rom. 16 :
1. He wrote two letters to the Chris-
tians in that city, rebuking their sins,
and refers to the Isthmian games cele-
brated at Corinth every Olympiad. The
city is now desolate, the little miserable
village of (inrtho occu])ying its site.
CORINTHIANS, PAUL'S
EPISTL.es to the. They ex
hibit the trials and temptations, the vir-
tues and vices, of a Greek congregation
in apostolic times, and the wisdom and
love, the trials and patience, of Paul
in dealing with some of the most difli-
cult practical and doctrinal questions
which arise again and again in the his-
tory of every church. They are so full
of individuality and local adaptation
that their Pauline origin has never
been disputed.
1. The First Epistle was written at
Ephesus, toward the close of the apos-
tle's three years' residence there, in
the spring of A. n. 57. It was sent to
the church by Stephanas, P\:)rtunatus,
Achaicus, and Timothcus, according
to the superscription. Its immediate
cause was the painful news which
had reached Paul that there were
200
dissensions in the church between the
different elements — converted Jews,
proselytes, and Gentiles — which com-
posed it. Some of the members de-
clared themselves Pauline, while others
were Petrine: others were of Apollos,
and others of Christ — Christians in a
sectarian and exclusive sense, chs. 1-4.
This state of things is explic-
able. The Corinthian church
was founded by the apostle
while upon his second mis-
sionary journey. Acts 18 : 1,
>;q., during his eighteen
months' residence in Cor-
inth. Not long after he left,
Apollos came. Acts 19 : 1, who
by his eloquence won follow-
ers. Judaizers also from Je-
rusalem came to the city, who
misrepresented Paul as a dan-
^p gerous radical, denied his
^^ apostolic authority, and
obliged him to defend him-
self. Thus the church was sadly rent.
Those who stj'led themselves *' of
Christ" may have at first attem])ted
reconciliation by going back of all hu-
man authority to Christ, but would seem
finally to have added a fourth to the ex-
isting factions. Another trouble which
demanded decisive action was a lax state
of sexual morals. This gives Paul op-
portunity to express his views upon
marriage and the relation of the sexes
gene^all3^ chs. 5-7. From these spe-
cific cases of overt act he passes to the
consideration of several matters of
Christian practice — eating meats offer-
ed to idols, chs. 8, 9 : the proper observ-
ance of the Lord's Supper and its true
nature, ch.lO; the proprieties of wor-
ship, eh. 11 ; the gifts of the Spirit, chs.
12, 13, 14. In ch. 15 he treats of the
resurrection in a strain of marvellous
eloquence.
2. The Second Epistle was written
from Macedonia, 7:5; 8:1; 9 : 2, in the
same j'ear, a few months later than the
First — /. e. in the summer or autumn of
A. D. 57. The contents seem to have
been determined by the acc<uints the
apostle had received from Titus, and
perhaps, also, from Timothy, of the ef-
fect of his previous Epistle. This was
upon the whole favorable; still, many
denied Paul's right to the apostleship.
Accordingly, in this Epistle he first of
COR
COR
all gives an account of his ministry
and opens his heart toward his con-
verts, chs, 1-7 : next, exhorts them to
give liberally to the support of the
church in Jerusalem, probably because '
this proof of Christian brotherhood
would cure their local jealousies, chs.
8,9; and lastly, he defends his apos-
tolical character, chs. 10-13.
It has been generally suj)[>osed, from
1 Cor. 5 : 9, that there were more epis-
tles to this church than these two, but
how many cannot be detern)ined. The
two Epistles are singularly affectionate,
although this church was sadly removed
from the ideal.
CORIN'THUS, the Latin form of
CoHiNTH, which sec. It occurs in the sub-
scription to the Epistle to the Romans.
COU'MORANT (///« pf „„;,€>■), a
bird mentioned as unclean in Lev. 11 :
17 ; Deut. 14 : 1 7. In two other passages
a word meaning the Pkijcan, which
see, is translated "cormorant." The
true cormorant is found along the salt
and fresh waters of Syria, and is cer-
tainly a "plunger," so that there is no
reason for a change in the passages of
the Pentateuch, as some have suggest-
ed. These birds are as large as the
raven, of a dark color, with long necks,
webbed feet, feed upon fish, and are pro-
verbial for their voracitj*. See cut on p.
203.
CORN. Mark 4: 28. This word is
generally applied in the United States
to maize or Indian-corn, which it never
means in the Bible, for that grain, like
the Western continent, was, in scriptural
times, as yet undiscovered. The English
Bible uses the word as the general name
for all sorts of cereals, such as wheat,
barley, millet, and fitches, and of such
corufte/cfs only must we think. Oats
are not known in Palestine, and rye is
rarely, if ever, grown.
A " corn of wheat " is a kernel of
wheat. The figurative use of the word
"corn," usually in connection with wine
and oil, is very frequent, as grain and
wine and olives were the leading pro-
ductions of the country. Deut. 11 : 14 ;
18:4; 28:51; 2 Chr. 32 : 28 ; Hos. 2 :
22; Joel 2:19.
It is probable that grain was commonly
used in its crude state in the early ages
of the world. It was sometimes done in
later times, Matt. 12 :J : and even now
it is no uncommon thing, in passing a
field of wheat, to pluck an ear, and, af-
ter rubbing the husk or beard off" by
rolling it between the hands, to eat the
grain, which is very palatable, even in
that state. The Jewish law permitted
standing corn to be plucked by any one
passing through it, Deut. 23 •: 25 ; and
this custom, or right, is still respected
in some parts of the East. See Mills.
The "parched corn " of the Bible, Lev.
23:14; Ruth 2: 14; 1 Sam. 17 : 17, etc.,
"corresponds to the /."/.'/ of the Arabs,
and is obtained in the following man-
ner: AVhen wheat is being harvested,
some of the green ears are thrown upon
the coals of fire and roasted; they are
but partially divested of the hull by
rubbing between the hands, and are
verv much relished." — V<(h Lennep.
CORNE'LIUS, a Roman centu-
rion of the Italian cohort stationed at
Ca?sarea, and the first heathen convert
to Christianity. He was a Gentile by
birth, but a God-fearing man, a half
proselyte — i. e. leaning to the Jewish
religion, yet uncircumcised, and hence
considered unclean. Acts 10 : 1. His
prayers, being off'ered in the faith of a
promised Messiah, were heard, and God
sent Peter to make known to him the
plan of salvation through a crucified
and risen Redeemer. Thus the door of
faith was opened to the Gentiles. Cor-
nelius and his family were baptized in
the name of the Lord Jesus. Acts 10
and 11.
COR'NER. According to the Mo-
saic law, it was forbidden to reap the
corners of the field, so that there might
be gleanings for the poor. Lev. 19 : 9 ;
23 : 22. The " corner of the house-top,"
Prov. 21 : 9, is a narrow place exposed to
sun and rain, contrasted with the wide
room or house below. The word " cor-
ner " in the phrase " corners of Moab,"
or of any other country, Xum. 24 : 17 ;
Jer. 48 : 45, means the length and
breadth of the country, and also of
the world. "Corner of a bed," Am.
3 : 12, the corner of a room, was on
the elevated part (used by night for a
bed or couch), and contained the most
honorable seat. See Bkd. In the pas-
sage last cited it figuratively denotes
the most proud and luxurious of the Is-
raelites in Samaria. In Zech. 10 : 4 the
word "corner" is used to denote either
201
COR
COW
the corner-stone or the most conspicuous
part of a building, and evidently refers
to Christ, Matt. 21 : 42, where he is men-
tioned as " the head " (or chief ) " of the
corner," though the Jews, in erecting the
temple of their faith, rejected him as un-
fit for so important a j)lace.
CoRNER-STOXK. Job 38 : 6. A massive
stone placed at the foundation in the cor-
ner of a building, and binding the two
walls together, Christ is called " the
Corner-stone of the Church " because
he gives strength and unity to the whole
structure of God's house. Comp. Eph.
2 : 20 ; 1 Pet. 2:6; Matt. 21 : 42 ; Rom.
9 : 32, .33 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 23.
COR'NET. IChr. 15:28. An in-
strument of music about 18 inches long,
used by the priests, and giving a loud,
smooth sound.
CORRUP'TIOIV, MOUNT OF.
See Olives, Mount of.
COS. See Coos.
CO 'SAM (a divhier), one of Christ's
ancestors. Luke 3 : 28.
COT'TAGE. Isa. 24 : 20. The
same with tent or garden-hut.
COT'TON is now grown in Syria
and Palestine, and is preferred to linen
for turbans and shirts. But there is no
proof that the ancient Hebrews knew
anything about it. The word occurs
only in Esth. 1 : 6, where the A. V. ren-
ders " green."
COUCH. See Ber.
COUN'CIL. There are three legal
bodies called "councils" in the English
N. T.
1. The Sanhedrin, the supreme court
of the Jews, the fountain of their gov-
ernment, which sat at Jerusalem. By
this body Jesus was tried. Matt. 26 : 59.
See Sanhedrin.
2. The lesser courts. Matt. 10 : 17;
Mark 13 : 9. One was in each town, but
two in the capital. Josephus states that
each court consisted of seven judges,
with two Levites as assessors. The
"judgment," Matt. 5:21, probably ap-
plies to them.
3. The " c(;uncil " spoken of in Acts
25:12 was a kind of jury "composed
of councillors a])i)ointcd to assist and
advise the Roman governors."
COUN'SELLOR. Luke 23 : 50.
An officer connected with the royal
camp of the Jews ; supposed to be re-
ferred to in 1 Kgs. 12 : 6-12.
202
COURSE. See Abia.
COURT. See Temple. Dwellings.
COVENANT, an agreementor mu-
tual obligation contracted deliberately
and with solemnity. (iod's covenant
with men signifies his solemn promise
or engagement. Gen. 17:14; Ex.34:
10; Deut, 4 : 13 ; Isa. 59:21.
The Hebrew word for " making a
covenant" signifies "a cutting," be-
cause covenants were often made by
cutting animals in two and passing be-
tween their parts. Gen. 15 : 10, 17 : Jer.
34:18.
The term "the covenants," Rom. 9 :
4, refers to the various promises made
to Abraham. God made a covenant
with Noah and with Abraham.
The chief and most important use of
the word, however, is in relation to the
two great dispensations which are dis-
tinguished as the old and new, or as the
covenant of the law and the covenant of
the gospel. The former was made with
the children of Israel through Moses,
and rested much in the outward cere-
monies and observances which the law
enjoined (meats and drinks, and divers
washings and carnal ordinances). The
new covenant was made through Christ,
sealed by his own blood, and secures to
every believer the blessings of salvation
and eternal life. Comp. Ex. 20 : 24 ;
Gal. 3 ; Heb. 8. The titles " Old and
New Testaments" arose from the inac-
curate rendering of the word "cove-
nant" by testamentum in the Latin Vul-
gate.
Covenant of Salt. Num. 18: 19; 2
Chr. 13 : 5. This term denotes a cove-
nant in the sealing or ratification of
which salt was used, which made it
inviolable. Lev. 2 : 13. See Salt.
COVET, Ex. 20 : 17, COV'ET-
OUSNESS. Ex. 18: 21. To covet is
to desire strongly. 1 Cor. 12 : 31. When
such a desire is felt for that which we
cannot lawfully possess, it is sinful and
becomes covetousness. which is idolatr}',
Col. 3 : 5, for it is placing the heart and
aff"cttions on the creature rather than on
the Creator. Covetousness has relation
commonly to riches, and, in the scrip-
tural sense, includes the desire of accu-
mulating, whatever may be the means.
Pro v. 28 : 16 ; Eccl. 5 : 10 ; Luke 12 : 15-
31:1 Tim. 6:9. 10.
COW. Lsi. 7:21. In this remark-
Ciaue. {After Tristram.)
coz
CRE
able prophecy the event foretold is that
the face of the land of Jiidah should be
so completely changed, and the inhabit-
ants so greatly reduced in number, that,
with only a single young .cow and two
sheep, a family should be supplied with
an abundance of milk and butter, and
vineyards which before commanded a
high rent should be overgrown with
briers and thorns.
By the Levitical law, Lev. 22 : 28, a
cow and her calf were not to be killed
on the same day. A similar precept is
found in Ex, 23 : 19, and another in
Deut. 22 : 6, 7. Whether they were de-
signed to prevent inhumanity or referred
to some heathen custom is uncertain.
The cow is esteemed holy by the Hin-
doos.
COZ {tJwrn), a descendant of Judah.
1 Chr. 4:8.
COZ'BI (lijnifj), the daughter of a
Midianite chief. She was slain by
Phineas. Num. 25 : 15, 18.
CRACK'NELS denotes crumb-
cakes, so called because of the " sharp
noise made when breaking." 1 Kgs.
14 : 8.
CRANE, next to the ostrich, the
largest bird found in the Holy Land,
measuring 4 feet in height and 7 feet
from tip to tip of its extended wings.
The crane {Gnia ciiterea) feeds upon
frogs, fish, worms, insects, and some-
times vegetable substances. When
upon the wing it is always noisy, an 1
its cry is hoarse and melancholy : hence
the allusion of Isa. 38 : 11. These birds
return in the spring with great regu-
larity from their migrations, an 1 flocks
of thousands pass over Palestine. Jer.
8:7.
CREATE', Ps. 51:10, CREA-
TOR, Keel. 12 : 1, CREA TION.
Mark 10 : 6. The word '' creation " some-
times denotes all living things, and at
others the act of creation. To crente is
to cause anything to exist that never ex-
isted in any form or manner before. Gen.
1:1; Col. 1 : IG. It is to make without
materials to make of. Thus, " God said.
Let there be light, and there was light."
Gen. 1:3.
The panorama of creation in the first j
two (diaptcrs of (ircnesis is the subliniest
that can he found or conceived, and cm- 1
iiiently worthy of (Jod,andman as made
in the image of (Jod. Neither poetry
20 4
nor science has been able, or will ever
be able, to produce anything better.
God must have revealed it to the writer
in a retrospective vision. The Bible
gives two accounts. Gen. 1:1 to 2:3,
and 2 : 4-25. They supplement each
other, and they dirier as the names of
God Elohim (used in the first) and Je-
hovah (used in the second) ditl'er. The
first refers to the creation of the whole
universe, the second looks particularly
to the creation of man and to the subse-
quent history of the fall and of redemp-
tion. The great object of the inspired
writer in both was to show that God is
the Author of all existence, that he made
all things in beautiful order, and that he
made them for his glory and for the use
and dominion of man as the crowning
work of his hands; that the God who
created the universe is the same as the
Jehovah of the history of the redemption
of fallen man. ^ The six days represent
six indescribable divine works in six
divine periods, ending in a divine rest.
Gen. 2:2, 3.
The first work was the creation of
light — /. €. the diffused cosiuic light;
the second, the organization of the
physical heavens and the i-eparation of
the firmament from the earth ; the third,
the formation of the earth and the divis-
ion of sea and land, with the creation of
vegetable life; the fourth, the creation
of the sun — i. e. the concentrated solar
light — and the jilanetary system : the
fifth, the creation of lower animal life in
water and air; the sixth, the creation
of higher animals on land, and the cre-
ation of man in the image of God. On
the seventh day God rested from his
creative work and entered upon his ac-
tivity as the Preserver of all things,
blessing his creatures and instituting
the weekly day of rest for the benefit of
body and soul. The first three days
represent the era of matter, the next
three days the era of life: the seventh
day introduces the period of history, or
of the moral world as distinct from the
physical.
The six days of creation are not ne-
cessarily six literal days, but may be,
and are probaltly, periods of indefinite
length. The question is not what (tocI
could do (for one hour or one minute
would suffice for his omnipotence), but
in what manner he usuallv works. That
CRE
CRE
the word " day " is often used in a wider
sense is evident from such expressions
as the " day of the wicked," the " day
of grace," the " day of judgment." To
God a thousand Aears are as one dav.
Ps. 90 : 4 ; 2 Pet.' 3 : 8. The narrative
itself indicates such a wider use of the
word ; for the sun, that luminary which
determines the solar day, was not created
before the fourth day, and the seventh
day, which represents the period of di-
vine rest or preservation, has no evening.
Gen. 2:4. Fur a profound scholarly hand-
ling of this matter see Tayler Lewis's,
*' Special Introduction to the First Chap-
ter of Genesis," part ii. pp. 131-135, in
Lange's Comiitentaiy o« Genesis (and his
Six Days of Creation). He says: "It
is not any duration, but the phenouienon,
the appearing itself, that is called day."
The Bible and science, nature and
revelation, being the products of one
and the same God, cannot contradict
each other ; and various attemjits have
been made to harmonize the Mosaic
cosmogony with modern geology and
astronomy by able Christian scientists
(such as Prof. Guyot, Principal Daw-
son, and others). But it should be kept
in mind that the Bible does not intend
to teach science, but religion and the
waj- of salvation. The great truths
taught by Moses in the first two chap-
ters of Genesis are obvious and inde-
pendent of all science, as Guyot says :
" A personal God calling into existence
by his free, alnn't/hii/ )viff, manifested by
his ivord, executed by his Sjjirif, things
which had «o lieing; a Creator (/isti)icf
from his creation : a universe, 7tot eter-
nal, but which had a beginning in time:
a creation successive — the six days — ^and
progressive — beginning with the lowest
element, matter, continuing by the plant
and animal life, terminating by man,
made in God's image: thus marking
the great steps through which God, in
the course of ages, has gradually real-
ized the vast organic plan of the cosmos
we now behold in its completeness, and
which he declared to be very yood, —
these are the fundamental spiritual
truths which have enlightened men of
all ages on the true relations of God to
his creation and to man. To under-
stand them fully, to be comforted by
them, requires no astronomy or geology.
To depart from them is to relapse into
the cold, unintelligent fatalism of the
old pantheistic religions and modern
])hilosophies, or to fall from the upper
regions of light and love infinite into
the dark abysses of an unavoidable
scepticism."
It is interesting to compare with the
Mosaic cosmogony the old Assyrian
tradition of the Creation, which has
been brought to light by modern dis-
covery.
These Chaldtean or Assyrian legends
of the Creation have been discovered in
a mutilated form, written u])on twelve
tablets, and are printed by the late Mr.
George Smith in his Chahlaan Acromit
of Genesis (London, 1876). He thus
translates the fragments which contain
the first part of the story : " When
above were not raised the heavens, and
below on the earth a plant had not
grown up ; the abyss also had not
broken up their boundaries : the chaos
(or water) Tiamat (the sea) was the
]iroducing mother of the whole of them.
Those waters at the beginning were
ordained : but a tree had not grown, a
flower had not unfolded. Wlien the
gods had not sprung up, any one of
them ; a jtlant had not grown, and
order did not exist: were made also the
great gods, the gods Lahrau and Laha-
mu they caused to come . . . and they
grew . . . the gods Sar and Kisar were
made ... a course of days and a long
time passed" (pp. 62, 63). Compare
Gen. 1:1, 2.
The succeeding tablets are so broken
that no connected story can be read from
them until we come to the fifth, which
gives an account of the fourth day of
creation : '* It was delightful, all that
was fixed by the great gods. Stars,
their appearance [in figures] of animals
he arranged. To fix the year through
the observation of their constellations,
twelve months (or signs), of stars in
three rows he arranged, from the day
when the year commences unto the
close. He marked the position of the
wandering stars [planets] to shine in
their courses, that they may not do in-
jury, and may not trouble any one; the
jiositions of the gods Bel and Hea he
fixed with him. And he opened the
great gates in the darkness shrouded —
the fastenings were strong on the left
and right. In its mass [/". e. the lower
205
CRE
CRE
chaos] he made a boiling, the god Urn
[the moon] he caused to rise out, the
night he overshadowed, to fix it also
for the light of the night, until the
shining of the day, that the month
might not be broken, and in its amount
be regular. At the beginning of the
month, at the rising of the night, his
horns are breaking through to shine on
the heaven. On the seventh day to a
circle he begins to swell, and stretches
toward the dawn further'' (pp. 69-71).
Comp. Gen. 1: U-19.
The seventh tablet is very imperfect,
but the translation gives some interest-
ing coincidences with Genesis: ''When
the gods in their assembly had created
. . . were delightful the strong mon-
sters . . . they caused to be living crea-
tures . . . cattle of the field, beasts of
the field, and creeping things of the
field . . . they fixed for the living crea-
tures . . . cattle and creeping things of
the city they fixed . . . the assembly' of
the creeping things the whole which
were created . . . which in the assem-
bly of my family . . . and the god Nin-
si-ku (the lord of noble face) caused to
be two . . . the assembly of the creep-
ing things he caused to go ... " (pp.
76, 77). Comp. Gen. 1:24, 25.
The tablets which relate the creation
of man are unhappily so mutilated that
the sense is totally uncertain, but the
first fragment appears to give the speech
of the Deity to the newly-created pair,
and on the reverse a particular address
to the woman. Then follow more tab-
lets relating the Fall.
Prof. 0]>pert read before the congress
of Orientalists in Florence ( 1 878) a trans-
lation of the Assyrian tablets relating to
the Creation and the Fall, which differs
greatly from the above given translation
of Mr. George Smith. The mutilated
condition of the tablets, together with
the uncertainty of many of the mean-
ings, easily accounts for the differences.
AVe give, by way of comparison, Prof.
Oppert's translation of the tablet on
which the fourth creative day is de-
scribed :
"1. He distributed the stations of the
great gods, seven in number,
2. And fixed the stars, the mansions of
the seven luniari (i.e. fixed stars
regulating the celestial move-
ments;.
206
3. He created the perpetual renewal of
the year and divided it into thirty-
six decades.
4. For each of the twelve months he
fixed three stars.
5. From the day of the beginning of
the year until its close
6. He fixed the station of the god Nib-
iru that their circles (of days)
might be perpetually renewed,
7. In order to prevent either shorten-
ing or interruption
8. The stations of Bel and Hea he fixed
with it,
9. And he spread the three gates on the
limbs of the angles.
10, He made a aiyar on the right and on
the left :
11, At the four exteriors he established
staircases.
12, The moon was appointed to betray
the night,
13, And he made it renew itself to hide
the night and make day perpetual;
14, (Saying): ' Every month with day-
break accomplish thy circle.
15, In the beginning of the month the
night will reign :
16, Thy horns will be invisible, for the
heaven is renewed.
17, The seventh day thy disk will be
filled up on the left,
18, But open in darkness will remain
the half on the right.
19, (In the middle of the month) the
sun will be on the horizon of the
sky at thy rising,
20, (In splendor may thy form reign
and make . . .
21, (Hence go back) and turn thyself
toward the way of the sun.
22, (Then will change) the darkness : to
the sun return,
23, . . . seek her ways . . .
24, (Rise and) set according to the eter-
nal laws.'"
The account of the Creation upon
these tablets is manifestly confused.
How different the account in Genesis,
which bears throughout the impress of
truth ! The Bible contains the revealed
order of events ; the tablets have only
the traditional, and in part purely fan-
ciful, story to tell.
CUES'CENS dfrowinif), a Chris-
tian of whom Paul speaks in 2 Tim.
4:10,
CRETE, now Cumliit, a large island
CRI
CRO
in the Metliterranean Sea, midway be-
tween Syria and Italy. It is about 140
miles long by 35 miles wide. Its sur-
face is mountainous, the classic Mount
Ida being one of its peaks, but there
are fertile valleys. It was formerly
possessed by a rich and powerful peo-
ple ; Virgil speaks of its hundred cities.
But the people were proverbially liars.
Tit. 1:12 — a character they are said
still to bear. *' Homer dates all the
fictions of Ulysses from Crete, as if he
meant to pass a similar censure on the
Cretans to that quoted by Paul — Kp^res
ael i^euffTttt." — Cow FKit : Odynnei/, b. xiii.
Cretans were at Jerusalem on the day
of Pentecost, Acts 2:11: Paul was ship-
wrecked near the island, and he left Titus
there as the first pastor and superintend-
ent, who was '• to ordain elders in every
city " of the island. Tit. 1:6. It is now
under the tyranny of the Turks, but
thoroughly Greek in nationality and
sympathy, and will probably ere long
be annexed to the kingdom of Greece.
It is supposed to have been first set-
tled by the Philistines. See Caphtouim.
CK.IB, a stall for cattle or fodder,
Prov. 14 : 4 : Job 39 : 9 : Isa. 1:3: or
perhaps simply the manger out of which
the cattle were to eat.
CRIM'SON. Jer. 4 : 30. See
Colors.
CRISP'ING-PINS. The word is
not properly translated in Ii^a. 3 : 22,
for it denotes a reticule, probably richly
ornamented.
CRIS'PIIS. Acts 18: 8. An officer
of the .Jewish synagogue at Corinth.
He and his family were converted un-
der Paul's preaching, and he received
the ordinance of baptism at the apos-
tle's hands. 1 Cor. 1:14.
CROSS, CRUCIFY. Matt. 23
34; 27:32. Crucifixion is a mode of
execution of great antiquity, and still
prevails among the Hindoos and Chi-
nese. It was regarded by the Romans
as the basest and most ignominious
death, deserved only by traitors and
slaves. Luke 23 : 32. It was an accursed
death. Deut. 21 : 23 ; Gal. 3 : 13. Hence
the force of the expressions 1 Cor. 1 :
23 ; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 12 : 2. As soon as
the sentence was pronounced, "Thou
shalt be crucified," the person was
stripped and fastened to a post about as
high as the waist, and was then scourged
with rods or whijis made of leather
strips armed with small bits of lead or
bone, and often so severely as to occasion
death. After the scourging the person
was compelled to bear his own cross to
the place of execution. This was usu-
ally an elevated place without the city,
and near the highway.
There are three forms of the cross —
one in which the two pieces of wood
cross below the top. one in which they
are placed one on the top of the other,
and one in which they are placed diago-
nally :
Throe Forms of the Cross.
The first is the usual form ; the second
is probably the oldest.
The monogram of Christ used by the
early Christians and by Constamine
represents the cross with the initials
of the name of Christ (the X and the
P), thus :
The cross was so fixed into the earth
that the feet of the sufferer were usu-
ally about 2 feet from the ground. In
or near the middle of the upright post
there was a projection, to which he was
raised by cords ; and being previously
divested of his clothing, he was first
bound to the cross-beam, and then nailed
by his hands, with strong iron sjjikes,
to its extremities. There is conclusive
evidence from profane history that the
hands were pierced in this way, and
that it was peculiar to the punishment
of crucifixion, but whether the feet were
207
CRO
CRO
nailed separately, or whether a single
nail transfixed theui both, or whether
they were merely tied to the beam by
a cord, is doubtful. In order to lessen
the pain, it was custouiary to give the
sufferer wine medicated with myrrh,
etc. Our Redeemer rejected this draught,
Mark 15 : 23, choosing to suffer to the
full extent the pains of death. Vinegar,
too, was a refreshing and sustaining
drink, and was offered to him. Matt.
2r:48. The criminal was fastened to
the cross by four soldiers appointed for
the purpose, who were allowed the ap-
parel of the sufferer as the perquisite of
their office. Matt. 27 : 35.
Over the cross was commonly placed
a writing or 8uper8cri2)tion, indicating
the offence for which the individual
was put to death. It was called by
the Romans titiiliis, or the title. John
19: 19-22.
Among the Romans the prisoner often
remained upon the cross till his body
fell to the earth by its own weight, but
the Jews were ])ermitted, in obedience
to the precept of their law, Dent. 21 :
22, 23, to terminate the sufferings of the
malefactor before sundown. This was
effected in various ways — sometimes by
setting fire to the foot of the cross, and
at others by breaking the limbs with a
hammer or ])iercing the body with a
lance. John 19 : ;'>l-37. The agonies of
tliis death were extreme. Cicero says :
'' The executioner, the covering of the
head, the very name of the cross, should
be removed afar, not only from the
body, but from the thoughts, the eyes,
the ears, of Roman citizens; for of all
these things, not only, the actual oc-
currence and endurance, but the very
contingency and expectation — nay, the
mention itself — is unworthy of a Roman
citizen and a freeman." The judges
denominated it '' the utmost torment,
the extremest punishment."
The extension of the limbs just after
so severe a scourging, and the impossi-
bility of making the slightest motion
without occasioning suffering, the pier-
cing of the han<ls and feet in the j)arts
most susceptible of acute and agonizing
pain, the ex])osurc of the wounded and
lacerated flesh to the action of the sun
and air hour after hour, the loss of blood,
and the sense of the indignity and con-
tempt, which, as shown to our Saviour,
208
was the most bitter, malicious, and un-
sparing that can be conceived, — all con-
spired to make it, to the very last de-
gree, a death of pain. Often the
strength of the malefactor lingered for
three days, and even longer. Hence'
the surprise of Pilate. Mark 15:44.
The figure of a cross has often been
represented on the banners of contend-
ing armies, thus :
With the conversion of the Roman
empire, the cross, from a sign of shame,
became a sign of honor. It reminds us
of the great price of our salvation, and
points the true way to immortality and
glory : *' No cross, no crown."
The cross is often used figurativelj' for
those reproaches, self-denials, and sac-
rifices which the true followers of Christ
must be expected to endure if they faith-
fully maintain their profession. Matt.
16 :"^24.
The classic work upon the cross and the
crucifixion of Jesus is Justus Lipsius's
(d. KiOO) De Ci-Hce, 1595. Rutin 1878,
Herman Fulda, pastor near Halle. Ger-
many, issued a work entitled Das Kreitz
will (lie Krciizif/uii;/, which maintains that
Lipsius and all his followers are wrong.
This statement he fortifies by a fresh
examination of the sources. According
to Fulda, the cross of Jesus was a post.
His hands were nailed on either side of
it; his feet, the knee^j being much bent,
were fastened by a stout cord to this
post, but not nailed, and they, together
with the nailed hands, supported the
CRO
CRY
body. Owing to haste, he deems it prob-
able that the customary •* seat " fasten-
ed to the cross as a partial support was
wanting. Fulda finds in this extreme-
ly painful position one reason for the
speedy death of Jesus, which occasioned
Pilate's incredulity.
CROWN. 2 kgs. 11 : 12. Anciently
the crown or diadem was only a head-
band, Eze. 16 : 12, or a ribbon or fillet,
made of silk or linen, surrounding the
head, and probably connected behind.
Crowns arose ])robably from the natu-
ral custom of wearing wreaths of flow-
ers on occasions of joy and festivity, or
else from the custom of binding the hair
to prevent its dishevelment bv the wind.
Ex. 28 : 36, 37 : 29 : 0. We find it rep-
resented on ancient medals. Newly-
married persons of both sexes wore
crowns. Comp. Song Sol. 3:11 with
Eze. 16:12. It was usually a badge
of royalty or princely distinction, it
was sometimes of pure gold, and was
worn by kings, 2 Chr. 23:11; Matt.
27 : 29, and sometimes in battle. 2 Sam.
1 : 10 ; 12:30. The weight, in the last
passage, denotes the value, and not the
Crowns. (After Ayre.)
1. Crown of Upper Egypt. 2. Crown of Upper find
Lower Egypt United, 3. Assyrian Crown, from N"ine-
veh Marbles. 4. Laurel Crown. 5. Crown of Herod
the Great. 6. Crown of Aretas, King of Arabia.
gravity, of the ci'own. Afterward the
shape and size were changed, and cost-
ly ornaments appended to it. 2 Sam.
12:30. It was worn by queens. Esth.
2:17. It was customary for a king to
wear as many crowns as he had king-
doms. Rev. 19: 12. The word is figu-
14
ratively used by the sacred writers to
denote honor, Prov. 12 : 4, prosperity,
Lam. 5:16, eternal life, and blessed-
ness. 1 Pet. 5 : 4. The inscription on
the crown of the high priest, Ex.39 :30,
was significant of his sacred office and
functions. Such inscriptions have some-
times been placed on the crowns of
princes and heroes to indicate some
sjilendid action or service. Paul uses the
custom of giving crowns of laurel or pars-
ley to the victors in the Greek games to
fu'nish an illustration of the difference
between the honor of earthly distinction
and that which comes from following
Christ. In Rev. 17 : 5 allusion seems
to be made to the crown of the Jewish
high priest, whose raiment is described
as having the colors and ornaments of
the sacred vestments. It is said that
the word mi/sten'nm ("mystery") was
formerly engraven on the papal crown,
and was erased in the time of Julius III.
The *' crown of thorns " worn by
Christ, Matt. 27 : 29, was probably made
of a common Arabian plant, called }inhk,
which has " many small and sharp spines,
soft, round, pliant branches, loaves much
resembling ivy, of a very deep green,
as if in designed mockery of a victor's
wreath." — Hafisef quint, quoted in Ayre:
Treasury of Bihh Kuoufech/e. The sol-
diers plaited the wreath for Christ
rather as an insult than to cause him
suffering.
CRU'CIFY. See Cross.
CRUSE. 1 Kgs. 17 : 12. A small
vessel for liquids, used by the Jews.
CRYS'TAL. Job 28': 17. The word
here rendered " crystal " is used nowhere
else, and is believed to mean " glass,"
which was made by the ancient Egyp-
tians and highh' valued. Elsewhere the
subject of this paragraph usually denotes
ice or frost, and the original term is often
so translated, as "frost," Gen. 31:40;
Job 37 : 10; Jer. 36 : 30 ; and "ice."
.Job 6: 16: 38:29; Ps. 147:17. In Eze.
1 : 22, rock-crystal, a stone perfectly
transparent and resembling the purest
glass, was plainly meant, and there may
be reference to the peculiarly dazzling
effect of light reflected from its surface.
The ancients supposed that this mineral
was only 'Mce congealed by intense
cold," and valued it highly for its great
beauty. Its transparency is alluded to
in Rev. 4 : 6 ; 21 : 1 1 ; 22 : 1.
209
CUB
CUP
CU'BIT. See Measurks.
CUCK'OO. Lev. 11:16. Doubtless
a mistranslation. It is thought most
probable that '' the slender bird " here
referred to may have been a species of
shearwater { Pnffinns), seyeml kinds of
which are common on the coast of Pal-
estine, are sold in the markets of mari-
time towns, and, as living on fish, would
be forbidden food to the Jews.
CU'CUMBER. Num. 11 : 5. A gar-
den-vesetable well known in this coun-
Squirting Cucumber. {From Riehm.)
c. Sectiou of the Pruif. a,. Pluut. h. Fruit.
try. Cucumbers, melons, and onions are
now among the leading productions of
Egypt, and are also commonly cultiva-
ted in Palestine. Besides our own kind,
another (Ci(ciniiin chute) is cultivated,
having a fruit with less flavor, but
larger.
"Cucumbers form an important item
in the summer food of the poor, and arc
eaten with the rind on; without any con-
diment. In the oppressive heat of sum-
mer they form a most grateful vegetable.
I remember seeing dinner served out to
an Arab school in Jerusalem, which con-
sisted of a thin barley-cake and a raw
cucumber to each boy." — Tristram.
The " lodge in the garden of cucum-
bers," Isa. 1 : 8, rudely constructed of
poles and boughs, may still be seen in
many fields. It is intended to shelter a
watchman set to ])rotcct the fruit from
jackals and other animals, as well as
from thievish men. When the crop is
over and the lodge forsaken by the
keeper, " the poles fall down, or lean
every which way, and those green
210
boughs with which it is shaded will
have been scattered by the wind, leav-
ing only a ragged, sprawling wreck, a
most affecting type of utter desolation."
— Thomson. Job seems to have had
such ruins in mind. 27 : 18.
CUM'MIN. Matt. 23 : 2.3. A low
herb {Citminton sittivum) of the fennel
kind, which produces aromatic seeds
and is found in Syria. In Isa. 28:25,
27 reference is made to the manner of
sowing and threshing it. The same
method is observed in Malta at this day.
It was one of the things of less conse-
quence which the Pharisees strictly
tithed. See Mint.
CUN'NING is used in the Bible in
its original sense of ^' knowing," '' skil-
ful." Gen. 25 : 27 ; 1 Sam. 16 : 16, etc.
In 2 Pet. 1:16 the word '' cunningly " is
used in a similar sense.
CUP. IKgs. 7:26. The horns of
animals were anciently used by some
nations as drinking-vessels, but the
Jews had cups and goblets at a very
early period. Gen. 44 : 2, though they
used horns for anointing-oil. 1 Sam.
16 : 13. Some of their cups were highly
ornamented, 1 Kgs. 7:26, and in shape
were probably not unlike tliose now
used for culinary purjioses by the Egyp-
tians. Cups of this kind, made of gold,
silver, copper, etc., according to the
owner's wealtli, are in use in Persia at
this day.
Assyrian King and Cup-bearer.
The figurative use of this word in the
Scriptures is frequent. Generally, how-
CUP
CYP
ever, it represents the blessings or the
judgments of Heaven, or the allotments
of Uod's providence. Ps. 23 : 5 : 75 :
8 ; 116 : 13 ,; Isa. 51 : 17-22. Comp. Jer.
25 : 15 and 51 : 7 with Rev. 14 : 10 and
16 : 19. The sufferings of our Saviour
are also represented by a similar figure.
Matt. 20 : 22 and 26 : 39.
CUP'-BEAUER. See Butler.
CUP OF BLESSING. See
Blessixg.
CURSE. Gen. 27 : 12. In the
scriptural use it is the opposite of hless.
To curse is to imprecate evil upon any
one. Gen. 9:25; comp. Gen. 27:12;
Neh. 13 : 2 ; Matt. b:U; John 7 : 49 ;
James 3 : 9. The curses which are re-
corded in the Bible as being pronounced
by Xoah, Moses, Joshua, and others, are
not to be regarded as the effects of pas-
sion or revenge. They were either pro-
nounced under the immediate influence
of God's Sj)irit, or are to be viewed as
only predictions of evil uttered in the
form of imprecation.
The words ''curse" and "cursed"
are the opposite of " bless " and
" blessed," and are often so contrasted.
Deut. 28. See Bless. The curse of
the ground and of the serpent. Gen.
3 : 14, 17, is to be regarded as the
doom or judgment of God upon them.
The curse of the Lnir is the sentence
of condemnation which it pronounces
on the transgressor. Gal. 3:10, and
from which Christ redeems us by '* be-
ing made a curse for us." Gal. 3:13;
comp. Rom. 8:1 and Gal. 3:13 with
Rom. 5:16 and 2 Cor. 3 : 7-9.
To curse, in an evil or blasphemous
sense, is to affirm or deny anything
with thoughtless or rash imprecations
of divine vengeance. Matt. 26 : 74.
CUSH (hlacJcf). 1. The oldest son
of Ham, and father of Ximrod. Gen.
10:6, 7, 8; 1 Chr. 1:8, 9, 10.
2. A Benjamite in the time of Saul.
Ps. 7, title.
CUSH. 1. A country near the Gi-
hon. Gen. 2 : 13, marg., north of Assyria.
2. The country peopled by Cush or
the Ethiopians, Gen. 10:6, lying to the
south of Egy])t, on the upper Nile, and
possibly extending its rule into south-
ern Arabia. See Ethiopia.
CU'SHAN. Hab. 3 : 7. Perhaps
the same as Cush. though some think it
refers to the kinjr Chushan-rishathaim.
CU'SHI (the Ethiopian). 1. One to
whom Joab intrusted the news of the
defeat and death of Absalom. 2 Sam.
18:21-23, 31, 32.
2. An ancestor of Jehudi. Jer. 36 :
14.
3. The father of Zephaniah the proph-
et. Zeph. 1:1.
CUSH'ITE. See CrsH.
CUSTOM, RECEIPT OF. See
Pi BLICAN.
CUTH, AND CU'THAH. 2 Kgs.
17:24, 30. A city of Assyria, 15 miles
north-east of Babylon, where the name
Cutha is inscribed upon bricks of Nebu-
chadnezzar's age. At Cutha was the
great university from whence the origi-
nals of the tablets giving an Assyrian
account of the Creation were brought
by Assurbanipal. H. Rassam, a distin-
guished Assyrian scholar, in 1879 at-
tempted to discover the site of the royal
record-office and to re-explore these
ruins of Cutha.
CUT'TINGS IN THE FLESH.
This repulsive practice, common among
idolaters, ancient and modern, originates
in the notion that pain and blood please
the angry deity. Cutting with a knife
also formed a part of a funeral ceremony.
It would seem that the Syrians were
particularly addicted to the custom ;
accordingly, the Israelites were strongly
forbidden thus to mutilate themselves.
Comp. Lev. 19 : 28 ,• Deut. 14 : 1 ,• 1 Kgs.
18 : 28 ; Jer. 16 : 6.
CYM'BALS. There are t,co kinds
of cymbals, both of which we find men-
tioned in Ps. 150 : 5. The first kind,
called the '' loud cymbals," like casta-
nets, consisted of small round plates,
two of which are held in each hand, one
upon the thumb and the other upon the
middle finger, and l^eing struck together
skilfully make an agreeable sound. The
second kind, called the '* high-sounding
cymbals," were two broad convex plates
of brass, the concussion of which pro-
duced a shrill, piercing sound, like clat-
tering rather than fi)ik/iuf/. 1 Cor. 13 : 1.
The cymbals were used in connection
with other instruments, not only in the
temple or on sacred occasions, but in
times of war and as a musical accom-
paniment to Hebrew women in dan-
cing. Both kinds are in common use
to-dav in the East.
CY'PRESS. Isa. 44 : 14. The
211
CYP
CYP
Hebrew word indicates a tree with hard-
grained wood, but there are objections
to the true cypress, and there is no cer-
tainty what it was. It may have been
the Syrian juniper, which grows wild
upon Lebanon, as the cypress never
does in the Holy Land. The latter tree
{Cupressiis seinpervirem) is a tall ever-
green, the wood of which is heavy, aro-
matic, and remarkably durable.. Its foli-
age is dark and gloomy, its form close
and pyramidal, and it is usually planted
in the cemeteries of the East. Coffins
were made of it in the East, and Hie
mummy-cases of Egypt are found at
this day of the cypress- wood. The tim-
ber has been known to suffer no decay
by the lapse of 1100 years.
CY^PRUS, a large, fertile island
of the Mediterranean Sea, triangular in
form, 150 miles long, and from 50 to 60
miles broad. Venus was its chief god-
dess ; hence her name Cypria. It con-
tained two prominent cities, Salamis and
Paphos, and 17 towns. Salamis was at
the east and Paphos at the west end of
the island. Acts 13 : 5. Barnabas was
a native of Cyprus, and its people are
noticed in apostolic history. Acts 4 :
36 ; 13 : 4 ; 15 : 39. Sergius Paulus,
proconsul of Cyprus, was converted by
Paul on his first missionary-tour. Acts
13 : 7 flf., and thus became the first
Christian ruler on record.
Histori/. — -Cyprus was colonized by the
Phoenicians at a very early date. It was
the Chittim, or Kittim, of the 0. T.
Num. 24 : 21. Through Greek colonists
it received the name of A'^y^rco.-, perhaps
from the plant ci/jji-iis (henna — Lawsoina
alba. See Camphiric). Copper-mining
and the production of swords, armor, and
other articles in bronze were its princi-
pal industries. There was also an ex-
tensive commerce. In literature, Cyprus
boastedof very early distinction. Thoth-
A U L O N
Aca
iSatn:)
I ^
\5
Tiaca ,-EIistt)
AloxatidJTl^
masPrt
iCFjU
(C.Baf'g) Zepltyriiim
mes III. of Egypt conquered the island.
At a later period Belus, king of Tyre, de-
stroyed most of its cities. Sargon made
it tributary to Assyria, B. c. 707 ; Apries,
king of Egypt (the Pharaoh of Scripture),
plundered it. Later, it was tributary to
Darius. The Athenians and Lacede-
monians conquered part of Cyprus from
the Persians, b. o. 477. Alexander the
Great was aided by 120 ships from this
island in his siege of Tyre, b. c. 335. In
B. c. 291 the island was a dependency of
Egypt. Cato took possession of it for
the Romans. Cicero was proconsul
212
Map of Cyprus.
there, b. e. 52. The Byzantine empe-
rors and the Arabs successively held
sway. Cyprus was a frequent halting-
place of the Crusaders, Richard I. of
England captured it in A. i). 1191, and
sold it to the Knights Templars. Later,
the Genoese and Venetinns held the
island. The Turks dispossessed the
Venetians A. n. 1570, and have retained
their mastery for more than 300 years.
The control of Cyprus was secured
in 1878 by the English government as a
naval station and base of operation for
the protection of Asiatic Turkey and the
CYR
CYR
Indian government. The recent exca- \
vutions and discoveries of General Ces-
nola have brought to light a vast num-
ber of antiquities and works of art of
Phoenician. Egyptian, Greek, and spe-
cific Cypriotic characters, which are de-
posited in the Metropolitan Museum of .
New York. See Cksnola : Cypnix, its
Ancient Citien, 'fuinbs, «nid Temples, New
York, 1878.
CYRE'NE, the capital of a small
province, and the chief city of Libya,
in northern Africa. It was the cen-
tre of a wide district between Car-
thage andEgypt, and corresponding
to modern Tripidi. It was a Grecian
city, founded about B. c. 631. Under
Alexander the Great the Jews were
about one fourth of the population, ^
and were granted citizenship on the ^"
same terms as Greeks. .At Alexan- 1
der's death it was attached to Egypt :
became a Roman province in b. e.
75 ; Simon, who bore our Saviour"?
cross, was of that city, Matt. 27 :
32 ; its people were at Jcrus;ilein
during the Pentecost, and they had
a synagogue there, Acts 2:10:6:
9, and some of them became preach-
ers of the gospel. 11 : 20 : 13 : 1. Gy-
rene was destroyed by the Saracens in
the fourth contnrv. and is now desolate.
CYRE'NIANS. See Cvrene.
CYRE'Nirs ( A>rc»/o«). the Greek
form of the Roman name Quirinius.
Luke 2:2. He was probably twice
governor of Syria — the first time from
n. c. 4 (the year of our Lord's birth) to
B.C. 1, and again from a. d. 6 to 11. It
was during his first governorship that
the " first taxing " or enrolment occurred,
which necessitated the visit of Joseph
and ^lary to Bethlehem. The second
census took place A. D. fi, and is men-
tioned by Luke in Acts 5 : 37 and by
Josephus. His full name was Publius
Sulpicius Quirinius. See Taxing, Days
OF TRR.
CY'RUS {the sun; in Hebrew. A'o-
resh), f)ander of the Persian empire,
a prince, statesman, and conqueror of
great renown, and an instrument em
ployed by Jehovah in the execution of
his designs of mercy toward the Jews,
as foretold by Isaiah. 44 : 28 : 45 : 1-7 ;
comp. 2 Chr. 36 : 22, 23 ; Ezr. 1:1-4;
Dan. 6 : 28. He was the son of Cam-
bj^ses, king of Persia, and a nephew of
Darius the Mede (Cyaxares). and united
the crowns of Persia and Media. His
chief biographers (Xenophon and He-
rodotus)' present his history and ex-
ploits in very different aspects. His
conquests extended over all western
Reputed Toinb of Cyrus.
! Asia, but the most brilliant of them
I was that of Babylon, B. c. 538. After
I this event he ordered a return of the
Jews, who had been 70 years in cap-
tivity, to their own land, and furnished
them very liberally with the means of
rebuilding their temple. Daniel lived
! at his court, and was his favorite
\ minister and adviser. Dan. 6 : 28. His
edict for the rebuilding of the temple
may be said to mark the beginning of
; s rict Judaism, for the Jews from that
time became consolidated ecclesiastically
under the government of the Sanhedrin.
Cyrus died from a wound received in
battle, B. c. 529. His rejtutcd tomb sti'il
exists, near Mitrgah, the ancient Pasarga-
(lie. — Rawlinson : Ancient Moniorhies,
vol.iii. p.318. Thecaptivityof the Jews,
which was ended by the decease of Cy-
rus, ended also the sin of idolatry in the
nation.
213
DAB
DAM
D.
DAB'AREH. Josh. 21 : 28. An
incorrect form for Daberath.
DAB'BASHETH {hump of a
camel), a town of Zebulon. Josh. 19: 11.
DAB'ERATH (jinHtnre), a town of
Zebulon and Issachar, Josh. 19 : 12; 21 :
28 ; now Debun'ek, west of Mount Tabor.
DAG'GER, a short sword, usually
made with a double edge, and suspended
from the girdle. Jud. 3 : 16, 21, 22. See
Arms.
DA'GON (diminutive, to express
endearment, of Ji'ih), the national god
of the Philistines. His corresponding
goddess was Atargatis or Derceto, and
they were at times worshipped in a
common temple. Atargatis is man-
ifestly related to Astarte. There were
temples of Dagon at Gaza, where Sam-
son performed his final feat of strength
in pulling down the pillars, Jud. 16 : 23 ;
at Axhrhxl, where the idol miraculously
fell down before the ark of the covenant,
1 Sam. 5 : l-^ (this temple was de-
stroyed by Jonathan in the Maccabfean
war, 1 Mace. 10 : 8:5, 84 ; 11 : 4 ; Joseph.,
Ant.,i:^,i, ^5); at neth-dar/on, inJudnh,
Josh. 15: 41, and in Asher, Josh. 19:
27 ; and elsewhere. Dagon was repre-
sented with the face and hands of a man
and the body of a fish, the fish part sig-
nifying fecundity.
The worship of a fish-god was not
original with the Philistines or the
The Fis!i-God. (From a banre'ief from
KKoisahad. Botta.)
Phoenicians, who also were Dagon's
worshi])pers, but with the Assyrian
Babylonians, uj>on whose monuments
are representations of such a god, under
the nauic Odakon, sporting in the sea
211
surrounded by fishes and marine ani-
mals. He was said to have emerged
from the sea and to have been " one of
the great benefactors of men," because
he taught them the use of letters, the
arts, religion, and agriculture.
DALAI'AH (ivhom Jehovah hath
freed), a man of David's posterity. 1
Chr. 3 : 24.
DALE, THE KING'S. Gen. 14:
17 ; 2 Sam. 18 : 1 8. Probably in the val-
lev of Jehoshaphat, near Jerusalem.
^DALMANU'THA, a town on the
Sea of Galilee, near Magdala, Mark 8 :
10; Matt. 15:39; probably at 'Ain-el-
Bdrideh, on the west side of the sea, 2
miles from Tiberias, where are ruins.
DALMA'TIA, a mountainous dis-
trict on the east of the Adriatic Sea;
visited bv Titus. 2 Tim. 4 : 10.
DAL'PHON" {swift /), the second
of the ten sons of Haman. Esth. 9 : 7.
DAM'ARIS (^f heifer), a woman,
probably of distinction, who was con-
verted under Paul's preaching in Athens.
Because she is mentioned, Acts 17 : 34,
immediately after Dionysius the Areop-
agite, Chrysostom and others maintained
she was the latter's wife. But the very
mode of mentioning — ** a. woman named "
— is against the conjecture.
DAMAS'CUS, the most ancient and
famous city of Syria, 1 33 miles north-cast
of Jerusalem, at the base of Anti- Leb-
anon mountains. It is on a fertile plain
30 miles in diameter, with mountains on
three sides. The plain is well watered
by the Barada, the Chrysorrhoas (or
''Golden Stream") of the Greeks, the
Abana of Scripture; and EI A'waj (" the
crooked"), the Pharpar of Scripture. 2
Kgs. 5:12. These streams flow into
meadow-lakes 18 miles east of the city.
Damascus lies 2260 feet above the sea-
level. The climate is delightful ; frost
ks not uncommon in winter, but fire-
places are unknown : in summer the
thermometer marks 100° to 101°, but the
nights are cool and the dews heavy ; yet
the people slccj) on the flat roofs of their
houses. Damascus is called by the Arnbs
" the Eve of the Desert " nml the '* Pearl
DAM
DAN
of the East." It is to the Mohaminedan
the earthly retieetion of paradise. The
chief cause of its beauty ami fertility is
the abundance of water, which calls forth
a most luxuriant vegetation round about
the city, and makes it a blooming oasis
in the midst of ca vast desert.
History. — Damascus is called the old-
est city in the world ; said by Josephus
to have been founded by Uz. a grandson
of Shem ; Abraham visited it. Gen. 14 :
15 ; 15 : 2 ; it was conquered by David, 2
Sam. 8 : 5, 6 ; was allied with Israel and
against Israel, 1 Kgs. 15 : 18, 20 ; 2 Chr.
16:3; was taken by Tiglath-pileser ; de-
Wall of Damascus. (Prom Conybcare and Ilowson's
"St. Faul.")
nounced by Jeremiah. Jer. 49 : 27 ; and
afterward seldom noticed in 0. T. his-
tory. It was surrendered to Alexander
the Great after the battle of Issus, b. c.
;^33. In the N. T. it is noticed as the
place of the scene of Paul's conversion,
Acts 9: 1-25; later it became the resi-
dence of a Christian bishop ; was con-
quered by the Arabs, a. n. 635 ; attacked
by the Crusaders, A. D. 1126: Fcveral
times besieged : was tnken by the Mon-
gols, 1260: phindered by the Tartars,
!300 ; attacked by Timour, 1399, to whom
it paid a million pieces of gold ; became
si provincial capital of the Turkish em-
216
pire, 1516; and is now the residence of
a Turkish governor. It is the hot-bed
of Mohammedan fanaticism. In 1860,
GOOO Christians were massacred by the
Moslems in cold blood, in the city and
adjoining districts.
Present Conditioi). — Though twelve
times pillaged and burned, it now ex-
tends on both sides of the Barada, and
has a population of from 110,000 to
150,000. The most remarkable building
is the Great Mosque, which was once a
Byzantine church dedicated to John the
Baptist. The principal street, known
as Svftaiiy, or Queen's street, runs in
nearly a straight line from east to
west, and is supposed to be the same
r"--' as the street called "Straight" in
Acts 9:11. The traditional sites of
the houses of Naaman and Ananias
and the place in the wall where Paul
was let down in a basket are still
pointed out. No less than fi'ur
places near the city have been
claimed as the scene of Paul's con-
version.
The Presbyterian Church of Ire-
land maintains a Protestant mis-
sion there, which has several sub-
stantial buildings and labors among
the Greeks and the Jews. There is
also an Episcopal mission and
chapel in Damascus.
DAMNA'TION. This term,
in common use, denotes the endless
jierdition of the ungodly. Matt. 23 :
*f ;!3 ; Mark 3 : 29 ; John 5 : 28, 29 ; 2
^j^ Pet. 2 : 3. But when the Bible was
translated the word was used where
"condemnation" or "judgment"
would more properly express the
sense, so thnt, while generally ap-
plying to the eternal state of the
soul, it is sometimes to be taken in its
milder meaning. Ignorance of this
fact has led to deplorable consequences.
Saints have been made despondent and
sinners driven to despair. 1 Cor. 11 :
29 ought to be translated " eatctli and
drinketh judgm(nt to himself.'' So in
Rom. 13:2 and 14:23.
DAN (j>ic/>/e), the fifth son of Jacob,
and the first of I'ilhah, Piachels maid.
Gen. 30:6. Nothing is known person-
ally of the patriarch. The prediction
ulteved by Jacob respecting him, (Jen.
49: 16, 17, is variiuisly interpreted. It
is ])robable that (he elevittion of his
DAN
DAN
tribe to an equal rank with the others,
notwitli standing that he was born of a
concubine, was foretold in v. 16, and the
residue of the prediction may allude to
the subtle and crafty disposition of his
descendants. Indeed, we know that
Samson, who was among the most noted
of them, was remarkably successful in
stratagem, Jud. 14 ; 15 ; and perhaps
the same trait was characteristic of
their tribe. Jud. 18 : 26, 27.
It is noticeable that the tribe of Dan
is omitted from the numbering in Rev.
7. Because of this, and because Dan
first introduced idolatry into Israel,
Jud. 18, many of the fathers maintained
that Antichrist would come from Dan.
DAN. 1. The territory in Canaan
allotted to Dan was on the sea-coast,
east of Benjamin and between Ephrai u
and Judah. It embraced a broad plain,
14 miles long, near the sea. The Ara-
orites kept them from the plain and
forced them into the mountains. Hence
they had another portion granted them,
near Muunt llermjn, Jud. 18, where
they set up a graven image stolen from
Micah.
2. Dan, City of, the chief city of the
northern district held by this tribe.
Jud. 20 : 1. It was originally called
Laish, Jud. 18 : 2V ; noted for idolatry,
Jud. 18 : 30 ; now called Tel-el-Kdd;/, or
"mound of the judge," 3 miles from Ba-
nias, north of the waters of Meroin.
3. The Dan of Eze. 27 : 19 is possibly
the same as No. 2, but some identify it
with Dedar, others with Aden, in Arabia.
DANCE. The Jewish dances were
generally expressions of joy and grati-
tude, sometimes in honor of a conquer-
or, Jud. 11:34: 1 Sam. 18:6, 7, and
sometimes on domestic occasions. Jer.
31 : 4, "13 ; Luke 15 : 25. The dance was
.also introduced into the religious ser-
vice, and the timb el (tambourine) was
employed to direct it. Some individ-
ual led, and the rest followed with
measured steps and devotional songs.
Thus, David and Miriam led such a
band. 2 Sam. 6: U; Ex. 15 : 20. In-
dividuals often expressed feelings of
joy in the same way. Luke 6 : 23 ;
Acts 3 : 8.
Dancing was practised from a. very
earlj' period as a natural exercise and
amusement. Job 21:11 ; Mark 6: 22.
But the mingling of oiales and females
which is so common in modern dances
was unknown to the Jews. Indeed, the
dancing was mostly done by the women
alone, as is still the case in Egypt.
A Hebrew word, luahhol, which oc-
curs in some passages — e. g. Ps. 150 :
4 — and is remiered *' dance" in our ver-
sion, is supposed by some scholars to
mean a musical instrument.
DAN'IEL (God is, >nj judge). 1. One
of the four greater prophets. He was of
noble, perhaps of royal, descent, and
probably born at Jerusalem. Dan. 1 :
3; 9 : 24 ; comp. Josephus's Atitiq. In
his early youth he was carried captive
by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon, together
with three other Hebrew youths of rank,
llananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, b. c,
001. He was there instructed in the
language and arts of the Chaldeans,
and, with his three companions, trained
for the royal service in the palace. Dan.
1 : 1-4. The prince of the eunuchs
changed all their names, calling them
respectively Belteshazzar ((". e. "prince
of i3er'), Shadrach, Meshach, and Abel-
ncgo. These four refused to eat of the
king's meat and to drink his wine, but
chose ''pulse and water." Notwith-
standing this diet, they were in better
condition than the heathen courtiers.
After three years' training, God gave
Daniel an opportunity to display his
learning and wisdom. He interpreted
a dream which Nebuchadnezzar had
forgotten. Dan. 2. In reward, he was
made "ruler ove." the whole province
of Babylon, and chief of the governors
over all the wise nipu of Babylon," and
in this position s) distinguished himself
that he won great fame and was men-
tioned as a model man even by his con-
temporaries. Eze. 14 : 14. 20 ; 28 : 3. On
another occasion he faithfully explained
to his monarch the intention of God to
punish him for his pride. Dan. 4. For
Belshazzar, a grandson and successor
of Nebuchadnezzar, he performed a
similar service, reading the handwrit-
ing upon the wall, Meuc, Mene, Tekcl,
Upharsin. Dan. 5.
Under Darius the MeJe, Daniel was
made the first of the " three presidents"
of the empire. His enemies obtained a
command from Darius forbidding all
prayer save unto the king for 30 days.
But Daniel did not stop praying; and
this fact being discovered, he was cast
217
DAN
DAN
into the den of lions, which was the
punishment for a violation of the king's
order. But Cxod delivered him, and he
was kept in his office. In the reign of
Cyrus he likewise prospered, but seems
to have left Bab^ylon, as his latest re-
corded vision, 10 : 1, 4, was by the Hid-
dekel, in the third year of Cyrus, b. c.
634. When he died, and where, are
uncertain. His reputed tomb is shown
at .S'»»a, on the Tigris.
Daniel at the court of Babylon resem-
bles Joseph at the court of Pharaoh.
Both were involuntary exiles from their
country and people ; both were great
statesmen ; both maintained the purity
of their religion and their personal cha-
racter, though surrounded by idolatry
and corruption ; both rose by their wis-
dom and integrity from slavery to the
highest dignity in a heathen empire;
both are shining examples of loyalty
to God and to virtue.
2. Daniel is the name of two, or per-
haps three, other persons mentioned in
the Bible.
{(i) The second son of David by Abi-
gail the Carmelitess. IChr. 3:1. He is,
however, called Chileab in 2 Sam. 3 : 3.
(b) A priest of the family of Itha-
mar, mentioned, Ezr. 8 : 2, as having re-
turned with Ezra. He is probably again
spoken of in Neh. 10 : 6 among those
who sealed the covenant drawn up by
Nehemiah, b. c. 445.
DANIEL, BOOK OF. It con-
sists of two distinct parts. 1. Histori-
cal, chs. 1-6, containing the in'eresting
narrative given in the preceding section,
an 1 with it an account of the attempt-
ed burning of Shadrach, Meshaeh, and
Abed-nego in a ilery furnace because
they would not worship the golden im-
age which Nebuchadnezzar set up on
the j>lain of Dura. 2. Apocalyptic, chs.
7-12, or the record of Daniel's visions.
Ch. 1 contains the introduction; chs.
2-6 present a general view of the
progressive history of the powers of
the world, and of the principles of the
divine government, as seen in events
in the life of Daniel ; and chs. 7-12, the
])rophecy of the future of the peop'e of
God., The book is written in prose, but
not in the same language throughout.
The introduction, chs. 1-2 : 4, first clause,
is written in Hebrew, but from the sec-
ond clause of the fourth verse of the
218
second chapter to the end of ch. 7 it
is in Aramaic, called Syriac in that
verse. From the beginning of ch. 8 to
the end, in which part the visions are
related in the first person, the language
is Hebrew.
The interpretation of Daniel requires
profound knowledge of ancient history.
The book is, in fact, a sort of religious
philosophy of historj'. Its fundamen-
tal idea is that all the kingdoms of the
world, which pass away, are ruled and
overruled by divine Providence for the
kingdom of Christ, which will last for
ever. The book of Daniel occupies in
the 0. T. the same position which the
Revelation of John occupies in the
New. It views the kingdom of God
in its contact and conflicts with the em-
pires of the world, and looks forward
to the universal reign of Christ, the
resurrection of the dead, and the final
judgment. The empires of the world
appear first in Nebuchadnezzar's dream,
ch. 2, under the f gure of a colossal im-
age with a head of gold, a breast and
arms of silver, a bellj' of brass, and
legs and feet of iron and clay. These
represent respectively (according to the
usual orthodox interpretation) the Baby-
lonian, the Medo-Persian, the Macedo-
Greek, and the Roman empires: they
are overthrown at last b,y a stone cut
out of the mountain without hands and
becoming a great mountain, which rep-
resents tiie reign of the Messiah. The
indestructible rock of God's own work-
manship breaks to ])ieces the metal
colossus of man's hand. The same suc-
cession of monarchies is presented in
thQ.peventh chapter, under the form of
a vision of four beasts seen by the
prophet himself. The fourth beast has
ten horns, denoting ten kingdoms, grow-
ing out of it, an<l a little horn (7 : 8, 24)
springing up among the four fractured
horns of the (ircek empire. Interpret-
ers agree as to the first empire, which
must be Babylonia, but dill'er as to the
other three. Some combine the Medes
and Persians in one em])ire: others di-
vide them, an<l regard the (Jreeks (Alex-
ander the (Jreat and his successors) as
representing the fourth empire, and re-
fer the "little horn" to Antiochus
Epiphanes. Still others give the proph-
ecy of Daniel a more comprehensive
sweep ovc;' all the world-empires before
DAN
DAK
find after Christ, as preparing the way
for the ultimate and everlasting reign
of Christ. This prophecy of Christ,
the most important in the book, is
constantly fulfilling before our eyes, and
cannot be set aside by any negative crit-
icism.
The book of Daniel has been much
attacked, but also successfully vindica-
ted by biblical scholars. In the second
part Daniel speaks in the first person as
the receiver of the divine revelations re-
corded therein, so that the only alterna-
tive here is between truth and fraud.
The very fact that t.vo languages are
used renders it extremely unlikely that
it should have been forged or written
in any later period, but to Daniel,
familiar as he was with both Hebrew
and Aramaic, it was natural. The
book displays familiar acquaintance
with Bab3donian life and royal man-
ners, and suits throughout the period
of the Babylonian exile and the pecu-
liar position of Daniel at the Babylo-
nian court. The genuineness is sanc-
tioned by the highest authority — that
of Christ, Matt. 24 : 15, from which
there is no appeal for believers.
The attacks upon the book have been
in three lines: (1) Its extraordinary
events — the golden image, the burning
fiery furnace, the dreams, the lions' den,
etc.; (2) its minute prophecies ; (8) its
foreign (Greek) words ; (4) its narrative.
To these objections it is sufficient to re-
ply : (1) The characteristics of Babylon,
the manners and customs of the East, am-
]dy justify the language and prove that
the book is genuinely Oriental and Baby-
lonian. (2) The peculiar position of Dan-
iel required an exceptional and startling
character for his revelations; his proph-
ecies have been in great part fulfilled. (8)
The Greek words are only four in num-
ber, and arc the names of musical in-
struments which may have been import-
ed from Greece as early as b. c. 600.
(4) Its historical difficulties. Belshaz-
zar is represented as the last king of
Babylon, while the authority there known
gave Nabonnedus as the last king. This
difficulty was solved by Sir Heni-y Raw-
linson's decipherment of a cylinder
among the ruins of Ur in Chaldaja in
1854. Nabonnedus had his eldest son.
Belshazzar, as co-regent, and therefore
it mitrht well be that while he met the
Persians in the field his son ruled in the
capital. Thus is explained how Daniel
was made the third ruler in the king-
dom. Dan. 5:16. 29.
Apocryphal Aoditions to Daniel. —
These exist in the Greek version, and
are: The Song of the Three Holy Chil-
dren, the History of Susanna, and the
Story of Bel and the Dragon. They
passed into the Vulgate, and so into
modern translations. They embody
popular traditions, but never formed
part of the Hebrew Bible.
1. The Song of the Three Holy Chil-
dren purports to be the triumplial song
of the three confessors in the furnace,
Dan. 3 : 28, in praise of their miraculous
deliverance. The chief part has been
used as a hymn [Bened'tvite) in the Chris-
tian Church since the fourth century.
2. The History of Susanna, who was
cleared from a charge of adultery by the
shrewdness of Daniel. Probably based
upon a fact.
3. The History of Bel and the Drag-
on, a strange exaggeration of the rec-
ord of the divine deliverance of Daniel,
oh. 6.
DAN-JA'AX. 2 Sam. 24: 6. Prob-
ably Datiiroi, a ruin north of Achzib.
DAX'NAH, a city in the mountains
of Julah. Josh. 15 : 49. Conder identi-
fies it with modern Domeh, about 5 miles
south-wesi' of Hebron.
DA'RA, contr. form of DAR'DA
(pearl of ipisdnm). one whom Solomon
outrivalled in wisdom. 1 Kgs. 4 : 31 ; 1
Chr. 2 : 6.
DAR'IC, the name of a Persian
gold coin, which is translated '* dram "
in 1 Chr. 29 : 7 : Ezr. 2 : 69 ; 8 : 27 ; Xeh.
7 : 70, 71, 72. The name comes from the
Persian word dnra, '* a king," like the
English sovereif/u. It was the common
gold-piece of the Persian empire. It
was current in Palestine under Cj-^rus,
and Artaxerxes Longimanus. It weigh-
ed about 128 grains Troy, and was worth
about five dollars. Besides the gold there
was a silver daric, worth about fifty cents.
There is no mention of this latter coin
in the Bible. See Mkasures.
DARI'US {restrdincr), the name of
several kings of Media and Persia men-
tioned in the Bible.
1. Darius the Median, Dan. 5 : 31, was
the son of Ahasuerus : he took Babylon
from Belshazzar the Chaldtean. being at
219
DAR
DAV
that time about 62 years old. The best
identification is that which makes him
Astyages, the last king of the Medes.
''Only one year of the reign of Darius
is mentioned, Dan. 9:1; 11 : 1 ; and if,
as seems probable, Darius (Astyages)
occupied the throne of Babylon as su-
preme sovereign, with Nerigalsarasser
as vassal-prince, after the murder of
Evil-merodach (Belshazzar), B. c. 559,
one year only remains for this Median
supremacy before its overthrow by Cyrus,
B. c. 558, in exact accordance with the
notices in Daniel." Under him Daniel
was advanced to the highest dignity,
which exposed him to the malice of
enemies and led to his being cast into
the den of lions, but by a miracle he
escaped injury. See Danikl.
2. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, the
founder of the Perso- Aryan dynasty,
and ruler, B. c. 521-486. Ezr. 4 : 5, 24 ;
Hag. 1:1, 15; Zech. 1 : 1, 7 ; 7:1. He
found in the palace at Achmetha or
Ecbatana, the capital of Cyrus, a decree
of that king concerning the teuiple in
Jerusalem. This he confirmed, and the
temple wa^s finished in 4 years, b. c.
516. Ezr. 6 : 15. It may, however, have
been used before it was entirely com-
j)leted, as is inferred from Zech. 7 : 2, 3.
'A. Darius the Peisinn, mentioned in
Neh. 12 : 22, is generally identified with
Darius Codomannus, the antagonist of
Alexander the Great, who ascended the
throne b. c. 336, and reigned until
b. c. 330, He was the last Persian
monarch, and was killed by his own
generals. Alexander defeated him, and
thus the prophecy of Daniel, ch. 8, was
fulfilled.
DARK'NESS. The darkness which
constituted one of the plagues of Egvpt
might " be felt." Ex. 10 : 21. This may
have been occasioned by a thick, heavy
vapor, or other sensible change in the at-
mosphere, which caused an entire inter-
ception of the sun's rays. It was evident-
ly miraculous, and the dread and ter-
ror it inspired are vividly described. Ex.
10 : 22, 23. So of the darkness that
shrouded the earth when our Saviour
was put to death, Luke 23:44, 45; it
was maiiifesMy miraculous, as no natu-
ral eclipse of the sun could take place
at that period of the moon. '' Dark-
ness "is used in a meta])liorical sense
for ignorance or sin, .John 1 : 5 ; Kom.
220
13 : 12 ; Eph. 5:11; for misery, Isa. 6 :
30 ; 69 : 9, 10 ; for the final doom, Matt.
8 : 12. God is said to dwell in the thick
darkness. Ex. 20 : 21 ; 1 Kgs. 8:12.
DAR'KON [scfittcrer), one whose
posterity returned from Bab3'lon. Ezr.
2 : 66 ; Neh. 7 : 58.
DARL ING. The word occurs in
Ps. 22 : 20 and 35 : 17 as the translation
of a Hebrew word which correctly means
'' my only one," as it is applied to
'• something which exists singly and
cannot be replaced if lost, as an only
son, (len. 22 : 2, or daughter." Jud.
11 : 34.
DA'THAN (helonffiiifj to a foim-
iain), a Reubenite chieftain who joined
in Korah's rebellion. Num. 16 ; 26 : 9 ;
Deut. 11 : 6 ; Ps. 106 : 17.
DAUGH^TER is used in the Bi-
ble in several other senses than the
literal one. It describes a female de-
scendant, Gen. 27 : 46, the women of a
city or country. Gen. 36 : 2, or women
in general, Prov. 31 : 29 ; the female
worshipjiers of an idol, Alal. 2 :n;
cities and their dependent towns. In
Eccl. 12 : 4 "daughters of music" are
singing-woiiien.
DA'VID {heJorcd), the youngest of
the eight sons of Jesse, of the tribe of
Judah, was born in Bethlehem, b. c.
1085, and was both in his prophetical
and regal character an eminent type of
the Messiah. 1 Sam. 16:13. While he
was employed as a shepherd in his
father's fields God sent Samuel to Beth-
lehem, on the occasion of the annual
sacrificial feast, with instructions to
anoint David as king of Israel in the
place of Saul, who had incurred the di-
vine displeasure, and was therefore to
be deposed. Dean Stanley thus de-
scribes David's appcariince and phys-
ique as he stood before Siunuel: "He
wns short of stature, had red hair and
bright eyes. He was renuirkable for
the grace of his figure and countenance,
well made, and of immense strength
nnd agility. In swiftness and activity
he could only be compared to a wild
gazelle, with feet like harts' feet, with
arms strong enough to b' cak a bow of
steel. Ps. 18 : 33, 'M."—/finfnri/ of the
Jewinh Church, 2d sc:ies, Lect. 22
Probably neither David nor any one
else under^■tood the real meaning of this
anointing. At all events. David went
DAV
DAY
back to the shepherd-life. We next
heai' of him as chosen by Saul, upon
the suggestion of one of the body-
guard, to play upon a harp, and thus
soothe the troubled spirit of the
king. In this he was eminently suc-
cessful. Saul made him one of his ar-
mor-bearers, and requested permission
of Jesse to allow him to remain at his
court. 1 Sam. 16 : 2I-2;i But it seems
that David after a time returned home.
It was then perhaps that his adventure
with the lion and the bear took place.
After an interval of uncertain length —
Josephus says " after a lew years " —
David had his famous fight with Go-
liath. But he had so altered that Saul
did not recognize in the grown man
flushed by triumph the lad who had
played the harp in his hours of men-
tal distress ; hence his question of Ab-
ner — '' Whose son in this youth ?" — was
natural. 1 Sam. 17 : 55. The superiority
in militai-y glory which the women gave
David excited the jealousy of the king,
and so, although David was made a
chieftain, lived at court, and enjoyed
the friendship of the king's son, yet
he was constantly exposed to the wrath
of Saul.
Agreeably to the terms of the king's
promise to him who slew the gi.iut.
David became the king's son-in-law,
marrying Michal, whom he loved, but
only on condition that he slew a hun-
dred Philistines — an exaction made in
hope that the attempt would end fatally.
But David and his men slew two hun-
dred. David found his position full of
danger. His very presence seemed to
arouse the envy of Saul, so that the lat-
ter determined to kill him, and several
times east his javelin at him as he stood
playing before him. By a strata:5cm
Michal saved David's life and enabled
him to flee to Samuel at Ram ah. I Sam.
19:13, IS. David then became con-
vinced that a further residence at court
was impossible, and accordingly an
aff'ecting parting with Jonathan took
place. 1 Sam. 20, and David became a
fugitive from the hand of Saul. Armed
with the sword of Goliath and anointed
with the sacred oil. the future king
sought a home among the Philistines.
But his fame had preceded him, and
his assumed madness scarcely saved
him. 1 Sam. 21. Therefore he went
to the cave of Adullam and gathered
gradually a motley crowd, composed of
insolvent debtors and malcontents. 1
Sam. 22 : 1, 2. But David proved his
fitness to rule a kingdom by controlling
these men and bringing them to accede
to his wishes.
The history of David's life for the
next few years is filled with the details
of alternate defeats and victories, of
his flight, of his magnanimous refusal
to lay hands on the Lord's anointed,
1 Sam. 24: 16, of his residence among
neighboring tribes, of the episode of Abi-
gail, 1 Sam. 25, and finally of the battle
of Gil boa, in which Jonathan fell and
Saul slew himself, unable to bear defeat.
1 Sam. 31. The lament which he then
comj)osed is one of the noblest odes of
friendship, and a monument of his gen-
erosity to a fallen foe and of devotion to
a fallen friend. 2 Sam. 1 : 19-27.
Then David, by divine direction, re-
moved to Hebron, where the chief men of
Judah met him and ottered him the gov-
ernmeutof their tribe, which he accepted.
Accordingly, he was anointed for the «ec-
(j)id time. 2 Sam. 2 : 4. In Hebron, as
king of Judah, he reigned seven years
and a half. During this time Ishbo-
shcth, the son of Saul, by means of
the skilful general Abncr. maintained a
decreasing semblance of authorit}^ over
Israel. But at length he and Abner
were killed, and thus the way prepared
for the execution of (lod's plan to set
David on the throne of united Israel.
David was solemnly anointed for the
third time. 2 Sam. 5 : 3. Soon after he
assumed the government he obtained
possession of Jerusalem, re;iuced the
fortress which the Jebusites had main-
tained, and established the seat of his
government there. Under his wise and
liberal policy the place was greatly en-
larged ; magnificent edifices rose up on
every side, fortifications were erected,
and the ark, which had been before
without a fixed abode, was brought into
the new city with religious ceremonies
peculiarly joyful and solemn. 2 Sam. 6 :
12-19. Thenceforward, Jerusalem be-
came the capital of the kingdom, the res-
idence of the royal family, and, more
than all, the city of God. Ps. 48 : 2 ;
Matt. 5 : 35. To it the tribes repaired
from every quarter of the land to cel-
ebrate their annual festivals, and its
221
DAV
DAV
growth in i)opulation, wealth, and splen-
dor was very rapid.
David now formed the design of
building a magnificent temple for the
worship of Jehovah, to take the place
of the tabernacle, which was but a
temporary and movable structure. He
was informed, however, by (iod's di-
rection, that this service would be
reserved for his son Solomon. 2 Sam. 7.
After several contests with the nations
that bordered on Israel, in which David
was uniformly victorious, there broke
out a war with the Ammonites (see
Ammonites), during the progress of
which David fell into those most aggra-
vated sins of murder and adultery which
brought disgrace and distress on his
family and government and involved
him in trouble during the remnant of
his days. 2 Sam. 12 : 9. His domestic
peace was destroyed by the outrage
committed upon Tamar by Amnon, re-
venged, '• after two full years," by Absa-
lom, who slew Amnon at a feast. 2 Sam.
13 : U, 29. This murder occasioned
Absalom's flight to his father-in-law's
court at Geshur. Being recalled, he
started a rebellion which compelled the
king to flee from his capital and exile
himself to avoid being cut off by a
parricidal hand. 2 Sam. 15-18. The
Tomb of David. (After
death of Absalom, though it brought
relief to the kingdom, inflicted a deep
wound on the father's heart. The in-
surrection under Sheba and the mur-
der of Amasa by Joab followed in quick
succession. And to close the melan-
choly catalogue was the terrible judg-
ment which he brought upon himself
and the nation by numbering the people
for some purpose which was sinful in
the sight of (irod, though not explained
to us. 2 Sam. 24.
David was now 70 years old, and
had reigned seven and a hilf years
over the tribe of Judah nnd thirty-
three over the whole kingdom of
Israel. Just before his denth his son
222
a rUoiogvoph by Good.)
Adoniiah made a bold attempt to
usurp 'the throne; and to secure the king-
dom against any pretender, David re-
si trned tl'.e crown to Solomon, put into
hil hands the plan and model of the
temple and the treasure accumulated
for it, summoned the influential men ol
the nation, and delivered his farewell
address. He died B.C. 1015, and was
buried in the "city of David." 1 Kgs.
2: 10. His tomb became the sepulchre
of subsequent kings, and one of the f.n-
cred i)laces of the kingdom. It is point-
ed out on M(.unt Zion. at Jerusalcn',
outside the city wall. See cut, above.
David was a tvpe of Christ. They
both inherited their kingdoms after
DAY
DAY
suflfering. And David, as the ruler over
temporal Israel, was a forerunner of the
Son of David, who was to reign over
the spiritual Israel for ever. Matt. 1:1;
9 : 27 ; 12 : 23, etc.
When David is spoken of as a man
after God's " own heart," 1 Sam. 13 :
14 ; Acts 13 : 22, reference is obviously
intended to his general character and
conduct, and not to every particular in-
stance of it. As he was human, he
was imperfect ; and when he sinned,
God punished him, and that with great
severity. But he was remarkable for
his devotion to God's service, and he
kept himself from idols. He established
the government of Israel, and extended
its dominions to the full extent of the
promise to Abraham, and left a com-
pact and united empire, stretching from
Egypt to Lebanon, and from the Eu-
phrates to the Mediterranean.
The life and chara3ter of David shine
in his poetry — the life of action, ad- I
venture, war ; the character of manly i
strength and womanly tenderness.
Thus his Psalms supply biographical
material. By means of them his heart |
is read. The man who could kill a
giant is found to have a delicate appre-
ciation of friendship. He whose pas-
sion led him into sin, whose hate into '
words of cursing, was able to mourn
with deepest humility and bless with I
heartiest assent. It is to the Psalms i
of David, albeit he did not write the
entire collection, that the Church of
God has appealed for comfort in ad-
versity and sanctitication in prosperity.
In regard to them Canon Perowne
truthfully and eloquently says : " The
very excellence of these Psalms is their
universality. They spring from the
deep fountains of the human heart,
and God, in his providence and by his
Spirit, has so ordered it that they should
be for his Church an everlasting heri-
tage. Hence they express the sorrows,
the joj's, the aspirations, the struggles,
the victories, not of one man, but of
all. And if we ask. How comes this to
pass ? the answer is not far to seek.
One object is ever before the eyes and
the heart of the Psalmist. All enemies,
all distresses, all persecutions, all sins,
are seen in the light of God. It is to
him that the cry goes up ; it is to him
that the heart is laid bare ; it is to him
that the thanksgiving is uttered. This
it is which makes them so true, so pre-
cious, so universal. Xo surer proof
of their inspiration can be given than
this — that they are not of an age, but
for all time ; that the ripest Christian
can use them in the fulness of his
Christian manhood, though the words
are the words of one who lived cen-
turies before the coming of Christ in
the flesh." — Tke Psahun, 3d ed., vol. i.
p. 21.
Genealogical Table.
Elimelech=Naomi. Ruth 1:1.
Salmon or Salmab.
Ruth 4: 21; 1 Chr. 2:11.
Boaz=Ruth=MahIon .
I
Obe<l.
Ruth 4 : 17.
I
Chilion=;Orpah.
2 Sam. 17 : 25, Nahash=unknown=Jesse.
Jonathan. 1 Chr. 27 : 32.
Zeruiah.
1 Chr. 2 : 16.
Abigail=Jether=Ira ? 7
1 Chr. 1 Chr.
2:17. 11:40.
Rliab,
Elihu.
1 Chr.
27:
18.
Abln-
adab.
Shammah, Netha-
Shiramah, neel.
Shimeah.
2 Sam.
21:21.
I III
R:id(lai Ozera (one DAVID
(Rael). (Asaui). is not
given,
unless
EUhu.
1 Chr. 2:15).
Abishai. Joab. Asahel. Amasa. Abihail=Rehoboara. Jonathan. Jonadab.
I 2 Chr. 11:18. 2 Sam. 21:21; 2 Sam.
Zebediah. 1 Chr. 27 : 32. 13 : 3.
1 Chr. 27 : 7. Nathan ? ?
I
Joel?
1 Chr.
11 : 38.
David, City of, applied to Zion, 2
Sam. 5:7; to Jerusalem, 1 Kgs. 2 : 10 ;
3:1; to Bethlehem, Luke 2:4, 11,
1 Sam. 16 : 12.
DAY. The natural day consists of
24 hours, or one revolution of the earth
upon its axis. The artificial day is the
223
DEA
DEA
time during which the sun is above the
horizon. The civil day is reckoned
differently by different nations — some
from sunrise to sunrise ; others from
sunset to sunset ; others still from noon
to noon, or from midnight to midnight.
The Jewish day was reckoned from
evening to evening, adopted, as some
think, from Gen. 1 : 5, or, as others
with more probability hold, from the
" use of the lunar calendar in regulating
days of religi<nis ( bservance." Lev. 23:
32. Their Sabbath, or seventh day,
which was the only day nmncd — the
others were niunbered merely — began on
what we call Friday, at sunset, and
ended on what we call Saturday, at
sunset. Ex. 12 : 18. This mode of reck-
oning days was not uncommon in other
Eastern nations. The day was origi-
nally divided into morning, noon, and
night. Ps. 55: 17. But besides, the
Jews distinguished six unequal parts,
which were again subdivided. 1. Dawn,
subdivided into ynii/ dawn and rosy
dawn. 2. Siinrifie. Some supposed that
the Hebrews, prior to leaving Egypt,
began the day at that time, but discon-
tinued it by divine command, and began
at even in order to be different from those
nations which worshipped the rising
sun. 3. The heal of the day, about nine
o'clock. 1 Sam. 11 : 1 1 ; Neh. 7 : 3, etc.
4. The two iioons. Gen. 43 : 16 ; Deut.
28 : 29. 5. The cool (lit. wind) of the
day, before sunset. Gen. 3 : 8. 6. Even-
iny. In Ex. 12 : 6 ; 30 : 8, margins, occurs
the phrase " between the two evenings,"
which probably is correctly taken to
mean "between the beginning and end
of sunset."
The mention of honm in the Bible
dates from the Cay)tivity, Dan. 3 : fi,
and it is the-efore reasonably presumed
that this division of time is of Baby-
lonish origin. Before the Captivity the
Jews divided the night into three
watches — from sunset to midnight,
from midnight to cock-crow, Jud. 7 :
19 ; from cock-crow to sunrise. Ex. 14 :
24. In the N. T. mention is made of
four watches, because the (ireek and
Roman division was then adopted. In
our Lord's time the division of the day
into 12 hours was common. John 11 : 9.
The word '' day " is used of a festal day,
Hos. 7 : 6 ; a birthday. Job 3 : I ; a dav
of ruin, Hos. 1:11'; Job 18 : 20 ; the
224
judgment-day, Joel 1:15; 1 Thess. 5 :
2 ; Acts 17 : 31 ; and the kingdom of
Christ. John 8:56; Rom. 13 : 12. It
is also often used to denote an indefi-
nite time. Gen. 2:4; Isa. 22: 5. The
term '' three days and three nights,"
in Matt. 12 : 40, denotes the same space
of time as *' three days." Matt. 27 :
63, 64.
Day's Jouunmcv, a distance mentioned
Gen. 31 : 23 : Ex. 3:18, etc. It is quite
evident that this jihrase does not mean
any particular distance, but rather the
space travelled during one day, and this
would of course vary with the circum-
stances of the traveller. But unless
there is special reason for believing the
contrary, we may interpret it as mean-
ing a stretch of 25 to 30 miles, since
this is the usual length of a day's jour-
ney in the East, on camel or horseback,
performed in 6 to 8 hours. See also
Sabbath Dav's Joiirnfy.
Day, Lord's. See Sabbath.
Daysman. Job 9 : 33. The word is
derived by Webster from '* him who
fixes the day upon which he will decide
as judge or arbitrator." It was in com-
mon use, Avhen the Bible was transla-
ted, in the sense of "umpire."
Dayspring. Job 38 : 12 ; Luke 1 : 78.
The first dawning of light. Comp. Isa.
60: 1, 2 and Rev. 22:16.
Day-star, or Morning-star, 2 Pet.
1 : 19, in the figurative language of the
apostle, is supposed to mean the light
which shines on the soul of the believer,
and cheers him with the expectation
of a perfect day of holiness and joy.
DEA'CON (><e)-vant). This name,
as a title of ofticc. has been applied to the
'• seven men of honest report, full of
the Holy (Jhost and wisdom," who were
appointed over the business of serving
tables, in order that the apostles might
be at liberty to give themselves contin-
ually to prayer and the ministry of the
word. They were set apart by prayer
and the laying on of the a))ostles' hands.
Acts6:l-6. Very likely these seven men
held a higher position than those after-
ward a])]>ointed, as, in addition to rou-
tine an<l more or less servile duties, they
preached and did the work of evan-
gelists; e. r/. Stephen and Philip. The
idea that a man must be a deacon be-
fore he can be an elder or bishop is not
found in the N. T. The quaiificntions
DEA
DEB
and duties of deacons are particularly
set forth in Acts 6 : 1-6 and 1 Tim. 3':
8-12.
DEA'COXESS. Such was Phoebe,
and in all probability Tryphena, Try-
phosa, and Persis occupied the same
oflSce in the church in Rome. Rom. 16 :
1, 12. It is therefore probable that
there was in the different churches an
order of pious women employed in at-
tending upon those of their own sex in
some of the same offices and duties
which the deacons performed for thei.-
brethren. Aiiion^ these we reckon the
care of the sick, of the poor and the
widows, the education of orphans, at-
tention to strangers, the practico of
hospitality, comp. 1 Tim. 5:10, and the
assistance needed at the baptism of fe-
males. The question whether the '* wid-
ows " in 1 Tim. 6 : 9-16 are proper dea-
conesses may be answered in the affirm-
ative, because the word translated " to
take into the number" or ''to enroll"
applies not to widows in general, but to
the deaconesses, for the following rea-
sons :
1. If understood of any insertion
merely in the list of those supported
from the congregational fund, it implies
an injustice to widows under 60 years
old or to those twice married, who might
easily be even more destitute.
2. The opposite interpretation con-
flicts with the context, for Paul ad-
vises, in V. 14, the younger widows to
remarry ; but this would be to cut them
off from all help in case they were wid-
ows again. I
3. This interpretation leaves it inex-
plicable why a special vow was required
of these widows, v. 12.
4. But by understanding the word to
apply, not to widows in general, but to
those who were specially e'ected and
ordained to the particular office of dea-
coness, all these objections vanish.
DEAD, DEATH. Death is the
destruction or extinction of life. By
the transgression of God's command-
ment our tirst parents became liable to
death. The threatening was , "In the
day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt '
surely die." Gen. 2:17 (comp. Rom. 5 :
12-14 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 2 1 , 22 ,: Heb. 9:27). This
expression does nit mean to define the
time of actual dissolution, but rather
to denote an inevitable liability or
15
exposure to death, which, in that day
and by that act, they should surely
I incur.
! The sacred writers speak of a death
' which affects the body only, Gen. 25 :
11; of another, which describes the
condition of the soul under the power
of sin, Eph. 2:1: and a third, which
denotes the everlasting perdition of the
wicked. James 5 : 20. In each of these
senses our divine Redeemer may be re-
garded as having virtually des':oyed
death and delivered them who, through
fe ir of death, were all their lifetime
subject to bondage. Heb. 2:14, 15. To
avail ourselves, however, of the benefits
of his perfect triumph, we must bcMeve,
trust, love, and obey him. See BuitY,
Resurrection, Christ.
DEAD SEA, a name not found in
Scripture. Sec Salt Sea.
DE'BIR {saitcfiKtri/}, the name of
three places. 1. In the highlands of
Judah, near Hebron; captured b}' Josh-
ua, Josh. 10 : 38, 39 ; was first called
Kirjath-sepher, Josh. 15 : 15, and Kir-
jath-sannah, 15:49; was allotted to
the priests. 21 : 15. It has been placed
at l)ewlr-ban, 3 miles west of Hebron,
and at Dilbch, 6 miles south-west.
Conder, however, rejects these, and sug-
gests Dhdltertyeh, north of which are
copious springs, which he identifies
with ''the upper springs and the nether
springs " of Jud. 1 : 15.
2. A place near the valley of Acbor,
Josh. 15 : 7 ; perhaps Waf/y Dabir, be-
tween Jericho and Jerusalem.
3. A place on the boundary of Gad,
east of the Jordan. Josh. 13 : 20; possi-
bly the same as Lo-oebar, which see.
DE'BIR, king of Eglon. one of the
five kings who warred against Gibeon.
He. with his companions, was slain by
Joshua and hanged on a tree. Josh. 10:
3, 23, 26.
DEB'ORAH (a hee). 1. The nurse
of Rebekah, and her companion into Ca-
naan. Gen. 24:59. She was buried at
Bethel, under the "oak of weeping."
35 : 8. " Curses held a high and hon-
orable place in ancient times, and espe-
cially in the East, whe-e they were of-
ten the principal members of the fam-
ily. 2 Kgs. 11:2: 2 Chr. 22:11."
2. A woman of eminent wisdom and
holiness (called a prophetess), and a
judge of the people of Israel. Jud. 4:
225
DEC
DEC
4. She was the wife of Lnpidoth (al-
though some think the passage should
read "a woman of Laj)idoth "), and
had her judgment-seat under a palm
tree, which from this circumstance, and
from the rarity of the tree, is spoken
of as '' the [well-known] palm tree of
Deborah.'' Jud. 4 : 5, Israel was suffer-
ing at that time a most ()[)pressive bond-
age under Jabin, a Canaanitish king,
to which it was doomed in consequence
of its sin. Deborah, by divine direc-
tion, called upon Barak, who had proba-
bly signalized himself in some way, and
commanded him to station himself upon
Mount Tabor with a prescribed number
of men, and she would see to it that
Sisera, the commander of the tyrant's
army, should be there, and should fall
into Barak's hands. Barak engaged to
undertake the enterprise if Deborah
would accompany him. To this she
consented, prophesying, however, that
if she went the honor of the victory
would be hers and not his, and that
Sisera would be regarded as having
fallen by the hands of a woman. Jud.
4:9. The two armies met, .and the
event was as Deborah predicted. Sis-
era fled, and died by the hand of Jael;
his army was cut off and every man
slain. Jud. 4 : 21.
The trium})hal song composed or dic-
tated by Deborah on that occasion is re-
garded as one of the finest specimens of
Oriental poetry. Jud. 5. We give a few
verses from a revised version :
"Lord, when thou wentest forth out of
Seir,
When thou marchedst out of the field of
Edom,
The earth trembled, the heavens also
dropped,
Yea, the clouds dropped water.
Tlie mountains flowed down at the presence
of the Lord,
Even that Sinai at the presence of the Lord
the CJod of Israel.
********
The kings came, they fought ;
Then fought the kings of ('aiiaan
In Taanach by tlie waters of Megiddo;
They to(jk no gain of silver.
They fought from heaven ;
Tlie stars from their courses fought against
Sisera.
The river Kishon swept them away,
That ancient river, the river Kishon.
March on, my soul, witii strength."
See Barak, Jael.
DECAP'OLIS (ten cities), a region
noticed three times in the Bible, Matt.
32,
Map of Decapolis. {From Schnff's "New Testament Commentary.")
4:25; Mark 5:20; 7::^!. It lay near I sides of the Jordan. The cities were
the Sea of Galilee, probably on both | rebuilt by the Romans about B. c. 65;
22fi
DEC
DEM
but as other cities grew up, writers are
not agreed as to the names of the ten
cities. Pliny gives them as follows:
v*^eythopolis, Hippos, Gadara, Pella,
Philadelphia, Gerasa, Dion, Canatha,
Pvaphana, Damascus. Six are deserted,
and none have many inhabitants except
Damascus.
DECISION, VALLEY OF.
Joel 3 : 14. See Jehoshaphat.
DB'DA^ {low yroimd). 1. The name
of a descendant of Ham. Gen. 10 : 7 ;
1 Chr. 1 : 9.
2. A son of Jokshan, son of Abra-
ham by Keturah. Gen. 25 : 3 : 1 Chr.
1 : 32.
DED'ICATE, DEDICATION,
a religious ceremony by which any per-
son, place, or thing is set apart for the
service of God or to some sacred use.
Num. 7; 2 Sain. 8: 11 ; 1 Kgs. 8. Cities,
walls, gates, and private houses were
thus dedicated. Xeh. 12 : 27. The prac-
tice of consecration was very common
among the Jews, and was suited to the
peculiar dispensation under which they
lived.
DEniCATiON', Fkast of the, mentioned
only once in the canonical Scriptures,
John 10 : 22, was instituted to commem-
orate the purging of the temple and the
rebuilding of the altar after Judas Mac-
cabseus had driven out the Syrians, 1
xMacc. 4 : 52-59, B. c. 161. Like the
other Jewish feasts, it lasted eight days,
but, unlike them, attendance at Jerusa-
lem was not obligatory. In geijeral, it
was kept like the feast of tabernacles.
The Hallel was sung every day. It was
a time of rejoicing. It began upon the
25th day of Chisleu (December), the an-
niversary of the pollution of the tem-
ple bv Antiochus Epiphanes, c. c. 167.
DEEP, THE, in Luke 8: 31 and
Rom. 10 : 7, does not refer to the sea,
but to the abysft, the place where lost
spirits await their final doom. The
same word is rendered the *• bottomless
pit" in Rev. 9 : 1, 2. 11: 11:7: 20:13.
DEFILE'. Under the Jewish law,
many blemishes of person and conduct
were regarded as defilements or pollu-
tions, rendering those upon whom they
were found unclean, and subjecting
them, for the time being, to many civil
and religious disabilities. Mark 7 : 2.
The term is most frequently used by
the sacred writers in a figurative sense.
DEGREE'. This word is used to
signify rank or station. Ps. 62 : 9 ; 1
Tim. 3 : 13. The phrase "song, or
psalm of degrees," which forms the
title to Psalms 120 to 134 inclusive, has
been variously interpreted : some sup-
pose it has reference to the elevated
voice in which they were sung, others
to the time when they were sung — viz.
at the annual festivals, when the Jews
went up to Jerusalem, and that in this
sense they were called " odes of ascen-
sion." 'Ihe Rabbins suppose they were
sung by the Levites as they ascended
the 15 steps which separated the men's
court from the women's in the temple ;
and others again suppose that the word
" degree " denotes the peculiarly climac-
teric style of these Psalms — viz. that the
thought or expression of one verse is
resumed and carried forward in the next
succeeding verse, as in Psalm 121 : but
this is improbable.
DEHA'VITES, supposed by Herod-
otus to be a Persian tribe, and, as some
think, the same who are mentioned as
from Ava. Ezr. 4 : 9 ; 2 Kgs. 17 : 24.
DE'KAR [n lancer), the father of
one of Solomon's commissariat ofiicers.
1 Kgs. 4:9.
DELAI'AH {xchom Jehovah hath
freed). 1. The head of the twenty-
third temple-course of priests. 1 Chr.
24:18.
2. " Children of Delaiah " are spoken
of in Ezr. 2 : 60 : Xeh. 7 : 62.
3. The father of a man who tried to
terrify Nehemiah. Neh. 6 : 10.
4. A prince in the time of Jeremiah.
Jer. 36 : 12, 25.
DEL'ILAH ( piin'ug with desire),
a harlot of the valley of Sorek, in the
tribe of Judah, and near the borders of
the Philistines, with whom Samson as-
sociated, and who was the instrument
of betraying him to his enemies. Jud.
16:4-18. See Samson.
DE'MAS, a zealous disciple and
fellow-laborer of Paul, Phile. 24; Col.
4 : 14, who afterward left him through
inordinate love of the world, 2 Tim. 4 :
10. The name is most probably a con-
traction from " Demetrius " or from
" Demarchus."
DE^IE'TRIUS. 1. A silversmith
who resided at Ephesus and manufac-
tured silver shrines or small portable
temples and images of Diana. See Dr-
227
DEN
DEU
ANA. Acts 19 : 24. These were pur-
chased by foreigners, who either could
not come to Ephesus, or else desired a
memento of the city and a model of its
famous temple. This was a very lucra-
tive business in that city, where the
worship of Diana was chiefly main-
tained ; and hence, when the gos{)el
began to make an impression, and the
people to forsake their vain idols for the
service of the living God, Demetrius saw
that he should lose his business unless
he could still keep the people in sin. So
he called a meeting of those who worked
at that trade, and made a speech to them.
By this harangue he inflamed the pas-
sions of his fellow-craftsmen, and they
excited the multitude, until the whole
city of Ephesus was thrown into an up-
roar, which was finally quelled by the
politic and seasonable advice of the
town-clerk. Acts 19,
2. A disciple of high reputation, and,
as some suppose (though without war-
rant), the Demetrius of Ephesus con-
verted to the faith of the gospel. 3
John 12.
DENA'RIUS, a Roman silver coin
nearly equivalent to the Greek drachma,
and worth about 15 cents ; translated in
Roman Denarius. (From Eiehm.)
the A. V. '"penny," which makes the
iin[)ression of a very small sum; it was
really the amount of a day's wages.
Matt. 20 : 2 : comp. Luke 10 : 35. " Shil-
ling" would be a much nearer equiva-
lent ; but the better way would have been
to transfer the Greek term into English
{(/cnar), as the evangelists retained the
Latin torm in the (ireck. See Pknny.
DEP'UT Y. The ofiice was that of
proconsul, or governor of a senatorial
province. Acts 13 : 7, 8, 12 ; 19 : 38.
DER'BE) a city of Lvcaonia, Acts
14: If). 20: 16:1, about 20 miles from
Lystra. Kic])ert jilaces it near Lake A/,--
(ihienl, but Hamilton at JJicle, several
miles farther south.
DES'ERT. The popular concep-
tion of the term mutt not be applied
228
to all passages in the English Bible, in
which the word is the translation of
four Hebrew words denoting definite
localities.
1. It is applied to the Arahah, Eze.
47 : 8, the name of the remarkable de-
pression which runs through the land
of Palestine: but this is a waste merely
because of the depopulated and neglect-
ed state of the country. It is capable
of cultivation. See Arabah.
2. It is used to translate mnJhar,
" pasture-ground," in Ex. 3:1; 5:3;
19 : 2; Num. 33: 15. 16.
3. Horbah. Ps. 102 : 6 ; Isa. 48 : 21 ;
Eze. 13 : 4. But the term commonly
emploj'ed is '' waste places " or " deso-
lation."
4. Jenhimon. With the definite arti-
cle, it is treated as a proper name. See
Jkshimon. Without the article, it oc-
curs in a few passages of poetry. In
the following verses it is translated
"desert:" Ps. 78 : 40 ; 106 : 14; Isa.
43 : 19, 20.
The " desert," as an illimitable stretch
of heavy sand, does not exist in Bible
lands. The '' desert of Sinai " is a wild
and desolate region of country, but in
many parts, especially from Elim ( W(tdy
Ghnriindd) to Mount Sinai, and the re-
gion toward the southern border of Pales-
tine, are traces of previous fertility; and
when the Israelites guided their flocks
through it, they found pasture in many of
the little valleys, and perhaps ujjon some
of its plains. The different tracts men-
tioned under this name in the Bible, as
Shur, Sin, Paran, etc., will be found par-
ticularly noticed in their projicr ])laces.
DESOLA TION, A1J0311NA'-
TION OF. See Abominable.
DEU'EL {invocution of God), the
father of the prince of Gad in the wil-
derness. Num. 1:14; 7 : 42 ; 10 : 20.
But in 2:14 he is called Reuel.
DEU'TEK-ON'OMY, or THE
SECOND LAW (so called from its
rejteating the Law), is the fifth book of
the Bible, and (except the last chapter)
was evidently written by Moses. Dent.
1:5, comp. with Deut. 34:1; 2 Chr.
25 : 4 ; Dan. 9:13; Mark 12 : 10 ; Acts
3 : 22. This book contains three ad-
dresses of Moses to the Israelites in the
plain of Moab in the eleventh month of
the fortieth year of their journeyings,
expounding, snp])lemonting, and en-
DEV
DEV
forcing the Law, the delivery of the
book of the Law to the Levites, and the
song of Moses. The first addre.-<.«, 1 : 1-
4 : 40, is a brief rehearsal of the history
of the '* Wandering," pa-ticularly of
those events which conditioned their
entry into the Promised Land. Upon
this resume Moses grounds an exhorta-
tion to obedience. The second address,
5 : 1-28 : 19, follows almost immedi-
ately after the first, being separated
from it only by three verses, giving a
brief notice of the three cities of refuge
which Moses severed on the east side of
the Jordan. This address, like the first,
has a formal historical setting, 4 : 44-19,
by way of introduction. It c-ontains a
recapitulation, with a few additions and
alterations, of the Law given on Sinai.
Particularly noticeable is the slightly-
different version of the ten command-
ments. But this long address is not the
least like a dry legal recital. Through-
out, the spiritual earnestness of Moses is
shown, and, as has been well said, " It
is the father no less than the legislator
who speak^. And whilst obedience and
life are bound up together, it is the obe-
dience of a loving heart, not a service of
formal constraint, which is the burden
of his exhortations." The third part of
Deuteronomy, 27 : 1-30 : 20, opens with
the joint command of Moses and the
elders to keep all the commandments,
and, when they had crossed the Jordan,
to write them upon the great plastered
stones they were ordered to set up with
appropriate ceremonies. Then folhnvs
the third address, 27 : 11-30 : 20, whose
topic is " The blessing and the curse."
After these three addresses, in ch. 31
there follows the delivery of the Law to
Joshua and Moses's speech on the oc-
casion, -containing a command to read
the Law every seven years. In ch. 32
we have the song of Moses; in ch. 33.
Moses's blessing of the twelve tribes.
These were the last written words of
Moses, and most beautifully do they set
forth the majesty of God and the excel-
lency of Israel. The final verses of the
book give an account of the death of
Moses, and were, of course, written by
another hand. The date of the book
may be set down as about b. c. 1277.
See also Pentateuch.
DEVaL (slanderer). This word (from
the Greek diabolos) is sometimes applied
to very wicked men or women. John
6:70 (Judas Iscariot) ; Acts 13:10;
2 Tim. 3 : :^ ; Tit. 2 : 3, and translated
" devil ■' or " false accusers," but usually
it denotes the one most subtle and ma-
lignant of the evil spirits, and the great
enemy of God and man. It corresponds
to the Hebrew Sntan ("adversary"),
which is also used in the N. T. Matt.
16 : 23; Mark 8
Luke 22 : 3.
Satan can assume a character quite
opposite to his real one, i'.nd hence he
is said by Paul to transtorm himself
into an "angel of light," 2 Cor. 11 : 14.
Although there is only one devil, our
English version often speaks of *' cast-
ing out devils " and of persons " pos-
sessed with devi!s " — e. <j. Matt. 4 : 24.
The word is not the same as that applied
to Satan, but means " demons" or " evil
spirits." It is common to call these af-
flicted people demoniacs. Three views
are held upon the demoniacal posses-
sions :
1. That the possession of the devil
sj-mbolizes the prevalence of evil in the
world, the casting out of the devils by
our Lord, his conquest over that evil
])Ower by his doctrine and his life.
This theory of course gives up the
historic character of the narratives.
2. That the demoniacs were not really
under the power of demons : but inas-
much as it was commonly believed they
were, our Lord and the evangelists spoke
to them and of them in this fashion.
They were merely persons suff"ering
unusual diseases of body and mind, es-
])ecially epilepsy, melancholy, insanity.
The advocates of this view present three
arguments: (1) The symptoms of the
" possessed " wee frequently those of
bodily disease — dumbness. Matt. 9 : 32 ;
blindness, Matt. 12 : 22 ; epilepsy, Mark
9 : 17-27 — or those seen in cases of or-
dinary insanity. Matt. 8 : 28. (2) " To
have a devil" seems to be equivalent
to to be " mad," John 7 : 20 : 8 : 48 ; 10 :
20. (3) There is no such thing to-day
as "demoniacal possession." but there
are frequent cases similar to those re-
corded. Hence the language is popular,
and not exact.
3. That there were persons actually
possessed by demons — such possession
manifesting itself in the forms of bod-
ily and mental disease. Our Lord really
cast out demons. This theory has in its
229
DEV
DIA
support : (1) The plain meaning of the
text. It is the most natural interpreta-
tion. The demons are plainly distin-
guished frum the persons whom they
possess : they have a separate con-
sciousness ; they know Jesus, and look
forward with trembling to the judg-
ment-daj' ; they pass from one person
to another, or even into a herd of swine.
(2) It accords with the Scripture notion
of the malignity of Satan that he should
make a special exhibition of his power
against Jesus. (3) It explains the con-
fessions of our Lord's divinity which
imply superhuman knowledge. (4) It
renders intelligible the crucial narrative
of the man among tlie tombs, Mark 5 : 1-
20. The other theories either deny the
fact or give a forced interpretation. (5)
It vindicates the truthfulness of Jesus,
which the other theories impugn. He
not only addressed the patients as
''possessed/' Luke 4 : 35, but distinct-
ly linked demoniacal possession with
the evil one. Matt. 12 : 25-30 : Luke
10:18.
DEVO'TIONS. In Acts 17 : 23 we
should read " j'our objects of devotion "
instead of "your devotions," because in
King James's daj^ the word denoted
the objects, and not the acts, of wor-
ship.
DEW, a dense vapor which falls on
the earth during the night, and which
in Judaja was so copious as in a great
measure to supply the absence of show-
ers. It thus became a beautiful em-
blem of spiritual blessings, Deut. 32 :
2 ; Hos. 14 : 5-7, as well as of temporal
prosperity, because without the appar-
ent effort of rain it gently accom])Iished
the same result. But then it vanished
60 quickly on exposure to the sun that
it was likewise an emblem of transient
desires and relinquished efforts in God's
service. Job 29: 19. The heat and dry-
ness of the air in the Holy Land are such
that if it were not for the dews the earth
would be parched and all its fruits with-
ered. The same fact may be inferred from
Jud. 6 : 37-40 ; 2 Sam.' 17 : 12 : Job 29 :
19 ; Song Sol. 5 : 2. The Psalmist, Ps.
133 : 3, mentions particularly the dew of
Ilermon as emblematical of the rich and
abundant blessings of spiritual com-
munion. So Hos. 14 : 5-7.
DTADEM. See Chown.
Dl'ALt, an instrument employed to
230
measure time, or to determine the ap-
parent progress of the sun by the shad-
ow which the gnomon, or point in the
centre of a graduated arc, casts.
The ''dial of Ahaz" is the only one
mentioned in the Bible. 2 Kgs. 20 : 11 ;
Isa. 38 : 8. The sign of Hezekiah's
recovery was that the shadow of the
sun went ten degrees backward upon
it. The best interpretation of the pas-
sage is to suppose that the dial, like
those discovered in Babylonia, " was a
series of steps or terraces on which an
upright pole cast its shadow." It was
therefore probably modelled after those
in familiar use with the ally of Ahaz,
Tiglath-pileser. The fact that ambas-
sadors came from Babylon to inquire
of the wonder proves that the fame
thereof had reached that city. It is a
question of considerable importance
whether this miracle was wrought upon
the rays of the sun, by which they were
deflected in an extraordinary manner, so
as to ])roduce this retrograde motion of
the shadow, while the sun itself seemed
to go on its way, or whether ^he motion
of the earth or the position of the sun
was so changed as to produce this result.
It was this miracle to which reference
is made in 2 Chr. 32 : 31.
DI'AMOND. Ex. 28:18; Eze.
28 : 13. " There is no trace of evidence
that the ancients ever acquired the skill
to engrave on the diamond, or even that
they were acquainted with the stone." —
Canon Cook. The claims of jasper,
onyx, chalcedony, emerald, and rock-
crystal to be the diamond of the Bible
have all been urged. Its diversity' from
i>ny other stone in the high priest's
breast-plate will incline soijne minds
to advocate rock-crystal. For Jer. 17 :
1, ^ee An.vMANT.
DIA''NA, a heathen goddess of great
celebrity, whose worship was attended
with peculiar splendor and magnificence
at Ephesus, her guardian city. Acts
19 : 28. Her magnificent temple in that
city was ranked among the Seven Won-
ders of the world. It was 220 years in
building. Pliny tells us that it was
425 feet long and 220 in breadth, and
that it was adorned with 100 columns,
each 60 feet high, 27 of which were
curiously carved and the rest ))olished.
Little silver models of the temple, with
the iuuige of the goddess enshrined in
DIB
DIB
them (see the opposite cut), were made
for sale, and were disposed of in such
quantities as to aflford profitable work
for many hands. Acts 19 : 24, 25. See
Dkmbtrius.
In tliis temple there was "the imaije
Diana of Ephesus. (From Lewin's "St. Paul.")
(Tliis figure was taken from an alabaster iruage in
the museum of Xajiles. hut it is in prcat nieasui-e
ideal A more accurate representation is ou the coin,
following.)
which fell down from Jupiter," a rude
wooden image having a head decorated
with a mural crown ; "' each hand held a
bar of metal, and the lower part ended
in a rude block covered with figures of
Temple of Diana. (IS-om a Ooin in the Pent-
broke ColUction.)
animals and mystic inscriptions." Later
figures had many breasts, evidently
symbolical of the reproductive powers
of Nature, and therefore it was a sort
of companion-idol to Ashtoreth, No
bloody sacrifices were offered in her
worship. Her temple in Ephesus was
the treasury in which immense quanti-
ties of wealth were stored up, and was
also a place of safety. It was beloved
i with singular passion, and hence the
insinuation that Paul's preaching tend-
ed to lower the regard for it led to the
uproar so graphically described in Acts
19. See Ephesus, Paul,
DIB'XiAIM {double cake), one whose
daughter the prophet Hosea married.
IIos. 1 : 3.
DIB'LATH. Eze. 6 : 14. See
RiBLAH, of which it is probably a cor-
ruption.
DIBLATHA'IM, See Almon
DIBL.\TH.\tM.
DI'BOX (watting), the name of
two towns.
1. Dibon in Moab. Num. 21 : 30 ; Isa.
15 : 2. It was built by Gad, Num. 32 :
34, and hence called Dibon-gad : was
assigned to Reuben, Josh. 13 : 9, 17 ;
was also called Dimon. Isa. 15 : fl. It
a!terward returned to Moab, Isa. 15 : 2 ;
Jer. 48:18, 22; now called Dhiban,
about 12 miles east of the Dead Sea and
3 miles north of the Araon. Its ruins
are extensive, covering the tops of two
adjacent hills.
The famous Moabite Stone, bear-
ing an inscription of Mesha, a king
of Moab, about 900 B. c, was found
here within the gateway by Rev. F. A.
Klein (a German missionary at Jerusa-
lem) in 1868. The stone is of black
231
DIB
DIB
basalt, 3 feet 8^ inches high, 2 feet 3i
inches wide, and 1 foot 1.78 inches
thick. It has 34 lines of Hebrew-Phoe-
niciiin writing, and contains a most re-
UKirkable corroboration of the Scri]itnre I
history in 2 Kgs. 3. Translations have i
/A!K^7^'4^?'-^^^»-pf^?n <iy+'frp}'4 ^Jip'^ Tint*-
^4 3 fl-VP <»t^ /^^ 3> V:>' y -F n ^ x=i 5 ^ A ■}.>v*
Tlie Moabite Stone.
been Tiiadc by Dr. Ginsbiirg. M. (i;in-
neau, and Prof. Schlottmann. The lat-
ter'? t'anslation is as follows:
I Mesa, son of Chamos-nadab, the
king of Moab [son ofl Yabni. My
father ruled over Moab [ . . years],
and I rnled after my father. And I
made this high place of sacrifice to
Chamos in Korcha, a high place of
deliverance, for he saved me from all
[who fought against Moab].
Oiuri, king of Israel, allied himself ,
with all his (Moab's) haters, and they ;
oppressed Moab [many daj's] : then !
Chamos was irritated [against him and j
against] his land, and let it go over '
232
[into the hand of his haters], and they
oppressed Moab very sore.
In mj' days spoke Oh[amos], I Avill
therefore look upon him and his house,
and Israel shall perish in eternal ruin.
And Omri took possession of the town
of Medeba, and sat therein [and they
oppressed Moab, he and] his son, forty
years. [Then] Chamos looked upon
Moab in my days.
And I built Baal Meon, and made
therein walls and mounds. And I w( nt
to take the town of Kirjathaim, and the
men of Gad [lived] in the district [of
Kirjathaim] from days of their grand-
fathers, and the king of Israel built
Kirjathaim. And I fought against
the town and took it, and I strangled
all the people that Avcre in the city [as
a sacrifice] to Chamos, the god of Moab.
(Here foIloAvs a lacuna: at the end of
ii ttie words 'before the face of Chamos
in Kirjatliaim.' Probably stood liere, just
as in lines 17, 18, a notice ol the cliaufio
of an Israelitisli to a Moabite sanctuary.)
And I destroyed the High Place of
Jehovah, and dedicated it before the
face of Chamos in Kirjathaim. And E
allowed to dwell therein the men of
.... and the men of ... .
And Chamos said to me, ' Go up.
Take [the town of] Nebo against Is-
rael . . .' and I went up during the
night, and fought against it from tho
dawn to midday, and I took it . . . and
I saw it quite . . .
(In the rest of this part — more than
two lines — there are, besides isolated let-
ters, only lejrit)le througli the ga|)s the
names of God separated from each other.)
to Astar Chamos . . . Jehovah ....
before the face of Chamos.
(It mav safely be presumed that mention
was made hereof the restoration of heatlieu
in the room of the Israelitisli worship.)
At^d the king of Israel built Jahaz.
and sat therein, while he fought against
me. and Chamos drove him before my
sight. And I took from Moab two hun-
dred men. fully told. And I beleaguer-
ed Jahaz and took it, in addition to
Dibon.
I built Korcha, the wall toward the
forest, and the wall . . . and I built
her gates, and I built her towers, and
I built the king's house: an<l I made
store-places for the mountain water in
the midst of the town. And there were
DIB
DIS
no cisterns within the town, in Korcha,
and I said to all the people, ' Make (you)
every man a cistern in his house.'
(Here follows a sentence with diflScult
expressions at tlie beginning and a gaj) in
the middle. The following is eonjeetnral :)
And I hung up the prohibition for
Korcha [against association with the]
people of Israel.
I built Aroer, and I made the streets
in Arnon. I built Beth Bamoth. for [it
was destroyed]. I built Bezer, for men
of Dibon compelled it, fifty of them, for
all Dibon was subject: and I filled [with
inhabitants] Bikran, which I added tJ
the land. And I built . . . the temple
of Diljlathaim, and the temple of Baal
Meon, and brought thither Ch[amos].
(After a hiatus are the words :)
. . the land . . . And Horonaim . .
dwelt therein . . .
(Probably there followed the nan7e of
an Momite parent tribe or clan. Then
again after a gap:)
Chamos said to me, * Come. Fight
against Horonaim and [take it].'
In the last gap, out of more than two
lines, it is only possible, besides separated
letters, to read "the word of Chanms. With-
out doubt it was here related how the king,
by the help of Cheraosh, took the town.
Prof. LSchlottmann divides the inscrip-
tion into three parts: the tirst to the sixth
section, inclusive, of the victories of Mesa
over Israel ; the second, sections seven and
eight, of tlie buildings and erections of the
king; and the third, of a battle in the south,
toward Edom. (See Tlie Recover!/ of Jerusa-
lem, pp. 396-399.)
2. A town in the south of Judah,
Neh. 11 : 25 ; the same as Dimonah,
Josh. 15 : 22, and probably modern eh-
DI'BOX-GAD. Num. 33 : 45, 46.
See Dibon, 1.
DIB'RI {eh.qitent), a Danite. father
of Shelomith, wife of an Egyptian.
Lev. 24:11.
DID'YMUS. See Thomas.
DIK'LAH { pnhn tree), a son of
Joktan, Gen. 10 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 21, who
settled a district in Arabia abounding
in palm trees ; probably Yemen, in
southern Arabia.
DILi'EAN if/ourd, or eucitmher), a
city in the lowlands of Judah, near
Mizpeh. Josh. 15 : 38. Van de Velde
places it at Tina, south of Ekron (Rob-
inson's Beit-Tima), Warren at li'ahin.
DIM'NAH, a Levitical city in Zeb-
ulon, Josh. 21 : 35 ; same as Rimmon.
I Chr. 6 : 77.
DIMO'NAH. Jo.sh. 15 : 22. See
Dibon. 2.
DI'MON, WATERS OF. Isa.
15:9. See Dibon. 1.
DI'NAH {jnd'jed, or arenf/ed), the
only daughter of Jacob and Leah, Gen.
30 : 21, mentioned in Scripture, al-
though there were probably others.
The daughters were less likely to be
spoken of than the sons. Jacob, on his
return from Padan-aram to Canaan,
halted at Shechem : here Dinah was
wronged by Shechem, son of the prince
Hamor. His offer of marriage was ac-
cepted on condition that he and all the
other men in the town were circumcised.
But while they were recovering. Simeon
and Levi, Dinah's own brothers, led an
attack upon them and killed them all,
completely pillaged the place, and made
prisoners of the women and children.
Jacob's words to his sons after the act
betray more fear of the anger aroused
among their neighbors and its bad con-
sequences than offence at their trea2h-
ery. Gen. 34:30. Dinah is mentioned
with the rest of the family who went
into Egypt. Gen. 46 : 8, 1 5.
DI'NAITES, the name of some of
the Cuthsean colonists placed in Samaria
bv the Assyrians aft-T the conquest of
the ten tribes. Ez*-. 4 : 9.
DIN'HABAH. Gen. 36 : 32 ; 1
Chr. 1 : 43. A capital city of Edom ;
site unknown.
DIN'NER. See Mkai,s.
DIONY'SIUS (rofrrr,/ of DionT/»U8 ;
i. e. Bacchus), a member of the court of
the Areopagus; converted under the
preaching of Paul at Athens. Acts 17 :
34. Tradition says he became the bish-
op of Athens, where he suffered martyr-
dom. A. D. 95. The writings which bear
his name are of much later date.
DIOT'REPHES(./ore-,.o»,-i-«^erf),
the head of the church, situation un-
known, in Asia Minor to which Gaius
belonged. 3 John 9. John rebukes him
for his arbitrary use of au'hority and
resistance to the higher powers. See
John, Eptsti,ks of.
DISCERX'IXG OF SPIRITS
was one of the mirafculous gifts of tho
233
DIS
DIS
Holy Ghost, by virtue of which the
spirits of men were tried whether they
were of God. 1 Cor. 12 : 10 ; 1 John 4 : 1.
It was a most desirable gift in the first
ages of the Church, when false prophets
and wicked spirits abounded on every
side. Comp. Acts 5 : 1-10 ; 13 : 6-12.
DISCI'PLiE, one who receives, or
professes to receive, instruction from
another. In the N. T., it denotes the
professed followers of our Saviour, but
not always his true followers. Matt. 10 :
24 ; 11 : 2 ; Luke 14 : 26, 27, 33 ; John
6 : 66 : 9 : 28. See School.
DISCOVER (from dU, negative,
and cover) is used in the English Ve*-
sion for " uncover," " lay bare." Ps. 29 :
9 ; Isa. 22 : 8 ; Mic. 1 : 6. " The voice of
the Lord . , . discovereth the forests " —
i. e. strippeth oft' the leaves.
DISEAS'ES. The multiplied forms
in which sickness and suffering appear
among men are so many signs of the
evil of sin. Reference is made to the
interposition of God in sending and re-
moving diseases. Ps. 39 :9-l 1 ; 90 : 3-12.
The plagues, pestilences, and other
instrumentalities by which, in former
ages, a multitude of lives were de-
stroyed at once were often miraculous
— that is, the natural causes and prog-
ress of disease were not employed, or
were not visible. Ex. 12 : 23, 29 ; 2 Kgs.
19 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 21 : 12-15 ; Acts 12 : 23.
The simple diets and habits of the
Jews would keep them from many dis-
eases, but the Bible proves that they en-
joyed no miraculous protection. The
diseases of the East of to-day were
known to them; such are ophthalmia,
leprosy, brain-fever, pestilential fevers,
lung-disorders. There was also a special
fo -m of disease, known as '' having an
evil spirit," very common in our Lord's
dav. See Devil, MEniciNE.
DISH. See Table.
DI'SHAN (nute/ope), a Son of Seir
the Horite. Gen. 36: 21, 28, 30; 1 Chr.
1 : 38. 42.
DI'SHOIV (antelope). 1. Another
son of the same. Gen. 36:21, 26, 30;
1 Chr. 1:38, 41.
2. A son of Anah, and a grandchild
of Seir. Gen. 36 : 25 : 1 Chr. 1 : 40.
DISPENSA'TION. This word,
in its scriptural use, generally denotes
a plan or scheme, or a system of pre-
cepts and principles prescribed and rc-
234
vealed by God for his own glory, and
for the advantage and happiness of his
creatures. 1 Cor. 9:17: Eph. 1:10; 3 :
2 ; Col. 1 : 25. In the passages above
cited it is supposed to mean an author-
ity or commission to preach the gospel.
The dispensation of the Law by Moses
and of the gospel by Jesus Christ are
examples of the use of the word in its
former meaning.
DISPERSED^ DISPER-
SION. These terms are usually ap-
plied to the Jews who after their cap-
tivity, and during the time of the second
temple, werescatteredabroad through the
earth. .Jas. 1 : 1 ; 1 Pet. 1:1. In the time
of Christ they were divided into three
great sections — the Babylonian, the Syr-
ian, and the Egyptian. The Epistles of
James and Peter were addressed to them.
Apostolic preaching followed the line of
these Jewish settlements.
The settlement of the Jews in Rome
dates from the conquest of Palestine by
Pompey, B. c. 63. But long ere this
Jews became residents in other lands.
Naturally, they gave up some of their
distinctive customs. The thrice-a-A'ear
visitation of the temple was impossible.
The temple in Jerusalem, although
their national centre, was no longer
their religious home. The synagogue
became their usual place of meeting.
Thus the loosening of the stiff hold of
original Judaism prepared them for the
change to the freedom of Christianity.
DIS'TAFF, a staff around which
the tow is wound for spinning. Prov.
31:19. The spindle is mentioned in
connection with the distaff as an instru-
ment of employment on the part of the
virtuous woman. In early ages, spin-
ning (hence, the law-term "spinster"
for an unmarried female) was a part of
the household duties^of women, even in
rich and distinguished families; and it
was a maxim that a young woman
should never be married until she had •
spun herself a set of body-, bed-, and
table-linen. At the present day the
Egyptian women spend their leisure-
hours in working with the needle, par-
ticularly in embroidering veils, hand-
kerchiefs, etc., with colored silk and
gold, in which they carry on a sort of
traffic through the channel of a female
broker. In ancient Egypt the yarn
seems all to have been sj>un with the
DIV
DIZ
hand, and the spindle is seen in all the
pictures representing the manufacture of
cloth, as well as both men and women
employed in the manufacture. See
Spindle.
DI'VES. See Lazaris.
DIVINA'TION is the practice of
divining or foretelling future events.
Deut. 18 : 10. In the passage cited it is
put in connection with witchcraft, nec-
romancy, and other abominations of the
heathen which the Jews were to avoid.
Divination prevailed among the Israel-
ites and many of the Eastern nations.
The modes or means of divining were
by consulting or being familiar with
spirits, by the motions of the stars,
clouds, etc., and by lots, rods or wands,
dreams, the flight of birds, the entrails
of animals, etc., etc. It is said of Jo-
seph's cup, Gen. 44:5, that he divined
by it. It is not to be inferred, however,
that he practised divination, but rather
that he uses the words in his supposed
character of a native Egyptian. His
brethren would therefore believe that
by the cup he did actually divine, as was
the custom of the land. In so speaking,
Joseph practised deception; we are not,
however, called upon to believe he was
•perfect. The Egyptian magicians were
diviners, so were the wise men, the
Chaldaeans of Babylon. There are
many words used in Scripture to de-
note them. Some diviners were learn-
ed, others very ignorant. Ventriloquism
and illusion formed part of their busi-
ness, although many believed in the
reality of their revelations. In divin-
ing with the cup, a small piece of gold
or silver, or a jewel, was thrown into
a spherical goblet, an incantation was
pronounced, the number of waves were
counted and the appearance of the ob-
ject studied. Or else the goblet was
simply filled with pure water and ex-
posed to the sunlight : whatever it re-
flected was suppose to give an answer.
In the case of the witch of Endor, she
began to practise her art, but, to her
amazement, no less than to Saul's, the
vision or spirit of Samuel actually arose,
and announced the imminent defeat and
death of the king. The root of the He-
brew word translated " witch " means
'' a bottle." The term arose from the
supposed inflation of these persons by
the spirit.
The Jews were familar with four
genuine ways adopted by God to make
known the future. These were (1) by
visions, as in the case of the patri-
archs; (2) dreams interpreted, as by
Joseph and Daniel; (3) by the Urim
and Thummim ; (4j and by the proph-
ets. 1 Sam. 28 : 6. The practice of
divination in all its forms is severely
reprobated by Moses and other sacred
writers. Lev. 20 : 27 j Deut. 18 : 9-14;
Jer. 14:14,- Eze. 13:8,9, because "a
prying into the future clouds the mind
with superstition and is an incentive
to idolatry," as is the case with the
pagans. In whatever form it is prac-
tised or regarded, it is reproachful to
Christianity, and argues great folly,
ignorance, and sin. 2 Pet. 1 : 19.
DIVORCE', the dissolution of the
marriage relation. This was permit-
ted by the law of Moses because already
existent, but so regulated as to miti-
gate its injustice and cruelty to the
wife, Deut. 24; 1-4, and in certain cases
forbidden, Deut. 22 : 19, 29. Although
divorce was common in the later days
of the Hebrew nation, Mai. 2 : 16, and
men put away their wives for trivial
causes, Matt. 19 : 3 — and many of the
Jewish doctors contended that this was
the spirit of the Law — there is no dis-
tinct case of divorce mentioned in the
0. T. Our Saviour was questioned upon
this matter, but he defeated the purpose
of his inquisitors to entangle him in
his talk, and took the opportunity to
rebuke the lax morals of the day and
set forth adulter^' as the only proper
ground of divorce. Matt. 5 : o2 ; 19 : 9 ;
Mark 10:11; Luke 16 : IS.
According to Jewish customs, the
husband was required to give his wife
a writing or bill of divorcement, in
which was set forth the date, place,
and cause of her repudiation, and a
permission was given by it to marry
whom she pleased. It was provided,
however, that she might be restored to
the relation at any future time if she
did not meanwhile marry any other
man. The woman also seems to have
had power — at least in a later period
of the Jewish state — to put away her
husband — i. e. without a formal divorce
to forsake him. Mark 10 : 12.
D I Z ' A H A B {reriion of gold), a
place in the Arabian desert, near which
235
DOC
DOG
Moses rehearsed to Israel God's dealings
with them, Deut. 1:1; possibly Dehab.
DOCTOR. Doctors or teach-
ers of the law were those who made it
their business or jjrofession to teach the
Law of Moses, and they were in great
repute among the Jews. Luke 2:46.
Some have distinguished I he scribes
from the doctors by suj)posing that the
former wrote their opinions, while the
latter taught extemporaneously. The
doctors were generally of the sect of the
Pharisees, perhaps always. Luke 6 : 17.
The word '' teachers " came into early use
among Christians as a title to those who
taught the doctrines of the faith, 1 Cor.
12 : 28, and hence was afterward applied
to those who became eminent for their
learning and aptness in teaching.
DOD'AI (t(tviii(/), one of David's
captains. 1 Chr. 27:4.
DOD'ANIM {leaders ?), a family or
race descended from Javan, son of Japh-
eth. Gen. 10:4: 1 Chr. 1:7.
DOD'AVAH {love of Jehornl), a
man of Mareshah, father of the Eliezer
who proj^hesied against Jehoshaphat. 2
Chr. 20:37.
DO'DO (amntoiy). 1. The father
of Eleazar, one of David's mighty men.
2 Sam. 23:9: 1 Chr. 11:12.
2. The father of Elhanan, another
mighty man. 2 Sam. 23 : 24 : 1 Chr. 11 :
26.
DO'EG {fearful). See Ahimelech.
DOG. Ex. li:7. The dog was not
only an unclean animal by the Jewish
Law, but was regarded with peculiar
contempt, Ex. 22 : ."1 : Deut. 23 : 18 ; 1
Sam. 17 : 43 : 24 : 14: 2 Sam. 9 : 8 ; 2
Kgs. 8:13: Phil. 3: 2; Rev. 22:15;
and he is so regarded at the present
day by the Turks, who can find no more
abusive and contemptuous language to
apply to a Christian than to call him
a dog. In Eastern countries dogs are
more like wolves than our dogs, and
live wild in the open air.
Solomon puts a living dog in contrast
with a dead lion to show that the mean-
est thing alive is of more importance
than the noblest that is dead. Eccl. 9:
4. Abner's exclamation, "Am I a dog's
hend?"' 2 Sam. 3 : 8. has a signification
of the same kind. Isaiah ex]»rcsses the
necessity of repentance and sincerity to
make a sacrifice acceptable to God by de-
claring that without them '' he that sac-
236
rifices a lamb " does nothing better than
" an if he cut off a dog's neck." Isa. 66 : 3.
The only useful purpose to which dogs
appear to have been put was to guard
the flocks, Job 30 : 1, and even in that
passage they are spoken of with con-
tempt. Isaiah may be understood to al-
lude to this manner of ( mjdoying them in
his description of the spiritual watchmen
of Israel. Isa. 56:10, 11.
Although dogs were numerous in the
Jewish cities, they were not kept in
the houses, but wandered through the
streets (as they do to this day in Con-
stantinople), picking up whatever was
Dog modelled in Clay. {From Kouyimjik. After
Rawlinso7i.)
thrown out of the remains of the table
after the family had eaten. So David
speaks of his wicked enemies. Ps. 59 :
6, 14, 16. The Mosaic law directed the
people to throw to the dogs the flesh
that was torn by beasts. Ex. 22:31.
This manner of living accounts for
the savageness of dogs in the East.
They preyed upon human flesh, licked
the blood of the slain, and sometimes
were wild enough to attack men as
bloodhounds do. 1 Kgs. 14:11; 16:4;
21 : 1 9. 23 : 22 : 38 : 2 Kgs. 9:10, Mfi ;
Ps. 22 : 16. 20 ; 68 : 23; Jer. 15 : 3.
Their habits made them dangerous to
touch. Prov. 26 : 17.
The Eastern people were in the prac-
tice of applying the names of animals
to men who resemble them in their dis-
position, as we call a cunning man a
fox, a brave man a lion. etc. So our
Saviour told his disciples, " Give not
that which is holy unto the dogs," lest
they turn upon you and tear .you after
they have eaten it. Matt. 7 : 6. meaning
that they should not offer the sacred
truths of the gospel to those insolent
DOO
DOV
and abominable men who would only
heap abuse on them fur it, having ref-
erence, also, to the practice of the priests
at the altar, who would not throw to the
dogs any of the meat used in sacrifice.
He told also the Syro-Phoenician woman
that it was not proper to give the chil-
dren's meat to dogs, Matt. 15 : 26 — that
is, the gospel was sent first to the Jews,
who are called the children, and was not
yet to be given to one of the Gentiles,
as she was, whom the Jews callel dogs
— for the children must first be fed
before the meat was thrown into the
street. Those who are shut out of the
kingdom of heaven are dogs, sorcerers,
etc.. Rev. 22 : 15. where the word is ap-
plied to all kinds of vile persons, as it
is to a particular class in Deut. 23 : 18.
The comparison of Solomon illustrat-
ing the return of a fool to his foliv,
Prov. 26 : 11, cited in 2 Pet. 2 : 22, "is
taken from a natural fact. Persecu-
tors are called dog. Ps. 22 : 16.
DOOR. See Dwellfngs.
DOPH'KAH (cattlv-drh-ing), an
encampment of Israel in the wilderness.
Num. 33 : 12, 13 ; somewhere in Wudij
Feitnn.
DOR ((hcelliiiff), a royal city of the
Canaanites, Josh. 11 : 2 :"l2 : 23, within
the territory of Asshur, but allotted to
Manasseh, Josh. 17 : 11 ; Jud. 1 : 27 ; 1
Chr. 7 : 29, and was one of Solomon's
provision-districts, 1 Kgs. 4:11: now
Tantura, 8 miles north of Caesarea,
where there are considerable ruins.
DOR'CAS iuazelle). See Tabitha.
DO'THAN {two cisterns), where Jo-
seph found his brethren, Gen. 37 : 17,
and Elisha resided. 2 Kgs. 6 : 13. It
was on the south side of the plain of
Jezreel, 12 miles north of Samaria : now
called Tell-lJnthdii. 5 miles south-west
of Jenin. Numerous bottle-shaped cis-
terns hewn in the rock are still found,
which are supposed to resemble the
"pit" of Gen. 37:24. Caravans still
pass this place, as of old, on their way
from Damascus to Egypt.
DO TO WIT means <o ?/ia7i'e A;noioH.
2 Cor. 8:1.
DOUGH. See Brkad.
DOVE. Gen. 8:9. A bird clean
by the Mosaic law. and often mentioned
by the sa<ired writers. In their wild
state doves dwell principally in holes in
the rocks. Song Sol. 2 : 14 ; Jer. 48 : 2S.
They are innocent in their dispositions,
and make no resistance to their enemies.
Matt. 10 : 16. They are very much at-
tached to their mates : and when one is
absent or dies, the other, or survivor,
laments its loneliness. Isa. 38 : 14 ;
59 : 11 ; Eze. 7 : 16 ; Nah. 2 : 7.
There are various allusions to the
mildness, peacefulness, and affection of
doves. The Church is called a " turtle-
dove " and a '* dove," or compared to it.
Ps. 74: 19: Song Sol. 1 : 15 ; 2: 14; 4:
1:5:2: 6:9. Where '' doves' eyes "
are spoken of in these passages, allusion
is made to the meekness of their ex-
pression. Lange's Co»uHe»^ory translates
Song Sol. 5 : 12 thus : " His eyes [are]
like doves by brooks of water, bathing
in milk, sitting on fulness." Thus un-
derstood, the passage compares the iris
nost'ing in the white of the eye to a
blue pigejn bathing in a brook of milk.
It was in the manner of a dove that
the Holy Spirit descended upon our Sa-
, viour at his baptism. Matt. 3:16; Mark
1:10; Luke 3 : 22 : John 1 : 32. Hosea
compares timid Ephraim to "a silly
dove without heart," 7:11, and says
that when the Jews shall be called to
their own land they shall '' tremble," or
fly, " as a dove out of the land of As-
syria." 11 : 11. David in his distress
wished that he could fly from his trou-
, bles as the doves dr) to warmer climates
on the approach of winter. Ps. 55 : 6-8.
The appearance of the dove is spoken
of as an emblem of spring. Song Sol.
2:12.
The dove is mentioned in an inter-
esting part of the early history of
the world as being sent out by Noah
from the ark to discover whether the
dry land had appeared. Gen. 8 : 6-12.
The dove was used in sacrifices. It
was, among other animals, prepared by
Abram when God manifested his inten-
tion to bless him, as narrated in Gen.
15 : 9. When a child was born the
mother was required within a certain
i time to bring a lamb and a young pig-
eon, or turtle-dove, for offering ; but if
I she were too poor to afford a lamb, she
j might bring two turtle-doves, or two
young pigeons. Lev. 12 : 6-8. Thus we
may judge of the poverty of Mary, the
mother of Jesus, when upon his birth
she brought to the temple at Jerusalem
the two birds instead of a lamb. Luke
237
DOV
DOV
2 : 24. It was to supply applicants
with animals for sacrifice that certain
persons sat in the temple with tloves to
sell, whom our Lord forced to leave it
because " the house of prayer " was not
a fit place for buying and selling. Mark
11: 15; John 2 :'l4-16.
David, Ps. 68 : 13, "refers to a kind"
of dove '* found at Damascus, whose
feathers, all except the wings, are lit-
erally as yellow as gold ; they are very
small and kept in cages. I have often
had them in my house, but their note is
so very sad that I could not endure it."
— Thomson.
In all Eastern towns homes are pro-
vided for the pigeons ,• sometimes spe-
cial towers are erected for them ; some-
times the upper stories of the houses
are fitted with openings or " windows,"
Turtle Dove. {After Hour/hton.)
and are sacred to their uso. The im-
mense compact masses of these birds as
they are seen flying to their houses or
plaees of resort can never be forgotten
by Eastern travellers. They sometimes
resemble a distant cloud, and are so
dense as to obscure the rays of the
sun. Hence the allusion in Isa. 60 : 8.
Tristram says that the pigeon tribe
abound in Palestine to a degree un-
known in other countries. The great
238
abundance of plants of the clover and
vetch family accounts for their num-
bers. Rock-doves, in myriads beyond
computation, inhabit t"he caves and fis-
sures which honeycomb the limestone
cliffs of Palestine. The wild rock-pig-
eon {Cohduha lirin), the ancestor of
the domestic races, is found here, as
well as other species. Se6 Turtle-
dove.
Dove's Dung. There are two views
DOW
DRI
concerning the material to which there
is reference in 2 Kgs. 6 : 25. Some suji-
pose that this sub:-tance was in great
demand as a quick manure for those
vegetables which might be soonest
raised for the famishing Samaritans ;
others believe that so terrible was the
extremity that the people were glad to
get even so disgusting a substance as
this for food. The great price at which
it was held — about a dollar and a half a
pint — militates against either form of
this view. The other view is that the
produce of some plant not commonly used
for food is intended. The seeds of a kind
of millet formerly called by the Hebrews
*^ doves' seed," and of other plants, have
been proposed. The root of the star-
of-Bethlehem {Ornithofffilum — i.e. hird-
vnlk) meets with much favor. The
bulb of this ]>lant has often be n eaten,
and it is abundant in Palestine.
DOWRY, in the Eastern accepta-
tion of the word, means that which the
husband pays for his wife, instead of
that which the wife receives from her
father and brings to her husband. Gen.
29:18; 34: 12; 1 Sam. 18: 25. So, Ex.
22 : 16, 17 ; Josh. 15 : l*^, a man was re-
quired to pay a certain sum as dowry or
a nuptial-present, and this was to be
according to the rank the woman sus-
tained, and such as the fathers of vir-
gins of the same rank were accustomed
to receive for their daughters. Hos. 3 :
2. See Ma!muvgk.
DRACH'MA, a Greek silver coin,
translated "a piece of silver" in Luke
15 : 8, 9, equal in value to a Roman
denarius, or about fifteen and a half
cents (wrongly translated "penny").
See Dexariis.
DRAG'ON. This word, in the Bible,
has 5it least three meanings. A'ery com-
monly, where it occurs in connection
with ostriches, owls, deserts, and ruins,
it denotes the jackal, whose characteris-
tics are unmistakably indicated, such as
his "wailing" and "snuffing up the
wind." So in Job 30 : 29 ; Ps. 44:19;
Jer. 9:11, in all which passages soli-
tude and desolation are illustrated. Mic.
1:8. In some passages it denotes mon-
sters of the deep or huge land-reptiles,
as in Deut. 32:33; Ps. 91:13. The
figurative use of this term, as in Ps.
74 : n ; Eze. 29 : 3 ; Rev. 12 : 3 and
20 : 2, is sufficientlv obvious.
DRAMS. See Measl'rks.
DRAUGHT. Matt. 15 : 17. A vault
or drain for the reception of filth. In
this sense it is probably used in 2 Kgs.
10 : 27. When applied to fishes it means
those which are caught by one sweep or
drawing of the net.
DREAM. From a verj- early peri-
od dreams have been observed with su-
perstitious regard. God was pleased to
make use of them to reveal his purposes
or requirements to individuals, and he
also gave power to interpret them. Gen.
20 : 3-6 ; 28 : 12-14 ; 1 Sam. 28 : 6 ; Dan.
2 ; Joel 2 : 28. And if any person
dreamed a dream which was peculiarly
striking and significant, he was permit-
ted to go to the high priest in a partic-
ular way and see if it had any special
import. But the observance of ordinary
dreams and the consulting of those who
pretend to skill in their inter])retation
are repeatedly forbidden. Deut. 13 : 1-
5; 18:9-U.
The words di-eunm and *;i's/oH« are some-
times used indiscriminatelv, Gen 46 : 2 ;
Num. 12 : 6 : Job 20 : 8 ; 33: 14, 15 ; Dan.
2 : 28 ; 7:1, though elsewhere they would
seem to be distinguished. Joel 2 : 28. In
the vision the subject may be awake even
though it take place at night. 2 Kgs. 6 :
17 ; Acts 18 : 9 : 23 : 11 ; 27 : 23. Paul's
vision, 2 Cor. 12 : 1, 2, 4, was an ec-tasy.
To his mind heaven was open, yet so real
was the vision that he could not tell
whether he were in the body or out of
it. Some commentators place this vis-
ion while Paul lay on the ground at
Lystra as if dead from the stoning.
Sometimes miraculous revelations of
God's will are called visions. Luke 1 :
22 : 1 Sam. 3 : 15. See Vision, Traxck.
The power of interpreting dreams was,
of course, a supernatural gift, so far as
the dreams had reference to future
events ; for these are necessarily un-
known, except to the supreme Disposer
of them. Gen. 40 : 5, 8 ; 41 : 1 6. Since
the fuller revelation of God's will has
been made to us in the gospel, all confi-
dence in dreams as indicative of future
events is presumptuous and delusive,
and all pretension to the power of inter-
preting them must be regarded as in the
highest degree impious and absurd.
DRESS. See Clothes.
DRINK-OFFERING. See Of-
fering.
239
DRI
DUR
DRINK, STRONG. The use of
strong drink, even to excess, was not
uncommon among the Israelites. This
is inferred from tlie striking figures by
which the use and effects of it are de-
scribed, Ps. 107 : 27 ; Isa. 24 : 20 ; 49 :
20 ; 51 : 1 7-22, and also from various
express prohibitions and penalties.
Prov. 20 : 1 : Isa. 5:11. A variety of
intoxicating drinks are comprised un-
der the term. Isa. 28 : 7. Altliough the
Uible slieds little light upon the nature
of the mixtures described, it doubtless al-
ludes to drink brewed from grain or made
of honeycombs, dates, or boiled fruits,
and the beer of Egypt. Date-wine was
in great request among the Parthians,
Indians, and other Orientals, and is said
by Xenophon to have produced severe
headaches.
The Jews carefully strained their wine
and other beverages, from fear of vio-
lating Lev. 11 : 20, 2;;, 41, 42, as do now
the Uuddhists in Ceylon and Ilindostan.
This fact explains our Lord's remark
to the Pharisees in Matt. 23 : 24 : "Ye
blind guides, who strain out" {not af) '-a
gnat and swallow a camel." See Wine,
ViNKGAU.
DROM'EDARY. Isa. 60 :*6. A
breed of the camel remarkable for its
speed. Jer. 2 : 2'A. It can travel from 60
to 90 miles or more in a day. The drom-
edary is taller and has longer limbs than
other varieties of camel, and cannot as
well bear heat or cold. See Caaikl.
DROPPING, A CONTIN'-
UAL. The force of the comparison used
in Prov. 27 : 15 will be understood when
it is borne in mind that Oriental houses
have flat roofs made of mud. These
naturalh' crack under the heat, and so
in a shower the water often comes
through the large crack.
DROUGHT. From the end of
Ajiril to Se|»tember in the land of Ju-
dtea is *' the drought of summer." The
grass is sometimes completely withered,
Ps. 102 : 4, and all the land and the
creatures upon it suffer, and nothing
but the coj)ious dew of the night pre-
serves the life of any living thing. Hag.
1:11. The heat is at times excessive.
Near Cana, in Galilee, in July, the ther-
mometer, in a gloomy recess under
groun<l, perfectly shaded, stood at 100°
Fahrenheit at noon. For a more full
account of the climate, see Palkstine.
240
DRUNK'ENNESS. See Drink,
Wink.
DRUSIL'LA, third daughter of the
Herod who is mentioned in Acts 12 : 1-
4, 20-23. She first married Azizus, king
of Emesa, who professed Judaism for
her sake. But by means of a sorcerer,
Simon of Cyprus, she was induced to
forsake her husband and marry Felix,
the Roman governor, and was ]iresent
at the hearing of the apostle Paul before
her husband at Cajsarea. She was noted
for great personal beauty. Acts 24 : 24.
DUKE, in the English Bible, means
only a chief or leader (an Oriental
Sheikh), and must not be understood,
in the modern sense, as a title of he-
reditary nobilitv. Gen. 36 : 15-19.
DUL'CIMER. The instrument
denoted by this word was, in the opin-
ion of the best Bible scholars, as, well as
of the Rabbins, a bag-pipe like that in
ui-e at the present day among the peas-
ants of north-western Asia and southern
Europe, and called by them zamptujiKi,
which is a word of similar sound to the
word here used, HumpiKiulnh. Dan. 3 : 5,
10, 15. It was composed of two pipes
with a leathern sack, and ])roduced a
harsh, screaming sound. It has no re-
semblance at all to the modern dulcimer.
DU'MAH(*(7e)/(e),asonofIshmael.
Gen. 25: 14: 1 Chr. 1:30.
DU'MAH {ailence). 1 . A town in Ju-
dah, near Hebron, Josh. 15 : 52 ; now ed-
JJdiniieJi, 6 miles south-west of Hebron.
2. A region, perhaps near Mount Seir.
Isa. 21:11.
DUNG. In many countries of the
East wood is so scarce and dear as to
be sold by weight. Hence animal ex-
crements are used as fuel. Eze 4:12.
It is a very common material for heat-
ing ovens, even among |)eople of cora-
fo: table circumstances. In Arabia the
excrements of asses and camels are col-
lected in the streets by children, mixed
with cut straw, put in the sun to dry,
and thus fitted for use as fuel. The ef-
fluvia arising from the use of it are very
offensive, and penetrate the food.
Dove's Dung. See Dove.
DUNG-GATE. See Jehusalem
{0(1 ten of).
DU'RA, the plain near Babylon
where Nebuchadnezzar set up a golden
image. Dan. 3:1. Oppert i(lenti4ies it
with Dditir, a little south-east of Baby-
DUR
DWE
Ion, where the pedestal of a huge statue
was discovered.
DURE, Matt. 13 : 21, for "endure,"
''last." "During," which is still com-
mon, is the participle of the same verb.
DUST. " To shake off the dust of
one's feet" against another. Matt. 10 :
14; Mark 6: 11; Acts 13 : 51, was ex-
pressive of entire renunciation, because
it conveyed the idea that " those against
whom it was directed were so unworthy
that it wns defiling to one to allow so much
as a particle of the soil to cleave to his
garments." The custom is supposed to
have been common among the Jews,
when they had set a foot on heathen
ground, to shake off the dust, so as to
carry nothing unclean or polluting into
their own land. Dust thrown into the
air, 2 Sam. 16 : 13 ; Acts 22 : 23, was an
expression of rage and threatening,
while the very act probably increased
the passionate hatred. '" Dust and
ashes " are coupled together as a phrase
describing man's feebleness as con-
trasted with divine strength. Gen. 18 :
27 ; Job 30 : 19.
Dust, Rain of. Deut. 28:21. In Ju-
daea or its immediate vicinity are
plains or deserts of fine sand, which
when agitated by a violent wind makes
most terrific and desolating storms.
Eastern travellers describe them par-
ticularly, and think them much more
dreadful than storms nt sea. This fact
affords us a striking illustration of the
nature and horrors of the plague men-
tioned in Ex. 8:16.
DWELLINGS. The most com-
mon dwellings in the earlier ages of the
world were tents, formed by setting
poles in the ground and stretching ove.-
them a covering of cloth or skin, which
was fastened to stakes by means of
cords. 'Isa. 51:2. Sometimes they were
divided into apartments by means of
curtains, and the ground was covered
with mats or carpets. The door was
formed of a fold of cloth, which was
dropped or raised. The fire was kin-
dled in an excavation in the middle of
the tent-ground, and the cooking-uten-
sils, which were very few and' simple,
were easily moved from place to place.
Isa. 38: 12.
When the habits of mankind changed
and their pursuits fixed them to one
spot, their dwellings were built with a
16
view to permanency, and we may sup-
pose that the science of building was
well understood at a very earlj- period.
But while the Canaanites and Ass\rian3
built cities, the Hebrews dwelt in tents ;
and it was not until they went down to
Egypt, or more likch' not until the con-
quest of the Promised Land, that they
abandoned their simple habits; then
they entered the houses the Canaanites
left. It thus appears that the science
of architecture first developed itself
among the idolatrous peoples.
That large and costlj" houses were
often built in Juda?a we have scriptural
evidence, Jer. 22 : U ; Am. 3:15; Hag.
1 : 4, though doubtless those which were
occupied by the mass of the people were
rude and inconvenient.
z
DIVAN
z
<
>
>
a
/\
^-
■ Da B
u^
■
o
OPEN
■
A ■
■
A
COURT
D
■
■
I
E
■ Da ■
III
A
c .
B
Plan of an Eastern Houfse.
r. Entrance. A, Family-Toom. K, Walls, or gal-
l«;rii;.s, Ijetweea the open court and the rooms. G,
Stairs to the upper stories and roof. ft, Private
staircase.
The above cut represeiits the ground-
plan of an Eastern house of the better
class. The house is built in the form
of a cloister, surrounding the area or
open court. The entrance is by a door,
which was commonly locked, and at-
tended by some one who acted as por-
ter. Acts 12 : IH. This door opens into
a porch, which is furnished with the
conveniences of sitting, and thl^ugh
which we pass, both to the flight of
stairs which leads up to the chambers
and also to the open quadrangular
court.
We will first examine the court and
its uses. It is called the middle of the
house, or " midst," Luke 5 : 19, and is
241
DWE
DWE
designed to admit light and air to the
apartments around it. It is covered
with a pavement more or less costly,
which receives and sheds rain, and is
often supplied with fountains or wells
of water. 2 Sam. 17 : 18. In Damascus
every house has a court of this kind,
and often several, and the wealthier
citizens spare no expense in making
them places of delightful resort in the
hot season. A veranda or colonnade
such as is often seen in modern houses
surrounds the court and supports a gal-
lery or i^iazza above. In this court large
companies assemble on festive and oth-
er occasions, Esth. 1:5; and it is then
furnished with carpets, mats, and set-
tees or sofas, and an awning or roof of
some suitable material is stretched over
tlie whole area. It is alluded to in the
beautiful figure of the Psalmist. Ps.
104:2. Around the court, over the
doors and windows of the house,
each apaitraent has a door open-
ing into the court or gallery, and
the communication with each is
only on the outside, so that to go
from room to room it is necessary
to come out into the court or gal-
lery. The?e galleries are guard-
ed by a balustrade or lattice-
work in front, to prevent acci-
dents.
" The stairs are frequently
placed in the corner of the court,
and sometimes at the entrance.
In large houses there arc often
two or more sets of steps fiom
the court, but there is seldom Uprfr R
more than one from the gallery
to the roof. They are usually of simple
structure, and of stone or wood." The
kind of stairs mentioned in 1 Kgs. 6 : 8
was mo-c complicated.
On the side of the court which faces
the entrance is the reception-room of
the master of the house. It is generally
fitted up handsomely, has a raised plat-
form and a divan on three sides, which
is a bed by night and a seat by day. The
guests on entering takeoff their sandals
before stepping upon the raised portion.
The rooms assigned to the women are
up stairs if the house has only one court,
but if there arc two they are around the
inner one. These apartments, known
as "the harem." are never entered by
any man save the master. The rooms
242
of the ground floor often include a whole
side of the court, and are entered by
spacious doors from the piazza. The
rooms on the farther side of the court,
both above and below, are assigned to
the females of the family, and upon
them is bestowed the greatest expense.
Hence, as some suppose, these rooms
are sometimes called "palaces." 1 Kgs.
16 : IS ; 2 Kgs. 15 : 2.5 ; Isa. 32 : U.
The "house of the women," Esth. 2:3,
was Avhat is now so well known as the
" harem," a part of the roy.al residence,
and like that referred to in 1 Kgs. 7:
8-12. It is supposed that in the houses
of Juda;a, as in those of the East at the
present day, the ground floor was ap-
propriated principally to domestic uses,
such as storing provisions, oil, baggage,
lodgings for'servants, etc., etc.
If we ascend to the second story by
the stairs before mentioned, we find the
ooin or Guest-Cliaml)er. (Fron Vchaff'is "Pojular
Commentary.")
chambers are large and airy, and often
finished and furnished, with much ex-
pense and elegance, with mats, curtains,
and divfins. Mark 14 : 15. This room
or story is higher and larger than those
below, projecting over the lower part
of the building, so that the window of
the apartment, if there is one, consid-
erably overhangs the street. Secluded,
spacious, and commodious as such a
room must have been, Paul would be
likely to preach his farewell sermon
there. And in a large company it is
common to have two circles or ranks,
the outer circle being next to the wnll
and elevated on cushions, so as to bo
on a level with the lower part of the
window - casement. In this situation
DWE
DWE
we may suppose Eutychus fell asleep,
and was thence precipitated to the
street. Acts 20 : 9.
A structure called an alliyeh is some-
times built over the porch or gateway.
It usually consists only of one or two
rooms, and rises one story above the
main house. It is used to enter-
tain strangers, also for wardrobes and
magazines, or for places of retire-
ment, repose, and meditation. Matt. 6 :
6, There is an entrance to it from the
street without going into the hou*e, but
there is also a communication with the
gallery of the house when it is needed.
It is observed that its terrace afforded a
much more retired place for devotional
exercises than theroof of themain house,
which was liable to be occupied at all
times and for various purposes by the
whole family. The ''little chamber"
for Elisha, 2 Kgs. 4 : 10, the '"summer
chamber" of Eglon, from which Ehud
escaped by a private stairway, Jud. 3 :
20-2.3, the "chamber over the gate,"
2 Sam. 18 : 33, the "upper chamber," 2
Kgs. 23 : 12, the " inner chamber," 1
Kgs. 20 : 30 (see Chamber), may des-
ignate this part of the house.
But the roof is one of the most im-
portant parts of an Eastern house. We
-^ ' ^-j^-^^-yi
All Easteia HoUaetop.
ascend to it by a flight of steps, as al-
ready mentioned, which are entirely
unconnected with the interior of the
house. Matt. 24:17. It is made in
most cases flat, but sometimes with
domes over some of the rooms, and is
surrounded by a parapet, battlement, or
balustrade, lest one should heedlessly or
unwittingly fall from it. This was a
matter of divine command. Deut. 22 :
8. A wall on the roof designates the
limits of contiguous houses, but it is so
low that a whole range of buildings, and
even a street, may be passed over with-
out coming down. The roof is covered
with a kind of cement, which hardens
by exposure to the weather, and forms
a clean, smooth, and very agreeable
floor. If the cement be not put on at
the proper season, it will crack under
the sun, and hence must be rolled; and
rollers are found on many roofs. On
ill-packed roofs grass is often seen, and
hence the frequent allusion to " grass
upon the housetops." 2 Kgs. 19 : 26 ; Ps.
129 : 6. Sometimes tiles or broad bricks
were used. The roof was a place of re-
pose, Xeh. 8: 16, and of resort. 2 Sam.
11 : 2 ; Isa. 15 : 3 ; 22 : 1 ; Jer. 48 : 38 ;
Luke 12 : 3. It was also used for dry-
ing linen and flax, corn and figs. Josh.
2 : 6. Sometimes a tent was spread to
protect the sleeper from the cold and
damp of the night. 2 Sam. 16 : 22. It
was a place of conference,
1 Sam. 9 : 25, and worship,
also of public wailing. Isa.
15:3; Jer. 19: 13; 48:38;
2 Kgs. 23 : 12 ; Zeph. 1 : .5 ;
Acts 10 : 9.
The windows of Eastern
houses, as already intima-
ted, open into the court.
Hence the appearance of
Eastern cities, in passing
through the streets, is very
gloomy and inhospitable.
Sometimes latticed win-
dows or balconies are open
upon the streets, but they
were used only on some
public day. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30.
See Wiynow.
The doors of Eastern
houses are not hung with
hinges. The jamb, or in-
ner side-piece of the door,
projects, in the form of a
circular shaft, at the top and bottom.
The upper projection is received into a
socket in the lintel or head-piece, and
243
DYE
DYE
the lower projection falls into a socket
in the threshold or sill.
Chimneys were unknown, though the
word occurs in Hos. 13 : 3. What we
call chimneys were not invented till
the fourteenth century. The smoke of
ancient houses escaped through aper-
tures in the wall.
The hearth, Jer. 36 : 22, was a fire-place
or portable furnace, such as is still used
in Eastern countries.
The materials for building were abun-
dant. Stone and brick and the best spe-
cies of timber, for the strong and heavy
as well as the light and ornamental work,
Avere easily obtained. Hewn stone was
often used, Am. 5: 11, and marble of
the richest vein and polish. 1 Chr. 29 :
2 ,• Esth. 1 : 6. Cedar was used for
wainscots and ceilings, Jer. 22 : 14;
Hag. 1 : 4, which were of carved panel-
work, with mouldings of gold, silver, or
ivory. Perhaps the profusion of ivory
in them may account for the expressions
1 Kgs. 22 : 39 ; Ps. 45 : 8 ,; Am. 3:16.
The houses of the class described are
entirely different from those inhabited
by the common people, which are mere
hovels of only one room, built with mud
walls, reeds, and rushes, and sometimes
only stakes plastered with claj'. Hence
they were very insecure, Matt. 6 : 19, 20,
and afforded place for serpents and ver-
min. Family and animals occupy the
same room, although the former some-
times were raised over the latter by a
platform. The windows were mere holes
high in the wall, perhaps barred. Am.
5:19.
In addition to what we have before
said in treating of the alUyeh, it may be
remarked that the winter- and summer-
houses or parlorn, Am. 3:15, were con-
structed with particular reference to the
season. The summer-houses were built
partly under ground and paved with
marble. The fountains which gush out
in the courts, and the various contri-
vances to exclude heat and secure a cur-
rent of fresh air, render them exceed-
ingly refreshing amid the torrid heats of
summer. The winter-houses might have
had accommodations corresponding to
the season.
We are told that it was customary
among the Hebrews to dedicate the
244
house when it was finished and ready
to be inhabited. The event was celebra-
ted with joy, and the divine blessing and
protection implored. Deut. 20 : 5.
The doors of Eastern houses are made
low, especially when they are in an ex-
posed situation, and one must stoop, or
even creep, to enter them. This is done
to keep out wild beasts or enemies, or
as some say, to prevent the wandering
Arabs from riding into them.
The Eastern mode of building is
brought to our view in the case of the
destruction of the temple of Dagon
by Samson. It is probable that the
place where Samson made sport for
many thousand spectators, Jud. 16 : 27,
was a court or ai^ea consecrated to the
worship' of Dagon ; that this was sur-
rounded by a. range of galleries, Eze.
41: 15, 16, or cloisters, which were sup-
ported chiefl}' by one or two columns in
front or at the centre. The palace of the
dey of Algiers has such a structure. It
is an advanced or projecting cloister
over against the gate of the palace,
Esth. 5:1, where the officers of state
assemble and transact public business,
and where public entertainments are
given. The removal of one or two
contiguous pillars would involve the
building and all that were upon it in
one common destruction.
Lkprosy in the House w.hs probably
a nitrous efflorescence on the walls which
was injurious to the health of the house-
hold, and therefore it was imperatively
ordered to be removed. Lev. 14 : 34-53.
DYE'ING was a familiar art in
Bible-times. The Phoenicians and
Egyptians were skilful in it. From
Ex'. 26:1, 14; 35:25 it is evident
that at the Exodus the Israelites un-
derstood the art, and we are the better
able to picture the process because we
find so minute an account of it on the
Egyptian monuments. There is, how-
ever, no precise mention of dyers in the
0. T. In the N. T., Lydia is spoken of
as " a seller of purple of the city of
Thyatira." Acts 16: U. This city was
famed for its dyers ; inscriptions testify
to the existence of a guild of them, and
Lydia probably dealt in the cloth thus
colored, or possibly in the dye itself,
which is procured from a shell-fish.
EAG
EAG
E.
EA'GLE (Hebrew nesher ; i. e. a
terirer loith the beak). There can be
little question that the eagle of Scrip-
ture is the griflFon {Gi/ps fulv us), or great
vulture, a bird very abundant in Pales-
tine and adjacent countries. In spite
Griffon Vulture, tiie Eagle of Scripture.
tram.)
of it3 name, it is a much nobler bird
than a common vulture, and is little
more a carrion-feeder than are all eagles.
Indeed, the griffon is used by the Ori-
entals as the type of the lordly and the
great.
This well-known bird of prey was un
clean by the Levitical law. Lev. 11 : 1,3 ,
Deut. 14:12. The habits of the eagle
are described in Num. 24 : 21 ; Job 9 :
26 ; 39 : 27-30 ; Prov. 23 : 5 ; 30 : 17, 19 ;
Jer. 49 : 16 5 Eze. 17 : 3 : Ob. 4 ; Hab. 1 :
8:2:9: Matt. 24:28:
Luke 17 : 37.
In these last pas-
sages the Jewish na-
tion is compared to a
decaying body expos-
ed in the open field,
and inviting the Ko-
man army, whose
standard was an
eagle, to come to-
gether and devour it.
The eagle was also on
the Persian standard.
The tenderness of the
eagle toward its 3'oung
is characteristic, and
is beautifully and ac-
curately described in
Ex. 19 : 4; Deut. 32 :
11. The rapidity of
the eagle's flight is al-
luded to in Deut. 28 :
49; 2 Sam. 1:23; Jer.
4: 13; 48: 40; Lam. 4:
19; its destructive
power in Isa. 46 : 11 ;
Hos. 8:1; and its great
age, and the popular
opinion that it renews
its plumage in ad-
vanced life, are inti-
mated in Ps. 103 : 5
and Isa. 40:31.
Many Scripture ref-
erences are much more
clear and forcible if
by "e.agle" we under-
stand the griffon. The
head and neck of this
bird are bald. Mic. 1 : 16. Although
eagles are attracted by carcasses, it is
the griffons which, from their great
numbers and superior strength, a:e
pre-eminently the scavengers of the
East. Matt. 24 : 28. Of all rapacious
245
{Gyps fiUtus. After Tris-
EAR
EAR
birds, these select the loftiest and most
inaccessible cliffs. Jer. 49 : 16.
'* The griffon is found in all the
wanner parts of the Old World, from
the Himalaya to Spain and Morocco,
and throughout Africa to the Cape of
Good Hope. It measures about 4 feet
8 inches in length, and 8 feet in ex-
panse of wing. The nest is sometimes
large, but frequently scanty, formed of
sticks and turf, and it laj's one egg in
February or March. Its plumage is a
uniform brown, with a fine ruff of whit-
ish down round the lower part of its
neck, at the termination of the bare por-
tion. Its beak is hooked and of great
power, but its claws and feet are much
weaker than those of the eagle, and are
not adapted for killing prey." — Tris-
tram.
The pains which such birds take in
teaching their young to fly, as well as
such passages as Isa. 40:31, are illus-
trated by the following narrative: "I
once saw a very interesting sight above
the crags of Ben Nevis. Two parent
eagles were teaching their offspring, two
young birds, the manoeuvres of flight.
They began by rising from the top of
the mountain in the eye of the sun. It
was about midday, and bright for the
climate, Thej' at first made small cir-
cles, and the young birds imitated them.
They paused on their wings, waiting
till .they had made their flight, and then
took a second and larger gyration, al-
ways rising toward the sun, and enlarg-
ing their circle of flight so as to make a
gradually-ascending spiral. The j'oung
ones still and slowly followed. ap])arent-
ly flying better as they mounted; and
they continued this sublime exercise,
always rising, till they became mere
points in the air, and the young ones
were lost, and afterward their parents,
to our aching sight." — *S'i> Hiimphry
Davy.
EARNING is an old English word
for plonr/liijir/. Gen. 46 : 6 ; Ex. 34: 21 ;
Deut. 21:4: 1 Sam. 8:12.
EAR'NEST. This is something
going before or given in advance
as a pledge of more in reserve : thus.
earnest, or enrnest-iuoiiey, is a sum ])aid
in advance as a pledge of full ])ayment
at a future time. In a spiritual sense,
it denotes those gifts and graces which
the Christian receives as a pledge or
246
earnest of perfect holiness and happi-
ness in the future world. 2 Cor. 1 : 22 j
Eph. 1:14.
EAR'-RINGS. The ordinary He-
brew word for "ear-ring" means also
" nose-ring," and the context must
decide between these interpretations.
There are two other words which mean
more specifically an ear-ring. The one
occurs Num. 31 : 50 ; Eze. 16 : 12. This
word describes a circle of gold, such as
is found portrayed upon the sculptures
of Egypt and Persepolis ; the other
word, though literally translated a
"charm," seems to indicate ear-rings,
which were worn as amulets. They
were given up to Jacob at his request,
along with the " strange gods," when,
at the divine command, he went to
Bethel from Shechem. Gen. 35 : 4. This
fact proves their superstitious use. Such
ear-rings, bearing talismanic characters
and figures, are found to-day in the
East. Ear-rings were made of gold,
were usually, though by no means al-
ways, circular, sometimes had jewels
hanging from them, and were larger
and heavier than those worn with us.
In Bible-times ear-rings were orna-
ments for both sexes. Ex. 32 : 2. The
same is true to some extent to-day.
See Amulet.
EARTH. The word first occurs
Gen. 1 : 2. The Hebrews made the
usual distinction between the earth as
the planet which Ave inhabit and the
earth as the soil which we cultivate, by
employing altogether diflerent words
for these different ideas. But like other
ancient nations, they had vague and in-
accurate ideas in regard to the size of
the earth. The phrases "the ends of
the earth," all the "kingdoms of the
earth," " the whole world," really took
in only a limited extent. Geographical
terms were loosely used. For exam])le,
the same word (y»)n, which means
"sea") is aj)plied to the Mediterranean,
to the lakes of Palestine, and to great
rivers such as the Nile. But they were
much more definite when describing lo-
calities with which they were intimately
acquainted, and these descriptive words
for the minor features of the country are
often singularly correct, and at the same
time poetical. We can mark a progres-
sion in geographical knowledge from
the days of the patriarchs to those of
EAR
EAT
the X. T. Jews. As nation after nation
was brought into contact with them
their notions of the character and ex-
tent of the world enhirged.
Owing to the highly poetic nature of
the language in which descriptions of
the earth as a whole are given, it is im-
possible to decide upon the ordinary
ideas on this subject. Like other na-
tions of antiquity, and like most people
in all ages, the Hebrews viewed the
world from a geocentric standpoint, as
if the earth were the centre of the uni-
verse, every other heavenly body being
formed for it and playing a subsidiary
part. The heavens we e conceived of
as an inverted bowl, which rested on the
flat earth at its edges, holding up the
snow and rain, which came through
when a window was opened. Gen. 7 :
1 1 ; Isa. 24 : 18. All natural phenomena
are traced directly to the almighty will
of God, without taking into account
(yet without denying) secondary causes.
The thunder is his voice, the lightning
his arrows, the storm and the wind his
messengers. Job 37 : 5 ; Ps. 77 : 17;
148 : 8. When he drew near, the earth-
quake, the eclipse, and the comet were
the signs of his presence. Joel 2 : 10 ;
Matt. 24 : 29 ; Luke 21 : 25. We should
remember that this is to this day the
language of poetry and religion, and
that it represents one and the most im-
portant aspect of truth, the primary
cause; while prose and science view the
other aspect, the secondary and finite
causes — that is, the, laws of nature,
which are the agenjies of the almighty
will of God.
If all things in heaven above and
earth beneath were created by the word
uf God, they were as certainly created
for tile sons of God — for man. To the
Hebrew nothing existed independent of
some effect, good or bad, upon man. Ps.
104 : 14, 23 exp, e.^ses in poetry his sober
opinion.
The earth spoke to him likewise of
orderly and p.eeencerted progress.
From one day to the other, as he read
the account in Genesis, there was devel-
opment of higher from lower forms,
until, as the crown and lord of all cre-
ation, man stood in Eden.
EARTH'QUAKE. Korah and
his companions were destroyed by the
rending asunder of .the ground where
they stood, thus engulfing them in the
cavity, Num. 16 : 32 : in other words, by
an earthquake. The earthquake men-
tioned in Am. 1:1: Zech. 14:5 is also
mentioned by Josejthus, who adds that
it divided a mountain near Jerusalem,
and was so violent as to separate one
part some distance from the other. The
earthquake was among the fearful signs
which attended the crucifixion of our
Saviour. Matt. 27 : 51-54.
Earthquakes are mentioned among
the calamities which should, and did,
precede the destruction of Jerusalem.
Matt. 24: 7. Earthquakes, in prophet-
ical language, denote revolutions and
commjtions in states and empires.
An earthquake, " conveying the idea
of some universal and unlimited dan-
ger," as Humboldt says, was an appro-
priate illustration of the awe which
strikes the soul when God seems to
draw nigh. It is therefore a fitting
token of his presence, IKgs. 19:11,
and is used in Scripture, poetry, and
prophecy in descriptions of the coming
of Jehovah. Jud. 5:4; 2 Sam. 22 : 8 ;
Ps. 77:18; 97:4; 104:32; Am. 8: 8;
Ilab. 3 : 10.
EAST, EAST COUNTRY.
Gen. 11 : 2 : Job 1 : 3 : Eze. 47 : 8 : Matt.
2 : 1. The Hebrews used the word kedem,
or '• east," to describe any country which
was before or in front of another — that
is, to the east of it ; and it generally re-
fers to the region around and beyond
the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, includ-
ing portions of Arabia, Mesopotamia,
and Babylonia.
EAST'ER (originally the festival
of the An a:lo- Saxon goddess Eoatre), a
mistranslation for '• Passover," the Jew-
ish feast. Acts 12 : 4. See Fkast.
EAST SEA. Eze. 47: IS; Joel 2 :
20. See Salt Ska.
EAST WIXD. See Wind.
EAT, EAT'IXG. The Hebrews
were scrupulous about eating and drink-
ing with those of another religion or
another nati inalitj-. They would not
cat with the Egyptians, any more than
the Egyptians would with them. Gen.
43 : 32, nor with the Samaritans. John
4: 9, nor with " publicans and sinners,"
Matt, 9:11, and the refusal to eat with one
implied an entire separation. 1 Cor. 5: 11.
Anciently, the Jews sat at table ; but
when they encountered the practice cf
247
EBA
EBA
reclining upon couches during meals,
resting the body on the leit elbow and
using chiefly the right hand, they ap-
pear to have ailopted it. This peculiar
position makes ttie scene described in
Luke 7 : 30-50 perfectly natural, and
also shows how one of the guests could
repose his head on another's bosoui.
Komau Tiicliuium, illustiaiiiig Jewish Method of Eatiii
John 13 : 23. Women were never pres-
ent at Jewish meals a? guests.
The Jews, in 0. T. times, appear to
have taken their principal meal at
night, after the heat of the day was
over. This, to be sure, is largely con-
jecture, since we have no detailed in-
formation given us in the Bible. See
Ruth 3: 7; Ex. 16:12: 18:12,1.3. The
institution of the paschal feast in the
evening likewise helps to confirm the
opinion. Ex. 12 : 6, 18. They made
their other meal in the morning. In
N. T. times they did not ordinarily
breakfast until 9 o'clock, Acts 2:15.
and on the Sabbath, as .Josephus says,
nit before noon, because not till then
was the service of the synagogue com-
pleted. In the evening the more sub-
stantial meal took ])Iace. In general,
the Jews led the simple, .abstemious
life of the modern Oriental, eating the
fruits of the earth in the morning, and drinking" here mean
of treaties and on other public occa-
sions, we read of feasts given at mar-
riages, (J!en. 29:22; Jud. 14:10, etc.,
on birthdays, Gen. 40 : 20 ; Job 1 : 4,
etc., burials, 2 Sam. 3:35; Jer. 16 : 7,
sheep-shearing, 1 Sam. 25 : 2, 36 ; 2 Sam.
13 : 23, and at other times. According
to the means of the host, an elaborate
meal was prepared. The
guests were formally in-
vited, and when the day
came they were invited a
second time. Prov. 9 : 23 ;
Matt. 22 : 3. The guests
were received with a kiss,
their feet and hands were
washed, their person was
perfumed with ointment.
Luke 7 : 44-46. The par-
able of the Man without
the Wedding-garment has
led to the conjecture that
it was customary, or at
least usual, in certain
cases for the host to pro-
vide robes. Matt. 22 : 12.
The present mode of
eating among Eastern nations illustrates
some passages of the N. T. In Syria the
guests use their fingers, a knife, spoon, and
plate being used only by foreigners, and
that as a special privilege. The bread,
which is very thin, is dipped in the
vegetable soup ; and if there is a
dainty morsel on the table, the master
of the house takes it in his fingers and
presents it to the mouth of his guest.
From Matt. 26:23 we presume that
Judas was near enough to our Lord to
use the same dish and receive the sop
from our Lord's hand, according to the
custom above described. John 13 : 26,
27. See Fkast.
To eat a meal together is regarded in
the East as a pledge of mutual confi-
dence and friendship ; hence the force
of the expression Ps. 41 : '.).
The expression John 6 : 53-58 is evi-
dently metaphorical. " Eating and
l;clieving, or
meat only once a day, if at all. But
besides this occasional reference to the
ordinary life of the Jews, the Bible con-
tains notices of numerous feasts in hon-
or of all the events which broke the mo-
notony of their existence. Leaving out
of account the religious festivals and
the formal banquets at the ratification
248
aj)|)ropriating the life of our Lord by
faith. lie is the Bread of life for our
souls.
E^BAL (stone). 1. A descendant
of Seir the Horite. Gen. 36:23; 1 Chr.
1 : 40.
2. A descendant of Eber, I Chr. 1 : 22 ;
called Obal in (Jen. 10 : 28.
EBA
ECC
E'BAIi {stone, stony), one of the two
mountains upon which Israel stood pro-
nouncing blessings and cursings. Deut.
11:29: Josh. 8:30-35, Ebal and Ger-
izini are opposite each other, nearly meet-
ing at their bases, but are a mile and a
half apart at their summits. Mount
Ebal, the northern peak, is rocky and
bare: it rises 3076 feet above the sea
and 1200 feet above the level of the val-
ley, which forms a natural amphitheatre.
From repeated experiments it has been
found that the voice can be heard dis-
tinctly from the top of one mountain
to the other and in the valley between.
In the valley lay ancient Shechem, now
jVitbliis. The summit of Ebal is a j)la-
teau of some extent, reaching its great-
est height toward the west, from which
there is an extensive view of the coun-
try from He;mon on the north to the
heights of Bethel on the south, and
from the plain of the sea on the west to
the Hauran plateau on the east. Con-
der suggests that the site of Joshua's
altar may be represented by the modein
sacred place called Antdd ed-Din, " mon-
ument of the faith," on the top of Ebal.
See GrKuiziM and Shechem.
E'BED {slave). 1. The father of
Gaal, who conspired with the Sheobein-
ites against Abimelech. Jud. 9 : 20, 28,
30, 31, 35.
2. A companion of Ezra on the Re-
turn. Ezr. 8 : ().
E'BED-ME'LECH {xlave of the
king), an Ethiopian eunuch of Zedekiah.
king of Judah, who was instrumental in
saving the prophet Jeiemiah from death
by famine, and who for his kindness in
his behalf was promised deliverance
when the city should fall into the ene-
my's-hands, j'er. 38 : 7 ; 39 : 15-18. His
name seems to have been an official title.
EB'EN-E'ZER {stone of help), set
up as a memorial by Samuel, 1 Sam. 4 :
1 ; 6 : 1 ; 7 : 12, between Mizpeh and Shen.
The curious fact that the name of this
place occurs twice, 1 Sam. 4:1:5:1, be-
fore theaccountof thenamingof it,is ex-
plained by the familiarity of the jdace to
the writer of the narrative, who of course
lived sometime subsequent to the battle.
While the Israelites were worshipping
God at Mizpeh they received intelli-
gence that the Philistines were ap-
proaching them with a formidable
army. In this emergency they betook
themselves to sacrifice and prayer, and
God interposed in a most signal manner
for their deliverance. 1 Sam. 7:5-12.
In commemoration of this event, Sam-
uel erected a monument near the field
of battle, and called it *' Eben-ezer," or
the stone <f heljj, saying, '* Hitherto hath
Jehovah helped us." Heuce it is often
said, '' Here we will set up our Eben-
ezer," or here we will establish a memo-
rial of the mercy and faithfulness of God.
The English Survey places Ebenezer at
Dei)- Abdn, 3 miles east of 'J//( Shenis.
E'BER {beyond). 1. The great-
grandson of Shem, Gen. 10:21, 21; 11 :
14-17; 1 Chr. 1 : 19, and the ancestor
of Abraham in the seventh generation.
See Hebrews, Heber.
2. Son of Elpaal, and one of the build-
ers of Ono and Lod. with the adjacent
villages. 1 Chr. 8 : 12.
3. A priest of the days of Joiakim.
Neh. 12:20. See also Heber.
EBI'ASAPH ( father of ,,ntherin;/),
a Levite. 1 Chr. 6:23, 37; 9:19. See
Abiasaph and Asaph.
EB'ONY. Eze. 27 : 15. A black,
heavy, and very hard wood, which was
brought to ancient Tyre from India. It
is susceptible of a fine polish, and is
used for musical instruments and orna-
mental work. Ebony is the heart-wood
of a tree {Diospyrvn ebenns) of the same
genus with the persimmon of our warm-
er States, and, like that tree, bears an
edible fruit.
EBRO'NAH {jmssage), a station of
the Israelites near Ezion-geber, Xura.
33 : 34, 35 ; site not known,
ECBAT'ANA. Ezr. 6:2, margin.
The name of two cities.
1. The capital of northern Media, now
known as the ruins Takht-i-Snleintan,
about 75 miles south-west of the Caspian
Sea.
2. The larger city was the metropolis
of lower Media, now called Haniadun,
one of the most important cities of Per-
sia, having from 30,000 to 40,000 in-
habitants. Both cities are referred to
in the Apocrvjihnl books.
ECCLESIAS'TES {Kohehth),
OR (as the name signifies) THE
PREACHER, was written by Sol-
omon toward the close of his splendid
and eventful career as monarch of Is-
rael, or by a later author, who imper-
sona'cs Solomon and gives us the prac-
249
ECC
EDE
tical lesson of his sad experience. It
corresponds to the old age of Solomon,
as the Canticles to his youth and the
Proverbs to his mature manhood. The
design of the author evidently is, (1)
To demonstrate the folly and mad-
ness of making this world, its pleas-
ures, or its pursuits the objects of af-
fection or hope J (2) To show the cha-
racter, influence, and advantages of true
wisdom or religion. The key-note is
struck in the opening lines, repeated
at the close, 12 : 8;
" O vanity of vanities ! t)ie Preacher saitli ;
O vauity of vaiiities ! all is vanity."
The practical lesson of the book is
summed up in the concluding words,
12 : 13, 14, which, literally rendered,
read thus :
"Fear God and keep his commandments,
For this is all of man."
The writer looks from the vanity be-
neath the sun to the eternal realities
above the sun, and from the shifting
scenes of this life to the judgment-seat
of God, who will judge "every work,
yea, every secret deed, both good and
evil." The book represents Hebrew
scepticism subdued and checked by the
Hebrew fear of God and reaping lessons
of wisdom from the follies of life. It is
an ethical or philosophical treatise in
prose, with regular logical divisions,
but full of poetic inspiration, and in
part also poetic in form, Avith enough
of rhythmical flow to awaken a deep
and emotional interest in these sad so-
liloquies of the author.
ECCLESIAS'TICUS, the title,
in the Latin Vulgate, of the Apocryphal
book called in the Septuagint " The Wis-
dom of Jesus the Son of Sirach." Both
titles are given in the English transla-
tion. The Latin title, "The Ecclemas-
ticdl Book," designntes it as a book that
was read for edification in the churches.
The original Hebrew is not now extant,
although Jerome asserts he saw a copy
of it. The Hebrew text was composed
by Jesus, the son of Sirach, between B. c.
190-170. His grandson translated it
into Greek about the beginning of the
second centliry.
In general, its contents resemble the
Proverbs of Solomon, only with much
greater particularity of detail, extend-
ing to all spheres of religious, civil, and
domestic life, and giving rules for the
2.oO
conduct of the same. Along with the
maxims are discissions and prayers.
The book closes with two discourses,
one, chs. 42 : 15-43, etc., " the praise
of God for his works;" the other, chs.
44-50, "the praise of famous holy
men," from Enoch to Simon the high
priest, the son of Onias. The final
chapter is a thanksgiving and a prayer.
The book is of great value as an indica-
tion of the current Jewish theology and
ethics at the time of its composition.
ED (witness). This word printed in
italics, is inserted in Josh. 22 : 34 as the
name given to the altar set up by the
trans-Jordanic tribes, but it does not
occur in the received Hebrew text,
which, literally translated, reads, "And
the children of Reuben and the children
of Gad named the altar: 'It [/. e. the
altar] is a witness between us that Je-
hovah is God.'" Some place the altar
on the east or Moab side of the Jordan.
Conder put it on the west side, at Kitrn
Siirtfibeli, 11 miles north-east of Shiloh,
but this identification is disputed.
E'DAR (tower of the foclc). Gen. 35:
21. Conder would place it on the Shep-
herds' plain, about 1 mile east of Beth-
lehem : Jerome states that it was 1000
paces from that city.
E'DEN (pJf'<is<iutuess). 1. The home
of Adam and Eve before their fall. Gen.
2:15. Its site has not been fixed. Two
of its rivers are identified, the Euphra-
tes, and the Hiddekel or Tigris ; the
others are disputed. Some say Gihon
was the Nile jind Pison the Indus. The
best authorities agree that the " garden
of Eden eastward " was in the highlands
of Armenia, or in the valley of the Eu-
phrates, but its precipe location cannot
be determined. The Bible, after the
history of the fall of our first parents,
withdraws paradise lost from our view,
and directs our hope to the more glori-
ous paradise of the future, with its river
of life and tree of life. Rev. 22 : 2.
2. A region conquered b^^ the Assyri-
ans. 2 Kgs. 19 : 12 : Isa. 37 : 12 : prob-
ably in Mesopotamia, near modern Ba-
//x, and same as the Eden of Eze. 27:23.
."'). The house of Eden. Am. 1:5. See
Br.TH-KDKN.
E'DEN (pletisdHtxess), a Levite in
the days of Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 29 : 12 ;
31:15.
E'DER f /iocJc), a Merarite Levite in
EDE
EDU
the days of David. 1 Chr. 23 : 23 ; 24 :
30.
E'DER (.fiock), a town of Judah
near Edom. Josh. 15:21. Schwartz re-
gards it the same as Arad.
E'DOM (fed), called also Iduraaea
and Mount Seir. The country extended
from the Dead Sea southward to the
Gulf of Akabah, and from the valley of
the Arabah eastwai'd to the desert of
Arabia, being about 125 miles long and
30 miles wide.
Physical Ftatares. — A mountain-range
of porphyritic rock forms the backbone
of the country ; above this rises sand-
stone, assuming fantastic forms, while on
either side of these formations are lime-
stone hills. On the west, along the val-
ley of the Arabah, the hills are low ; on
the east the mountains attain their high-
Tlie Approach to Edom tiom the East. (After a Photograph by Frith.)
est elevation, and border on the great
plateau of Arabia. The country- is well
watered, rich in pasturage, abounding
with trees and flowers, reminding us of
Isaac's prophecy : " Thy dwelling shall be
in the fatness of the earth." Gen. 27 : 39.
Cities. — Its principal towns were Boz-
ra, Elath, Maon, Ezion-geber, Selah, or
Petra. A description of them will be
found under their proper titles. For
a his'tory of the people see Esau and
iDrjr.EANS.
ED'REI (streugfh, utrnvr/hold). 1.
A capital city of Bashan. Num. 21 : 33 :
Deut. 3:1-10. It was in the territory
of Manasseh beyond (east of) Jordan.
Xum. 32 : 33. It is not noticed in later
Bible history, although it was an im-
portant city until the seventh century
of the Christian era. Its ruins, called
Edhra, cover a circuit of 3 miles.
Without a spring, river, or stream, with-
out access except over rocks and through
nearly impassable defiles, without tree
or garden, it is a place of security and
strength. Among the ruins are remains
of churches, temples, and mosques.
The place has now about 500 popu-
lation.
2. A town of Xaphtali. Num. 19:37.
Porter identifies it with Tell Khuraibeh,
2 miles south of Kedesh.
EDUCA'TION. Of secular edu-
cation, in our sense of the word, the
Jews knew little, but they enjoined the
duty and enjoyed the privilege of relig-
ious and moral training at home and
in public worship far more than any
nation of antiquity. They le.irned
from their parents and their public
teachers, the Levites, and later the Rab-
bins, to read and write and commit the
Law. During the Captivity they were
brought into contact with the extensive
learning of the Chaldaeans. Moses de-
rived his knowledge from Egyptian
priests, and Solomon was both a schol-
ar and a wise man, to whose open mind
the gathered treasures of instruction
and the books of nature and human
251
EGL
EGY
life brought lessons of priceless wisdom.
The people at large must have been ig-
noriuit of things outside of religion, and
their religious exclusiveness would
tend to keep them so, but there were
men among them acquainted with men-
suration, Josh. 18 : 8, 9, and with for-
eign languages, 2 Kgs. 18:26, and who
were skilled in writing, like the chron-
iclers of the various kings, and in keep-
ing accounts, like the scribes who are
often mentioned. In the days of the
monarch}' the advantages of education
•were secured by uiiiny in the so-called
"schools of the prophets." After the
Captivity the Rabbins regularly gave
instruction in the synagogues upon the
Bible and the Talmud. In the entire
history it holds good that boys remain-
ed up to their fifth year in the women's
apartments and then their fathers began
to instruct them in the Law. Later, the
boys began at this age the Rabbinical
books. The Captivity was in many re-
spects an incalculable blessing to the
Jews. It taught them that there was
something worth learning outside of the
Mosaic books. Hence, alter their re-
turn, they were a greatly-improved peo-
ple. It was then that .synagogues sprang
up, furnishing practical instruction.
After Jerusalem fell the Jews kept up
these schools, and they exist even in
this day. One valuable custom was the
learning of a trade on the part of each
one. Well known is the instance of
Paul, who, although well trained, a pu-
pil of Gamaliel, still could, and did,
make tents. Acts 18 : 3 ; 22 : 3.
Girls were generally without much
more education than the rudiments, yet
they could attend the schools and learn
more than to do needle-work, keep
house, and care for the children. Wo-
men were far higher in the social scale
among the Jews than at present among
the Orientals.
The sect of the Essenes, by preference
celibates, took great [)ains to instruct
children, but confined their attention
chiefly to morality and the Law. The
Rabbins taught the jdiysical sciences.
In these schools the teachers sat on
raised seats; hence Paul could say lit-
erally that ho was brought up at the
feetof (Jamalicl. Luke 2 : 46 ; Acts 22 :
3. Unmarried men and women were
forbidden to teach boys.
2.52
The ancient Jews enjoyed more ad-
vantages in mental training than other
contemporary nations. And if they
knew little about matters of common
information among us, they knew more
than did the great mass of people living
outside of Judaja.
EG'LjAH {ii heifer), one of David's
wives. 2 Sam. 3 : 5.
EG'IjAIM {ticn pouch), a place on
the border of Moab, Isa. 16 : 8 ; prob-
ably the same as En-eglaim.
EG'LON (enlf-lihc), king of the
Moabites, who held the Israelites in
bondage 18 years. Jud. 3:14. He form-
ed an alliance with the Ammonites and
Amalekites, and took possession of Jer-
icho, where he resided, and where he
was afterward assassinated by Ehud.
See Ehud.
EG'JLON {calf), an Amorite town in
Judah, Josh. 10 : 3-6 : 16 : 39 ; now
' Ajlan, a hill of ruins, 10 miles north-
east of Gaza.
E'GYPT, the valley of the Nile, in
the north-eastern part of Africa, and one
of the most remarkable countries in an-
cient history, famous for its pyramids,
sphinxes, obelisks, and wonderful ruins
of temples and tombs. It figures large-
ly in the Bible as the cradle of the peo-
ple of Israel, and the training-school of
its great leader and legislator.
Names. — In Hebrew, Egypt is called
Mizraim, a dual form of the word, indi-
cating the two divisions. Upper and
Lower Egypt, or (as Tayler Lewis sug-
gests) the two strips on the two sides of
the Nile. It is also known as the Land
of Ham, Ps. 105:23. 27, and Jiahab,
('' the proud one "). Ps. 89 : 10 ; 87 : 4 ;
Isa. 61 : 9. The Coptic and older title
is A>?»/, or Chemi, meaning " black,"
from the dark color of the soil. The
name " Egypt" first occurs in its Greek
form in Homer, and is applied to the
Nile and to the country, but afterward
it is used for the country onJy.
Situation and Extent. — Egypt lies on
both sides of the Nile, and in ancient
times included the land watered by it,
as far as the First Cataract, the deserts
on either side being included in Arabia
and Libya. Ezekiel indicates that it
reached from Migdol (now Telles-Semut,
east of the Suez Canal) to Syenc (now
Ai<wa)t or AnHouau), on the border of
Nubia, near the First Cataract of the
EGY
EGY
Nile. Eze. 29:10, margin. The Delta
and the valley of the Nile are estimated
to have an area of about 9600 square
miles (or a little more than the State
of New Hampshire), of which only 5626
miles are fit for cultivation. In the more
extended sense of later times, Egypt is
bounded on the north by the Mediter-
ranean, on the east by the Red Sea and
Arabia, on the south by Nubia, and on
the west by the Great Desert. The
length of the country in a straight line
from the Mediterranean to the First
Cataract is about 520 miles ; its breadth
is from 300 to 450 miles, and its entire
area is about 212,000 square miles.
Nubia, Ethiopia, and other smaller dis-
tricts bordering on the Nile to the south
of Egypt, have been brought under its
sway.
The following statement of the area
and population of Egypt and dependen-
cies is from the official report of 1876 :
Divisions.
Area.
Population.
Egypt
Nubia
Ethiopia...
Darfur, etc
Total
Square Square
kilometres. miles.
550,630 = 212,543
864,500 = 333,697
2,918,000 = 1,146,348
444,700= 171,674
4,777 830 = 1.864,262
5,252,000
1,000,000
5,000,000
5,700,000
16,952,000
Egypt proper has thus an area almost
as large as that of New York. Pennsyl-
vania, Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana com-
bined, and the present ruler of Egypt
controls a territory nearly half as large
as the Urkited States of America.
Phi/ftical Feiituven. — The country
has three great natural divisions: (1)
the Delta; (2) the Nile valley ; (3) the
sandy and rocky wastes. The Delta is
one vast triangular plain, watered by
the branches of the Nile and numerous
canals, and covered with remains of an-
cient cities and villages and groves of
palm trees, which stand on mounds of
great antiquity. The Delta extends
along the Mediterranean for about 200
miles and up the Nile for 100 miles.
The Tanitic branch of the Nile is on
the east of the Delta, and the Canopic
branch on the west, though the Delta is
now limited chiefly to the space between
the Rosetta and the Damietta branches,
which is about 90 miles in extent. The
valley of the Nile extends to the lower
or First Cataract, ijear the island of
Philae, whicti is about 500 miles south
of Cairo. It is in a rich state of culti-
vation, but is very narrow, and hemmed
in by low mountains or rocky table-land,
rarely rising into peaks, though often
approaching the river in bold promon-
tories. Behin 1 the rocky range, which
varies from 300 to 1000 feet in height, on
either side of the Nile, are deserts rocky
and strewn with sand. The valley is
scarcely more than 10 miles wide, and
there is little fruitful land beyond its
limits, or such portions as are reached
by its fertilizing waters on the rise and
overflow of the river. See Nilk.
Climate and Productions. — The climate
of Egypt is remarkably equable, the at-
mosphere drj' and clear except on the
sea-coast; the summers are hot and sul-
try, the winters mild ; rain, except along
the Mediterranean, is very rare, the fertil-
ity of the land depending almost entire-
ly upon the annual overflow of the Nile,
or upon artificial irrigation by canals,
water-wheels, ajid the shadoof. Winds
are strong, those from a northerly source
being the most prevalent, while the si-
moon, a violent whirlwind and hurricane
of sand, is not infrequent. The chief
fruits are dates, grapes, figs, pomegran-
ates, oranges, apricots, peaches, lemons,
bananas, melons of various kinds, mul-
berries, pears, and olives. Among the
vegetables are Beans, peas, onions, leeks,
lentils, gourds, cucumbers, caraway,
coriander, cummin, anise, and pepper ;
and of grains, wheat, barley, millet,
maize, and rice. Among plants are
the indigo-plant, cotton, flax, poppy,
madder, and a species of saff"ron. Many
kinds of reeds were found in the coun-
t'y, but they have wasted away, as pre-
dicted, Isa. 19^ 6, 7 : even the famous
papyrus, or hi/b/iift, from which paper
was made, has nearly, if not quite, dis-
appeared. Of animals, the camel, horse,
mule, ass, sheep, and goat are common,
and the wolf, fox. jackal, hyena, weasel,
jerboa, hare, gazellf^, hippopotamus, and
crocodile were all found in considerable
numbers; but the last two are now found
only in the upper Nile. Of birds, the
vulture (Pharaoh's hen), eagle, falcon,
hawk, kite. cro% lark, sparrow, hoopoe
(a sacred bird), and the ostrich were the
most common ; and of reptiles, the co-
bra, cerastes, and other species of ven-
omous snakes abounded, and are yet
253
EGY
EGY
the dread of native and of traveller.
Fish abound in the Nile and in Lake
Menzaleh. Insects are well represented,
the scorpion being among the most dan-
gerous, while swarms of flies, fleas, bee-
tles (the scaraba?us being held sacred by
the ancient Egyptians), and bugs of
various kinds attack man and beast,
and occasionally swarms of locusts sweep
over the land, reminding one of the plague
preceding the Exodus, and of the descrip-
tion of the invading army by the prophet
Joel. Ex. 10: 12-15; Joel 2:1-11. The
princi{)al minerals are granite, syenite,
oasalt, porphyry, limestone, alabaster,
sandstone, and emeralds. The first four
were fornierly ])rized fur the purposes of
architecture an<l sculpture.
Larifjunqe. — The sources of knowledge
254
respecting amnent Egypt are chiefly
four: (1) the Pentateuch; (2) the writ-
ings of Manetho, n. c. 300-250. whose
work is lost, but fragments of which
have come down to us through Jose-
phus, Julius Afrieanus, and Eusebius ;
(3) the accounts of Greek travellers —
EGY
EGY
Herodotus, B. c. 454, Diodorus Siculus,
B. c. 58, and Strabo, B. c. 30 ; (4) the
monumental inscriptions and papyrus
rolls in the temples and tombs or about
mummies. Copies of the inscriptions
and many of the papyrus rolls have been
discovered durin» the present century
and transferred to museums in London,
Paris, Berlin, Leyden, Turin, and Bulak.
and have been deciphered by Egyptolo-
gists. The hieroglyphic signs on the
monuments are partly ideographic or
pictorial, partly phonetic. The hiero-
glyphic, the shorter hieratic, and the
demotic alphabets were deciphered by
Champollion and Young by means of
the famous trilingual Rosetta Stone, dis-
covered in 1 799, and the Coptic language
which is essentially the same with the
old Egyptian. For a summary of the
respective merits of Young and Cham-
pollion with regard to the interpreta-
tion of Egyptian hieroglyphic, see Al-
libone's Dictionary of Authom, vol. iii.
p. 21)02.
The process of decipherment was,
briefly, as follows : The Rosetta Stone
had an inscription in three characters,
hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. The
Greek, which was easily read, declared
that there were two translations, one in
the sacred, the other in the popular, lan-
guage of the Egyptains, adjacent to it.
The demotic part was next scrutinized,
and the groups determined which con-
tained the word Ptolemy. These were
compared with other framed symbols
on an obelisk found at Philaj. The
symbol on the obelisk which occurred
in connection with the name Ptolemy
was conjectured to be Cleopatra, as the
number of letters also indicated. The
two groups were then compared :
were afterward verified by comparing
them with the names of other kings,
and particularly with that of Alex-
ander the Great as below: —
D
V^
^
_g^
y n^het
U L 'I Pto
lf]°%
The second symbol in the second group.
a lion. Champollion took to be I, and the
same symbol has the fourth place in the
first group. By a similar process of com-
parison, the nine letters of Cleopatra's
name were ascertained, while the dif-
ferent letters in the case of Ptolemy
The prevailing opinion is that the
ancient Egyptians were of Asiatic
rather than of African origin. Their
language was Egyptian, and was re-
lated, though it has not yet been proved
as belonging, to the Semitic family. It
had two dialects, that of Upper and that
of Lower Egypt, and by degrees a vul-
gar dialect was formed, Avhich became
the national language not long before
the formation of the Coptic. The writ-
ten character of the Egyptian language
was the hieroglyphic — a very complex
system, which expressed ideas by sym-
bols or by phonetic signs, syllabic and
alphabetic, or else by a combination of
the two methods. From this combina-
tion was formed the hieratic, a running-
hand, or common written form of the
hieroglyphic, principally used for docu-
ments written on papyrus. The later
Coptic language was written in Greek
letters, with the addition of six new
characters to that alphabet. The writ-
ings of the ancient Egyptians which
have come down to our times are dis-
jointed, and, from a literary point of
view, have disappointed the expecta-
tions even of warm admirers of Egyp-
tian civilization. See Poole in JEnci/-
f/npsedia Britannica, 9th Ed., vol. vii.
(1878).
Learning and Art. — The progress of
the Egyptians in the various sciences
was equalled by that of no other
took to be ancient people except the Greeks,
leinais. and perhaps the Babylonians and
the Assyrians. Inast'onomy, ge-
nd the arts
attested by the
r\ yj ^ cycles they formed for the ad-
of time, and by their skill in shaping and
moving vast blocks of stone used in
building, which, considering their want
of iron and the very simple mechanical
appliances at the command of Egyptian
builders, are an enigma to modern en-
gineers. The hardening of bronze tools
255
EGY
EGY
with which they cut granite and the mode
in which Moses destroyed the golden calf
indicate the progress they had made in
using metals. In medicine also they
were inferior only to the Greeks.
In architecture the Egyptians occupy
the most distinguished place among the
nations of antiquit)'. None have equalled
them in the grandeur, massiveness, and
durability of their structures. Mr. Fer-
gusson says : "Neither Grecian nor Gothic
architects understood more perfectly all
the gradations of art and the exact cha-
racter that should be given to every form
and every detail. They understood also,
better than any other nation, how to use
sculpture in combination with architec-
ture, and to make their colossi and ave-
nues of sphinxes group themselves into
parts of one great design, and at the
same time to use historical paintings,
fading by insensible degrees into hier-
oglyphics on the one hand and into
sculpture on the other, linking the
whole together with the highest class
of phonetic utterance and with the
most brilliant coloring, thus harmoniz-
ing all these arts into one great whole
unsurpassed by anything the world has
seen during the .3(1 centuries of struggle
and aspiration that have elapsed since
the brilliant days of the great kingdom
of the Pharaohs." — Handbook of Archi-
tecture. And Poole observes : " In the
whole range of ancient art Egyptian
may take its place next after Greek.
Indeed, in some instances it excels
Greek, as when in animal forms the
natural is subordinated to the ideal.
The lions from Gebel Barkel . . . are
probably the finest examples of the
idealization of animal forms that any
age has produced.'' — Encijclopsedla Bri-
tannica, vol. vii. The pyramids and
sphinxes, the immense temples, tombs,
and remarkable obelisks, have called
forth the admiration alike of the past
and of the nineteenth century.
Jicli(/ioii. — In religion the ancient
Egyptians had an idea of one supreme,
self-existent creator, but this idea was
mixed with the basest forms of poly-
theism and idolatry. Every town had
its local divinities and its sacred ani-
mal or fetish. Herodotus remarked
that it was easier to find a god than a
man on the Nile. Seth, the destructive
power of Nature, was for many centu-
ries the special divinify of Lower
Egypt, but he was at length displaced.
There appear to have been various or-
! dcrs of gods, each town having a cycle
! called a society of the gods, or " the
I nine gods." The Egyptians explained
t this cycle as the self-development of
I Ra, the chief or supreme god, already
Tlie Principal Kgypiiati Triad, Osiris, Ibis, and Horu«. (Ajur litehm.)
mentioned, and who a]ipears to be iden- | Two lists of their deities are given:
tified in Egyptian history of the "eigh- the first is according to the system of
teenth dynasty " with the sun and gun- j Memphis, the earlier capital, whose
worship. I chief gods were Ptah, I?a. Shu or Mu,
250
Temple at Karnak. Columns in the Great Hall. {After Photographs by Sebah.)
Temple of Medinet Abou at Thebes. (AJter Photographs by beoaa.)
17
EGY
EGY
Seb, Hesiri or Osiris, Hes, Seth or Sethos,
and Har. Those of the sj'stem of Thebes,
the later capital, were, according to Lep-
sius, Amen, Mentu, Atmu, Shu, Seb, He-
siri, Set, liar, and Sebek. These two
systems, however, may be treated as one,
consisting of male divinities with whom
are associated goddesses. Wilkinson
gives a list of thirteen triads of gods,
two of whom were usually of equal rank
and the third subordinate. At Philte
was the triad of Osiris, Isis, and Horus.
Sun-worshipwas the primitive formof the
Egyptian religion. Ra was represented
as a hawk-headed man, generally bear-
ing on his head the solar disk. Osiris (in
Egyptian Hesiri) was usually repre-
sented as a mummy with a royal cap
having ostrich plumes ; he is the good
being, the judge of all the dead, and is
opposed to Seth, the evil being. The
worship of these gods required priests,
sacrifices, offerings of fruits, libations,
and at some early periods human vic-
tims. Vast temples were built in honor
of the deities, each town usually hav-
ing at least one temple, and immense
tombs were also constructed as a relig-
ious duty and connected with the wor-
ship of some of the gods, usually that
of Osiris or a divinity of that group.
The Egyptians had a very strong be-
lief in a future life, and were taught to
consider their abode here merely as an
inn upon the road to a future existence
where there was no distinction in rank.
After death the body was embalmed
and often kept in the house for months
or a year before the burial. See Embalm.
The mummy of a deceased friend was
sometimes introduced at their parties
and ))laced in a seat at the table as one
of the guests. Herodotus says that the
Egyptians were the first to maintain the
■ immortality of the soul. They also be-
lieved in the transmigration of souls.
Though ''Moses was learned in all the
wisdom of the Egyptians," the system
of worship and religion which was given
to the Hebrews under him is in marked
contrast to the polytheistic and idola-
trous forms of Egypt, and attests its
divine origin.
ChrotioliHjy and Hlfitori/. — As the
father of nations, Egypt in its early
history antedates all records, and is
lost in obscurity. p]gyj»tian history
may be divided into (i great periods :
258
(1) The Pharaohs or native kings, to
B. c. 525 ,• (2) the Persian, to B. c. 332 ;
(3) the Ptolemies, to b. c. 30 : (4) the
Roman, to A. d. 640 ; (5) the Arab; (0)
the Turk. Egyptian chronology is in
a confused and unsettled condition.
New information from the monuments
has simply increased the difficulty of
settling the many conflicting statements
and establishing dates on a satisfactory
basis. The principal facts that appear to
be generally accepted are: (1) Menes is
an historical person, and the first known
king of Egypt. (2) The Great Pyramid,
at Gizeh, dates from the fourth dy-
nasty, and is an imperishable monu-
ment of the skill and resources of the
people at that very remote period. (3)
Manetho's lists of dj^nasties werei chief-
ly, though not entirely, consecutive, as
appears from the two lists of the first
Pharaohs found in the temple of Aby-
dos, the lists at Sakkarah, and another
in Thebes : the duration of these dy-
nasties, however, is not settled. (4)
The Hyksos, or Shephenl- kings of
Manetho, conquered and ruled Lower
Egypt for centuries, breaking the con-
tinuity of the empire, but they were
expelled by Amasis I. Tiiese Hyksos
are not to be confounded with the
Hebrews, whom Manetho deridingly
calls ''lepers." (5) During the eigh-
teenth dynasty the empire of Egy])t
was in the height of its splendor, its
conquests reaching to Babylon and
Nineveh on the Euphrates, and over
Nubia in the south. (6) No dates can
be definitively fixed before the begin-
ning of the twenty-second dynasty.
The two n;)tcd authorities on this sub-
ject— M. Mariette and Prof. Lepsius —
difTer over 1 100 years in their tables as
to the length of dynasties I.-XVII. See
J. P. Thomson in /iililiotheca Sacra,
1877, and Poole in Encjivlopwdia Bri-
Uinnica, vol. vii. Some have conjec-
tured that Menes, the founder of Egypt,
was identical with Mizraim, a grandson
of Noah. Gen. 10 : 6.
E'liipt and the liihle. — To the Bible-
reader the chief points of interest in
Egy])tian history are those periods
when that country came in contact with
the patriarchs and the Israelites.
1. The first point is the chronology
of Egypt as compared with that of the
Bible. On this it may be said that the
EGY
EGY
chronologies of both are in such an un-
settled state that there cannot fairly be
?aid to be an irreconcilable diCennce
between them until both are more fully
and definitively established. The ablest
Egyptologists vary in their estimates of
the duration of the empire about /JOOO
years. Menes, the first Pharaoh, began
to reign, according to Bceckh, b. c. 5702 ;
Mariette, b. c. 5004; Brugsch, 6.0.4455-
4400 ; Chabas, b. c. 4000 ; Lepsius and
Ebers, B. c. 3892 ; Bunsen, b. c. 3623-
3039; Birch, b. c. 3000: Poole, b. c.
2700 ; Wilkinson, b. c. 269] ; G. Raw-
linson, b. c. 2450. Egyptologists gen-
erally agree that the chronology is
wholly uncertain, and that we must
wait for further light and better agree-
ment among scholars. Bible chronol-
ogy is likewise unsettled, some theo-
logians holding to the "long" system
of the Septuagint, which dates the Cre-
ation b. c. 5400 (Hales, 5400 ; Jackson,
5426), and others to the shorter system
of the Hebrew text (Ussher, 4004: Pe-
tavius, 3983) ; hence no agreement can
be attempted until the age of Solomon.
From his time down there is no ma-
terial disagreement in the two chro-
nologies of Egypt and the Hebrew
records.
2. The second point is the visit of
Abraham to Egypt. Gen. 12 : 10-20,
This visit took place, according to the
shorter Hebrew chronology, about B. c.
1920, which would bring it, according
to some, at the date of the Hyksos, or
Shepherd-kings : others regard this as
too late a date, and put it in the begin-
ning of the twelfth dynasty ; and his
favorable reception is supposed to be
illustrated by a picture in the tombs at
Beni-Hassan (where are many remark-
able sculptures), representing the arrival
Entnuice to Tomb al Beni-Hassan. (From a Photograph.)
of a distinguished nomad chief with his
family, seeking protection under Osirta-
sen II.
3. The third point of contact with
Scripture is Joseph in Egypt. Gen. 37:
36. This beautiful and natural story
has been shown to be thoroughly in ac-
cord with what is known of Egyptian
259
EGY
EGY
customs of that age. Inscriptions on
the monuments speak of the dreams of
Pharaoh ; the butler's and baker's du-
ties are indicated in pictures ; one of
the oldest papjn-i relates the story that
a foreigner was raised to the highest
rank in the court of Pharaoh ; and Dr.
Brugsch believes an inscription on a
tomb at el-Kab to contain an unmis-
Profile of Rameses II., the Phaiaoh of the Oppr«
sion. (After Lepsius.)
takable allusion to the 7 years of famine
in Joseph's time, as follows : '* I gath-
ered grain, a friend of the god of har-
vest. I was watchful at the seed-time.
And when a famine arose throiKjh mniiif
yearn I distributed tlie grain through the
town in every famine."
4. The fourth point of interest is the
oppression of the Israelites in Egypt,
and the Exodus. Ex. 1 : 8-22 ; 12 :" 41.
Who was the Pharaoh of the oppression,
and who the Pharaoh of the Exodus ?
To this two answers are given by ditfer-
260
ent scholars: (1) Amosis or Aahmes I.,
the first ruler of the eighteenth djMiasty,
is identified with the Pharaoh of the
oppression, and Thothmes II., about 100
years later, as the Pharaoh of the Ex-
odus, by Canon Cook in Speaker's Coiii-
meittnnj on E.codiiH, p. 443. (2) That
Rameses II., the third sovereign of the
nineteenth dj'nasty, is the Pharaoh of
the oppression, and Menephthah the
Pharaoh of the Exodus, is the view
now held by a majority of Egyptolo-
gists— as De Rouge, Chabas, Lenor-
mant, Vigoroux, Bunsen, Lepsius,
Ebers, and BrugseTi. Rameses II. is
the Sesostris of the Greeks, who blend-
) ed him with his father, Sethi I., or
Sethos. He ruled 67 years and was
the great conqueror and builder, cov-
ering his empire with monuments in
glory of himself. *' His name," says
Dr. Ebers, "may be read to-day on
a hundred monuments in Goshen."
Among his many structures noted on
monuments and in papyri are fortifi-
cations along the canal from Goshen
to the Red Sea, and particularly at
Pi-tum and Pi-rameses or Pi-ramessu ;
these must be the same as the treas-
ure-cities Pi-thom and Rameses built
or enlarged by the Israelites for Pha-
raoh. Ex. 1 : 11, It is also said that
under the reign of Rameses III.,
nephew of Rameses II., the name /c«
Mosche — i. e. "island" or "bank of
Moses " — occurs among the towns of
Middle Egypti It is noted that Men-
ephthah, the Pharaoh of the Exodus,
lost a son, who is named on a monu-
ment at Tanis, which Brugsch connects
with the loss of the first-born. But
another fact is of more weight. Herod-
otus tells us that a son and successor
i- of Sesostris undertook no warlike ex-
peditions and was smitten with blind-
ness for 10 years because he " impiously
hurled his spear into the overflowing
waves of the river, Avhich a sudden
wind caused to rise to an extraordinary
height." SchafT says: "This reads like
a confused reminiscence of the disaster
at the Red Sea." The chief objection to
this view is that it allows less than 815
years between the Exodus and the
building of Solomon's temple ; but the
present uncertainties of the Hebrew
and Egy])tian chronologies deprive the
objection of great weight.
EGY
EGY
5. After the Exodus the Israelites
frequently came into contact with Egypt
at various periods in their history.
Through an Egyptian, David recovered
Portrait of Menephthah I., thf Pliaraoh of the
Exodus. (Fro7n Riehvi.)
the spoil from the Amalekites, 1 Sam.
30:11, etc.; Solomon made a treaty
with Pharaoh and married his daughter,
1 Kgs. 3:1; Gezer was spoiled by
Pharaoh and given to Solomon's wife,
1 Kgs, 9:16; Solomon brought horses
from Egypt ; Hadad fled thither for
refuge, as did also Jeroboam, 1 Kgs.
10 : 28 ; 11 : 1 7 ; 12 : 2 ; Shishak plun-
dered Jerusalem and made Judaea trib-
utary, 1 Kgs. 14 : 26, and a record of
this invasion and conquest has been de-
ciphered on the walls of the great tem-
ple at Karnak, or el-Karnak. In this
inscription is a figure with a strong
resemblance to Jewish features, which
bears Egyptian characters that have
been translated "the king of Judah."
Pharaoh-necho was met on his expe-
dition against the Assyrians by Josiah,
who was slain. 2 Kgs. 23 : 29, .30. Pha-
raoh-hophra aided Zelekiah, Jer. 37 :
5-11, so that the siege of Jerusalem
was raised, but he appears to have
been afterward attacked by Nebu-
chadnezzar. The sway of Egypt was
checked, and finally overcome, by the
superior power of Babylonia, and its
entire territory in Asii^ was taken away.
2 Kgs. 24 : 7 : Jer. 46 : 2. The books
of the prophets contain many declara-
tions concerning the wane and destruc-
tion of the Egyptian power, which have
been remarkably fulfilled in its subse-
quent history. See Isa. 19 ; 20 ; 30 :
:^ ; 31 : 3 ; 36 : 6 ; Jer. 2 : 36 : 9 : 25, 26 :
43 : 11-13 : 44 : 30 ; 46 ; Eze. 29 ; 30 ;
31 ; 32 ; Dan. 11 : 42 ; Joel 3:19; and
" the sceptre of Egypt shall depart
away." Zech. 10 : 11.
6. In the N. T. there are several ref-
erences to the relations of the Israelites
to Egypt as they existed in 0. T. times;
see Acts 2:10; 7:9-40: Heb. 3:16;
11 : 26, 27 ; but the interesting fact in
the N, T, period was the flight of the
holy family into Egyjit, where the in-
fant Jesus and his parents found a ref-
uge from the cruel order of Herod the
Great. Matt. 2:13-19.
7. Among the various other allusions
to Egypt in the Bible are those to its
fertility and productions, Gen. 13:10;
Ex. 16 : 3; Num. 11 : 5 ; to its mode
of irrigation as compared with the
greater advantages of Canaan, which
had rain and was watered by natural
streams, Deut. 11 : 10; its commerce
with Israel and the people of western
Asia, Gen. 37 : 25, 36 ; 1 Kgs. 10 : 28, 29 ;
Eze. 27 : 7 ; its armies equipped with
chariots and horses, Ex. 14 : 7 : Isa. 31 :
1 ; its learned men and its priests, Gen.
41 : 8, 45 ; 47 : 22 ; Ex. 7 : U : 1 Kgs. 4 :
30 : its practice of embalraiug the dead.
Gen. 50:3; its aversion to shepherds,
and its sacrifices of cattle. Gen. 46 : 34 ;
Ex. 8 : 26 : how its people should be ad-
mitted into the Jewish. Church, Deut,
23 : 7, 8 ; the warnings to Israel against
anv alliance with the Egvptians, Isa.
30:2; 36: 6: Eze. 17:15"; 29:6; and
to the towns of the country. Eze. 30 :
13-18. The records on existing monu-
ments have been found to confirm the
accuracy of all these allusions to the
customs of the people.
History. — The history of Egypt, as
drawn from o^her sources than the
Scriptures, is confused, like the chron-
ology upon which it depends for clear-
ness and order. Of the thirty dynasties
from Menes to the second Persian con-
quest. B. c. 340, some of the most noted
earlier kings were Thothraes I. and III.,
Amenoph II. and III., Sethos or Sesos-
tris, and Rameses II. and III. These
built many of the vast and grand tem-
261
EGY
EGY
pies and palaces at Karnak and Luxor,
and carried their conquests to Assyria
and Ethiopia. Among the later rulers
were Shishak or Sheshonk, Pharaoh-
necho, Phaiaoh-hophra, and Psammet-
ichus. Its most populous cities were
Thebes. Latopolis, ApoUinopolis, Syene,
Memphis, Heraclopolis, Arsinoe, Heli-
opolis, Bubastis, Sais, Busiris, Tanis,
and Pelusiura. The statements of some
Greek and Roman writers that Egypt in
its prosperity had 7,000,000 population
and 20,000 cities are believed to be
greatly exaggerated. This would re-
quire it to have sustained an average
population to the square mile, exclusive
of the desert, twice as great as the most
densely-peopled lands of modern times.
Egypt was conquered by Cambyses the
Persian about B. c. 525 ; regained its
independence under Amyrteus, of the
twenty-eighth dynasty of native kings ;
was again conquered by the Persians un-
der Darius Ochus, b. c. 340; by Alexan-
der the Great, b. c. 332, when Ire founded
Alexandria. After Alexander's death it
formed a kingdom under the Grecian and
Macedonian Ptoleuiies, the Greeks be-
coming the dominant class (the last of
the Ptolemies reigned jointly with his
sister and wife, the famous Cleopatra).
After the battle of Actium, b. c. 30, Egypt
became a Roman province. Under the
Roman rule Alexandria continued to be
the great mart of trade and the centre
of learning and philosophy ; for three
centuries it was under Roman rule, and
during that period Egypt was account-
ed the granary of Rome. On the trans-
fer of the seat of empire to Constantino-
ple, the Christians, who had been se-
verely persecuted under its Roman
rulers, gained the sway over the pagans,
and for three centuries theological con-
troversies raged with great fierceness.
The Arab conquest under Caliph Omar
came A. n. G40, followed b}' the Fatimite
dynasty, A. n. 970, when Cairo was
founded and made the capital. Saladin,
the noted |)rime minister of the last of
the Fatimites, assumed the sovereignty,
with the title of sultan, A. i). 1170, and
was a vigorous opposer of the Crusaders.
The government was overturned by the
Mamilukes about A. i). 1250 ; again con-
quered by Selim I., a. d. 1517; by Na-
j)oleon in 179S; by the combined forces
of the English and tlie Turks in l.SOl :
202
and, soon after, Mehemet Ali, an Alba-
nian adventurer, was made pasha, being
nominally a vassal of Turkey, but his
power was nearly absolute. Under the
reign of his grandson, the present khe-
dive or viceroy (since 18R3j, Egypt has
been restored to some extent from its
low condition, schools and colleges have
been founded, commerce and manufac-
tures encouraged, numerous reforms in-
troduced, the Suez Canal comj)leted and
opened to the commerce of the world,
railways and telegraphs have been con-
structed ; but the condition of the people
has not been improved, and poverty and
misery prevail. The treasury of the
khedive is nearly bankrupt. Egypt is
" the old house of bondage under new
masters."
The Presbyterian Church has estab-
lished flourishing mission schools in
Alexandria, Cairo, and Osiout, among
the Copts.
Moiniments and Rains. — " Egypt is the
monumental land of the earth,'" says Bun-
sen, " as the Egyptians are the monu-
mental people of history." Among
the most interesting ancient cities
are: (1) On or Heliopolis, ''the city of
the Sun," 10 miles north-east of Caii'o,
where are traces of massive walls, frag-
ments of sphinxes, and an obelisk of
red granite, 68 feet high, bearing an in-
scription of Osirtasen I. of the twelfth
dynasty, and erected, therefore, previ-
ous to the visit of Abraham and Sarah
to the land of the Pharaohs. Formerly
the two "Needles of Cleopatra" stood
here also, but were removed to Alexan-
dria during the reign of Tiberius ; and
one of them has lately been transported
to London, and now stands on the banks
of the Thames. Joseph was married at
Heliopolis, Gen. 41 : 45, and there (ac-
cording to Josephus) Jacob made his
home ; it was probably the place where
Moses received his education, where He-
rodotus acquired most of his skill in writ-
ing history, and where Plato, the Greek
philosopher,studied. (2) Thebes ''of the
hundred gates," one of the most famous
cities of antiquity, is identified with No
or No- Amnion of Scripture. Jer. 48 : 25 ;
Eze. 30 : 14-10 ; Nah. 3 : S. The ruins
are very extensive, and the city in its
glory stretched over 30 miles along the
banks of the Nile, covering the places
now known as Luxor, Karnak, and
EGY
EGY
Thebes. (3) Memphis, the Noph of
Scripture, Jer. 46:19. "Nothing is
left of its temples and monuments but
a colossal statue of Ramcses II., lying
mutilated on the face in the mud."'
Only a very brief notice of the wonder-
ful monuments can be given here. For
convenience these may be grouped into
two classes: (a) The pyramids, obelisks,
and statues; {b) the palaces, temples,
and tombs.
The ObeiijK of On. { Jitliopulis. !• rum a Photo-
graph by Good.)
(rr^ The number of pyramids gtill ex-
isting in Egj'pt is variously stated at
from 45 or fi.i to 130. Brugsch says
" more than 70 ;" Lepsius speaks of no
less than 80 that had escaped the notice
of former travellers (1842-1844): others
count as many as 130, including all pyr-
amidal structures, ancient and modern.
Piazzi Smyth (1874) reduces them all to
38, and gives a list of them. The largest
and most remarkable arc those near
264
Memphis, at Sakkara, Aboosir, Dashoor,
and (jizeh. The three at Gizeh are the
most interesting of all. The largest
of these is that of Cheops, which was
erected from 2000 to 3000 years before
Christ. It was old when Rome was
built, when Homer sang, when David
reigned, and even when Moses led out
the Israelites. This pyramid, accord-
ing to General Vyse, is 450 feet 9 inches
high (it was formerly about 30 feet high-
er), the present length of its base is 746
feet (it was formerly 764 feet), and it
covers an area of about 1 3 acres. It has
been stripped of its polished red granite
casing in centuries past to adorn the
palaces of Greeks, Romans, and Sara-
cens. It is the largest, and probably
the oldest, structure in the world. The
second pyramid is scarcely inferior to
the first in height, being 447 ftet 6
inches high and having a base 690 feet
9 inches square. A great part of its
casing has been preserved. The third
pyramid is smaller than either of the
other two, but in beauty and costliness
of construction is unexcelled by any
other pyramid. These colossal struc-
tures were erected as monuments and
tombs of the kings. The body of the
dead monaixh was embalmed, placed in
a stone sarcophagus, put into the mas-
sive tomb, and the entrance closed. See
Schaff's Bib/e Loiuh, ]). 40. Near the
P3'ramids is the great Sjihinx, a massive
man-headed lion in a recumbent posture,
nearly 190 feet long, with immense paws,
formerly 50 feet in length. The vast
figure is buried in the sand, except his
colossal head. There are also six other
smaller pyramids near the three here
described, three standing to the east of
the Great Pyramid and three to the
south of the third one. Southward of
those at Gizch are the j)yramids at
Aboosir, and about 2 miles still far-
ther are those of Sakkara, while about
5 miles beyond are those of Dashoor,
two of which are built of stone and three
of brick.
(b) Of the palaces, temples, and tomb-
structures, the most lemarkable is the
famous Labyrinth, in the Feiyoom dis-
trict, which Bunsen calls the most gor-
geous edifice on the globe; it includes
12 jtalaces and 3000 saloons. The tem-
ples at Karnak and Luxor are the most
interesting, the grandest among them
Temple of Hathor or Athor at Ueuaerab. (Ajter rhotogmpns.)
Avenue of Splmixes and rropylon at Kainak. (After Photographi.)
EGY
EGY
all being the magnificent temple of
Rameses II. See No and Ko-Ammon.
There are ruins of temples at Denderah,
Abydos, Philje, Heliopolis, and at Ipsam-
boul, 170 miles south of Philae, in Nu-
bia. Among the noted tombs are those
at Thebes, Beni-Hassan, and Osiout,
and among the obelisks are those at
Luxor, Karnak, Heliopolis, and Alex-
andria. These wonderful ruins attest
the magnificence and grandeur, but also
the absolute despotism and slavery, of
this land in the earliest ages and as far
back as before the days of Abraham,
and they also attest in the most impres-
sive manner the fulfilment of prophecy.
Judgment of the Dead. {After Eiehm.)
The Egyptians believed in the im-
mortality of the soul, in a moral re-
sponsibility, and in a future state of
rewards and punishments. Once with-
in the gates of Amenthes, the soul had
to undergo many trials. When at length
the soul reached the Hall of Double Jus-
tice, the heart in its vase Avas placed in
one scale, and the goddess of Truth in
the other. Horus and a cynocephalus
conducted the process of weighing,
Anubis superintended, Thoth recorded
the result, and Osiris, with 42 counsel-
lors, pronounced sentence. If the heart
was found too light, the soul was con-
demned to suffer the torments of hell or
to continue its existence, in the form of
a pig or some other unclean animal, dur-
ing a certain period, after which it re-
turned to its original body to begin life
anew, and had alterward to undergo an-
other trial by the judges of Hades. If
the heart was found sufliciently heavy,
Osiris restored it to the soul, which
might then sojourn in the regions of
the blessed. (See Baedeker's Lotoer
E>nipi, p. 137.)
For ancient Egypt see the following
works : Caylus, Conite de, Ilccuell cV An-
tlqnites Jiffi/ptientien, etc., Paris, 1761-
67, 7 vols. 4to ; Alexander, PJf/i/ptian
Mnnnments now in the Britiufi Muhcuui,
266
collected hy the French Institute, 1805-7,
6 parts roy. fol. ; Birch, S., Facsimiles
of the Et^ypfian Relicn (Uncovered at
Thebes in'the Tovib of Aah Hotep, 1820,
oblong fol. ; Rossellini, I Monumeuti delV
Efjitta e delta Nnhia, Pisa, 1832-44, 3
vols, atlas fol. and 9 vols. 8vo of text;
Sharpe, Egyptian Inscriptions from the
British Museum, etc., London, 1835-65,
2 series roy. fol. ; Bonomi and Arun-
dale. Gallery of Antiquities in the Brit-
ish Museum with hiscriptions hy Birch,
1844, 2 parts; Bunsen, Egypt's Place
in Universal History, 1848-(i7, 5 vols.
8vo, vol. V. being a hieroglyphical lex-
icon and grammar by S. Birch ; Lep-
f=ius, Chronolorpe der Egyjtter, etc., Ber-
lin, 1849, imp.4to; Lepsius, Deukmaeler
rins ^Et/ypfen iind yEthlopioi, Berlin,
1849-59, 12 vols, eleph. fol. and 1 vol.
of introductory text, imp. 4to ;^ Kouge,
liituel Funerarie de Anciens F.\/yptiens,
Paris, 1861-66, S^livraisons. imp. fol. ;
Pleyte, Etudes E(/ypt(d(>(/iqucs, Leide,
18r)6-()9, 7 parts 4to ; Brugsch. Diction-
ualrc Hierogh/])hi(/ne, Leip'/.ig, 1867, fol. :
Ebers, uEgyptcn nnd die Biiclnr Mose'a,
vol. i., Leipzig, 1868, 8vo ; Pleyte, Les
Papyrus liotlin de la liihiiotheque Im-
periale de Paris, 1868. atlas 4to ; Frith,
Eqi/pt and PalcKtinc Photor/raphrd and
Described, 1870, 2 vols. roy. fol.; Wil-
EHI
ELA
kinson. Sir J. G., The Manners and Ciia-
tom8 of the Ancient Eifyptinns, new edi-
tion by S. Birch, LL.D., London, 1879,
3 vols. 8vo ; Brugsch-Bey, Geachichte
Aegypten'8 unter den Pharnonen. Nach
den Denhm'dler)i, Leipzig, 1877 : Engl,
translation, London (Murray), 1879; F.
Vigouroux, La Jiihle et leu decnuvei les
modernes en Etjjipte et en Asxyiie, Paris,
1877, 2 vols.; Ebers, Ae(fi/pten t'ni Bild
nnd Wait, Leipzig, 1879. On modern
Egypt we mention the following works:
Lane, E. W., 7'he Modern Egyjitlana, 2
vols., London, 5th ed., 1871 ; Zinke, F.
Barham, Eijiipt of the Phnraoh'n and the
Khedii-e, 2nd ed., London, 1873.
E''HI (mj/ brother), a son of Benja-
min, Gen. 46 : 21 ; called Ahiram, Xum.
26 : 38 ; Aher, 1 Chr. 7 : 10 ; Aharah,
8;1.
E'HUD {iinio)i). 1. A great-grand-
son of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 7:18; 8:6.
2. A son of Ge:a, of the tribe of Ben-
jamin, who delivered the Israelites f .om
the oppression which they suffered un-
der Eglon, king of Muab. Jud. 3 : 15.
The Israelites sent Ehud to pay some
tax or tribute to Eglon as a token of
their allegiance. Under the pretence
that he had some secret message to the
king, he obtained a private audience;
and while they were together, Ehud
drew a dagger which he had made ex-
])rcss]y for the purpose, and gave him
a mortal wound. The custom of deliv-
ering confidential messages in secret
appears to have been so common that
the attendants of Eglon left his pres-
ence as soon as Ehud's wish was known.
Such is the custom in Eastern courts at
this day ; as soon as a confidential mes-
sage is announced the audience-cham-
ber is. cleared of all but the messenger.
Ehud fled toward Mount Ephraim ; and
summoning the oppressed Israelites to
his help, they secured the fords of the
Jordan, so that the Moabites, hy whom
their land was garrisoned, might not
escape. As soon as he had collected a
sufficient force he fell upon the Moab-
ites, and cut them off in every direction.
" And the land had rest fourscoie years."
Jud. 3 : 26-30.
E'KEIR (a rooting vj)), a descendant
of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 27.
EK'RON (emigrntion), the most
northerly of the five cities of the Phil- •
istines, Josh. 13 : 3 : in the lowlands of
Judah, 15 : 11 ; conquered by Judah,
15 : 45 ; allotted to Dan, 19 : 43 ; recon-
quered by Samuel, 1 Sam. 5 : 10 ; 7 : 14;
again a Philistine citv, 1 Sam. 17 : 52 ;
2 Kgs. 1:2; Jer. 25': 20 : Am. 1:8;
Zech. 9:5; now called Akir, on a hill
12 miles south-east of Joppa, a wretched
village of about 50 mud hovels. Tiie
prophecy has been fulfilled, '* Ekron
shall be rooted up." Zeph. 2 : 4.
ELi, which often occurs as an ele-
ment of Hebrew words and names, sig-
nifies " strength," and is applied not
onlv to Jehovah, but to heathen gods.
EL'ADAH, an Ephraimite. 1 Chr.
7:20.
E'LAH (ferehinfh). 1. An Edomite
chieftain. Gen. 36 : 41 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 52.
2. The father of one of Solomon's
provision officers. 1 Kgs. 4:18.
3. The son and successor of Baasha,
king of Israel. He reigned 2 years,
B. c. 930-928, and was assassinated by
Zimri, one of his military officers, while
revelling at the house of his steward,
Arza, at Tirzah. 1 Kgs. 16 : 6-10.
4. The father of Hoshea. the last
king of Israel. 2 Kgs. 15 : 30 ; 17 : 1 ;
18 : 1, 9.
5. A son of Caleb, the son of Jephun-
neh. 1 Chr. 4: 15.
6. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 9 : 8.
E'LAUilerebinth), VALLEY OF,
where David slew Goliath. 1 Sam. 17 :
2, 19; 21:9. It is now called ]V<idj/
es-Sumt, or "Acacia Valley," 14 miles
south-west of Jerusalem. The valley is
about a quarter of a mile wide, and has
steep sides rising to a height of about
500 feet. The torrent or brook has a
deep channel in the middle of the val-
ley, and its course is strewn with smooth
white stones. Terebinth trees, which
gave the original title to the valley,
are still found there.
E'LAM (age). 1. The eldest son of
Shem, and ancestor of the Elamites
and Persians. Gen. 10 : 22 ; 1 Chr. 1 :
17.
2. A Korhite Levite in the time of
David. 1 Chr. 26:3.
3. A chief man of Benjamin. 1 Chr.
8:24.
4. " Children of Elam " returned from
Babylon. Ezr. 2:7; 8:7; Xeh. 7 : 12.
5. Children of " the other Elam " like-
wise returned. Ezr. 2 : 31 : Neh. 7 : 34.
Their representative seale 1 the cove-
267
ELA
ELD
nant. Neh. 10:14. Some had foreign
wives. Ezr. 10 : 26.
6. A priest who helped to dedicate
the wall. Neh. 12:42.
E'IjAM, a country peopled by the
descendants of Shem, and called, after
his son, Elam. Gen. 10 : 22. It lay
south of Assyria and west of Persia
proper, and reached to the Persian
Gulf. Herodotus called it Cissia. It
was a province of Persia, of which
Susa was capital. Ezr. 4:9; Dan.
8:2.
History. — Elam was a strong power
in Abram's time. Gen. 14:9. Its peo-
ple aided in the destruction of Babylon,
Isa. 21 : 2 : invaded Israel, 22 : 6. Its
destruction was forefold. Jer. 49 : 34-
39 ; 25 : 25 : Eze. 32 : 24, 25. A re-
markable statement illustrating the
truth of the Scriptures in respect to
Elam has lately been deciphered from
Assyrian cylinders in the British Mu-
seum. Assur-banipal records, B. r. 068-
626, "In my fifth expedition to Elam
I directed the march. ... I over-
Avhelmed Elam through its extent. I
cut off the head of Te-umman. their
wicked king, who devised evil. Beyond
number I slew his soldiers. . . . For a
month and a day Elam to its utmost
extent I swept." There are other rec-
ords equally remarkable, but there is
not space to quote them.
EL'ASAH [ir.hom God made). 1.
The son of Shaphan. Jer. 29:3.
2. A priest who had a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10:22.
E'LATH, OR E'LOTH (trees), a
seaport-town of Edom, at the northern
end of the eastern arm of the Red Sea.
Deut. 2:8; 2 Chr. 8:17. It is usually
associated in Scripture with Ezion-geber.
The children of Israel passed by it; it
was a part of David's conquest, Deut.
2:8; 2 Sam. 8:14: was a place of im-
jiortance in Solomon's time, 1 Kgs. 9 :
26, 28: was recaptured by the Edom-
ites, 2 Kgs. 8 : 20 ; was retaken by Uz-
ziah, 2 Kgs. 14 : 22 ; 2 Chr. 26 : 2," who
rebuilt it; was afterward taken by the
king of Damascus. 2 Kgs. 16 : 6. nnd
Inter by Assyria. 2 Kgs. 16 : 7-9. Stan-
ley thinks that Klatli was on the site of
modern Ahofxi, and Robinson placed it
on a mound near A/caba. Palm-groves
still exist there.
¥:L-BE.Tirt:ij (the God of liethcf',
268
the name given by Jacob to the place
where he built an altar, or to the altar
itself. Gen. 35 : 7 ; comp. 33 : 20. See
Bethel.
EIi'DAAH (whom God calls), the
last named son of Midian, and a grand-
son of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25 :
4; 1 Chr. 1:33.
EL'DAD (whom God loves), AND
ME'DAD (love), were of the 70 elders
of Israel appointed by Moses to assist
him in the government of the people.
Num. 11 : 26. When the elders were
assembled around the tabernacle to
seek wisdom from God on a particular
occasion, Eldad and Medad were ab-
sent. The Spirit of God was, how-
ever, poured out on them in the camp,
and they prophesied. Their proceed-
ing was represented to Moses, and he
was asked to prohibit them, but he de-
clined, and, so far from wishing them
to be silenced, he uttered a prayer that
all the people might receive the same
spirit which was upon Eldad and Me-
dad.
The passage is important as proving
the distribution of the spirit of proph-
ecy, which had been concentrated in
Moses. The mode of prophecy of these
men was perhaps the extempore produc-
tion of hj'mns chanted forth to the peo-
ple. Compare the case of Saul. 1 Sam.
10:11.
ELD'ERS, a comprehensive title,
the peculiar force of which must be de-
termined by the connection. Ex. 3 : 16.
1. Old Testament Usn(/e. — During the
sojourn of Israel in Egypt the elders,
Ex. 4:29-31, were probably either the
heads of tribes or the oldest and most
judicious of the people. And though
their authority was in its nature pater-
nal, they were regarded to a certain ex-
tent as the representatives of the na-
tion. In the Hebrew commonwealth
every city had its elders. Deut. 19: 12;
21 : 2-9 ;" Josh. 20 : 4 ; Jud. 8 : 14 ; Ezr.
10:14.
There was a body of elders, however,
selected and appointed for s])ecial duties.
Num. 11 : 16. 17. 24, 25. and they seem to
have been taken from the general class
ofel(le:s. Theexpression is."(jather unto
me seventy men of the elders of Israel,
whom thou knowest to be elders of the
people, and officers over them." The
70 men who were with Moses at Mount
ELE
ELE
Sinai were also 70 of the elders of Is-
rael. Ex. 24 : 1, 9. At a subsequent
period of Jewish history we find a tri-
bunal of 70 elders, known as the San-
hedrin, which the Rabbins maintain
was a continuance of the original ap-
pointment of elders by Moses. Elders
are mentioned in the Maccabaean times,
about B. c. 175, 1 Mace. 7:33: 12:6;
and in the N. T. are associated, but not
to be confounded, with the chief priests
and scribes. Matt. 16 : 21, etc. See Sax-
HKDRIV.
2. Neio TeMameut Utnr/e. — The name
elder or presbyter is no doubt of Jewish -
Christian origin, a translation of the
Hebrew title applied to the rulers of
the synagogues, on whom devolved the
conduct of religious affairs. Referring
originally to age and dignity, it came
to apply to office. The term bishop
(borrowed, in all probability, from the
political relations of the Grreeks), while
applied to the same office of elder or
presbyter, refers to the official duty and
activity of these rulers of congregations.
In Acts 20 : 28, Paul addresses as " bish-
ops " ("overseers" in our version) the
very same rulers of the Ephesian church
who had just before (v. 17) been called
"elders." In Phil. 1 : 1 he salutes the
saints in Philippi, with the "bishops
and deacons," without mentioning the
elders, which has been explained by
supposing the latter to have been iden-
tical with the bishops. The plural form
is further evidence, since there cannot be
more than one diocesan " bishop," in the
latter sense, in any one church. Tit. 1 :
5 and the other appropriate passages in
tlie pastoral Epistles prove the same fact.
As to the time and manner of the in-
troduction of eldership we have no such
information as is given respecting the
diaconate. Acts 6. But we conjecture
that it came early in the Church — per-
haps was even co-eval with it ; in which
case it is no wonder that its introduc-
tion is not mentioned. As the office
was a Christian imitation of the Jew-
ish " rulers of the sj'nagogues," who
conducted the prayer, reading, and ex-
position which constituted the service,
every church had a tnimber of elders.
There is in the N. T. no set distinction
made between the teaching and the rul-
ing elder ; both offices were united in
the same person. See Bishop.
Elders, Estate op thk. Acts 22:5.
See Estate of the Elders.
H'liEAD {whom God praises), an
Ephraimite. 1 Chr. 7:21.
£Li£A'L£H (v-'liither God ascends),
a city east of Jordan : given to the Reu-
benites. Num. 32 : 3, 37 ; afterward pos-
sessed by Moab, Isa. 15 : 4 ; 16 : 9 : Jer.
48:34; now el-A'ul ("the high"), 1
mile north-east of Heshbon.
ELiE'ASAH {whom God made). 1.
A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 39.
2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8:
37 : 9 : 43. The name elsewhere in the
A. V. is Elasah.
ELEA'ZAR {God's help). 1. The
third son of Aaron, Ex. 6 : 23, and his
successor in the office of high priest,
which he held for upward of 20 years,
and his family after him till the time of
Eli. Xadab and Abihu, Eleazar and
Ithamar. together with their father,
Aaron, were consecrated to the sacer-
dotal office. The first two were struck
dead for offering strange fire. See
Abihu. Eleazar, being the eldest sur-
viving son, succeeded his father, and
was himself succeeded by his eldest
son, Phinehas, according to the cove-
nant. Num. 25 : 10, 13. The time of
Eleazar's death is not given, but Jo-
sephus, probably representing Jewish
tradition, says it was at the same time
as Joshua's, or 25 years after Moses.
The office continued in Eleazar's line
through seven successions, and then
passed into the line of Ithamar in the
person of Eli, who was both high priest
and judge, but was restored to the fam-
ily of Eleazar in the person of Zadok.
Comp. 1 Sam. 2 : 35 ; 1 Kgs. 2 : 27.
2. The son of Abinadab, to whose care
the ark was committed when it was sent
back by the Philistines. 1 Sam. 7:1.
3. A warrior of distinguished courage,
two of whose exploits are recorded in 1
Chr. 11 : 1 1-1 8 and 2 Sam. 23 : 9.
4. A Levite, son of Merari, who is
mentioned as having no sons ; but his
daughters were married by their " breth-
ren " — /. €. cousins. 1 Chr. 23 : 21.
5. A priest who took part in Nehe-
miah's dedicatory feast. Neh. 12 : 42.
6. One with a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 :
25.
15.
7. A Levite. Ezr. 8 : 33.
An ancestor of Joseph.
Matt. 1:
269
ELE
ELI
ELECT', ELECTION. The I
Greek word (ekU-ktus) for "elect" or I
"chosen" comes from a verb meaning
"to choose." It is applied to persons
or things. Luke 14 : 7 ; John 6 : 70. The !
verb is uniformly translated in A. Y .
"choose," but the adjective both "cho-
sen " and " elect." Luke 23 : .35 ; cf. 18 :
7. Choice implies preference, hence ap-
j)roval, favor, delight, as in Luke 23 : 35
the Messiah is called " the chos* n of
God" — /. e. the One in whom God takes
pleasure.
The elect in N. T. usage are those
chosen of God unto salvation, who there-
fore enjo\^ his favor and lead a holy
life in communion with him. Matt. 24 :
22 ; Mark 13 : 27 ; Luke 18 : 7 ; Rom. 8 :
33; Tit. 1:1. Paul once speaks of "the
election," Rom. U : 7, instead of " the
elect," just as he says "the circumcis-
ion" instead of "the circumcised."
Rom. 2 : 2ti. In Matt. 22 : U the call-
ing of God is distinguished from the
choosing of God : " Many are called,
but few are chosen." All are called
who hear the sound of the gospel and
are invited to accept its terms of salva-
tion, but those only are chosen who re-
j)ent and believe and persevere to the end.
Ei,ECT Lai>y. 2 John 1. This title is
applied by John to some eminent Chris-
tian woinnn. or else it was a figurative
expression denoting a Christian church.
EL-ELO'HE-IS'RAEL(«?)-e»</M
of God), the name which Jacob gave to
an altar near Shechem, Gen, 33 : 18-20 ;
probablj' the place where Abraham had
built an altar. Gen. 12 : 7. The el des-
ignates God as the mighty One, able to
do whatsoever he pleased. He delivered
Jacob, whose other name — " Israel " —
denoted his power with God.
EL'EMENTS, Gal. 4 : 3. 9. else-
where rendered RU'DIi>IENTS, Col.
2 : 8, 20, or the first principles of an art or
science, is a term applied to the ceremo-
nial ordinances of the Mosaic law, which
were weak, and beggarly, inasmuch as
they consisted very much in outward
observances, TIeb. 9 : 1, and were of
temporary and partial service, when
compared with the disclosures of grace
and mercy which they were designed
to shadow forth. In the case of the
Colossians, probably, these rudiments
of the world embraced the doctrines of
some vain and deceitful philosophy.
270
E'LEPH {tlie ox), a city of Benja-
min, Josh. 18:28; possibly Katumon,
marked by Van de Velde, 1 mile south-
west of Jerusalem.
EL'EPHANT, See Ivory.
ELHA'NAN {whom God bestoiced).
1. One of David's warriors, who slew a
Philistinian giant. 2 Sam. 21 : 19 ; 1 Chr.
20 : 5.
2. Another of David's warriors. 2
Sam. 23 :24; 1 Chr. 11:26.
E'LI {ascent, elevation), a descendant
of Ithamar, the fourth son of Aaron, and
successor of Abdon as high priest and
judge of Israel. 1 Sam. 2 : 11. In con-
sequence of his negligence or injudi-
cious management of his two sons,
Hophni and Phinehas, he suifered se-
vere chastisement. Samuel was direct-
ed to disclose to Eli the judgments that
would come upon his family, 1 Sam. 3 :
13, 14, chiefly because of his neglect of
paternal duty. The old man received
the intelligence with remarkable sub-
mission, but it was not until 27 years
after that God fulfilled his threatenings.
Then his two sons were both slain in the
same battle with the Philistines, into
whose hands the ark of God fell. The
aged priest, then in his 98th year, was
so overwhelmed when these calamities
were made known to him that he fell
backward from his seat and broke his
neck. He had governed the Hebrews in
all their concerns, civil and religious,
for the long period of 40 years. 1 Sam.
4:18. See Eloi.
ELI, E'LI, LA'MA S ABACH'-
THANI {my God, my God, why haftt
thou fovsal-cn me), our Lord's cry upon
the.cross. Matt. 27:46. The words are
Syro-Chaldaic, but are more correctly
given in Mark 15 : 34.
ELI'AB [to irho)u God is father). 1.
The name of the prince of Zebulun when
the census at Sinai was taken. Num. 1 :
9; 2:7; 7:24, 29; 10:16.
2. The father of Dathan and Abiram.
Num. 16 : 1 , 1 2 ; 26 : 8, 9 ; Deut. 11 : 6.
3. The eldest brother of David. 1 Sam.
16 : 6 ; 17 : 13, 28 : 1 Chr. 2:13; 2 Chr.
11:18.
4. A Levite, ancestor of Samuel. 1
Chr. 6 : 27. In 1 Sam. 1 : 1 he is called
Elihu, and in 1 Chr. 6 : 34, Eliel.
5. A fiadite lender who joined David
when in hoM. 1 Chr. 12 : 9.
6. A Levite who was both a porter
ELI
ELI
and a musician. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20;
16:5.
ELI'ADA (ichnm God hioioi). 1. A
son born to David in Jerusalem, 2 Sam.
5:16: 1 Chr. 3:8. In 1 Chr. 14 : 7 he
is called Beeliada — Baal substituted for
El, the true God.
2. A Benjamite. one of Jehoshaphat's
captains. 2 Chr. 17 : 17.
ELI'ADAH {whom God knows), the
father of Rezon. 1 Kgs. 11 : 23-25.
ELI'AH (my God 18 Jehovah). 1. A
Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 27.
2. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr.
10:26.
ELI'AHBA {whom God hides), one
of David's mighty men. 2 Sam. 23 : 32 ;
1 Chr. 11 : 33.
ELI'AKIM {tchom God establishes).
1. The master of the household of Hez-
ekiah, and one of the commissioners ap-
pointed to treat with the king of Assj^r-
ia. 2 Kgs. 18 : 18, 26, 37 ; 19 : 2 ; Isa.
22:20: 36:3, 11, 22; 37:2.
2. The son and successor of Josiah,
king of Judah. His name was changed
to Jehoiakim. 2 Kgs. 23 : 34 ; 2 Chr.
36:4.
3. A priest who helped to dedicate the
wall. Neh. 12:41.
4. 5. Two persons in Christ's gene-
alogy. Matt. 1:13; Luke 3 : 30.
ELI'A3I {God's people). 1. The
father of Bath-sheba, 2 Sam. 11 : 3 ;
called Ammiel in 1 Chr. 3:5; the names
mean the same.
2. One of David's warriors. 2 Sam.
23 : 34.
ELI'AS, the Greek form of Elijah,
used in the N. T. See Elijah.
ELI'ASAPH {whom God added).
1. The chief of Gad when the second
census was taken. Num. 1 : 14 ; 2 : 14;
7 : 42, 47 ; 10 : 20.
2. A Levite. Num. 3 : 24.
ELI'ASHIB {whom God restores).
1. A priest in the time of David. 1 Chr.
24:12.
2. A descendant of David. 1 Chr. 3: 24.
3. The high priest in the time of Ne-
hemiah. Ezr. 10:6: Neh. 3 : 1, 20, 21 :
12 : 10, 22, 23 : 13 : 4, 7, 28.
4. A Levite who had a strange wife.
Ezr. 10:24.
5. 6. Two similar offenders. 10 :27, 36.
EL I' AT HAH {to ichom God
comes), a Levite musipian in the time of
David. 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 27.
Ell I'D AD {whom God loves), the
Benjamite representative in the allot-
ment of Canaan. Num. 34 : 21.
E'LTEIi {to whom God is strength).
1. A chief of cis-Jordanic Manasseh. 1
Chr. 5 : 24.
2. An ancestor of Samuel. 1 Chr. 6 :
34.
3, 4. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8:20,
22.
5, 6. Warriors under David. 1 Chr.
11 : 46, 47.
7. A Gadite chief who joined David
in the hold. 1 Chr. 12:11.
8. A Kohathite Levite in David's
time. 1 Chr. 15:9, II.
9. An overseer of offerings in Heze-
kiah's reign. 2 Chr. 31 : 13.
ELiIE'NAI {toward Jehovah are my
eyes), a Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 20.
ELIE'ZER {God is help). 1.
Abraham's steward and confidential
servant. Gen. 15,: 2.
2. The second son of Moses and Zip-
porah. Ex. 18:4; 1 Chr. 23 : 15, 17 ;
26:25.
3. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 8.
4. A priest in David's reign. 1 Chr.
15 : 24.
5. A ruler of I he Reubenites in Da-
vid's time. 1 Chr. 27: 16.
6. A prophet who rebuked Jehosha-
phat. 2 Chr. 20 : 37.
7. A prominent Jew sent by Ezra to
fetch Levites. Ezr. 8:16.
8. 9, 10. Those who had foreign wives.
Ezr. 10:18, 23, 31.
11. One of Christ's ancestors. Luke
3:29.
ELIHOE'NAI {toward Jehovah
are my eyes), one who returned with
Ezra. Ezr. 8:4.
ELIHO'REPH {God his recom-
pense), one of Solomon's scribes. 1 Kgs.
4:3.
ELI'HU {God is he; i. e. Jehovah).
1. An ancestor of Samuel the prophet.
1 Sam. 1 : 1.
2. The eldest brother of David. 1 Chr.
27 : 18.
3. A chiof of Manasseh who followed
David to Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 20.
4. A Korhite Levite in the time of
David. 1 Chr. 26 : 7.
5. The son of Barachel the Buzite, a
friend of Job. and a kind of arbitrator in
the controversy between him and three
other of his acquaintances, who had come
271
ELI
ELI
to sympathize with hiui in his calamities.
Job 32 : 2. Elihu was the youngest of
them all, and therefore diffident about
giving his opinion in the presence of
such old men. but still, in opposition to
the three friends, who accused Job of
secret sins, he sets forth in soothing
and yet faithful discourse the idea of
the disciplinary nature of suffering,
and therefore tells Job to submit him-
self in loving confidence unto Jeho-
vah's chastening hand. See Job.
ELiI'JAH {my (jod in Jehovuh), OR
ELI'AS (which is the Greek form of
the name). Matt. 17 : 3. A native of Gil-
ead, and called the " Tishbite," proba-
bly from the name of the town or dis-
trict in which he lived. 1 Kgs. 17:1.
He was one of the greatest of prophets.
He is first introduced to our noiice as a
messenger from God to Ahab, the wick-
ed king of Israel, probably in the tenth
year of his reign. He was sent to ut-
ter a prophecy of a three years' drought
in the land of Israel. After delivering
this startling and distressing prophecy,
he was directed to flee to the brook Cher-
Place of Elijah's Sacrifice.
ith, where he was miraculously fed by
ravens. When the brook had dried up
he was sent to a widow-woman of Zare-
phath, and again the hand of the Lord
sup])lied his wants and those of his
friends. He raised the widow's son to
life. 1 Kgs. 17. After the famine l^ad
lasted the predicted period, Elijah en-
countered Ahab, and then ensued the
magnificent display of divine power
and of human trust upon the ridge of
Carmtl. ch. 18. See Ahab.
The reaction from such a mental
strain left the prophet in a weak, ner-
vous condition, and in a fit of despond-
ency he fled from Jezebel into the
" wilderness " and desired death. But
by angel-food nourished and inspirited,
272
be journeyed 40 days, until he reached
Mount Sinai. There the downcast man
of God was witness of Jehovah's strength
and e.xpeiienced Jehovah's tenderness
in a very remarkable vision. 1 Kgs.
19 : 9-18. Encouraged by the assur-
ance that contrary to his supposition he
did not stand alone as the only worship-
per of the Lord in Israel, and, more-
over, having a fresh commission grant-
ed him, forth from Mount Sinai he was
sent with renewed zeal and confidence.
He anointed Elisha to be prophet in his
room. ch. 19. He then retired into pri-
vacy, but after the dastardly murder of
Naboth he suddenly appeared before
the guilty king and announced the
judgment of Jehovah against the roy-
al pair. ch. 21. Several years after oc-
curred the prophecy of Ahaziah's death.
2 Kgs. 1 : 3. See Ahaziah. The slaughter
by fire of the two companies of troops
sent to take Elijah must have greatly in-
creased the popular awe of the prophet.
After executing the prophetic office
for probably 15 years Elijah was trans-
lated to heaven in a miraculous man-
ner. Elisha had persisted in accompa-
nying him across the Jordan, and it was
^vhile they were talking together that in
a ''chariot of fire" Elijah was carried
up. Fifty men of the sons of the
prophet were witnesses of the extra-
ordinary scene, although they only be-
held it afar off. A fruitless search was
made for the body of Elijah, under the
impression that the Spirit had depos-
ited it somewhere. 2 Kgs. 2. B. c. 896.
Malachi prophesied, 4:5, that Elijah
would reappear as the forerunner of the
Messiah. Our Lord explained to his dis-
ciples that Elijah did really appear in
the person of John the Baptist. Elijah,
with Moses, appeared on the Mount of
Transfiguration, conversing with Jesus.
Luke 9:28-35.
Elijah was the pro])het of deeds. He
left no writings save the letter to Jeho-
ram. king of Judah, 2 Chr. 21: 12-15,
which was delivered after his death.
But he made a profound imjiression
upon his contemporaries as a bold man,
faithful, stern, self-denying, and zeal-
ous for the honor of (Jod.
2. A priest who had married a for-
eign wife. Ezr. 10:21.
KL'IKA {(jod is rejecter ?), one oi
David's warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 25.
ELI
ELI
fi'LIM {trees), the second station of
Israel after crossing the Red Sea. Ex.
15 : 27 ; Num. 33 : 9. It had 12 wells
and 70 palm trees, and has been identi-
fied with Wady Gharandel, which is the
first pleasant spot in the wilderness after
leaving 'Ayun Musa. The water is the
best on the whole route from Cairo to
Sinai. A few palm trees still remain.
Others locate Elim a little farther south,
Ehm, Siuai { Wndy Gharandel.
in Wtidt/ Useit or in Wady Taiyibeh. It I
certainly must have been in this neigh-
borhood of running brooks, feathery
tamarisks, wild acacias, and stately
palm trees. i
ELIM'ELECH (God U hix Jnug), I
a Bethlemite, and the husband of Na- i
omi, Ruth's mother-in-law. Ruth 1:2, I
3; 2:1. 3; 4:3, 9. i
ELIOE'XAI {Uncard Jehnrah are
vn/ eyes). 1. Head of a Benjamite fam-
ily. 1 Chr. 7:8.
2. Head of a Simeonite family. 1 Chr.
4:36. .
3. A Korhite Levite. 1 Chr. 26 : 3.
4. One of David's descendants. 1 Chr.
3 : 23, 24.
5. A priest who had a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10:22; Xeh. 12:41.
6. Another who had a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10:27.
EL/IPHAL (tchom God judges),
one of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11: 35;
called Eliphelet in 2 Sam. 23 : 34.
ELIPH'ALET {God his deliver-
nnce), one of David's sons, 2 Sara. 5:
16 ; 1 Chr. 14 : 7 : called Eliphelet in 1
Chr. 3 : 8.
EL'IPH AZ, OR ELFPHAZ ( G-orf
18
After a Fhotograph by Fi-ith.)
his strength). 1. The son of Esau and
Adah, and father of Teman. Gen. 36 : 4,
10-16: 1 Chr. 1:35. 36.
2. One of Job's three friends. Job 2:
11. He is called the Temanite; hence
it has been inferred he was a descend-
ant of the Teman mentioned above.
His part in the discussions with Job is
marked by dignity and ability. His
theme is the unapproachable majesty
and purity of God. 4 : 12-21 ; 15": 12-
16. See Job, Book of.
ELIPH'ELEH {whom God makes
disfijK/iiished). a Levite porter and mu-
sician. 1 Chr. 15:18, 21.
ELIPH'ELET {God his deliver-
ance). 1. One of David's warriors, 2
Sam. 23:34: called Eliphal in 1 Chr.
11 : 35.
2. A son of David, 1 Chr. 3:6; call-
ed Elpalet in 1 Chr. 14 : 5.
3. Another, and apparently the last,
of David's sons, 1 Chr. 3:8; called
Eliphalet in 2 Sam. 5:16; 1 Chr. 14 : 7.
4. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 39.
5. One who returned with Ezra. Ezr.
8:13.
6. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr.
10 : 33.
273
ELI
ELK
ELIS'ABETH {God her oath; i.e.
worshipper of (Jod), the wife of Zacha-
rias, and mother of John Baptist. Luke
1:5.
ELISE'US, the (ireek form of
Elisha; utied in Luke 4 : 27.
ELil'SHA ((jod his Hulvatiou), the
disciple and successor of Elijah. He
was the son of Shaphat, and a native
of Abel-meholah. 1 Kgs. 19:16. Eli-
jah anointed him, by divine command,
at Abel-meholah, where he found Elisha
ploughing. He threw his mantle over him
as they stood in the field, thus signifying
the service to which he was called. Eli-
sha promptly obeyed the call, and leav-
ing his oxen in the field took leave of
his father and mother and followed Eli-
jah. He did not perform an}' independ-
ent service until Elijah's tianslalion,
which took ])lace some 8 years afterward.
He then became the head of the school
of the ])rophets. He was the counsellor
and friend of successive kings. He was
the opposite to Elijah in most things.
He lived in the city or with his stu-
dents, honored and sought for, a wel-
come guest in the homes he graced by
his presence. And yet he was filled
with a '' double "■ — /. e. an elder brother's
— portion of Elijah's spirit, both to work
miracles and to give counsel for jtres-
ent and future emergencies. He multi-
plied the widow's oil, and when the
son of the good Shunammite — God's
reward to her for her kindness to his
prophet — died, he raised him to life.
He cured Naaman, smote Gehazi with
leprosy, misled the Syrians, foretold
abundant food, and when dying gave the
king the promise of victory. Strangely
enough, a year after his burial, during
the guerrilla-warfare kept up between
the Israelites and the Moabites, when
a dead man was accidentally put in his
tomb, no sooner had the two dead bod-
ies touched than the later dead revived
and lived. But God did not recall his
beloved back to earth. 2 Kgs. 13:21.
We find the history of Elisha record-
ed in 2 Kgs. 2-9 and 13: 14-2L He
exercised the prophetic otfice upward
of 00 years, b. c. cir. 892-832.
ELTSHAH (God in Halvation), a
son of Javan, who is suj)posed to have
settled upon some islands of the sea.
Gen. 10:4; Eze. 27: 7.
ELI'SHAH [God is salvutiuii),
274
THE ISLES OF, from whence Tyre
obtained her blue and purple. Eze. 27:
7. They are geuerally identified with
^olis, Lesbos, Tenedos, and other isl-
ands of the Grecian Ai-cbipelago.
ELISH'AMA {ivhom God hears).
1. The prince of Ephraim in the wilder-
ness of Sinai. Num. 1:10; 2:18; 7:
48, 53 ; 10 : 22 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 26.
2, 3. Sons of David. 2 Sam. 6:16; 1
Chr. 3 : 6, 8 ; 14 : 7.
4. A priest in Jehoshaphat's day. 2
Chr. 17:8.
5. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr.
2:41.
6. The grandfather of Ishmael, Avho
killed Gedaliah. 2 Kgs. 25 : 25 ; Jer.
41:1.
7. A scribe to Jehoiakim. Jer. 36 : 12,
20, 21.
ELISH'APHAT (whom God
judges), a captain employed by Jehoi-
ada at Joash's accession. 2 Chr. 23 : 1.
ELISH'EBA (God is her oath), the
wife of Aaron. Ex. 6 : 23. She was the
daughter of Amminadab, and sister of
Naashon.
ELISHU'A [God his salvation),
a son of David, 2 Sam. 5:15; 1 Chr.
14 : 5 ; called Elishama in 1 Chr. 3 : 6.
ELI'UD [God his praise), one of
Christ's ancestors. Matt. 1 : 14, 15.
ELIZ'APHAN (whom God pro-
teetf). 1. The chief of the Kohathite
Levites, Num. 3:30; 1 Chr. 15:8; 2
Chr. 29 : 13 ; called Elzaphan in Ex. 6 :
22 ; Lev. 10 : 4.
2. A chief of Zebulun, commissioner
in the allotment of Canaan. Num. 34 : 25.
ELI'ZUR ( God his rock), the prince
of Reuben during the census. Num. 1 :
5: 2 :10; 7:30, 35; 10:18.
EL'KANAH (God creates), the
name of several descendants of Korah
mentioned in the 0. T.. for we are ex-
pressly told that " the children of Korah
died not" in the rebellion of Korah.
Num. 26:11.
1. The only one of the name of any
interest is the husband of Hannah and
father of Samuel. 1 Sam. 1 : 1 If. ; 2:11,
20 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 27, 34. The few words
that are spoken of him set him in a
very favorable light. He was a kind
and faithful husband, a })ious Hebrew,
and a self-sacrificing father. Although
he was a Levite, he did not apparently
perforin any of the usual offices. Judg-
ELK
EMB
ing from the sacrifices he offered annu-
ally, 1 Sam. 1 : 4, and from the present
he brought to the Lord when Samuel
was dedicated, he was a man of wealth.
2. The son of Korah. Ex. 6:24:; 1
Chr. 6 : 23.
3. A Korhite. 1 Chr. 6 : 26, 35.
.4. A Levite. 1 Chr. 9 : 16.
5. A Korhite. 1 Chr. 12 : 6.
6. An officer of the household of
Ahaz, probably the second in command.
2 Chr. 28 : 7. He was killed by Zichri
the Ephraimite.
EL'KOSH {God mil how). Nahum
is called " the Elkoshite," Nah. 1 : 1,
from which it is inferred that Elkosh
was his birthplace. The traditional
tomb of that pro])het is in Assyria,
about 2 miles north of Mosul, at a
place called Alknxh, a town of 300 fam-
ilies. Grove and others, however, place
Elkosh in Galilee.
EIj'Ij AS AR {oah, or heap), the coun-
try of which Arioch was king, Gen. 14 :
1-9 ; probably Lnvsa, in lower Babylo-
nia, on the Euphrates, between Ur and
Erech. Its inscriptions indicate an
earlier date than Babylon, in which it
was afterward absorbed.
ELi>I. Hos. 4: 13. The original is
elsewhere translated "oak." See Oak.
ELx>IO'DAM {exten>i!on?), one of
our Lord's ancestry. Luke 3:28.
EL'XAAM {God hix deliyht), a man
two of whose sons were of David's
guard. 1 Chr. U :46.
EL'NATHAN {whom God hath
yi'veii). 1. The maternal grandfather of
Jehoiachin. 2 Kgs. 24 : 8.
2, 3, 4. Three persons in Ezra's time.
Ezr. 8 : 16.
ELO'I, a Syro-Chaldaic form of
Eli. Mark 15 : 34, 35.
E'LON {an oak). 1. The Hittite,
father of one of Esau's wives. Gen.
26:34; 36:2.
2. A son of Zebulun. Gen. 46:14:
Num. 26 : 26.
3. A judge of Israel, who is called
the Zebulonite in Jud. 12 : 11. 12.
E'liOX {oak)^ a town in Dan. Josh.
19 ; 43 ; possibly the same as the fol-
lowing.
E'LON-BETH'-HA'NAIV {oak
of house of f/race), one of Solomon's
provision-districts. 1 Kgs. 4:9. Drake
places it at Beit 'Andn.^
E'LOTH. See Elath.
EIj'PAAIj {God his wages), a Ben-
jamite whose descendants built some
towns. 1 Chr. 8:11, 12, 18.
EL'PALET {God his deliverance),
a son of David, 1 Chr. 14:5; called in
1 Chr. 3:6, Eliphelet.
EL-PA'RAX, literally "the oak
of Paran." Gen. 14: 6. See Paran.
EL'-TEKEH {God its fear), a
place in Dan ; given to the Levites.
Josh. 19 : 44 : 21 : 23. Whitney iden-
tifies it with " el-Mansnrah, between
Ramleh and Akir." There is an el-
Mansnrah between Akir and 'Ain Shems,
which may be tlie one intended, as there
is no place of this name between Ram-
leh and Akir. Conder places El-tekeh
at Beit Likieh, north-east of Latrum.
EL'-TEKON {God its foundation),
a town in the hills of Judah. Josh. 15:
59. Grove places it 3 or 4 miles north
of Hebron.
EL-TO'LAD, OR EL'-TOLAD
{God's kindred), a town in the south of
Judah ; given to Simeon, Josh. 15 : 30 ;
19:4; called Tolad in 1 Chr. 4:29.
Wilton and Grove think it was about
40 miles south of Beer-sheba, in the
Wadi/ el-Thonla.
EXUL {naught). Neh. 6:15. See
Months.
ELXJ'ZAI {God is my praises), a
Benjamite warrior. 1 Chr. 12 : 5.
EL'YMAS, See Bah-jesus, Ser-
Gius Paults.
EL'ZABAD {whom God hath giv-
en). 1. A Gadite warrior who joined
David. 1 Chr. 12:12.
2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 26 : 1.
EL'ZAPHAN {whom Godprotects),
a Levite, chief of the Kohathites, Ex.
6 : 22 ; Lev. 10 : 4 ; ofilled Elizaphan.
Num. 3 : 30 ; 1 Chr. 15 : 8 ; 2 Chr. 29 :
13.
EMBALMS Gen. 50:2. The prac-
tice of embalming prevailed at a very
early period. The Hebrews learned it
from the Egyptians, by whom it was
understood very perfectly, for embalui-
ing entered into their religious life, in-
asmuch as they maintained it pre-
served the body for the dwelling-place
of the soul after it had completed its
various transmigrations. The embalm-
ers or physicians were regarded as sa-
cred officers.
"The process of embalming was car-
ried on in various wavs. In the most
2?o
EMB
EMB
expensive method the brain and viscera I with bitumen and aromatic substances;
were removed, their place being filled I the body was washed in oil or the tar
N
A
/^
- -/^v
0%t^
i
'%
III
?
1
mii
Baiidagiuo Mummies and making tlie Cases. {After Wilkinson.)
Fig. 1. sawing wooii ; a, timber fasleued to a stand. 2, cutting tlie leg of a chair, on a stand, b, indicating
the trade of a cariienter. 3, a man fallen asleep, c, c, wood ready for cutting, d, onions and other provisions,
which occur again at g, with vases, /,/. 4, 5, and 7, binding niuniniies. 6, brings the bandages. 9, using the
drill. 8, 10, and 11, painting and polishing the cases, e, ?i, i, mummy-cases.
of cedar, bound up in linen smeared I cheap method dispensed with the evis-
with spices, asphalt, and various gums ; I ceration, but all methods contained the
_ — - \ steeping in natron. It ap-
pears also that salt was freely
used ; and some authors be-
lieve that heat Avas employ-
ed." — Johnson's Encijdopie-
dia. After this process the
body was swathed in linen
bandages, with a profusion
of aromatics. The price of
embalming a single body was
sometimes upward of $1500,
and from that down to $200
or %?m. The process lasted
in earlier times 40, (i!en. 50 :
3, but in later times 70, days,
and afterward the body was
placed in a coffin of syca-
more-wood or of stone, and
then placed upright against
the walls of the house, where
it often remained for years, if
the family did not wish to go
to the exi)cnse of burial. Fi-
nally, the bodies were placed
in subterraneous vaults in
the ground or in the rock,
where they were often found,
after the "lapse of 2000 or
.3000 years, in a state of per-
T^/r . T, . ,, ^ , .... ..,.,,. N feet preservation.
DifFerent Forms of Mummy-Ca.«e9. (After Wilkinson.) ^^^^ ,^.^^.^ ^^ evidence that
1.2,4 9. Of wood. 3, 5, 6, 7, 8. Of stone. 10. Of burnteartheuwarc. p,^^^,.^,,,^;,^^ ^^..^^ practised bv
and the whole was placed in a solution I the Hebrews, except in the cases of
of natron (saltpetre) for 70 days.
276
The I .laeob and Joseph, and then it was
EMB
EMM
for the purpose of preserving their re-
mains till they could be carried into the
Land of Promise. It is true Asa was
laid in a '' bed which was filled with
Stone Mummy-Case. {After Wilkinson.)
sweet odors and divers kinds of spices
prepared by the apothecaries' art," 2
Chr. 16 : 14, and that mention is made
of spices in the preparntion for our
Lord's formal burial, John 19 : -TO, 40,
but we cannot interpret these sentences
as indicating any proper species of em-
balming. See Bury.
E>IBROID'ER, EMBROID'-
ERER, EMBROIDERY. These
words occur in A. V. in E.\. 28 : 39;
35 : 35; 38 : 23, but it is doubtful
if they ij-re used correctly. It seems
probable that the production called
" cunning work," Ex. 26 : 1, was more
like embroidery than the needlework
which the embroiderer is said to have
made. But neither kind answers ex-
actly to the notion of modern embroi-
dery.
EM'ERALD (perhaps the r/low-
ing), a very precious gem of a pure
green color, to which it owes its chief
value, as the deepest colors are the most
esteemed. Ex. 28 : 18 ; Eze. 27 : 16 : 28 :
13. The emerald was anciently obtain-
ed from Eg3'pt. There is little question
that the original word should have been
translated " carbuncle." This gem is
*' a garnet cut with a convex face." See
Stoxks, Prkciois.
ExTI'ERODS. 1 Sam. 5 : 6, 9. The
name of a painful disease sent upon the
Philistines ; probably it resembled the
modern disease of the piles. It was
customary with the heathens to offer to
their gods figures of wax or metal rep-
resenting the parts which had been
cured of disease, whence it is inferred,
in connection with 1 Sam. 6 : 5, that the
priests and diviners of the Philistines
recommended a similar course.
E'MIMS (terrorH), a race of giants
living east of the Dead Sea ; related to
the Anakim. Gen. 14 : 5,- Deut. 2 : 10,
n.
EMMAX'UEL. See Immantel.
EM'lIAUS {hoi spyhif/s), a village
near Jerusalem. Luke 24 : 13. Its site
has been disputed ; among the places
suggested are. 1. A little hamlet called
'Anncds, and known as Xicopolis in the
third century. It is on the plain of
Philistia, 22 miles from Jerusalem and
10 miles from Lydda. This appears
too far from Jerusalem, as Luke says it
was only "' threescore furlongs " distant,
or less than 7 miles. 2. Thomson places
Emmaus near Kuriet el-Aiueh, 3 hours
from Jerusalem, on the road to Jaffa.
3. Lange and Grove find Emmaus at
KuUmiyeh, 2 leagues or 4^ miles west
of Jerusalem, 4. Others have lately
proposed Urtas, a poor village about 2
miles south-west of Bethlehem, as the
site of Emmaus. 5. In the fourteenth
century Emmaus was placed at Kiibei-
heh, a little over 7 miles north-west of
Jerusalem. This view is sustained by
Dr. H. Zschokke of Jerusalem, who
has made Emmaus a special study, and
277
EMM
ENH
this location is adopted in Baedeker's
HiDidhnok of Pal. and Sijri<t.
EM'MOR {an ass). Acts 7 : 16. See
Hamou.
ENA'BLED, in 1 Tim. 1 : 12, means
" qualified."
ENA'JIM (gate of tino ei/es), a mar-
ginal reading in Gen. 38 : 14, 21, which
some scholars understand to mean a
place identical with Enam. Tayler
Lewis regards the idea that it refers
to a city as absurd.
E'NAM {double sjyring), a town in
the low country of Judah. Josh. 15 :
34. Warren suggests Bier-en-Nahl for
Enam ; Conder suggests a ruin called
'Allin, near Thnmnah, now I'ibneh, as
the ancient Enam,
E'NAN {having e.ye«), the father of
a prince of Naphtali. Num. 1:15; 2 :
29: 7:78, 83: 10:27.
ENCAMP'MENT. See Camp.
ENCHANT'MENTS. This word
is the translation of several Hebrew
terms. It comprehends the tricks of
the Egyptian magicians, Ex. 7 : 11, 22 ;
8:7; the omens Balaam used, Num.
24:1; the charming of serpents, Eccl.
10 : 11 ; and also magical spells, Isa.
47: 9, 12. In Jer. 27 : 9 the *' enchant-
ers" were rather seers or augurs. Every
species of enchantment fell under the
ban of the Mosaic Law. Lev. 19 : 26 ;
Deut. 18 : 10-12. See Divination.
EN'-DOR (spring of Dor), a])lacein
Issachar, possessed by Manasseh, Josh.
17 : 11. where Siscra and Jabin were
slain, Ps. 83 : 9. 10, and where Saul con-
sulted the witch, 1 Sam. 28 : 7. It is
now a miserable village called Eiidiir,
about 6^ miles from Jezreel.
ENDOW. See Dowry.
EN-EG'LAIM, oh EN-EGLA'-
IM {fountain of tu-o heifers), apparent-
ly a place near the Dead Sea, and pos-
sibly 'Ain-Ajiah, as suggested by De
Saulcy. Eze. 47 : 10.
EN-GAN'NIIW (fountain of gar-
dens). 1. A place in the lowlands of
Judah, between Zanoah and Tajipuah.
Josh. 16 : 34.
2. A place in Issachar; given to the
Levites, Josh. 19 : 21 ; 21 : 29; probably
identical with "garden-house" of 2 Kgs.
9 : 27. In the list of Levitical cities in
1 riir. 6 : 73, Anem seems to have taken
the place of En-gannim. The latter has
been identified with modern Jcnin, a
278
flourishing village of 3000 inhabitants,
on the south side of the great plain of
Esdraelon. Near by is a large fountain,
a source of the ancient river Kishon. and
gardens and orchards surround the town.
The people, mostly Moslems, are fanat-
ical, rude, and rebellious, given to fight-
ing among themselves or with their
neighbors. En-gannim was also the
same as Beth-haggan.
ENGE'DI (fountain of the kid), a
place in Judah, on the west side of the
Dead Sea, Josh. 15:62; Eze. 47:10,
about midway between its northern and
southern ends.
History. — Engedi was first called Ha-
zezon-tamar. Gen. 14 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 2 ;
it was David's hiding-place from Saul,
1 Sam. 23 : 29 ; 24 : 1 , and where David
cut oflF the skirt of Saul's robe, 24 : 4 ;
its vineyards are mentioned. Song Sol.
1 : 14; now called 'Ain Jidy, near which
there is a thermal spring, about 1 mile
from the seashore and from 330 to 500
feet above the sea, and about 1200 be-
low the top of the cliffs. The ancient
city was probably on the slope below
the spring, where there are a few ruins.
EN'GINES. See War.
ENGRAVE'. Engraved seals are
spoken of at a very early period of the
world. The names of the children of
Israel were directed to be engraved on
two stones, and the words " Holinkss to
THE Lord" were also to be engraved on
the high priest's breastplate, both to be
like the engravings of a signet. Ex. 28 :
11, 36, The signet is mentioned before
Joseph was sold into Egypt. Job also
speaks of engraving with an iron pen
upon a rock. Jobl9:24. The ten com-
mandments were engraved, Ex. 32 : 16,
and graven images were undoubtedly
among the earliest objects of idolatrous
worship. Ex. 20:4; 32:4. Allusion is
also made to the engraver's art in Eze.
23 : 14. The engraved lines were prob-
ably filled in with coloring-matter. See
also Acts 17 : 29. See Ska l.
ENHAD'DAH (su-ift fountain), a
place in Issachar. Josh. 19 : 21. Van
de Velde and Thomson suggest as its
site 'Ain Hand, on the western slope of
Mount Carmcl, 2 miles from the sea.
Grove questions this view. Conder
proi)Ose8 Kef'r 'Adan.
EN-HAk'KORE (fovntain of the
crier), a sj)ring opened for Samson.
ENH
ENS
Jud. 15 : 19. Milton refers to it in
Snmson Aijonistes :
" God, who caused a fountain at thy prayer
From the dry ground to spring/tliy thirst to
allay,
After the brunt of battle, can as easy
Cause light again within thine eyes to spring."
" Samson's Spring " was pointed out
on the way from Soehoh to Eleutherop-
olis from the lime of Jerome to the four-
teenth century, but Robinson rejects this
site ; Van de Velde suggests a large
spring near Tell el-Lekiijeh, 4 miles from
Beer-sheba. This, however, is 30 miles
from Gaza, while Samson's exploit was
probably much nearer thatcit}'. Conder
found near Zoreah a spring called '^?/hh
Kara, which name seemed to resemble
En-hukkore.
EN-HA'ZOR [spriiuj of the village),
a. city of Naphtali, near Kedc^h, Josh.
19 : .37 ; now, perhaps, 'Ain Hazur, near
Ram eh.
EN-MISH'PAT {fonutnin of judg-
ment). Gen. 14: 7. See Kadksh.
E'NOCH {initiating). 1. A son of
Cain, after whom he named a "city,"
the first-mentioned city in the Bible.
Gen. 4:17; Heb. 11 : 5.
2. The son of Jared, and father of Me-
thusaleh. He is called " the seventh
from Adam," Jude 14, to distinguish
him from Enoch, the son of Cain, who
was only the third from Adam. We are
told that he " walked with God " — an
expressive figure to denote the closest
communion with the divine Being and
entire conformity to his will. And con-
cerning his departure from the world,
we are told that *' he was not, for God
took him " — a phrase which imports a
mere change of residence, without suf-
fering "the ordinary dissolution of the
body. In this case, as well as in Eli-
jah's, the body was clothed with immor-
tality, or endued with the immortal
principle by the immediate power of
God. 1 Cor. 15 : 50.
Enoch, Book of. There is only one
reference in the Bible, Jude 14, to
Enoch as a prophet, but an Apocryphal
book called after him was well known
to the early fathers. It was then lost
to the knowledge of Europe, except in
fragments, until Bruce, in 1773. brought
from Abyssinia three manuscript copies
containing the complete ^thiopic trans-
lation. Archbishop Lawrence made an
English translation of the book, which
was the basis of various subsequent edi-
tions, which were rendered comparative-
ly worthless when, in 1851, Dr. Dillmann
published a new edition of the ^thiopic
text, and in 1853 a German translation.
" The book consists of a series of reve-
lations supposed to have been given to
Enoch and Noah, which extend to the
most varied aspects of nature and life,
nnd are designed to offer a complete
vindication of the action of Providence."
It was never received by the Jews nor
by the fathers as inspired. The author-
ship and date are unknown.
E'NOCH, a city built by Cain. Gen.
4:17.
E'NOjV, or .E'NON (springs), a
place near Salim where John was bap-
tizing. John 3 : 23. Three sites have
been proposed for it : 1. The traditional
one, by Jerome, about 8 miles south of
Beisan; not confirmed by later authori-
ties. 2. In ir(f(/yF«/rf/(, 5 miles north-east
of Jerusalem ; suggested by Dr. Barclay.
3. The more probable site, pointed out
by Robinson, Stanley, and Conder. This
is east of Xablas, near the village Salim,
and north of the latter, in M'ady Farah
(but not the same valley as in No. 2),
where there are copious springs : and 3
or 4 miles north of the springs is a. vil-
lage called 'Aynun or JEnon. The site
may therefore be regarded as settled
with some degree of certainty.
E'NOS (man), the first-born of Seth.
Gen. 4 : 26 : 5 : 6, 7. 9-11 ; Luke 3 : 38.
E'NOSH (man), a form of Enos. 1
Chr. 1:1.
EN-Rim'MON (fountain of the
pomegntnate), perhaps the same as Ain
and Riinmon, Josh. 15 : 32, and Ain
Remmon, Josh. 19 : 7, and Ain Rim-
mon, 1 Chr. 4 : 32 ; Neh. 11 : 29. Van
de Velde and Wilton place it at Urn er-
Eumdmin, between Eleutheropolis and
Beer-sheba, where there is a large spring.
EN-RO'GEIi { fountain of the ful-
ler), a spring not far from Jerusalem.
Josh. 15 : 7 : 18 : 16 : 2 Sam. 17 : 17, 21 :
1 Kgs. 1 : 9. Some place it at the " well
of Joab," in the valley of Hinnom. M.
Ganneau would identify it with the Foun-
tain of the Virgin. See Jkrusalem.
EN-SHE'MESH {fountain of the
Sun), a spring between .Judah and Ben-
jamin, Josh. 15: 7 ; 18 : 17 ; probably
the same as that now called the " Apos-
279
ENS
EPH
tie's Spring," about 1 J miles east of Beth-
any, and the first halting-place for trav-
ellers from Jerusalem to Jericho.
EN'SSICiN. See Banners.
ENSUE' means, in 1 Pet. 3:11, "to
follow after and overtake."
EN-TAP'PUAH {apple, or citron
spriuf/), a place in Manasseh. Josh. 17 :
7. See Tappitah,
ENTREAT', when spoken of con-
duct, means "to treat,-" as, "'to entreat
well."
EP^N'ETUS (praherl), one whom
Paul in Rom. 16 : 5 called his " well-be-
loved," and " the first fruits of Acha-
ia" — better, "of Amn" — unto Christ.
EP'APHRAS {lovely, a contraction
of '• Epaphroditus "), a distinguished
disciple of Colossee, and a faithful min-
ister of the gospel. Col. 1 : 7. His cha-
racter is described by the apostle Paul,
Col. 1:7,8; 4:12, whose fellow-pris-
oner he was at Rome. Phile. 23.
EPAPHRODI'TUS {lovely), an
eminent disciple who resided at Philip-
pi, and was commissioned by the church
in that city to visit the apostle Paul
during his imprisonment at Rome; to
which circumstance, and the procuring
cause of it, the apostle alludes with
strong commendation. Phil. 2:25; 4 : IS.
E'PHAH {flarhiesf:). 1. A fon of
Midian. and grandson of Abraham,
Gen. 26:4; 1 Chr. 1 : 38 j descendants
mentioned in Isa. 60:6.
2. A concubine of Caleb, the son of
Hezron. 1 Chr. 2:46.
3. One of Judahs descendants. 1 Chr.
2:47.
E'PHAH (from the Egyptian, a
meoKurc, especially of corn). See Mkas-
URES.
E'PHAI {u-ean/), a Netophathite
whose sons repaired unto Gedaliah. Jer.
40:8.
E'PHER(ac^///*). 1. A son of Mid-
ian. Gen. 26:4: 1 Chr. 1 : .".3.
2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 :
17.
3. A chief of the trans-Jordanic Ma-
nasseh. 1 (!hr. 6 : 24.
E'PHES-DAJW'MIill {ho„v,lary
o/" /;A<of/W/.Y/), called also PAS-DAlU'-
MIM. 1 Sam. 17 : 1 ,• 1 Chr. 11 : 13.
Van dc Veldc locates it at a ruin in
Wndy Sitiiit called iJamiin, but Conder
thinks we have a trsice of the ancient
Ephes - dainmim in the modern lieit
280
Fused, or " House of Bleeding," near
Shochoh. ( Teut-L!fe, ii. p. 160.)
EPHE'SIANS, the citizens of
Ephesus. Acts 19:28.
Epistle to, was written by Paul to
the Christians at Ephesus. The church
in that renowned city was established
and built up under Paul's ministry,
Acts 18:19,21; 19, during the years
54-57. This letter was written by the
apostle about A. n. 62, while he was in
prison at Rome, and forwarded by
Tychicus, a beloved brother and faith-
ful minister. Eph. 6:21. While other
Ej)istles of Paul were evidently called
forth by the circumstances of the church
to which they were addressed, this Epis-
tle is of a general character, and was
intended for a number of congregations
in Asia Minor. He expatiates with
great fervor and eloquence upon the
doctrine of election, upon the richness
of the Christian inheritance, upon the
new relationship between God and us —
that in Christ Jesus we become " fellow-
citizens with the saints, and of the
household of God." The succeeding
prayer is surely one of the most mar-
vellous outbursts of the apostle's J>iety,
under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
The main doctrinal thought of the Epis-
tle is the C/iiDcJi ill Chrint Jesux, the
eternal principles of her life, her unity
of many members, her warfare and her
victory, her steady growth, and her
glorious end. Hence, in the hortatory
portion, or last three chapters, he urges
the duty of preser\ ing unity, and makes
the relation of Christ to his Church and
of the Church to Christ the ideal stand-
ard of the domestic relation between
man and wife and parents r>nd chil-
dren.
The Epistle to the Colossians was
written at the same time. Hence there
is great similarity between them. See
CoT.ossiANs. Epistle to.
EPH'ESUS, the most important
commercial city of Asia Minor, "one
of the eyes of Asia," Smyrna, 40 miles
to the north, being the other. Ephesus
stood upon the sotith side of a plain,
with mountains on three sides and the
Icarian Sea on the west. The river
Cayster ran across the )>lain.
Scripture Hintory. — Paul visited Ephe-
sus on his second tour. Acts 18 : iy-21 ;
Apollo? was instructed there by Aquila
rm§f
P '!"
Ml
M
EPH
p:ph
and Priscilla, 18:24-26; Paul dwelt
there 3 years, Acts 19 ; charged the
elders of the church, 20:16-28; the
angel of the church of Ephesus is
named in Rev. 2 : 1-7. The city is a
complete desolation ; the ruins of the
Stadium and theatre remain, but wild
beasts haunt them. On the plain is a
little Turkish village called Ayasaloitk,
from St. John, who is supposed to have
ended his days at Ephesus. The an-
cient city often changed its name and
its site. In the time of the Trojan war
it was called Alopes, then Orthygia, next
Morges, then Smyrna, Trachje, and
Samornion, then Ptelte, then Ephesus,
and now Ayasalouk.
Bnildiiif/n. — In apostolic times Ephe-
sus contained three remarkable build-
ings : 1. T/ie Temple of Diann, one of
the Seven Wonders of the world. It was
erected at the joint cost of all Asia, and
was 220 years in building. Its length
was 425 feet, and its breadth 220 feet.
Built of purest marble, it is said to have
gleamed like a meteor. Columns of
Parian marble, 60 feet high and 127 in
number, supported the roof. Its doors
were of carved cypress. The jambs
were of marble, and the transom above
was a single block of vast dimensions,
reputed to have been put in place by
the goddess herself. The hall contained
famous pieces of sculpture by Praxit-
eles, Phidias, and other masters ; in
the gallery, hung with master-pieces of
paintings, one by Apelles is estimated
to have cost upward of $190,000. In
the centre of the court was an image of
the goddess, which the superstitious
people believed fell down from heaven.
Acts 19 : 35. See Diana. Ephesus fell
a prey to the Goths, a. d. 262, and the
remains of its magnificent temple were
hidden from the world until brought to
light, in 1869, by Mr. J. T. Wood, who
spent eleven years, from 1863 to 1874,
in exploration about the ancient city.
He found two large stones containing
inscriptions in Greek and Latin record-
ing that certain walls were built by order
of Augustus, B. c. 6. Twenty feet below
the surface was found a pavement be-
longing to the most ancient of the three
temples which rose successively to Diana.
The first temple, enlarged and beautified
and called the second temple, was set on
lire B. c. 356, on the night Alexander the
282^
Great was born. Some 2000 mediaeval
coins were discovered in 1871, which are
now in the British Museum.
2. The Theatre, Acts 19 : 29, the largest
structure of its kind built by the (ireeks,
and claimed to be capable of seating
50,000 spectators. Mr. Wood estimated
its seating capacity at 24,500 persons.
3. The Stadium, or Circus, 685 feet
long by 200 feet wide, an arena in which
the Ephesian people witnessed foot-ra-
cings, wrestlings, and fights with wild
beasts. The combatants were usually
condemned criminals, who were sent
naked into the arena to be torn in
pieces by the wild beasts. 1 Cor. 15 : 32.
The victims were sometimes exposed at
the end of the combat, which gives
great vividness to the apostle's figure
in 1 Cor. 4 : 9. Some of these games
were held in honor of Diana, and the
silver shrines or images of the goddess
made by Demetrius and his fellow-crafts-
men were eagerly purchased for house-
hold idols by visitors. Acts 19 : 24. A
railroad has been built from Ephesus
to Smyrna by an English company.
EPH'liAIi {jnd<jmeni), a descend-
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 37.
E'PHOD (ephod, or image), the
father of one who helped in apportion-
ing the land under Joshua and Eleazar.
Num. 34 : 23.
EPH'OD, one of the a-tieles of the
priest's' official dress. Ex. 28 : 6. It was
made of plain linen, 1 Sam. 2:18; 2
Sam. 6:14, except the ephod of the
high priest, which was embroidered
with various colors. It consisted of
two parts, one covering the back and the
other the breast, clasped together upon
each shoulder with a large onyx stone,
upon which were engraved the names
of the twelve tribes, six on each stone;
and upon the place where it crossed the
breast was the breastplate. See Biieast-
PLATK. It was further fastened by a
" curious girdle of gold, blue, purple,
scarlet, and fine twined linen." The
ephod, or something resembling it and
called by the same n.ame, was worn by
others besides the priests. 1 Chr. 15 : 27
and j)assages before cited. See High
Prif.st.
E'PIIRAIHI (doidde frmtfulne8H),
the second son of Joseph. Gen. 41 : 52.
Though younger than Manasseh. he was
the object of peculiar favor, and the pre-
EPH
EPI
diction of their grandfather, Jacob, was
literally fulfilled. Coiup. Gen. 48 : <S-20 ;
Num. 2:18-21.
E'PHRAIM (dmihle fruifftduess),
a territory named after Joseph's second
son, Gen. 41 : 50-52 : its boundaries are
given in Josh. 16 : 1-10. It lay in the
centre of Canaan, south of Manasseh
and north of Benjamin and Dan, ex-
tending from the Jordan to the Medi-
terranean Sea. It was about bb miles
long, and about 30 miles in its greatest
breadth.
Physical Features. — It may be divi-
ded into three groups : 1. The valley of
the Jordan ; 2. The hill-country ; 3. The
plain of Sharon, on the sea-coast. All
these were well watered and fertile, ful-
filling the blessing of Moses in Deut.
33 : 13-16.
HiHtory. — For the early history of this
territory, see Caxaax. For more than
400 years Ephraim, with Manasseh and
Benjamin, exercised undisputed pre-
eminence. Joshua and Samuel were
Ephraimites. In its territory, at Shi-
loh, the tabernacle was set up. Josh.
18 : 1. The territory was prominent
during the reigns of David and Solo-
mon : but after the revolt of the ten
tribes from Rehoboam, Jeroboam select-
ed Shechem in Ephraim as his capital,
1 Kgs. 12 : 25, when this territory be-
came the chief portion of the northern
kingdom of Israel. See Israel, King-
bom OF. It was desolated by the Assyr-
ians at the time of the Babylonish Cap-
tivity, and the country was repeopled
by colonists, and later its name was
changed to Samaria. See Samaria.
Ephraim, Gate of, one of the gates
of ancient Jerusalem, 2 Kgs. 14: 13; 2
Chr. 25 : 23 ; Neh. 8:16; 12 : 39 ; prob-
ably on the north side, as the present
Damascus gate is.
Ephraim, Mount, a name applied to
the hill-coantry of Ephraim, extending
from Bethel to the plain of Jezreel ;
called also the " mountains of Israel/'
Josh. 11 : 21, and " mountains of Sama-
ria." Jer. 31 : 5, 6 ; Am. 3 : 9.
Ephraim, Wood of, a forest in which
the great battle was fought when Absa-
lom was killed. 2 Sam. 18 : 6. It lay
east of the Jordan, in Gilead, near Ma-
hanaim. Thick woods of oaks and tere-
binths still exist in that region.
E'PHRAIN (Hebrew, Ephron, two
faicns), one of the places taken from Is-
rael by Judah, 2 Chr. 13:19: perhaps
Ophrah is meant, though some think it
is the same as the **city called Ephra-
im" to which Jesus retired. John 11:
54. This was in the wilderness, per-
haps at el - Taii/ibeh, about 5 miles
north-east of Bethel.
EPH'RATAH (fruitful), Caleb's
wife, 1 Chr. 2:50: 4:4; called Eph-
rath in 1 Chr. 2:19.
EPH'RATAH, and EPH'-
RATH ( fruitful), the original name
of Bethlehem. Ruth 4:11; Ps. 132 : 6 ;
Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7. See Bethle-
hem.
EPH'RATH. See Ephratah.
E'PHRON [fawn-like), the son of
Zohar the Hittite, of whom Abraham
bought the field and cave of Machpelah.
Gen. 23:8.
E'PHRON, MOUNT {faum-lihe),
on the northern boundary of Judah,
Josh. 15 : 19 ; probably the range of
hills west of Wadti Deit-Hauiua.
EPICUREANS, OR EPICU'-
REANS. This was a sect of Gentile
philosophers founded by Epicurus, B. c.
342-271, who was born on the island of
Samos, but taught his philosophy at
Athens. They were in high repute at
Athens in Paul's days. Acts 17 : 18.
Among their doctrines were these — that
the world came into being and will be
dissolved by chance, or by the effect of
mechanical causes moved by chance ;
that all events happen by chance or are
occasioned by mechanical causes; that
the soul dies with the body; that there
is no future retribution ; and that man's
chief happiness lies in pleasure or bod-
ily ease. This philosophy obtained a
wide popularity in Asia Minor and in
Rome as well as in the city and land
of its originator. It derided the my-
thology of the ancients, but proposed
nothing better. It created a frame of
mind hostile to all religion, and par-
ticularly to the serious doctrines of
the gospel.
EPIS'TLES, the word applied to
the apostolic letters in the N. T. The
existence of letters among the Hebrews
and the mode of their composition will
be discussed under Letter, Writing.
The Epistles of the N. T. arose from
the necessity of correspondence as a
substitute for the personal instruction
283
ER
ERE
of the apostles with the widening of
their field of labor. They may be di-
vided into three classes : conyretjafionnl,
those addressed to a particular church
and dealing with doctrinal or practical
questions ; private, those directed to in-
dividuals, but still containing exhorta-
tion and advice fitted for many; and
general, those intended for universal
use. Paul contributes thirteen or four-
teen : John, three ; Peter, two ; James
and Jude, one each.
In their outward form the Epistles
are such as would be expected from
Jews situated in the midst of a Greek
civilization. They begin (the Epistle
to the Hebrews and 1 John excepted)
with the writer's name and the person
or church to whom the letter is address-
ed ; in the case of 1 and 2 Peter and
Jude, with a more general address.
The usual Greek and Hebrew saluta-
tion ("grace" and "peace") follows.
In the letter the first person, singular
or plural, is used indiscriminately. The
individual messages are reserved to the
close.
Since the Epistles of Paul are the
most numerous and important, their form
and method demand fuller treatment.
His opening salutation combines the
Greek "grace" with the Hebrew
"peace," and transforms the prevail-
ing ideas of physical health and tem-
poral comfort into the deep meaning
of the saving grace of God and peace
in Christ. Paul employed an amanu-
ensis. This fact explains many of his
peculiarities ; his sentences are some-
times involved cand have the vehemence
of a speaker, and not the calmness and
control of a writer. In order, however,
to authenticate his letters, Paul added a.
few words, a salutation, or a sentence in
his own hand, probably employing larger
letters than those in ordinary use, per-
haps because of his defective eyesight.
Ye see with how Itirije letters I have
written unto you with my own hand,
he writes unto the (ialatians, 6:11.
Every one of his Epistles was written
to meet some emergenc}' ; hence they
bear the imprint of a historical oc-
casion. Each Epistle has a clearly-de-
fined fundamental idea which governs
every part of it. They are tracts for his
time, and yet traets for all times and all
congregations.
284
The earlier Epistles antedate the Gos-
pels. They arose out of the necessities
of the young Church. Questions would
constantly be submitted to the apostles
for their decision. Then, too, there
were Christians to be encouraged and
dangers to be pointed out, and so there
were multiform occasions for these let-
ters. It is quite manifest that our N.
T. contains only a portion of this corre-
spondence. But every letter which was
in its nature adapted for the universal
Church has been preserved as part of
her canon. See Canon.
Epi.stlk.
Place.
Date
(approximate).
Thessalonians I..
Tliessaloniaus II.
Galatians
Corinthians I ...
Corinthians II...
Romans
Corinth (
Corinth J
Ephesus
Eplie^^us /
Macedonia ) ' '
Corinth
Jerusalem
Rome ~j
Rome 1
Rome 1
Rome J
Italy
53
56 or 57
58
59
6-2 (?)
61-63
64(?)
64(?)
bet. 64 and 66 f?)
bet. 64 and 66 (?)
67 or 68 (?)
67 or 68
bet. 80 and 90
bet. % and 100
Colossi an s
Philemon
Philippians
Peter I |
Timothy I
Titus
Timothy II
Peter II
Babylon \
or Rome 5 ' '
Macedonia
Macedonia ....
Jude
John I., II., III..
Unknown
Kphesus
ER {watchful), Judah's first-born,
slain for his wickedness. Gen. 38 : 3, 6,
1; Num. 26: 19; 1 Chr. 2:3.
2. A son of Shelah. 1 Chr. 4:21.
3. A name in the genealogical list of
Christ. Luke 3 : 28.
E'RAN {watchful), an Ephraimitc.
Num. 26:36.
ERAS'TUS {beloved). 1. One of
Paul's attendants, whom he sent with
Timothy into Macedonia, Acts 19 : 22,
and whom he salutes in his letter to
Timothy. 2 Tim. 4 : 20.
2. The "chamberlain" or treasurer
of Corinth, and one of Paul's converts.
Rom. 16 : 23. Some identify him with
the preceding, but upon insufficient
grounds; for in this case we should
expect the mention of his office in the
Acts and in Timothy, as in Romans —
unless, indeed, he received the office after
his conversion, which is very unlikely.
E'RECH {euduriutj), a city of Ni"m«
rod. Gen. 10:10. Its j)eople are called
Achevites and noticed in connection with
theBabvlonians. Ezr. 4:9. Jerome iden-
ERI
ESH
tifies Erech with Edessa, in Mesopotamia:
others identify it with Orchoe or Orech
of the Greek and Roman geographers.
It corresponded to modern Wm-ka,
about 120 miles south-east of Babylon,
where there are ruins of ancient build-
ings, and a rampart of earth nearly 6
miles in circumference and some places
40 feet high. There are ruins of three
considerable buildings, the most im-
portant one being 200 feet square and
about 100 feet high. Many of the
bricks bear the name of Urukh, a king
who is said to have lived about B. c.
2250. Warkn is desolate — a city of
tombs which even the jackal and hyena
appear to shun.
E'RI {icttfching, i. e. tcorsJn'jiphtg,
Jehovah), one of the sons of Gad. Gen.
46 : 16: Num. 26: 16.
ESA'IAS, the same with Isaiah,
Matt. 3 : H. etc.
E'SAR-HAD'DON, son and sue
cessor of Sennacherib, king of Assyria,
and one of the greatest of her kings.
2 Kgs. 19 : '61. He is the only Assyrian
monarch who actually ruled in Baby-
lon. He was the builder of magnifi-
cent structures, including 3 palaces
and 30 temples. His reign extended
from B. c, 680 to 667, and during it
Manasseh, the king of Judah, was taken
prisoner by his captains and carried be-
fore him at Babylon, and kept a captive
for some time. 2 Chr. 33: 11.
E'SAU, OR E'DOM, son of Isaac
and Rebecca, and twin brother of Ja-
cob. Gen. 25 : 25 ; Gen. 36 : 1. The
most important events of his life are
so intimately connected with the life of
Jacob that they will be considered under
Jacob. His family settled on Mount
Seir, east of Jordan, which was hence
called Edom, and his descendants were
the Edomites, one of the most powerful
and formidable nations of that age.
See Edom.
ESCHEW (from the old French
cDchever) means "to flee from." Job
1:1, 8: 2:3; 1 Pet. 3:11.
ESDRAE'LON, the great plain in
Samaria. See Jezreel.
ES'DRAS, THE BOOKS OF.
These two Apocryphal books are not of
any historical value. First Esdras is
little more than a compilation, after the
Septuagint, of the canonical Ezra, pref-
aced by the last two chapters of 2 Chron-
icles, with a piece of Nehemiah at the
end. It contains a history of the tem-
ple and its services from Josiah to
Ezra. But chs. 3 and 4 are original,
and contain a legend of a contest in
wisdom between Zerubbabel and two
others, held before Darius. The ques-
tion in debate was, " Which is the
strongest power?" The king was so
much pleased with Zerubbabel's answer
that he promised to give him anything
he might ask, and, further, a seat next
him and the name of *• cousin." Zerub-
babel took this occasion to ask that the
Jews might have permission to rebuild
their city and temple. The book breaks
oflF abruptly ; indeed, the present First
Esdras seems to be only a fragment of a
much larger work. We do not know the
name of the compiler. It was probably
written in Egypt, some time in the sec-
ond century B. c. Its object was to
present a picture of the liberality of
Cyrus and Darius toward the Jews as a
pattern to the heathen rulers of Judaea
in the author's time.
Second Esdras is of less value than
First. It exists in a Latin transla-
tion. The Greek original has not been
found. It is, however, curious as a rev-
elation of the Jewish mind of the day
upon their future. It purports to con-
tain a series of visions vouchsafed to
Ezra, They are upon certain mysteries
in the moral world and the final tri-
umph of the righteous. The book was
written in Egypt, probably before
Christ, but interpolated by Christians,
E'SEK {xirife), a well in the valley
of Gerar, dug by Isaac's herdsmen.
Gen. 26 : 20.
ESH'-BA'AL [BnaVs vmn), the
same with Ishbosheth. 1 Chr. 8:33; 9:
39. See Ishbosheth.
ESH'-BAN [icise man), a descend-
ant of Seir the Horite. Gen. 36:26; 1
Chr. 1:41.
ESH'COL {cluster), one of Abra-
iiam's allies. Gen. 14:13. 24.
E.SWCOIj( hunch, or cluster), THE
VALLEY OF, a valley in the land
of Canaan. Num. 13 : 2.3, 24; 32 : 9 ;
Deut. 1 : 24. It has been placed at 'Aiu
el-Khashkali, north of Hebron, but
Palmer and Drake would place it at
Telilat el-'Anab, or "grape-mounds,"
near Beer-sheba. Van Lennep has found
clusters of grapes 18 inches in length,
285
ESH
ESS
and it is said that bunches weighing
from 12 to 20 pounds are still found in
southern Palestine.
E'SHEAN, a place in the mountains
of Judah. Josh. 16 : 52. Van de Velde
suggests the ruins of Khnrsa, near He-
bron, as its site J Knobel would identify
it with Shema, 1 Chr. 2 : 43 j Conder
identifies it with es-Simia.
E'SHEK {oppression), a descendant
of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 39.
ESH'TAOL {recess, or hollow wai/),
a town in the lowlands of Judah, Josh.
15 : 33 ; given to Dan. 19 : 41. It was
the region of Samson's boyhood and
burial. Jud. 13 : 2o ; 16 : 31. The Dan-
ites went out from thence. 18 : 2-11.
Robinson and others suggest Yeshua as
its site ; Black proposes Esha'a, 1 mile
east of Snra {Zoreah); and Grove pro-
poses Kiistnl, east of Kuriet-el-Eiiab.
ESHTEMO'A {obedience), a de-
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:19.
ESHTEMO'A, or ESHTEM'-
OA {looman of renoicti f), a town in the
hill-country of Judah; given to the
priests, Josh. 21:14; 1 Chr. 6:57;
visited by David, 1 Sam. 30 : 31 ; now
called Semu'a a village of about 200 in-
habitants. Among its houses are ruins
and ancient hewn stones. It was also
called Eshtemoh. Josh. 15 : 50.
ESH'TEMOH. See Eshtemoa.
ESH'TON {effemiuale). It is usu-
ally taken as the name of a descendant
of Judah, but Grove thinks it was prob-
ably a place in Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 11, 12.
ES'XjI {reserved bij Jehovdh), a per-
son in Christ's genealogy. Luke 3 : 25.
ESPOUSE'. See Betroth.
ES'ROM. Matt. 1:3; Luke 3 : 33.
The same with Hezron. Gen. 46 : 12.
ESSE'NES. This Jewish sect is
not mentioned in the N. T., because they
lived in retired communities, and hence
Christ and his apostles did not encoun-
ter them. They represent the mystic
and ascetic forms of Judaism, while the
Pharisees represented the orthodox, and
the Sadducees the rationalistic and lati-
tudinarian, forms. Their origin is un-
known. Some think they started in the
time of the Maccabees, about n. c. 150,
while others trace them back to the
llechabites. Their name has never
been satisfactorily explained. Some
think it means " the retiring " or " the
puritan ;" others, " the healers." Bishop
286
Lightfoot prefers the meaning "pious;"
Philo makes it mean "holy;" Josephus
considers it equivalent to " oracle."
From the two last-mentioned authors
we derive our information, which, though
not extensive, is sufficient to give us a
vivid picture of their mode of life. In
Josephus's day most of the Essenes lived
in small colonies or villages at long dis-
tances from the towns, principally in the
neighborhood of the Dead Sea, although
some lived in the cities. They ditfereJ
likewise in regard to marriage, the laxer
practising it, but the stricter being celi-
bates. Inasmuch as the latter were
really the majority, our attention will
be limited to them.
^'Aacetic couiinuuism expresses the pe-
culiarity of the Essenic movement."
They had all things common. Philo
says : " There is no one who has a house
so absolutely his own private property
that it does not in some sense also belon.^
to every one ; for beside^ that thej' all
dwell together in companies, the house
is open to all those of the same notions
who come to them from other quarters.
There is one storehouse among them
all; their expenses are all in common,
as are their garments and food. They
do not retain their wages as their own,
but bring it into the common stock.
They take care of their sick and honor
their elders." Each settlement had near
it a room in which the members assem-
bled at regular hours. Each Essene rose
before sunrise, and said his morning
prayer with his face turned toward the
East. At daybreak they went to work :
farming, cattle-raising, bee-keeping, «nd
such-like peaceful operations, were their
occupations. They shunned commerce,
war, and trade. They dressed simply —
not for show, but for decency and com-
fort; in the winter in a hairy mantle,
and in the warm season in an undergar-
ment without sleeves. Besides, at all
times, they wore a leathern apron and
carried little spades. They worked un-
til 11 A.M. — the fifth hour — then bathed,
dressed themselves in white linen (the
dress of the sect), and then assembled
for the meal. A priest said grace before
and after the meal, which was always
extremely simple, since they abstained
from meat and wine. Then, having
sung a hymn, they resumed their work,
and worked until sunset. The seventh
EST
EST
day of the week was kept as an absolute
rest, the time passed in the reading and
exposition of the Law and their own pe-
culiar books. While observing the Law
in many points, they broke it in one im-
portant particular : they did not go to
the feasts to sacrifice in Jerusalem,
though they regularly sent gifts. This
anomaly has been explained by their
circumstances : their asceticism pre-
vented them from partaking of the
feasts, their mode of worship prevented
them from entering the temple.
Since they abjured marriage, they re-
cruited their ranks by adopting chil-
dren, whom they took great pains in
teaching. But they were never numer-
ous. Philo states that in his time they
did not number more than 40(10. He
who would join them had to endure a
three years' novitiate, during which he
was excluded from their society, but
was compelled all this while to live
on their spare diet and observe their
rules. In the first year the novice wore
the apron and the white linen garment
and carried the spade. At the end of
the year he was made a '' partaker of
the waters of purification." At the end
of the third, after he had bound himself
with tremendous oaths — though at other
times oaths were absolutely forbidden —
to be worthy of the order and obedient
to its rulers, and especially '*to keep
the books of the order and the names
of the angels," he was admitted into
full membership. The " books " contain-
ed probably speculations in regard to the
future, inasmuch as the Essenes enjoyed
distinction from the number of their
prophets. The "names of the angels"
may have been magic formulfe, since the
Esseees practised magic. Banishment
from the order was equivalent to starva-
tion if the banished man desired rein-
statement, since their peculiar notions
would prevent him receiving food from
any one not an Essene.
in regard to theology, the Essenes be-
lieved in unconditional Providence, the
immortality of the soul, but not in the
resurrection of the body, in future re-
wards to the righteous, and in future
punishment to the wicked, who are
" banished to a cold and dark corner,
where they suflfer unspeakable tor-
ments." They believed they had among
them prophets, and indeed this was the
popular opinion. Their celibacy, sun-
homage, and abstinence from sacrifice
were their non-Jewish qualities, derived
from the Zoroastrian religion ; to these
must be added their magical rites and
intense striving after purity.
In their life the Essenes were noted
for their kindness to the sick and the
poor. They opposed slavery. They
made medicines from herbs which
were healing. Modest and retiring, they
shrank from participation in public af-
fairs. According to Philo, their con-
duct generally was directed by three
rules — " the love of God, the love of
virtue, and the love of man."
It was the notion of some rationalists
that Jesus derived his theology from
them. But this opinion, which never
had any foundation, is now given up
by the rationalists themselves.
Bishop Lightfoot {Cook o)i Colonsiaiis,
" Introd." p. 98) maintains, with many
German commentators, that the Colos-
sian heresy which Paul combats in his
Epistle was a form of Essene Judaism
which was Gnostic in its character. The
Essenes disappear from history after the
destruction of Jerusalem. See De Quin-
cev's Essays on the Essenes.
ESTATE' is the general name for
an order or class of men in society or
government, Mark 6 : 21, as in Great
Britain the lords and commons are
called the "estates" of the realm.
ESTATE' OF THE ELD'-
ERS, Acts 22 : 5, means the eldership,
the elders of the Jews, a distinct body
from the Sanhedrin, but co-operating
with it.
ES'THER (stny), called also in He-
brew HADAS'SAH (the nnjrtle), an
eminent Jewess, wife of Xerxes. She
was an orphan child of the tribe of Ben-
jamin, and cousin to Mordecai, who
adopted her and brought her up very
tenderly. When Ahasuerus — who was
Xerxes — put away Queen Yashti, he
chose Esther, who had already been
selected, on account of her beauty and
her worth, to fill the vacant place, B. c.
479. Having learned through her cou-
sin, Mordecai, who held some office in the
palace of Shushan, or Susa, the winter
and favorite palace of the Persian kings,
that Haman, the prime minister, had
procured the royal permission to kill all
the Jews in the kingdom, Esther had the
287
ETA
ETA
faith and the courage to carry out the plan
suggested by Mordecai, and succeeded
not only in executing the author of the
infamous plot, but in getting permission
for the Jews, upon the appointed day of
slaughter, to defend themselves and take
vengeance upon all who dared molest
them, and for the Jews in Shushan to
repeat the slaughter on the next day.
Esther, Book of, a narrative of the
startling deliverance of the Jews through
the agency of Esther and her cousin,
Mordecai, and of the origin of the Purim
festival. llaman, prime minister of
Ahasuerus, had formed the wicked de-
sign to extirpate the Jews in the empire
in revenge upon Mordecai, who refused
to pay him the customary homage, and
whom he had been compelled by the
king to lead through the streets in
recognition of Mordecai's services in
saving the king's life. But his design
was frustrated by the bravery of Esther,
and the day fixed for the Jews' slaugh-
ter was for them a day of revenge. In
memory of this deliverance the festival
of Purim ("lots") was instituted, and so
called in remembrance of Haman's cast-
ing of lots. Esth. 3 : 7 ; 9 : 24, 26. It is
annually observed on the 14th and 15th
Adar, which month begins with the new
moon of February and lasts till the new
moon in March. At this festival the
book is read, and it is the custom, in
** some synagogues, whenever the name
of Haman is pronounced, to hiss and
stamp and clench the fist and cry, 'Let
his name be blotted out ! May the name
of the wicked rot !' It is said also that
the names of Haman's sons are all read
in one breath, to signify that they all ex-
])ired at the same instant of time."
The book is written upon a single roll.
It is greatly admired by the Jews. This
saying is attributed to one of their
greatest men : " In the days of the Mes-
siah the prophetical books and the Ha-
giographa will be done away with,
excepting only Esther, which will en-
dure together with the Pentateuch."
Its literary character is fully equal to
the best of the other historical books of
the canon. The style is lively, and
almost dramatic. But the peculiarity
of the book is that the name of (Jod
does not occur in any form. The omis-
sion was probably intentional, and in
order to permit the reading of Esther at
28S
the joyous, even hilarious, festival of
Purim, without irreverence. It is wor-
thy of notice, in this connection, that in
Solomon's Song the name of God occurs
only once in the Hebrew, 8 : 6, where
the A. V. translates "a most vehement
flame." The book of Esther is full of
a most intense Judaism, and incident-
ally exhibits great familiarity with Per-
sian manners and customs. Its inci-
dents are thoroughly in keeping with
the known character of Xerxes.
The book furnishes a striking illustra-
tion of an all-ruling Providence in con-
trolling human passions, frustrating
wicked designs, punishing sinners, and
delivering God's people from their ene-
mies even in a foreign land. This is
trie chief practical value of the book. It
is likewise a divine sanction to the vir-
tue of patriotism.
The language of the book contains sev-
eral Persian words, translated •* satrap,"
" post," " edict," " royal " (not '' camel;"
8 : 10 and 14 read: "coursers of the
roynl stud"), "cotton," "crown," "no-
bles," "a copy," and "lot."
The circumstantial minuteness of de-
tail, the vividness of the portraits, the
Persian words, and the whole tone of
the book indicate that the author was a
Jew who lived about the time of the
events recorded, at the court of Persia,
where he had access to the official docu-
ments of the kingdom. Professor Raw-
linson assigns the book to a period from
20 to .30 years after Xerxes's death, b. c.
444-484.
E'TAM. 1. A place in Simeon, 1
Chr. 4:32; perhaps the modern 'Ai-
tnii.
2. A place in Judah, 2 Chr. 11:6;
the source of the water for Solomon's
gardens and the temple, according to
Josephus. It has been identified with
UrtnH, near Bethlehem : but Drake sug-
gests the spring ^Ain 'Afdn, a few hun-
dred yards south-east of Solomon's pools.
E'TAl>I, THE ROCK, Samson's
retreat after the slnughter of the Philis-
tines. Jud. 15 : 8, 11. Conder locates it
at Beit ' Atdit, a little north of Eshu'a
(Eshtaol), which he thinks fully meets
all the requisites of the case. It has
clefts, caves, and a rock-tunnel which
would so efi'ectually conceal one that
those not acquainted with the ])lace
might not find him, nor even the en-
ETE
ETH
trance to the tunnel except by acci-
dent. {Tent-Life, vol. i. p. 275.)
ETERNAL, ETER'NITY.
The word translated "eternit^'^" is in
Hebrew olam, which means ** hidden ;"
in Greek, aio}i, which has primary ref-
erence to a period as "a lifetime." The
diflference between them consists in the
fact that olam usually means the world
in time, although the only place where
it is so rendered in our version is Eccl.
3 : 11. But Ps. 90 : 1 is literally " from
world to world," Ps. 145 : 13, '' kingdom
of all worlds," Deut. 33 : 27 ; " the arms
of the world" (English Version, ** ever-
lasting arms "). The underlying thought
ill these passages is that of immense time-
movements exhibiting God's great work.
The Hebrew and Greek words both
had plurals, which proves that they did
not in themselves denote absolute end-
lessness. They are likewise applied to
finite things. Gen. 17 : 8 : 49:26; Ex.
12 : 14. When they are applied to God
and spiritual things they indicate the
endless succession of ages, which is the
popular and necessary conception of
eternity. The idea of absolute eter-
nity is impressed in the Bible by lan-
guage which implies finality. It is this
which renders Matt. 25 : 46 so impres-
sive. The verse sets forth the last act
of the great drama of human life, and
the rewards and penalties are awarded
irreversiblv. Here the curtain falls.
E'THAM [houiHlanj of the sea), a
station of the Israelites " in the edge of
the wilderness." Ex. 13 : 20 ; Num. 33 :
6. 7. Canon Cook would identify it
with Pithoni, or ancient Hierapolis :
Clarke places it near Serajieum ; but
others place it at Sebn Biar, " seven
wells," about 3 miles west of the an-
cient head of the Red Sea.
E'THAN {Jinn, strong). 1. The
*'Ezrahite," Ps. 89, title, was of the
tribe of Levi, and was remarkable for
his wisdom. 1 Kgs. 4:31; 1 Chr. 2: 6.
He is supposed to have written Ps. 89.
2. Son of Kishi, a Merarite Levite,
head of that familj' in the time of Da-
vid, and spoken of as a "singer." 1 Chr.
6:44: 15:17, 19.
3. A Gershonite Levite, ancestor of
Asaph, the Psalmist. 1 Chr. 6:42.
ETH'ANIM. See Months.
ETH'BAAL {u-ith Baal; i. e. fa-
vored by him), king of the Zidonians
19
and father of Jezebel. 1 Kgs. 16 : 31.
In secular history he is known as Itho-
balus, a priest of Astarte, as well as
king. He usurped the throne of Tyro
after having murdered the reigning
king. He reigned 32 years, B. c. 940-
908.
ESTHER (abundance), a town in
the lowlands of Judah, Josh. 15 : 42 ;
given to Simeon, 19 : 7. In 1 Chr. 4:
32, Tochen is put in the place of Ether.
Van de Velde suggested Tell Athar. and
Wilton. Attdrah. Conder proposes, as
the corresponding name, ' Atr.
ETHIO'PIA [burnt-faces), called
CUSH by the Hebrews, a country
south of Egypt, Ezr. 29 : 10, which em-
braced in its more extended sense mod-
ern Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and
northern Abyssinia. Sometimes it rep-
resented the whole of Africa beyond
Egypt. In the Scriptures "Ethiopia"
usually refers to the region extending
from Egypt southward beyond the junc-
tion of the White and Blue Xile. This
was Seba, Isa. 43 : 3, and known to the
Romans as the kingdom of Meroe. The
country is rolling and mountainous, the
elevation increasing toward the south,
until it reaches a height of about 8000
feet in Abyssinia.
Scripture History. — Frequent notices
of this country and its people are found
in the Bible. It was settled by the chil-
dren of Ham, Gen. 10: 6, dark-skinned
mm of stature. Jer. 13 : 23 ; Isa. 45 : 14.
They were selected as members of royal
households. Jer. 38 : 7-13. The treas-
urer of its queen, Candace, was bap-
tized by Philip. Acts 8 : 27-38. It is
noticed in connection with Egvpt. Isa.
20:4; 43:3: 45:14: with Libva
(Phut), Jer. 46:9: Lydia and Chub
(Lub and Lud), Eze. 30:5, and the
Sukkiim. 2 Chr. 12 : 3. Moses married
an Ethiopian, Num. 12 : 1 ; Ethiopians
were in Shishak's army, 2 Chr. 12 : 3 ;
Zerah, an Ethiopian king, had an
army of a million soldiers, 2 Chr. 14 :
9-12 ; Job mentioned the precious stones
of Ethiopia, Job 28 : 19 ; the Israelites
were familiar with the merchandise of
that country, Isa. 45:14; and Isaiah
foretold the subjugation of Ethiopia
by the Assyrians. Isa. 20 : 4, 5. Among
the Assyrian inscriptions of Assur-
banipal, now in the British Museum,
George Smith deciphered several which
289
ETH
EUP
especially illustrate and confirm the ful-
filment of this prophecy. Among other
prophecies in respect to Ethiopia are
Ps. 68:31: 87:4; Isa. 45:14; Eze.
30 : 4-9 ; Dan. 11 : 43 ; Hab. 3:7; Zeph.
2:12; Nah. 3:8-10.
Secular History. — Ethiopia became
one of the most powerful and civilized
nations of the world as early as b. c.
1000. The ruling class was of the
priests. In the eighth century B. c. an
Ethiopian dynasty reigned in Lower
Egypt. Its first king was Sabaco,
whose son was So of the Bible, 2 Kgs.
17 : 4, an ally of Iloshea, king of Israel.
It is said that in the reign of the Egyp-
tian king Psaminetichus, b. c. 630,
240,000 of the military class migrated
into Ethiopia. In b. c. 530, Cambyses,
king of Persia, invaded Egypt, and,
according to Josephus, conquered Me-
roe or Ethiopia. The Romans, in the
reign of Augustus CjBsar, b. c. 22, de-
feated Candace, queen of Ethiopia, and
made the country tributary to Rome.
ETHIOPIAN EU'NUCH,
THE, the Jewish proselyte who, re-
turning from some feast in Jerusalem,
was met by Philip the evangelist and
baptized. Acts 8 : 26 flF. He was a eu-
nuch in the strict sense, not in its offi-
cial sense of "courtier," and the treas-
urer of Candace, queen of the Ethio-
pians. Candace was the name of a dy-
nasty, and not of individual monarchs.
ETHIOPIAN WOMAN, the
name by which the wife of Moses is
called in Num. 12 : 1. She was prob-
ably his second wife, married after the
death of Zipporah, who was a Midian-
ite.
ETH'NAN {hire; e.g. of a harlot),
a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4: 7.
ETH'NI {mititij}ce)it), a Gershonite
Levite. 1 Chr. 6:41.
EUBU'LUS (prudent), a Roman
Christian who greeted Timothy. 2 Tim.
4:21.
EUNI'CE, OR EU'NICE {happih/
victorious), the mother of the evangelist
Timothy. She was by birth a Jewess,
but married a Gentile. Acts 16 : 1 ; 2
Tim. 1 : 5.
EU'NUCH (bed-keeper, chamber-
lain). Such persons have long been,
and are still, employed about Eastern
courts as guards and attendants in
harems. 2 Kgs. 9:32; Esth. 2:3; aud
290
others of this class hold oftentimes the
principal offices. They are often cow-
ardly, jealous, intriguing, the tool of des-
pots and libertines, ready for any evil
work, being shameless and remorseless.
They are also peculiarly liable to be mel-
ancholy, and, as the only way of ridding
themselves of the burden of life, to com-
mit suicide. Eunuchs are the natural
consequence of polygamy, and they are
numerous in the Eastern cities. In
ancient Rome there were many ; so in
Greece during the Byzantine period.
There are even to-day in Rome a few
who sing soprano in the Sistine chapel
— the only instance in Christian lands.
According to the law of Moses, no eu-
nuch could enter into the congregation
of the Lord, Dent. 23 : 1 ; nor could a
mutilated animal be offered in sacrifice.
Lev. 22 : 24. Eunuchs existed in the
various foreign courts of which we read
in the Bible. Herod had them, and so
Queen Candace. Acts 8 : 27.
The word " eunuch " is employed by
Christ, Matt. 19 : 12, in various senses
to designate: 1. Those who are natu-
rally incapacitated : 2. Those who have
been mutilated; 3. Those who voluntar-
ily abstain from marriage in order to de-
vote themselves more exclusivelj' to the
interests of the kingdom of God.
EUO'DIAS [fragrant], a Christian
woman of Philippi. Phil. 4 : 2.
EUPHRA'TES (the aboundim,),
a noted river, the largest in western
Asia, rises in Armenia in two sources.
One, on the northern side of the moun-
tain of Ararat, runs in a south easterly
course, receives many tributaries in its
winding course along the borders of
Syria, and skirting the Arabian desert
passes through the middle of Babylon
to the sea. Its whole length is 1780
miles. It is navigable for large ships
to Bassora, 70 miles above its mouth ;
a steamer drawing 4 feet of water has
ascended to Bir, 1197 miles. It flows
in a broad, deep current, filled to the
level of its banks, and at Bab3'lon is
considerably less than a mile in width.
For the last 800 miles of its course it
does not receive a single tributary.
The quantity of water discharged by
the river at Hit is estimated at 72,804
cubic feet per second. The Tigris flows
in a narrower channel, with deeper banks
and a less rapid current. The country
EUR
EVE
between the two rivers slopes toward the
Tigris, and thus greatly fav^ors the drain-
ing off of the superfluous waters of the
Euphrates.
The Euphrates overflows its banks in
the spring of every year, when the snow
of the Armenian mountains dissolves,
and it sometimes rises 12 feet. It swells
in March, and sinks in July. Dykes,
lakes, and canals constructed at vast
expense preserved the water for irriga-
tion during the dry season, and pre-
vented its carrying away the soil.
History. — Euphrates is named as one
of the rivers of Eden, Gen. 2:13; call-
ed " the great river," Gen. 15 : 18 ; Deut.
1:7; noted as the eastern boundary of
the Promised Land, Deut. 11 : 24 ; Josh.
1:4; 1 Chr, 5:9: and of David's con-
quests, 2 Sam. 8:3; 1 Chr. 18:3: of
those of Babylon from Egypt, 2 Kgs,
24 : 7 ; is referred to in prophecv, Jer.
13 : 4-7 : 46 : 2-10 ; 51 : 63, and in'Reve-
lation, 9:14; 16 : 12. In upward of 26
other passages it is spoken of as " the
river." By this stream the captive Jews
wept. Ps. 137 : 1. It is now called the
Fiat by the natives. For a sketch-map
of the course of the Euphrates see As-
svniA.
The Murad-chai, a branch of the
Euphrates, was crossed by Xenophon,
B. c. 410. After this unites with the
other chief stream, forming the Eu-
phrates, the river is 120 yards wide.
It was used to irrigate the valley around
Babylon by means of numerous canals,
dykes, and aqueducts, making the plain
one of the most fertile spots in the world.
It was announced in 1879 that a railroad
had been projected along the Euphrates
from Damascus to Bagdad. See Baby-
lon and CHALn>i^A.
EUROC'LYDOX. Acts 27 : 14.
A very tempestuous wind on the Med-
iterranean ; now known under the name
of a *' Levanter." It blows from all
points, and its danger results from its
violence and the uncertainty of its
course.
EU'TYCHUS (fortunate), the
name of a young man who fell from
the third story of a house where Paul
was preaching in Troas, and was re-
stored bv him to life. Acts 20 : 9.
EVAN'GELIST ,(a messenger of
good tidings). In the N. T. the word
means a preacher of the gospel who
was not fixed in any place, but who
travelled as a missionary to preach the
gospel and establish churches. Acts 21 :
8 ; Eph. 4:11:2 Tim. 4 : 5. The evan-
gelists seem to have been an order of
ministers standing between the apostles
and the pastors and teachers. They
could not impart the Holy Ghost. Acts
8:15. They were liable to be sent
upon sudden errands. Acts 8 : 26. They
might be officers in a particular church,
yet evangelists, as was the case with
Philip, who is the best known of the
class. Acts 6 : 5. We find the evan-
gelists commonly in the service of the
apostles as their " helpers " and " fel-
low-laborers." Paul made most use of
them, as was to be expected ; on his
last journey to Jerusalem he was ac-
companied by no less than seven of
them. Acts 20 : 4, 5. They were the
" vicegerents " of the apostles. Thus,
Timothy was sent by Paul to report the
condition of the Philippian church,
Phil. 2:19-23, completed the organiza-
tion of the Ephesian church, and re-
pressed the growth of errors during the
absence of Paul. 1 Tim. 1 : 3 ; 3 : 14, 15 ;
4: 13. The discourses of the evangel-
ists were historical in their matter and
turned chiefly upon the main facts
of Christ's life.
This fact gave rise to the later appli-
cation of the term to the authors of our
written Gospels, who are commonly call-
ed''the four Evangelists." To Matthew
is assigned as symbol the face of a man
(because he traces the human descent of
Christ, the Son of man) : to Mark the lion,
(because he sketches Christ as the con-
quering Lion of the tribe of Judah) ; to
Luke the ox (with reference to Christ
as the Victim slain for the sins of the
world) ; and to John the eagle (because
of his bold flight and steady gaze at the
eternal Son of God).
EVE (hfe). The name was applied
by Adam to his wife because "she was
the mother of all living." Gen. 3 : 20. She
was formed out of a rib of Adam, taken
while he slept — a fact which teaches
the identity of nature and the oneness
of the origin of man and woman, and
stamps the divine disapproval upon any
degradation of women. In the lan-
guage of Matthew Henry, "the woman
was made of a rib out of the side nf
Adam; not made out of his head to top
291
EVE
EXC
him, not out of his feet to be trampled
upon by him, but out of his side to be
equal with him, from under his arm to
be protected, and from near his heart
to be beloved."
Eve was Adam's helpmeet and his
equal in sinless purity. But her weak-
er nature afforded Satan's opportunity.
Overcome by his sophistry, she ate of
the forbidden fruit, and then in turn
became a tempter, by her persuasion
inducing Adam to share her sin, and
thus biought death into the world and
all our woe. For her prominent part
in the Fall, God said to her, '' I will great-
ly multiply thy sorrow and thy con-
ception ; in sorrow thou shalt bring
forth children ; and thy desire shall he
to thy husband, and, he shall rule over
thee." Gen. 3 : 16. But it was the seed
of Eve which was to bruise the ser-
pent's head, and thus the unhappy
author of human sin was to be the
blessed mother of sin's destroyer. The
remarkable sayings of Eve's at the
birth of her three known sons have
been preserved, and make up all that is
known of her. She welcomed the first,
Cain (Heb. posseam'on), as the prom-
ised one : *' I have gotten a man, even
the Lord." But, soon undeceived, she
said of Abel {vanity), "Vanity;" and
while her heart was made heavy by the
experience of crime, she said of Seth
{conipenHation) : "God hath appointed!
me another seed instead of Abel, whom j
Cain slew." The Scripture account of
Eve closes with the birth of Seth. She
is twice mentioned by Paul, once as the
subject of the serpent's guile, 2 Cor.
11 : 3, and once as the second created,
in an argument for the silence of women.
1 Tim. 2: l.'i.
E'VENING, Ps. 56:17, E'VEN-
TIDE. Gen. 24 : 63. The Hebrews
reckoned two evenings, one commencing
at sunset and embracing the period of
twilight, and the other commencing at
dark. Some suppose that the first even-
ing commenced as early as 3 o'clock in
the afternoon, and the second at sunset.
It was in the interval between the two
evenings, at whiclicver of these periods
it occurred, that the passover was to be
killed and the daily sacrifice offered.
See marginal reading of Ex. 12 : 6 ;
Num. 9:3; 28 : 4. "Eventide " is the
same with "evening-time."
292
E'VI (desire), a king of Midian
slain by the Israelites. Num. 31 : 8 ;
Josh. 13:21.
E'VIL-MERO'DACH, son and
successor of Nebuchadnezzar, king of
Babylon. 2 Kgs. 25 : 27. Soon after
his accession to the throne he released
Jehoiachin, king of Judah, from prison,
and treated him with great regard
through life. Jer. 62 : 31-34. He began
his reign B. c. 561, but in b. c. 559 he
fell a victim to a conspiracy formed
among his own kindred, headed by his
brother-in-law, Neriglissar — probably
the Nergal-sharezer of Jer. 39 : 3, 13 —
who succeeded him.
EXCHAN'GERS. See Changkus
OF Money.
EXCOMMUNICATION. The
writings of the Rabbins mention tho
various offences for which men were cut
off from the privileges of the synagogue,
and even from social life. Our Lord is
supposed to refer to the excommunica-
tions practised — " the simple separa-
tion, the additional malediction, and
the final exclusion " — when he said,
" Blessed are ye when men shall hate
you, and when they shall separate j'ou
from their company, and shall reproach
yon, and cast out your name as evil, for
the Son of man's sake." Luke 6 : 22.
Another and yet more evident reference
to these Jewish ceremonies is that in
John's story of the man born blind.
John 9 : 22, 23, 34, 35. Rabbinical
excommunication does not rest upon the
Law of Moses. It is the natural out-
growth of a well-organized society,
which keeps itself clear of all obnox-
ious persons. In its mildest form it was
a prohibition from " the use of the razor,
the bath, or the convivial table, and all
who had to do with the offender were
commanded to keep him at four cubits'
distance." It lasted 30 days, but might
be renewed for an equal ]»eriod. In
case of continued rebellion, the second
step was taken. In a solemn manner
the offender was cursed, and prohibited
from teaching or being taught, hiring
or being hired, and from " performing
any commercial transactions beyond
purchasing the necessaries of life."
The third and last step was entire ex-
clusion from the congregation.
It was to be expected that in the Chris-
tian Church the practice of excommuni-
EXE
EXO
cation would be continued. Its institu-
tion by our Lord is recorded in Matt. 18 :
15, 18, and the practice and commands of
Paul are given in 1 Tim. 1 : 20 ; I Cor.
6:11:2 Cor. 2 : 5-10 : Tit. 3 : 10. Chris-
tian excommunication, as we gather
from these Pauline Epistles, was a
purely spiritual penalty, inflicted for
the good of the sufferer and in order
that the church might be protected.
The sentence might be increased or
lightened according to circumstances.
Repentance was the condition of res-
toration : and as the exclusion of the of-
fender from the temporal body of Christ
was a public and congregational act. so
the reception of the excommunicated
member was of the same charaL-ter.
EXECU TIONER. In 0. T.
times the post was honorable. The
execiitioner of Mark 6 : 27 belonged to
the king's bodv-guard.
EX'ODUSi the second book of the
Pentateuch. The word is Greek for
"going out" or " departing," and is an
appropriate title to the book, which con-
tains an account of the going out of I he
Israelites from the hind of Egypt. It
may be divided into two parts: 1. The
historical, chs. 1-18 : 27 ; 2. The legis-
lative, ch. 19 to the end.
In the historical portion we have an
account of the depressed condition of
the people under the king '' who knew
not Joseph" (Ranieses II.), the birth,
education, flight, and return of Moses,
the attempts, at first disastrous to the
Hebrews, to secure the king's permis-
sion to their temporary exodus, the
plagues wrought by the Lord's power,
culminating in the death of the first-
born, the journey of the Israelites from
Goshen -to Smai, with all the important
incidents and miracles. This portion
closes with the Israelites before Mount
Sinai, encamped upon the ground they
were to occupy for a year.
2. In the legislative part are related
the giving of the Law, and the sin of the
golden calf; then follow the text of the
ten commandments, the various laws
for the governance of the people, the
full directions for the priesthood and
uU their appoin'ments. And lastly
there are described the erection of the
tabernacle and the inauguration of the
service. In this book the Bible is
brought into contact with Egyptology
and much light has been thrown upon
it from modern discoveries and re-
searches confirming the Mosaic narra-
tive. See Pkntatkt'ch.
EX'ODUS, THE. The date, the
geography, and the history of this
*' great turning-point in biblical his-
tory " will be considered.
1. Date. — There is a diff"ereBce of
opinion among biblical scholars as to
the name of the two kings who oppress-
ed the Israelites and are mentioned in
the book of Exodus under the generic
name of Pharaoh.
(1) Some hold that Amosis or Aahmes
I. was the Pharaoh of the Oppression,
and that Thothmes or Tutmes II. was tb^
Pharaoh of the Exodus, who perished
in the Red Sea. The latter reigned
about a century later, b. c. 1485. His
reign is known to have been short and
inglorious. But the difficulties in the
way of this view are numerous.
(2) According to the other theory,
now held by the majority of Egyptolo-
gists and biblical scholars, Rameses II.,
the Great — the Sesostris of the Greeks
— was the Pharaoh who " knew not Jo-
seph," Ex. 1:11 (B. c. 1388 to 1325),
and his son, Menephthah I., was the
Pharaoh of the Exodus. Menephthah
was the thirteenth son of Rameses,
and began to rule probably b. c. 1325
or 1322. He marks a period of de-
cline in which the conquests of his
two great predecessors were gradually
lost. Few monuments were erected in
his reign, and even his father's tomb
was left unfinished. This is just what
we would expect after the catastrophe
in the Red Sea. Herodotus tells us that
the son of Sesostris (Rameses, whom
he calls Pheron) undertook no warlike
expeditions, and was smitten with blind-
ness for 10 3'ears because " he impiously
hurled his spear into the overflowing
waves of the river, which a sudden wind
caused to rise to an extraordinary
height." This reads like a confused
reminiscence of the overthrow in the
Red Sea. Taking this view, we may,
with Lepsius and Ebers, set the Exodus
in B. c. 1317, on the fifteenth day of the
first month, Abib or Nisan, our April.
2. Gp.orjvaphy. — The Scripture data
about the Exodus are as follows : The
children of Israel proceeded from Ram-
eses to Succoth^ Ex. 12 : 37 : thence to
293
EXO
EXO
Ethara, "in the edge of the wilderness,"
13 : 20 ; here the}' were to ''turn and en-
camp, before Pi-hahiroth, between Mig-
dol and the sea. over against Eaal-ze-
phon." 14 : 2. With these notices must
be compared the list of camping-stations
which Moses gives. Num. 33 : 2-10.
When the Egyptians came upon the track
of the Israelites they said, " They are en-
tangled in the land ; the wilderness is
closed against them," Ex. 14 : 3 — i. e.
" They cannot get out of Egypt; they
must either return or cross the sea."
Moses intended to go by the way of the
wilderness, but when he turned south-
ward, by divine command, he was shut
in by the waters of the Red Sea, which
then probably extended farther north,
to the Bitter Lakes. We may thus
identify the places mentioned in the
itinerary. Rameses, the place of gen-
eral rendezvous, is Zoan ( Tarn's). Suc-
coth, which Ebers considers an Egyp-
tian word {fields), must have been half-
way between Rameses and Ethara.
Ethain was probably Pithom (Pitnin) ;
Pi-hahirothis.4/r»rfor^(/rur/,afortress
on the way from Etham to Suez ; Mig-
dol is Bir Saweis, about 2 miles from
Suez ; Baal-zephon is perhaps identi-
cal with Mount Ataknh. Baal was the
chief deity of the Phoenicians, who
had at a very early period a settle-
ment in Lower Egypt.
There are two prominent theories
about the locality and mode of the
miraculous passage of the Israelites
through the Red Sea: (1) The usual
theory, which locates the passage sev-
eral miles south of Suez, where the
sea is about 10 miles broad. This
theory fits in best with the literal
meaning of the narrative, for in this
case the waters must have been actual-
ly divided for several miles, and have
stood like walls on either hand. But
the difficulties the view raises are more
numerous than those it solves. Could
the host of Israel, encumbered as
they were, have crossed in one night
through such a channel? Would tao
Egyptians have followed them through
the deep sea, and in view of such an
amazing interposition of (lod ? Could
any wind have had such an effect upon
so witle a sea? And if not, why is it
mentioned at all as an agent? An ac-
cumulation of miracles is called for by
294
this theory. (2) The second theory puts
the crossing at the head of the gulf, near
or some distance north of Suez. In Mo-
ses's time the gulf may have extended
as a reedy marsh as far as the Bitter
Lakes. The crossing was made possible
by a special providence and a miraculous
adaptation of the laws of nature. The
east, or rather north-east, wind drove
off the waters from the small arm of the
sea which runs up by Suez; this would
leave the water on the more northern
part of the arm, so that there would be
waters on both sides to serve as an en-
trenchment. This would meet the exi-
Sketch-map of the Eoute of the Exodus.
gences of the narrative, Ex. 14 : 22. But
even in this case the passage of two mil-
lions of people, with all their cattle, was
an astounding miraele. It has its coun-
terpart in the crossing of the river Jor-
dan at the end of the journey through
the wilderness.
3. History. — The Exodus was the ex-
ecution of a divine plan. Pharaoh had
refused to let Israel go three days' jour-
ney into the wilderness. God sent ten
EXO
EZB
plagues upon the land in punishment.
The last was the severest : the tirst-oorn
in every house lay dead. But while the
destroying angel went through the midst
of Egypt the Israelites were gathered in
their respective houses, ready at any
moment to hear the command, " Go ! be-
gone I" their loins girded, their shoes on
their feet,tbeir stall's in their hands,
eating li:isti:y tlie lam'> which they
had roasted. Thus they observed
the Passover. " Dimly we see :ind
hear in the darkness and confu-
sion of that night the stroke
which at last broke the heart of
the king and made him let Israel
go." " And Pharaoh in the night,
he and all his servants, and all
the Egyptians; and there was a
great cry in Egy])t, for there was
not a house where there was not
one dead." Then followed in quick
succession the midnight call of
Pharaoh for Moses and Aaron,
the command to depart, the ui
gent co-operation of the nation
to hasten their departure, and the
actual leaving of the house of
bondage and start upon the mo-
mentous journey.
4. Practical Lesson. — The history
of the exodus of the Israelites from
the land of bondage — their wanderings
through the dreary wilderness under
the guidance of the Law of God, the
pillar of cloud by day and fire by night,
with many resting-places in delightful
oases, and the constant services of the
tabernacle, and their final entrance into
the Promised Land — has always been
regarded as a most instructive type and
illustration of the history of the Chris-
tian Church and of the individual be-
liever, his deliverance from the bondage
of sin, and his passage to the heavenly
land of rest and peace.
EXOR'CISTS, those who, by the
use of the name of God, attempted to
expel evil spirits from places or persons
of whom they had possession. It was
not an uncommon profession among the
Jews, as we may infer from Matt. 12 :
27; Mark 9:38; Acts 19: U. They
were popularly believed to have gotten
their power by their study of magic for-
muliS written out by Solomon, of drugs
and charms, by the use of spells and in-
cantations, but they were imj)OStors.
EXPIA'TIOX, FEAST OF.
See Fkasts; AroxKirKNT, Day of.
EYES. It was part of the cruelty
which distinguished ancient warfare to
put out the eyes of prisoners, jiarticu-
larly those who were prominent or dan-
gerous. This custom is referred to in
Jud. 16 : 2 1 ; 1 Sam. 11 : 2 ; 2 Kgs. 25 : 7.
The custom of adorning the eyelids in
any waj' for effect is not known among
us, but is often alluded to in the 0. T.,
2 Kgs. 9 : 30 : Jer. 4 : 30 ; Eze. 23 : 40,
and y)revails extensively now among
Eastern women, especially among Mo-
hammedans. Tlie hair and edges of the
eyelids are tinged with a fine black j>ow-
der moistened wiih oil or vinegar, which
causes a small black line to appear around
the edge, and at a distance (and especial-
ly by candlelight) gives a heavy, dark
shade to the eyes. A smooth cylindri-
cal piece of silver or ivory, shaped like a
quill and about 2 inches long, is dipped
into the composition and |>!aeed within
the eyelashes, which are closed over it.
The figurative use of the word "eye"
to indicate alacritv and vigilance occurs
Eze. 1:18: 10:12; Rev. 4 : 6, 8.
EYE'-SERVICE, in Col. 3:22;
Eph. 6 : 6, means " service performed
only as it were under the master's eye —
i. e. reluctant and mercenary."
E'Z AR {treasure). 1 Chr. 1 : 38. See
EZER.
EZ'BAI {shiniug), the father of one
of David's warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 37.
EZ'BOIN (oploiflor). 1. One of the
295
EZE
EZE
sons of Gad, Gen. 46 : 16 ; called Ozni.
Num. 26:16.
2. A Beniamite. 1 Chr. 7 : 7.
EZEKI'AS, the Greek form of Hez-
ekiah, used in Matt. 1 : 9, 10.
EZE'KIEL [God will strengthen,
or the strength of God), the son of a
priest named Buzi, was born and spent
his earlier years in Judaea. He was
carefully educated, but carried by Neb-
uchadnezzar into captivity with Jehoi-
achin, king of Judah, B. c. 598, 11 years
before the destruction of Jerusalem,
and placed with a Jewish community
by the river Chebar, in Chaldtea. See
Chebar. He prophesied over 22 years,
B. c. 595-573, till the fourteenth year
after the final captivity of Jerusalem.
From incidental allusions we learn that
he had a house, 8:1, and had lost his
wife very suddenly, 24:16-18. He was
held in great esteem and frequently con-
sulted by the elders, 8:1; 11:25; 14:
1 ; 20 : 1. It is said that he kept
up an intimate friendship with Jere-
miah, and even that they exchanged
prophecies. At all events, they echo
one another's grief and lament over
the ruined city, and both pierce through
the gloom of the present distress and see
the light of a new dispensation when the
Law shall be written in the heart. Eze.
11 : 1 9 ; 18 : 31 ; cf. Jer. 31 : 33. We do
not know how or when his death occur-
red. Tradition states he was murdered.
His reputed tomb is shown near Bagdad.
Ezekiel was stern, inflexible, an earnest
Jewish patriot, devoted to the rites and
ceremonies of his religion, and uncom-
promisingly opposed to all forms of evil.
He no doubt contributed much to the
formation of the intense nationality of
the Jews during that period. Prof. J.
T. Hyde says: "He is not so much of
a counsellor and seer as Isaiah, nor so
much of a reformer and intercessor as
Jeremiah, nor so much of a prince and
statesman as Daniel, but more of a priest
in his general spirit and bearing. More
than a hundreil times is he called ' son of
man,' a title given to no other ])roj)het
except Daniel, and to him only once,
Dan. 8:17, signifying, doubtless, that
* to them of the captivity ' he was not
only a living witness for God, but a
priestly mediator, with somewhat of the
distant dignity of the great ' vSon of
man * himself."
29fi
Prophecy of. The book of Ezekiel
is arranged in regular chronological or-
der, and presents a great variety of vis-
ions, symbolical actions, parables, prov-
erbs, allegories, and direct prophecies.
Many of the symbolic acts wee proba-
bl}' not literally performed by the proph-
et, but described in this manner for rhe-
torical effect. He is especially familiar
with architecture, from which he often
draws his illustrations. He is somewhat
obscure by reason of the strange things
he describes — "wheels within wheels,
with living creatures wedded." The Jews
reckoned his prophetical writings among
those portions of Scripture which were
not allowed to be read till the age of 30.
His imagery and symbolism derive
much light from the recently-discover-
ed Assyrian monuments. We there
find reproduced the strange forms he
brings to our view — the eagle-winged
lion and the human-headed bull. His
visions give us "the last glimpse of
these gigantic emblems, which vanished
in the prophet's lifetime, only to reap-
pear in our own age from the long-lost
Nineveh." (Stanlei/.)
The book is divided into two parts,
of which the destruction of Jerusalem
by Nebuchadnezzar is the turning-point.
(1) Chs. 1-24 contain predictions
before that event ; these are arranged
in chronological order from the fifth
year of the Captivity to the ninth. (2)
Chs. 25-48 contain prophecies and vis-
ions after Jerusalem's fall, including
denunciations against Ammon, Moab,
Edom, the Philistines, Tyre, Zidon, and
Egypt, 30-32 ; predictions of the re-
establishment of the theocracy, 36-48.
Ch. 35 is the judgment of Seir. The
second part is also arranged chronolog-
ically. Ezekiel himself is the apparent
editor of his book.
There are no direct quotations of
! Ezekiel in the N. T., but many parallels
and obvious allusions to the later chap-
ters in the book of Revelation.
The Vision of the Temple. — This sec-
tion, the last nine chapters. 40-48, is so
remarkat)le that it arrests the attention
of every reader and constitutes the
unique feature of Ezekiel's book. It
is a magnificent vision and description
of the new temple which Ezekiel saw
from a high mountain in the twenty-
fifth year of the Captivity and the
EZE
EZR
fourteenth after the destruction of the
holy city. Althoujjh n few commenta-
tors maintain it was but a description
from memory of Solomon's temple, the
majority hold that it has to do with fu-
ture events. These latter differ accord-
ing as they sec in it a mere prophetic
picture of Zerubbabel's temple, or a
vague announcement of some future
blessing, or, as is altogether the best
view, a Messianic prophecy. It is most
probably a grand symbol of the future
Church of God. Its historical foundn-
tion is umloubtedly the first temple and
the hidden springs of the sacred mount,
but upon this foundation the inspired
prophet builds a glorious superstruc-
ture of allegory which sets forth the
whole scheme of redemption.
E'ZEL ((/cy^or//n.?), THE STONE,
near Saul's residence, and noted as the
place where Jonathan and David parted.
1 Sam. 20:19.
E'ZEM (bone), a city of Simeon, 1
Chr. 4:29; also called Azem. Josh.
19 : :^.
E'ZER (freruiire). a "duke" of the
Horites. Gen. 36 : 21,27,30 ; 1 Chr. 1:42.
E'ZER (help). I. A descendant
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:4.
2. A son of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7: 21.
3. A Gadite chief who joined David.
1 Chr. 12:9.
4. A Levite who assisted in repairing
the wall. Neh. 3:19.
5. A priest who tooHpart in its dedi-
cation. Xeh. 12: 42.
E'ZIO]V-GA'BER,0R GE'BER
(rfinnt'n bnchhoiie), a city on the Red
Sea, the last station of the Israelites
before they came to the wilderness of
Zin. Num.33 : 35 ; Deut. 2 : 8 : the sta-
tion of Solomon's navy.l Kgs. 9 : 26 ; 2
Chr. 8 : 17, and of Jehoshaphat's navy. 1
Kgs. 22:48. Probably it was at 'Ah}
el-Ghnchjdn, about 10 miles up what is
now the dry bed of the Arabah. Kie-
pert and Robinson suppose that the
northern end of the gulf anciently
flowed up to this point.
EZ'RA (help). 1. A descendant
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:17.
2. A Jewish priest and scholar who
lived in Babylon during the reign
of Artaxerxes Longimnnus, over whom
he had such influence, that in his sev-
enth year he obtained permission to
head a large company of person.^ and
go to Jerusalem, b. c. 457. Ezr. 7. The
journey was completed in four months.
In addition to the treasure brought,
Ezra had other supplies, for he had per-
mission to draw on the king's treasures.
In Jerusalem he carried through the re-
forms he had intended, particularly the
separation of the "strange wives." Ezr.
10. With an account of this important
measure the book of Ezra ends. The
next notice is in Xehemiah, 8:1, thir-
teen years after this. It is in every
way likely that' his first residence in
Jerusalem was temporarj^ and that
after effecting the various reforms and
a])pointing proper persons to maintain
them he returned to Babylon. Xehe-
miah Avas governor when Ezra entered
Jerusalem the second time : accordingly,
he attended only to priestl.v duties, such
as teaching. Xeh. 8:1. It is unknown
when he died.
Jewish tradition elevates him to a
level with Moses and Elijah, and makes
him the founder of the great synagogue,
the collector of the books of the Bible,
the introducer of the Chaldee character
instead of the old Hebrew, the author
of Chronicles, Ezra, and Xehemiah, and
lastly, the originator of synagogue-wor-
ship. And it is very likely that he was
the author of these changes, or :it all
events that they occurred in his time.
Ezra, the Book of, covers about 79
years, and should be read in connection
with the prophecies of Ilaggai and
Zcchariah. It contains, (1) chs. 1-6,
an account of the return of 50,000 Jews
under Zerubbabel in the first year of
C3rus, the rebuilding of the temple,
and the interference of the Samaritans;
(2) chs. 7-10, the history of Ezra's im-
migration and his reforms, particularly
in legard to the strange wives.
The book of Ezra is written in Chal-
dee from ch. 4:8 to 6 : 19, narrnting the
att' nipt of the Samaritans to hinder the
building of the temple, and from the be-
ginninsr of eh. 7 to the twenty-seventh
verse. The people recently returned from
the Captivity were more conversant with
the Chaldee than even with the Hebrew
tongue. Ezra is the author of at least
the greater part of the book. The date
mav be sriven as b. c. 4 50.
EZ'RI ihrlp of Jehovah), David's
superintendent of those who ''did the
work of the field." 1 Chr. 27:26.
297
FAB
FAI
F.
FA'BLE is a form of narrative in
which plants and animals, or even life-
less objects, are represented as endowed
with some of the attributes of man, as
the gift of speech and rational action.
Sometimes the fable is designed to teach
moral and practical truths, and some-
times only to interest and entertain.
It differs from the parable in this : what
the fable relates is not real and cannot oc-
cur, as trees spenking, Jiid. 9:8; while
that which the parable relates may and
does take place, as the sower sowing seed
in soil of various degrees of productive-
ness, Matt. 13 : 3. The fable was often
used in ancient heathen as in modern
Christian literature. In the Bible there
is only one fable, Jud. 9 : 7-15, where
Jotham represents the trees as seeking
a king and asking, one by one, the olive
and others to reign over them, till the
b amble finally consents. This is often
erroneously called a parable.
Fables are referred to in the N. T., 1
Tim. 1:4, etc., as ''cunningly devised,"
etc. Here " fables " mean false stories
or foolish systems and opinions.
FACE. Gen. 3 : 19. See Blackness.
Whatever of a thing is most exposed to
view is called its face : hence we read
of the face of the country, field, gate,
house, wilderness, water, sky, etc.
" Face," when applied to God, de-
notes, (1) His omniscience, 1 Sam. 26:
20, and to '' provoke him to the face "
is to act very openly and impudently.
Isa. 65:3. (2) The brighter displays
of his glory, which cannot be enjoyed
in this world. Ex. 33:20; ITim. 6:
16. (3) His favor and love, and the
gracious displays thereof: this is al-
ways meant when his face is said to
" shine," or it is represented as a mercy
to behold and enjoy it or a misery to be
deprived of it. 2 Chr. 30:9; Ps. 31 :
10 ; 80 : 7 ; Dan. 9 : 17. (4) His wrath,
and the providential displays thereof.
Ps. 34:16. Christ's "face" denotes,
(1) His person and office as the image
of the invisible (iod. 2 Cor. 4 : 6. (2)
His gracious, glorious, or terrible ap-
pearances. Rev. 20: 11.
298
FAIR HA'VENS, a harbor on the
southern shore of the island of Crete,
Acts 27 : 8-10, 21. It is about midway
between the eastern and western ends
of the island, and is still known as
Kaldus Li)nio)ia8, or " Fair Havens,"
It is a fair winter harbor, though nit
as good as PhcenicQ, 40 miles westward.
FAIRS. The word occurs in Eze.
27 : 12, 14, 16, 22, 27, 33. In v. 33 the
Hebrew word is translated " wares,"
and this is probably the true meaning
in all the passages.
FAITH. The word in the N. T.
denotes (1) the truth of the gospel of
Christ and the kingdom of God. Acts
6:7; Rom. 1:5; Gal. 1 : 23 ; 1 Tim. 3 :
9; Jude, ver. 3 ("the faith which was
once delivered to the saints").
(2) The act by which we lay hold of
and appropriate the truths of the gos-
pel and Jesus Christ, and rely for salva-
tion upon the work done by him in our
stead. This is the prevailing sense of
the word. Matt. 8:10; John 3:16: Rom.
1 : 16, etc., and all through John and the
Pauline Epistles.
The verb corresponding to the noun
"faith" is "believe." Acts 16:31.
The word occurs only a few times in
the 0. T., but the principle is there
designated by other terms, such as to
" look " to God, Isa. 45 : 22, to " wait
on" him. Ps. 27 : 14, and to "trust"
in him, Nah. 1 : 7. Abraham is " the
father of the faithful," because unbound-
ed trust in God was the very essence of
his piety. Comp. Rom. 4: 1. Paul de-
rives the theme of his Epistle to the Ro-
mans from the passage of Habakkuk :
" The just shall live by faith." Rom. 1 :
17; comp. Hab. 2 : 4. The Epistle to
the Hebrews gives a bright catalogue
of the heroes of faith under the old dis-
pensation. 11 : 1 ff.
The nature of saving faith is three-
fold. It includes a cnuvidion of the
understanding, axaent of the will, and
tniKt of the heart. The principal ele-
ment of faith is truHt when its object is
Christ. But it is impossible for us to
trust in him without first being con-
FAI
FAL
vinced of the genuineness of his claims.
We believe a thing when we are assured
of its reality : in a person when we add
to this assurance trust. Faith appre-
hends Christ, and takes actual hold of
him and all his benefits. Hence he
who believes in Christ has already eter-
nal life. John 3 : HQ. Faith is opposed
to doubt, Matt. 21 : 21, and to sight,
2 Cor. 5 : 7. Things which are the objects
of faith we do not see. Heb. 11: 1.
The importance of faith consists in
this — that without faith we cannot be-
come partakers of the merits and right-
eousness of Christ. As by the hand
we lay hold of a treasure, and as by the
eye we perceive the beauties of scenery,
so by faith we lay hold of Christ. We
who come within hearing of the gospel
must exercise faith in order to become
heirs of salvation. By faith we "put
on " Christ. It is by faith that we are
justified, and not by works. The work
of salvation was all accomplished when
the Saviour uttered the words, " It is
finished." But a living faith will be
accompanied by works, as much as a
rose must diffuse perfume, and a good
tree bring forth good fruit. As our Lord
said, *' Thy faith hath made thee whole,"
so Paul says, '' Bj- grace are ye saved
through faith ; and that not of your-
selves : it is the gift of God," Eph.
2:8. But, "faith without works is
[ dead." Jas. 2 : 26. Faith is operative
' in love. Gal. 5 : 6.
I The " faith of God," Rom. 3 : 3, means
I his faithfulness.
I FAITH'FULNESS is a divine
attribute, and denotes the certainty of the
< accomplishment of all that the divine
i Being has declared. Xum. 23 : 19; Ps.
89: 1, ?.3, :U: Heb. 10:28.
i FAL. 'LOW-DEER. "Deer" is
The Bubale, or Fallow-Deer of Scripture. (After Wood.)
a general name of a class of quadrupeds, i etc., but the animal is never mentioned
as the stag, fallow-deer, reindeer, elk, ' by this generic name in the Bible.
299
FAL
FAK
The deer mentione I in 1 Kgs. 4 :
23 was, by the Levitical law, a clean
animal. Deut. 14 : 5. It wa? formerly
supposed to be the European red deer,
called fallow from its pale-red or yel-
low color. Tristram and other late au-
thorities make it the bubale [Alcephalus
hiibnlis) or '"wild cow" of the Arabs.
This deer, from its heavy, calf-like
build, was classed by Orientals amoni;
cattle. It was valued for its venison, is
still found in northern Africa and Arabia,
and probabl}' once dwelt in Palestine.
Lieut. Conder has recently found a
kind of deer in the vicinity of Mount
Carmel which is called by the Arabs
yahiiiiir — precisely the Hebrew word
translated "fallow-deer." Naturalists
who have examined the skin which
Lieut. Conder brought to England state
that this animal does not differ percep-
tibly from the European roebuck, whioh
is therefore seemingly the animal that
furnished Solomon's
table with choice
venison. See Ro;*;.
FALLOW-
GROUiVD,atieId
plouglied. but un-
sowe 1 (figuratively,
Jer. 4:3; Hos. 10 :
12; literally, "til-
lage." Prov. 13 :
23). See Agricul-
ture.
F A L ' L O W -
YEAR. SeeSAB-
BATrCAL YkAR.
FAMILIAR
SPIR'ITS (from
the L-.it'in fit III ill (tr-
iH, "a household ser-
vant"). The phrase
expressed the idea
thiit necromancers
had spirits at their
command to wtiit
upon them as ser-
vants. See Divi.vA-
TIOV.
FAWINE, We have an account of
at least 8 famines in Palestine and
the neighboring countries. They were
among the judgments of God for na-
tional sins, and were often propheticsilly
announced. Two of these famines oc-
curred in the lifetime of Abraham, Gen.
12 : 10 ; 26 : 1 ; another in Jacob's time,
300
(ien. 41 ; 56 : and the most remarkable
one was that of 7 years while Joseph
was governor in Egypt. But in se-
verity it was surpassed by the famine
of 2 Kgs. 7, when people resorted to the
dunghills for food.
Two very severe and prolonged sea-
sons of famine in Egypt have been
noted by Arabian historians — one in
A. D. 1200, the other lasting from A. i).
1064-1071.
Famine was produced by a variety of
causes, as when the Nile did not over-
flow in Egypt, or rains did not fall in
Judcea, at the customary season, or when
caterpillars, locusts, or other insects de-
stroyed the fruits.
FAN. This was probably a broad
shovel used to toss the threshed grain
against the breeze for the purpose of
separating the chaff from the grain. Isa.
Sd : 21. The "shovel" mentioned in
the same passage seems to have been a
Winiiowiiig-Fans.
narrower implement, or, as some think,
a fork or bread-basket r.sed in a similar
way. Jer. 15 : 7 ; Matt. 3:12. See
Thkksh, Winnow.
FAR'THIXG. Two Greek words
are translated "farthing" in the N. T. :
(1) the kodrtniten, worth about three-
eighths of a cent ; (2) the <itiKun'<ni,
FAS
FAT
A Fartliing.
worth about a cent and a half. See
MOVEV.
FASTS. There was only one day
app(.inted as a fast by the Mosaic code,
the day of atonement, Lev. 16 : 29. ><q.,
where the expression "Ye shall afflict
your souls" probably refers to fasting.
During and after the Babylonian cap-
tivity four special fast-days were ob-
served. Zech. 7 : 5. Subsequent tradi-
tion relates that fasts connnemorated
the breaking of the tables of the Law
by Moses, Ex. 32, and the siege of Jeru-
salem, Jer. 52 : 4, nq. : the return of
the spies, Num. 13:25; the burning
of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar : the
sack of Jerusalem and the death of
Gedaliah, 2 Kgs. 25 : 13, sq. ; and the
reception by Ezekicl and others in T]iib-
ylon of the intelligence of the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem.
Public fasts Avere proclaimed at spe-
cial seasons by Nehemiah. 9 : 1, Jt hosh-
aphat, 2 Chr. 20 : 3, the Jews at Shushan,
Esth. 4:l(i, and others. The ajijioint-
ment of fasts by individuals for them-
selves was not uncommon, Neh. 1:4:
2 Sam. 1:12, and also, in the N, T., Luke
2 : 37, etc.
Fasts indicate humility and a sense
of dependence on the Almighty, and
were observed on solemn occasions, such
as the death of a prominent personage
(Saul, 1 Sam. 31 : 13 ; 2 Sam. 1:12). an
impending calamity. Jon. 3:5; Esth. 4 :
3. before a war. 2 Chr. 20 : 3 ; Jud. 20 :
26, and before a journey. Ezr. 8:21.
The Jewish fasts were kept with great
strictness, and generally from evening
to evening. The body was clothed with
sackcloth, ashes were sprinkled on the
head, the hands were left unwashed, the
head was unanointed, and the air was
filled with the voice of supplication and
the sobs of grief and penitence. Isa. 22 :
12; Joel 2:15-17.
At the time of our Lord fasting was a
very prominent religious observance and
the occasion of much hypocrisy and pa-
rade. Matt. 6 : 16. The fast spoken of in
Acts 27 : 9 was the day of atonement. The
weekly fasts were upon the second and
fifth days of the week. Fasts were not
observed upon the Sabbath, the new
moons, the great festivals, or the feasts
of Purim and dedication. John the
Baptist and his disciples fasted, but we
have no account that our Lord observed
periodic fasts, although that he fasted
is proved by Matt. 4:2; cf. Matt. 9:
14, After the Lord's ascension Chris-
tians fasted, 2 Cor. 6 : 5, and the N. T.
recommends fasting as a means of Chris-
tian growth. Mark 9:29;! Cor. 7 : 5, etc.
The N. T. leaves the times of fasting
to the full choice and appointment of the
individual. In Matt. 9 : 15 our Saviour
teaches that fasting follows and springs
from affliction, rather as a consequence
than a cause, and then may be a means
of grace.
FAT. The Hebrews distinguished
between the suet or ])ure fat of an ani-
mal and the fat which was intermixed
with the lean. Neh. 8:10. Some parts
of the former were forbidden to be
eaten in the case of animals sacrificed,
Lev. 3 : 3, 9, 17 ; 7 : 3, 23, on the ground
that the richest part of the animal be-
longed to Jehovah. Lev. 3:16. The
Hebrews had, however, their stalled
oxen, appreciating the luxury of fat
meat. 1 Kgs. 4:23: Luke 15: 23.
FAT (?. e. " vat"). See Wink-press.
The word is used in the A. \ . only in
Joel 2:24: 3 : 13.
FA'THER. This word is used in
the Bible in several senses besides its
usual one.
1. It is applied to any ancestor, and
in the plural to ancestors in general.
Dan. 5:2; Deut. 1:11: Matt. 23 : 30.
2. As a title of respect, especially to
kings, prophets, and priests. Jud. 17 :
10; 1 Sam. 10:12; 2 Kgs. 2: 12: Acts
7:2; 1 Cor. 4 : 15. Also of protector
or guardian. Ps. 68 : 5.
3. The author, source, or beginning
of anything. Gen. 4:21: Kom. 4:12.
4. God is called " Father." Deut. S2 :
6 : Ps. 89 : 26 ; Matt. 6 : 4, 9 ; Rom. 1 : 7.
The position of father was one of
great dignity and authority. Laws were
enacted to secure this. Ex. 22 : 17 ; Lev.
20 : 9. The father had, however, no
power over the life of his child. Deut.
21 : 18-21. Both his blessing and his
301
FAT
FEE
curse were especially efficacious. Gen.
9 : 26, 26 ; 27 : 27-40. The fifth com-
mandment was the only one to whose
obedience a blessing was especially
promised. Ex. 20:12; Eph. 6 : 2. Dis-
respect toward parents was one of the
worst of crimes. Ex. 21:15-17; I Tim.
1 : 9. The father, as the head of the fam-
ily, was, in patriarchal times, the priest.
Gen. 8 : 20 ; Job 1:5. " It is a beauti-
ful circumstance in the law of Moses
that this filial respect is exacted for
the mother as well as for the father."
See Children.
FATH'OM. See Measures.
FEAR. " The fear of the Lord " is
a common expression in the 0. T. Job
28 : 28 ; comp. Acts 9 : 31. It refers to
awe and reverence for piety rather than
to dread of God. The love of God is
not so plainly revealed in the 0. T. as
in the New. The attributes of God's holi-
ness and power are most strongly empha-
sized. Hence the frequent exhortation
to fear God.
Fear has its fit place also under the
gospel dispensation. Paul exhorts Chris-
tians, Phil. 2:12, "work out your own
salvation with fear and trembling." If
it is a " fearful thing to fall into the
hands of the living God," Heb. 10 :
31, and "if the righteous scarcely be
saved," 1 Pet. 4: 18, we ought ever to
remember the punishment due to us
for sin and God's abhorrence of it, and
in view of the punishment pass our
time in a proper state of godly fear,
which, however, is not slavish, but con-
sistent with assurance of faith and with
love for God as our Father. Comp. Rom.
8:15: 1 John 4: 18.
FEAST, Luke 14: 13, FEASTS.
Lev. 23 : 2. We often read in the Bible
of feasts or sumptuous entertainments,
and of the customs pertaining to them.
They were generally given to celebrate
or commemorate some important or joy-
ful event. Gen. 21 : 8 ; 29 : 22 : 40 : 20 ;
Eccl. 10 : 19. On such occasions the
guests amused themselves with stories
or sallies of humor, and sometimes with
enigmatical questions, Jud. 14:12, or
dancing, Mark 6 : 22, and music, Isa.
6:12; 24: 7-9.
As among the Romans, so among the
Jews at the time of our Lord, the guests
at feasts reclined upon couches, and did
not sit upright, as we do.
3U2
The most honorable place or seat, or
" uppermost room," as it is called, Matt.
23:6, or "highest" or " chief room,"
Luke 14:7, 8, was the middle couch,
and the middle of that : and lying be-
low one at table is to lie as it were in
or upon his bosom. John 13 : 23. See
Eating.
The "ruler" or "governor of the
feast," John 2 : 8, was the superintend-
ent of the servants, and at the same
time the one who controlled all the ar-
rangements for the festivity. It was
his office to test the meats and drinks
that were off"ered to the guests. John
2:9.
Feasts, Religious. The stated re-
ligious festivals among the Jews may
be divided into the following classes:
(1) The Sabbath, the feast of new
moons, the sabbatical year, and the
year of jubilee. (2) The Passover,
Pentecost, and the feast of taberna-
cles. (3) The feasts of Purim and of
the dedication. The first two classes
of feasts were established by the Law
of Moses; the last did not come intj
existence till after the Babylonish cap-
tivity. At each of the feasts of the
first two classes the males were to "ap-
pear before the Lord " and to make their
offerings with rejoicing. Deut. 27 : 7.
There was a suspension of labor on
the principal feast-days. Ex. 12:16;
Lev. 23:21, 24, etc. But inasmuch as
the festival of the Passover lasted
through a whole week, only the first
and the seventh days were included un-
der this restriction. Ex. 12:16. A par-
ticular description of each feast is giv-
en in its proper place.
Feasts op Charity or Love. These
are mentioned in Jude 12, and are sup-
posed to refer to the social interviews
established among the early Christians,
in imitation, ])erhaps, of the Jewish,
Deut. 12 : 1 8 ; 26 : 12, or Gentile observ-
ances of like character. They were
held in the assembly or church, either
after or before the celebration of the
Lord's Supper. Similar observances
are customary at the present day
among some Christian denominations.
FEET. To remove the shoes from
the feet was regarded as a token of
reverence, and also of mourning. Ex.
3:5; Eze. 24:17. It is supposed that
the priests officiated with naked feet.
FEL
FIE
and in modern times, among heafhen
nations and some nominal Christians, it
is customary to enter the place of wor-
ship with the shoes off and the feet
washed. To wash the feet was a com-
mon mark of hospitality, Gen. 18 : 4,
and was usually done by a servant, 1
Sam. 25 : 41 ; John 13 : 5, 6. This cus-
tom still prevails in the East. At
Smyrna the washing of the priests' feet
by the bishop is a distinct and very im-
posing ceremony, and is designed to be
an exact imitation of Christ's example.
See Clothes, D( st. Foot.
Foot-chains are supposed to be meant
by the word "chains " in Num. 31 : 50
and Isa. 3:19. They were worn around
the ankles, and caused the wearer to
observe a certain measured pace. The
same ornaments are now worn by the
women of Syria and Arabia. Little
rings are hung upon them, which tinkle
when the foot is in motion, and they
are often richly ornamented.
P^E'LiIX {hnppy), the Roman gov-
ernor of Judaea, a. d. 52-r.(). was a
profligate and cruel man. Acts 23 : 26.
He was married three times. Ills tliird
wife was Drusilla. whom he persuaded
to leave her husband and marry him,
and they were residing at Caesarea when
Paul was brought there in custody.
He is specially known for the manner
in which he treated the exhortations
and warnings of Paul, Acts 24: 26. who
preached before him a most practical
sermon, arraigning his crimes and urg-
ing upon him the iluty of re])entance in
view of future judgment.
The sermon made an impression, for
"Felix trembled," but it was transient.
He kept the apostle imprisoned for 2 i
years, and postponed the inquiry re-
specting his own salvation until a " con-
venient season," which, so far as we
know, never came. Felix was super-
seded by Porcius Festus 2 years after
this event, and tried at Rome before
Nero for malversation of office, but es-
caped punishment through the inter-
vention of Pallas, the freedman of
Claudius and his successor, Nero.
FEXCED CIT'Y. See Cities.
FER'RET, an animal of the weasel
family tamed in Europe and used for
catching rats. It has long been agreed
that " the creature which sighs or groans"
(Heb.a»aA'rtA,'' to groan") is not the fer-
ret. Lev. 11 : 30, Older writers consid-
ered it the shrew-mouse or the hedge-
hog, both of which abound in Pales-
tine. The belief is now almost univer-
sal that it is some animal of the lizard
tribe.
The Gecko, or Ferret.
Several of these reptiles make a
mournful cry or wail, especially ihaf/crko,
which is very common in Palestine and
Egypt among ruins, and is remarkable
not only for the clucking note which its
na«ie imitates, but for its fan-like toes,
whereby it is able to run up the smooth-
est wall, and even on ceilings. Of these
small lizards there are several species.
FESTIVALS, RELIGIOUS.
See Fk \sts.
FESTUS, PORCIUS, succeed-
ed Felix, A. D. 60, in the government of
Judaea, and died in 62." Acts 24 : 27.
Paul had a hearing before him on sun-
dry charges, ami Festus would have re-
leased him if Paul had not appealed to
the emperor. Acts 26 : 32. Josephus
gives him a good character as an effi-
cient ruler, especially because he did his
best to rid the countrv of robbers.
FET'TERS. See Chains.
FIELD, The Hebrew word trans-
lated *' field " conveys a contrary idea
to ours, inasmuch as it implies the ab-
sence of enclosure. Thus the " field " is
often contrasted with portions of land
that are enclosed, such as a vinevard,
Ex. 22 : 5 ; Lev. 25 : 3, 4 ; a garden or
a walled town, Deut. 28: 3, 16; " un-
walled villages or scattered houses
ranked in the eye of the law as fields."
Lev. 25:31. "Field" means the open
country apart from habitations, in Gen.
25:27; 37:15. Stones were used to
separate one plot of ground from an-
other; curses were threatened for re-
moving these landmarks. Deut. 19 . 14 :
27 : 1 ; Job 24 : 2 ; Prov. 22 : 28.
303
FIE
FIG
If such unfenced fields were pasture-
grounds, the herd or flock would require
constant watching. Ex. 22 : 5. A piece
of ground of any size, from the mere
land around a cave, Gen. 23 : 13, 17, to
an entire inheritance, Ruth 4 : 5, was
called a "field." In the N. T. the
Greek for " fields '' occasionally means
farm-houses or hamlets, in distinction
from villages and towns, but in the
A. V. it is rendered "country." Mark
5:14; 6:36,56. The knowledge of
these unenclosed fields throws light
upon the parable of the Sower. Some of
the seed scattered as he draws near the
end of his lot is certain t ) fall beyond
the ploughed portion, and the birds will
devour it. Again, the custom of run-
ning footpaths between, and not over,
fields explains the Sabbath-walk of our
Lord and his disci|i]e.s. Luke 6:1. The
little band did not t.ample down the
ripened grain. They merely walked
between the fields and plucked the
whciit on either hand. The complaint
was not brought against them because
they took the wheat, but because they
broke the Sabbath.
FIERY SERPENTS. See Ser-
pents.
FIG, FIG' TREE. The fig tree
{FicuH c(irica) has been cultivated in
Palestine from remote times, Deut. 8 :
8 ; Isa. 34 : 4, and is also feuud in a
wild state. It does not grow to a great
height, but throws out a profusion of
very spreading branches, and the trunk
is often 3 feet in diameter. Five-lobe I
leaves luxuriantly clothe these limbs,
and often convert this tree into a beau-
tiful natural arbor. 1 Kgs. 4 : 25 ; 2 Kgs.
18 : 31 ; Isa. 36 : 1 6 ; Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3 :
lU; John 1:48.
The fruit is pear-shaped, and the small
green figs appear before the leaves.
When these figs have attained some size,
their interior will be found filled with
minute white flowers. This curious pro-
vision leads to the common impression
that this tree never blossoms. When
the leaves have appeared, if there be
n J fruit among them, the fig tree will
be barren for the present season. Matt.
21:19.
Figs are much used as food in all
Eastern lands. Two kinds of this fruit
are mentioned in the Bible. 1. The
early fig, or boccdre, of which a few
304
ripen and are gathered in June, Isa.
28:4; Hos. 9:10; Mic. 7 : 1, while
the most of this early fruit falls off" be-
fore it is perfected. Rev. 6:13. 2. The
main crop, or kennome, ordinarily does
Figs and Fig-Leaves.
not ripen till August. These are the
" green figs " of Song Sol. 2 : 13. " Beth-
phage " means " house of green figs." A
long dark-colored kermouse sometimes
hangs upon the trees all winter.
These various kinds of figs are eaten
as they come from the tree, and are also
dried in masses or cakes. 1 Sam. 25 : 18.
They seem to have been an ordinary ar-
ticle of food, and tj have possessed me-
dicinal properties. 2 Kgs. 20 : 7 ; 1 Chr.
12 : 40.
The putting forth of the fig tree was
one of the earliest indications of sum-
mer. Song Sol. 2:13; Matt. 24:32;
Luke 21 : 29 : and a failure of its fruit
was a great calamity. Jer. 5:17; 8:13;
Joel 1:7, 12; Hab. 3:17, IS.
The cursing of the fig tree by our Sa-
viour, Mark 11 : 13, 21, has occasioned
great perplexity. This incident oc-
curred about the beginning of April,
when, as the evangelist states, the time
for figs had not come. Why, then,
should Christ seek figs upon the tree
and, as it were, blame its barrenness?
The best reply seems to be, Because the
tree was in leaf; and when the tree was
in this state, abnormal thcmgh it were,
fruit might be expected. Dr. Thomson,
as the result of his observation, consid-
ers it not at all impossible that the early
FIL
FIE
variety of this tree might have ripe fruit
in the warm, sheltered ravines of Olivet
at Easter : *• If there was no fruit on this
leafy tree, it might justly be condemned
as barren : and hence the propriety of
the lesson it was made to teach — that
those who put forth in profusion only
the leaves of empty profession are nigh
unto cursing."
FILE. The word occurs only once
in the A. V. 1 Sam. 13:21. The pre-
ceding verse is connected with it, and
they are best rendered : " But all the
Israelites went down to the Philistines
to sharpen [their tools] whenever there
was bluntness of edge to their shares
and coulters and prong-forks and axes,
and to point their goads."
FIRE was of course used for cook-
ing and for warmth. We find reference
to the latter use in Jer. 36 : 22 ; Luke 22 :
55 ; John 18 : 18, See Fuel. A hearth
with lighted wood or a pan with burn-
ing charcoal is mentioned in the pas-
sages specified as the sources of the heat.
Fire was used in the service of God to
consume the sacrifices partially or en-
tirely. There may be a question whether
Abel offered a burnt-sacrifice, Gen. 4:4,
but surely, from the time of Noah, fire
was used with the sacrifices. The Mo-
saic law prescribes its use, Lev. 1 : 7, and
this burnt-altar fire was to be kejit ever
burning. Lev. 6:9, 13.
Fire was the sign of the divine pres-
ence and acceptance. Thus, the heav-
enly fire which came down upon the
altar of burnt-offering on the occasion
of the first sacrifice after the giving of
the Law, Lev. 9 : 24, indicated Jeho-
vah's gracious pleasure in the service.
To the same end fire was sent in other
instances, Jud. 6:21; 1 Kgs. 18 : 38 ; I
Chr. 21 : 26. Fire was used as a purifier.
Num. 31 : 22, 23 : cf. Zech. 13 : 8, 9. The
victims slain for sin-offerings were after-
ward consumed by fire. Lev. 4 : 12, 21 ;
6 : 30 ; 16 : 27. The Nazarite marked
the conclusion of his vow by shaving
his head and casting the hair into the
fire on the altar of burnt-offering. Num.
6:18. It was forbidden by the Law to
kindle a fire on the Sabbath, Ex. 35 : 3 ;
Num. 15:32; but some maintain that
the prohibition applies to the prepara-
tion, and not to the heating, of food.
Consequently, by having the principal
meal, which was always eaten in the
20
evening, a little earlier on Friday and
a little later on Saturday, the Jew could
have a hot meal every day in the week.
The law held him who wilfully or
carelessly set fire to ripe or harvested
fields on which the grain yet stood pe-
cuniarily liable for damages. Ex. 22: 6.
The punishment of death by fire was in-
flicted in early times. Jer. 29 : 22 ; Dan.
3 : 20, 21. See Furxace. It is enjoined
by the Law in the case of incest with a
mother-in-law, and of unchastity on the
part of the daughter of a priest. Lev.
20 : 14 ; 21 : 9. But it is reasonable to
suppose that in both these cases the con-
demned were first killed by stoning or
strangling-, and then their bodies burnt.
To fire the gates was one way of ending
a siege. Jud. 9 : 49. 52.
Fire is the comparison of intense love.
Song Sol. 8:6; of the injuring tongue,
Ps. 120 : 4 ; Prov. 16 : 27 ; Jas. 3 : 5, and
of godlessness, Isa. 9 : 18. The anger
of God burns as fire, Ps. 79:5; 89 : -16 ;
Nab. 1 : 6. His word is like fire, Jer.
23 : 29. Yea, he himself is a consuming
fire, Dent. 4:24; Heb. 12:29. The
word is frequently used metaphorically.
The " strange fire," Lev. 10 : 1, is gen-
erally explained as common fire, not
taken from the holy fire of the altar.
But inasmuch as no express law forbade
the 1/urning of inctnse by ordinary fire,
it is very jirobable that the offence con-
sisted in presenting an incense-offering
not commanded in the law in an im-
proper, merely vainglorious spirit. The
time and manner of tbe ofering were
" strange,"' not the fire.
FIRE'-PAN, one of the vessels of
the temple-service. Ex. 27 : 3 ; 38 : 3 ;
2 Kgs. 25 : 15; Jer. 52 : 19. The same
word is elsewhere rendered "snufl'-dish,"
Ex. 25:38; 37:23; Num. 4:9. and
"censer." Lev. 10:1; 16:12; Num.
16 : 6 ff. These utensils were probably
sliallow metal vessels which served
either to catch the snuflf of the lamps
when they were trimmed or to burn
small quantities of incense.
FIR'KIN. See Measures.
FIR'MAMEXT. The word "ex-
pansion " would more perfectly convey
the meaning of the original word. Gen.
1:17. A similar idea is suggested Ps.
104 : 2 ; Isa. 40 : 22, and the same word
is used to denote a "covering," Num.
16 : 38, 39, or a " spreading over," Isa.
305
FIR
FIR
40 : 19, or " spread forth." Isa. 42 : 6.
The Jews probably understood the word
'* firmament " to denote an immense arch
or canopy sprung from one side of the
horizon to the other, studded with stars
and forming a sort of separating wall
between the upper and lower waters.
See Ps. 19 : 1 ; Dan. 12 : 3. The stars
are represented as dropping from their
settings in it. Isa. 34 : 4 ; Matt. 24 : 29.
FIRSTS-BORN. The first-born
male of every Jewish family and of all
beasts Avas consecrated to God in com-
memoration of the judgment which God
brought upon the first-born of Egypt. Ex.
13 : 2. Several provisions of the Jewish
law relate to the first-born. He received
a double portion of the estate, Deut. 21 :
17, and officiated as priest of the family
in the father's absence or death. The
j)rivile;;cs of the first-born were obvi-
ously great in the cases of Esau and
Reuben. Gen. 27 : 29, 36 ; 1 Chr. 5:1,2,
but might be forfeited, as these two cases
show. The religious pre-eminence of
the first-born ceased when the priest-
hood was committed exclusively to the
tribe of Levi. Num. 3:12, 13. It was
then requireil that a certain piece of
money (5 shekels, about $2.50 J should
be paid for the redemption of all the
first-born of succeeding generations;
and this redemption-mone}' became part
of the sacred revenue. Num. 8:17: 18 :
16. The first-born of all beasts used in
sacrifice were devoted to the Lord, Ex.
13 : 2, but the first-born of unclean ani-
mals might be redeemed with the ad-
dition of one-fifth of the value. Lev.
2?: 13; otherwise, they were sold, ex-
changed, or destroyed. Ex. 13 : 13 : Lev.
27 : 27. It is supposed that dogs were
never redeemeil, Deut. 23 : 18.
The tit'es '* the first-born of every
creature," Col. 1:15, and " the first-be-
gotten" of God, lleb. 1 : 6, belong ex-
clusively to Christ. The first of the
two might be translated the "first-
born" or begotten (not created) "before
every creature," and both expressions
denote a dignity superior to men and
angels and the whole creation.
FIRST-FRUITS. The first-
fruits of harvest, of the vintage, the
thrrshiiig-floor, the wine-press, the oil-
press, the first baUed bread of the new
crop, and the first fleeces of the flock,
were required by God to bo given for the
306
use of his ministers, the priests. Ex.
23 : 19 ,• Num. 15 : 19-21 : 18 : 12, 13.
These offerings were brought to the
temple. By making this consecration
of the first-fruits the entire produce
was consecrated, as the nation had been
by the consecration of the first-born.
No particular quantity was designated,
but it is supposed a sixtieth part of the
whole was the least measure.
The manner of offering the first-fruits
is prescribed Lev. 23 : 10-14. A sheaf
of the first ripe barley was brought on
the morrow after the Passover Sabbath,
and waved by the priest before the
Lord ; and after being threshed in a
court of the temple, a handful of it was
cleansed and roasted and pounded in a
mortar. Oil was mingled with it, and
it was then waved before the Lord in
the name and behalf of the nation, as
an acknowledgment of dependence and
gratitude. Until this was done the har-
vest remained untouched.
During the times of apostasy after
Solomon this ordinance was neglected,
but Hezekiah awakened the national
conscience on this subject, 2 Chr. 31 :
5-12. After the Captivity, Nehemiah
appointed places for the reception of
the first-fruits of both kinds (raw pro-
duce and prepared produce). Neh. 10:
35, 37 ; 12 : 44. The prophets insist on
the duty of offering them. Eze. 20 : 40 ;
44:30: 48:14; comp. Rev. 14:4. Fruit
trees were unplucked for three years.
The fourth year's yield was given to
God as the first-fruits, but from the
fifth year the fruit was the owner's,
Lev. 19 : 23-25.
The first-fruits were emblematical of
abundance and excellence, Rom. 8 : 23,
and also the earnest or sample of a full
harvest at hand. 1 Cor. 15 : 20.
FIR' TREE, probably the Aleppo
pine {Pinns ha/epeitniH), which is almost
as large as the cedar, is now found on
Lebanon, and was formerly doubtless
abundant through Palestine, Hos. 14:
8. Sometimes the cypress and juniper
may have been inclu(led under this name,
as well as other pines found here.
The fir was used for shipbuilding,
Eze. 27 : 5, musical instruments, 2
Sam. 6 : 5, and in the frame-, and or-
namental, work of costly edifices, 1 Kgs.
5:8, 10: 6: 15, 34; 9:*11; 2 Chr. 2:8;
3:5; Song Sol. 1 : 17. The fir is still
FIS
FIS
used in the manufacture of harps?, lutes,
guitars, etc. It was a tall, straight tree,
of fine appearance, in the tops of which
the storks built their nests, Ps. 104 : 17.
Hence it is used to illustrate power or
grandeur, 2 Kgs. 19 : 23 ; Isa. 14 : 8 j
37 : 24: and in Xah. 2 : 3 the brandish-
ing of weapons of war is compared to
the shaking of the tops of fir trees by a
violent wind. The springing up of the
fir is emblematical of verdure and plenty,
Isa. 41:19; 55:13; 60:13.
FISH* The rapid multiplication of
fish finds recognition in the root-meaning
of their Hebrew name, " to increase." See
also Gen. 48: 16, margin.
They are mentioned in
the first chapter of Gen-
esis (vs. 20, 26, 28) and in
Ps. 8 : 8 as one of the
chief classes of living
creatures, and as placed
under the dominion of
man. In the Law, Lev.
11 : 9-12, distinction of
them is made into clean
and unclean, according as
they have fins and scales
or are without them. Of
the numerous species of
fish which inhabit the
lakes and rivers of Pales-
tine and the adjacent sea,
Solomon possessed some
knowledge, 1 Kgs. 4 : 33,
but not a single variety
has its name recorded in
the Bible. (The whale is
not a fish !)
An aggravation of the
first plague of Egypt was
the destruction of fish — an
important part of the food
of the people. In the wil-
derness the Israelites mur-
mured for the fish of their old home.
Num. 11 : 5. It was a sad prophecy for
Egypt that by the failing of her waters
the fishermen should mourn, and that
they should be disappointed who make
ponds and sluices for fish. Isa. 19 : o-lO ;
comp. Eze. 29:4-10.
Most of the still and running waters
of Palestine swarm with fish. Josephus
first called attention to the similarity
of the fish of the Sea of Galilee and
those of the Nile. Of -those in the for-
mer water Tristram says : the density
of the shoals "can scarcely be conceived
by those who have not witnessed them.
Frequently these shoals cover an acre
or more of the surface, and the fish, as
they slowly move along in masses, are
so crowded, with their back-fins just
appearing on the level of the water,
that the appearance at a little distance
is that of a violent shower of rain pat-
tering on the surface. We obtained 14
species of fishes in the lake, and prob-
ably the number inhabiting it is at least
three times as great."
But not all of these fish of Galilee are
savory eating. Matt. 13 : 47, 48. On
Fishes of the Sea of Galilee. {After Tristram.)
1. Chromis Xilotica. 2. Clari^is Macracaatbus. 3. Labeobarbus Canis.
this lake four of the disciples toiled as
fishermen. Matt. 4:18-21. References
to the *' fish-gate," 2 Chr. 33 : 14, etc.,
of Jerusalem show that the city was
probably supplied with a market for
this kind of food. The product of the
Mediterranean was doubtless then, as
now, brought from Joppa, the port of
Jerusalem. The Phoenicians were es-
pecially engaged in the capture and
sale of fish, Eze. 26 : 5, 14; Neh. 13:
16, and the Hebrew name, Zidon, sig-
nifies "fishing."
307
FIS
FIT
The fish was frequently worshipped
from Egypt to Assyria and India. l)eut.
4 : 18. Dagon, the Philistine idol, 1
Sam. 5:4, was half fish, half man. On
early Christian monuments, especially
in the Catacombs of Rome, the fish it-
self or its Greek name was often carved,
because that name, ichthua, is formed
of the first letters of the confession :
"Jesus Christ, Son of Grod, Saviour."
Fish are often carried b}' the Jordan
and smaller streams into the Dead Sea,
but soon perish in its acrid element.
In the mystical vision of Ezekiel waters
were seen issuing from under the house
of God, carrying fertility along the Ke-
dron valley, and pouring into this sea of
death, whose waters were healed : '"And
it shall come to pass, that the fishers
shall stand upon it from En-gedi even
unto En-eglaim ; they shall be a 2>^«ce
to spread forth nets ; their fish shall be
according to their kinds as the fish of
the great sea, exceeding many." Eze.
47:1-10.
" Fish is an article of diet of which
the Orientals are passionately fond. It
brings a high price, unless some extraor-
dinary haul has exceptionally cheapened
the market. The government derives a
considerable revenue from the tax on fish
sold in the market. Every beach on the
sea-coast of Syria is enlivened with trawl-
ing-nets and cast-nets and fishing-boats,
and fishermen, standing often knee-deep
or waist-deep, casting their pole-lines
into the surf. Fish swarm -in the warm
water of this latitude, and every variety,
even to dog-fish and octopods, are greed-
ily eaten. The word ' smack' or ' boat'
would better express the kind of craft in
which the great draught of fishes was
caught, Luke 5 : 2." — Dr. Pout, of Beirut.
FISH'-GATE, a gate in Jerusalem.
2 Chr. 33: U, etc. Dr. Barclay thinks
it was near the "Fish-Pool." See Je-
BUSALKM.
FISH'-HOOKS. Am.4:2; comp.
Jer. 16: 16. The method of taking fish
with hooks was doubtless known in the
early ages of the world. Job 41 : 1.
The spear was also used. Job 41 : 7.
The usual way, however, was by a
net — either a casting-net, Eze, 26 : 5 ;
47 : 10 ; Hab. 1:15: Matt. 4 : 20. 21 ;
Mark 1 : 18, 19 ; Luke 6:2; John 21 :
6 ff., or a drag-net. Isa. 19 : 8 : Hab. 1 :
15 ; Matt. 13 : 47. In the latter case a
308
boat was necessarily used. Such fish-
ing was done, by preference, at night.
Luke 5 : 5. Angling was a favorite
recreation in ancient Egypt. The ref-
erence in Job 41 : 2 is to the custom of
putting a ring through the gill of a fish,
and then by a line attaching it to a stake,
the object being to keep it alive in the
water until required for use. Besides
amateur there were professional fisher-
men. Such were many of the apostles.
FISH-FOOLS OF HESH'-
BON, a mistranslation for "pools"
simply. Song Sol. 7 : 4. There is no
reference to fish. See Heshbon.
FITCH'ES, a plant {Nigella sa-
tiva) of the buttercup family. Isa. 28 :
25. Some species are cultivated in our
Fennel Flower, or Fitches. (Nigella Sativa.
After Can-utherfi.) '
flower-gardens under such names as
" love-in-a mist." Fitches are grown
for their small black, hot-tasting seeds,
which are sprinkled over the flat cakes
of the Syrians before they are baked.
FLA
FLI
These tender seeds are still beaten out
with a stout staff", as described in Isa.
28 : 27. " Fitches," in Eze. 4 : 9, should
read, as in the margin, " spelt." See Rye.
FIjAG. Probably used, as by us,
somewhat indefinitely. Ex. 2 : 3. If
any special plant was intended, it may
have been the edible rush or the flower-
ing rush, both of which abound in
Egypt, and the latter in Palestine.
FLiAG'ON. The Hebrew word so
translated in 2 Sam. 6 : 19,- 1 Chr. 16 :
3; Song Sol. 2:5; Hos. 3 : 1 (cf. mar-
gin) means a "cake," ordinarily of
compretfsed raisins. The last-quoted
text shows that such cakes were offered
to idols. But in Isa. 22 : 24 the word
" flagon " is the correct translation of
the Hebrew,
FLAX, a well-known plant, which
furnishes the material of linen stuffs of
every variety, Ex. 9:31. It was pro-
duced of the best quality in Egypt,
Isa. 19 : 9, and was an article of exten-
sive commerce.
At the present day, as in ancient
times, flax is laid upon the housetop in I Lamp-wicks were made of this material,
the heat of the sun to dry, Josh. 2 : 6. | Isa. 42 : 3. The spinning of flax was
Flax. {After Tristram.)
Preparation of Flax. (From the Egyptian Monuments. After \Vilkini<un.)
anciently the labor of the most noble
ladies. Prov. 31 : 13, 19, 24. See Linen
and Distaff.
FLFA, a small insect mentioned as
the most insignificant of creatures. 1
Sam. 24: 14; 26 : 20. Residents and
travellers in warm climates are too well
acquainted with it.
FLESH is usedfiguratively for every-
thing living. Gen. 6 : 1-3, 17, 19; some-
times mankind, 6:12; sometimes the
body as distinguished from the soul or
spirit. Col. 2 : 5 ; 1 Pet. 4:6. In a the-
ological sense, " the flesh " is the natural
man, including the unrenewed will and
mind, moving in the world of self and
sense only. Rom. 7:5; 8 : 1 , 5, 9 ; Gal.
5:17,19; Eph. 2:3. Self-imposed or-
dinances gratify the flesh — ?'. c. self —
whilst seemingly mortifying it.
FLINT, a hard and well-known
stone very abundant in Palestine and
adjacent districts, Ps. 114: 8. The fig-
urative use of the word in Deut. 32 : 13
309
FLO
FLY
represents the great abundance of oil,
and in Isa. 50 : 7 and Eze. 3:9 it is
used to denote firmness and constancy.
FLOATS, rafts by which the tim-
bers already fitted for the building
might be floated to Joppa, and then
carried overland to Jerusalem. 1 Kgs.
6:9; 2 Chr. 2: 16.
FLOCK. See Sheep.
FLOOD, one of the most remark-
able events in the history of our world.
It occurred 2500 years before the birth
of Christ, and was a judgment upon the
world for the great wickedness of its in-
habitants, only 8 of whom were saved — •
Noah and his family. Gen. 6 : 17 ff.
Noah obeyed the divine injunction to
build the ark and put into it pairs of
all the land-animals. The waters of the
flood increased for 150 days, until the
mountains were covered and the waters
attained the depth of 15 cubits, or 22^
feet. In consequence, " all flesh died
that moved upon the earth," and only
those animals were saved which were
confined in the ark. At the end of this
period the waters began to assuage, and
the ark rested on Mount Ararat. Noah
sent out in turn a raven and, on two oc-
casions, a dove. The second time the
dove returned with an olive-leaf. Gen.
8 : II, which was the best evidence of
the abatement of the waters. The bib-
lical narrative is given in Gen. 6-8.
The description of a vast flood is not
confined to the Old Testament. Many
peoples have preserved a tradition of
the event. And not only do we find tra-
ditions to this eff'ect on the tablets of
Assyria and in the literature of Greece,
but also among the Chinese and among
the aborigines of North and South
America and Mexico. The prevalence
of a belief in the occurrence of a great
deluge confirms the account of Gen-
esis.
It is not necessary to assume that the
Flood extended over all the earth, al-
though it did most likely destroy all
human life except the family of Noah.
Such expressions as " all the high hills
. . . were covered," Gen. 7 : 19, do not
oblige us to go beyond those portions of
the earth which were then inhabited by
men. Similar expressions are used where
the event referred to was only partial in
extent. See, for example, (ien. 41 : 57 ;
Luke 2 : 1. Opinions still difi'er as to
310
whether the Flood was universal or only
partial.
The Deluge is referred to in the N. T.
Matt. 24 : 37 ; 2 Pet. 2:5; 3:6.
The account of the Flood upon the
Assyrian tablets has been deciphered
by Mr. George Smith and published in
his work, The C/iatdfean Account of
(f'euesis (London and New York. 1876).
We quote a portion of the interesting
stor}', pp. 270, 271 :
" On the seventh day in the course of it
I sent forth a dove and it left. The
dove went and turned, and
a resting-place it did not find, and it
returned.
I sent forth a swallow and it left. The
swallow went and turned, and
a resting-place it did not find, and it
returned.
I sent forth a raven and it left.
The raven went, and the decrease of the
water it saw, and
it did eat, it swam, and wandered away,
and did not return.
I sent the animals forth to the four
winds, I poured out a libation,
I built an altar on the peak of the
mountain,
by seven herbs I cut,
at the bottom of them I placed reeds,
pines, and simgar.
The gods collected at its savor, the
gods collected at its good savor;
the gods like flies over the sacrifice
gathered
From of old also Rubat in her course
The great brightness of Anu had cre-
ated. When the glory
of those gods on the charm round my
neck I would not leave."
FLOOR. See Threshing.
FLUTE. See Pipe.
FLUX, BLOOD'Y, or dysentery,
Acts 28 : 8.
FLY, the name of a large tribe of
insects, some of which are exceedingly
annoying and destructive, Isa. 7 : 18.
They abound in Egypt and Palestine.
One species, which is found by modern
travellers in the vicinity of the Nile, and
called the Abyssinian fly, is as large as
a bee, and is such an annoyance to cat-
tle and other large animals as to oblige
them to forsake their pastures and
ranges, and to flee to some place where
they can roll themselves in the mud or
sand. Hence we may judge of the ter-
FOL
FOR
rible nature of the judgments mentioned
in Ex. 8 : 24 ,: Isa. 7:18; in which last
passage we are informed that the fly
shall be found in the very places to
which the cattle resort to rid themselves
of its presence.
FOJLD. See Sheep.
FOL'LY, Gen. 34 : 7, FOOL,
Prov. 15 : 5. These terms are used by
the sacred writers sometimes to denote
weakness of understanding, Ps. 14 : 1 :
1 Cor. 1 : 27 ; 4:10, and sometimes sin
or wickedness. Ps. 38 : 5 ; Josh. 7 : 15.
The transgression and disobedience of
Adam were the height of folly, as is the
sin of humanity generally. Foolish
talking, jesting, foolish and unlearned
questions, etc., 2 Tim. 2 : 23, are such
as are vain, frivolous, or have no useful
tendency.
The phrase "Thou fool," Matt. 6 : 22,
implies not only an angry temper, but
probably also impiety and wickedness,
in allusion to Ps. 14 : 1, where the athe-
ist is called a fool.
FOOD. Gen. 3:6. We may form
some judgment of the ancient diet from
what we know of that of the modern
Orientals. Vegetable food is much
more common than animal. Instead
of butter, lard, and suet, they use olive-
oil. A soup, or rather pottage, of beans
and lentiles, seasoned with garlic and
oil, is still, as it was of old, a favorite
dish. The '"red pottage of lentiles"
for which Esau sold his birthright was
something of this kind. Eggs, honey,
milk (especially sour milk), and garden-
productions of every kind afford the
principal materials of Eastern diet. The
most common dish at this day in the
East is the ^>?7aH, which consists of
rice ct)oked with meat so as to make a
sort of broth, seasoned variously and
colored blue, red, or yellow.
We do not find the use of animal food
often occurring, except upon the occa-
sion of entertainments, or the exhibition
of hospitality to a friend, Gen. 18 : 7 :
Luke 15 : 2.3, or upon the tables of the
rich. The animals used for this pur-
pose, especially neat cattle, were often
*' stalled" and *' fattened." 1 Sam. 16 :
20 ; 28 : 24 : 1 Kgs. 4 : 23 ; Neh. 5:18;
Isa. 1 : 11 : 11 : 6 : Jer. 46 : 21 ; Eze. 39 :
18: Am. 6:4; Mai. 4:2.
Wild game, lambs,, and kids consti-
tuted the favorite viands in the East.
At this day beef is not much used, though
from some texts above and other similar
authorities we learn that the flesh of
young bullocks and stall-fed oxen was
highly prized. Prov. 15 : 17 : Matt.
22 : 4.
In very ancient times it was always
the master of the house, whether he
were rich or poor, who slew the animal.
Jud. 6 : 19. Grecian and Roman writers
mention a like custom of later times.
The preparation of the food by cooking
was the business of the mistress. The
shoulder was probably the choicest part.
1 Sam. 9 : 24.
It is customary for the Arabs to serve
up at one meal the whole of any animal
which they have killed. This is occa-
sioned in some measure bj' the difficulty
of preserving fresh meat in the Eastern
climate. Gen. 18 : 7 : Luke 15 : 23.
The people of the East are particularly
fond of fish, and in Egypt this consti-
tutes a very important part of their sub-
sistence. Num. 11 : 5. See Fish.
FOOT'MAN. The term sometimes
means soldiers on foot or infantry. At
other times it has special reference to
the king's guard. 1 Sam. 22 : 17. The
word there translated " footman " is ren-
dered "guard" in other passages. 1 Kgs.
14 : 28 ; 2 Kgs. 11 : 4, etc.
FOOT'STOOL. 2 ( hr. 9 : 18.
Kings and other rulers sitting in state
required a stool upon which to rest their
feet. The divine glory, which resided
symbolically in the holy place between
the cherubim above the ark, is supposed
to use the ark as a footstool. 1 Chr. 28:
2 ; Ps. 99 : 5. So the earth is called
God's footstool by the same expressive
figure which represents heaven as his
throne.
FOOT, WA'TERING WITH
THE, a phrase used of Egypt in
Deut. 11:10, because the *• Egyptians
watered with the foot in two ways — by
the tread-wheel working sets of pumps,
and by means of artificial < honnels con-
nected with reservoirs, and opened, turn-
ed, or closed by the feet." — Bible Com-
mentary.
FORD, a word frequently used to
designate tl.e crossing of nny st-enm. but
especially of the Jordan, as Josh. 2:7:
Jud. 3:28: 12:5, 6: of the Jnbbok. Gen.
32 : 22 ; of the Arnon, Isa. 16 : 2 ; of the
Euphrates. Jer. 51 : 32. Until recently
311
FOR
FOU
the fords of the Jordan were supposed
to be only 8 or 10 in number, but the
British Palestine Survey has noted
about 50.
FORE'HEAD. Inasmuch as mod-
est women kept the forehead covered
with a veil, not to do so was indicative
of shamelessness. Jer. 3 : 3. Jewels for
the forehead, Eze. 16 : 12, were nose-
jewels, although at the present day in
the East women wear jewels and strings
of coins across their foreheads. To mark
the forehead with the device of a god
denoted the consecration of the intellect
unto it. Thus, the mark of the beast
was upon the forehead. Rev. 13 : 16.
So God's name is upon the saint's fore-
head. Rev. 22 : 4.
FOR'EIGNER, any one not of
the genuine Hebrew stock. Ex. 12 : 45;
comp. Eph. 2 : 12.
FOREKNOWL'EDGE, a pecu-
liar and essential attribute of God, re-
ferring to his knowledge of the future
and of future events. Acts 2 : 23 ; 15 : 18.
Believers are said to be *' elect according
to the foreknowledge of God." 1 Pet.
1:2.
FORERUN'NER. Heb. 6 . 20.
The term, as used of the entrance of our
Saviour within the veil, refers to one
who not only goes before to a particular
place to make arrangements for his suc-
cessors, but who leads or prepares the
way.
FOR'EST. 1 Sam. 22 : 5. Sev-
eral tracts of country were designated
in this way ; as, "the forest of Hareth,"
that of " Ephraim," " the wood of Ziph,"
etc. It is known that in the tenth cen-
tury A. D. there was a fir-wood between
Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Not a trace
of these forests remains. One of the
chief causes of the present desolation
of the Holy Land is the disappearance
of forests. The " house of the forest of
Lebanon," which was built by Solomon,
and which was magnificent in size and
style, 1 Kgs. 7 : 2, was so called probably
from the great quantity of cedar which
was used in the construction of it.
FORGIVE'NESS is an act of
God toward man, and of man toward
his fellow. To forgive sin is the exclu-
sive prerogative of God. of whose law
sin is the transgression. Ps. 130 : 4.
Our Lord, by virtue of his divine na-
ture, assumed the prerogative and exer-
312
cised the power of forgiving sins, which
the scribes and Pharisees, viewing him
merely as a man, made the occasion of
a charge of blasphemy, Mark 2 : 5.
The gospel makes known not only that
there is forgiveness with God, but also
how such forgiveness is made compati-
ble with the divine justice.
Forgiveness, full, free, and everlast-
ing, is offered to all who will believe
and obey the gospel. Acts 13 : 38, 39 ;
1 John 2 : 12. The duty of mutual for-
giveness is urged upon man with the
most solemn sanctions. Matt. 6 : 14, 15 ;
18 : 22 ; Luke 17 : 3, 4.
FORKS, mentioned in 1 Sam. 13:
21, were used, not in eating (for the
Orientals eat without forks), but in tak-
ing the meat out of the vessels in which
it was cooked, or else in husbandry. See
Eat, Eating.
FORNICA'TION. This word,
as used by the sacred writers, denotes
various acts of lewdness and inconti-
nency ; and it is also figuratively ap-
plied to idolatry, or the mingling of the
pure worship of God with the impure
rites of heathenism. Matt. 5 : 32, etc.
FORSWEAR'. See Oath.
FORTUNA'TUS, one of the
three Corinthians, the others being
Stephanus and Achaicus, who were at
Ephesus when Paul wrote his first Epis-
tle to the Corinthians, and who are
mentioned in the postscript as the
bearers of the Epistles. 1 Cor. 16:17.
FOUNT'AIN. Springs of water
are often mentioned in the Bible. Pal-
estine, in contrast with Egypt, was a
land of brooks of water, of fountains
and depths, Deut. 8 : 7. Hundreds of
fountains may be counted with ease
on either side of the Jordan. Some
have peculiar properties. There are
intermittent, thermal, brackish, sulphur,
and hot springs. Perpetual fountains
or springs of living water were greatly
valued. Ps. 36 : 8, 9 ; Isa. 49 : 10 ; Jer.
2 : 13 : Joel 3:18; Zech. 13 : 1 ; John
4 : 10: Rev. 7: 17.
In the expressive language of the
Hebrews and the modern Arabs, a foun-
tain is the "eye" of the locality. The
importance of water is attested by the
numerous names of localities into which
enters the Hebrew en or tlie Arabic ahi,
" fountain," such as " En-rogel," " En-
gedi" (Arabic 'Ain-jidy), "En-had-
FOW
FOX
dah." Damascus is the best supplied
with water of all the Eastern cities ;
Jerusalem also had so abundant a sup-
ply that during its numerous sieges
there was never a complaint on this
score. Public fountains are frequent
in the towns. The " fountain sealed " of
Song Sol. 4 : 12 is a well-spring covered
with a stone and sealed with the king's
own signet. The word " fountain " was
used figuratively ; thus, Deut. 33 : 28
and Ps. 68 : 26, it is applied to Israel
as the ancestor of the chosen people of
God, and in Pro v. 5: 18 to a beloved wile.
FOWL. See Bird.
FOX. Neh. 4 : 3. Under this term
the jackal is included — indeed, most of
the references seem to be to that animal.
The Orientals at the present time do not
distinguish in common language be-
tween the two creatures. Both are com-
mon in Palestine. The fox ( Vulpes
vulgaris) is smaller than the jackal
{Cam's aureus), and is of a reddish hue,
while the^latter is yellowish ; hence its
scientific name, meaning " the golden
dog." It is the latter also, and not the
fox, which devours the dead and fol-
lows armies that he may feed on human
bodies left behind. Ps. 63 : 10. Both
animals are omnivorous, but the jackal,
which goes in packs, is even more de-
structive to the vine\'ards than the
other. Song Sol. 2:15. The crafty,
artful nature of the fox is proverbial.
Eze. 13 : 4 ; Luke 13 : 32. He prowls sin-
gly for his prey of birds or small quad-
rupeds, which he takes by stratagem.
Jackals are concealed by hundreds
among the ruins, caves, and gardens
of Syria. Lam. 5 : 18. At sunset they
come forth, and both then and at inter-
vals through the night the traveller
hears their cry, resembling the con-
fused wailing of many infants.
Evidently, the *' foxes" which Sam-
The Syi
son caught (Jud. 15 : 4) were jackals.
On this Tristram judiciously remarks :
Avhile Samson could not have caught so
many foxes, " he might easily have
•snared,' as the Hebrew expresses it,
300 jackals, which hunt in large packs,
and which are still most numerous in
southern Palestine. It is not necessary
to assume that the whole 300 were
caught at once or turned loose in the
same place, but rather that Samson,
having taken them, turned them loose
in many difi'erent places, so as to make
ian Fox.
I 150 incendiary fires, and to cause the
! widest possible injury to the standing
j crops of the Philistines. The brands
I would be attached at some distance
from the tails of the animals, and jack-
als, accustomed to run together, would
not. unless very tightly fastened, pull in
opposite directions, as foxes or dogs
would ; but the terrified animals would,
so soon as ever they were let go, rush
as fast as possible from their captor,
and carry the devastation far and wide
before the brand was extinguished."
313
FRA
FRO
FRANKIN'CENSE {tchite),R dry,
resinous, aromatic substance of a white
or yellowish color, bitter and aci'id to the
taste, burning for a long time with a
clear, steady, and very odoriferous flame.
Several trees (of the genus Boftweffin)
which grow in India, Arabia, and Af-
rica yield this gum from incisions in the
bark. Along the coast of Hadramaut, a
district of Arabia, as Carter has shown,
frankincense (the olibanum of com-
merce) is produced, as was affirmed by
Herodotus, Celsius, other ancient writ-
ers, and the Bible. Isa. 60:6: Jer. 6:
20. The Arabian species (R. Carterii)
somewhat resembles, especially in its
BoBwellia Thurifera. (Colebrooke.
After Br. Birdwood.)
well be rendered "incense of spices,"
and is the composition mentioned in
Ex. 80 : 34.
The use of incense in the Jewish
worship may be learned from Ex. 30 : 7
jind Lev. 16 : 12, 13, and it is figura-
tively emploj^ed to represent lovely and
agreeable qualities, Song Sol. 3:6; 4 :
6, 14, and devotional fervor. Ps. 141:2;
Mai. 1: 11 : Rev. 8:3.
FRANK'LY is used in Luke 7 : 42
in the sense of " freely."
FRIEND. Abraham is called " the
friend of God." Isa. 41 : 8 : Jas. 2 : 23.
Jesus called his disciples his friends.
John 16: 15. He used a diflFerent word
in the Greek to Judas, Matt.
26 : 50, and one used more like
our conventional '' my good
friend," implj'ing kindly feel-
ing, though no especial regard.
FRIN'GES, a part of the
outer garment, and the same as
the hem or border of the gar-
ment. Deut. 22 : 12 ; Matt. 9 : 20 ;
14 : 36. See Clothes.
The children of Israel were
enjoined to wear them by Moses,
Num. 15 : 38, and to place them
on the four borders or edges of
their outer garment, which was
usually rectangular in shape.
They were of a blue color.
The object of the fringes was
to remind the children of Israel
of the commandments of God.
Num. 16 : 39. In the time of our
Lord they had become objects
of parade and show, so that he
finds an evidence of the hypoc-
risy of the Pharisees in their
practice of " enlarging the bor-
ders of their garments." The
"hem of the garment" which
the woman with the issue of
blood touched, Matt. 9 : 20, was
the ancient fringe enjoined by
Supposed Frankincense. Moses.
They became with time, as did
pinnate leaves when young, the raoun- the rolls containing the Scriptures, phy
tain- ash. This gum, in the above and
other passages, is mentioned simply as
"incense." It is called /VmhA- because
of the freeness with which it burns and
gives forth its odors ; and the pure in-
cense is that which is first obtained,
and is freest from foreign admixture.
" Sweet incense," Ex. 30 : 7, might as
314
lacteries, and other things, objects of
superstitious regard, and a Jewish
commentator on Num. 16 says that any
man clothed with this fringe is safe,
and shall be delivered from all hurt
and destruction.
FROG, a well-known amphibious
reptile which lives on insects, worms, etc.
FRO
FUR
Ex. 8 : 2. But one species is found in the
waters of Egypt {Bona escule»to). In
Rev. 16 : 13 this creature is the symbol
of uncleanness. Ex. 8 : 2 records the
miraculous multiplication of frogs
among the Egyptians in such numbers
as to fill their beds, ovens, and knead-
ing-troughs ; and when they died, as
they did in immense masses, they fill-
ed the land with an offensive and pesti-
lential effluvium.
FRONT'LETS. See Phylac-
teries.
FRUIT. The word is used in both
a literal and figurative sense. " The
fruit of the ground " is the product of
the ground ; " the fruit of the body "
signifies children. By "fruit" is some-
times meant reward or consequences,
Prov. 1 : 31. '' The fruit of the lips " is
service or thanksgiving. But used lit-
erally it is a comprehensive term. For
the regulation in regard to fruit trees,
see Tree.
FU'EL was so scarce in the East
that the people resorted to almost every
kind of combustible matter, such as the
withered stalks of herbs and flowers,
Matt. 6 : 28-30, thorns, Ps. 58 : 9 ; Eccl.
7:6, and even e.vcrement8. Eze. 4: 12-
16. See DrxG.
FULFIL'LED. Matt. 2:17. This
word is frequently used in reference to
the accomplishment of prophecy. The
expression, ''that it might be fulfilled,"
Matt. 2 : 15, 23 ; 8 : 17 ; 12 : 17, etc., etc.,
signifies that the events have fallen out
in accordance with the prophecies of
the 0. T. The word in this connection
is almost synonymous with " verified."
In other connections, Gen. 25:24;
Rev_15 : 8, etc., the word means "com-
pleted" or "accomplished," as when
Christ said, " The time is fulfilled,"
Mark 1:15.
FUL'LER. The Hebrew word
comes from the verb " to tread," be-
cause originally the clothing was trod-
den upon in tubs of water until the soap
which had been dissolved had cleansed
it. The fuller did not simply full new
cloth, but washed clothing that had been
worn. Among the primitive Hebrews
washing was done at home by the wo-
men. Ex. 19 : 10 ; Num. 19 : 7. It was
obligatory in the case of the leper's
clothing. Lev. 13 : 54. But in later
times among the Hebrews, as among
the Egyptians, as the monuments tes-
tify, washing was an especial and im-
portant business of the men. 2 Kgs. 18 :
1 7 : Isa. 7:3:36:2: Mark 9 : 3. Men-
tion is made in the Bible of the various
substances used in this business, such as
nitre, Prov. 25 : 20 ; Jer. 2 : 22 : soap,
probably the juice of some saponaceous
plant. Mai. 3 : 2. Chalk was rubbed
into clothes for the same purpose. Since
the fullers occasioned oBensive smells,
they carried on their work outside the
cities. West of Jerusalem was their
field ; its removed position and the sup-
ply of water from the upper Pool of
Gihon rendered the place very fit. See
Fullers' Field. En-rogel was the
fullers' fountain.
FULLERS' FIELD, a spot close
to the walls of Jerusalem. 2 Kgs. 18 :
17, 26: Isa. 36:2: 7:3. One resort
of the fullers appears to have been En-
rogel, below and south-east of Jerusa-
lem, but the place where Rabshakeh
stood was probably on the north of the
city, or perhaps near the Jaffa gate, at
the upper Gihon pool, where fullers now
whiten their garments.
FUL'NESS. Gal. 4:4. This ex-
pression has a peculiar meaning in some
passages of the sacred writings. The
"fulness of time," in relation to the
Messiah, has the same meaning as the
expression " when the measure of time
was full " — that is, when the time had
elapsed as appointed by God. and all
the preparations for his coming were
completed. So when the day of Pen-
tecost was fully come. Acts 2:1. The
same word is used, John 1:16 and Col.
1:19, to signify the perfect and com-
plete sufficiency of spiritual blessings
in Christ Jesus.
"Fulness of the Godhead," Col. 2 : 9,
denotes all the attributes of the divine
nature in their entire and complete per-
fection. The " fulness of Deity " was
in Christ.
FU'NERAL. See Bury.
FUR'LONG. See Measures.
FUR'NACE. Furnaces were used
for melting the precious metals. Prov.
17 : 3. They were also used to punish
criminals. The furnace into which
Nebuchadnezzar cast the young He-
brews who refused to worship his image.
Dan. 3 : 22, 23 ; cf. Jer. 29 : 22, was
probably a large furnace, like a brick-
315
FUR
FUR
kiln, with an opening at the top to cast
in the materials ; a second, for the re-
moval of slag, cinders, etc., or molten
Egyptian Fuinace. {Ayre.^
metal, was arranged below, in one of
the sides, so that the material in the in-
terior could be observed.
FUR'NITURE. To a European eye
the best-furnished houses in the East ap-
j)ear empty. On the marble floors are
rugs, on the divan are cushions of rich
materials. But the great variety of
furniture to which we are accustomed is
unknown. The poor of course had cor-
respondingly less. A mat or a skin to
recline on during the day, a mattress to
sleep on at night, a stool, a little low
table, and a brazier, — this would be the
extent of the furniture. It is inter-
esting to observe that the rich Shunam-
mite furnished the room of Elisha with
simply a bed — perhaps merely a mat-
tress— a table, a stool (chair), and a
candlestick. 2 Kgs. 4 : 10-13 . The word
" furniture " is used in Gen. 31 : 34 of
the camel-trappings.
FURROW is the translation of
different words in the Hebrew. In Hos.
10 : 10 the word is properly "transgres-
sions." The complaining of the furrows,
Job 31 : 38, is mentioned in Hindoo
proverbs.
FU'RY. Jer. 10 : 25. As the word
is generally used, the prophet here at-
tributes to God what is true only of
man. We associate haste, impulse,
thoughtlessness, and unkindness with
fury. But in this sense God cannot
have the emotion of fury. He has
anger for sin, but this is a righteous
and holy feeling, devoid of the bitter-
ness by which men are most often ac-
tuated in their fury ; and when he is said
to pour out his fury on a person or on a
people, it is a figurative expression for
dispensing afflictive judgments.
1. A Village Table.
316
Modern Eastern Furniture.
2. A Brazier, Tong.i, etc. 3. Chairs, I'er.siaii Canopy Bed, a Couch and Wooden
rillow.
GAA
GAD
G.
GA'AL (loathing), the son of Ebed,
led a revolt against Abimelech, king of
the Shechemites. Jud. 9 : 26-4(5. He
was defeated and his partisans were
scattered.
G A'ASH (earfhqunke), the hill where
Joshua was buried. Josh. 24 : 30; Jud.
2 : 9. South of Tibneh, which is iden-
tified as Timnath-serah, is a hill, upon
the north side of which are tombs : hence
it is supposed to be " the hill Gaash."
GA'BA. See Geba.
GAB'BAI {tax-gatherer), a Benja-
mite living in Jerusalem. Xeh. 11 : 8.
GAB'BATHA(p;«t/'orm), the place
of Pilate's judgment-seat; called also
" the pavement." John 19 : 13. The
judgment-hall was the Praetorium, on
the we-tern hill of Jerusalem, and the
pavement, or Gabbatha, was a tesselated
pavement outside the hall.
GA'BRIEL (man of God), an angel
specially charged with the message to
Zacharias respecting the birth of John,
and to Marj respecting the birth of
Christ. Luke 1 : 19-26. At an earlier
period he was sent to Daniel to unfold
a vision. Dan. 8:16; 9 : 21. See An-
GKLS.
GAD (good fortune '?). 1. The sev-
enth son of Jacob, and the first-born of
Zilpah, Leah's handmaid, Gen. 30: 11.
2. A prophet and particular friend of
David, the history of whose reign he
wrote. 1 Chr. 29 : 29. He came to Da-
vid when the latter was in the cave Adul-
1am. 1 Sam. 22 : 5. He then began his
career of counsellor, under divine direc-
tion, which eventually won him the title
of " the king's seer." 2 Sam. 24 : 1 1, 13 ;
1 Chr. 21 : 9. In Hezekiah's day he was
remembered. 2 Chr. 29 : 25.
GAD, THE TRIBE OF. The
territory, given to the tribe of Gad
lay east of the Jordan, north of
that allotted to Reuben, and south of
that given to Manasseh on that side of
the river. It extended from the Jordan
eastward to Aroer, Josh. 13 : 25, includ-
ing half of Mount Gilead and half of
Ammon. Deut. 3:12; Josh. 13 : 25. For
physical features and history, see GiL-
EAT). Its chief cities were Ramoth-gil-
ead, Mahanaim, Heshbon, and Aroer.
This tribe, in the Wilderness, was
placed with Simeon and Reuben on the
south of the tabernacle; with Reuben
and the half of Manasseh, it occupied
the pasture-grounds on the east of the
Jordan. It was warlike, as is graphically
stated, 1 Chr. 12: 8. Two famous men
came from Gad — Barzillai, 2 Sam. 17 :
27, and Elijah, 1 Kgs. 17:1. The ter-
ritory was the battle-field for wars be-
tween Syria and Israel. 2 Kgs. 10 : 33.
GAD'ARA. See Gadauenes.
GAD'AREiYES, COUNTRY
OF, possibly the same as that of the
Gergesenes. Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:1;
Luke 8 : 26. A region about Gadara, an
important city about 6 miles south-cast
of the Sea of Galilee, and 10 miles from
Tiberias ; now called Uin Keis. The
town is about 1215 feet above the sea-
level, on the western crest of a mountain.
The tomb-caverns are very numerous,
and some of them are still inhabited by
the Arabs, illustrating Matt. 8 : 28. The
ruins of the ancient city cover a circuit
of about 2 miles, including a street with
basalt pavement having marks of char-
iot-wheels. There are rows of columns,
two theatres.
The place of the miracle of Matt. 8 :
28-33 has been in doubt, but it cannot
be Gadara, which is too far from the
lake lor the herd of swine to rush into
it precipitantly in one short movement.
Recent explorations fix it, with some
certainty, about midway of the Lake
of Galilee, on its eastern side and near
Gerana, or modern Kerna. Between
two wadys, Semakh and Fik, which are
3 miles apart, the hills come within 40
feet of the lake, and present a steep
slope, so that a herd of swine running
swiftly down it would be carried on into
the water. This identification is support-
ed by W. M. Thomson, Tristram, and the
members of the Palestine Exploration
Survey. W. M. Thomson suggests that
Matthew, writing for the Hebrews, who
knew the country, notices the more exact
but less known locality of Gergesa, while
317
GAD
GAL
Mark and Luke, writing for those at a
distance, refer simply to the country
of Gadara, which was more widely
known as the capital of that region.
GAD'DI [fortunate), the spy from
the tribe of Manasseh. Num. 13:11.
GAD'DIEL [fortune of God; i. e.
sent from God), the spy from Zebulun.
Num". 13 : 10.
GA'DI [a (r«f7?7e), the father of Men-
ahem, a king of Israel. 2 Kgs. 15 : 14, 17.
GA'HAM [sunburnt), a son of Na-
hor, nephew of Abraham. Gen. 22 : 24.
GA'HAR [lurking-place), a Neth-
inim. Ezr. 2:47; Neh. 7:49.
GA'IUS. 1. A Macedonian. Acts
19 : 29, Paul's host at Corinth when the
Epistle to the Romans was written, Rom.
16 : 23, and baptized with his household
by Paul. 1 Cor. 1:16. lie accompanied
Paul to Ephesus, and was seized by the
mob. Acts 19 : 29. The association of
his name with that of Aristarchus seems
to identify him with the Gaius of Derbe.
Acts 20 : 4. Opinions diifer on this
point.
2. To one of this name is addressed
the third Epistle of John. 3 John 1.
GA.^IjA.1j [injluential). 1. A Levite.
1 Chr. 9: 15.
2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 9:16; Neh. 11 :
17.
GALiA'TIA, a central province of
Asia Minor, subject to the Roman rule,
bounded by Bithynia and Paphlagonia
on the north, Pontus on the east, Cap-
padocia and Lycaonia on the south,
and Phrygia on the west. Its bound-
aries, however, were often changed.
In Ptolemy's time it extended to the
Euxine or Black Sea, and at one time
included Lycaonia on the south. Its
capitals were Tavium, Pessinus, and An-
cyra. The country is chiefly high table-
land between the two rivers Halys and
Sangarius.
The Galatians were originally Gauls
or Celts who 300 years before Christ
moved from the regions of the Rhine
back toward the east, and there min-
gled with Greeks and Jews. Their
character resembled that of the mod-
ern French, and combined quick temper,
prompt action, inconstancy, and change-
ableness. So they appear in the Epistle
of Paul to them.
Galatia was a part of Paul's mission-
ary-field. He visited it once with Silas
318
and Timothy, Acts 16 : 6 ; again, on his
third tour, he " went over all the country
of Galatia," 18 : 23, and received a col-
lection for the saints from its churches,
1 Cor. 16 : 1. Crescens also appears to
have been sent there near the close of
Paul's life. 2 Tim. 4 : 10.
GALA'TIANS, EPISTLE TO,
written by Paul with his own hand (ch.
6 : 11) between a. d. 55-58. Its desi^
is to diffuse true notions among the
Galatian Christians concerning justifi-
cation, the relation of the Mosaic econ-
omy to the Christian, and the authority
of Paul as an apostle. The Galatians
had received Paul with much enthusiasm
when he first preached the gospel to
them, ch. 4: 15. After his departure
teachers had disseminated the false idea
that the obligation was incumbent upon
the followers of Christ to practise the
ceremonies and rites of the Mosaic code.
With much vehemence and fervor Paul
combats their Judaizing teachings, and
enforces the doctrine that by faith alone
are we justified. Faith constitutes one
the child of Abraham. 3 : 9, and circum-
cision is not only not essential to salva-
tion, but is in itself of no avail. 6 : 6.
Chs. 1 and 2 are occupied mainly with
a vindication of Paul's apostolic com-
mission as of equal authority with that
of the other apostles, and with an ac-
count of a debate concerning meats at
the council of Jerusalem. Chs. 5 and 6
contain practical exhortations. The
main argument, that we become par-
takers of salvation by faith, 3 : 26, is
the same in the Epistle to the Galatians
as in that to the Romans. The two
Epistles were best understood in the
time of the Reformation, and form the
ina;/na eharta of evangelical Protestant-
ism.
GALi'DANUIU, a resinous gum of
dark-yellow color, produced in Syria
and neighboring countries. Ex. 30:34.
It burns with a pungent, disagreeable
odor, was an ingredient of the sacred
incense, and is still valued for its me-
dicinal properties. There is uncertainty
from what plant it is obtained, but that
of Palestine is thought to be from one
which botanists call Galbauum officinale.
GAIi'EED [heapo/ witnetm), a place
on Mount Gilead ; named by Jacob,
Gen. 31 : 47. 48 ; probably near Tihneh.
GALILE'ANS, the inhabitants of
GAL
GAL
the province of Galilee. Luke 13 : 1-3 ;
Acts 2 : 7.
GAIj^IIi£E {circle, circuit), a name
in the 0. T. for a small district in the
northern mountains of Naphtali, around
Kedesh-naphtali, and including 20 towns
given by Solomon to Hiram, king of
Tyre, Josh. 20:7,- 21:32; 1 Kgs. 9 : 11 ;
2 Kgs. 15 : 29, and called " Galilee of the
nations" in Isa. 9 : 1. Devastated dur-
ing the wars of the Captivity, it was
repeopled by strangers. In the time of
the Maccabees they probably outnum-
bered the Jewish population, and gave
their new name to a much wider dis-
trict.
In the time of our Lord, Palestine was
divided into three provinces, of which
Galilee was the most northern. It in-
cluded the whole region from the Plain
of Jezreel to the Litany (Leontes) River,
being about 50 miles long by 20 to 25
miles wide. The northern part was
known as Upper and the southern part
as Lower Galilee. These included the
territories given to Asher, Naphtali,
Zebulun, and Issachar. The country
was famed for its fertility, rich pastures,
and fine forests. The portion west of
the lake was the most beautiful. In
the Roman period the population was
dense. Josephus estimating it at 2,000,000
or 3,000,000, though that is probably an
exaggeration. It had a mixed popula-
tion of heathens, foreigners, and Jews.
The latter, having a strong, if not domi-
nant, influence, were less strict and less
acquainted with the Law than their
southern Judaean neighbors, by whom
they were little esteemed.
The noted mountains of Galilee were
Carmel, Gilboa, and Tabor ; the towns
were Nazareth, Cana, Tiberias, Chorazin,
Bethsaida, and Capernaum. Jesus spent
the greater portion of his life and ministry
in Galilee. Many of his most remark-
able miracles, teachings, and labors were
within this province of Galilee. His
disciples were chiefly from this region.
Acts 1:11. After the fall of Jerusalem,
Galilee became the residence of cele-
brated rabbis and the centre of Jewish
schools of learning.
GAI/ILEE OF THE GEN'-
TILES. See Gamlee.
GAL'ILEE, SEA OF, a small
lake of deep interest to the Bible-read-
er as the scene of some of the most
remarkable works of Jesus. The lake
is named from the district or province
of Galilee. It was known by several
other names, as the sea of Chinnereth,
Num. 34:11; Deut. 3:17, or Chinne-
roth. Josh. 11 : 2 ; 12 : 3, or Cinneroth,
1 Kgs. 15 : 20, probably from a town of
that name which stood on its shore. Josh.
19 : 35 ; the lake of Gennesaret,* Luke
5 : 1, from the plain or land of that name
on its north-western side. Matt. 14:34;
Mark 6 : 53 ; the sea of Tiberias, from
the celebrated city of that name, John
6:1; and the sea. Matt. 4:15. It is
also called Gennesar in the Apocryphal
book of Maccabees, 1 Mace. 11 : 67. Its
present name is Bahr Tahariyeh. It
is worthy of note that all the towns
whose names were applied to this lake
were situated upon its western side.
Situation and Extent. — This sea is CO
miles north-east from Jerusalem, and 27
east of the Mediterranean Sea. Its form
is an irregular oval or pear-shape, the
broad end being toward the north. Its
length is 12^ miles according to Wilson,
16^ according to Baedeker, and its
breadth from 4 to 7i miles. Its level
varies at different seasons, and is from
600 to 700 feet below the Mediterranean,
the mean depression being about 626
feet, and its depth 160 feet.
Phynicfil Features. — The lake is sur-
rounded by an almost continuous wall
of hills, broken or receding occasionally,
as at Tiberias, the plain of Gennesaret,
and at the Jordan. The hills are of
limestone, basalt, and volcanic rocks,
indications of volcanic action being also
specially abundant in the Jordanic
chasm, though Wilson sees nothing to
indicate a volcanic origin of the lake.
Hot springs abound ; earthquakes are
frequent. The Jordan runs through the
lake, coloring its water for a mile. The
water of the lake is slightly salty, but
drunk by the people. Fish abound,
many species having been found. Tris-
tram says : " The shoals were marvellous
black masses of many hundred yards
long, with the black fins projecting out
of the water as thickly as they could
pack. No wonder that any net should
break which enclosed such a shoal !
Yet though the lake swarms with fish as
* " Gennezaretfc," which is a form of the name
also given to the sea by many authors, is not
found in the A. V. of our English Bible.
319
GAL
GAL
I could not have believed water could
swarm, there are but two boats exi:<ting
on its whole extent besides a terry-boat."
( Land of Inrael, p. 430.) Baedeker notes
three miserable fishing-boats. These are
all that are left to remind the traveller of
the numerous boats which our Saviour
saw on the Sea of Galilee. Josephus de-
scribes a naval engagement which took
place on its waters between the Jews and
the soldiers of Vespasian. Violent and
6ketcli-Map of the Se;i of Galilee. (Palestine Exploration Fund.)
sudden storms are common now on the
lake, as in our Lord's day.
Scripture. Hinti))-i/. — This lake is men-
tioned in the 0. T. but seldom, and then
rather incidentally, as in Num. 34 : 1 1 ;
Deut. 3:17: Josh. 11 : 2 ; 12 : :'. : 1 Kgs.
15 : 20. Its chief interest is its associa-
tion with the public ministry of our Sa-
viour. Upon its .shores was '• his own
320
city," Matt. 9:1; from fishing-boats
on Galilee he called Simon Peter and
his brother Andrew, and his partners
James and John, who were thenceforth
'• to catch men," Matt. 4 : 18, 22; Mark
1 : 16-20; Luke 5 : 1-11 ; on it he stilled
the tempest and made the winds and
the sea obey him, Matt. 8 : 23-27; 14:
22-33 ; see also 17 : 27 ; Mark 7 : 31-35 ;
at the Sea of Tiberias Christ also showed
himself to the disciples after his resur-
rection. John 21. Of
the nine or more popu-
lous cities which stood
upon its shores, the
more important were
Bethsaida, Capernaum,
Chorazin, Tiberias, and
Magdala.
Present Appearance. —
Porter gives an eloquent
description of the lake
as it appeared to him
from his tent-door, on a
lovely spot, at evening:
" The silence was pro-
found. Even Nature
seemed to have fallen
asleep. The river glided
noiselessly past : the sea
was spread before me
like a polished mirror.
. . . East of the lake the
side of Bashan's lofty
{I'ateau rose' as a moun-
t.iin-chain, and at its
northern end my eye
rested on the ver3' scene
of that miracle of mercy
where thousands were
fed, and at its southern
end on that of the mir-
acle of judgment, where
' the whole herd of swine
ran violently down a
steep place, and perish-
ed in the waters.' Away
to the west the shatter-
ed ram])arts of Tiberias
seemed to rise out of the bosom of the lake,
and behind them a dark mountain, in
whose caverned cliflTs repose the ashes of
many a learned rabbin, while over all ap-
Iiearedthe gract-ftil rounded top of Tabor,
''arther to the right, on the white strand,
I saw the huts of Magdala, with the coast
of Genncsaret extending from it north-
ward to Capernaum — Christ's own city."
GAL
GAL
At the present time the lake is almost ut-
terly forsaken : only three or four lisher-
boats can be found there ; while at the
tiTQe of Christ it was covered with sail-
ing-vessels, and the surrounding western
shore (the plain of Gennesaret) was, ac-
cording to the glowing description of Jo-
sephus, a paradise of beauty and fertility.
F. R.. and C. R. Conder describe the
famous sea as pear-shaped, and resem-
bling in size the English lake Winder-
mere. They add : " It is surrounded
with precipices of limestone, except on
the north, where a shelving slope leads
to the shore from a plateau of basalt ex-
tending from the foot of the highest
range of Upper Galilee. The scenery
of tbe lake is bare, :>nd much tamer
The Sea of Galilee from Tibeiiaa. (Ajier original Phot (irnph.)
than that of the Dead Sea. The beach is
narrow except on the north-west, where
the cliffs recede, leaving a ferti'e plain
(Gennesaret), 2^ miles long and I mile
broad, watered by several fine springs.
The pebbly open shore on the north is
broken into numerous bays, and is
fringed with dark oleander bushes.
On the south-eastern side is a palm-
grove, and a few palms dot the western
shore. The ruddy cliffs on the west and
the steep slopes on the east are bare and
desolate, but the sweet waters of the
lake, in calm weather mirroring the
surrounding hills and shining in the
sun, present a beautiful scene, espe-
cially at evening. The sea is remark-
able for its shoals of fish, for the vio-
21
lence of its sudden thunder-storms, and
for the h^-t springs along its shores. The
neighborhood of the lake is also pecu-
liarly subject to volcanic disturbances."
—Hnndhooh of the Bihh, p. 215 (1879).
The Rev. Dr. S, Manning encountered
a sudden and violent storm on this lake,
illustrating many of the details of X. T.
history : " I had taken a boat, on a bright,
cloudless morning, to explore the eastern
shores and the point where the Jordan
enters the lake. There was not a ripple
on the water, not a perceptible current
in the air. Almost without warning, the
wind rose : the waves, crested with foam,
began to break over the sides of the boat.
I was sitting on a cushion, or 'pillow,'
on the fiat, raised stern, * in the hinder-
.321
GAL
GAM
part of the ship/ and watched the crew
'toiling and rowing.' But all their ef-
forts were in vain. They were unable
to make any way, for ' the wind was
contrary.' At length one of them jump-
ed overboard, and, partly swimming,
partly wading, towed the vessel ashore."
— Holy Fields, p. 205. Capt. Wilson ex-
perienced a similar sudden storm.
GAIilif BILi£, an animal fluid, of
exceedingly bitter taste, secreted by the
liver. Ps. 69:21. Allusion is made to it
in Job 16: 13 ; 20: 14, 25 ; Lam. 2:11,
and elsewhere. But by the same word,
in Ps. 69 : 21, reference is made to the
extraction of a very bitter herb, Deut.
29:18,: 32:32, perhaps hemlock. Hos.
10 : 4. It was so bitter as to be used as
a generic term for bitter substances ; as
sour wine or sour cider, etc., is called
" vinegar." Comp. Matt. 27 : 34 ; Mark
15 : 23 ; Acts 8 : 23. See Myrrh.
GALi'LERYj a veranda common in
Eastern houses. But the word in the
A. V. is not a correct translation of the
Hebrew, which means, according to the
latest researches, the colonnade or e\=e
wainscoting. Song Sol. 1:17; Eze. 41 :
15.
GAL 'LEY. See Ship.
GAL'LIM (heaps), the home of Da-
vid's wife, 1 Sam. 26 : 44; a village of Ben-
jamin, Isa. 10 : 30 : now perhaps Khirlet
es-Soma. Conder proposes Beit Jala.
GAL'LIO) proconsul of Achaia and
brother of Seneca, the famous philos-
opher, who describes him as a man of
great mildness and simplicity. Acts 18 :
12. Paul was brought before his tri-
bunal at Corinth by the Jews, who ac-
cused him of blasphemy. Acts 18 : 6.
Gallio dismissed the case as one not
cognizable by a Roman court. Acts 18 :
14, 15. He deemed the offence at best
a trivial one. Like his brother Seneca,
Gallio was executed at the command of
Nero.
GAL'LOWS. See Punishmrnts.
GAMA'LIEL {recompense of (Jod).
1. The prince of Manasseh in the des-
ert. Num. 1:10; 2 : 20 : 7 : 54, 59 ; 10 :
23.
2. A distinguished Jewish rabbi and
prominent nicinbcr of the Sanhedrin.
Acts 5 : 34. He was for 32 years its
president. He is first introduced to our
notice in connection with the earlier
attempts made at Jerusalem, a. d. 33,
322
to intercept the progress of the gospel.
On one occasion, when the apostles,
standing in the presence of the San-
hedrin, aroused the feelings of this body
to such a pitch that they discussed
measures for putting them to death,
Acts 5 : 33, Gamaliel, one of their num-
ber, counselled more moderate and pru-
dent action. He wisely advocated a
policy which would not have inter-
fered, for the time being, by violence,
with the preaching of the cross. His
words on this occasion are among the
most famous that the opponents of
Christianity uttered in the early Church.
Acts 5: 38, 39. He was Paul's teacher
at Jerusalem. Acts 22: 3. A tradition
states that Gamaliel was baptized by
Peter and John. This is very doubtful.
Rather is the theory to be trusted which
identifies him with that Gamaliel who
was the grandson of Hillel, and who is
referred to often as an authority in the
Jewish Mishna.
GAUIES. Doubtless the Hebrew
children had playthings and sports, like
all other children, but there is no more
than a passing allusion to such things
in the Bible, nor would more be expect-
ed. Zechariah, 8 : 5, declares that part
of the outward evidence of the restora-
tion of Jerusalem will be the public
playing of the children. The same
prophet, 12 : 3, illustrates the divine
care of Jerusalem by comparing the
city to a stone of burden — i. e. heavy
and difficult, if not dangerous, to lift;
for the Lord would guard her against
all attacks, so that man could not pre-
vail against her. In this comparison
commentators see an allusion to a prac-
tice, which Jerome reports to have pre-
vailed in Judfpa, of lifting heavy stones
as a trial of strength. Our Lord likens
his generation of the Jews to children
playing in the market-place a game
which consisted in imitating a funeral
or a marriage. Matt. 11 : 16. But the
Hebrews had no public games such as the
Greeks and Romans had. They did not
fit in with the Hebrew character, partic-
ularly with their intense religious feel-
ing. Besides, the three great annual re-
ligious festivals — the Passover, the feast
of weeks, and that of tabernacles — drew
the nation sufficiently together to prevent
stagnation. It was quite characteristic
that these festivals furnished the Jews
GAM
GAM
with their needed diversion. So far
from having public games, the Jews
considered them disreputable, and even
blasphemous. For the attempt of Jason
to introduce the gymna^iuin he is called
an " ungodly wretch," 2 Mace. 4 : 13,
and those who practised in it were said
to have sold themselves to do mischief.
1 Mace. 1: 15. The building by Herod
the Great of a theatre and amphitheatre
in Jerusalem, as well as at Caesarea, ex-
cited the aversion of pious Jews, and
any one who took part in the games was
regarded as a renegade. And yet, d mbt-
less, the Jews paid some attention to the
development of their muscles. The fact
that swiftness of foot was so much es-
teemed and that runners were employed
to carry the news of batHe would render
it probable that there were competitive
races. So the Psalmist, 19 : 5, speaks
of the sun rejoicing "as a strong man
to run a race," and in Eccl. 9:11 the
Preacher uses the words, " The race /«
not to the swift." Then, too, the skill
acquired in the use of the bow and the
sling, 1 Sam. 20 : 20 ; Jud. 20 : 16 ; 1
Chr. 12 : 2, implies private if not public
competition. The proposition of Abner.
" Let the young men now arise, and phiy
before us," 2 Sam. 2:14, its immediate
acceptance, and its bloody end, indicate
the training and skill of the young men,
and suggest that the friendly contests of
peace had been turned, on this occasion,
into a deadly struggle. But such an in-
terpretation may be too far-fetched. The
games of private life such as are known
to us were many of them familiar
to the Egyptians, and are pictured on
the monuments. Presuming that the
Hebrews would learn these from their
neighbors, if they did not invent them
for themselve?. we may fancy an ancient
Hebrew amusing himself with " odd and
even," ** checkers," "graces," catching
balls, etc.
But although the ancient Heb-ews, as
a nation, were opposed to public games,
individuals among them entered into
them with zest, and the Jews residing
in foreign cities came into frequent con-
tact with them. We find the Greek
games frequently referred to by Paul,
whose heroic nature seems to have
been fired by the splendid triumphs of
the arena. His metaphors are so fre-
quently taken directly from these games
that his mind seems to run on them, as,
in a modern parallel, F. W. Robertson
used metaphors taken from soldier-life.
Some of Paul's allusions are unhappily
concealed from view in the A. V.
Nothing more than a brief handling
of this interesting subject will be ex-
pected here. We follow, in the main.
Dean Howson's Metaphors of St. Paul.
The most noted of the Greek games were
the Olympic, the Pythian, the Isthmian,
and the Xemean. They bore the appel-
lation of " sacred." They consisted of
leaping, running, quoiting, wrestling,
hurling the spear, and boxing ; besides
these, there were chariot-races. The
Olympic games were held in the highest
honor. The victors there were regarded
as the happiest of mortals. They were
crowned and led along the stadium, pre-
ceded by a herald, who proclaimed their
names, parentage, and country. They
were afterward solemnly received into
their native cities. Poets sang their
praise; statues were sometimes erected
in their honor. These games were cele-
brated every five years at Olympia, in
Elis, on the west side of the Pelopon-
nesus ; hence the epochs called " Olym-
piads." The other games were similar
in toil and honor. The training prepar-
atory to the contest in either was long
and severe. Every care was taken to
prevent foul play. The judges were
strictly impartial. The prizes were of
no intrinsic worth. At the Olympics
the victors received each a wreath of
wild-olive and a palm-branch ; at the
Pythian the crown or chaplet was made
of laurel : at the Isthmian, of twigs of
the pine tree; at the Nemean, of parsley
or ivy. Only one out of all the comba-
tants in each contest received a prize.
The apostle Paul was doubtless brought
frequently in contact with these games,
which, although Greek in their origin,
were yet fostered by Rome. He may
have formed part of the throng which
witnessed the Isthmian games, since
these were celebrated near Corinth and
Paul spent 18 months in that city. At
all events, he had heard the scenes de-
scribed, and had had pointed out to him
the victors. The (fi/mtinsinm, or place
of training, and the stadium, or ground
for running, wee among the most con-
spicuous and the most frequented spots
; in the architejture and embellishment
323
GAM'
GAM
of the cities. That feature of these
games which was the most exciting is
the more frequently referred to — viz. the
foot-race. Thus, Paul says: " None of
the^^e things move me, neither count I
my life clear unto myself, that I might
finish my course [end my race] with
joy." Acts 20 : 2+. Again : I have
fought the good fight [an athfetir, not a
warlike, contest] ; 1 have ended my
race J I have kept the faith; henceforth
there is laid up for me the crown of
righteousness, which the Lord, the
righteous Judge, shall give me at that
day. See 2 Tim. 4 : 7, 8. " The race is
nearly run, the struggle is all but over ;
he is weary, as it were, and panting
with the effort; but he is successful.
The crown is in sight, and the Judge
who cannot make a mistake is there,
ready to place that bright wreath upon
his head.' To the Galatians he says:
Foot-iiice. (Adapted from a View of the Ciicus FLura at Rume. Montfaucon.)
"Ye did run well; who did hinder you,
that ye should not obej^ the truth?"
Gal. 5 : 7. The magnificent outburst in
the Epistle to the Philippians, 3 : 13, 14
— " I count not myself to have appre-
hended: but thin one thing f do, forget-
ting those things which are behind, and
reaching forth unto those things which
are before, I press toward the mark for
the prize of the high calling of God in
Christ Jesus," — brings vividly before us
a racer. The oft-quoted passage, 1 Cor.
9 : 24-27, receives a fiood of li'^ht when
we bear in mind the familiarity of the
(■orinthians with the Isthmian games.
Paul alludes to the foot-race, out of
which only one runner came as a victor,
to the strict regimen requisite to success,
to the vast superiority of thC' Christian's
prize, and the shame it were if, while so
much energy were put forth to gain a
little reputation, the Christian should
not strive to gain an unfading crown :
" I so run, not as uncertainly." A man
who does not know his own mind is sel-
dom successful. But the runner keeps
his eye fixed upon the goal, and bends
all his energies to win it. And the apos-
tle, almost in the same breach, alludes
324
to the pugilist: "So fight I, not as one
that beateth the air." v. 2(). He would
not beat the air, but make every blow
tell, as the heavy blow from the hand
covered with the nail-studded leather
(cestus) inflicted a bruise every time it
struck. I keep under my body and
bring it into subjection : lest that by any
means, when I have been a herald [the
oflScer who summoned the competitors
to the struggle] unto others, I myself
should be a castaway — a reference to
the training of the pugilist. See v. 27.
These are only a few of the passages in
Paul's writings to be illustrated by the
Grecian games.
The mention of the Chikf of Asia
(which see), or asiarchs. Acts 19 : 81, at
Ephesus as the friends of Paul, in con-
nection with Pauls declaration, taken
literally, that he had '' fought with beasts
at Ephesus," 1 Cor. 16 : 32, have led
some to suppose the apostle was actually
thrown into the arena, but delivered by
a miracle, and that ///t')<^/'o)T the asiarchs
treated him with consideration. But it
is every way more likely that Paul uses
a metaphor borrowed from the Roman
games, in which fighting with wild
GAM
GAT
beasts was introduced. He alludes
again to these brutal fights between
men and beasts, or to the gladiatorial
shows, when, in 1 Cor. 4:9, he says :
" God hath set forth us the apostles last,
as it were ap])ointed to death." The
words '' refer to the band of gladiators
brought out last for death, the vast range
of an amphitheatre under the open sky
well representing the magnificent vision
of all created beings, from men up to
angels, gazing on the dreadful death-
struggle, and then the contrast of the
selfish Corinthians sitting by unconcern-
ed and unmoved at the awful spectacle."
— Stanley: Com. on Corhith.
The early Christians, like the Jews,
but fur different reasons, regarded these
games and the theatrical e.xhibitions of
the Greeks and Romans with horror.
'J'hey were closely connected with hea-
thenism ; atten lance upon them exposed
the Christiiins to the cry, " To the lions !"
for in this way many had been killed :
hence, regard for the memory of their
departed brethren should forbid Chris-
tians' attendance on them. But apart
from these considerations, they were re-
garded as too worldly, as ten'ling to
withdraw the mind from the things of
God and unduly to elevate the b:>dy.
Surely, as conducted in later times, the
games were brutalizing, and hence the
humane spirit of Christ forbade the
sight of so much bloodshed and suf-
fering.
GAM'MADIH (Heb-ew, brave sol-
diers). Eze. 27 : 11. The prevailing
opinion respecting this term is that it
is rather descriptive of the men of Ar-
vad, V. 11, than the name of any partic-
ular people.
GA'MUJj (iceaned), the leader of the
twenty-second course of the priests. 1
Chr. 24:17.
GAR'DEX. Isa. 1 : 8. The gardens
of the Hebrews were enclosures upon the
outskirts of towns. Allusions to them are
made Gen. 21 : 3-3 ; Num. 24 : fi ; Job 8 :
16, and there is reason to suppose that
they were chiefly devoted to fruit- and
shade-trees and aromatic plants and
herbs. 1 Kgs. 21 : 2 ; Song Sol. 4 : 12-
16. A reservoir of water was considered
an indispensable appendage, either in
the form of a fountain,, a well, or a stream
passing through it. Gen. 2:10; 13 : 10.
The gardens around Damascus are
abundantly watered by little currents
which are made to flow through every
part of them. Beautiful allusions to
this are made. Prov. 21 : 1 ; Isa. 58 : 11 ;
Eccl. 2 : 5, 6. Gardens were used to
some extent as burying-places, John
19:41, and also as places of religious
worship and retirement. Isa. 1 : 29 ; 65 :
3. The custom at the present day is, as
in the past, to erect a hut upon an arti-
ficial mound built in the centre of the
field in which is a valuable crop, such as
cucumbers, gourds, etc. In this hut a
watchman lives until the crop is secur-
ed. This fact explains the allusion in
Isa. 1:8. When the harvest is over the
hut is deserted, and gradually falls to
pieces.
GA'REB (sciihhy), one of David's
warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 38 : 1 Chr. 11 : 40.
GA'REB, THE HILL, near Je-
rusalem, and meaning scr<ipe(l off. Jer.
31:39. Ewald proposes to identify it
with Golgotha; Conder noted a ruin
called Ghnruhah, 3 miles south of Shi-
loh.
GAR'LANDS. Acts 14: 13. The
heathen adorned the victim of their sac-
rifices in a variety of ways. Probabl}''
the garlands mentioned in this passage
were to decorate the head of the ox which
they designed to sacrifice to the supposed
gods.
GAR'LICK, a well-known bulbous
root or vegetable similar to an onion
(Allium sativum), which was cultivated
in Egypt and much esteemed by the
Jews. Num. 11 : 5.
GAR'MENTS. See Clothes.
GAR'MITE, THE (the stronr,).
Keilah the Garmite is mentioned I Chr.
4: 19.
GARRISON. See War.
GASH'x>lU (rain), a form of the
name (xeshem ; used in Xeh. 6 : 6.
GA'TAM (o val/ey burnt), a grand-
son of Esau, and -one of the "dukes"
of Edom. Gen. 36 : 11, 16 ; 1 Chr. 1 :
36.
GATE. 1 Sam. 4:18. The entrances
to walled cities are secured l)y gatos of
either wood, iron, or brass. Acts 12:10.
Houses also were protected in the same
way, and sometimes a door or passage
was made in the gate, so as to save the
necessity of opening the whole gate
every time a single person would pass.
Acts 12 : 13. In many Asiatic cities
325
GAT
GAZ
there were broad streets covered over
wholly or in part, and appropriated to
merchants or tradesmen in particular
branches of business, and there were
also open squares in which the booths
and stalls of venders were erected.
These were frequently at the gates of
the city, which were, of course, places
of the greatest concourse. 2 Sam. 15 : 2 ;
2 Kgs. 7:1; Neh. 8:1; Job 29 : 7 ;
Prov. 22 : 22 ; 31 : 23. The gates were
often also the places of judicial proceed-
ings, Deut. 17 : 5 ; 25 : 7 ; Am. 5: 10, 12,
15 — the mode of conducting which may
be learned from Ruth 4 : 1-12 — and of
general resort, Gen. 19 : 1, and, of course,
frequented by idlers and loungers. Ps.
69 : 12. In Arabia the gate of the city
is still the place of judgment.
Gate of Damascus.
As the possession of the gates of the
city was a possession of the city itself,
the word is sometimes used to signify
power. Gen. 22 : 1 7 ; Isa. 24 : 12. Hence
the expression of our Lord that "the
gates of hell "(Hades) shall never prevail
against his Church. Matt. 16:18. The
government of the sultan is called " the
Sublime Porte."
Gates, like doors, were often orna-
mented, 1 Kgs. 6 : 34 ; 2 Kgs. 18 : 16, etc. ;
the Beautiful Gate, Acts 3 : 2, required 20
men to close it. " The figurative expres-
sion * to exalt the gate," Prov. 17 : 1 9 — i. e.
to have the opening of the gateway lofty
— implies ostentation, which is likely to
provoke envy, and therefore leads often
to destruction." — Ayre.
GATH (icine-prcHM), one of the five
cities of the Philistines, Josh, 13:3;
1 Sam. 6 : 17 ; Am. 6:2: Mic. 1:10: a
stronghold of the Anakim, Josh. 11 :
22 ; home of Goliath, 1 Sam. 17: 4 : place
whither the ark was carried, 1 Sam. 5 :
8 ; where David sought refuge, 21 : 10-
326
15; was strengthened by Rehohoam,
2 Chr. 11 : 8 ; taken by Hazael of Syria,
2 Kgs. 12 : 17 ; probably recovered by
Jehoash, 13 : 25 ; broken down by Uz-
ziah, 2 Chr. 26 : 6 ; was probably de-
stroyed before the time of the later
prophecies, as it is omitted from the list
of royal cities. See Zeph. 2:4; Zech.
9 : 5, 6. Thomson would identify it with
Eleutheropolis, but Porter, Warren, and
Conder place Gath at Tel es-Snjieh, 15
miles south of Ramleh, and 12 miles
south-east of Ashdod,
GATH-HE'PHER [wine-presH nf
the tvell), a town of Zebulun, the home
of Jonah, 2 Kgs. 14 : 25 ; called also
Gittah-hepher, Josh. 19 : 13 : now el-
Meshhed, a small village on a rocky hill,
2 miles east of Sepphoris, on the short
route from Nazareth to Tiberias.
GXTlL'Uim'mON {pomegranate).
1. A Levitieal city of Dan, Josh. 21 :
24 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 69 ; not far from Joppa.
2. A town of Manasseh west of the
Jordan, belonging to the Levites, Josh.
21 : 25 ; called Bileam in 1 Chr. 6 : 70.
GAULANI'TIS. See Golan.
GA'ZA (Hebrew Azzah, strong), the
chief of the five cities of the Philistines,
50 miles south-east of Jerusalem, 3 miles
from the Mediterranean, and 10 miles
from Ascalon.
History. — Gaza is one of the oldest
cities in the world ; was peopled by the
descendants of Ham, Gen. 10:19; by
the Anakim, Josh. 11 : 22 ; given to
Judah, 15 : 47 ; the scene of Samson's
exploits, Jud. 16 ; under Solomon's rule,
and called Azzah, 1 Kgs. 4 : 24 ; smitten
by Egypt, Jer. 47 : 1, 5 ; prophesied
against. Am. 1:6, 7 ; Zeph. 2:4; Zech.
9:5; noticed in N. T. only in Acts 8 :
26 ; a chief stronghold of paganism
and the worship of the god Marnas
(Dagon), whose temjyles were destroyed,
A. n. 400 ; taken by the Arabs, A. D. 634 ;
restored by the Crusaders, a. p. 1149 ;
plundered by Saladin, A. i). 1170, and
again in a. d. 1187 ; taken by Napoleon,
1799 ; has now about 16,000 population,
mostly Moslems. The town is now
without walls or gates, but is in the
midst of olive-orchards. Conder thinks
the ancient town stood on the hill where
most of the modern town now stands.
The plivce is full of reminiscences of
Samson and his tragic enil. The pil-
lars are shown which he pulled down.
GAZ
GEM
The inhabitants are chiefly Moslems;
but there is also a Greek church, and a
Protestant school in connection with the
Jerusalem mission. See Philistine,
GA'ZER. See Gezer.
GA'ZEZ (nhtiirer), the names of the
son and grandson of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2:
46, although some suppose the second is
a repetition of the first.
GAZ'ZAM {(levouriiiff), one whose
descendants returned with Zerubbabel.
Ezr. 2:48; Neh. 7:51.
GE'BA {hi'ff), a Levitical city of Ben-
jamin, Josh. 21 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 6 :"G() ; also
called Gaba. Josh. 18 : 24. In the reign
of Saul it was held by the Philistines,
but taken by Jonathan, 1 Sam. 13 : 3 ;
was a northern landmark of Judah, 2
Kgs. 23 : 8 ; was rebuilt by Asa, I Kgs.
15 : 22 ; held by the Assyrians, Isa. 10 :
29 : peopled by Bcnjamites after the
Captivity. Ezr, 2 : 26. Geba and Gibeah
appear to be sometimes confounded in
the English Version (see 1 Sam. 14 : 5),
though they were separate towns. Geba
was near Michmash and on the south
side of the ravine. It has been identi-
fied with Jebft, a deserted village 6 miles
north of Jerusalem, nnd 1 mile from
Michmash. The ravine now called Wady
Sitweiitit is the ancient pass of Mich-
mash. 1 Sam. 14 : 5, 31.
GE'BAL (mnuntdiu). 1. A place
near Tyre ; now Jebail, 10 miles north
of Beyrout, and known as Jii/bhis by the
Greeks. Eze. 27:9. Among the ruins
of an ancient citadel are stones 20 feet
long, and in finish and size closely re-
sembling those seen in the foundation of
the temple at Jerusalem, and suggesting
the same class of workmen.
2. Some identify the Gebal of Ps. 83 :
7 with northern Edom, called el-Jehal,
but others regard it as Gkba, No. 1.
GE'BER {man), two men of Solo-
mon's twelve oflBcers for provision. 1
Kgs. 4:13, T9.
GE'Bim {ditches), a place near .Te-
rusalem. Isa. 10 : 31. Conder places it
at el- Jib ; Grove nt el- Ixtnciyeh.
GEDALI'AH {whom Jehorah hath
made powerful), the governor of Judaea,
appointed by Nebuchadnezzar after its
subjection. 2 Kgs. 25 : 22 ; Jer. 40 : 5.
He was a friend of Jeremiah's, Jer. 40 :
6, and had the confidence of the people,
but was not permitted long to rule, for
a party of the royal family of Judah,
headed by Ishmael, rose against him
and slew him. Jer. 41 : 2.
GE'DER (walled place), possibly
I same as Gedor, No. 2. Josh. 12 : 13.
I GEDE'RAH (sheep-ote), a town
near the valley of Elah, and in the low-
lands of Judah. Josh. 15 : 36 ; 1 Chr.
12 : 4. Conder would place it at Jedireh,
I north-west of Jerusalem, but this seems
! too far into the hill-country.
I GEDE'ROTH {sheep-cotes), a city
in the plain of Judah ; taken by the
! Philistines, Josh. 15 : 41 : 2 Chr. 28 : IS :
perhaps Gatrah or Katrah, a village
in the valley of Sorek, south-west of
Ekron.
GEDEROTHA'IM {two sheep-
folds), a town in the low-country of
Judah. Josh. 15 : 36.
GE'DOR {icall). 1, 2. Two names
\ in the genealogy of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 :
I 4, 18.
j 3. A Benjamite name in Saul's gene-
! alogv. 1 Chr. 8:31; 9 : 37.
j GE'DOR {wall). 1. A town in the
; hill-country of Judah, .losh. 15 : 68 ;
probably Jedur, 8 miles north of He-
bron.
2. A town apparently of Benjamin,
2 Chr. 12 : 7, and probably the same as
Geder of Josh. 12 : 13.
3. Gedor of 1 Chr. 4 : 39 was prob-
ably between Judah and Mount Seir.
The vSeptuagint calls it Gerar.
GEHA'ZI {valley of vision), Vae ser-
vant and constant attendant of Elisha.
On three occasions he comes into promi-
nence in connection with the Shunam-
mite, 2 Kgs. 4 : 12-37 ; 8 : 4, and later he
was guilty of deception in the matter of
Naaman the Syrian, and in punishment
was made a leper. 5 : 20-27. See Elisha.
GEHEN'NA. See Hinnom, Val-
ley OF.
GEL'ILOTH {circle), one of the
places marking the boundary of Benja-
min. Josh. 18 : 17. Gilgal is in place of
Geliloth in Josh. 15 : 7, and the two are
supposed to be identical. See Gilgal.
GEMAIi'Lil {camel-driver), the fa-
ther of the spy from Dan. Num. 13 :
12.
GEMARI'AH (ichom Jehovah hath
perfected). 1. The son of Hilkiah,
Zedekiah's ambassador to Nebuchad-
nezzar. Jer. 29 : 3.
2. The son of Shaphan. a minister of
Jehoiakim, from whose house Baruch
327
GEM
GEN
read Jeremiah's pi'ophecy. Jer. 36 : 10-
12, 25.
GEMS. See Precious Stoxks.
GENEAL'OGY. The matter of
pedigree was deemed of great import-
ariL-e by the Hebrews and ancient peo])les
generally, as at present among the Arabs.
Genealogical lists are interspersed all
through the historical books of the 0.
T. They are called *" the book of the
generation of," etc. They answer also
a spiritual purpose. They prove the
faithfulness of God in favoring the in-
crease of the race, in accordance with
his command, in keeping his promise to
Abraham and his seed, in raising up
priests to minister in his sanctuary, and
finally, in sending, when the set time had
come and all things were ready, his Son
into the world. As far as the Bible is
concerned, the preservation of these
genealogical lists was for the authenti-
cation of Christ's descent. But the his-
torical use is by no means to be ignored ;
indeed, in proportion as we grasp its
value shall we attain conviction of the
perfect reality of the earthly descent
of Christ from the seed of David, ac-
cording to prophecy.
The first biblical genealogy is Gen.
4:16-24. It gives the descendants of
Cain. The following chapter gives the
family of Seth. The tenth and eleventh
chapters, though the ordinary reader
might j)ass them over because they seem
to consist of mere unimportant names,
are regarded by ethnologists as invalu-
al)le, since they contain a history of the
dispersion of the nations in prehistoric
times. The first eight chapters of 1
Chronicles are devoted to genealogical
accounts, beginning with Adam, because,
as it is stated, " all Israel were reckoned
by genealogies." 9:1. It is, however,
to be observed that these several lists
are not in all cases records of direct de-
scent, though, |>erhaps, in the majority
of instances, they are unbroken. Still,
they are not sufiicient to determine the
length of any period, since in many
cases the list the writer has transcribed
contains only prominevt names. Women
are named occasionally, when there is
something remarkable about them or
when any right or property is trans-
mitted through them. See Gen. 11 : 29 ;
Ex. 6 : 2M ; 1 Chr. 2:4; Luke 1 : 5, etc.
Another feature is that these records es-
32«
pecially concern the line of the chosen
seed and the tribe and family from which
our Lord sprung. Seth's family is more
fully stated than Cain's, Abraham's than
Lot's, Isaac's than Ishmael's, etc. They
are both ascending and descending. For
the former, see 1 Chr. 6 : 33-43 : Ezr.
7 : 1-5 : for the descending, sec Ruth
4 : 18-22 : 1 Chr. 3. The descending
scale is likely to take in the collateral
branches. There are many clerical er-
rors in these lists.
But notwithstanding these alterations
and abridgments, it is capable of proof
that the Bible presents us transcripts
from certain official records. They bear
the evidence of substantial truth. That
such records existed is indicated rather
than proved. Thus, the assignments of
the temple-service by David were gene-
alogical. In the reign of Rehoboam,
Iddo wrote a book on genealogies. 2 Chr.
12 : 1 5. From 2 Chr. 31 : 1 0-1 9 we learn
that in Hezekiah's day there existed ge-
nealogies— of the priests, at all events.
The lists in Ezra and Nehemiah prove
that such lists and others survived the
Captivity. It is a monstrous assump-
tion to say that they were forged. Lord
Hervey (in Smith's Dictiovury of the
Bible) points out an incidental allusion
to these lists at the time of Christ in
proof that the census went upon them as
a basis, since Joseph went to Bethlehem
because he was of the house of David.
Manifestly, Joseph had, in the genealogy
of his family, good grounds for this belief.
Probably '"the registers of the Jewish
tribes and families perished at the de-
struction of Jerusalem, and not before,
although some partial records may have
survived the event." AVhcnthe temple
fell there was no longer any special need
of these lists. The Aaronic priesthood
was no more ; the nation was dispersed
in captivity : the Messiah was come.
Genkalogv of Jesis Chiust. Matt.
1:1-17; Luke 3: 23-38. This is the only
genealogy given us in the N. T. "We
have two lists of the human ancestors of
Christ: Matthew, writing for Jewish
Christians, begins with Abraham ; Luke.
writing for Gentile Christians, goes back
to Adam, the father of all men. Accord-
ing to his human nature, Christ was the
descendant of Abraham, David, and
Mary ; according to his divine nature,
he was the eternal and only begotten
GEN
GEN
Son of God, begotten from the essence
of the Father. John, 1 : 1-18, begins
his Gospel by setting forth his divine
genealogy. In him, the God-man, ail
the ascending aspirations of human na-
ture toward God and all the descending
revelations of God to man meet in perfect
harmony. Matthew begins at Abraham,
1. To prove to Jewish Christians that
Jesus of Nazareth was the promised
Messiah ; 2. To show the connection
between the Old and New Testamen s
through a succession of living persons
ending in Jesus Christ, who is the sub-
ject of the Gospel and the object of the
faith it requires. Christ is the fulfil-
ment of all the types and prophecies of
the 0. T., the heir of all its blessings
and promises, the dividing-line and
connecting-link of ages, the end of the
old and the beginning of the new history
of mankind. In the long list of his
human ancestors we have a cloud of
witnesses, a compend of the history of
preparation for the coming of Christ
down to the Virgin Mary, in whom cul-
minated the longing and hope of Israel
for redem|)tion. It is a history of di-
vine promises and their fulfilment, of
human faith and hope for the desire of
all nations. In the list are named illus-
trious heroes of faith, but also obscui*e
persons written in the secret book of
God, as well as gross sinners redeemed
by grace, which reaches the lowest
depths as well as the most exalted
heights of society. Matthew's table is
divided into three parts, corresponding
to three periods of Jewish preparation
for the coming of Christ." — Schnff.
The differences between Matthew and
Luke have been variously explain-'d.
Both lists are incomplete and names
must be supplied (the;e are only nine
names for a period of 83 "> years). They
coincide until David, when Matthew t ikes
the reigning line through Solomon, Luke
the younger and inferior line by David's
son Nathan. A more serious difficulty
is that names do not a|>pear in the same
place in the two li?t<. The greatest
difference is that Matthew calls Joseph
the son of Jacob, while Luke calls him
the son of Heli or Eli. He cannot have
been nationfbf the son of both, ami it is
not likely that the two names are meant
for one and the same- person. Hence
the followingr theories :
1. The oldest explanation assumes
one, or perhaps two, levirate marriages
in the family of Joseph — /. e. a marriage
of a man to the childless widow of his
elder brother, the children of the second
marriage being reckoned as the legal
descendants of the first husband. Heli
and .Jacob may have been brothers or
half-brothers (sons of the same mother,
but of different fathers), successively
married to the mother of Joseph, who
according to law was registered by Luke
as the son of Heli, though naturally the
son of Jacob, as recorded by Matthew.
But this view involves inaccuracy in
one or the other of the two geneal-
ogies.
2. ^lattliew gives the legal or royal
genealogy of Joseph, Luke the prirate
line of Joseph. But this is exposed to
the same objection.
3. Matthew gives the genealogy of
Joseph, Luke the genealogy of Mari/.
Heli may have been the father of Mary
and the father-in-law of Joseph, and
consequently' the grandfather of Jesus.
Luke, writing for Gentiles and proving
that Christ was the seed of the woman,
traces the natural or real pedigree of
Jesus through his mother, Mary, in the
line of Nathan, and indicates this by the
parenthetical remark, '"Jesus being (as
was supposed) the son of Joseph [but in
reality] the son of Heli," or his grand-
son by the mother's side. Mary is al-
wnys called by the Jews "the daughter
of Heli." Matthew, writing for Jews,
gives the leijal pedigree of Jesus (which
was always reckoned in the male line)
through Joseph, his legal father, in the
line of Solomon. This explanation is
the easiest, and has been adopted by
Luther. Grotius, Bengel, Olshausen, Eb-
rard, Wieseler, Robinson, Gardiner,
Lange, Plumptre. It is supported by
the fact that in Matthew's history of the
infancy Joseph is most prominent; in
Luke's account, Mary. Jesus, then, was
both legally anl really the son and heir
of David. The Davidic descent of Je-
sus is a mark of the Messiah, and is
c'eariv taught in the prophecv, and also
in Rom. 1 : :', : 2 Tim. 2:8: Heb. 7 : 14 ;
John 7 : 42 ; Acts 13 : 2:5. If we take this
ex})lanation, Jesus was in a double sense
the son of Diviil — in law and in fact,
' from his reputed father and from his
' natural mother.
329
GEN
GEN
GENERA'TION, on GENERA'-
TIONS, *' has three secondary mean-
ings in the A. V, : 1. A genealogical
register, as Gen. 5:1. 2. A famih- his-
tory, Gen. 6:9; 25 : 1, since early his-
tory among the Orientals is drawn so
much from genealogical registers. 3. A
history of the origin of things as well
as persons — e. q. of the earth." — Smith.
GEN'ESIS, the first book of the
Bible, and by far the most interesting
of all books relating to the primitive
liistor}' of mankind. The term signifies
'• beginning " or '' origin."
Contents. — Genesis gives us a history
of the origin of the world, of the human
family, of sin, of the promise of redeni])-
tion. and of the Jewish people. The
first eleven chapters are occupied with a
general account of the creation of all
things, and with the history of Adam,
of the first inhabitants of the earth, of
the Deluge, of Noah, and finally of the
confusion of tonguis at Babel. With
the twelfth chapter I egins the history
of the patriarchs and the chosen people.
A detailed account is given of the lives
of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph.
There arc no good grounds for doubt-
ing Moses to be the author. With the
use of older documents and traditions,
he compiled, under divine direction, the
history as we have it. Much criticism has
been expended upon the account it gives
of the creation of man and of the world
in the first chapter. Here as in no
other ancient account God is sharply
distinguished from matfer, and is made
to exist before the world. The universe
comes into being at his command. The
order of ceated things in Genesis is
substantially the order of geology and
biology. Both begin with the formation
of the earth and ])roceed from the vege-
table to animal life; both stop with man.
The word translated *'day" probably
means an indefinite period. The '* sev- I
enth day," which has no evening, ch. 2 :
2, cannot refer to a. day of 24 hours, but
to the long redemptive period in which
we are living. See Crkation. ;
f'ew if any existing documents have
a more venerable age than has Genesis, i
Covering nearly 2500 years, it gives us {
the account of the jireparation of this
planet as an abode for man and the first i
annals of the race. Its value cannot I
be over-estimated as a fragment of lite- I
330
rature or as a work of history, and it
has been well observed that in the first
page of Genesis a child may learn more
in an hour than all the philosophers in
the world learned without it in a thou-
sand years.
GENNES'ARET, LAKE OF.
Luke 5:1. See Galilee. Ska of.
GENNES'ARET, THE LAND
OF. A small crescent-shaped strip of
country on the north-west side, of the
Sea of G.alilee was called '* The land of
Gennesaret" (though often inaccurately
written " Gennesareth "). It is named
only twice in Scripture. Matt. 14: 34;
Mark 6 : 53 ; comp. Luke 5:1. It is gen-
erally supposed to apply to the plain
called by the Arabs el-Ghniceir, or •' lit-
tle Ghor." It lies along the lake for 3
or 4 miles, and extends back about a
mile or more, where it is shut in by the
hills. The southern part, reaching
nearly to Mfjdel, is still watered by
several streams; the northern portion,
reaching to Khan Minyeh, now without
water, is supposed to have been irrigated
by an aqueduct from the fountain of Ca-
pernaum, probably 'Ain Tdbiyhah.
The plain was formerly very rich and
fruitful, according to Josephus, and is
supposed to be the scene of the parable
of the Sower, Matt. 13 : 1-8, but it is
now fruitful in thorns. The banks of
the lake and of the brook running from
the fountain 'Arn Tdbighnh are fringed
with oleanders. Fish still abound in the
stream, as in the adjacent lake. The
fountain el-Mudmcamh, or "round
spring," about 30 yards in diameter and
2 feet deep, and from which the water
bursts forth in a considerable volume, has
by Tristram been regarded as the spring
of Capharnaum, noticed by Josephus;
but this is disputed by the best authori-
ties, and Tristram himself has given it
up. For Map, see Galilee, Sea of.
This land of Gennesaret has been held
to contain three important cities, Caper-
naum, Bethsaida, and Chorazin, but
none of these were in the "plain" of
Gennesaret, unless Capernaum was lo-
cated at Khnn Mhn/eh. See Capernaum.
Bethsaida (Et Tahlfihah) and Chorazin
(h'enizeh) were farther north. Mfjiitf,
the ancient Magdala, seems to have been
the only town in the plain, which, like
the other ))lains (Esdraelon, Sharon,
etc.), was v.noccupied, people preferring
GEN
GER
for comfort and safety to live on the
mountains and hills.
GEN'TILE. This was the name by
which the Jews designated all men but
themselves — i. e. all pagan nations who
were ignorant of the true God, and idol-
aters. Luke 2:32; Acts 26:17. 20;
Rom. 2:9; 9 : 24. etc. In opposition
to the Gentiles, the Hebrews regarded
themselves, and were in fact, the chosen
" people of God." Sometimes the
" Greeks," as the most cultivated among
the heathen, stand for them. Rom. 1:16;
Acts 16 : 1, 3, etc. Paul is called the
"apostle to the Gentiles" on account
of his special mission and work among
them.
Court of the Gkn'tiles. See Temple.
Isles of the Gentiles, Gen. 10 : 5,
is supposed to denote Asia Minor and
the whole of Europe, which was peopled
by the children of Japheth.
GENU'BATH {theft), the son of
Hadad. the adversary of Solomon. 1
Kgs. 11 : 20.
GE'RA (n grahi). 1. A son or
grandson of Benjamin. Gen. 46 : 21 ; 1
Chr. 8 : 3, 5. 7.
2. The father of Ehud. Jud. 3 :i5.
3. The father of Shimei. 2 Sam. 16 :
5; 19:16; 1 Kgs. 2:8.
GE'RAH. See Measures.
GE'RAR (residence, or water-pntn),
a city and district in the south of Pal-
estine, and near Gaza, Gen. 10 : 19 ;
visited by Abraham, Gen. 20 : 1; by
Isaac, Gen. 26 : 1 ; Asa pursued the de-
feated Ethiopians to it. 2 Chr. 14:13.
Eusebius knew of Gerar as 25 miles
from Eleutheropolis. The valley is now
called el-Jerdr, and is a part of the great
valley of Ghvzzeh, which runs from Beer-
sheba to the sea, about 6 miles noi-th of
Gaza.
GER'GESA, AND GER'GE-
SENES. The " country of the Gerge-
senes," Matt. 8 : 28 — probably the same
as " Gadarenes," Mark 5:1; Luke 8 :
26 — was on the east side of the Sea of
Galilee. The scene of the miracle was,
according to Thomson, near modern
KheiHo, where the hills approach within
40 feet of the water. See Gaoarknes.
GER^ZIM, MOUNT, a mountain
in Ephraim, near Shechem, from which
the blessings were pronounced, as the
curses were from Mount Ebal, Deut. 11 :
29 ; 27 : 1-13 ; Josh. 8 : 30-33. Gerizim is
2855 feet above the level of the sea, and
about 800 feet above Ndbulus (Shechem).
It is separated from Ebal by a narrow
valley. Six tribes were placed on Geri-
zim, and six on Ebal, Deut. 27 : 1 2, 13, the
ark probably in the valley between them,
and .Joshua read the blessings and curs-
ings successively. Josh. 8 : 33, 35. The
Levites on either side re-echoed them,
and the people responded "Amen!"
Deut. 27 : 14, 15. Gerizim was the scene
of the first recorded parable — that of the
trees and brambles. Jud. 9:7-21. It
was the site of the Samaritan temple,
and referred to by the woman at the
well. John 4 : 20. Samaritan tradition
asserts that it is the place where Abra-
ham offered Isaac, but this is not sus-
tained by the be^t authorities. See
MORIAH.
Present Condition. — The mountain is
composed chiefly of limestone. It has
a large plateau on its summit, covered
with ruins of cisterns, paved platforms,
and on one side those of a castle. The
whole mountain-top bears traces of hav-
ing once been covered with houses.
The small remnant of the Samaritan
sect at Ndhtdu8 performs annually the
paschal sacrifice on the top of Gerizim
according to the prescription of the
book of Exodus (ch. 12). It is the only
spot on earth where this Jewish festival
is perpetuated in its primitive style.
Dean Stanley and other travellers have
visited the scene, and point out the strik-
ing resemblance to the Mosaic prescrip-
tion. The amphitheatre formed by these
two mounts, Gerizim and Ebal, is most
suitable for assembling a vast body of
people within the hearing of the human
voice, and where all could see what was
being done. There is no other place
like it in all Palestine. Numerous trav-
ellers have repeated the experiment of
stationing persons on the opposite
mounts, and heard the reading of the
ten commandments by each party, and
they were also heard by each other with
great distinctness. See Ebal, Shechem.
GER'SHOM (expulsion). 1. The
first-born son of Moses and Zipporah.
Ex. 2:22; 18:3.
2. A corruption of Gershon. 1 Chr. 6 :
16, 17: 15: 7.
3. A priest with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 2.
GER'SHON (ej-p>ihion), the elde?t
of Levi's sons, Gen. 46 : 11 ; Ex. 6 : 10,
331
GER
GEZ
17 ; 1 Chr. 6:1, and founder of the Ger-
shonites. Num. 3:21.
GER'ZITES. See Uezhites.
GE'SHAM {filthy), a descendant of
Judah ; also improperly written Geshan.
1 Chr. 2 : 47.
GE'SHEM {rain), also called
GASH'MU, an Arabian who, with
Sanballat and Tobiah, opposed Nehe-
miah while the wall was building. Neh.
2:19: 6:1,2.
GE'SHUR (brn/;/e),a small district
or principality of Syria, east of the Jor-
dan and north-east of Bashan. It was
within the territory allotted to Mnnasseh,
Detit. 3 : 14 ; 2 Sam. 15 : 8 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 28 ;
Josh. 13 : 13 ; David married a daughter
of its king, 2 Sam. 3:8; Absalom fled
thither after the murder of Amnion, 2
Sam. 13 : 37. Geshur was probably a
part of that rocky region now known as
" the Lejnh," still the refuge of criminals
and outlaws. Robinson thinks the land
took its name from a bridge over the
Jordan in ancient times.
GESH'URI, AND THE GESH'-
URITES. 1. The inhabitants of
Geshur. Dcut. 3:14; Josh. 12 : 5 ; 13 :
n, 13.
2. An ancient tribe bordering on the
Philistines to the south. Josh. 13 : 2.
GE'THER (rfre^.9 ?), a son of Aram.
Gen. l6; 23; 1 Chr. 1 : 17.
GETHSEM'ANE {nil-press), a
place across the Kedron and at the foot
of Olivet, noted as the scene of our Lord's
agony. John 18 : 1 ; Mark 14 : 26 ; Luke
22 : 39. A garden or orchard was at-
tached to it, and it was a place to which
Jesus frequently resorted. Matt. 26 : 36 ;
Mark 14 : 32 ; John 18 : 2. Tradition,
which since the fourth century has
placed it on the lower slope of Olivet,
about K/O yards east of the bridge over
the Kedron, seems to agree with the re-
quirements of the Gosyjcl narratives. It
is a small, irregular, four-sided spot, en-
closed by a high wall, and about 70 ])aces
in circumfen nee. The wall was built in
1847 by Franciscan monks, who say it
was necessary to restrain pilgrims from
injuring the olive trees. The old olive
trees are seven or eight in number, the
trunks cracked from age and shored up
with stones. The trees are said to date
back to the time of Christ. They are
purely of great age and size (19 feet in
circumference), but Titus cut down all
332
the trees about Jerusalem, and the Cru-
saders found the country destitute of
wood, and we have no mention of old
olive trees before the sixteenth century;
hence it can only be stated that these old
olives are possibly descendants of those
which grew here in the time of Christ.
The garden now has younger olives and
a dozen cypresses. The monks keep in
it a flower-garden, and present each visi-
tor with a bouquet of roses, pinks, and
other flowers, for which one franc is ex-
pected in payment. Olive-oil and rosa-
ries from the olive-stones are also sold
at a high price.
Tradition, which is not trustworthy,
fixes the spot of Christ's suffering at
the so-called Gnvern of Agony, a grotto
in a solid rock, near the garden. The
place of the arrest of Christ was pointed
out in the Middle Ages at the above
spot, and near by the spot where Judas
betrayed Jesus was also marked by tra-
dition. Dr. Thomson and some others
think the present garden too near the
public road for Gethsemane, and would
place it farther to the north-east. The
Latins control the present garden, antl
the Greeks have set up Ji Gethsemane
of their own, farther up the Mount of
Olives.
GEU'EL {majesty of God), the spy
from the tribe of Gad. Num. 13 : 15.
GE'ZER {steep place), called also
GAZER, GAZA'RA, GAZE RA,
and GAD, a royal city of Canaan, and
one of the oldest cities orthe land. Josh.
10 :33 ; 12 : 12. Gezer was in Benjamin ;
given to Kohath, Josh. 21 : 21 ; 1 Chr.
6:67; noticed in the wars of David,
1 Sam. 27 : 8 ; 2 Sam. 5 : 25 ; 1 Chr. 20 :
4 ; burned by Pharaoh in Solomon's
days, 1 Kgs. 9:15-17; given to Solo-
mon's Egyptian wife, and rebuilt by
him ; was an important city in the time
of the Maccabees. M. Ganneau. from
a hint given by an old Arab chronicler,
has identified (Jezer with Tell el-Jezer,
4 miles from Nicopolis. Numerous ruins
were found, indicating a city of import-
ance, and inscriptions in Greek and
square Hebrew characters giving the
name and noting the boundaries of the
Levitical city — a discovery of great im-
portance, being the only one of its kind
as yet brought to light.
GEZ'RITES (r/«'^'//er8?» a harren
land), a tribe in the time of Saul, who
GHO
GIB
shared with the Geshurites and Atnalek-
ites the land between the south of Pal-
estine and Egypt, 1 Sam. 27 : 8. The
name is properly Gerzites, and they once
dwelt in central Palestine, as is proven
by the name of Mount Gerizim.
GHOST. Gen. 25: 8. To "give up
the ghost" means to expire. ''Ghost"
is used by Shakespeare and other Eng-
lish writers as synonymous with " spirit."
The words in Matt. 27 : 50 would be
better translated : "Christ gave up his
.spirit."
Holy Ghost. The third person in
the Holy Trinity. See God, Spirit.
GI'AH (a breaking forth ; here, a
waterfall), near the hill Arumah, 2 Sam.
2 : 24.
GI'ANT denotes men of extraordi-
nary size or height. Gen. 6 : 4. The sons
of Anak are usually looked upon as gi-
ants, on account of the expression of
which the spies made use — that they were
*' as grasshoppers ... in their sight."
Num. 13 : H8, The fright of the Israelites
makes it probable that they were refer-
ring to strength rather than stature. The
king of Bashan, Deut. 3:11, and Goliath,
1 Sam. 17 : 4, were warlike and dreaded
giants. There have been exceptional
cases in modern times of men exceeding
7 feet in stature. See Rephaim.
GIll'BAR [gigantic), the father of
some who returned with Zerubbabel,
Ezr. 2 : 20.
GIB'BETHON [height), &tovin of
Dan ; given to the Kohathites, Josh.
19 : 44 ; 21 : 23 ; held by the Philistines
in the time of Omri. 1 Kgs. 15 : 27 ; 16 :
17. Conder proposes to identify it with
(jibbieh or Kibbieh, between Eltekah
and Baalath.
GIB'EA [hill), a name in the gene-
alogy of Judah, 1 Chr. 2 : 49 ; probably
the name of a place rather than of a per-
son. See (tibkah, 1.
GIB'EAH (a hill), the name of sev-
eral towns.
1. Gibeah in the hill-country of Ju-
dah, Josh. 15 : 57 ; now probably Jchah,
10 miles north of Hebron. This is
doubted by Grove, but supported by
Robinson, Porter, and Conder.
2. Gibeah of Benjamin. 1 Sam. 13:2;
first mentioned in Jud. 19 ; a shameful
crime by some of its people nearly de-
stroyed the trib" of Benjamin, Jud. 20,
21. It is generally regarded the same
334
as Gibeah of Saul, and located at Tuleil
el-Fid, " hill of beans," 4 miles north
of Jerusalem, and east of the road from
Jerusalem to Ndbulits (Shechem).
3. Gibeah of Saul is held by most
authorities to be the same as Gibeah of
Benjamin, but Baedeker's Hand-book
assumes that they are distinct cities, and
holds that Geba and Gibeah were some-
times confounded. For in 1 Sam. 14:
1-15, Geba near Michmash, or Jtba,
would answer the conditions of Jon-
athan's exploit, but V. 16 suddenly takes
us back to Gibeah of Benjamin, toward
which the Philistines would hardly have
retreated if any other route was open
to them. Again, in 1 Sam. 13:2, 15,
Jonathan is at Gibeah of Benjamin, and
Samuel also, but in v. 3 Jonathan smites
the Philistines at Gebah, and he and
Saul remain at " Geba," as many ver-
sions read, and Gibeah, as in our Eng-
lish version. For notices of Gibeah of
Saul, see 1 Sam. 10 : 26 ,• 11 : 4 ; 15 : 34 ;
22 : 6 ; 23 : 19 ; Isa. 10 : 29, etc. In the
first passage it is called " Gibeah Elo-
him," meaning, in the Hebrew, " Gibeah
of God," or '* the hill," as our version
reads in 1 Sam. 7:1, and correctly.
4. Gibeah in Kirjath-jearim was no
doubt a hill in that city, 2 Sam. 6 : 3, 4,
on which the house of Abinadab stood,
where the ark was left.
5. Gibeah in the field, Jud. 20 : 31 .:
probably the same as Geba.
6. Gibeah-haaraloth, Josh. 5 : 3, mar-
gin. See GiLGAL.
GIB'EATH [hill), probably the
same as Gibeah of Benjamin, Josh. 18 :
28. See Gibrah, 2.
GIB'EON [of a hill), a city of the
Hivites, Josh. 9 : 3-21, about 6 miles
north of Jerusalem.
Hif,tori/. — Gibcon, after its league with
Joshua, was attacked by the Canaanites;
secured Joshua's help ; near it Joshua
commanded the sun to stand still. Josh.
10:12,13; Isa. 28:21; the city was
given to Benjamin and to the Levites,
Josh. 18: 25; 21:17; it was the scene
of a mortal skirmish between twelve of
Abner's and twelve of Joab's men, also
of the murders of Asahel by Abner, and
of Amasa by Joab, 2 Sam. 2 : 12-24 ; 20 :
8-10; because Saul broke the covenant
with the Gibeonites. in the days of David
a famine broke out, which, after three
years, stopped by the hanging of seven of
GIB
GIH
Saul's sons, 2 Sam. 21 : 1, 2-6; the tab- i
ernacle was set up at (Jibeon, 1 Chr. 16: !
39: and Solomon offered great sacrifices
there, 1 Kgs. 3 : 4, 5 ; 9:2; 2 Chr. 1 : 3,
13; Jehoram recovered captives at (jib-
eon, Jer. 41 : 12-16 ; its people helped to
rebuild the walls of Jerusalem after the
Captivity, Neh. 3 : 7 ; 7 : 25 ; Ezr. 2 : 20,
margin. It is now called el-Jib, a small
village in the midst of ancient ruins, and
standing on a low circular hill, whose
steep sides are covered with vineyards.
At the eastern base of the hill is a fine
spring; the water runs into a reservoir
120 by 100 feet, which is probably the
" Pool of Gibeon."
GIB'EONITES, the inhabitants
of Gibeon, 2 Sam. 21 : 1, 2, 3, 4, 9.
GIB'LITES, THE, a people in-
habiting Gebel, Josh. 13 : 5,
GIDDAL'TI {I have trained vp), a
Kohathite Levite, head of the twenty-
second course, 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 29.
GID'DELi [verij great), names of two
persons whose descendants returned with
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 47, 56 ; Neh. 7 : 49,
58.
GID'EON (o hetcer), the son of Jo-
ash the Abiezrite, and fifth judge of
Israel. He first comes into notice when
an angel appears to him under the oak
in Ophrah and assures him of God's
special favor, Jud. 6:11, 12. Subsequent-
ly, God commanded him to offer as a
sacrifice to the Lord the bullock which
his father had set apart for Baal, and to
destroy the altar of Baal. He did both
of these things, but only escaped the
murderous wrath of his fellow-citizens
through the wily intervention of his fa-
ther, Jud. 6 : 31.
Thje great works of Gideon's life were
the abolition of idolatry, Jud. 8 : 33, and
the deliverance of the land from the in-
vasions of the Midianites. Before un-
dertaking the latter enterprise, he se-
cured a pledge of the divine favor in
the phenomena of the dew and the fleece,
Jud. 6 : 36-40. God, desirous of show-
ing the victory to be the immediate re-
sult of supernatural agency, diminished
Gideon's army from 32,000 to 300. With
this small force Gideon had recourse to
stratagem, and in an assault by night
completely terrified and successfully
routed the enemy, Jud. 7.
Gideon refused the crown, Jud. 8 : 23,
from the whole nation, which his son
Abimelech afterward received from a
]>art. He judged Israel for 40 years, 8 :
28, and the nation enjoyed peace and
engaged in the worship of God, 8 : 33.
He was one of her greatest rulers, and is
hono'-ably mentioned Heb. 11 : 32.
GIDEO'NI {a cuttim/ down),i\iG fa-
ther of the prince of Benjamin in the
wilderness. Num. 1 : II ; 2 : 22; 7 : 60, 65 :
10: 2 i.
GI'DOM (cuttinfj doicu, clesolatiox),
between Gibeah and the cliff" of Rimmon,
Jud. 20 : 45. It has not been identified.
GIER'-EAGLE {rachnm= paren-
tal affection), the Egyptian vulture, an
unclean bird. Lev. 11: 18; Deut.l4: 17.
GIFT, The practice of making
presents as a token of esteem and re-
spect prevailed very extensively in the
East. They were frequently made to
secure favor, as in the case of Jacob
and Esau, Gen. 32 : 13-15. Kings and
princes often made splendid gifts. Gen.
45 : 22, 23, and subjects approached
their kings with presents. 1 Kgs. 4 :
21 ; 2 Chr. 17 : 5, etc. To refuse to
I make presents to a king was a mark of
contempt, 1 Sam. 10 : 27. The articles
i thus bestowed were very various — cattle,
I Gen. 32: 13; garments, 2 Kgs. 5 : 23;
money, 2 Sam. 18: 11, etc. See, for a
list of presents, 1 Kgs. 10 : 25. The
wise men from the East presented the
infant Jesus with the most costlj' arti-
cles of the Orient — '' gold, and frankin-
cense, and myrrh." Matt. 2 : 11.
i The peculiar offerings under the Law
are spoken of as gifts. Deut. 16:17;
Matt. 5 : 23, 24. And it is with singular
force that the blessings of the gospel
through Jesus Christ are called gifts,
inasmuch as they cannot be purchased,
and nothing can be given in return for
them.
GIFTS. The word "gifts" is em-
ployed to describe those graces or qual-
ities with which Christ endues his disci-
ples. Eph. 4 : 8, 11, 12. Some of these,
which were bestowed on the early apos-
tles, were miraculous, and designed to
confirm their claims to apostolic author-
ity, such as the gift of tongues, of
prophecy, etc. The "ministry of gifts"
ceased with the apostles, although some
hold that they have been continued, and
are still dispensed ; as, for example, the
Irvingites.
GI'HON {fountain, or stream). 1.
335
GIL
GIL
The name of the second river of E.len,
Gen. 2 : 13. Some identify it with tue
Nile. See Edkn.
2. A place near Jerusalem where Sol-
omon was proclaimed king, 1 Kgs. 1 :
33-45. Hezekiah stopped the upper water-
course of Gilion, and Manasseh built a
wall on the west side of Gihon in the val-
ley. 2 Chr. 32 : 30 ; 33 : U. Upper Gihon
has been identified by some with Birket
Mnmilla, 150 rods west of the wall of
Jerusalem, which is a pool 300 feet long,
200 wide, and 20 deep. Lower Gihon is
supposed to have been the same as Bir-
ket e8-Snlt(i)i, south-west of the Jaffa
gate, a pool 600 feet long, 250 broad,
and 40 deep. Warren, however, pro-
poses the Pool of the Bath or Hezekiah
as the Lower Gihon, the valley being
that from the -Jaffa gate to the teinple-
site, now filled up, while Grove and Con-
der favor tlie pool Siloam as the site of
Gihon. See Jeritsalkm.
GILi'ALAI (dniKjij, or tceighfj/), a
musical priest in Nehemiah's day, Neh.
12 : 36.
GILBO'A, OR GIL'BOA {hubbfing
fountain), a mountain east of the plain
of Jezreel, about 10 miles long, running
east-south-east and west-north-west; the
northern slope is steep ; the southern
was probably once covered with forests,
though it is now inhabited and culti-
vated.
History, — Gilboa was the place where
Saul and Jonathan were slain in battle,
and from whence Saul went to consult
the witch of Endor. 1 Sam. 28 : 4 ; 31 :
6 ; 1 Chr. 10 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 2L The
mountain is now called ,7e6e^ i^aA'Ji'a y it
is 1717 feet above the sea.
GIL'EAD (hard). 1. The grand-
son pf Manasseh, Num. 26 : 29, 30. etc.
2. The father of Jephthah, Jud. 11 :
1,2.
3. A Gadite, 1 Chr. 5 : 14.
GIL'EAD (rocky region), called also
MOUNT GILEAD and LAND OF
GILEAD, Gen. 31 : 25 ; Num. 32 : 1,
and known in N. T. .times as I'era^a
'•bevonil Jordan." Matt. 4:15; John
1:28.
1. Gilead was a. region of country
bounded on the north by Bashan, cast
by the Arabian desert, south by Moab
and Amnion, and west by the Jordan.
Gen. 31:21; Deut. 3:12-17; 1 Sam.
13 : 7 ; 2 Kgs. 10 : 33. It was about CO
336
miles long, and 20 miles in its average
breadth.
Physical Features. — There is in^Gilead
a conspicuous peak about 7 miles south
of the Jabbok, which is supposed to
have been the site of Ramoth-mizpeh
and Mizpeh of Gilead. Josh. 13 : 26 ;
Jud. 11 : 29. Amonj; the mountains of
Gilead named in Scripture are Abarim,
Pisgah, Nebo, and Peor. The moun-
tains of Gilead are 2000 to 3000 feet
above the valley of the Jordan, gradu-
ally sinking away to the eastward into
the Arabian plateau. The summits are
broad, furnishing rich pasturage and ex-
tensive forests, and were famous for iheir
aromatic gums and spices. Num. 32 : 1 ;
Gen. 37 : 25. The balm of Gilead was
held in high favor, Jer. 8 : 22 ; 46 : 1 1 ;
it is said that only a spoonful could be
collected in a day, and that was sold for
twice its weight in silver. The region
is still one of great fertility. The Ameri-
can E.xploration Society reports eleven
living streams between the Yarmuk and
the Jabbok, and canals dug foi- irrigating
the fields in every direction. South of the
Jabbok the country is barren and deso-
late from want of water as far as the
^Waily Nimrin, but beyond that are
three streams, and the land is again fer-
tile. Several hot sulphur-springs have
been found in Gilead.
History. — Jacob fled toward Gilead,
Gen. 31 : 21 ; it was conquered by Israel,
Num. 21 : 24 ; Jud. 10 : 22 ; Josh. 12 : 2 ;
Deut. 2 : 36 ; was given to Reuben, Gad,
and Manasseh, Josh. 17 : 6 ; under
Jephthah it defeated the Ammonites,
Jud. 10:18-, was a refuge for Saul's
son and for David, 2 Sam. 2 : 9 : 17 : 22,
24 ; the home of Elijah, 1 Kgs. 17 : 1 ;
taken in part by Syria, 2 Kgs. 10 : 33; j
by Assyria, 15 : 25-29 ; referred to in the
minor prophets, Hos. 6 : 8 ; 12 : 11 : Am.
1 : 3, 13 ; On. 19 ; Mic. 7 : 14 . Zech.
10:10. It is now under nominal Turkish
rule, with a Turkish governor residing at
eS'Salt — Ramoth-gilead of Scripture —
but it is really controlled by the semi-
barbarous Arabs and overrun by Bed-
ouins.
2. Mount Gilead of Jud. 7 : 3 was
probably near Mount (Gilboa, thoutrh
no t.ace of the name has yet been found
there. Some (licrinan scholars, however,
read "Gilboa" for ''Gilead" in this
pass.age.
GIL
GIT
GIL'EADITES, a branch of the
tribe of Manasseh, descended from Gil-
ead. Num. 26 : 29, etc.
GIL'GAL {rol/hiif). 1. The name of
the first station of the Israelites after
crossing the Jordan, and " in the east
border of Jericho," Josh. 4:19, 20, the
twelve stones were set up, and the taber-
nacle remained at Uilgal until removed
to Shiloh. Josh. 18:1. Samuel judged
and Saul was made king there, 1 Sam.
7:16; 10 : 8 ; 11 : 14, 15 ; at Gilgal the
people gathered for war ; there Agag
was hewn in pieces. 13 : 4-7 ; 15 : 'V-i.
Later on, Gilgal became a seat of idol-
atry, but whether this one or the Gilgal
above Bethel is yet unsettled. Gilgal is
not named in the N. T. Josephus
places this Gilgal 10 furlongs from Jeri-
cho and 50 from the Jordan ; Jerome
had it pointed out 2 miles from Jericho ;
Thomson and others locate it near the
modern village of liiha ; Zschokke, at
Te/(Jr:/Ju(,north of Wady Kelt. Conder
favors this, and gives the name JlljuUeh.
2. The Gilgal in Elijah's time was
probably in the range of hills beyond
Bethel, since the prophet " went down "
from that Gilgal to Bethel, 2 Kgs. 2 :2.
As Bethel is 3."50O feet above the Jordan
plain, it must have been a Gilgal not in
that plain, but one higher uji than Bethel.
It has been identified with Jifjifia, 8
miles north of Bethel, where the school of
the prophets was probably established.
3. Gilgal of Josh. 12 : 23 is supposed
to be at a Jiljtih'eh, 4 miles south of
Antipatris, in the plain of Sharon.
There is a Kilkilieh — another form of
Gilgiil — also. 2 miles east of Antipatris.
GI'LOH {exile), a town in tlie hill-
country of Judah ; the home of Ahitho-
phel, Josh. 15 : 51 ; 2 Sam. 15 : 12 :
17 : 23 ; perhaps now Beit Jala, a village
of 3000 population, about 2 miles north-
west of Bethlehem.
GI'LONITE, a native of Giloh, 2
Sam. 15: 12; 23: 34.
GI^l'ZO { fertile in nr/rnmnmt), a
town in the plain of Judah ; taken by
the Philistines, 2 Ghr. 28: 18,- now
Jiinzu, a vilhige about 2^ miles south-
west of Ludd (Lydda).
GIN, a trap for beasts or birds, con-
sisting of a net (" snare," Is.). 8 : 14),
and a stick to act as a spring ("gin,"
Am. 3:5). See Huxtixg.
GI'iVATH iproteclion), the father
'>2
of Tibni, the rival of Omri for the throne
of Israel, 1 Kgs. 16 : 21, 22.
GIN'NETHO {(/(trdener), a priest
who returned from Babylon with Zerub-
babel, Neh. 12 : 4.
GIN'NETHOX {gardener), a priest
who " sealed the covenant," Neh. 10 :
6. One of his descendants, mentioned in
12:16.
GIRD, GIRD'LE. Girdles are
worn in the East by both men and wo-
men for binding uj) the loose, flowing
Ancient Ciiniles.
1, '1. Kgypliaii. (From Wilkinson and Rosellini.) .1, 4,
As.-.vriBii. {From Sculpturis in the ISiitish Museum.)
garments, so as to admit of their moving
about freely. The girdles were usually
of leather or of linen, and frequently
were highly ornamented. Daggers were
often carried in the girdle. See Clothes.
GIR'GASITE, Gen. 10 : 16, or
GIR'GASHITES, Gen. 15: 21. A
tribe of the Cannanitcs who are sup-
posed to have inhabited a section of the
country east of the Sea of Galilee, whence
the name of the city of Gertjesa.
GIS'PA {earenH), one of the rulers
of the Nethinim after the Captivity,
Neh. 11:21.
GIT TAH-HE'PHER,Josh.l9:
13. See Gath-Hki'Her.
GIT'TAIM {In-o wine-prenHCH), a
town, probably in Benjamin. 2 Sam. 4 :
3 ,• Neh. 11 : 33.
GIT'TITES. Sec Gath.
GIT'TITH {ii mnHirnl ittHtrnment),
a word found in the titles of Ps. 8 ; 81 ;
84. The derivation of the word is dis-
puted. It may be associated with the
city of Gath, or with the word signify-
ing " wine-])ress," and consequently with
the vintage-season.
337
GIZ
GLO
GI'ZONITE, the epithet given to
Hashem, the father of some of David's
warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 34.
GIZ'RITES. See Gezuites.
GLASS was discovered by the Phoe-
nicians, or perhaps earlier. Represen-
of vision. Deut. 14 : 13. It is not cer-
tain what particular bird is meant, but
most probably one of the buzzards, of
which three species inhabit Palestine.
The great red buzzard {Buteo ferox) is
most common, and resembles an eagle in
Egyptian Glass- Blowers. {After Wilkinson.)
Egypliuii Glass Bottles. (After WilLlns
tations of the process of glass-blowing arc
found on Eyptian monuments, and glass
beads and fragments of glass vases have
been discovered of very ancient .age.
The only mention of glass in the 0. T.
is in Joij 28 : 17, where it is translated
"crystal." The mirrors referred to by
the word "glass" in 1 Cor. 13 : 12 : 2
Cor. 3:18; Jas. 1 : 23 were not made
of glass. See Looking-glass.
GLEAN. Ruth 2:2. In the joy-
ful season of harvest the Jewish farmer
was not allowed to forget the poor iind
the stranger. A special command was
given, Lev. 19 : 9, 10, that he should
leave some of the fruits for them to
gather.
GLEDE, mentioned among the un-
clean birds of prey by a Hebrew name
which probably indicates its keenness
338
Bottle inscribed witli the
Kame of Tliothmes III.
(After Wilkinson.)
its size and habits. The orig-
inal word is rendered "vul-
on.) ture"in Lev. 11 : 14.
GLORY, GLORIFY, terms of
frequent occurrence in the Bible.
To "glorify" is to render glorious or
to e.xalt. Dan. 5 : 23 ; Acts 3:13: John
17 : 5. Hence the comprehensive pre-
cept of the apostle, 1 Cor. 6 : 19, 20, re-
quiring the devotion of our whole pow-
ers and faculties to this one great end,
"the glory of God." 1 Cor. 10:31, or
making God glorious. To "give glory "
means to ])raise or exalt. Luke 17 : 18.
GLonv OF (lOD. This expression is
almost equivalent to "brightness" or
"effulgence" of (Jod. and refers to the
peculiar and absolute perfection of all
the divine attributes. By contrast, men
are said tc have " come short of the glory
of God." Rom. 3 : 23, where the special
reference, no doubt, is to the perfect holi-
ness of the Almighty.
GNA
GOA
God is denominated the " King of
glory/' Ps. 24 : 8, or of resplendent
brightness. The glory of (rod is dis-
played in the works of creation, Ps. 19 :
1, in the redemption of the world through
Christ, 2 Cor. 4 : 0, and in the person of
Christ. Heb. 1 : 3. He is said to be
'' glorious in holiness." Our Lord is
called tlie "Lord of glory," Jas. 2:1,
and the " hope of glory." Col. 1 : 27.
Different objects are said to have a
glory, 1 Cor. 15 : 41, and regenerate be-
lievers are said to have awaiting them
the glory akin to that they have lost.
Col. 3:4; Heb. 2 : 10.
GNASH, GNASHING, a strik-
ing or grinding of the teeth in the par-
oxysms of anguish or despair. Ps. 112 :
lo'; Matt. 8 : 12.
GNAT. Matt. 23 : 24. This insect,
a species of '' mosquito," is common in
hot countries. In the passage cited,
the words "strain at" (a typographical
error) should rather be " strain out ;"
the phrase will then better express the
gross inconsistencies which our Saviour
reproved.
GOAD. Jud. 3:31. This was a
rod or pole about 8 feet long, armed at
the larger end with a piece of iron, with
which the yjloughshare was freed from
clods and earth, and at the smaller with
a sharp spike, by which the oxen were
urged on in their labor. In the hands
of a powerful man like Shamgar, Jud.
3 : 31, it would be a formidable instru-
ment. The goad is used to this day in
Palestine.
GOAT. Lev. 3:12. Goats were
among the chief possessions of the
&*x^'^
Syrian Goat. (After Tnstram.)
wealthy in the early ages of the world.
Gen. 27 : 9 : 1 Sam. 25 : 2 : 2 Chr. 17 :
n. Resembling the sheep in its general
structure and appearance, it is covered
with hair instead of wool, and is much
more active. boUl, and wandering in its
habits. It feeds on bark and tender
twigs, and i^s feet are formed for leap-
ing and climbing among rocks and
mountains. Its milk is valuable for
food, Prov. 27 : 27, the hair for manu-
factures of various kinds, Ex. 25 : 4 ;
Num. 31 : 20 ; Heb. 11 : 37, and the skin
for vessels or bottles. Josh. 9:4: Ps.
339
GOA
GOD
119 : 83 ; Matt. 9 : 17, and in modern
times for leather.
There are several species of goat in
Palestine, but the conunon kind [Capra
mambrica) has enormous hanging ears
a foot long, often reaching lower than
its nose and its stout recurved horns.
Comp. Am. 3: 12.
It was a clean animal by the Jewish
law, Deut. 14 : 4, and was much used in
sacrifices. Lev. 3:12; Num. 15:27;
Ezr. 6:17.
The peculiar qualities of goats occa-
sion frequent figurative allusions to
them. The boldness and strength of the
leaders of the flocks are alluded to, Prov.
30 : 31 ; Zech. 10 : 3, and they are made
to represent oppressors and wicked men
generally. Eze. 34:17; 39:18; Matt.
25 : 33.
Goat, Wild [the climher). This an-
imal is quite distinct from the domestic
goat. The high hills of Palestine and
Arabia are still a refuge for this very
shy and wary creature, the ibex or
mountain-goat (beden of the Arabs,
Capra beden). Tristram says : " In the
neighborhood of En-gedi, while encamp-
ed by the Dead Sea shore, we obtained
several fine specimens, and very inter-
esting it was to find this graceful crea-
ture by the very fountain to which it
gave name {E)i-(jedi — i. e. ' Fountain of
the Kid'), and in the spot where it roam-
ed of old while David wandered to es-
cape the persecutions of Saul " upon the
rocks of the wild goats. 1 Sam. 24 : 2.
The flesh of these aniuials is nearly of
the flavor of venison. The Bedouins
make bags or bottles of their skins and
rings of their horns. When they are
found among the rocks they usually
elude the pursuit of the hunter, some-
times leaping even 20 feet, but in the
])lains they are often taken. Their
habits are alluded to in Job 39 : 1 ; Ps.
104: IS.
Goat, Scape, Lev. 16 : 26, one of the
two goats offered on the day of atone-
ment. The ceremony which the high
priest performed over the scape-goat is
very mysterious and very significant.
1. The priest laid his hands upon the
head of the goat and confessed over it
the sins of Israel. IjCx . 16 : 21. The an-
imal was then let go and driven off" into
the uninhabited wihlerness.
2. The significance of this event is
340
beyond dispute. It represents the cul-
mination of the Mosaic sacrifice for sin,
and is at the same time a most perfect
representation of vicarious atonement.
The iniquities of the nation were con-
sidered as having been transferred to the
goat, the priest having put them upon
its head. It was then driven off", in its
uncleanness and pollution, to suff"er for
crimes it had not committed, in the des-
olate wilderness. This is a beautiful
type of the atonement of Christ, upon
whom was laid " the iniquity of us all,"
who suff"ered for our redemption, Isa. 53.
"Scape-goat" is the A. V. trans-
lation of "Azazel." Lev. 16 : 20. The
old interpretation, which applied the
word to the goat, is now abandoned, the
best scholars agreeing in regarding it as
expressive of the person to whom the
goat was sent. It probably comes from
a root, used in Arabic, but not in He-
brew, meaning to " separate." But who
is the person ? The best opinion is that
" the devil " is meant. Both goats were
parts of the same siu-off"ering, both be-
longed to Jehovah. Hence both were
typical of the atonement of Christ. The
goat that was slain made an atonement
for the holy place. The goat that was
sent away typified the removing of the
guilt of the people. See the valuable
and interesting excursus upon ''Azazel"
in Bible Commentary, Lev. 16.
GO'ATH (/ownu/), aplace probably
near Jerusalem, Jer. 31 : 39 ; location not
known.
GOB {ditch, or cistern). 2 Sam. 21 :
18, 19. The Greek version reads Goth,
while in the account of this encounter
of David's men in 1 Chr. 20 : 4 the
name is Gezer.
GOB'L.ET. See Cup.
GOD {good). The name of the
Creator of all things and the supreme
Governor of the universe and the Giver
of all good gifts. He is " a Spirit, infi-
nite, eternal, and unchangeable in his
being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice,
goodness, and truth." He is revealed to
us in an endless variety of ways in his
works and providential government,
Rom. 1: 20, but mo-e fully in the Holy
Scri]itures and in the person and work
of his only begotten Son, our Lord.
1. Names. — There are three principal
designations of (lod in the 0. T. — Eltt-
him, Jehovah, and Adonai. The fir>t is
GOD
GOL
used exclusively in the first chapter of |
Genesis ; it predominates in the second
book of Ps^alms (Ps. 42-72, called the
Elohim Psalms), and occurs alternately
with the other names in the other parts
of the 0. T. It expresses his character
as the almighty Maker and his relation to
the whole world, the Gentiles as well as
the Jews. The second is especially used
of him in his relation to Israel as the
God of the covenant, the God of reve-
lation and redemption. "Adonai" {i.e.
lay Lord) is used where God is reverent-
ly addressed, and is always substituted
by the Jews for "Jehovah," which they
never pronounce. These three words
are indiscriminately ti'anslated, in the
English Version, God, Lord, and Je-
hovali.
2. The Nature of God. — God is reveal-
ed to us as a trinity consisting of three
Persons who are of one essence, Matt.
28:19; 2 Cor. 13:14: John 1 : l-;5—
God the Father, God the Son. and God
the Holy Ghost. To the Father is as-
cribed the work of creation, to the Son
the redemption, to the Holy Spirit the
sanctification ; but all three Persons
take part in all the divine works. Al-
though this idea of God is not brought
out as prominently in the 0. T. as in
the New, it is nevertheless there. It is
intimated in Gen. 1, where God, the
Word ("God spake,"' etc., compare Ps.
33 : 6; John 1 : 1, ;^), and the Spirit of
God are mentioned in the work of cre-
ation. The " divine Wisdom" of Prov. 8
is personified, and corresponds to the
" Word " in John 1, and refers to the
second Person of the Trinity. To each
of these Persons of the Trinity are as-
cribed" the essential attributes of the
supreme God. Thus, the Son is repre-
sented as the Mediator of the creation.
John 1:3; Col. 1:16: Heb. 1 : 4.
3. The unity of the Godhead is em-
phasized in the 0. T., while the trinity
is only shadowed forth, or at best faintly
brought out. The grand reason for the
emphasis of the unity of the Godhead
was to show the fallacy of polytheism
and to discourage idolatry, which the
heathen practised. God is denominated
"one Lord," Deut. 6 : 4. Over against
the false deities of the heathen, he is
designated the "living" God. This
belief in God as one was a chief mai-k
of the Jewish religion.
4. The attributes of God are those of
the most perfect being. He is holy.
Josh. 24: ID: eternal, 1 Tim. 1:17;
everywhere present, Ps. 139 : 7 ; Acts 17 :
24 ; almighty, Gen. 17 : 1 ; immutable,
Ps. 102 : 26. God is. moreover, just, Jer.
9:24, wise. Job 12:13, and above all
he is Love. 1 John 4:16.
GOD'HEAD. Col. 2: 9. The na-
ture or essential being of God. Acts 17 :
29 : Eom. 1 : 20.
GOD'LINESS, piety resulting
from the knowledge and love of God,
and leading to the cheerful and con-
stant obedience of his commands. 2 Pet.
3:11. In 1 Tim. 3 : 16 it imports the
substance of revealed religion.
GODS. Rulers and judges are so
called in Ex. 22 : 28 : Ps. 82 : 6 : John
10 : 34 because thev represent God.
GOG AND x^A'GOG. Eze. 38:
2. Magog was the name of one of
Japheth's sons. Gen. 10 : 2. It was
also a general name of a country north
of the Caucasus or Mount Taurus, or
for the people of that district. Gog
was the king of the country. This
people seems to have sustained rela-
tions of hostility to Israel, and is asso-
ciated with Antichrist. Rev. 20 : 8.
GO'LAN {circle), one of the six cit-
ies of refuge in Manasseh given to the
Levites. It was in Lashan. and the most
northerlj^ of the three cities of refuge
east of the Jordan. Deut. 4:43: Josh.
20 : S : 21 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 6:71. It was
]>robably 10 or 12 miles north-east of
the Sea of Galilee, in the centre of Gau-
lanitis: the modern «/«»?«?». though the
exact site of the city is not known.
GOLD. Gen. 2:11. This heaviest
and most malleable of metals is found
at the present day chiefly in California
and Australia. Several places are men-
tioned by the sacred writers as abound-
ing in gold ; such as Ophir, Job 28 : 16,
Parvaim, 2 Chr. 3 : 6, Shcba, and Ra-
amah. Eze. 27 : 22. Until after the time
of David gold was never coined, but
was sold by weight as a precious arti-
cle of commerce. The use of gold was
very common among the Hebrews. Sev-
eral parts of the temple, its furniture
and utensils, were overlaid with this
precious metal. Ex. 36 : 34-38 ; 1 Kgs.
7 : 48-50. And many of the vessels of
the wealthy, as well as their personal
ornaments and insignia of office, were
341
GOL
GOS
of gold. Gen. 41 : 42 ; 1 Kgs. 10 : 17-22 ;
Esth. 1 : 6, 7 ; Dan. 5 : 29 ; Luke 15 : 22 j
Jas. 2 : 2.
GOLDEN CAN'DLESTICK.
See Candlestick.
GOL'GOTHA (*•/.•»//), the Hebrew
name of the gpot where Jesus was cruci-
fied. Matt. 27 : :^3. See Calvary.
GOLI'ATH {splendor), a renowned
champi >n of the Philistines from Gath.
1 Sam. 17 : 4. He was more than 9 feet
in height. Conscious of his superior stat-
ure and strength, he defied the armies
of Israel to produce a rival. But he
was met and slain by David, who, al-
though a pygmy in the eyes of the
giant, was mighty through the assist-
ance of God.
In 2 Sam. 21 : 19 another Goliath of
Gath, "the staff of whose spear w<t8
like a weaver's beam," is mentioned as
being slain by Elhanan. He may have
been a son of David's antagonist. 2
Sam. 21 : 22.
GO'MER (perfect). 1. The eldest
son of Japhcth, progenitor of the an-
cient Cimmerians, and of the present
Celtic peoples of Europe. Gen. 10 : 2, ;> ;
1 Chr. 1:5, 6.
2. The wife of Hosea. Hos. 1 : 3.
GOMOR'RAH {xahmerHion), one
of the five cities in the vale of Siddim,
Gen. 14: 1-11 : destroyed for its wicked-
ness, 18 : 20 ; 19 : 24, 28 ; made a warning
by Moses, Dent. 29 : 2.S ; 32 : '.V2 ■ referred
to by Isaiah. 1 : 9. 10 ; by Jeremiah, ?3 :
14 ; 49 : 1 8 : 50 : 40 ; by Amos, 4:11 ; by
Zephaniah, 2:9; by our Saviour, Matt.
10:15; Mark 6:11; by Paul, quoting
Isaiah, Rom. 9 : 29; by Peter and Judo,
2 Pet. 2 : 6. Its site is disputed. Some
place it at the southern, others at the
northern, end of the Dead Sea. A val-
ley known as Wad)/ Ammurrhat is now
found at the south-west side of the
Dead Sea. See SonoAf and Salt Ska.
GOOD'MAN OF THE HOUSE
is the master of the house, irrespective
of moral character. The term was in
common use when the A. V. was made.
Matt. 20: 11.
GO'PHER-WOOD. The ark was
constructed of this material. (Jen. 6 : 14.
There are many theories as to what go-
pher-wood was. One is that it was some
reninoiis wood, such as cedar, pine, or fir.
Still more probable is the o|)inion that it
was rypreas, which was considered by the
342
ancients as the most durab'e wood, and
least exposed to worms and natural de-
cay. It abounded in Syria, was used
very commonly for shipbuilding, and
was almost the only wood which could
furnish suitable timber for so large a
vessel as the ark.
GO'SHEN. 1. The portion of
Egypt assigned to Israel. Gen. 45 : 5, 10 ;
46': 28: 47 : 27-50 : 8. It probably
bordered on the Tanitic branch of the
Nile, hence called Zoan or Tanis, Ps.
78:12, and reached from the Mediter-
ranean to the Red Sea. It was suited
to shepherds, abounded in vegetables.
It contained the treasure-cities Rameses
and Pithom. Goshen Avas near the roy-
al capital. Gen. 48 : 1,2; Ex. 5 : 20 ;
appears to have been the starting-
place of the Israelites in their journey
to the Land of Promise. Ex. 12:37, 38.
2. A district in Palestine, perhaps
between Gibeon and Gaza. Josh. 10 :
41 ; 11 : 1 0.
3. A city in the hill-country of Judah,
Josh. 15 : 51 ; perhaps now Sekiyeh.
GOS'PEL (from the Anglo-Saxon
r/od-spell, ''good tidings") is the Eng-
lish translation of the Greek euagrfellon,
which signifies ''good" or "glad tid-
ings." Luke 2 : 10; Acts 13 : 32. The
same word in the original is rendered
in Rom. 10 : 15 by the two equivalents
" gospel " and " glad tidings." The term
refers to the good news of the new dis-
pensation of redemption ushered in by
the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus
Christ. The " good news " is denomi-
nated either simply the "gospel," Matt.
26 : 13, or else " the gospel of the king-
dom," Matt. 9 : 35; of "Jesus Christ."
Mark 1:1; of "peace," Rom. 10:
15; Eph. 6:15, of "salvation," Eph.
1 : 1 3 ; of " God." 1 Thess. 2:9; and of
" grace." Acts 20 : 24.
GosPKLs, THE Four Canonical. The
word " (lospels " is also employed to
designate tlie four biographies of our
Lord by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and
John. These are the only faitliful ac-
counts of his life extant. They are the
independent recitals of well-informed
men; and there is no evidence that either
Evangelist got his facts from another.
But the (lospel by John, while it is com-
])lete on its own jieculiar j)lan, seems to
have been composed in ])art with the
object of Hii/)pleoieiitin;f what was lack-
GOU
GOU
ing or only partially given in the nar-
rations of the first three Gospels. In
this fourth Gospel, for example, the di-
vinity of our Lord is emphatically as-
serted and dwelt on at length, and of
the opposition he met with from the
Pharisees a full account is given, John
5-12. John further gives in detail the
discourses of our Lord in the last week,
chs. 13-17. and the account of the res-
urrection of Lazarus, ch. 11. On the
other hand, he omits the circumstances
of our Lord's birth, which had been giv-
en so fully by Matthew and Luke, the
account of the Lord's Supjjer, related by
all three of the other Evangelists, the
institution of baptism, and most of the
miracles and all the parables found in
the first three accounts.
There are differences in the accounts
of the same events as given by the va-
rious Evangelists, but with a few excep-
tions they are verbal, and only such as
we would naturally expect in different
descriptions of the same occurrences.
These very differences in details are fa-
vorable to the genuineness of the Gos-
pels, because they prove the absence of
collusion or secret agreement among the
writers.
The fjeiinineness of these records of
our Lord's life is as strongly support- d,
to say the least, as that of any other
document of antiquity. There is no
doubt that they were all written, as we
have them, in the first century (the first
three before the destruction of Jerusa-
lem, A. D. 70), and were all used and
known as "the Four Evangelists" in
the Church before the year 200, if not
before 150. Upon both these points the
concurrent evidence is so strong that
the opponents must resort to the wild-
est theories and hypotheses, which re-
fute themselves by their contradictions.
There is good evidence scattered all
through the second century that they
were in general use. Justin Martyr
used them about 140. His pupil, Ta-
tian, wrote a Hormony of the Gospeh
about 170, and quite recently a commen-
tary of Ephraem Syrus on Tatian's Dia-
tessaron has been published at Venice
( 1 876 ), which settles the vexed question as
to the character of this work. The argu-
ments for the genuineness, as varied as
they are convincing, kre such as these :
(1) The direct testimonies of writers in
the second century and later ; (2) the
quotations found in the writings of the
authors known as the Fathers: (3) an-
cient translations, as the Itala and Pesh-
ito, dating from the second century; (4)
the attitude of heretic and heathen oppo-
nents, who, like Celsus (ISO), did not
call in question the genuineness of the
records, although the}^ denied the cred-
ibility of a part of their contents.
Basilides, a Gnostic heretic, knew the
Gospel of John as early as 125, and
Marcion, another Gnostic, about 160,
made use of a mutilated Gospel of Luke.
The language in which the Gospels
were written was the Greek, with the
probable exception of Matthew written
in Hebrew, and there can be little
doubt that we now have, with the ex-
ception of a few readings, the docu-
ments as they left the hands of the
writers.
Gospels, Apocryphal. These are the
spurious accounts of our Lord's life.
There are many of them; as, for exam-
ple, the Gospel according to James, ac-
cording to Nicodeiinis, etc. The earliest
was probably composed some time in the
second century. They indulge in puer-
ile accounts of the parents of our Lord,
of the pretended miracles of his child-
hood, and of his experience in Hades.
These stories were invented to satisfy a
prurient curiosity, and were accepted by
the credulous. The circumstances re-
lated carry their own refutation with
them, as being entirel}' out of harmony
with the spirit of our Lord's life. They
tend to confirm the canonical Gospels as
the counterfeit presupposes the genuine
coin.
A " harmony " of the Gospels is an
arrangement of these four biographies
which displays the chronology of the
events narrated, the variety of events,
and the diversity of details. The object
is to present a full account of our Lord's
life in the chronological sequence of its
events. For the several Gospels see
Matthf.w, Mark, Luke, and John.
GOURD. Jon. 4:6. Probably the
plant which shaded the prophet was
either the castor-oil plant (Ricinus coni-
vtmtis), which in the East grows rapid-
ly to the height of even 15 feet, or, ac-
cording to rapidly-prevailing opinion, it
was a vine of the cucumber family {Cn-
curbita pepn), similar to our gourd, and
343
GOU
GOU
still used for shade in Palestine. " In | of gourds may be seen. But the plant
the gardens about Sidon many an arbor I withers as rapidly as it shoots, and af-
ter a storm or any injury to the
stem its fruit may be seen hang-
ing to the leafless tendrils which
so lately concealed it — a type of
melancholy desolation." — Triv-
truin.
Some have regarded the ex-
pression, " It came up in a night"
and perished in a night," as lit-
eral, others as indicating merely
rapid growth. The declaration
that the Lord ijre^xued a gourd,
and prepared a worm, and pre-
pared an east wind, indicates
the direct and special interposi-
tion of his providence to teach
the prophet a lesson of submis-
sion to the divine will.
Gourd, Wild. The wild gourds
eaten by the sons of the prophets,
2 Kgs. 4 : 38-41, were doubtless
the handsome yet poisonous fruit
of the colocynth ( Citrullus culo-
cy)ithu»), from which the medi-
cine of that name is obtained.
This vine is not common in Pal-
estine, yet may be found about
(xilgal, and bears a fruit resem-
bling an orange in size and shape,
but very hard and having its yel-
low rind marbled with green and
Castor-Oil Plant. (Ricinus Communis.)
'.44
Colocynlluis, or Wild Gourd. (CUrullus Colocynthus. After Triblram.)
GOV
GRA
white. The plant resembles the water-
melon, and belongs to the same family.
For various reasons it is thought that
the " knops " used in the ornamental
work of Solomon's temj)le were imita-
tions of the colocvnth. 1 Kgs. 6:18.
GOVERNOR. Matt. 27:2. Af-
ter Judaea became a province of the
Roman empire, governors or procurators
were appointed and sent thither from
Rome. This was the office held by Pon-
tius Pilate at the time of our Saviour's
crucifixion. Sometimes the word "gov-
ernor" is used as a general title for a
ruler or presiding officer. Gen. 42:6.
See Feast.
GO'ZAN, a district of Mesopotamia,
2 Kgs. 17:6,; 18:11; 19:12; 1 Chr. 5:
26 ; Isa. 37 : 12 : probably identical with
Gauzanitis of Ptolemy, and Myydonid of
other writers. It was watered by the
Habor, the modern Khahonr, a large
branch of the Euphrates in Mesopotamia.
GRACE denotes the love of God as
displayed in his free favor toward men
as sinners and destitute of all claim upon
him. 1 Tim. 1 : 2. Hence the X. T., which
reveals the plan by which this grace is
bestowed, is called "the gospel of the
grace of God." Acts 20 : 24. The apos-
tolic Epistles begin with the salutation,
" Grace and peace be with you."
GRAIN. See Corn.
GRAPES, the fruit of the vine.
Gen. 49 : 11. When fully ripe and dried
thev are called " raisins." 1 Sam. 25 : 1 8 ;
30 : 12 ; 2 Sam. 16 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 40.
The soil and climate of Palestine are
pre-eminentl)' well suited to the growth
of the vine, and it has always been among
the principal productions of the country.
In Ju'dasa especially particular districts
were famed for the excellency of their
grapes; as En-gedi and the vales of
Eshcol and Sorek. The word *' Sorek "
is not only the name of a region in the
tribe of Judah, but also signifies the
noblest variety of the vine and its clus-
ters, which there abounded. This grape
was white, with delicious juice, and with
seeds so small and soft as to be almost
imperceptible. In Persia the best rai-
sins are made of this grape. It is of this
that the celebrated Kishmish wine of
Shiraz is made. Very fine grapes were
in old times, as at present, produced on
Mount Lebanon and at Helbon or Alep-
po. Travellers agree in relating that
Palestine, even in its present state of
subjugation to the Mussulmans, who are
forbidden to use wine, produces clusters
of 12 pounds' weight each, the single
grapes of which are as large as plums.
They tell us that the clusters of Judfea,
a few miles westward from Jerusalem,
are larger than any in Europe, and that
they have often seen clusters of such size
that it was impossible for a single man
to carry one of them uninjured for any
distance. Brocard informs us in his
Travels that the best vines grow in the
environs of Bethlehem, in the vale of
Rephaim (between Bethlehem and Jeru-
salem), and in the traditional vale of
Eshcol, near Hebron.
The grapes of the Holy Land, with the
exception of the Sorek, above mentioned,
are mostly red or black. Hence the juice
is called "the blood of the grape," trans-
lated, in our version, " red wine." Isa.
27:2.
Besides wine and raisins, there is made
from grapes a syrup called Jibs, which
" is obtained by boiling down the juice
of the ripe grapes to a third of its bulk,
when it becomes as thick as treacle, but
is of a lighter color. The Moslems are
very fond of dibs, which they eat with
bread, drink with water, and use largely
in confectionery. The Hebrew name
debash ('honey') is identical, and it is
this syrup, and not bees' honey, which
is understood to be meant by the honey
which Jacob sent down as a present to
the governor of Egypt. Gen. 43 : 11, and
in which the men of Tvre traded from
the land of Israel. Eze."27 : 17."— THs-
irtnii.
The Jews were expressly required by
their law not to gather the grapes until
the vine was three years old, Lev. 19 :
23, and to leave some on the vines and
some on the ground, Lev. 19 : 10 ; and
it was the privilege of the poor and de-
pendent to gather these for their own
use, provided they were eaten on the
ground. They v. ere not allowed to take
any away. Deut. 23:24; 24:21. The
grapes thus left were called " the glean-
ings," and as they hung, here and there
one, on the vines or lay scattered on the
ground, they were strikingly emblemat-
ical of the depopulation of a city or
country. Isa. 17 : 6 : 24 : 13 ; Jer. 6:9:
49 : 9 ; Ob. 5. See Vine, Vineyard,
Wine, Winepress.
346
GRA
GRE
GRASS. Isa. 51 : 12. This word is
frequently applied in the Scriptures to
herbage generally, Isa, 15 : 6, though
sometimes distinction is made between
such herbs as are used by man as grain
and vegetables, and such as are used
chiefly by cattle. Ps. 104 : 14.
The quick growth and tenderness of
this species of vegetation furnish sev-
eral of the most striking illustrations of
the Scriptures. Ps. 90 : 5, 6 ; 92 : 7 ;
103 : 15. 16 ; Isa. 40 : 6-8 ; 51 : 12 ; Jas.
1:10; 1 Pet. 1 : 24.
The passage in Prov. 27 : 25 would be
more accurately rendered thus : " The
grass {hay) appeareth, and the green
herb {tender yrasn) showeth itself, and
the plants {herbs) of the mountains are
gathered." So in Isa. 16 : 6 : " The
grass {hay) withereth, the green herb
(grass) faileth, there is no green
thing."
Nothing can exceed in beauty and
appropriateness the gradation of imacces
employed by the prophet, 2 Kgs. 19 :
26 ; the weakness and tenderness of the
first shoots of any green herb ; the frail-
ty of the few spires of grass that some-
times spring up in the vegetable mould
or shallow earth upon the housetop, or
the withered blade of corn (grain) blast-
ed before it rises into a stalk.
Coarse herbage was often dried, as it
is still, for the purpose of heating ovens.
Under the fierce rays of a Syrian sun,
joined to parching winds, it often hap-
pens that "the grass of the field which
to-day is, . . . to-morrow is cast into
the oven." Matt. 6 : 30 ; 13 : 30 ; Luke
12 : 28.
GRASS'HOPPER, an insect of
the locust species, often mentioned in
the sacred writings. Eccl. 12 : 5. The
word rendered " grasshopper " in the
above-cited passage is rendered " locust"
in 2 Chr. 7 : 13.
Grasshoppers were allowable food un-
der the Jewish law. Lev. 11 : 22. Their
timidity is proverbial. Job 39 : 20.
They are often found in great multi-
tudes (hence the figurative language,
Jud. 6 : 5 and 7:12; Jer. 46 : 23), and
prove destructive to vegetation, especi-
ally in its early stages. Am. 7:1.
The allusion in Nah. 3 : 15-17 is to a
common habit of these insects. When
benumbed with the cold, they assemble
in vast numbers upon the hedges or
346
other shrubbery ; and such is their mul-
titude that the places they occupy are
darkened, and resemble the encamping-
ground of a great army. As soon, how-
ever, as they are revived by the warmth
of the sun, they fly away, no one knows
whither.
The grasshopper is used to illustrate
comparative insignificance, Num. 13 :
33 ; Isa. 40 : 22 ; and in the passage
from Ecclesiastes first cited, reference is
probably made to that degree of weak-
ness and infirmity in old age which
makes the weight, or even the chirping,
of a grasshop))er burdensome.
GRATE, BRA'ZEN. See Altar.
GRAVE. See Buuial, Engrave,
Hrll.
GREAT SEA. Num. 34:6. The
Mediterranean Sea; called also "utmost
sea" and "the hinder sea." Joel 2 : 20 ;
Zech. 14:8. See Sea.
GREAVES. See Armor.
GRE'CIA. See Greece.
GREECE, OR HELLAS, the
well-known country in the south-east of
Europe. It is named four times in the
0. T. as Greece or Grecia, Zech. 9 : 13;
Dan. 8 : 21 ; 10 : 20 : 11 : 2, and once in the
N. T., Acts 20 : 2. It or its people are
referred to in Hebrew history as Javan,
Isa. 66:19; Eze. 27:13, 19, and in
apostolic history as Achaia. Its cities
noticed in Scripture are Athens, Corinth,
and Cenchrea. See Greeks, and for fur-
ther notice of the country, see Achaia
and Macedonia.
GREEKS, GRECIANS. These
terms should be more distinguished.
The "Greeks" were the Greeks by
race. Acts 16 : 1, 3 ; 18 : 17, or else Gen-
tiles as opposed to Jews. Rom. 2: 9, 10,
marg. But " Grecians " were foreign
Jews as distinct from those in Pales-
tine, who were called" Hebrews." Acts
11 : 20. The Greeks and Hebrews first
met when the Tyrians sold the Jews
to the Greeks. Joel 3:6. "Prophet-
ical notice of Greece occurs in Dan.
8 : 21, etc., where the history of Alexan-
der and his successors is rapidly sketch-
ed. Zechariah, 9:13, foretells the tri-
umphs of the Maccabees over the Grivco-
Syrian empire, while Isaiah looks for-
ward to the conversion of the Greeks,
amongst other (Jcntiles, through the in-
strumentality of Jewish missionaries.
66 : 19." " After the complete subju-
GKE
GUR
gation of the Greeks by the Ron ans,
and the absorption into the Rouian em-
^Delphi-
pire of the kingdoms which were form-
ed out of the dominions of Alexander,
Sketch-Map
the polifical connection between the !
(ireeks and the Jews as two independ-
ent nations no longer existed." — Smith :
Dictionan/ of the BiJtIe.
GREY'HOUND is the A. Y. trans- |
lation for the Hebrew words, meaning j
*' one girt about the loins." Prov. 30:
31. That a " greyhound " does not an- .
swer to the meaning of the Hebrew is i
generally agreed. The most probable
rendering yet suggested is that of a
"wrestler" girded for the fight: others '
explain it of the war-horse, which is so
poetically described in the book of Job
(39 : 19-25).
GRIND. See Mills.
GRIND'ERS, in Ecel. 12 : 3. repre-
sent the double teeth used in mastication.
GRIZ'ZLED, black and white in-
termingled in small spots. Gen. 31 : 10 :
Zech. 6 : 8. 6.
GROVE. The translation, except
in Gen. 21 : 33, of the Hebrew word
nsherah ; but since asherah is regarded
by the best interpreters to be an " idol"
or an idolatrous pillar (an image of As-
tarte, and not a " grove,") the translation
is misleading, as in 1 Kgs. 18 : 19 ; 2 Kgs.
13 : 6, and other places. See Ashtoreth.
But it is likely that this asherah was
of Greece.
often set up in a grove, because thus
would be given that seclusion necessary
to the cruel and indecent rites which
marked, among Oriental nations, the
worship of false divinities.
GUARD-CHAMBER, the
apartment occupied by the king's guard.
1 Kgs. 14 : 28.
GUD'GODAH. Deut. 10 : 7. See
Hor-Hagipgad.
GUEST. See Hospitality.
GUEST-CHAMBER. See
Chamber.
GUIL'TY OF BLOOD, Xum.
35 . 27, 31 . GUIL'TY OF DEATH,
Matt. 26 : fifi : Mark 14 : 64. This phrase
in the last two passages means "deserv-
ing of death ;" in the former it means
siniplv *• guilty of blood-shedding."
GU'NI (painted). 1. A son of Naph-
tali. Gen. 46:24; Num. 26:48; 1 Chr.
7 : 13.
2. One of Gad's posterity. 1 Chr. 5: 15,
GUR {vhelp, or nbncJc), an ascent from
the plain of Jezreel. 2 Kgs. 9 : 27. Drake
suggests Keft Knd, near Je.nin, as its
site.
GUR-BA'AL {nhnde of Baal), a
place in the desert, south-east of Judah.
2 Chr. 26 : 7.
347
HAA
HAD
H.
HAAHASH'TARI {the courier),
a Judite. 1 Chr. 4 : 6.
HABA'IAH {whom Jehovah hiden),
a priest, the ancestor of some who re-
turned from exile. Ezr. 2:61; Neh. 7:
63.
HAB'AKKUK, or HABBAK'-
KUK {embrace), one of the twelve mi-
nor prophets, of whose birth we know
neither the time nor the place. He lived
in the reign of Jehoiakim or of Josiah.
PuoPHECv OF, relates chiefly to the in-
vasion of Judsea by the Chaldccans, ch. 1,
and the subsequent punishment of the
Chaldjeans themselves, ch. 2. The pas-
sage 2 : 4, *' the just shall live by his
faith," furnished to Paul the text for
his Epistle to the Romans. Rom. 1:17;
conip. Gal. 3 : 11.
The third chapter is an eloquent and
sublime psalm upon the majesty of God.
Bishop Lowth says, " This anthem is un-
equalled in majesty and splendor of lan-
guage and imagery."
HABAZINI'AH {lifjht of Jehovah),
a Rechabite. Jer. 35 : 3.
HABER'GEON. See Armor.
HA'BOR (perhaps rich in I'cr/eta-
tion), a river of Gozan, 2 Kgs. 17 : 6 ; 1
Chr. 5 : 26 : probably identical with the
modern Khabour, the A bo rr has and Cka-
boran of ancient writers, and a branch
of the Euphrates.
HACHALI'AH {whom Jehovah af-
flictn), the father of Nchemiah. Neh. 1 :
i; 10:1.
HACH'ILAH, HILL OF {the
darksome hill), a place in Judah near
Ziph, and where David with his (500 fol-
lowers hid. 1 Sara. 23:19: comp. 14,
15, 18; 26 : 3. Conder was inclined to
locate it at the ruins now called Yekin:
" The hill Yekin is a bold promontory
standing just at the edge of the plateau.
It looks over the whole desert; the cliffs
of En-gedi, the Dead Sea, and the heights
of Moab are in full view. Just l)cneftth
the crest of the hill is a hollow, with an-
other knoll beyond. It is the head of a
great valley, which soon becomes precip-
itous, running down into the desert. In
this hollow are a spring and a cave. This
348
I imagine is what is meant by the
' trench.' 1 Sam, 26 : 5. David is said
to have crossed over to the other side,
and we may imagine him standing on
one or other of the hill-tops and looking
down on the king and his sleeping party
in the hollow."
HACH'MONI, SON OF. The
Hachmonites Jehiel and Jashobeam are
so spoken of 1 Chr. 27 : 32 ; 11 : 1 1.
Hachraon was their ancestor.
HA'DAD {nharpiiess), one of the song
of Ishmael, 1 Chr. 1 : 30 ; he is called
Hadar in Gen. 25 : 15.
HA'DAD (a different name in He-
brew, meaning brave). 1 . King of Edom,
who won a great victory over the Mid-
ianites on the field of Moab. His cap-
ital was AviTH, which see. Gen. 36 : 35;
1 Chr. 1 : 46.
2. Another king of Edom, with Pan
for his capital, 1 Chr. 1:50; called Ha-
dar in Gen. 36 : 39.
3. A member of the royal house of
Edom. In the general massacre of the
males of Edom by Joab, 1 Kgs. 11 : 15,
he escaped, and fled into Egypt. Pha-
raoh received him with peculiar marks
of favor, giving him his daughter in
marriage. Subsequently, Iladad re-
turned to Edom, and won for himself
the reputation of an " adversary " of
Solomon by the border-warfare ho car-
ried on against Israel. 1 Kgs. 11 :
14, 25.
HADADE'ZER, or HAD ARF/-
ZER {Hadod's help), a king of Zobah.
He was twice defeated by King David's
armies. 2 Sam. 8:3; 10:16. On the
first occasion 20,000 of the enemy were
slain and 1000 chariots were taken.
Amongst the spoil were shields of gold,
1 Chr. 18: 7, which David took to Jeru-
salem.
Some years afterward, Hadadczcr and
three other Syrian princes formed an
alliance to assist the Ammonites against
David ; but the whole Syrian army was
defeated on the east bank of the Jordan
by the Israelites under the command of
Joab, Between 40,000^ and 50,000 of
the enemy were killed,*includiag their
HAD
HAL^
principal general, and they thenceforth [
became tributary to David. 1 Chr. 19 : '
16-19.
HA'DAD - RIMMION, a place
probably named from two Syrian idols,
Hadad, the sun-god, and Rimmon. It
was in the valley of Megiddo, Zech. 12 :
11, and the scene of a great lamentation
over the death of Josiah. 2 Kgs. 23 : 29 ;
2 Chr. 35 : 20-25. It is identified by
Van de Velde with Hitmnidneh, 4 miles
south of Lejun. Conder favors this.
HA'DAR (room). 1. Gen. 25:15.
See Hadad.
2. Gen. 36 : 39. See Hadad, 2.
HADARE'ZER. See Hadadezeh.
HAD'ASHAH, or HADA'-
SHAH (tieic), a town in the plain of
Judah, Josh. 15 : 37 ; jirobably the Adasa
of the Maccabaean history, and corre-
sponding well in name and position to
modern Ahflas.
HADAS'SAH (myrtle). See Es-
ther.
H AD AT'T AH (hcr), a town named
as in the extreme south of Judah. Josh.
15 : 25. Fuerst proposes to read Hazor-
hadattah {New Hnzor), as distinct from
the Hazor in v. 23; Wilton would iden-
tify it with an imposing ruin called
Kaur el-Adrtdah.
HA'DES {the nnseen world, the ftpin't-
roorld) occurs eleven times in the Greek
Testament (Matt. 11 : 23; 16: IS; Acts
2:31; Rev. 1 : 18, etc.), and ought to
have been retained in the English Ver-
sion (as it probably will be in tl-e Re-
vision) to distinguish it from Gehenna
("hell"). The word is used in Homer
as a proper noun for Pluto, the god of
the unseen or lower world, next brother
to Z^us (Jupiter). In later writers it
signifies a place, viz., the unseen spirit-
world, the realm of the departed, the
abode of the dead.
1. The Greek view of Hades and the
Roman view of Orcns is that of a place
for all the dead in the depths of the earth
— dark, dreary, cheerless and shut up,
inaccessible to prayers and sacrifices,
ruled over by Pluto.
2. The Hebrew Sheul is the equivalent
for the Greek Hades, a.nd is so translated
in the Septuagint. It is likewise the
subterranean abode of all the dead, but
only their temporary abode till the ad-
vent of the Messiah^ or the final judg-
ment, and is divided into two depart-
ments, called jiarttdise or Abraham's
bosom for the good, and Gehenna or hell
for the bad.
3. The N. T. Hades does not differ
essentially from the Hebrew Sheol, but
Christ has broken the power of death,
dispelled the darkness of Hades, and
revealed to believers the idea of heaven
as the state and abode of bliss in im-
mediate prospect after a holy life.
The English Version translates Hades
and Gehenna by the same word (" hell"),
except in 1 Cor. 15: 55 ("grave"), and
thus obliterates the important distinction
between the realm of the dead or spirit-
world and the place of torment. Hades
is a temporary jail or prison-house;
heaven and hell are peni.anent and
final. Christ's descent into Hades cre-
ated there, no doubt, a revolution, so
that it cither does not exist any longer
or else it is very different from what it
was previous to that event. At all
events, believers need not fear it.
HA'DID (sharp), a place near Lod
or Lydda. Ezr. 2:33; Keh. 7 : 37 ; 11:
34. Its site is probably that of the mod-
ern village el-Hadttheh, 3 miles east of
Lydda. See Adida.
HAD'LiAI (restinrj), an Ephraimite.
father of the chief of a tribe in the reign
of Pekah. 2 Chr. 28:12.
HADO'RAM (fire-worshippers ?).
1. The fifth son of Joktan. Gen. 10: 27;
1 Chr. 1:21. The tribe which sprang
from him were probably the Adramitae,
who lived on the south coast of Arabia.
2. The son of Tou or Toi, king of
Hamath, 1 Chr. 18 : 10; called Joram in
2 Sam. 8:10.
3. The tax-collector stoned after Jer-
oboam's rebellion, 2 Chr. 10 : 18 ; called
Adoniram, 1 Kgs. 4: 0, and Adoram, 2
Sam. 20 : 24.
HA'DRACH, LAND OF (per-
haps enclosure), a country of Syria, Zech.
9:1,2, and conjectured to be the region
about Damascus, including, perha])S, all
of Coelo-Syria : or it may refer to the
region around Hamath.
HA'GAB (locust), one whose de-
scen lants returned from Babylon under
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 40.
HAG'ABA (locnst), one whose sons
were among the Xethinim who returned
with Zerubbabel. Neh. 7:48; called
Hagabah in Ezr. 2 : 45.
HA'GAR ( fiiyhl), an Egvptian wo-
'349
>^HAG
HAI
man who lived in the family of Abra-
ham as bond-woman. At Sarah's own
suggestion, she became the concubine
of Abraham. When she conceived, her
mistress was " despised in her eyes."
Gen. 16 : 4. In consequence of it, Ha-
gar was harshly treated and fled away
from the house of Abraham. She made
her way toward Egypt, her native coun-
try, through the wilderness of Shur, and
while resting herself near a fountain by
the wayside she was visited by an angel,
who promised her an innumerable seed
and a son whose name was to be Ish-
mael. The angel at the same time di-
rected her to return home and submit
herself to her mistress. The place of
this manifestation was afterward known
as Beer-lahai-roi, " well of the living and
seeing [God]." Gen. 16 : 14.
We lose sight of Hagar entirely from
this time on till the festival of Isaac's
weaning. On that occasion Sarah saw
Ishmael mocking or making sport of
her child. She immediately demanded
the banishment of Ishmael and his
mother from their home. Abraham was
pained by the demand ; but being di-
vinely admonished to comply, he rose
up early in the morning, and supplying
Hagar with bread and a bottle of water
sent her and her child away. She found
her way to the wilderness of Beer-sheba ;
but her supply of water was exhausted.
Placing the child under one of the
shrubs that she might not see it die,
she mingled her prayers with its cries.
God heard the prayer, and disclosed to
her a fountain. She at the same time
received again the promise (fulfilled in
the Arabs) that Ishmael would be the
father of a great nation. Gen. 21 : 9-21.
Paul refers to ITagar, Gal. 4:25, as a
ty])e of the Law and its bondage.
HAGARENES', or HA'GAR-
ITES ( lli<jht), a people dwelling east
of the Jordan. 1 Chr. 5 : 10, 19, 20 ; 27 :
31. They seem to be distinguished from
the Ishmaelites, Ps. 83 : 0, but are usu-
ally regarded as having been named after
Hagar, though some identify them with
the Agraei, in the north-east of Arabia.
HAG'GAI {/entire), a j)r()phet whose
prophetic activity fell after the Captiv-
ity, in the second year of Darius Hystas-
pes, or B. c. 520, ch. 1:1. Nothing is
known of his life.
The Prophecy of, which is prosaic
350
in style, concerns the repair of the tem-
ple, 1 : 1-12 ; 2 : 10-20, the glory of the
second temple, 2 : 1-9, and the triumph
of Zerubbabel over his enemies. 2 : 20-
23. The prophet severely rebukes the
people for their neglect to build the
house of the Lord, and for their sel-
fishness in living in the luxury of ceil-
ed (or panelled) houses, while the tem-
ple was neglected. 1 : 4. The people
obeyed the prophet, and received the
promise of God's presence. 1: 13. The
second chapter contains a Messianic
reference, and alludes to Christ as the
'* Desire of all nations," v. 7, or, as
others render the passage, "the desira-
ble things of all nations." The He-
brew reads, " They shall come, the de-
sire of all nations, and I will fill this
house with glory, saith the Lord of
hosts."
HAG'GERI (tvanderer), one of
David's mighty men. 1 Chr. 11 : 38.
HAG'GI {featlve), the second son
of Gad, Gen. 46 : 16: Num. 26 : 15;
founder of the Haggites.
HAGGI''AII {festival of Jehovah),
a Merarite Levite, 1 Chr. 6 : 30.
HAG'GITH (a dancer), one of
David's wives, and the mother of Ado-
nijah. 2 Sam. 3:4; 1 Kgs. 1 : 5, etc.
HAI {heap of rninft). See Ai.
HAIli. When a very cold current
of air encounters a hot and humid one,
the vapor of the latter is suddenly con-
densed into drops, and sometimes these
are frozen into irregular spheroids of
porous ice, which fall to the earth as
hail. This phenomenon is more fre-
quent in temperate than in tropical re-
gions, and usually occurs in summer
and at the hottest hour of the day.
Hail rarely falls except during thunder-
storms ; and hence the Bible commonly
mentions it in connection with fire (light-
ning), as in Ps. 148 : 8. As rain was al-
ways rare in Egypt, the fall of hail men-
tioned as the seventh plague, Ex. 9,
must have been singularly frightful, as
it was greatly destructive to man, beast,
and herb, (iod used a storm of hail-
stones to utterly rout and destroy the
Amorites who fought with Joshua at
Gibeon, Josh. 10.
In modern times stones of ice have
been known to fall of half a pound in
weight, and even eighteen ounces ; and
were it not that hail storms are exceed-
HAI
HAI
ingly local and rarely continue more
than five or ten minutes, incalculable
destruction would result. The largest
hail falls in hot countries, where hail is
less frequent.
Inspiration often uses this agencj' fig-
uratively to picture the awful judgments
of God. In Rev. 16 : 21 hail-stones are
mentioned of a talent in weight, or, if
the language were literal, of 55, and
perhaps 118, pounds, according as the
Attic or Jewish talent be intended; in
all probability the former.
HAIR. The ditference between the
Hebrews and their neighbors, the Egyp-
tians, in the matter of wearing their hair
is earl}', though incidentally, alluded to
in the Bible. Thus Joseph, on being
summoned into the presence of Pha-
raoh, "shaved himself," while in most
other countries it would have been suffi-
cient to comb his hair and trim his
beard. But the Egy])tiiin men — out of
notions of cleanliness perhaps — shaved
their heads ; the priests shaved their
whole bodies every third day. The
women, however, wore their natural
hair long and plaited. In place of the
Egyptian mode of weariiii; the Imir.
painting. British Museum.)
(Fiom a
natural hair, wigs were worn by the men ;
and these were so constructed as to affonl
more protection against the sun than the
more modern turbans.
The Assyrians, and the Asiatics gen-
erally, the neighbors of the Hebrews on
the east, had opposite customs in regard
to the hair of men. On the Assyrian
sculptures the hair appears long and
combed closely down upon the head ;
the beard is also full lengfh. False hair
seems to have been plaited in to make
the greater show. Much care was given
to the hair.
The Greeks were great admirers of
long hair in both men and women. Their
manner of wearing it varied. The Ro-
man men at the time of Christ wore
their hair short. Shaving was also cus-
tomary, and a long beard was regarded
as slovenly.
The Hebrews were accustomed to cut
the hair very much as we do, and must
have used a kind of scissors, 2 Sam. 14:
26. But in the case of a vow or relig-
ious obligation they let it grow, as in the
case of the Nazarites. Num. 6:5; Jud.
13 : 5. See Nazarites. The precept to
the priests, Eze. 44 : 20, requires an
avoidance of extremes; so that the
" Israelites " should neither resemble the
priests of the heathen gods, who shaved
their hair close, nor yet the Nazarites,
who did not cut the hair at all. It
was prohibited, Lev. 19 : 27, to round
the corners of the head — that is (as it is
generally understood), to shave off the
hair about the temples. The hair (espe-
cially black or dark hair) was consider-
ed an ornament, and it was anointed
with aromatic oil, particularly on festi-
vals and other joyous occasions. Ruth
3:3; 2 Sam. 14:2: Ps. 23 : 5 ; 92:10;
Eccl. 9:8; Luke 7 : 46. Combs and
hair-pins are mentioned in the Talmud
as in use among the Jews.
The hair is spoken of by the apostle
as a natural veil or covering to women,
which it is a shame to put off, 1 Cor.
11 : 15. It was plaited or braided, as is
the cusfom at this day among the Asiat-
ic women. The excessive care bestowed
upon the head-dress led to the apostolic
rebuke. 1 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 3 : 3. See
Head-drrss.
The practice of shaving the head in
token of great affliction and humiliation
for sin was common among the Hebrews
even as early as Job's day, Job 1 : 20.
So that the exhortation to cut off the
hair is equivalent to an exhortation to
begin a course of deep mourning and sor-
row, Jer. 7 : 29. A change in the color of
the hair was one of the earliest indica-
tions of the leprosy, and hence, after re-
covery, the removal of the hair as the seat
of disease was particularly enjoined. Lev.
13 : 4, in, 31, 32 ; 14 : 8, 9. See Leprosy.
Baldness disqualified for the priesthood ;
351
HAK
HAM
artificial baldness was forbidden, Lev.
21 : 5. See Baldness.
Hair was employed by the Hebrews as
an image of what was least valuable in
man's person, 1 Sam. 14 : 45 ; 2 Sam. 14 :
1 1 ; Matt. 10 : 30 ; Luke 12 : 7 ; Acts 27 :
34, as well as of what was innumerable
Ps. 40 : 12 ; 69 : 4, or particularly fine.
Jud. 20: IT).
HAK'K ATAN dhe small, or ijoniifj),
the father or chief of the sons of Azgad,
Ezr. 8:12.
HAK'KOZ (the thorn), the head of
the seventh course of priests. 1 Chr.
24:10.
HAKU'PHA (bent), one mention-
ed Ezr. 2:51; Neh. 7:53.
HA'LAH, a place in Assyria to
which the ten tribes were carried cap-
tive. 2 Kgs. 17 : 6 ; 18 : 11 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 26.
It is now identified, with great probabil-
ity, as the Chalcitis of Ptolemy, and in
the north-west of Gauzanitis. Layard
found a remarkable mound near the
Khabour called Gla or Kalah, "castle,"
which covers the site of an ancient for-
tress or town. The Septuagint and Vul-
gate versions appear to regard Halah as
a river, and it may have been the name
of a river and of a town. The river was
perhaps the Nahr al Huali, which is a
branch of the Khnhonr.
HA'LAK, THE MOUNT [the
smooth or the bald mountain), the name
of a mountain marking the southern
limit of Joshua's conquests. Josh. 11 :
17; 12:7. It has been variously iden-
tified with the range of hills parallel
with Beer-sheba, with the modern Jcbel
el-Mukreh, 60 miles south of the Dead
Sea, and with the range of white hills
8 miles south of the Dead Sea, and which
divides the (Jhor, to the north, from the
Arabah, to the south.
HALE means to haul, to drag by
force, before magistrates. Luke 12 : 58 ;
Acts 8:3.
HAL'HUL (tremblinfj), a town in
the mountains of .Judah, Josh. 15 : 58.
Its ruins, having the same name, Halhul.
are found on the eastern slope of a hill
4 miles north of Hebron, where is also
an old mosf|ue dedicated to Nebi/ Yiinns,
the prophet .lonah.
HA'LI (in-ihliicp), a town on the
boundary of Asher, Josh. 19 : 25.
HALL, in Luke 22 : 55, was the
court of the high priest's palace.
352
HALLELU'JAH. See Alleluia.
HALLO'HESH [the enchanter),
one who sealed the covenant, Neh. 10 :
24.
HAL'LOW means to make holy, to
consecrate.
HALO'HESH {the enchanter), one
who helped repair the wall, Neh. 3: 12.
HAM {hot, or multitude), the son of
Noah. He is known for his irreverence
to his father. Gen. 9 : 22, and as the pa-
rent of Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Ca-
naan, Gen. 10 : 6, who became the
founders of large nations. Cush seems
to have been the father of the peoples
dwelling in Babylonia, southern Arabia,
and Ethiopia; Nimrod was his son. Gen.
10 : 8. Mizraim, the Hebrew word for
Egypt, was the ancestor of the Egyp-
tians. Phut was also the ancestor of
an African people, as appears from the
association of his name with the de-
scendants of Cush and the Lydians,
Jer. 46 : 9 ; see margin. Canaan was
the ancestor of the Phoenicians and
other tribes inhabiting Palestine.
Egypt is called '* the land of Ham,"
Ps. 78 : 51 ; 105 : 23-27 ; 106 : 22.
HA'MAN {celebrated), prime min-
ister of Ahasuerus, the Persian mon-
arch. Esth. 3:1. His pride being hurt
because Mordecai, the Jew, refused to
bow and do him reverence, Esth. 3 :
2, he secured a royal decree for the
extermination of all Jews in the Per-
sian dominions. He was, however,
thwarted through the influence of Es-
ther, and executed on the very gallows
he had ])repared for Mordecai. Esth. 7 :
10. The Jews, on the mention of his
name on the day of Purim, hiss. Like
Sejanus in Roman history, his name will
always suggest the contrast of power
and disarrace.
HA'MATH {fortress, citadel), one
of the most important cities of Syria,
and one of the oldest in the world. It
was founded by a son of Canaan, Grn.
10 : 18 ; Num. 34 : 8. and was situated
in the valley of the Orontos, between its
source and the site of the city of An-
tioch. It thus commanded the route to
the Euphrates from Phoenicia, and may
be called the '' key " of northern Pales-
tine. It was 165 miles in a straight
line north of .Jerusalem, and was the
capital of a kingdom or province of
which little is known. It was visited
HAM
HAM
by the spies, Num. 13 : 21, and it is fre-
quently noticed as the northern boun-
dary of Palestine. Num. 34 : 8 ; Josh.
13 : 5. Its king, Toi, blessed David for
his victory over Zobah, 2 Sam. 8 : 9-12 ;
Solomon extended his kingdom to Ha-
math, 1 Kgs. 8 ; 65 ; 2 Chr, 8 : 4, and
built store-cities in that region : after-
ward the city and country became inde-
pendent, but were again subdued by !
Jeroboam II., 2 Kgs. 14 : 2b, 28. It was ,
taken by the Assyrians, 2 Kgs. 18:34; j
Isa. 10 : 9 ; Amos calls it " Ilamath the '
great," and speaks of its desolation. |
Am. 6:2. 1
Later flistorif. — The name of Hamath
was changed by Antiochus Epiphanes
to Epiphania. though the old name
does not appear to have been lost, since
it was known as Hamath in the time of
Jerome. The place was taken by the
Moslems, a. D. 639 ; bv the Franks, A. n.
1108 ; by the Turks, a. D. 1115 ; was de-
stroyed by an earthquake in which
15,000 persons perished, a. d. 1157; and
taken by Saladin, a. d. 1178. Its mod-
ern name is Haniah, and it is now a
place of 30,000 inhabitants. Porter re-
gards it as a town where life has been at
a standstill for 30 centuries. It, how-
Inscription discovered at Hamath
ever, has large bazaars, baths, mosques,
and hydraulic works, and carries on an
active trade with Ale{)po and other
towns of Asia and Africa. The Persian
water-wheels, which croak and groan a*
they raise the water for the supply of
the city, are great curiosities. The Ha-
math inscriptions, which have in late
years excited the attention of scholars,
were first seen by Burckhardt. but at-
tracted little notice until 1870. The
stones are four in number, and are in-
scribed in hieroglyphics of a very an-
cient character : they have not yet been
satisfactorilv deciphered.
HAMATH - ZOBAH ( fortress
23
{From a report of the Am. Pales'tine Exploration Society.)
of Zobah), a city which Solomon con-
quered, 2 Chr. 8 : 3, which cannot have
been Hamath, ''the great," but must
have been another Hamath, not yet
identified.
HAM'M ATH (icnrm springs), a for-
tified city in Xaphtali, Josh. 19 : 35, and
probably identical with Hammam, or
'•Warm Springs," about 1 mile south
of Tiberias. It is still noted for its hot,
sulphurous waters, which are too nause-
ous to drink, but are used for bathing
and are regarded as possessing great
medicinal qualities. The walls of an
old town can be traced south of the
baths. Hammath is probably the same
353
HAM
HAN
as Hammon, No. 2, and as Hamiiioth-
dor.
MAMMEW ATH A {double ?), Ha-
man's father, Estb. 3:1.
HAiWMELECH {the khi,,), the
father of Jerahmeel and Malchiah. Jer.
38 : 2() : 38 : 6.
HAM'MER, the English translation
of four different Hebrew words. The ham-
mers mentioned b}' Isaiah, 44: 12 " seem
to have been the heaviest instruments of
the kind for hard blows." Jael's ham-
mer, Jud. 4 : 21, was properly a vutllet,
such as the Bedouin use at the present
day to drive the wooden tent-pins into
the ground. The " battle-axo," Jer. 51 :
2U, and the "maul," Prov. 25 : 18, were
species of hammers used for warlike
purposes. The tool probably resembled
that of the present day. The word
" hammer" is also used symbolically for
mighty force. Jer. 23 : 29 : 50 : 23.
HAMMOL'EKETH (the queeu),
the sister of Gilead, 1 Chr. 7 : 17, 18.
HAM'MON {wn-m. spri„!,.'f). 1. A
place in Asher, near Zidon, Josh. 19 : 28.
It is proposed to identify it with Hamul,
10 miles below Tyre.
2. A Levitical city in Naphtali, 1 Chr.
6 : 76. It is probably the same as Ham-
math and Hainmoth-dor.
HAM'MOTH-DOR (warm »pr!miH,
dioelUufj), a Levitical city and a city of
refuge in Naphtali, Josh. 21 : ;*>2. See
Hammath and Hammon, No. 2.
HAM'ONAH, OR HAMO'NAH
{niultitufle), a city apparently near where
the multitudes of Gog should be buiied,
Eze. 39: 16.
HA'MON-CiJOG {multitude <>fG»ii),
a name given to a ravine or valley in
which multitudes of the slain of Gog
were to be buried, Eze. 39 : 11, 15. The
Targums regard it as near the Sea of
Galilee, and probably on the great road
from Syria and the East to Egypt.
HA'MOR (a««), the father of She-
chem, who ravished Dinah, Gen. 33 : 19.
He was killed by Jacob's sons, (lon. 34 :
26. He is called Eininor in A(;ts 7 : 16.
HAMIJ'EL {lorath of G-'of/), a Sime-
onite, I Chr. 4:26.
HA'MUL {pitied), the younger son
of Pharcz, and ancestor of the Hamul-
ites. Gen. 46:12; 1 Chr. 2:5; Num.
28:21.
HAI»IU'TAL {«hi„ to the dew),
daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah, a wife
354
to King Josiah, and mother of Jehoahaz
and Zedekiah. 2 Kgs. 23 : 31 ; 24 : 18 ;
Jer. 53: 1.
HANAiU'EEL {whom God kaa
tjii-eu), son of Shsillum, and Jeremiah's
cousin, Jer. 32 : 6-12.
HA'NAN (merciful). 1. A prominent
Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8:23.
2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 38 ;
9 : 44.
3. One of David's guard, 1 Ciir. 11 : 43.
4. One of the ancestors of the Nethinim
who returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 :
46; Neh. 7:49.
5. A Levite who assisted Ezra in ex-
plaining the Law, Neh. 8 : 7, and sealed
the covenant, 10 : 10.
6. A chief who sealed the covenant,
Neh. 10 : 22.
7. Another sealer, Neh. 10:26.
8. The tithe-keeper appointed by Xe-
hemiah to represent the laity, Neh. 13 :
13. The four storekeepers represented
the four classes of the people — priests,
scribes, Levites, and the laity.
9. One whose sons had a chamber in
the temple, Jer. 35 : 4.
HANAN'EEIi {gniciously (jiveu of
God), a tower which formed a part of
the wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3:1; 12 :
30: Jer. 31:38; Zeeh. 14:10. It ap-
pears to have been between the fish-
gate and the sheep-gate, but can scarcely
be iJentified with the tower of Meah, as
some have proposed. *Dr. Barclay sug-
gested that in the projection at the north-
east corner of the harem enclosure are
to be found the remains of the tower of
Hananeel.
HANA'NI {f/racious). 1. A son of
Heman, appointed by David to share
with his eleven kinsmen the charge of
the eighteenth division of the Levitical
musicians, 1 Chr. 25:4, 25.
2. A seer who rebuked King Asa for
neglect to trust in (iod. He was im-
j>risoned for his boldness, 2 Chr. 16 : 7-
10. He was probably the father of Jehu
the prophet. 1 Kgs. 16 : 1 . 2 ; 2 Chr. 19 : 2.
3. A brotherofNehemiah, who brought
him the melancholy report of the condi-
tion of Jerusalem which induced Nehe-
miah to make his journey thither, Neh.
1:2. Hanani was afterward appointed
by Neheiiiiah to have charge of the city
gates, D. ('. 446, Neh. 7 : 2.
4. A priest who had a foreign wife,
Ezr. 10 : 20.
HAN
HAN
HANANI'AH {whom God hath
given). 1, A false prophet and contem-
porary with Jeremiah. He prophesied
that the vessels of the Lord's house
would be brought back from Babylon
two years after the date of the prophecy,
Jer. 28 : 3. In token of deliverance
from the bondage of Babylon, he broke
the wooden yoke which Jeremiah wore
in accordance with the divine command.
Jeremiah was deceived by his preten-
sions, but subsequently called him a de-
ceiver to his face, and prophesied his
early death. He died that year, Jer.
28: 17. Hananiah's case is an instance
of the false prophets with whom the
true prophets carae into conflict.
2. A Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 8:24.
3. One of the sons of Heman, 1 Chr.
25 : 4, 23.
4. One of Uzziah's captains, 2 Chr.
26:11.
5. One who had a foreign wife, Ezr.
10:28.
6. 7. Two repairers of the wall of Je-
rusalem, Neh. 3 : 8, 30.
8. The " ruler of the palace," whom
Xehemiah appointed to share with his
brother the charge of the gates of Jeru-
salem, Xeh. 7 : 2.
9. One who signed the covenant, Xeh.
10:23.
10. 11. Two priests, Xeh. 12 : 12. 41.
12. A son of Zerubabbel, 1 Chr. 3 :
19, 21.
13. The father of one of Jehoiakim's
princes, Jer. 36 : 12.
14. Grandfather of the captain who
arrested Jeremiah. .Jer. 37 : 13.
15. Original Hebrew name of Shad-
rach, Dan. 1 : 6, 7.
HAND is a symbol of human action ;
'•' pure' hands '' are pure actions ; '' un-
just hands" are deeds of injustice:
" hands full of blood," actions stained
with cruelty; and the like. Ps. 24:4;
Eze. 23 : 37. It is likewise a term for
the vengeance of God exercised upon
any one, 1 Sam. 5 : 6, 7. '' To pour
water on any one's hands " was to serve
him. So Elisha is said to have done for
Elijah, 2 Kgs. 3:11. "To wash one's
hands" in public was a way of express-
ing innocency, Deut. 21 : 6, 7 ; Matt. 27 :
24; 'Ho kiss one's hand" is an act of
adoration. Job 31 : 27 ; " to lift up one's
hands " is to take an -oath. Gen. 14 : 22.
Also it is a posture in blessing. Lev. 9 :
22 ; also, to rebel, 2 Sam. 20 : 21. " To
stretch out the hand " is souietimes a ges-
ture that denotes mercy, Isa. 65 :2 ; "to
put it forth unto anything" is to steal,
Ex. 22 : 8, 11. '-To smite the hands
together over the head " was a gesture
of despairing grief. 2 Sam. 13 : 19 ; Jer.
2:37. Hand in general is the symbol
of power and strength — the right hand
particularly so. " To be on one's right
hand" is to be in one's favor. The He-
brews, in reckoning the four quarters,
faced the east ; consequently to ''the right
hand" signified to the south, the south-
ern quarter; " to the left hand" signi-
fied to the north, the northern quarter.
Job 23 : 9 ; 1 Sam. 23 : 19, see margin ;
2 Sam. 24 : o. These are a few out of
the many uses of the word hand. One
more use will be given : " To lay the
hands upon any one," or the imposition
of hands, was at an early period " a
part of the ceremonial observed on the
appointment and consecration of per-
sons to high and holy undertakings."
In Xum. 27 : 18 we read that ]Moses was
commanded to lay his hand upon
Joshua. This act did not confer any
new grace upon Joshua, but merely
gave formjil and public confirmation of
Jehovah's choice, and confirmed and
strengthened the spiritual gifts already
bestowed. Comp. Deut. 34 : 9. The
phrase is not used in the X. T. in ex-
actly the same sense. Acts 8 : 15-17 ;
1 Tim. 4 : 14 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 6. The apostles
confirmed the grace the convert had re-
ceived, as in the case of Cornelius, Acts
10 : 44-48, and in other cases conferred
spiritual gifts and qualifications.
HAND-BREADTH, the palm ;
used as a measure of four fingers, equal
to about 4 inches. Ex. 26 : 25 ; 1 Kgs. 7 :
26. In Ps. 39 : 5 the expression •* Thou
hast made my days as an haud-bieadth "
means "very short."
HANDICRAFT. The following
is in the main a condensation of the ar-
ticle in Ayre's Treasury of Bible Kttoic-
ledije :
The primitive condition of man being
that of agriculturists, his wants were
few and easily supplied. Yet even he
would want some tools, and as the race
became older and extended itself its ne-
cessities would stimulate it to greater
inventiveness. Hence we find that the
Cainites, who were more progressive
355
HAN
HAN
than the Sethites, early possessed iron
articles. Gen. 4:22. See Tlibal-c.vin.
From this incidental biblical notice we
are able to form an idea of that early
mode of life. Our notices are, however,
extremely scanty. Still, by putting
them together, we get this enumeration
of tradesuien among the Hebrews and
the other peoples mentioned in the
Bible.
1. Apothecaries, or, rather, perfumers.
Ex. 30 : 25, 35 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 14 ; Neh. 3 :
8: Eccl. 10:1.
2. Bakers. See Bake, Brkad, Ove.v.
3. Barbers. Eze. 5:1: Num. 6 : 5, 19.
4. Carpenters. The building of Noah's
ark implies considerable knowledge of
this trade. The various structures or-
dered by the Lord for his service, such
as tlie tabernacle and its contents, Ex.
25: 10, etc., and the houses of the ])eo-
ple, prove that this useful trade was
early practised and afterward main-
tained among the Hebrews. But when
particularly fine work had to be done,
foreign artists were employed. 2 Sam.
5:11: 1 Kgs. 5 : fi. Yet it is doubtless
true that many of the Hebrew carpen-
ters were good and skilful workmen.
Isa. 44:13-17; Ezr. 3:7. Among
the carpenters' tools are mentioned in
the Bible the rule, the measuring-line,
the plane, the compass, the hammer,
nails, the saw, the axe, Isa. 10: 15, the
awl, Ex. 21 : 0. Our Lord's reputed
father, Joseph, and our Lord himself
were carpenters. Sre Carpenter.
5. Carvers in wood and stone. Beza-
leel and Aholi;ib, who were proficient
therein, are inrlividually mentioned in
Exodus as leading in the building of the
tabern-K'le in the wilderness, Ex. 31: 5.
So a man sent by Huram is credited with
the superintendence of the carved work
of the temple, 2 Chr. 2: 13, etc.
6. Dyers were also known. This fact
is easily inferred from the prevalent use
of colored fabrics on the part of the
early Hebrews.
7. Engravers, both upon stone and
metal, Ex. 28:9-11. See Engrave.
8. Fullers were probably numerous,
in consequence of the prevalence of
white in ilress. See Fum.er.
9. Masons. Cities antedate the Flood.
(»en.4:17. The Israelites built cities
f'tr their Egyptian master niaincses),
Ex. 1:11. It is reasonable to conjec-
366
ture that the Phoenician masons men-
tioned as building Solomon's temple
were the master-masons, but that He-
brew workmen were also emploved, 1
Kgs. 5:17, 18. The skill of these ma-
sons is shown in so exactly fitting the
stones of the temple that the building
rose without the sound of a hammer,
1 Kgs. 6 : 7. Plastering was customary
within and without, mortar being used.
Lev. 14 : 40-42 ; Matt. 23 : 27. The un-
tempered mortar was perhaps mere mud,
Eze. 13: 10-15.
10. Mining must have been early
practised, Job 28: 1-6. See Metals.
11. Potters are frequently spoken of j
e. g. Jer. 18 : 2-6. See Potter.
12. Ship-builders. This trade was
perha])S only carried on for a short peri-
od. The Tyrians were the prominent
ship-builders, and were the teachers of
other nations. 1 Kgs. 10:22; 22:48,
491 See Commerce.
13. Smiths or workers in metal were
of various kinds, from the diggers or
smelters of ore to the skilled artificers
in gold and silver. They existed before
the Flood, Gen. 4:22. Much work of
this sort was done in the wilderness.
Ex. 26:11-13; 26:6,21. Bronze was
the metal most employed — iron much
less so. The jewelry worn so commonly,
the vessels of the tabernacle, the gold
and silver utensils, the ornamentation
so profusely used, — all show that the
smiths of the various sorts were much
employed by the Hebrews.
14. Tanners and dressers of leather
were found in all parts of the land. It
was at a tanner's house that Peter lodged
when in Jopjta, Acts 9 : 43.
15. Tent-makers. This trade seems
to have been a lucrative one. Paul fol-
lowed it, and supported himself by it,
Acts 18 : 3.
16. Weavers, pavtieularly women, are
mentioned frcquentlv. 2 Kgs. 23 : 7 ; 1
Chr. 4:21 ; Prov. 31: 13. 19.
A trade was indispensable to a Jewish
citizen after the Captivity, but all trades
were not held in equal honor. It is
probable that as in the East at the
present day, so formerly, each trade had
its own special locality. Be it ever re-
membered to the honor of the .Jews that
they, almost alone among ancient na-
tions, regarded a trade as a fit occupa-
tion of a freeman, that therefore their
HAN
HAR
highest citizens could earn their bread
if necessary, and that slaves were njt
depended upon, as in Greece, for the
doing of all manual work. Trades
among the Jews were also not neces-
sarily hereditary. It was a saying of
the Rabbins: "He who does not teach
his son a trade makes out of him a foot-
pad."
HAND'KERC HIEF, NAPKIN,
A'PRON. These articles were pretty
much alike, differing mainly in use. See
Cloth i:s.
HANDS, LAYING ON OF. See
Hand.
HAND'STAVES, darts or jave-
lin.s Eze. 39 : 9.
HA'NES, a city of Egypt, Isa. 30 :
4, and generally identified with Hct<(cle-
opolls, '• Hercules' city," in middle Egypt,
on the west of the Nile : but the C'hal-
dee paraphrast reads Tahjianhes, thus
identifying it with that city.
HAJVG'ING. According to .Jewish
law, the criminal was first strangled and
then hanged. Num. 25 : 4 ; Deut. 21 :
22. The body was to be taken down
befoi-e sunset. It was a special mark of
infamy and a curse, Deut. 21 : 23. Jesus
is said to have been " hanged on a tree ;"
literally, "on a beam of wood." Acts 5:
30 ; Gal. 3 : 13. But the expression re-
fers to his crucifixion.
HANGING, HANGINGS. The
words are not the singular and plural
of the same word in the Hebrew, but
are translations of quite different words.
1. The " hanging " — literally, " a cov-
er"— is the word for the curtain before
the door of the tabernacle, Ex. 26 : 36,
37; 39:38, and for the curtain before
the entrance of the court. Ex. 27 : 16 ;
38:18"; Num. 4:26. The same Hebrew
word is several times translated cor-
rectly in the expression, *' veil of the
rnrerinr/." Ex. 35: 12 ; 39 : 34 ; 40 : 21 ;
Num. 4: 5.
2. The " hangings "—literally, "that
which is in motion " — were the cover-
ings upon the walls of the court of the
tabernacle. Ex. 27 : 9 ; 35 : 17 ; 38 : 9 ;
Num. 3:26: 4:6, 26.
3. The word '* hangings " is used in 2
Kgs. 23 : 7, but tlie Hebrew word may
more properly be translated " tents,"
such as were used in the impure rites of
Ashtoreth.
HAN'IEL (rjrncc of God), a son of
UUa, and a prince of Asher, 1 Chr. 7 •
.39.
HAN'NAH {grace), one of the wives
of Elkanah, and the mother of Samuel,
whom she received in answer to prayer.
Her song of praise on this occasion, 1
Sam. 2: 1-10, is a magnificent hymn to
the holiness and justice of Jehovah, and
has been compared with the song of
Marv. Luke 1 : 46-55.
HAN'NATHON {i/rnciovshj re-
garded), a place on the north-eastern
border of Zebulon, Josh. 19 : 14. Con-
der proposes to identify it with Kefr
Anati, the Caphar Hananiah of the
Talmud.
HA'NOCH (imtiated). 1. A son
of Midian, Gen. 25:4; called Henoch.
1 Chr. 1 : 33.
2. Eldest son of Reuben : founder of
the family of the Hanochites. Gen. 46:
9: Ex. 6: 14: Num. 28:5.
HANOCHITES, THE, the de-
scendants of Hanoch, Num. 26 : 5.
HA'NUN (.^*rfc('oHs). 1. A king of
Amnion who is known for the indignities
he showed to the messengers sent to
him by David to comfort him at the
death of his father, 2 Sam. 10:1-6.
2. A man of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 13.
3. Another repairer of the wall. Neh.
3 : 30.
HAPHRA'IM (two pits), a city of
Issachar. appas ently near Shunem. Josh.
19 : 19. Eusebius and Jerome place it 6
miles north of Legio. About6miles north-
east of Lejitu and 2 miles west of Solam
(Shunem) is the modern village of el-
Af<deh, which may represent Haphraim.
HA'RA {mountain-land), a place,
evidently in western Assyria, to which
the Israelites east of the Jordan were
carried captive, 1 Chr. 5 : 26. It is gen-
erally regarded as a variation of Haran.
From the connection in which it is
named, it must have been on or near the
Khabour River.
HAR'ADAH {fear), a desert-sta-
tion of the Israelites, Num. 33:24, 25,
and may be identical with Jehel-Aradah,
in Wady el-'Ain, a day's march from
'Ain Huderah.
HA^RAN {a mountaineer). 1. The
brother of Abraham, and the father of
Lot, Gen. 11 : 26.
2. A Levite, 1 Chr. 23 : 9.
HA'RAN {parrhpd), a son of Caleb
by his concubine Ephah, 1 Chr. 2:46.
357
HAR
HAR
HA'RAN ( parched, dry), called also
CHAR'RAN, Acts 7 : 2, 4, the place to
whieh Terah removed from Ur of the
Clialdces, taking with him his two sons,
Ab.-am and Nahor, and his grandson,
Lot. Terah died there. Oen. 11 : 31, 32;
Abram and Lot moved to Canaan. Gen.
12 : 4, while Nahor remained at liaran,
which was called the city of Nahor. Gen.
21:10. It was the early home of Rebekah,
and Jacob afterward resided there with
I<aban, Gen. 27 : 43. The city was in
Mesopotamia, and more definitely in Pa-
dan aram, Gen. 24: 10 ; 25: 20, and also
in western Assyria. It is generally identi-
fied with the modern Haran, the Roman
Carrae, situated on the river Belik (the
ancient Bilichus), about 50 miles above
its entrance into the Euphrates. It is
now a small Arab village, containing
within its ruined walls the traditional
tomb of Terah, the father of Abraham.
About 20 miles distant is Or/ah, which
is probably the Ur of the Chaldees.
There is a H'trran on the border of
Lftke A)iteibeh,Gnst of Damascus, which
Dr. Beke would identify with Ilaran of
Abram, but his view is not accepted by
biblical scholars.
HA'RARITE, THE {the monn-
fameer), the designation of three persons
in c )nnection with David's guard.
1. Agee, 2 Sam. 23: 11.
2. Shammah, 2 Sara. 23 : 33.
3. Sharar, 2 Sam. 23 : 33 ; called Sacar,
1 Chr.ll:35.
HARBO'NA (a8»-dr{ver), a eu-
nuch of Ahasuerus. Esth. 1:10.
HARBO'NAH, the same per-
son as above, Esth. 7 : 9.
HARE, Deut. 14 : 7. Of the
hare, which resembles the rabbit,
five species or varieties are found
in Palestine. This animal was de-
clared unclean by the Jewish law.
Lev. 11 : 6, " because he cheweth the
cud, but divideth not the hoof." For
popuhir guidance this description
was better than a more scientific
one, and is explained under Conkv.
HA'REPH(7)/«rHn7o/),ason
of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2:51. ' ~^
HA'RETH (thicketf). n forest
of .Judah to which David fled froin
Saul, 1 Sam. 22 : 5. Conder sup-
poses that by a transposition of letters
it should read "the city of Ilareth " (?).
as in Josephus and in two important
358
manuscripts, and finds the site of the
place in the small modern village of
Kharas, on the north side of Wadi/ Ar-
nebft, hear Kileh (Keilah).
HARHAI'AH [Jehovah is aufjry),
father of a repairer of the wall, Neh.
3:8.
HAR'HAS {veri/ 2)oor), an ancestor
of Shallum, 2 Kgs. 22: 14; called Has-
rah in 2 Chr. 34:22.
HAR'HUR {inflammation), one
whose descendants returned with Zerub-
babel. Ezr. 2:51 ; Neh. 7:53.
HA'RIM {flat-nosed), a priest who
headed the third course of priests. 1
Chr. 24 : 8. His descendants returned
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2:39: Neh. 7:
42. Some of them had foreign wives,
Ezr. 10 : 21. The name was signed to
the covenant, Neh. 10 : 27. The name
occurs again Neh. 12:15.
2. One whose son repaired part of the
wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3:11.
3. A non-priestly ancestor of others
who returned, and whose strange wives
were discarded. His sons signed the
covenant. Ezr. 2 : 32 ; Neh. 7 : 35 ; Ezr.
10:31; Neh. 10:27.
HA'RIPH {pluckiny off), ancestor
of some who returned with Zerubbabel,
Neh. 7 : 24.
HAR'LOT. The first mention of
harlots is in the case of Tamar, Gen. 38 :
1 5, but we frequently meet with them later
in the books of the Bible. The Mosaic
.^~^
^h^^^^^-^^'-c-S' .*/.>-
Hiue of Mt. Sinni.
Law forbade fathers to hire out their
daughters as harlots, Lev. 19 : 29, and
the severe punishment by burning was
HAR
HAR
ordained for the priest's daughter guilty
of fornication, Lev. 21 : U.
The harlot was regarded as unclean,
and is mentioned in the same breath
with the dog, Deut. 23 : 18. The book
of Proverbs compares the harlot to a
deep ditch and a narrow pit, Prov. 23 :
27, and represents in strong language
the perils attending an association with
feer, Prov. 7: 10-27.
The term is also used of wicked cities;
as Nineveh, Xah. 3 : 4, and Jerusalem,
Isa. 1:21: of Israel, to represent her
alienation from (Jod. The marriage re-
lation is looked upon as subsisting be-
tween it and God. The nation became
a hdtlot when she practised idolatry'.
Jer. 2 : 20 ; 3 : 1 ; Eze. 16 : 15 ; Hos. 2:2;
4:15.
In the X. T. harlots are classed with
publicans, Matt. 21 : 32, and Paul ad-
monishes against the sin of fornication,
especially in his Epistle to the Corinth-
ians. 1 Cor. 5:1:2 Cor. 12 : 21. In the
book of Revelation, (heathen) Rome,
under the mystic name of Babylon, is
called "the mother of harlots/' 17:5.
HAR'NEPHER {jwnthg ?), an
Asherite chieftain, 1 Chr. 7:36.
HAR'NESS, 1 Kgs. 20:11. In
this passage and some others the word
denotes armor. The phrase **made
ready his chariot," Ex. 14:6, literally
means, in modern phraseology, " tack-
led," or " put to, his horses." That
bridles with bits were very early known
as part of the harness of a horse is ob-
vious from Isa. 37 : 29 : Prov. 26 : 3 ; Ps.
32 : 9. The ancient harness was often
verv elaborate, as the monuments testify.
HA'ROD (trcmb/ {},;/), a well or
spring by which Gideon and his army
encamped before the battle with the
Midianites, and apparently where the
Lord caused to be applied the test of
the warriors by their mode of drinking.
Jud. 7:1. Saul mav have encamped
there. 1 Sam. 28 : 4 :"29 : 1. It is found
no doubt at the fountain 'Aiu Jaland,
nearly opposite Shunem. on the north-
ern slope of Gilboa. The ]iool is of
considerable size, so that a large num-
ber might drink nt it.
HA'RODITE, THE, the des
ienation of two of David's warriors, 2
Siuii. 23:25.
HAR'OEH (the Heer), oK REAI'-
AH, a name, 1 Chr. 2:52.
HA'RORITE, 1 Chr. 11:27. See
Haroditk.
HARO'SHETH (workiug in xoood,
etc.) OF THE GENTILES, so
called from the mixed people who dwelt
there. A place in the north of Palestine,
the home of Sisera, Jud. 4:2, 13, 16,
and the place of assembling of Jabin's
army. Dr. W. M. Thomson locates
Harosheth in the pass between the
plain of Esdraelon and Acre, at the
base of Mount Carmel, where the Kishon
flows through the ravine. A village
and mound covering ruins, both bear-
ing a name very similar to Harosheth,
are found in this vicinity. Stanley and
others, however, place liarotheth in
northern Galilee, and near the waters of
Merom. not far from Kadesh and Safed.
HARP, a musical instrument in-
vented by Jubal. and u^ed by the Jews
in seasons of thanksgiving to God,
mirth, and joy. (icn. 4:21: 31: "27; Ps,
81 : 2 : Isa. 24 : 8. The instrument sug-
gested any other thought than mourn-
ing and sorrow. In the hour of cap-
tivity the harp is hung upon the wil-
lows, Ps. 137 ': 2. David was particu-
larly skilful in the use of it, 1 Sam,
16 :'l6, 23. See Psaltkry.
The harp was played with the fingers,
1 Sam. 16 : 23, but perhaps alfo with a
key, as Josephus suggests- Tlie same
Egyptian Harp.
author ascribes ten strings to the harp,
which would lead us to infer its identi-
ty with the "instrument of ten strings,"'
Ps. 92 : 3. Sometimes it had only eight
strings, and was called "the harp on the
Shemiulth:' 1 Chr. 15 : 2 I ; Ps. 6 : 12,
title. Harps were of different sizes, for
some plaved on them while walking, 1
359
HAE
HAS
Sam. 10 : 5, David played before Saul.
1 Sam. 16 :2o; 18 : 10. There are dif-
ferent accounts of the shape of the harp.
The preceding cut is found represented
on Egyptian monuments.
HAR'ROW. The verb meaning
" to break the clods " is employed in
Job 39:10: Isa. 28:24: and Hos. 10 :
11, and is believed to indicate the use,
occasionally at least, of an instrument
analogous to our harrow. This may
have been a plank or log of wood, upon
which stones were heaped and the labor-
er sat, and which was drawn over the
ground by oxen, to break in pieces the
clods and level the surface; or the pres-
ent custom may have been employed :
" In modern Palestine oxen are some-
times turned in to trample the clods, and
in some parts of Asia a brush of thorn is
dragged over the surface, but all these
processes, if used, occur (not after, but)
before the seed is committed to the soil."
— Smith : Bib. Diet. The word rendered
" harrow " in 2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 1 Chr. 20 :
3, means a THRESHiNG-iNSTKUMENT,which
see.
HAR'SHA [deaf), ancestor of
some who returned with Zorubbabel.
Ezr. 2 : 52 : Neh. 7 : 54.
HART, HIND, Ps. 42:1. The
former is the male stag, one of the
most graceful and beautiful of all ani-
mals. It was clean by the Levitical
law, Deut. 12 : 15 ; 14 : 5, and the grace
and agility of its motions are alluded to
in Song Sol. 2:9; Isa. 35 : 6. The stag
lolls or pants like the dog, and is soon
exhausted by hunger. Jer. 14 : 5 ; Lam.
1:6.
It is uncertain whether this word de-
notes the true fallow-deer, the red deer,
or the Barbiiry deer, or whether it em-
braces all of them. These throe species
doubtless formerly lived in Palestine or
adjoining districts. The fallow-deer
alone is still seen, and that rarely, in
the wooded districts of the country.
The hind is the female stag. She is
smaller and weaker than her mate, the
hart, and has no horns. She is sure iin I
swift of foot, and leaps fearlessly amons
tlie rocks and precipices. 2 Sam. 22:
31; Ps. 18:33; Hab. 3:10. The in-
stinctive affection of the hart and hind
is alluded to Prov. 6 : lb*, lU and Song
Sol. 2:7; 3:5.
The figurative prediction of .lacdh re
3(50
specting Naphtali, Gen. 49:21, would
be more appropriately rendered, ^' Naph-
tali is a deer roaming at large ; he shoot-
eth forth noble antlers." The antlers or
horns indicate the strength and health of
the stag, and the whole metaphor ex-
presses the increase of the tribe and
the fertility of their portion in Judaea.
See Fallow-deer, Roe.
HA'RU31 {lofty), a Judite, 1 Chr.
4:8.
HARU'MAPH {nJit-uosed), one
whose son helped to repair the wa.l,
Neh. 3: 10.
HAR'UPHITE, THE, a name
of Shephatiah, 1 Chr. 12 : 5.
HA'RUZ (ze<d(nin), the maternal
grandfiither of King Amon, 2 Kgs. 21 : 19.
HAR'VEST occurred in tlie months
of March and April, and the term is fre-
quently employed to designate this sea-
son of the year. Josh. 3: 15; Prov. 6:
8. The harvests of the different grains
happened in regular succession, and are
known as the " wheat-harvest," 1 Sam.
12 : 17, an 1 the " barley-harvest," Ruth
1 : 22. The grain was reaped with sick-
les, Jer. 50:1 (), gathered in handfuis,
Ruth 2; 16, and done up into* sheaves.
Ps. 129 : 7. It was then conveyed to
the barns or threshing-floors, sometimes
in carts. Am. 2: 13, where it was thresh-
ed or winnowed. One mode of thresh-
ing was by the treading of oxen, which
it was forbidden to muzzle, Deut. 25 : 4.
Harvest was a season of great joy and
merriment, Isa. 9 : 3. In the book of
Ruth we pass through it as in a pano-
ramic vision.
In the N. T. our Lord refers to the
end of the world under the term of har-
vest. Matt. 13 : 39, whose reapers will
be the angels. The angel is represented
figuratively as at that time thrusting in
his sickle, " for the harvest of the earth
is ripe," Rev. 14 : 15.
Feast op. See Pevt roost.
HASADI'AH („d,om Jrhnrnh lf>vefi\
a. descendant of the royal line of David,
1 Chr. 3 : 20.
HASEIVU'AH (thr hated), a Ben-
jaiiiito. 1 Cli?-. 9 : ~.
HASIIABrAH (irhnm Jehovah re-
i/ardx). 1. 2. Meraritc Levites. 1 Chr.
6:45; 9:11
3. The he 111 of the twelfth course of
Levitical musicians, I Chr. 26:3. I'.l.
I. A ikbicnite Levito, I Chr. 26:30.
HAS
HAU
5. Prince of the tribe of Levi in Da-
vid's time, 1 Chr. 27 : 17.
6. A chief Levite in Josiah's time, 2
Chr. 35 : 9.
7. A Merarite Levite who accompa-
nied Ezra from Babylon. Ezr. 8: 19.
8. A priest in the same company, Ezr.
8 : 24.
9. A repairer of the wall, Neh. 3:17.
10. A Levite who sealed the covenant,
Neh. 10:11.
11. A Levite, Neh. 11:22.
12. A Levite, Neh. 11:15.
i;^. A priesf, Neh. 12:24.
HASHAB'XAH (irhom Jehovah re-
ijards), one who sealed the covenant,
Neh. 10 : 25.
HASHABNI'AH {n:hn,H Jehovah
reyitrcLi). 1. One whose son repaired
the wall, Neh. 3:10.
2. A Levite, Neh. 9 : 5.
HASHBAU'ANA [to „,; derate
jii(/f/e /), one who stood on Ezra's left
wliile he lead the Law to the people,
Neh. 8 : 4.
HA'SHEM (fat), father of some in
David's guard. 1 Chr. 11: 34, or Jashen,
2 Sam. 23 : 32. 3:'..
HASHMO'NAH, a station of the
Israelites near M(uint Hor, Num. 33:
29. and probably identical with Hi:sH-
MON. which see.
HA'^HVB {iutelligent). 1.2. Two
of the repairers of the wall, Neh. 3: 11, 23.
3. One who sealed the covenant, Neh.
10 : 23.
4. A Merarite Levite. Neh. 11:15;
called Hasshub 1 Chr. 9:14.
HASHU'BAH {intelligent), a de-
scendant of David, 1 Chr. 3 : 20.
HA'SHUM (rirh). 1. One Avhose
descendants returned with Zerubbabel.
Ezr. 2:19; Neh. 7:22. Several of
these descendants had married foreign
women. Ezr. 10 : 33. Representatives of
them sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : l'^.
2. One v.ho stood on Ezra's left hand
while henubliclv read the Law, Neh. 8 : 4.
HASHU'PHA (^'tripped), one of
the ancestors of the Nethinim who re-
turned with Zerubbabel. Neh. 7 : 46. In
Ezr. 2 : 43 more accurately Hasupha.
HAS'RAH(rfr(/;joor'). SeeHARHAS.
HASSENA'AH (thorn.edf,A, Neh.
3 : 3. one whose sons built the fish-gate.
If the name of a town, which is not cer-
tain, it must be identical with Senaah.
See SKxNaah.
HAS'SHUB. See Hashub, No. 4.
HASU'PHA. See Hashipha.
HAT. See Head-dress.
HA'TACH, a Persian eunuch,
Esth. 4: 5, 6, 9. 10.
HATE, Gen. 24 : 60. To hate is to
regard with a passion contrary to love,
Jer. 44 : 4. God's hatred is toward all
sinful thoughts and ways. It is a feel-
ing of which all holy beings are con-
scious in view of sin. and is wholly un-
like the hatred which is mentioned in
the Scri])ture among the works of the
flesh, Gal. 5 : 20. We must hate the
evil, but love and bless our enemy. Matt.
5 : 43. To hate sometimes means to love
in a less degree. AVhen our Saviour
says that he who would follow him
must hate father and mother, he means
that even these dearest earthly friends
must be loved in a subordinate degree;
and in the same sense the follower of
Christ is to hate his own life, or be will-
ing to sacrifice it for the love and ser-
vice of the Redeemer. A careful exam-
ination of the pas-sages and the connec-
tion in which these words occur will best
show their true force and meaning.
HA'THATH {fearful), a son of
Othniel. 1 Chr. 4:13.
HAT'IPHA (captive), one of the an-
cestors of the Nethinim who returned with
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 54 : Neh. 7 : 56.
HAT'ITA {explorii,;/), one of the
ancestors of temple-porters who return-
ed. Ezr. 2:42; Neh. 7: 45.
HAT'TILi {irnreriv(f), one of the
ancestors of the Nethinim who return-
ed. Ezr. 2:57 : Neh. 7: 59.
HAT'TVf^Yi.in.semhled). 1 . One of
David's descendants, and another de-
scendant who returned with Zerubbabel.
1 Chr. 3 :22; Ezr. 8:2.
2. A repairer of the wall, Neh. 3:10.
3. A priest who accom])anied Zerub-
babel and afterward sealed the covenant,
Neh. 10:4: 12:2.
HAU'RAN {envex, caverns), a coun-
try east of the Jordan : the north-eastern
boundary of Palestine. Eze. 47 : 16, 18,
and the Auranitis of the Greeks, and now
known as the Hauran. For situation of
the country. see Map at end of this volume.
Hii<tori/. — Little was known of the
Hauran previous to 1854. The works of
Porter. 1855, Graham, 1858. Wetz^tein,
1860. Burton and Dr.ake. 1872, and Selah
Merrillof theAm.Pal.E.vplor. Soc, 1877.
361
HAV
HAW
have thrown much light on its extent, na-
ture, and history, but a thorough explo-
ration of the country yet remains to be
made. When the Israelites conquered
the land, the whole of this region appears
to have been subject to Og, the king of
Bashan, Num. 21:33-35; Deut. 3:1-5,
*nd a large portion of it was allotted to
MaSHMHseh. The district would then in-
clude the Argob, the slope of the Hauran
Mountains, where the Israelites found
60 fortified cities with walls and gates
and a fertile tract. See Bashant. In
the Roman period the country was di-
vided into 5 provinces, Ituraua, Gau-
lanitis, Batana;a (applied also to the
whole region), Trachonitis, and Auran-
itis. The ruins scattered over the
region are very extensive and remark-
able ; those built in the caverns are re-
garded by Wetzstein as the most an-
cient, and possibly reaching back to
the times of the Rephaim, Gen. 14 :
5: 15 : 20, and Deut. 3 : 11. The
villages are chiefly of stone houses,
having gates and doors of large slabs
of dolerite ; the gateways of the larger
buildings are ornamented with sculp-
tured vines and inscriptions. The
Arabs, according to Wetzstein, from
near Yemen settled in the Hauran at
about the beginning of the Christian
era; later, a second immigration from
south Arabia took place, and these con-
trolled the country for five centuries,
and they probably erected most of the
stone buildings now in so good a state
of preservation. A large number of
inscriptions in various characters are
yet to be deciphered, which will throw
much light, no doubt, upon the anf^ient
history of this wild region. Wetzstein
states that the eastern section of the
Lejah and the slopes of the Hauran
Mountains contain at least 300 ruined
cities and towns. Selah Merrill says
that an important ruin is found in every
half hour of travel, and that among
these ruins he has himself visited and
examined 60 ruined churches, an<l eleven
of thirteen theatres, including one vast
naumachia where mock sea-fights were
held. And he concludes a paper read
before the American (Scograj^hical So-
ciety in New York, N(.v. 8, 1877 {linl-
letin, No. 5), with the following remarks :
" In every age previous to the Moslem
conquest in A. d. 635 — running clear
362
' back to the time t)f the giants — this
land has been thickly inhabited, gene-
rally by intelligent and wealthy people.
Churches, theatres, palaces, temples, cas-
tles, baths, porticos, splendid roads, a
multitude of inscriptions, remains of a
perfect system of irrigation, historical
noti.ces of cathedrals, bishops, and a
widespread Christian influence, notices
of conquests and vast spoils falling into
the hands of the victors, authentic no-
tices of man J successive aad puwer&tl
races that have flourished here, and the
surface of the whole country dotted with
ruined towns, cities, and villages, — are
convincing proofs that the statements
found in the 0. T. respecting the num-
bers of their armies and people may be
accepted, so far as the capacities of the
soil for supporting such a population
are concerned, as the literal truth." See
also Argob, Bashan, and Gilead.
HAV'ILAH. 1. A son of Cush,
Gen. 10:7.
! 2. A son of Joktan, Gen. 10 : 29.
HAV'IL AH, OR HAVrLAH (c/r-
cle, divtrict), a country abounding in
gold, bdellium, and onyx-stone, Gen.
2 : 11. Havilah is mentioned as a
boundary of the children of Ishmael,
Gen. 25:18. Kalisch supposes that it
was a country between the Persian and
the Arabian gulfs ; others hold that the
" country of Havilah " in 1 Sam. 15 : 7
refers to the region about Mount Seir,
and that it was not probably identical
with the Havilah of Gen. 2:11. See
Eden.
H A ' V O T H - J A ' I R (r(7;a7e« o/*
J(iir), a title applied to certain villages
, east of the Jordan which Jair captured
and held. Num. 32 : 41 : Jud. 10 : 4.
The towns of Jair are included with the
60 cities given to Manasseh, Josh. 13 :
30 : 1 Chr. 2 : 23 : but the word rendered
"villages" usually means a small col-
lection of hovels in a country place.
These towns were a part of one of the
] revenue-districts of Solomon, 1 Kgs. 4:
I 13.
i HAWK, a general name for a well-
\ known group of fierce and rapacious
1 birds, unclean by the Levitical law,
1 Lev. 11 : 16 ; Deut. 14 : 15. but so sacred
j among the (J reeks and Egyptians that
1 to kill one, even unintentionally, was a
capital crime. Of the ten or twelve
Rj)ecie8 of these falcons found in Pal-
HAY
HAZ
estine,
26.
most
migratory,
Kestrel, or Hawk. (Tinnunculus alaudarius. After Trish-nm.)
HAY, Prov. 27 : 25. We are not to
suppose that this word, as used in the Bi-
ble, denotes dried grass, as it does with
lis. The management of grass by the He-
brews as food for cattle was entirely dif-
ferent from ours. It was never dried and
stored for winter use, but was cut green
as it was wanted ; and the phrase " mown
grass," Ps. 72: 6, would be more proper-
ly rendered ''grass that has just been
fed off." So in Prov. 27 : 25 the word
translated " hay" means the first shoots
of the grass; and the whole passage
might properly be rendered. " The grass
appeareth, and the green herb showeth
itself, and the plants of the mountains
are gathered." And in Isa. 15 : fi " hay "
is put for " grass," and " grass " is put
for the " green herb." The tenderness
of grass, the rapidity of its growth, and
the early period at which it is cut down
and consumed afford the sacred writers
some striking and beautiful illustrations.
Ps. 103:15; Isa. 40:6; Jas. 1:11. See
Mowixfis.
HAZ'AEL (God f^eei), an officer in
the court of Syria, and subsequently its
powerful king. Elijah was commanded
to anoint him king but left this duty to
Elisha : and so when Hazael was des-
patched by his king, Benba-
dad, to Elisha to inquire about
the results of the disease with
which he was afflicted, the
prophet predicted the eleva-
tion of Hazael to the throne
of Syria, and a series of the
most horrible cruelties of
which he would be guilty to-
ward the children of Israel,
1 Kgs. 19 : 15. Hazael ex-
pressed the utmost abhorrence
of such conduct, but on the
next day he smothered Benha-
dad to death and ascended the
throne. 2 Kgs. 8 : 7-16. He
warred against the kingdom
of Israel, 2 Kgs. 10:32, and
against Judah. He took Gath,
and was averted from entering
Jerusalem only by a rich bribe,
2 Kgs. 12 : 17* 18. He reigned
forty-six years, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, Benhadad.
The conquests of Hazael's reign
were lost during that of his son
and successor, 2 Kgs. 13 : 25.
HAZ'AEL, HOUSE
OF, either familj' or palace of Hazael,
Am. 1 :4.
HAZA'IAH (whom Jehovah sees), a
Judite, Neb. 11 : 5.
HA'ZAR- AD'DAR (village of
Adar, or greatnesa), called Adar in Josh.
15 : 3 ; to the west of Kadesh-barnea, and
on a ridge between Canaan and the des-
ert: now 'Ain el-Kudeirat.
HA'ZAR-E'NAN (fountain, vil-
l(u/e), a boundary of the Promised Land.
Num. 34 : 9. 10*: Eze. 47 : 17 : 48 : 1.
Porter would identify it with Kurvetein.
60 miles east-north-east of Damascus,
where are large fountains, fragments of
columns, and other ruins, but this is too
far north ; Canon Cook suggests Ayiin
ed-Dara, a fountain in the heart of the
central chain of Anti-Libanus.
HA'ZAR-GAD'DAH (village of
fortune), a town in the south of Judah,
Josh. 15 : 27, which Wilton would identify
with Wady Mnbughik, where are exten-
sive ruins of great antiquity ; Grove and
Conder place it at el-Ghurrah, about 9
miles east of Beer-sheba, and near to
el-Milh (Moladah).
HA'ZAR-HAT'TICON (middle
363
HAZ
HEA
village), a place on the border of the
Hauran, Eze. 47: !<>.
H A'Z A R M A ' V E T H {court of
death), the third of Joktan's sons. Gen.
10 : 26 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 20. He was the pro-
genitor of the inhabitants of modern
Iladramaut. a province in Soiith-ea:<t-
ern Arabia. This province abounds in
frankincense and luyrrh, but the climate
is very unhealthy ; whence its singular
name.
HA'ZAR-SHU'AL {vlllarje or en-
closure of jtu-kdl-i), a town in the south-
em portion of Judah ; given afterward
to Simeon. Josh. 15:28; 19::}; 1 Chr.
4: 28, and repeopled after the Captivity,
Neh. 11 : 27. Wilton suggested Benl-
Shail, near Gaza, as its site, but Van de
Velde and Conder, with greater proba-
bility, locate it at Saiceh, between Beer-
sheba and Moladah. The ruins are on a
high bluff; a wall built of flint blocks
surrounds the site, and justifies the name
Hazar (•'enclosure").
HA'ZAU-SU'SAH, and HA'-
ZAK-SU'SIM {vi/ln<je of horneH), a
city of Simeon, in the southern border
of'judah. Josh. 19:5; 1 Chr. 4:31.
Wilton believes it was in Wady es-Sa-
nieh, near Gaza, but Conder proposes
Beit S'lisiii, south of Beit Jihthi.
HA'ZEL, Gen. 30:37. It is gen-
erally supjtosed that the almond tree is
intended in this passage. The original
word is thought to be susceptible of this
rendering.
HAZ'ELELPO'NI {>^hade mming
npou Die), a sister to some descendants
of Judah, 1 Chr. 4:3.
HA'ZER, same as llazar ; used
only in coin])osition.
IIAZE'RIM {the vlUarieH). In Deut.
2:28 we read that the Avim dwelt in
Hazerim, even unto Azzeh or (laza; and
the notice of the Avites in Josh. 13 : 3, 4
as the most southern of the tribes inhab-
iting the Canaanitish country clearly
identifies their land with the mountains
of Azazimeh. See I'almer's Detert of
the E.vodiiH (Amcr. ed.), p. ."{(iO.
HAZE'ROTH {vllhujen, or eurJon-
nren), the second station of the Israelites,
Num. 11 : lib ; 12 : 1 0 : 33 : 1 7, 1 8 ; Deut.
1:1, and identified with 'Aiu Hndherhn,
40 miles north-east <jf Sinai.
HAZ'EZON-TA'MAR, and
HAZ'AIVON-TA'MAR {f,lli„;i „f
po/iii trfpii), the old name of En gedi,
364
Gen. 14 : 7 .; 2 Chr. 20 : 2 : a city as old
as the oldest in Syria, the contemporary
of Sodom and Gomorrah, and already a
city when Hebron was first founded.
See Tristram's Land of Israel, p. 285,
and also E\-gedi.
HA'ZIEL {vision of God), a Levite
in the time of David, 1 Chr. 23 : 9.
HA'ZO {vision), a son of Nahor,
Gen. 22:22.
H.A' ZOR {euclosnre). 1. The city of
King Jabin ; destroyed by Joshua, Josh.
11:1, 10, 11: given to Naphtali, 19:
36 ; again possessed by the Canaanites,
Jud. 4 : 2, who had for its king Jabin
— a generic title, probably, like Pha-
raoh in Egypt — who reigned in Ha-
zor and whose general was Sisora. It
was fortified by Solomon, 1 Kgs. 9 :
15 ; its people were carried into cap-
tivity by Tiglath-pileser. 2 Kgs. 15:251.
The city appears to have been situated
on a hill in the midst of a plain, and
was a stronghold. Josh. 11 : 4 ; Jud. 4 :
3. Several places have been suggested
as the site : 7c// Kureiheh, a rocky peak
near Kedesh, by Robinson : a hill on the
south bank of the Wadi/ ffendif 6 miles
south of Kedesh, by Porter : modern //rj-
zere, where are ruins, by Thomson ; but
more probably it is to be found at 7'ell
Hara, 2h miles south-east of Kedesh, as
proposed by Wilson and Anderson of
the English Palestine Survey. Remains
of ancient walls, towers, and a fortress
are to be found, and also broken glass
and pottery.
2. A city in the south of Judah ; prob-
ably should be written Hazor-ithman,
Josh. 15:23.
3. Another town of Judah ; called
Ilazor-hadattah, or New Itazor, Josh.
15 : 25, which Robinson would identify
with cl-IIndhcriih.
4. Ilezron, which is Hazor, Josh. 15 :
25 ; rendered by ("anon Cook " Kerioth
Hezron, which is Hazor." He would
identify it with el-Knrretciu, where are
large ruins seen by De Saulcy. It is
supjiosed to have been the home of
Judas Iscariot, the man of Kerioth,
Matt. 10 : 4 ; Conder suggested Khexh-
rnni, north of Bcer-sheba, as the site
of this Hazor.
IIEAU'-BAIVDS wore perhaps fil-
lets for the hair. Isa. 3 : 20. See Head-
nuKss.
IIEAD'-DRESS. Hats were un-
HEA
HEA
known to the Hebrews. The attempt of
Jason to introduce them was regarded as
a grievance, 2 Mace. 4: 12. " Coverings
for the head were not in ordinary use.
Thus, it was a token of mourning to
cover the head, 2 Sam. 15 : 30 ; Jer. 14 :
3, 4, and the mantle seems to have been
employed for the purpose. 1 Kgs. 19 : 13.
The head-dresses that were then used
Head-dress of Assyrian Kins and Queen.
{From Nineveh Marbles.)
were rather for ornament. This was
specially the case with the high priest's
mitre and the ' bonnets ' of the ordinary
priests, which are expressly said to have
been 'for glory and for beauty.' Ex.
28:36-40. And those which were in-
tended by the Hebrew words tznmph and
peer seem to have been worn only by
eminent persons or on festive occasions.
The former word implies wrapping
around, after the fashion of a turban ;
it is described as used by men, Job 29 :
Syrian Ilead-di esses. Damascus. {Ayre.)
14 (in our version 'diadem'); by wo-
men, Isa. 3 : 23 ('hoods'); as belong-
ing to kings, 62:3 ('diadem'); to the
high priest, Zech. 3 : 5 ('mitre'). The
latter, peer, conveying the idea of or-
nament or beauty, is said to have been
worn by priests. Ex. 39 : 28 ; Eze. 44 :
18 ('bonnets'), by females, Isa. 3 : 20,
by a bride-groom, Isa. 61 : 10, and by
others in gala-dress. Isa. 61 : 3 ; Eze.
24 : 17, 2^."— Ayre.
The Assyrian bead-dress is described
in Eze. 23 : 15 as consisting of a high
turban. The word rendered " hats " in
Dan. 3 : 21 properly applies to a cloak.
HEAP. See Stones.
HEART, Acts 16 : 14. The seat
of the affections, desires, hopes, and
motives. John 14 : 1 ; Esth. 1 : 10. The
term is also used by the Bible writers to
designate the understanding, 1 Cor. 2 :
9, and intellectual perceptions. It is
further a general term for the spiritual
nature of man. Isa. 1:5; 2 Cor. 4 : 6.
In the latter passage the apostle speaks
of the light shining in our hearts,
teaching us of Christ as the One who re-
veals God. The heart is declared to be
corrupt and full of evil, Eccl. 9 : 3, and
deceit, Jer. 17 : 9, the seat of sin and
crime. Matt. 15 : 19, as also of faith.
Rom. 10:10. The Lord " looketh on
the heart," 1 Sam. 16 : 7, in contrast to
the outward appearance, and we are
commanded to cultivate it, as the most
iniportant part of our nature, rather
than external appearances. Prov. 4 : 4 :
.Joel 2:13. The expression ''to speak
in the heart," 1 Sam. 1:13, is synony-
mous with "to think."
HEARTH. The Hebrew words so
translated do not, any of them, mean
what we call a hearth. Thus, the
'' heartb " of Gen. 18 : 6 was the heap of
ashes covering the hot stones on which
the bread was baked, according to the
Eastern custom. See Bread. The
"hearth" of Ps. 102 : 3 means a, fagot
as fuel ; in Isa. 30 : 14, not the hearth,
but the burning mass. When we read
that King Jehoiakim threw the cut leaves
of Jeremiah's prophecy into the fire that
was on the hearth, we are to understand
that before him was a portable furnace
or brazier of charcoal. Jer. 36 : 22, 23.
HEATH. Jer. 17 : 6 : 48 : 6. No
true heath is found in Palestine. There
is great probability that the dwarf juni-
per or savin {.Juniperus sabiim), which
grows in the most sterile and desolate
parts of the desert, is the plant intended.
"Its gloomy, stunted appearance, with
its scale-like leaves pressed close to its
gnarled stems and cropped close by the
wild goats, as it clings to the rocks about
Petra, gives great force to the contrast
suggested by the prophet between him
that trusteth in man, naked and desti-
tute, and the man that trusteth in the
365
HEA
HEB
Lord, flourishing as a tree planted by
the waters." — Trintnim.
HEA'THEN, Ps. 2 : 1. This term
(from heath, one who lives on the heaths
or in the woods, like pagans, /. e. vil-
lagers) is applied in the English Bible
to all idolaters or to all nations except
the Jews. See (tentilk. It now denotes
all nations except Christians, Jews and
Mohammedans.
HEAVEN. The general idea ex-
pressed by the word in the Bible is of
a realm different from the earth and
hell. Under this general realm are in-
cluded two realms — the one the mate-
rial, the other the spiritual heaven. The
plural is often used in both cases, most
frequently in Matthew, and always in
the phrase "the Father in the heavens,"
" the kingdom of the heavens."
1. The heavens or heaven is con-
trasted with the earth. Gen. 1:1; Ps.
115 : 15 ; Matt. 5 : 18 ; 24 : 35, and is rep-
resented as above us. This is the mate-
rial world of air and the firmament. It
is looked upon by the Hebrews as a
solid expanse, Gen. 1:1-1, Ileb., which
has windows, Gen. 7: 11 ; 2 Kgs. 7 : 2,
19, and doors. Ps. 78 : 23. The rain de-
scends from it, Jas. 5:18: 2 Sam. 21 :
10, and the frost. Job 38 : 29. The
stars are called the " stars of heaven,"
Nah. 3: If), the " host of heaven," Deut.
4:19, or the "lights in the firmament,"
Gen. 1 : 14, and the fowls fly in the midst
of it. Rev. 19 : 1". This material and stel-
lar heaven will be dissolved at the final
consummation. Rev. 6 : 14 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 10,
and with the earth give place to a new
heaven and a new earth, Rev. 21 : 1.
2. The term refers also to a realm be-
yond this material universe, and differ-
ent from it — an invisible realm of holi-
ness and bliss. This heaven is the pecu-
liar abode of God, who is described as
the God o/ heaven and the God in heav-
en. 1 Kgs. 8 : 30 ; Dan. 2 : 28 ; Matt. 5 :
45. Christ is said to be the " Lord from
heaven," 1 Cor. 15 : 47, and to have
"come down from" or to have descend-
ed from heaven, John 3 : 13, etc. Into
this heaven he has again ascended. Luke
24 : 51 ; Acts 1:9; Eph. 4 8 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 22.
Here (lod has his throne, here the angels
dwell, Mat^ 22 : 30. It is the |)lace
wh(Me God's will is done. Matt. 6:10,
and where joy, Luke 15 : 7, and jteaee
reign, 19:38. It is here that Christ
300
has prepared the many mansions, John
14 : 2, and into which Elijah passed, 2
Kgs. 2 : 1. Believers have an inherit-
ance in this realm, 1 Pet. 1:4, and may
lay up treasures in it, Matt. 6 : 20.
Heaven is in this signification contrast-
ed with hell, Ps. 139 : 8, into which Satan
fell, Luke 10:18; 2 Pet. 2:4.
The terms "paradise," Luke 23:43,
and " Abraham's bosom," Luke 16 : 22,
designate a state of bliss in the other
world, but not the highest and ultimate
state.
The third heaven, 2 Cor. 12 : 2, into
which Paul was rapt in a vision, is
probably only another expression for
the highest heaven. The later rabbins
distinguished seven heavens: the first
three belong to the material universe;
the other four to the spiritual world,
where God, the saints, and angels dwell.
That the believer's heaven is not
merely a state, but also a world of space,
is abundantly testified to not only by
many of the above passages, but also by
such expressions as " heavenly places,"
Eph. 1 : 3. The bliss of heaven is be-
yond our conception. This is indicated
by the many forms and figures used to
give us an impression of its joys, .lohn
14 : 2, 3 ; Heb. 4 and 11 ; Rev. 3, 21, 22.
Heavex, Kingdom of. See Kingdom.
HEAVE- OF FERING. See
Offering.
HE'BER (nUinnce). 1. Grandson
of Asher. Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:45;
1 Chr. 7 : 31.
2. A Judite, 1 Chr. 4:18.
3. A Gadite, 1 Chr. 5 : 13.
4. A Benjamitc, 1 Chr. 8:17.
5. Another Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8 : 22.
Ci. Heber the Kcnite, the husband of
Jael, who slew Sisera, Jud. 4 : 22. See
JaeI/, Siseha. Heber appears to have
led a life apart from the rest of his tribe.
He must have been a person of conse-
quence, from the fact that it is stated
that there was peace between him and
the powerful king Jiibin, Jud. 4 : 17.
7. For El)er, Luke 3 : 3.').
HE'BERn ES, THE, descend-
ants of Heber, Num. 26 : 45.
HE'BREWESS, a Hebrew wo-
man. .Ter. 4 : 39.
HEBREW LANGUAGE. See
BiniF.
HE'BREWS. The term is prob-
ably derive<l from the Hebrew verb chrr.
HEB
HEB
which means " to pass over,'' to cross a
stream, or from the proper noun Eher,
one of the ancestors of Abraham (other-
wise unknown^. Gen. 10 : 24 : 11 : 13.
(Compare our words transalpine, cisal-
pine, ultramontane, transjordanic.) It
was first applied by the Canaanites to
Abraham, Gen. 14:13, who had immi-
grated from the east side of the Eu-
phrates (and hence might be called a
trans-Euphratian, a stranger come from
the other side of the Euphrates), and then
to all the descendants of Abraham. The
Egyptians, Gen. 39 : 14 : 41 : 12. and the
Philistines. 1 Sam. 4 : 6, knew the peo-
ple by this title, and. as we may infer,
all foreigners. But they sometimes use
it of themselves, but only when foreign-
ers are thought of. Gen. 40 : 15 : Ex. 2 :
7. The favorite name was '' Israelites,"
and after the Captivity the title "Jews"
came into vogue, but the title" Hebrews"
was still used for the more strict Jews,
who preferred the Hebrew language, in
distinction from the Hellenists or Greek-
ish Jews.
1. Their Orir/h). — Abram was chosen
by God in Ur of the Chaldees to be the
father of this people, and made recipient
of the promise to be the founder of a
great nation, Gen. 12 : 1. The Hebrew
people were descended directly from him
through Isaac and Jacob, and are fre-
quently called the "seed of Abraham."
Ps. 105 : fi : John 8 : 37, or " children of
Abraham." Gal. 3:7, or "children of
Israel." Ex. 1 : 13.
2. Their Gnveniment. — (1.) For the
first three generations it was a patri-
archal form. Jacob and his sons then
followed Joseph into Egypt, where for
400 years the Hebrews were siTbject to
the Pharaohs, and. after the first gene-
ration, in a state of bondage, which be-
came excessively oppressive, Ex. 1 :11-
14. God finally raised up a deliverer to
them in the person of Moses, in whose
lifetime the (2) theocraet/, or theocratic
form of government, was established.
Israel was compacted into a nation in
the wilderness. Here it first learned its
strength : here it received the two tables
of the Law and the moral, political, so-
cial, and religious institutions peculiar
to it ; and here it was reassured of the
familiar relation of God to it : "I will . .
be your God. and ve shall be mv peo-
ple." Lev. 26 : 12 ; Ex. 6 : 7. The cha-
racteristic feature of this form of gov-
ernment is found in God's intimate rela-
tion with the affairs of the nation and
his special superintendence of them.
And although the nation subsequently
had its judges and kings, yet God in a
peculiar sense presided over its desti-
nies. He guided the nation by the pillar
of cloud and fire; he gave them the
manna, and the victory over Amalrk,
Ex. 17 : 14: he gave the Law, Ex. 20 :
1 : he led them across the Jordan and
into Canaan, Josh. 3 : 7, and appointed
.loshua successor of Moses, Josh. 1:3;
he instructed them how to fight against
Jericho and Ai, Josh. 8:1: he gave
victory to Deborah, Jud. 4 : 14 : he called
Saul, 1 Sam. 10 : 1, and deposed him. 1
Sam. 16 : 1. etc. God thus presided in a
very personal manner over the national
affairs of the Hebrews.
3. Their Religion. — God was the im-
mediate author, by special revelation, of
the Hebrew religion. Revealing him-
self particularly to Abraham and Jacob,
he deferred the full revelation of it for
the period of Moses. This religion con-
sisted in the worship of God. Deut. 6 : 4,
as one and as holy. Ex. 15 : 11 : Ps. 89 :
35. The Israelitish nation was thus
made the receptacle for two distinct con-
ceptions which were not shared in by any
of the surrounding nations, who broke
the deity up into fragments and attrib-
uted the most flagrant vices as well as
human passions to their gods (as the
Greeks and Romans). Their religion
also taught them that God is the Creator
of all things, Gen. 1:1; all-wise. Prov.
15 : 3 : evervwhere present. Ps. 139 : 7 ;
almighty. Ps. 115 : 3 ; eternal. Ps. 90 : 2.
He is also represented as love, Ex. 34 :
6 : Isa. 63 : 16, etc.. though not as fully
as afterward by Christ and his apostles.
Their religion taught the spiritual
worship of God, without the aid of
images of metal, wood, and stone, Ex.
20 : 4. Idolatry was condemned and the
practice of it punished, as in the ease of
the golden calf. Ex. 32 : 35. It further
included in its code the moral law and
the duty of man to his fellow, Ex. 20 :
12-17. It was, however, not the final or
perfect relisrion. but provisional and tem-
porary. Heb. 8:7; 10 : 1 : 1 Pet. 1:11,
12. it commanded a vast number of
merely external and ceremonial rites
which were at once typical and symbol-
367'
HEB
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ical. The religion of Christ did away
with the temple, the sacrifices, etc., and
established spiritual ordinances.
Thus looking at the Hebrew religion,
Ave find it, in contrast with the heathen
religions, free from falsehood and con-
serving great eternal truths, which have
become the heritage of all modern civil-
ized nations, but, in contrast with the
religion of Christ, temporary, imperfect,
a typical and prophetical preparation
for Christianity.
4. Their political history may be di-
vided into seven periods :
(1) From Abraham to Mose-t. This
embraces the patriarchal period and the
sojourn in Egypt. Abraham's descend-
ants increase in numbers in the land
of Canaan till Jacob in his old age goes
with his sons to Egypt. Here they spend
400 3'ears, first under the favor, and then
under the oppressive tyranny, of the Pha-
raohs.
(2) From Moses to Saul. The marvel-
lous deliverance from the bondage of
Egypt, the founding of the theocracy
at Mount 8inai, and the life in the wil-
dern "ss. After wandering 40 years in the
wilderness, the ])eople cross over the Jor-
dan into the land of their fathers. Moses
dies after seeing it from Mount Pisgah,
but without having trodden it. Joshua
is appointed the successor of Moses, and
becomes their military captain. The
most of the land is taken after hard
fighting, and apportioned between the
twelve tribes. Fourteen judges follow
Joshua, among them a woman — Debo-
rah. Lawlessness reigned to a greater
or less extent, and might was right,
Jud. 17 : C. The last and the greatest
of the judges was Samuel, whose life
marks the transition to the third period.
See Judges.
(3) From S((nl to the Division of the
Kiiujdom (abont 120 years). — This pe-
riod includes the greatest prosperity Is-
rael ever attained, under the reigns of
David and Solomon. Her territory was
extended, foreign nations acknowledged
her glory, 1 Kgs. 5:1; 10 : 1, and lit-
erature and the sciences were cultivated,
1 Kgs. 4 : 33. The reign of Solomon
(40 years) marks the highest prosperity,
but also the beginning of the decline.
See Saul, David, Solomon, the Tkmim,i:.
(4) From the Division of the Kinijdom
{975) to the Close of the Canon (about 500
368
years). — This period is marked by the de-
cline of the nation, and embraces the Exile
and the Return. At Solomon's death the
kingdom was divided between Rehoboam
and Jeroboam, and the history of each
would be a monotonous account of fall-
ing away and recovery from idolatry if
it were not for the periodical appearance
of great prophets. The two kingdoms
come into conflict with the surrounding
nations and grow weaker and weaker,
till the upper kingdom is destroyed and
the people led away captive in B.C. 721 ;
the lower kingdom, b. c. 588. Subse-
quently, a part of the nation returns un-
der Zerubbabel and other leaders, Ezr. 2 :
2. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah
give an account of the Return and of the
subsequent restoration of the temple.
(5) From the Bet urn to the Advent of
Christ. — Although many Jews were car-
ried captive into Babylon, many, of their
own accord and contrary to the counsel
and warning of Jeremiah, went down
into Egypt. There thc^^ built in Leon-
topolis a temple, in which the ritual of
the Law was observed, and which would
act as a damper upon the enthusiasm
after the services in Jerusalem. In
Alexandria the Jews " were in such
numbers as to be known as ' The Tribe.'
They were a separate community under
their own chief, entitled ethnarch or
alabarch, and represented more than a
third of Alexandria, with a council cor-
responding to that which ultimately
ruled at Jerusalem." — Stanley. By their
scholars the translation of the 0. T. into
Greek called the Septuagint was made,
being begun under the patronage of
Ptolemy Philadelphus, b. c. 285. The
school o"f philosophers of which Philo is
the chief exercised a great infliucnce on
Gentile as well as Jewish thought. It
answered the useful purpose of mediat-
ing between Platonism and Christianity,
and thus was a bridge from one to the
other. After the Return, b. c. 538, the
Jews remained under the yoke of Persia;
but when Alexander the Great subverted
that monarchy, he granted them many
favors. Their prosperity was of short
duration. The death of the world-con-
queror, B. r. 323, led to the disruption of
his empire into four kingdoms, but led
likewise to a wrangle which involved all
lands. " In this world's debate," says
Stanley, ** Palestine was the principal
HEB
HEB
stage across which 'the kings of the
south' — the Alexandrian Ptolemies —
and • the kings of the north ' — the Se-
leucidse from Antioch — passed to and
fro, with their court-intrigues and in-
cessant armies, their Indian elephants,
their Grecian cavalry, their Oriental
pomp. It was for the larger part of the
century and half that succeede 1 Alex-
ander's death a province of the Graeco-
Egyptian kingdom."
In the earlj' part of the third cen-
tury B. c. the Jews threw off' the Egyp-
tian allegiance and put themselves
under Antiochus the Gre;it. king of
Syria; but Antiochus Epiphanes, his
youngest son, persecuted them, pro-
scribing their religion and profaning
their temple, erecting an altar in the
temple to the Olympian Jupiter, and or-
dering divine honors to be paid to the
idol. But the Jews were monotheists
of a positive type. The outrage was
not to be silently borne, nor were they
to be forced to do what their conscience
forbade. War broke out. The roman-
tic period of Jewish history begins. The
Jews ranged themselves for the inevit-
able conflict. On the one side were the
infamous priests Jason and Menelaus,
their followers the Hellenists, who were
renegade Jews backed by Antiochus.
On the other side were tl.e great mass
of the people, stung into madness b}'
the cruelties of their king, but most
of all settled in their determination not
to submit to pagan rites. They were
led by the Maecaba?an family, who were
high priests as well as princes, and after
a thirty years' struggle they gained their
independence. Under John Hyrcanus,
of this family, peace was made with
Syria, B. c. 133. In B. c. 107, Aristob-
ulus, his son, assumed the royal title.
See Maccabkks.
But the Jews at last fell, like the rest
of the civilized world, under the Roman
power. Pompey took Jerusalem in B. c.
63 ; Antipater, the father of Herod, was
made procurator of Judjea in B. c. 47.
He was murdered shortly after, and
Herod at length became king of Juda?a,
B. c. 37. For the history of the Jews
from this date to the destruction of Je-
rusalem see the biographies of the suc-
cessive raonarchs.
(6) From the Advoit of Christ to the
Destruction of Jerusalem. — The Gospels
24
inform us as to the Jews' hatred and re-
jection of the Messiah. And so they
prepared their downfall. Matt. 23 : 37.
The long-suff'ering of God was abused ;
his offers of mercy were often rejected,
and at last the time for their final over-
throw came. Josephus tells the story.
The city of Jerusalem, whither they had
gathered, was besieged by Titus, and
after much suffering, borne with fanat-
ical courage, taken. The temple was
burnt, the whole city demolished. The
pro];hecv of Christ was literally fulfilled.
Matt. 23 : 3-1-39 ; Luke 21 : 20-24. See
Jerisalem.
(7) From the Destruction of Jerusalem
to the Present Time. — The Jews were no
longer a nation, but their religion re-
mained unchanged, and retained a hos-
tile a'titude to Christianity. The peo-
ple that prepared the way for the com-
ing of the Messiah crucified the true
Messiah, and wait in vain for a new
Messiah. After the capture of Jerusa-
lem the Jews Avere sold in large num-
bers into slavery, and scattered all over
the Roman world. Many returned to
tlie ruins of the Holy City. The empe-
ror Claudius admitted them to citizen-
ship, but they were ver^' differently
treated by successive emperors. In a. d.
135, under the em])cror Hadrian, a fa-
natical impostor, Bar-cochba, announced
himself in Palestine as the Messiah. An
immense multitude hastened to his
standard of revolt. The Romans,
however, completely vanquished them.
Jerusalem was again completely de-
stroyed, and became a Roman colony
under the name of ^lia Capitolina.
The Jews were forbidden to enter it.
The emperor Julian (a. d. 331-363),
from hostility to Christianity, endeav-
ored to rebuild the temple, but in vain.
Since the downfall of the Western
Roman Empire (a. d. 476) the Jews
have had very varying fortunes under
diflTerent masters, and much cruel per-
secution. They have spread themselves
overall the earth, but have always re-
mained separate and distinct. This re-
markable fact is a plain indication of
the hand of God. who will yet do great
things for and with them. They are a
standing proof of divine prophecy and
a living argument for the truth of Chris-
tianity. For an account of their literary
activity, see Talmud.
369
HEB
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The Jews by their talents and indus-
try exert great influence among Chris-
tian nations. They have long been the
great bankers of the world. The Roths-
child family with its immense wealfti
has controlled the money-market. The
Jews have furnished great scholars and
statesmen. Neander, the Church his-
torian, and Stahl, the jurist, were con-
verted Jews ; the great musician, Men-
delssohn-Barthold\-, Lord Beaconsfield,
Gambetta, Castelar, are of Jewish ex-
traction. They have distinguished them-
selves in all the occupations except ag-
riculture and manufactures. They are
divided into orthodox, and liberal or re-
form Jews, who differ from each other
as the Pharisees and Sadducees of old.
The former prevail in Russia, Poland,
and the East; the latter in Germany
and America. Many of the Jews to-day
are deists, or even atheists. The mod-
ern epoch is marked by the name of
Moses Mendelssohn (die! 1780), whose
German translation of the Pentateuch
was the groundwork of reform. The in-
fidel Jews exert a pernicious influence on
the German political press. The poet
Heine was a Jew. In America they
enjoy full liberty, which until recently
had been denied them in Europe. They
are also increasing of late in Jerusalem,
where they are strictly orthodox, issue
newspapers in the Hebrew language,
and bewail every Friday at the founda-
tion of the temple-wall the sins of their
forefathers. The number of Jews in
the world is estimated at 6,000,000, of
whom 50,000 live in New York city,
where they accumulate great wealth.
The last word of Christ and the apos-
tle concerning this wonderful people —
which, like the burning bash, are never
consumed — is a word of promise and
hope that their blindness will be re-
moved, and that after tlie fulness of the
Gentiles has come in "all Israel will be
saved." Rom. 11 : 2(5.
Hkbhew ok thk IIkrrkws, Phil. 3 :
5, denotes that the individual so called
had both- a Hebrew father and mother —
was one whose Hebrew extraction was
Derfect.
HE'BREVVS, EPISTLK TO
THE, wiiri w itten about th(; years i>2
to ()1 in Italy. 13 : 24. and addressed to
the believing Jews of Palestine and the
East. The design of the author was not,
370
primarily, to make new converts or to
console old ones, but to guard them
against apostasy and to strengthen their
faith by an exhibition of the evidence in
favor of the pre-eminence of the religion
of Christ over that of Moses. One gets
the impression of peculiar temptations
to apostasy or a weakening in the faith
against which the Hebrew Christians
are continually warned in the Epistle,
ch. 2: 1 ; 4: 1, 14; 10:23.
The Epistle at once exhibits the unity
and the characteristic difference of the
Old and the New Testament economy
and revelation. Both were alike of di-
vine origin, 1 : 1, 2, but the former was
imperfect and defective, chs. 8:6, 7;
10: 1. This is proved by an extended
consideration of the character of Christ,
the Mediator of the new covenant, and
of the mediators (Moses and Aaron) of
the old covenant, and by a consideration
of the prophecy of Jeremiah concerning
a new covenant, ch. 10 : 10, and its spir-
itual character, chs. 9, 10. In the com-
parison thus instituted we discover a
marked contrast between the old and
new covenants, so far as both their na-
ture and their founders are concerned.
The Epistle exhibits the person of
Christ, the Author of the new cove-
nant, as superior in dignity to the angels,
ch. 1, and proves it by the 0. T. itself.
Christ was the very brightness of God's
glory and the express image of his per-
son, ch. 1 : ^. Therefore the conclu-
sion is drawn that the revelation made
by him is of greater authoi'y than that
made by angels, which was acce|)ted, ch.
2 : 2. He is then represented as of su-
perior dignity to Moses, ch. 3 : 3, and as
our High Priest, ch. 3 : 1, who belongs
to the order of Melchisedek. ch. 5: 16;
7:21. In order to perform the high-
priestly functions, it was necessary for
him to endure the sufferings and temp-
tations incident to the humanity ho in-
tended to save. 2:17; 4 : I o ; 12 : 2, and
to assume human nature, ch. 2: 14. He
thus becomes the Author of salvation,
ch. 5 : 9. by the shedding of his blood,
2:1); 9:i2. The superiority of his
high priesthood is shown not only by
his supc -iingelic nature, but in his
freedom from sin, 4:l.'j; 7:27. The
Aaronic priests were sinful, 7 : 2->.
Christ has thus ]>urchasc<l an eternal
salvation for all who believe in liiui in a
View of Hebrou fiom the South. {Aftuv Ihotograj^h by BonJiU.)
!Mount Heimoii, with Ruiuo of an Ancient Temple. {After riioiograph by Good.
HEB
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special sense, ch. 7 : 25, and for every
man, ch. 2:9. He has entered into the
holy of holies, the divine presence, and is
seated on the right hand of God. 10 : 12.'
The latter part of the Epistle is taken
up with practical exhortations and a
profound definition and telling illus-
tration of faith, ch. 11. The apostle
thus establishes, by a remarkably clear
and lucid argument, the divine yet tem-
porary character of the old revelation
and the super-eminent dignity of the
High Priest, Christ, whose manifestation
is -'the better thing" which God has
provided for us, 11 : 40. The Epistle
corroborates the divine origin of the old
covenant, and at the same time is calcu-
lated to reconcile the Jew to the destruc-
tion of his temple, the loss of his priest-
hood, the abolition of his sacrifices, the
devastation of his country, and the ex-
tinction of his name, because it exhibits
a nobler temple, a better priesthood, a
more perfect sacrifice, a heavenly inher-
itance, and a more durable memorial.
The authorship of this anonymous
Epistle is a matter of dispute; some
ascribe it to Paul, who for special reasons
concealed his name, others to Luke or
Barnabas, or to Apollos. It was certainly
inspired by the genius of Paul, and maj^
have been written by him in Hebrew
and translated or reproduced in its pres-
ent Greek form by Luke or some other
disciple of the great apostle of the Gen-
tiles. This hypothesis would account
for the difference of style as well as the
unity of sentiment.
li'E'BRO'S (nllinuce). 1 . A son of
Kohath, and therefore grandson J5f Levi.
Ex. 6: 18; Num. 3: 19; 1 Chr. 6 : 2, 18;
23: 12.
2. A name in the genealogical lists of
the tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 2 : 42, 4.*?.
HE'BRON {/riei,(l«/iip), an ancient
town of Palestine, about 20 miles south
of Jerusalem, and the same distance
north of Beer-sheba; first called Kirjath-
arba, or "city of Arba." the father of
Anak. Josh. 21 : 1 1 ; 16 : IH, 14 ; Jud. 1 :
10. Some interpret the name to mean
"a city of four," or as having four dis-
tinct quarters. It lies about 1^000 feet
above the level of the sea, and is one of
the oldest towns in the world and men-
tioned before Damascus, Gen. 13:18;
15 : 2, and was built 7 years before Z(jan,
or Tanis, in Egypt, Num. 13; 22.
372
H tutor ij. — Hebron is named about 40
times in the 0. T.. but nowhere in the
New. Abraham pitched his tent under
the oaks of Mamre. near Hebron, Gen.
13 : 18, and he bought the cave of iMach-
])elah, as a burial-place. 23 : 17-20. See
Machpelah. Hebron was taken by
J.)shua, Josh. 10:36,37; 12:10, and
the region given to Caleb, Josh. 14 : 13 ;
was rebuilt and made a Levitical city
and a city of refuge, Josh. 20 : 7 ; 21 :
11 ; was the royal residence of David, 2
Sam. 2 : 1-14; 1 Kgs. 2:11: became the
headquarters of the rebellious Absalom,
2 Sam. 15 : 10 ; was fortified by Kehobo-
am and re-peopled after the Captivity. 2
Chr. 11 : 10 ; Neh. 11 : 25. Judas Mac-
cabseus re-captured it from the Edomites ;
it was destroyed by the Pvoinans ; for
about 20 years it was the scat of a Latin
bishopric, A. n. 1167-1187, but at the
latter date it fell into the hands of Sala-
din, and has since been held by the Mos-
lems. A pool is still shown over which
tradition says that David hung the mur-
derers of Ishbosheth, and the tomb of
Abner and Ishbosheth is also pointed
out within an Arab house.
Present Conditio!). — Hebron is in ,a
narrow part of a valley and surrounded
by fertile lands, vineyards, olive-groves,
and almond and fig trees. The town
has many s])acious houses, built of stone,
and numbers about 10,000 souls, includ-
ing 500 Jews ; but there is not a single
Christian family there. The city is di-
vided into several quarters, in one of
which is the great mosque, a massive
structure, about 200 by 150 feet on the
ground and nearly 50 feet high, with
two minarets. This mosque is known
to conceal the noted cave of Maclniclah,
the burial-])laco of Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob and their wives, except Rachel.
The mosque is closed against visitors
and guarded with the strictest care by
the Moslems. Only three times have
Europeans been permitted to enter it —
the Prince of Wales in 1862, the marquis
of Bute in 1866, and the crown-prince of
Prussia in 1869. These visitors were ac-
comjianied by Dean Stanley, Fergusson,
Rosen, and others. Hebron is a hotbed
of Moslem fanaticism.
About two miles west of the city, on
the road toward (iaza. is the famous oak
of Abraham, a majestic and venerable
tree whose trunk measures 32 feet in cir-
HEB
HEL
cumference, and at the height of ]9 feet
it divides into four huge branches, form-
ing a crown upwards of 275 feet in cir-
cumference. The tree is surrounded by
a wall, and on the hill above it the Rus-
sians have built a fine hospice. A large
terebinth or oak was shown there in tue
days of Josephus which, tradition says,
*• has continued since the creation of the
world." — Jewish War, iv. 9, 7. For view
of ''Abraham's Oak," see under Abraham.
The town carries on a brisk trade with
the Bedouins, and manufactures water-
skins from goats' hides, and pretty glass
ornaments. Glass was made there early
in the Middle Ages.
2. A city of Asher, Josh. 19 : 28 ; per-
haps the Abdon of .Tosh. 21 : 30.
HE'BROXITES, THE, a fam
ily of Kohathite Levites descended from
Hebron. Xum. 3 : 27 ; 26 : 58 ; 1 Chr.
26 : 23.
HEDGE, Hos. 2 : 6. Travellers tell
us that such hedges as are mentioned in
this passage are often found in Eastern
countries at this day, and that they are
especially useful as defences against the
incursions of the Arabs on horseback.
The hedge is sometimes figuratively
used to denote protection. Coaip. Job
1:10.
HEG'AI, OR HE'GE, a eunuch of
the court of Ahasuerus. Esth. 2 : ■>, S, 15.
HEIF'ER, Hos. 10:11. The fig-
urative allusions of the sacred writers to
the wildness, sportiveness, and indocil-
ity of this animal, especially when wpU
fed, are \-ery striking. Jer. 43 : 20 : 50 :
11 ; Hos. 4:16. In Isa. 15 : 5 allusion
is probably made to the lowing of a
heifer — a mournful sound that can be
heard, at a great distance ; so should the
lamentation of the Moabites be in the day
of their visitation.
The heifer was used in sacrifice on a
particular occasion, Xum. 19 : 1-10;
comp. Heb. 9 : 13, 14, the manner and
design of which are fully stated in the
passage cited.
HEIR. See Inheritance.
HE'LAH {rust), a wife of Ashur, 1
Chr. 4 : 5.
HEXAM (>it)'onf/hokl), usually re-
garded as the place where David gained
a victory over the Syrians, 2 Sam. 10 :
16, 17, and by some identified with Af-
manetha, west of the Euphrates ; but this
is merely conjecture. The Latin Version
does not regard the word as a proper
name, but renders it "army" or "host."
HEL'B AH (fertile), a city of Asher,
Jud. 1:31, in the plain of Phoenicia; the
same as Hebel. Rendered "the coast"
in Josh. 19 : 29.
HEL'BOX [fertile), a Syrian city
celebrated for its wine, Eze. 27 : 18, and
formerly identified with Aleppo, but by
Porter with Hellxin, in a wild glen high
up in the Anti-Lebanon. This valley is
celebrated for its fine grapes and vine-
yards. Robinson says " the wine of
Helbon " is the best and most famous
wine in the country, while Aleppo pro-
duces none of anv special reputation.
H'E'L'DAI {ic'orldli/). 1. The chief
of the twelfth division of David's forces,
1 Chr. 27 : 15.
2. One who returned from captivitj',
Zech. 6:10. In v. 14 his name is writ-
ten Helem.
HE'LEB (viilk), OR HE'LED
(frditxii-iif), one of David's warriors. 2
Sam. 23 : 29 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 30.
HE'LiEK {portion), the founder of
the Hetekites, a Manassite family. Num.
26 : 30.
HE'LEilI {hammer). 1. An Asher-
ite, 1 Chr. 7 : 35.
2. A name mentioned in Zech. 6 : 14.
HE'liEPH (exchan(jc), a place on
the borders of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 33,
and which Van de Velde proposes to
identify with Beitlif : Clark, with the
" white promontory " south of Tyre ; but
these are conjectural.
HE'LEZ (loinsY). 1. One of Da-
vid's '• thirtv." 2 Sam. 23 : 26 ; 1 Chr.
11:27: 28 :*10.
2. A Judite, 1 Chr. 2 : 39.
HEXI (elevation), the father of Jo-
seph, the husband of Mary, Luke 3 : 23.
The same word as Eli.
HEE'KAI {whose portion i^ Jeho-
vah), a priest in the days of Jehoiakim
the high priest, Xeh. 12 : 15.
HEL'KATH (portion), a Levitical
city of Asher, Josh. 19 : 25 : 21 : 31, and
called Hukok in 1 Chr. 6 : 75 ; probably
the modern Fer/i-a, a village 7 miles
north-west of Acre.
HEL'KATH-HAZ'ZURIM
(field of swords), a place near Gibeon ;
so called from the deadly combat men-
tioned in 2 Sam. 2 : 13-17. Drake pro-
poses to place it in the broad, smooth
valley el-Askar.
373
HEL
HEM
HELL. 1. The Old Test nme tit.—
The Hebrew word for hell is Shcol,
which corresponds to the Greek Haden,
and means the under-world or the realm
of the dead. It is derived by some from
the root " to demand " (hence the " grasp-
ing " or '' insatiable "), by others from the
root ''to make hollow" (comp. the Ger-
man Nolle with Hohle), so as to mean
the vast subterranean receptacle and
resting-])lace of the dead. Sheol is va-
riously translated in our English Bible
by the terms *' hell," "pit," and "grave."
In many places it is rightly t1*anslated
" grave." 1 Sam. 2:6; Job 14 : 13, etc.
Sheol is represented as in the depths of
the earth, Job 11 : 8 ; Prov. 9:18, dark,
Isa. 38: 10, all-devouring, Prov. 1:12,
destitute of God's presence, Ps. 88: 10-
12, a state of forgetfulness, Ps. 6 : 5, in-
satiable, Isa. 5 : 14, remorseless. Cant.
8 : 6, and a place of silence, Eecl.
9:10. The Hebrew notions about it
were vague and indefinite. It was re-
garded as the place where worldly oc-
cupations, good or bad, did not enter.
Eccl. 9 : 10 : Job 3 : 13-20. It can by
no means be made out that the term re-
fers exclusively or definitely to infernal
anguish. But it no less certainly repre-
sented terror and repulsiveness to the
Hebrew mind.
2. The New Testament. — The two words
translated "hell" are Hades and Gehen-
na. Hades occurs eleven times, and is
once rendered " grave," 1 Cor. 15 : 55 ;
in all other ])laces '* hell." It evidently
does not refer to the ultimate abode of
the impenitent and the final state of ex-
clusion from God, but to the disembodied
state between death and the final judg-
ment of the Son of man, when he shall
come in his glory, Matt. 16 : 27. After
the crucifixion, our Lord descended into
hades, Acts 2 : 27, and this is an article
of the Apostles' Creed, ,where, however,
we use wrongly the word "hell." It was
in this realm that our Lord " preached to
the spirits in prison," 1 Pet. 3 : 19. See
Hadks. ' «
The term Gehenna, which occurs twelve
times, more nearly corresponds to our
word " hell." It signified primarily the
valley of Hinnom or the deep, narrow
valley south of Jerusalem which had
been the seat of the worship of Moloch.
Jer. 7 : 31 ; 2 Chr. 33 : fi : 2 Kgs. 23 : 10.
It afterward was turned into a place for
374
the deposit of the filth and dead animals
of the city. Hence this term was applied
to the final state and abode of lost souls.
Matt. 6 : 29 ; 10 : 28 ; 23 : 15 ; Jas. 3 : 6,
etc. It is here that " their worm dieth
not" and the "fire is not quenched,"
Matt. 17 : 9. Into this realm the rebel-
lious angels were cast, 2 Pet. 2 : 4 (where
the word is a derivative from " Tarta-
rus"). At the great day of judgment
the cursed shall go away into this abode
and receive the everlasting punishment.
Matt. 25 : 4fi.
HEL'LENISTS, THE, were the
Jews who had lost their strict and ex-
clusive spirit by constant intercourse
with the Gentiles, who habitually spoke
Greek, and who read the Septuagint.
They were much better qualified for the
larger views of the gospel than were
their Jewish brethren who lived in Pal-
estine and spoke the Hebrew language.
In the A. Y. the term is rendered " Gre-
cians." Acts 6:1; 9 : 29 ; 11 : 20. They
were not necessarily outside of Palestine.
The class was formed by habits of thought
quite as much as by language. The term
must not be confounded with Helleus,
who were native Greeks in religion as
well as language.
HELM'ET. See AiniOR.
HE'LOIV {strnn<j), father of Eliab,
the chief of Zebulon. Num. 1:9; 2:7;
7 : 24, 29 ; 10 : 16.
HELPS, the translation in the A.
V. of a word which occurs only in this
place in the N. T., 1 Cor. 12:28. The
"helps" are a gift of the Spirit. This
gift doubtless comprehends the various
duties of the deacons and deaconesses of
the apostolic Church, esjiccially the care
of the poor and the sick. It is found
also among the laity, especially the fe-
male portion, in all ages and all branches
of Christendom.
HELPS, THE, used in the storm,
Acts 27:17, were chains, cables, etc.,
which were passed under the keel of the
vessel, in order to bind the planks to-
gether.
HEM OF GARMENT. See
Clotiiks.
HE'MAM {exterminating), a son of
Lotan, Gen. 36:22; called Homam in
1 Chr. 1:39.
HERMAN (trvsti/). 1. A son of
Zerah eminent for wisdom. 1 Chr. 2:6;
1 Kgs. 4:31.
HEM
HER
2. Grrandson of Samuel the prophet.
1 Chr. 6:;">3: 15:17. 19: 16:41,42:
25:1, 4, 5, 6; 2 Chr. 5:12: 29:14j 35:
15. Ps. 88 is attributed to him.
HE'MATH {h€<(t), a person or
place mentioned in 1 Chr. 2 : 55.
HEMIATH {f<>rtres><). 1 Chr. 13:
5 ; Am. 6 : 14. See Hamath.
HEM'DAN (plensout), the eldest
son of Dishon, Gen. 36 :26; called Am-
ran in 1 Chr. 1 : 41.
HEll'LOCK, Hos. 10 : 4. A well-
known bitter and poisonous herb, a
species of which is common in the
United States. The word rendered
"hemlock" in the above passage and
in Am. 6:12 is elsewhere rendered
'•gall." The figurative use of it is ex-
plained by comparing the above pas-
sage with Deut. 29 : 18 ; Am. 5 : 7 j Heb.
12:15. The evils of perverted judg-
ment resemble the springing up of use-
less and poisonous plants where we look
for and expect valuable and nutritious
vegetation.
HEX (favor), a son of Zephaniah,
Zech. 6:14.
HEN. The only place in which this
word occurs is in our Lord's lament : " 0
Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest
the prophets, and stonest them which
are sent unto thee, how often would I
have gathered thy children together,
even as a hen gathereth her chickens
under her wings, and ye would not !"
Matt. 23 : .37 ; Luke 13 : 34. But hens
must have been common barnyard fowls,
as they are to-day in Syria, where they
form a chief article of food. Hen's eggs
are probably meant in Luke 11 : 12, and
if so they were very abundant. The
rabbinical prohibition to keep fowls in
Jerusalem was probably never enforced.
The cock is mentioned in connection
with Peter's denial. See Cock-crowing.
HE'NA. {troubling), a city conquered
by a king of Assyria, 2 Kgs. 18:34;
19 : 13 ; Isa. 37 : 13 ; believed to be
Anak, on the Euphrates, 20 miles from
the site of Babvlon.
HEN' AD AD [favor of Hadad),
the head of a Levitical family who were
prominent in rebuilding the temple and
repairing the wall. Ezr. 3:9; Neb. 3 :
18, 24; 10:9.
HE'NOCH, 1. 1 Chr. 1:3. See
Enoch.
2. 1 Chr. 1 : 33. See Hanoch.
HE'PHER [a well). 1. A Manas-
site. Num. 26:32, 33; 27:1; Josh. 17:
2, 3.
2. A Judite, 1 Chr. 4 : 6.
3. One of David's warriors, 1 Chr.
11:36.
HE'PHER {well,pil), a district in
Palestine, probably in Judah. Its chief
was slain by Joshua, Josh. 12 : 17.
HE'PHERITES, THE, de.
scendants of Hepher, 1. Num. 26:32.
HEPH'ZIBAH (my delight is in
her). 1. The wife of Hezekiah, and
mother of Manasseh, 2 Kgs. 21: 1.
I 2. A symbolical name for restored Je-
rusalem, Isa. 62 : 4.
HER'ALD, one who makes a public
and formal announcement. The only ref-
erence in the A. V. to this officer is in Dan.
3:4; but in the N. T. the familiarity
of Paul with the Grecian games induced
' him to speak of the gospel-preachers as
heralds; e.g. 1 Tim. 2:7; 2 Tim. 1:11.
I So Peter. 2 Pet. 2 : 5. See Games.
j HERB, a plant which, in distinc-
tion from the shrub or tree, is without
true woody tissue. Herbs die to the
ground, if not entirely, during the dry
Oriental summer. But those of them
that are biennials or perennials revive
with the fall rains or in the spring.
Six Hebrew words are translated by
the general term before us, five of them
with unquestionable correctness. The
word thus rendered in 2 Kgs. 4 : 39 ;
Isa. 18 : 4; 26 : 19 involves the idea of
brightness, and is p«rhaps some partic-
ular plant. If so, the most probable
opinion is that it is colewort or some
plant of the cabba<je tribe. See Grass.
HERD, HERDS'MAN. Nothing
more strikingly brings out the contrast
between the Egyptians and the Hebrews
than their different estimation of the
pursuit of cattle-raising. While the
latter had large herds nnd flocks, and
considered their possession and keep
honorable, the former, quite as depend-
ent upon them for food and labor, de-
spised the herdsman as " an abomina-
tion." Gen. 46 : 34. B}' the influence
of .loseph his brethren were made Pha-
raoh's chief herdsmen. Gen. 47 : 6. The
patriarchs were great herdsmen. The
occupation was not inconsistent with
state honors; thus, Doeg, "thechiefest
of the herdsmen," was high in Saul's
favor, 1 Sam. 21 : 7. David's herdmas-
375
HER
HEK
ters-were among his chief ofRcers of
state. In Solomon's time, although com-
merce decreased its relative importance,
the pursuit was still extensive. Eccl. 2 :
7 ; 1 Kgs. 4 : 23. " It must have suffer-
ed greatly from the inroads of the ene-
mies to which the country, under the
later kings of Judah and Israel, was ex-
posed. Uzziah, however, 2 Chr. 26: 10 ;
and Hezekiah, 32 : 28, 29, resuming
command of the open country, revived
it. Josiah also i^eems to have been rich
in herds, 35 : 7-9. The prophet Amos
at first followed tliis occupation, Am. 1 :
1; 7:14."
The wealth of the Jews at all times
consisted largely of cattle. The terri-
tory of the tribes across the Jordan was
particularly adapted for grazing-pur-
poses. West of the river the principal
/^-/[^^m
^J^
Egyptian Herdsmen treating si
feeding-grounds were Sharon, 1 Chr.
27:29. the Carmel, 1 Sam. 25:2, and
Dothan, Gen. 37 :17 ; but doubtless all
the uncultivated lands were used for
this purpose. But for food they did not
use, as we do, full-grown beeves, but
killed the calves. Fattening for beef is
indeed not practised in the East. The
oxen were broken for service in the
third year, Isa. 15 : 5. When the heat
had dried up all the pasture, then the
oxen were stalled, Ilab. 3:17. Hence
the figure " a stalled ox " for stately
magnificence, which is used in Prov.l5:
17. " Calves of the stall " were watch-
fully cared for, Mai. 4 : 2. Cattle feed
u))on foliage as well as upon grass, Ps.
50:10. A mixture of various grains,
as also chopped straw, is fed when the
pasture gives out. See Job 6 : o, " fod-
der;" Isa. 30 : 24, ''provender;" Gen.
24 : 25 ; Isa. 11 : 7 ; 65 : 25. See Agri-
CULTITRR. Ox.
HF/RES («»»)• 1- Mount Heres,
Jud. 1 : ;'>y ; probably the same as Ir-she-
mesh.
2. Heres, Isa. 19:18 (margin), but
the text reads " city of destruction."
Calvin did not regard it as a proper
name: Poole regards it as an Egyptian
city inhabited by the Jews.
HK'RESH [artificer), a Levite, 1
Chr. 9: If).
HER'ESY, Acts 24:14. This
term, as generally used by the sacred
376
ck Animals. {After Wilkinson.)
I writers, implies no judgment respecting
j the truth or error of the peculiar tenets
but signifies a party or division. It is
derived from a word meaning "to
choose." The Pharisees, Acts 15:5;
26 : 5, and the Sadducees, Acts 5 : 17, as
well as the Nazarenes, Acts 24:5, 12,
14, were denominated heresies. In
these passages the word is translated
"sects." In Acts 24:14, where Paul
speaks of the Christian religion as "the
way which they call heresy," he un-
doubtedly means to imply that the
Christian organization was not a sepa-
ration from the 0. T. Church, but the
true Church itself. In 1 Cor. 11 : 19;
Gal. 5:20, and 2 Pet. 2:1 heresies are
referred to in connection with the apos-
tolic Church, and in the last two cases
the implication is that they are depart-
ures from the fundamental truth of the
gosjiel, and to be condemned. Early in
the history of the Chri.^tian Church (he
word acquired the signification it now
has, of a departure from the fundamen-
tals of gospel truth.
HER'MAS (Mercury, the god of
gain, and the messenger of the gods), a
Roman Christian whom Paul greets,
Rom. 16:14. Some of the fathers at-
tributed to him the book called " The
Shepherd of Hermas." a sort of Pil-
grim's Progress, consisting of three
parts : the first has 4 visions ; the sec-
ond, 12 spiritual precepts; the third,
HER
HER
10 similitudes, each setting forth some
truth.
HER'MES i^fe)■(.■lu\lJ), according to
tradition, one of the Seventy, and after-
ward bishop of Dalinatia, Rom. 16: 14.
HERMOG'ENES ( bc'/ottc, of
Mercury), one who forsook Paul. 2 Tim.
1:15.
H E R ^ M O N (prominent summit,
peak, or perhaps from a root signifying
** unapproachable" or ''holy;" by the
Sidonians Siriou, "to glitter," and by
the Amorites Shenir, and by the He-
brews SioH, Deut. 4:48; Ps. 133:3),
the high southern part of Anti-Libanus,
about 40 miles east of north of the
Sea of Galilee, and 30 miles south of
west of Damascus, and now called Jelel-
esh-Sheikh, or "the chief mountain."
It has three peaks or summits, hence
called " the Hermons;" incorrectly ren-
dered " the Hermonites," Ps. 42 : 6.
Hermon was the northern limit of the
territory of Israel beyond the Jordan,
Deut. 3": S ; 4 : 48 ; Josh. 11 : 3, 1 7 ; 13 : U.
Hermon and Tabor are the representa-
tives of all the mountains of the Prom-
ised Land, Ps. 89 : 12 ; 42 : 6 ; 133 : 3.
Some of the names of Hermon may re-
fer to different peaks of the mountain,
Deut. 3:9; Song Sol. 4:8; 1 Chr. 5 :
23. Hermon rises to an elevation of
9000 feet above the Mediterranean.
The top is partially crowned with snow,
or rather ice, during the whole year,
which, however, lies only in the ravines,
and thus presents at a distance the ap-
pearance of radiant stripes around and
below the summit. The high ridge
Jebel-ed-Dnhy, on the north of the val-
ley of Jezreel, is sometimes called the
Little Hermon, but Jebel-esh-Sheikh is
the true and only Hermon of the Scri}»-
tures. See cut p. 371.
Pliynii-irl p'edturex. — SchaflF calls Her-
mon " the Mont Blanc of Palestine." The
mountain CDnstitutos a part of the great
Anti-Lebanon range, running from north-
east to south-west for over 30 miles. Its
rock-formation is hard limestone, cover-
ed at places with soft chalk, while ba-
salt appears in some spurs. The top of
the mountain may be described as con-
sisting of three peaks or summits, of
which two are approximately north and
south, about 400 yards apart, and of
almost equal height, being joined by a
Hat plateau depressed in the middle.
The third peak, 600 yards to the west,
is about 100 feet lower, and divided by
a valley-head from the former. This is
called El Mutahkliiyat, "place of cook-
ing." The two principal peaks are each
9053 feet above the level of the sea and
11,000 feet above the Ghor or Jordan
depression. No ruins are found, except
on the southern peak, where is a hollow
bounded by an oval enclosure of stones
well hewn. At its southern end is a «a-
ce/lum, or temple, nearly destroyed. — See
Our Work in Palentine, p. 245. In win-
ter the snow extends down the moun-
tain-side for about 5000 feet : it melts
as summer advances, until in September
only a little is left in the crevices and
shaded hollows. In Xovember the snow
begins to cover the mountain again.
Hence the best time for the ascent is
from June to early autumn. Bears are
frequently seen on Mount Hermon, and
foxes, wolves, and various kinds of game
abound. Porter describes the sides and
top of Hermon as the acme of barren
desolation; but Tristram, visiting it at
a different season, found " many boreal
forms of life both in fauna and flora,"
and from Hermon added 50 species to
his catalogue of plants. — See Tristram,
Land of Israel, p. 613. The view from
the summit is one of vast extent, em-
bracing a great part of the Holy Land,
" which lies far below, spread out like a
gigantic relief-map." The traveller may
look down upon Sidon, Tyre, the Medi-
terranean. Mount Carmel, Gerizim, the
hills about Jerusalem and the Dead Sea,
Gilead and Nebo, the Jordan Valley,
Gennesaret, Damascus, Lebanon, etc.
BlbJr History. — Mount Hermon was a
great Inndmark to the Israelites, as it
marked their north-eastern boundary.
Deut. 3:8; Josh. 12:1. Joshua ex-
tende I his conquest nearly to that
point, Josh. 11 : 17. The Hebrews ex-
tolled its majestic height, Ps. 89 : 12,
and its copious dew, Ps. 133 : 4. Mod-
ern travellers note the abundant dews,
which drench everything, and from
which tents afford smflll protection.
'J'hese abundant dews are accounted for
by the fact that in the daytime the hot
air comes streaming up the Ghor from
Lake Huleh. while Hermon arrests the
moisture and deposits it congealed at
night.
Hermon is not mentioned in the N. T.,
377
HER
HER
but it is prohably the site of the trans-
iiguiiition of Christ, Matt. 17; Mark 9,
and answers the description of "a high
mountain apart." Conder notes it as a
curious observation that " on the sum-
mit of Hernion there is often a sudden
accumulation of cloud, as quickly again
dispersed, often visible when the re-
mainder of the atmosphere is perfectly
clear. . . . AVe cannot fail to be reminded
in this phenomenon of ' the cloud that
overshadowed ' the apostles." CiPsarea
Philippi, where Christ was just before
the transfiguration, is at the foot of
Herinon, and there are several retired
places on the mountain-side where it
might well have occurred. It fits into
tlie points of the narrative in the Gos-
]tels far better than Tabor, where the
monastic tradition (Greek and Latin)
locates this wonderful event. See Tabou.
HERiHONITES, THE, prop-
erly " the Ilcrinons," referring to the
three peaks of Hennon, Ps. 42:6, 7.
HER'OD. 1. Herod the Great,
king of Juda?a, b. o. 40-8. c. 4. In his
reign Christ was born, Matt. 2 : 1-18.
lie was a man of unusual executive abil-
ity, of iron will, of consummate shrewd-
ness ftnd cunning, but of violent pas-
Bronze Coin of Herod the Great.
sions, and cruel and unscrupulous in
the choice of means to accomplish his
designs. lie was by descent an Idu-
maoan and the son of Antipater, who
had been a])pointed by Julius Cajsar
])rocurator of Judaea, B. c. 47. At the
age of 25, Herod was made governor of
Galilee, subsequently appointed tetrarch
of Judaea by Antony, B.C. 40, and after-
ward, by the Roman senate, king of
Judica. He was obliged to fight for his
kingdom, and with the aid of the Ro-
mans wrested it out of the hands of his
enemies. Antigonus, the high priest,
and the last representative of the As-
montean family in that office, was taken
and executed, a. n. 37.
378
Herod's reign was in one sense a most
brilliant one. Following the example
of the Roman emperor Augustus, he
lavished vast sums of money on public
works'. He founded and built a beauti-
ful city on the coast, which he named,
after his royal master, C^esarea. He
also rebuilt the city of Samaria, which
had been completely destroyed, b. c. 109,
and gave it the new ap])e]lation Sebaste.
In Jerusalem and its vicinity he erected
a theatre and an amphitheatre, and on
the borders of his kingdom built some
strong fortresses, as Herodeion. His
magnificence, however, did not confine
itself to his own kingdom, but over-
leaping its boundaries founded temples
in various parts of the Roman empire.
But the most important building to
which Herod gave his money was the
temple at Jerusalem. Out of deference
to the prejudices of the Jewish people
he engaged 1000 priests to work upon
the temple itself, while hundreds of
other workmen were employed upon the
other parts. The work was begun B. c.
20, and continued long after his death.
John 2 : 20. While, by a shrewd respect
for the prejuilices of his subjects, Herod
flattered them into periodical displays
of contentment, he was not a jiopular
sovereign. He was, after all, a for-
eigner, and the Hebrew people could
not become reconciled to his dominion
and that of Ctesar. In many ways he
offended them, as by the introduction of
the theatre and of games after the model
of the Grecian games.
In his family life Herod displayed
the most cruel and barbarous nature.
He had ten wives an 1 several sons;
and in reference to his conduct toward
them Augustus made the remark, " I
would rather be his swine than his
son." He committed the most revolt-
ing murders amongst his nearest kin.
Among the victims of his rage and sus-
])icion were the brother, grandfather
(Hyrcanus, b. c. 30), and mother of
Mariamne, his wife, Mariamne herself,
B. c. 29. his two sons by her, Aristobulus
and Alexander, B. r. 7, and his son by
Doris, Antipater, only a few days before
his death. To this" frightful list must
be added the innocent children of Beth-
lehem, whom he had murdered in the
hope to thus do away with Jesus, Matt.
2: 1(5. When he was dying he ordered
HER
HER
that the chief men of all the cities of
Judaea should be killed, in order that
there might be some mourning at his
death.
After a long reign of 37 years. Herod
died a miserable death in Jericho. His
feet swelled, and his bowels became the
victim of ulcers which gave him intense
pain. He removed to.Callirhoe, on the
other side of the Jordan, hoping to get
relief in the baths. All was of no avail,
and he died, nearly 70 years of age, and
unregretted by his family, much less by
his subjects.
The wise men of the East had an au-
dience with Herod on their arrival in
Jerusalem, and, alarmed by their inter-
est in One "born King of the Jews," he
took the precautions which cunning
could suggest, and cruelty execute to do
away with his rival, ^latt. 2:8, 16.
2. Herod Axtipas, tetrarch of Gali-
lee and Persea, Luke 3 : 1, b. c. 4- A. d.
39. He was the second son of Herod
by his fourth wife, Malthace. Like his
father, he was ambitious and fond of
ostentation. Our Lord refers to his
cunning when he terms him ''that fox,"
Luke 13 : 32. He also lavished large
sums of money on public works, and
built Tiberias, so called after the Roman
emperor Tiberius. Induced thereto by
his wife, Herodias, he went to Rome to
secure the title of king. Charged, how-
ever, with crimes, he was depose I from
his oflBce by Caligula, and banished to
Lyons.
Herod Antipas is mentioned at least
five times in the N. T. He is brought
the most prominently forward in the
history of John the Baptist. The proph-
et denounced the adulterous relation in
which' he was living with Herodias, the
legal wife of Herod Philip (not the te-
trarch Philip, who married Salome), his
brother. Herod listened with pleasure
to John, but, instigated by his wife, he
put him in prison, and in obedience to a
rash oath to Salome, although with hesi-
tating will, had him beheaded, Mark 6 :
16-28. Herod was also one of the
judges before whom our Lord appeared
at his trial. He happened to be at Je-
rusalem for the feast of the Passover, '
and Pilate sent Christ to him, as he was '
a Galilean. Herod was very desirous to i
see Jesus, having heard of him before,
Mark 6 : 14, and asked many questions.
none of which, however, were answered,
Luke 23: 7-12. This incident is again
referred to Acts 4: 27. From the Gos-
pels we get his character as a votary of
pleasure and debauchery, Mark 6 : 22 ;
superstitious, Mark 6 : 16 ; and cunning,
Luke 13 • 32.
3. Archelaus, b. c. 4-a. d. 6, eth-
narch of Judaea, Samaria, and Idumtea.
He was the son of Herod by Malthace,
and elder brother of Antipas. Herod
the Great, his father, left the " king-
dom" to him, but Augustus refused to
ratify the will, and put him off with the
inferior title ethnarch. He was tyranni-
cal toward his subjects and regardless
of their prejudices, marr^-ing his step-
brother's wifo, Glaphyra, in violation of
the Mosaic Law. He was accused, and,
cited to appear at Rome, was deposed from
his office and banished to Vienne in Gaul.
There is only one mention of Archelaus
in theN. T.. Matt. 2:22.
4. Philip, tetrarch of Gaulonitis, Au-
ranitis, etc., B. c. 4-A. n. 34. He was the
son of Herod the Great by his fifth wife,
Cleopatra, but unlike the rest of his
family was distinguished for justice and
moderation. He married his niece Sa-
lome, the daughter of Herodias and his
brother Herod (Philip), who was the
young woman that danced before Herod
Antipas. Philip is referred to once in the
x\. T.. Luke 3:1.
5. Herod Philip was the son of Her-
od the Great and Mariainne, the daugh-
ter of Simon the high priest. He was
the first husband of Herodias, and is
called Philip in Mark 6: 17. He seems
to have occupied a private station.
6. Herod Agrippa I., king. A. d. 37-
44, first of the tetrarchy of Philip and Ly-
Coin of Herod Agrippa I.
sanias, and finally of a dominion equal
in extent to that of Herod the Great.
He was the grandson of Herod the Great,
and son of Aristobulus (murdered b. c.
7). Educated at Rome and thrown
into prison by Tiberius, he gained the
favor of the emperor Caligula, who made
379
HEK
HES
him kin^. He observed the ceremonial
of the Pharisees and affected piet}'. As
the representative of the Jewish spirit,
o 2
s ^-^
5 «■
'O 4)
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O
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-CS 05-
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he persecuted the apostles, beheaded
James, and sought to execute Peter,
Acts 12: 1-19.
380
7. Hkkoi) Agrippa II., a. n. 50-100,
king of the tetrarchies formerly under
Philip and Lysanias. He was the
brother of Bernice and Diusilhi. Paul
appeared before him and narrated the
histor}' of his conversion. His words in
answer to Paul's question have become
proverbial: '^ Almost thou pcrsuadest
me to be a Christian," Acts 26 : 28.
HERO'DIANS, a Jewish political
party, originating ])robab!y in devotion
toward the Roman emperor and Herod,
his deputy, Matt. 22:16. They were
the court-party and submitted willingly
to the government of Rome, and were
thus at the opposite pole from the Phari-
sees. It may be that some of them were
among those who regarded Herod as the
Messiah. They coalesced with the Phari-
sees in the attempt to destroy Christ,
Mark 3 : (> ; Matt. 22 : 16. and are prob-
ably referred to in the expression "lea-
ven of Herod." Mark 8:15.
HERO'DIAS, the granddaughter
of Herod the Great, and mother of
Salome, Matt. 14 : ?>. She first mar-
ried her uncle, Herod Philip, and after-
ward Herod Antipas, another uncle, and
that too during her first husband's life-
time. For this unlawful and scandalous
counection John the Baptist faithfully
reproved the parties, and his fidelity
cost him his life. Matt. 14 : 3-10. When
her husband, Antipas, was banished to
Lyons, she shared his banishment with
him.
HERO'DION, a '' kinsman' of
Paul, whom he greets, Rom. 16:11.
HER'OIV. Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:
18. At least seven species of heron are
found in Palestine. These well-known
birds frequent marshes and rivers, in
which their long legs fit them to wade,
and from which they obtain their food
of fish, frogs, and insects. Most critics
hold that the bird of the above references
was not the heron, but Tristram, one of
the latest and best, sustains the reading
of the A. V.
HE'SED (Iniithiess), the father of
one of Solomon's commissariat officers,
1 Kffs. 4:10.
IIESH'BON {rciinov, (fevice), a, city
originally belonging to the Moabites,
but taken by Sihon, king of the Amor-
itcs, and made his capital; captured
and occu]>ied by the Israelites, Num.
21 : 25, 26 ; situated on the boundary
HES
HEZ
between Reuben and Gad ; rebuilt by
Reuben and made a Levitical cit}', then
being territorially a (iadite cit}'. Num.
32 : 3, 37 ; Deut. 1:4: 2 : 21-30 : 3 : 2,
() ; 4 : 46 ; 29 : 7 ; Josh. 9:10; 12 : 2, 5 :
13 : 10-27 ,• 21 : 39 ; Jud. 11 : 19, 26 : I
Chr. 6 : 81. In later times the Moabites
i-egained possession of Heshbon, so that
it is mentioned as a Moabitish town in
the prophetic denunciations against that
people, Isa. 15 : 4 ; 16 : 8, 9 ^ Jer. 43 : 2,
34, 45 ; 49 : 3.
The ruins of the city still exist some
15 miles east of the northern end of the
Dead Sea, on the great table-land of
Moab. A small hill rises 200 feet above
the general level, and upon this is Hesh-
bon, now called Hc^hhdn. The whole
city must have had a circuit of about a
mi^e. The hill is described as '' one heap
of shapeless ruin." " Jewish stones, Ro-
man arches, Doric pillars, and Saracenic
arches are all strangely mingled." — See
Tristram, Lnncl nf Inrael, p. 544. The site
was admirably ada])ted for the capital of
a warlike people. It was the key both to
the plain of the Jordan and to the moun-
tains of (iilead. East of the city are
the remains of water-courses and an
enormous cistern, or " fish-pond," which
illustrates Cant. 7: 4.
HESII'MON (fertility), a town
named with others as lying in the south
of Judah, Josh. 15 : 27. Wilton con-
nects it with Husham, an Edomite king,
Gen. 36 : 34, 35. and with 'Ain Hanh,
perhaps Hashmonah of Xum. 33 : 29,
30, but Conder identifies Ile.shmon with
a site called el-Meslutsh ("the pits"),
which has two wells and is on the road
from Beer-sheba to Moladah.
HES'RON, HES'RONITES.
See Hkzrox, Hezroxites.
HETH {terror), one of the sons of
Canaan, of the family of Ham. and
progenitor of the Hittites. Gen. 10 : 15 :
23:3,5,7,10.16,18,20; 25 : 10; 27:46:
49 : 32 : 1 Chr. 1 : 13. See Hittites.
HETH'LOxX (hi(/i,>r,-plnce). the
name of a jilace on the northern border
of Palestine, Ezr. 47 : 15 : 48 : 1 . In all
probability the "way of Hethlon " is
the pass at the northern end of Lebanon,
and is thus identical with ''the entrance
of Hamath " in Xum. 34:8. See IIa-
MATH.
HEZ'EKI (strong), a Benjamite, 1
Chr. 8:17.
HEZEKI'AH (strenyth ofJehuch).
1. A distinguished king of Judah, the
son and successor of the apostate Ahaz.
lie ascended the throne B. c. 726, at the
age of 25, and ruled 29 years, till b. c. 697.
He was one of the three best kings of
Judah, and an eminentlv godlv man.
2 Kgs. 18:5; 2 Chr. 29^:2. He re-
stored the Mosaic institutions to honor.
He accomplished the abolition of idol-
worship in his kingdom, 2 Kgs. 18 :
4, 22, and tore down the high places,
which had been dedicated to idolatry.
He also broke in pieces the brazen
serpent of Moses, which had become
the object of idolatrous regard, 2 Kgs.
18 : 4. During his reign the temple
was repaired, 2 Chr. 29 : 3 nqq., and
the Passover celebrated with festivities
that had not been equalled for magnifi-
cence and solemnity since the days of
Solomon and David, 2 Chr. 30 : 26. A
proclamation was sent from Dan to Beer-
sheba inviting the tribes to come to Je-
rusalem to keep the Passover, 2 Chr. 30 :
5, and as a result of the convocation a
national religious zeal broke out, 2 Chr.
31 : 1. Another illustration of Hezekiah's
godly zeal in the cause of religion is found
in the high esteem in which he held Isa-
iah the projihct, whom he frequently
consulted, 2 Kgs. 19 : 3 ; Isa. 37 : 2.
The pofitic<tf ctirerr of Hezekiah was
an active one. He warred against the
Philistines, and resained what his father
had lost, 2 Kgs.l8:8. He rebelled
against the domination of Assyria. 2
Kgs. 18 : 7. In the fourteenth year
of his reign Sennacherib invaded his
kingdom with an immense army. Rab-
shakeh was sent out in advance, and
endeavored to intimidate Hezekiah into
submission, and insolently insultf'd him
under the walls, 2 Kgs. 18 : 19 «vy.
Hezekiah had recourse to Isaiah, who
reave assurance of the assistance of the
Lord, 2 Kgs. 19 : 6, The prediction
came true, and by a sudden judgment
of the Almighty the Assyrian host was
decimated and put to flight. 2 Kgs. 19 :
35. This event is referred to by the
three historians of Hezekiah's reign as
a supernatural event. 2 Kgs. 19 : 35 ; 2
Chr. 32 : 21 ; Isa. 37 : 36. Hezekiah
formed an alliance with Egypt, 2 Kgs.
I 18:21. and was rich and prosperous. 2
, Kgs. 18 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 32 : 27-29.
1 In the events of his privatr life, one
381 '
HEZ
HID
is noted of })eculiar significance. The
king became sick unto death, and Isaiah
uttered his doom in the words, '* Thou
shalt die, and not live," 2 Kgs. 20 : 1.
Turning his face to the wall, he lamented
the event and prayed God to avert it.
Isaiah, passing out into the court, was
checked by the word of the Lord, and
commanded to return and to announce
the prolongation of the king's life 15
years, 2 Kgs. 20 : 5. As a sign of the
cure the dial was made to go back ten
degrees, 2 Kgs. 20 : 10. Another event
of note in Hezekiah's life was the pun-
ishment pronounced upon his house by
Isaiah, 2 Kgs. 20 : 17, for the display
he made of his riches to the messengers
of the king of Babylon, who had come
to congratulate him upon his recovery.
Hezekiah died in honor and was buried
in the " highest of the sepulchres of the
sons of David," 2 Chr. 32 : 83.
2. A descendant of the royal house
of Judah, 1 Chr. 3 : 23.
3. Ezr. 2 : I65 Neh. 7 : 21. See
ArEPt.
HE'ZION {slfjht), grandfather of
Benhadad, and king of Aram (Syria), 1
Kgs. 15 : 18.
HE'ZIR (a sio've). 1. A priestly
chief, 1 Chr. 24:15.
2. One who sealed the covenant, Neh.
10 : 20.
HEZ'RAI {enclosed), one of David's
warriors, 2 Sam. 23:35; called Ilezro
in 1 Chr. 11 : 37.
HEZ'RON. 1. A son of Reuben.
Gen. 46 : 9 ; Ex. 6 : 14 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 3.
2. A son of Phares. Gen. 46: 12;
Ruth 4: 18; 1 Chr. 2:0.
HEZ'RON, Josh. 15 : 25. See Ha-
zou, 4.
HEZ'RONITES, THE. 1, 2.
Two families in Reuben and Judah,
Num. 26:6. 21.
HID'DAI { jonfnl), one of David's
warriors. 2 Sam. 23:30; in 1 Chr. 11:
62 called Hurai.
HID'DEKEL (rapid T,)/r,V), a cel-
ebrated river of western Asia, the third
of the rivers which issued from the gar-
den of Eden. It is said to flow cast to
Assyria, (ien. 2:14: Dan. 10 : 4 : is call-
ed in the ancient Zend language Teger
(" stream "), whence the name " Tigris."
Like its twin river, the Euphrates, it
has in the Armenian territory nuuierojis
sources. The western brjinclics, which
382
form the principal stream, spring from
the southern slope of the Anti-Taurus,
at no great distance from the sources
of the Araxes, the Euphrates, and the
Halys, and form a junction not far from
Diarbekir. The eastern branch is form-
ed by the union of several streams hav-
ing their sources in the districts of Mu-
•kus and Shattak, and farther eastward,
in the mountains of Kurdistan. The
eastern and western branches of the
Tigris unite at TilJeh, whence the river
rushes through a long, narrow, and deep
gorge to the low country of Assyria. At
Mosul, opposite the site of Nineveh, the
river is about 300 feet wide, and when
swollen by rains or the melting of the
mountain snows becomes impetuous,
flooding the lower country, and some-
times destroying the bridges of boats.
The river receives several important
tributaries, and between Mosul and
Baghdad passes over several ledges of
limestone rocks, which form rapids of
greater or less importance. In the lat-
ter part of its course it averages 600
feet in width, frequently 15 or 20 feet
in depth, and during a sudden rise flows
about 5 miles an hour; but in passing
over the alluvial plain, the current is
often less than 1 mile an hour. At Kur-
nah the Euphrates and the Tigris unite;
the combined stream receives the name
of Shnt-el-Ainh, which, after a course of
about 120 miles, falls into the Persian
Gulf. The whole course of the Tigris to
its junction with the Euphrates is about
1146 miles. The Tigris is navigable for
vessels drawing from 3 to 4 feet of water,
from the Persian (Julf almost as far as
Tekrit, a distance of nearly 600 miles.
There is an active commerce along the
river between Basrah and Baghdad by
means of the large country-boats, which
go in fleets; aVjove the latter city it is
chiefly carried on by rafts from Mosul.
The Euphrates expedition ascended the
Tigris to beyond Dokhalah, and the Eu-
phrates steamer passed from the Euphra-
tes to the Tigris by the ancient canal,
which leaves the former several miles
below Hit, and enters the latter a
short way below Baghdad. The banks
of the Tigris, on which stood Nineveh and
other po|tulous cities once the seats of
high culture and the residence of mighty
kings, are now covered with mounds and
ruins, the relics of ancient greatness.
HIE
HIG
There is scarce'y one permanent settle-
ment on the banks of the Tigris from
Jezivah to the immediate vicinity of
Baghdad, with the exception of Mosul :
and Tekrit. See Assyria, Euphrates, j
and Tigris. '
HI'EL {God lives), a Bethelite who
rebuilt Jericho in the reign of Ahab, and
in whom Joshua's curse, Josh. 6 : 26, was
fulfilled. 1 Kgs. 16 : 34.
HIERAP'OLIS(sacTerfc%),acity
in Proconsular Asia, Col. 4: 13. near the
river Lycus, and in sight of Laodicea,
which was about 5 miles to the south. It
stood on a high bluff, with a high moun-
tain behind it. In the city was the famous
temple of Pluto, remains of which are still
to be seen. The ruins of the city are
extensive, among which are the remains
of tea)ples, churches, a triumphal arch, a
theatre, gymnasium, baths, and highly-
ornamented sarcophagi. Hierapolis was
celebrated for its warm springs, which
hold in solution carbonate of lime, de-
positing incrustations on anything with
which the waters come in contact. It is
now called Pnmhnnk Keleumi,
HIGGA'IOX, a term occurring
three times. Ps. 9: 16; Ps. 19 : 14
(translated '•meditation"), and Ps. 92:
3 (translated "solemn sound"). It
probably was originally a musical term
which acquired the additional signifi-
cation of solemn thought or medita-
tion.
HIGH' PLACES. The notion of I
heaven as the dwelling-place of God
led naturally to the thought that
the higher one rose above the level I
ground the nearer one came to God. !
This deduction lay at the base of the
systematic use of hills and mountain-
tops for religious worship. Trojans
sacrificed to Zeus (Jupiter) on Mount
Ida; Greeks, Persians, Germans, and
many other nations followed the cus-
tom. We are therefore prepared to find
the Bible containing notices of the
•• high places," as these altars were call-
ed. The patriarchs offered their sacri-
fices wherever thev pitched their tents,
Gen. 12 : 7, 8 ; 26 1 25 ; 28 : 18, but even
they sometimes sacrificed upon the
mountains. Gen. 22 : 2 : 31 : 54. The
Moabites, Num. 22 : 41 : 23 : 1-1, 28;
Isa. 15 : 2 ; .ler. 48 : 35. and the Canaan-
ites, Num. 33 : 52 : Deut. 12 : 2. are often
mentioned in the Bible as habitual sac-
rificers upon the high places. But not
only these idolaters, but Moses also — al-
though it might seeui to be an imitatiun
of the heathen — at the command of God
or of his own accord, chose the moun-
tains for religious purposes. Ex. 17 : l-» ;
Num. 20:25. It will be rememberel
that the first altar erected to Jehovah in
the Holy Land was upon Mount Eba;.
Deut. 27:5; Josh. 8:30. The Israel-
ites found that all prominent points had
been consecrated by the former inhabit-
ants for idol- worship, and the}' used the
same localities in the Jehovah-wor-
ship. There was, however, an express
direction given in respect to selecting
places of worship. Deut. 12:11-14.
But their course, (though in the be-
ginning innocent) was a fatal snare.
It was perhaps impossible to worship
Jehovah purely amidst the suggestions
of the former impurity which those high
places called up. so in the books of Mo-
ses we find strict commands to destroy
them. Lev. 23 : 30 ; Num. 23 : 52 : Deut.
33 : 29, Israel is directed to repair unto
the one altar of burnt-ofi'ering. Deut.
12:5,6: 16:21, But on the othci-
hand, an earlier law, Ex. 20 : 24 ff"., gave
the people directions how to build altars,
as if there might be really more than
one. And it is certain that the Deuteio-
nomic regulation was violated, at least in
letter, for Gideon, Jud. 6 : 25. 20, Sanuiel
at Mizpeh, 1 Sam. 7:10, at an unnamed
high place. 9:12, and at Bethlehem, 16 :
5 ; Saul at Gilgal. 13 : 9. David, 1 Chr.
21:26, Elijah on Mount Carmel, 1 Kgs,
18 : 30, and other prophets, 1 Sam. 10 : 5,
offered sacrifices away from the taber-
nacle, and even upon high places. To
account for this strange anomaly some
suggest that the command already al-
luded to was ''prospective, and was not
to come into force until such time as
the tribes were settled in the Promised
Land, and had rest from all their neigh-
bors round aboi>t." Others plead the
inconvenience, or in all probability at
times the impossibility, of coming up to
Jerusalem, as an excuse. But it should
be borne in mind that in the above-men-
tioned incidents there was either a di-
vine command or a divine sanction.
The Rabbins declare that for the greater
part of the time before the building of
the temple it was allowab'c to offer sac-
rifices upon the high places. 2 Sam. 15 :
383
HIG
HIG
32; cf. 1 Kgs. 3 : 2. Whatever may be
the explanation, the worship on the high
places gratitied a popular demand, and
Grod did not punish them for this viola-
tion of the command in Deuteronomy.
Elijah, indeed, complains because so
many altars of Jehovah were thrown
down, 1 Kgs. 19 : 10. They formed
local centres of religion ; indeed, there
is a resemblance in this respect between
them and the synagogues. Solomon,
however, took a step downward in this
matter. He gave the sanction of his
example to the erection of high places,
nut only for Jehovah, but for heathen
divinities, 1 Kgs. 11 : 7. 8. The idol-
atry of the capital found imitators.
When Jeroboam would strengthen him-
self against the attraction of Jerusalem,
he erected calves at the high places of
Dan and Bethel, 1 Kgs. 12 : 29-31.
From that time the Jews of the north-
ern kingdom used the high places
as places of worship, both of Jehovah
and of false gods. In Judah the worship
of Jehovah on the high places contin-
ued. Even the pious kings — Asa, 1 Kgs.
16 : 14, Jehoshaphat, 22 : 43, Jehonsh, 2
Kgs. 12:3, Amaziah, 14:4, Azariah,
15 : 4, Jotham, 15 : 35 — made no attempt
to remove it, although their failure to do
so constitutes a stock charge against
them by the writers of the books of the
Kings. But in Chronicles, Asa and Je-
hoshaphat, 2 Chr. 14 : 3 ; 17 : 6 ; 20 : 33,
are both stated to have taken aw;iy the
high places. The discrepancy is re-
moved by supposing these kings really
did remove the high places used for
idolatrous worship, but found them-
selves unable to remove those dedicated
to Jehovah. Meanwhile, the prophets,
among whom were Amos, 7:9: Ilosea,
10 : 8, and Micah, 1 : .0, lifted up their
denunciations against the i)ractice. At
last Ilezekiah set himself vigorously-
against the high places, 2 Kgs. 18 : 4,
But it was reserved to Josiah to uproot
the evil. The nation, under the recent-
ly-discoveied book of the Law (Deuter-
onomy), for the first time, ]>erhaps. real-
ized how sinful their practice had been,
and therofo.e joined the king in destroy-
ing all traces of it, 2 Kgs. 23 : b. After
the time of Josiah there is no mention
of Jehovistic high places, although the
later pro|)hets speak of idolatrous high
places. Jer. 17 : 3 ; Eze. 6 : 6.
384
The high places had their particular
priests. 1 Kgs. 12 : 31 ; 2 Kgs. 17 : 32 ;
23 : 8 ff. The worship thereat consisted
both in sacrifices and ofierings. Upon
them was an altar, which is distin-
guished from the high place, 2 Kgs.
23 : 15, and about them, in some cases
at least, a structure called the " house
of the high place.'" 1 Kgs. 12 : 31 ; 13 :
32; 2 Kgs. 23:10. This gave them a
temple-like apjiearance. The word for
'' high place " was occasionally trans-
ferred to such a temple or shrine, and
therefore a ''high place" in a vuUei/,
Jer. 7 : 31, or in the city's streets is
spoken of. Eze. 16 : 31.
HIGH' PRIEST, the head of the
Jewish priesthood. Lev. 21:10. Aaron
was the first to hold the office, Ex. 28 : 1,
and his descendants filled it after him.
Eleazar was his immediate successor.
Num. 3 : 32 ; 20 : 28 ; Deut. 10 : 6, and
the priesthood remained in his family
till Eli, 1 Chr. 24 : 3, 6, who was of the
house of Ithamar.
The office of the high priest was orig-
inally held for life. This rule was dis-
regarded by Solomon, who appointed
Zadok and deposed Abiathar, 1 Kgs. 2 :
35, because he had espoused the cause
of Adonijah, 1 Kgs. 1 : 7, 25.
In the years succeeding the close of
the canon the office became a tool in the
hands of the rulers of the land. Herod
particularly and his successors disre-
garded the tradition of the Jews on this
point. This people, who held the office
so sacred, now olten begged their rulers
to remove the incumbents, who were
parasites of the throne. Herod iippoint-
ed no less than five high {)riests himself,
and one of them, Simon, as the price of
his daughter in marriage. We conse-
quently read in the N. T. of several high
priests living at the same time, and An-
nas and Caiiiphiis are particularly men-
tioned, Luke 3 : 2.
The services of consecration were pro-
longed, lasting 7 diiys, Ex. 29 : 35. and
elaboriite. They consisted of sacrifices,
Ex. 29 ; of !in(»inting with oil, Ex. 29 : 7 ;
30 : 22-33 ; Lev. 21 : 10 ; and of putting
on of garments, Ex. 29 : 5, fi, 8, 9.
The (IrcHH of the high priest was much
more costly and magnificent than that
of the inferior order of ])riests. It is
flescribed Ex. 39 : 1-9. In the cut are
seen the robe and cphod. the latter of
HIG
HIL
which is outermost of all, and is curi-
ously wrought with gold wire and blue,
purple, and scarlet thread. Upon either
shoulder is seen an onyx-stone, on each
of which were engraved the names of six
of the tribes of Israel. The breastplate
is also seen, with a wrought chain of
Hish Priest.
Priest.
gold attached to each corner, and pass-
ing under the arms and over the shoul-
der. See Breastplate.
The mitre, or head-dress, is formed
of eight yards of fine linen, in circular
folds, and inscribed in front, upon a
plate of pure gold, Holiness to the
Lord. The fringe or hem of the robe,
and the bells suspended from it, are
also seen.
The dress of the high priest on the
day of expiation was very plain and
simple, consisting only of plain linen,
with a sash 6r girdle. Hence these
were called by the Jews the priest's
'•white garments," etc.; the former,
" garments of gold."
I'\incti<>n8. — The high priest's most
solemn, peculiar, and exclusive duty
was to officiate in the most holy place
on the great day of atonement, Heb.
9 : 7, 25. See Atonement, Day of. In
Lev. 16 we have a full account of
this most interesting service and the
imposing ceremonies which preceded
it. The high priest might at any
time perform the duties assigned to the
ordinary priests. He was in general the
overseer of the temple, 2 Kgs. 12:10,
and at the time of our Lord presided
25
over the Sanhedrin. Acts 5:17; John
18 : 13, 14, etc.
Jesus is the great High Priest, who
once for all sprinkled with his own blood
the threshold of the holy of holies (hea-
ven), where he ever liveth to make inter-
cession for us. Heb. 4 : U; 7 : 25 ; 9 : 12,
etc.
HIGH'WAYS. At the present
time there are no roads in Palestine
except the remains of those the Romans
made. But inasmuch as the ancient
Jews used carts and chariots, there must
have been roads in that day. Gen. 45 :
19, 20; Josh. 17: 16; Jud. 4*: lo; 2 Kgs.
10:16; Acts 8:28. The highways or
more frequented tracks arc distinguished
from the hedges or the narrow paths be-
tween the hedges of a vineyard by our
Lord in the familiar parable of the Mar-
riage-supper, Luke 14: 23. See Hedge,
Field.
HI'LEN (place of caves /), a city of
the sons of Aaron in Judah, 1 Chr. 6 :
58 ; named Holon in Josh. 15 : 51 ; 21 : 15.
HILKI'AH {theLovdisviy jvirtion).
1. The father of Eliakim. 2 Kgs. 18 : 18 ;
Isa. 22:20; 36:3, 22.
2. The high priest in the reign of Jo-
siah, who accidentallj-, while '* summing
up" the silver in the temple, found the
book of the Law, 2 Kgs. 22 : 8.
3, 4. Two Merarite Levites. 1 Chr.
6:45; 26:11.
5. One who stood by Ezra during the
reading of the Law, Neh. 8 : 4.
fi. A priest who returned with Zerub-
babel, Neh. 12:7, 21.
7. The father of the prophet Jere-
miah, Jer. 1 : 1.
8. The father of one of Zedekiah's am-
bassadors to Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 29 : 3.
HILL-COUNTRY. See Hill.
HIL'LEL (praUe), father of Abdon,
one of the judges of Israel, Jud. 12: 13,
15.
HILL, HILLS. There is some
confusion in the use of ''hill" and
"mountain" in the A. V. Thus the
" hill country " of Luke 1 : 39 is the
"mountain of Judah," Josh. 20 : 7.
Again, precisely the same elevation is
called both mountain and hill, Luke 9:
28 ; cf. 37. But the original text is ex-
act, employing words of quite different
meaning to express the different eleva-
tions of hills and mountains. See Pal-
estine, Mountain.
385
HIL
HIR
HILL OF ZIOX. See Zion, Je-
rusalem.
HIN. See Measures.
HIND. See Hart.
HING'ES. The translation of two
Hebrew words. The hinges of Prov.
26 : 14 were probably the pivots inserted
in sockets, both above and below, upon
which Oriental doors are even now hung.
The hinges of 1 Kgs. 7: 60 were "'prob-
ably of the Egyptian kind, attached to
the upper and lower sides of the door."
HIN'NOM, a valley to the south and
west of Jerusalem, called also " the val-
ley of the son," or "children, of Hin-
noiu," or " valley of the children of
groaning," a deep and narrow ravine
with steep, rocky sides separnting Mount
Zion to the north from tlie " hill of e\ il
counsel," and the sloping rocky plateau
of the " plain of Re])haim " to the south.
The south-eastern portion of the valley
was called Tophet, or *' place of fire,"
Jer. 7:31; 2 Kgs. 23 : 1 0, and the " val-
ley of slaughter," Jer. 7 : 32 ; 19 : 6.
The earliest mention of the Valley of
Hinnom is in Josh. 15 : 8 ; 18 : 10. where
the boundary-line between the tribes of
Judah and Benjamin is described as
passing along the bed of the ravine. On
the southern brow, overlooking the val-
ley at its eastern extremity, Solomon
erected high places for Molech, 1 Kgs.
11 : 7, whose horrid rites were revived
from time to time in the same vicinity
by the later idolatrous kings. Ahaz
and Manasseh made their children " pass
through the fire" in this vnllev. 2 Kgs.
16 : 3 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 3 : 33 : 6, and the fiendish
custom of infant sacrifice to the fire-gods
seems to have been kept up in Tophet.
To put an end to these sacrifices, Josiah
polluted the place by spreading over it
human bones and other corruptions, 2
Kgs. 23:10, 13, 14; 2 Chr. 34:4, 5,
from which time it appears to have be-
come the common cesspool of the city,
into which its sewage was conducted, to
be carried off by the wfiters of the Ke-
dron.
From its ceremonial defilement, and
from the detested and abominable fire
of Molech, if not from the supjiosed
ever-burning funeral piles, the later
Jews applied the name of this valley,
Gc Hinnom, Gehenna, to denote the place
of eternal torment. In this sense the
word is used in the Gospels. Matt. 6:
386
29 ; 10 : 28 ; 23 : 15 ; Mark 9 : 43 ; Luke
12 : 5.
The valley has usually been de-
scribed as beginning at the north-west
of Jerusalem and extending south IJ
miles, turns east between Zion and the
hill of evil counsel, passing through
a deep gorge and joining the Kedron.
South of the valley is a steep hillside,
rocky and full of sepulchres, the tradi-
tional site of Aceldama, or "field of
blood." Warren, however, identifies
Hinnom with the Kedron valley east of
Jerusalem (Recorenj of Jerunnlem, p.
239), and Stanley accepts this view
{/hid., -p. 14). Prof. Socin in Baedeker's
Hundhook, 1876 dissents from this loca-
tion, and holds to the former identifi-
cation of Hinnom.
HI'RAH {nohle birth), an AduUam-
ite, the friend of Judah, Gen. 38 : 1, 12,
20.
HI'RAM (nohle). 1. A distinguish-
ed king of Tyre. He was contemporary
with David and Solomon, and on terms
of political and personal friendship with
them. Under his reign the city of T3're
became celebrated for its wealth and
magnificence, and the vast supplies he
furnished to the kings of Israel show the
greatness of his resources. He aided
David with materials for a palace, 2
Sam. 6:11; 1 Chr. 14:1, and Solomon
in the construction of the temple, 1 Kgs.
6 : 1-12; 9 : 11-14, furnishing workmen
as well as materials. He also allowed
Solomon to send ships with the Tyrian
ships under Tyrian management. 1 Kgs.
9 : 26-28 ; 10 : 1 1-28.
2. An eminent artificer of Tyre who
was employed by Solomon on some of
the most diflicult of the fixtures and fur-
niture of the temple, 1 Kgs. 7 : 13.
HIRE'LING, one who is employed
on hire for a limited time, as a day or
year. Job 14 : C. By the Levitical law
such a one was to be ])aid his wages
daily. Lev. 19 : 13. " The years of a
hireling " were years exactly reckoned,
since the hireling would know the day
of his release, an(l the master would not
let him go a day too soon. Isa. 16 : 14;
21 : 10. The little interest which would
be felt by such a temporary laborer,
compared with that of the shepherd or
permanent keeper of the Hock, furnishes
a striking illustration in one of our
Lord's discourses, John 10 : 12, 13.
HIS
HOD
HIS is often used in the A. V. instead
of ita. In one sentence this fact has
misled many. Thus : *' Seek ye first the
kingdom of God and his righteousness,"
Matt. 6 : 3.3. The " his " refers to God,
not to kingdom.
HISS. To hiss at one is used as an
expression of insult and contempt, 1 Kgs.
9:8; Jer. 19 : 8 ; Eze. 27 : 36 : Mic. 6 :
16, and also denotes "to call by whis-
tling." Isa. 5 : 26 ; 7 : 18 ; Zech. lO : 8.
HIT'TITES, the posterity of Heth.
the second son of Canaan. Their settle-
ments were at first in the southern part
of Judfea. near Hebron, Gen. 23 : 3, and
later, when the spies enter the land, they
find them dwelling in the mountains. It
was from the Hittites that Abraham pur-
chased Machiielah for a sepulchre. Gen.
23 : 3-13 ; and in this transaction they
are repi-esented as a commercial rather
than a warlike people. Esau married
two Hittite women, Gen. 26 : 34, 35 ;
from all which we gather that they were
on terms of intimacy with the family of
Abraham. Later in the history of Israel
they seem to have lost their national in-
tegi-ity, although the name was not for-
gotten. Ezr. 9:1,2.
HITTITES, LAXD OF THE,
the region peopled by the descendants
of Cheth (A. V. "Heth"), the second
son of Canaan. They were first settled
about Machpelah, at a place named Kir-
jath-arba. afterward called Hebron. Gen.
23 : 19 ; 25 : 9. When the Israelites en-
tered the Promised Land the Hittites
took part against tiie invaders in equal
alliance with the other Canaanite tribes.
Josh. 9:1; 11 : 3. After this the notices
of the Hittites are very few. Of the ex-
tent of their country nothing is known,
except that it covered the portion of Ca-
naan between the wilderness of Paran
on the south and the region occupied by
the Jebusites on the north. Notices of the
nation have re3ently been found in As-
syrian inscriptions, and occur in Egyp- i
tian annals. See Canaax. |
HI'VITES, a people descended from i
Canaan, Gen. 10 : 17. When Jacob re-
turned to the land of his fathers he
found them settled there. One of them,
Hamor, defiled Dinah, for which a speedy
retribution was visited upon their cit3' by
Simeon and Levi, Gen. 34 : 25. We
again meet them at the conquest of Ca- ;
naan, Josh. 11 : 3, 19. This people dwelt
at this time in the north-western part of
Palestine, under Mount Hermon, Josh.
11 : 3, and in Mount Lebanon, Jud. 3 : 3.
HI'VITES, LAND OF THE, a
region in Canaan, along the coast of the
Mediterranean, peopled by some of the
descendants of Canaan, the son of Ham.
Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 15. On Jacob's
return to Canaan, Shechem was in pos-
session of the Hivites, Hamor the Hivite
being the "prince of the land," Gen. 34:
2. They voluntarily surrendered their
country to Joshua. Josh. 9:7; 11:19.
The main body of the Hivites were then
living on the northern confines of western
Palestine — " under Hermon in the land
of Mizpeh," Josh. 11 : 3 ; '• in Mount Leb-
anon, from Mount Baal-hermon unto the
entering in of Hamath," Jud. 3 : 3. They
paid tribute to Solomon. 1 Kgs. 9 : 20 ;
2 Chr. 8 : 7. Their country appears to
have been afterward absorbed by the
surrounding nations.
HIZKI'AH {utreuf/th of Jehovah),
an ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah,
Zepli. 1: 1.
HIZKI'JAH {Htrenfjth of Jehovah),
one who sealed the covenant, Xeh. 10 :
17.
HO'BAB {love), the son of Jethro,
and brother-in-law of Moses, Xum. 10 :
29-32.
HO'BAH {hi'diin/-plnrfi). a place be-
yond Damascus to which Abraham pur-
sue I the confederate kings. Gen. 14 : 15.
Two miles to the north of Damascus is
Johnr, which the Jews regard as the
Hobah of Scripture. There they had a
synagogue dedicated to Elijah. Others
fix the site at Buzrah, 3 miles north of
Damascus : Delitszeh suggests Hoha, a
fountain near Karzetau, as Hobah.
HOD {splendor), an Asherite, 1 Chr.
7 : 37.
HODAI'AH {sjylendor of Jehovah),
a member of the royal line of Judah, 1
Chr. 3 : 24.
HODAVI'AH {splendor of Jeho-
vah), 1. A Manassite. 1 Chr. 5:24.
2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 9 : 7.
3. A Levite, Ezr. 2:40.
HO'DESH {new i//ot<»), a woman of
Beniamin, 1 Chr. 8 : 9.
HODE'VAH {splendor of Jehovah),
a Levite family who returned from cap-
tivity with Zerubbabel, Neh. 7 : 43.
HODI'AH {splendor of Jehovah), a
woman, the wife of a Judite, 1 Chr. 4 :
387
HOD
HOO
19 : perhaps same as Jehudijah. i Chron,
4:18.
nODV J AH (spleudor of Jehovah),
the name of three Levites in the time of
Ezra and Nehemiah. Neh. 8:7; 9:5;
10: in, 13, 18.
HOG'LAH (partriih/e), one of the
daughters of Zelophehad. Num. 26 : 33 ;
27:1: 36:11; Josh. 17 : 3.
HO'HAM (ii)ho7n JehntujJi incites),
king of Hebron, Josh. 10 : 3.
HO'liOlV (sandy). 1. A town in the
mountains of Judah, one of the first group,
of which Debir was apparently the most
considerable, Josh. 15 : 51 ; 21 : 15 ; call-
ed Hilen in 1 Chr. 6: 58. Conder pro-
poses Kh. Koheleh. as its site.
2. A city of Moab, Jer. 48 : 21, in the
plain-country, east of the .Tordan.
HOLY, HOLINESS. Ex. 15 :
11; Lev. 27 : 14. Holiness, or perfect
freedom from sin, and immaculate pur-
ity are distinguishing attributes of the
divine nature, Isa. 6 : 3. These words
in their primitive meaning im])ly a sepa-
ration or setting apart from secular and
profane uses to sacred and divine uses.
They sometimes denote the purity of the
angelic nature. Matt. 25: 31 ; the com-
parative freedom from sin which results
from the sanctification of the human
heart, as in the case of Christians, Ileb.
3:1; Col. 3 : 12; and the consecrated
character of things, Ex. SO : 25; Lev.
16 : 4, and places, Ex. 3 : 5.
The conception of God as holy was
characteristic of the religion of the 0. T,
While the nations of antiquity were at-
tributing to the divine Being liuman pas-
sions and human sins, the Hebrews alone
held firmly to the idea of God as abso-
lutely holy.
HO'LY CITY. See Jeiuisalem.
HO'LY DAY. See Feasts.
HOLY GHOST, HO'LY
SPIRIT. See Si'[rit.
HO'LY LAND. See Canaan.
HO'MAM (extermination), 1 Chr. 1 :
39. See Hemam.
HOME- BORN SLAVE. See
Sekvant.
HO'JHER. See Measures.
HON'EST occurs frequently in its
original sense of " honorable, comely."
Like the Latin hnnrstnu. it denotes what
is morally beautiful in character and
conduct. 1 Pet. 2 : !*>.
HONEY, HONEYCOMB, Ps.
3SS
19 : 10. Palestine still is, almost with-
out metaphor, " a land flowing with
milk and honey," Ex. 3:8,17. It is
remarkable for the variety of its flowers,
reminding us of the promise: "With
honey out of the rock should I have
satisfied thee," Ps. 81:16. With such
provision was John the Baptist fed.
Besides these wild swarms, bee-keep-
ing is carried so far in this country that
almost every house possesses its hives.
The syrup obtained from dates is sup-
posed to be sometimes intended by the
word " honey," 2 Chr. 31 : 5. Dibs, or
the syrup made from Grapes, which see,
is also included under the term "honey."
The figurative allusions of the sacred
writers to honey and the honeycomb aro
striking and beautiful. Ps. 19 : 10 ; Prov.
5:3: 27 : 7. Milk and honey were the
chief dainties of the earlier ages, as they
are now of the Bedouins, and butter and
honey are also mentioned among articles
of fo'od. 2 Siim. 17 : 29 ; Isa. 7:15. In
South Africa bees deposit their honey on
the surface of the clitfs of rocks, and for
its protection cover it with a dark-col-
ored wax. This, by the action of the
weather, becomes hard and of the com-
plexion of the rock. The traveller makes
an incision in this wax covering, and by
applying his mouth to the aperture sucks
out as much honey as he wants, Deut.
32:13. The^v also cover trees in the
same manner. See Bee, Grapes.
HOOD, a turban, Isa. 3:23. See
Head-dress.
HOOKS. Vaiious kinds of hooks
are mentioned in the Bible.
1. Fish-hooks. See FisH-nooKS.
2. The " hook " of 2 Kgs. 19 : 28 ;
Eze. 29 : 4 was probably a ring put
through the nose of wild beasts, or, ac-
cording to the inhuman ])ractice of the
ancient Orientals, of human beings. In
Job 41 : 2 such a ring is spoken of, called
" thorn."
3. Pruning-hooks. knives hooked at
one end. Isa. 2:4: 18: 5.
4. Flesh-hooks, for getting the flesh
out of the caldrons. Eze. 27 : 3 ; 1 Sam.
2:13,14.
5. Hooks to which the carcass was
suspended while being flayed, Eze. 40 :
43. This meaning is, however, disputed.
6. Hooks by which the curtains of the
tabernacle were suspended, Ex. 26 : 32,
37.
HOP
HOR
HOPH'NI {a fighter), A^n PHIN'-
EHAS {brazen -mouthed), the two sons
of Eli, united in their office, their crimes,
and their death. They are examples of
the evils of lax familj'governuient. They
were licentious, exacting, and impious.
They were slain in the battle when the
ark of God was taken. See 1 Sam. 1:3;
2 : 12-17, 22-26, 3-t ; 4 : 11. See Eli.
HOR, MOUNT {the mountain). 1.
Now called by the Arabs Jtbel JVehi/
Harun, " mountain of the prophet
Aaron." It was the halting-place of the
Israelites between Kadesh, Xum. 20 :
22 ; 33 : 37, and Zalmonah, 33 : 41, when
they were journeying '' by the way of the
Red Sea to compass the land of Edom,"
Num. 21 : 4, and where Aaron died. Num.
20 : 24-29 ; 33 : 38, 39 ; Deut. 32 : 50.
" It is one of the very few spots con-
nected with the wanderings of the Israel-
ites which admit of no reasonable doubt.
There Aaron died in the presence of
Moses and Eleazar, there he was buried,
and there Eleazar was invested with the
priesthood in his stead. The mountain
is marked far and near by its double top,
which rises, like a huge castellated build-
ing, from a lower base, and on one of these
is the Mohammedan chapel, erected out
of the remains of some earlier and more
sumptuous building, over the suj^posed
grave. There was nothing of interest
in the chapel : only the marks of Mus-
sulman devotion, ragged shawls, ostrich
eggs, and a few beads. These were in
the upper chamber. The great high
priest, if his body be really there, rests
in a subterraneous vault below, hewn out
of the rock, and in a niche now cased
over with stone, wood, and plaster.
From the flat roof of the chapel we over-
looked his last view — that view which
was to him what Pisgah was to his
brother." — Bean Stanlei/.
Sttitation and Phynical Features. — The
Scriptures describe Mount Hor as '* in
the edge" — i. e., on the boundar^'-line —
of Edom. Num. 20: 23 J 33:37.' Edom
or Mount Seir comprehended the whole
Mt. Hor and
of the sandstone range of mountains
which bounds the Arabah on the east
and extends nearly from the southern
extremity of the Dead Sea to the Gulf
of Akabah. About midway between
these two points, some 50 miles distant
from each, is the highest and most con-
spicuous mountain of the range, which
is without doubt the Mount Hor upon
which Aaron died. Mosera, Deut. 10 :
6, must have been close to the mountain.
The altitude of the summit is 4800 feet
above the Mediterranean, 4000 feet
above the Arabah, and 6000 feet above
Aaron's Tomb.
the surface of the Dead Sea. These are
the English measurements. The moun-
tain, which is ascended by an exceed-
ingly steep path, has two peaks, and on
the eastern of these (4360 feet above the
Mediterranean, according to Baedeker)
is situated the tomb of Aaron {Kabr
Harun^, to which pilgrimages are made.
Here the Arabs formerly offered sacri-
fices, and Stephens, an early American
traveller, saw the remains of an altar
and indications of such sacrifices. The
tomb of Aaron is a small building meas-
uring 28 by 33 feet and surmounted by
389
HOR
HOR
a white dome, as is usual over saints'
tombs. The interior consists of two
chambers, one above the other. In the
upper are four large pillars and a stone
sarcophagus. Steps lead down to the
lower chamber, which is perfectly dark.
At the end is a recess covered by grat-
ing, which purports to be the real tomb.
The impression of one on the spot is that
Aaron's death took place in the small
basin between the two peaks, and vis-
ible to the people in the plain below.
Since Aaron had his last view of earth
from the summit of Hor, as Moses did
from Pisgah, the prospect is regarded
with great interest. The view includes
the Arabah, the mountains of southern
Palestine and Edom, and the Dead Sea.
Beneath the mountain, on the eastern
side, is Petra, a place of great historic
interest. See Sela.
2. Mount Hor, evidentl}' distinct from
the one above, is once mentioned, Num.
34 : 7, 8, as one of the northern bounda-
ries of the Promised Land. Some would
understand by this the whole of the Leb-
anon range as marking the northern
boundary of the country. Porter makes
it the extreme northern summit of the
Lebanon range, which bounds " the en-
trance of Ilamath " on the south. It is
10,000 foet high, emphatically Hor-ha-
har, '■'■ the mountain of the mountain,"
the loftiest mountain in Syria.
HO'RAM (elevated), king of Gezer
at the time of the Conquest, Josh. 10 : 33.
HO'REB {dry, denert), a mountain
or range frequently mentioned in Scrip-
ture. The special application of Horeb
and Sinai in the 0. T. has been much
discussed. Robinson and Hengsten-
berg think that Horeb is the name for
the whole range, Sinai for a jjarticuiar
peak ; Gesenius and others hold pre-
cisely the opposite view. Stanley sug-
gests that there is more a distinction of
usage than of ])lace. (1) In Leviticus
and Numbers, Sinai is exclusively used of
the scene of the giving of the Law : (2)
in Deuteronomy, Horeb is substituted
for Sinai ; (3) in the Psalms the two are
used indifferently. Sec Sinai <iud Pal-
extitie, p. 31. The Arabs now apply the
name Jehcl et-Tiiv to the whole central
granite region, while the peaks of which
it is composed are called by various
names. The mountain of Sinai and its
wilderness are distinguished as the the-
390
atre of events that took place in the dis-
trict of Horeb, and the whole of Horeb
is called " the mountain of God." Ex.
3: 1, 12; 4:27; 17:0; 18:5; 33 : 6.
Hence, sometimes " Sinai " alone is
spoken of. Ex. 19 : 11, 19, 23 ; 24 : 16 ;
31 : 18 ; 34 : 29, 32 ; Lev. 7 : 38; 25 : 1 ;
26:46; 27:34; Num. 1 : 1 ; 3:1,14;
33 : 15. But frequently " Horeb " alone
is named, and the same events are spoken
of as occurring on Horeb Avhich are de-
scribed as taking place on Sinai. Deut.
1:2, 6, 19; 4 : 10, 15 ; 6:2; 9:8; 18:
16; 29: 1. Later sacred writers employ
both names ; e. g. " Horeb," 1 Kgs. 8:9;
19:8; 2 Chr. 5:10; Ps. 106:19; Mai.
4:4; " Sinai," Jud. 5:5; Ps. 68 : 8, 1 7.
In the N. T. "Sinai" became a gen-
eral name, as at the present day. Acts
7 : 30, 38 ; Gal. 4 : 24, 25. In more mod-
ern times, and ever since the Crusades,
the application of the names Sinai and
Horeb to the particular mountains or
peaks has varied greatly among travel-
lers. The range of Horeb spreads over
an extensive field, and may be divided
into two groups, exhibiting rugged and
venerable mountains of dark granite,
stern, naked, splintered peaks and
ridges, some of them of indescribable
grandeur, rising in frowning majesty
high above the general level of the
range. The following heights of sev-
eral peaks are given by the British Ord-
nance Survey: Jebel Musa, 7375 feet;
Jebel Serbal, 6735 feet ; Jebel Kathc-
rin, 8537 feet; Um Shaumer, 8450 feet.
See Sinai.
HO'REM (devoted), a place in
Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 38. A'an de Velde
locates it at Haruh, west of the waters
of Merom.
HOR-HAGID'GAD {mountain of
the cle/t), a camping-jilace of the Israel-
ites in the desert, Num. S3 : 32; a])par-
ently the same as Gudgodah, Deut. 10 :
7, though V/ilton regards the latter as a
valley and the former as a mountain
near it: Robinson notes on his ma{) a
Wadi/ Ghitdoijhah west of the Arabah ;
possibly identical with this place.
HO'RI {eave-dwcllcr). 1. A Horitc.
Gen. 86:22, 80; 1 Chr. 1 : 39.
2. A Simoonitc, Num. 13 : 5.
HO'RITES, HO'RIMS. These
were the aboriginal inhabitants of Mount
Seir, Gen. 14 : 6, from which they were
driven by the descendants of Esau,
HOR
HOR
Deut. 2 : 12, 22. The term means a
"cave," and probably indicates the cha-
racter of this people's habitations.
HOR'MAH {place desolated), a
royal city of the Canaanites ; assigned
to Simeon. Num. 14 : 45 : 21 : 1-3 ;
Deut. 1:U; Josh. 12 : 14 : 19 : 4.
It was first known as Zephath or
"watch-tower," Jud. 1 : 17; was
destroyed after the Conquest ;
was rebuilt. 1 Sam. 30 : 30 ; 1
Chr. 4 : 30. Robinson identified
Zephath with the pass es-Sn/ah,
but Palmer and Drake, with
greater certainty, locate it at
Sebaiteh, the equivalent for the
Hebrew "watch-tower." The
ruins are 500 yards long by 200
or 300 yards wide, and comprise
churches, a tower, and two res-
ervoirs of water. The streets
can also be traced. It is about
20 miles from 'Ain Gad is (Ka-
desh), and a ruined fort 3 miles
from the town coniraanfls the only
pass through which the city could be ap-
proached. Palmer suggests that the for-
tress was the zephath, or " watch-tower,"
and Sebaista the city. Conder suggests
Sulifat as ancient Hormah, but until fur-
ther exploration Palmer's view seems the
most probable.
HOR\. This word is employed in
the 0. T. as an emblem of power, honor,
or glory. Deut. 33 : 17 ; Job 16 : 15 ;
Lam. 2 : 3. " To exalt the horn " was
the same as to prosper ; so " to cut off
the horn," Jer. 48 : 25 ; Lam. 2 : 3, is to
render worthless, to ruin. " To defile
the horn in the dust" is to humble most
deeply. Job 16 : 15. The horn was like-
wise" the symbol of victory. Hence its
use by the false prophet Zedekiah, 1
Ktjs. 22 : 11, and in the Revelation of
John, 5:6. So elsewhere. It is also
frequently employed in prophetic visions
instead of "kings" and "kingdoms,"
Dan. 7 : 20-24: Zech. 1:18. Horns were
used as vessels for liquids, especially oil
and perfumes, 1 Sam. 16 : 1 : 1 Kgs. 1 :
39, and also for trumpets. Josh. 6 : 8, 13.
It is not necessary to think they were
always actual horns, but rather horn-
shaped articles. The horn being the
chief defence and strength of many
beasts, to break or cut off the horn of a
king or people is to abridge or destroy
their power, and to raise or exalt the
horn is to establish or increase power
and prosperity. So also among the
aborigines of this country a like custom
prevailed. The chief of the council
which negotiated the treaty with Wii-
Horns worn as head-oinametits by modern Orientals.
Ham Penn opened the business by pla-
cing on his own head a crown with a
horn in it, significant of supreme au-
thority, by which the covenants of the
treaty were made binding.
Dr. Livingstone describes how the
natives of South Africa ornament their
heads with buffalo-horns. The married
women of the Druses of Mount Lebanon
formerly wore on their head horns, orig-
inally of paste-board or pottery, but,
thi-ough pride and rivalry, from a few
inches they became of enormous length
and the material was of greater cost,
until the Druse rich women " sported
gold horns decked with jewels, and so
long that a servant had to spread the
veil over them."
Horns of the Altar. See Altar.
HOR'NET, a very large, strong,
and bold insect of the wasp family, re-
markable for its irritability and for the
severity of its sting. Deut. 7 : 20. Hor-
nets were employed as the instruments
of the divine judgments upon the ene-
mies of Israel, Ex. 23 : 28 : Josh. 24 : 12.
The furious attack of these insects often
drives horses or cattle to madness, and
profane history tells of districts render-
ed almost uninhabitable by them. Capt.
Warren says : " The hornets in Palestine
are very numerous, and attack human
beings in the most furious manner. I
391
HOR
HOS
can readily conceive the rout of an army
being occasioned by them."
HORONA'IM {two caverus), a city
of Moab near Nimrira and Luhith, and
appears to have been on an eminence.
Isa. 15:5: Jer. 48:3, 5. 34.
HOR'ONITE, THE, the desig-
nation, of uncertain derivation, given to
kSanballat, the determined foe to Nehe-
miah. Neh. 2 : 10, 19 ; 13 : 28. He may
have come from Horonaim or Beth-horon.
HORSE, Gen. 49 : 17, one of the
niiblest of animals, of which Job gives
a most poetic description, ch. 39 : 19-25.
In the early periods of the world the
laboring-beasts were chiefly oxen and
asses, while horses were used by kings
and warriors, either mounted or har-
nessed to chariots. Ex. 14 : 9, 23 ; Esth.
6 : 8, The use of horses by the Israel-
ites was discouraged. Deut. 17 : l'> ; Josh.
11 : 6. The reason is perhaps explained
in Isa. 31 : 1, 3. In Solomon's time,
however, horses were common among
them, and he probably imported them
from Sjn-ia and Egypt. 1 Kgs. 4 : 26 ,•
10 : 26, 29 ; 2 Chr. 1 : 14-17 ; 9 : 25. At
the present day the horse is the usual
conveyer of travellers through Palestine
and Syria, as the camel is in the desert
and the donkey in Egypt. Horses were
onsccrated to idol-gods, 2 Kgs. 23 : 11,
and are often employed by the prophets,
under different colors, to denote the cha-
racter of future dispensations, Zech. 1 :
8 ; 6 : 2-6 : and so also are angels repre-
sented under the figure of horses, 2 Kgs.
2:11: 6 : 15-17, because of the charac-
teristic strength, fleetness, and courage
of that animal.
HORSE'-LEECH (the adherer),
a well known kind of worm very com-
mon in all the stagnant waters of Pal-
estine, I'rov. 30:15. It fastens itself
within the nostrils or mouths of animals
as tliey drink, and will suffer itself to be
nearly torn in two before relaxing iis
hold. Its thirst for blood, never satis-
fied till its body is completely filled, may
illustrate the insatiable cravings of lust,
avarice, and ciuel'j'.
HO'SAH (p/cre of refiif/e), a Mc-
rarite Levite chosen by David to keep
the irate Shallecheth. 1 Chr. 16 : 3S ;
26 : i 0. 1 6.
HO'SAH {re/„f,e), a city of Asher,
Josh. 19 : 29, the landmark on the coast
next to Tyre : probably Ozziyeh.
392
HOSAN'NA (5«re, tve beseech!),
the exclamation with which Christ was
greeted at his last entry into Jerusalem,
Matt. 21 : 9. It is taken from Ps. 118 :
25, which was recited as a part of the
Great Hallel. Ps. 113-118, at the feast
of tabernacles, and which was therefore
familiar to the Jews.
HOSE'A [God 18 help) called Osee
in Rom. 9 : 25, one of the twelve Minor
Prophets, who prophesied between 790
and 725 B. c. in the kingdom of Israel,
under the reign of Jeroboam II.. when
j the kingdom had reached the zenith of
I its earthly prosperity, and was fast ripen-
ing for ruin. He was a contemporary of
j Isaiah. We know nothing of his life.
j His character a])pears in his book, which
reveals a heart full of sadness and sym-
pathy in view of the sins of the ])eople,
yet full of hope. He has been called the
\ Jeremiah of Israel.
! The Book <>/ Hoaea consists of 14
i chapters, and relates to the kingdom of
! Israel. The first part (chs. 1-3) belongs
j to the first period of his active life under
I Jeroboam ; the second (chs. 4-14) pre-
j sents his later labors, when judgment
had already set in. The discourses are
partly threatening, partly hortatory and
! comforting. He is one of the most ob-
! scure among the prophets. '' He delivers
j his message as though each sentence burst
' with a groan from his soul, and he had
I anew to take breath before he uttered
j each renewed woe. Each verse forms a
whole for itself, like one heavy toll in a
funeral-knell."
The greatest difficulty in the book is
the marriage of the ])ro].liet with (iomer,
" a wile of whoredoms," by divine com-
mand, and the names of the ofrs]iring of
this marriage — Jezrecl, Lo-ruhaniah,and
Lo-ammi (1:2-9). The literal interpre-
tation (of several of the Fathers, Dr.
Puscy, Kurtz, and others) is scarcely
reconcilable with the law which forbids
a priest to marry an unchaste woman,
Lev. 21 : 7-14. It is better, therefore,
to explain the niariiage (with many
modern commentators) figuratively, as
a vision or as a sy nibol of the monstrous
sin of spiritual whoredom or apostasy
from th(^ true God. Lo-ruhainali means
" un])itied," and Lo-nvimi, *' not-my-
j)Oople." Immediately aftcrwa.d the
future acceptance is announced, where
the people will know (iod l)y the term
HOS
HOS
hhi, *' VQ.J husband" (2: 16). The pas-
sages 1 : 10 and 2 : 23 are quoted by
Paul, Rom. 9 : 25, as a prophecy of the
conversion of the heathen. The second
section is free from symbolical acts.
The style of Hosea is highly poetical,
bold, vigorous, terse, and pregnant, but
abrupt and obscure. " Hpsea is concise,"
says Jerome, " and speaketh in detached
sayings." ''In Hosea," says Ewald,
'•there is a rich and lively imagination,
a pregnant fulness of language, and
great tenderness and warmth of expres-
sion. 'His poetry is throughout purely
original, replete with vigor of thought
and purity of presentation."
HO'SE.V (plural of hose), Dan. 3 :
21. The word originally meant short
trousers or trunk-hose, as well as sto:;k-
ings. It stands in our translation for a
Chaldee word signifying "tunics."
HOSHAI'AH [whom Jehovah
8'ived). 1. A repairer of the wall of
Jerusalem, Neh. 12 : 32.
2. A prominent Jew's father, Jer. 42:
1 ; 43 : 2.
HOSH'AjWA (whom Jehovah hearn),
a son of Jehoiachin, the last king of Ju-
dah, 1 Chr. 3 : 18.
HOSHE'A (God is help). 1. The
same with Joshua, Deut. 32 : 44.
2. The son of Elah, and the last and
best of the kings of Israel. 2 Kgs. 15 :
30. In the ninth year of his reign the
Assyrian king, provoked by an attempt
which Hoshea made to form an alliance
with Egypt, and so throw olf the Assyr-
ian yoke, marched against Samaria, and
after a siege of three j'ears took it, and
carried the people away into Assyria. 2
Kgs. 17 : 1-t) ; Hos. 13 : 16 : Mic. 1 : 6.
3. An Ejihraimite chief, 1 Chr. 27 :
20. ■
4. One who sealed the covenant, Neh.
10 : 23.
HOSPITAL'ITY is the free fun-
remunerated) provision of lodging and
board to a stranger. Our word '" guest,"
ia its original form, is the Sanscrit i/hits,
meaning '• to eat." We come as stran-
gers into this world, and are from our
birth thrown upon the hospitality of our
fiiends. (iod, too, regards us as his
guests, and himself sets the most beau-
tiful example of lavish and noble hos-
pitality. Ps. 5 : 7, 8 ; 23 : 5 ff. The joys
of heaven, both in patable and vision,
are pictured under the figure of a feast.
', The invitation is given to every one
— to the poor, indeed, rather than the
rich. Luke 14 : 15 fl". ; Rev. 19 : 9. Gods
Son was in this respect his exhibition,
i for he fed the multitudes who waited
upon his ministry not only with spir-
itual but with natural food. When,
therefore, the N. T. writers enjoin hos-
pitality upon believers, they are only
calling upon them to do what God so
constantly does. Rom. 12 : 13 ; 1 Tim.
3:2; 5 : 10 ; 1 Pet. 4:9. In Heb. 13 :
2 we are encouraged to the duty by
the fact that some have entertained an-
gels unawares, referring to Gen. 18, 19.
1 The story of Abraham's treatment of his
guests there related is a faithful descrip-
j tion of an Oriental's conduct, and is illus-
trated by the hospitality of the Bedouins,
For to-day, as in the hoary past, the sheikh
I sits in his tent to receive the ])assers-by ;
i he rejoices to dispense his kindness ; pay-
[ ment is refused; the host considers liim-
i self sufficiently repaid by the gratitude
of his guest.
The exercise of hospitalitv is com-
manded. Lev. 19 : 33, 34 ; 25 : 14 If. ;
Deut. 15:7. Instances are given in-
cidentally in the histories of Abra-
ham, Lot, Jethro, Ex. 2 : 20. iManoah,
Jud. 13 : 15, the old man of Gibeah,
Jud. 19 : 17 flF. By a study of these
chapters an accurate understanding of
the practice can be derived. The host
was surety for the safety of his guest,
even as to-day to have eaten salt, al-
though accidentally, with a Bedouin is
to have his protection. National hatred
and fanaticism, however, occasionally
suppressed this kindly feeling. Thus
the Jews had no dealings with the Sa-
maritans, John 4 : 9, and therefore the
Samaritans refused to give our Lord
lodgment, Luke 9 : 53. In the early
Christian Church the command of uni-
versal brotherly love. Gal. 6 : 10, wfis
implicitly obeyel. Their readiness in
discharging the duty of hospitality won
the admiration of the heathen. "Be-
lievers scarcely ever travelled without
letters of communion, which testified the
purity of their faith and procured for
them a favorable reception wherever the
name of Jesus Christ was known." It
was thought disgraceful for a Christian
to be obliged to stop at an inn if there
were Christians in the place. See Inn.
HOST. See Hospitality, Inn.
393
HOS
HUN
HOS'TAGES are spoken of 2 Kgs.
14: 14: 2 Chr. 25:24.
HO'THAM {sirjnet-riny), an Asher-
ite. 1 Chr. 7 : ?>2.
HO'THAN (sujuet-riinj), father of
two of David's guard, 1 Chr. 11 : 44. The
same name as the preceding.
HO'THIR i/nlueii.'^), a Kohathite
Levite, son of Heman, 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 28.
HOUGH (pronounced hok), to dis-
able by cutting the sinews of the ham
(hamstring), Josh. 11 : 6, 9.
HOUR, The term is employed to
indicate an indefinite period of time, as
in Dan. 3:6; 4:19, and Matt. 9:22;
John 7 : 30, etc. It also indicates a def-
inite period. At the time of our Lord
the Jews reckoned the hours from sun-
rise to sunset, and divided the night into
watches. Six in the morning was count-
ed the first, noon the sixth, and 6 p. m.
the twelfth hour of the day. In the
parable of the laborers, Matt. 20 : 1-
10, this division into hours is clearly
shown. The husbandman engages la-
borers early in the morning, and sul)-
sequently during the day at the third,
sixth, ninth, and eleventh hours. Jesus
was crucified at the third hour, Mark 15 :
25, or about 9 A. m., and the darkness
continued from the sixth to the ninth
hour (12-3 P.M.), Matt. 27:4.5. This
mode of reckoning is emploj^ed in the
Acts, as is plainly seen in ch. 2 : 15.
There were thus twelve hours in every
day between the sun's rising and setting,
and the hours varied in length with the
brevity or length of the day.
The Romans computed time from mid-
night to noon, and divided this period
into equal portions, whose beginning
was indicated by the expressions first,
third, sixth, and ninth hour. It is al-
together 2)robable, although opinions
differ, that John's Gospel observes this
method. The tenth hour, therefore, of
ch. 1 : 39 coincides with 10 A. M. ; the
sixth hour, ch. 4 : 6, with 6 p. m. The
period mentioned for the last scene in
the trial of our Lord, John 19 : 14, as
the sixth hour was 6 A. M. The exact
expression must be emphasized, " ahont
the sixth hour." If we take into account
the necessary delay before arriving at
Calvary, an almost exact harmony is
made out between John and the other
evangelists. See Day.
HOUSE. See Dwellings. The word
394
" house " is also used to denote a family,
Gen. 12 : 17 ; 1 Tim. 5 : 8, a race or lin-
eage, Luke 2 : 4, and property, 1 Kgs.
13:8.
''House of the rolls," Ezr. 6:1, and
"treasure-house," Ezr. 5 : 17, both refer
to the same depository of public docu-
ments.
HOUSE OF GOD, a translation
in the A. V. of the place Bethel. It is
the^j/'fce where the ark was, and not the
ark, which is called "the house of God."
See Bethel. Jud. 20:18, 26; 21:2,-
cf. Jud. 20 : 27.
HUK'KOK {fJHch, moat), a city on
the liorders of Ash.er and Najihtali, Jofh.
19 : 34 ; now Yahnk, north of the Sea of
Galilee, and 7 miles south of Sa/ed.
HU'KOK. See Helkath.
HUL (circle), a grandson of Shem,
Gen. 10 : 23. His descendants may have
peopled part of the Lebanon country.
The point is disputed.
HUL'DAH (n-casrl), the wife of
Shallum, and a well-known prophetess.
When the book of the Law was found,
Josiah sent to her to inquire of the Lord.
Her answer is found in 2 Kgs. 22 : 15-20.
HUMIl/ITY is the opposite of
pride, and one of the cardinal graces of
the renewed heart. It consists in a man's
not thinking of himself more highly
than he ought to think, and in giving
all glory to God alone. It is urged
with great force upon all who profess to
be Christ's disciples, 1 Pet. 5:5. In
this as in all other respects our divine
Saviour's life furnishes us with a perfect
example, Phil. 2 : 5-8. The sacred
Scriptures abound with promises of
grace and favor to the humble and
threatenings of sorrow and punishment
to the proud.
Ill] M'T AH. (phtcenffizards), it c\iy
in the mountains of Judah, the next to
Hebron, Josh. 15 : 54.
HUNT'ING is the necessity of man
in the wild state, and his recreation when
civilized. Before the Flood animal food
does not seem to have been eaten, but
the killing of animals, both tame and
wild, was expressly permitted to Noah,
Gen. 9 : 3. Nimrod achieved a repu-
tation as " a mighty hunter before the
Lord," Gen. 10:9. In Palestine the
patriarchs jjrobably lived very quietly
with their flocks and herds, but they
may have occasionally indulged in the
HUP
HUS
pleasures of the hunt; at all events, we
know that Isaac was very fond of veni-
son, Gen. 27 : 3, 4. After the Exodus
we have proof in the promise of God to
drive out the wild animals that Pales-
tine was at that time plentifully sup-
plied with beasts of the chase, Ex. 23 :
29. But their utter destruction was pro-
vided against. Ex. 23 : 1 1 : Lev. 25 : 7.
We find mention made of lions, Jud. 14:
5 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 34 : bears, 1 Sam. 17 : 34 ;
2 Kgs. 2 : 24; jackals, Jud. 15 : 4; foxes.
Song Sol. 2: 15; hart, roebucks, and
fallow-deer, Deut. 12 : 15 ; 1 Kgs. 4 : 23.
The manner of catching these animals
was either by digging a pitfall, which
was the usual manner with the larger
animals, as the lion, 2 Sam. 23 : 20 ; Eze.
19 : 4, 8, or, secondly, by a trap, which,
set under ground, Job 18 : 10, in the run
of the animal. Prov. 22 : 5, caught it by
the leg. Job 18 : 9, or, lastly, by a net
stretched across a ravine, into which
the animals were driven and then des-
patched. The game was for food,
Prov. 12 : 27, and the blood of these
wild animals was poured out in the
same manner as that of the tame. Lev.
17:13.
Birds were eaten by the Hebrews, Lev.
17 : 13, who exercised considerable inge-
nuity in the capture of them. The most
usual method was by the trap, which was
*' a net strained over a frame, and a stick
to support it, but so placed that it should
give way at the slightest touch." Job
18:9; Eccl. 9:12; Prov. 7:23. Be-
sides the trap, a snare, by which the
bird's leg was caught, Job 18 : 10, a net
to close with a string, and a decoy, Jer.
5 : 26, 27, were occasionally used.
HU'PHAM (cnnsf-dw€Uei-),a. son of
Benjamin, Xum. 26:39.
HU'PHAMITES, THE, de-
scendants of the preceding.
HUP'PAH {coceri»<j), apriesf.head
of the thirteenth course, 1 Chr. 24 : 13.
HUP'PIM {protection), a Ben-
jamite. Gen. 46 : 21 ; 1 Chr. 7:12.
HUR {hole). 1. The man who with
Aaron held up the hands of Moses on
the mountain at the battle with Amalek,
and one of the chief men of the Israel-
ites. Ex. 17: 10; 24 : 14.
2. Grandfather of Bezaleel. Ex. 31 : 2 ;
35:30; 38:22. ^
3. A Midianite chief. Num. 31:8;
Josh. 13:21.
4. Father of one of Solomon's com-
missariat officers, 1 Kgs. 4 : 8.
5. One whose son helped to repair the
wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3 : 9.
HU'RAI {linen-weaver), one of Da-
vid's guard, 1 Chr. 11 : 32.
HU'RAM {nohle-born). 1. A Ben-
jamite, 1 Chr. 8 : 5.
2, The form of the name Hiram which
is used in Chronicles — both that of the
king and the artificer.
HU'RI {linen-weaver), a Gadite, 1
Chr. 5 : 14.
HUS'BAND, a man lawfully join-
ed to one woman in marriage. Gen. 3 :
16, the house-band. A man betrothed,
but not married, was called a husband,
as the betrothals were considered sacred
and inviolable. Matt. 1 : 16.
The husband is the head of the wife,
Eph. 5 : 23, inasmuch as he is the head
of the household (though she is associ-
ated with him), and as such he is enti-
tled to the respect and aflfection of all.
See Marriage.
HUS'BAXD.IIAN, one whose pro-
fession and labor is to cultivate the
ground, John 15 : 1. It is among the
most ancient and honorable occupations.
Gen. 9:20; Isa. 28 : 24-28.
Our Lord used the term in parables
and elsewhere figuratively to designate
God's relation of Disposer and Guardian
of human affairs and destiny. See Ag-
UICI'LTTRE.
HU'SHAH {haste), a name in the
genealogy of .Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 4.
HU'SHAI {rapid), an Archite, and
a particular and faithful friend of David,
2 Sam. 16 : 16. He gained such influence
over Absalom as to prevail with his advice
over Ahithophel, 2 Sam. 17: 14. During
this time he remained David's friend.
HU'SHAItl {haxte), one of the
earlier kings of Edom before the Israel-
itish monarchy. Gen. 36: 34, 35; 1 Chr.
1 : 45, 46.
HU'SHATHITE, THE, the des-
ignation of two of David's guard. 1.
Sibbechai, 2 Sam. 21 : 18; 1 Chr. 11:29.
2. Mebunnai, 2 Sam. 23 : 27. But prob-
ably the latter name is a mere corruption
of the former.
HU'SHIM {haste). 1. The son of Dan,
Gen. 46 : 23: called Shuham.Xum. 26 : 42.
2. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 7 : 12.
3. The wife of a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8:
8, 11.
395
HUS
HYM
HUSKS, Luke 15: 16. Undoubted-
ly the fruit of the carob tree [Ceratonia
ailiqua), which is common in Palestine,
and is used for food by the poor, and for
the fattening of cattle or swine. When
ripe it is like a crooked bean-pod, 6 to
10 inches in length, brown, glossy, and
filled with seeds. Miss M, E. Rogers
says : " I found it when new rather too
sweet to suit my taste. Children seem
to enjoy it, and they thrive on it, eating
Hunks. Fruit of tlie Carob Tree.
{Ceratonia siligua.)
the shell as well ns the seeds." The
carob tree belongs to the same family as
the American "locust," nnd is often
called by that name by. English au-
thors. Some suppose that it was upon
these "locusts" that John the Baptist
subsisted. Hence this fruit is often
called '"St. John's bread." But the
belter critics reject this opinion.
HUZ (the Htroiif/). the eldest son of
Nahor !ind Milcah, (Jen. 22 : 21.
IIIJZ'ZAB appears in the A. V. as
:VJC,
a proper nan.e, a queen of Nineveh in
the days of JSIahum, 2 : 7. Many schol-
ars, however, take it as a geographical
term meaning "the country of Zab."
But perhaps it is best regarded as a
part of speech, and read: "And it is
decreed."
HYiE'NA. " Speckled bird" in Jer.
12 : 9 means, according to some, a vul-
ture or other bird of prey, but according
to other excellent authorities (the Sep-
tuagint, Gesenius, etc.), it
should be translated "hy-
aena." " Zeboim," which
occurs in 1 Sam. 13 : 18;
Neh. 11 : 34, means hy-
aenas. Otherwise there is
no reference to this animal
in the Bible.
The striped species {Hy-
snn striata) is found in all
Oriental countries, especial-
ly in Egypt and the desert.
In Palestine it is more com-
mon than any carnivorous
animal except the jackal.
In general appearance it
resembles the wolf, but it is
of a dirty gray color, with
dark transverse stripes upon
the sides and limbs. The
body is high at the shoul-
ders (about 3 feet), declines
rapidly toward the tail. It
has a mane of erect, bristly
hair along the back.
What the vulture is among
birds this creature is among
animals. The odor from its
food of carrion adds to the
disgust caused b}' its hide-
ous appearance. The hy-
a>na, in spite of every pre-
caution, often succeeds in
digging up and devouring
human corpses. Though
cowardly in its nature, it is very savage.
When driven by hunger, it will some-
times kill cattle. The strength of its
jaws is so great that it can crack the
bones of an ox with ease, but as the hy-
a;na is neither swift nor courageous, it
is not dreaded by man. When in bands,
however, it fears neither the lion nor the
tiger. It inhabits the numerous tombs
of the Holy Land, the caves, and even
the open desert.
HYMEN.irUS {humencnl) is men-
HYM
HYS
The Striped HysBuu.
tioned once with Alexander and once with
Philetus. He is first, 1 Tim. 1 : 20, rep-
resented as having made shipwreck of his
faith, and then as having denied the doc-
trine of a future resurrection of the body,
2 Tim. 2 : 17. Paul delivered him up to
Satan, which probably refers to ecclesi-
astical excommunication.
HYMN. In the N. T. we have the
hymn mentioned with the psalm and the
spiritual song. Eph. 5 : 19 : Col. 3 : 16.
Paul and Silas sang hymns (A. V.,
"praises") in the prison at Philippi,
Acts 16 : 25, and after the Last Supper
our Lord and the disciples sang a hymn
together. Matt. 26 : 30.
HYS'SOP, Ex. 12 : 22. A plant
often used in the ceremonies of purifica-
tion. Lev. 14 : 4, 6, 51 ; Ps. 51 : 7. One
of its characteristics is referred to in 1
Kgs. 4 : 33. It is associated with our
Saviour's last hours, John 19 : 29. More
than twenty diff'erent plants have be.n
urged as the species intended. Tristram
and other recent authorities favor the
caper-bush. But Dr. Post of Beirut,
Syria, in the Siindity-S'^hool World for
March, 1879, argues very conclusively,
on philological and other grounds, in
favor of a species of marjoram. For
such reasons, he says. '' hyssop should
be a labiate plant with aromatic odor
and capable of furnishing a reed-like
stem suitable for binding the sponge
upon and presenting it to the mouth of
Jesus, John 19 : 29. Of
the labiate plants of Pal-
estine, none so well ful-
fils these indications as
the On'(j((iiui)t mnrv, the
Sddtar of the Arabs.
Its thyme-like odor and
pungent taste would
have aided with the
vinegar to assuage
thirst. Most labiates
have similar properties.
Scarlet wool and hyssop
were early associated in
the ceremonial act of
purification. It is re-
markable that thymol,
a product of a plant
closely allied to the hys-
sop and o r i g a n u m , is
now extensively used as
an (Ditiseptic." He fur-
ther adds upon the pas-
sage in John (above) : " There is nothing
in the narrative that _ ^
would forbid the idea
of the sponge saturated
with vinegar having
been bound with a
bunch of hyssops on an
ordinary reed (comp.
Mark 15: 36), in which
case there would be no
need of supposing the
hyssop to have a reeJ-
like stem." Bochart
also decides in favor of
the marjoram, or some
plant like it. Ancient
tradition likewise
points to the same con-
clusion. The Hebrew
word was probably
applied to aromatic
plants of the hyssop
family, and not alone
to one particular herb;
this family is destitute
of deleterious secre-
tions, and the plants
are fragrant as well
as aromatic. As this
family of plants
abounds in Syria and
the Sinaitic penin-
sula, there seems to
i)e no valid objection to Dr. Post's
view.
397
Origanum mnru, or
Hj'ssop.
IBH
IDO
I.
IB'HAR (whom God chooses), a son of
David. 2 Sam. 5 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 3 : 6; 14 : 5.
IB'IjEAM {conswning the people), a
city of Manasseh, but in the territory of
either Issachar or Asher, Josh. 17: 11;
Jud. 1 : 27 : 2 Kg?. 9 : 27, and doubtless
identical with Bileaui. 1 Chr. 6 : 70. It
is proposed by some to identify Ibleam
with Jelatiia, north of Jenin ; by others,
with Belaiiieh.
IBNE'IAH {Jehovah builds), a Ben-
jamite. 1 Chr. 9 : 8.
IBNI'JAH (Jehovah builds), a Ben-
jamite. 1 Chr. 9 : 8.
IB'RI (Hebreio), a Merarite Levite.
1 Chr. 24 : 27.
IB'ZAN (beautiful ?), Si Bethlehem-
ite who "judged " Israel for 7 years after
Jephthah. Jud. 12 : 8, 10.
ICE. See Crystal.
ICH'ABOD (where is the (jlnry ? or
iiiylorious), the son of Phinehas, and
grandson of Eli, the high priest. 1 Sam.
4:21, 22. He was born just after his
mother received the sad tidings that her
husband and father-in-law were dead and
the ark of God taken by the Philistines.
ICO'NIUM (place of images?), a
large and rich city of Asia Minor, in
the province of Lycaonia. It was sit-
uated on the great Roman highway from
Ephesus to Tarsus, Antioch, and the Eu-
phrates, and near the confines of Phrygia
and Pisidia, at the foot of Mount Taurus,
in a beautiful and fertile country, about
300 miles south-east of Constantinople
and about 120 miles inland from the
Mediterranean. Mountains covered with
snow rise on every side, except toward
the east, where there is an extensive
plain. Its importance as a centre for
the spread of the gospel is therefore ob-
vious. Paul visited it on his first and
second missionary iourneys. Acts 13 :
51 ; 14: 1, 19. 21 ; 1(5 : 2 ; 2 Tim. 3:11.
It is now called A7>»/f/f,and has aj)op-
ulation of about :UI,000. In 1832, on the
great plain before Konieh, the Turkish
army was totallj' defeated and dispersed
by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha.
There are important ruins of the Sara-
cenic jieriod around the town.
398
IDA'LAH, OR ID'ALAH, a place
in Zebulun, Josh. 19 : 15; possibly Ed-
dalieh. in Carmel.
ID'BASH (stout), a son of Abi-etam.
1 Chr. 4:3.
ID'DO. The name occurs six times
in tlie A. v., but is the uniform rendeiing
of three different names.
1. (timel)/). A prophet who is quoted as
the author of an historical writing, 2 Chr.
12 : 15 ; 13 : 22; also of visions against
Jeroboam. 2 Chr. 9 : 29.
2. The grandfather of the prophet
Zechariah. Zech. 1:1,7.
3. The father of Abinadab. 1 Kgs. 4 :
14.
4. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6: 21.
5. (calamity). A Nethinim chief. Ezr.
8 :17.
6. (favorite). A ruler of Manasseh.
1 Chr. 27:21.
I'DLE, Matt. 12:36, in this connec-
tion means morally useless.
IDOL, IDOLATRY. AYhat-
ever receives the worship which is due
only to God is an idol. In a figurative
sense, the word denotes anything which
draws the affections from God, Col. 3 : 5,
and in a restricted sense, it denotes any
visible image or figure which is conse-
crated to religious worship. Deut. 29 :
17.
Idolatrj' consists (1) in worshijiping
as the true God some created object, as
stars or animals or men ; (2) in worship-
ping the Deity through the medium of
symbolical representations, as ]»ictures
and statues. It is the greatest sin, and
strictly forbidden in the first and sec-
ond commandments. Ex. 20 : 3, 4;
Deut. 6 : 7 ; 6 : 14, 15; 8 : 19, 20; Jer.
44 : 3-8.
The origin of idolatry is involved in
obscurity, and goes back to the remotest
antiquity. All the heathen are idolaters,
and they embrace two-thirds of the hu-
man race. The ancient Chalditans wor-
shipped the forces and phenomena of
nature, as the sun and the moon and the
stellar luminaries ; the ancient Egyj)tians
all sorts of animals, as bulls, beetles, even
cats, monkeys, and crocodiles. The an-
IDO
IDO
cient Greeks and Romans worshipped
men and women representing all human
virtues and vices. Some degraded na-
tions have made the devil himself an ob-
ject of worship, and made images of the
spirit of evil for purposes of devotion.
St. Paul gives the best description of the
progress of idolatry, with its attending
immorality, in Rom. 1:18 If. The Is-
raelites showed a constant tendency to
relapse into the idolatry of the surround-
ing nations. The principal heathen
gods mentioned in the 0. T. are Dagon,
Molech, Baal, and Ashteroth.
History of Idolatry nmouf/ the He/neici.
— The first definite allusion to idols in
the Bible is in Gen. 31 : 19, where Rachel
is said to have stolen her father's house-
hold gods, the teraphim. To what extent
Laban worshipped them it is difficult to
say, for he also seems to have acknow-
ledged the true God of Abraham. Gen.
31 : 5;^. The Israelites became tainted
with idolatry in Eg^pt. Josh. 24 : 14.
In the wilderness, so potent was the in-
clination in this direction that the people
clamored till they induced Aaron, in im-
itation of the Egyptian Apis-worship, to
make the golden calf, which is expressly
termed an idol by Stephen, Acts 7 : 41.
In the days of Joshua the worship of the
true God seems to have been universal,
but during the period of the Judges
there was a vacillation between the
worship of Jehovah and idolatry. Al-
tars to Baal were erected, and, upon the
whole, the people leaned toward the
abominations of the neighboring nations,
from which they were recalled only by
special visitations. During the lifetime
of Samuel and David a purer worship
prevailed, but in the reign of Solomon
idoldtry was prominent. Solomon's own
heart was turned away after other
gods, 1 Kgs. 11 : 4. and his wives had
their own special heathen altars. By
polygamy and idolatry the wisest man
became the greatest fool, and left the
world the sad lesson, "Vanity of vani-
ties, all is vanity."
The subsequent history of the divided
kingdom is the history of a contest be-
tween idol-worship and the worship of
the true God. At the time of Elijah the
whole kingdom of the Ten Tribes seemed
to have bowed the knee to Baal, and
there were only 70Q0 exceptions. After
the Babylonish captivity the people were
more steadfast, and despite the influ-
ence of the Greek religion remained true
to the worship of Jehovah.
The causes of this vacillation and fail-
ing away into idolatry are not far to seek.
To Israel alone were committed the ora-
cles of God. The other nations had only
the light of natural religion, and were,
for the most part, grossly idolatrous.
Constant contact with these peoples, the
intermarriage of the common people and
their kings with " strange women," 1
Kgs. 11 : 4, 5, and an innate propensity
of depraved human nature for idolatry,
sufficiently explain the frequent defec-
tions of the Hebrew nation from the wor-
ship of the one God.
It may well be expected, among a
people one of the chief designs of whose
existence was to conserve the doctrine
of God's unity and s})irituality, that
idolatry would be visited witii severe
punishments. The first two command-
ments of the Decalogue forbid it. The
iudividual offender was devoted to de-
struction. Ex. 22 : 20. Idolatry was a
criminal offence against the state and
treason against Jehovah. A favorite
figure of speech in the 0. T. represents
the Israelitish people as sustaining a
relation of marriage with Jehovah, and
idolatry is represented by the later
prophets as a state of whoredom or
conjugal infidelity. Hos. 2:2, 4, etc.:
Eze. 16 : 28 ; Jer. 3 : 3. Whenever a
good and God-fearing king came to the
throne, as Josiah, Asa, Hezckiah, he
considered it his first duty to w:ige a
war against the altars, images, and pil-
lars of idolatrous worship. The Canaan-
itcs are frequently referred to as meriting
national extermination on account of
their idolatry. Deut. 12:29-31; Ex.
34 : 15, Ifi, etc. The pro])hets speak of
idolatry as defiling and polluting in its
influences, Eze. 20 : 7, etc., and Isaiah
ridicules the idea of divinity in false
gods and idols by a reference to a piece
of wood of which a part is thrown into
the fire and a part shaped into an image,
Isa. 44: 15-17.
The rites of idolatry were often ob-
scene and licentious. When the people
assembled around the golden calf in the
wilderness for worship, they went about
naked, or unruly, as some translate. Ex.
32 : 25. Feasting and revelry were fre-
quently connected with this worship.
399
IDU
IMA
The Christian Church is exposed to
the same peril of falling into the sin of
idolatry as was the Jewish Church, al-
though it assumes more refined forms,
such as worship of saints, images, and
relics, of wealth, glory and pleasure.
Paul calls covetousness, or the worship
of mammon, " idolatry." Col. 3 : 5. The
last verse in the First Epistle of John
is the warning, " Little children, keep
yourselves from idols."
IDUM^'A, the Greek name for
Edom. Isa. 34 : 5, 6 ; Mark 3 : 8. See
EOOM.
IDUM^'ANS,orE'DOMITES.
The inhabitants of Idumgea or Edom,
commonly called Edomites, were de-
scendants of Esau (Gen. 36 : 1, 8), and
dwellers in the clefts of the rocks in the
Sinaitic peninsula. Jer. 49 : 16. Petra,
their stronghold in Amaziah's day, 2
Kgs. 14 : 7, and chief city, was literally
cut in the rocks, and the southern part of
the country abounds in cave-dwellings.
Tlie}'^ had kings long before the Hebrews.
Gen' 36 : 31. Though they were of the
same primitive parentage as the Hebrews,
they were by no means friendly to them.
They perpetuated the enmity between
Esau and Jacob. They opposed their
passage through their country when Is-
rael came from the wilderness. Num. 20 :
20, 21. But finally they allowed a pas-
sage through their eastern border, ac-
cepting also Israel's offer to pay for pro-
visions. Deut. 2 : 28, 29. The Edomites
were conquered by Saul in the early part
of his reign, 1 Sam. 14 : 47, and by Da-
vid likewise, 2 Sam. 8:14; but at the in-
stigation of Iladad they revolted against
Solomon. 1 Kgs. 11 : 14. Edom was ior
a long time a vassal of the kingdom of
Judah, but again revolted, and after a
struggle got its independence in the
reign of Jehoram. 2 Kgs. 8 : 20-22.
The later kings attacked and were at-
tacked by the Edomites. In the days
of the Maccabees they were again active
foes to the Jews, but Judas Maccabaeus
defeated 'hem and John Hyrcanus com-
pletely subjected them, compelling them
to adopt the Mosaic Law. But out of
this humbled but turbulent jieople came
Antipater, who obtained the government
of Judaea, b. c. 47 : and his son was
Herod the Great. The prophets fore-
told the desolation of the dcsc-endants of
Esau and their country. Jer. 49 : 1 7, 18 ;
400
Ob. 8. Thirty ruined towns within three
days' journey from the Red Sea attest
their former greatness and their present
desolation.
I'GAIj (n-hom God reJecvin). 1. The
spy of the tribe of Issachar. Num. 13 : 7.
2. One of David's guard. 2 Sam. 23 :
36 ; called Joel, 1 Chr. 11 : 38.
IGDALil'AH {ichovi Jehovnli makes
(jreat), a prophet in the days of Jeremi-
ah : mentioned only once. Jer. 35 : 4.
IG'EALi {trhot)i God redeems), a de-
scendant of David. 1 Chr. 3 : 22.
I'lM {rntitouH heojys). 1. Num. 33 :
45. See Ijk-abarim.
2. A town in the south of Judah, Josh.
15 : 29, whicdi Wilton connects with Azem
and identifies with el-AvJeli, near the
Wady el- A in.
IJ'E-AB'ARIM (rviusof Abarim),
a station of the Israelites in the south
of Moab, Num. 21 : 11 ; 33 : 44 ; the same
as lim, and near to the stream Zared.
I' JON {mill), a city of Naphtali,
lying in the north of Palestine; taken
and plundered by the captains of Ben-
hadad, 1 Kgs. 15 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 4. and
again by Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kgs. 15 : 29.
Robinson identifies it with the ruin IJih-
hiii, on the plain Merj Ayijiu, about 10
miles north-west of Banias (Caesarea-
Philippi).
IK'KESH ipervevfie), the father of
one of David's guard. 2 Sam. 23:26;
1 Chr. 11 : 28 ; 27 : 9.
I'LiAI {«.raUed), one of David's guard.
I 1 Chr. 11 : 29.
ILLYR'ICTJM, a Roman province
! of south-eastern Europe, lying along the
eastern coast of the Adriatic, from the
\ boundary of Italy on the north to Epi-
' rus on the south, and contiguous to
Mcesia and Macedonia on the east. On
account of the insurrection of the Dal-
matians, B. r. 11, the province was di-
vided, and the northern portion called
Dalmatia; the southern portion remain-
ed one of the Senate's provinces. Paul
preached round about unto Illyricum.
Rom. 16:19.
I IM'AGE. We are told that God
"created man in his own image," Gen.
1:20, 27, and Christ is said to be "the
image of God." Col. 1:1.'); Ileb. 1 : 3.
The term used of our Lord imports
a complete likeness, like that which
exists between a seal and its impres-
sion when the original is perfectly
IMA
IMP
preserved in the representation. Used
of man, the term refers especially to
man's knowledge and capacity' to com-
prehend God, Col. 3 : 10 ; to his original
holiness, Eph. 4 : 24, thus being like God
in the tone of his moral nature : and to
his dominion over the creatures of the
earth. Gen. 1 : 28. The word is usually
employed to denote an object of idola-
trous worship. See Max, Idol.
IIFAGE OF JEALOUSY. Eze.
8 : 3, 5. This was not any particular
idol, but a general ])hrase for the idol-
atrous practices which excited the jeal-
ousy of Jehovah.
IMAGERY, CHAMBERS
OF, Eze. 8 : 12, or CHA.MBERS
OF IMAGES. The phrase refers to
the custom, so extensively followed by
the Egyptians and Assyrians, of paint-
ing pictures of the gods upon the walls
of temples and other buildings.
IMXA ijilled), father of Micaiah,
the Jehovah-prophet who foretold the
defeat at Ramoth-gilead, 2 Chr. 18 : 7,
8; called Imlah, 1 Kgs. 22:8, 9.
IM'LAH. Same as preceding.
IMMAN'UEL, a Hebrew word sig-
nifying " God with us," and used as one
of the distinctive titles of the Messiah.
Isa. 7 : U: Matt. 1 : 23. See Chhist.
I31'MER {talkntive), father of a
priestly family. 1 Chr. 9 : 12; Ezr. 2 :
37; Xeh. 11: 13.
IM'MER, apparently the name of a
place ill Babylonia. Ezr. 2 : 59 ; Neh. 7 :
61.
IMMORTALITY. 1 Cor. 15 : 53.
The immortality of the soul was held as
a popular belief by the Egyptians and
other ancient nations, ani taught by
some of the greatest ji'ii'osophers of the
heathen world — Socrates, Plato, Cicero,
and others. In the 0. T. a- belief in it
is taken fir grantel, and the doctrine is
njt specially taugiit.
Particular passages and the cases of
indiviluals are a sufficient proof that the
Hebrew pople lielieved in a future life.
The translation of Enoch and the with-
drawal of Elijah are evidences of this.
One of the great questions depenijent upon
the central question of the book of Job
is whether a man that dies shall live
again. 14:14. A must einphafic affirm-
ative answer follows in ch. 19 : 25, where
the patriarch looks forward to another
state of being for his vindication. Such
26
passages as Ps. 17 : 15 admit us to the
assurance of the Hebrews on this point.
The expressions " gathered unto his peo-
ple," Gen. 25 : 8, and " bury me with my
fathers," Gen. 49 : 29, so frequently re-
curring, are often interpreted to refer to
the future life. The books of Moses do
not refer specially to the immortality
of the soul, but the doctrine is assumed;
for otherwise the sacrificial and peniten-
tial system of the Mosaic Law would be
unintelligible. The exhortations and
commands thus made are based upon
the certainty of rewards and punishments
in a future state of existence. More-
over, God is frequentij" called, in the
Mosaic writings, the God of Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob, and this designation
our Lord uses as an argument for the
immortality of the soul. Matt. 22 : 32.
In the N. T. the doctrine of the immor-
tality of the soul is definitely taught in
close connection with the resurrection of
the body.
Our Lord speaks of the future state
of the soul, when it shall suffer either
unending pain or enjoy unending bliss.
Matt. 25 : 46. The parable of Lazarus
and Dives presupposes the same funda-
mental truth. In the Epistles of Paul
we have prolonged references to this
subject and discussions of it, Phil. 1 :
21-23; 2 Cor. 5: 1-6; 1 Thess. 4 : 13-18,
and especially in the fifteenth chapter
of First Corinthians.
In our English Version, God is said to
be •• immortal."' 1 Tim. 1 : 17. The word
is the same as that translated "uncor-
ruptible." Rom. 1 : 23, and should, be so
translated here.
IM'NA (holding back), an Asherite.
1 Chr. 7:35.
IM^NAH (aiiecess). 1, Asher's first-
born. I Chr. 7 : 30.
2. A Levite. 2 Chr. 31 : 14.
IMPLEAD', a technical term; "to
prosecute by a due course of law." Acts
IM'POTENT, " sick." John 5:3;
Acts 4:9: 14 : S.
IMPRIS'OiXMEXT. See Punish-
ments.
IMPUTE'. Rom. 4: 8. The Greek
word of which this is a translation is
rendered in our English Bible by no less
than eleven different terms ; for example^
j " reckon," Rom. 4:4; " lay to one's
1 charge," 2 Tim. 4: 16; "account." Gal.
401
IMR
INN
3 : (>. The meaning of the word is "to
put to the account of a person that of
which he is or is not possessed." In the
former sense, God is said to impute sin,
Rom. 4:8; in the latter sense the right-
eousness of Christ is said to be imputed
to man on condition of the exercise of
faith in Christ's sacrifice. Rom. 4: 11-24.
IM'RAH {obstinacy), an Asherite. 1
Chr. 7 : 36.
IM'RI {eloquent). 1. A Judite. 1
Chr. 9:4.
2. Father of a wall-builder. Neh. 3 : 2.
INCANTA'TIONS. See Divina-
tion.
IN'CENSE. Ex. 30 : 8. This was
a compound of frankincense and other
gums or spices, the materials and manu-
facture of which are particularly pre-
scribed. Ex. 30 : 34-of). See Frankin-
cense. It was the business of the priest
to burn it morning and evening upon
an altar specially erected for this jiui-pose,
and thence called the altar of incense.
The preparation of it for common use
was positively forbidden ; neither could
any other composition be oflered as in-
cense on this altar, nor could this be
offered by an}' but the priest. The ofTer-
ing of incense was s^'mbolical of pra3'er,
or, as some think, rather of that which
makes prayer acceptable — the interces-
sion of Christ. See Altai?, Censer,
Frankincense.
Incense was considered sacred, and
might be offered by the priest only.
AVhen King Uzziah attempted to use it
in the temple, he was struck with lep-
rosy. 2 Chr. 26 : 10-21. Incense was
offered to heathen deities and idols. Jer.
11 : 12, 17, and the angels offer it in
heaven. Rev. 8 : •*>.
IN'DIA. The Persian king Ahas-
uerus is d('S(!ribed as reigning " from
India unto I]thiopia." Esth. 1:1: 8:9.
The India of the book of Esther is not
the i)eninsula of Ilindostan. but the
country surrounding the Indus, the
I'mijdb, and perhaps Nriude. Later.
India is reckoned among the countries
which Eumenes, king of Pergamus. re-
ceived out of the former possessions of
Antiochus the (ireat. I Mace. 8:8; 11 :
37. The peojilc and productions of that
country must have been tolerably well
known to the Jews. An active trade
was carried on between India and west-
ern Asia. The trade opened by Solo-
402
; nion by his navy and through Hiram,
king of Tyre, consisted chiefly of In-
dian articles. 1 Kgs. 10 : 10-22.
ING ATH'ERING, FEAST OF.
See Tabernacles, Feast of.
INHER'ITANCE. In the 0. T.
we have no record of wills. The prop-
erty-holder made a disposition of his
])roperty during his lifetime. There do
not seem to have been very definite laws
stipulating the exact proportion to be
given to each heir. The sons had pri-
ority of right, and, in case there were
no sons, the daughters became heirs.
Num. 27 : 8. As between the children
of concubines and the children of legal
wives, the latter seem to have received
the whole inheritance. Gen. 21 : 1 0 ; 24 :
36, while gifts were bestowed upon the
former. Gerf. 25 : 6. However, while
these principles were acted upon by
Abraham, we dare not make the sweep-
ing assertion that they were of universal
application. Jacob blessed both sons of
his concubines and sons of his legal
wives. Gen. 49 : 1 ff. According to
Deut. 21 : 15-17, the first-born son re-
ceived a double portion.
Believers have for their inheritance
salvation, Heb. 1 : 14, and the kingdom
of heaven. Jas. 2 : 5. They are declared
to be "joint-heirs " with Christ and heirs
of God because of their sonship. Rom.
8:17.
INIQ'UITY. Gen. 15:16. What-
ever is done contrary' to the law of God.
To " bear the iniquity of the congrega-
tion," Lev. 10: 17, is to make that ex-
piation or atonement which is a pre-
requisite to their forgiveness. Isa. 53 :
6. "The mysteiy of iniquity," 2 Thess.
2: 7, should be rendered "the mystery
of lawlessness."
INK, INK'HORN. Jer. 36: 18;
Eze. 9:2, 3, 11 : 2 Cor. 3:3:2 John
12: 3 John 13. See Writing.
INN. In the Bible the " inn " was not
a hotel in our sense. The word so trans-
lated means either a " lodging-place for
the night" — not necessarily a covered
place, but a mere station of caravans,
where water could be obtained : such
was the " inn " at which Joseph's breth-
ren stopped, and where Moses Avas met
by the Lord, Gen. 42: 27; Ex. 4: 21—
or else a khan or caravanserai, which
was, and is, a large square building on-
closing an open court, in whose centre
INS
INW
is a fountain : the building contains a
number of rooms. There is no provision
for meals or feed for the animals ; the
travellers carry such necessaries with
them. These caravanserais are often
built by benevolent persons. Jer. 9 : 2.
Inn.
Another kind of " inn " is that mentioned
in the parable of the Good Samaritan.
Luke 10 : 34. This had a host, who was
probably paid to attend to the wants of
travellers. And it was in one of the sta-
bles of a mere caravanserai provided for
the horses of travellers that our Lord
was born.
In modern Syria, in villages where
there is no khan, there is a house for the
entertainment of travellers, with a man
appointed to look after it ; for its accom-
modutions, meagre as they are, payment
is exacted, and the keeper likewise gets
INSPIRA'TIOX. By "inspira-
tion," in the theological sense, is meant
that influence of the Spirit of God upon
the mind of the sacred writers by which
he communicated the knowledge of re-
ligious truths or future events, and
guarded them against error in deliver-
ing these truths to others, either orally or
by writing. The prophets and apostles
spake " as they were moved by the Holy
Ghost." 2 Pet. 1: 21. They were, how-
ever, not merely passive: they were in
a condition of receptivity, and their
faculties Avere raised to the highest ex-
ercise. The divine Spirit acted upon
each author according to his individual-
ity, and used him, not as a machine, but
as a free and responsible agent. Hence
the differences of style and mode of
treatment. The Bible is both human
and divine, like the per-
son of Christ, whom it
reflects.
There are various
theories of inspiration,
as to its mode and de-
grees, which lie outside
of our purpose ; but all
Christians agree that in
the Bible, and in the
Bible alone, we have a
full and perfectly trust-
worthy revelation of
God. and that it is the
infillible rule of our
faith and practice.
INSTANT, IN'-
STANTLY, used
five times in the A. V.
for " urgent," " earn-
est." Luke 7:4: 23:
23; Acts 26: 7,- Rom.
12: 12; 2 Tim. 4: 2.
IN'STRUMENTS OF MUSIC.
Sgg IVIusic.
' INTERCES'SION, Heb. 7: 25,
means interposition by prayer for others,
1 Tim. 2 : 1, and implies wants and
needs.
Our Lord, by reason of his high-
priestly oftice, performs the functions
of intercessor or advocate. 1 John 2:
1. He performed this ofiice while on
earth. The most conspicuous instance
is found in the so-called sacerdotal
prayer, John 17, where intercession is
made for the disciples, v. 9, and for
future believers, v. 20. Our Lord con-
tinues to make intercession for us in his
state of exaltation. Heb. 9 : 24 : Rom.
8 : 34. The Holy Spirit is also said to
make intercession. Rom. 8: 26. This
is accomplished through his dwelling ill
the hearts of believers, praying in them
and enabling them to pray. Believers
also have the privilege of making inter-
cession for one another and for the un-
converted. Gen. 18 : 23-33; 1 Thess. 5:
25 etc.
IN'TEREST. See Loax.
INTERPRETER. See Prophet.
IN' WARD, used in the A. V. of
403
IPH
ISA
Job 19:19 for "familiar/' "confiden-
tial."
I P H E D E'l A H (whom Jehovah
frees), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8: 25.
IR (u citi/}, a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 7:
12 ; called Iri, v. 7.
I'RA (watchful). 1. One of David's
"chief rulers." 2 Sam. 20: 26.
2, 3. Two warrior? of David. 2 Sam.
23 : 26, 38 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 28. 40 ; 27 : 9.
I 'RAD (fleet), a grandson of Cain.
Gen. 4: 18.
I'RAM (watch fill), an Edomile chief-
tain. Gen. 36 : 43 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 54.
IR-HAHE'RES, Isa. 19 : 18. The
Hebrew reads hei-e>i, " destruction ;" the
Syriac, Arabic and Latin, and several
MSS. read chares, "the sun ;" the Chal-
dee combines both readings; while the
Scptuagint reads " city uf righteousness."
These varied readings lead to A'^arious
interpretations of this expression: (1)
That it refers to the city of the sun,
Heliopolis, in Egypt,; (2) To a city de-
stroyed, meaning one of the five cities
noticed by the prophet; (3) To one of
these same cities which should be pre-
served from destruction.
I'RI (icatchful), a Benjamite. 1 Chr.
7: 7, 12.
IRI'JAH (Jehovah sees), a captain
of the ward, who arrested Jeremiah.
Jer. 37 : 13, 14.
IRNA'HASH (serj^ent citji). In the
margin it is called "the city of Nahash."
1 Chr. 4 : 12. Jerome regards it the
same as Bethlehem, but this is not
probable. Van de Velde proposes to
identify the town with the village and
ruins called Deir Nahhaz, east of Beit-
Jihrin, on the road to Hebron.
I'RON. Prov. 27: 17. Some of the
uses of this well-known and most val-
uable metal were probably understood
at a very early period. Clen. 4 : 22.
We find it mentioned as the material
for tools, Deut. 27 : 5 : 2 Kgs. 6:6;
weapons of war. 1 Sam. 17 : 7 ; furni-
ture, Deut. 3:11; implements of hus-
bandry, 2 Sam. 12:31: Jer. 28:14;
and chariots of war. Josh. 17 : 16, etc.
By "northern iron," Jer. 15 : 12, prob-
ably is intended a species of iron -ore
or manufafture remarkable for its hard-
ness, found in a region bordering on the
Euxine Sea, and of course north of .Tu-
daea. The expression "a land whose stones
are iron," Deut. 8 : 9, seems to describe
404
an abundance of iron-ore, which is cer-
tainly true of the northern parts of Pal-
estine, as shown by recent exploration.
See Steel.
I'RON (pious), one of the cities of
Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 38 ; now Yariin.
IR'PEEL ( God heals), a town of Ben-
jamin, Josh. 18 : 27, which Conder is in-
clined to identify with the modern Rafat,
north of Jerusalem.
IRSHE'MESH (dty of the snn), a
place in Dan. Josh. 19 : 41. See Beth-
SHEMESH.
I'RU (ivatch),i\\Q eldest son of Caleb,
the faithful spy. 1 Chr. 3:15.
I'SAAC ( laiKjhter), the son which
Sarah bore to Abraham when he was a
hundred years old. He was the second
of the Hebrew patriarchs, and lived the
longest of the three — to the age of 180.
Gen. 35:28. The origin of his name,
which signifies "laughter" or "mock-
ing," is given in Gen. 17:17; 18: 12;
21 : 6. The only event recorded of his
earlier years is the most significant of his
life for the history of the Church : he
appears in the sacrificial scene as the
victim. Directed of God, Abraham led
his son to the mountain of sacrifice;
Isaac was wholly unconscious of the
disposition that was to be made of him-
self, and is re])resented in the narrative,
Gen. 22 : 1-13, as artlessly inquiring
about the lamb to be offered, while he
himself was to be the offering. The di-
vine interposition intervened just as the
gleaming knife was about to do its
bloody work in the hands of the de-
spondent father. Josephus says this
event occurred when Isaac was 24 years
old, but no indication of time is given
in the narrative. This occurrence is
considered typical of the later sacrifice
of the only Son of God on Calvary.
The record of Isaac's wooing and mar-
riage is grajthic and beautiful. Abra-
ham sent his trusty servant Eliezcr with
gifts to Pachm-aram fortius jmrpose. He
there found Bebckah, the daughter of
Bethuel, whom Isaac married at the age
of 40. Gen. 26 : 20. The account of their
meeting and of the })reIiminarios of the
marriage. (Jen. 24, gives a most charm-
ing picture of the manners of that early
day.
Isaac seems to have been a prosperous
agriculturist. Gen. 26:12, and a rich
herder, v. 14, but was not without his
ISA
ISA
domestic troubles with Jacob and Esau.
The promise that was given to Abraham
of an indefinite increase of his seed, and
of the blessings to flow from it to the
world, was repeated to him. Gen. 26 : 4.
The X. T. refers to the intended sacrifice
of Isaac, Heb. 11:17; Jas. 2:21, and
contains an allegorical allusion to him
and Ishmael. Gal. 4 : 28, 38.
The life of Isaac was a comparatively
uneventful one, but in it we have the
record of an honest, humble, and pious
nomad. He excelled in the domestic
traits of character; his disposition was
peaceable. Gen. 27 : 22 ; his married life
is assumed to have been peculiarly tran-
quil and happy, and prominent in his
biograph}' stands out his tender regard
for his mother. Gen. 24:67.
Isaac is a type of the Saviour in the
peculiar meekness and humility of his
disposition. His signal patience and
resignation at the intended sacrifice and
the humility of his life are typical of the
Son of man, who "opened not his mouth."
I'SAAC, twice use I as a poetic syno-
nym for Israel — i. e. the ten tribes, Am.
7:9. 16.
I S A ' I A H (Jchoi-ah'n salvation ).
Very little is known of the personal his-
tory of this eminent prophet. He was
the son of Amoz. Isa. 1:1; 2 Kgs. 20 :
1. He begnn his prophetic career under
Uzziah, probably in the last years of
his reign, Isa. 6:1, and continued it
during the succeeding reigns of Jo-
tham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. 7: 1. This
would throw his prophetic activity be-
tween the years b. c. 760 and 713 or 698,
the year of Hezekiah's death. He was
married ami had two sons. 7:3; 8:3,
etc.. His wife is called a prophetess,
and his children, like himself, had pro-
phetical names emblematic of Israel's
future. He wore a hair-cloth d^ess. 20 :
2. He seems to' have been held in high
esteem, especially by Hezekiah. 37:2;
38:1. In addition to the prophecies
which we have by this prophet, he wrote
a history of Uzziah's reign. 2 Chron. 26 :
22, which is lost. The" Bible does not
indicate the mode of his death. A Jew-
ish tradition (in the Talmud), however,
states that when nearly 90 years old he
was sawn a?under in a hollow caroh tree,
in Manasseh's reign. Comp. Heb. 11 : 37.
The '• mulberry tree of Isaiah,'' in the
Kedron valley, near Jerusalem, marks
the traditional spot of his martyrdom.
" It signifies much that he was not a
celibate, but had a family; that he Avas
not a wanderer in the desert or over hill
and vale, but had a house and home ;
that he lived not in a secluded retreat
or remote village, but in the great city,
at the capital and court of Judah, the
seat of all Hebrew blessings and hopes,
with all its social, political, and religious
influences. He is the first prophet since
Elisha of whom we have any details.
Of himself, like the apostle John, he
saj's almost nothing." He mentions,
however, distinctly his divine call and
commission. 6 : 1-8.
Isaiah is the evangelist among the
prophets of the 0. T. He eouies nearest
to the N. T., and is more frequently
quoted than any other. In him the
Messianic prophecies reach their highest
perfection. He draws the picture of the
suff'ering and triumphing Saviour of
Israel and the world, lineament after
lineament, until at last he stands before
us in unmistakable clearness and ful-
ness. Isaiah is also one of the greatest
of poets. '' In him we see prophetic
authorship reaching its culminating
point. Everything conspired to raise
him to an elevation to which no proph-
et, either before or after, could as writer
attain. Among the other prophets each
of the more important ones is distin-
guished by some one particular excel-
lence and some one peculiar talent ; in
Isaiah all kinds of talent and all beau-
ties of prophetic discourse meet together,
so as mutually to temper and qualify
each other; it is not so much any single
feature that distinguishes him as the
symmetry and perfection as .a whole.
... In the sentiment he expresses, in
the topics of his discourses and in the
manner, Isaiah uniformly reveals him-
self as the king-prophet." — Ennld.
Prophkcyof. Isaiah is divided into
two parts. The first, comprising the
first thirty-nine chapters, is composed
of a variety of individual prophecies
against nations and denunciations of
sin. Social vices, ch. 3, and idolatry,
ch. 8, are rebuked without mercy. As-
syria, Babylon, 13:19 nq.. Moab, 15,
Ethiopia, 18, Egypt, 19, and Tyre, 23,
pass successively before the prophet's
mind, and their doom is predicted. The
prophecies of Babylon's desolation and
405
ISC
ISH
of Tyre's ruin are among the most
])oetic and the subliniest passages in
all literature. Chs. 36-39 are concerned
with Sennacherib's invasion and episodes
in the life of Hezekiah.
The second part of Isaiah begins ab-
ruptly with the fortieth chapter: " Com-
fort ye, comfort ye my people." It takes
its position at the close of the Babylo-
nian captivity, and prophesies its close
and the glories of the Messianic period
of Israel's history. Of all the prophetic
writings, none are more evidently in-
spired and truly evangelical than these
last twenty-seven chapters.
Isaiah prophesies of the Messiah with
distinctness and in a way that his pre-
decessors had not done. We find prophe-
cies of his birth, 7:14,- 9 : 6, of his Da-
vidic descent, 11 : 1, 2, etc. But the full-
est as well as the most distinct of the
predictions is contained in the fifty-third
chapter. It may be called the Gospel of
the 0. T., on account of the gra]ihic and
faithful picture it gives of the Messiah,
as the " Man of sorrows," suffering in
the stead of mankind. This chapter of
itself will stand always as an evidence
of prime importance for the divine mis-
sion of Christ.
The authenticity of the second part
of Isaiah, from chs. 40-66, has been
assailed by modern critics, who regard
it as a later production of some " great
unknown " prophet at the end of the
Babylonian exile. But it is character-
istic of prophetic vision to look into the
far future as if it were present ; and it
makes not much difference for the di-
vine character of the prophecy whether
it was uttered 500 or 700 years before
its fulfilment. The description of the
servant of (xod who suffers and dies for
the sins of the people in ch. 63 applies
to no other person in history, with any
degree of propriety, but to Jesus Christ.
IS'CAH (xhe looks abroad), a sister
of Lot. Gen. 11 : 29.
ISCAR'IOT. See Judas Iscauiot.
ISH'BAH {praidiiiy), a Judite. 1
Chr. 4:17.
ISH'llAK (fearinff hehhnl), a son
of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 26:2; 1
Chr. 1 : .'52. From him sprang the north-
ern Arabians.
I S H' B I - B E ' N () B {dweUluf, i„
rent), a son of liapha, a Philistine giant
slain by Abishai. 2 Sam. 21 : 16, 17.
406
I^H'-BO'f^HETU {man of shame),
son and successor of Saul, was persuaded
by Abner to go up to Mahanaim and as-
sume the government while David reign-
ed at Hebron, 2 Sam. 2 : 8, 11 ; and all
Israel except Judah acknowledged him
as king. A severe battle soon after oc-
curred at Gibeon, between the army of
David, under Joab, and the army of
Ish bosheth, under Abner, in which the
latter was utterlj' defeated. Abner was
killed afterward by Joab. Ish-bosheth,
thus deprived of his strongest supporter,
was assassinated at noonday upon his
bed after a brief reign of two years. 2
Sam. 4: 5-7.
I'SHI {savvHj). 1, 2. Judltes. 1 Chr.
2::il : 4:20.
3. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4:42.
A. A Manassite. 1 Chr. 6:24.
I'SHI, IIos. 2 : 16, signifying viy
hukhatid, and BAALI, in the same
passage, signifying my Lord, are figura-
tively used to denote that Israel once
played the whore in serving idols, but
would now serve the living God. The
latter having been used in idol-worship,
would become obsolete in this sense.
Hos. 2:17.
ISHI'AH (whom Jehovah lends), a
chieftain of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7:3.
ISHI'JAH {ivhom Jehovah lends),
one who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 31.
ISH'MA (desolation), a Judite. 1
Chr. 4:3.
ISH'MAEL {whom God hears). 1.
The son of Abraham by Hagar. Pre-
vious to his birth, when his mother,
being ill-treated by Sarah, had fled
from the house, the angel of the Lord
announced to her that her seed should
be innumerable, and that her offspring
should be of a belligerent and wild dis-
position : " He will be a wild man ; his
hand will be against every man's hand,
and every man's hand against him."
Gen. 16:12.
Ishniael was circumcised at the age of
13. Gen. 17:25. Subsequently, the jeal-
ousy of Sarah was aroused by Ishmael's
mocking at Isaac, (icn. 21:9, and she
detnan(ied that the offender and his
mother be sent away from the home.
Abraham, granting Sarah's request,
srnt the bondwoman and her son off,
after supplying them with water and
bread. i3cj)arting, they went off into
the wilderness of Beer-sheba. The stock
LSH
ISL
of water became exhausted, and the lad,
overcome with fatigue and thirst, sunk
down, apparently to die. God appeared
for their deliverance, directed Hagar to
a fountain of water, and renewed his
promise to make of him a great nation.
Ishmael remained in the wilde ness and
became a hunter. Gen. 21 : 13-20. At
length he married an Egyptian woman,
and so rapidly did his progeny multiply
that in a few years afterward they are
spoken of as a trading nation. Gen.
37 : 25.
The last we see of the first-born son
of Abraham is at the cave of Machpelah,
where he joins with Isaac in interring
the remains of his father. Gen. 25 : 9.
Ishmael no doubt became a wild man
of the desert, the progenitor of the
roaming Bedouin tribes of the East,
so well known as robbers to this day
that travellers through their territory
must be well armed and hire a band of
robbers to protect them against their
fellow-robbers. Ishmael is also the spir-
itual father of the Mohammedans, who
are nothing but bastard Jews. They ap-
ply to themselves the promise of a large
posterity given to Ishmael. Gen. 21 :
13, 18.
2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 :
38; 9:44.
3. A Judite. 2 Chr. 19:11.
4. A Judite, one of the captains who
assisted Jehoiada to set Joash on the
throne. 2 Chr. 23 : 1.
5. A priest who had a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10 : 22.
6. Ishmael, "the son of Nethaniah,
the son of Elishama, of the seed royal"
of Judah, murdered, atMizpah, Gedaliah,
the governor of Judaea, appointed by Neb-
uchadnezzar, who, although warned by
Johanan. had unsuspiciously received
him. Every circumstance contributed
to increase the baseness of the deed —
the generous incredulity of Gedaliah,
the fact that the murder took place im-
mediately after a feast given by Geda-
liah to Ishmael and other prominent
Jews who had conspired with him, and
the slaughter of all the attendant Jews
and also of some Chaldjean soldiers. The
secrecy of the deed was so profound that
the town knew nothing of it until the sec-
ond day, when Ishmael hj'pocritically re-
ceived eighty devotees who came bearing
offering and incense to the house of the
Lord, and murdered all but ten of them,
who purchased their lives by promise of
money. This carnival of blood being
over, Ishmael surprised the town and
carried away to the Ammonites the in-
habitants, including the daughters of
Zedekiah. But Johanan followed him,
met him in battle at " the great waters "
— probably the Pool of Gibeon — defeated
him, rescued the prisoners, and compel-
led Ishmael to flee to the Ammonites.
See Jer. 41; 2 Kgs. 25 : 23, 25. See also
Gkdaliah. The motives of Ishmael
were partly corrupt, since he had been
tampered with by Baalis, king of the Am-
monites, and partly mistaken patriotism,
bitter hatred, and craven fear of the Chal-
daeans.
ISH'MAELITES, the descendants
of Ishmael. Gen. 37 : 25. The company
of Ishmaelites to whom Joseph was sold
are elsewhere called Midianites. Gen. 37 :
28. Probably they were Ishmaelites who
dwelt in Midian. It is evident, however,
that the two names were sometimes ap-
plied to the same people, Jud. 8 : 22, 24,
though we know the descendants of Mid-
ian were not Ishmaelites. for Midian was
a son of Abraham by Keturah.
ISHlTIAI'AH {Jehovah hears), the
ruler of Zebulun during David's reign.
1 Chr. 27 : 19.
ISH'MEELITE. 1 Chr. 2: 17. See
Ishmaelites.
ISH'MERAI {whom Jehovah keeps),
a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 18.
I'SHOD {man of renown), a Manas-
site. 1 Chr. 7 : 18.
ISH'PAN {bald), a Benjamite chief.
1 Chr. 8:22.
ISH'TOB {men <,f T„h), apparently
a small kingdom which formed a part
of the country of Aram, and named
with Zobah, Rehob, and Maachah. 2
Sam. 10 : 6, 8. See Tob.
ISH'UAH {quiet), the second son
of Asher, Gen. 46:17; called Isuah 1
Chr. 7:30.
ISH'UAI {quiet). A son of Asher.
1 Chr. 7 : 30.
ISH'UI {quiet). 1. The third son
of Asher, 1 Chr. 7 : 30 ; called Isui and
Jesui Gen. 46 : 17 ; Num. 26 : 44.
2. A son of Saul, 1 Sam. 14:49; not
elsewhere mentioned ; he probably died
young.
ISLES OF THE GENTILES.
Gen. 10 : 5 ; Zeph. 2:11; Ps. 72 : 10;
407
ISM
ISR
Eze. 26:15. The Hebrew word signi-
fies any land bordering on the sea, and
** the isles of the Gentiles " refers to the
coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, and
Caspian Seas.
ISMACHI'AH {rchom Jehovah miji-
portfi), a Levitical overseer of offerings
under Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 31 : 13.
ISMAI'AH [Jchovxh hearn), a Gib-
eonite chief who joined David at Ziklag.
1 Chr. 12:4.
IS'PAH [bald), a Benjamite chief.
1 Chr. 8:16.
IS'RAEL. Gen. 35:10. The sur-
name of .Jacob, given to him by the an-
gel at Mahanaim. Gen. 32 : 28 ; Hos. 12 :
3. It signifies " the prince that prevails
with God." One of the finest hymns of
Charles Wesley describes that mysterious
wrestling with God in prayer, and begins,
"Come, O thou Traveller unknown,
Whom still I hold, but cannot see;
My company before is cfone,
And I am left alone with thee :
With thee all nij^ht I mean to stay,
And wrestle till the break of day.
* ^ Uli H: it: :i: ^
"What though my shrinking flesh com-
plain,
And murmur to contend so long?
I rise superior to my pain ;
When I am weak, then I am strong;
And when my all of strength shall fail,
I shall with the God-man prevail."
We find the name "Israel" soon after
used for the whole race of Jacob's pos-
terity, Ex. 3 : 16; also for the kingdom
of the ten tribes, as distinguished from
Judah, 2 Kgs. 14 : 12; and again, in a
spiritual sense, for the whole body of
true believers. Rom. 9:6; 11 : 26.
Land of. See Canaan.
IS'RAELITE, a member of Israel.
IS'RAEL, KINGDOM OF, a
term not infrequently applied to the
united kingdom before the revolt of
the ten tribes, 1 Sam. 13 : 1,4; 15: 28;
16: 1 : 2 Sam. 5 : 12; 7: 16; 1 Kgs.
2 : 46 ; 4: 1; but the term was also
used to designate the country of the ten
tribes only during the dissensions which
followed the <leaih of Saul. After the
death of Solomon and the revolt under
J'.ehoboam, 1 Kgs. 12 : 20, 28, :;2, it was
generally, but pot nniformly, a])plied to
the independent kingdom formed by the
ten tribes in tiie north of Pale^^tine; so
that thencci'ovth the kings of the ten
tribes were called " kings of Israel," and
408
the descendants of David, who ruled
over Judah and Benjamin, were called
"kings of Judah." In the prophets
" Judah " and " Israel " are often men-
tioned. Hos. 4: 15; 5 : 3, 5 ; 6: 10; 7:
1; 8:2, 3, 6, 8; 9: 1, 7; Am. 1: 1; 2:
6; 3: 14; Mic. 1:5; Isa. 5: 7. The
two kingdoms are sometimes called "the
two houses of Israel." Isa, 8 : 14.
The area of the kingdom of Israel is
estimated at about 9000 square miles, or
about the same as that of the State of
New Hampshire, and its population at
from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000. The king-
dom lasted 254 years, b. c. 975-721. The
i capitals were Shechem, 1 Kgs. 12: 25,
Tirzah, 14: 17, and Samaria, 16: 24.
j Jezreel was also a summer residence of
I some of its kings. Of the 19 kings, not
I counting Tibni, not one was a godly
j man. The idolati'y introduced by Jero-
I boam was continued, notwithstanding
the partial reformations of Elijah, Elisha,
j and other faithful prophets.
I The following admirable summary of
the history of the kingdom in four
periods is given in Smith's Ahridyed
Dutiouary, by W. A. Wright.
"(«) B. C'. 975-929.— 3 e^Yohoam had
not sufficient force of character in him-
self to make a lasting impression on his
people. A king, but not a founder of a
dynasty, he aimed at nothing beyond
securing his present elevation. The army
soon learned its power to dictate to the
isolated monarch and disunited people.
Baasha, in the midst of the armj' at
Gibbethon, slew the son and successor
of Jeroboam : Zimri, a captain of chari-
ots, slew the son and successor of Baasha ;
Omri, the captain of the host, was chosen
to punish Zimri; and after a civil war
of four years he prevailed over Tibni, '
the choice of half the peo])lc.
"(A) li. (\ 929-S84.—Y(n- forty-five
years Israel was governed by the houi^e
of Omri. That sagacious king jiitchcd
on the strong hill of Samaiia as the site
of his capital. The princes of his house
cultivated an alliance with the kings of
Judah, whi(di was cemented by the mar-
riage of Jchoram and Athaliah. The
ado])tion of Baal-worship led to a re-
action in the nation, to the moral tri-
umph of the ])roj)hets in the person of
Elijah, and to the extinction of the house
of Ahab, in obedience to the bidding of
Elisha.
ISR
ITA
"(c) B. C. ^<?4-77^.— Unparalleled
triumphs, but deeper humiliation, await-
ed the kingdom of Israel under the dy- '
nasty of Jehu. Hazael, the ablest king
of Damascus, reduced Jehoahaz to the
condition of a vassal, and triumphed for
a time over both the disunited Hebrew
kingdoms. Almost the first sign of the
restoration of their strength was a war
between them, and Jehoash, the grand-
son of Jehu, entered Jerusalem as the
conqueror of Amaziah. Jehoash also
turned the tide of war against the Syr-
ians, and Jeroboam II., the most pow-
erful of all the kings of Israel, captured
Damascus and recovered the whole an-
cient frontier from Hamath to the Dead
Sea. This short-lived greatness expired
with the last king of .lehu's line.
"(rf.) B. C. 77^-7^7.— Military vio-
lence, it would seem, broke off the hered-
itary succession after the obscure and
probably convulsed reign of Zachariah.
An unsuccessful usurper, Shallum, is
followed by the cruel Menahem, who,
being unable to make head against the
first attack of Assyria under Pul, became
the agent of that monarch for the op-
pressive taxation of his subjects. Yet
his power at home was sufficient to en-
sure for his son and successor, Pekahiah,
a ten years' reign, cut short by a bold
usurper, Pekah. Abandoning the north-
ern and trans-Jordanic regions to the
encroaching power of Assyria under
Tiglath-pile-e •, he was very near subju-
gating Judah, with the help of Damas-
cus, now the coequal ally of Israel. But
Assyria, interposing, summarily put an
end to the independence of Damascus,
and perhaps was i,he indirect cause of
the assassination of the baffled Pekah.
The irresolute Hoshea, the next and last
usurper, became tributary to his invader,
Shalmaneser, betrayed the Assyrian to
the rival monarchy of Egypt, and was
punished by the loss of his liberty and
by the capture, after a three years' siege,
of his strong capital, Samaria. Some
gleanings of the ten tribes yet remained
in the land after so many years of re-
ligious decline, moral debasement, na-
tional degradation, anarchy, bloodshed,
and deportation. Even these were gath-
ered up by the conqueror and carried to
Assyria, never aga.n. as a distinct })eo-
ple, to occupy their portion of that
goodly and pleasant land which their
forefathers won under Joshua from the
heathen."
After the destruction of the kingdom
of Israel, B.C. 721, the name '"Israel"
began again to be applied to the whole
surviving people. "Israel" is some-
times put for the true Israelites, the
faithful worthy of the name. Ps. 73 : 1 ;
Isa. 45 : 17 ; 49 : 3 ; John 1 : 47 ; Rom.
9:6; 11: 26. See Judah.
IS'SACHAR ( God h«th given me my
hire). 1. The fifth son of Jacob and
Leah. Gen. 30: 18. The prophetical
descriptiou of him uttered by his father.
Gen. 49 : 14, 15, was fulfilled in the fact
that the posterity of Issachar were a la-
borious people and addicted to rural em-
ployments, and were subject to the trib-
utes of marauding tribes. See Tribes.
2. A Korhite Levite. 1 Chr. 26 : 5.
IS'SACHAR, THE TERRI-
TORY OF, included the great plain of
Esdraelon, or Jezreel, and lay above that
of Manasseh ; its boundaries are given in
Josh. 19: 17-23. It extended from Mount
Carmel to the Jordan, and from Mount
Tabor to En-gannim. Zebulun was on
the north, Manasseh on the south, and
Gilead on the east, across the Jordan.
It contained 16 noted cities and their
villages. Among them were Megiddo,
Jezi-ecl, Shunem, Beth-shan, Endor,
Aphek, Taanach ; and Jezreel stood al-
most exactly in the centre of the terri-
tory. This region was one of the richest
and most fertile in Palestine. Many
historical events of great interest took
place within the territory. It furnished
two kings to Israel — Baasha and Elah. 1
Kgs. 15': 27 ; 16 : 6. Their portion of
Palestine is still among the most fertile
of the whole land. See Jkzreel, Plain
OF, and Palestine.
ISSHI'AH {whom Jehovnh lends).
1. A descendant of Moses, 1 Chr. 24:
21 ; called Jeshahiah 1 Chr. 26 : 25.
2. A Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 24 :
25.
IS'UAH iqniet), second son of Asher.
1 Chr. 7: 30.
IS'UI (quiet), third son of Asher,
Gen. 46: 17.
ITAL'IAN BAND, a cohort, com-
posed of native Italians, stationed at
Caesarea. Acts 10 : 1. Cornelius was
their centurion.
I IT'ALY, a. well-known country in
I the south of Europe, and including the
4(iy
ITH
IZR
whole of the peninsula west of the
Adriatic Sea. It has an area of about
100,000 square miles and a population
of over 25,000,000. It is named in the
N. T. only three times : (1) as the coun-
try from which Aquila and Priscilla were
expelled. Acts 18: 2; (2) Paul sailed for
Italy, Acts 27 : 1 ; and (3) in the Epistle
to the Hebrews some of that country
joined in the salutations sent. Heb.
13 : 24.
ITH'AI (with Jehovah), a Benjamite,
one of David's guard, 1 Chr. 11 : 31 ;
called Tttai 2 Sam. 23 : 29.
ITH'AMAR (land of pal, m), a son
of Aaron. Ex. 6 : 23. After the violent
death of Nadab and Abihu for their act
of desecration, Lev. 10 : 1, 2, he and
Eleazar were alone left for the priestly
office. Lev. 10 : 6, 12. Eli was tlie only
high priest of the line of Ithamar, 1 Chr.
24: 6, and, in fact, his house does not
seem to have exercised as much influence
as that of Eleazar. 1 Chr. 24 : 4.
ITH'IEL {God is with me). 1. A
Benjamite. Neh. 11 ^ 7.
2. A friend of Agur. Prov. 30: 1.
ITH'MAH (orphanarje), one of Da-
vid's guard. 1 Chr. 11 : 46.
ITH'NAN {beHtoiced), one of the
towns in the extreme south of Jud.ih, on
the borders of the desert. Josh. 15 : 23.
Wilton says it is identical with eJ-Hora,
cast of Beer-sheba; but this is only con-
jectural.
ITH'RA {abundance), David's bro-
ther-in-law. 2 Sam. 17 : 25. See Jethkr.
ITH'RAN {abundance). 1. A Hor-
ite. Gen. 36: 20; 1 Chr. 1: 41.
2. An Asherite. 1 Chr. 7: 37.
ITH'REAM {residue of the people),
a son of David, born at Hebron. 2 Sam.
3: 5; 1 Chr. 3: 3.
ITH'RITE, THE, the designa-
tion of two of David's warriors. 2 Sam.
23 : 38 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 40.
IT'TAH-KA'ZIIV {time of the
judge), one of the landmarks of Zebu-
lun, Josh. 19 : 13.
IT'TAI (In time). 1. A native of
Gath, and high in position in the army
of David during the rebellion of Absa-
lom. 2 Sam. 18 : 2. He was sincerely
attached to David.
He reminds us of
Ruth to Naomi, and
tion, 2 Sam. 16: 21,
hers, Ruth 1
410
2 Sam. 15: 19-22.
the attachment of
his words of devo-
are only inferior to
16, for pathos.
2. One of David's guard. 2 Sam.
23 : 29.
ITURiE'A {a7i enclosed region), a
small province on the north-western
border of Palestine, and at the south-
eastern base of Hermon, between Tra-
chonitis and Galilee. It derived its
name from " Jetur," a son of Ishmael.
Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1: 31; 5:19. This
district is now called Jedur, and is about
17 miles from north to south by 20 from
east to west. The greater portion is a
fine plain, with a rich and well- watered
soil ; the sub-stratum is black basalt.
The district contains 38 villages, 10 of
them entirely' desolate : the others have
a few peasant families living in wretch-
edness and amid ruins. Philip was
" tetrarch of Ituraja and of the region
of Trachonitis." Luke 3 : 1.
I'VAH, OR A'VAH, an Assyrian or
Babylonian city mentioned with Ilena
and Sepharvaim, 2 Kgs. 18 : 34 ; 19 : 13 ;
comp. Isa. 37: 13, and with Babylon
and Cutha, 2 Kg?. 17 : 24. Rawlinson
identified it with Uit, on the Euphrates.
I'VORY {tooth), the substance of the
tusk of the elephant. From the mean-
ing of the Hebrew word, it is seen that
the Jews of Solomon's time understood
that it was obtained from a tooth, not
from a horn. That which is brought
from Ceylon is regarded as most valua-
ble. It was among the merchandise of
Tyre, Eze. 27: 15, and Tarshish. 1 Kgs.
10 : 22. Solomon's throne was built of
it, 2 Chr. 9 : 17, 21 ; and so lavishly was
it used in various kinds of architecture
and in cabinet-work as to justify the ex-
pressions found in Am. 3:15; 6:4 and
Eze. 27 : 6.
'* Ivory palaces," Ps. 45 : 8, probably
refers to boxes richl}' wrought or inlaid
with ivory, in which perfume was kept.
IZ'EHAR. Num. 3: 19. See Izhar.
IZ'HAR {oil), a son of Kohath, and
grandson of Levi. Ex. 6: 18, 21 ; Num.
3: 19: 16: 1; 1 Chr. 6: 2, 18.
IZ'HARITES, descendants of Iz-
har.
IZRAHI'AH {whom Jehovah causes
to sparkle), a chieftain of Issacbar. 1
Chr. 7 : 3.
IZ'RAHITE, THE, the designa-
tion of one of David's captains, 1 Chr.
27 : 8 ; probably a Zahrite.
IZ'RI {built), a Levite, leader of the
fourth course. 1 Chr. 25: 11.
JAA
JAB
J.
JA'AKAN {he shall adorn, or one
eagacious), the son of Seir the Horite.
Deut. 10: 6. See Bene-jaakan. The
name is given as Jakan in 1 Chron. 1 :
42.
JAAK'OBAH {heel-catcher, sup-
planter), a chieftain of Simeon. 1 Chr.
4 : 36.
JAA 'LA, JAA'LAH (a wild she-
ffoat), one of the descendants of Solo-
mon's slaves who returned with Zerub-
babel from Babylon to Jerusalem. Ezr.
2:56; Neh.7:58.
JAA'LiAM {whom God hides), a son
of Esau by his wife Aholibamah, and a
chief of Edom. Gen. 36: 5, U, 18; 1
Chr. 1:35.
JA'AXAI {whom Jehovah answers),
a chief of Gad. 1 Chr. 5: 12.
JAAR'E-OR'EGIH {forests of the
weavers), the Bethlehemite whose son
Elhanan slew the brother of Goliath. 2
Sam. 21 : 19. In 1 Chr. 20 : 5 he appears
as Jair.
JA'ASAU {whom. Jehovah has made),
one mentioned, Ezr. 10: 37, as having a
foreign wife.
JAA'SIEL {ichom God has made),
the son of Abner, and chief of the tribe
of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 27:21.
JAAZANI'AH (whom Jehovah
hears). 1. A captain who joined Geda-
liah at Mizpah, 2 Kgs. 25 : 23, and who
subsequently fought against Ishmael,
and then later went to Egypt. Comp.
Jer. 41:11; 43:2.
2. The probable chief of the family
of the Rechabites at the time of Jere-
miah. Jer. 35: 3. j
3. One of the seventy elders seen by '
Ezekiel in his vision. Eze. 8:11. I
4. A prince against whom Ezekiel
was directed to prophesy. Eze. 11 : 1.
JAA'ZER, AND JA'ZER {Jehovah
heljjs), a city of Gilcad, east of the Jor-
dan, which was conquered and assigned
to Gad and to the Levites. Num. 21 : 32 ;
32 : 1 ; Josh. 21 : 39. In the time of
David it was held by Hebronites or Ko-
hathites, 1 Chr. 26 : 31, but in later
times it was subject" to Moab, and is
often denounced in prophecies against
that nation. Isa. 16 : 8, 9 : Jer. 48 : 32.
It was situated at the ruins called Seir
or Sir, about 4 hours (18 to 20 miles)
north-east of Heshbon. Below the hill
is a fountain with a stream which flows
to the Jordan. Tristram found ancient
terraces, probably vineyards, in illustra-
tion of Isa. 16 : 9 : Jer. 48 : 32. There
are mounds and rows of foundations at
the head of the valley. In the A. V. the
" Sea of Jazer " is referred to, Jer. 48 :
32 ; but the passage may be rendered :
'• Thy shoots have overshot the sea, to
Jazer have they reached:" the "sea"
would then be the Salt or Dead Sea.
JAA Z I' AH {ichom Jehovah con-
soles), a Levite of the family of Merari.
1 Chr. 24:20, 27.
JAA'ZIELj {whom God consoles), a
Levite who played before the ark. 1 Chr.
16 : 18. In V. 20 he is called Aziel.
JA'RAL (a stream), the son of La-
mech, descendant of Cain ; described as
the '* father of such as dwell in tents and
have cattle." Gen. 4:20.
JAB'BOK {emptyinf/), a torrent or
stream near Mount Gilead, and over
which Jacob sent his family by a ford
now pointed out at Kalaat Serha, on the
great road from Damascus. Gen. 32 : 22,
23. Xear this stream was the scene of
the noted wrestling of Jacob. The Jab-
bok was the northern boundary of Am-
mon, and the line of division between
the kingdoms of Sihon and Og. Num.
21 : 24 ; Deut. 2 : 37 ; 3:16; Josh. 12 : 2 ;
Jud. 11 : 13, 22. This stream is now
called the Zurka, or "blue "river. It
rises in the mountains of the Hauran
and Gilead, flows in a southerly and
westerly course for about 60 miles, and
falls into the Jordan nearly midway be-
tween the Sea of Galilee and the Dead
Sea. It flows through a deep, narrow
ravine, its banks rising to the height of
from 1500 to 2000 feet. The higher por-
tions are covered with verdure, and the
scenery along the Jabbok is among the
most picturesque in Palestine. The
stream, in most of its course, is peren-
nial, swollen, deep, and rapid in winter;
it abounds in small fish of excellent flavor.
411
JAB
JAC
JA'BESH (<//•;/), the father of Shal-
lum, the fifteenth king of Israel. 2 Kgs.
15:10, 13, 14.
JA'BESH, AND JA'BESH-
GIL'EAD {dry GUcad), a city east of
the Jordan ; destroj'ed by the Israelites,
Jud. 21 : 8-14 ; delivered from Nahash
by Saul, 1 Sam. 11: 1-11, and in grati-
tude therefor its people brought the
bodies of Saul and his sons, which the
Philistines hung upon the walls of Beth-
shan, to Jabesh, and caused them to be
buried in a wood near by. 1 Sam. 31 :
11-13. David blessed them, 2 Sam. 2:
4-6, but afterward removed the bones to
Saul's ancestral burying-place. 2 Sam.
2:4-6; 21:12-14. Robinson identifies
it with ed-Deir, 23 miles south-east of
the Dead Sea, on the south side of Wady
Yabis, and his view is generally accept-
ed. Dr. S. Merrill, of the Palestine
Exploration Society, however, questions
it, as not conforming to the location as-
signed to it by Eusebius. He would
identify .Tabesh with the i-uins of a town
found an hour and 40 minutes (about 7
miles) from Bel/a, on the north side of
Wfidy Yabis and near the base of Jehel
Ajlun.
JA'BEZ {he causes pain), the name
of one whose prayer was answered. 1
Chr. 4:9, 10.
JA'BEZ (he causes pain), apparent-
ly a place; named only in 1 Chr. 2 : 55,
and doubtless named from Jabez of 1
Chr. 4: 9, 10, though the Targuniist re-
gards it not as the name of a place,
but of a person.
J A ' B I N (whom hr—i. e. God— ob-
serves). 1. King of Hazor, a northern
district of Canaan. Josh. 11: 1. He at-
tempted by a formidable alliance to op-
pose the progress of Joshua. He and
his allies were utterly defeat,ed in a bat-
tle at Merom, the city of Hazor was
taken, and Jabin ]nit to death.
2. Another king of the same name
and ]>lace, who had gnat wealth and
power and oppressed the children of
Israel for 20 years. Jud. 4 : 2. His army
was defeated by Deborah and Barak,
end Sisera, his principal general, put to
death.
JAB'NEEL {Jchorah Cannes to be
htiilt). 1. A town of Judah ; called also
Jabneh. Josh. 15 : 1 1 ; 2 Chr. 26 : 6. Uz-
ziah captured it from the Philistines
and destroyed its fortifications. It was
412'
noted during the wars of the Maccabees,
and called by Josephus, Jamnia. It
was a large and populous place, and
after the destruction of Jerusalem was
for some time the seat of a famous Jew-
ish school of learning and of the San-
hedrin. It is identified with Yebna, a
considerable village about 3 miles from
the Mediterranean and 12 miles south of
Joppa. The Crusaders built a fortress
here, of which the ruins still remain.
A tomb is shown, reputed as the tomb
of Gramaliel, a descendant of the noted
Gamaliel who instructed Paul. There
are the ruins of an ancient church. The
port of Yebna is naturally one of the
best on the coast of Palestine below
Caesarea, but there are dangerous reefs
hidden beneath the waters.
2. A place in Naphtali, Josh. 19:33 ;
called, in the Talmud, Caphor Yama,,
and, according to Conder, identical with
modern Yuma.
JAB'NEH. See Jabnkel.
J A ' C H A N {affliction), a Gadite
chief. 1 Chr. 5 : 13.
JA'CHIN {he shall establish). 1.
Fourth son of Simeon. Gen. 46:10; Ex.
6:15.
2. Head of the twenty- first course of
priests. 1 Chr. 9:10; 24:17; Neh. 11:
10.
JA'CHIN {he shall establish) AND
BOAZ {lively) were the names of the
two pillars Solomon set up. They were
probably named after the givers. See
BoAz.
JA'CHINITES, THE, the dc
seendants of Jachin, son of Simeon.
Num. 26:12.
JACINTH, OR HYACINTH,
probably the same as the ligure, Ex. 28 :
19, a gem of a yellowish-red or a dark-
purple color, resembling the amethyst.
Rev. 9:17: 21:20. In the former pas-
sage there is reference merely to its
color.
JA'COB (heel-catcher, siipplanter),
the third of the Jewish patriarchs, the
son of Isaac and Rebekah, and twin-
brother to Esau. He received his name
from the circumstance which occurred at
his birth. Gen. 25:26. The family were
then living at Lahai-roi. The twin?
greatly differed in tastes: Esau was a
hunter, Jacob "'a plain man, dwelling in
tents." Gen. 25:27. But though do-
mestic, he was selfish and scheming.
JAC
JAC
He bought the birthright from Esau,
taking advantage of the latter's tem-
porary weakness. 25 : 29-34. When
Isaac, fearing a sudden death, desired
to bless Esau, whose manly charac-
ter made him his favorite, while the
more pliable Jacob was the favorite of
Rebekah, Jacob was ready to fall in with
his mother's plan, and, by deceiving his
blind and aged father, to secure the elder
brother's blessing. The event, so mo-
mentous to all parties, is related in de-
tail in Gen. 27.
The hate of Esau, naturally aroused,
compelled Jacob in fear to flee some-
where, and the anxiety of Rebekah lest
Jacob should marry a daughter of Ileth
was the ostensible reason for turnihg his
steps toward Padan-aram, where her
brother Laban lived. Previous to his
departure Isaac blessed him again, and
thus with the assurance of divine favor,
but with a heavy and fearful heart, did
this man of at least 50 years (it is
usual to call him 78 j'ears old) turn his
back upon his home and wearily go
among strangers. But, though unwor-
thy, he was the heir to the promises ;
and accordingly, God cared for him. At
Bethel his eyes were opened to see a
glorious vision and his ears to hear the
voice of God. On awaking he made a
vow to serve the Lord, giving the tenth,
if the Lord on his part would protect
and prosper him. Gen. 28 : 20-22.
An every-day incident introduced him
to the family of Laban ; an act of gal-
lantry won him a home at once. Loving
Rachel, he promised to serve Laban for
her. But when the time was fulfilled,
Laban, favored by the marriage-customs
of the "Orient, fraudulently married him
to the elder daughter, Leah, but after-
ward to Rachel also. Jacob contrived
an expedient whereby his flocks became
larger and healthier than Laban's, and
thus in the course of time the desire of
his heart after the things of this life was
gratified. He had '' increased exceed-
ingly, and had much cattle, and maid-
servants, and men-servants, and camels,
and asses." Gen. 30 : 43. Eleven sons
and one daughter had been born to him
by his two wives and their two servants,
who were his concubines.
But he yearned aftgr his native land
and determined to brave his brother's
anger. Secretly, knowing Laban's feel-
ings, he fled, but was followed and over-
taken. A parley ensued. Jacob assert-
ed his grievance : '• I served thee four-
teen years for thy two daughters, and
six years for thy cattle : and thou hast
changed my wages ten times." A cove-
nant of peace was made, of which a pil-
lar was a reminder. Gen. 31 : 45-54, and
Laban left him with expressions of good-
will.
Still dreading Esau, he sent messen-
gers to him, and found Esau was ap-
proaching— he feared with hostile in-
tentions. He prudently guarded against
destruction by separating his company
into two bands and by sending a hand-
some present to Esau. Fear acted like
a slave to bring him to God. He prayed
humbly, not to say cringingly, quoting
the divine promises. After sending his
family over the brook Jabbok, he tarried
behind to see that nothing was forgotten,
when there appeared "■ a man " who
wrestled with him till the breaking of
the day. The wrestling forms an ex-
traordinary scene. 32 : 24-32. God pre-
vailed not against man. But when the
day dawned the exhausted son of Isaac
was no longer Jacob, but Israel ; for
though the sinew of his thigh shrank
under the angel's touch, and though
after this he was to know much sorrow,
the all-night conflict had brought vic-
tory, so that the angel of the Lord could
say, "As a prince hast thou power with
God and with men ; and hast prevail-
ed." With the new name came the new
nature. The man who met Esnu was not
Jacob, the fnipplanfer, but Israel, the aol-
dier of God. Behind him lay the guilty
past; before him stretched the illimita-
ble future, whose near part was full of
trial, but who?e far part was full of
glory. Like many other awaited ills, the
meeting with Esau was an agreeable dis-
appointment. Esau was all kindness,
and Jacob was compelled to refuse his
friendly off"ers.
After the brothers separated, Jacob
finally settled near the city of Shechem,
where he bought some land. Gen. 33.
In retaliation for the ravishment of
Dinah by Shechem, the son of the
prince of the country, by a stratagem
the city was destroyed. See Dixah.
The patriarch was therefore compelled
to leave that part of the land.
By divine direction he came to Bethel,
413
JAC
JAC
where he paid the vow he had made so
many years before, and here God again
appeared unto him. On their way to
Hebron, at Bethlehem, Benjamin was
born, but Rachel, the beloved wife of
Jacob, died. The memory of the event
was ineflfaceable. 35 : 19. Shortly after
his arrival, it would seem, Isaac died, and
he and Esau buried him. Gen. 35 : 21>.
The history now is taken up with Jo-
seph, and Jacob does not play a promi-
nent part until, lying upon his death-
bed, he utters his prophetic blessing,
tracing from the starting-point of indi-
vidual character the fortunes of the
tribes his twelve sons were destined to
found. But the future was revealed to
him only a little while before he
belonged to the past for ever, for
scarcely had he spoken out the
pride, affection, apprehension,
and warning of his fatherly heart
than he "yielded up the ghost,"
aged 147 years, "and was gath-
ered unto his people." Gen. 49 :
o3. He was buried with great
pomp ; his body was embalmed
by the court-physicians and car-
ried to Hebron, and there at last,
after 147 years of wandering- and
trouble. Jacob rested with his an-
cestors in the cave of Machpelah,
Gen. 50 : U.
Jacob had more weaknesses
and faults by nature than his
father and grandfather, but his
life was also more checkered and
troubled, and his character j)uri-
fied by affliction. Abraham ex-
emplifies heroic faith; Isaac, quiet hu-
mility ; Jacob, patience and persever-
ance. His checkered life teaches us the
lesson that through many tribulations
we must enter the kingdom of heaven.
The terms " Jacob " and the " seed "
or '' children of Jacob" are often applied
to the body of true believers generally.
Deut. 33 : i 0 : Ps. 14 : 7 ; 22 : 28 : 105 :
r. ; 135 : 4 ; Isa. 14 : 1 ; 44 : 2 ; Mic. 7 :
20.
JA'COB'S WELL, the well at
which Jesus sat and talked with the
Samarit'in woman, John 4 : 5, 6. near
Shechetn ; conip. Gen. 33 : 1!> ; Josh. 24 :
^2. Here our blessed Lord, weary of
travel, but not of his work of saving
love. ofTered to a poor woman the living
water of eternal life and revealed to her
4U
the sublime truth of the true worship of
God, who is a Spirit, in spirit and in
truth. Here he sowed the seed for the
harvest of the apostles. Acts 8. This is
one of the few places in the Holy Land
which can be identified with certainty.
Christians, Jews, Mohammedans, Samar-
itans, all agree in regard to the site of
Jacob's well. It is situated a mile and
a half south-east of the town of Ndb-
lus, the ancient Shechem, at the eastern
base of Mount Gerizim, near the edge of
the plain of Moreh [Mnkna), and close
to the highway from Jerusalem to Gali-
lee. The well is in an almost square en-
closure, which measures 192 feet by 151
feet; the wall of this enclosure is almost
Jacob's Well.
entirely destroyed, and the ground is
covered with shapeless ruins forming
a large mound.
The well is now 75 feet deep, 7 feet 6
inches in diameter, and is lined through-
out with rough masonry. It must have
been very much deeper in ancient times,
for in the course of 10 years it decreased
10 feet in depth, and Robinson in 18S8
found it 105 feet deep. Captain Ander-
son estimates that it has been filled up
to probably more than half of its origi-
nal depth by the stones thrown into it by
visitors for the sake of hearing them
strike, and by the debris from the ruined
church built over the well during the
fourth century. The bottom of the well
is at times entirely dry, but in some sea-
sons it contains water.
JAD
JAH
Money has been contributed to the
British Palestine Exploration Fund for
the purpose of clearing out the well and
preserving its sacred associations.
JA'DA (hwwiiig), a descendant of
Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 28, 32.
JADA'U (loving), one who had a
foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 43.
JADDU'A (kuoicii). 1. One who
sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : 21.
2. The son of Jonathan, high priest
of the Jews, who officiated a consider-
able time after the Captivity, and who
is believed to be the same who lived in
the time of Alexander the Great " by
those who maintain that the li*t, Neh.
12:11, of high priests from Joshua to
Jaddua, or from b. c. 538-b. c. 336. can-
not, in its present shape, have proceed-
ed from Nehemiah's hand, or from that
of a contemporary." — Bible (Speaker's)
Commentnn/. He is the last of the high
priests mentioned in the 0. T.
JA'DON (judge), one who helped
build the wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 7.
JA'EL (monntain-gofit), the wife of
Heber the Kenite. Jud. 4:17. After
the defeat of Jabin's army by Deborah
and Birak. Sisera, the general, fled
toward her tent, because Heber and Ja-
bin were at peace. It was not unusual
for the women to have a tent separate
from the men, as in Sarah's case, Gen.
24:67, and Leah's. Gen. 31:33. This
was a ])lace of security, for then as now
among the Arabs a stranger would not
venture into the women's tent unasked.
Jael invited him in, and concealed him.
Fatigued and thirsty, he asked for water,
and she gave him buttermilk, which
greatly refreshed him. After instruct-
ing Jael to stand at the door of the
tent, and to deny that he was within if
any one should inquire for him, he fell
into a sound sleep. She then took a
tont-pin, and with a hammer drove it
through his temples into the ground.
Jud. 4:21. Her act was treacherous,
cowardly, and inhuman. It causes only
a momentary perplexity, a? we have no
warrant tor supposing her divinely com-
missioned. Hence, although Deborah
ap])ears to praise her in her song. Jud.
5 : 24-27, she does not express any ap-
proval of the act upon moral grounds.
Jael was a murderess from the Christian
standpoint, and at best we can only jus-
tify her act by emphasizing the barbar-
ity of her time and the usage of war-
fare, which is organized cruelty.
JA'GUR, a city on the south-east-
ern frontier of Judah, near Edom, Josh.
15 : 21 ; perhaps to be associated with
the following word. See Kixah.
JAH. Ps. 68 : 4. A contraction of
the word " Jehovah," which imports the
attribute of self-existence. It is part
of the compound words "Adonijah"
(" God is my Lord ") and "Hallelujah "
(" Praise the Lord"). See Jehovah.
JA'HATH {union). 1. A descend-
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 2.
2. A Levite of the family of Ger-
shom, and progenitor of Asaph. 1 Chr.
6:20.
3. A Levite, head of a branch of the
same family. 1 Chr. 23 : 10, 11.
4. A Levite of the Kohathites in the
reign of David. 1 Chr. 24 : 22.
5. A Merarite Levite in the reign of
Josiah, an overseer of the repairing-
work in the temple. 2 Chr. 34: 12.
JA'HAZ {place trodden doicn), a
Moabitish city situated near the desert;
afterward reckoned to the tribe of Reu-
ben and assigned to the priests. Num.
21 : 23 : Deut. 2 : 32 : Isa. 16 : 4 ; Jer.
48 : 34. It is also called Jaliaza, Josh.
13:18, Jahazah, Josh. 21:36; Jer.
48 : 21, and Jahzah. 1 Chr. 6 : 78. At
this place the Israelites gained a vic-
tory over Sihon and conquered the ter-
ritory between the Arnon and the Jab-
bok : but in later times Jahaz seems to
have been occupied by the Moabites.
Osborn locates Jahaz a mile south of
the Arnon and 12 miles east of the
Dead Sea.
JAHA'ZA, JAHA'ZAH, JAH'-
ZAH. See Jahaz.
JAHAZI'AH {inhom Jehovah be-
holds), one who helped Ezra in his mar-
riage-reform. Ezr. 10 : 15.
JAHA'ZIEL (irhom God beholds).
1. A Benjamite chief who joined David
at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12:4.
2. A priest appointed by David to
blow the trumpet before the ark. 1 Chr.
16:6.
3. A Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 23 :
19; 24:23.
4. A Levite of the sons of Asaph "in-
spired to encourage Jehoshaphat when
marching against the Moabites and Am-
monites." 2 Chr. 20 : 14.
5. The father of the chief of the sons
415
JAH
JAM
of Shecaniah who returned to Jerusalem
with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 5.
JAH'DAI [irJiom Jehovah directs), Si,
name in the genealogies of Judah. 1 Chr.
2:47.
JAH'DIEIj {rchom God makes joy-
fid), the head of a family in the trans-
Jordanic half-tribe of Manasseh. 1 Chr.
6:24.
JAH'DO {his union), a Gadite. 1
Chr. 5 : 14.
JAH'LEEL {hoping in God), the
youngest son of Zebulun, and founder
of the Jahleelites. Gen. 46:14,- Num.
26 : 2f).
JAHLEELITES, THE, de-
scendants of Jahleel. Num. 26:26.
JAH'MAI {ichoni Jehocak guards),
a man of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 2.
JAH'ZEEL (whom God allots), the
eldest son of Naphtali, and founder of
the Jahzeelites. Gen. 46: 24; 1 Chr. 7:
13.
JAHZEELITES, THE, de
scendants of Jahzeel. Num. 26:48.
JAH'ZERAH {whom God leads
back), a priest of the house of Immer,
1 Chr. 9 : 12 ; called Ahasai in the dupli-
cate passacre in Neh. 11 : Ki.
JAH'ZIEL. 1 Chr. 7:13. The same
as Jahzkkl, which see.
JAI'LER. See Prison, Punishmknt.
JA'IR {ivh(jm Jehovah enlightenx).
] . A chief warrior under Moses, descend-
ed from the most powerful family of Ju-
dah and Manasseh by his father and
mother respectively. lie took all the
country of Argob (the modern Lejnh)
on the east side of Jordan, and, be-
sides, some villages in Gilead, which he
called Ilavoth-jair, '" villages of Jair."
1 Chr. 2 : 21-2:5; Num. 32 : 41 ; Dent.
3: 14; comj). Josh. 13:30.
2. Jair the Gilcaditc, who judged Is-
rael 22 years. " He had thirty sons who
rode on thirty ass-colts, and they had
thirty cities, which are called Ilavoth-
jair, which are in Gilead." Jud. 10:
3-5.
3. A Benjamite, father of Mordecai.
Esth. 2 : 5.
4. In 1 Chr. 20:.') in the A. V., Jair
occurs, but it is a totally different name
in Hebrew, meaning " whom (Jod
awakens." This Jair was the father
of Pilhanan, who killed Lachmi, the
brother of (Joliath. He is called Jaare-
orcgim in 2 Sam. 21 : 19.
410
JA'IRITE, THE, a descendant
of Jair. 2 Sam. 20 : 26.
JAI'RUS {whom Jehovah enlightens),
an officer of the Jewish church who
applied to Christ to restore to life his
daughter, who was at the point of death
when he left home. He evinced very
strong faith. Christ with his disciples
went to the ruler's house, and his daugh-
ter was restored. Mark 5 : 42.
JA'KAN {sagacious), a son of Ezer
the Horite ; identical with Jaakan. 1
Chr. 1 : 42.
JA'KEH {pious), the father of
Agur, whose *' words " are recorded in
Prov. 30.
JA'KIM {whom God sets up). 1. A
Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8: 19.
2. Head of the twelfth course of the
priests. 1 Chr. 24: 12.
JA'LON {abiding), a descendant of
Judah. 1 Chr. 4: 17.
JAM'BRES. See Jannes and Jam-
BRES.
JAMES (the sara* as " Jacob," the
supplanter). 1. James the Elder, one
of the three favorite' apostles, a son of
Zebedee and Salome, and a brother of
John the evangelist. With Peter and
John, he was present at the raising of
Jairus's daughter, the transfiguration,
and the agony in Gethsemane. He was
beheaded by order of King Herod
Agrippa, and became the first martyr
among the apostles, A. n. 4 4, thus ful-
filling our Saviour's prediction con-
cerning the ba])tism of blood. IMatt. 4:
21 ; 20 : 20-23 : 26 : 37 : Mark 1 : 1 9. 20 :
10 : 35 ; Acts 12 : 2. His apostolic labors
seem not to have extended beyond Jeru-
salem and Judaja. Clement of Alexan-
dria relates that the accuser of James,
on the way to the place of execution,
stung by remorse, confessed faith and
asked forgiveness ; whcvcupcm James
said to him. " Peace be with tliec !" gave
him a brotl erly kiss, and had him for a
companion in martyrdom. His place was
filled partly by James the biotlier of the
Lord, partly by Paul.
2. James the Less, or the Little, also
one of the twelve apostles, a son of
Alphcus and Marv. Mark 15 : 40 : 16 : 1 ;
Matt. 10 : 3; 27: 56; Acts 1: 13. He
labored, according to tlie tradition of
the Greek Church (which distinguishes
him from Jamo*", the brother of the
Lord), in the south-western part of
JAM
JAM
Palestine, afterward in Egypt, and was
crucified in Lower Egypt. He is re-
garded by many as a cousin of Jesus.
3. James, "the brother of the Lord,"
GaL 1:19: comp. Matt. 13 : 55 : Mark
6:3, or simply James, Acts 12 : 17;
15 : 13 ; 21 : 18 ;' Gal. 2:9: 1 Cor. 15 : 7.
By ecclesiastical writers he is also called
James "the Just" and ''the bishop of
Jerusalem." Commentators are divi-
ded as to his relation to James the Less.
Some identify him with the younger
apostle of that name, and regard him
simply as a cousin of Jesus, while others
distinguish the two, and understand the
designation " brother of the Lord " in
the strict sense either of a uterine
brother or a half-brother of Jesus. See
BuoTHEU and Brethren of Jesus. It
is certain, from the Acts of the Apostles,
that this James, after the dispersion of
the disciples and the departure of Peter,
Acts 12:17, occupied the most promi-
nent position in the church of Jerusa-
lem, and stood at the head of the Jewish
converts. He presided at the apostolic
council, and ])roposed the compromise
which prevented a split between the
Jewish and the Gentile sections of the
church. Acts 15 and Gal. 2. He stood
mediating between the old and the new
dispensations, and conformed very nearly
to the Jewish traditions and temple-ser-
vice as long as there was anj' hope of
a national conversion. He stood in high
repute even among the Jews, but never-
theless was (according to Josephusj sen-
tenced to be stoned by the Sanhedrin,
A. D. 62. Hegesippus, an historian of the
second century, puts his martyrdom later,
A. D. 69, shortly before the destruction of
Jerusalem, and adds that he was thrown
by the Pharisees from the pinnacle of
the temple, and then despatched with a
fuller's club while on his knees, in the
act of praying for his murderers.
Epistle or James, "a servant (not an
apostle) of God and of the Lord Jesus
Christ," the same who is also called
'•the brother of the Lord." It is one of
the catholic or general Epistles, and con-
sists of five chapters. The design of the
Epistle is, (1) To correct errors into
which the Jewish Christians had fallen,
especially relating to justification by
faith; (2) To animate their hope, and
strengthen their faith.' in view of afflic-
tions felt and feared; and (3) To e.xcite
27
the unbelieving Jews to repentance to-
ward God and faith in the rejected
Messiah. It is remarkable that the
name of our blessed Lord occurs but twice
in this Epistle, but with great reverence
as the divine Master, 1 ; 1, and as " the
Lord of glory." 2 : 1. The gospel is de-
scribed as the perfect law of freedom. The
Epistle strongly resembles the preaching
of John the Baptist and the Sermon on the
Mount. The main stress is laid on works
rather than faith. It enforces an emi-
nently practical Christianity which mani-
fests itself in good fruits. Its doctrine of
justification, ch. 2, apparently conflicts
with that of Paul, Rom. 3 and 4, but
in reality the two apostles supplement
each other, and guard each other against
abuse and excess. James opposes a
dead orthodoxy, an unfruitful theoreti-
cal belief, and insists on practical dem-
onstration of faith, while Paul, in op-
position to Pharisaical legalism and
self-righteousness, exhibits a living faith
in Christ as the principle and root of all
go;)d works. The one judge:; the tree b/
its fruit, the other proceeds from the
root.
The Epistle of James was written
before A. n. 62, perhaps much earlier,
probably from Jerusalem, the scene of
his labors, and is addressed to the twelve
tribes scattered abroad, 1 : 1 — that is,
either to all the Jews of the Dispersion,
or only to the Jewish Christians, as tj
the true spiritual Israel. The style is
lively, vigorous, and impressive. What
kindling words on patience in suffering,
joy in sorrow, heavenly wisdom, the
power of prayer as the most certain un-
fai'ing thing, from deep personal experi-
ence! There is a resemblance between
the Epistle and the pastoral letter of the
Council of Jerusalem, which was no doubt
written by the same Jam^^s as the pre-
siding officer ; both have the Greek form
of ''greeting." Acts 15: 23; Jas. 1 : 1,
which otherwise does not occur in the
X. T. or is changed into "grace and
peace." This is an incidental proof of
the genuineness of the Epistle. The
theory recently advocated by Bassett
( Commentary on thr Ctithoh'c Epiatle of St.
James, London, 1876), that it was written
by the elder James, the son of Zebedee,
before a. n. 44, has little to support it.
He a ^sumes thatthe Epistle was addressed
to all the Jews of the dispersion with the
417
JAM
JAR
view to convert them by a moral rather
than doctrinal exhibition of Christianity.
JA'MIN ( profipcriti/, riijht hntict). 1.
The second son of Simeon, founder of
the Jaminites. (ien. 46 : 10 ; Ex. 6 : 15 ;
1 Chr. 4: 24; Num. 26: 12.
2. A man of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 27.
3. A Levite who expounded the Law
with Ezra. Neh. 8 : 7.
JA'MINITES, THE, descend-
ants of Jamin. Num. 26 : 12.
JAM'LECH {whom God maTces
khiff), a chief of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4: 34.
JA1VG'L.ING means " babbling " in
1 Tim. 1: 6.
JAN'NA (whom Jehovah hentows),
one of our Lord's ancestors. Luke 3 : 24.
JAN'NES AND JAM'BRES, two
famous magicians of Egypt, who are sup-
posed to have used their art to deceive
Pharaoh. 2 Tim. 3 : 8 ,• Ex. 7:9-13.
JANO'AH {rest), a town of Naph-
tali, in northern Palestine, taken by the
king of Assyria. 2 Kgs. 15 : 29. Van de
Velde and Porter propose to identify it
with ruins at the village Biou'n, between
Abel-beth-Maachah and Kedesh : Conder
with Yttnuh, near the western limit of
the ancient territory of Naphtali.
JANO'HAH {rent), a town on the
north-cast borders of Ephraim. Josh. 16 :
6, 7. At Yaniiu, about 8 miles south-east
of Nablus, are extensive ruins, entire
houses and walls, covered with immense
heaps of earth, and these are identified
as the site of Janohah.
JA'NUM {Hlumber), a place in the
tribe of Judah. Josh. 15: 53. The mar-
gin has "Janus" ("flight"). It was not
far from Hebron, and Conder proposes to
identify it with lieni Nnim.
JA'iPHETH {eidarf/ement).the sec-
ond son of Noah. (Ion." 5: 32; 10: 21.
The prophetic blessing pronounced on
Japheth by his father, (ion. 9: 27, was
accomplished to the full extent of the
promise. From him have come, (1) (lO-
mer, or the Cyrari or ('elts; (2) Magog,
or the Scythians and Sarmatians (Sla-
vonians); (3) Madai, or the Mcdes or
Aryans; (4) Javan, or the Greeks; (5)
Tubal, or the Tibareni ; (6) Meshech, or
the Moschi ; (7) Tiras, or the Teutons.
The Japhetic races have occupied '' * the
isles of the Gentiles' — i. c. all the coast-
lands in Kurojte and Asia Minor ami isl-
ands of the Mediterranean — whence they
spread northward over Europe ami
418
much of Asia, from India and Persia
in the east to the extreme west of Europe,
and now to America and Australia." —
Fausset: EiKjliiihmau'fi lilhle Cyclopse-
dln. The other branch of prophecy, "he
(God) shall dwell in the tents of Shem,"
was fulfilled when the divine Presence
was manifested in the tabernacle and
temple; or if we read, "he (Japheth)
shall dwell in the tents of Shem," it was
fulfilled literally when the Greeks and
Romans (descended from Japheth) sub-
dued Judaea, the inheritance of Shem,
and figuratively when the descendants
of Japheth (the Gentiles) received the
gospel, which the Jews, who were of the
seed of Shem, rejected.
JAPHI'A (xplendid), the king of
Lachish, one of the five kings of the
Amorites who united against Joshua,
but were defeated at Beth-horon and
killed at Makkedah. Josh. 10 : 3.
JAPHI'A {splendid), a place in the
tribe of Zebulun. Josh. 19: 12. It is
identified with a small village, called
Yn/a, a short distance south-west of
Nazareth. See Josephi's : Wars, 2 : 20, 6.
Drake described some caves at this place
unlike any other he had seen in Pales-
tine. A passage 12 feet long leads into
a circular chamber, in the floor of which
are circular " man-holes" leading to two
lower caves, which in turn lead to others.
All the chambers are connected by in-
tricate ])assage-ways. Mr. Drake con-
ceives that they were not tombs, but
places for the storage of grain.
JAPH'LET {whom God delivers),
an Asherite. 1 Chr. 7: 32, 33.
JAPH'LETI, a landmark of Eph-
raim west of Beth-horon. Josh. 16: 3.
JA'PHO. Josh. 19: 46. See Joi'pa.
JA'RAH {honei/), a descendant of
Saul, I Chr. 9:42: "called in the parallel
list, ch. 8 : ."6, Jehoadah.
JA'REB {(III adversary). The mar-
ginal reading would indicate that it was
the name of a place, but that is forbidden
by the form of the original word. IIos.
6: 13; 10: 6. Some make it the name
of a king, but it is better to translate
it " the hostile king" — /. e. " the king of
Assyria."
JA'RED (desceut), the father of
Enoch. (Jen. 5 : 15-20; Luke 3 : 37. In
1 Chr. 1: 2 he is called Jered.
JARKSI'AH (whom Jehovah fat-
Irns), a Benjainite chief. 1 Chr. 8 ; 27.
JAR
JAV
JAR'HA {meaning uncertain), an
Egyptian servant of Sheshan, and mar-
ried to his daughter. 1 Chr. 2 : 34, 35.
JA'RIB {an adcertfari/). 1. A son
of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4: 24; called Jachin
in Gen. 46 : 10.
2. A companion of Ezra, "a chief
man." Ezr. 8: Ifi.
.3. A priest married to a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10: 18.
JAR'MUTH. 1. A town in the
low country of Judah. Josh. 15 ."So. Its
king, Piram, was one of the five who
conspired to punish Gibeon for having
made alliance with Israel, and who were
defeated at Beth-horon and were hanged
by Joshua at Makkedah. Josh. 12 : II ;
15 : 35. It was peopled after the Cap-
tivity. Neh. 11 : 29. It is identified with
Yannuk, 13 miles south-west of Jerusa-
lem, on the crest of a rocky ridge, where
hewn blocks of stone and other ruins
of a town are found.
2. A city of Issachar, allotted with
its suburbs to the Gershonite Levites,
Josh. 21 : 29, and called Reneth and
Ramoth. Josh. 19: 21; 1 Chr. 6: 73.
Conder proposes to identify it with
Hameh.
JARO'AH {moon), a Gadite. 1 Chr.
6: 14.
JA'SHEN {sleepin,}), the father of
some of David's warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 32.
JA'SHER, BOOK OF {npri,fht).
Twice referred to, Josh. 10 : 13 ; 2 >Sam.
1 : 18 ; probably a collection of national
songs, now lost.
JASHO'BEAM (to whom the people
turns), the chief of David's captains,
who came to him at Ziklag and dis-
tinguished himself and his band by
slaving 300 men at one time. 1 Chr.
11 :' 1 1 ; 12 : 6 : 27 : 2. He is the same
with Adino the Eznite, 2 Sam. 23 : 8, the
difference in the Hebrew being slight.
JASH'UB {he turns). 1. One of the
sons of Issachar; founder of the Ja-
shubites. Num. 26 : 24 : 1 Chr. 7: 1;
called Job in Gen. 48 : 13.
2. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr.
10 : 29.
JASHUBILE'HEM {turner back
for food), either a person or a place
mentioned in the genealogical list of
Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 22.
JASH'UBITES, THE, descend-
ants of Jashub, 1. Num. 26 : 24.
JA'SIELt {whom God has made),
one of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11 : 47 ;
same as Jaasiel.
JA'SON {one icho w ill he(t I), a, Thessa,-
lonian, and probably a relative of Paul,
whom he entertained, and in conse-
quence received rough treatment at the
hands of the unbelieving Jews. Acts 17 j
cf. Rom. 9:3; 16: 21.
JAS'PER, the last stone in the
breastplate of the high priest, and the
first in the foundations of the new Jeru-
salem. Ex. 28 : 20 ; Rev. 21 : 1 9. Jasper
is an opaque species of quartz, of differ-
ent colors, often banded or spotted, and
susceptil)le of a high polish. The dark-
green kind is supposed to be the variety
of the Bible. From the apparent incon-
sistency of Rev. 4:3; 21:11 with the
opaque character of this stone, it has
been suggested that some transparent
gem was denoted by jasper in the N. T. —
perhaps the diamond or the translucent
chalcedony. See Stones, Precious.
JATH'NIEL {whom Godbe8toivs),a.
Levite porter or doorkeeper in the tab-
ernacle. 1 Chr. 26 : 2.
JAT'TIR, a town of Judah in the
mountain-districts. Josh. 15 : 48 ; 21 : 14 ;
David sent presents thither. 1 Sam. 30 :
27 : 1 Chr. 6 : 57. Robinson identifies it
whh'Atfir, 6 miles north of Molada and
11 miles west of south of Hebron. Tris-
tram noted there over 30 crypts, and
found remains of terraces, many old
wells, now dry and filled with rubbish,
but only one modern building, a Moslem
tomb.
JA'VAN, the fourth son of Japh-
eth, and the ancestor of the Grecians
or lonians. Gen. 10 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 5, 7.
Hence the word '' Javan " in the 0. T. de-
notes Greece, or the Greeks. Isa. 66 : 19 ;
Eze. 27:13.
J A' VAN. 1. In Isa. 66: 19 it is
coup'ed witii Tarshish, Pul, and Lud, and
with Tubal and the "isles afar off;"
again, in Eze. 27: 13, it is joined with
Tubal and Meshech, as carrying on com-
merce with the Tyrians, who imported
from these countries slaves and brazen
vessels; in Dan. 8:21; 10:20; 11:2,
in reference to the Maceilonian empire ;
and in Zech. 9:13, in reference to the
Grteco-Syrian empire. From these pas-
sages it appears that " Javan " was re-
gardeil as a title for the Greek people
and the Grecian empire.
2. A town in the southern part of
419
JAV
JEC
Arabia ( Yemen), whither the Phoenicians
traded, Eze. 27 : 19; probably Uzal, a
name of the capital of Yema, in Arabia,
and famous for the manufacture of sword-
blades.
JAVELIN. See Arms.
.lA'ZER, Josh. 21:39, or JAA'-
ZE R, Num. 21 : 32, a city of the Am-
monites, near the river Jabbok, the ruins
of which are still visible about 15 miles
from Heshbon.
Sea of, Jer. 48 : 32, may be a lake
existing in ancient times near the city
of Jazer. A body of water is now to be
seen near the city, out of which the
Debir flows. But see Jaazkr.
JA'ZIZ {n-hom God mores), the Ha-
gerite who was over David's flocks. 1
Chr. 27:31.
JEAL'OUSY. It is most frequent-
ly used to denote a suspicion of conjugal
infidelity. 2 Cor. 11:2. It is sometimes
used for anger or indignation, Ps. 79 :
5 : 1 Cor. 10 : 22, or an intense interest
for the honor and prosperity of another.
Zech. 1:14; 8:2.
The same term, in a similar sense, is
used in sjjeaking of God, for he is rep-
resented as a husband, related to his
Church by a marriage-covenant that
binds her to be wholly for him, and not
for another. The more sincere and con-
stant the love, the more sensitive is the
heart to the approach of a rival ; and
the thought of such affection being
alienated or corrupted fills the soul with
grief and indignation. So God com-
mends the purity, the fervency, and the
sincerity of his love to his Church by
the most terrific expressions of jealousy.
The various significations of the word
"jealousy " are denoted usually by its
connection. It is one of the strongest
passions of our nature. ProT. 6 : 34 ; Sol.
Song 8 : fi.
The Imagk of Jealousy, Eze. 8: 3, 5,-
is the same with Tammnz, in v. 14. See
Tammuz.
Jealousy-offering, or Waters of
Jealoisv. See Adui-tkhy.
JE'ARIM, MOUNT {monnt of
foreHtn), a place named in noting the
northern boundary of Judah. Josh. 15 :
11). The boundary ran from Mount
Seir to " the shoulder of Mount Jearim,
which is Cesalon " — that is, Cesalon was
the landmark on the mountain. K'euld
stands 7 miles due west of Jerusalem,
420
on a high point on the north slope of a
lofty ridge, which is probably Mount
Jearim. Considerable woods still exist
there.
JEAT'ERAI (whom Jehovah leads),
a Gershonite Levite, 1 Chr. 6:21; called
Ethni in v. 41.
JEBERACHI'AH {>chom Jehovah
blesses), the father of the Zechariah whom
Isaiah took as a witness. Isa. 8 : 2.
JE'BUS {place trodden down, thresh-
ing- Jloor), the ancient name of Jerusa-
lem among the Canaanites, .Jud. 19: 10,
11; 1 Chr. 11:4,6; probably derived
from a descendant of Canaan, the son
of Ham. Gen. 10 : Ifi. The Jebusitcs
were partially subdued bv Joshua, Josh.
10 : 23, 40 : 12 : 10 ; 15 : 63 ; Num. 13 :
29; and they were permitted to remain
after the conquest of Jebus by David.
2 Sam. 6 : 6-9 ; 24 : 1 6-25 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 4-
8 ; Ezr. 9:1,2. *' Jebusi " is sometimes
put for the city Jebus. Josh. 18 : 10,
28; Zech. 9 : 7. Jebus was more accu-
rately the south-west hill afterward
called Mount Zion, or '"city of David."
Being surrounded on all sides by deep
ravines, it was a place of great natural
strength. See Jerusalem.
JEBU'SI. Josh. 15:8; 18:16.28.
A name for Jebus. See Jebus and Je-
rusalem.
JEB'USITES, the name of a
tribe inhabiting the portion of Canaan
about Jebus or Jerusalem in the time
of Joshua, and which the Israelites were
commanded to destroy. Deut. 7:1; 20;
17. They joined Jabin against Joshua.
Their king, Adoni-zedek, was slain
and they defeated. Josh. 11:3; 10:15,
26 ; later their city was burnt, but re-
occupied bv the Jebusites. Jud. 1 : 21
and Josh. "15 : 63; 19 : 10-22. David
conquered their stronghold, and it be-
came a part of his capital, Jerusalem. 2
Sam. 5: 6, 8; 1 Chr. 11 : 4-6. Solomon
made the Jebusites pay tribute, 1 Kgs.
9:20, and some wore known after the
captivity. Ezr. 9:1. David bought the
place of Araunah the Jebusite for an
altar, and this afterward became the
site of the temjile. 2 Sam. 24:16-25.
JEB'USITES, inhabitants of
Jebus.
JECAIttl'AH {ivhom Jehovah (jath-
ers), one of the line of David, 1 Chr.
3:18; same with .Tekaniiah of 2:41.
JECHOLI'AH [able throuyh Jeho-
JEC
JEH
vah), the mother of Azariah, or Uzziah,
king of Judah. 2 Kgs. 15 : 2. She is
called Jecoliah in 2 Chr. 26 : 3.
JECHONI'AS. Matt. 1 : 11, 12.
Greek form of Jeco.viah or Jehoiachin,
which see.
JECOLI'AH. See Jecholiah.
JECONI'AH (ichom Jehovah estab-
lishen). See jEHOiACHiy.
JED A'lAH. {2)raise Jehovah). A. 1.
A Simeonite, ancest')r of Ziza, a chief
of his tribe. 1 Chr. 4 : 37.
2. One who helped repair the wall.
Neh. 3:10.
B. The same name in the A. V., but
different in the Hebrew, meaning Jeho-
vah cares for him.
1. The head of the second course of
priests, 1 Chr. 24 : 7. " Most probably
this course or the representative of it,
divided afterward into two branches, is
intended in 1 Chr. 9:10; Ezr. 2:36:
Neh. 7:39; 11:10; 12:6, 7, 19, 21."
— Ai/re.
2. One who returned from Babylon,
to whom a memorial crown was given.
Zech. 6: 10, U.
JEDI^4EL {known of God). 1. A
son or descendant of Benjamin, 1 Chr.
7:6, 10, 11, and progenitor of the most
powerful family in the tribe.
2. One of David's warriors. 1 Chr.
11:45.
3. Perhaps the same as the chief of
Manasseh who joined David on the
march to Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 20.
4. A Levite temple-doorkeeper in the
time of David. 1 Chr. 26 : 2.
JEDI'DAH (one beloved), the moth-
er of King Josiah. 2 Kgs. 22 : 1.
JEDIDI'AH {beloved of Jehovah),
the name Nathan gave to Solomon. 2
Sam. 12 : 25. It was a play on the word
David, "beloved," which comes from the
same root as " Jedid;" so, as the father
was beloved, the child was the beloved of
Jehovah.
JED'UTHUN {praising), an emi-
nent master of the temple-music, to
whom several of the Psalms are in-
scribed, see Ps. 39, 62, 77, etc., or by
whom, as some suppose, they were
written. Probably he was identical
with Ethan. 1 Chr. 6:44; 15:17, 19;
16 : 38, 41, 42 ; 25 : 1-6. " We find sub-
sequently his division oflSciating when
the temple was completed, 2 Chr. 5 : 12.
in Hezekiah's reformation, 29:14, and
also under Josiah, 35:15; moreover,
after the Captivity, a descendant of his
house is mentioned. 1 Chr. 9:16; Neb.
11 : 17. Three Psalms have Jeduthun
in their titles, 39, 62, 77 ; probably they
were to be sung by his musical division."
— All re.
JJEE'ZER {father of help), short-
ened foi-m of Abiezer ; a descendant
of Manasseh through Gilead. Num. 26 :
30. See Abiezer.
JEE'ZERITES, descendants of
the above.
JE'GAR-SAHADU'THA {heap
of testimony), the Aramsean name of the
stone memorial between Jacob and La-
ban. Gen. 31 : 47. The Hebrew word
*'Galeed" does not exactly represent it.
JEHALE'LEEL {who praises
God), a Judite. 1 Chr. 4: 16.
JEHAL'ELEL {who praises God),
a Levite. 2 Chr. 29 : 12.
JEHDE'IAH ( whom Jeh ovah
makes joyful). 1. A Levite. 1 Chr. 24 :
20.
2. He who had charge of David's she-
asses. 1 Chr. 27:30.
JEHEZ'EKEL {whom God makes
strong), the head of the twentieth priest-
ly course, 1 Chr. 24 : 16; same name
as Ezekiel.
JEHI'AH {Jehovah lives), a door-
keeper for the ark. 1 Chr. 15 : 24.
JEHI'EIi {God lives). 1. A Levite
porter appointed by David for musical
service. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20 : 16 : 5.
2. A Gershonite Levite who had
charge of the treasures of the house
of the Lord. 1 Chr. 23 : 8 : 29 : 8.
3. An oflBcer under David. 1 Chr. 27 :
32.
4. A son of Jehoshaphat, slain by his
brother Jehoram. 2 Chr. 21 : 2.
5. A Levite engaged in Hezekiah's
reformatory work. 2 Chr. 29 : 14.
6. A ruler of the house of God during
Josiah's reign. 2 Chr. 35:8.
7. A Levite " overseer." 2 Chr. 31 : 13.
8. Father of Obadiah, who returned
with Ezra, Ezr. 8 : 9.
9. One whose son proposed to Ezra
the putting away of the foreign wives.
Ezr. 10:2.
10 and 11. Two men who had to sep-
arate their wives. Ezr. 10 : 2, 21, 26.
JEHI'EL {treasured of God?), a
distinct name in Hebrew from the last.
1. The father of Gibeon of Benjamin,
421
JEH
JEH
and an ancestor of Saul. 1 Chr. 9 : 35 ;
comp. 8 :29.
2. A member of David's guard. 1 Chr.
11 : 44.
J£III^£LiI, a patronymic ; the de-
scendants of Jehiel. ] Chr. 26 : 21, 22 ;
comp. 23:8; 29:8.
JEHIZKI'AH (whom Jehovah
strengthens), the same name as Hezekiah.
One of the Ephraimite chiefs who second-
ed the prophet Oded in his efforts to re-
lease the captives of Judah during Ahaz's
reign. 2 Chr. 28 : 12.
JEHO'ADAH (whom Jehovah
adorns), one of the descendants of Saul,
1 Chr. 8 : 36 ; in 9 : 42 called Jarah.
JEHOAD'DAN (the feminine form
of the above), the queen of Joash and
mother of Amaziah, the succeeding king
of Judah. 2 Kgs. 14: 2; 2 Chr. 25 : 1.
J E H O ' A H A Z {whom Jeh ova h
holds). 1. Son and successor of Jehu,
king of Israel for 17 years, B.C. 856-
840. See 2 Kgs. 13:1-9. His reign
was disastrous to the kingdom. The
kings of Syria, Hazael and Benhadad,
oppressed and spoiled the country. The
army was but a shadow. When his
troubles multiplied he sought the Lord,
whom he had forsaken, and God ulti-
mately raised up a deliverer in the per-
son of Jehoash, his son. v. 25.
2. Son and successor of Josiah, king
of Judah, 2 Kgs. 23:30; called Shal-
lum 1 Chr. 3 : 15; Jer. 22 : 11. Though
he was the fourth son, yet the peojile
chose him king. He was an evil-doer,
2 Kgs. 23 : 32, and referred to as a young
lion by Ezekiel. 19 : 3. He reigned only
three months, B. c. 610. It has been
plausibly conjectured that his irregular
election offended Pharaoh-necho, who
got Jehoahaz into his power at Riblah.
in Syria, whence he sent him a prisoner
loaded with chains into Egypt, and there
he died, Jer. 22 : 11, 12, and his brother
Jchoiakim became king in his stead. 2
Kgs. 23 : 30, 35.
3. The same with Ahaziah and Aza-
riah. Comp. 2 Chr. 21: 17; 22: 1, 6,
8,9.
J E H O ' A S H (whom Jehovah he-
stowed), original uncontracted form of
the name commonly written Joash, and
applied to two kings. See Joash, 3 and 4.
JEHOHA'NAN {whom Jehomh
ffare), a name contracted into .Tohanan,
and thus into the familiar Jolin.
422
1. A Levite porter of the Korhite
family. 1 Chr. 23 : 3.
2. Chief military leader under Je-
hoshaphat, 2 Chr. 17: 15, and probably
the father of Ishmael, with whom Jehoi-
ada conspired to set Joash on the throne.
2 Chr. 23:1.
3. One who put away his foreign wife.
Ezr. 10 : 28.
4. A priest under the high priest Joi-
akim. Neh. 12: 13.
5. A priest who officiated in the service
of song at the dedication of the wall of
Jerusalem. Neh. 12: 42.
JEHOI'ACHIN((r;(o«i Jehovah has
appointed). Jeconiah, 1 Chr. 3:17; Co-
niah, Jer. 22 : 24 ; Jeconias, Matt. 1 : 12.
Son and successor of Jehoiakim, king
of Judah, B.C. 598. 2 Kgs. 24: 8. He
was eighteen years old when he began
to reign, and reigned only three months
and ten days, at which time Nebuchad-
nezzar besieged the city and carried the
king and royal family, the chief men of
the nation and great treasures unto Baby-
lon. 2 Kgs. 24:6-16. He merited this
punishment. Jer. 22 : 24-30. For thirty-
seven years he was a captive, but Evil-
merodach on his accession liberated him
and made him share the royal bounty
and be head of all the captive kings in
Babylon; and so to the end of his life he
enjoved a position befitting his rank.
J'EHOI'ADA (whom Jehovah
knows). 1. The father of Bknaiah, 1,
which see. 2 Sam. 8:18; 1 Kgs. 1 : 32
ff. ; 1 Chr. 18:17. This Jehoiada was
the chief priest, 1 Chr. 27 : 5, and there-
fore he was the leader of the priests who
came to David at Hebron. 1 Chr. 12 :
27. By a copyist's error, Benaiah is said
to have been the father of Jehoiada in-
stead of the son. 1 Chr. 27:34.
2. A high priest of the Jews, and hus-
band of Jehoshcba. 2 Kgs. 11:4. See
Athaliah and Joash. His administra-
tion was so aus))icious to the civil and
religious interests of the nation. 2 Kgs.
12 : 2 : 2 Chr. 23 : 16, that when he died,
at an advanced age. he was buried in the
royal sepulchres at Jerusalem. 2 Chr.
24 : 1 6. Many do not accept the age of
132 years assigned to him, for the reason
that if he lived so long, then, when he
married the daughter of Jehoram, he
must have been 80, while Jehoram was
only 32. It has been proposed to read
" 83 " instead.
JEH
JEH
3. The second priest in the reign of
Zedekiah. Jer. 29 : 25-29.
4. One who helped repair the wall.
Neh. 3:6.
JEHOI'AKIM {whom Jehovah sets
lip), eldest son of Josiah, and the brother
and successor of Jehoahaz, king of Ju-
dah. 2 Kgs. 23 : 36. His original name
was Eliakim, but it was changed by order
of the king of Egypt, 2 Kgs. 23 : 34, who
put him on the throne. The iniquity of
his reign is strongly depicted by the his-
torian and prophet, 2 Kgs. 24:4; 2 Chr.
36 : 8; Jer. 22, 26, 36. His end was in
strict accordance with the prediction con-
cerning him.
For the first four years of his reign
Jehoiakim was subject to the king of
Egypt, and paid an enormous tribute.
Then he became tributary for three years
to Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, 2
Kgs. 24 : 1, but he rebellel, in punish-
ment was attacked by neighboring tribes,
and then Nebuchadnezzar took him pris-
oner and at first bound him with chains
to carry him to Babylon, 2 Chr. 36 : 6;
Dan. 1 : 2, but afterward set him at
liberty and left him at Jerusalem, to
reign as a tributary prince. The whole
time of his reign was eleven years, b. c.
609-598.
The expression Jer. 36 : 30 is not to be
taken strictly, and yet, as the reign of
Jehoiachin was for only thirteen weeks,
Jehoiakim may be said to have been
comparatively without a successor. The
same explanation applies to 2 Kgs. 23 :
34, where Eliakim is said to have suc-
ceeded his father, Josiah; whereas the
reign of Jehoahaz intervened. This was
so short, however, as not to be reckoned
in the succession.
Jehoiakim was a bad king, extrava-
gant, irreverent, and vicious. His
burning of Jeremiah's roll revealed his
ungodly life. Jer. 36 : 23. His murder
of Urijah, Jer. 26 : 23, and treatment
of Jeremiah indicated his reckless cru-
elty. The latter prophet bravely de-
nounced the oppression, injustice, cov-
etousness, luxury, and tyranny of this
miserable monarch. Jer. 22 : 13-17. He
was murdered in the eleventh year of
his reign, and was " buried with the
burial of an ass." Jer. 22 : 19.
JEHOI'ARIB (tchom Jehovah de-
fends), the head of the first course of
priests. 1 Chr. 24 : 7.
JEHON'ADAB, or JONA'DAB
{whom Jehovah incites), the son of Re-
chab, the founder of the Rechabites,
which see. He joined Jehu in the
slaughter of the Baalites. 2 Kgs. 10 :
15-23.
JEHON'ATHAN {whom Jehovah
gave), very frequently JONA'THAN.
1. Superintendent of storehouses of Da-
vid. 1 Chr. 27 : 25.
2. A Levite sent out by Jehoshaphat
to teach the Law to the people of Judah.
2 Chr. 17 : 8.
3. A priest, representative of the fam-
ily of Shemaiah. Neh. 12 : 18.
JEHO'RAM, frequently JO 'RAM
{whom Jehovah has exalted). 1. The
eldest sou of Jehoshaphat, and his suc-
cessor as king of Judah. He reigned
eight years, b. c. 892-885, perhaps for
the first years as the associate of his
father. 1 Kgs. 22 : 50 ; 2 Kgs. 8 : 16, 17 ;
2 Chr. 21 : 1-3. He married Athaliah,
the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and
proved himself as wicked as his rela-
tives. One of the first acts of his gov-
ernment was to put to death his six
brothers and several of the chief men of
the kingdom. 2 Chr. 21 : 4. To punish
him for this and other abominations of
his reign, 2 Chr. 21 : 11-13, the Edom-
ites, who had long been subject to the
throne of Judah, revolted, and secured
their independence. 2 Chr. 21 : 8-10.
One of his own cities also revolted, and
about the same time he received a writ-
ing from Elijah, admonishing him of
the dreadful calamities which he was
bringing on himself by his wicked con-
duct. In due time these calamities came
upon him and his kingdom. Their ter-
ritory was overrun with enemies ; the
king's palace was plundered, and the
royal family, except the youngest son,
made prisoners. The king himself was
smitten with a terrible and incurable
disease, which carried him to the grave
unlamented, and he was buried without
royal honors. 2 Chr. 21 : 14-2(1.
2. Jehoram, the son of Ahab and
Jezebel, and king of Israel, b. c. 896-
884. 2 Kgs. 1:17: 3:1. He was not
so bad as his parents, but yet b^. did
evil in the sight of the Lord, bowing
down to the golden calves. 2 Kgs. 3 : 2,
3. The friendly intercourse between
Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, and
Ahab was kept up by Jehoram, and so,
423
JEH
JEH
when the king of Moab rebelled, he ob-
tained the help of Judah and Edom to
bring him to terras. Distressed by lack
of water after a seven days' march, on the
insistence of Jehoshaphat, they inquired
of the Lord through Elisha, who prophe-
sied victory if an odd])lan was adopted —
viz., to dig trenches which, when tilled
with water by the Lord, would appear
streams of blood to the Moabites, who
would conjecture that there had been
internal strife, and so would be induced
to attack the camp without the usual
caution. The ruse was successful, and
the Moabites were repulsed with great
loss. The allies pursued them into Moab,
beating down the cities and stopping up
wells and felling trees, thus devastating
the land. In the city Kir-haraseth was
the king of Moab brought to bay. He
attempted to cut his way through, but,
foiled in that, he ofiFe/ed his eldest son
as a propitiatory sacrifice unto the Mo-
abitish war-god, Chemosh — a perform-
ance which so horrified the Israelites
that they abandoned the siege and re-
turned home. See 2 Kgs. 3:4-27 (v. 27,
second clause, best reads, " There was
great indignation in Israel"). When
fighting against Syria, Jehoram was in-
formed of their king's secret counsels by
Elisha, but when the Syrian army was
miraculously delivered into his power
the prophet forbade their slaughter. 2
Kgs. 6 : 8-23. Subsequently,. Samaria
was besieged by Benhadad and reduced
to dreadful straits. Jehoranj laid the
blame upon Elisha and determined his
death, but afterward changed his mind.
Man's extremity was Ciod's opportunity.
By a miracle ])lenty Avas restored unto
the famishing city, as Elisha announced,
an<l after this event the king's friendly
feeling for the prophet retmned. 2 Kgs.
8 : l-fi. The seven-year famine of 2
Kgs. 8 : 1 may have been that men-
tioned in ch. 4. vs. 38-44. A revolution
in Syria gave Jehoram oppo'tnnity, in
connection with his nephew Ahaziah, to
recover Kainoth-gi!ead from the Syrians,
but in the battle he was wounded, and
while in Jezreel, whither he had gone
for healing, Jehu revolted and slew him
as he tried to escape, and his body was
east " in the portion of the field of Na-
both the Jezreelite," according to the
prophecy of Elijah. 1 Kgs. 21 : 21-21) :
see 2 Kgs. 8 : 28 an I 9 : 11-27. With
424
the life of Jehoram ended the reign of
the house of Omri.
3. A priest employed by Jehoshaphat
to instruct the people. 2 Chr. 17 : 8.
JEHOSHAB'EATH {her oath is
Jehovah). See Jehoshkba.
JEHOSH'APHAT( JoAom Jehovah
judges). 1. The royal ''recorder" or
annalist under David and vSolomon. 2
Sam. 8 : 16 ; 20 : 24 ; 1 Kgs. 4 : 3 ; 1 Chr.
18:15.
2. Solomon's purveyor for the tribe
of Issachar. 1 Kgs. 4:17.
3. The son and successor of Asa, king
of Judah, 1 Kgs. 15 : 24 ; 2 Chr. 17 : 1 ;
called Josaphat in Matt. 1:8, and in 2
Chr. 21 : 2 the king of Israel, where the
writer uses the generic term. He came to
the throne at the age of 35, and reigned
25 years, b. c. 914-890. He was a prince
of distinguished piety, and his reign was
powerful and prosperous. 2 Chr. 17 : 3-0.
Among other evidences of his piety and
benevolence, we are told that he caused
the altars and places of idolatry to be
destroyed, a knowledge of the law to be
diffused throughout the kingdom, and
the places of judicial and ecclesiastical
authority to be filled by the wisest and
best men of the land.' 2 Chr. 17:6-9:
19 : 5-11. His sin in forming a league
with Ahab, contrary to the counsel of
Micaiah, against Ramoth-gilead, 2 Chr.
18, was severely censured by Jehu, 2
Chr. 19 : 2, and had nearly cost him his
life. 2 Chr. 18:31.
A few years after this the kingdom
of Judah was invaded by a confederacy
of Edomites, Moabites, and others.
They collected their forces at En-gedi.
and threatened to overthrow the king-
dom. Jehoshaphat proclaimed a fast,
fnd the people from all parts of the
kingdom — men, women, and children —
came up to Jerusalem ; and being as-
simbled in one place, the king him-
self made supplication to God for help
in tiieir extremity. 2 Chr. 20 : 6-12.
His prayer was answered, and a certain
and easy victory was promised by the
Lord through Jahaziel, a Levite. On the
following day the army of Judah went
forth to meet the enemy, preceded by a
c(>mj)any of singers, Avho praised the
name of the Lord. The enemy were
panic struck and fell into irrecoverable
confusion, and instead of facing their
adversaries turned their swords against
J EH
JEll
each other, until they were utterly rout-
ed and overthrown ; so that Jehoshaphat
and his men had no occasion to engage
in the conflict. And such abundance
of spoil remained in the camp that the
men of Judah were employed three days
in collecting it. 2 Chr. 20 : 14-27.
Still later in his life, Jehoshaphat con-
nected himself with Ahaziah, son and
successor of Ahab, king of Israel, in a
naval expedition : but this alliance with
a wicked king turned out disastrously,
as had been predicted by Bliezer, the
son of Dodovah; for while the fleet lay
at Ezion-geber it was utterly destroyed
by a violent storm. 2 Chr. 20 : 35, 37.
See Ahaziah.
Again he involved himself in an alli-
ance with Jehoram, the seaond son of
Ahab, and also with the Edomites. for
the purpose of invading the land of
Moab ; but while they attempted to
make their way through the wilderness
their water failed, and the whole army
must have perished with thirst had not
a miraculous supply been granted in an-
swer to the prayers of Elisha, who ac-
companied the army. 2 Kgs. 3 : 6-20.
Jehoshaphat left seven sons, one of
whom, Jehoram, succeeded him.
It may be said of his reign, as of that
of many others in ancient and modern
times, that his schemes of reform were
dependent on his personal influence,
and, not being in conformity with the
popular sentiment and general policy of
the country, were not of permanent
utility.
4. The father of King Jehu. 2 Kgs.
9 : 2, 14.
5. A priest in the time of David. 1
Chr. 15 : 24.
JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY
OF {vnlleij of the judgment of Jehovah),
a place named only in Joel 3:2, 12.
Three leading explanations have been
given.
1. That the valley referred to is the
same as the " valley of Berachah," where
the forces allied against Israel were de-
feated by Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 20 : 16-
26. This event took place 100 years
before Joel, and may have given rise to
this expression of the prophet.
2. That the valley is that of the Ke-
dron, east of Jerusalem. Jews, Mo-
hammedans, and Christians have identi-
fied the Ked.on with the Valley of
Jehoshaphat. The Mohammedans point
out a stone on which they think the
prophet will be seated at the last judg-
ment, and mediaeval Christian tradition
also indicated a stone on which it was
then believed that Christ would sit at
the judgment. The valley is a favorite
burial-place, and some expect that the
sides of the valley will move apart at
the resurrection to afford room for a
great assembly. When the name *' Val-
ley of Jehoshaphat" was given to the
Kedron is not known, but there is no
trace of it in the Bible nor in .Josephus,
but it is traced to the fourth century a. d.
This identification of Jehoshaphat with
the Kedron is now generally regarded as
based upon a misinterpretation of Joel.
3. That the name does not refer to any
special place, but to either (a) the scene
of great victories, as those of the Macca-
bees ; or (b) the general judgment at the
end of the world ; or (c) the truth that
Grod's persecuted people he will defend
and vindicate.
JEHOSH'EBA (her oath is Jeho-
vah), the wife of Jehoiada, the high
priest, daughter of King Jehoram, but,
it has been conjectured, not by Athaliah :
if so, half-sister to Ahaziah. 2 Kgs. 11 :
2, 3; 2 Chr. 22: 11. When Athaliah
attempted the entire destruction of the
seed royal Jehosheba saved her infant
nephew, Joash, and for six years, doubt-
less with the connivance of Jehoiada,
he was hid in the temple.
JEHOSH'UA, OR JEHOSH'-
UAH [Jehovah is his help), full form for
Joshua; used in Num. 13 : 16 and 1 Chr.
7: 27.
JEHO'VAH (he icill be), a title
of the supreme Being, indicative of the
attribute of eternal and immutable self-
existence. Ex. 6:3. It is similar in
import to the title I am. Ex. 3: 14. In
the English Bible it is usually translated
"Lord" and printed in small capitals.
It occurs first in the second chapter
of Genesis. As distinct from Elohim,
it signifies the God of revelation
and redemption, the God of the Jews,
while Elohim is the God of nature, the
Creator and Preserver of all men. See
Jah, God.
J E H O' VA H- J I'R E H (Jehovah
will see, or provide), the name given
by Abraham to the place on which he
had been commanded to offer Isaac,
42.3
JEH
JEH
Gen. 22 : 14, and probably the same as
Mount Moriah, in Jerusalem.
JEHO'VAH-NIS'SI {Jehovah my
banner), the name given by Moses to the
altar which he built as a memorial of the
(liscomtiture of the Amalekites. Ex. 17 :
15.
JEHOVAH-SHALOM (Jeho-
vah [isj peace), an altar erected by Gid-
eon in Ophrah, where the angel greeted
him with " Peace be unto thee !" Jud.
6 • '^4-
JEHOVAH- SHAM'MAH (Jeho-
vah there), in the marginal reading in
Eze. 48 : 35 ; in the text the words are
translated.
JEHOVAH- TSID'KENU (Je-
hovah our rujlitcoHsneas), the marginal
reading in Jer. 23 : 6 and 33 : 16. Our
translators' " hesitation whether they
should render or transfer the expression
may have been the greater from their
supposing it to be one of the Messianic
titles." — Smith.
JEHOZ'ABAD, commonly con-
tracted into JOZ'ABAD (irhom Jeho-
vah bestoica). 1. One of Joash's servants,
who slew him. 2 Kgs. 12: 21; 2 Chr.
24 : 20.
2. One of the Lcvitc porters. 1 Chr.
26:4.
3. A Benjamite who was a prominent
warrior under Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 17:
18.
JEHOZ'ADAK («-Ao»i God makes
just), the son of the high priest Seraiah,
who was murdered at Riblah by Nebu-
chadnezzar. 2 Kgs. 25 : 21. He was car-
ried into captivity, 1 Chr. 6: 14, 15, and
never became high priest, but his son,
Jeshua, attained unto this office, Ezr. 3 :
2 ; Neh. 12 : 20, and his descendants
held it until Alcimus. See High Priest.
He is more frequently called Jozadak or
Joseilech.
JE'HU (Jehovah in he). 1. Was the
son of Hnnani the seer, Avith whom Asa
was so much enraged as to cast him into
prison. 1 Kgs. 16: 7: 2 Chr. 16 : 7-10.
He was ap])ointed to carry a message to
Baasha from God. threatening to visit
upon him the most fearful judgments.
He wa« afterward employed on a simi-
lar errand to Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 19 :
1,2.
2, 1 Kgs. 19: 10. Comp. 2 Kgs. 9 : 2.
The grandson of Nimshi, and son of
Jehosha))hat, selected by God to reign
426
over Israel, and to be the instrument
of inflicting his judgments on the
house of Ahab. 1 Kgs. 19 : 17 ; 2 Kgs.
9 : 1-10. In executing this commission
he commenced with the reigning king,
Joram, who was then lying ill at Jezreel.
Having been proclaimed king by a few
adherents who were with him at Ra-
moth-gilead, he proceeded toward Jez-
reel. Upon his approach within sight
of that place Joram despatched two or
three messengers to ascertain his design ;
and finding they did not return, he went
out himself to meet him. It happened
that they met on the ground of Naboth
the Jezreelite, 1 Kgs. 21: 1-24; and
Jehu at once charged him with his gross
iniquities, and immediately shot him
dead in his chariot. Comp. 1 Kgs. 21 :
19 and 2 Kgs. 9 : 25.
Jehu rode on to Jezreel, and as he
was passing in at the gate, Jezebel, who
was looking out at a window, said some-
thing in allusion to what had happened
to Ahab. By Jehu's order she was
thrown down, and the prophecy was e.\-
actly fulfilled. 1 Kgs. 21 : 28; 2 Kgs. 9:
32-37. He then exterminated the family
of Ahab through the agency of the el-
ders of the city, in which the 70 sons of
Ahab were. 2 Kgs. 10 : 7. The next
morning he ordered a general slaughter
of all Ahab's family and adherents in
the town of Jezreel. He then set out for
Samaria, and meeting on his way a party
of 42 persons, all the family of Ahaziel
(a branch of Ahab's house), he seized
and slew them.
But the most revolting of these deeds
of blood was the slaughter of all the
Baalites he could get together under
pretence of a festival. 2 Kgs. 10 : 18-
28. This dreadful extermination of the
house of Ahab, and of the idolatrous
worship which he sanctioned, was in
accordance with the divine command,
and received the divine approbation. 2
Kgs. 10 : 30. Jehu himself, however,
was ambitious and tyrannical, and fell
into idolatrous practices. 2 Kgs. 10:31.
His reign lasted 2S years, B. c. 884-850,
and he was succeeded by his son Jehoa-
haz.
descendant of Judah.
3. A
2 : 38.
4. A
5. A
12 : 3.
Simconite. 1 Chr. 4:35.
Benjamite with David.
1 Chr.
1 Chr.
JEH
JEP
JEHITB'BAH {he idU be hidden),
an Asherite chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 34.
JE'HUCAL, OR JU'CAL ( potent),
one of those whom Zedekiah the king
sent to Jeremiah the prophet, and who
afterward asked for the latter's death.
Jer. 37 : 3 : 38 : 1.
JE'HUD {celebrated), a town of the
Danites, Josh. 19 : 45 ; identical with the
xiUsige el- Yehitdiy eh, about 10 miles east
of Jaffa, and now a place of 800 to 1000
inhabitants.
JEHU'DI (a Jew), one mentioned
in Jer. 36 : 14, 21, 23 as being sent by
the princes to tell Baruch to fetch the
roll of Jeremiah's prophecies, and who,
at the king's order, brought it and read
it before him.
JEHUDI'JAH {the Jewess), not a
proper name, but applied to one of the
wives of Mered to distinguish her from
the other, who was an Egyptian. 1 Chr.
4 : 18. The word *• Hodiah," v. 19, is the
same word contracted.
JE'HUSH {n collector), one of Saul's
descendants. 1 Chr. 8 : 39.
JEI'EL {treasure of God). 1. A
Reubenite chief. 1 Chr. 5 : 7.
2. A Levite porter, one of the musi-
cians of the second degree. 1 Chr. 15 :
18, 21; 16:5.
3. A Levite of the sons of Asaph. 2
Chr. 20:14.
4. A scribe in the time of Uzziah,
" who kept the account of the number
of his irregular predatory warriors." 2
Chr. 26:11.
5. A Levite who assisted in Hezekiah's
reforms. 2 Chr. 29:13.
6. One of the chief Levites in Josi-
ah's time. 2 Chr. 35 : 9.
7. One who came back with Ezra.
Ezr. 8: 13.
8. One who had taken a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10:43.
JEKAB'ZEEL {which God qnth-
ers), a place in the southern part of Ju-
dah, Neh. 11 : 25 ; also called Kabzeel
{God's gathering), Josh. 15:21; 2 Sam.
23 : 20.
JEKAME'AM {who gathers the peo-
ple), a Levite in David's time. 1 Chr.
23:19; 24:23.
JEKAMI'AH {ichom Jehovah gath-
ers), a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 :
18.
JE KU'THIE L i piety totcard God),
a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4: 18.
JEMI'MA ((^>rc). the eldest of Job's
three daughters, bjrn after his recovery.
Job 42 : 14.
JEMU'EL {day of God), the eldest
son of Simeon. Gen. 46 : 10 ; Ex. 6:15.
The name is given Nemuel in Num. 26 :
12: 1 Chr. 4:24.
JEPH'THAE, the Greek form of
Jephthah. Heb. 11 : 32.
JEPH'THAH {whom God sets
free), one of the judges of Israel, was
the illegitimate son of Gilead, .Jud. 11 :
1 ; and this fact made him so odious to
the other children of the family that
they banished him from the house, and
he took up his residence in the land of
Tob, a district of Syria not far from
Gilead, and probably the same with Ish-
tob. 2 Sam. 10 : 8. Here he became the
head of a marauding-party : and when a
war broke out between the children of Is-
rael and the Ammonites, he probably sig-
nalized himself for courage and enter-
prise. This led the Israelites to seek
his aid as their commander-in-chief;
and though he objected at first, on the
ground of their ill-usage of him, yet,
upon their solemn covenant to regard
him as their leader in case they suc-
ceeded against the Ammonites, he took
command of their army. After some
preliminary negotiations Avith the Am-
monites, in which the question of the
right to the country is discussed with
great force and ingenuity, and every
attempt to conciliate them proved abor-
tive, the two armies met. The Ammon-
ites were defeated with great loss of life,
and their country secured by the Israel-
ites.
On the eve of the battle Jephthah made
a vow that if he obtained the victory he
would devote to God whatever should
come forth from his house to meet him
on his return home. This turned out to
be his daughter, an only child, who wel-
comed his return with music and dan-
cing. Jephthah was greatly afflicted by
this occurrence : but his daughter cheer-
fully consented to the performance of his
vow, which took place at the expiration
of two months, and the commemoration
of the event by the daughters of Israel
was required by a public ordinance. Jud.
11:34-10.
The Ephraimites quarrelled with Jeph-
thah because they had not been invited
to join in the war. But Jephthah again
427
JEP
JER
put himself at the head of his army, de-
feated them, and by the word *' shibbo-
leth " detected those Ephraimites who
tried to cross the Jordan, and slew them.
In all, 42,000 Ephraimites, were slain.
Jephthah judged the trans- Jordanic
region six years. Jud. 12 : 1-7.
The perplexing question what Jeph-
thah did with his daughter will perhaps
never obtain a satisfactory answer. The
passage reads thus : " And Jephthah
vowed a vow unto the Lord, and said,
If thou shalt without fail deliver the
children of Ammon into mine hands, then
it shall be that whatsoever cometh forth
of the doors of my house to meet me,
when I return in peace from the chil-
dren of Ammon, shall surely be the
Lord's, and I will offer it up for a burnt-
offering.'' Jud. 11 : 30, 31. An unpreju-
diced reading of the text leads natu-
rally to the conclusion that Jephthah
offered her up as a burnt-sacrifice, but
the other opinion, that he devoted his
daughter to a life of celibacy, is de-
fended by these arguments : 1. The par-
ticle vail, which in the A. V. is translated
" and " {" and I will offer it up"), should
be translated '' or," But there is a Hebrew
word with that meaning. 2. The em-
phasis is laid upon "him," which is
made to refer to the Lord, and the vow
is thus interpreted as contemplating two
things: (1) a person to be consecrated
to Jehovah, and (2) the additional offer-
ing of a burnt-sacrifice. But such a
construction would be a solecism in
Hebrew. 3. The " burnt-oflfering" has
been taken in a spiritual sense, but that
is to put an interpretation upon the word
which the Hebrew will not bear. 4.
Jephthah could not vow to God a
human sacrifice, so abhorrent to him,
and so contrary to the whole P])irit of
the Hebrew religion. Lev. 20 : 2-6;
Deut. 12:31. But it must be borne in
mind that Jephthah was a rude warrior
in the semi-barbaric age of the Judges.
Celibacy of a voluntary and religious cha-
racter was unknown in Israel. .Jephthah's
daughter, on this supposition, would
have been the first and last Hebrew nun.
The Jews looked upon the family as a
divine ordinance, and upon the unmar-
ried state as a misfortune equalled only
by that of being a childless wife. It
may not be correct to say that each
Hebrew woman looked forward to be-
428
ing the mother of the Messiah, but at
all events to be a mother was to fulfil
the function in society God had design-
ed for her, A vow of celibacy, there-
fore, would have been contrary to the
spirit of the Jewish religion as much
as a vow of bloody sacrifice. The so-
journ of Jephthah's daughter in the
mountains for two months is inconsist-
ent with any such dedication to Jeho-
vah, But if she were to be sacrificed,
her home would indeed be filled with
too mournful associations, whereas the
open air, especially to such a girl, and
the solitude of the hills, would be real
aids in preparation for death. Jeph-
thah's intense sorrow when she canie
forth to meet him likewise harmonizes
with the literal and natural interpre-
tation,
JEPHUN'NEH {nun, he be reffard-
ed with favor.'). 1, The father Of Caleb
the spy, a Kenezite, Num, 13: 6; Josh
14:14; 1 Chr. 4:15,
2. An Asherite chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 38.
JE'RAH (moon), a people descended
from Joktan, who gave name to a region
of Arabia, Gen. 10:26; 1 Chr. 1:20;
perhaps the Moon Coast and Moon Moun-
tains, near Hazavmaveth. Bochart pro-
poses to identify this people with the
Alilaei, or Beni-Hilal, "sons of the new
moon." dwelling in the south of Chawlan.
JERAH'MEEL {»„ whom God has
mercii). 1. The son of Hezron, Judah's
grandson, 1 Chr. 2 : 9, 25, 26, 27, 33, 42 ;
founder of the Jerahmeelitcs, 1 Sam. 27 :
10 ; 30 : 29, a tribe in the southern part
of Judah.
2, A Merarite Levite. 1 Chr. 24:29,
3. A man emploved to arrest Jeremiah
and Baruch. Jer. 36:26.
JE'RED {dencenl). 1, 1 Chr. 1 : 2.
See Jared.
2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr, 4:
18.
JER'EMAI (dweUhig in hen/hts),
one who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 33.
JEREMI'AH (whom Jehovah setn
up). 1. The father of Hamutal, the wife
of Josiah. 2 Kgs. 23: 31 ; 24: 18.
2. Tlie head of a house in Manasseh.
1 Chr. 5:24,
3. A Benjamite who came to David at
Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12:4.
4. 5. Gadite warriors. 1 Chr. 12 : 10. 13.
6. One of the priests who sealed the
covenant. Neh. 10 : 2.
JEE
JER
7. One of the Rechabites. Jer. 35 : 3.
8. Jeremiah, one of the four great
prophets. He was the son of Hilkiah of
Anathoth, in the land of Benjamin. Jer.
1 : 1, and lived under various kings from
Josiah to the Captivity. In the English
Version he is, by unnecessary variation,
called "Jeremy" in Matt. 2 : 17, and '• Je-
remias," Matt. 16 : 14. " There is no one
in the ' goodly fellowship of the prophets '
of whom, in his work, feelings, and suf-
ferings, we have so distinct a knowledge,
although it is derived almost exclusively
from his book. He is for us the great
example of the prophetic life. It is not
to be wondered at that he should have
seemed to the Christian fee.ing of the
early Church a type of Him in whom
that life received its highest comple-
tion."—A-o/'. PIiDiiptre. He was not
only the prophet of sorrow and public
calamity, but also the prophet of a new
and better covenant of the heart.
Jeremiah was very young when he was
called to the prophetic office, and on that
account declined it, Jer. 1 : 6 ; but God
promised him grace and strength suffi-
cient for his work, and for fortj'-two years
he persisted in this arduous service with
unwearied diligence and fidelity, in the
midst of the severest trials and perse-
cutions. It was probably owing to his
youth at the time, and his residence in
Anathoth, that when the book of the
Law was found in the house of the Lord
the king sent to Huldah the prophetess,
instead of to him, to inquire of the
Lord. 2 Kgs. 23 : U.
Jeremiah's task was a thankless one.
He was the divine means, not of encour-
agement, but of discouragement. His
voice was constantly heard calling upon
the people to submit to their enemies.
During all this time Jerusalem was in a
most distracted and deplorable condi-
tion, and the prophet was calumniated,
imprisoned, and often in danger of
death. But no ill-treatment or threat-
enings could deter him from denouncing
the judgments of God, which were com-
ing upon the nation and that devoted
city. His exhortations to the king and
rulers were to submit at once to the arms
of Nebuchadnezzar, for by that means
they would preserve their lives ,• and he
assured them, as a message received
from God, that their continued resist-
ance would have no other effect than to
bring certain and dreadful destruction
upon Jerusalem and on themselves. At
this time Jerusalem swarmed with false
prophets, who contradicted the words of
Jeremiah and flattered the king and his
courtiers that God would rescue them
from the impending danger ; and after
the city was taken and part of the peo-
ple carried away to Babylon, these
prophets confidently predicted a speedy
return. On the other hand, Jeremiah
sent word to the captives that the time
of their captivity would be long, and
that their best course was to build
houses and plant vineyards in the land
to which they were carried, and to pray
for the peace of the counti'y in which
they resided. Indeed, he expressly fore-
told that the captivity would endure for
seventy years ; which duration, he inti-
mated, was to make up for the sabbatical
years which they had neglected to ob-
serve. He also foretold the deliverance
of the people and their return to their
own country. Toward the close of his
life he was carried into Egypt against
his will by the Jews who remained in
Judsea after the murder of Gedaliah.
On this occasion he was requested by
Johanan and his followers to inquire of
the Lord whether they should flee into
Egypt ; in answer, after accusing them
of hypocrisy, he warned them in the
most solemn manner, from the Lord, not
to go down to Egj-pt, but they disre-
garded the commandment of God and
went, and took Jeremiah forcibly with
them, where, in all probability, he died,
some think as a martyr.
" It is to Jeremiah, even more than to
Isaiah, that the writers of the apostolic
age, Heb. 8 : 8, 13 ; 10 : 16. 17, look back
when they wish to describe the dispen-
sation of the Spirit. He is the prophet,
beyond all others of the X. T. covenant,
which first appears in his writings; and
the knowledge of this new truth shall no
longer be confined to any single order or
caste, but ' all shall know the Lord, from
the least unto the greatest.' " — Sfcntleif.
The Prophecy of Jeremiah is a faith-
ful reflection of his sad and tender cha-
racter and the calamities of his age. It
embraces a period of upward of 40 years,
between b. c. 62fi and B. c. .586. Jeremiah
entered upon the office of a prophet in
the thirteenth year of the reign of Jo-
ash, Jer. 1 : 2, and his prophecy relates
429
JER
JER
to the judgments that were to come
upon the people for their gross idolatry
and c()rruj)tion : to the restoration which
awaited them whenever they would re-
pent of their sins and forsake them ; and
to the future glory which would arise on
the Church of (rod and on such as were
steadfast in his service when all flesh
should see the salvation of God.
The order of this book is as follows :
1. The prophecies uttered in Josiah's
reign, ehs. 1-12. B. c. 629-608.
2. In Jehoiakim's, chs. 13, 20, 22, 23,
35, 36, 45-48. 49 : 1-33. b. c. 607-597.
3. In Zedekiah's, chs. 21, 24, 27-34,
37-39. 49 : 34-39 : 50, 51. b. c. 597-586.
4. In Uedaliah's, chs. 40-44.
Thk Lamentations of Jekkmiah (the
book imuiediately succeeding the proph-
ecy) are a series of four elegiac poems, in
which the fate of Jerusalem is described,
with one, the third, of a personal cha-
racter, written, it has been reasonably
conjectured, when Jeremiah was in Ra-
niah, whither he had been carried as a
captive, but where he Avas released by
Ncbuzar-adan. the captain of the guard
under Nebuchadnezzar. The poems are
artisticallj' composed. Chs. 1, 2, and 4
consist of 22 verses each, as many as
there are letters in the Hebrew alphabet,
and each successive verse begins with a
successive letter of that alphabet. Ch. 3
has three verses under each letter, fol-
lowing them down in the same way. In
ch. 5 there is the same number of verses,
but not the peculiar alphabetic order.
The prophet's theme is sorrow, but his
genius keeps him from triteness, while
the reality and intensity of his grief
give the utmost variety to his pictures
of the condition of his passionately be-
loved land. The poem is a fit companion
of the prophecies of Jeremiah, a sort of
a funeral dirge of the fall of Jerusalem.
By giving free vent to the grief of the
soul, it is at the same time a source of
comfort to the Church, especially in
seasons of public calamity. The place
where it is said to have been composed
is called " the fJrotto of Jeremiah." a few
yards north of the Damascus gate, in
Jerusalem, and is by some modern
writers (Fisher Howe. Conder,) identi-
fied with the true Calvarv.
.IFRE.MI'AS. SoejKRKMTATT. S.
.IKR'EIWIE, THE EPISTLE
OF. is the title of a pretended letter
430
from the prophet Jeremiah appen<led to
the Apocryphal book of Baruch. It
purports to be a warning from him to
the captives in Babylon against idolatry.
Its style is rhetorical. It is an imitation
of Jer. 10: 1-16. The author is un-
known.
JER'EMOTH (heightx). 1. Head
of a Beniamite family. 1 Chr. 8:14.
2. A Merarite Levite, 1 Chr. 23 : 23 ;
called Jerimoth in 24: 30.
3. The head of the 13th course of mu-
sicians. 25 : 22. In v. 4 the name is
Jerimoth.
4. 5. Two who had foreign wives. Ezr,
10 : 26, 27.
JER'E3IY. See Jeremiah, 8.
JERI'AH ( founded hi/ Jehovah), a
Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr.' 23: 19; 24:
23. He is called Jerijah in 26 : 31.
JER'IBAI {iphom Jehovah defends f),
one of David's heroes. 1 Chr. 11 : 46.
JER'ICHO, an ancient and cele-
brated city in 0. T. and N. T. history.
The name is now generally thought to
signify '* fragrance," but an older expla-
nation connects it with the moon, which
may have been early worshipped there.
Situation. — -Jericho was in the valley
of the Jordan, about 5 miles west of tlie
river, and 6 or 7 miles north of the Salt
or Dead Sea. The portion of the plain
on which it stood was noted for its fer-
tility, being watered by a large spring
known as the '* P'ountain of Elisha."
See illustration p. 432. The city has
occupied at least two different sites :
(1) Ancient Jericho, near the fountain
es-Sidtan, or '' Elisha's Fountain," at
the foot of the Quarantania Mountain,
and about a mile and a half above the
opening of the Valley of Achor. (2)
The Jericho of the Gospels, south-east
of the ancient one, near the opening
to the valley. The modern village
Er-Riha, its present representative, is
about two miles farther east.
fiihJlral HiHinrij. — Jericho is first
mentioneil as the city over against which
the Israelites were encam])ed before en-
tering the Promised Land. Moses look-
ed down upon the plain of Jericho from
the summit of Nebo. Deut. 34: 3 ; Num.
22 : 1 ; 26 : 3. 'J'hc town was of con.-id-
erable size, strongly fortified. Josh. 2 :
15; very rich, Josh. 6 : 24 ; 7 : 21, and
a royal residence. Spies were sent into
the city and received by Kahab. Josh.
JEK
JER
2; Heb. 11 : 31. The wall fell after be-
ing compassed 7 days, and the city and
its inhabitants were destroyed. Josh. 6 :
20, 21 ; 24: 11. A curse was pronounced
upon any one who should thereafter re-
build it. Josh. 6: 2f). This curse was
fulfilled upon Hiel, 5.33 years later, 1
Kgs. 16 : 34. But the curse seems to
have been for fortify in(j the city, rather
than for dwelling in its neighborhood,
since the site was assigned to Benja-
min. Josh. 18 : 21, and was a b )undary
of Ephraim, Josh. 16 : 7, and afterward
belonged to Judah. In spite of man}'
conquests Jericho continued to flourish.
Eglon, king of Moab, possessed it 18
years. Jud. 3 : 13. David's messengers
tarried there, in accordance with his ad-
vice, "until your beards be grown." 2
Sam. 10 : 5.
A school of the prophets, often visited
by F]lijah. flourished at Jericho, 2 Kgs.
2, and Elisha miraculously healed its
waters, 2 Kgs. 2 : 1 9-22. King Zedekiah
and his men, fleeing from Jerusalem,
were captured in the plains of Jericho.
2 Kgs. 25 : 5 ; Jer. 39 : 5. After the
return from the Babylonish captivity,
Jericho was re- occupied, Ezr. 2 : 34: Xeh.
7 : 36, and its people helped to rebuild
the walls of Jerusalem. Xeh. 3 : 2.
Jericho is mentioned 63 times in the
Scriptures — 56 times in the 0. T., and 7
in the N. T.
The Roman Antony presented the dis-
trict to Cleopatra. who soldit toHerod,and
that monarch embellished the city with
palaces and made it his winter residence,
as being the most beautiful spot for the
purpose in his dominions. He died there.
It was iit Jericho that the Jewish })il-
grims going up to Jerusalem (who had
taken the route eist of the Jordan) used
to assemble on their way to the temple.
Hence Christ passed through it in his
journeys. There he made the acquaint-
ance of Z'lcchfEUs, who was the chief
revenue officer for the wealthy district
of Jericho, Luke 19: 1-9, and near this
citv also he healed the blind men. Matt.
20:24-34; Mark 10:46-52; Luke 18 :
35-43. It was on the rocky road from
Jericho to Jerusalem feven in this gen-
eration the haunt of robbers) that Christ
laid the scene of the parable of the Good
Samaritan.
Jericho of the X. T. had an interest-
ing history. It appears to have been
at an early day the seat of a Christian
church, as in the fourth century the coun-
cils of the Church were attended by the
bishops at Jericho. The emperor Jus-
tinian caused a " church of the Mother
of God " at Jericho to be restored. A
monastery of St. Stephen existed there
A. n. 810. In the time of the Crusaders
" Xew Jericho" sprang up near the site
of the present village.
Present Appearance. — Modern Jericho
(er-Iiiha) consists of a group of squalid
hovels inhabited by about 60 families.
The character of the place seems not to
have changed for at least 650 years, since
Brocardus, in A. v., 1230 styled it '' a vile
})lace," and Maundrell, in a. T). 1697, "a
poor, nasty village." The inhabitants
are looked upon by the Arabs as a de-
based race, perhaps made degenerate by
the enervating influence of the hot and
unhealthy climate. A writer in Smith's
Dictionary says that '' they are probably
nothing more nor less than veritable gyp-
sies." The palm trees which once gave the
city the r.ame of the *' city of palm trees "
have all disappeared. One solitary tree
was standing in 1838; but there are
numerous petrified palm trunks floating
upon the Dead Sea. Tristram notes
that a few of the sycamore fig trees,
Luke 19 : 4, are still found among the
ruins by the wayside of ancient Jericho.
I The vegetation is of a semi-tropical cha-
racter, as the plain is 900 feet below the
level of the Mediterranean, and while
snow is falling at Jerusalem linen cloth-
ing is comfortable at Jericho. There is
an inn kept by a Greek, where Dr.
SchaflF spent a night in 1877, disturbed
by vermin. The surrounding garden
shows what a little industry can do in
that fertile soil and climate.
The '' Fountain of Elisha," by which
Jericho was once supplied with water, is
an object of special interest. It wells
forth copiously from the earth, and runs
into an old basin of hewn stone, 13 yards
long and 8 yards wide. Numerous small
fish swim about in the water, the tem-
perature of which is 84° F. The earliest
pilgrims found a tradition already exist-
ing here that this was the water which
Elisha healed with salt. 2 Kgs. 2 : 19, 20,
whence it is called *' Elisha's Spring"
j by the Christians. Above the spring the
site of the house of Rahab was formerly
shown. In the village itself there is a
431
JER
JER
half-ruined tower, now occupied by a
Turkish garrison, which is pointed out
as Zacchaeus's house, but it probably
'All! Suit 111, 01 Fount nil ot Llislia (Alter
Ptiotograjjlis.)
dates from the Frank period, when it was
erected for the protection of the crops
against the incursions of the Bedouin.
JE'RIEL [founded of God), a de-
scendant of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7: 2.
JERI'JAH {founded of Jehovah).
See Jehiah.
JER'IMOTH (hehjhtH). 1,2,3. Ben-
janiites, 1 Chr. 7 : 7, 8; 12 : 5.
4, 5. See Jeremoth, 2, 3.
6. Ruler of Naphtali in David's reign.
1 Chr. 27: 19.
7. One of David's sons, who was father
to one of Rehoboani's wives. 2 Chr. 11 : 18.
8. An overseer in the temple under
Ilezekinh. 2 Chr. 31: 13.
JE'RIOTH (cnrtainH), the wife of
Caleb, son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2: 18.
JER'OBOAM [ujhose people is
mini I/). 1. The son of Nebat, is distin-
guished as " the man who made Israel
to sin," and was the first king of the ten
tribes, n. c. 975-954. He came of the
tribe of Ephraim ; and distinguishing
himself, he was made by Solomon the
superintendent of all the workmen fur-
nished by his tribe. While thus em-
yjloyed the prophet Ahijah, by a sym-
bolical act, informed him that the king-
dom of Solomon was to be divided and
he was to become the head of the ten
tribes. What he did on receiving this
information we know not: possibly he
432
may have endeavored to hasten matters
by raising the standard of revolt ; but at
any rate Solomon, was alarmed, and took
measures to apprehend Jeroboam, who
fled to Egypt and remained there till
Solomon's death. 1 Kgs. 11 : 26-40. Af-
ter Solomon's death the smouldering
fires of discontent burst into a flame.
Rehoboam, his successor, acted foolishly,
returning an insulting answer to the
people's mild demands. Accordingly,
the ten tribes thjew off the yoke and elect-
ed Jeroboam, who had returned, as the
one best qualified to be their king. Thus
was prophecy fulfilled. He fixed his
residence at Shechera, which, with other
cities, he fortified for the furtherance of
his plans. Fearing that if the revolted
tribes should go up to the solemn na-
tional feasts at Jerusalem they would
be persuaded to return to their allegi-
ance, and forgetting his obligations to
God and his dependence on him, he
caused two golden calves to be erected,
one at Dan and the other at Bethel, the
extremities of his dominions, and caused
a proclamation to be made, requiring the
worship of these idols. 1 Kgs. 12 : 26-
33. Jeroboam, having set up the idols,
assembled the people at the latter place,
to engage in the solemn worship of them ;
and to show his zeal for the service he
officiated at the altar himself. But while
he was thus occupied a prophet from the
land of Judah appeared in the midst of
the assembly, and in the hearing of all
the people uttered a prediction that a
man by the name of Josiah should arise
and destroy that altar, and should burn
upon it the bones of the priests ; and to
confirm his authority he gave this sign,
that the altar should immediately be
broken in pieces and the ashes upon it
be poured out; and it was so. Jero-
boam, greatly provoked by this bold
interference, put forth his hand to seize
the prophet: but in a moment it was
stiffened, so that he could not draw it in.
Intimidated by this miraculous judg-
ment, and convinced that the man was
indee<l a jirojthet of the Lord, he begged
that he would in ercedc for him that his
arm might be restored, which was done
accordingly. .Jeroboani. however, was
not reformed by this divine message and
double miracle, but continued to cause
Israel to sin in worshipping the calves
which he had set up. His son was ta-
JER
JER
ken sick, and he instructed his wife to
disguise herself ami go to Ahijah, who
was now blind with age, and consult
with him as to the result of the disease.
The prophet was forewarned of her ap-
proach ; and as soon as he heard her
footsteps he called her by name, and af-
ter recounting the sins of Jeroboam he
predicted the disgrace and ruin and ut-
ter extirpation of his whole family, and
also the captivity and dispersion of the
])eople of Israel. He also told her that
the child should die, and that the nation
should mourn for him as the only indi-
vidual of the house of their king who
should come to a peaceful end, and also
as one who in the midst of all the idola-
try and wickedness of the times had
some pious emotions, even in the house
of Jeroboam. As she entered the door of
her house the child ded. 1 Kgs. 14: 17.
Jeroboam reigned in Israel 22 years,
and was succeeded by his son Nadab.
During his life there were almost un-
ceasing wars between him and the house
of David.
2. The son of Joash, and the great-
grandson of Jehu, reigned 41 years,
B. c. 825-784, and followed the for-
mer Jeroboam in his idolatrous wor-
ship. 2 Kgs. 14 : 23-29. The Lord,
however, by him, according to the pre-
dictions of the prophet Jonah, raised
the kingdom of the ten tribes to its
greatest splendor. All the countries
on the east of the Jordan he reduced.
*• The full extent of ancient sovereign-
ty was recovered, no king of the north-
ern state having ever been so victorious
as he." It appears from the writings
of Hosea and Amos that idleness, ef-
feminacy, pride, oppression, injustice,
idolatry, and luxury greatly prevailed
in his reign. Am. 2:6-16; 5:6. Nor
was it long after his death before the
Lord, according to the predictions of
Amos, cut off his family with the sword.
2 Kgs. 16:10; Hos. 1:1, etc.
JER'OHAM (tohofuids wercy). 1.
Samuel's grandfather. 1 Sam. 1:1; 1
€hr. 6:27, 34.
2,3. Benjamites. 1 Chr. 8 : 27 ; 9:8.
4. A priest, 1 Chr. 9:12; perhaps the
same person as in Neh. 11 : 12.
5. The father of some of David's
warriors ; a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 12 : 7.
6. The father of the prince of Dan
in David's reign. 1 Chr. 27:22.
28
7. The father of one who assisted Je-
hoiada in placing Joash on the throne.
L' Chr. 23: 1.
JERUB'-BAAL {^oith tvhom Baal
(■(HitentU). Jud. 6:32, AND JERUB'-
BESHETH {with ichoiu the idol con-
tends). 2 Sam. 11 : 21. See Gideon.
JER'UEL ( founded of God), THE
WIL'DERNESS OF, the place in
which Jehoshaphat met and defeated
the Ammonites, Moabites, and their al-
lies. 2 Chr. 20 : 16. It was near Te-
koah and the valley of Berachah, on
the west of the Dead Sea, probably the
tract known as el-Uufnsah, on the road
from En-gedi to Jerusalem.
JERU'SALEM, the capital of the
Hebrew monarchy and of the kingdom
of Judah, the most important city in
biblical history, and the most sacred and
the most desecrated city of the world.
'• Beautiful for situation," '• the joy of
the whole earth," " the perfection of
beauty," — so sings the Psalmist of this
wonderful city. Ps. 48 : 2, 3 ; 60 : 2.
Yet Jesus wept over it tears of sorrow in
view of its unfaithfulness and approach-
ing doom : " Jerusalem, thou that killest
the prophets and stonest them which are
sent unto thee, how often would I have
gathered thy children together, even as
a hen gathereth her chickens under her
wings, and ye would not ! Behold, your
house is left unto you desolate." Matt.
23:' 37-39.
I. Names. — "Jerusalem," in He-
brew, means '* the jjossession " or '' in-
heritance of peace." It is called " Salem "
in Ps. 76 : 2, and Jewish commentators
affirm that it is identical with the Salem
of Melchizedek, (inn. 14 : 18 ; but Jerome
and others dispute this. The Jews also
believe that it includes the mount upon
which Abraham offered Isaac, and which
he named " Jehovah-jireh." Gen. 22 : 14.
It is called " Jebusi." Josh. 18 : 28, and
"Jebus," Judg. 19:10, 11, and it first
appears as ''Jerusalem " in Josh. 10 : 1.
It was known as "the city of David"
and of " Zion," 1 Kgs. 8:1; 2 Kgs. 14 :
20; "city of Judah," 2 Chr. 26:28;
" city of God," Ps. 46 : 4 : " city of the
great King," Ps. 48 : 2 ; "the holy city,"
Neh. 11 : 1 ; " Ariel," Isa. 29 : 1 ; in the
LatinVersion it is "Hierosolyma." By the
Roman emperor Hadrian it was named
jElia Capitoliua ; by the Mohammed-
ans, Arabs, and Turks it is now known
433
JEK
JER
as el-Khiuh, or " the holy," and Beit-el-
Makhuddis, or *' the holy house " or " the
sanctuary." The Moslems regard it as
their most holy city, next to Mecca and
Medina, and believe that the general
judgment will take place in the valley
of Jehoshaphat, under the direction of
Mohammed and Jesus.
11. Situation and Extent. — Jeru-
salem is situated near the summit of the
range of mountains which forms the wa-
ter-shed between tlie Mediterranean and
the Dead Sea, and which has been call-
ed the " backbone " of Palestine. Its
distance froui the Mediterranean is 32
miles, and from the Dead Sea 18 miles.
The latitude of the city, as determined
by the mosf- trustworthy observations, is
3"l° 46' 35" north, and the longitude 35°
18' 30" east from Greenwich. Accord-
ing to the late British Survey, the di-
mensions of the Jerusalem of to-day
are as follows : Length of the northern
wall (measuring straight from point to
point), 3930 feet ; eastern wall, 2754
feet; southern wall. 3245 feet; western
wall, 2086 feet; total circumference of
the walls, '12,015 feet, or 2-^^^^j^ miles.
Dr. Robinson, measuring with a tape-
line as closely as possible to the walls,
found the aggregate length 12,978 feet,
or nearly 2h miles. Maundrell, an Eng-
lish traveller, who visited Jerusalem at
Easter in 16'.)7, paced the walls round,
and reckoned the distance at 12,501 feet.
A pedestrian can walk around the city
in an hour, taking a very leisurely gait.
J(jsephus stated the entire circuit of the
exterior walls in his day at 33 stadiji, or
a little less than 4 English miles. The
ancient city included the southern slopes
of Zion and Ophel, which are now with-
out the walls, and the former is under
cultivation, thus fulfilling the prediction
of 2500 years ago : " Zion shall be
ploughed like a field." Jer. 26 : 18. The
area included witliin the city walls is
only 209* acres, or less than one-third
of a squa.re mile. About 465 acres are
supposed to have been enclosed in the
.Uoly City during the period of its great-
est extent, after the third wall had been
built by Herod Agrippa, but the old
walls (of Solomon and Zerubbabel) only
included an area of 155 acres.
in. Physical Features, — !^nrfnrr.
— The city stands uj){)n a tongue of land
which is separate I from the -urrounding
434
country on all sides save the north by
deep ravines. On the east is the Valley
of the Kedron, called also the Valley of
Jehoshaphat, and on the west and south
the Valley of Hinnom. These depres-
sions, which begin near together in the
north, unite at Joab's Well, half a mile
south of the city wall, and pass off east-
ward toward the Dead Sea. A third val-
ley, called the Tyropoeon, or the Valley
of the Cheesemongers, falls into the Ke-
dron A''alley at the Pool of Siloam. There
has been much discussion as to whether
the Tyropoeon Valley extended to the
Jaffa or to the Damascus-gate. Dr. Rob-
inson favors the former opinion, and the
British Survey the latter. The matter is
important, because the position of vari-
ous other places is decided by that of the
Tyropoeon. The view of the British Sur-
vey, here followed, is the latest and most
scientific, and therefore the most likely
to be correct. By the Tyropoeon the
tongue of land was divided into two
parallel ridges, of which the eastern
was Mount Moriah (the site of the tem-
ple), and the western Mount Zion (the
site of David's house and later of
Herod's palace), which was 110 feet
higher than Moriah, and constituted
the '* upper city " of Joscphus. North
of Zion was the Akra, the "lower city "
of Josephus. North of Moriah was the
hill Bezetha, and south of it the hill
Ophel.
" The mountains round about Jerusa-
lem " approach near enough to the city
to receive our notice only upon one side.
Across the valley of the Kedron, upon
the north-east, is the hill Scopus, from
which Titus looked down upon the de-
voted capital of the Jews. South of
Scopus and directly east of the city is
the long ridge of the Mount of Olives,
having three principal summits, of which
the centt-al one is designjited as the Mount
of the Ascension. Still farther to the south
is the Mount of Oflence, so called from its
being the seat of Solomon's idol-worship.
Across the Valley of Hinnom and direct-
ly south of Mount Zion is the Hill of
Evil Counsel, where Judas is reputed to
have bargained for the betrayal of our
Lord. Upon the slope of this hill is the
Aceldama, or " field of blood." The dis-
tance from Scopus to the Mount of
Olives (according to the British Sur-
vev) is 5243 feet; from thence to the
so 3 2 22?
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JEK
JER
Mount of Oifence is 4731 feet, and from
the last point to the Hill of Evil Coun-
sel, 3772 feet. From Jerusalem to the
summit of Olivet, which is approached
by three paths, the mean distance is
about half a mile.
Elevations. — The elevation of various
points above the Mediterranean, as given
by the British Survey, is as follows :
Mount Scopus, 2715 feet; Viri Galiltei,
2082 feet: Mount of Olives, 2665 feet;
Mount of Offence. 2409 feet; Hill of
Evil Counsel, 2552 feet ; Mount Moriah,
2440 feet; Mount Zion, 2550 feet; Cas-
tle of Goliath (highest point within the
city), 2581 feet; Valley of the Kedron,
2190 feet; the general level of the city,
2610 feet: the hill Ophel, at the triple
gate, was 300 feet above the Pool of Si- !
loam. The topography of Jerusalem
will be more fully treated toward the
close of this article, I
Clhii'ite. — The rainy season extends
from October to March. Snow some-
times falls to the depth of a foot or
more, and the pools are covered with a
thin coating of ice; but the ground
never freezes, and many winters pass
without any signs of either snow or
ice. The natives build no fires merely
for warming themselves. During the
summer, rain is almost unknown. A
north-westerly breeze from the Mediter-
ranean then prevails between the hours
of 9 A. M. and 10 p. m. The meteorolog-
ical observations of Dr. Thomas Chap-
lin, an English physician, at Jerusalem
for over 3 years, from Nov., 1803, to Feb.,
1867, showed that the mean temperature
was 63°. 4 : highest mean for 40 months,
77°, in July, 1866 ; lowest, 42°.8, in Jan.,
1864, The range of the thermometer
was from 25°, Jan. 20, 1864, to 102°.5.^
June 27, 1865, showing a variation of
77°.5.
Dr. Barclay says that nearly every
species of vegetable in common use in
the United States has been successfully
cultivated in the vicinity of Jerusalem.
Oranges, limes, and lemons are to be
had in the greatest profusion and per-
fection almost the entire year round.
The oranges of Jerusalem moftly come
from Jaffa, where they are grown in
great abundance.
IV. History. — The Jerusalem of our
Lord and of his jijtosties is buried from
20 to 80 feet beneath the ruins and rub-
436
bish of centuries; the " City of David"
lies still deeper helow the surface of mod-
ern Jerusalem. In the 15 centuries from
Joshua to Titus, the city was besieged
not less than 17 times; twice it was
razed to the ground, and twice its walls
were destroyed. There is no trace on
the surface now to be seen of the city in
its glory. The ancient streets, walls, and
buildings have long since disapi)eared,
and the old sites and historical places
have long been the subject of specula-
tion and most bitter controversy. The
topography of ancient Jerusalem, even
since the valuable discoveries of Robin-
son, Warren, Wilson, and others, is more
confused and unsettled by new theories
and speculations than ever before. It
will be convenient to treat of the history
of the city under successive periods : as
Jerusalem of the Jebusites ; of the Kings;
of the Captivity, including that of the
Ptolemies and the Maccabees ; the Je-
rusalem of N. T. times; of the Romans
and the Christian emperors; of the Sar-
acens and the Crusaders; the Jerusalem
of the Turks; and modern Jerusalem.
1. The, hhaxfte Period. — In respect to
the identity of Salem, of which Melchiz-
edek was king, Gen. 14 : 18, with Jerusa-
lem, the weight of authorities is about
equally divided in favor of and against
it. An incidental proof in favor of this
theory is supposed to be found in Ps.
76 : 2, and it was held by Josephus,
Euscbius, and many later scholars. The
earliest definite notice of Jerusalem is
found in the description of the boun-
daries of Judah and Benjamin, where
it is called Jebusi, after the people who
inhabited it. See Josh. 15:8; 18:16,
28. The Jebusites still held the city
after the conquest of the land under
Joshua, Josh. 15 : 03, but soon after his
death the children of Judah besieged the
city, took it and burned it, and destroy-
ed its king, Adoni-bczek. .Tud. 1:7, 8;
yet it would appear from ,Jud. 1 : 21 that
the entire city was not subdued, and Jo-
sephus states that the siege lasted some
time, that the lower city only was taken,
au<l that the upjier city was so strong,
from its walls ami the nature of the place,
that they abandoned theattein]»t of com-
pleting the eaj)ture. Comj)are Jud. 19 :
10, 11. Through the rule of the Judges
and the reign of Saul the stronghold con-
1 tinned in the possession of the Jebusites.
JEK
JER
After David became king of all Israel he
made Jerusalem bis capital, and tbe city
of tbe Jebusites was taken by bis cbief
captain, Joab ; it was called '• tbe strong-
hold of Zion," or "the city of David."
2 Sam. 6:7: 1 Chr. 11 : 6. From this
time tbe rising grandeur and glory (»f
Jerusalem as tbe seat of one of tbe
noted empires of the East caused tbe
city to take rank along with Nineveh,
Babylon, and Tyre.
2. Under the Kiiii/s. — David began im-
mediately to strengthen and to fortify tbe
city by building a wall around it, and
to increase the strength of the strong-
hold by connecting it with the city.
This citadel be made bis residence. He
also brought the ark from Kirjath-
jearim to tbe bouse of Obed-edom, ami
thence to the "city of David," 2 Sam. 6 :
2-1(5. thus making it the political and
religious capital of the Israelitisb na-
tion. This choice of a capital was made
by David, as elsewhere declared, under
divine direction, Deut. 12 : 5-21 : 1 Kgs.
11 : 86. It was tbe place where tbe Lord
had chosen to put his name, Ps. 78 : 68.
as be may have done with tbe earlier spir-
itual capitals, Gilgal, Bethel, Shilob, and
Gibeon. Tbe city of Zion also became
the sepulchre of David and of tbe kings
who succeeded him, and bis royal gardens
■were in tbe valleys below. Under Solo-
mon tbe city reached its greatest mag-
nificence. His three important addi-
tions to tbe capital as founded by bis
father, David, were the temple, with
its massive east wall, the royal palace,
and tbe extension and strengthening of
the walls of tbe city. Tbe temple was
built on tbe site which David purchased
of Araunah tbe Jebusite, 2 Sam. 24: 20-
25 ; I Chr. 21 : 22-28: 2 Chr. 3 : 1, and
which was in Mount Moriah. David
had also gatberefi a large portion of the
wealth and of the materials required for
erecting this magnificent sanctuary to tbe
Lord, and bad designed to build it him-
self, but was forbidden of tbe Lord be-
cause be bad been a man of war. 1 Kgs.
8 : 18, 19. In this vast work Solomon
was aided by Hiram, king of Tyre, who
furnished timber out of Lebanon, and
cunning workmen in every kind of
metal, and those skilled, no doubt, in
tbe mechanical arts, as tbe Tyrians are
known to have been unsurpassed in their
day in this class of work. In seven years
the temple was completed and dedicated,
and thus Jerusalem became tbe one cen-
tral place of all tbe world to the true
worshipper of Jehovah. See Temple.
A palace of grandeur corresponding to
the extent and power of bis empire. Solo-
mon erected for himself within the chosen
caj)ital, taking 13 years for its construc-
tion ; he also built another royal edifice
to beautify tbe city, and which is called
the •• bouse of tbe forest of Lebanon,"
perhaps from tbe "pillars of cedar"
around it, 1 Kings 7 : 2-7 ; a palace was
likewise built for tbe queen, tbe daugh-
ter of Pharaoh. 1 Kgs. 7 : 8. He ex-
tended tbe walls of the city probably
around tbe newly-built portions, added
towers, and increased tbe height of the
walls made by David : so that the Jeru-
salem of that period, with the splendor
of Solomon's court, was unsurpassed for
magnificence and brilliancy by any of
the noted capitals of tbe East. The fame
of it reached unto Sheba, whose queen
came to behold it ; and she declared
that tbe half of the glory of tbe king-
dom of which Jerusalem was tbe centre
had not been told her, 1 Kgs. 10 : 7 ;
2 Chr. 9 : 1-12.
The division of tbe kingdom under Re-
boboam, which followed tbe death of Solo-
mon, exposed tbe city to attack from for-
eign foes. Sbisbak, jealous of the glory
of Jerusalem, which bad for two genera-
tions excelled that of Egypt, tempted by
tbe treasures of tbe famous city, and per-
haps influenced by Jeroboam, who bad
been an exile in Egypt and was the lead-
er of the revolting tribes, invaded tbe
land and made tbe southern kingdom
tributary to the Pharaohs, bearing away
the accumulated treasures of the temple,
including 500 golden shields, computed
, to represent $720,000 — a vast sum for
those days. Thirty years later, under
Asa, Jerusalem regained her independ-
ence after tbe great battle with Zerah
at Mareshab. 2 Chr. 14 : 9-15. As the
fruit of this victory, Asa replaced tbe
vessels of the Lord's house taken by
Sbisbak, rebuilt tbe altar, and probably
added a new court to the temple, 2 Chr.
1 15 : 5, 8 ,• these treasures were soon after
' granted to tbe king of Syria to secure
; bis aid in a war against Baasha, king of
j Israel. 2 Chr. 16 : 1, 2.
1 In tbe idolatrous and troubled times
i which followed tbe alliance of the bouse
437
JER
JEE
of Jehoshaphat with that of the wicked
Ahab. the glory of Jerusalem fell intD a
•lecline, but it revived for a time under
Joash, who repaired the temple, only to
despoil it when Hazael of Syria invaded
the country and threatened the capital.
2 Chr, 24: 10-14, 23; 2 Kgs. 12: 17,
18. Later, under Amaziah, a large por- ;
tion of the walls of Jerusalem was broken
down by the armies of the northern king-
dom of Israel. 2 Chr. 25 : 23. Uzziah
repaired the walls and renewed the for-
tifications of the city, which Vrcre still
further strengthened by his son Jotham,
especially that part of the citv on Moriah,
Zion,and Ophel. It again declined under
the wicked Ahaz, but was improved and
made to approach the former magnifi-
cence attained in the days of Solomon
by the extensive and remai-kable works
of Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 32 : 30 ; Isa. 23 :
9-11. Manasseh built a wall outside of
the city of David, enclosing Zion, and
raised the tower of Ophel to a great
height. 2 Chr. 33 : 14. With the am-
ple supply of water provided by Heze-
kiah through the pools and conduits
which he built, and the towers of de-
fence constructed by Manasseh, the city
was regarded as very strong, if not im-
pregnable. Compare 2 Kgs. 20 : 20 ; 2
Chr. 33 : 14; Lam. 4 : 12. The king-
dom was. however, subject to Assyria.
The subject king revolted ; the capital
was attacked, and was compelled to sur-
render to the forces of Nebuchadnezzar,
who carried away all the treasures of the
temple and the palace, and took as cap-
tives the princes, men of wealth, and the
skilled artisans, numbering 10,00(1, so
that only the poorest of the pea;)le were
left in the land, over whom Zedekiah
was made king. Trusting to the aid
of Pharaoh-hophra, Zedekiah rebelled,
a,nd Nebuchadnezzar again laid siege
to Jerusalem, erecting forts, mounds,
and engines of war to batter down the
walls. This siege was temporarily raised
by the approach of an Egyptian army, but
the Assyrians speedily returned to the
city, and invested it more closely than
ever. Its inhabitants, shut up within
its walls, suffered from all the horrors
of famine, pestilence, and war for a
year and a halt', wlien the walls were
broken and the place taken b. c. 586,
the temple, palace, and chief buihlings
burned, the walls thrown down, ;ind the
438
city made a " heap of rubbish " by order
of Nebuchadnezzar. The dreadful hor-
rors of this siege and destruction are viv-
idly portrayed by Jeremiah. Lam. 2 and
5. For 50 years the city lay in ruins.
3. JeniHaltin of Ezra mid the Ptolemica.
— Under the decree of Cyrus the captives
returned to Jerusalem, rebuilt the tem-
ple, and made the city again habitable;
and later, under Nehemiah, the city was
fortified, and the walls, which had been
broken for 140 years, were re-constructed,
notwithstanding the opposition of San-
ballat and Tobiah. Neh. 4 : 7-22 ; 6 :
1-10. The extent of the walls built by
Nehemiah is clearly indicated in Neh.
3, and they must have enclosed a far
larger space than the reduced popula-
tion could require. The following de-
scription of the city and its extent is
from Baedeker's Ha)idhook of Syria
(1876) : " The wall extended up the hill
from the pool of Siloam toward the
north. On the highest point of Ophel
rose a bastion, which was also intended
to protect the horHc-r/ntc, an entrance of
the temple toward the east. Near the
horse-gate, and within the precincts of
the temple, were the dwellings of the
priests. On the east side it is common-
ly supposed that there was a second gate,
called the icafer-f/ate. There were also
fortifications at the north end of the
temple terrace, the most important be-
ing the Biro, a large bastion restored
bv Nehemiah, afterward the site of Baris.
The city was further defended on the
north side by the tower of ffanaiiec/.
There was also the tower of Men, about
50 yards south of the other: but the
site of both seems to be far from being
e\ en approximately determined. . . .
The wall which enclosed the upper
city ran toward the west and had two
gates — the gate of the centre, which led
from one part of the city to the other,
and, to the extreme west, the ra/(ei/-;/nte,
afterward called (jcinifdh, situated to the
east of the present Jaffa-gate, where Uz-
ziah once erected a tower of defence. In
the suburb to the north was, first, the
corner - (j<tte, which was probably the
same as the ohl tjnte, and perhaps also
the (jate of Ephrnini, the site of which,
however, is quite uncertain. From the
upj)er part of the city a gate led west
toward the valley of Hinnom, called the
(lunr/-(/«fe, where a rock staircase has been
JER
JER
discovered. To the south a wall ran
across the Tjropoeon, at the outset of
which lay the sjjrin(/-fjate, or the valley
between the two walls. The situation of
the potters' ynte, leading to the valley of
Hinnoui, is a matter of mere conjecture."
The city prospered under Nehemiah
as a Persian governor. In B. c. 30().
Joshua was murdered hj his brother,
Johanan, through rivalry for the high
priesthood, and Bagoas, the Persian
general, entered the sanctuary, and im-
posed a tax of 50 darics or drachmas
for every lamb oflFered during the life-
time of Johanan, which was 7 years.
The two sons of Johanan, Jaddua and
Manasseh, held the high priest's office
jointly until after their father's death,
when Manasseh joined the Samaritans,
and became the first high priest of their
temple on Mount Gerizim. Sec Samari-
tans. In E. c. 332, Alexander the Great,
after the famous battle of Issus, in which
he gained a decisive victory over the
Persians, visited Jerusalem, according
to Joscphus, and the high priest read to
him the Avritings of Daniel, predicting
the overthrow of Persia by the Greeks.
This secured to the Jews various favors,
among them an exemption from tribute
during the sabbatical year. In B. c. 320,
Ptolemy Soter captured Jerusalem be-
cause the Jews would not fight on the
Sabbath, and large numbers of the people
were transported to Africa. In B. c. 300,
Simon the Just, a favorite hero among
the Jews, became high priest, and added
deep foundations to the temple, probably
t ) gain greater surface on the top of the
hill, sheathed the great sea with brass,
strengthened and fortified the walls,
and sustiined the temple-service with
gvat pomp and ceremon}'. Ptolemy
Philadelphus, under whose direction the
Septuagint Aversion of the 0. T. is re-
puted to have been made, at Alexandria,
also made rich gifts to the temple and
its service.
Jerusalem soon after became the prey
of rival parties; was visited by Ptolemy
Philopator, who attempted to offer sacri-
fice in the temple, but was prevented by
Simon, the high priest, and by a super-
natural terror, which caused him to fall
paralyzed upon the tioor of the court.
He afterwards showed great hostility to
the Jews.
Jerusalem was taken by Antiochus the
Great, B. c. 203, and retaken by Scopas,
the Alexandrian general, B. c. 199, but a
year later was opened by the Jews to
Antiochus, who rewarded them with large
presents of money and materials for re-
pairing the temple, and with considerable
remission in taxes, declaring their temple
inviolable. The city again had great
apparent prosperity. After the death of
Antiochus the Great, B. c. 187, and under
the reign of the infamous Antiochus
Ejiiphanes (since B. c. 175), it became
again the scene of commotion through
strifes and disgraceful Greek customs,
young men being trained naked in a
new gymnasium set up by Jason the
high priest, to whom Antiochus had
sold the office; bribery, fraud, pillage,
and riot were common : the holy place
of the temple was polluted; a foreign
garrison was placed in the hill of Da-
vid, overlooking the temple: heathen
worship was ordered to be celebrated in
the sanctuary of Jehovah, and the Jews
not slain were forced to submit to every
species of indignity. Manj- of them re-
sisted the efforts of Antiochus to destroy
their religion, and suff"ered torments and
bitter persecutions. See 1 Mace. 1:13; 2
Mace. 4:9, 12 : 6 : 10-31 : 7. The Jews
finall}' made a general revolt against the
monstrous tyranny of Antiochus Epiph-
anes. A large army was raised under
Judas Maccabieus, who gained a victory
over Lysias, the Antiochian general, and
the Jews re-entered Jerusalem, b. c. 165.
2 Mace. 8.
At the death of Judas Maccaba?us,
b. c. 101, the city again had a period of
disturbance and trouble, caused by the
dissensions of local rulers, until the time
of John Hyrcanus, B.C. 135, when it was
attacked by the king of Syria, who en-
circled it with seven camps, erected on
the north a hundred towers of attack,
each three stories high, and partially
undermined the wall. A truce was, how-
ever, secured ; the Syrians were induced
to end the siege, and the walls were
carefully repaired. After the death of
Hyrcanus the city was the scene of mur-
derous strifes and Idoody wars between
the petty rulers and the two leading
sects, the Pharisees and Sadducees, no
fewer than 50,000 persons having fallen
in these feuds in six years.
The city was captured, b. c. 63, by the
Roman Pompey. who left the valuable
439
JEK
JER
treasures of the temple intact ; Crassus,
in B. c. 54, however, plundered the tem-
ple and city of the treasures which
Pompey had spared, amounting, it is
computed, to 10,000 talents, or from
$8,000,000 to $10,000,000. The city was
captured by the Parthians under Anti-
gonus, B. c, 40, but the next year Herod,
afterward the Great, laid siege to Jeru-
salem, supported by a Roman army: the
outer walls and lower city were taken in
less than 60 days, and after prolonging
the siege for five months the citadel and
temple were captured by storm. Later,
Herod was made king by the Romans. He
speedily began to improve and beautif.y
the city, one of the chief of his works
being the enlarging of the temple, which
occupied 46 years. Under his rule the
city was restored to something like its
ancient magnificence.
4. JeruHiilem in N. T. Times. — Jeru-
salem, in the time of our Lord, stood in
all the strength and grandeur to which it
had been brought by Herod. This king
died a few months after the birth of
Jesus, but the royal palace, the renewed
temple, the fortress of Antonia, built
from the older Baris tower, the grand
theatre where games were instituted in
honor of Cassar, the three great towers
of Hippieus, PhastcUis, and Mariamne,
the bridge of Herod, between the upper
city and what had been a portion of
Solomon's palace, — these magnificent
structures of Herod remained. The ruin
RobiiiMun's Arcli.
now known as " PioVjinson's Arch " is a
part of the bridge of Herod. Except
the aqueduct built under Pilate for the
440
better supply of the city with water,
no important improvements were made
from the time of Herod the (ireat until
the reign of his grandson, Herod A grip-
pa, a. D. 41. The second wail enclosed
the northern part of the central valley
of the city ; beyond this lay Bezetha,
or " new town," which Agrippa enclosed
by a third wall, that doubled the size
of the city. After his death Judgea again
became simply a Roman province, ruled
by reckless and oppressive procurators,
and Jerusalem was the scene of dis-
content, insurrections, riots, and petty
rebellions, until Vespasian and Titus be-
gan a war to put down the insurrection.
Jerusalem was besieged. The terrible
suflTerings and agony of the Jews shut
up in the invested citj', the loss of up-
ward of 1,000,000 lives in the siege, the
complete destruction of the city, A. n.
70, form one of the darkest pages in the
history of this remarkable people. The
rebellion was kept up for about 8 years
after the fall of the city, when the Jewish
power was completely destroyed and the
Jews denied access to their ancient
capital.
5. Jerusalem imder Rnmnn mid Chris-
tian Emperors. — The city and kingdom
having been destroyed by Vespasian
and Titus, a new Roman Jerusalem was
founded by Hadrian upon the site of the
ancient city, and called ^lia Capito-
lina ; a temple of Jupiter was erected
on the ruins of the temple of Jehovah.
The Jews were not allowed to enter the
city, and this law continued until the
country came under the rule of the Chris-
tian emperors of the Eastern empire.
Constantine restored the old name Jeru-
salem, and his mother, the empress
Helena, devoted herself to re-discovering
the lost sites of importance to Christians,
erecting costly churches to commemorate
some of the supposed holy places. In
the reign of Julian — commonly called
the A]iostatc — an attempt was made to re-
build the temple, but an earthquake and
other supernatural occurrences caused
the work to be abandoned, and the event
has been regarded as a judgment of God
ui)on an impious attempt to falsify the
words of Christ. Ammianus Marcel-
linus, a heathen historian, philosopher
and a soldier of Julian, thus describes
the failure of ttiis attempt to rebuild the
temple : " Whilst Alypius, assisted by the
JER
JER
governor of the province, urged with vigor |
and diligence the execution of the work, '
horrible balls of fire breaking out near
the foundations, with frequent and reit-
erated attacks, rendered the place from
time to time inaccessible to the scorched
and blasted workmen ; and the victorious
elementcontinuing in this obstinately and
resolutely bent, as it were, to drive them
to a distance, the undertaking was aban-
doned.'' Chrysostom declares that per-
sons of his time were witnesses of this
defeat of the effort to rebuild the temple,
and that the above occurrences were the
reason assigned for the failure of the
project. This view has been strongly
advocated by Bis^hop Warburton. The
emperor Justinian founded a fine church
in honor of the Virgin, a. n. 529, whicli
some would locate upon the site of the
mosque el-Aksa. In a. d. 614 the Per-
sians, under Chosroes II., captured Jeru-
salem, slew thousands of the monks and
clergy, and destroyed the churches.
6. Jerusalem of the Cnisnders mid
Turks. — In A. D. 637 the city fell into
the hands of Caliph Omar, and Chris-
tians were allowed to worship there, but
not to erect churches. After unusual
severities upon Christians by a Turkish
ruler, the Crusaders captured the city in
A. D. J099; it was reconquered, 1187,
by the Mohammedans under Saladin.
Thrice afterward it was in Christian
hands: in 1517 it came into the posses-
sion of the Osmans, and has remained in
the hands of the Turks until the present
time. (Adescriptionof modern Jerusalem
will be found near the close of the article. )
V. Topography. — The Jerusalem of
to-day is built upon the ruins of several
successive cities, each erected and dc-
stroye'd upon the same site, and each
adding to the debris of some former
town. The foundations of the Jerusa-
lem of the 0. T. and of Christ and his
apostles, so far as they exist, are far
below the surface of the present town.
"The city shall be builded upon her
own heap." said Jeremiah, 30: 18; and
this we know has been fulfilled many
times. Owing to this repeated burial
of the Jerusalem of the various periods
described above, the precise location of
the biblical sites and ancient holy places
in and about the city has led to long and
charp controversy. .Even the location
of Zion and Moriah has been disputed
with great ability and learning. The
energetic and successful explorations of
the English Palestine Fund proved that
remains of the ancient enclosing walls
about the temple still exist, about 80
feet below the present surface. Upon
these immense stone blocks, lying at that
depth upon a rocky foundation, there
were discovered Phoenician quarry-
marks. The shafts sunk by Captains
Warren and Wilson have since been
filled up, and Jerusalem topography is
still confused by the mazes of many
conflicting opinions. A brief statement
of the general divisions and features
of Jerusalem has already been given
under Phijaical Features, p. 434.
The theory of Mr. Fergusson, in
Smith's Dictionary, which would iden-
tify Zion with the hill on which the
temple stood, has been generally re-
jected by scholars. The lower eastern
iiill, known as Mount Moriah, is the
site of Solomon's temple; west of it was
the higher hill of Zion, called also the
city of David. Bezetha was on the
^ north of Zion, according to Josephus.
M^alh of David and of Neliemiah. — As
the walls of the old city rebuilt by Nc-
hemiah were, it is believed, upon the old
foundations, the city, as renovated after
the great captivity, must have been upon
the same site, and have covered nearly
the same area as the Jerusalem of Da-
vid and Solomon. Dr. Howard Crosby,
in Johnson's Ci/dopsedia, says of the
city as restored by Nehemiah : " Elia-
shib the high priest is first mentioned
i as leading the workers at the sheep-
gate, and at the wall as far as the
' tower of the Hundred {Ha Meah) and
the tower of Hananeel. These places
j we must, of course, find in the teniple-
\ region. . . . The description in Nehe-
miah follows the wall from the centre
of the east t^ide of the city northward.
The sheep-gate must have been in the
centre of the temple-precinct wall. , . .
If the prohatika of John 5:2 be the
sheep-gate, and the Pool of Bethesda
be the Fountain of the Virgin, with its
intermittent flow, then we should sup-
pose the sheep-gate to be farther south ;
but the Pool of Bethesda may have been
within the temple-precinct, and the pres-
ent Fountain of the Virgin may re-
ceive to-day the intermittent eflTects
' which in former times showed them-
441
JER
JER
selves in another pool, now filled up. 1
We are inclined to think that this sheep-
gate is the same as the Mi^shneh, or
* second gate,' of Zeph. 1 : 10, and the
•college' of 2 Kgs. 22:14, where the
prophetess Huldah lived. In this case
the fish-gate would be the first gate (see
Zeph. 1 : 10), and would represent the
north-eastern corner of the city, oppo-
site the Mount of Olives. Between the
fish-gate and the sheep-gate would stand
the tower of Hananeel and the tower of
Meah (or the Hundred). The ' old gate '
would be found next as we follow the
north wall north-westward. The course
would be along the ' second wall ' of Jo-
sephus, for the first or old wall seems to
have been the northern fortification of
Zion. The 'old gate' may be really the
Jeshanah gate. 2 Chr. 13 : 19. . . . The
* gate of Ephraim ' comes next in Nehe-
iniah (not in his account of the build-
in:^, but in his record of the dedication.
12 : 39), and may have occupied the site
of the present Damascus gate. Then
follows the ' broad wall' (some local })e-
culiarities of the wall, perhaps for de-
fence), and then we reach the 'Tower
of the Furnaces,' which may have stood
over the western valley, as the towers of
Hananeel and the Hundred overlooked
the eastern. The 'valley-gate' would
correspond with the present Jafi"a-gate.
Near this was the * Dragon-well.' Neh. 2 :
lo. The 'dung-gate' (if our supposi-
tions above are correct) would be IdOO
cubits south of the Jaffa-gate, Neh. 3 :
l.i — that is, on the south-western part
of Zion, over against the Birket es-Sul-
tan (Pool of the Sultan). The 'foun-
tain-gate' would lie on the opposite
side of Zion, facing the Pool of Siloaiu.
The ' stairs ' that go down from the city
of David would be found between the
fountain-gate and the south-western
teuiple-corner. They were probably an
ascent from the king's gardens to the
Davidian palace on Zion. The sepul-
chres of David, the ' king's pool,' Neh.
2 : 14, and the house of the mighty were
probnbly at the corner of Zion, over
against the south-western temple-cor-
ner, where the wall crossed the Tyro-
[)oeon. The 'armory ' is in this neigh
birhood, at the very corner where the
wall turns abruptl}' southward to encir-
cle Ophel. The ' house of the high
priest' and the 'house of Azariah' arc
442
near this. After turning the extreme cor-
ner of Ophel south ward, we reach the ' tow-
er which lieth out from the king's high
house,' which may be the extra tower
discovered by Capt. Warren's subterra-
nean explorations {Becoveri/ of Jerusa-
lem, p. 229). As he himself suggests, it
may have been built out in order to
guard the fountain of the Virgin. The
' water-gate ' would be so called in rela-
tion to this fountain. By this water-
gate, on Ophel, was a broad street or
square, where assemblies could be held
in the immediate vicinity of the temple.
Neh. 8:1,3, 16. Near by was the ' horse-
gate,' famous as the spot where Atha-
liah was put to death. . . . The gate
'Miphkad' may mark some angle of
the walls connected with the division,
as a special corner is here mentioned,
Neh. 3 : 32, before we reach the sheep-
gate again."
The next important view of Jerusa-
lem topography is that during our
Lord's day, and until its destruction by
the Romans, A. D. 70. The only full de-
scription of the city near that date which
has come down to us is found in Josephus,
The city was defended on the east, south,
and west by a single wall ; upon the north
three walls were successively built, the sec-
ond outside of the first, and the third out-
side of the second. The position of these
walls is one of the disputed questions in
Jerusalem topograph^'. In reconstruct-
ing the city as it appeared in our Lord's
day the reader must remember that the
third wall, which enclosed the new city,
Bezctha. on the north, was built by
Hc.od Agrippa, about A. D. 42, and
therefore after the crucifixion and as-
cension of Christ. All the three walls
noticed by Josephus are upon the north
of the upper city, or Zion, but there is '
much controversy respecting the course
of these walls, ])articularly the second
and the third wall. It must be further
borne in mind that the ancient walls
probably included the southern portions
of the hills of Zion and of Ophel. which
are outside the present Wiills of the city.
The followin:^ description of the city
bef);c its destruction by Titus is con-
densed from Josephus, Jrtnish War, v.,
4; several of his points in the course
have not been iilentified.
" 1. Jerusalem was fortified with three
walls on such parts as were not en-
Eastern Wall of Jerusalem and Miisiiiii Tonib.s. (After Pkotograph by Bnnfils.)
There are many cemeteries, sepulchres, and lombs about Jerusalem, hut the favorite bur_viiig-|)lace of the
Muslims i-i along the east wall, arljoining the Haram esh-Sherif, since, according to their traditions, the general
judgment will take place in this looaiity. They s.iy that all men will then assemble in the Valley of Jehoshaphat
^at the left of the picture). \ thin wire rope will be .stretched across the valley to the Mount of Olives. Christ
will sit on the wall and Mohammed on the mount, as judges. All men must pass over the intervening space
ou the rope. The righteous will be kept by the angels from falling, while the wicked will be precipitated into
the abyss of hell. Near the centre of the picture can be seen the Golden Gate, which has been kept closed
from a very early period.
The Intel lor of the J.iffa-Gate. (After Photograph by BoDfila.)
The Jafifa-gate, called also " Yafa-gate," '• Hebron-gate," and by the Ar.ibs Bab nl-KliulU. U oti the wt;>t side
of Jerusalem. It consists of a massive square tower, the entrance to which from without is on the northern
side, and the exit within on the eastern. \ II the roads from the country south and west converge to this gate.
One street — and it is generally the one first trodden by Western pilgrims — leads from the Jaffa-gate eastward
past the space by the citadel, and down the side of the ridge and across the valley to the principal entrance of
the Haram. This street is called by .some the " Street of l)a\ id." Outside the Jaffa-gate is the usual camping-
place of all favellers reaching Jerusalem by way of Jaffa and from Hebron or Bethlehem.
JER
JER
compassed with impassable valleys; in
such places it hath but one wall. The
cit}' was built upon two hills. Of these
hills, that which contains the upper city
is much higher, and was called the cltn-
del by King David, but it is by us called
the upper vunkef-place. The other hill,
which was called Acra and sustains the
lower cit}', is of the shape of a moon
when she is horned. Over against this
there was a third hill, but naturally
lower than Acrn, and parted formerly
from the other by a broad valley. How-
ever, in those times when the Asamonai-
ans reigned they filled up that valley
with earth, and had a mind to join the
city to the temple. They then took off
])art of the height of Acra, that the
temple might be superior to it. Now,
the Valley of the Cheesemongers, which
distinguished the hill of the upper city
from tliat of the lower, extended as far
as Siloam, a fountain that hath sweet
water. But on the outsides these hills
are surrounded by deep valleys ; and by
reason of the precipices to them belong-
ing on both sides, they are everywhere
impassable.
" 2. Now, of these three walls, the old
one was hard to be taken, both by reason
of the valleys and of that hill on which it
was built. But besides that great ad-
vantage as to the place where they were
situated, it was also built very strong,
because David and Solomon and the
following kings were very zealous about
this work. Now, that wall began on the
north at a tower called Uippirun, and ex-
tended as far as the Xistufi, and then,
joining to the council-house, ended at
the west cloister of the temple. But if
we go the other way westward, it began
at the same place, and extended through
a place called lictliHo to the gates of the
Essenes; and after that it went south-
ward, having its bending above the
fountain Siloam, where it also bends
again toward the east at Solomon's
Pool, and reaches as far as a certain
place which they called Oplilax, where
it was joined to the eastern cloister of
the temple. The Hfcond wall to(»k its
beginning from that gate Gcnudth which
belonged to the first wall ; it only en-
compassed the northern quarter of the
city, and reached as far as the tower An-
tonia. The beginning of the t]ni<{ wall
was at the tower Ilippicus, whence it
411
reached as far as the north quarter of
the city and the tower Psephinus, and
then was so far extended until it came
over against the monuments of Helena,
queen of Adiabene, the daughter of
I/atcs ; it then extended farther to a
great length, and passed by the sepul-
chral caverns of the kings, and bent
again at the tower of the corner, at the
Moniimeut ttf the fuller, and joined to
ti)e old wall at the valley called the Val-
ley of Cedron. Agrippa added to the
old city, by this wall, a fourth hill,
called Bezctha, or 'new cit3'.* It lies
over against the tower Antonia, but is
divided from it by a deep valley, which
was dug to strengthen the tower. The
father of the present king, Agrippa,
began the third wall, but he left off
building it when he had only laid the
foundations, out of the fear lie was in
of Claudius Cajsar, lest he should sus-
pect that so strong a wall was built in
order to make some innovations in pub-
lie affairs ; for the city could no way
have been taken if that wall had been
finished in the manner it was begun, as
its parts were connected together by
stones 20 cubits long and 10 cubits
broad, which could never have been
either easily undermined by any iron
tools or shaken by any engines. The
wall was, however, 10 cubits wide; after
that it was erected with great diligence
by the Jews as high as 20 cubits, above
which it had battlements of 2 cubits,
and turrets of 3 cubits' altitude, inso-
much that the entire altitude was 25
cubits."
This third wall is said to have been
defended by 90 towers. The strongest
of these was the PntphhiuH tower, at the
north-western angle, which was upward
of 100 feet in height and stood on the
highest ground in the city (2572 feet
above the sea).
The First Wall. — In respect to the
course of the first wall there is, in the
main, greater agreement among scholars
than in respect to either of the other
two. This wall began at the tower of
Ilippicus on the west, ran to the south
around the pinnacle of the hill, enclos-
ing Siloam, and ertended to the eastern
wall of the temple-precincts. South of
this north wall stood the palace of Herod,
the Xistus, and the bridge which crossed
the Tyropoeon to the temple. Another
JER
JER
wall ran down on the western mar<^in of
the Tyropoeon to defend the upper part
of the city.
The Second Woil (Did Site of Calviijj. —
No certain traces of the second wall have
been discovered. Respecting the course
of this wall there has been sharp dispute,
for upon it depends the question of the
genuineness of the " holy sepulchre ' and
of the site of Calvary. Robinson, Tobler,
Hupfeld, Am )ld, John Wilson, Thom-
son, Barclay, Bonar, Fergusson, Porter,
Meyer, Ewald, Schaff, Crosby, Conder.
and others, dispute the traditional site of
the holy sepulchre, since in their view the
second wall included its site within the
city. On the other hand, Roman Catholics,
as De Vogue, De Saulcy, and 8epp, and
able Protestants, as Rev. Geo. Williams,
Kratft, Ritter, Schultz. Rosen, Von Schu-
bert, Raumer, Flirrer, F. A.Strauss, and
Lewin, argue that the second wall ex-
clnded the site of the holy sepulchre, and
therefore they accept the old tradition
that it is the true site of the crucifixion.
From the account in the (iospels it is
clear that the place of the crucifixion was
outaide the citv. Matt. 28 : 1 1 ; Mark 15 :
20,21; Luke 23:20; John 19:17; Heb.
13: 12, 13, but it was also nigh to the
city, John 19 : 20, and near a common
thoroughfare frequented bv many. Matt.
27 : 39 ; Mark 15 ; 29 ; John 19 : 20 ; and
again, it was on a conical elevation
(hence called "Place of a Skull" or
Calvary, but not Mount Calvary, for
which there is no Scripture warrant).
Matt. 27 : 33 : Mark 15 : 22 ; Luke 23 : 33 ;
John 19 : 17; and lastly, it was in a gar-
den which had a sepulchre hewn in a
rock, where Christ was buried. Matt.
27 : 60 ;. John 19 : 38-42.
Several writers of the fourth and fifth
centuries ascribe the discovery of the site
of Calvary to Helena, mother of Constan-
tine, who found three crosses there, and
who also discovered which was the true
cross of our Saviour by a miracle of
healing which its touch yjroduced upon
a sick woman. Helena caused a splen-
did church to be erected on the spot, A.
D. 335. It has since been several times
destroyed and rebuilt, but tradition has
fixed upon this spot as the place of
Christ's crucifixion and burial. The ad-
vocates of this tradition must prove that
the old city excluded this site. The
Rev. Geo. Williams sums up the argu-
ments in favor of the traditional view,
and Robinson presents, with marked abil-
ity, the ob;ec:ions to it. Dr. .Sjhaff, in
Throiiifh Bihle Lundn, savs: ''The old
city was much larger and more densely
inhabited than the present, and conse-
quently more likely to include the site
of that church [Holy Sepulchre] than to
exclude it. ... The champions of the
tradition, therefore, are bound to prove
that the location of the city has greatly
changed, and that the second wall of
Josephus (which ran circuitously from
the gate Gennath — *'. e. the garden-gate,
near the tower of Hippicus — to the for-
tress of Antonia, on the north of the
temple-area) excluded the church of
the Holy Sepulchre. This has not been
proved. It is possible, but very im-
probable. Diligent search for wall-
foumiations has failed so far. The ruins
near the church of the Holy Sepulchre,
which have been supposed by Williams
and others to be fragments of the second
wall, have proved to be portions of a
church, and the old arch called the gate
(jcnnath is a comparatively recent
building." See Calvary. The precise
course of the second wall can only be
uncjuestionably settled by further exca-
vations, and this, if settled, would de-
cide whether the church of the Holy
Sepulchre covers the true site of Cal-
vary, as tradition claims, or whether
Calvary must be sought elsewhere, as
the weight of scholarship now seems to
require. Some of those who reject the
traditional site locate Calvary a few
minutes' walk north of the present Da-
mascus-gate, not far from the Grotto of
Jeremiah. Here is a skull-shaped, rocky
elevation, about half a mile from the
fortress Antonia ( Pilate'sjudgment-hall),
and the same distance from Mount Zion
(Herod's palace) and on the highway to
Damascus. The spot is encircled by
rock-caverns and tombs. It answers all
the requirements of the Gospel narra-
tives, and is accepted by Bishop Gobat
of Jerusalem, Conratl Schick, Schaff, and
others, and a similar view was advo-
cated by Fisher Howe of Brooklyn,
1871, and more recently by Conder, 1878.
The Third Wall.— The situation of
the third wall is likewise disputed by
topographical writers. Some, as Kie-
pert, Fergusson, Wilson, and others,
make it reach to, and possibly include,
445
JER
JER
the so-called royal tombs and the whole
northern mountain-plateau, on which
many ruins and cisterns lie scattered.
Robinson places the third wall about the
middle of this locality ; to this Baedeker
objects on strategical grounds. Others
suggest that this third wall occupied
about the same site as the present north
wall of Jerusalem, which view is claimed
to accord with the distances given by Jo-
sephus (4 stadia to the royal tombs, 7
stadia to the Scopus), but Josephus is
not always accurate. Capt. Warren
advocates this latter view, that the po-
sitions of the third wall and of the pres-
ent northern wall are identical, though
he acknowledges that he found no de-
cisive evidence on the subject. The
reader will not be surprised at the gen-
eral uncertainty which prevails in re-
gard to the ancient walls and sacred
sites in the Holy City when he remem-
bers that it has been 27 times besieged
and 17 times conquered, and often deso-
lated. The present walls are of recent
date, being built by Suleiman the Mag-
nificent in 1542.
Plana of the City. — Mr. Besant. secre-
tary of the Palestine Exploration Fund,
received 18 different reconstructions of
ancient Jerusalem, bj^ as many eminent
scholars, yet all based on the authors'
views of the statements in the Bible,
Josephus, and by late explorers. The most
important plans are those of Robinson,
Schultz, Williams, Fiirrer, Barclay, Van
de Velde, Tobler, British Ordnance Sur-
vey, and Schick. Fergusson's plan
(Smith's Bible Dictiouari/), although
the view of a distinguished architect,
is too untenable to be of value or inter-
est to the ordinary student. The chief
of these plans are given upon another
page.
The Temple-site. — The site of the tem-
ple has long been a subject of contro-
versy among scholars, but nearly all agree
that it was on Mount Moriah, which is at
present occu])ied by the //*(?«»), wherein
stands the mosque of Omar. Some place
it in the south-western corner of the area
now known as the Hurnm enh-Shertf,
but the discovery of immense stones at
the base of the south-eastern corner of
the present Uaram wall, lying in place
on a rocky foundation cut out to receive
them, 80 feet below the present surface,
and bearing Pha'nician quarry-marks,
446
seems to confirm the earlier view that
remains of the buildings of Solomon
still exist there, and that Solomon's tem-
ple stood upon the centre of the Haram
area or the site of the mosque of Omar,
and shows the fallacy of Mr. Fergusson's
view that the temple-area reached only
600 feet east from the south-western cor-
ner of the present Haram area, since
these discovered stones at the south-
eastern corner are 900 feet eastward.
The explorations of Capts. Wilson and
Warren prove that the south-eastern
corner is unchanged, while the south-
western has undoubtedly been added,
probably by Herod. Beneath the Ha-
ram area there are aqueducts, subterra-
nean )>assages, and tanks, some of them
constructed, doubtless, for proper drain-
age and use of the temple; hence the
inference from recent discoveries is that
the present Haram area ver.v nearly
coincides witji that of the old temple-
area.
Zion and the Tyropoeon. — Two other
places of interest in the Holy City be-
sides Calvary — which has been noticed
under the second wall — are the hill of
Zion and the Tyropoeon Valley. Zion
is a broad hill with an abrupt front
nearly 400 feet high at one point above
the southern valley, the hill having a
length of 2400 feet to the Jaff'a-gate,
and from the Tyropoeon to the western
valley a breadth of about 1600 feet. The
" first wall " was built along the north-
ern brow of Zion. The plateau of Zion
included about half the ancient city.
Zion is scarcely 200 feet lower than
Olivet. The Tyropoeon valley, known
also as the "Valley of the Cheesemon-
gers," extended from the junction of the
Hinnom and Kedron valleys northward,
dividing Zion from Moriah, and, accord-
ing to one view, continued northward
toward the present Jafla-gate, but, ac-
cording to another view, turned toward
the present Damascus-gate; while a
third view supposes that it covered the
two branches reaching to the two gates
above named. The portion of the val-
ley between Zion and Moriah increased
rapidly in depth as it extended south-
ward, and at the south-western corner of
the temple-area the bed of the valley was
i)0 feet below the present surface, giving
an entire altitude of wall amounting to
1 jO feet, and in Herod's time to over 200
'I'llh,
I SCHICK c«iiciH« :^ ==^"^ ^ftj
r#
Wiw^"
Plans of Ancient Jerusalem.
The five plans given above indicate the views of some
of the best authorities iu regard to the topography of
ancient Jerusalem.
The first wall enclosed the old part of the town, or
" upper city," upon Mount Zion, and extending to the
walls of the temple-enclosure.
The second wall enclosed the old suburb, or " lower
city," upon Acra. The plan of Sepp (Roman Catho-
lic) puts the site of the present church of the Holy
Sepulchre outside that wall, in accordance with the
traditional view. The other plans include that site
within the second wall, in which case it cannot have
been the place of the crucifi.xion, which took place
outside of the citv.
The third wall was built by Agnppa, eleven years
after the death of Christ.
Date of plans: Robinson. 1841-1856; Sepp, 1873;
Tobler, 184SM8o8; Schick, 1876; Conder, 1879.
I For the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as the gemiine
I Calvarv are : De Vogu4. lie Saulcy, Sepp (Roman
Catholic). Williams, Ritter. Krafft, Schultz, Strauss
(Protestants) ; also Furrer, in Schenkel's Bibellexikon,
ii. 506.
Against the traditional view : Robinson. Tobler. John
; Wilson, Thompson. Barclay. Bonar, Kergusson, Porter,
Van de Velde. Merer, Ewald (all Protestants) : also
Sehaff, Tlirough Bihle Lands, p. 259, and Conder, in
Handbook of the Bible, p. 350.
JER
JER
feet ; so that the statement of Josephus
no longer seems a foolish exaggeration :
" If any one looked down from the top
of the battlements, he would lie giddy,
■while his sight could not reach to such
an immense depth." The gates, pools,
and environs of the Holy City may be
appropriately noticed under the descrip-
tion of modern Jerusalem.
VI. Modern Jerusalem. — The])res-
ent city is built upon the ruins of the an-
cient Holy City. The buildings, walls,
towers, and bridges of the city of David
and Solomon, of Hezekiah, of Nehemiah
and Ezra, of the Maccabees, and of
Herod, have been demolished, so that
the depth of the rubbish around the
temple-walls is nearly 100 feet; on the
hill of Zion the rubbish is 40 feet deep,
and on the Via Dolorosa it is from 15 to
30 feet deep. The buildings, walls,
streets, and towers now standing on these
sacred hills cannot with any certainty
be identified with the structures which
adorned the city 2000 years ago, and
whose very foundations, so far as dis-
covered, lie buried many feet below the
present surface.
Environs of Jerusalem. — To gain a
clear view of the places immediately
around modern Jerusalem we may begin
on the east side of the city, near the
Mount of Olives. Passing by the Bir-
ket- Israel, identified by some as the Pool
of Bethesda, we go out of St. Stejihen's
gate, and cross a bridge leading over the
Kedron or " black brook," which runs
southward through a deep valley, now
dry above the springs. This valley is
also called the Valley of Jehoshaphat,
and an old tradition makes it the scene
of the last judgment, founded on a mis-
interpretation of Joel 3:2. At the resur-
rection the sides of the valley, according
to this tradition, will move apart to give
sufficient room for the vast assembly. Be-
yond the Kedron is the modern chapel of
the Tomb of the Virgin, near which is the
traditional Cavern of Agony, and a short
distance farther on, upon the slope at
the foot of Olivet, is the ffarden of Geth-
semaue. It is now enclosed and in charge
of Franciscan monks. It contains a
number of venerable olive trees, whose
large trunks, some of them 19 feet in
circumference, are burst from age, and
have been shored up with stones. These
trees are said to date from the time of
448
Christ ; but this is questionable, since it
is certain Titus and Hadrian cut down
all the trees about .Jerusalem. Thej'
are, however, of great age, and may be
the descendants of some trees that were
standing here in our Lord's day. See
Gkthskmakk. From this garden three
roads lead up the slopes of Olivet — one
to the south, around the top of tho
mount, another to the north, and a third,
or middle path, leads up the steepest
part to the summit. See Olivet. The
view of Jerusalem from Mount Olivet is
the finest that can be secured. Bethany
lies a short distance east of the summit
of Olivet. See Beth, \.\y. In the valley
south of Olivet are the Tombs of the
Prophets, no doubt belonging to the
Jewish period. To the west of Geth-
semane a road leads down the Kedron
valley, by which stands the so-called
Tomb of Absalom (see Absalom), and
beyond are the Tomb of Jehoshaphat
and the Tomb or Pyramid of Zacharias.
Above these, to the east, the whole slo])C
of the hill is covered with Jewish tomb-
stones, and to the south of these lies the
village of .V/Y/rfirji, or Siloah. The southern
part of the Mount of Olives, on which
this village is situated, is called also the
Mount of Offence, from 1 Kgs. 11 : 7.
To the west arc the valleys of Jehosha-
phat and of Hinnom. To the south,
down the Vallev of Jehoshaphat, is the
Pool of Siloah and St. Mary's Well,
which is fed by an intermittent spring;
still farther down t'le valley is Job's
Fountain, probably the " Eu-rogel " or
fullers' spring of Josh. 15 : 7 and 1
Kgs. 1 : 9. To the west of this is the
mouth of the Valley of Hinnom, always
dry, on the south of which is the Mount
of Evil Counsel, upon which tradition,
probably correctly, places Aceldama,
"potter's field" or "the field of blood."
Matt. 27 : 7, 8. The hill is full of rock-
tombs. At the foot of this mount, the
bottoua of the Valley of Hinnom was
called Tophet. 2 Kgs. 23:10; Isa. 30 :
33: Jer. 7: 31 ; 19: 11. North of this
valley, and upon the southern portion
of the hill of Zion — which was formerly
included within the walls of the city,
but is now outside the city (as the
present walls only embrace the north-
ern portion of Zion) — arc the Jewish
and Christian hurying-grounds. In the
portion of Zion outside the city walls
JER
JER
Porter saw oxen ploughing, in fulfilment
of the prophecy, *' Zion shall be ploughed
like a field." Jer. 26 : 18 ; Mic. 3:12. An
old aqueduct runs past Zion's gate
and into the city between that gate and
the ga'e eastward of it, supposed to
be the dung-gate. Across the Valley
of Hinnoui,to the westward, is the large
Jewish hospice, a modern structure
founded by Sir Moses Montefiore, while
between this and the south-western corner
of the present wall is the Pool of the
Sultan, 175 yards long, 73 yards wide,
and from 35 to 41 feet deep, partly filled
with rubbish. This pool is by some
identified with the " lower pool" of Isa.
22 : 9. North of this pool is a conduit,
which runs from Solomon's pools into the
city, a Greek monastery, a leper hosj.i-
tal, and the Birket-Mamilla, or " Mamii-
la pool." 291 by 192 feet, and 19 feet
deep, which may be the "upper pool"
Gihon, Isa. 7: 3, or, as Baedeker pro-
poses, the Serpent's pool of Josephus.
These arc upon the south side of the road,
leading from Jaffa (Joppa) into Jerusa-
lem by the Jaffa-gate on the west side
of the city. Crossing this road to the
north are the Russian buildings, a church,
a monasterv, .and a hospice; outside the
eity, and faither north, in the ci'y wall,
is the Damascus-gate, to the north of
which, outside the wall, is the Grotto
of Jeremiah, near which many place the
true site of Calvary. Farther from the
city wall, to the north, are the so-called
Tombs of the Kings, and beyond the?e
the hill Scopus, which is the northern
extension of Olivtt and completes our
circuit of the city.
The Citii and ita Dirixionn. — The pres-
ent city of Jerusalem stands upon the
northern portions of the hill of Zion
and of Moriah, the part of the old city
known as Acra, and upon Bezetha, a
portion of Jerusalem which dates from
Agrippa, A. D. 42. The walls now ex-
clude the southern sections of the hill of
Zion and of Ophel. The city is also
divided into four quarters by the main
streets, and these quarters are named
from the classes of inhabitants which
dwell in Jerusalem. The largest division,
in the north-eastern part of the city, is
known as the Mohammedan quarter;
west of this is the Greek and Frank, or
r'hristian quarter; to- the south of it
lies the Armenian quarter; while to
29
the east of the Armenian and to the
south of the Mohammedan lies the Jew-
ish quarter.
Jerusalem is now enclosed by a wall
(dating from Suleiman in the sixteenth
century), 38^ feet high, having 34 towers
and 7 gates. The town as thus walled in
forms an irregular quadrangle of about
2i miles in circumference, around which
a person can easily walk in an hour. The
city has few open spaces ; the streets are
generally narrow, crooked, and poorly
paved; and the narrower streets are
mere blind-alleys, exceedingly filthy after
a rain. The chief streets form the boun-
daries of the princijial quarters of the
town. The Damascus and Bazaar streets,
from the north, separate the Moslem from
the Christian or (Jreek quarter, and
firther south divide tl'.e Jewish from the
Armenian quarter. The main street,
running from the Jafi'a-gate to the Ha-
ram area, first divides the Christian from
the Armenian quarter, and to the east-
ward separates the Mos'ein from the
Jewish quarter. See Baedeker's Pafen-
fiue. The seven important gates are : in
the west wall, ( 1 ) The Yafa or Jaffa gate ;
in the north wall, (2) the Damascus gate,
and (3) llerods gate, closed for 25 years,
but of late opened a portion of the year;
in the east wall, (4) St. Stephen's gate
and (5) the Golden gate, bmg since walled
up ; in the south wall. (0) liabel-Maijha)--
ihch, or the so-called dung-gate, and (7)
Sion's gate. There are also other gates,
now closed up ; as, the triple gate, the
double or Huhlah gate, and another old
gate adjoining it, walled up.
The city has no springs, but it is sup-
plied with water by cisterns filled from
the rain- falls on the roofs of the houses,
by pools, of which there are six or more
in and about the city, and by conduits
and wells or springs outside the town.
The chief pools have been already no-
ticel. Thev may be here groujied to-
gether: The Birket-Mamilla, Birket-
Sultan, Pool of Siloam, Fountain or Pool
of the Virgin. Birket- Israel, and the
Pool of Hezekiah. ''The Birket-Ma-
milla," says Crosby, "is supposed to be
the upper pool, Isa. 7:3:2 Kgs.18 : 17. It
lies 2000 feet we?t of the Jaff"a-gate. The
Birket-Sultan is a section of the great
western valley dammed up for more than
500 feet. The Pool of Siloam, Neh. 3:
15 ; John 9 : 7, is in the mouth of the
449
JER
JER
Tyropoeon, at its junction with the Hin-
nom and the Kedron valleys. It was
j)robably used to irrigate the king's gar-
den. It is connected, by a long, rude,
and crooked subterranean passage, with
^
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i 1 ee- ^"JiP^S
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Pool of HezeUiali, inside tlie J;iH;i,-ga,te. (After
a Photograph by Bonfils.)
the Fountain of the Virgin, on the other
side of Ophel, from which the water
flows softly. . . . The Fountain of
the Virgin is a pool on the eastern
side of the Ophel rock, to which is a de-
scent of 28 steps. The water comes into
it from the direction of the tem2>le, but
has never been traced. It has a periodic
and sudden rise of a foot in height, the
periods varying from two to three times
a day to once in two or three days. This
periodic troubling of the water seems to
mark the Fountain of the Virgin as the
Pool of Bcthesda, unless we may suppose
that a pool fartlier upon the temple-mount
formerly received this intermittent flow.
The requirements of the sheep-gate (see
above) seem to put JJethesda farther
north. The Rirket-Israel, just inside
St. Stephen's gate and north of the Ha-
ram (supposed by Robinson to be the
trench of Antonia), is the damming uj)
of the valley that runs east of Bezetlia
in a south-eastern direction, originally
under the north-eastern corner of the
Haram into the Kedron. . . The Pool
of Ilezekiah is north of the Jaff'a-gato
street; ... is supplie<l by an aqueduct
from the Rirkot-Mamilla. ... A system
of wells and acpieducts in the Kedron
ravine below Jerusalem (the En-rogel of
antiquity) presents features of peculiar
in*erest. One of the several ancient
450
aqueducts still conducts the water from
Solomon's pools beyond Bethlehem to
the city." Crosby in Johnson s Ci/clopsR-
dia, vol. ii. p. 1398.
The Biiildi')>f/ii, — The houses in Jeru-
salem are built chiefly of stone, and are
two or three stories high, and owing to
the scarcity of timber even many of the
roofs are alsj of stone. The roofs are
generally flat, su))ported by vaults and
arches below. Some, however, are dotue-
shaped. There are few windows open-
ing on the streets ; these openings are
chiefly toward the interior open court of
the house. The more important build-
ings are — those in the Haram enclos-
ure on Mount Moriah : the *' Dome of
the Rock" or mosque of Omar, mosque
EI-Aksa, the mosque known as the
Throne of Solomon; those in the Cluis-
tian quarter: the church of the Holy
Sepulchre, Coptic convent, Abyssinian
monastery, Muristan, or ruins of the
knights-hospitallers, nine convents, and
two hotels; those in the Mohammedan
quarter: church of Mary Magdalene,
church of St. Anne, two convents, Pi-
late's hall, two mosques, the city prison ;
in the Jewish quarter: two synagogues,
three hospitals, and a spot of the deep-
est interest, known as the "Jews' Wail-
ing-place ; " in the Armenian quarter:
tower of David, tower of Hipj)icus, four
convents, the lepers' quarter, and the
church of St. James.
Huram enh-Slierif. — The extent of this
enclosure, which covers the ground on
which the temple stood, is, according
to the British Ordnance Survey, on the
north wall, 1042 feet; east, 15:^0 feet;
south, 5)22 feet; west, 1601; or a total
circumfc.i nee of 5095 (nearly a mile),
and the total area is 35 acres. Near the
centre of the enclosure is a raised plat-
form, ujion which once stood the temple
of Solomon, later the less glorious tem-
ple of Zerubbabel, and last the temple
of Herod, which was built in the time
of Christ, and was destroyed by the
Romans, a. n. 70. The attempt to re-
build the Jewish temple under Julian
the Apostate, A. l). 302'. was a complete
failuie, as already noticed. See p. 410.
During the reign of Hadrian. A. I). 136,
a temple of Jupiter occupieil this sacred
spot, and a shrine of Venus was jdaced
upon the site of the Holy Sepulchre. In
place of the temple now stands the K'nt-
JER
JER
bet e8-S(ikhar(t, '* Dome of the Rock,"
or mosque of Omar — " perhaps," says
Hepworth Dixon, "the very noblest
specimen of building-art in Asia." " It
is," says Schaff, '*the most prominent as
well as the mo.-^t beautiful building in the
whole city, It stands out conspicuously
in every picture of Jerusalem. ... It is
the second mosque of Islam, inferior
only to that of Mecca, as Jerusalem is
its second sacred city. . . . The mosque
stands on an irregular base of 10 feet
in height, and is approached by three
flights of steps, which terminate in
elegant arcades, called ' scales,' because,
according to tradition, the scales of judg-
ment are to be suspended here. The
mosque is an octagonal building, each
side measuring 67 feet." Baedeker says :
"Each of the eight sides is 00 feet in
length, and is covered externally as far
as the pedestal with po.celain tiles of
the Persian style, and lower down with
marble. Each tile has been written
upon and burned separately. Passages
from the Koran, beautifully inscribed in
interwoven characters, run round the
building like a frieze." The whole
structure is 170 feet high, and is sur-
mounted by a dome supported on 4
great piers and 12 Corinthian columns.
The design of the building is Byzan-
tine, and S*'pp regards it as originally
a church of Justinian ; others trace its
origin to Omar. It has four gates, fa-
cing the four cardinal points of the
compass. The most interesting object
in the masque is the rock beneath the
dome, which is 57 feet long and 43 feet
wide, and rises from 1 to 5 or 0 feet
above the mosaic marble pavement.
It is enclosed by an iron railing. Jew-
ish tradition marks this spot as the
place where Melchizedek oHered sacri-
fice, where Abrahani offered Isaac,
where the ark of the coven int in the
h(dy of holies stood, where the un-
speakable name of God was inscribed
upon the rock, which Jesus was able to
read, and which gave him his power to
perform miracles; and finally, that this
spot was the centre of the earth. The
Mohammedans, not to be outdone by
the Jews, accept all these traditir)ns or
have improved on them. The excava-
tions of Capts. Wilson and Warren have
thrown much light on this ])ortion of .Je-
rusalem, covered as deeply with tradi-
452
tions as with rubbish. By means of a
shaft sunk at the west wall and south-
ern extremity of Wilson's Arch, War-
v^n found twenty-one courses of bevelled
stones, from 3 feet 8 inches to 4 feet high,
making in all 75 feet above the founda-
tion-rock, and all these were in their
oiiginal position, but covered with
debris. These stone blocks, of which
the topmost are from 35 to 55 feet be-
low the present surface, are hewn
smooth on everj' side except the out-
side, where they are bevelled, and are
jointed with mortar or cement, but so
accurately that a knife cannot be in-
troduced between them. The wall is
not perpendicular, but slopes outward
toward its base. He inferred that this
formed a part of the wall of Solomon's
temple. The southern wall, from the
doi.ble gate to the south-eastern angle,
he also regarded as of Solomonic age
and as forming a part of Solomon's
palace. The south-western portion was
more modern, and he supposes a square
of 300 feet was added by Herod, and
that Herod's temple occupied the whole
southern portion of the present sanc-
tuary. On the south-east are immense
vaults, and beneath the temple-area
immense cisterns were found, of which
thirty-three were described. They were
cut out of the soft rock, and had a
depth of from 25 to 50 feet and a ca-
]tacity estimated at from 10,000,000 to
12,000,000 of gallons— enough to fur-
nish a year's supply of water for the
whole citv. A single cistern, called
the " Great Sea," would hold 2.000,000
gallons. The water was supplied pait-
iy by the rain and partly by an aque-
• iuct, which connected these reservoirs
with Solomon's Pools, beyond Bethlehem
and 13 miles from Jerusalem. '1 he over-
flow from these cisterns was conducted
through a rock-cut channel into the
valley of the Kedron, which also
served as a sewer to carry away the
refuse arising from sacrifices of the
temple. In the eastern wall of the
Haram area a stair ascends to the top
of the wall, and the stump of a column
built in horizontally may bo seen pro-
truding from the wall. The Moslems
say that all men will assemble in the
Valley of .lehoshaphat when a trumpet-
blast proclaims th<! last judgment, and
that from this column a thin wire will be
Interior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
JER
JER
stretched to the oi)posite Mount of Olives,
that Christ will sit on the wall and Mo-
hammed on the mount as judges, and that
all men will be compelled to pass over the
intervening space; the righteous, pre-
served by angels, will pass quickly and
safely over, but the wicked will fall and
be thrown into the abyss of hell.
The mosque El-Aksa also stands with-
in the Haram area, and is a complex pile
of buildings, "the principal axis of which
forms a right angle with the southern
wall of the temple-precinots. It dates
from Justinian, but has been several
times partially in ruins and rebuilt. . . .
The building is altogether 270 feet long
and about 198 feet in width. The dome
is of wood covered with lead, and the
windows are in part of stained glass of
about the sixteenth century."
Just outside of the enclosure of the
mosque El-Aksa, and near Robinson's
Arch, is the noted Wailiiiy-jjlnce of the
Tlie Wailing-place of the Jews. (From Photo-
graphs.)
Jews. The cyclopean foundation-wall
of the temple which bears this name is
156 feet in length and 56 feet in height.
Nine of the lowest courses of stone con-
sist of huge blocks ; above these are fif-
teen layers of smaller stones. Some in-
fer, and others deny, that these lower
external layers are very ancient. The
blocks are certainly old and of vast size,
one in the western part being 16 feet, nnd
another in the southern ])art 13 feet,
in length. On Friday numbers of the
Jews, old and young, male and female,
gather here, kissing the stones, watering
them with their tears, and bewaiing the
454
downfall of their city, while they read
or repeat from their well-worn Hebrew
Bibles and prayer-books the Lamenta-
tions of Jeremiah and suitable Psalms,
as the 76th and 79th. The following is
an extract from their litany :
Leader: For the palace that lies desolate:
— Response: We sit in solitude and mourn.
L. For the palace that is destroyed : — R.
We sit, etc.
L. For the walls that are overthrown : —
R. We sit, etc.
L. For our majesty that is departed : —
R. We sit, etc.
L. For our great men who lie dead: —
R. We sit, etc.
L. For the precious stones that are burn-
ed -.—R. We sit, etc.
L. For the priests who have stumbled : —
R. We sit, etc.
L. For our kings who have despised Him :
—R. We sit, etc.
Another antiphon is as follows:—
Leader: We pray Thee, liave mercy on
Zior\\— Response : Gather the children of
Jerusalem.
L. Haste, haste, Redeemer of Zion !—
R. Speak to the heart of Jerusalem.
L. May beauty and majesty surround
Ziou \—R. Ah ! turn thyself mercifully to
Jerusalem.
L. May the kingdom soon return to Zion !
— R. Comfort those who mourn over Jeru-
salem.
Ij. May peace and joy abide with Zion! —
R. And the brancli (of Jesse I spring up at
Jerusalem. See Baedeker's Palestine.
The Church of the Hob/ Sepulchre,
next to the temple-area, is of deep inter-
est to the Christian. It is a " collec-
tion," says Schaff, " of chapels and altars
of different ages, and a unique museum
of religious curiosities from Adam to
Christ.. . . In the centre of the rotunda,
beneath the dome, is a small marble
chapel, where ])ilgrims from every land
in a ceaseless stream are going in and
out, offering candles and kneeling before
and kissing the empty [reputed! tomb
of Christ." The church is also claimed
to possess a piece of marble of Christ's
sepulchre, the stone of anointment, three
holes in which the crosses of Christ and
of the two robbers were inserted, a cleft
in the rock caused by the earthquake,
the very spot where Christ was scourged,
where his friends stood afar off, where
his garments were parted, where the
gardener ajipeared to Mary, the rock-
hewn tombs of Nicodemus and Joseph
of Arimathea, the tombs of Adam. Mel-
chizedck, and John the Baptist, and '' the
centre of the world." It is of course
Ecce Homo Arch, Via Dolorosa.
JER
JER
claimed as the site of Calvary. See p.
445.
The Citadel avd the Tower of David,
opposite the Jaffa-gate, consist of an
irregular group of five square towers,
originally surrounded by a ditch. The
f()undations of the towers are of thick
walls rising at an angle of about 45° ;
for ','A) feet from the bottom of the moat
the masonrj' is of large drafted blocks
with rough surfaces, and the forms of
the stones higher up indicate that thtse
foundations are ancient. In the north-
eastern coiner stands an ancient tower,
bearing the name of David, but probably
the remains of one of the towers of Her-
od's j)alace. Robinson and Baedeker
suggest that the building answers to the
description given by Josejjhus of the
I/ij)piciiH tone)-, but others legard its di-
mensions as agreeing better with those
of the tower of Phasselus.
The Castle of Coliath is at the north-
western angle of the present wall, and
upon the highest ground within the city
limits. The Vi<t Dolorosa, or "street of
sorrows," is a portion of the street
along which it is said our Saviour was
led to his crucifixion ; but the name
dates only frotu the fourteenth century.
Toiiihs. — Some of the rock-tombs about
the city have already been noticed. The
ground in the vicinity of Jerusalem has
been described as one " vast cemetery."
In the days of King Josiah " the graves
of the children of the people" were in
the valley of the Kedron. 2 Kgs. 23 : 6.
The great Jewish cemetery is on the
slope of Olivet ; the Tombs of the Pro-
})hets are near the southern peak of
Olivet; the Tombs of the Kings are
half a mile north of the Damascus-
gate: and about a mile beyond are the
Tombs of the Judges. Portions of the
western side of the valley of the Kedron
are still full of tombs.
The fnhaftitautft. — The present popu-
lation of Jerusalem is variously estima-
ted, as no census has been taken. Rob-
inson, in 1841, made the total ]>o]»ulation
11,500, but later was inclined to place
it at 17,000. Drake (1S74) puts it at
20,000, liaedekcr 24,000 ; Dr. Neuman, a
Jewish physician 15 years a resident of
the citv, estimates it at IJO,!!!*!). Baedeker
distributes the 21,000 as follows : i:?,000
Moslems, 7000 Christians. 4000 Jews.
The Turkish statistics of 1871 give the
456
number of families or houses: 1025
Moslem, 6.30 Jewish, 299 Orthodox
Greek, 179 Latin, 175 Armenian, 44
Coptic, IS Greek Catholic, 16 Protestant,
and 7 Syrian — in all, 2.393 families. Dr.
Neuman distributes his estimate of
30,000 into 15,000 Mohammedans, 13,000
Jews, and H)00 Christians, including
5000 Franks. In the Easter season about
a dozen languages are now heard there
besides the vernacular Arabic, illustrat-
ing the scene duiing the Pentecost.
Acts 2: 7-11. Drake estimates that the
Jews are increasing in Jerusalem at the
rate of 1200 to 1500 per year.
The religion of the people also repre-
sents various faiths. The Greek Church
is the strongest in wealth, numbers, and
influence, having the support of the
Russian power. Its members are chiefly
Arabs, speaking Arabic, while the clergy
are mostly foreign Greeks, speaking
modern Greek. The Church has several
monasteries, churches, two hospices, and
two schools. The Old Armenian Church
has a resident patriarch, a large monas-
tery, with a printing-office, and a semi-
nary with about 40 students, a nunnery,
and a smaller monastery. The Coptic,
Ancient Syrian, and Abyssinian Churches
each has a small religious community.
The Latins, or Roman Catholics, are
said to number 1500. In their Francis-
can monastery is a printing-press, chiefly
used for printing school-books in Arabic,
a school for be>ys, and the Latins also
have a hospital and three other schools
in the city. The Jens have four holy
cities in Palestine: Jerusalem, Safed,
Tiberias, and Hebron. In Jerusalem
they live largely on the charity of their
European brethren. They are divided
into three sects; their quarter of the
city is squalid, dirty, and uninviting.
In Jerusalem, and there only, is the
Hebrew language used (by the Jews) in
ordinary conversation. The only news-
papers printed in the city are in the
Hebrew language. The I'roteatunt com-
munity in Jerusalem is very small.
There is a bishop jointly supported by
the Prussian and the English Churches,
which maintain a mission and have a
church, schools, orphanages, and hos-
pitals. The first Protestant bishop was
Alexander, the second, Gobat (died
1S79), the third, Barclay (consecrated
1879). There are three Protestant
JER
JES
Churches, the English Church of Sion,
the native Arab Church, and the Ger-
man Church, on the property of the
Prussian government.
This is Jerusalem in her decay. Of
Jerusalem in her grandeur we can only
gain more certain knowledge by further
thorough archajological explorations.
.The Palestine Exploration Fund, under
careful and extended excavations by
Capts. Wilson (1864) and Waren (ISfiT),
made a noble beginning. Among the
results of their work were: (1) That
the ancient city lies deeply buried be-
neath the present surface; (2) that the
height of the temple-walls was great, as
Josephus declares; (3) that Phoenician
workmen were employed in building the
temple, as stated in the book of Kings.
(4) Strong proofs as to the location and
extent of the temple-area have been
furnished, especially showing the views
of Mr. Fergusson and others, that the
temple occupied a square of only 600
feet in the south-western angle of the
area, to be erroneous. (.5) The conjec-
ture of Robinson respecting the loca-
tion of the bridge over the Tyropoeon
has been verified. (6) The water-sup-
ply of the city, and particularly of the
temple, has been proved to be very ex-
tensive and quite abundant.
For the history of Jerusalem, ancient
and modern, the following are among
the works which may be consulted : Jo-
sephus ; Eusebius's and Jerome's Ono-
maxticon, French ed., 1862 ; Reland's,
Palestina ex Monnmentia Veierihns II-
lustrata, Traj. Batav. 1714, 2 vols. sm.
4to; W. H. Bartlett, Walks in and
about Jerusalem, 4th. ed., London, 1852,
roy. 8vo, and his Topoijrapfiy of Jeru-
salem, 1845; E. Robinson, Biblical Re-
searches, New York, 1841, 3 vols. 8vo,
and his later Biblical Researches, 1856,
Svo ; W. Krafft. Die Tnpoffraphie Jerusa-
lems, Bonn, 1865; Fergusson, Essay on
the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem,
London, 1847, imp. Svo, and The Holy
Sepulchre and the Temple at Jerusalem.
Svo ; Early Travels in Palrstine, edited
by T. Wright. London. 1848, post Svo:
G. Williams, r/ze Hoh^ City, London,! 849,
2 vols. Svo : J. T. Barclay, The City of the
Great King, 1 vol. Svo. pp. 627^ 1857 ;
Churchill. iV/o)ni^Z''^a»oH. London, 1855-
62, 4 vols. Svo: W. M. Thomson. The
Land and the Rook; New York, 1858, 2
vols. 12rao, new ed. 1879 ; Pierotti,
Jerusalem. Explored, London, 1864, 2
vols. fol. ; Lewin, Siege of Jerusalem by
Titus, London, demy Svo ; H. B. Tris-
tram, The Land of Israel, London,
1865, demy Svo ; Titus Tobler's Pales-
tine Descriptiones, 1869, Svo; and To-
pographic von Jerusalem, Berlin, 1854,
2 vols.: Captains Wilson and War-
ren, Recovery <}f Jerusalem, London,
1871, demy Svo : Reynolds, The His-
tory of the Temple of Jerusalem (Pub-
lic. Oriental Trans. Com., vol.451) : J. L.
Porter, Syria's Holy Places, 12mo, 1873 ;
Thrupp's Ancient Jerusalem ; A. Thom-
son, In the Holy Land, London, 1874,
12mo ; Captains Wilson, Anderson, War-
ren, etc.. Our Work in Palestine, London,
1875, Svo ; Murray's Handbook of Syria
and Palestine, 1875; Besant and Palmer,
History of Jerusalem, London, cr. Svo ;
Ordnance Surrey of Jerusalem, with
Notes by Captain Wilson, London, 2
vols. Baedeker, Palestine and Syria,
Leipsic, 1876 ; Warren's Underground
Jerusalem, 1876 : C. E. T. Drake', Mod-
ern Jerusalem, London, 1877, Svo ; Schaff,
Through Bible Lands, New York, 1878,
12mo ; C. E. Conder, Tent-work in Pal-
estine, 2 vols. 12mo, 1878; Quarterly
Statements Palestine Exploration Fun I,
1872-1880, and the large Maps of that
Society with the Memoirs, 1880.
Jerusalem, New% Rev. 21 : 2, is a term
employed metaphorically to represent
the spiritual Church in the state of
triumph and glory. The. ancient Jews
regarded the tabernacle, the temple, and
Jerusalem itself, as descending dire:-tly
from God. and thev suppose that there
is a spiritual tabernacle, temple, and city
corresponding with them. Corap. Gal.
4: 26 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 10-13 ; Rev. 21. Jeru-
salem of old was the city of God : and
Jerusalem above is called '• the city of
the living God." or " the heavenlv Jeru-
salem." Heb. 12:22; Rev. 3:12. The
sublime and most comforting descrip-
tion of the new .Jerusalem with which
the Bible closes has given rise to some
of the sweetest Christian hymns of
homesickness after heaven.
JERU'SHA, OT JERU'SHAH
( possessed), the mother of Jotham. king
of Judah. 2 Kt^. 15:33; 2 Chr. 27 : 1.
JESA'IAH (»or/Hr/). 1. One of Da-
vid's postcity. 1 Chr.'3:21.
2. A Benjami^e. Neb. 11:7.
457
JES
JES
JESHA'IAH {livlp of Jehovah, same
as li<aiali). I. A son of Jediithun, and
chief of the eighth division of the sing-
ers. 1 Chr. 25.-:!, 15.
2. A Kohathite Levite, a descendant
of Moses, 1 (;hr. 26 : I'o ; called Isshai-
ah in 1 Chr. 24:21.
3. One who came back with Ezra.
Ezr. 8 : 7.
4. A Merarite Levite who also return-
ed. 8: 19.
JESH'ANAH, a town which, with
its dependent villages, was one of the
three taken from Jeroboam by Abijah,
2 Chr. 13 : 19, and identified by vSwartz
with (d-Samiu, 2 miUs west of Bethel ;
but this requires confirmation.
JESHAR'ELAH (ri,jht toward
God), the head of the seventh division
of the Levite musicians. 1 Chr. 25 : 14.
In V. 2 he is called Asarelah.
JESHEB'EAB {neat of o7ie' 8 fa-
ther), the chief of the fourteenth divis-
ion of the priests. I Chr. 24:13.
JE'SHER (vprl(j}it)iesn), one of the
sons of Caleb, Ihe son of Hezron. 1 Chr.
2:18.
JESH'IMON {the traste), a name
designating the i:)Osition of Pisgah and
Peor, which are described as "looktth
toward Jeshimon." Num. 21 : 20 ; 28 : 28.
The word may not be a proper name,
but a general term for any wilderness,
and may thus be applied to different
p'aees at different times. Grove would
place Jeshimon on the west side of
the Dead Pea, toward En-gedi : Porter
suj^gests thaf. thee may have been two.
Jeshimons. one east of the Jordan con-
nected with Pisgah, and another west of
the Jordan ; Conder. with Grove, ])ro-
poses to identify Jeshimon with the pla-
teau above the Dead Pea, on its west side,
and describes it as the most desolate,
wearisome country in Palestine.
JESHISH'AI (offspriuf, of an old
man), a Gadite. 1 Chr. 5 :l'i.
JESHOHAI'AH {whom Jehovah
hoinx (hum), a Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4:.*!fi.
JESH'UA, in one case JESH'-
XJAH {irJioiii Jehovah hel]>n). 1. The
chief of the ninth division of the priests.
Ezr..2:3r): Neh. 7 : ;{9. He is called
Jeshuah in 1 Chr. 24:11.
2. A Levite in Hezekiah's reign placed
over a city of the priests "to distribute
the oblations of the Lord." 2 Chr. 31 : 1.').
3. A high priest after the Captivity,
45S
son of Jehozadak. He was probably
born in Babylon, as his father was a
captive. 1 Chr. 6 : 15. He returned with
Zcrubbabel, and was active in rebuilding
the temple and in re-establishing the or-
dinances of religion. Ezr. 2 : 2 : 3 : 2 etc •
4:3; 5:2; 10: 18; Neh. 7:7; \2 .\\
etc. By Zechariah he is represented as
a type of Christ. By this prophet and
by Haggai he is called Joshua. See Zech.
3:1, 3, 8, 9; Hag. 1:1, 12, 14; 2:2,4.
4. The head of the most numerous
I family that returned with Zerubbabel.
Ezr. 2:6; Neh. 7: 11.
5. Head of a Levitical house. Ezr. 2 :
40 ; Neh. 7 : 43.
6. A Levite. Ezr. 8:33.
7. One whose son helped repair the
wall. Neh. 3:19.
8. A Levite who read the Law. Neh.
8:7: 9 : 4, 5 : 12 : 8. 24.
9. Joshua, the son of Nun ; mentioned
thus Neh. 8:17.
JESH'UA {Jehovah the salvation),
one of the towns reinhabited by the
])eople of Judah after their return from
captivity, Neh. 11 : 26. Conder pro-
poses S'aici, a ruin near Beer-sheba, as
the site of Jeshua.
JESH'URUN (dearhj helored), a
symbolical name for Israel, Deut. 32:
15 ; 33 : 5, 26, and once, by mistake, Jesu-
run. Isa. 44 : 2. The "he" in Deut.
33 : 5 refers not to Moses, who is never
called a king, but to the Lord, who was
the Head of the theocracy.
JESI'AH {u-hom Jehovah leuds). 1.
A Korhite, one of David's mighty men
who came to him in Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 6.
2. A Levite, same as Jeshaiah of 1
Chr. 26 : 25 : 1 Chr. 23 : 20.
JESIM'IEL {tchom God hax set vp),
a ])rinee of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4: 36.
JES'SE {strovy), the father of Da-
vid, and the grandson of Kuth. His
genealogy is twice given in the 0. T.,
Ruth 4:18-22: 1 Chr. 2 : 5-12, and
twice in the N. T. Matt. 1 : 3, 5 ; Luke
3:32-34. He is usually called "Jesse
the Bethlehcmitc." 1 Sam. 16 : 1, 18;
17: 58, but his full and })roj)er designa-
tion is Jesse "that p]j)hrathite of Beth-
lehem Judah." 1 Sam. 17: 12. This lat-
ter verse calls him "an old man " at tlie
time of David's fight with (loliath. He
was the affectionate father of right sons,
and a man of wealth and position. 17:
17, 18. It is remarkable that David is
JES
JEW
called " the son of Jesse " after his own
fame was established. 1 Chr. 29 : 2(5 ; Ps.
72 : 20. Jesse was through David the
ancestor of the Judaic kings, and thus
of Christ. The prophets announced this
in so many words. Isa. 11 : 1, 10.
JES'UI (level), an Asherite, founder
of the Jesuites. Num. 26 : 44. Else-
where he is called Isui, Gtn. 46:17,
and Ishuai. 1 Chr. 7 : 30.
JES'UITES, THE, descendants
of Jesui. Xum. 26 : 44.
JES'URUX. See Jeshurux.
JE'SUS, the Greek form for Hebrew
*• Jehoshua," contracted to "Joshua."
This term means " Saviour." Matt. 1:21.
It occurs only in the X. T. ; and though
it is not exclusively applied to Christ,
it should be, for in Acts 7 : 45, Col.
4:11, and Heb. 4 : 8, '"Joshua," and
not *' Jesus," is the proper rendering,
although the two names have originally
the same meaning.
In the evangelical history our Saviour \
is designated by the name of " Christ "
alone in nearly 300 passages ; by the ,
name of "Jesus Christ," or "Christ
Jesus," less than 100 times ; and by
the name of the " Lord Jesus Chijist "
less than 50. See Christ Jesus. I
JE'SUS, called Justus, a Jew, who
was Paul's fellow-worker and a comfoi't
to him in Rome. Col. 4:11. j
JESUS, SON OF SIRACH,
BOOK OF. See EccLESiASTicL's.
JE'THER {excellence). 1. In mar-
gin of Ex. 4: 18. See Jethro.
2. The eldest of Gideon's ("O sons.
Jud. 8:20.
3. The husband of Abigail, David's
sister, and father of Amasa, captain of
Ab.'salom's host, 2 Sam. 17 : 25 : called
*' Ithra. an Israelite," in that verse, but
in 1 Chr. 2:17, more correctly, " Jether
the Ishmaelite."
4. A member of the tribe of Judah. 1
Chr. 2 : 32.
5. Another member. 1 Chr. 4:17.
6. One of the sons of Asher. 1 Chr.
7 : 38 ; probably identical with the Ith-
ran of v. 37.
JE'THETH [a vail), one of the
dukes of Edom. Gen. 36 : 40 : 1 Chr. 1 :
51.
JETH'LAH {h!(jh, exalted), a city
of Dan. Jos. 19:42. Drake proposed
the village of Shrlta, north-west of the
lower Beth-Horon, as the site of Jethlah ;
Conder, on a weak similarity of names,
pro]»oses Beit Tul as its site. Either
view requires further confirmation.
JE'THRO (hif excellence), a priest
or prince of Midian, and father-in-law
of Moses. Ex. 3:1. He is called Raguel,
Xum. 10 : 20. and Reuel. Ex. 2 : 1 8 , and
was probably known by either name,
while Jethro was his official title. It
is highly probable, too. that he was
a descendant of Abraham by Keturah,
the mother of Midian, Gen. 26 : 2, but
what was the nature of his office as
priest (or prince, as some say it should
be rendered) we know not. See Hobab.
JE'TUR [an enclosure), one of the
sons of Ishmael. Gen. 25: 15; 1 Chr. 1:
31 : 5:19. . See Iturea.
JE'UELi {treaftured of God), one of
the descendants of Judah. 1 Chr. 9:6.
JE'USH (to H'Jiom God hantenx). 1.
A son of Esau by Aholibamah, and one
of the Edomitish phvlarchs or " dukes."
Gen. 36 : 5, 1 4. 1 8 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 35.
2. The head of a Beniamite house in
David's reign. 1 Chr. 7:10.
3. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 23:
10, 11.
4. A son of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 11 : 18,
19.
JE'UZ {counsellinff), a Benjamite
chief. 1 Chr. 8:10.
JEWELS. This term is applied to
ornaments made of the precious metals
and used to adorn the person. We find
them among the presents which the
servants of Abraham made to Rebekah
and her family when they sought her in
marriage for Isaac. Gen. 24:22. It is
probable that much skill was attained
at a very early period in the manufac-
ture of metal ornaments, such as chains,
bracelets, ear-rings, etc. Xum. 31 : 50 ;
Eze. 26 : 12 : Hos. 2 : 13. The word is
figuratively used to denote anything
peculiarly precious : as, the chosen peo-
ple of God. Mai. 3 : 17, or wisdom, Prov.
20:15.
JEWRY, a word elsewhere rendered
"Judah" and '' Judrea." It occurs once
in the 0. T., Dan. 5:13, where it might
be rendered " Judah," and several times
in the Apocryphal and X. T. books. See
JuDAFi and JrD.EA.
JEWS. The word first occurs in 2
Kgs. 16 : 6. and denotes the Judfeans. or
men of Judah, in contradistinction from
the seceding ten tribes, who retained the
459
JEZ
JEZ
name of Israel. Tlic name Israelites
was applied to the 12 tribes, or descend-
ants of Jacob (Israel) as a body: but
after the separation of the tribes, the
above distinction obtained until the
Babylonish captivity, which terminated
the existence of the kingdom of Judah,
and thenceforward, until the present
day, the descendants of Jacob are called
Jews, and constitute one of the two
classes into which the whole human
family is frequently divided — viz., Jews
and Gentiles. ** It is a more compre-
hensive term than Hebrew, for Hellen-
ists (Grecians) might be Jews, nor is it
quite synonymous with ' Israelites,' which
term seems, sometimes at least, to ex-
press more decidedly covenant hopes
and relationships. John 1 : 47 j 2 Cor. 11 :
22." — Ayre. See Hebrews.
JEZANI'AH {vh, nil Jehovah henvM),
a Jew. Jer. 40:8; 42 : 1; called Azariah,
Jer. 43: 2. See Jaazaniah, I.
J E Z ' E B E L {<:ha>ite), the wife of
Ahab. king of Israel, was the daughter
of a Zidonian king, 1 Kgs. 16: HI, and
of course educated in the idolatrout;
practices of her native country. She
was the virtual ruler of Israel. She in-
troduced the worship of Baal and other
idols, maintaining 400 priests of A?:-
tarte at her own expense, while Ahab
maintained 4r)0 priests of Baal. 1 Kgs.
18:19.
She resolved on the extermination of
all the prophets of God. Obadiah, who
was a pious man and principal officer
of Ahab's household, rescued one hun-
dred of them at one time from her grasp,
and supplied them with bread and water
while they were concealed in caves. 1
Kgs. 18 : 3, 4, 13. Soon after this. Elijah
caused the 450 priests of Baal support-
ed by Ahab to be put to death. For
this proceeding Jezebel threatened to
take the life of Elijah, but her purpose
was frustrated. Soon afterward she
planned and perjietrated the murder of
Naboth ; and by using the king's name
and authority with the leading men of
Jezreel, she secured their co-operation
in the flagrant crime. 1 Kgs. 21:1-13.
Her doom was predicted by Elijah, and
was in d\ic time visited upon her to the
very letter. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30-37. See AnAU,
Er.i.iAiT. Jehu.
In Rev. 2 : 20 the name Jezebel is used
synibolicallv, and with us it is common
460 ■
as a name of infamy. Shakespeare's Lady
Macbeth is often, though improperly,
compared to Jezebel.
JE'ZER ( frame), one of the sons
of Naphtali. Gen. 46:24; Num. 26:
49; 1 Chr. 7:13.
JE'ZERITES, THE, the de-
scendants of the above. Num. 26:49.
JEZI'AH [whom Jehovah uprriiJilen),
one who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 :25.
JE'ZIEL {assembh/ of God), a Ben-
jamite archer who joined David at Zik-
lag. 1 Chr. 12 : 3.
JEZLI'AH {whom Jehovah deliv-
ers), a Benjainite who lived in Jerusa-
lem. 1 Chr. 8:18.
JEZ'OAR (xhiniiif/), one of the
tribe of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:7.
JEZRAHI'AH {u-hom Jehovah
hri)i(jn forth), the Levite who led the
singers at the dedication of the wall.
Neh. 12:42.
JEZ'REEL {God hath 2)h(uted, or
sraftered). 1. A name in the genealo-
gies of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:3.
2. The eldest son of the prophet Ro-
sea. Hos. 1 : 4.
JEZ'REEL {God hath planted). 1.
A city in the plain of the same name
between Gilboa and Little Hermon. It
was a boundary of Issachar. Josh. 19 :
18. Ahab chose it for his chief resi-
dence. The selection shows the ability
of this wicked king. Near by were a
temple and grove of Astarte, with an
esiablishment of 400 ])riests supported
by Jezebel. 1 Kgs. 18:19; 2 Kgs. 10 :
li. The palace of Ahab, 1 Kgs. 21 : 1 ;
18 I 3, probably containing his "ivory
house," 1 Kgs. 22 : 39, was on the east-
ern side of the city. Comp. 1 Kgs. 21:
1; 2 Kgs. 9:25, 30, 33. Jezebel lived
by the city wall, and had a high window
facing eastward. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30. It had a
watch-tower, on which a sentinel stood.
2 Kgs. 9:17. An ancient square tower,
now among the hovels of the modern
village, may be on its site. The gateway
of the city on the east was also the gate-
way of tiie ]inlace. 2 Kgs. 9:34. The
vineyard of Naboth was on the vineclad
bill outside the city to the eastward, ac-
cording to Baedeker: but this is not cer-
tain. A spring near is now called 'Ain-
Ja/iid. or the " Spring of (Toliath," and
is the " fountain " or " spring " in " Jez-
reel." 1 Sam. 29:1. After the fall of
the house of Ahab, Jezreel also fell into
JEZ
JIP
a decline. It is now a miserable village
of a dozen houses*, and known as Zeriu.
Around the village are many (some say
oOO) cisterns and subterranean grana-
ries, but ruins of the ancient royal
buildings have not been discovered.
The ground would indicate that careful
excavations might bring rich results.
2. A town in Judah, in the neighbor-
hood of the southern. Carmel. Josh. 15:
5(i. Here David in his wanderings took
Ahinoam the Jezreelitess for his stjconj
Avife. 1 Sam. 27 : o ; 30 : 5.
JEZ'REEL,VALLEYOF,atri
angular })iain of central Palestine, called
by Josephus ''the great j)lain," extend-
ing from the Mediterranean to the Jor-
dan, and from the range of Carmel and
Samaria to the mountains in Galilee.
It is about 25 miles long from east to
west, and 12 miles wide from north to
south.
It is a classic battle-field. There Barak
and Gideon triumphed, Deborah sung
her war-song; S.aul and Jonathan fell
near by, on the mountains of Gilboa ;
here King Josiah was mortally wounded
by the Egyptians. It furnished the apos-
tle with a mystic name for the final bat-
tle-field of the Almighty, Rev. 16:14-16,
and hove Na})oleun gained a fruitless
victory over a Turkish army of 30,000.
On the west side is a narrow pass, oj)en-
ing into the plain of ' Akhi. From the
base of this triangular plain three
branches stretch out eastward, divided
by two bleak gray ridges, one called
Mount Gilboa, the other Little Hermon.
The central branch is the richest as well
as the most celebrated. It is the " Val-
ley of Jezreel " proper — the battle-field
where Gideon triumphed and Saul and
Jonathan were overthrown. Jud. 7:1,
sq. ; 1 Sam. 29 and 31. The j)lain is
noted for its wonderful richness. The
modem (Jreek mime of the plain EHclrae-
lou is not found in the 0. T. or N. T.,
but occurs in the Apocrypha. It is now
uninhabited, and only a small portion is
cullivated. " Next to tl e jilain of Sha-
ron," says Schatf, " it is the most fertile
district of Palestine, looking in spring
like a grc( n veh et carpet, . . . sadly ne-
glected, and exposed to the ravages of
the wihl Bedouin, who fiom time to time
make raids and ])itch their black tents,
kill j)easants, plund(!r crops, and then
ride back with their booty on camels
462 ■
and horses to their lairs in the Hau-
rau."
Dr. N. Macleod writes concerning the
plain of Jezreel : *' On or near the spot
where Ahab's palace is likely to have
stood is an ancient tower, built I know
not when nor by whom. We ascended
to its upper story, and there, through
three windows, opening to the east, west,
and north, obtained an excellent view of
all the interesting portions of the sur-
rouirdiug landscape. Bcn( ath us, lay
the famous plain, a rolling sea of ver-
dure, yet lonely-looking, being without
inhabitants. We saw no villages or
huts dotting its surface, not even a soli-
tary horseman, but only troops of ga-
zelles galloping away into the distance,
and some birds of prey, apparently vul-
tures, wheeling in the sky, and doubt-
less looking out for work from their
masters, the Bedouins. This green
prairie stretches for upward of 20 miles
toward the Mediterranean. It is the
more striking from its contrast with the
wild, bare hills among which we had
been travelling, and with those which
look down immediately upon it. It
separates the highlands of southerji
Palestine from the hill-country of the
more lowland north, as the plain along
which the railway ]>asses from Loch
Loinond to Stirling separates the high-
lands of Rob R(ty from the lowland hills
of the Campsie range, that rise above the
valley of the Clyde."
JIB'SAM (pfcannut), a descendant
of Issaehar. 1 Chr. 7:2.
JID'LAPH {ireepiii</), a son of Na-
hor, and nephew of Abraham. Gen. 22:
22.
JIM'NA, OR JIM'NAH {good fn,-
fiiiie). the eldest son of Asher. Gen. 46:
17; Num. 26:44. He is also called
Imnah in 1 Chr. 7: .'JO. His descendants
are the Jimni^es. Num. 26 : 44.
JIPH'TAH, one of the cities of
Judah toward the sea-coast. Josh. 15 :
JITH'THAII-BI. {(7o,f nprn>,)jhe
name of a valley forming one of the
landma-ks for the boundarv of Zebulun
and Asher. Josh. 19 : M. 27. Dr. Rob-
inson suggests that Jiphthah-el was
identical with Jotapata, the fortress
whi(;h Josephus defended and Avhero
he was ca|)tiireil, and that they survive
in the modern Jrfut, a village in the
JOA
JOA
mountains, 15 miles west of the Lake
of Galilee, and halfway between the Bay
of Acre and the lake.
JO'AB [whose, father is Jehovah). 1.
The eldest of the three sons of Zeruiah.
David's sister, and the commander-in-
chief of his army. 1 Chr. 2:16; 11:6.
He was evidently a valiant man, but
ambitious and revengeful. To revenge
the death of his brother Asahel, whom
Abner had killed in felf-defence, 2 Sam.
2 : 23, he treacherously assassinated this
distinguished general. 2 Sam. 3 : 27. He
brought about a reconciliation between
Absalom and his father after the mui--
der of Amnon; but when Absalom re-
belled, Joab adhered to his master, and
under his generalship the troops of Da-
vid, though much inferior in numbers, ob-
tained a complete victory over the army
of Absalom, and, contrary to the express
orders of David, Joab put him to death
with his own hand as he hung sus]iend-
ed from the oak tree. 2 Sam. 18: 14.
After this event David promoted Ama-
sa to be his general-in-chief. by which
Joab was deeply oflFended, and secretly
resolved on the death of his rival, and
took the first opportunity of assassinat-
ing him as he had done Abner. 2 Sam.
20: 10. David after this seems to have
taken him again into favor. 2 Sam. 24 : 2.
When David the king had become old,
however, Joab combined witli Abiathar
the priest and others to set Adonijah on
the throne in defiance of the will of Da-
vid, who had. by divine direction, resolv-
ed to make Solomon king. 1 Kgs. 1 : 7.
The plot was seasonably defeated, and
Solomon was proclaimed king the same
day. But Joab now seemed to David
so evidently an object of the divine dis-
pleasHre that he solemnly charged Sol-
omon to punish him for all his enormous
crimes, and especially for the murder of
two valiant men, both better than him-
self, Abner and Amasa. Joab, conscious
that his life was forfeited, sought an
asylum at the ho:ns of the altar, which
position he absolutely refused to relin-
quish, and Benaiah, now advanced to be
the captain of the host, slew him by the
altar, agreeablj' to the command of the
young king. He was buried in his
own house in the wilderness. 1 Kgs. 2 :
5-34.
2. A descendant of Kcnaz. 1 Chr. 4 :
14.
3. One whose posterity returned with
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 6 ; 8 : 9 ; Neh. 7 : 11.
JO'AH (whose brother, i. e. helper, is
Jehovah). 1. The son of Asaph, the
royal recorder under Hezekiah. 2 Kgs.
18:18, 26, 37; Isa. 36:3, 11, 22.
2. A Gershonite, 1 Chr. 6:21; proba-
bly same as Ethan, v. 42.
3. A Korhite porter. 1 Chr. 26:4.
4. A Gershonite Levitc who took part
in Hezekiah's reforn^s. 2 Chr. 29 : 12.
5. The son of Joahaz, and recorder
to Josaiah. 2 Chr. 34:8.
JO'AHAZ (whom Jehovah holds),
the father of Joab, the recorder to Jo-
saiah. 1 Chr. 34:8.
JOAN'NA {whom Jehovah has gm-
(■iously given). 1. One of the ancestors
of Christ. Luke 3 : 27. He has been
identified with Hananiah. 1 Chr. 3:19.
2. The wife of Chusa, the steward of
Herod Antipas, and one who ministered
unto our Lord, and who brought spices
and ointments for his embalming. Luke
8:3; 24:10. She seems to have been
the subject of some miraculous cure by
Christ, whom she followed, and to whom
she ministe ed. Luke 24: 10.
JO'A8H 2 Kgs. 13: 1, ou JEHO'-
ASH, 2 Kgs. 12 : 1 (whom Jehovah he-
stowed). 1. The father of Gideon, who
had his own altar to BaaL His idola-
try, howevei-, would not seem very sin-
cere, since he defended Gideon in de-
stroj'ing the idol. Jud. 6:11. etc.
i 2. One of the sons of Ahab. 1 Kgs.
22 : 2() : 2 Chr. 18 : 25.
3. The son and the successor of Aha-
ziah. king of Judah. Jehosheba, or Je-
hoshabeath, 2 Chr. 22:11, the wife of
Jehoiada. the high ]»riest, his aunt, pre-
served him from the murderous designs
of Athaiiih. his grandmother, when he
was but a year old. and kept him hid
six years in a chamber belonging to the
tomple. 2 Kgs. 11 : 2, 3. See Athaliah.
When he was seven years of age, Jehoi-
ada entered into a solemn covenant with
Azariah and others to set up young Jo-
ash for their sovereign, and t'tthroned
Athaliah. After preparing mr.tters in
1 the kingdom, and bringing the Levites
and such others as they could trust to
I Jerusalem, they crowned him in the
court of the temple with great solemni-
I ty. 2 Kgs. 11. Joash behaved himself
well while Jehoiada, the high priest,
lived and was his guide, but no sooner
463
JOA
JOB
was this good man removed, than he be- !
gan to listen to the counsels of his wick-
ed courtiers. The worship of God fell
into neglect and idolatry prevailed. \
Zechariah, the priest, son of Jehoiada,
warned him of his sin and danger, but
in consequence of his fidelity he was, by
order of Joash, stoned to death between
the temple and the altar. When dying .
he assured them that God would avenge
his death, 2 Chr. 24 : 20-22, to which
event our Saviour is generally supposed
to refer. Matt. 23 : '>5. Hazael invaded
the kingdom, but Joash, with a large
sum of money, including all the treas-
ures and furniture of the temple and
palace, redeemed his capital from plun-
der. 2 Kgs. 12 : 18. After suffering
other injuries from the Syrians, and
after being loaded with ignominy, he
was murdered by his own servants,
after a reign of 41 years, b. c. 878-838.
2 Chr. 24:24-27.
4. 2 Kgs. 13 : 9. Son and successor
of Jehoahaz, king of Israel, and grand-
son of Jehu. He was associated with his
father in the government for 2 years, but
14 years he reigned alone, making in all
IG years, B. c. 840-825.
He was a wicked prince, though he
was successful in three campaigns against
the Syrians, and recovered the cities
which they took from his father, accord-
ing to the prediction of Elisha. 2 Kgs.
13: 15-25. lie was also signally suc-
cessful in a war with Amaziaii. king of
Jiidah (see Amaziah), soon aftc; the ter-
mination of which he died. 2 Kgs. 14:
12-16.
5. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 22.
6. A Benjauiite, one of David's heroes.
1 Chr. 12: >..
JO'ASH (to inhom Jehovah hftntenn,
i. c, with help). 1. The son of Becher,
and head of a house of Benjamin in the
time of David. 1 Chr. 7 : 8.
2. An officer of David who was over
the oil-cellars. 1 Chr. 27 : 28.
JO 'AT II AM. Matt. 1:0. The
Greek form of .Jot:iam, 2, which see.
JOB (f/efiire /), the third son of Issa-
char. (Jen. 46 : 13; called Jashub, 1
Chr. 7:1.
JOB (one )>erneruf('(l) .the UunouH ]>atri-
arch of Uz (probably in eastern Edom),
whose sorrows and whose words find faith-
ful and immortal record in the bookof Jol).
He lived in verv primitive times — at least
464
was unacquainted with the Mosaic law
and the Jewish worship. He appears in
the book as a holy outsider, who was yet,
like Melchizedek, a worshipper of the
true God. We have reference to Job as
an historical character in Eze. 14: 14, 16,
18, 20, and Jas. 5 : 11. These references
must be accepted as conclusive not only
as to his reality, but likewise as to his
recovery. They are supported by Arab
anJ Mohammedan traditions. But this
view does not compel us to accejit all the
details, and especially all the speeches
(which are too highly poetical to have
been extemporized), as strictly historical.
The book is a j)oe»i on an historical basis.
He was a patriarchal prince of great
wealth, piety, integrity, and happiness.
By God's permission Satan tried hiui,
destroying his property, his children, and
his health, and visiting him with the most
loathsome form of leprosy (elephanti-
asis). But as he abode faithful, (iod
grandly vindicated his righteousness,
reversed Satan's sentence, gave him back
all he had lost and much more. With
daughters renowned for their beauty,
with sons to perpetuate his name, with
fulness of days and abundance of honor
did he pass away, 140 years after his
great trial. Hales places him before the
birth of Abraham, Usher about 30 years
before the Exodus, B. c. 1521.
Book of. It is the record of Job's
experiences. It is a didactic poem with
a narrative prologue and a narrative
epilogue in prose. The poem itself has
a dramatic drapery, several speakers be-
ing introduced, who carry on a m- ta|)hys-
ical contest on the mysteries of divine
government. It has been called a He-
brew tragedy and theodicy. Its poetic
merit is of the highest order, and ranks
it, with Homer's Iliad, Dante's Diviua
Commedia, Shakespeare's dramas, and
Goethe's Fanst, among the immortal
masterpieces of genius. Thomas Carlyle
calls it " one of the grandest things over
written by man, a noble book — a book
for all men. Such living likenesses were
never since drawn. Sublime sorrow,
sublime reconciliations: oldest choral
mehnly, as of the heart of manhood ; so
soft and great, as the summer midnight;
as the world with its seas and stars, —
there is nothing written. 1 think, of
equal literary merit." With the excep-
tion of the beginning and end, it is in
JOB
JOB
poetry. It is uncertain who wrote it,
but surely it is very old. Some ascribe
it to Moses while in Midian, others carry
it down to the age of Solomon. The
speeches of Job and his friends discuss
the jjroblem of evil and its punishments,
and the justice of God in the unequal
distribution of happiness and misery.
Why do the righteous suffer and why
do the wicked prosjier in this world?
The friends of Job charge him with se-
cret crimes ; he in vain protests his inno-
cence. All the speakers are silenced at
last by almighty God, who appears as
umpire on the scene and overwhelms
Job with a sense of his infinite power
and wisdom.
The practical lessona of the book may
be stated as follows :
1. Not all the sufferings are punish-
ments for sin. This is the one-sided
view of the three friends of Job, who are
for this reason censured by Jehovah and
required to make an atonement for the
injustice done to Job. ch. 42 : 7. The
general principle of the connection of
sin and suffering is true enough, but the
error and injustice consist in the appli-
cation of this principle to all individual
cases of suffering. Without sin there
would have been no suffering; but in a
fallen world sufferings are used by God
as a school of discipline.
2. The sufferings of the righteous are
not punitive, but disciplinary and cor-
rective. They are prompted by God's
love rather than his justice. ''Whom
the Lord loveth he chasteneth." Prov. 3 :
12: Heb. 12: 6.
H. AflQiction is the necessary condition
for the development of disinterested vir-
tue and the heroism of patience. As a
means for such an end it is foreordained
by God.
4. The sufferings of the righteous are
but temporary and lead to an abundant
reward even in this life, or certainly in
the life to come.
5. It is wicked presumption in man
to murmur against God and to find
fault with his dealings or to call him to
an account, instead of humbly adoring
him and submitting to the mysteries of
his almighty power and wisdom.
6. The final solution of all the remain-
ing mysteries of divine government is
reserved for the future life. This idea
is at least hinted at in" that remarkable
30
and most comforting passage which
stands right in the middle of the book,
as the kernel in the shell, ch. 19 : 23-27,
and which teaches, if not the resur-
rection of the body, at all events the im-
mortality of the soul.
"Oh that my words were written down !
f)li that tliey were inscribed in a book !
That with an iron stile and lead,
Tliey were graven in a rock for ever!
Yea. I know that my Redeemer liveth,
And will stand the last upon the dust (the
grave) ;
And after this, my skin is destroyed,
Even without (or, from off) my flesh, I shall
see God.
Yea, I, for myself, shall see him.
And my eyes behold him, and no struvger.
(For this; my heart is consumed within
me."
We add an analysis of the book of Job,
which has suffered much from the tradi-
tional division into chapters :
The Prologue.
Job's character and prosperity, ch.
1: 1-5. The divine decree to try Job
through Satan by taking away his pos-
sessions, 1 : 6-22, and his health, 2 : 1-10.
The visit of his friends and their mute
sympathy, 2: 11-13.
The Poem.
I. The outbreak of Job's despair, ch. 3 :
1-26.
II. First series of controversies, chs. 4-
14.
Eliphaz's address, chs. 4 and 5.
Job's reply, chs. 6 and 7.
Bildad's address, ch. 8,
Job's reply, chs. 9 and 10.
Zophar's address, ch. 11.
Job's reply, chs. 12-14,
III. Second series of controversies :
Elijjhaz's address, ch. 15.
Job's reply, chs. 16 and 17.
Bildad's address, ch. 18.
Job's reply, ch. 19.
Zophar's address, ch. 20.
Job's reply, ch. 21.
IV. Third series of controversies :
Eliphaz's address, ch. 22.
Job's reply, chs. 23 and 24.
Bildad's address, ch. 25.
Job's reply, ch. 26.
V. Job's closing address to the van-
quished friends, chs. 27 and 28.
VI. Job's soliloquy, chs. 29-31.
VII. Elihu's four discourses in condem-
nation of Job and his friends, and in
465
JOB
JOH
vindication of the divine justice, chs.
32-37.
VIII. Jehovah's addresses to Job, chs.
38, 39, 40, and 41.
IX. Humiliation of Job and penitent
confession of his sin and folly, ch.
42: 1-6.
The Epilogue, or historical conclusion,
cli. 42 : 7-17. Vindication of Job before
his friends, vs. 7-10 ; the restoiation of
his former dignity and honor, vs. 11 and
12; the doubling of his former earthly
prosperity and happiness, vs. 12-17.
JO'BAB [a desert). 1. A son of
Joktan. Gen. 10: 29 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 23.
2. A king of Edom. Gen. 36 : 33, 34 ;
1 Chr. 1: 44, 45.
3. A king of Madon. who joined the
league against Joshua. Josh. 11 : 1.
4. 5. Two Benjamites, heads of their
respective houses. 1 Chr. 8 : 9, 18.
JOCH'EBED {lohose glory is Jeho-
vah), the mother of Aaron, Moses, and
Miriam, was the wife and aunt of Am-
ram, and the daughter of Levi. Ex. 6:
20 : Num. 26 : 59.
JO'EO {his witness is Jehovah), a
Bcnjamite. Neh. 11: 7.
JO'EL (Jehovah is his God). 1. The
first-born of Samuel. 1 Sam. 8 : 2; 1 Chr.
6 : 33 : 15 : 1 7. By a curious error his
name is given as Vashui, which means
*• second," in 1 Chr. 6 : 28, the word Joel
having dropped out. The verse, there-
fore, should read '' The first-born Joel,
and the second Abiah."
2. A Simeonite chief. 1 Chr. 4 : 35.
3. A Reubcnite. 1 Chr. 5 : 4, 8.
4. A Gadite chief. 1 Chr. 5: 12.
5. A Kohathitc, I Chr. 6 : 30, but prob-
ably merely a corruption of Shaul in
verse 24.
6. One of Issachar's posterity. 1 Chr.
7:3.
7. One of David's heroes : called Igal
in 2 Sam. 23 : 36 ; 1 Chr. 11 : :)S.
8. A (Jershonite chief. 1 Chr. 15:7,
11.
9. The (Jershonite appointed with his
brother over the treasures of the house
of the Lord. 1 Chr. 23 : 8 ; 26 : 22.
10. A Manassite chief on the west of
Jordan. 1 Clir. 27: 20.
11. A Kohathite in Hezckiah's reign.
2 Chr. 29: 12.
12. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr.
10 : 43.
13. The Benjamite overseer of those
466
of his tribe and that of Judah who lived
in Jerusalem. Neh. 11: 9.
14. The son of Pethuel, one of the
minor prophets. Nothing is recorded of
his personal history but the most likely
conjectures assign him to the reign of
Uzziah and make him reside in Judah.
Joel, Book of. It may be divided
into two parts: I. 1-2: 17 d-escribes
a sore judgment which is to come upon
the land, and grounds upon it a call
to repentance. If. 2: 18-3: 21 contains
the blessings which Jehovah will confer
upon the chosen people, and announces
when the Messiah has come, the out-
pouring of the Spirit and the complete
conquest of Judah over her foes, result-
ing in absolute and unbreakable peace.
The second chapter contains a prophecy
of a terrible plague of locusts, but a
symbolical use is made of the incursion
to foretell the attack of Judah's foes.
Joel's style is classical; "it is elegant
and perspicuous, and at the same time
nervous, animated, and sublime." — Ayre.
The fulfilment of his Messianic prophecies
is noticed in theN. T. Acts 2 : 16-21; Rom.
10: 13.
JOE'IjAH (irhom Jehovah helps), a
Benjamite chief who united his forces to
David's at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 7.
JOE'ZER (ivhose help is Jehovah),
a Benjamite who was a Korhite, who
came to David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12: 6.
JOG'BEHAH (elevated), a place
in the tribe of Gad, Num. 32:35; Jud.
8:11, east of the Jordan, and near
where Gideon overcame Zebah and Zal-
munna; it may be identical with Jitbeiba,
a ruin about 4 mi'es north of Aiuindn.
JOG'LiI (exiled), the father of a
chief of Dan. Num. 34: 22.
JO'HA (irhom Jehovah revives). 1.
A chief of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8:16.
2. The Tizite, one of David's warriors.
1 Chr. 11 : 45.
JOHA'NAN (to whom Jehovah is
mereifitl). 1. One of the captains of the
army of Judah who came with their men
unto Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar
had appointed governor, and declared
themselves '' servants of the Chaldees."
2 Kgs. 25:2.3-26. Having heard of
the intention of Ishmael to kill Gedaliah
he told the governor, at the same time
requesting permission to Kill Ishmael,
but Gedaliah did not believe the report,
and accused Johanan of lying. After
JOH
JOH
Gedaliah was assassinated Johanan again
took the lead, regathered the fugitives,
and, although warned by Jeremiah
against going down to Egypt, carried
off the prophet and other Jews into that
land, where he died. Jer. 40: 7-16: chs.
41, 42, and 43.
2. One of Josiah's sons. 1 Chr. 3:15.
3. One of David's posterity. IChr. 3 : 24.
4. Son of Azariah, of the high-priestly
line. 1 Chr. 6: 9, 10.
5. 6. A Benjamite and a Gadite who
came to David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 4. 12.
7. The father of an Ephraimite chief
in the reign of Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28 : 12.
8. One who returned with Ezra. Ezr.
8 : 12.
9. One of the chief Levites, in whose
chamber Ezra mourned for the trans-
gressions of the captives. Ezr. 10 : G :
Neh. 12 : 23.
10. The son-inlaw of Meshullam.
Neh. 6: 18.
JOHN, identical with JOHA'XAN
{whom Jehocuh loces ; comp. the Cermnn
Gottlieb). 1. One of the high priest's
kindred. Acts 4 : 6.
2. The Hebrew name of Mark the
evangelist. Acts 12 : 25 ; 13 : 5 ; 15 : 37.
3. JoJmi the Baptist, more properly
'•the Baptizer." Matt. 3 : 1. The son
of a priestly family on both sides, his
father, Zaeharias, being a priest of the
course of Abiah, and his mother. Elisa-
beth, being of the daughters of Aaron, the
prophet and forerunner of our Saviour,
and the Elias of the N. T. His parents
were old when they received the promise
of his birth. Lukel: 18. See Zkchariah.
He was born about six months before
Chiist. His birth and work were predict-
ed by the angel Gabriel, Luke 1 : 5-1 5, and
by Isaiah, Isa. 40 : 3, and Malachi. Mai.
4 : 5. He grew up in solitude, and when
about 30 years of age began to preach
in the wilderness of Judfe:i, and to call
men to repentance and relovmation. By
divine direction he baptized with the
baptism of repentance all who came
unto him confessing their sins, Luke 3 :
8 ; and manv supposed he might be *• the
Christ." Joiin 1 : 19-28. His manner of
life was solitary, and even austere ; for
he seems to have shunned the habitations
of men and to have subsisted on locusts
and wild honey, while his dress was
made of the coarse hair of camels, and a
leathern girdle was " about his loins.
John, moreover, announced to the Jews
the near approach of the Messiah's king-
dom, called the •' kingdom of heaven."
Matt. 3 : 2. Multitudes flocked to hear
him, and to be baptized of him, from
every part of the land ; and among the
rest came Jesus of Nazareth, and ap-
plied for baptism John at first hesita-
ted on account of the dignity of the
person and his own un worthiness; but
when Jesus told him that it was neces-
sary, John acquiesced : heaven was
opened, and the Holy Ghost descended
on Jesus in the likeness of a dove, and
a voice was heard from heaven, saying,
'• This is my beloved Son. in whom I
am well pleased." Matt. 3:17. By this,
John knew most certainly that Jesus of
Nazareth was the Messiah, and afterward
]iointed him out to his own disciples and
announced to the people that he was
then among them. John l:2t)-36.
John was a man of profound humility ;
and although he foresaw that his fame
would be eclipsed by the coming of
Christ, as the brightness of the morning
star is dimmed by the rising of the sun,
yet he rejoiced sincerely in the event,
saying, '* He must increase, but I munt
decrease." The testimony of John to
the divine nature and offices of the Re-
deemer is full and distinct. John 1 : 29 ,-
3:28-32. The message he sent by his
disciples while he was in prison was for
their sakes rather than his own, al-
though it is not impossible that his own
faith wa.s temporarily clouded by the
gloom of the prison. Matt. 11 : 1-6. The
preaching of John was awakening and
alarming, and produced a deep impres-
sion on the minds of his hearers, but
with most it was but temporary. They
rejoiced in his light only for a season.
Among the hearers of John was Her-
od, the tetrarch of Galilee. This wicked
prince not only heard him, but heard
him with delight, and reformed his con-
duct in many points in consequence of
his .«olemn warnings. Mark 6:20; but
: there was one sin which he would not
relinquish. He had ])ut away his own
wife, and had married Herodias, the
wife of his brother Philip, who was still
living. For this iniquity John faith-
fully reproved the tetrarch, by which he
was so much offended that he would
have killed the preacher had he not
feared an insurrection of the people,
.467
JOH
JOH
for all men held John to be a prophet.
Matt. 14 : 5. He went so far, however,
as to shut him up in prison. The re-
sentment of Herodias was still stronger
and more implacable toward the man
who had dared to reprove her sin. She
therefore watched for some opportunity
to wreak her vengeance on this prophet
of the Lord. On Ilerod's birthdaj', when
all the principal men of the countr^y
were feasting with him, Salome, the
daughter of Herodias, danced so grace-
fully before the company that Herod
was charmed beyond measure, and de-
clared with an oath that he would give
her whatever she asked, even to the half
of his kingdom. She immediatelj'^ asked
the advice of her mother, who told her
to request the head of .John the Baptist.
Herod, whose resentment against him
seems to have subsided, was exceedingly
sorry, but out of regard to his oath, as
he said, and respect for his company, he
caused John to be beheaded. His head
was brought on a platter and presented
to the young dancer, who immediately
gave it to her mother.
Thus terminated the life of him who,
of all the prophets of old, came nearest
to Christ, and was in this sense the
greatest born among women, yet less
than "least in the kingdom" of Christ.
Matt. 11 : 11. He was the pi'omised Eli-
jah— /. e. gifted with his power and
spirit. He summed up the whole mean-
ing of the Jewish dispensation, the Law,
and the prophecy in its direct termina-
tion in Christ, who came to fulfil the Law
and the promise.
Josei)hus, the Jewish historian, says
of John, he " was a good man, and coin-
mandeil the Jews to exercise virtue both
as to righteousness toward one another,
and piety toward God, and so to come to
baptism." He also speaks of his '' great
influence over the people, who seemed
ready to do anything he should advise."
Jose[)hus also confirms the gospel account
of the murder of John. Antiq., xviii. 5^2.
4. Joliu, the apontle aiid evutxjelist,
was the son of Zebcdee and Salome, and
probably a cousin of Jesus (if Salome
was a sister of Mary), as may be inferred
from John 19 : 2;'), *' his mother's sister."
Comp. with Matt. 27 : 50 ; Mark 15 : 40 ;
Luke 23 : 49. He was probably born at
Bethsaida. Matt. 4 : 18, 21. His parents
were in comfortable circumstances, for
468
his father had hired servants, Mark 1 : 20,
and a partnership in business. Luke 5 :
]0. His mother was one of the women
who gave of their substance for the sup-
port of Jesus, Luke 8 : 3, and came with
spices to embalm his body. Mark 16 : 1.
The apostle himself was acquainted
with the high priest and his court,
John 18 : 1 5, and had property in Jeru-
salem. John 19: 27. He with James, his
brother, carried on the business of fish-
ing with their father. But the fame of
the new prophet, John the Baptist,
reached Galilee, and with his friends,
Peter, Andrew, and Philip, he eagerly
advocated the claims of the Baptist, and
became one of his followers.
In this school he was prepared for a
far higher service. He who faithfully
obeyed the Forerunner was brought soon
to the Lord. Doubtless John was one of
the " two disciples " who heard the Bap-
tist declare of Jesus, " Behold the Lamb
of God !" John 1 : 3fi. He followed Jesus
unto his abode, saw the marvellous works
he performed, and fiom that hour was a
convert to the new faith. But not as yet
was he called. He resumed his trade for
a time, until Jesus, walking hj the Sea
of Galilee, caught a glimpse of his old
acquaintances, Peter and Andrew, James
and John, and by the same command,
" Follow me," counted them among the
twelve apostles who form the first layer
of God's spiritual building. Eph. 2 : 20.
Unto John was the tender and expres-
sive epithet given, ''The disciple whom
Jesus loved.'" This was intimated in his
very name, " Jehovah is gracious."
Comp. the German Gottlieb. Did we
know nothing more of him than this,
we should know enough to stamp him as
the worthiest of sinful mortals ; he who
was the chosen friend of the sinless One
must have possessed rare qualities of
heart and mind. He was, along with
•James and Peter, the sj)ectator of all
the more private events of the Saviour's
life. He saw the glories of the trans-
figuration, rejoiced in the restoration of
Jairus's daughter, wondered at the resur-
rection of Lazarus, leaned on the Sa-
viour's breast at the Last Supper, and
was nearest to him in the garden. He
alone of the apostles attended the cruci-
fixion. It was, then, fitting that to him,
at the cross, should he committed the care
of the widowed mother of Jesus. John 19:
JOH
JOH
26. With Peter he hastens to the sepul-
chre on Easter morning, is among the dis-
ciples when Jesus appears, and at our last
glimpse of him in the Gospels he stands
near to Peter, and the words are borrie
to us, " If I will that he tarry till I come,
what is that to thee?" John 21 : 22.
After the ascension Peter, James, and
John are the pillar apostles. Gal. 2 :
1-9. They work miracles, are the sources
of counsel, and the heads of the infant
Church. In the year 50, Paul meets
them, and how cordial a greeting would
the ardent lover of Jesus receive from
John, whose mind was stored with those
precious memories he was destined to
write down for the edification and enjoy-
ment of all future time ! But when Paul
for the last time visited .Jerusalem, in
58, John was not there — so do we inter-
pret Luke's silence. Acts 21 : 18 — having
entered upon those wider labors which
made him so much beloved.
He made Ephesus the centre of his
operations, and had, after Paul's mar-
tyrdom, according to unanimous tradi-
tion, the supervision in general of the
churches of Asia Minor. This oversight
began in the year 64. Under Domitian,
A. D. 81-96, in the year 95, he was ban-
ished to Patmos, a solitary, barren,
rocky island in the JEgean Sea. It was
upon this inhospitable island that the
Father's house was opened to him, for
there he had the visions recorded in the
book of Revelation. Rev. 1 : 9. Under
the emperor Xerva, A. D. 96-98, he was
recalled. Orthodox critics assign the Rev-
elation to the close of Domiti:in's reign.
One of the beautiful stories which are
told of the aged apostle John is that
when he was too old to preach, he was
accustomed to say to the congregation
the characteristic words, " Little chil-
dren, love one another ;" and when asked
why he always repeated this sentence
only, he replied, " Because it is the com-
mandment of the Lord, and enough i*
done if this one command be obeyed."
Another story relates to an earlier pe-
riod. It is said that once, on entering
the bath at Ephesus, he perceived in it
the heretic Cerinthus, the early Gnostic,
whereupon John cried out, " Let us flee,
that the roof do not fall upon us under
which lingers Cerinthus, that enemy of
the truth." These stories serve well to
reveal the permanency of those traits
of character which come out in the Gos-
pels. Down to the close John was *'the
son of thunder," intense in his feeling
and vehement in his aflFection, and the
" beloved disciple," of open mind and
tender heart, of profound thought and
burning zeal. When we compare him
with the other apostles we learn his
marked individuality. John is the
" good " man, while James is the right-
eous man. John is the pensive, quiet,
thoughtful man, while Peter is the ac-
tive, practical man. "Both these dis-
ciples loved the Lord with all the heart,
but, as Grotius finely remarks, Peter
was more a friend of ' Christ,' John of
'Jesus' — that is, the one revered and
loved the Saviour chiefly in his official
Messianic character, the other was at-
tached most of all to his person, and
was therefore personally still nearer to
him, being, so to speak, his bosom-
friend. John and Paul have depth of
knowledge in common. They are the
two disciples who have left us the most
complete systems of doctrine. But while
Paul is the representative of genuine
scholasticism in the best sense of the
term, being an exceedingly acute thinker
and an accomplished dialectician, John
is a representative of all true mysti-
cism, learning from intuition and con-
templation. Xot inapth^ has Peter been
styled the apostle of hope, Paul the
apostle of faith, and John the apostle
of hove. The first is the representative
of Catholicism, the second of Protestant-
ism, the third of the ideal Church in
which this great antagonism shall re-
solve itself into perfect harmony." —
ScHAFF : ApoHt. Ch., pp. 410, 41 1.
Full of days and of honors, highly priv-
ileged and richly endowed, about the close
of the century '• the disciple whom Jesus
loved " was summoned by the Master to
resume their loving companionship,
John, Gospel of. It was the last Gospel
written, and was probably composed, or at
least put in its present shape, at Ephesus,
between A. n. 70 and 95. The paiticular
design of it is expressed by the author to
be that we might believe that Jesus is the
Christ, the Son of God, and that, believ-
ing, we might have life through his name.
John 20:31. Hence the subjects and
discourses of this book have special rela-
tion to our Lord's character and offices,
and are evidently intended to prove his
469
JOH
JOH
nature, authority, and doctrines as di-
vine. John probably had the other
Gospels before him, or was familiar with
their general contents. This fact affords
substantial evidence of the genuineness
of these writings, and also accounts for
the omission of many important occur-
rences which are particularly stated by
the other evangelists. We should not
regard John, however, as attempting to
correct the other evangelists, or merely
to supplement them. This idea is at
once contradicted by his having many
points in common with them. His work
is all one effusion, and though it serves
as a valuable complement to the other
Gospels is yet a complete whole in itself.
John wrought on a fixed plan. He
grouped all the events around the sev-
eral Jewish feasts, mentioning three — in-
deed, probably four — Passovers, 2:13:5:
1 ; 6:4; 11 : 55 ; 12 : 1 ; 13 : I, one feast
of tabernacles, 7 : 2, and one feast of
dedication. 10:22. But there is likewise
a certain inward order, a progressive de-
velopment of the relation of Jesus to his
disciples and the world : especially is
this to be traced in the growth of love
and devotion on the one hand, and of
hate and rage of the unbelieving Jews
on the other. All through the history
we hear the sound of the hammer in the
making of his cross, but more loudly the
shouting of the coming saints.
The Gospel contains — A. The prologue,
ch. 1 : 1-18; B. The history, ch. 1 : 19 to
ch. 21. 1. The preparation for Jesus'
public ministry, (a) by John, 1 : 19-36;
(b) by the choice of disciples. 1 : 37-
51. 2. The public labors of Jesus in
doctrine and miracle, chs. 2-12. 3. Jesus
in the private circle of his disciples, chs.
13-17. 4. The history of the passion
and resurrection or public glorification
of the Lord, chs. 18-21.
" The Gospel of John is the Gospel of
Gospels. It is the most remarkable as
well as most important literary produc-
tion ever composed. ... It is a mar-
vel even in the marvellous Book of
books. It is the most spiritual and
ideal of Gospels. It brings us, as it
were, into the immediate jjresence of
Jesus. It gives us the clearest view of
his incarnate divinity and his perfect
humanity." — Special lutrod. by Dr.
Svhnff to Ln)if/e on John.
The Gospel of John is a battlefield
470
of modern criticism, but the fight is in
the main between belief and unbelief.
It must also be confessed that the latter
is fairly defeated. Both parties recog-
nize the crucial character of the Gospel.
Grant to it authenticity and genuine-
ness, then the divinity of Christ, to
which the Gospel testifies in the plain-
est, simplest, but also ])rofoundest way,
must be acknowledged as taught in
the N. T. It is this fact which gives
bitterness to the frequent and often
learned and plausible attacks made
upon it. The attemi)t has been made
to assign it to some great "unknown "
author in the second century, but at
that time it was already widely known,
and the second century is so far below
the apostolic age that it could not pos-
sibly have ])roduced such a work. Up to
a quite modern date the genuineness of
this Gospel was undisputed. The verses
24 and 25 of eh. 21 give the contem-
porary Ephesian testimony. 2 Pet. 1 :
14 alludes to 21:18. Ignatius, Poly-
carp, the Epistle to Diognetus, Basilides,
Justin Martyr, Tatian (especiall}' in the
light of the recent discovery of a com-
mentary of Ephraem Syrus on Tatian's
Diatessaron), impliedly quote from it.
This carries the date up to the middle
of the second century, when it was in
current use. The external evidence is
in favor of John's authorship, while in-
ternally it is so befitting the known cha-
racter and op])ortunities of John that
it is either from him or else it is a
forgery. But it cannot be a forgery ; it
is too self-possessed, too well-balanced,
too original, too profound, too divine.
The heart of Christ throbs in no liar's
breast. The high-priestly prayer came
from the hand of no hypocritical or de-
signing man. Read the (Jospel and
compare it with the productions of the
Fathers, and you will endorse the state-
ment, " Verily, no man in the second
century, or of any other subsequent cen-
tury, could have written the work. No
man in the first century but John the
apostle could have written it, and even
John himself could not have written it
without inspiration." — Schftff. And in
this conclusion the heart of Christendom
will always abide.
Thk Eimsti-ks of John are three in
number. They were written in Ephesus,
after the Gospel, though before the date
JOI
JON
of the Revelation. Dr. Lange assigns
them between the years 96 and 100.
The First has always been attributed to
John, though his name is neither pre-
fixed nor subscribed. It is a kind of
practical application of the Gospel. It
is addressed to Christians, and does not
aim, therefore, to produce, but to nour-
ish, the Christian life, to warn them
against all errors, and to induct them
into the mysteries of redeeming love and
into the principles and duties which the
religion of Christ enjoins, and to furnish
them with certain signs or criteria by
which to determine the genuineness of
their faith.
The Second Epistle is addressed to the
" elect lady and her children." The elect
lady is supposed to have been some
honorable woman distinguished for pi-
ety, and well known in the churches as
a disciple of Christ. Some, however,
have thought some particular church
and its members might be denoted.
Those who adopt the latter opinion
apply the term to the church at Jeru-
salem, and the term "elect sister," v. 13,
to the church at Ephesus.
The title of " elder " was indicative of
the apostle's office, with a reference also
to his great age, then not far from 100
years, as it is supposed. The substance
of this letter is an exhortation to con-
tinual obedience and an admonition
against deceivers, especially against a
new form of error, that Christ was a
man in appearance only, and not in
reality, and therefore his sufferings and
death were not real.
The Third Epistle, which is addressed
to Gains, or Caius, a private individual,
and is commendatory of his piety, was
written about the same time with the
others.
JoH\, Revelation of. See Revela-
tion.
JOI' AD A {ichoin Jehovah, favors),
one of the high priests. Xeh. 12 : 10, 11,
22.
JOI'AKIM (ichom Jehovah hna set
up). The name is a contraction of Jehoi-
akim. A high priest, the son and suc-
cessor of Jeshua. Neh. 12 : 10, 12, 26.
JOI'ARIB (ichom Jehnrnh defends).
1. A man commissioned by Ezra to bring
"ministers for the house of our God,"
priests qualified to give instruction. Ezr.
8 : 16.
2. A descendant of Judah. Neh.
11 : 5.
.3. The founder of one of the courses
of priests. Neh. 11: 10. In 1 Chr. 9 : 10
his full name is given, Jehoiarih.
JOK'DEA3i ( j)os.ses8ed by people ? ].
a city in the mountains of Judah, Josh.
15 : 56, apparently south of Hebron.
JO'KIM {whinn Jehovah has set >ip^,
one of Shelah's sons, and Judah's grand-
, sons. 1 Chr. 4:22.
JOK'MEAM ifialhered hi/ (he peo-
ple), a city of Ephraim given to the
Levites. 1 Chr. 6:68. From 1 Kgs. 4:
12 (where the A. X. incorrectly reads
■ '' Jokneam " for *' .Jokmeam "), it must
have been in the Jordan Valley, between
the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea.
JOK'NEAM {(lathered bif the peo-
I'le), a citv of the tribe of Zebulun, af-
lotted with its suburbs to the Levites.
Josh. 21 : 34. Its modern site is Tell
Kaimon. an eminence which stands just
below the eastern termination of Carmel.
See Jokmeam.
j JOK'SHAN (a fowler), the son of
Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25 : 2, 3 ; 1
! Chr. 1 : 82.
I JOK'TAPf (irho is made .^mall). a
j descendant of Shem, ancestor of the
Joktanite Arabs. Gen. 10 : 25-30 ; 1 Chr.
1:19-28.
JOK'THEEL (snbdned of God).
1. A city in the territory of Judah, and
' near Lachish, on the Philistine plain.
Josh. 15 : 38.
2. The name given to Sela after it
■ was taken by Amaziah, 2 Kgs. 14'-: 7 ;
; 2 Chr. 25: 11, 12; perhaps the strong-
hold of Petra. See Sela.
I JO'NA (ichom Jehovah bestows), the
I father of Peter. John 1 : 42. See Jonas, 2.
I JON'ADAB {whom Jehovah impels).
j 1. The son of Shimeah, and nephew of
David. "He seems to have been one of
i those characters who. in the midst of
great or royal families, pride themselves
1 and are renowned for being acquainted
j with the secrets of the whole circle in
which they move." — Stanley. lie ad-
vised the rape of Tamar. 2 Sam. 13 : 3-5.
I 2. The form, oft repeated, in Jer. 25
I for Jehonapab, which f-ee.
j JO'NAH {dove), the prophet, son of
: Amittai, and born at Gath-hephor. Jon.
1:1; 2 Kgs. 14 : 2.5. Nothing certain is
i known of his history beyond what is re-
' corded in his book. He was sent by the
471
JON
JON
Lord about B. c. 825 to Nineveh, the me-
tropolis of ancient Assyria, to preach
repentance. Instead of obeying the
command, he took passage at Joppa for
Tarshish (Tartessus in Spain). In pun-
ishment, God caused a great storm to
arise. The sailors cast lots to find out
who was the guilty one. The lot fell
upon Jonah, who confessed his sin and
told them to cast him into the sea ; so
should the storm cease. Although loth
to do it, they after a time obeyed. Jo-
nah was swallowed by "a great fish,"
probably a shark or sea-dog, since these
creatures are found in the Metliterra-
nean. After three days he was vomit-
ed out upon the dry land. The Lord's
command being repeated, Jonah went
to Nineveh, delivered his message, and
tlien sat down to see the destruction of
the city. But the Ninevites repented;
the threatened punishment was averted,
and Jonah was very angry. He with-
drew from the city and sat down under
a booth he built. The Lord, greatly to
his comfort, caused a gourd to grow up,
but then to wither away ; and this singu-
lar book ends with the debate carried on
between Jehovah and his servant, in
which the gourd is mentioned, and in
which the divine mercy extending over
all creatures is plainly declared. See
GouKD. And so the most intensely
Jewish of the Hebre>v prophets is com-
pelled by the Spirit to pen words of a
truly Christian import. See Nineveh.
The difiiculty with the book is the
story of the great fish. The miracle is
not that he was swallowed by a fish —
for horses have been found who.c in the
bellies of sharks — but that he was kept
alive within it for three days. But this
miracle receives the strongest possible
confirmation to a Christian from the use
made of it by our Lord, who see; in it a
type of the resurrection. Matt. 12 : 39-41 ;
13 : L He also refers to the preaching of
Jonah. Luke 11 : 2'J-:',2.
Jonah, thk Book op consists of two
parts: I. Jonah's commission, refusal,
ami miraculous escape from dcnth ; his
prayer in the great fish. Chs. 1 and 2, If.
llis second commission, obedience, the
repentance of tlu; Ninevites, and Jonah's
h;ird spirit. The book is variously re-
garded ; it has been called a fiction, a
myth, a parable, hut it is In'xttn-if, as is
j»roven by its place in the Jewish canon,
472
and by Christ's use of it, as already
quoted. Some infidels went so far as
to deny there was a city called Nineveh,
but all such objectors have been grandly
silenced by the excavations of Layard,
Botta, and others, which have caused
this old city on the Tigris to live again.
The lesson of the book is that God's
providence and his mercy extend beyond
the covenant people unto the heathens.
Althougli Jonah was at first the narrow-
est of Jews, his book is the most catholic
in the 0. T. It approaches most nearly
the catholicity of Christianity.
JO'NAiV {irhom Jehonth hcntnwfi),
son of Eliakim, in the genealogy of
Christ. Luke 3 : :^0.
JO'NAS. 1. The Greek form of
Jonah. Matt. 12 : .",9-41 ; 16 : 4; Luke
11 : .30-32.
2. The father of Peter and Andrew,
John 21 : l.')-17 : called also Jona, 1 : 42.
JON'ATHAN {trhnm Jehovah gave).
1. A Gershonite Levite who became by
request the priest of Micah and after-
ward went with the Danites to Laish,
where he and his posterity were priests.
Jud. 17:7-13 and 18.
2. The son of Saul, and distinguished
for piety and valor. He and his armor-
bearer, being encourajjed by an intima-
tion from (Jod, attacked a Bhilistine gar-
rison, slew 20 men, and ]>ut the garrison
to flight. Having ignorantly violated a
decree of his father (the king) that no
man should stop, on pain of death, in
JON
JOP
the pursuit of the enemy to taste of food,
the people interposed, and saved him
from the penalty, which his father was
ready to inflict. 1 Sam. 14 : ;:J7-45.
After David's defeat of the giant,
Jonathan became acquainted with him,
and their friendship for each other was
so remarkable as to be minutely describ-
ed by the sacred historian. 1 Sam. 18 :
1-4; 19:2. 'J'he opportunity to show
their friendship for each other was
greitly extended by the bitter and re-
lentless liosrility of Saul to David. 1
Sam. 19, 20, etc. Jonathan fell with
his father and two brothers in the battle
at Gil boa. The lamentation of David
for his friend, 2 Sam. 1 : 17-27, is justly
regarded as inimitably pathetic and
beautiful, and his treatment of Mephib-
osheth, Jonathan's son, shows the sin-
cerity and strength of his affection for
the father. 2 Sam. 9.
3. The son of Abiathar, the high
priest. 2 Sam. 15:27, 36; 17:17,20; 1
Kgs. 1 : 42, 43.
4. David's nephew, who slew a giant
in Gath. 2 Sam. 21 : 20, 21 ; 1 Chr. 20 :
6,7.
5. One of David's valiant men. 2 Sam.
23 : 32 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 34.
6. A descendant of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr.
2 : 32, 33.
7. One of David's uncles. 1 Chr. 27 :
32.
8. The father of one who returned
with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 6.
9. One who, with Ezra, investigated
the mixed marriages. Ezr. 10:15.
10. A high priest for 32 years, Neh.
12: 11 ; called Johanan in verses 22, 23.
11. A priest. Keh. 12: 14.
12. A priest, and the father of one
who joined in the dedication of the wall.
Neh. 12:35.
13. He in whose house was Jeremiah's
prison. Jer. 37 : 15, 20 ; 38 : 26.
14. A son of Kareah, and brother of
Johanan. Jcr. 40 : 8.
JO'NATH-E LEM - RECHO' -
KliVI (o ilidiih dove of (lifitnnt phuex),
part of the title to Ps. 53; not found
elsewhere in the Bible. Most likely it
was the name of some popular melodj'
to which tune the Psalm was to be sung.
JOP'PA (be(tuhi), an ancient mari-
time city in the territory of Dan, on the
Mediterranean, about 30 miles south of
Caesarea, 35 miles north-west of Jerusa-
lem, and upon a promontory, 116 feet
high, jutting out into the sea. From its
summit there is a line view of the coast
and the sea. Ezr. 3:7; Jon. 1:3; Acts
9 : 36-43 ; 10 : 5-32; 11 : 5-13. It is
also called " Japho." Josh. 19 : 46 ; 2
Chr. 2:16, margin. The modern name
of the city is Yd/a or J<iff<i.
History. — Joppa is said to be one of
the oldest towns in the world. A Ro-
man writer says that it antedates the
deluge. When the chosen people di-
vided the Holy Land amongst the seve-
ral tribes, Japho, a Phoenician colony in
the land of the Philistines, was one of
the landmarks designating the territory
of tiie tribe of Dan. Josh. 19 : 46. It
was the seaport to which wood from
Lebanon was brought for the building
of Solomon's temple, 2 Chr. 2: 16, and
when the house of the Lord was rebuilt
after the Captivity. Cedar trees were
brought from Lebanon to Joppa. Ezr.
3:7. It was at this port also that
Jonah took ship for Tarshish. Jon.
1 : 3. Thus the city is mentioned four
times (once as Japho) in the 0. T.
In an inscription relating the victori-
ous campaigns of Sennacherib, the town
is called Ja-ap-pu. and its situation is
correctly described. The Maccabees
brought the city under the Jewish j'oke.
Afterward it fell successively under the
Greek and the Roman sway. The Romans
took it B. c. 63. In the N. T.. Joppa is
only mentioned in the book of Acts, and
in connection with two events: (1) The
raising of Tabitha to life by Peter, Acts
9:36-43; (2) Peter's vision on the
housetop. Acts 10: 11. Several bishops
of Joppa are mentioned as having at-
tended various Church synods. During
the Crusades, Joppa was several times
captured by opposing forces, and par-
tially destroyed. Toward the end of
the eighteenth century the town was
surrounded by walls, which enabled the
inhabitants to resist for several days the
attacks of the French army under Kle-
ber. The place was taken by storm,
and 4000 prisoners were massacred by
order of Napoleon, March 4, 1799.
Present Appearance. — To the traveller
approaching Joppa by sea the city pre-
sents a beautiful appearance, but a closer
contact is disappointing. Steamers are
obliged to anchor half a mile from the
quay, and passengers and baggage are
473
JOR
JOR
taken ashore in boats. The quay is I
very badly paved, and becomes a pond |
of mud after a rain. The streets are \
narrow, dirty, crooked, and steep. The
houses, built of tufa-stone, are crowded
together without any order. Among the
prominent buildings are the Greek mon-
astery, the Latin hospice (founded in
1654), and the Armenian monastery.
The traditional "house of Tabitha"
and " the house of Simon the tanner "
are still pointed out.
Exterior of the supposed liouse of Simon the
Tanner. (From Photograph of Pal. Fund.)
The open space is the little courtyard at the rear of the
house, lietweeii the house and the wall overlooking the
sea. The spectator has his back to the sea. The well
from which Peter is said to have baptized is suak in
the ground on the right.
In population Joppa has greatly in-
creased within 25 years. A Turkish
calendar enumerates 8fi5 Moslem, 135
Greek, 70 Greek Catholic, 50 Latin, 6
Maronite, and 5 Armenian families,
which would give a total of about 8000
inhabitants. To these must be added a
flourishing German Protestant colony
of the Temple Society, which settled
there in 1857 under the lead of Rev.
Christopher Hoffman, and introduced
various industries. Miss Arnot, a Scotch
lady, conducts a good school for girls.
A considerable trade is carried on with
Egypt, Syria, and Constantinople. But
one of the chief means of livelihood for
the people is the annual passage of nume-
rous pilgrims and travellers through the
town. It is the landing-place of most
travellers to Palestine, and is connected
with Jerusalem by a rough carriage-road
— the only one in that country. A rail-
road has been projected and may be
built before many years. The oranges
474
of Joppa are famous and supply the
market at Jerusalem.
JO'RAH {earli/ 7-oi'ii), one whose
descendants returned with Zerubbabel.
Ezr. 2:18.
JO'RAI (whom Jehovah teaches), a
chieftain of Gad. 1 Chr. 5: 13.
JO 'RAM {whom Jehovah ha^ exalt-
ed). 1. A son of Toi, the king of Ha-
math, sent to congratulate David on his
victory over Hadadezer. 2 Sam. 8:10.
2. The son of Ahab. 2 Kgs. 8 : 1(>.
See -Jehoram, 2.
3. The son of Jehoshap"hat. 2 Kgs. 8:
24. See Jehouam, 1.
4. A Levite of David's day. 1 Chr.
26 : 25.
JOR'DAN {the descender), the great
river of Palestine, as the Nile is of Egypt.
Name. — " Jordan " (the Hebrew Yar-
den) signifies, from its derivation, "the
descender." It is always joined with
the article in the 0. T., with two ex-
ceptions, Ps. 42 : 6 ; Job 40 : 23. The
Arabs call it esh-Sheriah, or "the water-
ing-place." A tradition as old as St.
Jerome, A. D. 400, says that the Jordan
derived its name from two rivers, the
Jor, rising at Banias, and the Dan. ris-
ing at Tell el-Kadi. But this tradition
seems to be erroneous; for according to
Gen. 13 : 10, the river was known to Abra-
ham as the Jordan long before the chil-
dren of Dan gave their name to Leshem,
Josh. 19 : 47, or Laish. Jud. 18 : 29.
SoHvcea. — The Jordan rises among
the mountains of Anti-Lebanon, and
has four sources: (1). The Hanbdii>/,
which issues from the large fountain
'Ala Furar, near Hasbeya, at an nlti-
tude of 1700 feet above the sea. This
pool, which the natives say is 1000 feet
deep, Macgregor found to have a depth
of 11 feet. (2) The Banian, which rises
near the ruins of Banian (Ciesarea-Phil-
ippi), at the base of Mount llermon,
1140 feet above the sea- level. (3) The
Sedddn, rising in a large fountain on the
west side of the Tell el-K<Hli ("hill of
the judge," the site of the city of Dan).
In the midst of a thicket of oleander
bushes is a large pool, 50 or 60 yards
wide, with the water bubbling out of
the grouml in a full-grown stream.
This, which Josephus calls the Little
Jordan, is the most copious source. (4)
The E»h-Shar, a minor tributary, only
one or two yards broad. Besides the
u \Mim%\i 'ii»'"'' -^ui!
JOR
JOR
above four sources, there are numerous
small streams from the springs of Leba-
non, which find their way into the swamp
above Lake Uuleh, and contribute to swell
the Jordan.
Course of the Stream. — At a point
about 4 miles below Tell el-Kadi the
Hanhdni/ unites with the other two
principal sources. At this point the
Jordan is 45 feet wide, and flows in a
channel from 12 to 20 feet below the
level of the plain. After emerging
from a broad morass the waters expand
into Lake cl-Hnleh, 4^ miles long, 2|
miles wide, having descended 1434 feet.
See Merom, Thr Waters of. Issuing
from the lake in a sluggish current, the
descent soon makes it a rapid torrent,
which in a course of 9 miles descends
897 feet to the Sea of Galilee, 682i feet
below the Mediterranean. See Galilee,
Sea of.
The popular notion that the waters of
the river do not seem to mingle with
those of the lake, but ])ass through in a
united stream, is a '' fable." From the
Sea of Tiberias to the Dead Sea there is
one deep depression, the hills from the
east and west nearly meeting in many
places. This depression is filled up to
a certain level with an alluvial deposit,
forming a vast plain called the Jor-
dan Valley, or Ghor (the hollow).
This is the " upper plain." It varies
in width from 1 to 12 miles. The river
has cut out for itself a plain lower
than the preceding by some 50 to 100
feet, and from a quarter of a mile to a
mile wide. This is the " lower plain,"
through which the river, some 60 yards j
wide, winds its way. During the s[)ring
floods this lower plain is inundated. Al-
though the distance in a straight line be-
tween Tiberias and the Dead Sea is only
66 miles, the actual distance the stream j
flows, on account of its many windings,
is 200 miles, and the fall 607 feet. Twen- '
ty-seven threatening rai)ids were counted
by Lieut. Lynch, besides many others of
minor im])ortance. The whole distance
from the sources of the river to its mouth
is not more than l.'?6 miles in a straight
line. The whole descent is 2999 feet to
the Dead Sea, which, according to the
latest determination of the British Sur-
vey, is 1292 feet below the sea-level, al- j
though Lynch had rejxtrted it at A'Ml \
feet. See Salt Sea. The width of the
476
stream varies from 45 to 180 feet, and its
depth from 3 to 12 feet.
Tributaries. — Between the Sea of Gal-
ilee and the Dead Sea two considerable
rivers enter the Jordan from the east.
(1) Wady Maudhiir (the Jarmuk or
Yarmuk of the Rabbins, and the Hiero-
max of Pliny). This stream formerly
divided Bashan and Gilead. (2) Wady
Zurka, the Jabbok, which enters the Jor-
dan 20 miles north of Jericho. This was
formerly the northern boundary of Am-
nion. Between the above two Dr. Selah
Merrill found '^ no less than eleven living
streams, more than half of which can be
called large ones." Between the Jabbok
and the Wady Nimrim there are no
streams and the region is barren, but
below the Wady Nimrim several living
streams were noted. Hot springs of
considerable size have been found in as
many as ten different localities in the
Jordan Valley. The temperature of
those Hi El-Hama, near the Yarmuk, is
from 100 to 115 degrees.
Bridges and Ford^i. — There are the
remains of several bridges crossing the
river, which date back to Roman times.
One of these, a few hundred yards above
Damieh (the ''Adam" of Josh. 3 : 10),
marks the crossing-place of the great
road from central Palestine to the East.
Dr. Merrill says there is reason to be-
lieve that this bridge existed in Christ's
time, and it is on the road by which the
Saviour went from Galilee to .Jerusalem.
Below Lake Hut eh is a bridge called
" Bridge of Jacob's Daughter," probably
built in the fifteenth century.
There are four principal fords over the
river; the lower one, opposite Jericho,
near the famous bathing-place of the
pilgrims ; another, eastward of Succoth ;
and two others, nearer the Sea of Gali-
lee. At low water there are many
other points at which the river might
be easily forded, and the British Survey
discovered evidences of various fords.
During the floods the Arabs are fre-
quently obliged to swim their horses
across the river.
Climate and Vrgetatiou. — The great
depression of the Jordan Valley gives
to it a semi-tropical character. " In its
natural products it stands unique, a
tropical oasis sunk in the temperate
zone." Under the intense heat vegeta-
tion advances with wonderful rapidity,
Source of the Jordan. (After plans tyy Major Wilson, E. E.)
The figures denote the heights in feet above the sea-level.
JOR
JOR
but is as quickly scorched wherever the
water-supply is not abundant. In the
marshes of Hiileh are acres of papyrus,
the reeds sometimes reaching 16 feet in
hei}?ht. This reed is now wholly extinct
in Egypt, according to Tristram {Natural
HiHtory, p. 11), and to find it again one
must travel either to India or to Abys-
sinia. Farther south along the river's
course are the jujube (a tropical tree),
date-palm, oleander, tauiarisk, " zuk-
kum," or false balm of Gilead, osher,
henna, etc. Even in the depth of win-
ter the thermometer ranges from 60
to 80 degrees.
Scrijiture History. — The first mention
Course of the Jordan from Sea of Galilee to Dead Sea.
{After plans by Major Wilson, R. E.)
of the Jordan is in " (len. 13 : 10, where
Lot beheld the ])lain of the Jordan as
the garden of the Lord :" Jacob crossed
and recrossed it, (ion. 32:10; the Is-
raelites passed over it in entering the
Promised Land. Josh. 3, 4; Ps. 114 : 3.
The phenomenon of the river overflow-
ing its banks at the time of harvest is
478
still witnessed. The snows from Leba-
non melt in the spring-time and swell
the current of the Jordan at the time
of the harvest, wiiich, in the hot climate
of the Jordan Valley, comes in April.
Prof. Porter of Belfast, at a visit in the
middle of April, found it impossible to
cross the river at the usual ford near
JOR
JOS
Jericho, and was compelled to go a
day's journey up the banks to Damieh.
Among those who crossed over the Jor-
dan were Gideon, " faint yet pursuing "
after Zebah and Zalmunna, Jud. 8 : 4,
5 : the Ammonites, invading Judah,
Jud. 10 : 9 ; Abner, in flight, 2 Sam. 2 :
29; David, in flight, 2 Sam. 17 : 22, and
returning to his capital, 19 : 15-18
(mention is here made of a ferry-
boat, probably only a raft, the only
time in Scripture); David, to war with
the Sj'rians ; Absalom, in pursuit of
his father, 2 Sam. 17 : 24; Elijah and
Elisha, parting the waters with the
mantle. 2 Kgs. 2:6-14. As two and a
half tribes of Israel dwelt east of the
river, the amount of crossing and re-
crossing must have been considerable,
and the best fords were well known.
Comp. Josh. 2:7; Jud. 3 : 28 : 7 : 21 ;
12 : 5, 6. The river was known to Job.
Job 40 : 2;^, and Jeremiah speaks of
*' the swelling of Jordan." Jer. 12 : 5 ;
49 : 19; 60:44. Noteworthy miracles,
in addition to those already mentioned,
were the curing of Xaaman, 2 Kgs. 5:14,
and the making the iron to swim. 6 : 6.
The Jordan is mentioned about 180
times in the 0. T. In the N. T. it is
mentioned 15 times. The chief events
noted in connection with it in the X. T.
are John's baptism of the multitudes.
Matt. 3 : 6, and especially his baptism of
Jesus. Mark 1:9. In commemoration of
this latter event it is the custom for Chris-
tian pilgrims in great numbers to bathe
in the Jordan not far from Jericho at
Efister.
The cities mentioned in Scripture in
connection with the Jordan are few.
The chief ones near it were Jericho and
Gilgatl, Succoth and Bethshan. Traces
of several towns have been notefl on the
east side, in the valley between the Sea
of Galilee and the Dead Sea.
The Jordan has been several times
navigated in a boat in modern times —
by Costigan, 1 835 ; by Molyneaux, 1847 :
by Lieut. Lynch, 1848 : by J. Macgregor
(Rob Roy), 1869. "The sight of the
Jordan," says Schaff", " is rather disap-
pointing. It bears no comparison in
majesty and beauty to the great rivers
of Europe and America. Naaman
thought the clear rivers of his native
Damascus far superior, yet the Abana
and Pharpar could not wash away his
leprosy. Its chief importance is his-
toric. In this respect the Jordan sur-
passes the Hudson and the Mississippi,
the Rhine and the Danube, and even
the Nile. It marks' the termination of
the wanderings of the children of Israel
from the banks of the Nile, and the be-
ginning of their history as an indepen-
dent nation in their own home. It
blends the memories of the old and new
Covenants as the culmination of John's
testimony and the inauguration of
Christ's kingdom." — Through Bihle
Lands, p. 299. "Surely," says Mac-
gregor, "the Jordan is by far the most
wonderful stream on the face of the
earth, and the memories of its history
will not be forgotten in heaven." — Rob
Roy oil the Jordan, p. 406. It is a sa-
cred stream alike to Jew, Ishmaelite,
Christian, and Mohammedan, and in
this surpasses in interest any other
river in the world.
JO'RIM [Jehovah exalts?), one in
the ancestry of Christ. Luke 3 : 29.
JOil''KOAM [paleness of the peo-
ple), probably the name of a person ;
but if a place, it is a town in the terri-
tory of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 44.
JOS'ABAD [y-hom Jehovah gives),
a Benjamite who joined David at Zik-
lag. 1 Chr. 12 : 4.
JOS'APHAT, Greek form of Je-
hoshaphat (see Jehoshaphat, 3) in
Matt. 1:8.
JO'SE, in Luke 3:29, for Josks,
which see.
JOS'EDECH (nhotu Jehovah makes
just). Hag. 1 : 1. See Jehozadak, Jo-
ZADAK.
JO'SEPH [he irill add). 1. The
first son of Jacob and Rachel, born in
Padan-aram after his mother had been
long barren, but " God hearkened to
her." Gen. 30 : 24. The name she gave
him indicated her confidence that God
would give her another son — a confi-
dence justified by the birth of Benja-
min. 35 : 17. The two sons of Rachel,
Jacob's favorite wife, were the patriarch's
delight. In the case of Joseph this
fondness led to evil consequences, be-
cause it excited the envy of his brothers.
The story of Joseph's life is told with so
much simplicity and graphic power that
he is numbered among our acquaintances.
We enter with the liveliest sympathy into
all his troubles. He is ever the innocent
479
JOS
JOS
victim of spite aTid cruelty, and from the
time he comes before us in his long coat
with sleeves — not '' coat of mantj colors "
— down to the day the mourning of Egypt
bursts forth over his corpse, his life has
for us the interest of a romance height-
ened by the knowledge that it is truth.
Instead of repeating the twice-told tale
— every one knows it, and the inspired
record cannot be improved — we present
a condensed translation of the article
on '' Joseph" by Prof. Ebers, the Egyp-
tologist, in Riehm's Hancfworterbuch des
hiblivcheu Alterthainx, (1878), which in-
terprets the Egyptian setting and shows
its complete harmony with modern re-
searches.
It is worthy of note that the money
paid for Joseph by the Midianites cor-
responds exactly to the extre;ne price
set by Moses upon a slave of his age.
Comp. Gen. 37 : 28 with Lev. 27 : 5. The
captains of the guard, of whom Potiphar
was one, were commanders of regiments
of 2000 men, and so long as they were in
office as the king's body-guard the com-
mander was the chief inspector of the
state-prisoners, and chief executioner
of corporal and capital punishment.
Potiphar was a " eunuch." The word,
however, may express nothing more
than an officer.
The Egyptian monuments make us
acquainted with the daily life of an
" overseer," which Joseph led in Poti-
phar's household. Everything was con-
ducted with the most scrupulous regu-
larity— at least, in the pictures — and the
position was one of great responsibility.
The story of Joseph's trial of virtue is
strikingly illustrated by an Egyptian
tale of similar contents written for a son
of Ramescs II. (See Brugsch, Genfhichte
jEmipteiiH, p. 219). The belief in dreams,
in revelations of the divine will, the of-
fice of chief baker and chief butler, the
custom of granting pardons and other
favors upon Pharaoh's birthday, — all
are confirmed l)y the monuments. The
magiciiins and wise men consulted by
Pharaoh after his two dreams — which
are thoroughly Egyptian : seven was a
sacred number — belonged to the priest
caste. That Joseph, l)efore appearing
in the presence of Pharaoh, must shave
himi=clf, face and head, and change his
raiment, brings out the Egyptian pas-
siun for cleanliness.
480
The exaltation of Joseph receives ex-
planation from the fact that the priests
shared in the government, particularly in
the allotment of the taxes, and for the
latter purpose inspected the material
condition of the country. Joseph's rank
was described by two terms, "father"
and 'Mord of all Egypt." "Father"
was the usual term. Every feature of
the following scenes in the narrative,
all the circumstances of the investiture,
are true to the life. The new name, or
rather title, which he received — Zaph-
nath paaneah — is interpreted "creator"
or " preserver of life." The name of
his wife is the genuinely Egyptian, and
very common, feminine name of Sant
or Snat. It is impossible to say how
far Joseph became an Egyptian. lie
conformed to many of their customs,
but ever retained his belief in Israel's
God. His position during the famine
resembles that of a certain Baba, who
in his epitaph tells us : "I gathered
grain, a friend of the god of harvest. I
was watchful at the seed-time. And
during a famine which lasted thvongh
many years, I distributed the grain
through the town to every hunger-
stricken one." Brugsch, indeed {Gench.
^^ffypiens, p. 246), believed the famine
referred to here is that of Genesis.
The charge Joseph brings against his
brethren was one often made, doubtless,
at a time when there was constant dread
of the irruption of the wandering tribes
to the eastward of Egypt. That the
Egyptians would not eat with the He-
brews and that the latter were regarded
with aversion are traits in keeping with
the monumental records. But these
show us that shepherds formed a sepa-
rate caste and were not shunned, except
the swineherds, who could not enter a
temple. But the nomadic shepherds, as
the Israolites. were ever looked upon with
fear and disgust. Joseph's claim to the
gift of divination was just what one
would expect. The bubbles and move-
ments of the water of a cup into which
one had thrown a coin or a ring, or any
other object, were watched, ami by cer-
tain rules the future read therefrom. The
arrangements which Joseph made dur-
ing the years of plenty and of famine,
by which eventually the entire nation
became the purchase of Pharaoh, and
the Ian 1, with the exception of that of
JOS
JOS
the priests, passed to the crown, have
been much criticised. But they were
not unparalleled in Egypt. Consider-
ing the fertility of the land, the fifth
part taken up during the plentiful years
was not at all excessive, Gen. 41 : 34, 47-
49 ; when the famine came it was natu-
ral and proper to sell so long as there
was any money left to buy therewith.
And that it was the case in Egypt that
the king and the priests owned all the
land is asserted by the monuments and
ancient historians. These latter also
speak of the priests being free from tax.
We see, then, in Gen. 47 : 22, 26, the
statement of a fact and the explanation
of a subsequent phenomenon.
The question. Who was the Pharaoh
of Joseph ? does not admit of a decisive
answer. The name '• Pharaoh," being
a generic title of the sovereigns, does
not help us any. The most satisfactory
answer is that he belonged to an alto-
gether different dynasty from that of
the persecuting Pharaoh of Exodus.
This throws the time back to some dy-
nasty of the Shepherd-kings. Of these
tradition singles out Apophis. one of
the last of them. Manasseh and Ephraim,
sons of Joseph by his marriage with
Asenath, became the founders of the
powerful tribes that bear their name,
and Jacob's blessing was fulfilled.
Joseph died at the age of llfl, but his
bones, by express command, were car-
ried with the host, and not buried until
the Israelites had conquered Canaan,
Gen. 50 : 25, when thej' were deposited
in Shechem. Josh. 24: 32. His tomb is
shown within a stone's throw of Jacob's
Well. But the Mohammedans claim
that the body of Joseph is in the Maeh-
pelah. in Hebron, having been trans-
ported thither from Shechem.
2. The father of Igal, who was the
spy from Issachar. Num. 13: 7.
3. One who had married a foreign
wife. Ezr. 10 : 42.
4. A prie-t. Xeh. 12 : 14.
5. 0. 7. Three persons in the ancestry
of Ch:ipt. Luke 3 : 24, 26, 30.
8. The husband of Mary, the mother
of Christ, was by occupation a carpen-
ter, Matt. 13 : 55, at which trade our
Lord himself labored until he entered
upon his public ministry. Mark 6 : 3.
Joseph is called a ''■just man." "a
man of uprightness," Matt. 1 : 19. He
31
was informed by an angel that Mary was
to be the mother of the promised Mes-
siah, and accompanied her to Bethlehem
to be registered in the tax-books, accord-
ing to the command of the emperor, when
Christ was born. When the babe was 40
days old, Joseph and his wife went with
him to Jerusalem, in observance of the
Law of Moses : and when about return-
ing again to Bethlehem, he was divinely
admonished to go into Egypt, for Herod,
the king, was resolved to destroy the in-
fant Redeemer if he could get him into
his power. After the death of Herod
they set out again for Judasa, but, ap-
prehensive that the king's successor,
Archelaus, might be equally cruel, they
went into Galilee, and took up their
abode at Nazareth, their old home.
When Jesus was 12 years of age, Jo-
seph and Mary took him with them
on their journey to Jerusalem to cele-
brate the feast of the Passover. After
that we find nothing more of Joseph in
the sacred history. It is generally sup-
posed he died before Christ began his
public ministry, as he is not mention-
ed with Mary, and as Christ commend-
ed her to the care of one of the disciples.
John 19: 25-27.
9. Joseph of Arimathea, Matt. 27 :
57, 59, a wealthy citizen, probably re-
siding in the vicinity of Jerusalem, a
member of the Sanhedrin, and a man
of eminent wisdom and piet}^ Mark 16:
43: Luke 23: 51. He was a disciple of
Christ, though he did not appear openly
as such. John 19 : 38,
It is said that the Jews, as a mark of
ignominy, did not allow the bodies of
those executed as malefactors to be de-
posited in the tombs of their fathers
except the flesh had been previously
consumed. It may have been t » pre-
vent this use of the bod^'^ of Christ
that Joseph so early asked leave to
remove it and place it in his own tomb.
10. A disciple called Barsabas, one
of the candidates for Judas's place in
the college of the apostles. Acts 1 : 23.
JO'SES {ichiiin Jehovah helps). I.
One of our Lord's brethren. Matt. 13 :
55 ; 27 : 56 ; Mark 6:3; 15 : 40, 47. Sec
James, 2.
2. Acts 4: 36. See Barnabas.
JO'^'H.A.YLiirhom Jehornh lets dicell),
a chief of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4: 34.
JOSH'APHAT {whom Jehovah
481
JOS
JOS
jiidyes), one of David's warriors. 1 Chr.
11 : 43.
JOSHAVI'AH {whom Jehovah
makes to dwell), one of David's warriors.
1 Chr. 11 : 46.
JOSHBEK'ASHAH(8m«ji) hard-
ness), the head of the sixteenth course
of musicians. 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 24.
JOS'HEB-BAS'SEBET {he who
sits in the seat), in the margin of 2 Sam.
23 : 8. See Jashobeam.
JOSH'UA {whose help is Jehovah).
1. The successor of Moses, was the son
of Nun of the tribe of Ephraim, and was
born in Egypt. He is called the '* min-
ister " of Moses, Ex. 24 : 13, from the
fact that he assisted him in the exercise
of his office. The original name was
" Oshea," Num. 13 : 8, but was changed to
"Jehoshua," Num. 13 : 16, and he is also
called " Hoshea." Deut. 32 : 44. " Josh-
ua " is a contraction of ''Jehoshua,"
and " Jeshua," or ''Jesus." is the Greek
mode of writing "Joshua," as in Acts 7 :
45 and Heb. 4 : 8, in which passages the
Hebrew word "Joshua" ought to have
been retained.
Joshua is introduced to us at the time
the Israelites were about to contend with
the Amalekites at Rephidim. He was
appointed by Moses to command the
forces of Israel on that occasion. Ex.
17 : 9. He was then about 44 years of
age, though considered a young man.
Ex. 33:11. Afterward he was the spy
from his tribe, and he and Caleb were
the only ones who told the truth. Num.
14 : 6-9.
In prospect of the death of Moses,
Joshua was set apart to succeed him as
the leader and deliverer of God's chosen
people. Num. 27:16-18; Deut. 31:7-
14 ; 34 : 9. At the age of 84 he passed
over the Jordan at the head of the hosts
of Israel, and entered the land of prom-
ise. For six years he carried on a suc-
cessful war against the Canaanites, and
after conquering them he divided the
land among the Israelites. We see in
this long struggle the union of divine
help and human exertion. If, on the
one hand, Jericho falls without a blow,
on the other, Ai is only taken after one
repulse ;\nd by a stratagem. Josh. 8.
Agjiin, there is no protection against
mistakes. The Oibconiies, by trickery,
succeed in saving their lives, albeit they
become slaves. The conduct of Joshua
482
in keeping his oath is very noble, but it
was a salutary lesson upon the folly of
human wisdom unaided by divine light.
Josh. 9. At the termination of the war
6 nations, with 31 kings, had been pros-
trated. There remained, however, " very
much land to be possessed." The " Prom-
ised Land," in its complete extent, was
not then, and never was, conquered.
After a period of rest, Joshua, feeling
the approach of death, gathered the peo-
ple together on two occasions, and de-
livered the solemn and touching ad-
dresses recorded in chs. 23, 24. In
so doing he imitated the example of
his great predecessor, Moses. The in-
fluence of Joshua upon his generation
is brought out by the statement : " Israel
served the Lord all the days of Joshua,
and all the days of the elders that over-
lived Joshua, and which had known all
the works of the Lord that he had done
for Israel." Josh. 24:31.
Trnditional Tomb of .Toslnia. near Tiiiiiiatn.
(From Photograph Pal. Fund.)
Joshua was a worthy successor of
Moses. His presence was ever the har-
binger of the divine favor. Piety wns
his characteristic, and earth and heaven
repeat with fervor the famous vow of
obedience to God: "As for me and my
house, we will serve the Lord." Ch. 24:
15. But at last to him, as to us all,
came the end. and he died, being 110
years old. "and they buried him in the
border of his inheritance in Timnath-
serah, which ia in Mount Ephraim."
Ch. 24 : 30.
JOS
JOS
2. The dweller in Beth-shemesh in
whose field stopped the two milch-kine
which were drawing the cart containing
the ark on its way back from the Philis-
tines. 1 Sam. 6 : 14.
3. A governor of Jerusalem, previous
to Josiah's day, who gave his name to
one of the gates. 2 Kgs. 23: 8.
4. A high priest after the Captivity.
Hag. 1:1, etc. Ezra and Nehemiah call
him Jeshua. See Jeshua, 3.
Joshua, The Book of. It may be di-
vided into three parts : I. The conquest
of the land, chs. 1-12 : II. The partition
of the land, chs. 13-22 ; III. The final
addresses of Joshua, his death and bur-
ial. Chs. 23, 24. It embraces a period
variously estimated at from 17 to 30
years. As to the authorship of the book,
the name '* Joshua " in the title tnay im-
ply no more than that he is the hero of it.
Still, in connection with ch. 24 : 26, "And
Joshua wrote these words in the book of
the law of God," the title may be allowed
to weigh something more, and we may
attribute the book, if not to Joshua, at
least to one of his elders who was well
acquainted with him. This theory is not
inconsistent with a subsequent revision.
The two difficulties in the book relate
to the sun standing still, ch. 10 : 13 ; and
to the wholesale slaughter of the Ca-
naanites by the command of God. In
regard to the first, the difficulty is manu-
factured out of — it does not exist in —
the text. The passage is a poetical quo-
tation from the book of Jasher, which
was probably a collection of sacred
songs. This will be evident from a re-
vision of the A. V.
Sun.^taiid thou still upon Gibeon,
And thou, moon, upon the valley of Ajalon !
And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed
her course,
Until the people were avenged of their
enemies.
And the sun tarried in the midst of the
heavens,
And hasted not to fjn down for a whole day.
The day was probably one of extraordi-
nary brightness, as well as of extraor-
dinary anxiety, hence it would appear
to be prolonged.
The second difficulty is only one of
the many chapters in the mvsterious
government of Providence, which per-
mits the ravages of war, famine, and
pestilence.
JOSI^AH (whom Jehovah heals). 1.
The son and successor of Amon, king of
Judah, began to reign when he was only
8 years of age, and reigned 31 years, B. c.
641-010. 2 Kgs. 22:1, 2: 2 Chr. 34:1,
2. He was remarkable for his integrity
and })iety. He gradually abolished the
idolatrous customs of his predecessors,
2 Chr. 34:3, and in the eighteenth year
of his reign began a thorough repair of
the temple. In the progress of this work
Hilkiah the high priest found a '"book
of the law of the Lord (/iven by Moses,"
2 Chr. 34 : 14. What book it was is un-
certain ; probably it was Deuteronomy.
Josiah seems to have been ignorant of
its existence ; but when it was read to
him by one of his officers he was over-
whelmed with grief to find how far they
and their fathers had departed from the
right way. lie, however, humbled him-
self before God. and sent to inquire of
the Lord through Huldah the prophetess.
In Jehovah's name she assured him that
evil was determined of the Lord, but that
he should not see it. 2 Chr. 34 : 23-28.
He then assembled the people and pub-
lished the Law in their hearing, and they
all united with the king in a solemn vow
of obedience. After this he utterly de-
stroyed every vestige of idolatry, both
images and temples, and then, by divine
command, caused the feast of the Pass-
over to be celebrated with such solemnity
as had not been known since the da}-? of
Samuel. 2 Chr. 35:3-18.
"When Pharaoh-Necho went up from
Egypt to Carchemish, Josiah, probably
as the ally or vassal of the king of As-
syria, opposed him, and, mistrusting
Necho's message from God, gave the
Egyptian battle at Megiddo, but was
mortally wounded, and was brought to
Jerusalem, where he died, and was
buried in one of the sepulchres of his
fathers. No king, perhaps, was ever
more deservedly beloved, and certainly
we know of none who was more sincere-
ly and tenderly bewailed by his people.
Indeed, his death was the end of pros-
perity to the kingdom of Judah. Jere-
miah' the prophet was greatly affected
by it, and composed an elegy on the oc-
casion, 2 Chr. 35 : 25, and all those ac-
customed to celebrate in song the worth
and achievements of men of great emi-
nence, both men and women, mourned
for Josiah for ages after his death. In-
deed, the mourning was such as to be-
483
JOS
JUB
come proverbial. Zech. 12 : 11. He was
only 39 years of age when lie died,
2. The man in whose house the sym-
bolical crowning of Jeshua took place.
Zech. 6:10.
JOSI'AS, Greek form of Josiah in
Matt. 1 : 10, 11.
JOSIBI'AH {tohom Jehovah lets
dwell), a Simeonite chief. 1 Chr. 4 : 35.
JOSIPHI'AH (whom may Jehovah
increaae I), the father of Shelomith, who
returned with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 10.
JOT, Matt. 6 : 18, OR YOD (in Greek
Iota). This is the name of the Hebrew
letter ?, which letter is the least of all the
letters of the alphabet, being shaped not
unlike our comma (,), and proverbially
used by the Hebrews to signify the least
thing imaginable ; and hence the text ex-
presses the idea that not the least require-
ment of the commandments of God shall
in any wise be dispensed with : they shall
all stand to the very letter.
JOT'BAH [ijoodness, pleaxantiiess),
a place where Haruz resided. 2 Kgs.
21 : 19, perhaps the same as Jotbath.
JOT'BATH,orJOT'BATHAH
((/oodnesH, pleasantness), a station of the
Hebrews in the desert, Num. 33 : 33, and
on the west side of the Arabah, "a land
of rivers of waters." Deut. 10 : 7.
JO'THAM {Jehovah is npriijht). 1.
The youngest son of Jerubbaal, or Gid-
eon, the only one who escaped from the
massacre at Ophrah, Jud. 9:5; and this
he did by concealing himself. See
Abimelech.
2. The son and successor of Uzziah,
or Azariah, king of Judah. 2 Kgs. 15:
32. He actually reigned 23 years, being
associated with his father for 7 years
before his death. His sole administra-
tion of the government was only for 16
years, B.C. 758-741. Comp. 2 Kgs. 15 :
30, 32, 33. His example was holy ; his
reign was peaceful and prosperous, and
of course beneficial to the kingdom. 2
Chr. 27 : 2-6.
3. One of Judah's descendants. 1 Chr.
2 : 17.
JOUR'NEY. The Orientals travel
in the morning early or in the evening,
often into the night, resting during the
heat of the day. A day's journey was
from 10 to 20 miles, Deut. 1 : 2 ; a sab-
bath day's journey was 2000 paces, or
three-quarters of a mile. But it is at
least probable that the phrase in the
484
Bible, " a day's journey," does not mean
any definite length, but simply as far as
was travelled on that particular day.
JOUR'NEYINGS OF ISRAEL.
Num. 9 : 17-23. See Exodus, Sfxai, and
Wilderness of the Wanderings.
JOY is an agreeable aSection of the
soul, 1 Sam. 18 : 6, arising from the pos-
session or prospect of good. Ezr. 6: 16;
Esth. 8 : 16. It is reckoned among *' the
fruit of the Spirit," Gal. 5 : 22, and is
chiefly used by the sacred writers, espe-
cially of the N. T., to signify a religious
emotion. That which springs from a
sense of pardoned sin and a union of
the soul to Christ is pure, Luke 15 : 9, 10 ;
certain, John 16 : 22 ; unspeakable, 1 Pet.
1:8; and eternal. Isa. 61 : 7. " Believers
are commanded to rejoice, Phil. 3:1;
4:4, but there is also a worldly, foolish,
or hypocritical joy. Job 20 : 5 ; Prov.
15 : 21. That which has no better source
than in vanity or sin will in the end be
turned to bitterness." — Ayre.
JOZ'ABAD {whom Jehovahhestoios).
1, 2. Two Mannssite chiefs who came to
David before the battle of Gilboa. 1
Chr. 12:20.
3. A Levite who was prominent in
Hezekiah's reforms. 2 Chr. 31 : 13.
4. A Levite chief daring Josiah's
reign who took part in the great Pass-
over. 2 Chr. 35:9.
5. A Levite under Ezra who weighed
the gold and silver vessels in the temple.
Ezr. 8 : 33.
6. A priest who had a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10 : 22.
7. A Levite chief who had a foreign
wife, and one who probably helped Ezra
explain the Law. Neh. 8:7; 11 : 16.
JOZ'ACHAR {whom Jehovah re-
members), one of the murderers of Joash,
king of Judah. 2 Kgs. 12 : 21. He is
called Zabad in 2 Chr. 24:26.
JOZ'ADAK {whom Jehovah makes
just), a contraction of Jehozadak ; used
in Ezr. 3 : 2, 8 ; 6:2; 10 : 18 ; Neh. 12 :
26.
JU'BAL {mu8i<!), a son of Lameeh,
and the inventor of the harp and organ.
Gen. 4: 21.
JUBILEE, YEAR OF, came at
the close of seven weeks of years, or
every fiftieth year, so that two sabbatical
years came together. It commenced on
the great diy of atonement, and was
ushered in by the blast of the jubilee
JUG
JUD
curved trumpets. The remarkable fea-
ture of this festival was that it restored
individuals, families, and communities,
as far as possible, to the same situation
they occupied at the beginning of the
fifty years. All servants of Hebrew
origin were set free, even those whose
ears had been bored in evidence of their
free service; all pledges were given up,
and the inheritances which had been alien-
ated, no matter how often nor for what
cause, came back to the hands of the own-
ers. The only exception was in the cases
of houses built in walled towns. Lev.
25 : 29-31. The law in regard to this
festival is given in Lev. 25 : 8-17. 23-55 ;
27 : 16-25 ; Num. 36 : 4. '• The jubilee
is the crown of the sabbatical system.
The weekly and monthly sabbaths secured
rest for each spiritually ; the sabbatical
year secured rest for the land : the jubilee
secured rest and restoration for the hmbj
2)olitic, to recover the general equality
which Joshua's original settlement con-
templated. Hence no religious observ-
ances were prescribed ; simply the trum-
pets sounded the glad note of restora-
tion. The leisure of the jubilee jear
was perhaps devoted to school and in-
struction of the people, the reading of
the Law, and such services." — Falsset:
The Eiiglishniati's Bible Cycloppedia.
It has been disputed whether there
ever was a year of jubilee observed.
No direct mention is made of any, but
there are evident allusions to it in Isa.
61:1, 2; Eze. 7:12, 13; 46:16-18.
JU'CAL {potent). Jer. 38 : 1. See
Jehi-cal.
JU'DA. 1. One of the brethren of
our Lord, Mark 6:3; probably identical
with James, 2. He is called Judas in
Matt: 13 : 55.
2, 3. Two of our Lord's ancestry.
Luke 3 : 26, 30.
4. The patriarch Judah. Luke 3 : 33.
5. The designation of the tribe. Heb.
7 : 14 ; Rev. 5:5: 7:5.
JUD.^yA, OR JUDE'A, PROV-
INCE OF, a name applied to that
part of Canaan occupied by those who
returned after the Assyrian and Baby-
lonian captivities. The word first oc-
curs Dan. 5:13 (A. V. "Jewry"), and
the first mention of the ''province of
Judaea" is in Ezr. 5:8; it is alluded to
in Neh. 11:3 (A. V.,'' Judah ") ; in the
Apocrypha the word "province" is
dropped, and throughout it and in the
N T. the expressions are the " land of
Judaea " and *' Judasa." In a wider and
more improper sense "Judfea" was
sometimes applied to the whole country
of the Canaanites, its ancient inhabit-
ants, and even in the Gospels we read
of the coasts of Judaea " bej-ond Jor-
dan." Matt. 19 : 1 : Mark 10 : 1. Judaea
was strictly the third district, west
of the Jordan, and south of Samaria.
It was made a portion of the Roman
province of Syria after Archelaus was
deposed, A. p. 6, and was governed by a
procurator, who was subject to the gov-
ernor of Syria. See Canaan, Pales-
tine, and JrDAH.
JUD.*:'A, THE HILL-COUN-
TRY OF, the central ridge of moun-
tains stretching from north to south,
and forming as it were the backbone
of the land of Palestine. Luke 1 : 65.
JUDE'A, WILDERNESS OF,
a wild and desolate region extending
from the hill-country near Jerusalem
south-east to the Dead Sea, and averag-
ing about 1 5 miles in breadth. ]\Iatt. 3:1.
It is a limestone country, rough and
barren, with only patches of grass. It
seems never to have had many inhabit-
ants, and no cities. The traditional
scene of the tem])tation of Christ is in
this district, on a high mountain behind
Jericho, frightfully desolate, and now
infested with beasts and reptiles. See
Matt. 4:1: Mark 1: 13.
JU'DAH ipraiKe). 1. The fourth son
of Jacob and Leah, was born in Meso-
potamia. Gen. 29 : 35. The name was
given as an expression of the mother's
gratitude. We know more of him than
of the other patriarchs except Joseph,
whose life he saved, advising the sale.
Gen. 37 : 26-28. His marriage, an inci-
dent in his son's life, and his liaison
with Tamar are recorded in ch. 38. Ju-
dah became the surety for the safety of
Benjamin on the second journey to
Egypt. Ch. 43 : 3-10. His conduct is
worthy of all praise, and his plea for
Benjamin's liberty is one of the most
touching speeches in the Bible. Ch. 44 :
14-34. He went down into Egypt with
three sons. Ch. 46:12. The tribe of
Judah was always large and prominent,
vying with Ephraim for the supremacy.
The prophetic blessing which his fa-
ther pronounced on Judah, Gen. 49:8-
485
JUD
JUD
12, is very remarkable. It describes the
warlike character and gradually increas-
ing strength of the tribe, corap. Num. 2:
8: Josh. 14:11; 15:1; Jud. 1 : 1, 2 : 1
Chr. 14 : 17; Ps. 18 : 40; Isa. 29 : 1
(where its capital is called Ariel, "lion
of God "), Rev. 5:5; the duration of its
power — viz. until the coming of Christ,
when Judifia became a province of Rome,
comp. Luke 2:1-7; John 18 : 31 : Acts
6 : 37 ; and the destruction of their city,
A. D. 70, when the Christian dispensation
had become estahlisheLJ, comp. Matt. 24 :
14: Acts 2: 8; Rom. 10 : 18, in the glory
and triumph of the Messiah.
His descendants took the southern
section of Canaan, from the Jordan to
the Mediterranean Sea, and northward-
ly to the territory of Benjamin and Dan.
Josh. 15 : 1-63.
In the catalogue of the cities of this
tribe we have the ''uttermost cities," or
those nearest Edom, on the south; cities
" in the valley " — that is, on the low-
lands, near the coast; cities "in the
mountains " — that is, up in the interior ;
and cities " in the wilderness," or along
the shores of the Dead Sea. Josh. 15 :
21, 33, 48, 61.
Of the cities of Judah, several con-
tinued in the possession of the natives
(as Ashdod, Gaza, Askelon, and Ekron),
or, if conquered, were afterward recov-
ered.
2. Father of two Levites who were
overseers of the temple-work. Ezr. 3 : 9.
3. A Levite who had a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10 : 23 ; Neh. 12 : 8, 36.
4. A Benjamite. Neh. 11 : 9.
JU'DAH, LAND OF. See Ca-
NAAX.
JU'DAH, THE KINGDOM OF.
Extent. — The kingdom of Judah cm-
braced not only the territory of the
tribe of Judah (see above), but also in-
cluded the larger part of Benjamin on
the north-east, Dan on the north-west,
and Simeon on the south. The area
thus under the dominion of Judah is
estimated at 3435 square miles. Besides
this, Edom, subduetl by David, contin-
ued faithful to Judah for a time, and the
Red Sea ports furnished an outlet for
commerce.
The kingdom had at the start the
great advantages of having the former
capital of the whole country, and in it
the temple, the religious centre, the
486
whole body of the priests who conduct-
ed the worship ; then, too, the eclat of
the Davidic family. It was, too, much
less exposed to attack, its population
was hardy and united. But these ad-
vantages did not remain of force. Sa-
maria, the capital of the northern king-
dom, proved equally attractive; indeed,
very likely under the later kings it was
a more magnificent city. The temple
was rivalled by the shrines for the gold-
en calves and for Baal and Astarte ; the
priesthood of these false faiths usurped
the position of that of the true, and the
glare of temporary worldly prosperity
blinded the people to the consequences
of their sin, while Judah fell under idol-
atry at times.
The family of David furnishei all the
19 kings of Judah, but the eldest son
did not always succeed. Judah out-
lasted Israel 135 years. The reasons
for this are partly given above, but the
Bible assigns as the cause the long-suf-
fering of God and his unwillingness to
remove the house of David. But al-
though at last Judah had fallen, yet in
the mercy of God there was a continu-
ance; the independent national life was
no more, but still a national life remain-
ed. The Lord turned the captivity of
Zion. He heard the sighing of his
prisoners, and so from under the yoke
they returned, and from a weak handful
again developed into a nation, although
they never were what they had been.
For the history of these Jevrs, see Jews.
HiKtory. — After the division of the
kingdom, B. c. 975, Judah maintained
its separate existence for 389 years, un-
til B. c. 586. During this period there
were 19 rulers, all of the lineage of Da-
vid, excepting Athaliah. During the
first three reigns Israel and Judah were
in an attitude of hostility. Israel under
Jeroboam was signally defeated. 2 Chr.
13. Later, an alliance was formed by
the marriage of Jehoshaphat's son with
Ahab's daughter, Athaliah, 1 Kgs. 22: 2
Chr. 18, who usurped the crown. The
two kingdoms combined against Syria.
The two great foes of Judah were Egypt
on the south and Assyria on the east.
From Egypt came Shi.shak, who hum-
bled Judah, 2 Chr. 12:2-12; Zerah,
whose million of men were routed by
King Asa, 2 V\\y. 14:9-12; and Josiah
was slain at Megiddo. 2 Chr. 35 : 23.
JUD
JUD
The children of Ammon, Moab, and
Mount Seir also invaded Judah during
Jehoshaphat"s reign, but they only de-
stroyed one another. 2 Chr. 20: 22-25.
The armies of Assyria met with varied
fortune. Tilgath-pilneser distressed Ju-
dah during the reign of Ahaz, 2 Chr.
28:20; Sennacherib's host of 185,000
men was destroyed by the angel of the
Lord in Hezekiah's reign, 2 Chr. 32 : 21 ;
2 Kgs, 19 : 35 ; Manasseh was carried
away captive into Babylon, 2 Chr. 33 :
1 1 ; Jehoiachin was also made cap-
tive; Zedekiah rebelled against Nebu-
chadnezzar, and was defeated, his sons
slain before his eyes, and he made cap-
tive; Jerusalem was taken in b. c. 586,
and the history of the kingdom of Ju-
dah was ended. For later events see
Jerusalem, Palestine.
JU DAH, TERRITORY OF.
Situation and Extent. — The district
assigned to the tribe of Judah in
the Promised Land, with its cities, is
described in Josh. 15. It extended
across the whole of Western Palestine,
from the Dead Sea on the ea?t to the
Mediterranean on the west. The north-
ern boundary extended from Beth-hogla
(the present 'Ai)i Hnjleh, a little to the
south-east of Jericho), entered the hills
near the present road from Jericho, ran
westward to Enshemesh (below Bethan.v),
thence over the Mount of Olives to En-
rogel, and along the ravine of Ilinnom
(just south of Jerusalem), thence by
the water of Xephtoah, Kirjath-jearim,
Beth-shemcsh, Timnah, and Ekron to
Jabneel, on the sea-coa^t. some 4 miles
below Joppa. See Josh. 15 : 5-11. The
Nahr. Rvbin, "River of Reuben,'' a
winding, reedy river, the only real
stream south of Jaffa, seems to have
constituted the natural boundary.
The southern boundary-line is more
difficult to trace, since some of the places
mentioned in Josh. 15 : 2-4 cannot be
identified with certainty. It left the
Dead Sea at its southern end, and ex-
tended westward to the river of Egypt,
M'^acjy el Arish. The average extent of
this district was 50 miles from east to
west and 45 miles from north to south,
and its area about half that of the State
of Connecticut. A portion of this ter-
ritorj' was subsequently cut off for Sim-
eon, which thus became the frontier
tribe of the south. Josh. 19 : 1-9. A
portion of the north-western part was
also given to Dan. Comp. vs. 40-48.
Physical Features. — The territory of
Judah comprised four regions quite
distinct in physical features: (1) The
south country, or Negeb, where the fertile
land shaded off into the wilderness. (2)
The valley, plain, or Shefelah, lying be-
tween the Mediterranean and the central
hill-countr3^ Josh. 15 : 3.3-47. This was
an exceedingly fertile country, occupied
by the Philistines, who constantly dis-
puted possession. (3) The hill-country,
occupying the central range of moun-
tains. Josh. 15 : 48-60. This region was
favorable for the olive and vine. (4)
The wilderness, sloping from the central
hills to the Dead Sea, at which it ter-
minates in precipitous cliffs. Josh. 15 :
61, 62. This barren tract has evidently
been uncultivated and uninhabited from
the remotest times, for here alone, of all
Palestine, are found no traces of the
ruins of former cities. An exception
must be made of the fringe of the Dead
Sea, where were six cities. Josh. 15 : 21-
62. For a more detailed account of its
physical geography, see Palestine.
Cities and Toicns. — A list of the cities
belonging to the territoi-j' allotted to Ju-
dah is given in Josh. 15: 21-62. These
are grouped in several divisions. There
were 29 in the southern district, v. 32.
Mr. Wilton, in his book, The Neejch, gives
a list of 29. The nearly 40 names in the
received version are diminished by not-
ing that some of the names standing for
separate towns are really compound
words. The towns of most note in Ju-
dah were Hebron, Bethlehem, Kirjath-
■ jearim, Lachish, and Libnah. Thirteen
I of the cities of Judah, Benjamin, and
Simeon were allotted to the priests.
1 Josh. 21 : 9-19. The Levites also had
cities in other tribes.
History. — Under Joshua a part of the
plain and some of the hill-towns were
taken, Josh. 10 : 28-35, 38-40 ; 11 : 21, 23.
After his death Judah and Simeon cap-
tured some of the Philistine cities and
sacked Jerusalem. Jud. 1 : 1-20. During
the time of the Judges Hi tie is heard of
Judah. Only one judge. Othniel, is cer-
tainly known to have belonged to that
tribe. Jud. 3:9-11. That its people
were cowed by the Philistines appears
from their conduct concerning Samson.
Jud. 15 : 9-13. Judah furnished a small
487
JUD
JUD
contingent for the army of King Saul the
]}enjamite. 1 Sara. 15: 4. David was made
king at Hebron, and for seven years and a
half ruled over Judah from that city, 2
Sam. 2:11. After the splendid reigns of
David and Solomon over the united tribes
came the division and the separate king-
dom of Judah, which is treated below.
JUDAH, TRIBE OF, the larg-
est of the tribes that came out of Egypt.
Num. 1 : 27. Judah, by reason of its
size, and conscious, too, of the prophecy
of the dying Jacob, Gen. 49 : 8-12, as-
sumed the position of leader. It was
manifestly under the divine favor.
When Moses gave his blessing upon the
tribes, he said of Judah, " Hear, Lord,
the voice of Judah, and bring him unto
his people : let his hand be sufficient for
him; and be thou a help to him from
his enemies," Deut. 33 : 7 — a prayer that
God would help Judah successfully to
lead the tribes. The tribe sent as their
spy the faithful Caleb, the son of Jephun-
neh. Num. 13 : 6. In the conquest Ju-
dah le 1, but the history only touches
upon three points which particularly af-
fected this tribe: (1) Achan was of Ju-
dah, Josh. 7 : 1, 16-18 ; (2) Caleb's con-
quest of Hebron, Josh. 14:6-15; and
(3) Othniel's (the nephew and son-in-
law of Caleb) conquest of Debir. Josh.
15 : 13-19. These are the only instances
of the special reservation of any portion
of the country to its conquerors. Judah
received the first allotment on the par-
tition of the territory. Josh. 15 : 1.
Upon the death of Joshua, Judah un-
dertook with Simeon (he conquest of
the interior. Jud. 1 : 1-3. Judah seems
to have been unmolested during the
greater part of the period of the Judges,
This state of things may have lessened
its interest in the troubles of other tribes;
at all events, Judah did not take much,
if any, part in the different wars, except
on the first occasion, when Othniel, who
was a Judite, delive.'ed Israel from Chu-
shan-rishathaim. Jud. 3 : 9. He was the
only judge from this tribe, unless the
]3ethlehem from which Ibzan came be
liethlehem- Judah. It is markworthy
that a'though Judah did not assist Ba-
rak, Deborah does not rebuke them. In
the destruction of the Benjaniites, Ju-
dah was selected by (Jod to head the
other tribes. Jud. 20: 18. In fact, Ju-
dah was independent, self-contained,
488
strong, and determined all through its
history. It was a nation in itself. It
absorbed some of the surrounding peo-
ples, as the Kenites, Jud. 1:16; cf. 1
Sam. 15:6; 30:29, and the Jerahmee-
lites. 1 Sam. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 29. From the
Kenites came Jael, Jud. 4 : 17, and the
Rechabites. 1 Chr. 2 : 55. When the
choice of the king fell upon a man of
Benjamin, Judah may have been dis-
pleased ; at all events, they jjreservcd
during Saul's reign a very independent
position, but when Saul was dead they
with others offered the crown to Davi(l,
who was of their own flesh and blood.
Under Solomon they were quiet, al-
though heavily taxed, because they held
the greater proportion of the state ap-
pointments. With the revolt of Jero-
boam the history of Judah as a tribe
ceases; their history as a kingdom be-
gins, for which, see Judah, Kingdom
AND Territory of.
JUDAH, THE CITY OF. 2
Chr. 25 : 28. Several manuscripts, and
all the versions except the Chaldee, read
" city of David," which was a name of
Mount Zion at Jerusalem, where were
the tombs of the kings.
JUDAH UPON JORDAN, a
town in Naphtali. Josh. 19 : 34. Why
it was so called is not known. Some
regard it as an error in the text, but
the manuscripts do not prove this;
others suppose there was a town, in one
tribe, named after another tribe, and
refer this to Ilavoth-jair, see Num.
32 : 41, near the Jordan. Dr. Thom-
son found a place near Banias marked
by ruins and a tomb called by the Ai-abs
Stdi Yehuda, " My Lord Judah," which
he believes is the site of ancient Judah
upon Jordan, with its name perpetuated.
JU'DAS (joro/se). 1. The patriarch
Judah. Matt. 1 : 2, 3.
2. The betrayer of Christ. Matt. 10 :
4 ; Mark 3 : 19 ; Luke 6:16. Nothing
is known of his early history. His
name has been variously interpreted,
but best as from Inh Kcn'oth, " the man
of Kerioth," a town of Judah. Josh.
15 : 25. He is called the son of Simon.
John 6: 71. His executive ability led
to his choice as treasurer, but the office
stimulated and increased his avarice.
John 12 : 0 ; 13 : 29. This trait is shown
very strikingly in his regret over Mary's
"waste." It has been suggested that
JUD
JUD
the loss, as he regarded it, of the 300
denarii which the ointment cost may
have made him the more willing to ac-
cept the 30 shekels (the price of a slave)
which he received for the betrayal of
Christ. Matt. 26 : 15. The best 'expla-
nation of the awful crime is that of our
Lord : he was under the influence of Satan.
John 6 : 70, 71. Judas returned after
making the infamous bargain, and min-
gled again with the disciples. He was
present at the paschal supper, though
probably not at the institution of the
Lord's Supper. His familiarity with
the habits of Jesus enabled him to
guide the attendant mob directly to the
garden of Gethsemane, and there, with
the moisture of Jesus' lips still wet upon
his own, to give the command, " Take
him." Matt. 14 : -^3-45. But when the
deed was done there came on the reac-
tion. He knew and confessed that he
had betrayed ''innocent blood." He
could not endure the strain of a con-
science on the rack. He flung the
money to the priests and went and
hanged himself, but was not suff'ered to
present an unmangled corpse, for, the
rope breaking, his body fell headlong
and all his bowels gushed out. Comp.
Matt. 27:5 with Acts 1:18. The 30
shekels were not put into the treasury,
since they were '' the price of blood ;"
accordingly, the priests bought a field
with them'. Matt. 27 : 7. This is the
purchase attributed to Judas himself by
Peter. Acts 1 : 18.
Aceldama, where he committed suicide,
is shown on the southern slope of the
valley of Hinnom. Some have attempt-
ed to extenuate his gtrilt by supposing
that he wished to hasten the crisis and
to force Christ to set up his kingdom.
But our Lord, the most merciful of be-
ings, calls him " the son of perdition,"
for whom it would have been good "if
he had not been born." He is branded
in history as the most ungrateful of
traitors, although the wisdom of God
overruled his treason for the crucifixion
of Jesus, whose death is our salvation.
3. The one called Juda in Mark 6 : 3.
4. A brother of James, and one of the
apostles ; called also Thaddaeus and Leb-
bfeus and Jude. Matt. 10 : 3 ; Mark 3 :
18: Luke 6:16; John 14:22; Acts 1:
13 ; Matt. 13 : 55.
6. Judas of Galilee, a leader of an in-
surrection " in the days of taxing " — ?. e.
the census — a. d. 6, and who, according
to Gamaliel, was very successful for a
time, but was ultimately completely de-
feated. Acts 5 : 37. We find in Josephus
an allusion to a man, who is there said
to have been born in the city of Gamala
in Gaulanitis, and to have been the foun-
der of a new sect, which did not difli'er
from that of the Pharisees save in a fa-
natical love of liberty and refusal to sup-
port the Roman state.
6. The one whose house in Straight
Street, Damascus, sheltered Paul during
his blindness. Acts 9 : 11, 17. This Ju-
das may have kept an inn ; it is unlikely
that he was a disciple.
7. Judas, surnamed Barsabas, a " chief
man among the brethren," a "prophet,"
who was chosen along with Paul and
Barnabas and Silas to carry the decis-
ions of the council of Jerusalem, a. i>.
50, to Antioch. Acts 15 : 22-33.
JL^DE was one of the apostles, and
the brother of James the Less, Jude 1.
He is called "Judas," Matt. 13:55;
John 14 : 22 ; Acts 1 : 13, and elsewhere
"Lebbasus," Matt. 10:3, and " Thad-
danis." Mark 3 : 18.
Epistle of, was written about A. D.
65. The author calls himself " a ser-
vant of Christ and a brother of James,"
who was a brother of Christ and was
also called the Just and the bishop of
Jerusalem. See James. The epistle is
intended to guard believers against
prevalent errors, and to urge them to
constancy in the faith once delivered
to the saints. This is done by a vivid
exhibition of the terrors of God's judg-
ments upon the wicked, and by a recur-
rence to that great principle of our relig-
ion, dependence on Christ alone, to keep
us from falling. In v. 9 we read : " Mi-
chael the archangel, when contending
with the devil, he disputed about the body
of Moses, durst not bring against him
a railing accusation, but said, The Lord
rebuke thee." This incident is not
elsewhere recorded in Scripture, and is
probably quoted from the Apocalypse of
Moses. In v. 14 Jude quotes a proph-
ecy of Enoch, the seventh from Adam.
There is a striking resemblance be-
tween 2 Peter and Jude. Both are
warnings against errorists.
JUDG'ES. 1. This was the title
of a class of magistrates among the Is-
489
JUD
JUD
raelites. The}' were appointel origi-
nally by Moses, at the suj^i^estion of his
father-in-law, to relieve him of a part
of the duties of the chief magistracy.
Ex. 18:13-26. The judicial authority
was primarily administered by the el-
ders and by the heads of families.
After the kingdom was established the
king became the supreme source of jus-
tice, '' consulting, very probably, on oc-
casion, the high priest as to the interpre-
tation of the Law, the right of asking
counsel of God through the priest being
claimed as a royal prerogative." — Aijre,
See Num. 27:21; 1 Sam. 14 : J8 (epAorf,
not ark); 22:10, 13, 15: 23:6. But
under him there were local judges, many
of whom were Levites. 1 Chr. 23 : i.
The great reform of Jehoshaphat in-
cluded a sort of supreme court sitting
in Jerusalem. 2 Chr. 19:5-11. In later
times the Sanhedrin was this court.
Numerous exhortations are given in the
Bible concerning judicial fairness. Deut.
16 : 1'.) ; Prov. 24: 23 : Ps. 82.
2. Besides the?e, there were others
called Judges, whose history is given in
the book of that name, but they were a
class of men raised up in special emer-
gencies and invested with extraordinary
civil and military powers, not unlike
the archons of Athens and the dictators
of Rome. See Hebukws. They were
given to the Israelites about the space
of 450 years, until Samuel the prophet.
Acts 13: 20.
Lint of Judges, and probable Term, nf
Service. years.
Othniel, about b. c. 1400 40
Under Eglon 18
Ehud, etc 80
Under the Pliilistines unk.
Shamgar unk.
Under .Tabin 20
Debora'n and Barak 40
Under Mldian 7
Gideon 40
Al)inielech 3
Tola 23
Jair 18
Under the Ammonites 18
Jeplithah 6
Iltzaii 7
Kl-'ii 10
Alulon 8
Under the Philistines 40
Sum son ) f20
Kli I t40
Under the Philistines 20
Samuel, about 12
Said, the first king, b. c. 101)1.
490
It is only proper to add that the chro-
nology of the Bible is very uncertain
until we get to David's reign, and that
these 15 specified Judges may not all
have been successive. The period of
the Judges was a semi-barbarous age.
where might was right, and every one
did what seemed good in his sight. But
it was also a period of divine interposi-
tions and deliverances. It was the heroic
age of Jewish histor}'.
JcDOKS, Book of, derives its title from
the fact that it gives us the history of the
Israelites under the administration of 15
Judges, viz. from 18 or 20 years after the
death of Joshua to the time of Saul.
The chronology is uncertain. This
book has been well styled a commentary
upon the text "Righteousness exalteth
a nation ; but sin is a reproach to any
people." Prov. 14 : 34. It may be di-
vided into two parts : I. Chs. 3-lG, an
account of God's successive deliver-
ances : II. Chs. 17-21, an account, de-
tached from the preceding and out of
chronological order, of the invasion of
Laish by the Danites, in connection
with the story of Micah and his priest,
Jonathan, chs. 17 and 18 : and an ac-
count of the revenge of the insult to the
Levite, chs. 19-21, the whole prefaced
with an introduction, chs. 1-3. Tho
book is quite evidently a compilation
from existent and trustworthy materials.
Its date is uncertain.
JUDGMENT, JUDGMENTS.
These are words of frequent occurrence
in the sacred Scrijitures, and the sense
of them is generally determined by the
connection. When God's judgments are
spoken of, the term may denote either
the secret decisions of the divine will,
Ps. 10:5; 36:6, or the declarations of
God's will revealed in the Scriptures,
Ex. 21 : 1 : Deut. 7:12: Neh. 9 : 13, or
the inflictions of punishment on the
wicked. Prov. 19 : 21) : Ezo. 26:11.
JUDGMENT-HALL, a room or
office in the palace of the Roman gover-
nor where causes were tried and justice
administered, Jtdin 18 : 2S. The Jews
declined to enter it when they were
prosecuting their murderous purpose
against the Redeemer, lest they should
be defiled by an approximation to the
person of a heathen.
The JunGMKNT-sKAT, Matt. 27 : 19, was
an elevated place in the hall of judg-
JUD
JUN
ment, from which sentence was pro-
nounced.
Judgment, Breastplate of. See
Breastplate.
Judgment of Urim. See Urim.
Judgment, Day of, Matt. 10 : 15, that
important day which is to terminate the
present dispensation of grace, when time
shall be no more and the eternal state of
all men shall be unchangeably fixed.
That such an event is necessar}^ to
vindicate the justice of God, Luke 16 :
25, and that such a day is ajipointed, is
abundantly evident. Eccl. 11:9; Matt.
12:;36: Acts 17:ol: 2 Thess. 1:7-10;
Heb. 9:27; 2 Pet. 2:9: 3:7: 1 John
4:17. That Jesus Christ will officiate
as Judge is also evident. Matt. 25:31,
32: 26:64; John 5 : 22 : Acts 17:31:
Rom. 2 : 16 ; 2 Cor. 5 : 10. That the
judgment will be universal appears
from Eccl. 12 : 14 ; John 5 : 28, 29 : Rom.
14:10,11: 2 Cor. 5:10: Rev. 20:12,
13. That its decision will be final and
irreversible, admitting the righteous to
the joys of Christ's kingdom and doom-
ing the wicked to outer darkness and
eternal despair, appears from the fore-
going Scriptures, and also from Matt.
25: 14-46 : 1 Cor. 15 : 52-57 ; 1 Thess.
4:14-17: Heb. 6 : 2.
JU'DITH (Jewess), a wife of Esau.
Gen. 26 : 34.
JU'DITH, THE APOCRY-
PHAL BOOR OF, one of the ear-
liest sj>ecimens of historical fiction, re-
lates the brave action of Judith, a Jew-
ish widow distinguished for ijer beauty,
her virtue, and her patriotism. When
Holofernes, a general of Xebuchadnez-
zar. was besieging Bethulia, a city of
Judaea, and had already reduced the
inhabitants to great straits, she deter-
mined to deliver her people. To this
end she managed to get admission into
the enem3''s camp, to win the confidence
of Holofernes, and at last to kill him
with her own hand while he lay drunk.
She then escaped to the city, and show-
ing the head aroused their courage ; and
thus the discomfited enemy were put to
flight.
The book of Judith is pure fiction.
It was written in Hebrew during the
days of the Maccabees, for the purpose of
encouraging the people in their strug-
gle. But its morality Js sadly defective.
The author is unknown.
JU'LiIA (feminine of Julius), proba-
bly the wife of Philologus, whom Paul
salutes. Rom. 16 : 15.
JU'LIUS, the captain of the Roman
guard to whom Festus, governor of Ju-
da;a, committed Paul to be conveyed to
Rome, Acts 27 : 1. Julius appears to
have had great regard for Paul. He
sufl'ered him to land at Sidon and visit
his friends there, and in a subsequent
part of the voyage he opposed the vio-
lence of the soldiers, directed against
the prisoners generally, in order to save
the apostle. Acts 27 : 43.
JU'NIA, a Christian at Rome saluted
by Paul. Rom. 16:7.
JU'NIPER. Unquestionably, the
original intends the re-tem (Retama
rsptam), a shrub of the broom family,
attaining a height of about 12 feet.
This bush grows in the sandy regions
of Arabia, northern Africa, and Spain,
but is especially abundant in the desert
Eetem or Juuiper Busli. {After Tnstram.)
of Sinai, and is often the only possible
shelter. Under its shade travelers are
glad to creep on a sultry day for a noon-
time nap. and thus Elijah lay and slept
after his long journey. 1 Kgs. 19 : 4, 5.
The retem has no main trunk, but con-
sists of many stems, mostly small. The
roots are disproportionally massive and
491
JUN
JUT
dense, and from them the Bedouins
manufacture charcoal, which is sold in
Cairo and other towns, where it brings
the highest price, since, of all charcoal,
it produces the most intense heat, Ps.
130 : i. In Job 30 : 4 we read of hun-
ger so extreme that the bitter roots of
this shrub are used for food. During
the wanderings of the Israelites one
of their stations was named Rithmah,
doubtless from the abundance of the
retem at that place, Num. 33:18.
JUNIPER, COALS OF. See
above, and Armor.
JU'PITER, the highest and might-
iest of the Olympian gods, reputed as
the powerful ruler of the world, the
father of gods and men, is twice men-
tioned in the N. T.
1. The incident at Lystra, Acts 14 :
12. When the Lystrians saw the im-
potent man instantly healed, they were
disposed to regard the apostles as gods
in the likeness of men ; and as there
was a tradition among them that their
province was once visited by Jupiter
and Mercury, they were inclined to re-
gard this as a repetition of the favor,
Acts 14:12, So they called Barnabas
"Jupiter," and Paul, who was the chief
speaker, " Mercury," the god of elo-
quence. The priest of Jupiter, the
tutelar deity of the city, whose image
or temple was before the gates, brought
the usual sacrifices decked out for the
altar, and would have joined the people
in the religious worship of the apostles
had they not been persuaded to desist
by their solemn warnings.
2. The image of Diana at Ephesus
was said to have fallen from Jupiter,
Acts 19:35. See Diana.
JU'SHAB-HE'SED (who^e love
18 retur)ip(l), one of David's posterity,
IChr. 3:20.
JUS'TIFY, JUSTIFICA'-
TION, Rom. 4:25. These terms in-
4'J2
volve one of the fundamental principles
of the Christian faith. They stand op-
posite to "condemn" and "condemna-
tion." In their evangelical use they
denote that act of God's sovereign
grace by which he accepts and receives
those who believe in Christ as just and
righteous. Justification includes the
pardon of sins and the imputation of
the righteousness of Christ. The merits
of Christ are the only ground of justi-
fication; faith is the only means of jus-
tification ; good works are the neces-
sary fruit or evidence of justification.
The Epistles of Paul to the Galatians
and the Romans give the fullest ex-
position of this doctrine. The Roman
Catholic divines identify justification
with sanctification, and hence teach
progressive justification by faith and
good works. They appeal especially
to Jas. 2 : 24. But James opposes a
dead faith which remains '' alone," 2 :
17, and which even demons have. v. 19.
It is only living or working faith by
which we can be justified (comp. Gal.
6 : fi, " faith which worketh by love ").
JUS'TUS {JHHt). 1. A surname of
Joseph called Barsabas, Acts 1 : 23. See
JOSKPH, 10.
2. The Jewish proselyte in Corinth in
whose house Paul preached — not lodged,
for he stopped with Aquila, Acts 18 : 7.
3. A surname of Jesus, a fellow-
worker of Paul, Col. 4 : 11.
JUT'TAH, a town in the moun-
tains of Judah, in the same group with
Maon and Carmel, Josh. 15 : 55. It was
allotted to the priests, 21 : 16. Eusebius
describes it as a large village, 18 miles
southward of Eleutheropolis. Reland
conjectured that this was the " city of
Juda," Luke 1 : 39, in which Zacharias,
father of John the Baptist, resided.
But there is no positive evidence of
this. Juttah is identified with Yutta,
on a hill 5 miles south of Hebron.
KAB
KAR
K.
KAB, OR CAB, 2 Kgs. 6 : 25. See
Mkasures.
KAB'ZEEL {gathered hy God),
called Jehabzeel when rebuilt after the
Captivity, Neh. 11 : 25, a city of the
tribe of Judah, situated farthest to tlie
south, Josh. 15 : 21 ; was the birthplace
of Banaiah, the son of Jehoiada. 2 Sam.
23 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 22.
KA'DESH {sacred), OR KA'-
DESH-BAR'NEA, a place on the
southern frontier of Canaan. Its exact
location has not been identified, but its
general position is unmistakable. It
was "11 days," or about 165 miles, dis-
tant from Horeb, Deut. 1 : 2 ; on the bor-
der of Edom, Num. 20 : 1 6 , not far from
Gerar, Gen. 20 : 1 ; to the east of Bered,
Gen. 16:14; in the de?ert of Zin, Num.
20 : 1 ,; 27 : 14 ; 33 : 36 ; Deut. 32 : 51 ;
and the point to which Chedorlaomer re-
turned, having driven the Horites over
the Arabah into the Et Tih region, and
then going northward. Gen. 14 : 7. Rob-
inson and Porter locate this place in 'Ain
el Weibch, in the neighborhood of the
passes of Supkah and Figreh, immedi-
ately below the southern border of Pal-
estine ; Stanley, in or near Petra ; Row-
land and Palmer, at 'Ain G(idi>i on the
border of Negeb, in the desert of Et Tih,
about 40 miles south of Beer-shelm and
40 miles west of 'Ain el Weibch. In
Scripture it is sometimes called Kadesh
alone, and sometimes Kadesh-barnea,
and is identical with Meribah-kadesh,
Eze.47:19; Josh. 15 : 3. 2.3 ; with " En-
Mishpat,"=the fountain of judgment,
Gen. 14:7; and with " Rithmah,"=the
broom, Num. 33 : 18, thus called from
a shrub growing in the desert. Proba-
bly these various names indicate various
localities in the district of Kadesh. At
Rithmah the Israelites encamped in the
second summer after the exodus from
Egypt, Num. 33 : 18, and they stayed
there for months. Spies were sent into
the land of Canaan ; but when they re-
turned they made an evil report of the
country, and murmuring broke out
among the people. Then followed the
great penal wanderings through the
desert, and in the first month of the
fortieth year after the Exodus the Is-
raelites once more encamped at Kadesh,
Num. 20 : 1. Here Miriam died and
was buried, and it was here that Moses
smote the rock and called forth the
KAD'MIEL {before God), a Levite
who, with his descendants, returned from
captivity with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:40;
superintended the workmen, Ezr. 3:9;
and helped in the thanksgiving, Neh.
9:4; 12 : 8, and the reforms, Neh. 10 :
9. It is possible that two persons are
referred to.
KAD'MONITE {eastern), a people
in the land of Canaan in Abram's time.
Gen. 15:19. As the term means also
"ancient," it may be a name for the
earliest inhabitants. The name is still
found among the Nusairiyeh, north of
Tripoli, who say they were driven from
Palestine.
KA'IN {dance), Kexites, q. v., Num.
24 : 22, margin.
KAIj'LiAI (fiwi/t runner of Jehovah),
a priest, a chief of the fathers in the
davs of Joiakim. Neh. 12:20.
KA'NAH {place of reeds). 1. A
town in the district of Asher, Josh. 19 :
28: now a village, 'Ain Kana, 6 miles
south-east of Tyre.
2. A river forming the boundary be-
tween Ephraim aud Manassth, Josh. 16 :
8; 17:9. Robinson identifies it with the
present Wady Kanuh, which rises 7 miles
south-east of Nablus and enters the sea
just above JafFa ; while Schwartz iden-
tifies it with the present Wady el-Kha-
vah, "the reedy river," which rises close
to Nablus and flows more northerly to
the sea.
KARE'AH (bald), father of Jo-
hanan and Jonathan, adherents of Ge-
daliah. Jer. 40 : 8, 13, 15, 16 ; 41 : 11, 13,
1 4. 1 6 : 42 : 1 , 8 ; 43 : 2, 4, 5. In 2 Kgs.
25:23 it is Careah.
KARKA'A ( foundation), a southern
boundary of Judah, Josh. 15 : 3, and
therefore of the Holy Land itself.
KAR'KOR (foundation), the scene
of Gideon's final dispersion of the de-
493
KAR
KEE
feated hosts of Zebah and Zalinunna.
Jud. 8:10. It was "cast of the Jor-
dan, in the open region of the nomad
tribes."
KAR'TAH (r%), a town of Zebu-
lun ; assigned to the Merarite Levites.
Josh. 21 : 34.
KAR'TAIV (double city), a town of
Naphtali : assigned to the Gershonite Le-
vites, Josh. 21:32; called in 1 Chr. 6:
76 Kirjathaim.
KAT'TATH (small), a town of
Zebulun. Josh. 19 : 15.
KE'DAR (durk-skiimed), second son
of Ishmael. Gen. 25 : 13. From him
descended the leading tribes of Arabia
and of the land east of Palestine. They
and the country bear the name of Ke-
dar. Isa. 21 : 16 ; Jer. 49 : 28. They
were nomads, living in black hair-tents.
Cant. 1:5, as the modern Bedouins do,
or in villages, Isa. 42 : 11, and were rich
in flocks and herds, and noted as archers
and mighty men. Ptolemy calls them
Darrie, and Pliny, Cedrie. The rabbins
call the Arabs, Kedar. Tradition makes
Mohammed a descendant of Kedar.
They suffered much from the invasion
of Nebuchadnezzar.
KED'EMAH (enHtward), last-men-
tioned son of Ishmael. Gen. 25:15; 1
Chr. 1 : 31.
KED'EMOTH (easternmost), a
town in the district east of the Dead
Sea, belonging to the tribe of Reuben,
Josh. 13 : 18, and assigned to the Merarite
Levites. Josh. 21 : 37; I Chr. 6 : 79. In the
surrounding wilderness Moses encamped
before passing through the Amorite coun-
try. Deut. 2 : 26.
KE'DESH (sanctuary). 1. A town
on the southern boundary of Judah,
Josh. 15 : 2."') ; perhaps identical with
Kade-h or Kadesh-barnea.
2. A city of Issachar ; assigned to the
Gershonite Levites. 1 Chr. 6:72. In
the parallel list, Josh. 21:28, its name
is Kishon.
3. A fortified city belonging to the
tribe of Naphtali; allott d to the Ger-
shonite Levites, Josh. 20 : 7 ; 21:32; 1
Chr. 6 : 76, and made a city of refuge.
It was the residence of Barak, Jud. 4:
0, and here Deborah assembled the
tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali. Jud. 4 :
11. It was taken l>y Tigiath-pileser in
the reign of Pekah, 2 Kgs. 15 : 29. and
here the battle took place between Jona-
494
than Maccabasus and Demetrius. 1 Mace.
11 : 63. Now it is a small village, Kudes,
10 miles north of Safed and 4 miles
north-west of Merom, beautifully situ-
ated on a high ridge jutting out in the
depressed basin through which the Jor-
dan flows to the Sea of Merom. It is
surrounded with ruins ; numerous sar-
cophagi have been found here.
KE'DRON, OH KID'RON (black
brook, from a Hebrew root signifying
"black," not from cedars, cedar-brook),
is a small stream dry in summer, but
growing into a torrent in the rainy sea-
son ; rises IJ miles north-west of Jeru-
salem ; runs in a south-eastern direc-
tion ; strikes the north-eastern corner
of the wall of the city ; sweeps through
the valley of Jehoshaphat in a deep
gorge along the eastern side of the city,
wliose wall rises 100 feet above its bot-
tom, while on the other side the peak
of Mount Olivet rises about 600 feet ;
breaks through a still narrower cleft
between the Hill of Ofl'ence and Moriah,
and continues its course through a wild
and dismal channel through the wilder-
ness of Judah, passing by the curious con-
vent of Mar Saba, until it reaches the
north-western shote of the Dead Sea. Its
name perhaps refers to the gloom of the
valley, or perhaps to the peculiar nature
of impurity connected with it. Here
Athaliah was executed, 2 Kgs. 11 : 16 ;
here Maachah's idols were burnt, 1 Kgs.
15:13; 2 Chr. 15:16; and hither the
impurities and abominations of idol-
worship were regularly carried and de-
stroyed. 2 Chr. 29:16: 30:14; 2 Kgs.
23:4,6,12. In the time of Josiah it
became the common burial-place of the
city, 2 Kgs. 23: 16, and so it is to-day.
The two events, however, connected with
it, and which give it its greatest interest,
are David's crossing it on his flight from
Jerusalem when AbsalouFrebelled,2 Sam.
15 : 23, 30, and Christ's crossing it on his
wa}' to Gcthsemane. JohnlS: 1 ; Mark 14:
26 ; Luke 22 : 39. As Cajsar crossed the
Rubicon for the military conquest of the
world, so Christ crossed the Kedron for
the salvation of the world.
KEEP'ER, used for a shepherd, a
jailer, an armor-bearer, a ca[)tain of the
body-guard, keej»er of the wardrobe,
chief tbrestor, gate- or door-guard, chief
eunuch, vineyard-guard, sweeper of the
temple, and sentinel. Ps. 121 : 5.
KEH
KEY
KEHEL'ATHAH {a^sembfy), one |
of the encampment-places of the Israel-
ites during their wanderings through the ,
desert. Num. 33 : 22, 23. ]
KEI'LAH (fortrefsi), a, city in the
lowland of Judah, near the Philistine
frontier. Josh. 15:44. When captured ,
and plundered by a Philistine invasion
David came to its rescue, but the inhab-
itants treacherously plotted with Saul for
his betrayal. 1 Sam. 23 : 1-13. After the
Captivity the rulers of Keilah assisted
in the reparation of the walls of Jeru-
salem. Is eh. 3:17, 18.
KELA'IAH {sicift messenger of
God), one of the Levites who returned
with Ezra ; married a woman of the
land ; helped expound the Law ; en-
tered the covenant to follow the Law,
and divorced his heathen wife ; called
also Kelita. Ezr. 10 : 23 ; Neh. 8 : 7 j 10 :
10.
KEL'ITA {(hear/). See Kelaiah.
KEMU'EJL {helper, or assenihly of
God). 1. The third son of Nahor and
Milcah, and father of Bethuel and five
older sons. Gen. 22:21.
2. Son of Shiphtan, and prince of
Ephraim ; one of the twelve who divi-
ded Canaan. Num. 34: 24.
3. A prince of Levi. I Chr. 27 : 17.
KE'NAN. See Caixan.
KE'NATH {posse><sion), a city of
Gilead, in the tribe of Manasseh; cap-
tured by Nobah, Num. 32 : 42 : a place
of splendor and importance under Rome ;
a Christian bishop's see; "20 miles from
Bo?tra : now called Kenaicat.
KE'NAZ (rt hunt). 1. A grandson
of Esau, and prince in Edom, Gen. 36 :
11, 42; founder of the Kenezites. Josh.
14 : 14.
2; Brother of Caleb, and father of
Othniel. Josh. 15 : 17.
3. Son of Elah, son of Caleb. 1 Chr.
4 : 15 f though see margin).
KEN'EZITE {hunter), a Canaan-
itish tribe of which nothing further is
known. Gen. 15 : 19. The same word
in Hebrew as Kenizzite.
KEN'ITE {smith), a tribe of Mid-
ian, between Palestine and Sinai and
east of the Gulf of Akabah. Their land
was promised to Abraham. Gen. 15 : 19.
Jethro, Moses's father-in-law, was a Ke-
nite. Jud. 1:16. The)' were mentioned
in Balaam's prophecy. Num. 24 : 21.
Part of the tribe joined Israel, and lived
south of Judah. Jud. 1:16. One fam-
ily migrated to the far north. There
Heber dwelt. Jud. 4:11. The Kenites
were friendly with the Canaanites, Ama-
lekites, and Israelites. Saul and David
spared them in their raids on Amalek
on account of their former kindness.
1 Sam. 15: 6; 27: 10; 30: 29. A fam-
ily of Kenites came of Ilemath, father
of the house of Rechab. 1 Chr. 2 : 55.
KEN'IZZITE {hunter), a tribe of
Canaan in Abraham's time. Gen. 15: 19.
The same word in Hebrew as Kenezite.
KER'CHIEFS {spread out), an
article of dress or ornament like a veil
or scarf, worn on the head by the idol-
atrous women of Israel. Eze. 13 : 18, 21.
KER'EN-HAP'PtCH {paint-
horn). Job's third daughter, born after
his restoration to prosperity. Job 42 : 14.
KE'RIOTH {eities). 1. A town in
the south of Judah, Josh. 15 : 25 ; sug-
gested as the place from which Judas
Iscariot, "the man of Kerioth," took
his title.
2. A strong city of Moab. Jer. 48 : 2-1,
41: Am. 2 : 2.
KERN'ELS {acrid), grape-seeds.
Num. 6 : 4.
KE'ROS {curved), one of the Ncth-
inim, whose " children " came back with
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 44 ; Neh. 7 : 47.
KET'TLE {hoilin;/), a vessel for
cooking or sacrificial purposes. 1 Sam.
2 : 14. The same word is translated
" basket," Jer. 24 : 2, " caldron," 2 Chr.
36 : 13, and "pot," Job 41 : 20.
KETU'RAH (incense), the wife of
Abraham after Sarah's death. Gen. 25:1 ;
1 Chr. 1 : 32. She was the mother of six
sons.
KEY (Heb. the opener, Gr. the closer),
an instrument, of wood or metal, for
closing or opening a lock. Jud. 3:25.
They were sometimes so large as to be
carried on the shoulder. Isa. 22 : 22.
When so borne a key proclaimed the
bearer's importance and declared him
to be an officer.
Egyptian Iron Key. (From Wilkinson.)
The key is an emblem of office, as of
a treasurer, Isa. 22 : 22 ; of authority in
495
KEZ
KIN
the Church of Christ, Matt. 16:19; an
emblem of the means of gaining know-
ledge of divine truth, Luke 11 : 52 ; of
Christ's authority over hell and death,
Rev. 1:18; 9:1; 20 : 1 ; and of king-
ship. Rev. 3 : 7.
Assyrian monuments show strong
gates fastened by bars, and by locks
opened by huge keys like those of mod-
ern Cairo. In ancient as in modern
times the transfer of government was
made by giving and taking a key. The
rabbins represent Grod as holding the
keys of various operations of nature,
KEZI'A {caaaia), Job's second
daughter, born after his restoration
to prosperity. Job 42 : 14.
KE'ZIZ, a town on the eastern
border of Benjamin. Josh. 18 : 21.
K IB'R Ot H -HATTA'A VAH
(<jrnve8 of /nut), one of the stations of
Israel on their wandering through the
wilderness ; situated about 3 days' jour-
ney from Sinai and 15 miles from the
Gulf of Akabah, Here it was that a
wind from the Lord brought immense
swarms of quails down upon the en-
campment while the people were clamor-
ing for flesh-meat. They fed on them
for a whole month, but then a great
plague smote them and many of them
died. Num. 11 : 31-35 ; 33 : \C^, 17 ; Deut.
9 : 22. Travellers have often in these
regions encountered swarms of quails,
flying with the wind and so low that two
or three of them may be killed by one
blow of a stick, and at Erweis el-Ebei-
riff, near Wacly el-Hudherah ( Hazaroth)
Israelite remains have been found.
KIB^ZAI.^I (two heapfi), a city be-
longing to E{)hraim and assigned to
Kohatiiite Levites, Josh. 21:22. In 1
Chr. 6 : 68 it is called Jokmeam, which
see. It has been identified as the pres-
ent Karab, at the confluence of two
streams on the north-western frontier of
Ephraim. Comp. Josh. 16 : 9 ; 17:9. 10.
KID, Jud. 14 : 6, or the young of
the goat, was among the luxuries of
the ancients, Gen. 38 : 17; Jud. 6:19;
1 Sam. 16 : 20, and is now esteemed
a great delicacy by Eastern nations.
Kids were among the sacrificial olTer-
ings. Num. 7 : 11-87.
KID'NEY {Icnujiuyf). The leaf-fat
around the kidneys of sacrifices was to
be burned. Ex. 29 : l-', etc. The sup-
posed seat of desire. Job 19 : 27 (mar-
496
gin): Ps. 7:9, etc. See Reins. Used
also for kernels of wheat, from their
shape and richness. Deut. 32 : 14.
KID'RON. See Kedrox.
KI'NAH i^lcunentntion, dirge), a city
in the southern part of Judah, near the
frontier of Edom. Josh. 15 : 22.
KIIV'DRED, in the 0. T. the
translation of the terms signifj'ing —
(1) "clan," persons belonging to a
common stock, Gen. 12 : 1 ; 24 : 4, 7,
38, 40, 41; (2) "birth," and so " off"-
spring," as Gen. 31 : 3 ; 43 : 7 ; Esth.
8:6; (3) '•' knowledge," one known by
relationship, Ruth 3:2; (4) "redemp-
tion," from the dut}' of a near relation
to redeem, Eze. 11:15; comp. Ruth 4:
6; (5) "brother," 1 Chron. 12 : 29; (6)
the immediate family. Gen. 10 : 31.
In the N. T. it is used of (1) relatives
by birth, Luke 1 : 61 ; Acts 7 : 13; (2)
family in the larger sense, Acts 4:6; 7 :
13, 19; (3) tribe. Rev. 5:9; 14:6; (4)
descendants in a direct line. Acts 3 : 25.
In the same way are used " kinsfolk,"
" man," " woman."
KINE, Gen. 41 : 2. is used by the sa-
cred writers as the plural of cow. The
word is used figuratively by the prophet,
concerning the Israelites to describe the
feebleness, idleness/ and luxury which
characterized them. They were like the
fatlings of Bashan, feeding carelessly and
securely in rich pastures only to prepare
them for the slaughter. Eze. 39 : IS. See
Cow. lIlCUD.
KING, a general title for a supreme
ruler. It is applied to —
1. God, as "the Eternal, Immortal,
Invisible, the Only Wise." 1 Tim. 1 : 17.
The titles and attributes of earthly roy-
alty are applied to God because much of
the language of Scripture was formed un-
der the monarchical idea, and the highest
dignity and splendor was that of the king.
2. Christ, as supreme over all rul(M-s,
I Tim. 6:15; over the Jews. Matt. 27 :
II ; Luke 19:38: John 1:49.
3. To human rulers, without regard to
the size or importance of their dominions;
e.(j. sheiks or chiefs of Edoin, Gen. 36 :
31 ; Midian, Num. 31 : 8 ; Moab, Num.
23 : 7, etc. Rulers in single towns, as
Melchizedek, king of Salem. Gen. 14 :
18. To a victor. Num. 23 : 21 ; to a per-
son of splendid appearance, Jud. 8:18;
the Roman emperor, 1 Pet. 2:13: the
kings of Egypt, Ex. 3 : 19 ; Judah, 2
KIN
KIN
Kgs. 8 : 16; Persia, Ezr. 4 : 3, etc.; to
the tetrarch Herod, Matt. 14 : 9 ; to the
people of God, Re\'. 1:6:5:10; see also
Dan. 7 : 22, 27 : Matt. 19 : 27 ; 1 Cor. 6 :
2 ; 1 Pet. 2:9: t^j death. Job 18 : 14 : to
leviathan, Job 41: 34; to the devil. Rev. I
9:11. I
The name was given in Israel first to '
Saul, then to David
and Solomon, and KINGS
then to the rulers Showing their Order, Relative Length of Reigns, Contemporary
drawing their power and receiving their
appointment from him. 1 Sam. 10 : 1 :
I Chr. 28 : 4. His office was sacred, 2
Sam. 1 : 14; he could declare war, 1
Sam. 11 : 7 ; levy taxes and demand
personal service, 2 Kgs. 23 : 35 : 1
Kgs. 5; he was the court of justice
of the last resort, 2 Sam. 15 : 2 ; held
OF ISRAEL AXD JUDAH.
of Israel and Judah
until the Captivity.
The divine plan was
that God alone should
be King. But pro-
vision was made for
the natural desire of
the people for a king
like those of other
nations. D eu t. 17 :
14; 1 Sam. 8:9. He
was to be a native
Israelite, was not to
multiply horses, nor
take the people back
to Egypt, nor gather
a harem, nor accu-
mulate great treas-
ure; he was to keep
a copy of the Law
by him and study it,
to fear God, be obe-
dient, humble, and
righteous.
After the transi-
tion period of the
Judges, Samuel, the
last of the class,
anointed Saul, 1
Sam. 9, as a special
military leader was
needed at the siege
of Jabesh-gilead. 1
Sam. 11. After Saul's
disobedience and re-
jection, 1 Sam. 15,
Samuel anointed
David. For the suc-
ceeding dates, etc.,
see the table at the
side and articles un-
der the names of the
kings.
The kings over the
Hebrews were re-
garded as the repre-
sentatives of God,
32
Kings of Judah and Israel after the Division, etc.
KINGS OF ISRAEL BEFORE THE DIVISION,
ShuI
David
40 years.
40.
Solomon
Kingdom
Judali. .
Kehoboam 17.
Abijam | 3.
40.
OTHER KING-
BOMS.
Hiram of
Tyr«s.
B.C.
1095
100<J
Divided 975 B.C.
I Israel.
Asa
41.
22
Jeroboam.
=3 Nadab.
Paasha.
Jehoshaphat
25.
2 S Elah. „. • /- J, ,
_J--, Zimri(7dy8)
4 ] Tibni and Omii.
8 J Omri.
22 I Ahab.
JehoramFe.
Ahaziah'-, I.
Athaliah | 6.
2 L) Ahaziah.
12 I Jehoram.
Joash
40.
28
Jeh«i.
Amaziah 29.
17 I Jelioahaz.
Jehoash.
Jeroboam II.
KC'ZOQ of
Syria.
Shishak of
Egypt.
Beoluulad L
of Syria.
Benhadad II.
of Syria.
Hazael of
Syria-
Cartha go
founded.
Benhadad HI.
of Syria.
9;J0
8(>0
497
KIN
KIN
KINGS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH.— Continued.
KINGS OF ISRAEL BEFORE THE DIVISION.
Uzziah
or
Azariah
52.
Jotham
16.
Aha/
Hezekiah
16.
[Anarchy.]
Zachariah (6 mos.)
Shallum (1 mo.).
j Menaheni.
Pekahiah.
i Pekah.
["[Anarchy.]
y] Hoshea.
29.
Samaria talcen. Endking-
dom of Israel. 721 B. C.
Manasseh
55.
AmoD I 2.
Josiab
31.
Jehoahaz r~3 ni.
Jehoiakiiul 11...
Jehoiachin cz3 m.
Zedekiah jll.
Jerusalem taken 605.
OTHER KING-
DOMS.
B.C.
I'nl of Nineveh.
Tiglath-Pile-
ser of Assy-
ria.
Rezin of Syria.
Shalmanezer
and Sargon
of Assyria.
Sennacherib
of Assyria.
Esar-Haddon
of Babylon.
800
700
The king could ap-
point his own succes-
sor, 1 Kgs. 1:30; 2
Chr. 11 : 21, and gen-
erally chose the first-
born. Anointing
with sacred oil was
the main feature of
the ceremony of in-
auguration. 1 Sam.
10 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 4.
Some of the ofiicers
of the court were, (1 )
the recorder, 2 Sam.
8 : 16; (2) scribe. 2
Sam. 8:17: (3) chief
steward or treas-
urer, Isa. 22:15: (4)
"king's friend," 1
Kgs. 4:5; (5) keep-
er of the wardrobe, 2
Kgs. 22:14; (6) cap-
tain of the body-
guard, 2 Sam. 20;
23; (7) commander-
in-chief, I Chr. 27 :
34; (8) royal coun-
sellor, 1 Chr. 27 : 32 ;
(9) officers over store-
houses, trees, vine-
yards, cattle, and
laborers. 1 Chr. 27:
25. The king's rev-
enues were from
crown-lands, flocks,
tithes, tributes, cus-
toms, presents, trad-
ing, spoils of war,
and enforced labor. 1
Sam. 8: 1 Kgs. 20;
DiAGBAM OP THE KiNGS. — Tlie dcsigti of the foregoing tnble of tlie o Pbr 27 Durin"
kings of Israel and Judali is lo represent to the eye the order in which " " "
the kings reigned, and the dates and relative duration of their reigns, hie they were sur-
The period of Jewish history covered by the table is from B.C. 1095 to rounded with splen-
B. c. 586, or about 509 years. , i « ? »• n <? nf
Where the reigns were very short (as one month or six months), it was '^'"'^ ''''''* '^ ' K " ^
necessary to make the "lines " or "steps " representing </idr reigns some- honor; after death
what out of tlie exact proportion. Frequently xiarts at' years are counted ^.j^^y were buried in
in round numbers as if /wi? years. For example, Nadab's reign is given ., | .
as "2 years," though it was not probably two full years, but only parts the royal cemetery.
of them. This will explnin several of the figures given. Jehoshaphat 1 Kgs. 2:10.
ansociated Jehoram with him during the last two years of hia reign, so "KflVf'DOM
Jehoshaphat's " 25 years " and Jehoram's " 6 years " overlap each otiier. ,„, , . V ,*,
^ ^ :i f The term "kingdom"
Nebuchadnez-
zar of Baby-
lon.
Jerusalem destroyed 588.
Babylonian Captivity. End of kingdom of
Judah.
600
the power of life and death, 2 Sam.
14 ; had some charge of the public
worship. 1 Kgs. 8; 2 Kgs. 23. The
Hebrew monarchy was in a sense lim-
ited, 1 Sam. 10 : 25; 1 Kgs. 12 : 4 ; 2
Kgs. 11 : 17, checks being furnished
by the Mosaic law and the protests of
prophets and people.
498
is applied to the territory ruled by a king,
Num. 32 ; 33 ; to the right to be a king,
2 Sam. 3 : 10, or to have power, Esth.
4:14; to a country, without reference to
the form of government, 1 Kgs. 10 ; 20 :
to supreme power, Dan. 7 : 14; to the
priests, Ex. 19 ; 0 ; to the government
of God the Father among men, Dan. 4 :
KIN
KIN
17 : to the rule of the saints, Dan. 7:18;
to Christ's rule on earth, 1 Cor. 15 : 24,
and God's universal dominion, 2 Chr.
29 : 11 ; Ps. 22 : 28 ; to the state of
salvation. Col. 1 : 1.3; to heaven. 2 Pet.
1 : 1 1 ; to the rule of Satan. Matt. 12 : 2fi.
KIXG'DOM OF GOD, OF
CHRIST, OF HEAVEN. When-
ever the last phrase, drawn, probably,
from Daniel, is used in the N. T., the
word '' heavens " is in the plural. These
terms are nearly, if not exactly, synon-
ymous, though emphasis may be laid at
different times on different character-
istics or points of time. Such emphasis
is laid on, (1) a life of righteous alle-
giance to Christ, entered by faifh, lived
by love, and crowned with glory. Matt.
6 : 33, etc.; (2) the condition of things
Christ came to explain, Luke 1 : 13;
Acts 1 : 3, and to bring on earth, Matt.
4:17; (3) Christ's rule over Israel, Matt.
21 : 13 ; (4) the rule that God offered or
committed to Israel, Matt. 21 : 43 ; 1 Chr.
17 : 14; (.5) the state of things in the
history of the Church during the con-
flict on earth of the so-called kingdom
of grace, preparatory to the kingdom
of glory. Matt. 13 ; (6) Christ's rule in
spiritual and eternal righteousness over
the redeemed earth. Rev. 12 : 10, in con-
trast with the world-powers, Dan. 7:18;
then the kingdom will destroy and take
the place of the four monarchies, Dan.
7, and have its glorious manifestation ;
(7) the visible glory of Christ, Matt. 16 :
28; (8) the rule of God the Father over
earth and heaven. Matt. 6 : 10 ; (9) the
heavenly state. Matt. 8 : 11.
The kingdom of God is perfectly es-
tablished in the heavens. Matt. 6 : 10.
The power and glory of the divine king-
dom are shown in a measure in creation
and providence. From the moral king-
dom the earth has revolted. God re-es-
tablished it in Israel, taking the king-
ship himself. Ex. 19 : 6 : Hos. 13 : 10.
He made the kingship visible in David,
1 Sam. 16, and permanent in his fam-
ily. P's. 89 : 20, 28, 36. The kingdom
ceased as a visible power, with the loss
of its inner spirit, when the nation lapsed
and persisted in idolatry. The prophets
foretold its restoration, Dan. 2:7; Ps. 2 ;
Isa. 2 ; Mic. 4 : Jer. 23 : 5 ; Eze. 34 : 23 ;
John the Baptist came to announce it.
Matt. 3 : 2. Jesus <]!hrist preached it,
Matt. 4: 17; explained its character
and demands, as, for instance, that its
citizens must be holy, meek, Christlike,
etc., that when established it will be a
condition of peace, purity, and glorv,
Matt. 25 : 34 ; Mark 9 : 47 ; Acts 14 : 22 ;
Christ came as the King to .lerusalem,
Luke 19 : 38; comp. 1 : 32, but was re-
jected, and took the kingdom from Is-
rael. Matt 21 : 43. He taught its mys-
teries to the disciples, especially after
his resurrection, Acts 1:3; and sent
them forth to preach it. He declared
that the time of its manifestation was
known only to the Father, Acts 1 : 7.
He laid the foundations of it on the day
of Pentecost by the outpouring of the
Holy Spirit, and rules it from his throne
in heaven. The disciples went every-
where preaching the word of grace, 1
Thess. 2:12, and persuading men to en-
ter the kingdom bv faith and holi-
ness. Acts 8:12; 20 : 25 ; 28 : 23. The
kingdom is to be fully manifested
at the coming of Christ, the Son of
man. 2 Tim. 4 : 1 : Dan. 7:13; Matt.
13 : 43 ; Luke 22 : 29.
At "the end" Christ is to deliver up
to the Father the mediatorial kingdom
that he received at his ascension. Eph.
1 : 20, after having reigned and put
down all rule, authority, and power,
and all enemies under his feet, 1 Cor.
15 : 24; and the kingdom of God, with-
out distinction of persons, shall be com-
plete and for ever. Heb. 1 : 8.
The Church is not the kingdom, though
in some respects like it and preparatory
to its full manifestation as a training-
school of saints. The members of the
'•invisible Church" are citizens of the
kingdom of heaven.
The kingdom of God is the greatest
of all institutions. Its King is God as
(1) the universal Ruler: or as (2) the
covenant God of a single nation called
to keep alive the thought and fact of a
divine kingdom : or as (3) the Mediator,
Christ, redeeming and recognizing the
revolted world, making manifest the
kingdom of grace and power — the first
mainly to his friends, the latter to his
enemies; or as (4) the victorious Son
of man, Emperor of the ransomed
earth; or as (5) God in the consum-
mated kingdom of the heavens. The
Holy Spirit explains and enforces the
constitution of the kingdom, and en-
lightens, persuades, and enables men
499
KIN
KIN
to enter it. The Bible is the history
and prophecy of tiie iiingdom. Citi-
zenship begins with faith, its loyalty is
love, its life is devotion to Christ and
those who are Christ's. It is opposed
by the chaotic kingdom of sin, dark-
ness, and Satan. In a world as yet un-
redeemed the power of the kingdom is
but dimly seen, but when all men are
citizens, and Christ is manifest, and
righteousness shall cover the earth, the
kingdom shall be seen in its glory.
The law of God is the common law of
the kingdom: the Sermon on the Mount
is its magna charta; the Gospels are its
books of the King. The Acts of the
Apostles shows the manner and method
of those who used the Church and its
powers to gather from a godless world
those who were to be manifest in the
revealed kingdom; the Epistles are
the constitutional expositions, and the
Apocalypse the prophetic history, of
the trium))hs, glory, and everlasting
})eace of the kingdom.
KINGDOM OF IS'RAEL. See
ISHAKL.
KINGDOM OF JU DAH. See
Jrn.vH.
KING'S POOL, Neh. 2 : 14, per-
haps the same as the Solomon's pool of
Jose))hus. See Siloam.
KINGS, THE BOOKS OF. In
the Hebrew canon they formed one book.
They follow the books of Samuel, which
are also called books of the Kings. In-
deed, the whole story, from the begin-
ning of Judges to the end of Kings, runs
on as one unbroken narrative. First
Kings takes up the Hebrew history at
the time when David was old and
stricken in years, u. c. 1015; Second
Kings ends with the beginning of
the captivity of Judah in Babylon,
B. C. 586, and the burning of the tem-
ple, though notice is made of the liber-
ation and death of Jehoiachin more than
26 years later. The two books deal espe-
cially with the theocratic promise of 2
Sam. 7 : 12; see 1 Kgs. 14 : 7-1 1 ; 16 :
29; 16: 1-7 — the promise that (liod so
faithfully kept, and that points for-
ward to Christ, King and Conqueror
like David, Prince of peace, Builder
of the temple of God, and enduring
King — and treat the history from the
kingly side, and show the evil of
schism and the worship of idols set
500
up for political reasons, as by Solo-
mon, 1 Kgs. 11, and Jeroboam, 1
Kgs. 12 : 26. Great stress is laid on
the sin of idolatry as the breaking of
the covenant with Jehovah that made
Israel a peculiar people. The reign
of Solomon is described, with a minute
account of the glorious temple and the
royal houses. The story of the revolt
of the larger and more populous part
of the land to form the kingdom of
Israel comes next, and we are given
exact knowledge, though in few words,
of the idolatry of the northern king-
dom, of the work of the great prophets
among them — one of the most important
parts of the history — of the frequent
changes of dynasty, no less than 7, which
furnished 19 kings, every one evil, dur-
ing the 253 years of its existence. Cap-
tivity of the best of the land closed the
history of this kingdom.
The same books also show that David's
roj'al house continued unbroken through
a series of 19 kings, reigning in Jerusa-
lem about 130 years longer, till Judah
was punished for its idolatry. The
wars of the rival kingdoms are de-
scribed, and the disastrous results to
each of calling in foreign help — results
seen first in yielding to idolatry, and
then in the uprooting of both peoples.
The prosperity of a number of the pious
kings of Judah is contrasted with the
calamities visited on the wicked rulers
of Israel. The history shows the way
by which God had led his people from
the time of their highest prosperity to
the deepest fall, and that the only way
up to the light of divine covenant favor
is by the path of repentance. The books
touch, of course, the history of neighbor-
ing nations, and the latest discoveries in
ancient history are strikingly in agree-
ment with the ins])ired record.
The author cannot be identified. An-
cient tradition in the Talmud names Jere-
miah; some have supposed them com-
piled by Ezra or Baruch. The -books,
which were originally one, have a very
marked unity of design, plan, and style,
and were first divided in the Septuagint.
They are in large measure a compilation
from existing documents. They have
always had a place in the Jewish
canon. The concise narrative is illus-
trnfed, enlarged, and confirmed by the
books of Isaiah and Jeremiah. This
KIN
KIS
history is referred to in the N. T., t
Luke 4:25; Acts 7:47; Rom. 11:2;
Jas. 5:17, and modern research is
continually bringing new evidence to
the truth of the history.
The style is quiet and simple in the
main, though showing great vigor in
the record of stirring events, and
breaking forth occasionally into true
poetic fervor.
KINS FOLK-MAN, WOMAN.
See Kindred.
KIK. {wall, or jilace surrounded with
walls), the city from which the Syrians
emigrated when they came to settle in
the region north of Palestine, and to
which Tiglath-pileser sent the captive
Syrians after the conquest of Damas-
cus. 2 Kgs. 16:9; Am. 1:5; 9:7.
About the location of this city scholars
disagree, some placing it in Armenia,
on the river Kar, others identifying it
with Carena, or Carna, in Media.
KIR-HAR'ASETH {brich-fnrt-
re««), 2 Kirs. 3 : 25. or KIR-HAR'E-
SETH, Isa. 16 : 7, or KIR-HA'-
RESH, Isa. 16 : 11, or KIR-
HERES, Jer. 48 : 31, 36, or simply
KIR OF MOAB, Isa. 15 : 1, a
strong fortress in Moab, situated near
the south-eastern shore of the Dead
Sea. It is now called Korah, and was
in the time of the crusaders a place
of great strength, almost impregnable.
KIRIATHA'IM {dovhle city).
Jer. 48 : 1. 23; Eze. 25 : 9, or KIR-
JATHA'IM, Num. 32 : 37 ; Josh.
13 : 19, a fortified town east of the
Jordan belonging to the tribe of
Reuben, but afterward occupied by the
Moabites.
KIR'IOTH, Am. 2 : 2. See Ke-
RIOTH.
KIR'JATH {city), a city belonging
to the tribe of Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 28,
and probably identical with Kirjath-
jearim, the latter part of the name
having: been incidentally omitted.
KIRJATHA'IM. See Kiriath-
AIM.
KIR'JATH-AR'BA {the city of
Arba, Arba being its founder, or the
city of four, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob,
and Adam having been buried there)
is mentioned Gen. 23 : 2; 35 : 27: Josh.
14 : 15 : 15 : 13, 54 ; 20 : 7 ; 21 : 1 1 ; Jud.
1 : 10 ; Neh. 11 : 25.- See Hebron and
Mamre.
KIR JATH-A RIM, Ezr. 2 : 25.
See Kirjath-jearim.
KIR'JATH-BA'AL. {the city of
Banl). Josh. 15:60; 18:14. Identical
with Kirjath-iearim.
KIR'JATH-HU'ZOTH {the city
of streets), a city in Moab. Num. 22 :
39.
KIR'JATH- JE'ARIM {the city
of icoods), one of the four cities of the
Gibeonites, Josh. 9:17. situated on the
border of Judah and Benjamin, Josh.
15:9; 18:14, 15, but belonging to
Judah, Josh. 15:60: Jud. 18:12; was
also called Baalah. Josh. 15 : 9, 10, or
Baale of Judah, 2 Sam. 6 : 2, or Kirjath-
baal. Hither the ark was brought from
Beth-shemesh, 1 Sam. 6:21; 7 : 1, 2,
and here it remained until it was re-
moved by David. 1 Chr. 13 : 5 ; 2 Chr.
1 : 4. The prophet Urijah, who was
put to death by Jehoiakim, Jer. 26 :
20, was born here, and after the Cap-
tivity the people of the city returned in
numbers to it. Neh. 7 : 29. Its present
name is Kuriet el-Enab, but it is now
only a small village with some fine ruins
of a Christian church.
KIR'JATH- SAN'NAH {jjalm-
city), mentioned in Josh. 15:49, and
identical with Debir, which see, and
Kiriath-sepher.
KIR'JATH- SE'PHER {city of
hooks), mentioned in Josh. 15 : 15 and
Jud. 1 : 11, and identical with Debir,
which see. and Kirjath-sannah.
KIR OF MOAB, See Kir-ha-
RASETH.
KISH (a how). 1. A Levite,
grandson of Merari. 1 Chr. 23 : 21 ;
24 : 29.
2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 30 : 9 : 36.
3. Father of King Saul, of the fam-
ily of Matri. son of Ner. 1 Sam. 9:1,
3; 10 : 11, 21 : 14 : 51 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 14;
1 Chr. 8 : 33 : 9 : 39 ; 12:1: 26 : 28.
4. A Levite. 2 Chr. 29 : 12.
5. A Benjamite and ancestor of Mor-
decai. Esth. 2:5. In Acts 13 : 21 he is
I called Ci?.
1 KISH'I {boiD of Jehovah), a Levite
i of the family of Merari, 1 Chr. 6 : 44;
called Kushaiah, margin, 15 : 17.
j KISH'ION (Aarf/»es«), Josh. 19:
20, OR KI'SHON, Josh. 21 : 28, a city
behmging to the tribe of Issachar, and
I assisrned to the Gershonite Levites.
j KI'SHON {beiidivff, curved), or in
501
KIS
KIT
one place, Ps. 83 : 9, KISON, the
present Nahr Muknttd, a river which
drains the plain of Esdraelon, passes
through the plain of Acre, and falls
into the Mediterranean. Only the
lower part of it is perennial, fed by
some springs at the foot of Mount
Carmel. The upper part, rising on
Tabor and Little Hennon, is dry in
the summer, but becomes a torrent in
the winter, rushing along with great
impetuosity and transforming parts of
the plains it traverses into swamps.
The total defeat of Sisera, Jud. 4:7;
5:21, and the executions of the idol-
priests by Elijah, 1 Kgs. 18 : 40, took
place on the shores of this river.
KISS, a salutation of respect and
affection used in most nations and from
the earliest times. It was an established
custom in Jacob's day. It is esjjecially
common in the East. It is spoken of
between parents and children, Gen. 27 :
26 : 31 : 28. 55 ; 48 : 10 ; 50 : 1 ; Ex. 18 :
7; Ruth 1:9, U; 2 Sam. 14:
33; 1 Kgs. 19:20; Luke 15 :
20 ; between male relatives or
friends. Gen. 29: 13; 33:4;
45 : 15; Ex. 4 : 27 ; 1 Sam.
20 : 41 ; between persons of
equal rank, given sometimes
honestly, sometimes deceit-
fully. 2 Sam. 20 : 9 ; Ps. 85 :
10; Prov. 27:(3: Luke 7 : 45 ;
22 : 48 ; Acts 20 : 37. It was
used as a mark of conde-
scension, 2 Sam. 15 : 5 ; 19 :
39; of respect, Luke 7 : 38,
45; 1 Sam. 10:1; of recon-
ciliation. Gen. 33:4; 2 Sam.
14 : 33 : of leavetaking. Gen.
31 : 55; Ruth 1 : 14; Acts
20 : 37 ; of homage, Ps. 2 :
12; as an act symbolical of
Christian love and brother-
hood. Rom. 16 : Ifi; 1 Cor.
16 : 20; 2 Cor. 13 : 12 : 1
Thess. 5 : 26; 1 Pet. 5 : 14.
Kissing the lips was a token
of love ; on the cheek or fore-
head or beard, a kiss was a
sign of res})ect or a salute:
on the hands or feet, of sub-
mission or inferiority, Luke
7: 45. Sometimes the writing
of the king was received with a kiss,
and even the ground was kissed where
the superior had stepped. Ps. 72 : 9 ;
502
Isa. 49 : 23. Respect or adoration of
idols Avas shown by kissing tlie image
or the hand toward the image. 1 Kgs.
19:18; Hos. 13:2.
In the Christian Church the kiss of
peace or holy kiss accompanied social
worship during and long after apostolic
days. The Greek and Russian Catho-
lics kiss sacred images.
The Hebrew word is translated
"ruled," Gen. 41 : 40 ; "armed," 1 Chr.
12 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 17 : 17 and Ps. 78 : 9 :
"touched." Eze. 3 : 13. The Greek
word translated " kiss " in Matt. 26 :
48, and the parallel passages, Mark 14:
44 and Luke 22 : 48, is translated " love "
in all other places.
This extreme sign of affection and
most familiar act has been used con-
stantly in worship. The character of
the act and its association gave a pecu-
liar aggravation to the kiss with which
the traitor saluted our Lord.
KITE, Lev. 11 : 14, a rapacious
iie. (Milvus regahs. After Tiintram.)
bird (Milvii/i rcrfnltH) of the hawk fam-
ily, mentioned as uncleiin by the cere-
monial law. The common kite breeds
KIT
KOH
in Northern Palestine, and in winter is
common in other districts. There is
reference to this bird in Job 28 : 7,
under the rendering Vulture, which
see. The kite is said to have a vision
remarkably keen, even for a bird of
prev.
kiTH'LISH, a town in the low-
land of Judah. Josh. 16 : 40.
KIT'RON (kmjtty), a town belong-
ing to the tribe of Zebulun, but from
which the Canaanites were not exjielled.
Jud. 1:30.
KIT'TIM. Gen. 10 : 4 ,• 1 Chr. 1 : 7.
See Chittim.
KNEADING-TROUGHS. See
BUKAD.
KNEE. Besides the literal use of
the word, it is used figuratively. Tak-
ing children on the knees is adopting
them. Gen. 30 : 3 : 60 : 23. The knees
were the seat of strength. Deut. 28 : '-'b ;
Job 4: 4 : Isa. 36 : 3 ; Nah. 2:10; Heb.
12 : 12. The head was put between
the knees in abject supplication. 1 Kgs.
18 : 42.
Bending the knee is the simplest and
most striking way of making or declar-
ing one's self inferior to another, and
thus it came to be used in prayer, wor-
ship, or humiliation. 2 Kgs. 1:13: Isa.
46 : 23 ; Dan. 6 : 10, 11 ; Luke 22 : 41 ;
Rom. 11:4: Eph. 3:14: Phil. 2:10;
Acts 9 : 40 : 20 : 3f).
The common Hebrew word for bless-
ing is a form of the word translated
"knee," and it is used for invoking
God to bless, Gen. 28 : 6 ; Josh. 24 : 10:
for invoking God for his blessing. Gen.
12 : 3 ; 18 : 18 : for celebrating, praising,
and adoring God. 2 Chr. 6 : 13: Dan. 6 :
11 ; for invoking blessings on others in
the name of God. Ps. 129 : 8 : Gen. 48 :
9: for God blessing his creatures. Gen.
1:22; for emphatic greetings among
men, 1 Sam. 16 : 13 : for invoking evil.
1 Kgs. 21:10; Job 31 : 30.
KNIFE (Heb. the waster), instru-
ment for eating, separator (once, Prov.
23 : 2), that whi^^h glides through (once,
Ezr. 1:9), an instrument of stone, Ex.
4 : 2;'>, margin : bone, copper, or bronze,
afterward of iron : seldom used at meals,
but necessary in killing and preparing
animals for food or sacrifice. Lev. 7 : 33,
34 : 8 : 1 h, 20, 25 ; Ezr. 1 : 9. They were
used for sharpening 'pens. .Ter. 36 : 23.
The razor was used for Nazarite pur-
poses. Num. 6:5, 9, 19 ; Eze. 5 : 1.
Curved knives were used for pruning-
hooks. Isa. 18 : 5. The lancets of the
priests of Baal were probably pointed
knives. 1 Kgs. 18 : 28.
The word for "knife" ("waster") is
usually translated " sword," sometimes
"tool," Ex. 20 : 25, "dagger," Jud. 3 :
16, "mattock," 2 Chr. 34:6 (margin
" mauls "), and " axes." Eze. 26 : 9. Of
the cruel avarice of the wicked, Prov.
30 : 14 says, " Their jaw-teeth are as
knives to devour the poor."
KNOCK, a summons to open the
door, Jud. 19 : 22 ; Cant. 6:2; Acts 12 :
13 ; used as a sign of importunit}', Matt.
7 : 7, S ; Luke 13 : 25, and of the signs of
the coming of Christ. Luke 12 : 36 ; Rev.
3 : 20. Oriental customs require knock-
ing or calling at the outer door or gate,
but not at the doors of rooms. Cred-
itors were required by Moses to stand
without and call. Dcr.t. 24 : 10, 11.
KNOP. Two Hebrew words are
thus rendered. One, Ex. 26 : 31 ; 37 :
17, from the connection, probably de-
notes an imitation of the fruit of the
almond used in the ornamental work of
the sacred candlestick : translated "lin-
tel," margin "chapiter" or " knop."
Am. 9:1: Zeph. 2:14. The other
describes carvings upon the cedar wain-
scot within the temple, and castings
upon the brim of the brazen sea. 1 Kgs.
6:18; 7 : 24. There is reason to think
that these knops were representations
of the beautiful fruit of the colocynth.
See GouRP, AVild.
KNOWLEDGE OF GOOD
AND EVIL, TREE OF, a tree
placed in Eden, the fruit of which man
was not to eat or touch under penalty
of death. It became the instrument of
his temptation. Gen. 2 : 9, 17 ; 3 : 3.
KO^A [he-eameJ), probably a prince
or leader, possibly a city of Babylonia;
one of the enemies of Jerusalem. Ezr.
23 : 23.
KO'HATH {assembly), second son
of Levi ; ancestor of the great Kohath-
ite family of the priests. He lived 133
years. Gen. 46:11; Ex. 6:16, 18;
Num. 3 : 17, 27 ; 26 : 57, 58 ; Josh. 21 :
5, 20, 26; 1 Chr. 6:1.
KO'HATHITE, one of the three
great families of Levi, afterward divided
into four branches. 1 Chr. 23 : 12. They
were Levites of the highest rank. In the
503
KOL
KUS
wilderness they encamped on the south
side of the tabernacle, and had charge
of the arli, table, the most holy parts of
the tabernacle, etc., Num. 8 : 2y-ol ; 4 : 2,
,34, carrying them on their shoulders after
they had been covered by the priests.
In Canaan the Kohathite priests had 1.3
cities in Judah, Benjamin, and Simeon,
the lest of tlie family 10 cities in Eph-
raim, Dan, and western Manasseh. Josh.
21 ; 4, 5, 20. They were included in the
courses arranged by David. 1 Chr. 25,
26. They helped bring the ark to Jeru-
salem. 1 Chr. 16 : 5. They attained
wealth and importance, kept the sacred
treasures, and were judges, officers, and
rulers. 1 Chr. 23 : 12; 26 : 20-20.
They also appear as singers. 2 Chr.
20 : 19.
KOLAI'AH {voice of Jehovah). 1.
A Benjamite. Neh. 11 : 7.
2. Father of the false prophet Ahab.
Jer. 29:21.
KO'RAH (ia/rf«e8»). 1. Third son
of Esau and Aholibamah, Gen. 38 : 5,
14, 18; 1 Chr. 1 : ;55 ; named as son of
Eliphaz. Gen. 36 : 16.
2. Son of Izhar, the son of Kohath,
the son of Levi, Ex. 6 : 18, 21, 24, the
proud and ambitious ringleader in the
rebellion with Dathan, Abiram, and On,
of the tribe of Reuben, against his cou-
sins, Moses and Aaron. It was a wide-
spread political rebellion against Moses,
who held the leadership, to which the
tribe of Reuben, the first-born, aspired,
and from which they had been excluded,
and an ecclesiastical rebellion against
Aaron by Korah, a Levite, who, with
his immediate relations, had been shut
out of the higher priestly service to the
inferior service of the tabernacle. With
250 men prominent in the congregtation,
tliey went to Moses and Aaron and im-
pudently and impiously charged them
with usurpation. Moses, astonished at
the revolt — the most serious that had
taken place — appealed to Jehovah by a
test to be made the next day with cen-
sers. Then, after God had expressed
his intention to destroy the people, and
504
Moses and Aaron had interceded suc-
cessfully for them, Moses warned them
as to that which should follow ; the
earth opened and swallowed Dathan
and Abiram and their followers and
families, and fire from the Lord de-
voured Korah and the Levites who
offered incense. Num. 16 ; 26 : 9 ; 27 : 3.
The children of Korah survived, and
became prominent in the temple service.
1 Chr. 6 : 22, 37 ; 9 : 19. Jude couples
Korah (Core) with Cain and Balaam in
his warning against false and self-seek-
ing teachers, v. 11.
3. A son of Hebron, and descendant
of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 43.
KO'RAHITES, descendants of
Korah. Some were noted as singers
among the Kohathites. 2 Chr. 20 : 19.
Eleven of the Psalms bear their name :
42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, 88. Others were
doorkeepers. 1 Chr. 9 : 17-19. One,
Mattithiah, was over "things that were
made in the pans," 1 Chr. 9:31; prob-
ably the meat-offering.
KO RATHITES. Num. 26 : 58.
See KoKAHiTES.
KO'RE ipcirtrUhje). 1. A Korahite,
father of Shallum and Meshelemiah,
temple-porters. 1 Chr. 9 : 19: 26 : 1.
2, A Levite porter, son of Imnah, who
had charge of the offerings and of the
east gate. 2 Chr. 31 : 14.
3. To be translated " Korahite." 1
Chr. 26 : 19.
KOR'HITES. Ex. 6:24; Num.
26 : 58; 1 Chr. 12 : 6 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 19.
See KoRAHiTES.
KOZ {thorn). 1. A descendant of
Judah. 1 Chr. 4: 8. Sec Coz.
2. A priest, head of one of the
courses. 1 Chr. 24:10. See Hakkoz.
It was probably the descendants of this
priest who could not find the record of
their genealogy on the return from cap-
tivity, and were put from the priesthood.
Ezr. 2 : 61 ; Neh. 7 : 63. Meremoth, of
the family of Koz, repaired part of the
wall. Neli. 3:4. 21.
KUSHA'IAH. 1 Chr. 16:17. See
KiSHl.
LAA
LAC
L.
LA'ADAH (order), gran Json of Ju-
dah 1 Chr. 4 : 21.
LA'ADAN (put in order). 1, An
Ephraimite, ancestor of Joshua. 1 Chr.
7 : 26.
2. Son of Gershon. 1 Chr. 23 : 7, 8, 9 ;
26 : 21. Elsewhere and in the margin
called Libni.
LA'BAN (white), son of Bethuel,
grandson of Nahor, grand-nephew of
Abraham, brother of Rebekah, and father
of Leah and Rachel. He lived in Haran,
the old family home. There he hos-
pitably received Abraham's servant, ac-
cording to the custom of the country,
as head of the house, and took the
chief part in betrothing Rebekah to
Isaac. Gen. 24 : 29 ; 25 : 20. To
him Rebekah sent Jacob after their
trick had angered Esau, Gen. 27 : 43,
Isaac adding the charge that his son
was to take a wife of the daughters of
Laban. Gen. 28 : 2, 5. Laban cordially
received him, Gen. 29 : 5, 10, and to
gain his valuable services engaged him
and allowed him to name his own wages.
He asked for Rachel, and through love
for her served seven years. At the end
of that time Laban cheated him by
giving him Leah, v. 23, and afterward
he gave him Rachel, for whom Jacob
served seven years more. v. 28. In the
six additional years during which Jacob
remained in Mesopotamia, he managed
by artifice and shepherd's skill to trans-
fer the best part of his uncle's flocks to
himself. Gen. 30. Then, through the jeal-
ousy of Laban, now in his old age, and t
the influence of his sons, and the es-
trangement of his daughters, and the ]
anger of Jacob at being deceived, and
at having his wages changed so often,
there came an 0}^)*n rupture. While
Laban wag absent shearing sheep. Jacob,
expecting to be plundered, stealthily fled
toward Canaan with his family, and ret-
inue, and flocks, and household goods.
Gen. 31. Laban followed in wrath and
overtook the slow caravan among the
mountains of Gilead, v. 25, but God
checked him from violence, v. 24. He |
was again outwitted by Rachel in his I
search for the tevaphim, v. 34 ; but, after
some sharp wrangling, and a falsehood
as to the grounds of his displeasure, he
and Jacob set up a stone and a cairn as
a witness of the covenant proposed by
Laban, and a boundary beyond which
neither was to pass to harm the other,
V. 44; and Laban then took a loving
farewell and went back to Mesopotamia,
and appeared no more, being only re-
ferred to as the past history is brought
up. 32:4; 46: 18, 25.
Laban appears first as showing a
hearty hospitality, but later as having
hardened into a tricky, grasping, un-
principled, harsh, selfish old man.
LA'BAN (ichite), perhaps Libnah,
near the Elanitic gulf or the Arabah
desert. Deut. 1:1; Comp. Num. 33 : 20.
LACE (Heb. twisted), the blue string
that bound the breastplate to the ephod,
Ex. 28 : 28 ; the frontlet to the mitre, v.
37 ; 39 : 31. The same word is used for
the cord that held the signet-ring. Gen.
38 : 18, 25 (trans. " bracelets"); for wires,
Ex. 39 : 3; for ribband, Num. 15: 38;
for a chain (bound) to hold a cover,
Num. 19 : 15; for a thread of tow, Jud.
16 : 9, and for a measuring-line. Eze.
40 : 3.
LiA'CHISH (invincible), a city of the
Amorites, lying south of Jerusalem, and
toward the border of Simeon. Josh. 10 :
3. It was one of the Canaanitish cities
which was subdued by Joshua and in-
cluded in Judah ; fortified by Jeroboam.
2 Chr. 11 : 9. King Amaziah was killed
there. 2 Kgs. 14 : 19. Lachish was be-
sieged by Sennacherib and perhaps
taken. 2 Kgs. 18:13, 14; Isa. 36 : 1, 2.
The siege is considered by some to be de-
picted on the slabs found in one of the
chambers of the palace at Kouyunjik.
Layard reads the cuneiform inscription
thus : '• Sennacherib, the mighty king,
king of the country of Assyria, sitting
on the throne of judgment before the city
of Lachish. — I give permission for its
slaughter." Compare 2 Chr. 32 : 1 ; 2 Kgs.
19 : 8 ; Jer. 34 : 7. It was a place of
great strength, favorably situated upon
the side of a hill. From Lachish had
505
LAD
LAM
been introduced into Jerusalem the idol-
atry of the ten tribes. Mic. 1 : 13. La-
chish was reoccupied after the Captiv-
ity. Neh. 11 : 30. It has been identified
?
Plan of Lachish. {From the monuments. After Layard.)
with Um Lakis, but better with Ttl el-
Hevi/.
LiAD. The Hebrew word is used for
a new-born infant, Ex. 2:6; Jud. 13 : 5,
7 ; of a boy not full-grown, Gen. 21 : 16 ;
of a youth nearly twenty, Gen. 41 : 12,
and perhaps older, Jud. 17 : 1 ; emphati-
cally to express tender age, Jer. 1:6;
for a servant, Gen. 37 : 2 ; Jud. 7 : 10 ;
of soldiers, 1 Kgs, 20 : 15; of a young
nation. IIos. 11 : 1.
LAD'DER (Heb. a staircase, from
the verb "to raise up"), the object seen
by Jacob in his vision. Gen. 28 : 12.
The use of the word in other writers
suggests that the patriarch saw moun-
tains or rocks piled up as a staircase.
It was a symbol of communion with
heaven through Christ. See John
1 : 51.
Li A'DY, the translation of two He-
brew words, one the feminine of " mighty
man," and usually rendered " mistress,"
as distinguished IVom " servant." Gen.
16:4, 8, 9; 2 Kgs. 5:3; Ps. 123 : 2 ;
Prov. 30 : 23 ; Isa. 24 : 2. It is applied
to Babylon as mistress of nations. Isa.
47 : 5, 7. The other word is rendered
"ladies," Jud. 5: 29; Esth.l:18; "prin-
cess," 1 Kgs. 11 : 3 ; J.am. 1:1: Isa. 49 :
23; ^'queens" (margin, " ))rinccsses ").
In the N. T. it occurs in 2 John 5; as
a title or perhaps a proper name,
kuri'a.
506
LiA'EL {of God), a Gershonite prince.
Num. 3 : 24. '
LiA'HAD {oppression), a descendant
4:2.
LAHAI'ROI.
See Beer-lahairoi.
LAH'MAM {joro-
visio)is), a town of
Judah, Josh. 15 : 40 ;
identified with " El
Hamam, 6 miles south-
east of Ajlanor Eglon."
J^AU' Ml {warrior),
brother of Goliath, 1
Chr. 20 : 5.
LA'ISH {lion),
father of Phaltiel, to
whom Saul gave Mi-
chal, David's wife. 1
> Sam. 25:44; 2 Sam.
3 : 15.
LAVISH, OR
LESH'EM. See
Dan. The Laish men-
tioned in Isa. 10 : 30 can hardly have
been the same as Dan. The introduc-
tion in this connection of a place so
distant, and, moreover, under its old
half-forgotten name, would be very
strange. Probably some small village,
situated between Gallim and Anathoth,
is meant, though no such place has as
3'et been identified.
LAKE. Luke 5 : 1. The principal
lakes mentioned in the Bible are Ti-
berias or Gennesaret, the Salt or Dead
Sea, and Merom. See those articles.
liA'KUM {ivajj-stnpper, fortress), a
place situated on the boundai'y of Naph-
tali, between Jabneel and the Jordan.
Josh. 19 : 33.
L.AMB. See Sheep.
LA'MECH (.vO-o»K/). 1. Son of Me-
thuselah, and fatlier of Noah. Gen. 5 :
25, 31 : 1 Chr. 1:3; Luke 3 : 36.
2. The fifth descendant from Cain, the
first polygamist, father of Jabal, Jubal,
the inventor of musical instruments, and
Tubal-cain, the worker of metals. He
was the author of the earliest jverses ex-
tant, in which he addresses his wives on
account of having slain a man, Gen. 4:
1 8-24 :
" Adalj and Zillab, hear my voice;
Ye wives of Laiucch, liearken unto my
speecli ;
I'or 1 have slain a man for my wound,
And a young man for my bruise;
LAM
LAM
Truly, Cain sliall be avenged sevenfold,
Aud Lamech seventy and sevenfold."
LAi^ENTA'TIONS OF JERE-
MI'AH. Contents. — The Lamentations
are an elegiaj poem on the destruction
of Jerusalem and Judah by Nebuchad-
nezzar and the Chaldees — a sort of
funeral dirge of the theocratic state, yet
not without ho])e of its future resurrec-
tion in a ])urer and better form. The
book consists of five separate poems,
each complete in itself. The first verse
strikes the keynote, where Jerusalem,
once a princess among cities, is personi-
fied as a lonely widow, weeping sorely
in the night with none to comfort her,
her very friends having become her
enemies. Chs. 1 and 2 describe the
calamities of the siege, its causes and
destructive results. The long siege
brought on the horrors of famine ; the
city was taken by storm, the temple was
polluted, the priests who defended it were
massacred, and it was then destroyed.
The fortresses of Judah were thrown
down; thechief of the people were carried
into exile : under the rule of the foreigner
the Sabbaths and solemn feasts were for-
gotten. Ch. 3 deplores the persecutions
which Jeremiah suffered, and represents
the lowest depth of sorrow, almost in the
midnight darkness of despair, yet fol-
lowed by the dawn of a better day. The
fourth chapter laments the ruin and
desolation of the city and temple and the
misfortune of Zedekiah. The fifth cha|iter
is a prayer for the Jews in their cap-
tivity.
The poetical form of this composition
is a very elaborate alphabetical structure.
The first four chapters are acrostics, like
Ps. 25, 34, 37, 119. etc.— that is, every
verse begins with a letter of the Hebrew
alphabet in regular order. Chs. 1, 2,
and 4 contain twenty-two verses each, ac-
cording to the number of Hebrew letters.
The third chapter has three successive
verses beginning with the same letter,
making sixty-six verses in all. The verses
are nearly of the same length, and each
has three nearly-balanced clauses. The
fifth chapter is not acrostic, but con-
tains the same number of verses as 1. 2,
and 4. At first glance this artificial form
may seem inconsistent with the subject
and the spirit. It nlust be remembered,
however, that the purpose of the author
of the Lamentations was not simply to
give an artistic representation of the
grief of the Exile, but much more to give
to the exiles a means of assuaging their
grief: and for this purpose the peculiarly
complicated form was of great advantage,
its complications being so many aids to
the memor)'. And, indeed, few sections
of the 0. T. have done their work more
eff"ectually than this. It has soothed the
weary years of the Babylonian exile, and
afterward kept up a livelj' remembrance
of the days of the deepest humiliation.
On the ninth day of the month of Ab
(July) it was read, year by year, with
fasting and weeping, to commemorate
the national misery and the final deliver-
ance.
Author ship. — The author is not named
anywhere in the Bible, and the book is
not quoted in the N. T. ; but general
tradition assigns the composition to
Jeremiah, and this is the prevailing
opinion to this day. A cavern is still
pointed out in the neighborhood of Jeru-
salem, outside of the Damascus gate, to
which he retired to write the book ; it is
now called the Grotto of Jeremiah, and
is by some regarded as the true site of
Calvary. But besides the old traditions,
the general fitness of things also speaks
for Jeremiah's authorship, and the objec-
tions which have been raised against it
are not conclusive. See Jeremiah.
LAMP. The lights of the East are
of various kinds : not only oil, but pitch,
naphtha, and wax are used to maintain
the flame. The wicks were generally
made of cotton or of flax. According to
rabbinical tradition, the wicks of the
sacred lamps were made of the old linen
garments of the priests. The form of
Oriental lamps was fanciful, and often
elegant. We have no descriptions of the
forms specially used by the Hebrews, but
they were probably not different from
those used in Egypt and Western Asia.
The materials of which lamps were made
were baked clay, terra cotta, bronze, etc.
The lamps of the Hebrews, it is prob-
able, were suflFered to burn all night, and
this occasioned no great expense in a
country so rich in oil. We are told that
this was considered indispensable to the
comfort of a family, and that the poorest
people would rather deny themselves food
than neglect it. The putting out .of the
light denoted the ruin and extinction of
507
LAN
LAO
the family and the desertion of the house.
This gives force to the words in Job 18 :
5, 6 ; 21 : 17 ; 29 : 3 : " The light of the
wicked shall be put out ; ■••' * * light shall
be dark in his tabernacle, and his candle
shall be put out with him."' " How oft is
Assyrian Teria-Cotta and Glass Lamps.
British Museum.)
(From
Chaldsean Lamps.
Lamp with Christian Inscription.
the candle of the wicked put out." Jer.
25: 10, 11 ; Prov. 20:20. Also in Prov.
13:9: "The light of the righteous re-
joiceth, but the lamp of the wicked shall
be put out ;" and of the prudent wife,
" Her candle goeth not out by night."
Prov. 31 : 18.
LANCE. Jer. 60 : 42. See Armor.
liAN'CET, a javelin or light spear.
1 Kgs. 18: 28. But see Knifk.
LAND'MARK. According to the
ordinances given by Moses, the land,
when conquered, was divided by lot an<i
measurement among the tribes, families,
and individuals of the nation. The lines
508
separating one man's field from that of
another were sometimes marked by rows
of trees, but most often simply by a heap
of stones at the corners. To remove
these landmarks was easy enough, and
hence the severe penalty incurred for
doing it. Deut. 19 : 14; 27 : 17; Prov.
23:10.
LiANES were narrow streets where
the poorer people lived. Luke 14 : 21.
LAN^GUAGE. Gen. 2 : 20 ; 11 : 1.
It is generally supposed that Adam was
endued with the power of speech and fur-
nished with a language at his creation,
and that it was sufficiently perfect and
cotnprehensive for all the purposes of
his being. This was the language of
the whole earth for nearly 2000 years, or
until about a century after the Flood.
It was then that the Tower of Babel was
erected, and God caused a confusion of
Languages — an event which forms the
antitype of the speaking in tongues by
the apostles at the first Pentecost. Some
of the older divines supposed, without
any good reason, that the Hebrew was
the original language given by God to
Adam, and that all the other languages
resulting from the division and disper-
sion of mankind over theface of the earth
are derived from that as the root. The
modern science of comparative philol-
ogy distinguishes three distinct families
of languages — the Shemitic (to which the
Hebrew belongs), the Indo-Germanic or
Aryan (which includes the Greek), and
the Turanian. For a brief account of
tlie languages in which the Bible was
written, see Bible.
LAN'TERNS, probably some kind
of covered torch. John 18 : 3.
LAODIC.K'A, the old city of Dios-
polis, the present village of Eski-hissnr,
stood on the banks of the Lycus, an afflu-
ent of the Meander, a few miles distant
from Colosse and Hierapolis, in the Ro-
man province of Asia, the present Asia
Minor. By the Syrian king Seleucus II.,
Diospolis was enlarged and beautified,
and from his wife, Laodiee, it received
its new name. Under the Roman rule
it became a great commercial centre,
situated as it was on the great route
through Asia, and acquired great wealth.
When, in the middle of the first century
of our era, an earthquake destroyed
Colosse, Hierapolis, and LaodiciKa, the
latter was rebuilt by its own inhabitants
LAO
LAP
without an}' aid from the Roman senate.
A Christian church was early established
here, probably from Ephesus, and to this
church Paul sent a salutation when writ-
ing to the Colossians, Col. 4:15; it is also
mentioned in Rev. 1:11; 3 : 14. From
Col. 4:16 it appears that Paul wrote a
letter to the Laodicgeans, but of this letter
no certain account can be made; some
think to recognize it in the Epistle to
Ruins of Laodicsea.
the Ephesians, which was a circular letter.
The " Epistle to the Laodicaenses/' so
called, which exists only in Latin, is a
literary forgery of late date, and com-
piled from the Galatians and Ephesians.
The church of Laodica^a flourished for
several centuries. In the fourth century
an important council gathered here. The
Mohammedans destro^'ed the city, and it
is now only a heap of ruins around a small
and miserable village.
LAODICi«:'ANS, the inhabitants
of Laodicaea. Col. 4:16; Rev. 3 : 14.
LAP, LAP'PETH. The Eastern
people are accustomed to take up water
in the hoUcw of the hand, and they do it
with surprising agility, sitting on their
heels with the face close over the water,
and putting out the tongue to meet the
water. The alertness of the men of
Gideon was tested in this manner. Jud.
7:5.
LAP'IDOTH (torches), the hus-
band of the prophetess Deborah. Jud.
4: 4.
LAP'WING, do\ibtless the hoopoe,
a bird so named from its call-note, of
about the size of the thrush, and of
gular appearance and ways. Lev. 11
sin-
; 19.
Lapwing 01 Hoopoe.
It is abundant in Palestine and the
warmer parts of the Old World, and is
sometimes seen in England.
509
LAS
LAW
LASyE'A, a town of Crete, near i
Fair Haven, now in ruins, but identilied
without doubt. Acts 27 : 8.
LiA'SHA (Jish-iire), a place on the
south-eastern boundary of Canaan, Gen.
10: 19; identified by earlier Christian
writers as Callirhoe, situated near the
eastern shore of the Dead Sea, and fa-
mous for its hot springs.
LASHA'RON {the jylnin), perhaps
identical with Sharon, a district whose
king was killed by Joshua. Josh. 12 : 18.
LATCH'ET. Mark 1 : 7. See
Clothes.
LAT'IN, Luke 23 : 38, LAT'IN
VER'SIONS. See Bible.
LAT'TICE. 2 Kgs. 1:2.. See
Dwellings.
LAUGH, LAUGHTER. When
these forms are used concerning God, as
in Prov. 1: 26; Ps. 2 : 4; 37: 13, they
signify that he despises or pays no re-
gard to the persons or subject.
LA'VER, a brazen vessel belonging
to the tabernacle, and standing in the
court, between the altar and the sacred
tent. Ex. 30: 18, 21. It contained
A Brazen Laver on Wheels.
water for the priests to wash their liands
and feet before olVering sacrifice, and
probably also for washing the things
offered. Its form is not described, but
it was made froui the brazen mirrors of
the women who assembled at the door of
the tabernacle court. Ex. 38: 8. In the
temple of Solomon there were ten brazen
lavcrs on feet, 1 Kgs. 7 : 27-39, five
61 U
on each side of the court of priests which,
were used for washing the animals to be sac-
rificed. 2 Chr.4: 6. See Sea, Tiik Molten.
LAW, THE. This terra is applied
in the N. T. to the old dispensation, in
distinction from the new; the dispensa-
tion under the law in distinction from
tlie dispensation under the gospel ; the
dispensation by Moses in distinction
from the dispensation b}' Christ. John
1 : 17 ; Acts 25 : 8 ; Heb. 10 : 1-18. But
besides this its general sense, which is
never entirely lost sight of by the writers
of the N. T., the term refers more spe-
cially to the Mosaic legislation, including
the moral. Matt. 5: 17, the ceremonial,
Eph. 2:15, and the political, but more
especially the first. Sometimes St. Paul
uses the word "law" (without the article)
in a wider sense — of principle, rule of
moral conduct — and speaks of the hea-
then as having such a law written on
their conscience or being a law to them-
selves. Rom. 2: 11, 15.
The moral law of the old dispensation,
embodied in the ten commandments (the
Decalogue), was promulgaled with ex-
traordinary solemnity on Mount Sinai
by God himself, under the manifestation
of his holy majesty, and recorded by his
own finger on two tables of stone. Ex.
19. Afterward it was preserved by the
Jews in the ark of the covenant, in the
holy of holies of the tabernacle and the
temple, and, spreading from the Jews
among other nations, it forms the indis-
pensable and immovable foundation of
all social order and well-being. For,
though the Decalogue has the form of a
law, it is what its history proves it to be
— something more than mere rules of
conduct. It is a revelation of the nature
of God : •' Ye shall be holy ; for I the
Lord your God am holy," Lev. 19 : 2;
and therefore Christ says, " Think not
that I am come to destroy the law or the
prophets ; I am not come to destroy, but
to fulfil." See Ten Commandments.
The ceremonial law, prescribing the
forms of Hebrew worship, ])ublic and
private, the modes and times of sacrifice,
fast, purification, prayer, festivals, etc.,
rested on this moral law and formed a
transition to the political or civil law.
Many of its ordinances — for instance,
those relating to diet and purification —
had a social, a snnitary purpose besides
their religious meaning. By this cere-
LAW
LAZ
monial law the Hebrews were formed
into a nation distinct from all other na-
tions, and every single feature of the
ritual served to remind them that they
were the chosen people of God. Though
God was certainly the God over all na-
tions, he was by a special covenant the
God of Israel. The ceremonial law was
to the Jews an awful duty, and at the
same time a magnificent promise. Its
whole character was typical, prophetical.
Its whole bearing pointed toward Christ,
and when Christ came it was thereby
fulfilled and abolished, for " we are not
under the law but under grace." Rom. 6 :
14,15; 7: 4,6; Gal. 3: 13, 25: 5: 18.
The political or civil law of the Mosaic
constitution, which made the Hebrews a
people and founded a state, was, as all
political or civil laws must be, simply
the expression of a certain stage of his-
torical development, and as such subject
to the historical laws of growth, decay,
and destruction. But this civil law was
in perfect harmony with "the moral and
ceremonial law, and was formed through-
out in accordance with the same princi-
ples— the principles of theocracy. Civil
law is confined to certain relations be-
tween man and man. Nevertheless, at
every point of the political order of the
Hebrew state, a direct reference is made
to God as the King. The basis of the
whole system is the absolute sovereignty
of God, and the princij)le according to
Avhich all the details are worked out is,
first, the relation between each individual
and God. and then the relation between in-
dividual and individual. This is evident,
for instance, from the ordinances relat-
ing to property. In the Roman repub-
lic all land was held by the state : in the
feudal monarchies of mediaeval Europe
all land was held by the king: in the
theocracy of the Hebrews all land be-
longed to Jehovah : "The land is mine,
and ye are strangers and sojourners with
me." Lev. 25: 23. Hence the payment
of tithes, 27 : 23-26 ; the offering of the
first-fruits, Deut. 26 : 1-10; the impos-
sibility of alienating landed property,
the ground reverting at the jubilee year
to its original possessor, etc. But not
only the land was the absolute property
of Jehovah ; also the persons of the
Israelites belonged to him. Hence the
dedication and ransom of the first-born,
Ex. 13 : 2-13 ; the payment of the half-
shekel at the numbering of the people
'• as a ransom for their souls to the Lord,''
Ex. 30: 11-16; the very limited power
which a master held over Hebrew slaves.
Lev. 25: 39-46, etc.
Though the law, in the widest sense
of the word, denoting the whole Mosaic
constitution, stands l)efore us a wonder-
ful system both with respect to complete-
ness and with respect to consistency, it
is nevertheless essential to its full under-
standing to remember that, just as it
came itself to prepare the way for the
gospel, it too has had its precursors
;:nd had the way prepared for it by the
Abrahamic covenant and its promises.
That, on the whole, much of the mate-
rials of the Mosaic legislation existed
before the time of Moses may be inferred
from the penalties against murder and
adultery, Gen. 9: 6: 38: 24; from the
Levirate law, Gen. 38: 8; from the dis-
tinction of clean and unclean animals.
Gen. 8: 20; and from the probable ob-
servance of the Sabbath. Ex. 16 : 23,
27, 29 : comp. Gen. 2 : 3.
LAWYERS, among the Hebrews,
were not pleaders before a court, but ex-
pounders of the law in the schools and
synagogues : and it is even doubtful
whether there was any difference at all
between a lawyer and a scribe. Matt.
22 : 35 ; Luke 10 : 25; comp. Mark 12 :
28
LAYING ON OF HANDS. See
Hand.
LAZ'ARUS, an abbreviation of
ELEAZAR {whom God helps). 1. A
citizen of Bethany residing with his two
sisters ; of their household Christ was a
frequent guest. He was raised from the
grave by Christ in sight of the city of
Jerusalem, in the presence of the family
and a number of Jews, after he had been
dead four days: and so incensed were
the Jews at this that they sought to kill
not only Chrh^t, but even Lazarus. John
11: 12: 1-11.
2. In the parable by which our Saviour
illustrates the retributions of eternity one
of the parties is named Lazarus, Luke
16 : 19-31 : and it is from this character
the Knights of St. Lazarus, an order half
military and half monastic, founded in
1119, and specially destined to administer
to the lepers, received their name. Also,
lazaretto, or *' hospital." and lazzarnne, or
"beggar," are derived from the name,
5U
LEA
LEB
■which shows that the parable must have
made an extraordinarily deep impression
on the medigeval Church.
LEAD, a metal known to the ancients
from a very early period, and alluded to
in Ex. 15 : 10 on account of its weight.
It is mentioned several times in Scripture
as entering into the process of purifying
more precious metals, Jer. 6 : 29 ; Eze.
22 : 18, 20 ; for which purpose quicksilver
is now used. The words of Job 19 : 24,
" That they wei-e graven with an iron pen
and lead in the rock for ever !" refer to
the custom of pouring molten lead into
letters carved in the rock in order to make
them more striking to the eye.
LEAF. Isa. 64 : 6. The bright
fresh color of the leaf of a tree or plant
shows that it is richly nourished by a
good soil. Hence the fresh leaf is often
used in Scripture as a symbol of pros-
perity, Ps. 1 : 3 ; Jer. 17 : 8 ; Eze. 47 : 12 :
the faded leaf as a symbol of decay. Job
13:25; Isa. 1:30; 64:6; Jer. 8 : 13 ;
Eze. 17 : 9. Also other illustrations are
derived from leaves. Lev. 26:36; Isa.
34 : 4 ; Dan. 4 : 12, 14, 21 ; Mark 13 : 28 ;
Rev. 22 : 2.
YilEi' \.H. {wearied), the eldest daughter
of Laban, and married to Jacob by her
father's deceit. Gen. 29. She bore him
six sons and one daughter, and died
after he went down to Egypt, and was
buried in the cave of Machpelah. Gen.
49 : 31. She was aware of the greater
affection which Jacob felt for her sister,
and suffered thereby, Gen. 29 : 21-25,
31-35; 30 : 1-25, but she was neverthe-
less heartily devoted to her husband.
LEAS'iNG, lies, falsehood. Ps. 4:
2; 6:6.
LEATH'ER was used by the Jews
for clothing. Job 31 : 20 ; Heb. 11 : 37 ;
for covering, Ex. 26 : 14; for girdles, 2
Kgs. 1:8; Matt. 3 : 4, etc. ; but the trade
of the tanner, probably learnt in Egypt,
where it was highly devetoped, was not
held in high esteem.
LEAV'EX, a ferment mixed with
dough to make it light, or a piece of
dough or bread thus mixed and used to
lighten a larger mass. Ex. 12:15, It
makes a thorough change in the whole,
and hence the force of the ])arable. Matt.
13 : 3)5, by which the silent influence of
the gospel on the heart of man is beauti-
fully illustrated. And so also it figu-
ratively denotes the influence of false and
512
corrupt doctrines. Matt. 16 : 6, as well as
the evil passions of the depraved and
unregenerate heart. 1 Cor. 5:7, 8. The
Jews were forbidden to offer leaven and
honey in the temple. Lev. 2 : 11 , and dur-
ing the seven days of the Passover leaven
was not even allowed to be found in their
houses ; whence the festival was often
called the '' feast of unleavened bread."
Comp. 1 Cor. 5 : 6.
Ij E B ' A N A (white), one whose
descendants returned with Zerubbabel.
Neh. 7 : 48.
LiEB'ANON (exceeding white, viz.,
with snow, as Mont Blanc), a double
mountain-range to the north of Pal-
estine, consisting of a western chain,
Lebanon proper, and an eastern, "Leb-
anon toward the sun-rising," Josh. 13 :
5 ; or by classic wri'ers, Anti-Libanus,
and enclosing a valley from 5 to 8 miles
broad — "the valley of Lebanon,"' Josh.
11 : 17 ; or by classic writers, Coelo-
Syria, the present El-Bukaa, which
connects to the north with the valley
of the Orontes, and to the south with
the valley of the Jordan. The western
range, the Lebanon proper, begins on
the north near the banks of the Eleu-
therus, which passes through the plain
of Emesa, the " entrance of Ilamath,"
Num. 34 : 8, to the Mediterranean, and
runs for a distance of 90 geographical
miles, in the direction from north-east
to south-west, parallel with the Med-
iterranean, to the banks of the Litany,
the ancient Leontes, which, draining
Coelo- Syria and breaking through the
Lebanon by a wild gorge, enters the
Mediterranean a few miles north of
Tyre. The average height of this range
is from 6000 to 8000 feet. Its highest
peaks are Jebel Mukhmel, 10,200 feet,
and Sannin. 9000 feet. The line of cul-
tivation runs at an elevation of about
6000 feet. The peaks which pass be-
yond this line are generally barren and
covered with small fragments of lime-
stone, through which the naked rocks
jut up in jagged points. The highest
of them, however, are covered with per-
petual snow and ice. towering aloft in
their glittering magnificence, visible far
off by sea and by land, and sending
forth streams of cooled air over the
scorched plains of Syria and Palestine.
The eastern descent toward Coelo-Syria
is steep, wild, often forbidding; but to
LEB
LEB
View of Lebanon from the Sea.
the west the Lebanon de^oonds gradually
through broad terrace? to the Mediter-
ranean, generally facing the sea with
ranges of bold limestone cliffs. Every-
where broken by the sudden rise of
high peaks of rock or rent by deep
precipices and ravines, these terraces
present a most romantic prospect, and
the beauty of the country is still more
enhanced by the salubrity of the air
and the fertility of the soil : by the lux-
uriant vegetation which covers all forms ;
pine, oak, and Ckdar (which see) on the
peaks ; mulberry and orange trees, figs,
vines, corn, and melons on the slopes:
Olive and cotton trees in the valleys,
besides a multitude of fragrant herb^
and gorgeous flowers. " The smeU of
thy girments is like the smell of Leb-
anon."' Cant. 4 : IL The eastern chain,
the Anti-Lebanon, runs nearly pavallcl
with the western from the plain of
Emesa until, in the south, it connects
with the hills of (Jalilee, Its highest
point is MoTNT Hkrmo.v (which see).
Its western descent toward Coelo-Syria
is abrupt and steop ; to the east it grad-
ually sinks into the plains of the desert.
Its general aspect is b eak and barren,
the abode of wild beasts and birds
of prey. From both ranges numerous
rivers descend — the Eleutherus, Lcontes,
3;i
Jordan, Aba\a. and Pharpar (which
see); and the cold-fiowing waters of the
springs and streams of Lebanon were
and are still proverbial.
Lebanon, the land of which Moses
said, " I pray thee let me go over and
see the good land that ix beyond Jor-
dan, that goodly mountain, and Leb-
anon," Deut. 3 : 25, was in the oldest
times inhabited by the Hivites and
Giblites, Jud. 3: ?/: Josh. 13: 5, 6, of
whom the latter built fhe city of Gebal,
the Greek Byblus, the present Jebai'l.
The land was assigned to tl.e Israelites,
bi.t never conqr.ered by them. .Josh. 13 :
2-G; Jud. 3 : 1-3. It stood under Phoe-
nician ru^e. 1 Kgs. 5: 2-6,- Ezr. 3: 7.
In the times of David and Solomon,
however, the Jews became quite inti-
mately acquainted with the country,
and the deep iro])ression it made on
them is apparent throughout the books
cf the 0. T. Its cedars. Cant. 5 : 15,
its wines, Hos. 14 : 7, its cold waters,
Jer. 18: 14, etc., are lepeatedly men-
tioned, and from it the sacred wi iters
very fequently take the materials for
their most striking simie . Ps. 72 : 16;
29 : 5. 6 ; 104 : 1 6-1 8 : Isa. C5 : 2 : 60 : L*^ ;
Zech. 11 : 1, 2, etc. Anti-Leb;inon stood
under the rule of Damascus, though in
the southern part several fierce tribes
513
LEB
LEN
remained independent up to a very
late date. 1 Chr. 5 : 19-2;}. When the
whole region came under the sway of
the Seleucidae, b. c. 312-65, several
large and important cities were built
here, such as Laodicsea, Chalcis, Abila,
etc. (which see), and as a Roman prov-
ince the prosperity of the country still
increased, as the ruins of Chalcis and
Baalbek show. Also, during the wars
with the Saracens and Turks, it re-
mained comparatively undisturbed, and
it is now inhabited by some 200,000
or 300,000 Christians, Maronites, and
Druses. In Anti-Lebanon, however,
most of the inhabitants are Mohammed-
ans, and the governor is a Turkish
official of the common stamp ; while the
governor of Lebanon is a Christian,
and his position is guaranteed by the
powers of Europe.
LEB'AOTH {li'messeM), a town be-
longing to the tribes of Judah ; prob-
ably identical with Beth-Lebaoth or
Beth-Birei. Josh. 15: 32.
LEBBiE'US {hearty, cnnrnr/efnis),
one of the names of the apostle Jude,
Matt. 10 : 3.
LEBO'NAH ifrankwcense), the
present El-Lnhhan, south of Xahlous, is
mentioned, Jud. 21 : 19, as a place in
the vicinity of Shiloh.
liE'CA-H (icalkiiKj, course) occurs
only in the genealogies of Judah, 1 Chr.
4 : 21, and possibly is the name of a
town.
LEECH. See Horse-leech.
LEEK, a bulbous vegetable like the
onion, a particular species of which has
been cultivated in E'^ypt from a very
early period. Num. 11 : 5. It is eaten
raw with bread. In the passage cited
it is supposed that lettuce, salads, or
savory herbs generally may be intend-
ed, as the original word in the 0. T. is
twelve times rendered '• grass" and once
••herb."
LEES. " Wine on the lees," Isa. 25 :
6, means well-preserved, full-bodied wine.
" lie hath settled on his lees." however,
is used figuratively, Jer. 48 : 11 ; Zeph.
1:12, as an expression of sloth and
indifTerence. To drink the lees or
" dregs," Ps. 76 : H, denotes extreme
sufTeriiig.
LE'GION, a band of soldiers in
the Roman army, consisting of from
6000 to 7000 men ; the original number
514
Common lieek. {Allium porrum)
was 6200 foot and 730 horse. In Matt.
26 : 53, and also in Mark 5 : 9, 15, it
means a large but indefinite number,
and corresponds to the " hosts " of the
0. T. Gen. 32 : 2 ; Ps. 148 : 2.
LE'HABIM ( fiery, flamitifj). Gen.
10 : 13; 1 Chr. 1 • 11, OR LU'BIM,
2 Chr. 12 : 3 ; 16 : 8 ; Dan. 11 : 43 ;
Nah. 3:9, is the name of a people
whit^h in the Egyptian inscriptions is
called " Lebu," and in classic and mod-
ern literature " Libyans." They were
of Hamitic descent, and inhabited the
northern part of Africa, west of Egypt.
At Carthage they were thrown back to-
ward the interior by a Phoenician colony,
at Cyrene by a Greek colony ; and the
country Libya became finally a part of
the Roman empire. In the oldest times,
however, the Libyans seem to have been
allies rather than the subjects of the
Egy])tinns.
LE'HI ( I'linhoDe), a place in Judah,
between the Philistine frontier and the
cliff of Etam, and the scene of the
massacre of the Philistines by Samson.
Jud. 16 : 9 ff.
LEIW['UEL {(leiUrnted to God), the
name of the king to whom the counsels,
contained in Prov. 31 : 2-9 are addressed
by his mother. The' Rabbins identify
Lemuel with Solomon : others consider
the name a mere personification : nothing
is known with (MMtaintv.
LEND, LEND'ER. See Loan.
LEIN'TILES {Ervam lem), a culti-
LEO
LEP
A'ated plant, smaller than the garden
pea, but of the same family. In the
markets of Palestine red lentiles are still
sold as the best variety, and from them
a pottage is made which Dr. Robinson
Lentiles. (Ervum lens.)
and others who have eaten it affirm
would be a savory meal for a wearv
hunter. Gen. 25:29, 30. The "piece
of ground full of lentiles," 2 Sam. 23 :
11, is still common in the Holy Land,
and the poor not infrequently make len-
tiles into bread. Eze. 4 : 9. This pulse
is much used in Roman Catholic coun-
tries during Lent, and from it the name
Le jp.-xrd. (Felis leopardus )
of the season is said to be derived. As
a crop it is cut and threshed like wheat.
LEOP'ARD (Heb. spotted). In
the Bible there is frequent reference to
this fierce animal, which still lurks
among the forests of Gilead, the jungles
of the Jordan, and more rarely among
the thickets of Tabor and Carmel. Jer.
13 : 23. The local names Ximrim, " leop-
ard," and Beth-Nimrah, " house of the
leopard" (perhaps) are to be remem-
bered. Near the latter place Tristram
saw the fresh footprints of these crea-
tures, "clear and unmistakable, on the
moist ooze." It is the habit of the leop-
ard to wait patiently hour after hour
that it may pounce upon cattle. Jer. 5 :
6 : Hos. 13 : 7. Isa. 11 : 6 alludes to its
cruelty, and Dan. 7 : 6 to its power. But
it is thought there is reference under
the same name in Hab. 1 : S to the chee-
tah, a similar but smaller animal still
found in Palestine, the rush of which
upon its prey exceeds in swiftness the
motion of any other carnivorous animal.
LEP'ER. Leprosy is a loathsome
disease still prevalent in Egypt and
Syria, and occurring also in India,
China, the Crimea, and Norway. The
bones and the marrow are pervaded with
the disease, so that the joints of the
hands and feet lose their power, the
limbs of the body fall together, and the
whole system assumes a most deformed
and loathsome appearance. The pro-
gress and effect of the disease are de-
scribed in Job 2: 7, 8, 12; 6:2; 7:3-5;
19 : U-21.
There are two forms of the disease —
the tuberculated, incrusting the whole
person with ulcerous tubercles, and the
anaesthetic, making the skin mummy-
like— but under both forms
" Death lives/' and the dis-
eased is a "walking tomb,"
"a parable of death." There
was also a milder form of the
disease, the so-called "white
leprosy," often attacking only
one limb, and generally cur-
able, as when " Moses' hand
wrifi leprous as snow." Ex.
4 : 6. Notice also the cases
of Miriam, Num. 12 : 10 ; Ge-
hazi, 2 Kgs. 5:27; and Uz-
ziah. 2 Chr. 26:16-23.
Although the laws respect-
ing this disease which we find
in the Mosaic code are exceedingly rigid,
it is by no means clear that the leprosy was
considered contagious. The horror and
515
LEP
LET
disgust which was felt toward a disease so
foul and loathsome might be a sufficient
reason for such severe enactments, and
strict seclusion was at all events an effect-
ive means of arresting the progress of
the disease by preventing intermarriage
Leprous Beggars.
between lepers and the sound. The
leper was excluded from the tabernacle
and the camp, and when he was healed
his restoration to social intercourse with
his fellow-men was twofold, performed
both in the camp and in the tabernacle.
Lev. 14 : H-32. A house for lepers was
built outside Jerusalem on the hill of
Gareb — {. e., " the hill of scraping," Jer.
Head of a Li'pt-r.
31 : 10; Job 2 : 8— and the leper wns
comj)elled to wear mourning. Lev. 13 : 45.
With rcs])cct to {ho leprosy of houses
and of clothes, Lev. 14 : .'j.'j, the expres-
sion is only analogical, referring to the
spots and (lisliguriit ons which appeared
.516
upon the walls and articles of clothing,
resembling the leprous spots, and orig-
inating from a species of mould or mil-
dew, indicating a great degree of damp-
ness, corru])ting the air, injurious to
health, and often the occasion and pre-
cursor of fatal diseases. The rites or-
dained for cleansing and purifying this
kind of " leprosy " are in their sym-
bolical bearing strictly analogous to the
laws concerning leprosy proper. Lev.
13 : 47-59 : 14 : ;^a-53.
LEP'ROSY. See Leper.
LES'BOS. Acts 20 : 14. See
MiTYLENE.
LE'SHEm, an ancient form for
LAISH, the original name of Dan
(which see). Jash. 19 : 47.
LET is used in the old sense " to
hinder" in Ex. 5:4; Isa. 43 : L'J ; Rom.
1:13; 2 Thess. 2 : 7.
LE'THECH, occurring in the mar-
gin of Hos. 3 : 2, is derived from a root sig-
nifying *' to empt}'," "to pour out." and
denotes a measure of grain — half a homer.
LET'TER. The letters mentioned.
2 Sam. 11 : 14 . 2 Kgs. 10 : 1 : Ezr. 4 :
II, were in the form of rolls, not unlike
those used in the East at the present
day. Thus the Arabs roll up their
letters, and then flatten them to the
bveadth of an incdi and j)aste up the end
instead of sealing them, and the Per-
sians make up tlu-ir letters in the form
of rolls, about () inches long, and paste
LET
LEV
a bit of paper around them with gum and
seal them with an impression of ink.
When sent to inferiors thev were often
Pait of a Turkish Firman.
sent open, Neh. 6:0: but when sent to
equals or superiors they were enclosed
in a purse or bag. See Whiting.
LETU'SHIM (sharpened, ham-
mered), an Arabian tribe descended
from Dedan, the son of Jokshan. Gen.
25 : 3.
LEUM'MIM (jieoples, iKitious), an
Arabian tribe descended from Dedan,
the son of Jokshan. Gen. 25 : 3.
LE'VI {joiniu(j). 1. The third son of
Jacob and Leah, thus named by the
mother because '"now will my husband
be joined unto me, because I have born
him three sons." Gen. 29 : 34. To-
gether with Simeon he avenged the
wrongs of their sister Dinah by slaying
the Shechemites, Gen. 34:25-31, but
thereby he incurred the curse of Jacob.
Gen. 49 : 5-7. By the zeal, how-
ever, of his descendants on occa-
sion of the golden calf, Ex. 32 :
26-29, the curse was transformed
into a blessing. He had three
sons, Gcvslion. Kohath, and Me-
rari. and died in Egypt 137
years old. Ex. 6 : 16.
2. Two of the ancestors of our
Lord. Luke 3 : 24, 29.
3. The original name of Mat-
thew, the publican and after-
ward the aposlle, son of Al-
phaeus. Mark 2:14; Luke 5:
27, 29: Matt. 9 : 9.
LEVI'ATHAN, the Hebrew name
of an animal minuteh' described in Job
41, the monster of the water, as behe-
moth was of the land. ProbabI}' the
crocodile is here intended — a reptile
which resembles the alligator, but is
larger and more formidable, with nar-
rower snout, and feet webbed to the end
of the toes. "The whole head, hack,
and tail are covered with quadrangular
horny plates or scales, which not only
protect the body — a rifle-ball glancing
off from them as from a rock — but also
serve as ballast, enabling the creature to
sink rapidly, on being disturbed, by
Leviathan. (Crocodilus Vulgaris. After Tristram.)
merely expelling the air from its lungs."
— Tristram.
It is believed that the crocodile was
once abundant in the lower Nile to its
mouth, but it is now rarely seen within
the confines of Egypt. This reptile
once abounded also in the Zerka or
Crocodile River, which flows through
617
LEV
LEV
the Plain of Sharon, and doubtless in
the Tigris.
The crocodile seems to be meant by
the word "leviathan" in Ps. 74:14;
Isa. 27 : 1. But in Ps. 104 : 20 the word
is evidently used for some sea-monster,
perhaps the whale. Several large ceta-
ceous animals are found in the Mediter-
ranean.
LE'VITES. In analogy with the
names of the other tribes of Israel, the
term should mean all the descendants of
Levi, the whole tribe of Levi, and in this
sense it is used in Num. 35 : 2 ; Josh.
21 : 3, 41 ; Ex. 6 : 25 ; Lev. 25 : 32, etc.
As, however, the "sons of Aaron " were
separated from the rest of the descc'nd-
ants of Levi and consecrated priegts, the
term came to denote a distinction within
the tribe itself; and the Levites com-
prised only those descendants of Levi
who were not '' sons of Aaron " — that is,
priests. IKgs. 8:4; Ezr. 2:70; John
1 : 19, etc. Sometimes, also, the term was
used as an epithet — "the priests the
Levites," Josh. 3:3; Deut. 17 : 18— but
its general acceptance was, and is, that
of the second sense here given.
No allusion is made in Genesis to the
consecrated character of the Levites. It
was given on the occasion of the making
of the golden calf by the Israelites while
encamped about Mount Sinai. E.v. 32 :
25-29. When Moses came down from
the mountain and discovered the idol, he
cried out: "Who is on the Lord's side?
let him come unto me." The Levites
immediately gathered around him, and
in reward of their faithfulness on this
occasion they were selected as the special
servants of the Lord and the ministers of
his sanctuary. Deut. 10 : 8, 9 ; 18 : 1, 2 ;
33 : 8-1 1. Their number was at this time
22,000, and corresponded nearly to that
of the first-born males of the whole
people. Since the day when the first-born
of Egypt were slain, while those of Israel
were spared, all first-born males of Israel
belonged to the Lord. They numbered
22,273, and in their place, as the special
inheritance of Jehovah, the Levites were
now substituted, the 273 surplus being
redeemed at five shekels each, Num. 3 :
45-51, which was the fixed ransom for a
victim vowed in sacrifice. Num. 18: 10;
Lev. 27 : 0. Thus the Levites came to
occupy in the Hebrew theocracy a j)Osi-
tion midway between the priests and the
518
people. They were not allowed to offer
sacrifice, to burn incense, to see the
" holy things" until covered, Num.4 : 5,
etc., but they marched nearer the ark
than the people, they carried the sacred
tent in parts, they pitched it again at
halting-stations, etc. For service they
were purified by bathing, shaving, etc.,
and consecrated by the imposition of
hands. The duties of their office during
the wanderings in the wilderness were
minutely described. They consisted of
three great families, the Kohathites. the
Gershonites, and the Merarites, of which
the first carried the sacred vessels, the
second the hangings and curtains of the
tabernacle, and the third the boards and
pillars. They also kept the book of the
Law, Deut. 17 : 8-12, and served as
judges, etc.
Forty-eight cities, with one thousand
cubits of the country surrounding, were
appropriated for the residence and main-
tenance of the Levites. These cities, of
which thirteen were allotted to the priests
and six were cities of refuge, were selected
by lot, and lay scattered all over the
country in the following way : in Judah
and Simeon : Hebron or Kirjath-arba,
Libnah, Jattir, Eshtemoa, Holon or
Hilen, Debir, Ain or Ashan, Juttah,
Beth-shemesh ; in Benjamin : Gibeon,
Geba, Anathoth, Almon or Alemeth ; in
Ephraira: Shechem, Gezer. Kibzaim or
Jokmeam, Beth-horon ; in Dan : Eltekeh,
Gibbethon, Aijalon, Gath-rimraon ; in
Manasseh : Taanach or Aner, Gath-rim-
mon or Bileam, Golan, Beeshterah or
Ashtaroth ; in Issachar : Kishon or Kc-
desh, Dabareh or Daberath. Jarmuth or
Ramoth, En-gannim or Anem ; in Asher:
Mishal or Mashal, Abdon, Helkath or
Hukok, Rehob ; in Naphtali : Kedesh,
Hammoth-dor or Hammon, Kartan or
Kirjathaim ; in Zebulun : .Jokneam, Kar-
tah, Dimnah, Nahalal or Rimmon, and
Tabor ; in Reuben : Bezer, Jahazah or
Jahzah, Kedemoth, Mephaath ; in (Jad:
Ramoth, Mahanaim, Hcshbon, and Jazer.
Besides these cities, with adjacent dis-
tricts, the Levites received a tithe of all
produce, animal and vegetable, but of
this they })aid a tithe to the priests.
Num. 18 : 20-32. Another tithe they re-
ceived every third year, and special pro-
vision was made for them during the
term they administered in the sanctuary.
In the time of David their number had
LEV
Lie
increased to 38,000, of which 24,000 were
set apart for the ordinary services, 6000
for the teaching of the Law and the ad-
ministration of justice, 4000 as porters,
and 4000 as musicians. They were
divided into courses, and came up from
their cities to the sanctuary in regular
rotation. 1 Chr. 23 : 24 :'20-31 : 25 :
26. When the separation took place
between the kingdom of Israel and the
kingdom of Judah, all the Levites gath-
ered to Judah, 2 Chr. 11 : 13-15, and
they continued to play a conspicuous
part in the destinies of this kingdom,
under Jehoshaphat, 2 Chr. 19 : 8-11 ; 20 :
14-28 ; Joash, 2 Chr. 23 : 1-8 ; Hezekiah,
2 Chr. 29 : 3-36 : 30 : 21, 22 : 31 : 2-4 ;
under Josiah. 2 Chr. 34 : 12 : 35 : 3-18,
etc. After the Captivity, however, only
a small number of them returned, Ezr.
2 : 36-42 ; 3:10; 6 : 18, but in the new
organization they assumed their old
positions. They settled in the villages
near Jerusalem, received their old tithes,
etc. Xeh. 10 : 37-39 ; 12 : 29. In the
N. T. they occur as representatives of a
formal worship destitute of love. Luke
10 : 32. The distinction of Levite is still
maintained among the Jews.
LEVIT'ICUS is the name of the
third book of the Pentateuch, derived
from its contents. Only the chapters
8-10 are history ; the rest treats of the
Levitical services — namely, ehs. 1-7, the
laws of offerings ; 8-10, the consecration
of Aaron and his family ; 11-15. the laws
concerning that which is clean and that
which is unclean ; 16, the atonement as
the sum-total of all means of grace ;
17-20, the separation of Israel from
heathendom in food, marriage, etc. ;
21, 22. the holiness of priests and offer-
ings ; 23. 24. the holiness of convoca-
tions. Sabbaths ; 25, on redemption ; 26,
on repentance : 27, on vows.
The authenticity and integrity of this
book are generally admitted, and the
doubts which have been raised concern-
ing its Mosaic authorship by some
modern critics regard only minor points
or passages. See Law and Penta-
teuch.
LEWD'NESS. This word, which
occurs Acts 18 : 14, is not used there in
its present common acceptation, but in
the wider sense of " wicked " or " sin-
ful."
LIB'ERTINES, mentioned only in
Acts 6: 9, were Jews who, having been
taken prisoners in the Syrian wars, were
carried to Rome and reduced to slavery,
but afterward emancipated. That their
number was considerable is apparent
from the fact that 4000 of them were
banished from Rome in A. D. 19. In Je-
rusalem they had a synagogue, and there
they came in collision with Stephen.
LlB'fi AH (tchifeuess). 1. The fifth
station at which Israel encamped on
their journey from Sinai : situated be-
tween Rimmon-parez and Rissah, Num.
33 : 20, 21, but not yet identified.
2. A city of Canaan, in the lowland of
Judah, was taken by Joshua, Josh. 10:
29-32, 39 ; 12 : 15, and assigned to the
priests. Josh. 15 : 42 ; 21 : 13 j 1 Chr. 6 :
57 ; revolted against Joram, 2 Kgs. 8 :
22: 2 Chr. 21:10: was besieged by
Sennacherib, 2 Kgs. 19 : 8; Isa. 37: 8;
and has been identified by some with
Arak-el-Mensliiyeh, and by others with
Tell-eK-Sajieh.
LIB'NI (ichite). 1. A Levite. eldest
son of Gershon. Ex. 6 : 17 ; Num. 3 : 18 ;
1 Chr. 6: 17.
2. A Levite, grandson of Merari. 1
Chr. 6: 29.
LIB'NITES, the descendants of
Libni, the eldest son of Gershon. Num.
3 : 21 : 26 : 58.
LiIB'YA, occurring only in Eze. 30 :
5 and Acts 2 : 10, is the classic name of
Northern Africa, west of Egypt. It was
inhabited by a Hamitic race, spoken of
in the 0. T. under the name of Lehabim
or Lt'BiM, which see.
LICE. Ex. 8 : 16. These parasitic
insects are still a pest in the Nile valley.
Herodotus tells us that the ancient
Egyptians peculiarly abhorred such ver-
min, and were taught by their priests
that contact with lice rendered them
ceremonially unclean.
Some authorities have held that gnats
were here intended, but there is less
ground for this opinion than for that of
Sir S. W. Baker [Nile Tributaries, p.
122), which the writer's own observation
inclines him to favor : " The louse that
infects the human body and hair has no
connection whatever with 'dust,' and if
subject to a few hours' exposure to the
dry heat of the burning sand it would
shrivel and die; but the tick is an in-
habitant of the dust — a dry, horny in-
sect without any apparent moisture in
519
LIE
LIL
its composition. It lives in hot sand
and dust, where it cannot possibly ob-
tain nourishment until some wretched
animal should lie down upon the spot
and become covered with these horrible
vermin. I have frequently seen dry
places so infested with these ticks that
the ground was perfectly alive with them,
and it would have been impossible to
liave rested on the earth : in such spots
the passage in Exodus has frequently
occurred to me as bearing reference to
these vermin, which are the greatest
enemies to man and beast." The.-e ticks
are much larger than lice. The body is
ordinarily about the size of a small pea ;
the legs are long, and the creature runs
rapidlv.
LIEIJTEN'ANTS, the general
name of the satraps or viceroys of the
](rovinces of the Persian empire, Ezr.
8 : 3() ; called princes in Dan. 3:2; 6 :
1, etc.
LIFE is used in Scripture both in a
natural and in a spiritual sense. In the
former it means physical life as opposed
to death. Gen. 2:V; 25:7,- Luke 16:
25 ; Acts 17 : 2.^ ; and hence the expres-
sions ''tree of life," Gen. 2:9; 3 : 22 ;
Rev. 2:7; 22 : 2 : " bread of life," J ohn
6:35,51 :" water of life," Rev. 22: 1,17,
etc. In the latter it means moral conduct
as opposed to mere animalism, and hence
the identification of life with that which
is good, Deut. 30 : 15 ; John 3 : 1(5 ; 5 :
24; Rom. 5:12, etc., and of death with
that which is evil. Jer. 21 : 8 : John 6:
50; Rom. 1:32.
JjIGHT. Jiy an easy transition from
the physical to the moral sphere, light is
used in 8cri])ture in numerous figurative
expressions imaging forth the mj'steries
of the spiritual world. Not only are
cheerfulness, joy, intellectual clearness,
moral truth, and divine b'essedness re-
peatedly described as light, but the ex-
pression is also applied to the sources of
these states ; to men, John 5 : 35 ; Matt.
4 : I fi : to angels, 2 Cor. 11 : 14 ; to Christ
Luke 2 : 32 ; John 1 : 7-9 ; 8 : 12 ; 12 : 35 ;
and to God himself. Jas. 1:17; 1 John
1:5:1 Tim. 6:10.
LIGHTENING. The terrors of the
divine wrath are often represented by
thunder and lightning; an(l thunder, on
account of its awful impression on the
minds of mortals, is often spoken of in
Scripture as the voice of the Lord. Ex.
520
9 : 28 ; Job 28 : 26 ; 37 : 3, 5 ; 38 : 25 ;
40:9.
LIGN-AL'OES. See Aloes.
LIG'URE. There is more difficulty
in identifying this stone than any other
in the breastplate of the high priest,
Ex. 23 : 19. No mineral is at the pres-
ent day known by this name. Some high
authorities suppose that the ligure is
amber because Pliny and Theophrastus
mention that amber is found in Liguria,
whence this name might naturally be de-
rived. But it is objected that amber was
too soft for permanent engraving. The
opinion that the ligure was red tourma-
line or rubellite — sometimes called red
sapphire — finds much favor. This hard
and often transparent stone is certainly
used as a gem. See Ambui!.
LIK'HI {learned), a grandson of
Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7 : 19.
LIK'ING, as a noun, means " condi-
tion." and as a participle '" conditioned."
Job 39:4: Dan. 1:10.
LIL'Y (Heb. shusan ; Arabic «»»-
unii). The Arabs use this word for any
beautiful flower resembling a lily, and in
this general sense it is probably em-
Scailet Lily. {L'llium Chcdcedonicvmx.)
ployed in the Bible, the connection often
suggesting to an Oriental mind the par-
ticular species meant.
The only true lily now found in Pal-
LIM
LIO
estine is the scarlet martagon (Liliiini
chrilcedoniciDn). It is likely that a white
and fragrant kind {L. cundidnm) was
once found on the coast, and this may
have been the species referred to in such
Lily. {Anemone corotiarla.)
passages as Cant. 2:1. But neither kind
was probably ever generally abundant.
Many related flowers of great beauty are
common, such as irises, tulips, hyacinths,
and a gladiolus.
If any particular plant is meant, the
scarlet anemone (Anemone coronaria)
best answers the conditions of color,
Cafit. 5 : 13, universal abundance, and
gorgeousness. Matt. 6:28, 29, This
flower is called a lily by the Arabs.
In the scarcity of wood the common
flowering weeds of the fields are ordi-
narily gathered for fuel, and under the
hot sun and dry wind Matt. 6 : 30 is often
literally fulfilled.
LIME, a well-known substance ob-
tained by burning limestone, bones, shells,
etc., and used for plaster or the cement
of brick-work. Deut. 27 : 2 ; Isa. 33:12.
It is inferred from the above passage,
and from Am. 2:1, that the modern
mode of manufacturing this article was
known to the ancients. Unterapered
mortar is that which is so imperfectly or
unskilfully mixed that it cannot be
worked. Eze. 13 :10, 11.
LiIN'EAGE, family or race. Luke
2:4.
LIN'EN, a cloth made of flax. It
was much valued and used in ancient as
it is in modern times. Fine white linen
is in Scripture the emblem of innocence
or moral purity. Rev. 15 : 6, though it is
also mentioned as a mark of luxury.
Luke 16 : 19.
The best linen was anciently made in
Egypt, as that country afforded the finest
flax. The dress of the Egyptian pi'iests
was made of linen, and so was the dress
of state in which Pharaoh arrayed
Joseph. Gen. 41 : 42, Also the sheets in
which mummies were wrapped, and which
formerly were held to be some kind of
cotton fabric, have been proved by micro-
scopic examination to consist of linen.
In the Hebrew text several difi"erent
words are employed to denote linen. The
exact distinction between these words
has not been made out, but it is probable
that they denote native fabrics in dis-
tinction from those imported from Egypt
and Syria, or perhaps only different kinds
of the same native product. For linen
in general was highl}' valued and much
used among the Jews. The temple veil,
2 Chr. 3:14; 2:14, the holy garments
of the priests, 1 Chr. 15 : 27, and of the
Levite choir, 2 Chr. 5:12, the over-gar-
ment of the king, 1 Chr. 15 : 27, etc, were
made of it,
LiINES. This expression refers to
the mode of measuring land with a cord
or line, Am. 7 : 17 : Zech, 1:16; 2 : 1, 2,
and came thus to denote a definite allot-
ment of real estate, an inheritance. Ps.
16 : r,.
lilN'TEL, the head-piece of a door-
frame, by which the superimposed mass
is supported. The Hebrews were com-
manded to strike blood upon it on the
Passover night. Ex. 12 : 22.
LI'NUS, a Christian of Rome, a
friend of St. Paul and Timothy. 2 Tim,
4 : 21, and, according to tradition, the
first bishop of Rome after Peter,
LI'ON. This animal was found in
Palestine as late as the twelfth century,
but has disappeared with the forests.
Doubtless it was of the Asiatic species,
with a short curly mane, smaller, more
compact, and less formidable than the
521
LIP
LOA
African lion. The king of beasts is men-
tioned about one hundred and thirty
times in the Bible. Besides the general
name, six Hebrew words are used for this
animal, marking different conditions of
Lion
age and prowess. His roar is described
by four words, and his movements by
six. Lebaoth, Arieh, Laish, and other
places were named from this animal.
Lions were captured in pitfalls, to
which there is allusion in Eze. 19 : 4, 8 ;
2 Sam. 23 : 20, Shepherds occasionally
attacked them single-handed. 1 Sam.
17 : 36. The Scriptures record how the
lion, when famished, often attacked the
flock, devoured men, and even ravaged
villages. This animal was partial to the
jungles of the Jordan, and when driven
thence by the annual freshet was much
enraged. Jer. 49 : 19 ; 50 : 44. As the
symbol of royal power and strength, the
most princely of all the tribes bore this
animal on its banner. Gen. 49 : 9, and in
the Reveliition Christ is called ''the Lion
of the tribe of Judah."
The rejjresentations of this animal in
the sculptures of Solomon's temj)le and
palace will be remembered, as will also
frequent rhetorical references to it as the
symbel of various well-known character-
istics, such us cDurage and ferocity.
LIPS, This word has various peculiar
significations in the Scriptures, llnc'ean
lips, Isa. 6 : i), are liy)s polluted by sinful
wor«ls ; calves of our lips, Hos. 14:2,
sacrifices of praise; burning lips, Prov.
26 : 23, lips through which the expres-
sions of malice, envy, and other malig-
nant passions are continually passing,
Acts 9 : 1, or, as it is oftener interpreted,
burning with false professions of piety
and friendship.
Covering the lips,
Eze. 24 : 22, or
chin with the
outer garment
was a token of
mourning. The
word occurs, be-
sides, in a great
number of meta-
phorical expres-
sions easy to un-
derstand.
LIQUOR,
OR LIQUORS,
the translation of
three different He-
brew words. One
denotes a "tear"
— /. e., the juice
of the olive and
grapes, Ex. 22 :
29 ; the second denotes " maceration " —
i. e., drink prepared by steeping grapes,
Num. 6:3; the last, " mixture " — i. e.,
highly-flavored wine. Cant. 7 : 2. See
Wine.
LIT'TER, a covered chair shelter-
ing the occupant against rain and the
sun, and carried either hy men or animals.
Isa. 66 : 20.
LIVE'LY, in 1 Pet. 2 : 5, means
"living;" in Ex. 1:19 it means "full
of life," "vigorous."
LIVER. The expression "the
caul above the liver," so frequently oc-
curring in the Pentateuch, Ex. 29:13,
22; Lev. 3 : 4, 10, 15; 4:9; 7:4; 8 :
16; 9:10, etc., means one of the lobes
of the liver, which was to be burned
on the altar, and not eaten as sacri-
ficial food.
LIZ'ARD {that which clhi(f» to
the (/ronud). Lev. 11 : 30. Many species
of these reptiles abound in Palestine,
some of which are very slow in their
movements, while others run very rapid-
ly. Some kinds are eaten by the very
j)Oor inhabitants. See Chamkleon,
Fkrret, Mole, Snail, and cut on next
page.
LOAF. 1 Chr. 16:3. See Brrad.
LO-AM'Ml {not iinj people), the
LOA
LOC
name applied symbolically to the son
of the prophet Hosea, representing
Israel. Hos. 1 : 9. See Lo-kuhamah.
LOAN. The Mosaic- law repeatedly
enjoined it on the rich to come to the re-
lief of the poor, not only with alms, but
Lizard.
also with loans. Ex. 22 : 25 ; Lev. 26 :
35-37; Deut. 16:3; 7-TO ; 23:19,20.
No interest was to be taken, Ex. 22 : 25 ;
Lev. 26 : 36 ; Deut. 23 : 19, and a pledge
or security only under certain restric-
tions; the creditor was not allowed to
enter the house of the debtor in claim of
the pledge, Deut. 24 : 10, 11 ; a widow's
raiment could not be taken as a pledge,
Deut. 24 : 17, or a millstone, Deut.
24 : 6. nor could a poor man's raiment
be kept over-night. It was allowed to
hold a debtor in bondage, but onlj' to
the jubilee — that is, for six years at the
utmost. Lev. 25 : 39-41, and in the sab-
batical year all debts were cancelled
and all pledges returned. Deut. 16 : 1-3,
7-10. These laws, however, had no
reference to foreigners, from whom the
Jews took interest and retained forfeited
pledges; they also kept them as slaves.
Nor were these laws kept strictly for a
very long time. Sons were later on
seized for their fathers' debts, 2 Kgs. 4:
1, and interests were exncted, Neh. 6 :
1, 13 ; and in the time of our Lord the
economic principles of the Jews seem to
have approached very nearly to those of
the rest of the commercial world. Matt.
6 : 42 : 26 : 27 ; Luke 6 : 35 ; 19 : 13.
LiOCK. The doors of the ancient
Hebrews were secured by bars of wood
or iron, though the latter were almost
entirely appropriated to the entrance of
fortresses, prisons, alid towns. Thus we
find it mentioned in 1 Kgs. 4 : 13, as
something remarkable concerning Basb-
an that there w ere threescore great cities
having walls and brazen bars. These
were almost the only locks known in
early times, and they were furnished
with a large and clumsy key, which was
applied to the bar by pushing the whole
arm through an orifice from the outside.
Cant. 6 : 4. There were also smaller
contrivances for inner doors, Jud. 3 : 24,
and probably projecting pieces by which
to push the bolt with the hand. See
Key.
LO'CUST, an insect of the grass-
hopper family, remarkable for numbers
and voracity, and hence one of the most
dreadful scourges of Eastern countries.
Locusts, when mature, can fly to a con-
siderable height, and, occasionally alight-
ing for food and rest, the}' are often borne
bj' the wind hundreds of miles. There
are many species of these insects found
in the United States, but none precisely
such as live in the Orient. The locusts
most destructive and doubtless ordinarily
referred to by the Bible are of two kinds,
Acrydium pere(fri)iu))i and CEfh'podn nii-
yratoria. In our English Bible seven
terms probably describe this insect or
allied species — viz., locust, bald locust,
beetle, canker-worm, caterpillar, grass-
hopper, palmer-worm. These seven
terms are made to translate nine He-
brew names. The confusion of the en-
tire subject may be seen by the fact that
'• locust" represents four original words,
''grasshopper" two, and "caterpillar"
two, while two original words have each
a twofold translation. Doubtless the Jews
themselves applied some of these terms
as loosely and widely as we do such a
word as "worm."
It is probable that several of the seven
names mentioned describe locusts in their
immature state. After leaving the egg
this insect passes through changes an-
swering to those of the butterfly, but is
never dormant as a chrysalis. From first
to last it is voracious, but when it is ma-
ture and can fly, it lays its eggs and drifts
away in vast clouds, perhaps to perish in
the ocean. The locusts which the writer
saw devastating portions of Syria were
fully three inches long when their wings
were closed. Lev. 11 : 22 describes four
distinct insects of the locust order.
"Beetle" is plainly a mistranslation for
some one of these leapers, since what-
523
LOG
LOG
Locusts.
I. Truxalis. 2. Acridum peregrinum. 3. (Edipoda miyratoria. {After Triatram.)
ever only crept and flew might not be [
eaten, vs. 21, 23. Joel, 1 : 4, probably |
names, as has been suggested, four dif-
ferent kinds of locust or stages of its
growth.
These insecfs were often the instru-
ments of divine judgment. Ex. 10 :
4-15 ; Deut. 28 : :^.8-42 : 1 Kgs. 8 : :!7 ;
Joel 2 : l-Il. The last-named j)assage
gives a most vivid and accurate descrip-
tion of this fearful visitation. As locusts
enter Palestine from the south or east,
the " northern army," Joel 2 : 20, prob-
ably describes, under the figure of lo-
custs, the Assyrians, who entered the
land in siiriilar swarms, but from a dif-
ferent quarter.
The account in Joel 2 is illustrated by
the following extract from the jdurnal of
an Eastern traveller : " The locusts, prop-
524
eriy so called, which are so frequently
njentioned by sacred as well as profane
authors, are sometimes gregarious be-
yond expression. Those which I saw
were much bigger than our common
grasshoppers, and had brown spotted
wings, with legs and bodies of a bright
yellow. Their first appearance was to-
ward the latter end of March, the wind
having been some time from the south.
In the middle of April their numbers
were so vastly increased that in the
heat of the day they formed themselves
into large and numerous swarms, flew
in the air like a succession of clouds,
and, as the prophet Joel expresses it,
* the sun . . . shall be dark.' When the
wind blow briskly, so that these swarms
were crow<led by others or thrown one
upon another, we had a lively idea of
LOG
LOG
that comparison of the Psalmist, Ps.
109 : 23, of being 'tossed up and down
as the locust.' In the month of May,
when the ovaries of these insects were
ripe and turgid, each of these swarms
began gradually to disappear, and re-
tired into the Metijiah and other ad-
jacent plains, wheie they deposited
Locust Flyiiii^.
their eggs. These were no sooner
hatched, in June, than each of the
broods collected itself into a compact
body of an eighth of a mile square, and,
marching afterward directly forward to-
ward the sea, they let nothing escape
them, eating up everything that was
green and juicy, not only the lesser kinds
of vegetables, but 'the vine' likewise,
* the fig tree, . . . the pomegranate tree, the
palm tree also, and the apple tree, even all
the trees of the field,' Joel 1 : 1 1 , 12 ; in do-
ing which, they kept their ranks like men
of war. climbing over, as they advanced,
every tree or wall that was in their way;
nay, they entered into our very houses
and bedchambers like thieves. The in-
habitants, to stop their progress, made
a variety of pits and trenches all over
their fields and gardens, which they
fil'ed with water, or else they hen])ed
up therein heath, stubb'e. and such-like
combustible matter, which were sever-
ally set on fire upon the approach of the
locusts. But this was all to no purpose,
for the trenches were quickly nlled up
and the fires extinguished by infinite
swarms succeeding one another, _whilst
the front was regardless of danger and
the rear pressed on so close that a retreat
was altogether impossible. A day or two
after one cf these broods was in motion
others were already hatched to march
and glean after them, gnawing oft' the
very bark and the young branches of
such trees as had before escaped with the
loss only of their fruit and foliage. So
justly have they been compared by the
prophet to a great armj', who further
observes that "the land is as the garden
of Eden before them, and behind them
a desolate wilderness.' "
Van Lennep says : " The ground over
which their devastating hordes have
passed at once assumes an appearance
of sterility and dearth. Well did the
Romans call tlicm 'the burners of the
land,' which is the literal meaning of
our word 'locust.' On they move, cov-
ering the ground so completely as to
hide it from sight, and in such numbers
that it often takes three or four dajs for
the mighty host to pass by. AVhen seen
at a distance this swarm of advancing
locusts resembles a cloud of dust or sand,
reaching a few feet above the ground as
the myriads of insects leap forward. 1 he
only thing that momentarily arrests their
progress is a sudden change of weather,
for cold benumbs them while it lasts.
They also keep quiet at night, swarm-
ing like bees on the buthes and hedges
until the morning sun warms and revives
them and enables them to proceed on
their devastating march. Jsah. 3 : 17.
They 'have no king' nor leader, yet
they falter not, but jiress on in serried
ranks, urged in the same direction by an
irresistible iuipulse, and turn neither to
the right hand nor to the left for r.ny sort
of obstacle. Prov. 30 : 27. When a wall
or a house lies in their way they climb
straight up, going over the roof to the
other side, and blindly rush in at the
open doors and windows. Ex. 10 : 6 ;
Joel 2 : 9. When they come to water,
be it a mere puddle or a river, a lake
or the open sea, they never attempt to
go round it. but unhesitatingly leap in
and are drowned: and their dead bodies,
floating on the surface, form a bridge
for their companions to pass over. The
scourge thr.s often comes to an end, but
it as often hajipens that the decomposi-
tion of millions of insects produces pes-
tilence and death. Joel 2 : 20. History
records a remarkable instance which oc-
curred in the year 125 before the Chris-
tian era. The insects were driven by the
525
LOC
LOI
wind into the sea in such vast numbers
that their bodies, being driven back by
the tide upon the land, caused a stench,
which produced a fearful plague, where-
by 80,000 persons perished in Libya, Gy-
rene, and Egypt.
*' The locust, however, soon acquires
its wings, and pro^^eeds on its way by
flight whenever a strong breeze favors
its progress. Our attention has often
been attracte 1 by the sudden darken-
ing of the sun in a summer sky, a^com-
})anied by the peculiar noise which a
swarm of locusts always makes moving
through the air, and, glancing upward,
we have seen them passing like a cloud
at a height of 200 or 800 feet. Joel 2:10.
Some of them are constantly dropping to
the earth, and, after resting a while, are
driven by a common impulse to rise again
and })roceed with the wind : so that, be-
sides the principal cloud, single locusts
or a few together may be seen in almost
every part of the sky. During a great
flight they sometimes drop so thickly
upon the ground that it is impossible
to step without treading upon some of
them, and the poor villagers, in con-
sternation, busy themselves kindling
fires, whose smoke serves to prevent
the locusts from alighting upon their
fields, orchards, or vineyards. The
peoj)le of Syria be'ieve uoifie to be as
effectual in driving away locusts as in
attracting a swarm of bees; hence, upon
the appearance of a flight of these dread-
ed insects the inhabitants of the villages,
men, women, and children, rush out,
armed with any tin or copper pans or
kettles or rattles tliey can lay hold of,
and strive, by their deafening shouts ami
din, Jer. 61 : 14, to scare the unwelcome
visitors away."
Some species of the locust arc eaten
at this day in Eastern countries, and ae
even esteemed a delicacy when properly
cooked. Lev. 11 : 22; Matt. 3 : 4. After
tearing off the legs and wings and taking
out the entrails, they stick them in long
rows upon wooden s))its, roast them
at the fire, and then proceed to devour
them with great zest. There are also other
ways of preparing them. For example,
they cook them iind dress them in oil, or,
h-iviiig dried them, they pulverize them,
and when other food is scarce make bread
of the meal. The IJedouins pack them
with salt in close masses, which thcv carry
626
in their leathern sacks. From these they
cut slices as they may need them. When
the Arabs have them in quantities, they
roast or dry them in an oven or boil them
and eat them with salt. The Arabs in the
kingdom of Morocco boil the locusts, and
the Bedouins eat locusts, which are col-
lected in great quantities in the begin-
ning of April, when they are easily
caught. After having been roasted a
little upon the iron plate on which bread
is baked they are dried in the sun, and
then put into large sacks with the mix-
ture of a little salt. They are never
served up as a dish, but every one takes
a handful of them when hungry. The
food of John the Baptist consisted of
such dried locusts, and not of the fruit
of the carob tree. See Husks.
In the book of Revelation, 9 : 7, we have
a literal description of the symbolical lo-
cust, which gives us a terrific impression
of their power, and which is curiously
illustrated by a passage from an Eastern
traveller. An Arab from Bagdad, he says,
compared the head of the locust to that of
the horse; its breast to that of the lion :
its feet to those of the camel ; its body to
that of the serpent; its tail to that of the
scorpion ; and so of other parts. In like
manner the Italians still call locusts little
horses, and the Germans call them hay-
horses.
LOD. 1 Chr. 8:12. See LvnnA.
LO-DE'BAR, a place in the tribe
of Gad, not far from Mahanaim, north
of the Jabbok, east of the Jordan. 2 Sam.
9:4; 17:27. Here dwc't Machir the
Ammonite, who assisted David when he
retired from Absalom's usurpation, and
in whose house lived Mephibosheth,
Jonnthan's lame son. who sat at David's
table and received from him all that per-
tained to Saul and his house. Some sup-
pose it to be the same as Dcbir, Josh.
13 : 2(i, but by modern travellers it has
not vet been identified.
LODGE. Isa. 1 : S, See Gardkx.
LODGE, TO, meins. except in
Josh. 2: 1," to stay over-night." Isa. 1 : 21.
LOG. Lev. 14: 10. See Mkasurks.
LOINS. The dress of the Oriental
nations being loose, it was necessary,
when they were travelling or working,
to gird up their garments and fasten
them about their loins. See Clothks.
Hence the expression is figuratively
used, 1 I'et. 1 : 13, to denote a state of
LOI
LOR
mind in which the soul is prepared to
work and exert itself under the influence
of divine grace.
LOIS) the grandmother of Timothy. ;
2 Tim. 1:5. j
LOOKED means, in Acts 28 : 6, '
*' expected. "
LOOK'IXG-GLASS. What is
thus translated was in fact a plate of
metal polished so highly as to produce a
very good reflection of objects. Gener-
ally, these mirrors were of a round shape
and provided with a handle. Ex. 38 : 8 ;
Job 37: 18; Isa. 3:23.
JLORD. This word is in our trans-
lation of the 0. T. the rendering of the
two Hebrew words "Jehovah" and
" Adonai." When it represents the for-
mer, which may be considered a proper
name, it is printed with capitals. Gen.
15: 4. When it represents the latter, of
which it is the translation, it is printed
with a capital initial. Ps. 97 : 5, etc.
LORD'S DAY, Rev. 1 : 10. From
the times of the apostles the first day of
the week was kept sacred b^y the Chris-
tians in commemoration of the resurrec-
tion of Christ, and it is invariably desig-
nated as the Lord's day by the Fathers
of the primitive Church up to the time
of the edict of Constantine (321), when
the name Sunday became common. See
Sabbath.
LORD'S PRAYER, the name
given to the prayer which our Lord him-
self taught his disciples, and which is re-
corded Matt. 6 : 9-1 3; Luke 11: 2-4. "The
Lord's Prayer is the Prayer of prayers,
as the Bible is the Book of books and
the Apostles' Creed the Creed of creeds.
It is the best and most beautiful, the
simplest and yet the deepest, the shortest
ami yet the most comj)rehensive, of all
forms of devotion. Only from the lips
of the Son of God could such a perfect
pattern proceed. An ancient Father
calls it a summary of Christianity or the
gospel in a nutshell. It embraces all
kinds of prayer, petition, intercession,
and thanksgiving, all essential objects
of prayer, spiritual and temporal, divine
and human, in the most suitable and
beautiful order, commencing with the
glory of (iod. gradually descending to
man's needs, then rising to the final de-
liverance from all evil, and ending in
thanksgiving and praise, as all prayer
must end at last, in heaven, where all our
wants shall be supplied. It accompanies
the Christian from the cradle to the
grave. It can never be superceded. If
we have exhausted the whole extent of
our religious wants afid the whole vo-
cabulary of devotion, we gladly return
to this model prayer as infinitely supe-
rior to all our own effusions. It may
indeed, be abused, like every gift of
God, and become a dead form — Luther
called it in this respect 'the greatc.-t
martyr on earth ' — but this is no argu-
ment against its proper and frequent
use. It is not intended, of course, to
supersede other forms or extemporane-
ous prayers, but it should s-cive as a
general pattern and directory to all our
devotions, and breathe into them the
proper spirit." — Srlinff.
The Lord's Prayer is divided into
three parts — the address ('' Our Father
who art in heaven"), the petitions (six
or seven), and the doxology. The ad-
dress or preface puts us into the proper
filial relation to God as our Father, to
our fellow-men as our brethren ("our"),
and into the proper attitude of prayer
as an ascension of the soul to heaven
(" who art in heaven ") as our final home.
The petitions are divided into two
classes. The first three refer to the
name, the kingdom, and the will of God ;
the other three or four to the temporal
and spiritual wants of man till his final
deliverance from all evil (or, better, from
"the evil one" — that is, from Satan, sin,
and its consequences ^ Tlic doxolog}- is
wanting in Luke and in the oldest nianu-
scrijits of Matthew; it probably found
its way into the margin and then into
the text from the habit of the Christians,
inherited from the Jews, to wind up their
prayers with a doxology. It is ce tainly
very ancient and appropriate, and will
never drop out of u.-e, whatever critics
may do with the text.
The Lord's Prayer is intended for his
disciples. He himfelf addressed God,
not as "vur Father." but as "mi/ Fa-
ther,'' or simply " Father, ' owing to his
unique relation to him as the eternal an I
only begotten Son ; and, being free from
sin and guilt, he had no need to pray,
" Forgive us our debts."
LORD'S SUPPER, or THE
HOLY COMMUNION, is the ordi-
nance which commemorates the drying
love and sacrifice of Christ for the sins
527
LOK
LOT
of the world. Christians are coinmanJeJ
to observe it till he shall return in
glory. It was instituted in the night
preceding the crucifixion. The Lord
Jesus, after eating the paschal supper
with his disciples, took bread and
blessed it, and brake it, and gave it to
the disciples, and said, Take, eat, this
is tny body, which is broken for you :
tliis do in remembrance of me. After
the same manner also he took the cup,
and gave thanks and gave it to them,
saying. Drink ye all of it; for this is
the new covenant in my blood, which is
shed for many for the remission of sins;
this do 3'e as oft as ye drink it in re-
membrance of me. Matt. 26 : 19-30 ;
Mark 14 : 16-26,- Luke 22 : 13-20; 1
Cor. 11 : 23-26. Nothing can surpass
the touching simplicity and appropriate-
ness of this memorial service, which has
always been regarded in the Christian
Church as the holy of holies of worship
and communion with the crucified and
ever-living Saviour.
In course of time, as the development
of the doctrine of the ordinance became
the subject of theological controversy,
three ditferent explanations of the words
of institution led to three different the-
ories— the Roman Catholic dogma of
transubstantiation, or the miraculous
transformation of the sacramental ele-
ments into the body jind blood of Christ ;
the Lutheran doctrine of the co-exist-
ence of the real body and blood of Christ
in, with, and under the elements during
the time of sacramental transaction, and
their participation by all communicants;
and the figurative explanation of the
words of institution with the idea of a
spiritual fruition of Christ by faith only,
as held in the Reformed Churches.
It is a sad reflection that the ordinance
of the Lord's Supper — this feast which
should bind all pious hearts to Christ
and to each other an I lill them with the
holiest and tenderest affections — has
been the innocent occasion of the bitter-
est and most violent passions and the
most un iliaritable abuse. The cacharis-
tic controversies, before and after the
Reformation, are nnicmg the most un-
rcfreshing and apparently fruitless in
Church history.
IIapi)ily, the blessing of the holy
communion does not depend upon the
scientific interpretation an i un Icrst nid-
528
ing of the words of institution, however
desirable this may be, but upon the
promise of the Lord and upon child-
like faith. And therefore even now
Christians of ditferent denominations
and holding different opinions can unite
around the table of their common Lord
and Saviour, and feel one with him and
in him.
With respect to the views held bj' the
various evangelical Protestant churches,
at least, the chief elements of reaon-
ciliation, when subordinate differences
and scholastic subtleties are yielded,
may be found in the following proposi-
tions. The Lord's Supper is, 1. A com-
memorative ordinance, a memorial of
Christ's atoning death ; 2. A feast of
living union of believers with the Sa-
viour, whereby we trulv, though spiritu-
ally, receive Christ, with all his benefits,
and are nourished with his life unto life
eternal; 3. A communion of believers
with one another as members of the
same mystical body of Christ.
LiO-RU'HAMAH {the nncompnif-
sin)iated), the name of the daughter of
Hosea the prophet, and referring to the
hopeless condition of the kingdom of
Israel, from whom Jehovah seemed to
have withdrawn his mercy. Hos. 1 : 6, 8.
JLOT (a coverinri, veil), the son of
Ilaran and nephew of Abraham, was
born in Ur, a city of Chaldea, where his
father died, and followed, with Abraham
and Terah, to Mesopotamia, where the
latter died at Haran. (ren. 11: 31, 32,
thence to Canaan, Gen. 12 : 4, 5, and
probably also to Egypt. After the re-
turn from Egypt the herds of Abrahnm
and Lot had greatly increased. The
tract of Ian 1 they occupied was incon-
veniently small; strife arose between
thci- herdmen, and Abraham proposed
they should separate, leaving the ch )ice
to Lot whether he would go eastward or
westward. Lot chose that region of the
valley of the Jordan in which Sodom
and (xomorrah were situated, but there-
by he became involved in the warfare
waged by Chedorlaomer against the two
cities, was carried away as a prisoner
of war, and was only rescued by the
valor ^of Abraham, who attacked and
defeated Chedorlaomer. liOt returned
to Sodom, and, though he loathed the life
of ])erdition which was led in that city,
he remained the: e and chose his sons-in-
LOT
LUD
law among the Sodomites. When, at hist,
the measure of iniquity was full and
doom was passed over the city, Lot and
his family were saved only by the aid of
special messengers from the Lord, who
accompanied them from Sodom to Zoar;
but Lot's " wife looked back from be-
hind him. and she became a pillar of
salt." Gen. 19 : 26. Lot removed from
Zoar and dwe!t in the mountains, after
which he disappears from history. The
nations of the Ammonites and Moabites
descended from him.
LO'TAN {coi-erin;/), the eldest son
of Seir the Horite, and chief of his tribe
in the land of Edom. (Jen. 36 : 20, 22,
29; 1 Chr. 1: :i8, 3<J.
LOTS, a method used to determine
chances or preferences or to decide a de-
bate. The decision by lot was often re-
sorted to in former times, but always
with the strictest reference to the inter-
position of God ; as in the choice of the
apostle Matthias, Acts 1 : 2(>, and in the
cases of Saul and Jonathan, and Jonah
and his companions to determine who
had offended God. 1 Sam. 14:41,42:
Jon. 1:7. In the division of the J-'rom-
ised Land among the tribes of Israel the
use of the lot was expressly commanded
by God himself, it being understood that
the extent of territory should be pro-
portioned to the population of each
tribe. Num. 26 : 55. So the selection of
the scapegoat on the da}' of atonement
was to be determined by lot. Lev. 16 :
8. Propertv was divided in the same
way. Ps. 22:18; Matt. 27 : ;^5. The
orders of the priests and their daily ser-
vice were also assigned by lot. 1 Chr.
24, 25.
As to the manner of casting lots we
have no certain information. It is sup-
posed by some that the stones or marks
which were used in determining the lot
were thrown together into the lap or fold
of a garment, or into an urn or vase, and
that the person holding them shook them
violently, so that there should be a per-
fect mingling of the whole contents, to
prevent all preference by the hand of him
who should draw : so that the passage
Prov. 16 : 33 is paraphrased thus : '* In
a lot-vase the lots are shaken in all direc-
tions : nevertheless, from the Lord is the
whole decision or judgment.'"
LOTS, FEAST OF. See Purim.
LOVE. ' This term signifies one of
34
the constituent principles of our nature,
and in the perfect exercise of it is com-
prehended the whole of our dutj' to God
and to our fellow-creatures. Matt. 22:
37-40; Rom. 13: 8, 10: Gal. 5:14;
Jas. 2 : 8. Hence it evidently com-
prehends all holiness of heart and life.
The highest and most glorious display
of the divine character which has ever
been made to man is the love of God in
Jesus Christ, Rom. 5 : 8, and the great
princi])le and fruit of both faith and
obedience consists in the possession and
exercise of love. John 13 : 34, 35.
LOVE-FEASTS were held in con-
nection with the Lord's Supper, and
paid for out of the common fund. Jiide
12: 2 Pet. 2:13. When the community
of goods had ceased. Chrysostom says,
the rich provided them. Originally
these feasts were held in the churches,
but this was forbidden by the Council
of Laodica}a a. d. 320. and in the follow-
ing century the custom was dropped or
assumed other forms.
LU'BIiVI (thirst)/ ; thence, diceUers in
a scorched loud). 2 Chr. 12 : 3 : 16 : 8 ;
Dan. 11 : 43; Nah. 3 : 9. See Lehabim
and Libya.
LU'CAS. Phile. 24. See Luke.
LU'CIFER. This word, signifying
'* light-giver," occurs but once in our
Bible, Isa. 14:12. and is then apjilied
to the king of Babylon to indicate his
glory as that of a morning star, or,
figuratively, ''a son of the morning."
Teitullianand son.e others suppose the
passage to relate to the fall of Satan, and
hence the term is now usually applied
in that waj', though, as it seems, without
sufficient warrant.
LU'CIUS. 1. A kinsman of St.
Paul, Rom. 15 : 21. and, according to
tradition, bisho]) of Cenchrtea, from which
place the Epistle to the Romans was
written. He is peihaps identical with —
2. Lucius of Cv'rene, a Christian
teacher in Antioch. Acts 13 : 1.
LUD, son of Shem, from whom the
Lydians of Asia Minor arc supposed to
have descended. Gen. 10 : 22.
LU'DIM, son of Mizraim, whosepos-
terity, also called Lydians, Jer. 46 : 9,
settled on the continent of Africa, as we
infer from the connection in which they
and their country are mentioned, Isa.
66 : 1 0 : Eze. 27 : 1 0 ; 30:5; Gen. 10 :
13. Their precise location is unknown.
529
LUH
LUN
LU'HITH {made of boards), a place
in Moab. Isa. 15 : 5 ; Jer. 48 : 5.
LUKE (Greek Lncas), Col. 4:14;
2 Tim. 4:11; Phile. 24, is probably an
abbreviation of Lucanus, possibly of
Lucilius, bat not of Lucius. Acts 13 : 1 ;
Rom. 16: 21. The evangelist was not a
•Jew, as is evident from Col. 4 : 14, where
the " beloved physician " is distinguished
from " those of the circumcision." The
opinion that he was a native of Antioch
may have arisen from confounding him
with Lucius. That he was one of the
Seventy or of the two who were walking
to Eminaus is unlikely, as he was not
himself an "eye-witness," 1:2, of the
gospel facts. According to the N. T., he
was a physician, and his style in gene-
ral, as well as his mode of describing
diseases, proves him to have been an
educated physician. Tradition adds that
he was also a painter. He comes into
kistorical prominence as the companion
of Paul in his later journeys, though his
presence is modestly indicated in his own
narrative only by the change to the first
person plural. Joining the apostle at
Troas, Acts 16 : 10, he accompanied him
to Philippi on his second journey; re-
joining him some years later at the same
place, Acts 20 : 5, he remained with Paul
until the close of his first Roman cap-
tivity. Acts 28 : ;^>0. Of his subsequent
life nothing certain is known. Accord-
ing to common consent and internal
evidence, he is the author of the (Jospel
named after him, and of the Acts.
liUKE, Thk Gospkl of, was written
])rimarily for the use of one Theophilus.
Luke 1 : 3. As this name means '' lover
of (Jod," some have supposed that it
ought to be applied to any Christian
reader in general, but it is better to re-
fer it to a person of high rank (" most
excellent," equivalent to our word " hon-
orable"), who was either a convert or a
catechumen. To the same person the Acts
are dedicated. Acts 1:1. The minute de-
scription of ])laces in Palestine indicates
that this person was not an inhabitant of
that country, while the mention of small
places in Italy as familiarly known, Acts
27 : 8-16, makes it probable that his
home was at Rome — a view confirmed
by the abrupt conclusion of Acts. In
any case, he was a (ientile, and the (los-
pcl was designed mainly for (Jcntile
Christians, representing the universal
5:i0
import of the coming of Christ for all
nations and for all classes of men. This
agreement with Paul is a natural result
from the close personal intimacy between
the apostle and the author, but there is
no evidence that Paul dictated the Gos-
pel or referred to it as his Gospel. 2 Tim.
2 : 8. The verbal resemblances, espe-
cially in the account of the words of in-
stitution of the Lord's Supper, Luke 22 :
19, 20; 1 Cor. 11 : 2.3-25, are such as
would naturally result from companion-
ship with Paul. In other respects the
peculiarities of the third Gospel are
marked. The style closely resembles
that of the Acts, but has a larger num-
ber of Hebraisms, especially in the first
two chapters, which indicate the use of
Hebrew documents by the evangelist.
Where he describes scenes he had wit-
nessed himself, the style is far more pure.
A large number of words are peculiar to
Luke, and to him we are indebted for
nearly all the chronological notices which
link the Gospel facts with ancient his-
tory in general. The narrative is more
complete than the others, and contains
several portions peculiar to it ; as, for
instance, the account of the Nativity, the
presentation in the temple, the mirac-
ulous draught of fishes, the sending out
of the Seventy, the parables of the Good
Samaritan, the Barren Fig Tree, the Lost
Sheep, the Prodigal Son. the Unjust
Steward, Dives and Jjazarus, etc. The
Gospel was written before the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, and also before the
Acts. Acts 1:1. It is probable that it
was written at Caesarea in Palestine dur-
ing Paul's imprisonment there, 58-fiO.
Some, however, d ite it still earlier.
LUKE'WARM denotes the indiffer-
ent, who receive the call from the Lord,
but, without either acce])ting or formally
refusing it. remain entirely unimpressed
by it. Rev. 3:10.
LU'NATIC It was formerly sup-
posed that the changes of the moon
(Luna) had an influence >ipon certain
diseases of a paroxysmal character, and
persons afl'ected with those diseases were
therefore called lunatics; hence, dis-
tracted persons who are sane at intervals
are still called lunatics, though the idea
of their being at all under the influence
of the moon is generally regarded as
irrational.
In the two places in which the word
LUS
LYS
occurs in our translation of the Bible,
Matt. 4 : 24; 17 : 15, it seems to be nearly
identical with " epileptic."
LiUST was not used formerly in its
present restricted sense, but of any strong
desire. In the A. V. it is the translation
of three Hebrew and four Greek words.
•' To lust " appears six times in the A. V.
Ps. 81: 12; Rom. 1:24-27.
LUS'TY," vigorous." Jud. 3 : 29.
LiUZ {almond tree). 1. The Canaan-
ite name for the place in which Jacob
rested and had a prophetic vision, and
on which afterward the city of Bethel
was built. Gen. 28 : 19 : 35': 6 ; 48 : 3 ;
Josh. 16 : 2 ; 18 : 13 ; Jud. 1 : 23.
2. A city in the land of the Hittites,
built by an inhabitant of the original
Luz, who was spared when the city was
sacked as a reward because he treasonably
introduced the Israelites. Jud. 1 : 23.
LYCAO'NIA, a province of Asia
Minor which the apostle Paul twice
visited. Acts 14 : 1-23 ; 16 : 1-6 : 18 :
23 ; 19 : 1. It was separated from Phry-
gia, and bounded north by Galatia, east
by Cappadocia, south by Cilicia, and
west by Pisidia and Phrygia. It con-
sisted of a plateau with a hilly surface,
not very fertile, but affording excellent
sheep-walks. Its principal industry was
wool-growing. Its chief towns were
Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra.
The speech of this province, Acts 14 :
11, is supposed to have been either a
Syrian or a corrupted Greek dialect, and
the standard of civilization seems not to
have been so very high.
LiY'CIA (h'sh'in), a region of Asia
Minor, extending along the Mediterra-
nean, just opposite to the island of Rhodes,
between Caria and Pamphylia, and
covered by the spurs of the Taurus,
Having belonged to the empire of Alex-
ander and the Seleucidge, it was for some
time in the possession of Rhodes, but
made itself independent and became very
prosperous, as the ruins of its two largest
cities. Patara and Myra, testify. It also
acquired some political importance, as
shown by 1 Mace. 15 : 23. In the reign
of Claudius it became a Roman province.
Paul visited it, and preached the gospel
both at Patara, Acts 21 : 1, and at Myra.
Acts 27 : 5.
LYD'DA, the Greek name for the
Hebrew Lod, the present Lydd, now a
village, but in ancient time a flourishing
town situated in the plain of Sharon, a
few miles east of Joppa, on the road to
Jerusalem. It was burnt several times
by the Romans, but again rebuilt. Ves-
pasian gave it the name of Diospolis,
" city of Jupiter," but the old name pre-
vailed. It was the birthplace of St.
George, the patron saint of England,
and Justinian built a church in his
commemoration. By the Saracens it was
again burnt, but rebuilt by the Crusa-
ders. Now the church is in ruins, but
the village is prospering. Here St.
Peter healed the paralytic jEneas. Acts
9:32.
LiYD'IA, a Jewish proselyte from
the city of Th^-atira, in Lydia, engaged
in the purple trade, possessed of wealth,
and temporarily residing at Philippi,
where she heard J*aul preach. Acts 16 :
14. She accepted the Gospel, was bap-
tized together with her household, and
tendered hospitality to the apostle.
LY'^D'IA, a coast-region of Asia Mi-
nor, extending along the Mediterranean
from the promontory of Mycale to the
mouth of the Hermas. It formed in
olden times the centre of a great empire
under Croesus ; afterward it belonged
successively to Syria, Pergamus, and
the Romans. Its principal cities were
Sardis, Thyatira, and Philadelphia. It
is mentioned in 1 Mace. 8 : 8 among the
provinces which the Romans transferred
from Syria to Pergamus.
LYRE. See Harp.
LYSA'NIAS. See Abilene.
LY'SIAS. See CLAumrs.
LYS'TRA, a city of Lycaonia, sit-
uated in the eastern part of the great
plain, probably at the present Bin-bar-
Kifhheh. Paul visited this place twice,
the first time in company with Barnabas,
Acts 14, when he was saluted as the
god Mercury, but afterward stoned, the
second time in company with Silas.
Acts 16. Timothy was probably born
here. 2 Tim. 3:11.
531
MAA
MAA
M.
MA'ACAH {oppression), 2 Sam. 3 : 3,
OR MA ACHAH, 1 Chr. 3 : 2, a daugh-
ter of Talinai, king of Geshur, was taken
in battle by iJavid, according to Hebrew
tradition, and made one of his wives and
bore him Absalom.
MA' AC AH, 2 Sam. 10 : 6, or
MAACHAH, 1 Chr. 19 : 6, 7, a small
district or kingdom on the north-eastern
frontier of Palestine, situated, like Ti-
beath and Tebach, in connection with
which it is mentioned, between Argob
to the west and the desert to the east.
Its king brought into the field only 1000
men to the assistance of the Bene-
Ammon against Joab. It can hardly
have been in the region of Abel-beth-
maachah.
MA'ACHAH. 1. The daughter of
Nahor, Abraham's brother, by his concu-
bine Reumah. Gen. 22 : 24.
2. The father of Achish, who was king
of Gath at the beginning of Solomon's
reign, 1 Kgs. 2 :o'd ; is also called Moaeh.
I Sam. 27 : 2.
3. The daughter, or more probably the
granddaughter, of Absalom, and the third
wife of Rehoboam, mother to Abijah and
grandmother to Asa. 1 Kgs. 15 : 2 ; 2 Chr.
II : 20-22. In 2 Chr. 13 : 2 she is called
*• Michaiah, the daughter of Uriel of
Gibeah," "Michaiah," being a variation
of " Maachah," and Uriel being the
husband of Absalom's daughter Tamar.
In the beginning of Asa's reign she held
the dignity of queen-mother, 1 Kgs. 15:
2, "10, 13 ;■ 2 Chr. 11 : 20-22 ; but when
Asa came of age she lost the dignity as a
punishment because she had inti'oduced
idolatry. 2 Chr. 15: 16.
4. A concubine of Caleb, the son of
Ilezron. 1 Chr. 2 : 48.
5. A descendant of Benjamin, and the
wife of Machir the Manassite. 1 Chr. 7 :
12, \b, 16.
6. The wife of Jehiel, the founder of
Gibeon, and the ancestor of the family
of Saul. 1 Chr. 8: 29; 9: 35.
7. The father of Ilanan, one of David's
warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 43.
8. The father of Shephatiah, chief of
the Simeonitcs. 1 Chr. 27 : 16.
532
MAACH'ATHI, Deut. 3 : 14, or
MAACH'ATHITES, the inhabit-
ants of Maachah. Josh. 12 : 5 ; 13 : 11, 13 ;
2 Sam. 23 : 34 ; 2 Kgs. 25 : 23 j 1 Chr. 4 :
19; Jer. 40:8.
MAAD'AI {the ornamejit of Jehovah),
one of the sons of Bani, who had taken a
foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 34.
MAADI'AH, a priest who returned
with Zerubbabel, Neh. 12:5; is called
Moadiah in v. 17.
MAA'I {compaHsionnte), a Levite, one
of the Bene-Asaph, who partook in the
dedication of the walls of Jerusalem.
Neh. 12 : 36.
MAAL'EH-ACRAB'BIM {the
ascent of scorpions). Josh. 15 : 3. The
form is given elsewhere as Akrabbim.
MA'ARATH {open jjlace), a town
in the mountains of Judah. Josh. 15 : 59.
Conder suggests an ancient site in Wady-
et-Miujholr. south of Beit 'Ainun.
MAASE'IAH {work of Jehovah).
1. Three priests — one a descendant of
Jeshua, Ezr. 10 : IS, another of the sons
of Havim, Ezr. 10 : 21, and a third of the
sons of Pashur, Ezr. 10 : 22 — who had
married foreign wives.
2. A layman who divorced his foreign
wife. Ezr. 10 : 30.
3. The father of Azariah. Neh. 3 : 23.
4. One who assisted Ezra when he read
the Law to the people. Neh. 8 : 4.
6. A Levite who expounded the Law
to the people. Neh. 8 : 7.
0. One whose descendants signed the
covenant with Nehcmiah.-Nch. 10: 25.
7. Two whose descendants dwelt in
Jerusalem after the return from Babylon.
Neh. 11:5, 7.
8. Two priests who took part in the
musical service at the dedication of the
walls of Jerusalem. Neli. 12 : 41, 42.
9. The father of Zephaniah. Jer. 21 :
1 ; 29 : 25.
10. The father of the false prophet
Zedekiah. Jer. 29:21.
11. A Levite appointed a porter for the
ark by David. 1 Chr. 15: 18,20.
12. The son of Adaiah ; partook in the
revolution by which Joash was placed on
the throne. 2 Chr. 23 : 1.
MAA
MAC
13. An officer in the reign of Uzziah.
2 Chr. 26: 11.
14. A son of King Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28 : 7.
15. The governor of Jerusalem under
King Josiah. 2 Chr. 34 : 8.
16. A doorkeeper at the temple. Jer.
35 : 4.
MAASE'IAH {refmie of Jehovah), a
priest, the father of Keriah, and the
grandfather of Baruch and Seraiah. Jer.
32:12; 51:59.
MAAS'IAI {work of Jehovah), a
priest. 1 Chr. 9 : 12 ,• comp. Xeh. 11 : 13.
MA'ATH {nmull), an ancestor of
Jesus. Luke 3 : 26.
MA'AZ {anger), a son of Ram, a de-
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 27.
MAAZI'AH {Jehovah's vowiolation).
1. Head of the twenty-fourth course of
priests iu the reign of David. 1 Chr.
24 : 18.
2. One of the prie^sts who signed the
covenant with Xehemiah. Xeh. 10 : 8.
J^IAC'CABEES, THE BOOKS
OF THE, five in number, and con-
taining the history of the Jewish rising
under the leadership of the family of the
Maccabees, belong to the Apocryphal
books of the 0. T. The first two books,
however, which are found in the Vulgate,
the earliest English versions, and also in
the Cambridge Bible, were received into
the canon of the Roman Catholic Church
by the Council of Trent; the fifth exists
only in Arabic.
1. The first book begins with the acces-
sion of Antiochus Epiphanes to the
Syrian throne in B.C. 175, and narrates the
revolt of the Jews under Mattathias, their
brilliant successes under Judas Macca-
basus, and the continuation of the contest
under Jonathan and Simeon till the death
of the latter, ins. c. 135. It was originally
written in Hebrew, in the first decades
of the first century before Christ, and
a!terward translated into Greek ; but we
know only the translation. Its character
is very diff'erent from that of the histor-
ical books of the 0. T. ; it is a simple
exposition of merely human exploits.
But the author is veracious, and his
apparent ignorance of Roman or other
foreign affairs does not impugn his
trustworthiness when he speaks of Jew-
ish affairs.
2. The second book begins in the last
time of the reign of *Seleucus IV. Philo-
pator, and ends with the victory of Judas
Maccabaeus overSeleucus Xikanorin 160.
It thus comprises a much shorter period
than the iirst book ; and where it relates
the same events, it deviates very much
from it. There can be no doubt, how-
ever, which of the two accounts is the
more trustworthy. The second book is
an extract from a larger work on the
subject by one Jason of Cyrene, but we
know neither this Jason nor his work,
nor the epitomizer. The extract must
have been made before the destruction
of Jerusalem, and is written in an exag-
gerated and rhetorical style and with a
definite religious tendency.
3. The third book narrates the visit
of Ptolomeus IV. Philopator to the
temple of Jerusalem in 217 ; his demand
to enter the holy of holies, and the pun-
ishment of his audacity by the hand of
God ; his attempt to take vengeance on
the Jews of Alexandria, and the im-
mediate interference of (iod on their be-
half; and finally, his conversion into a
friend and benefactor of the Jewish
people. The style in which this book is
written is as bombastic and affected as
its contents are fabulous. The historical
kernel is very small, and even this little
is not correctlj' rendered.
4. The fourth book begins with a philo-
sophical dissertation on the supremacy of
reason over the passions, and illustrates
this subject with an account of the mar-
tyrdom of Eleazar, and the mother with
her seven sons, following 2 Mace. 6, 7.
5. The fifth book gives the history of
the Jews from Heliodorus to Herodes —
that is, from b. c. 184 to B. c. 86.
MACCABEES, THE FAMILY
OF THE. The proper name of this
family was "Asmonaeans""or "Hasmon£B-
ans," from Chasmon, the great-grand-
father of Mattathias '' of the sons of
Jehoiarib." 1 Chr. 24 : 7. "Maccabaeus"
was a surname originally given to Judas,
one of the sons of Mattathias, and then
extended first to the whole family and
then to the whole party which arose
against the despotism of the Seleucides.
The meaning of this surname has been
variously given as " the hammer," '' the
extinguisher," " destruction," and some
regard it as a combination of the initial
letters of the Hebrew sentence, '• Who
among the gods is like unto thee, Jeho-
vah ?" on Judas' banner.
When the emissaries of Antiochus
533
MAC
MAC
Epiphanes came to Modin and required
the people to offer idolatrous sacrifices,
Mattathias, a priest of the course of
Joarib, slew the tirst Jew who approached
the altar to renounce his faith, then the
emissaries themselves, and then he fled
to the mountains with his sons, in b. c.
168. Numbers of his countrymen who
held dear their religion joined him here,
and thus the revolt began. In 166 Mat-
tathias died, and his son, Judas, succeeded
him as leader of the movement. After
the brilliant victories at Beth-horon and
Emmaus, Judas occupied Jerusalem, and
the temple was purified exactly three
years after its profanation. By the stiil
more brilliant victory at Adassa, 161,
over Seleucus Nikanor, the independence
of the Jews was practically established,
but Judas fell shortly after in the battle
of Eleasa. The contest was continued
with success by his two brothers, Jona-
than, died 143, and Simon, died 135.
Under the latter the office of high priest
was made hereditary in the family of
the Asmonseans. Simon's son, Johannes
Hyrcanus, 135-105, changed the tradi-
tional policy of the family and sought
support with the Sadducees, and his two
sons, Aristobulus I., 105-104, who as-
sumed the title of king, and Alexander
Jannseus, 104-78, pursued the same line
of conduct. After the death of Alex-
andra, 78-69, a civil war broke out be-
tween her two sons, Aristobulus II. and
Hyrcanus II. The Romans interfered,
and Aristobulus II., 69-63, having been
defeated by Pompey, was dethroned. His
brother Hyrcanus II. succeeded, 63-40,
as high priest and prince under Roman
supremacj-, but without the title of king.
With Antigonus, 40-37, a son of Aristobu-
lus II., the Asmonaean dynasty ceased to
reign, and with Aristobulus' two grand-
children, Aristobulus and Mariamne, it
became extinct. H> rodes became its heir.
MACEDO'NIA [extended land), a
noted country and kingdom lying north
Map of Macedonia.
of Greece. The kingdom was founded
about B. c. 814, and became famous in
the world's history in the time of its
great rulers, Philip and Alexander. It
was the first part of Europe which re-
ceived the gospel, and hence its import-
ance in biblical history.
Sitiintif)n nnd Extent. — The boundaries
of Macedonia varied at different periods,
534
but in N. T. times Macedonia may be
described as bounded on the north by
the range of Ha?mus or the Balkan
Mountains, separating it from Moesia:
on the east by Thrace and the ^gean
Sea; on the south by the province of
Achaia (Greece) ; on the west by Epirus
and Illyricum, from which it was sepa-
rated by the Pindus range.
MAC
MAC
Physical Features. — Macedonia is situ-
ated in a great basin nearly surrounded
by the mountains and the sea. There are
two great plains, one watered by the river
Axius, whose mouth is near Thessalonica,
and the other by the Strymon, which
flows into the ^Egean Sea below Amphi-
polis. Between the mouths of these two
rivers projects a peninsula divided into
three points, on one of which is Mount
Athos, whose peak rises nearly into the
region of perpetual snow. Across the
neck of this peninsula ran the great road
(Via Ignatia) along which Paul and his
companions passed.
History. — 5lacedonia is aname familiar
to school-children in connection with
King Philip of Macedon and his son
Alexander the Gre.at. The third great
world-kingdom, the Macedonian empire,
received its name from this compara-
tively little spot. Comp. Dan 8 : b-%, 21.
The Romans conquered the territory from
Perseus. It was at first divided into four
districts, afterward consolidated into one
with its capital at Thessalonica,where the
proconsul resided. There are numerous
allusions to the Macedonians in the books
of the Maccabees. In N. T. history
Macedonia holds an important place be-
cause of the labors of the apostles. Paul
was called there by the vision of the
" man of Macedonia," and made a most
successful missionary-tour. Acts 16 : 10 ;
17 : 1-12. He visited it agnin, Acts 20 :
1-6. and probably for a third time. Corap.
1 Tim. 1 : .3 ; PhiJ. 2 : 24. His Epistles to
the Thessalonians and Philippians show
that the Macedonian Christians exhibited
many excellent traits. The details of his
work can be studied in connection with
the cities of Macedonia visited by him.
See Neapolis, Philippi, Apoli.onia,
Thessalonica, Ber^a. Macedonia has
been for many years under the control
of the Turks, and is called Makadonia.
MACH^E'RUS is not mentioned
in the Bible, but is supposed to be the
castle in which John the Baptist was
imprisoned and beheaded. It is nine
miles east of the northern end of the
Dead Sea. Mark 6:21-29.
MACH'BANAI (one fat, thick, or
irho like my Sfnis ^ a Gadite chief who
joined David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12: 13.
MACH'BENAH {hillock, or cloak),
a name occurring in the genealogical
list of Judab, I Chr. 2 : 49, and probably
signifying a town founded or colonized
by Sheva and his family.
MA'CHI (decrease), the father of
Geuel the Gadite, who went with Caleb
and Joshua as a spy into Canaan. Num.
13:15.
MAXHIR (soW). 1. The eldest son
of Manasseh by an Aramite or Syrian
concubine, 1 Chr. 7 : 14 ; the father of
Gilead, Num. 26 : 29 : 27 : 1 : 36 : 1 ;
and a daughter, Abiah. 1 Chr. 2 : 21, 24.
At the time of the Conquest the family
of Machir had become very large and
powerful, and subdued the land to the
east of the Jordan. Num. 32:39; Deut.
3:15.
2. The son of Amniiel. in whose house
Mephibosheth was received and lived un-
til David called him to Jerusalem. 2 Sam.
9*4 5 ; 17 : 27.
MA'CHIRITES. the descendants
of Machir. Num. 26 : 29.
MACH'NADE'BAI {n-hat like the
liberal f), one viho divorced his foreign
wife on command of Ezra. Ezr. 10 : 40.
MACHPE'LAH [donhle cave),, a.
fieldin Hebron containingthecave which
Abraham bought of Ephron the Hittite
as a burial-place for bis family. A full
account of the negotiations, carried on
after the Oriental forms still prevalent,
is given in Gen. 23. Th.nt cave became
the burial-place of Abraham and Sarah,
Isaac and P»cbckah. .Jacob and Leah.
Gen. 23 : 19 : 25 : 9 : 49 : 29-32 ; 50 : 12,
13. The name does not occur except in
the book of Genesis. The cave Mach-
pelah is one of the Bible sites which are
positively known. It was situated on
the western slope of a hill in Hebron,
the town lying for the most part to the
south and west.
Present Appearance. — A large struc-
ture called El Haram, " The Sacred
Enclosure," surrounds the ancient cave.
It stands high up the slope on the east-
ern side of the valley, conspicuous at a
distance for its size. The outer waif,
which contains not a single window, is
194 feet long, 109 feet wide, and from 48
to 58 feet high. The stones are of im-
mense size (one of them 38 feet long and
4 wide), dressed and fitted with great
care, and resemble those of the sub-
structure of the temple at Jerusalem.
j Opinions differ as to the age of this
i building. Some ascribe it to David or
Solomon, others to the period after the
535
MAC
MAD
Captivity, still others to the time of
Herod, who rebuilt the temple ; but there
seems to be no good reason for disputing
the view of Kobinsun, who regarded the
external structure of the Haram as the
work of Jewish hands, erected long be-
fore the destruction of the nation. Tris-
tram and Stanley also accept the identi-
fication of Machpelah as certain, and
hold it beyond doubt that the main
stone enclosure was built by the kings
of Judah, and most probably by Solomon
or David. AVithin the enclosure is a
mosque, which was probably erected in
the time of Justinian as a Christian
church. Visitors are rigidly excluded ;
but by a special firman of the sultan
the Prince of Wales was admitted in 1862.
He was accompanied by llean Stanley,
and a full account of the visit is found
in Stanley's Jewiah Church (first series,
appendix ii.). In separate apartments
tliey were shown tombs or cenotaphs
purporting to be those of Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebekah, and Leah.
These tombs were of stone and overhung
with cloth embroidered with gold and
silver. Joseph's tomb is shown in a
structure joining the Haram on the west
side. Between the tombs of Isaac and
Mosque at Hebron, coveiing the Cave at Maclipelali.
Rebekah was a circular openini; into a
cavern below, which is supposed to be
the real <:nve of Machpelah. Of the cave
itself there is no detailed and trust-
worthy account. Captain Warren was
told that it had nut been entered for 000
years. The Moslems have asuperstition
that whoever nttempts to enter it will be
struck deal, and their fanaticism causes
them to j)n)hibit any one from making
the attempt. It is thought to be possi-
ble that the embaliiiod body of Jacob
may still be preserved in the cave, as
Egyjttian mummies have been found of
as early a date. Since the visit of the
5.*? 6
Prince of AVales. the marquis of Bute
(l.Sfi6) and the Crown-Prince of Prussia
(1869) have been admitted to the mosque.
See Hkbrox.
It is to be hoped that the political
changes going on in the East may open
the way for explorers to solve the ancient
mystery respecting the cave of Machpe-
lah, ;ind perhaps bring to light the em-
balmed body of .Jacob.
MAU is the fnmslntion of various
Hebrew and Greek words, sometimes de-
noting actual insanity, 1 Sain. 21: l.'i-
l.'>; 1 Cor. 14: 2.?. but generally signify-
ing an uncontrollable excitement only,
MAD
MAG
caused either bv fierce wrath, Deut. 28 : '.
28, 34 ; 2 Kgs. 9: 11 ,; Luke 6 : 11 ; Acts
26 : 11, or the frenzy of idolatrous wor-
ship, 1 Kgs. 18 : 26, 28, or real inspira-
tion, 1 Sam. 19 : 21-24 ; comp. 2 Kgs. 9 :
1 1 ; Jer. 29 : 26 : Acts 2 : 13. Only once
in Scripture is madness connected with
demoniacal possession. John 10 : 20.
Among the Orientals, as among all semi-
civilized people, madness was generally
looked upon partly with pity, because
Ood's hand was laid heavily on the mad-
man, partly with reverence, because the
mad mind, being shut up against all or-
dinary impressions, was considered open
to supernatural or spiritualistic influ-
ences. Thus it became possible for David
to effect his escape from the court of
Achish by feigning madness. 1 Sam. 21:
13-16.
MAD'AI {mhhUe land), the third
son of Japheth, from whom the Medes
descended. Gen. 10 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 1: 5.
MA'DIAN. Acts 7 : 29. See Midian.
MADMAN'NAH {(hn,f,hiU), a town
in the South of Judah, Josh. 15 : 31,
known in the time of Eusebius and Je-
rome as iMenois. and not far from Gaza.
Wilton would identify it with el-Mivydy.
the first stopping-place on the earavan-
rnute from Palestine to Egypt, ;.nd Hbout
15 miles south-south-west of Gnza. j\!ad-
mannah corresponds with Bcthmarca-
both. "house of chariots," in Josh. 19 :
5: 1 rhr. 4: 31.
MA'D'MY.'S {dvnfjhiU), probably the
name of a place in Moab threatened with
destruction in the denunciations of Jere-
miah. 48: 2.
MADME'NAHfr/,,^/^///), a Eenja-
mite village north of Jerusalem, the in-
habitants of which were frightened r.way
by the approach of Sennacherib along
the northern road. Tsa. 10:31. If the
places in Sennacherib's march are men-
tioned in order, Madmenah should be
between Gibeah of Saul and Nob.
MA'DON (ronteiifion), a royal city of
the Canaanites. Josh. 11 : l": 12:19,
whose king was slain by Joshua near the
waters of Merom.
MAG'BISH (r/ather,;,f/), probably
the name of a place. Ezr. 2 : 30, as all
the names from Ezr. 2 : 20 to 34, except
Elam and Harim, are names of places.
It is not in the corresponding list in
Neh. 7. The place was doubtless in the
territory of Benjamin.
MAG'DAIiA (toirer). In the chief
manuscripts and versions the name is
given as " Magadan." Magdala is found
only in Matt. 15 : 29. Christ came
thither by boat over the Lake of Galilee
after his miracle of feeding the four
thousand on the mountain on the eastern
side, Matt. 15: 39; and from thence he
returned in the boat to the opposite
shore. The parallel passage, Mark 8 :
10, has the "])arts of Dalmanutha," on
the western edge of the lake. The two
regions or districts were probably near
each other. The Magdala Irom which
Mary Magdalene was named is perhaps
identical with Migdal-el, Josh. 19 : 38,
and may be the modern el-Mejflel, a
miserable little Moslem village of fifteen
or twenty hovels, on the water's edge, at
the south-east corner of the plain of
Gennesaret.
MAGDALA, COASTS OF.
Matt. 15 : 39. See Dalmanutha.
MAG'DIEL (the prrn'se of God), one
of the chiefs of Edom. Gen. 36:43; I
Chr. 1 : .54.
MA'GI, a word of Median or Chal-
da^an origin, was the name of the sacer-
dotal caste which among the Medians,
Persians, Chalda-ans, and other Eastern
nations occupied an intermediate posi-
tion of great influence between the despot,
to whose council they often were called,
and the people, whose leaders in revolt
they often were. As the administrators
of the religion of Zoroaster they were the
priests among the population belonging
to the Medo-Persian empire. They alone
had the right to perform the religious
ceremonies. Distinguished by a pecu-
liar dress, living ajart by themselves,
and forming a complete hierarchy, they
were engaged in kcejiing alive the sa-
cred fire on the a'tar of Ormuzd and
combating the evil plans of Ahriman.
But they were not only the priests of the
Persian nation; they weie also its schol-
ars. Deeply versed, according to the
measure of the time, in philosophy and
the sciences, especially a.-tronomy, they
accompanied the king even in war as his
advisers, Jer. 39 : 3 ; but as, at that
time, a practical application of science
did not mean the subjugation of natural
powers and their employment for u>eful
purposes, but the divination of future
events and their possible modification
through spiritual and mvsterious agen-
537
MAG
MAH
cies, the Magi became on this field mere
soothsayers, fortune-tellers, dream-in-
terpreters, not to say sorcerers and en-
chanters. When the Greeks became
acquainted with Persian religion and
civilization, and here discovered a sys-
tem of divination and oracles quite dif-
ferent from their own, it was natural
enough for them to throw a special
odium on the representatives of this
system ; and in the Greek-Roman litera-
ture the Magi always appear as impos-
tors. Not so in the 0. T. During the
Captivity the Jews became well acquaint-
ed with them, and Daniel describes
them as men of wisdom, 1 : 20 ; he in-
tercedes for them with Nebuchadnezzar,
2: 24; and accepts a position as their
chief or master. 5:11.
The same impression of dignity, truth-
fulness, and aspiration after the true re-
ligion is conveyed by the narrative in
Matt. 2 : 1-14. Whence these Magi
came we have no means of ascertaining,
but it is a very probable inference that
by the intercourse between the Magi and
the exiled Jews some seeds of Messianic
expectations were sown and took root
among the former, and by special Provi-
dence these wise men were led to the
cradle of the Messiah as a sign of the
coming of the Gentiles. They were the
forerunners of the heathen converts. The
Christian legend represents them as three
kings. Their memory is celebrated on
Epiphany, the 6th of January, or the fes-
tival of Chi'ist's manifestation to the Gen-
tiles. See Star of the Wise Men.
MAG'IC was the art of influencing
future events and changing their course
by dark and secret means. The magician
was believed to stand in connection with
demons, and even with the gods them-
selves, and to be able to compel them to
act according to his will. Of the religion
of the Egyptians, Chaldijeans, Persians,
etc., magic formed an essential element,
and of the Egyptian magicians, in their
conflict with Moses and Aaron, Exodus
gives a vivid account. 7:11, 12, 22: 8 :
7. Of the religion of the Jews magic
did not only not form a-part, but the law
forbade the consulting of magicians, un-
der penalty of death. Lev. 19 : 31 ; 20 :
6. Nevertheless, from their neighbors
magic crept in among the Israelites too,
and there were those among the people
who believed in it and resorted to it.
5.38
The most remarkable instance is that
of Saul and the sorceress of Endor. I
Sam. 28 : 3-20. Also in the N. T. we
find it mentioned. Acts 8:9, 10 ; 13 :
6-12; 19: 13-19.
MAG'ISTRATE is used in our
translation both in its general sense,
signifying civil ofl[icers with legal au-
thority, Ezr. t :2b; Luke 12 : 11; Tit.
3:1; and in a special sense, signifying
the Roman colonial ofiicers — the dnuiu-
viri, corresponding nearly to prsetores.
Acts 16 : 20, 22, 25, etc.
MA'GOG {region of Gog), the second
son of Japheth, Gen. 10 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 5,
and the name of a people descending
from him, or the country inhabited by
that people, and of which Gog was the
king. Ezr. 38 : 2 ; 39 : 1, 6, etc. In the
Middle Ages the Syrians applied the
name of Magog to Asiatic Tartary, and
the Arabians to the region between the
Caspian and the Black Seas. Generally
the people of Magog are identified with
the Scythians, who, in the times when
Ezekiel wrote, were well known in West-
ern Asia. Descending from the Cauca-
sian mountain-regions in the beginning
of the seventh century b. c, they con-
quered Sardis, the capital of Lydia, in
629, and defeated Cyaxares, king of
Media, in 624. They penetrated even
into Egypt, but were bribed off by Psam-
metichus. They were not expelled, how-
ever, from Western Asia until the begin-
ning of the next century. By Ezekiel
they are described as excellent horsemen,
skilled in the use of the bow, 38 : 15 ; 39 :
3, and exactly the same traits are promi-
nent in the descriptions of the Scythians
by the classical historians. In Rev. 20 :
7-9 the terms Gog and Magog are evi-
dently used as types of the enemies of
Christianity. See Gog.
MA'GOR-MIS'SABIB {terror on
every side), a symbolical name given
by Jeremiah, Jer. 20 : 3, to the priest
Pashuk, which article see.
MAG'PIASH {moth-killer), one of
the chiefs who sealed the covenant with
Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 20.
MAHA'LAH {sickness), a descend-
ant of Manasseh by a sister of Gilead. 1
Chr. 7:18.
MAHA'LALEEL {praise of God).
1. The son of Cainan, the fourth in de-
scent from Adam. (Jen. 6 : 12, 13, 15-17;
1 Chr. 1:2; called Maleleel in Luke 3 : 37.
MAH
MAK
2. A descendant of Perez or Pharez,
whose family lived in Jerusalem after
the return from the Captivity. Xeh. 11 : 4.
MA'HALiATH [stringed instntmeiif,
harp, lyre). 1. The daughter of Ishmael.
and one of the wives of Esau, Gen. 28 :
9 ; called Bashemath Gen. 36 : 3, 4, 10,
etc.
2. The granddaughter of David, and
one of the wives of Rehoboam. 2 Chr.
11 : 18.
MA'HALATH, Ps. 53, and MA-
HALATH-LEAN'NOTH, Ps. 88,
occurring only in the titles of these two
Psalms, are by most commentators held
to be the names of some musical instru-
ment used in the performance of the
Psalm, or to contain some musical instruc-
tions with respect to the melody. Others,
however, deriving the word from a root
meaning " sickness,' consider it a con-
densed or enigmatical indication of the
idea of the Psalm.
MA'HALI {side), a son of Merari.
Ex. 6:19. The same as Mahli.
MAHANA'IM {ticn camp>i), a town
east of the Jordan ; named by Jacob.
Gen. 32:1, 2. It was assigned to the
Levites, Josh. 13 : 26, 30: 21 : 38j 1
Chr. 6 : 80, and lay within the territory
of Gad, south of the torrent Jabbok.
Mahanaim became in the time of the
monarchy a place of mark. 2 Sam. 2:
9, 12 ; 4:6. Abner fixed Ishbosheth's
residence there, and David took ref-
uge in it when driven out of the west-
ern part of his kingdom by Absalom.
2 Sam. 17 : 24 ; 1 Kgs. 2 : 8. Mahanaim
was the seat of one of Solomon's com-
missariat officers, 1 Kgs. 4 : 14, and it
is alluded to in his Song. 6 : 13. It has
been identified with Mahneh, 12 miles
north of Gerasa, but it seems too far
from the Jabbok (10 miles), and has
no ruins except some smooth grass-
grown mounds. Prof. Paine found a
site (1874) called Mahava, but finally
rejected it as not Mahanaim. Porter
suggests the ruins of Gerasa as the site
of Mahanaim, but this needs confirmation.
MA'HA\EH-DA\ {the cnmp of
Dan), a place " behind Kirjath-jearim,''
Jud. 18:12, and "between Zorah and
Eshtaol." 13 : 25,
MAHAR'AI {swift, impetnouH), a
descendant of Zerah, and one of David's
captains. 2 Sam. 23 : 28 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 30 j
27 : 13.
MA'HATH {grasping). 1. A Ko-
hathite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 35.
2. Another Kohathite Levite in the
time of Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 29 : 12 : 31 : 13.
MA'HAVITE, the designation of
Eliel, one of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11 :
46 ; of uncertain signification.
MAHA'ZIOTH {rision»), a Ko-
hathite Levite, one of the sons of Heman,
and chief of the twenty-third course of
musicians. 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 30.
MA HER- SHAL'AL- HASH'-
BAZ {halting to the spoil, he speeds to
the ])rey), the symbolical name given to
the son of Isaiah to indicate the capture
and plunder of Damascus and Samaria
by the king of Assyria, Isa. 8:1,3.
MAH'LiAH (disease), one of the
daughters of Zelophehad, in favor of
whom the laws of inheritance were al-
tered. Num. 27: 1-11.
MAH'LI (siel-h/). 1. A Levite, son
of Merari, Num. 3 : 20 : 1 Chr. 6 : 19, 29 ;
23 : 21 : 24 : 26 ; Ezr. 8 : 18; called Ma-
hali, Ex. 6 : 19.
2. Another Levite, a grandson of Me-
rari. 1 Chr. 6 : 47 ; 23 : 23,
MAH'LI TES, a family of Levites
descending from Mahli, Num. 3 : 33 j
26 : 58.
MAH'LON {sicl-h/), one of the sons
of Elimelech and Naomi, and the first
husband of Ruth : died in the land of
Moab. Ruth 1 : 2, 5 : 4:9, 10.
MA'HOLi [dance), father of four sons
who next to Solomon had the greatest
fame for wisdom. 1 Kgs. 4 : 31.
MAIL. 1 Sam. 17 : 5. See Arms.
MAIN'SAIL. Acts 27 : 40. See
Ship.
M A'K AZ {end), a place where one of
Solomon's officers resided. 1 Kgs. 4 : 9.
Conder suggests that it is the modern
Jlokhiis.
MAKHE:L0TH (place of assem-
blies), a station of the Hebrews in the
desert. Num. 33 : 25.
MAK'KEDAH {place of shep-
herds), a royal city of the Canaanites in
the plains of Judah, where Joshua exe-
cuted the five confederate kings. Josh.
10 : 1 0 ; 12 : 16 ; 15 : 41. Warren would
identify it with el-Moghar, 25 miles
north-west from Jerusalem, and Conder
describes it as on the north side of the
valley Sorek, 25 miles from Gibeon,
close to the main road from Gaza to
Lydda. There is a promontory divided
539
MAK
MAL
into three tops, the last of which falLs
abruptly and supports a large mud vil-
lage upon the steep eastern side and
huddled ai'ound the caves. There are
still two caves wherein five men might
crowd, and the entrance could be easily
blocked with the great stones which lie
scattered near. One cave has, curiously
enough, five loculi rudely scooped in its
side, and an enthusiast might contend
that this was the very place of sepulchre
of the five kings who were hidden at
Makkedah.
MAK'TESH {mortar), a place in
Jerusalem denounced by Zephaniah. 1 :
11. Ewald conjectures that it was the
** Phoenician quarter " of the city, and
the Targum identifies it with the Kedron.
Jerome places it in the lower city, where
were bazaars of merchants at the time of
the siege by Titus.
MAL'ACHI [messenger <>/ Jehovnh),
the last of the prophets, and called "the
seal " because his prophecies form the
closing book of the canon of the 0. T.
Of his personal life nothing is known
but what can be gleaned from his book.
He flourished after the Captivity, later
than Haggai and Zechariah, at a time
when the temple was completed, and was
probably a contemporary of Nehemiah,
B. c. 43)5. His prophecies are at once
denunciatory of prevailing vices, and
consolatory by the Messianic promise.
Showing how vain were the murmurings
of the people against the Lord, he re-
proves them for their neglect of his ser-
vice, censures intermarriage with foreign
wives, etc., and warns them that judg-
ment will be established over them. He
closes with a prophecy of the coming of
Messiah, and foretells that Elijah will re-
turn as a forerunner of Messiah — -a pre-
diction which found its striking fulfil-
ment by the mission of John the baptist.
Mai. 4:6; Luke 1 : 17; Matt. 11 : 14;
17 : 12.
MA.l.'Q'H.X.M [their hiufj). 1. ABcn-
jamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 9.
2. As occurring in Zeph. 1 : .'j, it is un-
derstood by some as an idol in general,
by others as signifving Moloch.
MALCHI'AH iJehnruh'H king). 1.
A Gershonite Levite, the ancestor of
Asaph. 1 Chr. 6 : 40.
2. Two who had married foreign wives.
Ezr. 10 : 25, 31, the latter probably !hc
same as Malchijah. Neh. 3: 11.
540
3. Two who helped to repair the wall
of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 14.
4. A priest who stood beside Ezra
when he read the Law to the people in
the street before the Water-gate. Neh.
8:4.
5. A priest, the father of Pashur, Neh.
11 : 12 ; probably the same as Melchiah,
Jer. 21 : 1 ; Neh. 11 : 12 ; 38 : 1, and Mal-
chijah.
6. An officer in whose cistern Jeremiah
was thrown, Jer. 38 : 6, the dry cistern
being used in Palestine as a dungeon.
MAL'CHIEL {God'8 king), a grand-
son of Asher, and the ancestor of the
Malchielites. Gen. 46 : 17 ; Num. 26 : 45;
1 Chr. 7:31.
MALCHI'JAH (JeJwvah's king). 1.
The same as Malchiah, 5.
2. A priest, chief of the fifth course in
the reign of David. 1 Chr. 24 : 9.
3. One who had taken a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10 : 25.
4. One who assisted in repairing the
walls of Jerusalem, Neh. 3 : U ; the same
as Malchiah in Ezr. 10 : 31.
5. One who took part in the dedication
of the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 12 : 42.
MALCHI'RA>I (king of altitude),
a son of Jehoiachin, king of Judah. 1
Chr. 3 : 18.
MAL'CHISHU'A [king of help). 1.
Chr. 8 : 33 ; 9 : 39 ; 10 : 2, or MEL-
CHISUA, 1 Sam. 14:49; 31:2, one
of the sons of King Saul.
MAL'CHUS [reigning), the high
priest's servant whose ear Peter cut off
when Jesus was apprehended in the gar-
den. Matt. 26 : 51 ; Mark 14 : 47 ; Luke
22:50; John 18 : 10.
MALE'LEEL. Luke 3 : 37. See
Mahal ALEEL, 1.
MAL'LOTHI (mi/ fulness), a Ko-
hathite Levite, son of Hetnan, and chief
of the nineteenth course of singers. 1 Chr.
25 : 4, 26.
MAL'LOVVS. Job 30 : 4. Several
species of mallows grow in Bible lands
and are eaten as potherbs by the poor.
But it is believed that the Hebrew here
denotes a plant of saline taste, or one
that grows in salt places. The shrubby
sea-oracle [Atriphx halimuH), closely
connected with the saltwort of our coasts,
has i)()th these qualifications, and is most
generally .agreel upon as the mallows of
Job, although other plants have their
advocates.
MAL
MAN
MAL'LUCH (reifpiiuff). 1. A Merar-
ite Levite, ancestor of Ethan. 1 Chr. 6:
44.
2. Two who had married foreign wives.
Ezr. 10 : 29, 32.
3. A priest who returned with Zerub-
babel. Neh. 12 : 2. and signed the cove-
nant with Xeheini.ih, Xeh. 10 : 4 : prob-
ably the same as Melicu.
rilAMMION, a Chaldee or Syrian
word denoting " wealth :" used twice by
our Lord. Matt. 6 : 24; Luke 16 : 9-11.'
MAM'RE {fiititeas, itrength), an
Amorite chief with whom Abraham
made an alliance, Gen. 14 : 13, and who
gave his name to certain localities in
his possessions.
MAM'RE, a place near Hebron,
so called after the Amorite chief, Gen.
14 : 13. 24; 23 : 19: 35 : 27, and it is
also the name of a plain and a grove
at Hebron by which Abraham dwelt
and entertained three angels. Gen. 13 :
18; 18:1. It was near Machpelah.
Gen. 23 : 17, 19 : 25 : 9 : 49 : 30 ; 50 :
13. The grove of terebinths is supposed
to have been the place called by the Arabs
er-Ranich or Ranut-et-Khiilil, one hour
from Hebron. The site of Mamre is
shown, on the sheet-maps of the Pales-
tine Exploration Fund, at Ball<ttet Seltn,
or '' oak of rest," a fine old tree near the
modern Russian hospice. The tree is
called Abraham's Oak. Near the site
is a spring. See Hebron.
MA\ is. in ourEnglish Bible, the ren-
dering of four diflferent Hebrew words.
1. ^f/a?», Gen. 1 : 26, from a root which
signifies "to be red " or " ruddy," which
among the Shemites means as much as
" fair." This word is generally used as
the generic name for the human race.
Geii. 5:2; 8 : 21 ; Deut. 8 : 3.
2. hh, man as distinguished from
woman, 1 Sam. 17 : 33; then husband,
Gen. 3:16; Hos. 2:16; superior, Prov.
8:4; Ps. 141 : 4; the male of animals.
Gen. 7 : 2, etc.
3. Gebcr, from a root signifying " to
be strong," denotes man in contradis-
tinction from woman, Deut. 22 : 5, or
from children, Ex. 12 : 37, though it is
also used collectively. Job 4 : 17; 14 :
10.
4. Methim, "mortal." Isa. 12 : 14. See
Adam and Sox of Man.
MAN'AEN {r,nrxolei-), one of the
teachers of the church of Antioch, and
foster-brother of Herod Antipas the
tetrarch. Acts 13 : 1.
MAN'AHATII {re^t). l. A de-
scendant of Seir the Horite. Gen. 36 :
23 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 40.
2. A place belonging to the tribe of
Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 6.
MANA'HTHITES, the, the
descendants of Manahath or the inhab-
itants of the place of that name. 1 Chr.
2 : 52.
MANAS'SEH. 1. The first-born
of Joseph. When he and his brother
Ephraim were boys, and Jacob, their
grandfather, was about to die, Joseph
took them into the patriarch's presence
to receive his blessing. On this occasion
he adopted them into his own family
as his own chi'drcn, and predicted the
superiority of Ephraim over Manasseh.
Gen. 48 : .5-20. Nothing furtl.er is
known of the personal history of Man-
asseh. His oldest, and as it would
seem his only, son was Machir, whose
children were embraced by Joseph. On
their way to Canaan the Israelites con-
quered a large territory east of the Jor-
dan, and some of them whose posses-
sions were chiefly in cattle desired to
have their portion assigned them among
the rich pastures and fruitful hills of
Bashan and the surrounding country.
This request was granted, and half the
tribe of Manasseh received the territory
stretching from near to Cssarea-Philippi
along the Jordan down nearly to Maha-
naim. The other half had its portion on
the west of the Jordan, between Ephraim
and Issachar, across the country from the
Jordan to the Mediterranean.
Several great men, such as Gideon,
and probably also Jephthah. issued from
Manasseh. The eastern part of the tribe
prospered much and spread to Mount
Hermon. but they finally mixed with the
Canaanites, adopted their idolatry, be-
came scattered as Bedouins in the desert,
and were the first to be carried away
into captivity by the kings of Assyria.
1 Chr. 5 : 25. The western Manasseh,
of which only a few glimpses are visible
in the later history of Israel, always
showed itself on the right side; as, for
instance, in the cases of Asa, 2 Chr. 15 :
9, Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 30 : 1, 11, 18, and
Josiah. 2 Chr. 34 : 6, 9.
2. Son and successor of Hezekiah.
king of Judah, ascended the throne at
541
MAN
MAN
the age of twelve years, b. c. 696. The
former part of his reign was distin-
guished for acts of impiety and cruelty,
2 Kgs. 21, anil he succeeded in drawing
his subjects away from the Lord to such
an extent that the only kind of worship
which was not allowed in Judah was that
of Jehovah. 2 Kgs. 21 : 2-9. Having
supported the Babylonian viceroy in his
revolt against Assyria, he was at last
taken captive by the Assyrian king and
ignominiously transported to
Babylon. Upon his repent-
ance, however, he was liber-
ated, and returned to his cap-
ital, where he died B.C. 641,
after having done much to re-
pair the evils of his former
life. 2 Chr. 33 : 1-20.
MANAS'SEH [forget-
tin;/), the territory occupied by
a tribe descended from Joseph,
and divided into two portions,
one east of the Jordan, and the
other west of it.
1. Enst of the Jordan. — The
country of Manasseh east of the
Jordan included half of Gilead
north of the Jabbok, Bashan,
and Argob. It extended from
the brook Jabbok, on the south,
to Mount Hermon and Damas-
cus, on the north, I Chr. 5 : 18-
23, and from the Jordan and
the Sea of Galilee, onthe west, to
the Arabian desert, on the east.
It is even now the granary of
Syria. The extensive pastures
of Gilead and Bashan gave the
best scope for the half-nomad
and herdsman's life led by this
portion of the tribe. Jud. 5:
15. The people were powerful
and brave, taking a leading
part in the wars of Gideon, of Jephthah,
and of David. See also Gilead and
Bashax.
2. Went of the Jordan. — The portion
of the half tribe of Manasseh on the
west of the Jordan extended from the
Mediterranean to the Jordan, and lay
between Asher and Issachar on the north
and Ephraini on the south. Josh. 17 : 7-
10. They also gained some towns in
Carmel within the boumls of Issachar,
probably by c;(f>turing them from the
ancient Canaanites. Josh. 17:11-18.
The dominant position of Kphraim seems
b\2
to have obscured the power of Manasseh,
and this portion of their country is fre-
quently joined with Ephraim in the
biblical allusions. For further notice
see Palkstixk and Samaria.
MANAS'SITES, THE, descend-
ants of Manasseh the patriarch. Deut.
4 : 48 : Jud. 12 : 4 : 2 Kgs. 10 : 33.
MAN'D RAKES (Heb. hve-plants).
Modern Bible scholars apply this name
to a member of the potato family {Man-
Mandrake. (Atropa Mandragora. After Tristram.)
drarjora officinalin). This is a stem-
less plant with a disk of leaves almost
as long, but not nearly as broad, as those
of the garden rhubarb, which it some-
what resembles, except in its blossoms.
These are of a rich purple, and, appear-
ing among the leaves very early, are
followed about wheat-harvest by a round
yellow pulj)y fruit of the size of a large
]>lum ami of a sweet and agreeable
flavor. Tlie odor of the plant seems to
be enjoyed by Orientals, Cant. 7:13,
and by sonte Occidentals. Many strange
superstitions are connected with this
MAN
MAN
plant, and the idea of Rachel's time still
prevails that conception is ensured by
eating the fruit of this plant. Gen. 30 :
14-16.
MA'NEH. See Measures.
MAN'NA (Heb. what is this ?), a sub-
stance miraculously furnished to the
children of Israel on their journey
through the wilderness, and designed as
a substitute for bread, the material for
which they could not rait^e during their
wanderings. It was called the In end
from heaven, and its character and his-
tory are most fully described in Ex.16.
The most remarkable things about the
manna of the Israelites were, 1. That
double the quantity was supplied on the
day preceding the Sabbath or seventh
day ; 2. That on the Sabbath or seventh
day none was furnished ; 3. That what
they kept from the sixth day to the
seventh was sweet and good, while what
they kept from any other day to the
next day bred worms and became offen-
sive. These miracles were wrought in
attestation of the sanctity of the Sab-
bath.
The manna of the Jews is described
as "a small round thing," as small as
*• the hoarfrost on the ground," ''like co-
riander seed" (in shape doubtless, per-
haps in size and density), "of the color
of bdellium," ''and the taste of it like
wafers made with honey." Wafers were
small thin cakes of fine flour mingled
with oil and used in various offerings.
Lev. 2:4; 7:12. If to this mixture
was added a portion of honey, there
would be the nourishment of the flour,
the flavor of fresh oil, and the sweetness
of honey.
For forty years this miraculous supply
of food was furnished daily to between
3.000,000 and 4,000,000 of people. Deut.
29 : 5, 6. It ceased while they were en-
camped at Gilgal, immediately after
they had celebrated the Passover for the
first time in the Land of Promise. To
commemorate this long-continued and
wonderful miracle. Moses was instructed
that a golden pot should be provided,
Ex. 16 : 33 : Heb. 9 : 4, and that an
omer (or one man's portion) of the
manna should be put up for preserva-
tion and placed in or near the ark, that
succeeding generations might see with
their own eyes the yery substance on
which their fathers we.e miraculously
fed in their long and perilous jom-ney-
ings from Egypt to Canaan.
The manna which is now used in
medicine as a mild laxative is the dried
juice of the ash {Oman), and is obtained
from Southern Europe. It evidently has
no connection with the food of the Israel-
ites. Various natural exudations from
Eastern shrubs and trees are called by this
name, their sweet taste and the globular
form under which they are ordinarily
found occasioning a fancied resemblance
to the manna of the Israelites, Espe-
cially notable is that which drops from
the twigs of the tamarisk, or tar/a, in
the deserts of Mount Sinai, and is gath-
ered by the Arabs for food and sold to
Tamarisk or Manna Tree of the Sinaitic
Peninsula.
travellers as a curiosity. Although the
natives call this substance manna, the
manna which the Israelites found in the
same locality was entirely different in
several particulars. The Arab manna
falls only where the tamarisks grow and
during early summer; it may be kept
years without breeding worms: it cannot
be ground or beaten into meal, Num. 11 :
S, more than could thick honey ; it comes
on Sabbath and week-day in equal quan-
tities. It is plain that the Israelites
never saw their manna before or after the
Exodus. Deut. 8:3, 16; Ex. 16 : 15,32, 33.
543
MAN
MAN
An Eastern traveller gives the following
account (in part verified by the writer)
of the modern manna of Arabia: ''This
substance is called by the Bedouins maun,
and accurately resembles the description
of manna given in the Scriptures. In
the month of June it drops from the
thorns" (the fresh stems; the tamarisk
has no thorns) "of the tamarisk upon
the fallen twigs, leaves, and thorns
which always cover the ground be-
neath that tree in the natural state;
the manna is collected before sunrise,
when it is coagulated ; but it dissolves
as soon as the sun shines upon it. The
Arabs clean away the leaves, dirt, etc.,
which adhere to it, boil it, strain it
through a coarse piece of cloth, and put
it in leathern skins. In this way they
preserve it till the following year, and
use it as they do honey — to pour over
unleavened bread or to dip their bread
into. I could not learn that they ever
made it into cakes or loaves. The manna
is found only in years when copious
rains have fallen ; sometimes it is not
produced at all. I saw nme of it among
the Arabs, but I obtained a small piese of
the last year's produce in the convent (of
Mount Sinai), where, having been kept
in the cool shade and moderate tempei-
ature of that place, it had become quite
solid and formed a small cake. It be-
came soft when kept some time in the
hand ; if placed in the sun for five min-
utes, it dissolved ; but when restored to
a cool place, it became solid again in a
quarter of an hour. In the season at
which the Arabs gather it, it never ac-
quires that state of hardness which will
allow of its being pounded, as the Is-
raelites are said to have done in Num.
11 : 8. Its color is a dirty yellow, and
the piece which I saw was still mi.xed
with bits of tamarisk leaves; its taste is
agreeable, somewhat aromatic, and as
sweet as honey. If eaten in any con-
siderable quantity, it is said to be slightly
medicinal. The quantity of manna col-
lected at present, even in seasons when
the most copious rains fall, is trifling,
perhaps not amounting to more than 500
or 600 pounds. It is entirely consumed
among the Ijedouins, who consider it
the greatest dainty which their country
affords. The harvest is usual Ij' in June,
and lasts for about six weeks."
Some authors have also suggested a
544
lichen {Lecauora esculenta) as the manna
of the Israelites. This small plant
grows on the deserts and mountains of
the East, in the neighborhood of the
Caucasus especially. It forms small
grayish lumps, sometimes as large as a
hazel-nut, yielding the same nourish-
ment to the tribes of the Asiatic steppes
as does the larger lichen called tripe de
roche to our Arctic explorers in their ex-
tremity. The natives consider that this
food comes from heaven, and call it
manna. In considerable quantity it is
sometimes taken up by the wind and let
fall at a distance. Parrot says that
these "rains of manna" have been
known to cover the ground in some parts
of Persia to the depth of five or six
injhes.
The sugary exudation from the leaves
and branches of the camel's thorn {Al-
hag'i mauroram) of the Sinai deserts has
been called Persian manna, and been
believed by a few to have supplied the
Israelites.
" Wherever the manna is referred to
in Scripture, it is invariably regarded as
a miraculous food sent directly from
God. The Lord Jesus, when he accepted
the manna as a type of himself — the
living Bread which came down from
heaven ^corrects the error of those who,
in seeking a sign from him, insinuated
that the bread from heaven given by
Moses, by which he secured the confi-
dence of their fathers, was a greater
miracle than the feeding of the five
thousand, and says that it was the gift
of God, and not of Moses. Wc are led
to the same conclusion by comparing its
properties and amount and the manner
of its occurrence with what is known of
tlie natural mannas, and we must regret
all attempts to identify the 'corn of
heaven ' with any of them. Yet we
have no doubt that this wilderness-food
so closely resembled in general appear-
ance the Egyptian manna as to justify
the name given to it by those who first
saw it. In the same way, emigrants
apply names of familiar home-plants to
the strange trees and plants they meet
with because of some observed resem-
blance, though they are widely removed
from each other in scientific character.
The adopting a manna-like appearance
for the miraculous food is in accordance
with the general plan of God's miracles
MAN
MAR
as recorded in his word. For example,
the Lord Jesus did not bring bread from
heaven to feed the hungering multitudes
on the green slopes of the Sea of Gali-
lee, but employed the loaves and fishes
which were the common food of the coun-
try, and by miraculously increasing the
small supply found in the possession of
one in the company made it sufficient for
all. So, when his people hungered for
flesh in the desert, (iod sent them quails
— migrating birds which occasionally
passed in flocks over the wilderness; and
when they wanted bread, in full keeping
with the locality, God gave them ' manna,'
as if he were only multiplying the nat-
ural product of the wilderness." — ir.
Carriithers.
Manna is called the " corn of heaven "
and "angels' food," Ps. 78 : 24, 25, per-
haps in allusion to the mode by which
it was supplied.
The phrase '• hidden manna," Rev. 2 :
17, 'figuratively describes the support
which Christ furnishes to the true be-
liever, of which the world does not and
cannot partake. Comp. John 6 : 49, 51.
MANO'AH {rest), a native of the
town of Zorah, in the tribe of Dan, and
the father of Samson, whose birth is re-
corded in Jud. 13 : 1-23. Manoah is
again mentioned, Jud. 14 : 2-4 at the
occasion of »Samson's marriage, but
seems to have died before tlie son, whose
body was brought up from Gaza by his
brethren, not, as Milton has it, by his
father. Jud. 16 : 31.
MAN' SLAYER. When man-
slaughter occurred by a blow in a sud-
den quarrel, by a stone or other mis-
sile thrown at random. Num. 35 : 22, 23,
by the blade of an axe flying from its
handle, etc., the manslayer was allowed
to escape by retiring into one of the cit-
ies of refuge, on the principle that in
these and other such cases the person
slain had been delivered into the hands
of the manslayer by the Almighty him-
self.
MAN'TLE is the rendering of four
diff'erent Hebrew words denoting —
1. A coarse fabric in the form of a
plaid used by the Arabs for making beds
in their tents. Jud. 4:18.
2. The garment which Samuel's moth-
er made in imitation of the official
priestly robe for her young son in the
holy tent at Shiloh. 1 Sam. 15 : 27.
3. A wrapper with sleeves used by la-
dies. Isa. 3 : 22.
4. The chief garment of the prophet
Elijah. 1 Kgs. 19: 13, 19j 2 Kgs. 2:8,
13, 14.
MA'OCH {brenat-handf), the father
of Achish, king of Gath, 1 Sam. 27:2;
called Maachah in 1 Kgs. 2 : 39.
MA'ON {h'tblt<(t!<,i,), the founder of
Beth-zur. 1 Chr. 2:45.
MA'ON, one of the cities of Judah,
in the mountains, Josh. 15 : 55, and a dis-
trict where David hid from Saul, and near
which Nabal had possessions. 1 Sam. 23 :
24, 25. The name of Maon still exists in
Main, a lofty conical hill 100 feet high,
about 8 miles south from Hebron.
MA'ONITES, THE, mentioned in
Jud. 10 : 12 among the enemies of Israel ;
probablv the same as the Mehr.nim.
MA'RA {hitter). Ruth 1 : 20. See
Naomi.
MA'RAH {hitferuesH), a place in the
wilderness of Shur or Ethani, three days'
journey. Num. 33 : 8, 9, from the jilace
at which the Israelites crossed the Red
Sea. There was at Marah a spring of
bitter water, sweetened subsequently by
the casting in of a tree which '"the Lord
showed " to Moses. Ex. 15 : 23, 24; Num.
33 : 8, 9. At 'Ain H'licurah, distant 47
miles from At/iin Mousn, is a spring whose
fountain rises from a large mound in the
Wady el- A mar ah, i\r\(!i is considered by
the Arabs as the worst water in the dis-
trict. The soil is impregnated with na-
tron, which accounts for the bitterness.
This spring has been identified with
Marah. It is of course impossible to
determine whether this is the precise
spring of which the Israelites drank,
but it is certain that it must have been
in this neighborhood.
MAR'-ALAH {tremhUn(f),a, bound-
ary of Zebulun, Josh. 19:11; Porter
identifies it with M'alul, 4 miles south-
west of Nazareth, where are the ruins of
a temple.
MARANATH'A, an Aramaic ex-
pression signifying " our Lord has
come." 1 Cor. 16 : 22.
MAR'BLiE, limestone of a compact
texture and capable of receiving a high
polish. Rev. 18:12. The Bible word
seems to be used, however, for almost
any shining stone, and much of the ma-
terial of Solomon's architectural work
may have been common limestone. Some
545
MAR
MAR
of it was doubtless true marble, as was
certainly much of the stone used in
Herod's temple. This substance was
probably used in very early times for
building material, 1 Kgs. 6 : 7, >;(> ; 7:
9-] 2; 1 Chr. 29:2, and for many kinds
of vessels. The colors of marble are
various and beautiful, and pieces of all
sizes may be so wrought together as to
resemble a beautiful painting. Such
was probably the pavement and columns
of the Persian palace described in Esth.
1:6.
MAR'CUS. Col. 4 : 10. See Mark.
M ARE'SH AH (;jo*^-e.y« /<>;,). one of
the settlers in Hebron, belonging to the
family of Caleb. 1 Chr. 2 : 42.
MARE' SHAH {foiy of a hill), a
city of Judah in the low country. Josh.
15:44. It was fortified and garrisoned
by Rehoboam after the rupture with the
northern kingdom. 2 Chr. 11 : 8. Near it
the great battle between Zerah and Asa
was fought. 2 Chr. 14:9-12. It is men-
tioned once or twice in the history of
the Maccabajan struggles. 1 Mace. 5 ; 2
Mace. 12 : ;35. About B. c. 110 it was
taken from the Iduma?ans by John Hyr-
canus. It was in ruins in the fourth cen-
tury, when Eusebius and Jerome describe
it as in the second mile from Eleuther-
opolis. The ruin el-Memsh, about a
mile and a half south-south-west of Beit
Jebrin, marks the site of ancient Mar-
eshah. In the rocky banks of the val-
ley south of the ruin there are numerous
excavated caverns resembling subterra-
nean towns. Conder suggested el-M-irtih,
south of the valley of Elah, as Mareshah,
but lately has accepted M'emHh as the site.
MARK, ou JOHN MARK, as he
is also called. Acts 12:12,25; 16 : .'iT,
was a Jew, probably a native of Jerusa-
lem, where his mother, Mary, resided.
Acts 12 : 12. She was a person of some
repute among the early Christians, as
Peter, when released from prison, natu-
rally went to her house.sMark was proba-
bly converted through that apostle, who
calls him " his son," 1 Pet. 5:1;^, and the
minute account of the young man who
followed Jesus on the night of the betray-
al, Mark 14:51,52, together with the
omission of the name, j)oints to the
evangelist as the ]terson concerned. Go-
ing with I'aul and Barnabas, who was
his cousin. Col. 4: 10, as their minister,
Acts 12 : 25, on their first missionary
54 f;
journey, he left them at Perga, Acts 13 :
13, and in consequence became the oc-
casion of '' sharp contention " between
them. Acts 16:36-40. Afterward he
appears as a companion of Paul in Rome.
Col. 4 : 10 ; Phile. 24. He was with Pe-
ter when that apostle wrote his fifst
Epistle, 1 Pet. 6 : 13, but was at Ephesus
with Timothy at a date probably later.
2 Tim. 4:11. Respecting his after-life
trustworthy details are wanting, but
ancient writers agree in speaking of him
as the " interpreter" of Peter, which
may mean that he translated for the
apostle, but more probably means that
he wrote his Gospel in close conformity
to Peter's jjreaching.
According to the unanimous testimony
of antiquity, the second Gospel in our
canon was written by Mark, and numer-
ous details of the work indicate the close
relation between its author and Peter.
Many events are recorded as if from
the lips of an eye-witness, and some
have suggested that the Gospel is based
upon a diary of Peter, sketching his
fresh impressions of events as tliey oc-
curred. The stjde shows the influence
of that apostle. Peter's address to Cor-
nelius, Acts 10, has been called the
Gospel of Mark in a nutshell. A compari-
son of the accounts in Matt. 16 : 13-23
and Mark 8 : 27-33 indicates that Peter
himself (or an enemy of his, which is
impossible) occasioned the omission of
the praise, and yet the insertion of the
rebuke. ]Mark alone mentions the two
cock-crowings, 14 : 72, thus increasing
the guilt of Peter's denial.
Although written in (ireek.the Gospel
was designed for Roman readers, and is
especially adapted to their minds, so eas-
ily impressed by exhibitions of energy
and power. It exhibits Christ as the
spiritual Conqueror and Wonder-worker,
the Lion of the tribe of Judah, filling the
people with amazement and fear. Mark
introduces several Latin terms; he even
substitutes Roman money for Greek, 12:
42, which Luke does not, and notices
that Simon of Cyrene was the father
of Alexander and Rufus, 15:21, who
probably were Christians in Rome.
Rom. 16 : 13. It is therefore most likely
that the Gospel was written in that city.
The great similarity between the Gospel
of Mark and that of Matthew has led
some to consider the former a mere
MAR
MAR
abridgment of the latter, but without
sutficient reason. It occupies an inde-
pendent position as the connecting-link
between Matthew and Luke. Peter and
Paul, the Jewish and the Gentile Chris-
tianity, The last part of the closing
chapter, 16 : 9-20, is not found in the
two oldest and best manuscripts of the
Bible, of which circumstance some have
taken occasion to declare it a later ad-
dition. But it has been recognized as
part of the Gospel and quoted by the
Fathers of the second century — for in-
stance. Irenteus, whose testimony is
older than the oldest manuscript. Pos-
sibly it was a later postscript of Mark,
added to a second copy ; hence its omis-
sion in some manuscripts.
MARKET, oil MARKET-
PLiACE. The market of an ancient
Greek or Roman town occupied generally
one side of an area, the other sides being
occupied by jniblic buildings, temples,
courts, aiid offices of various kinds. Laws
were promulgated here; judicial inves-
tigations were instituted; questions of
philosophy and public interest were
discussed; and all kinds of trade and
business were carried on. It was fre-
quented by business-men and by crowds
of idlers and loungers. In a strictly
Oriental city, such as Jerusalem, the
market had not, like fhe forum, this
character of being the centre of all public
life. Still, it was always a lively place,
generallj' situated just within the gate,
and the principal scene of trade and
traffic.
In the 0. T. this word occurs only
once, Eze. 27:3; in the N. T. oftener,
Matt. 23 : 7 ; Mark 12 : 38 ; Luke 11 : 43 ;
20 : 46 ; Acts 16 : 19, etc., ami we learn
from Matt. 20 : 3 that not only were all
kinds of produce offered for sale here, but
hither resorted also the laborers to find
employment.
MA'ROTH (bitternens), a place in
the western plains of Judah. Mic. 1 : 12,
MAR'RIAGE. Its origin is re-
corded in Gen. 2 : 18-25, and its consti-
tution is confirmed by our Lord. Matt.
19 : 5, 6 : Mark 10 : 5-10. Marriage, in
its primitive and normal state, is an in-
separable union between one man and
one woman for mutual comfort and hap-
piness, and for the propagation of the
race. It dates from Paradise before the
fall. It is indissoluble except on account
of fornication. Polygamy first appeared
among the Cainites, Gen. 4:19, and in
spite both of the example of Noah and
his sons, who were monog.Tmists, Gen.
7 : 13, and of the general discourage-
ment and special restrictions which the
Mosaic law placed in its way, it still
prevailed up to the time of the Captivity.
It must be noticed, however, that among
the Hebrews polygamy never assumed
those degraded and degrading forms
under which we meet it among pagan
nations, or even among the Mohammed-
ans. A distinction was always made
between the chief uife and the secondary
wives, between the legitimate wife and
the concubines ; and thus the principle of
monogamy was always retained, though
not always carried out. The Mosaic law
enjoined thf kings not to multiply their
wives, Dci.t. 17 : 17; prohibited any one
from marrying two sisters at the same
time, Lev. 18 :18; asserted the matri-
monial rights of each wife within certain
limits. Ex. 21 : 10, 11 ; and entailed con-
siderable ritual observances on the man.
Lev. 15 : 18. Nevertheless, instances of
pohgamy are of frequent occurrence,
such as Gideon, Jud. 8 :;^.0; Elkanah, 1
Sam. 1:2; Saul, 2 Sam. 12 : 8 ; David, 2
Sam. 5 : 13 ; Solomon, 1 Kgs. 11 : 3 ; the
sons of Issaehar, 1 Chr. 7:4; Shaharaim,
1 Chr. 8 : 8, 9 ; Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11 : 21 ;
Abijah, 2 Chr. 13 : 21; Joash, 2 Chr.
24 : 3.
After the Captivity the 0. T. has no
instance of polygamy on record, but the
books of Ezra and Nehcmiah and the
post-Exilian prophets warned the Jews
against mixed marriages with heathen
women. The nK.nogamic spirit of the
Mosaic law, in consonance with the gene-
ral spirit of the 0. T., had now so far
worked itself out into the details of prac-
tical life that monogamy had become
the rule. Yea, in the period before the
advent of Christ, a view had arisen
among the .lews according to which even
the propriety of marriage was doubted.
It was the sect of the Essenes which rep-
resented this view, some of them reject-
ing marriage altogether, while others
accepted it only with many restrictions.
Nevertheless, instances of polygamy still
occurred, as may be seen from the earliest
commentators on 1 Tim. 5 : 9. Herod
the Great had at one time nine wives.
Thus Christianity had to contend at once
547
MAR
MAR
against both extremes — the polygainists
and the ascetics. With the former the
contest was very short; polygamy soon
disappeared from the Christian marriage.
But in spite of Col. 2 : 16-23, 1 Tim.4 :
3, and other passages of the N. T. in
which the propriety of marriage is
strongly inculcated, the unmarried state
was still held to be more honorable and
of greater holiness up to the very time
of the Reformation.
In the pre-Mosaic period marriages
between near relatives were not uncom-
mon among the Hebrews, The great
anxiety to keep the blood of the family
pure, the strong feeling of exclusiveness
toward foreigners, and the smallness of
the tribe led naturally to such measures.
By the Mosaic law, Lev. 18 : 6-18, the
degrees of relationship which made
marriage illegal were sharply defined —
mother, stepmother, sister, half-sister,
granddaughter, aunt, daughter-in-law,
brother's wife, stepdaughter, wife's moth-
er, step-granddaughter, or wife's sister
during the lifetime of the wife. With
respect to a brother's wife, an exception
was made in the case of the brother
having died childless. Deut. 25 : 5. In
this case the brother married the widow,
according to the so-called Levirate — from
the Latin leiir, " brother-in-law " — law,
but the progeny which issued from this
connection was in all legal respects to be
reckoned as the progeny of the dead
man. Marriages between Israelites and
foreigners were comparatively rare; the
marriages of Joseph with an Egyptian,
Gen. 41 : 45, of Manasseh with a Sj'rian,
1 Chr. 7 : 14, of Moses with a Midianitish,
Ex. 2:21, and afterward with a Cushite,
woman, Num. 12 : 1, were exceptional
cases. Absolute ])rohibition, however,
did not exist except with respect to the
Canaanites, Ex. 34 : 16 ; Deut. 7 : 3, 4,
though the legal disabilities of the Am-
monites and Moabites, Deut. 23 : .'>, had
nearly the same effect. On the whole,
marriages between Israelite women and
foreigners were much rarer than mar-
riages between Israelites and foreign
women. After the Captivity this latter
form of intermarriage Vjocame so common
as to endanger the national character of
the people, and the prohibiti(m against
the Canaanites was then extended also
to the Ammonites, Moabites, and Philis-
tines. Neh. 13 : 23-25.
648
Among the more special regulations
of the Mosaic marriage-law may be men-
tioned : the high priest was forbidden to
marry any but a virgin out of his own
people. Lev. 21 : 13, 14. Thus the Levi-
rate law could never be applied to him.
The priests were forbidden to marry
prostitutes and divorced women. Lev.
21 : 7. An heiress was forbidden to
marry out of her own tribe. Num. 36 :
5-9, etc. Among the Jews divorce was
not an act of the civil judicature, based
on proper evidence on the part of the
injured party. The husband could from
a mere caprice, from having "found in
her the nakedness of a thing," put away
his wife by simply writing for her a bill
of divorce, and a woman thus divorced
could afterward marry whom she liked.
Deut. 24 : 1-4. In this Christianity made
a great change, our Lord admitting only
one sufficient reason for a divorce —
adultery — and adding : "Whosoever mar-
rieth her that is put away doth commit
adultery." Matt. 19 : 9. As the Mosaic
law did not absolutely discountenance
polygamy, its conception of adultery was
limited to the unlawful intercourse with
a married or betrothed woman, but the
penalty was death to both the guilty
parties. Lev. 20 : 10 ; Deut. 22 : 22-24,
and the manner of execution seems to
have been stoning. Eze. 16 : 38-40 ;
John 8:5. It depended, however, on
the husband to transform the death-
penalty into a simple bill of divorce,
and this seems to have been the pre-
vailing custom in the time of the N.
T. See Matt. 1 : 19.
Generally, the marriage was negoti-
ated exclusively by the parents, no regard
being paid to the wishes of the young
folks. This is still the case in Eastern
countries, especially among the Moham-
medans. Often, however, we find that
the bridegroom exercised some influence
on the choice of his wife, but there is no
instance on record in which the consent
and pleasure of the bride were asked for :
from this humiliating subjection Christi-
anity alone has succeeded in elevating
woman. After the selection of the bride
followed the espousal or betrothal — a
contract made under oath and accom-
panied by presents ; a written contract
was not in use, however, until after the
Captivity. A marriage-dowry was given
— not by the father to his daughter, but
MAR
MAR
by the bridegroom to the parents of the \
bride. The primitive idea of the Hebrew
marriage was evidently that the bride
was bought, and in many eases the bride-
groom paid the dowry in actual service;
as, for instance, Jacob, Gen. 29 ; Joseph,
Gen. 41 : 45 ; Moses, Ex. 2 : 21 ; 3:1;
Othniel. Jud. 1 : 12, etc. After the be-
trothal the bride was considered as a
wife, and any unfaithfulness by her
was punished as adultery. She re-
mained, however, for some time in the
parental house, and during this period
all communications between her and the
bridegroom were carried by the '' friend
of the bridegroom." When the marriage-
feast was to be consummated, the bride-
groom came to the house of the bride
anointed, arrayed in festive garment.
with the nuptial turban on his head,
Ps. 45:8; Cant. 4:10, 11: Isa. 61:10, •
Cant. 3 : 11, and accompanied by a num-
ber of his friends — *'the children of the
bride-chamber."' Matt. 9:15. The bride
lie found veiled, adorned with jewels and
the bridal chaplet, and surrounded by
her maidens. Ps. 45 : 18,14 ; Isa. 49 : 18 ;
61 : 10 : Rev. 19 : 8 : 21 : 2. In a great
procession, with torchlights and lamps.
Matt. 22 : 1-1 0 ; 25 : 1-1 0 : Luke 14 : 8 :
John 2:1-10 ; Rev. 19 : 9, he then carried
her to his house, where the feast was
prepared : and often this feast lasted for
seven days.
Both in the 0. T. and in the X. T. the
betrothal, marriage-feast, and marriage
have given rise to numerous allegorical
and typical allusions, the relation be-
tween Jehovah and his chosen people
being the point of comparison in the 0.
T., Isa. 54 : 5 : Jer. 3 : 14 ; Hos. 2:19, etc.,
that of Christ and his Church in the N.
T. -Matt. 9:15; John 3:29; 2 Cor.
11 : 2 : Rev. 19 : 7.
MARS' HILL, better known by the
name of AREOPAGUS. This was a
rocky height in Athens opposite the
western end of the Acropolis. It rises
gradually from the northern end and
terminates abruptly on the south, over
against the Acropolis, at which point it
is about 50 or 60 feet above the valley.
The court held here existed as a criminal
tribunal before the time of Solon, and
was the most ancient and venerable of
all the Athenian courts. It consisted
of all persons who had held the oflBce of
archon, and who were members of it for
life unless expelled for misconduct. Be-
fore the time of Solon the court tried
only cases of wilful murder, wounding,
poison, and arson, but he gave it exten-
sive powers. The council continued to
exist even under the Roman emperors.
Its meetings were held on the south-
eastern summit of the rock. On the
eastern and western side is a raised block.
From this spot Paul delivered his address
to the men of Athens. Acts 17 : 22-31. He
also "disputed" in the "market," or agora,
"daily," 17:17, which was south of the Are-
opagus, in the valley lying between this
hill and those of the Acropolis, the Pnyx,
and the Museum. " Certain philosophers
of the Epicureans and of the Stoics"
brought him up from the valley, probably
by the stone steps, to the Areopagus
Hill so that they might listen to him more
conveniently. See Areopagus.
MAR'T'HA, the feminine form of
an Aramaic word signifying "lord,"
"master," was the sister of Lazarus and
Mary, and seems to have been the eldest
of the family, as she is always mentioned
before Mary and generally represented
as the mistress of the house. She was
more active in practical life than the
younger sister, but lacked her concentra-
tion on the one thing needful : but she
was, nevertheless, sincere, devoted, and
beloved by Christ, John 11 : 5, and her
energy, somewhat encumbered by the
distractions of actual life, became at last
concentrated in her faith in the Saviour.
MAR'T YR occurs thrice in the N. T.
Acts 22 : 20 ; Rev. 2 : 13; 17 : 6. In
other places the Greek word of the text
is rendered with " witness," Matt. 18 : 16 ;
Luke 24 : 48, which is its original mean-
ing. It was not until after the apostolic
age that the word came to denote a wit-
ness who seals his testimony with his
blood, but in the above passages we may
observe it in a state of transition.
MA'RY, corresponding to the " Mir-
iam "of the 0. T.
1. The virgin mother of our Lord (and
hence " blessed among women "), was of
thetribeof Judah. of the lineage of David,
and by marriage connected with Elisa-
beth, the mother of John the Baptist. who
was of the tribe of Levi, of the lineage of
Aaron. After the incidents belonging to
the infancy of Jesus — the visit of the
shepherds, the circumcision, the adora-
tion of the wise men, the presentation
549
MAR
MAS
in the temple, and the fliglit into Egypt
— Mary is mentioned only four times in
the records of sacred history : at the
marriage of Cana of (ralilee, John 2:3;
the attempt to speak to Jesus while he
was teaching, Matt. 12 : 46 ; Mark 3 : 21,
31; Luke 8 : 19; the crucifixion, John
19 : 26 ; and during the days succeeding
the ascension. Acts 1 : 14. She was pres-
ent at the marriage in Cana. which took
place in the three months between the
baptism of Christ and the Passover of
the year 27, and at which Jesus wrought
his first miracle, after she had called
attention to the lack of wine at the
feast. She also sought an interview
with him, in company with others of
the family, when he was preaching to a
crowd in a country place. She was pres-
ent at his crucifixion, and was there com-
mended by the expiring Redeemer to the
filial kindness and attention of the be-
loved John; and she is mentioned as one
among the praying company in the upper
room at Jerusalem after the ascension of
our Saviour. A great multitude of le-
gends have clustered around her name,
referring to her life before the birth of
Christ and after his death, but most of
them are extremely fabulous, and none
of them seems to contain any historical
kernel.
2. The wife of Cleophas, was present
at the crucifixion and burial of our Lord,
Matt. 27 : 56, 61, was among those who
went to embalm him, Mark 16 : 1-10,
was among the earliest to whom the news
of his resurrection was announced, Luke
24:6, 10, and on her way to the disciples
with the intelli;;ence she met her risen
Lord and worshipped him. Matt. 28 : 1, 9.
3. The mother of John Mark, Acts
12: 12, and sister to Barnabas, Col. 4 :
10, a godly woman residing at Jerusalem
at whose house the disciples were con-
vened the night Peter was miraculously
delivered from prison.
4. The sister of Lazarus and Martha,
and a devoted friend and disciple of our
Saviour, from whom she received the
testimony that she had chosen the good
part which should not be taken from her.
Luke 10 : 41, 42. Compared with her
sister, she appears of a more contem-
plative turn of mind and more occupied
with the "one thing" needful. John
11 : 1 ; 12 : 2.
5. Mary Magdalene, or Mary of Mag-
560
dala. Luke 8 : 2. The general impres-
sion that she was an unchaste woman is
entirely without foundation. There, is
nothing to warrant the opinion that she
was identical with the woman who was
a sinner. On the contrary, she was a
woman in good circumstances and of
unblemished character. Having been
relieved of a demoniacal possession by
the divine power of our Saviour, she
became his follower, Luke 8 : 2, 3, and
evinced her attachment to him and his
cause to the very last. She was at his
crucifixion,- John 19 : 25, and burial,
Mark 15 : 47, and was among those who
had prepared the materials to embalm
him, Mark 16 : 1, and who first went to
the sepulchre after the resurrection ; and
what is particularly interesting in her
history, she was the first to whom the
risen Redeemer appeared, Mark 16 : 9,
i and his conversation with her is ex-
ceeded in interest and pathos by no
passage of historv, sacred or profane.
j John 20 : 11-18. "
1 6. A Christian woman in Rome to
I whom Paul sends his salutation. Rom.
16 : 6.
I MAS'CHIL is found in the title or
inscription of thirteen Psalms — namelv,
32, 42, 41, 45, 52-55, 74, 78, 88, 89,
142 — and is by some explained as an
assthetical term meaning " didactic," by
' others as a musical term referring to the
melodv.
MASH, Gen. 10 : 23, or ME'-
! SHECH, 1 Chr. 1 : 17, a son of Aram,
and the ancestor of one branch of the
Aramaic race, settled probably at the
Mons Masius of classical writers, the
present Karja Baghlnr. situated on the
northern frontier of Mesopotamia.
I MA'SHAL (entrenti/). a Levitical
I city in Asher, 1 Chr. 6 : 74 : also called
Misheal, Josh. 19: 26, and Mishal. Josh.
21 : 30. It was near Mount Carmel.
I MA'SON. The Hebrews no doubt
; learnt the art of masonry during their
residence in Egypt, Ex. 1:11,14, though
at a later period we find Plia?nicinn
i workmen emploved bv David and Sol-
I omon. 1 Kgs. 6: 17. 18; 1 Chr. 14 : 1.
By the erection of the temple great skill
in the art of masonry was evinced, both
in the great wall which suj)p()rt(Ml the
temple-platform, iind which consisted of
I huge blocks held together by load, and
in the temple- wall itself, in which the
MAS
MAT
stones were so accurate!}' cut that they
could be laid without the application of
tools. In common building? plaster-
ing with mortar was used both with-
out and within. Lev. 14 : 40-42 ; Matt.
23 : 27. There seems also to have been
a kind of plastering with mere mud.
called untempered. Eze. 13 : 10-15.
MAS'ORA. See Bible.
MAS'REKA (vineyard of noble
vines), a place apparently in Idumaea,
and seat of an early king of Edom.
Gen. 36 : 36; 1 Chr. 1 : 47.
MAS'SA if/i/t, tribute), a son of Ish-
mael, Gen. 25 : 14; 1 Chr. 1 : 30, and
probably the ancestor of the Masani,
settled in the north-eastern part of
Arabia, near the Babylonian frontier.
MAS 'S AH [temptation), a name
given to the place, also called Meribah,
where the Israelites tempted Jehovah.
Ex. 17 : 7 : Ps. 95 : 8, 9 ; Heb. 3 : 8.
MAS'TER is in our translation
often the rendering of a Greek word
meaning ''teacher," Luke 6 : 40 ; John
3:10; hence its frequent application to
our Lord. Matt. 22 : 16, 24, 36, etc.
MATHU'SALA, the Greek form
of Methuselah. Luke 3 : 37.
MA'TRED (propellinf/), a daughter
of Mezahab, and mother of Mehetabel,
who was the wife of Hadar, king of
Edom. Gen. 36 : 39 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 50.
MA'TRI (rain of Jehovah), a Ben-
jamite familv to which Saul the king
belonged. 1 Sam. 10 : 21.
MAT'TAN (a gift). 1. One of
Baal's priests, who was slain before his
idolatrous altar at the deposition of
Athaliah. 2 Kgs. 11 : 18; 2 Chr. 23 :
17.
2. The father of Shephatiah, who
wished to put Jeremiah to death. Jer.
38 : 1.
MAT'TANAH (gift, present), a
station of the Hebrews between the
desert and the borders of Moab. Num.
21 : 18, 19. Maschana, on the Arnon,
12 miles from Dibon, has been sug-
gested as marking Mattanah.
MATTAM'AH (gift of Jehovah).
1. The original name of the son of
Josiah who was made king by Nebu-
chadnezzar, 2 Kgs. 24 : 17, and whose
name was changed to Zedekiah, which
see.
2. A Levite singer of the sons of
Asaph, 1 Chr. 9 : 15, who, after the
restoration of the temple, was the
leader of the choir in the time of
Nehemiah. Neh. 11 : 17 ; 12 : 8, 25,
35.
3. A Levite. son of Heman, and chief
of the ninth division of singers. 1 Chr.
25 : 4, 16.
4. A Levite, a descendant of Asaph,
and ancestor of Jahaziel. 2 Chr. 20 :
14.
5. A Levite who assisted in the puri-
fication of the temple in the reign of
Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 29 : 13.
6. A Levite, father of Zaccur, and an-
cestor of Hanan. Neh. 13 : 13.
7. Four persons who had married for-
eign wives in the time of Ezra. Ezr. 10 :
26, 27. 30, 37.
MAT'TATHA (gift of Jehovah), a.
son of Nathan, and grandson of David
in the genealogv of Jesus. Luke 3 : 31.
I MAT'TATHAH, one who had
married a foreign woman in the time
of Ezra. Ezr. 10 : 33.
MATTATHI'AS. 1. Two pcr-
! sons in the genealogy of Jesus. Luke
! 3 : 25, 26.
2. The head of the Maecabaean family.
See Maccabees.
MATTENA'I (gift of Jehovah). 1.
Two persons who had married foreign
women in the time of Ezra. Ezr. 10 :
: 33, 37.
2. A priest in the time of Joiakim.
Neh. 12: 19.
MAT'THAN, a person in the gene-
alogy of Christ. Matt. 1 : 15.
MAT'THAT (gift of God), two
persons in the genealogy of Jesus.
j Luke 3 : 24, 29.
j MAT'THEW, derived from the
same word as MATTHI'AS, Acts
1 : 23, 26 (gift of (Jod), apostle, and
author of the first canonical Gospel.
His original name was Levi, Mark 2 :
14; Luke 5 : 27, 29, which, like that of
Simon and of Saul, was changed cm his
being called to the apostleship. He was
a publican or tax-gatherer near the Sea of
Galilee, on the route between Damascus
I and the Phoenician seaports, and was
I called by our Lord immediately from
1 the toll-booth. This avocation was re-
I garded by the Jews with contempt, but
i it doubtless gave him an extensive
I kn:)vvledge of human nature, and accu-
rate business habits, which tended to
fit him for his great work as an evan-
551
MAT
MAT
gelist. The N. T. is silent in regard to
his special labors, but he was among
those who met in the upper room at
Jerusalem after the ascension of our
Lord. Acts 1 : 13. The tradition of
his martyrdom in Ethiopia is le-
gendary.
The Gospel according to Matthew
was probably written in Palestine, and
certainly for Jewish Christians. It pre-
sents Christ as the last and greatest
Lawgiver and Prophet, as the Fulfiller
of the 0. T., as the Messiah and King
of the true people of Israel. Its ar-
rangement is not strictly chronological,
but topic;vl, grouping together the works
and sayings of Christ according to their
similarity. Though a simple narrative
in its form, and not proposing any
definite design on the part of the
author, it is in fact an historical proof
that Jesus of Nazareth is the Messiah.
The frequent references to the fulfilment
of 0. T. prophecy suggest this purpose.
While it is not certain that it was the
first in time, it deserves the first place
in the N. T., forming, as it does, the best
link between the 0. and the N. T., be-
tween the Law and the Gospel. It occu-
pies the same position in the canon of
the N. T. as the Pentiteuch in that of the
0. T., giving us, in the Sermon on the
Mount, a counterpart of the legislation
from Mount Sinai, the fundamental law
of the Christian Church. The genealogy,
the revelation to Joseph, the visit of the
Magi, peculiar to this Gospel, all com-
bine to make the impression, as one be-
gins to re.id, that here is the fulfilment,
not the abolition, of the old dispensation :
and this impression is deepened by the
Sermon on the Mount, the parables of
the kingdom of heaven, the discourse
against the Pharisees, and the repeated
citations from the 0. T. prophecies
which are declared to be fulfilled in
Christ.
With respect to the language in which
this Gospel first was written, two differ-
ent views have been set forth : 1. That
it was originally composed in Hebrew —
i.e., Syro-(Mialdaic, or AVestern Aramaic,
the dialect spoken in Palestine by the
Jewish Christians; 2. That it was writ-
ten in (Jreek. as we now possess it. The
testimony of the early Church unan-
imously favors the first view. Those
Fathers who assert that Matthew wrote
552
in Hebrew also assert that his work was
translated into Greek, and unhesitatingly
employ the present Greek Gospel as a
faithful representative of the apostolic
production. If we accept a Hebrew
original, then we must also conclude
that when the necessity for a Greek
version became obvious, Matthew him-
self made, or caused to be made, the
present Greek Gospel. Of this there
is no positive and direct proof, but it
accords with the testimony of the Fa-
thers and accounts for the double as-
signment of dates which we find, and
also for the universal acceptance of our
Gospel. On the other side, it has been
urged in favor of a Greek original or
of the original character of our Gospel,
not only that the testimonj' of the Fathers
is insufficient, unsatisfactory, and at times
confused, bat that the evidence from the
Gospel itself is abundantly conclusive
on this point. The theory of a version
by Matthew himself will account for the
early citation of the present Greek text,
but not so readily for certain facts in the
Gospel itself. It agrees most exactly
with the other two synoptists, Mark and
Luke, in the discourses, especially those
of our Lord, and differs from them most
in the narrative portions. And further,
where citations from the 0. T. occur in
the discourses, they are usually from the
Septuagint, while those in the narrative
appear to be independent translations
from the Hebrew. It is argued that a
mere translator could not have done
this, but an independent writer, using
the Greek tongue and wishing to con-
form his narrative to the oral teaching
of the apostles, might have used for the
quotations the well-known Greek 0. T.
used by his colleagues. The whole ques-
tion is an open one. and it is to be hoped
that some future archaeological discover-
ies will settle it. The drift of scholarly
opinion, however, is toward the accept-
ance of a Greek original. In any case,
there is no reason for doubting the gen-
uineness of the canonical Gospel.
With regard to the time when it was
written there is great uncertainty. Evi-
dently. Jerusaleui had not been destroy-
ed, but its destruction is foretold, ch. 24,
in a manner that is only explicable on
the assumption of its being still a future
event to the writer. On the other hand,
it is evident that some time had elapsed
MAT
MEA
since the events it records had occurred.
27 : 7, 8 ; 28 : 15. Some of the ancients
give the eighth year after the Ascension
as the date, others the fifteenth. If there
was an original Hebrew Gospel, the ear-
lier date belongs to it ; but we would
place our present Gospel between 60 and
66 — a period during which both Mark
and Luke probably wrote their Gospels.
MATTHI'AS [gift of Jehovah), a
disciple of Christ, and a constant attend-
ant on his travels and ministry from
their commencement until his ascen-
sion, was appointed by lot to supply the
vacancy in the company of the twelve
apostles occasioned by the apostasy of
Judas. Acts 1 : 21 et seq. Of his after-
life and ministry nothing is known with
certainty. According to one tradition,
he preached in Ethiopia and suflfered
martyrdom there; according to another,
he labored in Judtea and was stoned by
the Jews.
MATTITHI'AH {<j!ft of Jehovah).
1. A Korahite Levite presiding over the
ofiferings made in the pans. 1 Chr. 9:31.
2. A Levite appointed by David to
play the harp. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 21 : 16 : 5;
comp. 25:3, 21.
3. One who had married a foreign wife
in the time of Ezra. Ezr. 10 : 43.
4. A priest who stood at the right
hand of Ezra when he read the Law to
the people. ±s eh. 8 : 4.
MAT'TOCK, an agricultural im-
plement for loosen-
ing the ground ; a
pick-axe; a hoe.
Isa. 7:25. See
AGRirrLTFRE.
MAUL, a mace,
club, or hammer,
much used in Ori-
ental warfare, and
used with frightful
effect. Prov. 25 : 1 8.
MAUZ'ZIM
{ fvrtressex), in the
margin of Dan. 11 :
38, where the text has "god of forces."
Its signification is uncertain, but it prob-
ably refers to the dedication by Antiochus
Epiphanes of a temple in Antioch to Ju-
piter Capitolinus.
MAZ'ZAROTH, Job 38 :32, or
MAZZALOTH, 2 Kgs. 23 : 5 {plmi-
ets), the name of the twelve signs of the
zodiac.
Mattock or Eeyptinn
Hoe. (After Wilkinson.)
MEAD'OW is in Gen. 41 : 2 the
rendering of an Egyptian word denoting
rushes or water-plants in general. In
Jud. 20 : 33 the Hebrew words rendered
with" meadow" would, by a slight change
in the punctuation, read " cave," which
seems more appropriate.
ME'AH ((I hundred), a tower in Je-
rusalem, standing between the Sheep-
gate and the tower of Hananeel. Neh.
3 : 1. See Jerusalem.
MEALS. See Eating and Feast.
MEA'RAH (a cave, caveni). In
Josh. 13 : 4 this word occurs as the name
of a cave not far from Sidon ; the mar-
gin reads, " the cave." Robinson, in his
journey from Tyre to Sidon, observed
many sepulchral grottoes hewn out of
the hard limestone rock. This may be
the spot spoken of by William of Tyre
as the Tyrian cave in the territory of
Sidon ; Keil makes Mearah " the cave
of Jezzin," east of Sidon, in Lebanon, a
hiding place of the Druses now ; Ritter
refers it to a district of deep caves like
the ravines near Sidon and Dan.
MEASURES AND WEIGHTS.
The Jewish law contains two precepts
respecting weights and measures. The
first. Lev. 19 : 35, 36, refers to the stand-
ards kept in the sanctuary, and the sec-
ond, Deut. 25 : 13-15, to copies of them
kept by every family for its own use.
The models or standards of the weights
and measures preserved in the temple
were destroyed with the sacred edifice,
and afterward the measures and weights
of the people among whom the Jews
dwelt were adopted ; which, of course,
adds to the perplexities of the subject.
I. Measures of Length. — The He-
brews, like all other ancient nations,
took the standard of their measures of
length from the human body. They
made use, however, only of the finger,
the hand, and the arm, not of the foot or
the pace. The handbreadth or jtalm, 1
Kgs. 7 : 26, was four digits, or the breadth
of the four fingers — from three to three
and a half inches.
A Hpnn, Lam. 2 : 20, which expresses
the distance across the hand from the
extremity of the thumb to the extremity
of the little finger, when they are
stretched as far apart as possible, say
nine to ten inches.
A cubit, the distance from the elbow
to the extremity of the middle finger, or
553
MEA
MEA
about eighteen inches. The different
expressions used in the 0. T. about this
measure — such as " alter the cubit of a
m:in," Deut. 3:11; " after the first meas-
ure," 2 Chr. 3:3; "a great cubit," Eze.
41 : 8 — show that it varied.
A fathom, Acts 27 : 28, was from six
to six and a half feet.
The measuring -reed , Eze. 42 : 16, com-
prised six cubits, or from ten to eleven
feet, and the me(tanriiit/'fine, Zech. 2: 1,
a hundred and forty-six feet.
The/nrloiuf, Luke 24 : 13, was a Greek
measure, and nearly the same as at pres-
ent— viz., one- eighth of a mile, or forty
rods.
The mile, mentioned only once. Matt.
5 : 41, belonged to the Roman system of
measurement, as stadium to the Greek.
The Koman mile was one thousand six
hundred and twelve yards. The Jewish
mile was longer or shorter, in accordance
with the longer or shorter pace in use in
the various parts of the country.
The Sabbath daifs journey, Acts 1 : 12,
was about seven-eighths of a mile, and
the term denoted the distance which
Jewish tradition said one might travel
without a violation of the law. Ex. 16 :
29. It is supposed that this distance
extended first from the tabernacle to the
remotest section of the camp, and after-
ward from the temjjle to the remotest
parts of the holy city.
The term a day's journey. Num. 11 :
31 ; Luke 2 : 44, probably indicated no
certain distance, but was taken to be the
ordinary distance which a person in the
East travels on foot, or on horseback or
camel, in the prosecution of a journey —
about twenty miles.
II. Measures op Capacity. — (1.)
Dry. A cab, or hah {hollow), 2 Kgs. 6 :
2b, one-third of an omer, or two pints.
An omer {heap, sheaf), Ex. 16:36,
one-tenth of an ephah, or six pints.
The seah (measure), Gen. 18 : 6 ; Matt.
13 : 33; Luke 13 : 21, one-third of an
ephah, or twenty pints, was the ordinary
measure for household purposes.
The ephah — a word of Egyptian origin,
but often occurring in the 0. T., Ex. 16 :
36 : Lev. 6:11: Num. 5:15; Jud. 6 :
19, etc. — ten oraers, or three scabs, or
sixty pints.
The homer {heap), Isa. 6:10, when
used for dry measure, one hundred
omers, or six hundred pints.
654
The Greek word translated "bushel,"
Matt. 5 : 15, is supposed by some to an-
swer to the Hebrew word seah. The Ro-
man bushel was very nearly the same
with the English peck.
(2.) Liquid. — The log (basin), Lev.
Measures of Capacity.
14 : 10, six egg-shells full, one-tenth of a
bin, or nearly one pint.
The hin — a word of Egvptian origin,
but often used in the 0. T'., Ex. 29 : 40 ;
30 : 24; Num. 15 : 4, etc. — one-sixth of
a bath or ten pints.
The bath {measured), the largest of the
liquid measures, contained one-tenth of
a homer, seven and a half gallons, or
sixty pints. 1 Kgs. 7 : 26 ; 2 Chr. 2:10;
Isa.*5 : 10.
The firkin, John 2 : 6, was a Greek
measure, containing seven and a half
gallons.
III. Weights. — In the time of Moses
the common weight was a shekel, which
signifies a "weight." There were also
the parts of a shekel, as the fourth,
third, and half. The shekel, the maneh,
and the talent were all originally names
of weights. When the phrase "shekel
of the sanctuary " is used, Ex. 30 : 13,
it means, not that this was different from
the common shekel, but that it was a
true standard weight, according to the
authorized standard preserved in the
sanctuary, or, as we should say, a sealed
weight or measure, to denote that its
accuracy is certified by authority. To
weigh substances the Jews had —
The shekel. Am. 8 : 5, half an ounce
avoirdupois.
The mineh or mina. Eze. 45 : 12, one
hundred shekels, or fifty ounces, equal
to three pounds two ounces avoirduj)oi8.
The talent, 2 Sam. 12 : 30, three thou-
sand shekels, thirty maneh, fifteen hun-
dred ounces, equal to ninety-three
pounds twelve ounces avoirdupois.
MEA
MED
MEAT, MEATS. The import of
this word seems to have undergone a
considerable change since our version
was made, for in this it means food in
general, or, when confined to one species
of food, always meal, flour or grain, but
never flesh, which is now its usual accep-
tation. A " mcat-oii'ering" in the Scrip-
tures is always a vegetable and never an
animal off"ering, a cake made of flour
and oil. Lev. 2:6: 14-23.
Meat-Offeri.vg. At the first settling
of the church there were many disputes
concerning the use of meats off'ered to
idols. Some newly-converted Christians,
convinced that an idol was nothing, and
that the distinction of clean and unclean
creatures was abolished by our Saviour,
ate indiff'erently of whatever was served
up to them, even among pagans, with-
out inquiring whether the meat had been
off'ered to idols. They took the same
liberty in buying meat sold in the mar-
ket, not regai'ding whether it were pure
or impure according to the Jews, or
whether it had been offered to idols or
not. But other Christians, weaker or
less instructed, were off"ended at this lib-
erty, and thought that eating of meat
which had been off'ered to idols was a
kind of partaking in that wicked and
sacrilegious act.
This diversity of opinion produced
some scandal until Paul stepped forward
and gave his decision that all things
were clean to such as were clean. Tit. 1 :
15, and that an idol was nothing at all ;
that a man might safely eat of whatever
was sold in the market, and need not
scrupulously inquire from whence it
came: and that if an unbeliever should
invite a believer to eat with him, the
believer might eat of whatever was set
before him, etc. 1 Cor. 10 : 25, etc. But
at the same time he enjoins that the
laws of charity and prudence should be
observed, that believers should be cau-
tious of scandalizing or off"ending weak
minds ; for though all things might be
lawful, yet all things were not always
expedient.
MtlBV^'^Al (building of Jehovah),
one of D.nvid's warriors, 2 Sam. 23 : 27;
called Sibbechai in 2 Sam. 21:18; 1
Chr. 20: 4, and Sibbeeai in 1 Chr. 11 :
29: 27:11.
MECH'ERATHITE, THE, the
designation of one of David's warriors,
1 Chr, 11 : 36 ; elsewhere called the
Maachathite, probably with reference
to some locality.
ME'DAD (love), one who, together
with Eldad, prophesied in the Israelite
camp in the wilderness. Num. 11: 26, 27.
ME'DAN {contention), one of the
sons of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25:
2 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 32.
MED'EBA (icater^ of quiet), one
of the most ancient cities of Moab,
first mentioned with Heshbon and
Dibon in the antique poem quoted in
Num. 21 : 30. It was afterward taken
by the Israelites and allotted to the tribe
of Reuben. Josh. 13 : 16. The Ammon-
ites were in possession of it during the
reign of David, and there Joab gained
his great victory over the combined
hordes with their 32,000 chariots from
Mesopotamia, Syria, Mnacah, Zobah,
and the whole region between the Jor-
dan and the Euphrates. 1 Chr. 19:7-15.
In the time of Isaiah it had again re-
verted to Moab. Isa. 15 : 2. After the
return from the Captivity it was alter-
nately in the possession of the Jews and
of the Gentiles. John Maccabteus was
slain there, and his death was bloodily
avenged by his brothers. The city after-
ward surrendered to Hyrcanus after a six
months' seige. During the Christian
period it was the seat of a bishopric.
Kuiued Coluun
Situation and Present Appearance. —
The site of Medebais 8 miles south-south-
west of Heshbon, and 14 miles east of
the Dead Sea, on the toj) of a hill, aroun d
655
MED
MED
which the old city extended a consider-
able distance into the plain. On the
southern side of the town lies a large
pool 360 feet square. On the eastern
and northern sides are other smaller
pools. All three are now dry. These
tanks may explain the name Medeba,
" waters of quiet." The ruins of a large
temple exist, of which two columns are
standing. The access to the city on the
east was by a paved road leading through
a massive gateway. Within is a large
square 280 paces long and 240 paces
wide. The eastern extent of the city
is over 1000 yards. Around the city,
ruined villages lie thick in all direc-
tions, but most of them are very small.
ME'DIA. Name. — The name is the
same as Madai, "middle land," one of
Japheth's sons. Gen. 10 : 2. The Hebrew
word thus translated "Madai" is also
rendered " Medes," 2 Kgs. 17 : 6, etc., and
" Media," Esth. 1 : 3, etc., and also
" Mede." Dan. 11:1. In the period of
which Herodotus writes the people of
Media were called Aryans.
Situation and Extent. — The general
boundaries seem to have been the river
Araxes and the Caspian Sea on the
north and north-east; Parthiaand Hyr-
cania and the great salt desert of Iram
on the east ; Persia and Susiana on the
south; Assyria and Armenia on the
west. Its greatest length from north to
south was 550 miles, its average breadth
250 to 300 miles, and its area 150,000
square miles, or about one-fifth more
than the area of Great Britain. See
map, " Lands of the Jewish Captivities."
Phynieal Features and Politicnl Divis-
ions.— Media was divided originally into
six provinces, which in Greek and Ro-
man times were reduced to two, Media
Atropatene and Media Magna.
1. Media Atropatene, the northern di-
vision, embraced the tract between the
Caspian and the mountains, north of
the Zagros. This is a tract lying on an
average 3000 feet above the sea-level and
divert^ified by mountains and valleys.
The soil is tolerably fertile, and produces
a great variety of vegetables and fruits.
2. Media Maipia, lying to the south
and east of Atropatene. This tract is
mountainous toward the west, but well
wooded and fertile; while toward the
east and south-east it is bare, rocky, and
sandy, .^^hading away into the great salt
656
desert of Iram. Each of these provinces
seems to have had Ecbatana for its cap-
ital.
Media was also divided into smaller
divisions, concerning which there is lit-
tle information. George Smith discov-
ered on an octagonal cylinder of Sargon
a list of twenty-four Median chiefs. This
list belongs to b. c. 713, and is curious
as showing the divided state of Media
at that time [Assyr. Discoveries, p. 288).
Media is now included in the dominions
of the Shah of Persia.
History. — The early history of the
Medes is very obscure. Their origin is
given in Gen. 10:2. Assyrian records
show that about b. c. 880 an Assyrian
monarch invaded their territory. Their
first appearance in Scripture history is
in connection with the captivity of Is-
rael. 2 Kgs. 17: 0; 18: 11. Isaiah, in his
prophecy against Babylon, reveals the
agency and character of the Medes. Isa.
13 : 17, 18; 21:2. But Media was not
incorporated with Assyria, although Sar-
gon, and afterward Sennacherib, subdued
its people and exacted tribute. In B. c.
633 an independent kingdom was set up
by Cyaxares, who in B. c. 625 took a lead-
ing part in the destruction of Nineveh.
Media then became a great and powerful
monarchy, com2)rising, besides Media
proper, Persia, Assyria, Armenia, and
other adjoining countries. It extended
from the river Halys on the north-west
to the Caspian Gates, and included the
territory between the Black and Caspian
Seas on the one side, and the Euphrates
and Persian Gulf on the other. The
empire was 1500 miles long, 450 miles
wide, and had an area of 600,000 square
miles. Under Cyrus the two kingdoms
were united, b. c. 558. There are refer-
ences in Scripture to this kingdom under
the title of the " Medes and Persians."
Dan. 5:28; 6 : 8, 1 2, 15; comp. E.'^th. 1 :
19. The only city in Media alluded to in
the canonical Scriptures is Achmetha,
or Ecbatana. Ezr. 6 : 2. The Medes re-
volted unsuccessfully in the reign of
Darius, son of Hystaspes, B.C. 500, and
in that of Darius Nothus, b. c. 420.
This region was absorbed in the Mace-
donian ein|iire of Alexnnder the Great.
Later an indepomlent Median kingdom
held sway until the Christian era, alter
which it became a part of the Parthiitn
empire. Medes arc mentioned in con-
MED
MEG
nection with Parthians, etc., in the N.
T. Acts 2 : 9.
3IEDI'ATOR, one who interposes
between two parties at variance with the
view of eflFecting a reconciliation between
thtfin. Gal. 3 : 19. The title belongs
pre-eminently to the divine Redeemei-,
in and by whom God is reconciling the
world unto himself. 1 Tim. 2:5; Heb.
8:6; 12 : 24. He is the onlij mediator
between God and men.
MED'ICINE. The scrupulous at-
tention paid in Egypt to the dead was
favorable to the development of the
science of medicine : thus the more
elaborate methods of embalming in-
volved processes of anatomy and led to
the study of this branch of medic.il
science. Herodotus says that in Egypt
every part of the human body was
studied by distinct practitioners, and
the teeth of the mummies often exhibit
a dentistry which is not inferior in exe-
cution to the best workmanship of our
days ; also, the reputation of Egyptian
])hysicians and surgeons was so great
that members of their pr(jfession were
invited to Persia by both Cyrus and
Darius. That Moses, who was initiated
in all the wisdom of Egypt, was possessed
also of its medical knowledge may be
inferred from the direct bearing which
the Mosaic legislation has on sanitarj'
relations. Its numerous hygienic and
dietetic prescriptions had not only a
ceremonial purpose, but were no doubt
intended for the preservation and de-
velopment of the race. They stood in
the most perfect harmony with the cli-
mate and soil which the Hebrews in-
habited, and it is a remarkable fact that
during the whole course of their history
th-e Hebrews were singularly exempted
from those plagues and epidemics which
devastated their neighbors. On the
other side, however, this same law, which
proved so beneficial in preventing dis-
eases, did not encourage or favor the
study of medicine. The science of med-
icine depends to a great extent on anat-
omy, but the great horror of uncleanli-
ness, more especially uncleanliness from
contact with a corpse, prevented the
Hebrews from making a thorough study
of anatomy and embarrassed the devel-
opment of medical science among them.
Solomon enjoyed a -great fame as a phy-
sician. His works show that he was '
possessed of considerable knowledge of
remedial treatment. Prov. 3 : 8 ; 6:15;
12:18; 17:22: 20:30; 29:1; Eccl. 3:
3, and the Talmudists ascribe to liim
a "'volume of cures." But Josephus
speaks of his repute in magic and of
the spells which he used, and Jewish
tradition ascribes similar proceedings to
va-ious of the prophets. In the times
of the N. T. the whole view taken of
diseases and their cure was Greek, al-
most without a trace of any specifically
Hebrew element, and the language of
St. Luke, the '■ beloved physician," who
practised in Antioch befoie he was called
to labor in the Church, shows that he
was a pu])il of Hippocrates.
Among the diseases mentioned in the
0. T, are ophthalmia. Gen. 29 : 17. which
seems to be more common in Syria and
Egypt than anywhere else in the world,
and which sometimes resulted in pai'tial,
or even total, blindness, 2 Kgs. 6:18;
barrenness of women, which the man-
drake was be'ieved to cure. Gen. 20 :
18; burning boils. Lev. 13 : 2?u whose
effect resembled that of fire, identical
with our carbuncle ; scab and scurvv,
Lev. 21 : 20 ; 22 : 22 ; Deut. 28 : 27— a
skin-disease not necessarily incurable,
and therefore not considered a curse,
but only a blemish ; a disease attacking
the knees and legs and consisting in a
'•sore blotch that cannot be healed,"
Deut. 28 : 35 ; the disease of King An-
tiochus. consisting in boils breeding
worms; the disease of Herod the Great,
consisting in ulcers breeding lice, etc.
Other diseases, such as fever, leprosy,
epilepsy, palsy, etc., are spoken of in
separate articles. Medicaments were
given in the form of liniments, plasters,
decoctions, syrups, etc., and, besides
water, wine, vinegar, honey, milk, and
oil, also mustard, pepper, salt, wax, gall
of fish, poppy, laurel, saliva, and other
stuffs were used. But one of the most
common remedies was the bath. In many
cases it was ceremonially enjoined, but
its great value, both as a luxury and as
a cure, was fully appreciated. It was
enjoyed both in running Avater and in
closed bath-rooms. Lev. 15 : 13 ; 2 Kgs.
5 : 10 ; 2 Sam. 11 : 2. Public baths, how-
ever, as well as vapor-baths, were not
introduced until after the Jews' contact
with the Greeks and Romans. See Bath.
MEGID'DO {place of troops?), a
557
MEH
MEL
city of Manasseh, situated within the j
borders of Issachar, and formerly a
royal city of the Canaanites, whose i
king and its neighboring towns were
conquered by Joshua. Josh. 12 : 21 ; 17 :
11; Jud. 1:27; 1 Kgs. 4 : 12; 9:15; 1
Chr. 7 : 29. It has generally been iden-
tified with the place afterward called by
the Romans Legio, now Xej^H)!, where are i
ancient foundations and prostrate col-
umns. The neighboring stream, prob-
ably the '* waters of Megiddo," is the
largest perennial tributary of the Kishon,
and feeds three or four mills. Jud. 5:19.
The valley or plain of Megiddo, also
called " Megiddon," was part of the
plain of Esdraelon. 2 Kgs. 9 : 27 : 23 : 29,
30; 2 Chr. 35:22; Zech. 12:11. Here
Barak and Deborah gained a great vic-
tory over the Canaanites under Sisera,
Jud. 4 : 0-17, and it has been the great
battle-field of Palestine. Ahaziah, mor-
tally wounded, died there: Josiah was
defeated by Pharaoh-ne^ho, and mor-
tilly wounded, 2 Kgs. 33:29; 2 Chr.
35 : 20-2-1; and the place, in Hebrew, is
called Armageddon, '' city of Megiddo."
Rev. 16 : 16. The modern LeJJnii, which
has generally been regarded as repre-
senting Megiddo, is on the south-western
edge of the great plain of Esdraelon, 6
miles from Mount Carmel, 11 from Naz-
areth, and 14 from Tabor. It commands
the important pass to the plain of Phil-
istia. A stream flows near it, and there
is a large spring which some regard
as the " waters of Megiddo." A few
ruins remain, and from them a wide
view is gained of the famous batt'e-
ground. Conder declines to accept the
above identification, and suggests M(:-
jetUl'a, a large ruin near Beisan, and 10
miles from Jenin, as Megiddo. There
are four springs of clear water, and a
considerable stream flowing to the north-
west into the Nuhr Jalnd. This would
place the valley of Megiddo in the broad
valley leading from Jezrecl to Beth-
shean.
MEHET'ABEEL {whmn God does
fjond to), the ancestor of Sheraaiah. Neh.
6: 10.
MEHET'ABEL, daughter of Mat-
red, and wife of Iladad, king of Edom.
Gen. 38: .{9; 1 Chr. 1:60.
MEIII'DA (fmnonH, vohle), whose
descendants returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 62 ; Neh. 7 : 6 I.
568
ME'HIR (price), a descendant of
Judah. 1 Chr. 4: 11.
MEHOL'ATHITE, THE, a
designation of Adriel, son of Barzillai,
1 Sam. 18 : 19, signifying that he came
from a place called Mehola.
MEHU'JAEL {smitten of God), a
son of Irad, and descendant of Cain.
Gen. 4: 18.
MEHU'MAN {true, faithful), one
of the seven eunuchs of Ahasuerus.
Esth. 1: 10.
MEHU'NIM (habitations), a family
among the non-Israelites who returned
from Babylon with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:
50 ; probably the same as the Mehunims,
2 Chr. 26 : 7, against whom King Uzziah
waged a successful war, and who are also
mentioned in 1 Chr. 4 : 41 as a Ilamitic
tribe settled from of old in Palestine,
and oppressing the Israelites. See Ma-
ONITES.
MEJAR'KON (iO'/re)-s ofyellownexx),
a town of Dan ; named after a fountain.
Josh. 19 : 40.
MEK'ONAH (base, or Htandln<j-
place), a place in the South of Palestine
near Ziklag. Neh. 11 : 28. Reland locates
it 8 miles from Eleutheropolis, on the
way to Jerusalem, and Conder suggests
Me/cenua, north of Beit Jibrin, as its site.
MELATI'AH (delivered by Jeho-
vah), a Gibconite who assisted in repair-
ing the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 7.
MEL,'CHI (Jehovah's king), two
persons in the genealogy of Jesus. Luke
3: 21,28.
MEI^CHI'AH. See Mai.oiiiah.
MELCHISHU'A. See Malchi-
SHl'A.
MELCHIZ'EDEK, or MEL-
CHIS'EDEC, the Greek form under
which the name occurs in the N. T.
(kinrf of rit/hteousness), is mentioned in
Gen'. 14 : 18-20 as king of Salem and
priest of the Most High God, meeting
Abram in the valley of Shaveh, bringing
out bread and wine to him, blessing him,
and receiving tithes from him ; in Ps.
110 : 4, where Messiah is described as a
priest " after the order of Mclchizedek ;"
and finally, in Heb. 5 : 0. 7. where the
ty])ical relations between jNIelchizedek
and Christ are e'nborately defined, both
being priests without belonging to the
Levitical tribe, superior to Abram, of
unknown beginning and end, and kings
of righteousness and peace. The short
MEL
MEL
but impressive apparition of Melchizedek
in Genesis, and the striking though
mystical applications made of this ap-
parition in the Psalms and the Epistle
to the Hebrews, have given rise to vari-
ous interpretations. One Jewish tradi-
tion cjnsiders him to be a survivor of
the Deluge, the patriarch Shem, and thus
entitled by his very age to bless the
fathe • of the faithful, and by his position
as ruler of Canaan to confer his rights to
Abram. Another tradition, equally old,
but not so widely accepted, considers
him to be an angel, the Son of God in
human form, the Messiah. Modern
scholars, arguing back from the exposi-
tions given in the Epistle to the Hebrews,
consider him to be a descendant of Ham,
living among and ruling his own kin ;
but, as Balaam was a prophet, so Mel-
chizedek was a priest, among the hea-
thens, constituted by God himself, and
given a title above that of the ordinary
patriarchal priesthood, even above that
of Abram.
ME'LEA [full, fulness?), an ances-
tor of Joseph in the genealogy of Jesus.
Luke 3:31.
ME'LECH [king), son of Micah,
grandson of Mephibosheth, and therefore
a descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 9 : 41.
MEL'ICU. Xeh. 12 : 14. See Mal-
LUCH.
3IELi'ITA {honey, or sweetness), an
island in the Mediterranean upon which
Paul was shipwrecked during his voyage
to Rome. Acts 28 : 1-14. Two islands
formerly bore the name Melita: (1) Mel-
ita, in the Adriatic Sea, and (2) Malta,
in the Mediterranean. The location of
the first would not ansvver the require-
ments of the scriptural narrative. Malta,
the ancient Melita, is about 60 miles in
circumference, and was successively sub-
ject to the Phoenicians, Greeks, Cartha-
ginians, Romans, Vandals, Goths, Sar-
acens, Norman?, and French, until
Charles V. surrendered it to the Knights
of St. John, at Jerusalem, who in 1798
were dispossessed by Napoleon Bona-
parte. In 1800 the French garrison sur-
rendered to an English force, and the
island has been ever since a dependency
of the British crown. The island is 62
miles south-west of Sicily, is 17 miles long
and 8 or 9 miles wide, and is now reck-
oned 960 miles from Gibraltar, 840 miles
from Alexandria, and 1200 miles from
Jerusalem. It is of an irregular oval
shape, the coast indented with numerous
bays. The soil, naturally barren, has
been made productive; frost and snow
are unknown.
According to Acts 27 : 1-44, it was
about the time of the autumnal equinox,
when sailing was dangerous, that 'Paul
and his companions embarked at Caesarea
for Italy. Mr. Smith of Jordan Hill, a
nautical man, in his work On theVnya<je
and Shipwreck of St. Paul, has shown,
from a personal examination of the lo-
calities of the shipwreck, compared with
the incidents in the narrative of Luke,
that the ship could not have been wrecked
anywhere but at Malta. The following
is a summary of his statements. Paul's
company on the second day touched at
Sidon, 78 miles from Csesarea. Loosing
thence, they were forced by strong wes-
terly winds to leave Cyprus on the left
hand. Thence, favored by the land-
breeze and currents, they arrived at
Myra, in Lycia. At this port they w^re
then transferred to a ship from Alexan-
dria bound for Italy. Their progress,
on account of unfavorable winds, was
extremely slow, for it was ''many days"
before they came over against Cnidus,
not more than 150 miles from Myra.
Sailing in the direction of Salmone, the
eastern promontory of Crete, they coasted
along, with north-west winds, as far as
Cape Matala, the south side of the island.
Here, however, the land bends suddenly
to the north, and they made for the Fair
Havens, a roadstead near the port of
Lasea, as being the nearest to Cape Ma-
tala. As the season of safe navigation
had passed, Paul urged the officers to
winter at Fair Havens, but his advice
was overruled; and, improving a gentle
north wind that blew, they set sail for
Phenice, a harbor on the coast about 40
miles farther west. The harbor seems
to have been the one now called Lutro,
which opens in the same direction in
which the wind Libs blows — i. e., to-
ward the north-east — and is situated
exactly opposite to the island of Clauda.
But soon the weather changed : the ship
was caught in a typhoon, and the wind
enroclydon (east-north-east), which blew
with such violence, forced them to run
under the south shore of Clauda, now
Clnzzo, about 20 miles south-west by west
from Fair Havens. Here they availed
559
MEL
MEL
themselves of the smooth water to secure
the boat and undergird the ship by Trap-
ping it round the middle with a cable, to
prepare it to resist the fury of the storm.
But, fearing they should be driven to-
<y
^^A'^
30
^KOURA POINT
-?.wp
distance of 476 miles. In 1810 the Brit-
ish frigate Lively went to pieces on those
very breakers, at the point of Koura, at
the entrance of the bay. The crew, like
Paul's shipmen, at the distance of a quar-
ter of a mile, could not
see the land, but they
saw the surf on the
shore. So, also, Mr.
Smith has shown that
every ship approach-
ing the land must here
pass over 20 fathoms,
and not only must this
depth be close to the
spot where they had
the indications of
land, but it must bear
east by south from the
The
15 fathom depth is, as
nearly as possible, a
. „ ^, ^ J ,. ., quarter of a mile from
Mapof Place of Shipwreck, SI. Paul's Bay. The figures denote fathoms, ^jj^ ^^^j^g which is here
^HALLIS R.
11^
>^ & 15 fathom depth.
^r
w£vrd the Syrtis — t. e., the quicksands of
the coast of Africa — they lowered the
gear ; and the ship thus borne along was
not only made snug, but had storm-sails
set and was on the starboard tack — /. e.,
with her right side to the wind — which
was the only course by which she could
avoid falling into the Syrtis. On the
next day they threw overboard the main-
yard, an immense spar probably as long
as the ship. The storm continued with
unabated fury for eleven days more, and
all hope was taken away. At length, on
the fourteenth night, the seamen sus-
pected thi approach of land, probably
from the noise of the breakers, sounded,
and found the depth 20 fathoms, and then
15 fathoms. Fearing lest they should
fall upon rocks, they cast four anchors
out of the stern, and lightened the ship
by throwing the wheat into the sea.
When the day broke they succeeded in
running the ship aground in a creek,
where she went to pieces, but the whole
ship's company escaped safe to land.
The place proved to be a bay on the
north-east side of Malta, now known as
St. Pau/'n lidif, an inlet, with a creek,
about 2 miles deep and a mile broad.
Mr. Smith has shown by calculation that
a ship starting late in the evening from
Clauda, would, by midnight on the four-
teenth day, be less than 3 miles from
the entrance of St. Pauls Bay — /. e., a
560
girt with mural precipices, and on which
the sea mu.st have been breaking violently.
At the bottoui of the Bay of St. Paul'stherc
is a communication with the sea outside
by a channel not more than a hundred
yards in breadth, formed by the separa-
tion of Salmone Island, a long rocky
ridge, from the main land. Near this
channel, where '' two seas meet," a-e two
creeks, into one of which they ran the
ship ashore ; the forepart stuck fast in
the mud and clay, while the stern was
dashed to pieces by the force of the
waves.
It has been asserted that no vipers
exist in Malta, but Lewin saw a serpent
there which he regarded as a viper ; but
even if not found on the thickly-popu-
lated island now, this would not prove
that they did not exist in Paul's day and
have since been extermiuiited.
MEL'ONS. Num. 11 : 5. Melons of
all kinds have ever been largely cultivated
in Egy])t, and during the heat of sum-
mer often form the chief food and drink
of the lower classes. The rauskmelon
was grown there at the time of tlie Ex-
odus, and perhaps the watermelon, which
came from Persia. "A traveller in the
East who recollects the intense gratitude
which a gift of a slice of melon inspired
while journeying over the hot and dry
plains will readily comprehend the re-
gret with which the Hebrews in the
MEL
MEN
Arabian desert looked back upon the
melons of Egypt." — Kitto.
MEL'ZAR (probably of Persian
origin, and signifying head cup-bearer),
not a proper name, but the title of an
oflBcer, corresponding at once to our
"steward" and "tutor." Dan. 1:11, 16.
MEM'PHIS (in Hebrew Noph), a
city of ancient Egypt, Hos. 9 : 6, situated
on the western bank of the Nile. It is
mentioned by Isaiah, 19 : 13, Jeremiah,
2:16; 46 : 14, 19, and Ezekiel, 30 : 13-
16, as Noph. The monuments of Mem-
phis are believed to be of higher antiquity
than those of Thebes. Memphis has
three distinct names ou the monuments :
(1) Sebt-h'et, "the city of white walls ;"
(2j Men-nept, " the good abode ;" (3) Te-
paneh, "the world of life." The sacred
name was Ha-ptah, or Pa-ptah, " the
house of Ptah." Its site is about 10 miles
south of Cairo and 5 miles from the
Great Pyramids and the Sphinx. From
the ancient maps of Ptolemy, it appears
that the sea extended about 40 miles far-
ther south than at present. The depos-
its of mud carried down annually by the
Nile, forming the Delta, have caused the
sea to be filled in, so that in the times of
the ancient Pharaohs the sea may have
extended nearly to Memphis, making
that ciry a seaport, instead of, as now,
an inland site. Some infer that its
name, Meu-No/er, implies that it was
a coast-town, 3000 or 4000 years before
Christ.
Hixtory. — Herodotus dates its founda-
tion from Menes, the first king of Egypt.
The city is said to have had a circumfer-
ence of about 19 miles. The temple of
Apis was one of its most noted structures.
This temple stood opposite the southern
portico of the temple of Ptah, and Psam-
metichus, who built that gateway, also
erected in front of the sanctuary of Apis
a magnificent colonnade supported by
colossal st '.tues or Osiride pillars such
as may still be seen at the temple of
Medeenet Haboo at Thebe.-. Through
this colonnade the Apis was led with
great pomp upon state occasions. At
Memphis were the reputed burial-place
of Isis and a temple. Memphis had also
its Serapeum, which probably stood in
the western quarter of the city. The
Necropolis, near Memphis, was on a
scale of grandeur corresponding with the
city itself. At this place as capital for
36
several centuries a Memphite dynasty
ruled over all Egypt, and Lepsius, Bun-
sen, and Brugsch agree in regarding the
third, fourth, sixth, seventh, and eighth
dynasties of the old empire as Memphite,
reaching through a period of about 1000
Sarcophagus in the Seiapeum at Memphis, con-
taining a Mummy of the Sacred Bull.
years. The city's overthrow was pre-
dicted Isa. 19': 13; Jer. 46 : 19. The
latest of these predictions was uttered
nearly 600 years before Christ, and half
a century before the invasion of Egypt
by Cambyses, B. c. 525. The city never
recovered from the blow inflicted by
Cambyses. The rise of Alexandria has-
tened its decline. The cali])h conquerors
founded Old Cairo upon the opposite
bank of the Nile, a few miles north of
Memphis, and brought materials from
the old city to build their new capital,
A. I). 638, At length so complete was
the ruin of Memphis that for a long time
its very site was lost. Recent explora-
tions have brought to light many of its
antiquities, and specimens of its relics
are now in museums in Europe and
America. A little village stands upon a
portion of the site of ancient Memjihis.
MEMU'CAN, a Persian prince at
the court of Ahasuerus. Esth. 1 : 14.
MEN'AHEM [cfnusoler) was the son
of Gadi, and, having slain Shallum, king
of Samaria, reigned in his stead. His
reign, which lasted ten years, b. c. 771-
760, was distinguished for cruelty and
oppression. 2 Kgs. 15 : 14-20,
ME'NAN, an ancestor of Joseph in
the genealogy of Jesus. Luke 3 : 3l.
ME NE, ME'NE, TE'KEL,
UPHAR'SIIV. This sentence, which
appeared on the wall of Belshazzar's
banqueting-hall to warn him of the im-
561
MEN
MER
penJing destruction of Babylon, is in the
pure Clialdee language, and reads, when
translated literally, Mene, " he is num-
bered;" Mene, ''he is numbered;" Tekel,
''he is weighed;" UpJtarsiu, ''they are
divided." " Peres," in the original lan-
guage, is the same word with " Uphar-
sin," but in a different case or number.
It means. '• he was divided." Dan. 5 : 25.
ME'NI (/ute,/ortnne), the marginal
reading to Isa. 65 : 11, a proper name
designating some idol worshipped by
the Jews in Babylon, but not yet identi-
fied with any known he.athen god.
MEN'UCHA. See Skuai.vh.
MENU'CHAH (re»f, e„se), the mar-
ginal reading to Jud. 20 : 43, rendered
in the text by " with ease," but con-
sidered by some to be the name of a
place: identical with Manahath.
MENU'CHITES, one of the mar-
ginal readings to 1 Chr. 2 : 62 ; the same
as Manahath it"S.
MEON'EVIM, THE PLAIN
OV (oak of (tDothsai/ei-h-), iin oak or tere-
binth, Jud. 9:37; ooinp. Deut. 18:10,
14; Mic. 5:12, "soothsayers." The
meaning of the name seems to connect it
with some old diviners, probably of the
pagan inhabitants. Conder suggests it
mxv be identical with or near to Aloreh.
MEON'OTHAI {my dwelling), a
descendant of Juilah. I Chr. 4 : 14.
MEPH'AATH {splendor, or h/fy
place), a Levitical city in Reuben, after-
ward belonging to Moab. Josh. 13 : 18;
21:37; 1 Chr. 6:79; Jer. 48:21. Je-
rome speaks of it as a military post, and
it must have been one of the most cast-
er! v localities.
MEPHIB'OSHETH (extermina-
lion of idnla). 1. A son of Saul, who,
with his brother and live others of the
family, suffered a violent death at the
hands of the (iibeonites. 2 Sam. 21 : 8.
2. Or Meril.baal, I Chr. 8 : 34, was a
son of Jonathan, and grandson of Saul,
who at the age ot live years fell from his
nurse's arn)s and was ever after a. cripple.
\Vhen !>avid was in quiet possession of
bis kin^ loin he sought out this biamth
of the t.imily of Jonathan his frien.l,
and not only gave him an honorable
])lace in his palace, but restored to him
the estates of his father. l)nring Absa-
lom's rebellion, however. Mephibosheth
showed s)me signs of disaffection, and
on D;ivids return lie lost one half of hi.«
estates. 2 Sam. 4:4; 9 : fi ; 16 : 1-4 ; 19 :
24-30 ; 21 : 7. He is called Merib-baal
in 1 Chr. 8:34; 9:40.
ME'RAB, the eldest daughter of
Saul, who promised her to David in mar-
riage : but she married Adriel of Meho-
lath, by whom she had five sons, and
David took her sister Michal. 1 Sam. 14 :
49. The five sons of Merab suffered a
violent death at the hands of the Gibeon-
itcs. 2 Sam. 21 : 8.
MERAI'AH {rebellion) a priest in
the days of Joiakin.. Neh. 12 : 12.
Mt^RAl'OTtL {reunions). 1. Two
priests in the line of Eleazar, respect-
ively mentioned in 1 Chr. 6:6, 7, 52;
Ezrl 7:3. and 1 Chr. 9 : 11; Neh.lL:ll.
2. A priest who went to Jerusalem
with Zerubbabel, Neh. 12 : 15 ; called
Meremoth in Neh. 12 : 3.
MER'ARI {bitter). 1. The third
son of Levi, and head of the family of
the Merarites. Gen. 46: 11; Ex. 6: IG,
19; 1 Chr. 6: 1, 1(3.
2. The father of Judith. Jud. 8:1;
16:7.
MERARITES, THE, one of the
three great families of the tribe of Levi,
numbering, when the census was taken
in the wilderness, 6200 males above one
month old, of whom 3200 were between
thirty and fifty years of age. Num. 3 :
34 ; 4 : 44, and divided into two branches,
the Mahlites and the Mushites. Num. 3 :
33. They marched between Judah and
Reuben, pitched to the north of the tab-
ernacle, and had charge of all the pillars,
bars, boards, etc., belonging to the tab-
ernacle an<l the surrounding court. Num.
3 : 33-37 ; 4 : 29-33 ; 7 : 8. When Ca-
naan was conquered, twelve cities in the
tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Zebulun were
allotted to them. Josh. 21 : 7, 34-39 ; 1
Chr. 6:63, 77-81.
MERATHA'IM (double rebellion),
a symbolical name for Babylon. Jer. 60 :
21.
MER'CHANTS. The earliest mode
of commerce was by caravans. The
commerce with India was carried on in
this way by the merchants of Arabia
and Egypt, and it was to the merchants
of an Egyptian caravan that Joseph was
sold. There was, however, consiilerable
intercourse between many countries by
water. The lMi(«nicians held the first
rank in this respect, and their fleet
passed through the Strait of (Jibraltar
MEK
MEK
into the Atlantic. It must be noticed,
however, that in those times a merchant
always travelled himself from place to
place, buying and selling his goods, and
the Hebrew word for *' merchant " means
''traveller," "voyager." Gen. 23:16;
37:28; Eze. 27:21, 36; 1 Kgs. 10 : 28 :
2 Chr. 1:16; Prov. 31 : U ; Isa. 23 : 2.
MERCU'KIUS, a character of the
Latin mythology, identical with the
Greek Hermes, the god of eloquence and
lying, of commerce and cheating. An
old myth told a story of Jupiter and Mer-
curius once wandering about unrecog-
nized in Phrygia, and this myth, which
probably belonged to the folk-lore of
Asia Minor, led the simple people of
Lystra to mistake Barnabas and Paul
for the two pagan deities. Acts 14 : Il-
ia.
MER'CY-SEAT was the name of
the lid or cover of the ark of the cove-
nant. It was made of gold, two and a
half cubits long and one and a half
cubits broad, and two cherubs, also of
gold, were placed one at each end,
stretching their wings toward each other,
and forming a kind of throne, upon
which God was believed to be present ill
a peculiar manner to hear and answer
praver, and to make known his holy
will'. Ex. 25 : 17-22 ; 30 : 6 ; 31 : 7 ; 37 :
fi-9 : 1 Chr. 28 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 5 : 7, 8 ; Ps.
80 : 1 : 99 : 1. Before and upon the
mercy-seat the high priest sprinkled the
blood of the sin-offerings on the day of
atonement as a propitiation. Lev. 16 :
11-16, which, under the new dispensa-
tion, received its typical signification.
Heb. 9 : o : Rom. 3 : 25. See Auk.
ME'RED {rehelUou), mentioned in
the genealogy, 1 Chr. 4 : 17, as a son of
Ezra, a descendant of Judah, and hus-
band of Bithiah. a daughter of Pharaoh.
MER'EMOTH (helyhts). 1. A
priest who was appointed to weigh and
register the gold and silver vessels be-
longing to the temple in the time of
Ezra, Ezr. 8:24-33, and who look active
part in the rebuilding of the walls of
Jerusalem. Xeh. 3 : 4.
2. One who married a foreign wife and
put her away. Ezr. 10 : 36.
3. A priest who sealed the covenant.
Neh. 10 : 5.
MER'IBAH (quarrel xtrlfe). 1. Xhe
fountain near Repbidim which issued
from the rock in Horeb which Moses
smote by thedivine command ; also called
" Massah " ("temptation, trial"). Ex.
17 : 1-7 ; Deut. 6 : 16 ; 9 : 22. Wilson and
Warren would place this fountain in
Wudy Feirau, near Mount Serbal; Hol-
land puts it in the pass al- Wafiyeh, at
the eastern end of W'ody es-Sheikh.
2. Another fountain, produced in the
same manner and under similar circum-
stances as the preceding, near Kadesh,
in the desert of Zin ; also called waters
of Meribah and Meribah Kadesh. Deut.
33:8; Ps. 95:8; 106 : 32. This miracle
occurred near the close of the wanderings
of the Hebrews in the desert. Num. 20:
1-24; 27 : U; Deut. 32 : 51 ; Ps. 81 : 7 :
Eze. 47 : 19. Some erroneously regard
the two as identical, but this view is in-
consistent with the scriptural narrative.
See Kadesh.
MER'IB - BAAL. 1 Chr. 8 : 34.
See Mrphibosheth.
MERO'DACH {death, slaughter),
the name of an idol-god of the Babylo-
nians, supposed to have represented the
planet Mars, and often applied as a sur-
name to the Babylonish monarchs. Isa.
39 • 1
MERO'DACH-BAL'ADAN
{Merodach, uorshipper of Baal), a king
of Babylon, b. c. 721, who sent ambas-
sadors to Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 32 : 31 ; Isa.
: 39 : 1. In 2 Kgs. 20 : 12 he is called
Berodach-baladan.
ME'ROilI, WATERS OF (icaters
of the hiijh place), the name of a lake in
the northern part of Palestine, where
Joshua crushed the confederacy of the
northern tribes under Jabin. Josh. 11 :
' 5, 7. It is usually identified with " Lake
Samachonitis" of Josephus and the
modern el-Huleh of the Arabs, though
(xrove, Keil, and some others question
I this identification. Lake Huleh is 11
! miles north of the Sea of Galilee. It is
triangular in shape, about 6 miles long,
3A miles wide, 11 feet deep, and 270 feet
below the Mediterranean, and its surface
is covered in parts by a broad-leaved
plant. The marsh around it is about 10
miles long, and is covered with reeds and
rushes, but on the west there is a beauti-
ful and fertile plain. The lake abounds
in wild duck, pelican, and other fowl.
On the north is an impenetrable jungle,
the wallowing-place of buffaloes. The
miasma from the marshes renders the
district very unhealthy. (See cut, p. 564.)
663
MER
MES
Luke Huleh, or Waters of Meroin, from tlie Souih-west.
MERON'OTHITE, a designation
applied to Jehdeiah, 1 Chr. 27 : ;^0, and
Jadon, Neh. 3 : 7, and probably referring
to some place not known.
ME'ROZ {refiif/e), a place in the
northern part of Palestine, the inhabit-
ants of which were accursed for not
having taken the field with Barak against
Sisera. Jud. 5 : 23. Wylie supposes the
ruins el-Mazraah, near the river Kishon,
to mark the site of Meroz ; Wilson pre-
fers Kefr Musa, south of Tabor ; and
Thomson Meiron, 6 miles west of Safed,
as the representative of Meroz.
ME'SECH, Ps. 120 : 5, ou ME'-
SHECH, Eze. 32 : 26, a son of Japheth,
whose descendants are supposed to have
settled in Armenia. They had consider-
able commerce with Tyre. Eze. 27 : 13.
Some suppose the Muscovites were of this
race.
ME'SHA {deliverance). 1. A king
of Moab who refused to pay to Jehoram,
king of Israel, the annual tribute which
he had been accustomed to pay to his
father Ahab. For this offence Jehoram
determined to punish him ; and calling
to his aid Jehoshaphat, king of Judah,
and the king of the Edomites, he invaded
564
the territory of Moab, signally defeated
him, desolated the country, and at last
the king and his army were closely be-
sieged in a walled town. In this ex-
tremity Mesha attempted to cut his way
through the enemy's ranks ; but, failing
in this, he made the horrible sacrifice of
his eldest son to some idol-god, and it
was done openly upon the wall, in sight
of the camp of Israel, who, fearing to
have incurred the anger of God by hav-
ing given occasion to a human sacrifice,
retreated to their own country. 2 Kgs.
3 : 4-27. A most wonderful corrobora-
tion of the Scripture history is found
in the famous Moabite Stone. See
DlBOX.
2. A son of Caleb, and brother of
Mareshah. 1 Chr. 2 : 42.
.3. A Benjamite, son of Shaharaim. 1
Chr. 8 : 9.
ME'SHA {retreat), a place on the
eastern border of the possessions of the
.loktanites. Gen. 10 : 30. Some regard it
as MeHcne or Meiitau, at the mouth of
the Pasitigris, where it empties info the
Persian Gulf; others locate it in the Zn~
vipfi range or Nffd mountains of Arabia;
find some place it in north-western I'/nica,
MES
MES
at Moosa, a port, on the Red Sea. The
first is the more probable location of
Mesha.
ME'SHACH. Dan. 1 : 7. See
Abkdnkgo.
ME'SHECH. Eze. 27 :13. See
Mesech.
MESHELEMFAH (irhom Jehovah
repai/x), a Levite, gatekeeper at the tem-
ple in the time of David, 1 Chr. 9 : 21 :
26 : 1, 2, y : he is called Shelemiah in 1
Chr. 26 : 14.
ME SHE Z 'ABE EL (delivered hji
God). 1. The grandfather of Meshul-
1am, who assisted in rebuilding the
wall. Neh. 3 : 4.
2. One who sealed the covenant. Neh.
10 : 21.
3. A descendant of Zerah, the son of
Judah. Neh. 11 : 24.
MESHIL'LEMITH {retrihutHm,
regitital), a priest of the course of Im-
mer. 1 Chr. 9 : 12; called Meshillemoth
in Neh. 11 : 1.3.
MESHIL'LEMOTH. 1. An
Ephraimite in the reign of Pekah. 2
Chr. 28 : 12.
2. Neh. 11 : 13. See Meshillemitii.
MESHUL'LAM {friend). 1. The
grandfather of Shajihan the scribe in the
reign of Josiah. 2 Kes. 22 : 3.
2. A son of Zerubbabcl. 1 Chr. 3:19.
3. A descendant of Gad in the reign
of King Jotham of Judah. 1 Clir. 5 : 13.
4. Three Benjamites mentioned re-
spectively in 1 Chr. 8:17: 9 : 7. 8.
5. High priest in the reign of Amnion,
1 Chr. 9 : 11 : Neh. 11 : 1 1 : called Shal-
lum in 1 Chr! 6:12; Ezr. 7 : 2.
6. A priest of the course of Immer. 1
Chr. 9 : 12.
7. A Kohathite Levite in the reign of
Josiah. 2 Chr. 34 : 12.
8. One who was sent b.y Ezra to induce
the Levites to rejoin the caravan return-
ing to Palestine. Ezr. 8:16.
9. One who assisted Ezra in abolishing
marriages with foreign wives. Ezr. 10 :
15.
10. One who had married a foreign
wife. Ezr. 10 : 29.
11. Two who assisted in repairing the
wall. Neh. 3 : 4, 6, 30; 6 : 18.
12. A priest and a chief of the people
who sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : 7,
20.
1 3. Two priests in the days of Joiakim.
Neh. 12 : 13, 16.
14. A Levite porter, Neh. 12 : 26 : also
called Meshemiah. 1 Chr. 26 : 1, Shele-
miah, 1 Chr. 26 : 14, or Shullam. Neh.
7 : 45.
15. One who partook in the dedica-
tion of the walls of Jerusalem. Neh.
12 : 33.
MESHUL'LEMETH {frievd),
wife of Manasseh and mother of Am-
mon, kings of Judah. 2 Kgs. 21 : 19.
MESOBA'ITE, a designation ap-
plied to Jasiel, one of David's warriors,
1 Chr. 11 : 47 ; it is not known what it
refers to.
MESOPOTA'MIA (the ref,iou he-
fireeii the rivers), the name given by the
Greeks and Romans to that traet of fer-
tile country lying between the rivers
Euphrates and Tigris. Acts 2:9; 7:2.
It was called hj the Hebrews Aram-
naharaim, or "Aram or Syria of the
two rivers:" Gen. 24:10:'Deut. 23:
4: Jud. 3 : 8, 10; 1 Chr. 19 : 6 : and
Padan-aram or "Plain of Syria," Gen.
25 : 20 : 28 : 2-7 ; 46 : 15 : also Aram
or " Syria." Num. 23 : 7 ; Gen. 31 : 20,
24. On the Egyptian monuments, the
upper part is called Naharina, and on
the Assyrian, Nahiri. This region is
now called by the Arabs el-Jezirah, or
"the Peninsula" or "Island." Strabo
and Pliny describe Mesopotamia as
bounded on the east by the Tigris; on
the south by the Euphrates and the
Persian Gulf; on the west by the Eu-
phrates; and on the north by Mount
Taurus, the length bring 800 miles, and
the breadth, which is very irregular,
360 miles. The great plains of Meso-
potamia possess a neai-ly uniform, level,
good soil, but barren from want of irri-
gation. The exceptions are where the
plains are intersected by hills or ranf'cs
of hills. The climate of these plaius
is characterized by great dryness, com-
bined with very great variations in the
temperature of the air. According to
Mr. Layard, in March the pastures
abound in rich and luxuriant herbage
and the meadows are enamelled with
flowers of every hue. See map, "Lands
of .Jewish Captivities."
We first hear of Mesopotamia in Scip-
ture as the country of Nahor. Gen. 24 :
10. Here lived Bethuel and Laban.and
hither Abraham sent his servant to fetch
Isaac a wife. v. 38. A century later Jacob
came on the same errand, and hence he
565
MES
MET
returned with his two wives after an ab-
sence of twenty-one years. No mention
of Mesopotamia again occurs till the
close of the wanderings in the wilder-
ness. Deut. 23 : 4. Though Drs. Beke
and Merrill object to the view that Ba
laam came from the Mesopotamia beyond
the Euphrates, and Dr. Beke proposed to
place " Syria between the two rivers,"
near Damascus, his view has not been
accepted. About half a century later,
Mesopotamia appears as the seat of a
powerful monarchy. Jud. 3. The chil-
dren of Amnion, having provoked a war
Avith David, "sent a thousand talents of
silver to hire them chariots and horse-
men out of Mesopotamia, and out of
Syria-maachah, and out of Zobah." 1
Chr. 19 : 6. Assyrian inscriptions and
the Scripture record show that Meso-
potamia was inhabited in the early
times of the empire, b. c. 1200-1100,
by a vast number of petty tribes, each
under its own prince, and all quite in-
dependent of each other, Jud. 3 : 8-10;
2 Kgs. 19 : 12, 13; Isa. 37 : 12, until
subjugated by the kings of Assyria.
Even after Meso])o'tamia became an
Assyrian province it formed part of
the great monarchies which succes-
sively arose in Upper Asia, the Baby-
lonian, Persian, and Macedonian, The
conquests of Cyrus brought it wholly
under the Persian yoke, and thus it
continued to the time of Alexander.
The whole region is studded with
mounds and ruins of Assyrian and
Babylonian greatness. See Assyria.
MES'SENGER. The laws and
edicts of the Jewish kings were pro-
claimed near the royal residence bj'^
public criers; but they were made
known to more distant towns and prov-
inces by mcHHeuyers sent for that pur-
pose. 1 Sam. 11 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 22 ; Am.
4 : 5. The messengers stood in the gate,
where the largest mass of people might
be found, and proclaimed the law or mes-
sage, as in Jer. 11 : 6 ; 17 : 19, 20. At
Jerusalem these messages were pro-
claimed in the temple, where a con-
course of people was always found.
MESSI'AH is a Hebrew word sig-
nifying " anointed," and corresponding
exactly to the (Jreek (■/nixfon. As in
ancient times not only the king, but
also the priest and the prophet, was
consecrated to his calling by being
566
anointed, the word '* Messiah " often
occurs in the 0. T. in its literal sense,
signifying one who has been anointed,
1 Sam. 24 : 6 ; Lam. 4 : 20 : Eze. 28 : U ;
Ps. 106 : 15 ; but generally it has a more
specific application, signifying the One
who was anointed, the supreme Deliv-
erer who was promised from the begin-
ning. Gen. 3 : 15, and about whom a
long series of prophecies runs through the
whole history of Israel from Abram, (ien.
12 : 3 ; 22 : 18 ; Jacob, Gen. 49 : 10 ; Ba-
laam, Num. 24: 17 ; Moses, Deut. 18 : 15,
18, and Nathan, 2 Sam. 7:16; through
the Psalmists and prophets, Ps. 2 ; 16 :
22; 40; 45; 110; Isa. 7: 10-16; 9:
1-7; 11; 13; 53; 61; Jer. 23:5, 6;
Mic. 5:2; Mai. 3:1-4, to his im-
mediate precursor, John the Baptist.
The character of these prophecies is
very definite. The lineage from which
Messiah should descend was foretold,
Gen. 49 : 10 ; Isa. 11 : 1, the place in
which he should be born, Mic. 5 : 2,
the time of his appearance, Dan. 9 : 20,
25 ; Hag. 2:7; Mai. 3 : 1, etc. Never-
theless, in the vanity of their hearts, the
Jews mistook the true meaning of these
prophecies. They expected a mere phys-
ical deliverer who would take revenge on
their enemies and oppressors, a,nd give
into their hands the empire, the glory,
and the wealth of the world. Thus many
of them were unable to recognize the
Messiah in Jesus of Nazareth; and when
he and his disciples demonstrated the
spiritual meaning of the prophecies and
their glorious fulfilment, Matt. 26 : 54;
Mark 9:12: Luke 18 : 31 ; 22 : 37 ; John
5 : 39 ; Acts 2 : 1 6-3 1 ; 26 : 22, 23 ; Eph.
4 : 8 ; 1 Pet. 1:11, the Jews felt scandal-
ized. They expected a triumphant being,
according to Ps. 2; Jer. 23 : 5. 6: Zech.
9 : 9, and tliat his triumph was to be
aecuiuplished by sufferings and death
thev did not understand.
MESSI'AS, the Greek form of Mes-
siah. John 1:41: 4 : 2').
MET'ALS. The Hebrews were from
ancient times acquainted with all the
principal metals — gold, silver, copper,
iron, tin, and load. They produced them
from tlicir own soil or procured them by
commerce with foreign nations, Palcs-
tin'- and Syriaare rich in copper and iron,
and mining operations, as well as the
various processes in the manufacture of
metals, such as smelting, calcining, re-
MET
MIA
fining, etc., are often alluded to. Job
28 : 1-11 : Ex. 20 : 5 ; 32 : 2-4. 20 ; Isa.
1 : 25 ; 40 : 19, 20 ; 44 : 12 ; Mai. 3 : 3.
Whether they knew steel is uncertain.
The Hebrew word thus translated in 2
Sam. 22:35; Job 20:24; Ps. 18:34;
Jer. 15 : 12 is translated " brass " in all
other places, and means probably bronze.
The "northern iron" of Jer. 15:12
seems to correspond more closely to
what we call steel. As zinc is not men-
tioned in the 0. T., it is probable that
composition of zinc and copper called
brass was not known at all to the He-
brews. Where our translation has
' brass," probably bronze, a composi-
tion of copjier and tin, is meant.
Gold was not found in Palestine, but
was brought thither from Ophir. 1 Kgs.
9 : 27, 28, Parvaim, 2 Chr. 3 : 6, Raamah,
Eze. 27:22, Sheba, 1 Kgs. 10 : 2, 10;
Ps. 72 : 15 ; Isa. 60 : 6, and Uphaz. Jer.
10 : 9. It was plentiful. Abraham was
very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold.
Gen. 13 : 2. The army of Gideon took
1 700 shekels of golil in nose-jewelry from
the slaughtered Midianites. Jud. 8 : 26.
David gathered 100,000 talents of gold
and the shields of gold from Hadad-
ezer. 1 Chr. 22 : 14: 2 Sam. 8 : 7. The
throne of Solomon was overlaid with
gold, and his drinking-cups were of
pure and solid gold. 1 Kgs. 10: 18, 21.
The Hebrews used gold, not as money,
brt only for ornaments — bracelets, Gen.
24:22:" chains. Gen. 41:^2: signets,
Ex. 35 : 22 ; necklaces, Ex. 35 : 22— for
embroidery, Ex. 39:3; 2 Sam. 1:24,
and for decoration, especiall}' in the
temple. 1 Kgs. 6 : 21. 22.
Silver was obtained from Lydia,
Thrace, and Tarshish, 1 Kgs. 10:22;
2' Chr. 9 : 21 ; Jer. 10 : 9 ; Eze. 27 : 12,
and in the days of Solomon it was as
common in Jerusalem ''as stones." 1
Kgs. 10 : 21. 27. It was lavishly used in
the temple for the sockets of the boards,
Ex. 26:19; 36:24, the hooks, fillets,
and capitals of the pillars, Ex. 38 : 10,
17, the bowls and chargers. Num. 7: 13,
the trumpets. Num. 10:2, the candle-
sticks and tables. 1 Chr. 28 : 15, IG, etc.
Its principal ufc. however, was as money ;
though it was not coined until the mid-
dle of the eighth century B. c. In all the
commercial transactions spoken of in
the 0. T. up to the taking of Samaria,
in B. c. 721, silver, not gold, is used as
payment — by Abram at the purehaso
of £])liron's field, Gen. 23 : 16 : by Abim-
elech in compensation to Abram, Gen.
20: 16; by the Ishmaelite merchants when
they bought Joseph. Gen. 37 : 28, etc.
Copper and iron were found in Pales-
tine— •' a land whose stones ore iron and
out of whose hills thou mavest dig
brass." Deut. 8:9; Job 28 : 2. The for-
mer, however, was much more used than
the latter ; arms, 2 Sam. 21 : 1 6 ; Job 20 :
24; Ps. 18:34, and armor, 1 Sam. 17:
5, 6, 38, were made of it. Tin is first
mentioned among the spoils of the Midi-
anites. Num. 31:22; like lead, it came
from Tarshish, Eze. 27 : 12, and it was
principally used in the production of
bronze. Lead found manifold applica-
tions in practical life — for inscriptions,
being poured into the hollow letters
carved in the stone. Job 19 : 24, for
weights, etc.
ME'THEG-AM'MAH {curb of
the metropolis). This word, in 2 Sam.
8:1, is translated in the margin "the
bridle of Ammnh." and it may be ren-
dered "the bridle or hit of the metropo-
lis," meaning that David subdued (he
metropolis of the Philistines, probal»ly
Gath. Thus expressed, the passage corre-
sponds closely with the parallel passage,
1 Chr. 18 : 1 :' " Gath and her towns."
METHU'SAEL( mrf» o//5'of/),father
of Lamech, and the fourth in descent
from Cain. Gen. 4:18.
METHU'SELAH {wan of dmt, or
he dieisfDid it is sent — namel}', the Flood),
the son of Enoch, and, according to He-
brew chronology, 969 Acars old when he
died, in the first year of the Flood. The
longest-lived man was the son of the
saintliest of his time. Gen. 5 : 27 ; 1
Chr. 1 : 3.
MEU'NIM. Neh. 7 : 52. The same
as Mehunim. Ex. 2 : 50,
MEU'ZAL, in the margin of Eze.
27 : 19, means perhaps " from Uzal," the
later Sanaa, the metropolis of Yemen.
MEZ'AHAB {ivaters of (joUl), the
grandfather of Mehetabel, wife of Ha-
dar. the last king of Edom. Gen. 36:
39 : 1 Chr. 1 : 50.
MI'AMIN {from the rifjht hand). 1.
One who had married a foreign wife. Ezr.
10 : 25.
2. A priest who had returned with
Zerubbabel, Neh. 12 : 5 ; called Mija-
min. 10 : 70, and Miniamin, 12 : 17.
567
MIB
MIC
MIB'HAR (choice), one of David's
warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 38.
MIB'SAM (sweet odor). 1. A son of
IshQiael. Gen. 25 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 29.
2. A son of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4: 25.
MIB'ZAR (a fortreiis), one of the
chiefs or dukes of Edom. Gen. 36 : 42 ;
1 Chr. 1 : 53.
MI'CAH (who is like Jehocahf). 1.
An idolater in Mount Ephraim who per-
suaded a Levite to officiate as his priest,
but had his idols stolen from him bj a
troop of Danites. Jud. 17: 18.
2. The sixth of the minor prophets, is
called the Morashite, from his birthplace
Moresheh, a village in the neighborhood
of Eleutheropolis, in the territory of
Gath, westward from Jerusalem. lie
prophesied during the reigns of Jotham,
Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah,
B. c. 750-698, and was a contemporary
of Isaiah, whom he often resembles in
style and expressions. Compare, for in-
stance, Isa. 2 : 2 with Mic. 4:1, or Isa.
41:15 with Mic. 4:13.
The Book of Micah contains prophe-
cies concerning Samaria and .Jerusalem.
Samaria is threatened with complete de-
vastation, and Jerusalem with destruc-
tion and the captivity of its inhabitants.
He admonishes them to repent, but he
predicts also the return of the divine
mercy and blessing, with a pardon of
their sins. Then shall the mount of the
temple he glorious and foreign nations
will acknowledge Jehovah as their
Lord, and henceforth there shall be no
more war. In his prophecies concerning
Messiah he is very precise. The pre-
diction that Christ should be born in
Bethlehem belongs to him. 5 : 2. His
style is poetic throughout, pure, rich in
images and plays upon words, bold and
lofty, but sometimes abrupt and obscure.
3. A Reubenite, the ancestor of Beerah.
1 Chr. 5:5.
4. The son of Mephibosheth. and
grnnlson of Jonathan, 1 Chr. 8 ; .! 1. 35:
9:40, 41 ; called Micha in 2 Sam. 9: 12.
5. A Levite of the family of Asaph,
1 Chr. 9:15; called Micha in Neh. 11 :
17, 22, and Michaiah in Neh. 12: 35.
6. A Kohathite Levite, the son of
Uzziel, 1 Chr. 23 : 20; called Michah in
1 Chr. 24 : 21, 25.
7. The father of Abdon. ahiixh o(1i-
cial in the reign of Josiah, 2 Chr. 34 :
20 ; called Michaiah in 2 Kgs. 22: 12.
568
MICA'IAH, the son of Imlah the
prophet, who predicted the defeat and
death of Ahab if he went to war against
Ramoth-gilead. 1 Kgs. 22 : 8-28 ; 2 Chr.
18:7, 27.
MI'CHA, a Levite who sealed the
covenant. JMeh. 10:11. See MiCAH, 3
and 5.
MI'CHAEL [who like God ?), a name
of frequent occurrence in the sacred
writings.
1. Father of Sethur, the spy selected
from the tribe of Asher. Num. 13 : 13.
2. A Gadite who settled in the land of
Bashan, 1 Chr. 5 : 13, and one of his an-
cestors. 1 Chr. 5 : 14.
3. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 40.
4. A chief of the tribe of Issachar in
the time of David. 1 Chr. 7 : S.
5. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8: 16.
6. A Manassite chief who joined Da-
vid at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 20.
7. The father of Omri. 1 Chr. 27 : 18.
8. A son of Jehoshaphat, murdered by
his brother Jehoram. 2 Chr. 21 : 2, 4.
9. The ancestor of Zebadiah, who re-
turned with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 8.
10. The prince among the angels, the
archangel, Jude 9, described in Dan. 10 :
13, 21; 12 : 1, as standing in a special
relation to the Jewish nation, and in
Rev. 12: 7-9 as leading the hosts of the
angels.
MI'CHAH. See Micah, 6.
MICHA'IAH. 1. See Micah, 7.
2. See Maachah, 3.
3. An officer of Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr.
17:7.
4. See Micah, 4.
5. A priest who assisted at the dedi-
cation of the walls of Jerusalem. Neh.
12:41.
6. An officer of Jehoiakim. Jer. 36 :
11, 13.
MI'CHAL, the second daughter of
Saul, 1 Sam. 14:49, and the wife of
David, who pnid in dowry one hundred
slaughtered Philistines. She was pas-
sionately devoted to her young husband,
nnd once saved him from the fury of her
father. During David's exile she was
married to another man, Phalti, 1 Sam.
26:44; 2 Sam. 3:15, with whom she
lived for ten years. After tiie accession
of David to the throne she was restored
to him, 2 Sam. 3 : 13, 14, but an estrange-
ment soon took place between them, and
on the occasion of the greatest triumph
MIC
MIG
of David's life — the bringing up of the
ark to Jerusalem — it came to an open
rupture between them, after which her
name does not again occur. 2 Sam. 6 : 28.
MICH'MAS, OR MICH'MASH
(somethtiif/ hidr/f-ii), a town of Benjamin
noted in the Philistine war of Saul and
Jonathan. 1 Sam. 13: 11. Isaiah refers
to it in connection with the invasion of
Sennacherib in the reign of Hezekiah.
10:28. After the Captivity it was re-
peopled. Ezr. 2 : 27 ; Xeh. 7 : :^1. Later
it became the residence of Jonathan
Maccabseus and the seat of his govern-
ment. 1 Mace. 9 : 73. In the time of
Eusebius and Jerome it was " a very
large village, retaining its ancient name,
and l^ing near Ramah, in the district of
^lia (Jerusalem), 9 miles therefrom."
Michmash is identified with the modern
village of Mnkinui, about 5 miles north
of Jerusalem, where are considerable
ruins of columns, cisterns, et ;. Imme-
diately below the village the great wady
spreads out to a considerable width —
perhaps half a mile — and its bed is bro-
ken u]) into an intricate mass of hum-
mocks and mounds, two of which, before
the torrents of 3000 winters had reduced
and rounded their forms, may have
been the "teeth of cliff" — the Bo;-.ez
and Seneh of Jonathan's adventure.
1 Sam. 14 : 4. In plain view about a
mile away is the ancient Geba or
Gibeah, where Saul was encamped. 1
Sam. 13 : 16.
MICH'METHAH (r,.cky f ).a town
facing Shechem, on the borders of Eph-
raim and Manasseh. Josh. 16 : 6 ; 17 : 7.
Conder suggests a precipice near Sheikh
ea-Sireh, a modern sacred building west
of Shechem. as the site of Michmethah.
MICH'RI {prize of Jehovah), a Ben-
iamite, the ancestor of Elah. 1 Chr.
9:8.
MICH'TAM occurs in the inscrip-
tions of six Psalms — namely, 16 and 56-
60 — but its true meaning is doubtful.
Some derive it from a root denoting gohl,
and our translation gives it in the mar-
gin as " the golden Psalm." More prob-
ably, however, it is a musical expression
whose signification has been lost.
MID'DIN (meaxiirefi), one of the six
cities mentioned with En-gedi, Josh, 15 :
61, and in the deserl west of the Dead
Sea.
MID 'IAN (strife). The territory of
Midian extended, according to some
scholars, from the Elanitic Gulf to Moab
and Mount Sinai, or, according to others,
from the Sinaitic peninsula to the desert
and the banks of the Euphrates. The
people traded with Palestine, Lebanon,
and Egypt. Gen. 37 : 28. Joseph was
probably bought by them, perhaps in
company with Ishmaelites. See Gen. 37 :
25. 27, 28, 36, and Gen. 25:2, 4, 12, 16.
Moses dwelt in Midian. Ex. 2 : 15-21 ;
Num. 10 : 29. Midian joined Moab
against Israel and enticed that nation
into sin, for which it was destroyed.
Num. 22, 24, 25. Later, Midian recov-
ered, became a powerful nation, and op-
pressed the Hebrews, but were miracu-
louslv defeated by Gideon. Jud. 6 : 1-40 ;
7 : 1-25 : 8 : 1-28 : Ps. 83 : 9, 11 : Isa. 9 :
4; Ilab. 3 : 7. The Midianites hence-
forward became gradually incorporated
with the neighboring Moabites and Ara-
bians.
In the region east of Edom and Moab
are many ancient ruins, and portions of
the territory are of great fertility, pro-
duc'ng bountiful crops for the modern
Arabs — the tribe of Beiti Snkk'r, which
bears considerable resemblance in race,
character, and habits to what is known
of the ancient Midianites.
"Curtains of Midian," Hab. 3: 7, is a
figurative expression denoting the bor-
ders or inhabitants of Midian.
MID'WIFE. The two midwives
mentioned in Ex. 1 : 15 are probably
representatives or superintendents of a
whole class, as such a number seems to
stand in a decided disproportion to the
needs of the Jewish nation at that time.
The expression "ujion the stools," in
the following verse, refers to a kind of
chair in which the patient sat during the
birth, and which is still in use in modern
Egy].t.
MIG'DAL-EL (tower of nod), a
fortified city of Naphtali. Josh. 19 : 38.
Robinson thinks it may be the modern
MedjII, or MiijeldeJ, ancient ruins being
found on the seashore, 3 miles north of
Tiberias.
MIG'DAL-GAD (tower of God),
•A town of Judah, near Lachish, Josh.
15 : 37-39 ; now Mejdfl, a prosperous
village of 1500 inhabitants, 2 miles east
of Ascalon. .It is surrounded by olive
trees and cultivated fields. Its houses
are well built, its streets dirty. Broken
669
MIG
MIL
columns, hewn stones, and other ancient
ruins are found there.
MIG'DOLj {tower), the name of two
places in Egypt.
1. A place near the head of the Red
Sea, Ex. 14 : 2 : Num. 33 : 7, 8 ; probably
identical with Dir Siiweiss, 2 miles from
Suez.
2. A city and fortified place situated
in the northern limits of Egypt toward
Palestine. Jer. 44:1; 46 :" U. This
name is rendered " tower " in the phrase
" from the tower of Syene," Eze. 29 : 10;
30:0; but the margin correctly has
"from Migdol to Syene" — i. e., Syene
the most southern border of Egypt, and
Migdol the most northern. The phrase
is used to signify the whole of Egypt.
In Egyptian the name is written Meshtol,
"many hills," and in the Septuagint
Magdolum.
MIG'RON (precipice), a town or
place in the neighborhood of Gibeah.
1 Sam. 14: 2. Migron is also mentioned
in Sennacherib's approach to Jerusalem.
Isa. 10 : 28. It wiis near Michmash,
and Baedeker places its site on the west-
ern slope of the Wadi/ Suiveinit, at ruins
called Mnkrnii.
MIJ'AiHIN (on the rir,7,t hnud). 1.
The head of the sixth course of priests
in the time of David. 1 Chr. 24 : 9.
2. See MiAMix. 2.
MIK'I.OTH (sfnve.'i). 1. A Benja-
mite. the son of Jeliiel. I Chr. 8 : 32; 9 :
37, 38.
2. One of the leaders of David's army.
1 Chr. 27 : 4.
MIKNE'IAH (po>i><cs>iion of Jeho-
vah), a Levite porter in the time of Da-
vid. 1 Chr. 15: 18, 21.
MILALA'I (ehxpieiit), a priest who
assisted at the dedication of the walls
of Jerusalem. Xeh. 12 : 36.
MILi'CAH (queen, or counsel). 1. A
daughter of llaran, and wife of Nahor,
Abraham's brother. Gen. 11 : 29 ; 22 : 20,
23; 24:15, 24, 47.
2. The fourth daughter of Zelophehad.
Num. 26 : 33 ; 27 : 1 ; 36 : 11 ; Josh. 17 :
MIL'COM. See Moloch.
MILE. See Mkasiuks.
MILE'TUM. 2 Tim. 4 : 20. The
same as Miletus.
MILE'TUS {crimnon ?), a city and
seaport of lonin. in Asia Minor.
Situation. — Miletus was 36 miles south
570
of Ephesus, and stood on the south-
western side of the Latmian (xulf, di-
rectly opposite the mouth of the river
Meander. The sediment from the river
had gradually tilled up the gulf, and the
city was a considerable distance from
the sea. But in Paul's time it had four
docks and a large commerce. The site
is now some 10 miles inland.
History.. — Miletus was originally a
Carian city : then the capital of Ionia ;
the mother of no less than 80 cities on
various coasts, more particularly in the
Euxine and the strait leading to it. Its
period of greatest prosperity was 500
years before Christ. The Persians cap-
tured it B. c. 494, and Alexander the
Great B. c. 334, after which the city
never regained its former celebrity. It
was the native place of many men re-
nowned in history, among the most dis-
tinguished of whom were Thales and
Democritus. Luxury and wickedness
were characteristic of the inhabitants.
Scripture References. — Paul stopped
here on his voyage from Greece to Jeru-
salem returning from his third mission-
ary-tour, and met the elders from Ephe-
sus. Acts 20:15-38. From 2 Tim. 4 :
20 it appears that Paul left Trophimus
there sick, but it would appear that this
mast have been on another occasion,
since, at the conclusion of this voyage,
Trophimus w.as with the apostle at Jeru-
salem. Acts 21 : 29. This is supposed
by many to indicate a later visit, after
Paul's first imprisonment at Rome. One
of the Epistles was sent to the Ephesians.
Present Ap)pe(n<inee. — Near the site
of the ancient city is a small Turkish
village called Melas. The most note-
worthy ruins of former grandeur are the
theatre, with its mnny tiers of seats in
good preservation, and the temple of
Apollo, of which a few columns arc yet
standing. The wandering channels of
the Mennder are near by, although the
mouth of the river is 10 miles away.
MILK, not only of cows, but also of
camels, sheep, and goats, was used in
Palestine, and is often spoken of in
the 0. T. Gen. 32-: 15; Dcut. 32:14;
Prov. 27:27; Isa. 7:21, 22. The sim-
])lest spiritual food or the plain and easy
trutlis of the gospel, wherewith the new-
born soul is nourished and sustained, is
compared to milk. Heb. 6:12; 1 Pet. 2 :
2. " A land flowing with milk and
MIL
MIL
lioney," Jo?h. 5 : 0, means a country of
extraordinary fertility. The phrase
'• wine and milk," Isa. 55 : 1. denotes all
spiritual blessings and privileges.
MILL. The simplest mill for bruis-
ing grains was nothing more than two
stones, between which they were broken.
If one of the stones be hollowed out, so
as to contain the corn to be pounded by
another stone or by a piece of wood or
metal, it is not a mill, but a mortar.
When manna was given in the desert,
"the people went about, and gathered
it, and ground it in mills, or beat it in a
Women srinding at the Mill in the East.
mortar." Num. 11 : 8. From these mills
and mortars there must have been ob-
tained at first only a kind of peeled
grain which may be compared to our
hominy. Yet we read that Sarah set
before the three angels who visited
M;imre cakes of fine meal, Gen. 18 : 6,
which presupposes a more elaborate im-
plement. This consisted of two round
stones, each about 2 feet in diameter
and 6 inches high. The under one, or
"nether villhtime," Job 41 : 24, was im-
movable and somewhat lower around the
edge than in the centre — that is, it was
slightly convex on the top. The upper
one was just the reverse, being concave
on the bottom, or thicker at the circum-
ference, so as to fit pretty closely to the
o'her. In the centre there was a hole,
and above this a funnel or hopper, into
which the grain was poured, and thus it
ran in between the stones and was broken
by them into meal,, which fell over the
edge upon a board. On the top of the
other stone there was an upright peg, by
means of which it was turned around.
Frequent allusions are made in Scrip-
ture to these utensils. Of leviathan it
is said that his heart is " as hard as a
piece of the nether millxtoiie." Job 41 :
24. At the siege of Thebez "a certain
woman cast a piece of a millstone upon
Abimelech's head, and all to brake his
skull." Jud. 9 : 53.
In the Law it was ordnined : " No man
shall take the nether or the upper mill-
stone to pledge ; for he taketh a man's life
to pledge." Deut. 24 : 6. Each family had
its own mill; and as fresh bread was
made every day, no more corn was ground
at a time than was necessary for one
baking. Hence the noise of the grind-
ing-mills and the voices of the women
working them were the first sounds heard
in the streets on a morning. The sound
was pleasing, because it was naturally
associated with industry and the supports
and enjoyments of life. The noise of the
millstones in the morning, and ihe light-
ing up of candles in the evening, are
circumstances belonging to inhabited
places where men live together in social
order; hence the striking power of the
prediction, Jer. 25 : 10, Gloomy shall
be the silence of the morning, melan-
choly the shadows of the evening — no
cheerful noise to animate the one, no
enlivening ray to soften the gloom of
the other. Desolation shall everywhere
reign.
MIL'LET, the grain of the cultivated
panic-grass (Panicum milinceum) or of
du-rah (variously spelled, but thus pro-
nounced). Eze. 4 ; 9. Both these large
grasses are often sown in the Levant,
and perhaps both may be included under
the term millet. Durah or Egyptian
corn (Sonjhinii viih/nre) resembles maize
in size and general appearance, and is
largely cultivated upon the Nile. Both
the above are grown in Palestine and
used for bread. (See cut, p. 572.)
M I L ' L O {a mouiid, rampnrt ),
" Millo" is used for a part of the citadel
of Jerusalem, probably the rampart, or
entrenchment. 2 Sam. 5:9:1 Kgs. 9:15,
24 ; 11 : 27; 1 Chr. 11 : 8. Tl'.e same, or
part of it, was probably the "•house of
Millo;" margin "Beth JMillo." 2 Kgs.
12 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 32 : 5. Some think it
means the " stronghold of Zion." Lewin
suggests that it refers to the whole of the
571
MIL
MIN
temple enclosure, while Conder curiously
suggests that, from its root, it may mean
a pool. The first seems the more probable
view.
Millet. {Sorghum Vu'gare.)
MIL'LO, HOUSE OF. 1. The
place where Joash was murdered in Jeru-
salem. 2 Kgs. 12 : 20. See Millo, above.
2. Those who dwelt in the fortress of
Shechem, Jud. 9 : 6,20 ; i)robnbly the same
as " the tower " of Shecliem . J ud. 9 : 46, 49.
MI'IVA. See Monky.
MINES, MIN'ING. Remains still
exist of ancient Egyptian mines both on
the border of the Ethiopian desert and
in the Sinaitic ]jeninsula, and, as Moses
praises the Promised Land for its mineral
wealth, Deut. 8 : 9, it is probable that at
the time of the Exodus the Jews under-
stood how to extract metals from the
earth. How well acquainted with all
mining processes they were at another
])eriod appears from Job 28 : 1-11. Sec
Mktai.s.
MINI'AMIN {from the n\,ht hand),
a Levite in the reign of llezekiah who
had charge of the freewill - ofleringa of
the people in the cities of the priests.
2 Chr. 31: In.
MIN'ISTER, as distinguished from
servant, denotes one; in voluntary attend-
ance on another. Thus Joshua is called
572
the minister of Moses, Ex. 24 : lo ; 33 :
1 1. and Elisha the minister of Elijah. 1
Kgs. 19 : 21 ; 2 Kgs. 3:11. With various
modifications of this, its general sense, it
is applied in Scripture :
1. To Christ, as the "minister of the
sanctuary," Heb. 8 : 2 — that is, as our
High Priest ; 2. To those persons who are
appointed to preach the gospel and ad-
minister its ordinances, 1 Cor. 4:1: 2
Cor. 3:6: Eph. 3:7:1 Thess. 3:2'; 1
Tim. 4:6; 3. To magistrates, Rom. 13:
16, as God's ministers to punish the evil
and protect the good; and 4. To the
angels, who stand ready to do the will
of God. Ps. 103 : 21 ; Dan. 7 : 10 ; Heb.
1: 14.
MIN'NI, a portion of Armenia. Jer.
51 : 27. See Armknia.
MIN'NITH (divisioHn), an Ammonit-
ish territory to which Jephthah's victory
extended, and from whence wheat was
brought to Tyre. Jud. 11 : 33; Eze.
27:17.
MIN'STREL, a musician or singer.
As seen from the case of Jairus, it was
customary in the time of our Saviour to
employ minstrels at funerals — that is,
players on stringed instruments, flute-
players, and people hired to perform the
official lamentation. Thus, when Christ
came into the house to raise the daughter,
'• he saw the minstrels and the people
making a noise." Matt. 9 : 23.
MINT, well-
known herbs akin
to garden sage,
several species of
which are wild or
cultivated in Pal-
estine. Mint was
commonly used by
the ancients in
medicine and as a
condiment. It is
said to have been
one of the bitter
herbs eaten with
the paschal lamb.
Deut. 14 : 22 re-
quired that the
.lews should pay
tithe of all ])roducc
of the ground, but
they w e re more
careful about trifles
than about the
A\eightier matters. Matt. 23 : 23.
{Mealha
iris.)
MIP
MIR
MIPH'KAD {appointed plore), the
name of a gate of Jerusalem, Neh. 3 : 31,
either on the Zion side or a little south
of the Sheep-gate.
]>IIR'ACLE, an action or event
produced by a supernatural or divine
agency for the purpose of authenticat-
ing the divine mission of the person
"who performs the act or is the subject
of the event. A true miracle is above
nature, but not against nature ; it is a
temporary suspension of the operation
of the laws of nature, but not a viola-
tion of the laws themselves ; it is the
manifestation of a higher order which
the lower order obeys. We have an
analogy in the power of our will over
the body, as by raising our hand we
suspend the operation of the law of
gravity. God controls and directs, ex-
tends and contracts, the forces of nature
which are his agents. God alone can
work miracles or enable men to per-
form them. If we believe in an al-
mighty personal God, we shall have
no difficulty in believing the possibility
of miracles. The first miracle was the
creation of the universe out of nothing
by his will. In the case of Christ his
person is the great moral miracle, and
his miracles are the natural manifesta-
tions of his divine-human person, or
simply his "works," as John calls them.
If we believe in Christ as the sinless Son
of man and Son of God, we shall find no
difficulty in believing his miracles. The
devil (who is called God's ape) can per-
form only pseudo-miracles — " lying won-
ders," juggleries, and sorceries. Deut. 13 :
I : Matt. 24 : 24 : 2 Thess. 2:9; Rev. 13 :
13, 14; 16 : 14; 19 : 20.
The N. T. (in Greek) uses three terms
for miracles : (1) Sign, by which a divine
power is made known and a divine mes-
senger attested. Matt. 12: 38, 39; 16:1,6;
Mark 8:11; Luke 11 : 1 6 ; 23 : 8 ; John
2:11, 18, 23, etc. ; Acts 6 : 8 ; 1 Cor. 1 :
22 ; (2) Wonder or portent, with regard to
their astounding character. John 4 : 48 ;
Acts 2 : 22, 43; 7 : 36; Rom. 15 : 19 ;
usually in connection with "signs;" (3)
Potcer or powers, mighty deeds, with ref-
erence to their effect. Matt. 7 : 22 ; 11 :
20, 21, 23 ; Luke 10 : 13 ; Rom. 15 : 19.
Miracles were necessary for the found-
ing of religion as divine seals of revela-
tion. Bishop Butler skj's : " Revelation
itself is miraculous, and miracles are the
proof of it." The miracles of Christ are
appealed to as evidence of his divinity
and Messiahship. Matt. 9:6; 11 : 4, 5 ;
John 10 : 47; 20 : 29, 31. They were
wrought from the purest motives, for the
glory of God and the benefit of the souls
and bodies of men; they were wrought
in open daylight, before great multitudes,
in the face of his enemies, who did not
deny them, but traced them to Beelzebub.
Matt. 12 : 24. Tested by external evi-
dence and intrinsic propriety and con-
formity to his divine mission, they com-
mend themselves to every honest and
reasonable inquirer. The only alterna-
tive is truth or wilful fabrication, and
the latter is a moral monstrosity in the
case of Christ and the apostles.
The power of miracles continued in the
apostolic age, but with the establishment
and triumph of Christianity their neces-
sity ceased, as the primitive creation gave
way to preservation. Our faith must now
chiefly rel}' on the moral miracles and in-
ternal evidences which continue through-
out Christendom. But God may at any
time renew the miraculous gifts of the
apostolic age.
For a discussion of this subject see
Mozley's Bampton Lectures on Miracles
(delivered at Oxford, 1865), and Arch-
bishop Trench's Notes on the Miracles
of our Lord.
The chief miracles recorded in the 0.
T. are the Creation, the Flood, the de-
struction of Sodom and Gomorrah, the
birth of Isaac, the burning bush, the
miracles of Moses in Egypt, the cross-
ing of the Red Sea, the pillar of cloud
and fire, the quails and manna, the water
from the rock, Aaron's rod budding, heal-
ing by looking up to the brazen serpent
(symbol of faith in the crucified Ee-
deemer, see John 3 : 14), Balaam's ass
speaking, the crossing of the Jordan
divided, the taking of Jericho, the stand-
ing still of the sun (which, however, is
taken by many only as a poetic hyper-
bole), Elijah fed by ravens, restores a
dead child to life, brings rain from
heaven by prayer, is taken up to
heaven in a chariot of fire, miracles of
Elisha, Jonah preserved by a whale or
shark (a type of the resurrection, see
Matt. 12 : 40), No miracles are re-
ported of John the Baptist, which is
an indirect proof of the miracles of
Christ and his apostles.
573
MIR
MIK
MIRACLES IN THE LIFE OF CHRIST.
Miracles.
Tlie conception by the Holy Ghost
Water turned into wine
The Capernaum nobleman's son cured
Draught of fishes
Demoniac cured
Peter's mother-in-law healed
Leper healed
Centurion's servant healed
Widow's son raised from tlie dead
Tempest calmed
Demoniacs of Gadara cured
Man sick of the palsy cured
.Tairus's daughter raised to life
Woman diseased with issue of blood healed.
Sight restored to two blind men
Dumb demoniac cured
Diseased cripple at Bethesda cured
A withered liand cured
Demoniac cured
Five thousand fed
Canaanite woman's daugliter cured
Man deaf and dumb cured
Four thousand fed
Christ's transliguration
Blind man restored to sight
Boy possessed of a devil cured
Man born blind restored to sight
W^oman cured of eighteen years' infirmity...
Dropsical man cured
Ten lepers cleansed
Two blind men restored to sight
Lazarus raised from the grave to life
Fig tree blasted
The ear of Malchus healed
The resurrection
Draught of fisiies
The ascension to heaven
Place.
Nazareth.
Cana.
Can a.
Sea of Galilee.
Capernaum.
Capernaum.
Capernaum.
Capernaum.
Naiu.
Sea of Galilee.
Gadara.
Capernaum.
Capernaum.
Capernaum.
Capernaum.
Capernaum.
Jerusalem.
Judaea.
Capernaum.
Decapolis.
Near Tyre.
Deca])olis.
Decapolis.
Mt. Tabor or Herruon.
Bethsaida.
Mt. Tabor or Hermon.
Jerusalem.
Galilee.
Galilee.
Samaria.
Jericho.
Bethany.
Mt. Olivet.
Gethsemane.
Jerusalem.
Sea of Galilee.
Mt. Olivet.
Record.
Luke 1 :
John 2 :
John 4 :
Luke 5 :
Mark 1 :
Mark 1 :
Mark 1 :
Matt. 8 :
Luke 7 :
Matt. 8 :
Matt. 8:
Matt. 9 :
Matt. 9 :
Luke 8 :
Matt. 9 :
Matt. 9 :
John 5 :
Matt. 12
Matt. 1-2
Matt. 14
Matt. 15
Mark 7 :
Matt. 15
Matt. 17
Mark 8 :
Matt. 17
John 9.
Luke 13
Luke 14
Luke 17
Matt. 20
John 11.
Matt. 21
Luke 22
John 20
John 21
Luke 2 :
35.
1-11.
40-54.
1-11.
2;;-2G.
30, 31.
4U-4.5.
5-1. •{.
11-17.
23-27.
28-34.
1-8.
18-26.
43-48.
27-31.
32, 33.
1-y.
: 10-13.
: 22, 23.
: 15-21.
: 22-28.
31-37.
: 32-39.
: 1-8.
22-2i).
: 14-21.
: 11-17.
: 1-4.
: 11-19.
: 30-34.
: 18-21.
: 50, 51.
: 1.
: 1-14.
42-51.
MIRACLES IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE.
Miracles.
Place.
Record.
The outpouring of the Spirit on the day of
Pentecost
Miracles by the apostles
Lame man cured
Death of Ananias and Sapphira
Apostles delivered from prison
Miracles by Stephen
Miracles by Philip
.(Eneas made whoK'
Dorcas restored to life
Peter delivered from prison
Elymas struck blind
Miracles by Paul and Barnal)as
Lame man cured
Paul restored
Unclean spirits cast out
Paul and Silas delivered from prison
Special miracles
Eutychus restored to life
Paul unhurt by a viper
Father of Puhlius and mauv others heal'^d..
Jerusalem.
Jerusalem.
Jerusalem.
Jerusalem.
Jerusalem.
Jerusalem.
Samaria.
Lydda.
Joppa.
Jerusalem.
Paphos.
Iconium.
Lystra.
Lystra.
Piiilippi.
Philippi.
Ephesus.
Troas.
Melita.
Melita.
Acts 2
Acts 2
Acts 3
Acts 5
Acts 5
Acts 6
Acts 8
Acts 9
1-11.
43; o: 12, 15, 16.
7.
5, 10.
19.
8.
6, 7, 13.
34.
Acts 9 : 40.
Acts 12 : 6-10
.Ums 13
Acts 14
.Vets 14
Acts 14
Acts 16
Acts 16
Acts 19
Acts 20
Acts 28 : .5.
Acts 28 : 8. 9
11.
3.
10.
20.
18.
'I'\ 26.
11, 12.
10-12.
574
Aim
MIX
MlR'l AM {rebellion). 1. The daugh-
ter of Amraui, and the sister of Moses and
Aaron, 1 Chr. 6 : 3, is supposed to have
been ten or twelve years older than Moses;
and, being appointed to watch the ark
of bulrushes in which her infant brother
was laid among the flags of the river,
she was there when Pharaoh's daughter
came down and discovered it, and pro-
posed to go for a nurse, concealing her
relation to the child. She immediately
called her mother as the nurse, and the
infant was placed under her care. Ex.
2 : 4-10. After the passage of the Red
Sea, she led the choir of the women of
Israel in the sublime song of deliverance,
Ex. 16 : 20, but afterward, having joined
Aaron in murmuring against Moses, she
was smitten with leprosy, and restored
only in answer to the prayers of Moses.
Num. 12 : 1-15. She died and was bur-
ied at Kadesh. Num. 20 : 1.
2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 :
17.
MIR' MA (fraud), a Benjamite
born in the land oif Moab. 1 Chr. 8:10.
MIR'RORS. See Looking-glass.
MIS'GAB {lii;/h place), a place in
Moab. Jer. 48 : 1. It appears to be
mentioned also in Isa. 25 : 12, in Hebrew,
rendered " high fort." It seems to re-
fer to some special fortress, probably
Kir-hareseth.
MISH'AEL (who -18 what God ?>.?).
1. A son of Uzziel, and uncle of Moses
and Aaron. Ex. 6 : 22 ; Lev. 10 : 4.
2. One who stood at Ezra's left hand
when he read the Law to the people.
Neh. 8 : 4.
3. One of Daniel's companions, who re-
ceived the Babylonian name of Meshach.
Dan. 1:6,7,11,19:2:17. See Mkshach
and Abed-nego.
MI'SHAL, AND MI'SHEAL (eu-
treuty), a town in the territory of Asher.
Josh. 19:26; 21:30.
MI'SHAM ( purijication, or swi/t-
goiiit/), a Beniamite. 1 Chr. 8:12.
MISH'MA ('/ hearivf/, report). 1. A
son of Ishmael, Gen. 25: 14; 1 Chr. 1 :
30, whose descendants may be repre-
sented by the present Arabian tribe of
the Bene-Misma.
2. A son of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4:25.
MISHMAN'NAH {fatnens), a Gad-
ite who joined David at Ziklag. 1 Chr.
12:10.
MISH'RAITES, THE, one of
the four families which proceeded from
Kijrath-jearim and founded towns^ 1 Chr.
2 : 53 ; not further mentioned.
MIS'PERETH. See Mizpar.
MIS'REPHOTH-MA'IM [hum-
iu<j8 of water), a place in Northern Pales-
tine. Josh. 11 : 8 ; 13 : 6. Thomson treats
Misrephoth-maim as identical with a
collection of springs called Ain-Mu-
shei'ri/eh, on the seashore, close under
the lias en-Nalchura ; but this is far
from Sidon. Conder suggests that it is
identical with the present village Sara-
fend, near Sidon.
MITE, the lowest denomination of
Jewish money — two mites making a
farthing — and probably of the value of
two mills of our currency. Mark 12 : 41-
44: Luke 21:1-4.
MITH'CAH {sweetness), a station
of the Hebrews in the desert. Num. S3 :
28 29
Mi'tH'NITE, the, the designa-
tion of Joshaphat, one of David's war-
riors, 1 Chr. 11 : 43, referring probably
to some place of the name of Methen.
MITH'REDATH(^a-e» by Mithra,
the sun-god). 1. The treasurer of Cyrus,
to whom he gave the vessels of the
temple. Ezr. 1:8.
2. A Persian officer stationed in Sa-
maria. Ezr. 4 : 7.
MI'TRE, the head-dress of the Jew-
ish priest, was of fine flax or linen, made
with many folds, making in length eight
yards, finished with elegance and taste,
and wreathed round the head in the sha])e
of an Eastern turban. It bore upon its
front a gold plate, on which was inscribed
"Holiness to the Lord." Ex. 28 : 4,
37, 39 ; 29 : 6 : 39 : 28, 30 ; Lev. 8:9;
16 : 4.
MITYLE'NE {hornless), the chief
town and capital of the isle of Lesbos.
Situated on the east coast, Mitjiene is
the intermediate place where Paul stop-
ped for the night between Assosand Chios.
Acts 20 : 14,15. The town itself was
celebrated in Roman times for the beauty
of its buildings. In Paul's days it had
the privileges of a free city. The island
has been subject to Turkey, but the
people are chiefly Greek.
MIXED MULTITUDE, an ex-
pression occurring Ex. 12 : 38; Num. 11 :
j 4, and Neh. 13 : 3, and denoting people
j who congregated with the Israelites
i without being of pure Israelite blood.
575
MIZ
MIZ
By some it is explained as referring to
the offspring of mixed marriages between
Israelites and those nations among which
they lived ; by others as referring simply
to those hangers - on who are always
found hovering on the outskirts of a
great camp.
MI'ZAR {smallue>-8), a hill named in
Ps. 42 : 6 ; possibly a summit or peak on
the eastern ridge of Lebanon.
MIZ'PAH, AND MIZ'PEH
{icatch-toicer), the name of several places
in Palestine.
1. On Mount Gilead, also called Miz-
peh of Gilead, Jud. 11 : 2'J, and elsewhe e
probably Ramoth-mizpeh, Josh. 13 : 26,
and Ramoth-gilead, 1 Kgs. 4 : 13 and
elsewhere, the place where Laban and
Jacob set up a heap of stones as a wit-
ness and landmark between them. Gen.
31 : 2.3, 25, 48, 52. Here also the Israelites
assembled to fight against the Ammon-
ites, Jud. 10 : 17 : and here Jephthah was
met by his daughter. Jud. 11 : 29. Some
suppose that this was the place also where
the tribes assembled to avenge the great
sin committed in Benjamin, Jud. 20 : I,
3 ; 21 : 1, 5, 8, but this is more usually
applied to the Mizpah in Benjamin. See
No. 6. This Mizpah is usually identified
with a high peak east of the Jordan, 3
miles north-west of Ramoth-gilead, called
Jebel Oiih'u, or '' the Mount of Hosea,"
from a tomb on the summit which tradi-
tion says is that of the prophet Hosea.
The summit commands a magnificent
view. A later suggested site for Mizpah
is at JeVud, but Conder places it at
modern liemtheh, 25 miles west of Boz-.
rah, in Gad.
2. Mizpeh of Moab, where the king of
that nation was living when David com-
mitted his parents to his care, 1 Sam.
22:3; possibly now Keruk.
3. The lanil of Mizpeh, in the North
of Palestine, the residence of the Hivites,
Josh. 11 : 3 ; possibly identical with —
4. The valley of Mizpeh, Josh. 11 : 3, 8,
whither the confederate hosts were pur-
sued by Joshua; perhaps the modern
Jiuka'n, the great country of Coele-Syria,
between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon.
5. A city in Judah, Josh. 15 : 38; pos-
sibly identical with the modern Tell
€8-SdJiyeh, or, as Conder has suggested, at
Kirhbet el-MuHhcirifeh, near Gaza. The
position fits and the name is the Arabic
equivalent of the Hebrew. This is the
576
place others have identified with Mis-
REPHOTHMAiM, which see.
6. A city in Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 26,
where Israel assembled. 1 Sam. 7 : 5-7,
11, 12, 16. Here Saul was elected king.
1 Sam. 10 : 17-21. Asa fortified Mizpah,
1 Kgs. 15 : 22 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 6 ; it was where
Gedaliah was assassinated, 2 Kgs. 25 :
23, 25 ; Jer. 40 : 6-15 ; 41 : 1-16 ; the men
of Mizpah joined in rebuilding a part of
the wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 7, 15, 19.
Messepha of 1 Mace. 3 : 46, which is
probably identical with this place, and
about 3^ miles west of north from Jeru-
salem, is the modern village of Neby
Snmioil, standing on a peak which rises
about 600 feet above the plain of Gibeon.
This village is claimed as the most prob-
able site for Mizpah by Robinson. Porter,
Baedeker, and others. It is 3006 feet
above the sea-level, and the highest
mountain near Jerusalem. From its
summit the most extensive view in
Southern Palestine is obtained, embra-
cing the Mediterranean, Jerusalem, the
Mount of Olives and the mountains of
Moab. Upon its summit is a mosque,
once a Christian church, built by the
Crusaders on the spot where pilgrims
first saw Jerusalem. Grove, Stanley,
Bonar, Major Wilson, and others would
identity Mizpah with Mount Scopus, one
of the summits just north of Jerusalem
in the continuation of the Olivet range.
From this place the traveller gets a very
complete view of the Holy City, and from
there the emperor Titus looked down
upon it. Not far away is the modern
village of Shafat. Conder notes that a
part of the ridge is called Arkub cn-Suffa,
or "the ridge of the view." Eusebiua
and Jerome located Mizpah near Kirjath-
jearim, and Conder notes a Shtifa im-
mediately south of Kniijo.t el-Annh
(Kirjath-jearim). a name having exactly
the same meaning with Mizpah — viz.,
" place of view." Conder also says that
there is a place called Unini SAffn, equiva-
lent to the Hebrew Mizpah, existing on
the road from Samaria to Jerusalem,
which would be a suitable position for
the Mizpah of Jeremiah, 40, 41. which
is not necessarily the Mizpah of Samuel.
{Quarterly, 1876, p. 171.) But his final
conclusion is that Mizpah and Noh are
identical. Whether the Mizpah of Hosea,
5: 1, was in Benjamin or in Gilead is
uncertain.
MIZ
MOA
MIZ'PAR (number), one who return- |
ed with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:2: called
Mispereth in Xeh. 7 : 7.
M I Z ' R A I M {fhn!t8, hnrders), the
name by which the Hebrews generally ,
designated Egypt, apparently from Miz-
raim, the son of Ham. Gen. 10 : fi, 13.
This name is in the dual form, and de-
noted either lover and upper Egypt or
two divisions of that land. Gen. 45 : 20 ; ;
46 : 3i ; 47 : 6, 13. Sometimes it seems to I
be employed to designate lower Egypt, to |
the exclusion of Pathros or upper Egypt.
Isa. 11 : 11 ; Jer. 44 : 15. See Egypt.
MIZ'ZAH {/ear), a grandson of
Esau, and one of the chiefs of Edom.
Gen. 36:13, 17; 1 Chr. 1:37.
MNA'SON {rememheriuy), a native
of Cyprus, but a resident of Jerusalem,
was an early convert to Christianity, and
is mentioned, Acts 21 : 16, as the host of
the apostle Paul.
MO'AB {of the father), a name used
for the Moabites, and also for their ter-
ritory. Num. 22 : 3-14 : Jud. 3 : 30 : 2
Sam. 8:2:2 Kgs. 1:1; Jer. 48 : 4. The
territory of the Moabites, originally in-
habited by the Emims, Deut. 2 : 10, lay
on the east of the Dead Sea and the Jor-
dan, strictly on the south of the torrent
Arnon, Num. 21 : 13 : Ruth 1 : 1, 2: 2 :
6: but in a wider sense it included also
the region anciently occupied by the
Amorites. Num. 21 :'32. 33 : 22 : 1 ; 26 :
3 ; 33 : 48 ; Deut. 34 : 1. The territory
was 50 miles long and 20 wide. It was
divided into three portions, each bearing
a distinct name :
(1) Land of Moab, Deut. 1 : 5, lying
between the Arnon and the Jabbok ; (2)
The field of Moab, a tract south of the
Arnon, Ruth 1:2: (3) The plains of
Moab, the tract in the Jordan valley
opposite Jericho. Num. 22:1.
Physical FeatnrcH. — Except the narrow
strip in the valley of the Jordan, Moab
is nearly all table-land, consisting of an
uneven or rolling plateau, elevated above
Mountains of Moab.
the Mediterranean about 3200 feet. At
the north this plateau slopes gently into
a plain, and on the east into the Syrian
desert. The principal streams are the
37
Arnon and the Jabbok and the Jordan. It
is admirably suited for pasture, as shown
by Mesha. who paid a tribute of 100,000
lambs and 100,000 rams. 2 Kgs. 3:4.
577
MOA
MOA
Hintory. — The race of Moab, having
its origin about the time of the destruc-
tion of the cities of the plain, and cradled
in the mountains above Zoar, gradually
extended over the region east of the
Dead Sea, expelling the ancient original
inhabitants, the Emim. Deut. 2 : 11.
Five hundred years later, when the Is-
raelites were approaching the Promised
Land, the Moabites had become a great
nation. But they had been driven south
of the Arnon by the warlike Amorites.
Num. 21 : 13 ; Jud. 11 : 18. Balak and
Midian called Balaam to curse the chosen
people. Num. 22 : 4. 5. The Israelites
mastered the region from north of the
Arnon, but Moab was allowed to hold the
cities of the tract taken by the Israelites
from the Amorite king, while the tribe
of Reuben, to whom the district was as-
signed, dwelt in tents and tended their
flocks on the fine pasture-ground. The
district south of the Arnon reiniinei in
the possession of Moab. The idolatries
of Moab, and especially the worship of
its god Chemosh, exercised an irresistible
charm for the Israelites, and the Reuben-
ites were greatly corrupted. The rela-
tions between the Moabites and Israelites
were at times amicable, but more fre-
quently hostile. During the period of
the Judges the Moabites compelled the
Israelites to pay tribute until King Eglon
was killed by Ehud. Jud. 3. Ruth, the
great-grandmother of David, was a Moab-
itess, and David entrusted the care of his
father and mother to the king of Moab.
1 Sam. 22 : 4. Saul conducted a success-
ful campaign against Moab, and David
inflicted a terrible punishment upon
them. 2 Sam. 8 : 2. After Solomon's
death Moab fell to the northern king-
dom, and after Ahab's death the Moab-
ites refused to pay tribute. The Moab-
ites invaded Judaea in the reign of
Jehosiiaphat, and were discomfited.
Later, their own country was overrun by
Jehoram and Jehoshaphat, the towns
destroyed, the wells stopped, etc., and
Mesha, shut up in his capital, sacrificed
his own son. 2 Kgs. 3 : fi-27. At a later
period Moab was sometimes dej)cndcnt
and sometimes independent. It was
allied with the Chaldicans against .Judali
in tlie roign of Jehoiakim, 2 Kgs. 24:
2, and the destruction of God's cljoscn
people was received with a delight for
which (iod threatened punishment. Eze.
678
25 : 8-11 ; Zeph. 2 : 8-10. The fulfil-
ment of these prophecies is noted at
the end of this article.
Modern Discoveries and Present Con-
dition.— Among the travellers who have
visited Moab are Burckhardt, Seetzen,
Buckingham, Irby and Mangles, De
Saulcy, Porter, Tristram, Palmer. Drake,
Paine, and Merrill. A large number of
ruins have been discovered. Palmer
counted eight fortified towns in view
from a single eminence. The principal
ruins are those of Rabbath-moab, Kerak,
Dibon. Medeba, Main, and Umm Rasas.
At Kerak (Kir-hareseth) are very in-
teresting and remarkable ruins. Dibon
is noted as the place at which the famous
Moabite Stone was discovered. This
stone corroborates the Bible history of
King Mesha. Hopes were entertained
that other tablets of that character might
be found, but Palmer, who investigated
every written stone reported by the
Arabs, came to the conclusion that there
does not remain above ground a single
inscribed stone of any importance.
Everything in Moab speaks of its former
wealth and cultivation. The soil is
badly tended by the few Arab tribes who
inhabit it, but there are extensive fields
of grain. The Arabs are an essentially
pastoral people, having great herds of
cattle. Sour or fresh milk often takes
the place of water, and the modern
traveller finds the customs the same as in
the time of Sisera. Jud. 4 : 18, 19,
Prophecies Fulfilled. — Jeremiah de-
scribes Moab as very prosperous, but
the prophetic threats of its doom are
most terrific, as set off" against the resto-
ration of Israel. Jer. 48. Porter indi-
cates how completely those various
prophecies have been fulfilled, but some
of his statements require confirmation.
From Salcah he saw upward of thirty
deserted towns. Jer. 48 : 15-24. The
neglected and wild vineyards and fig
trees are rifled by the Bedouin every
year in their periodical raids, vs. 32, 33.
The inhabitants hide themselves in the
mountain-fastnesses, oppressed by the
robbers of the desert on the one hand
and the robbers of the government on the
other, vs. 28, 44. Cyril (Jraham, who
exi)lorcd this region, found cities with
buildings in a good state of preservation,
yet everywhere uninhabited. " In the
whole of these vast plains, north and
MOA
MON
south, east and west, Desolation reigns |
supreme." The long-predicted doom of '
Moab is now fulfilled, and the forty-
eighth chapter of Jeremiah is verified
on the spot by the traveller. There are
twenty-seven references to Moab in this
chapter, and one hundred and twenty-
one in the Scriptures. See Ar, Dibo.v,
KfR-HARESETH.
MOADI'AH. See Maadiah.
MOL'ADAH (hh-th), a city in the
South of Judah, Josh. 15 : 21-26 : given
to Simeon, and occupied by Shimei,
Josh. 19 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 28 ; settled after
the Captivity, Xeh. 11 : 26. Probably el-
Milh, 10 miles east of Beersheba, marks
the site of ancient Moladah. There are
ruins of a fortified town, two wells, one
with water at the depth of 40 feet; and
the wells are surrounded with marble
troughs. Arab tradition says that Abra-
ham dug these wells and watered his
flocks here.
MOLE. In Lev. 11 : 30 the Hebrew
word is believed to denote the chameleon,
already described. The most recent
criticism would have this vexed verse
read thus: ''And the gecko and the
monitor and the true lizard and the sand
lizard and the chameleon." Another
word rendered " mole," in Isa. 2 : 20,
means '* the burrower." As no true
moles have been found in Palestine, this
term may comprehend the various rats
and weasels that burrow about ruins.
The interesting mole-rat (SpaJax tijph-
hts), a quadruped about 10 inches long,
and whose habits are indicated by its
name, is doubtless one of these burrowers,
if not the only one intended.
MO'IiECH {the ruler), Lev. 18:
21, OR MIL'COM, 1 Kgs. 11:5, or
MO'LiOCH, Acts 7: 4.3, the name of
an idol-god worshipped by the Ammon-
ites with human sacrifices, especially
children. The Rabbins tell us that it
was made of brass and placed on a brazen
throne, and that the head was that of a
calf with a crown upon it. The throne
and image were made hollow, and a fu-
rious fire was kindled within it. The
flames penetrated into the body and
limbs of the idol; and when the arms
were red-hot, the victim was thrown into
them, and was almost immediately burn-
ed to death, while its cries were drowned
by drums. Though warned against this
idolatry, common to all the Canaanite
tribes, though probably not of Canaanite
origin, the Jews were repeatedly allured
to adopt it. 2 Kgs. 23 : 10 : Eze. 20 : 26.
In the Valley of Hinnom they set up a
tabernacle to Molech, and there they
sacrificed their children to the idol.
MO'LID {heyetter), a descendant of
Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 29.
MON'EY. Commerce, in its most
primitive state, is a mere bartering, one
kind of goods being exchanged for an-
other. The next stage in commercial
development is the invention of a com-
mon means of exchange, the establish-
ment of the precious metals — gold and
silver — as standards of value, the em-
ployment of money. This money, how-
ever, was not coined. It was simply the
metal itself, kept in ingots, rings, etc.,
and used according to its weight, and
when, in the period before the Captivity,
the 0. T. speaks of money — pieces of
gold and silver, shekels, mina, talent,
etc. — a certain weight of precious metal
is meant thereby, and nothing more.
Coined monev does not occur among
the Jews until after the Captivity, but
then we meet successively with Persian,
Greek, Syrian, Roman, and national
Shekel. Ascribed to Simon Maocabaeus.
Jewish coins. The first Jewish coins
were struck by Simon Maccabseus, who,
about B. c. 139, obtained permission to
coin money from the Syrian king Anti-
ochus VII. Shekels, half-shekels, etc.,
of gold, silver, and copper, were struck,
showing on one side a vase, perhaps
representing a pot of manna, and on the
other side an almond branch with three
flowers, perhaps representing Aaron's
staiF. After this time coins were struck
by the Asmonwan princes, the Idumajan
kings, during the first revolt under Elea-
zar, and during the second under Bar-
cochebas ; and besides these national
Jewish coins, foreign coins of Persian,
Greek, and Roman make circulated in
579
MON
MON
great multitude in Palestine. Of these
latter the following are mentioned in the
Bible.
Boman Penny, or Denarius.
The point), Matt. 22 : 19, or denarius,
a Roman silver coin equal to an Attic
drachma, or about sixteen American
cents. " Shilling " would be a more
correct translation.
Golden Daric.
The daric, dram, or drachm, Ezr. 2 :
69, is a Persian gold coin equal to about
five dollars and fifty cents.
The stater or piece of money, Matt. 17 :
27, a Greek or Roman silver coin (a
shekel in weight), in value over fifty
cents. The stater, or coined shekel, of
the Jews is often found in the cabinets
of antiquaries at the present day.
Assnrion (farttiini?). Actual size. (From speci-
men m Briimh Museum.)
The farthing, .Matt. 10 : 29, a Roman
silver coin equal to one cent and a quar-
ter.
Another piece of money equal to one-
fourth of a fartiiino^ is called by the
.«!ime name. Matt. 5:2(>; and the mite,
Mark 12 : 42, was half of this last far-
thing, or about two mills of our cur-
rency.
MOX'EY-CHAN C;ERS. Every
Israelite who had rc:ichcd the age of
twenty was required by the Law, E.v.
30:13-1.'>, to pav one half-shekel, as
580
an offering to Jehovah, into the sacred
treasury whenever the nation was num-
bered. As this oifering should be paid
in exact Hebrew coins, dealers in such
coins established their booths in the
temple and exacted high premiums
from the Jews, who from all parts of the
world came to Jerusalem during the great
festival. But thev were expelled by our
Lord. Matt. 21 : 12; Mark 11 : 15.
MONTH. The ancient Hebrews call-
ed the months by their numbers — first
month, second month, third month, etc. —
though at the same time they also applied
a special name to each month. This
double nomenclature had nothing to do,
however,with the double course of months
which the Jews employed after leaving
Egypt, one making the civil and the
other the sacred year. The former com-
menced from the first new moon in Octo-
ber— and this was used in civil and agri-
cultural concerns only — and the latter
from the first new moon in April, because
they left Egypt on the fifteenth of that
month, and it was used in regulating the
time of their feasts, etc. The prophets
use this reckoning. " From the time of
the institution of the Mosaic Law down-
ward, the month appears to have been a
lunar one. The cycle of religious feasts,
commencing with the Passover, depend-
ed not simply on the month, but on the
moon : and the new moons themselves
were the occasions of regular festivals."
Num. 10 : 10; 28 : 11-U.
The length of the month was regulated
by the changes of the moon, but, twelve
lunar months making only ;554: days and
(i hours, the Jewish year was short of
the true solar year by twelve days. To
compensate for this difference, the Jews
every three years intercalated a thir-
teenth month, which they called Ve-adar,
the second Adar, and thus their lunar
year became equal to the solar. The
changes of the moon were carefully
watched, and a formal announcement
made of the appearance of the new
moon by sound of trumpets and beacon -
fires. Num. 10 : 10; Ps. 81 : o. These
observations were continued throughout
Jewish history, though it is evident that
the Jews wore in possession of calcula-
tions by which the course of tlio moon
could be predicted. 1 Sam. 5: IH.
The names of the Hebrew months are
as folio w.s :
MOO
^MOR
Civil.
Sacred.
Beginning with the New Moon.
VII
J. Nisan, or Abib.
II. Zif, or Ziv.
III. Sivan.
IV. Tammuz.
V. Ab.
VI. Elul.
VII. Tishri, or Ethanim.
VIII. Bill.
IX. Kisleu, or Chisleii.
X. Tebeth.
XI. Shebat.
XII. Adar.
March, or April. Neh. 2 : 1.
April, or May. 1 Kgs. 6 : 1.
May, or June. Esth. 8 : 9.
June, or July.
July, or Autiust.
August, or September. Neh. 6 : 15.
September, or October. 1 Kgs. S : 2.
October, or November. 1 Kes. 6 : 38.
November, or December. Neh. 1 : 1.
December, or January. Esth. 2 : 16.
January, or February. Zerh. 1 : 7.
February, or March. ' Esth. 3 : 7.
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
1
II
Ill
IV
Y
VI
MOON, Deut. 33 : 14, or LES'SER
LIGHT. Gen. 1: If). The Hebrew year
was a lunar year, and the new moon
regulated man}' of the feasts and sacred
services of the Jews. It was always
the beginning of the month, and this
day they called Neoiiieniu, new-moon
day or new month, and celebrated it with
special sacrifices. Num. 28 : 11-15.
The heathens have generally worship-
ped the moon, under the names of
•' Queen of Heaven," *' Venus," " Ura-
nia," " Succoth-benoth," " Ashtaroth,"
" Diana," " Hecate." or perhaps '• Meni,"
etc. Deut. 4:19; 17 : 3 ; Job 31 : 2(5, 27.
The Jews were warned against this kind
of idolatry, Deut. 4 : 19 : 17 : 3, but they
nevertheless burnt incense to the moon,
2 Kgs. 23 : 5 : Jer. 8 : 2. and their women
worshipped her as the queen of heaven
and offered cakes of honey to her. 7 :
18: 44:17-19, 25.
MO'RASHITE, the designation of
the prophet Micah. as a native of Mo-
resheth-grath. Jer. 26 : 18 : Mic. 1:1.
MOR'DECAI {liitle man, or wor-
shipper of Mars), a captive Jew of the
family of Saul, resident at the court of
Ahasuerus. An uncle of his died, leav-
ing an orphan daughter named Hadas-
sah, whom Mordecai adopted, and who
afterward became the queen of Persia.
Mordecai fell under the displeasure of
Haman, one of the king's principal oflS-
cers of state, and to be revenged on the
despised Jew he laid a ]>lan for the ex-
termination of the whole body of Jews
in the empire. His purpose was, how-
ever, defeated by the interposition of the
queen. Haman lost his life and Morde-
cai was elevated to wealth and power.
MO'REH. 1. The Plain, Plains, or
Oaks of Moreh. It fs twice noticed in
Scripture: first as the halting- [tlace of
Abram after his entrance into the land
of Canaan. Gen. 12 : 6. It was near
Shechem, 12 : 6. and the mountains Ebal
and Gerizim. Deut. 11:30.
2. The Hill of Moreh. where the Mid-
ianites and Amalekites weie encamped
before Gideon's attack upon them. Jud.
7:1. It lay in the valley of Jezreel, on
the north side. It is identified with
Jehel ed-Diihy, the ''Little Hermon,"
and Ain Jalood, the spring of Harod,
and Gideon's position was en the north-
east slope of Jehel Fiilua (Mount Gil-
boa), between the village of Ann's and
the spring. Little Hermon is 1815 feet
above the Mediterranean. On the south
is Gilboa. and on the north Tabor.
MOR'ESHETH-GATH (posses-
sion of vine-pres^). a town near Eleuther-
ropolis. the birthplace of Micah, Mic. 1 :
14 : hence he is called the " Morashite."'
Mic. 1:1: Jer. 26:18.
MORI'AH [closen of Jehovah ?). 1.
The land where Abraham was directed
to go and offer Isaac as a sacrifice. Gen.
22:2.
2. A mount on which Solomon built
the temple in Jerusalem. 2 Chr. 3 : 1. It
was in the eastern ]»art of the city, over-
looking the valley of the Kedron, and
where was the threshing-floor of Araunah.
2 Sam. 24 : 24 : 1 Chr. 21 : 24. It lay
north-east of Zion, from which it was
se[)arated by the Tyropoeon valley. Solo-
mon erected the temple upon the levelled
summit of the rock, and then immense
walls were erected from its base on the
four sides, and the interval between them
and tlie sides filled in with earth or built
up with vaults, so as to form on the top
a large area on a level with the temple.
Most authorities agree in regarding this
as the place whither Abraham went to
offer Isaac, and therefore identical with
581
MOR
MOS
No. 1, above. Samaritan tradition, how-
ever, claims that the phice of Abraham's
altar was on Mount (ierizim, and Stan-
ley and Orove are inclined to accept the
Samaritan claim : but the arguments in
favor of this view are far from satisfac-
tory. For a description of Moriah of
Jerusalem, upon which now stands the
Mohammedan mosque of Omar, see IV.
Topograph V, under Jerusalem.
MORN'ING. See Day, Watch.
Morning Watch. See Watch.
Morning Star. See Stars.
MOR'TAR. See Lime.
MOSE'RA, and MOSE'ROTH
(bond, bonds), a station in the journey of
the Israelites through the wilderness,
and near Mount Hor. Deut. 10: 6; Num.
33 : 30, 31.
MOS'ES (Heb. Mosheh. drawn out—
i. e. of the water ; Coptic Mo-use, wuter-
saved), the leader and creator of the
Jewish nation. This table shows the
pedigree of Moses :
Levi
I I I
Gershon Kohath Merarl
I
Amrara := Jochebed
I
I I I
Hur= Miriam Aarou=:Elisheba Moses =: Zipporah.
I J
I I I I II
Nadab Abihu Eleazar Ithamar Gcrshom Ehezer
I I
Phineas Jouaihan
His life falls naturally into three divis-
ions, of forty years each, according to
the account preserved in Stephen's
speech. Acts 7 : 23, 30, 36.
1. Moses was born in the dark hour
of Hebrew story when a son was an ob-
ject of the murderous search of the
Egyptian spies. His father was Amram,
his mother Jochebed, his tribe was Levi,
and this fact may have determined the
choice of Levi for the priesthood. Moses
was the youngest child of the family ;
Miriam was the oldest, and Aaron came
between. For three months his parents
hid the babe, but at last it was no longer
possible, and Jochebed, with a trembling
heart, but it may be with a dim con-
sciousness that (iod had great things in
store for him, laid him in the little bas-
ket of papyrus she had deftly woven,
pitched with bitumen within and with-
out, and, carr3'ing it down to the brink
582
of one of the canals of the Nile, she hid
it among the flags. The child was ten-
derly watched "afar off" by Miriam,
who, less open to suspicion than the
mother would be, stood to see what
would be done to him. The daughter
of the Pharaoh, the oppressor, came to
the sacred river to bathe, attended by
her maidens, who, surprised to tJnd the
basket, which had providentially floated
down to the princess' bathing-place — or
had Jochebed purposely put it there? —
call the attention of their mistress to the
discovery. The basket is fetched by one
of them, and when o[)ened a little babe,
evidently one of the Hebrews' children,
but exceedingly" fair, is revealed to view.
The woman-heart of the princess, who
was a childless wife according to tradi-
tion, yearned over the little one. Her
yearning was of (rod. Then Miriam
drew near, gathered from the conversa-
tion that the child's life was to be spared,
proposed to get a nurse for him among
the Hebrew women, and thus it came to
pass that Jochebed again had her child
at her breast, but this time as his hired
nurse. The biblical history of this pe-
riod closes with the child Moses in the
palace under tutors an<l governors, and
increasing in wisdom and in stature, and
in the favor of God and of man. There is
a break in this history, as in that of the
greater than Moses, between the infancy
and the manhood.
2. The second division of Moses' life
was totally different in its character from
the first. Moses, at the age of forty, is
learned in all the wisdom of the Egyp-
.tians. The adopted grandson of the
Pharaoh, initiated in the secrets of the
priests, to whose order he belonged, he
had a brilliant and useful worldly career
bcforehim. Had he remained in his ad-
vantageous surroundings, he would have
been one of the great Egyptian sages —
probably the greatest of them all. But
God intended him to occupy a much
more exalted ])osition. There was needed
by him a period of meditation. He must
be cut oft' from books, and by direct con-
tact with Nature in all her moods learn
what books cannot give. The ])roviden-
tial occasion of this violent change was
Moses' slaying of an Egyptian taskmas-
ter who had ill-treated a Hebrew. This
was no secret, as he hoped it would be.
The news, indeed, had been carried to
MOS
MOS
Pharaoh, and so Moses was compelled to
flee. It is probable that the murder was
intended to impress upon the Hebrews
his desire to help them — that he, the
king's son, would be their deliverer; for
it seems impossible to resist the conclu-
sion that the pious teachings of his
mother had not been forgotten, and that
many prayers had been put up by him
as he determine! to be his brethren's
saviour. But we see now that it was no
wonder that this attempt at an insurrec-
tion proved abortive, and likewise that
Moses had much to learn before he could
properly lead the great Exodus. Moses
fled from the prominence, the refinement,
and the luxury of the court to the ob-
scurity, the roughness, and the poverty
of the wiiderness. He became the shep-
herd of Jethro and the husband of his
daughter Zipporah. Ex. 2. This second
period lasted forty years, and again a
wondrous transformation took place.
The transition was made at Horeb when
one day he saw a " bush " — probably an
acacia tree — which was said to be on
fire and yet was i.nconsumed. He drew
near to examine the wondrous sight,
and the Angel of the Lord aj)peared to
him and gave him his prophetic call.
But now the would-be loader of forty
years agonc was full cf excuses, depre-
cated his abilities, and disparaged his
appearance. Accordingly, Clod appointed
Aaron as his spokesman and brought
about their meeting. Ex. 3; 4. Thi.s in-
formed of the divine name, Ex. 8 : 14,
promised divine aid, and strengthened
by miracles, Ex. 4: 1-7, Moses, at the
age of eighty, now both a scholar and a
practical man of aff"airs, starts out upon
the deliverance of his people. On his
way to Egypt his son (rershom was
smitten by a mysterious illness, Zipporah
thought because circumcision had not
been performed. Accordingly, although
loath to do it. she herself circumcised
Gershom. Ex. 4 : 24-26. The child recov-
ered.
3. Arrived at Goshen, Moses and Aaron
at once began the discharge of their
commission. But their primary efforts
only increased the subject people's bur-
dens, and the two brothers were wellnigh
in despair. Then began the series of
miraculous visitations recounted in Ex.
7-12. The last of the plagues so stunned
the Egyptians that they precipitately
drove the Israelites out. See Plagues,
ExoDi's. The Israelites were prepared
and went ready for the journey, which,
instead of being one of three days into the
desert, Ex. 5 : 3, was one of forty years.
Through all this time the Israelites were
miraculously protected, fed, and led.
Moses Avent in and out before them to
the divine satisfaction, although his con-
duct by no means pleased every one.
Nor had Moses always the proper con-
trol over himself. He flung down the
God-engraven tables of the Law, enraged
at the idolatry of the frivolous people
while he was for forty days in the Mount
with God. Ex. 32 :' 19. But the most
damaging act of this nature was at Ka-
desh-meribah. The people murmured
for water. Moses was commanded to
speak to the rock ; instead, he struck
the rock tu-ice with his rod. It was be-
cause on this occasion God was not
honored that Moses and Aaron were for-
bidden to enter the Promised Land.
Num. 20:11,12.
But to counterbalance this evil trait
there were many good ones. He makes
mention of one of these — viz., his
meekness. Num. 12 : 3. Besides, he
was characterized b^' disinterestedness,
impartialit}', faithfulness, and courage.
When he had risen superior to the
fears which daunted him when he re-
ceived the divine call, he was unwa-
vering. The people might murmur
or break out into rebellion, he was
ready to plead with God for them; yea,
when they had so grievously sinned that
God declared he would destroy them,
Moses asked that his name might be
blotted out of the book of God rather
than behold their destruction. Ex.32:
32.
In addition must be mentioned his
eminent services as lawgiver. It is in-
deed a vexed question how much credit
should be given to him as the publisher
of a code marked throughout by '• Thus
saith the Lord." We are safe in saying
that the Law, as we have it recorded in
the Scriptures, was divinely inspired,
and that Moses made the record as di-
rected of the Lord. The Decalogue is a
moral miracle in ancient legislation, and
retains its power to this day in all Chris-
tian lands. See Law. As an historian
Moses also is to be honored. The five
books commonly called the Pentateuch,
583
MOS
MOS
which he wrote, contain the only reliable
history of the creation of man and the
beginning of the human as well as of the
Jewish race. See Pentateuch. But there
are also other compositions attributed to
him — namely, Ps. 90 and the book of Job.
In regard to these there is no certainty,
but the ninetieth Psalm seems to fit in
well with the circumstances of the Wan-
dering, and the book of Job is perhaps
his in its first draft; the Talmud makes
him the author, and several commenta-
tors have adopted this view. See Job.
We know Moses to have had the poetic
gift, for in the Pentateuch there are
several exhibitions of it:
1. "The song which Moses and the
children of Israel sung" (after the pas-
sage of the Red Sea, Ex. 15 : 1-19).
2. A fragment of a war-song against
Amalek, Ex. 17:16:
"As the hand is on the throne of .Tehovah,
So will Jehovah war with Anialtk
From generation to generation."
3. A fragment of a lyrical burst of in-
dignation, Ex. 32: 18:
" Not the voice of them that shout for mas-
tery,
Nor the voice of them that cry for being
overcome,
But the noise of tliem that sing do I hear."
4. The song of Moses, composed on
the east side of Jordan. Deut. 32 : 1-43.
5. The prophetic blessing of Moses
upon the tribes. Deut. 33 : 1-29.
As a leader and as a prophet Moses
comes before us. As the former "his
life," says Dean Stanley in Smith's Dic-
tionary of the lilble, " divides itself into
the three ejjochs of the march to Sinai, the
march from Sinai to Kadesh, and the con-
quest of the Transjordanic kingdoms.
Of his natural gifts in this capacity we
have but few means of judging. The
two main difRculties which he encoun-
tered were the reluctance of tlie people
to submit to his guidance and the im-
practicnble nature of the country which
they had to traverse. The incidents with
which his name was specially connected,
both in the sncred narrative and in the
Jewish, Arabian, and heathen traditions,
were those of sup])lying water when most
wanted. In the Pentateuch these sup-
plies of water take place at Marah, at
Horeb, at Kailesh, and in the land of
Moab. Of the first three of these inci-
j84
dents, traditional sites bearing his name
are shown in the desert at the present
day, though most of them are rejected
by modern travellers. The route through
the wilderness is described as having
bten made under his guidance. The
particular spot of the encampment is
fixed by the cloudy pillar. But the di-
rection of the ])eople, first to the Red
Sea and then to Mount Sinai, is commu-
nicated through Moses or given by him.
On a])proaching Palestine the ofiice of
the leader becomes blended with that of
the general or the conqueror. By Moses
tlie spies were sent to explore the country.
Against his advice took ])lace the first
disastrous battle at Hormah. To his
guidance is ascribed the cii'cuitous route
by which the nation approached Pales-
tine from the east, and to his generalship
the two successful campaigns in which
Sihon and Og were defeated. The nar-
rative is told so shortly that we are in
danger of forgetting that at this last
stage of his life Moses must have been
as much a conqueror and victorious sol-
dier as Joshua."
But as a prophet Moses is evidently
the revealer of the will of God, and pre-
eminent because with him the divine
revelations were made ''mouth to mouth,
even apparently, and not in dark
speeches," and he beheld '' the similitude
of Jehovah." Num. 12 : 8, He saw the
flame in the bush ; for two periods of forty
days each he was in the thick darkness
with God, Ex. 24 : 18 : 34 : 28 ; and above
all was he favored with the vision of the
trailing garments of the Almighty, and he
heard a voice which " proclaimed the two
immutable attributes of (Jod, justice and
love," in words which became part of
the religious creed of Israel an<l of the
world. Ex. 34:6, 7. But perhaps the
most remarkable fact is yet to be men-
tioned. Moses frequently met (iod in
the tent of the congregation, which he
removed outside the camp. Ex. 33 : 9.
No wonder that the subject of so many
and so familiar interviews with God
should be regarded with peculiar venera-
tion by the Hebrews, the Mohammedans,
and the Christians.
When Moses was one hundred and
twenty years old his eye was not dim
nor his natural force abated. Deut. 34:
7. He was able, on the day of his death,
to stand on Nebo, a height of the Pisgah
MOS
MOS
range, and thence look across the Jor-
dan and up and down the Promised Land.
Bitter was his disappointment at not
being allowed to enter, but meekly ho
submitted to the will of (xod. He had
been so much with God that to die was
simply to be always with Him whose voice
he had heard and whose glory he had
seen. But since his death would make
a great change to his people, he prepared
the way for it. He addressed the people
and warned them against apostasy. He
then gave a public charge to Joshua, his
succe.-sor. He then uttered the song,
Deut. 32. and blessed the people. Deut.
33. Quietly, it would appear, unattended,
perhaps secretly, the aged yet strong
man climbed the Pisgah range, stood on
the height of Nebo, and viewed the ex-
tensive prospect. "As he gazed upon
it the words fell upon his ears, ' This is
the land which I sware unto Abraham,
unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, saying, I
will give it unto thy seed : I have caused
thee to see it with thine eyes ;' and then,
not in sternness or in anger,, but in ut-
most love, like a mother lifting her boy
into her arms, the Lord added, 'But
thou shalt not go over thither,' and in a
moment, in the twinkling of an ej'e, the
soul of Moses had passed within the veil
and was at home with God." — Rev. W.
M. Tavlor, D. D., Moses the Laicyrver,
N. Y.,' 1879, p. 439. "And he buried
him in a valley in the land of Moab, over
against Beth-peor : but no man knoweth
of his sepulchre unto this day." Deut. 34 :
6. In the words of the Rabbins, "Jeho-
vah kissed him to death " (or rather into
life eternal). His remains were removed
from all reach of idolatry — the sin of
sins, forbidden in the first command-
nrfent. As Thomas Fuller quaintly says,
*' God buried also his grave." Vainly
have men sought to find it. The familiar
lines of Mrs. C. F. Alexander's ode, " The
Death of Moses," may be appropriately
quoted here :
"And had he not hish honor?
The hillside for liis pall,
To lie in state while angels wait,
With stars for tapers tall:
And the dark rock-piues,like tossing plumes,
Over his bier to wave;
And God's own hand, in that lonely laud,
To lay him in his grave."
Centuries passed^ on. The land had
witnessed many changes; the promised
One stood upon the Promised Land
when once more Moses is seen by mortal
sight. Upon the slopes of Hermon he
appeared in company with Elijah to talk
with Jesus of the decease Jesus should
accomplish at Jerusalem. Luke 9 : 31.
Thus was the type brought face to face
with the Pattern. And this resurrection
leads to the conclusion which some hold
— that Moses, like Christ, was raised
from the dead after a brief sleep in the
grave.
Moses was of God's special preparation,
the resultant of many forces. Wrought
upon by inspiration, he was able to be
legislator, statesman, leader, poet, saint,
because he was so variedly trained. An
exceptional man in original gifts, he was
equally exceptional in his opportunities.
To be of Hebrew extraction, and there-
fore by descent to share in the glorious
hojies of his race, was to have a grand
start Godward. To be the adopted child
of Pharaoh's daughter, to breathe "the
atmosphere of courts," to be acquainted
as an equal with the nobility of the land,
was to gain an intimate knowledge of
statecraft from the best exponents of it.
To be trained for the priesthood, initiated
into the holy mysteries, learned in all
the learning of the Egj'ptians, was to be
thoroughly furnished unto religious
service. To be exiled and compelled
through man}' years to eat " the bread
of carefulness," to be a keeper of sheep
and a dweller in tents amid the sublimity
of Sinaitic scenery, was to have time for
reflection and for communion with God.
Thus, when at eighty he returned to
Egypt, he was able to debate with schol-
ars and to sympathize with slaves. He
towered above all his brethren. He was
alone in the loneliness of genius. He
was accessible in his feeling for the op-
pressed. But Moses was unique in other
ways. He alone has held friendly eon-
verse with Jehovah. What though he
was slow of speech ? He was loft}- of
thought. What though he was timid.''
He had the promise of divine strength.
And the good qualities he showed during
the Wandering are such as come from
iellowship with the Highest, while his
bad qualities — his occasional infirmity
of temper, for example — are mere spots
upon the sun or temporary obscurations
of the light, the times he forgot God.
But when he fell all observed it, just as
585
MOS
MOS
all notice the fallen monarch of the for-
est : when he stood firm few marked it,
as few remark the upright tree.
The above article is a mere sketch.
To write fully the life of Moses would
be to write the history of Israel during
the Exodus. The reader will refer to
the separate articles incidentally men-
tioned. We close by a brief study of
the character of Moses, following the
Rev. Dr. W. M. Taylor in his book
above quoted.
Three qualities give him immortal in-
terest and prominence. 1st. Faith. By
faith he esteemed " the reproach of
Christ greater riches than the treasures
in Egypt." Heb. 11 : 26. " Never more
alluring prospects opened up before any
man than those which the world held
out to him. The throne of the greatest
monarchy of his age was within his reach.
All that wealth could procure, or pleasure
bestow, or the greatest earthly power
command, was easily at his call. But
the glory of these things paled in his
view before the more excellent character
of those invisible honors which God set
before him. This faith sustained him in
the solitudes of Midian and animated
him amidst all the conflicts attendant on
the Exodus and all the difficulties that
confronted him in the wilderness. This
faith gave him courage in the hour of
danger and calmness in the time of
trial." (pp. 459, 460.)
2d. Prayerfuhiess. " In every time
of emergency his immediate resort was
to Jehovah. He was not speaking to a
stranger, but was like a son making ap-
plication to his father; and so he never
pleaded in vain." (p. 461.) His was the
prayer of faith.
.3d. Humility. " He coveted no dis-
tinction and sought no prominence; his
greatness came to him, he did not go
after it. And his humility was allied
with or flowed naturally out into two
other qualities, disinterestedness and
meekness. (See Num. 11 : 2S> and 12.*;^
for striking illustrations.) He gave up
his own ease and comlbrt to secure the
emancipation of his ])e()ple ; and while
laboring night and day for them, he had
no thought whatever of his own interests.
His office brought him no emolument."
In this he was like Nehemiah. He was
free from all charge of nepotism. His
meekness was shown in silently listening
586
to complaints against himself. He ap-
pealed unto God. (pp. 462-3.)
The only blot upon this beautiful cha-
racter is a lack of patience or self-control,
but this was more evident in the earlier
portion of his life, nor was it prominent
enough to belie his eulogy.
Moses was a tj^pe of Christ. The
parallel is readily traced. " As Moses,
in the early part of his career, refused
the Egyptian monarchy because it could
be gained to him only by disloyalty' to
God, so Jesus turned away from the
kingdoms of the world because they
were offered on condition that he would
worship Satan ; as Moses became the
emancipator of his people, so was Jesus;
as Moses, penetrating to the soul of the
symbolism of idolatry, introduced a new
dispensation wherein symbolism was
allied to spirituality of worship, so Jesus,
seizing the spirituality of the Mosaic
system, freed it from its national restric-
tions, and ushered in the day when the
true worshipper would worship the Fa-
ther anywhere ; as Moses was pre-emi-
nently a lawgiver, so Jesus, in his Ser-
mon on the Mount, laid down a code
which not only expounds but fulfils the
Decalogue ; as Moses was a prophet, so
Jesus is the great Prophet of his Church ;
as Moses was a mediator, so Jesus is the
Mediator of the new covenant, standing
between God and man, and bridging, by
his atonement and intercession, the gulf
between the two. We cannot wonder,
therefore, that in the vision of the
Apocalypse they who have gotten the
victory over the beast and his image are
represented as singing the song of Moses
the servant of God, and the song of the
Lamb. Rev. 15 : 3." (p. 460.)
God buried Moses. It was fitting,
therefore, that he too should write his
epitaph. Here it is given by his in-
spiration, and, though written only in a
book, having a permanence as great as
if it had been graven with an iron j)en
in the rock for ever: "And there arose
not a pro])het since in Israel like unto
Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face,
in all the signs and the wonders which
the Lord sent him to do in the land of
Egyj)t, to Pharaoh, and to all his ser-
vants, and t') all his land, and in all that
mighty land, and in all the great terror
which Moses showed in the sight of all
Israel." Deut. 34: 10-12. (p. 468.)
MOT
MOU
Moses, Song of. This wonderful ode
celebrates more fitly the miraculous de-
liverance of the children of Israel from
Egyptian bondage. It is the national
anthem, the Te Deum of the Hebrews.
It sounds through the psalms of Israel,
through the thanksgiving hymns of the
Christian Church, through the touching
songs of liberated slaves, and it will
swell the harmony of the saints in
heaven. Allusion to it is made in Rev.
15 : 2, 3 : " They stand on the sea <>f glass
mingled with fire . . . and sing the song
of Moses the servant of God."
MOTH. By this word is meant the
clothes-moth, which, in its caterpillar
state, is very destructive to woven fab-
rics. The eggs of this miller, being de-
posited on fur or cloth, produce a small,
soft worm which immediately forms a
house for itself by cutting from the
cloth, which it thus weakens and de-
stroys, lu Job 4:19 man is said to be
''crushed before the moth" — that is,
more easily than the moth. There are
also references to the destructiveness of
this insect in Job 13 : 28 : Ps. 39 : 11 ;
Isa. 50 : 9 : 61 : 6, 8 ; Hos. 6:12: Matt.
6:19, 20 ; Jas. 5:2. In Ps. 6 : 7 the
word "consumed" properly means
'' moth-eaten." As much of the treasure
of the ancients consisted in costly gar-
ments, we may readily understand why
the moth was considered so noxious an
insect, and this will teach us the true
import of our Saviour's words. Matt. 6 :
19, 20. It was common in Asia to lay
up stores of precious garments, which
descended as an inheritance to children,
for their modes of dress never changed :
but the moth was a formidable enemy to
such treasures, so as to render it useless
to take much pains to lay them up.
MOTH'ER. Besides in the literal
sense, tlie word is used in the 0. T. in
reference to a grandmother, 1 Kgs. 16 :
10, and a stepmother. Gen. 37:10. It
has also a poetical use, as applied to a
political leader, Jud; 6 : 7, a nation, as
we say ''mother-country." Jer. 60: 12;
Eze. 19:2. As the position of wom.nn is
always the test of the true civilization
of a people, it is pleasing to notice in
what respect and affection the mothers
stood. See Prov. 10 : 1 ; 16 : 20 ; 17 : 25 ;
29 : 15 ; 31 : 1, 30, and compare the com-
mands given by Moses. Ex. 20:12;
Deut. 5:16; 21:18,21; Lev. 19 : 3. The
queen-mother was in royal times a very
much honored person. 1 Kgs. 2:19. See
Queen.
MOUIiD'Y, in Josh. 9 : 5, 12, prop-
erly means ''crumbs."
MOUNT, MOUNTAIN, the
translation of three words, of which the
commonest, like our word, applies to
both a single mountain and a range.
The mountains mentioned in the Bible
are Sinai, Ebal, Gerizim, Zion, and Oli-
vet, and the range of Lebanon. Eze. 18 :
6. Worship upon mountains was for-
bidden. Dean Stanley gives (Sinai and
Palestine) the following list, quoted in
Ayre's Treasury of Bible Knoicledge. of
Hebrew words used in reference to
mountains or hills. It will be noticed
the majority are in common ut-e with us :
"Hoad. 'rush, Gen. 8:5; Ex. 19:20;
Deut. 34 : 1 ; 1 Kgs. 18 : 42 (A. V. ' top').
Of a hill iyibeah), Ex. 17 : 9, 10.
"Ears, aznoth, Aznoth-tabor, Josh.
19:34; possibly in allusion to some
projection on the top of the mountain.
"Shoulder, chdteph, Deut 33:12;
Josh. 15:8; 18: 10 (' side'), all referring
to the hills on which Jerusalem is placed.
Josh. 15 : 10, ' the sideoi Mount Jearim.'
" Side, tzad (see the word for the
' side' of a man in 2 Sam. 2 : 16 ; Eze.
4 : 4, etc.). Used in reference to a moun-
tain in 1 Sam. 23 : 26; 2 Sam. 13 : 34.
" Loins or flanks, chisloth, Chisloth-
tabor, Josh. 19 : 12, and occurs also in
the name of a village, probably situated
on this part of the mountain, Ha-chesid-
loth — i.e., the ' loins.' Josh. 19 : 18.
" Rib, tzeluli. Only used once, in
speaking of the Mount of Olives, 2
Sam. 16 : 13, and there translated ' side.'
" Back, shechem. Probably the root
of the name of the town Shechem, which
may be derived from its situation, as it
were, on the back of Gerizim.
" Elbow, ftnimah. The same word as
that for ' cubit.' It occurs in 2 Sara. 2 :
24 as the name of a hill near Gibeon.
" Thigh, yarchdh (see the word for the
'thigh' of a man in Jud. 3:16,21).
Applied to Mount Ephraim, Jud. 19 : 1,
18, and to Lebanon. 2 Kg?. 19 : 23 ; Isa.
37 : 24. Used also for the ' sides ' of a
cave. 1 Sam. 24 : 3.
"The word translated 'covert' in 1
Sam. 25 : 20 is aether, from sdthar, to hide,
. . . and probably refers to the shrubbery
or thicket through which Abigail's path
587
MOU
MOU
lay. In this passage 'hill' should be
' mountain.'"
MOURN, MOURNERS. The He
brews, at the death of their friends and
relations!, gave all possib'e demonstra-
tions of grief and mourning, (ien. 50 :
10. They wept, tore their clothes, smote
their breasts, fasted and lay upon the
ground, went barefooted, pulled their
hair and beards or cut them, and made
incisions on their breasts or tore them
with their nails. Lev. 19 : 28 ; 21 : 5 :
Deut. 14 : 1 ; Jer. 16 : 6. The time of
mourning was commonly seven days, but
it was lengthened or shortened according
to circumstances. That for Moses and
Aaron was prolonged to thirty days.
Num. 20 : 29 ; Deut. 34 : S. They mourned
excessively for an only son, as his death
cut off the name of the family. Zech.
12:10.
The priest mourned only for near rela
tives, but the high priest for none. Lev.
21:1-12.
During the time of their mourning
they continued sitting in their houses
and ate on the ground. The food they
took was thought unclean, and even
themselves were judged impure. Hos. 9 :
4. Their faces were covered, and in all
that time they could not apply them-
selves to any occupation, or read the
book of the Law, or say their usual pray-
ers. They did not dress themselves, or
make their beds, or uncover their heads,
or shave, or cut their nails, or go into
the bath, or salute anybody. Nobody
spoke to them unless they spoke first.
Job 2:11-K1 Their friends commonly
went to visit and comfort them, bringing
them food. They also went up to the
roof or upon the platform of their houses
to bewail their loss. Isa. 15 : 3. Thev
sometimes went to the graves to lament
their dead, and so the Oriental women
do at this day. The Jews ha I a kind
of prayer, or rather benediction of (iod,
as of Him who raises the dead, which
they repeat(>d as they mourned, or even
passed the graves of their dead. 1
The mourning-habit among the He- !
brews was not fixed either by law or
custom. Anciently, in times of mourn-
ing, they clothed themselves in sack-
cloth or haindoth — that is, in coarse or
ill-made clothes, or brown or black stuff.
2Sam. 3::n. I
Thev hired women to weep nnd mourn,
■.')SH
and also persons to play on instruments,
at rhe funerals of the Hebrews. Jer. 9:
17 ; Matt. 9: 23. All that met a funeral
procession or a company of mourners
Eastern INIounieis at tlie Grave.
were to join them as a matter of civility,
and to mingle their tears with those who
wept. Something like this is still cus-
tomary in Turkey and Persia, where he
who meets the funeral takes the place
of one of the bearers, and assists in
carrying the bier until they meet some
one by whom he is relieved.
The custom of hiring women to weep
and mourn is common at this day in
many of the Eastern nations. See Burial.
The wailing of the Jews at the exposed
part of the foundation-wall of the tem-
ple every Friday is a curiosity, particu-
larly because it shows how customs of
lamentation can be handed down, for
they mourned in the same spot in Je-
rome's day.
MOUSE (the corn-enter). Tristram
found twenty-three species of mice in
Palestine. In Lev. 11 : 29, and Isa.
68 : 17 this word is doubtless used gen-
erically, including as unclean even the
larger rat, jerboa, dormouse, and sand-
r.at. Mice are often in the East nearly
as destructive to the cro])s as locusts.
They made great havoc in the fields of
the Philistines after that people had ta-
ken the ark of the Lord. 1 Sam. 6:4, 5.
In the twelfth century they destroyed
the young sprouts of grain in some parts
of Syria for four successive years and
MOW
MUS
came near to producing a general fam-
ine, and they abound in those regions at
the present day. A modern traveller, in
speaking of Hamath, says: '* The west-
ern part of its territory is the granary
of ]S'orthern Syria, though the harvest
never yields more than ten for one, chiefly
in consequence of the immense numbers
of mice, which sometimes wholly de-
stroy the crops."
MOWING means reaping with a
sickle, for the heat dries up the grass
before it is high enough for the scythe.
Ps. 129 : 7.
MOWINGS, KING'S. Grass cut
with a sickle (never with a scythe) was
used in Palestine for " soiling " cattle,
but not made into hay, as in colder coun-
tries. The "mower" was always a
reaper. Amos, 7 : 1. seems to allude to
some right of the king to the first grass
in certain distTicts for his cavalry horses.
MO'ZA (a r/ohig forth). 1. The sec-
ond son of Caleb, the son of Hezron, by
his concubine Ephah. 1 Chr. 2 : 46.
2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 :
36. 37 : 9 : 42. 43.
MO'ZAH (goinfj forth), a town of
Benjamin, Josh. 18:26: possibly mod-
ern Kulonieh, 4 miles west of Jerusalem,
on the Jaffa road.
MUF^FLERS are supposed to have
been a covering for the face such as is
now worn by women of the East. Isa.
3: 19.
MUL'BERRY TREES. All
agree that this is a mistranslation, but
many different renderings are suggested.
Some of the best recent authorities advo-
cate the aspen or ])oplar, a few species of
which grow in Palestine. The " going "
in the tree-tops, which was to be the
sign that God %vent out before the host,
2 Sam. 5 : 23, 24, may have been the
rustle of these leaves, which are prover-
bial for their readiness to tremble before
the slightest breeze.
MULjE, the name of the offspring
of the horse and the ass. 2 Sam. 13 : 29.
It is smaller than the former, and is a
remarkably hardy, patient, obstinate,
sure-footed animal, living ordinarily
twice as long as a horse. Mules are
much used in Spain and South America
for transporting good? across the moun-
tains. So also in the Alps they are
used by travellers anjong the mountains
where a horse would hardlv be able to
pass with safety. In the United States
mules are much used for draught.
Even the kings and most distinguished
nobles of the Jews were accustomed to
ride upon mules. See passage above
cited, and also 2 Sam. 18 : 9 : 1 Kgs. 1 :
33 ; 10 : 25 ; 18 : 5 : 2 Chr. 9 : 24 ; Esth.
8 : 10, 14. It is probable that the Jews
purchased, but did not raise^ mules. Lev.
19:19.
MUP'PIM {serpevt?), a descendant
of Benjamin, Gen. 46 : 21 ; called Shu-
pham in Xum. 26 : 39.
MUR'DER. The Jewish law calls a
murderer one who slays another from en-
mity, hatred, or by lying in wait. Other-
wise it is manslaughter, but the avenger
of blood might kill the unintentional
murderer if he overtook him before he
reached the city of refuge. For inten-
tional murder there was no pardon : the
city of refuge, and even the altar, fur-
nished no asylum, nor might money be
taken in satisfaction. Ex. 21 : 14, 28, 19:
Xum. 35 : 30-32 : 1 Kgs. 2 : 5, 6, 28-34!
It was one of the most odious and abom-
inable crimes. Deut. 19 : 13 : 21 : 9 : Num.
35 : 33, 34, and was a subject of early
and severe legislation. Gen. 9 : 6. See
Cities of Refige.
A remarkable regulation made it legal
to kill a housebreaker taken at night in
the act. but murder if killed during the
day. Ex. 22 : 2, 3. For the punishment
of murder see Ptnishments.
MURRAIN. Ex. 9 : 3. See
Plaoves of Egypt.
M U ' S H I iforxahincf), the son of
Merari, the son "of Kohath. Ex. 6:19;
Xum. 3 : 20 : 1 Chr. 6 : 19, 47 ; 23 : 21,
23 : 24 : 26, 30.
MU'SHITES, THE, descendants
of Mushi. Xum. 3 : 33 : 26 : 58.
MUS'IC. 1 Sam. 18:6. This was
an important part of the festivities and
religious services of the Jews. In their
annual j)ilgrimages to Jerusalem their
march was thus enlivened. Isa. 30 : 29.
This is stiil the custom in Oriental pil-
grimages. The practice of music was
not restricted to anv one class of per-
sons. 1 Chr. 13 : 8 ; 15 : 1 6. The sons of
Asaph, Ileman, and Jeduthun were set
apart by David for the musical service,
and *• the number of them, with their
brethren, that were instructed in the
songs of the Lord" was two hundred and
eightv-eight. They were divided, like
589
MUS
MUS
the priests, into twenty-four courses,
which are enumerated. 1 Chr. 25. Of
the 38,000 Levites, '' four thousand
praised the Lord with the instruments/'
1 Chr. 23 : 5, being more than one in ten
of the whole available members of the
tribe of Levi. Each of the courses or
classes had one hundred and fifty-four
Stringed Instruments, Cymbals, etc.
musicians and three leaders, and all were
under the general direction of Asaph
and his brethren. Each course served
for a week, but upon the festivals all
were required to be present, or four
thousand musicians. Heman, with one
of his leaders, directed the central choir,
Wind Instruments t\nd Sistrum.
Asaph the right, and .Teduthun the left
wing. These several choirs answered
one another, as is generally supposed, in
that kind of alternate singing which is
called "antiphonal," or responsive. The
690
priests, in the mean time, performed upon
the silver trumpets. 2 Chr. 5:11-14; Num.
10 : 2. It is necessary to suppose that, to
ensure harmony from such a number of
voices as this, some musical notes were
used. This truly regal direction of sa-
cred music continued after the death of
David until the Captivity ; for though
under the impious reign of
some kings the whole of these
solemnities fell into disuse,
they were revived by Heze-
kiah and Josiah. And al-
though during the Exile the
sweet singers of Israel hanged
their harps upon the willows
by the waters of Babylon, yet
two hundred musicians re-
turned with Ezra to the Holy
Land. Ezr. 2 : 65.
Musical Instruments.
Eccl. 2 : 8. They were in-
vunted by Jubal, the son of
Laraech, Gen. 4: 21, and had
appropriate names. Gen. 31 :
27. They' may be divided into three
classes — stringed instruments, wind in-
struments, and such as gave their sounds
on being struck. Of stringed instru-
ments were the harp, the instrument of
ten strings, the sackbut, and the psaltery.
They are described under their proper
names.
The instruments of music mentioned
in 1 Sam. 18 : 6 as used by women are
supposed to have been metallic triangles,
as the name indicates.
The instrument of ten strings re-
sembled a modern guitar, having its
strings stretched over something not un-
like a drum; and it was ])liiyed with the
fingers. See separate titles.
MUS'TARD. Matt. 13:31, 32;
17 : 20 ; Luke 17 : 6. There can no longer
be any question that this plant is the
black mustard (Shiapis niijrn), which
often grows wild in our own country.
In the fertile and warm soil of Palestine,
especially when cultivated, this herb
must have reached considerable size.
Dr. Thomson has seen it there as tall as
the horse and his rider, and the ground
near the Sea of Galilee is often " (/ifded
over with its yellow flowers." The Bible
does not say, as is often supposed, that
the birds build ticstn in the mustard, but
only that they lodge there, as they often
do in much smaller plants. Flocks of
MUT
MYR
goldfinches and linnets are accustomed
to settle in these plants and eat the seed,
of which they are very fond. '• Small as
a grain of mustard- seed " was a prover-
bial expression of which Christ made
use. Divested of the Orientalisms of the
language, which our Saviour used in
Mustard. (Sinapis nigra. After Dr. Carndhers.)
popular teaching, the following is an
accurate paraphrase of his well-known
parable, as suggested in Smith's Bible
Dictionary : " The gospel dispensation
is like a grain of mustard-seed which
a man sowed in his garden ; which in-
deed is one of the least of all seeds, but
which, when it springs up, becomes a
tall branched plant, on the branches of
which the birds come and settle, seeking
their food."
MUTH-LAB'BEN, in the title to
Ps. 9, is thus explained by the Rev, A.
R. Fausset : " Labben is an anagram for
Xabal, 'the fool' or 'wicked,' concern-
ing the dying ( mnth) of the fool." This
interpretation harmonizes well with the
contents of the Psalm. But the titles to
the Psalms are often enigmas.
MY'RA {fiotciiuj, tceepiny), an ancient
port in Lycia, on the south-west coast
of Asia Minor. Acts 27 : 5. It was on the
river Andriacus, about 2^ miles from its
mouth. The magnificent ruins of the
city stand upon a hill not far from the
sea.
MYRRH, a gum, the thickened sap
of a low thorny tree {Balsainodoidion
opsnhalsamiini) which grows chiefly in
Arabia. Myrrh is sold for medical pur-
poses in small globules of a white or
yellow color, of a strong and agreeable
smell, but a bitter taste. It was an in-
gredient of the holy ointment, Ex. 30 :
2.3, and of the embalming substance.
Myrrh. {Balsamodendron. After Br. Birdwood.)
John 19 : '^9. It was also used as an
agreeable perfume, Esth. 2:12; Ps. 45 :
8 : Prov. 7:17, and a valuable gift. Matt.
2 : 1, 11. In Matt. 27 : 34 it is said that
they gave Jesus to drink vinegar mixed
591
MYK
MYS
with gall, which, in Mark 15 : 23, is called
wine mingled with myrrh. It was prob-
ably the sour wine which the Koman
soldiers used to drink mingled with
myrrh and other bitter substances, very
much like the bittern of modern times.
The myrrh of Gen. 37: 25; 43 : 11
represents a different Hebrew word, and,
being brought fr^m Palestine or Gilead,
was doubtless another substance — prob-
ably Gnnt Idchmiim, obtained from the
cistus. a shrubby plant growing in 'hose
districts. This gum is sold in dark-
colored, soft masses, of a more agreeable
odor than opium, and possessing similar,
though weaker, medical properties, for
which it was valued.
MYR'TLE, a beautiful, fragrant,
and ornamental shrub {Mjrtus eumniit-
Myitle. {Mi/rtus cnmmunia.)
nia), which abounds in Northern Pales-
tine and once grew about Jerusalem.
*' In the bazaars of Jerusalem and Da-
mascus the dried flowers, leaves, and
berries of the myrtle are to be seen in
separnte heaps, oflered for sale as a per-
fume, and a fragrant water is distilled
from the blossom. Both leaves, bark,
and root are used in Damascus for tan-
ning the finest leather, and give it a deli-
cate scent." — Tristram. The seeds of a
tropical species of the myrtle, collected
and dried before they are I'ipe, are called
pimento, or allspice. For the rich hue
of its green polished leaves, its agreeable
fragrance and beautiful flowers, this
shrub is used by the Bible writers, in
contrast with the noxious, useless brier,
to illustrate the prosperity and glory of
the Church. Isa. 41:19; 55:13; Zech.
1 : 8-11. The myrtle furnished the
wreaths of ancient heroes and victors.
Branches of the myrtle were gathered,
among others, to cover the booths and
tents of the Jews at the celebration of
the feast of tabernacles. Lev. 23 : 40 ;
Neh. 8 : 15.
MY'SIA [beech ?v;(/?'oh f), a province
in the north-western angle of Asia Mi-
nor, and separated from Europe by the
Propontis and the Hellespont, having
Lydia on the south, Bithynia on the
east, and including the Troad. Mysia
was anciently celebrated for its fertility,
and it is at this day a beautiful and fer-
tile country, but poorly tilled. Acts 16 :
7, 8 ; 20 : 5, .
MYS'TERY, in the N. T. usage, is
a spiritual truth hitherto hidden, inca-
pable of discovery by mere reason, but
now revealed, though yet beyond the
full understanding of our finite intelli-
gence. The (jreek word means '' secret
doctrine," and is mostly used in the plu-
ral ("the mysteries"), denoting certain
religious ceremonies and celebrations.
The gospel is termed a " mystery," be-
cause it was long hidden. Eph. 3:9; Col.
1 : 26 ; 1 Tim. 3:9. In the same sense
various doctrines are called mvsteries,
Rom. 11 : 25 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 5 1 ; Eph. 1:9;
1 Tim. 3:16, and truths as well which
required elucidation and received it.
Matt. 13 : 1 1 ; 1 Cor. 13 : 2. Again, the
import of the seven stars and seven can-
dlesticks. Rev. 1 : 20, of the woman ar-
rayed in scarlet, 17 : 7, the deeper sig-
nificance of marriage, as symbolizing the
union of Christ and his Church, Eph. 5 :
32, are mysteries.
592
NAA
XAA
N.
NA'AM ( plensaiitiiess), a son of Ca-
leb. 1 Chr. 4:15.
NA'AMAH ( plenf<i,uj). 1. Daugh-
ter of Tubal-cain and Zillah, Gen. 4:22,
and one of the few women mentioned by
name before the Flood.
2. An Ammonitess, the mother of Re-
hoboam, and one of Solomon's wives. 1
Kgs. 14:21.
NA'AMAH (pleasiiifj), a city in the
plain of Judah, Josh. 15 : 41, which
Conder locates at Nn'mieh, 5 miles south-
east of el'Mitghur (Makkedah).
NA'AMAN {pleu^autiieiiM). 1. A dis-
tinguished Syrian general, but a leper.
2 Kgs. 5. Hearing, through a captive
Jewish girl who waited on his wife, of
the fame of the prophet Elisha, he set
out on a journey to Israel with letters of
recommendation from his sovereign to
the king of Israel. AVhen the king of
Israel read the letter he was filled with
apprehension, fearing, probably, lest the
king of Syria intended to find a pretext
for a quarrel in his inability to cure the
leprosy of his general. In this predica-
ment, Elisha, on receiving the news of
Naaman's arrival, despatched word to
the king to give up his fears and to
send the distinguished stranger to him.
Naaman went, and received from Elisha's
messenger the prescription to bathe sev-
en times in the Jordan. The leper at
first disdained the remedy. It was too
simple, and attributed to the Jordan a
virtue wliich he knew Abana and Phar-
par, rivers of his own land, did not ])0S-
sess. His retinue wisely advised him
not to spurn the remedy on account of
its simplicity. Following their counsel, he
washed himself seven times in the Jor-
dan, and his " flesh came again like unto
the flesh of a little child." Out of grati-
tude Naaman ofl'ered the prophet a pres-
ent, but failed to induce him to take it.
Subsequently, Gehazi. by uttering a
falsehood, secured it, but in turn received
Xaaman's leprosy. As a result of the
bodily cure, Xaan^an's mind became
convinced that the Goud of Israel was
alone worthy of worship and service.
He took home with him " two mules'
38
burden of earth," probably in order to
make an altar, Ex. 20 : 24, with the
promise never to off"er sacrifice to other
than the God of Israel, and he begged
the prophet to absolve him for continu-
ing, out of allegiance to his sovereign,
as his companion to go into the temple
of Rimmon and bow before the false
god. In this Naaman implies that his
heart would refuse the worship of the
idol which his outward act seemed to
indicate. Elisha's parting words to him
were, " Go in peace." Our Lord referred
to Naaman's cure in his sermon to the
Nazarenes. Luke 4 : 27. The memory of
Naaman is perpetuated in a leper-hospi-
tal which occupies the traditional site of
his house in Damascus, on the banks of
the Abana. "I have often visited it "
(says Dr. Porter, The Giant Cities of
Jinshtin. p. 36G), '* and when looking on
its miserable inmates, all disfigured and
mutilated by their loathsome disease, I
could not wonder that the heart of the
little Jewish captive was moved by her
master's suflTering."
2. A Beniamite. Gen. 46:21.
NA'AMATHITE, the designation
of Zophar, one of Job's friends. Jub
2:11.
NA'AMITES, the descendants of
Naaman, grandson of Benjamin. Num.
26 : 40 : 1 Chr. 8 : 4.
NA'ARAH i'ji'l), one of the wives
of Ashur. 1 Chr. 4 : 0.
NA'ARAI (r;orf rei-eah), one of Da-
vid's warriors, 1 Chr. 11 : 37 ; also called
Paarai. 2 Sam. 23:35.
NA'ARAN { piveuile), a town in
Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7:28. See Naauath.
NA'ARATH {girl, handmaid), a
town of Ephraim, Josh. 16 : 7 ; proba-
bly in the Jordan valley, above Jericho.
Eusebius speaks of it as Oorath, a village
5 miles from Jericho, and Josephus
mentions that Herod drew off part of
the waters from the village of Aeai-a to
water the palm trees he had planted.
Conder, therefore, suggests that the site
of Naarath is to be found at el-Hujeh,
above Jericho, where are a ruin and re-
mains of an ancient aqueduct.
. 593
NAA
NAH
NAASH'ON. Ex. 6 : 23. See Nah-
SHON.
NAAS'SON, the Greek form of
Nahshon ; used Matt. 1:4; Luke 3 : 32.
See Nahshon.
NA'BAL {fool), a very wealthy citi-
zen of Maon, whose property, consisting
of 3000 sheep and lOdO goats, Avas in
Carrael. 1 Sam. 25 : 2, 3. When he was
shearing his sheep, David sent ten of
his young men to ask him in the most
courteous manner for supplies ; but
Nabal, who was proverbially churlish,
refused, in the most offensive terms, to
grant his request. David immediately
ordered 400 of his men to arm them-
selves, and set out with the resolution to
destroy Nabal and his property. Abi-
gail, the discreet and beautiful wife of
this son of Belial, admonished of their
purpose, promptly made up a sumptuous
present, and set forth to meet David and
to appease him with the gifts. Her
mission was entirely successful. On re-
turning to her home she found her hus-
band at a feast and dvunk, and waited
till the following morning to apprise him
of what had occurred. Nabal had no
sooner received her statement than he
was seized with a severe illness, which
proved fatal at the end of ton days, and
was regarded by David as the immediate
judgment of God upon his sins. 1 Sam.
25 : 39. Nabal is the type of a selfish,
cruel, and churlish property-holder.
NA'BOTH (fniitx), an Israelite of
the town of Jezreel who owned a vine-
yard adjoining the palace of King Ahab.
1 Kgs. 21 : 1. Anxious to secure this
particular spot that he might use it for
a garden, the king proposed to buy it or
give him some other property of equal
value; but Naboth declined, to the great
disappointment of the wicked monarch.
In this difficulty Jezebel devised a base
plan to secure the coveted ])ossession. At
a large feast Naboth was accused by two
sons of Belial of blasjjhemy and disloy-
alty, and was forthwith stoned to death.
The murder was avenged by the doom
immediately passed upon Ahab and Jeze-
bel, the royal munlerers. 1 Kgs. 21 : 19.
NA'CliON, the threshing-floor by
which Uzzah died, 2 Sam. 6:6; called
Perez-uzzah and (Jhidon in 1 Chr. 13 :
9, 11. It was between Kirjath-jearim
and Jerusalem.
NA'DAB {liberal). 1. Son of Aaron.
594
For offering strange fire to the Lord, he
and his brother Abihu were devoured
with fire from God. Lev. 10 : 1-3.
2. Son and successor of Jeroboam.
His wicked reign of two years was
brought to an end at Gibbethon by the
successful conspiracy of Baasha. 1 Kgs.
15 : 25-28.
3. Son of Shammai. 1 Chr. 2 : 28.
4. Son of Gibeon, and uncle of Saul.
1 Chr. 8:30.
NAG'GE (fihiiihn/), an ancestor of
our Lord. Luke 3 : 25.
NA'HALAL, NAHAL'LAL,
AND NA'HALOLi (pttHtiire), a town in
Zebulun belonging to the Levites. Josh.
19 : 15 ; 21 : 35 : Jud. 1 : 30 ; one Hebrew
manuscript in Josh. 21 : 35 reads Ma-
halal. It has been identified with
Malid or Mahil, in the plain of Esdrae-
lon, 4 miles west of Nazareth.
NAH AX IE L {vallei/ of God), a
station of the Israelites, Num. 21 : 19,
between Mattanah and Bamoth, and
probably in a valley of one of the chief
northern tributaries of the Arnon.
NA'HALOL. Jud. 1 : 30. See
Nahalal.
NA'HAM {coiisolatiou), brother of
Hodiah. 1 Chr. 4: 19.
NAHAM'ANI {cnntpassifmate), one
who returned with Zerubbabel from
Babylon. Neh. 7 : 7.
NAHAR'AI, OR NA'HARI
(snorer), Joab's armor-bearer. 1 Chr.
11 : 39 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 37.
NA'HASH {>^crpeut). 1. An Am-
monite king. He offered to Jabesh-gilead
a treaty on condition that the citizens
should submit to the loss of their right
eyes. This cruel stipulation aroused the
indignation of Saul, who went to the
assistance of the city and defeated its
enemies. At a subsequent period he was
on friendly relations with David. 2 Sam.
10:2.
2. Mentioned 2 Sam. 17 : 25 as father
of Abigail. Some identify him with
Jesse, and others with Nahash, king of
the Ammonites.
NA'HATH (r€>«0. 1. Grandson of
Esau, and duke in Edom. Gen. 36 : 13.
2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 2(1.
3. A Levite in the time of Hezekiah.
2 Chr. 31 : 13.
NAH'BI {hiihhit), one of the twelve
spies. Num. 13 : 14.
NA'HOK [HHortiiKj), Gen. 11 : 23, on
NAH
NAM
NA'CHOR, Josh. 24:2. 1. The name
of Abraham's grandfather. Gen. 11 : 23.
2. One of Abraham's brothers, Gen.
11 : 26, who married Milcah, the daugh-
ter of Haran. Gen. 11 : 29. He lived at
Haran, which is thence called '"the city
of Nahor." Gen. 24: 10.
NAH'SHON (enchanter), a leader
of the children of Judah in the wilder-
ness. Ex. 6 : 23: Num. 2 : 3: 10 : 14.
His name occurs in the genealogy of our
Lord, Matt. 1:4; Luke 3 : 32, in the
Greek form, Naasson.
NA'HUM {consohitiou), one of the
twelve minor prophets, of whose private
life we know only what is contained in
Nah. 1 : 1, where he is called an Elkosh-
ite. Some refer this name to a place in
Galilee, others to a village on the Tigris.
The intimate acquaintance the book
shows with Assyrian affairs makes it
probable that Nahum lived an exile in
Assyria, and perhaps at the village on
the Tigris.
Nahum prophesied before the destruc-
tion of Nineveh, which he predicts, and
probably in the reign of Hezekiah.
Prophecy of. It is a poem of great
sublimity, and admirable for the ele-
gance of its imagery. In ch. 1 the
prophet depicts the majesty and suprem-
acy of God, who will surely visit wick-
edness with retribution, but at the same
time is good to such as trust in him. ch.
1 : 7. Chs. 2 and 3 describe with much
beauty and poetic force the siege and
destruction of Nineveh as a punishment
for her wickedness, ch. 3:19. The
battle, the confusion of the chariots in
the streets, the opening of the gates, the
destruction of the palace, the flight and
captivity of the citizens, and the subse-
quent desolation of the magnificent city,
are brought before us as in a vivid pano-
ramic vision.
NAIL. 1. 0/ the finger.— The direc-
tion, Deut. 21 : 12, in regard to the treat-
ment of the captive woman's nails is
translated in the text of the A. V. *' pare
her nails:" in the margin, "suffer to
grow." The text is probably correct, as
the general intention of the treatment
was to make her lay aside all belonging
to her condition as an alien.
2. 0/ a tent or house. — Two Hebrew
words are thus translated: (1.) The
tent-peg or pin, likewise a stake. Isa.
22 : 25 ; 33 : 20 ; Ex. 27 : 1 9. That which
fastened the cloth in the loom was called
a pin, Jud. 16 : 14. The word, meta-
phorically, is that which gives support
or keeps together — e. (/., the jirincc.
Zech. 10 : 4. (2.) A nail of iron, 1 Chr.
22 : 3, or of gold. 2 Chr. 3 : 9.
NA'IN (beaiiti/), a town in Galilee
where Christ raised the widow's dead
son to life. Luke 7:11. It is now
called Xein, and is on the north-west-
ern edge of Little Hermon, 6 miles
south-east of Nazareth, and 25 miles
south-west of Tell Hum (Capernaum?).
Jesus must have met the funeral pro-
cession on the steep downward slope,
down which a road now leads toward
the ancient sepulchral caves on the
west side of the village. The ruins
indicate that Nain was a considerable
town, once protected by walls and gates.
It is now a miserable Mohammedan ham-
let of about twenty mud and stone houses.
It is in full view of Mount Tabor, and of-
ten used b} travellers as a stopping-place
for luncheon.
NA'IOTH (habitations), a place
near Ramah where Samuel dwelt. 1
Sam. 19 : 18-23; 20 : 1. Some inter-
pret the word to mean a school of
prophets over which Samuel presided.
NA'KED. The word in the A. V.
is used ahsoluteb/, as in the case of
Adam and Eve, Gen. 2 : 25 ; compara-
tively, to indicate that the usunl outer
garments were missing. 1 Sam. 19 : 24;
John 21 : 7, the loin-cloth and the shirt
being kept on ; and Jif/urotiveli/, to de-
scribe spiritual destitution. Rev. 3:17.
NAME. Gen. 2:19. A name is a
word by which a thing, or more espe-
cially a person, is made known. 1 he
names of places and of persons in the
Bible have for the most part, if not all
of them, a special significance. As now,
so then, children received their names
either directly at birth (as Benjamin,
Gen. 35 : 18) or later, as at circum-
cision, Luke 1 : 59, and at the selection
of the mother (as Joseph, Gen. 30 : 24,
and Samuel. 1 Sam. 1 : 20), or that of
the father (Gershom, Ex. 2 : 22). The
names were given in allusion to some
circumstance at the birth (Benoni, Gen.
35 : 18: Pharez, Gen. 38 : 29), or to
some event prior to it (Samuel, 1 Sam. 1 :
20), or to some condition or appearance
of the body (Esau, Gen. 25 : 25), or to
some hope (Joseph, Gen. 30 : 24), etc.
596
XAO
NAP
The same is true for localities. Bethel,
Peniel, Gen. 32 : 30, Mahanaim. Gen.
32 : 2, etc., recalled historical events.
The names of persons were not infre-
quently changed — Benoni to Benjamin,
(ien. 35 : 18, Abram to Abraham. Gen.
17 : 5, Jacob to Israe', Gen. 32 : 28, Solo-
nun to Jedidiah. 2 Sam. 12 : 25, etc. The
name is also sometimes emphasized as
the true in lication of character or of
the person's circumstances. Abigail
thus emphasizes her husband's name,
Xabal ("fool"),! Sam. 25:25: Esau,
Jacob's (" supplanter "), Gen. 27:^50;
Naomi, her own (" my delight "). Ruth
1 : 20.
There a.e some words which appear
more frequently in compounds of proper
names fhan others, and to which we will
refer in passing. Beer means ''well''
(Beersheba, *' well of the oath," Gen.
21 : 31); liefh means "house" (Bethle-
hem, "house of bread"); En means
"fountain" (En-gedi, "fountain of the
kid"); Bl means "God" (Sauiuel,
" asked of God," 1 Sam. 1 : 2i) ; Eii-
sha, "God is salvation"). On the
other hand, Dnfh means "daughter"
(Bathsheba). while Ben and Bnr mean
"God" (Benjamin, Barjonas).
The Xame of God was hQJd in Ji pecu-
liar reverence. To such an extent of su-
perstition is this carried that the mod-
ern Jews never pronounce the word
"Jehovah," it being considered too sa-
cred. In reading the 0. T. they substi-
tute " Adonai " for it. They misunder-
stand the passage in Lev. 24 : 16, which
forbids the cursing use of " Jehovah," i
as forbidding the mere naming. An I
abuse of the name of God is expressly :
forbidden in the Decalogue. Ex. 20 :7; j
Lev. 18 : 21. In the N. T. miracles are
performed in the name of Jesus, Acts 3 : '<
(3 ; 4 : 10, and they who are baptized are |
baptized in the name of the Trinity. '
Matt. 28 : 19.
The two special terms used for God by
the Hebrews were " Elohim " and " .Je-
hovah" (or "Javeh "). The first contains
an allusion to majesty and power ; the
second refers to God's absolute existence,
his eternity and unehangeableness, and
means " I am." Ex. 3 : 14. God had not
been known by this name to Abi-aham,
Isaac, or Jacob. Ex. 6 : 3.
The many names used of our Lord
are all highly significant. Emmanuel
(" God with us ") points to his incarna-
tion : Jesus ("Saviour") to his mission
of salvation; Christ ("Anointed") to
his appointment as the promised Mes-
siah : Son of Man to his humility ; Son
of God to his divine origin and
character. Amongst the many other
names and titles of Christ are Shiloh.
Gen. 49 : 10, the Wonderful, etc., Isa. 9 :
6, Prophet, High Priest, King, the Word,
John 1:1, etc.
NAO'MI {my dellyht), the wife of
Elimelech, and the mother-in-law of
Ruth, who moved with their two sons
from .Judaea to Moab in the time of a
famine. Ruth 1:2. Elimelech died, and
' also his two sons, each leaving a widow :
Naomi, thus bereaved, started back to
her native country. Orphah remained
behind, but Ruth accompanied her. Once
back in Bethlehem, she wished to be
known by the name Mara ("bitterness").
She thenceforth acted the part of a faith-
ful mother to Ruth. Naomi is one of the
most pathetic characters in all history,
and engages our admiration by her calm
and unselfish conduct in the hour of af-
fliction.
NA'PHISH (recreation), a son of
Ishmael. Gen. 25 : 15 : 1 Chr. 1 : 31.
NAPH'TALI (mif wresflinq). Gen.
33 : 8, OR BfEPH'THALIM, Matt. 4 :
15, a son of Jacob by Bilhah, Rachel's
handmaid.
Tribe of. At Mount Sinai the tribe
numbered 53,400 fighting-men. Num. 1 :
43 ; on the entrance into Canaan, 45.400.
26 : 50. Jacob, from his death-bed, rep-
resented Naphtali as a " hind let loose ;
he giveth goodly words." Gen. 49:21.
Barak, Jud. 4 : 10, was the chief hero
which the tribe produced. At the divis-
ion of the kingdom Naphtali became a
part of the northern monarchy. Later,
its territory was overrun and its people
taken captive by Tiglath pileser of As-
syria. 2 Kgs. 15 : 29. Isaiah prophesied
of the Messianic light to break over her,
9 : 1, 2, which was fulfilled. Matt. 4 : 15,
16.
NAPH'TALI {m>/ wre^flhu/), the
territory given to the tribe descended
from the fifth son of Jacob. Gen. 30 : 8 ;
35 : 25 : Ex. 1 : 4 ; 1 Chr. 2:2. On leav-
ing Egypt the tribe numbered 53,400 •
fighting-men. Num. 1 : 42, 43 : on reach-
ing the plains of Moab it had decreased
to 45.400. Num. 26 : 48-50. Jacob bless-
597
NAP
NAZ
ed this tribe and compared it to a hind !
or gazelle. Gen. 49: 21. Moses describes
its territory. Deut. 33 : 23. The land of
Naphtali was the most northerly of the
portion allotted to Israel, and its bound-
aries are found in Josh. 19:;^>2-39.
The territory reached to the Leontes,
and east to the Jordan, the waters of
Merom, and the Sea of Galilee, by
which it was separated from Manasseh |
east of the Jordan. It afforded a great \
variety of soil and climate. Josephus
describes the fertility and productive-
ness of this region along the Jordan and
Sea of Galilee in glowing language.
The table-lands west of the Jordan val-
ley were 2000 feet above the sea, and in
the mountains of Naphtali were found
ridges and peaks, not barren and bleak,
but covered with oak, terebinth, aromatic
shrubs, and flowers of variegated hues.
It still teems with animal life, beasts and
birds being abundant. See Palestine.
History. — Stanley says Naphtali was
one of the four northern tribes which
kept aloof from the great historical
movements of Israel. It gained renown
in the war against Jabin and Sisera,
Jud. 4, 5, but later the people appear to
have become allied with their Gentile
neighbors, and some of their cities were
transferred to Hiram of Tyre. 1 Kgs.
9: 11-13. Their land lay in the track of
the invaders from the north, and their
cities were captured, as Ijon, Abel, Ka-
desh, and Hazor. 1 Kgs. 15 : 20 ; 2 Chr.
16:4. Tiglath-pileser, B. r. 720, overran
Northern Palestine, and Naphtali was
the first territory' depopulated and its
people carried into captivity. It was
afterward repeopled by a mixed popula-
tion. Within its territory Jesus taught
and wrought many miracles, though the
land is alluded to by its ancient title
onlj"^ once in the N. T., where it occurs
as Nephthalim. Matt. 4: 15. See also
Capkrnai M, Galii-kk, and Tibkiuas. :
NAPH'TUHIM, an Egyptian '
tribe descended from Mizraim. Gen. 10 :
13.
NAP'KIN is used in the A. V. in a
wider sense than at present — as a little
cloth, which is the literal meaning of the
word. Luke 19 : 20. ;
N.\RCIS'SUS (r/„/o«W), a Christian j
at Rome to whom Paul sends greeting.
Rom. 16 : 1 1 . He is otherwise unknown.
The name was a common one.
5^8
NA'THAN {fihen). 1. A distin-
guished prophet of Judaea, who lived in
the reigns of David and Solomon and
enjoyed a large share of their confidence.
2 Sam. 7:2. To him David first in-
timated his design to build the temple,
and he was divinely instructed to inform
the king that this honor was not for him,
but for his posterity. Nathan was also
charged with the divine message to David
upon the occasion of his sin against
Uriah, which he conveyed under the
significant allegory of the rich man and
the ewe-lamb. Nathan was one of David's
biographers, 1 Chr. 29 : 29, and also
Solomon's. 2 Chr. 9 : 29.
2. One of the sons of David by Bath-
sheba. 1 Chr. 3 : 5.
3. Father of one of David's warriors.
2 Sam. 23:3fi.
4. One of the chief men who returned
to Jerusalem with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 16.
5. A descendant of Caleb. 1 Chr. 2 : 36.
NATHAN'AEL {(lift of God), a
native of Cana of Galilee, John 21 : 2,
and an Israelite without guile, as stated
by our Lord. John 1 : 47. He was con-
ducted by Philip (immediately after his
call) into the presence of Christ. He
went an incredulous Hebrew, with the
words on his lips, " Can there any good
thing come out of Nazareth?" Jesus,
however, at once convinces him that he
is the Messiah by the exhiliition of his
omniscience, declaring that he had seen
Nathanael under the fig tree before ever
Philip had called him. Nathanael con-
fesses him to be the Son of God and the
King of Israel.
The name Nathanael occurs only in
John. For this reason, combined with
the fact that John never mentions the
name of Bartholomew, it is generally
supposed tiiat the two are identical.
NA'THAN-ME'LECH, an oflicer
in Jerusalem. 2 Kgs. 23 : 11.
NAUGHTY, NAUGHTINESS,
originally " nothing, nothingness,"
mean, in the A. V^., " wicked, wicked-
ness." Prov. 6:12.
NA'UlU, an ancestor of our Lord.
Luke 3 : 2.').
NAVES, the centres of wheels, from
which the spokes radiate. 1 Kgs. 7 : 33.
NAZ'ARENE'. Matt. 2 : 23. This
term is used of Jesus in this passage as
a fulfilment of prophecy. It is also used
of him (though translated -'of Nazareth '")
NAZ
NAZ
by Bdrtimeus, Mark 10 : 47, in the in-
scription on the cross, John 19 : 19, by
Peter, Acts 2 : 22, by Paul, Acts 26 : 9,
by our Lord himself. Acts 22 : 8, etc.
The followers of Christ are also denom-
inated " Nazarenes," Acts 24 : 5, by
enemies.
The expression has been derive! from
the Hebrew word Netzar, translated
'* Branch." Isa. 11 : 1. It has also been
taken in a general sense to refer to the
humiliation of our Lord, Nazareth being
at this time under a stigma. John 1 : 46.
In this case no specific prophecy can be
found answering literally' to the descrip-
tion, but many in a general way which
refer to the humiliation of the Messiah.
NAZ'ARE TH {separated ?), a city
of Galilee, famous as the home of Jesus
during his childhood and youth until he
began his public ministry. It was about
14 miles from the Sea of Galilee, 6 miles
west of Tabor, and 66 miles north of
Jerusalem in a straight line. On the
north side of the plain of Esdraelon is a
crescent-shaped valley about a mile long
and averaging a quarter of a mile wide,
but swelling out into a broader basin, i
completely shut in by a wall of gently- j
rounded hills, some fifteen in number, '
and from 400 to 500 feet in height. With-
in this basin, and on the lower slope of
these hills, is Nazareth. Although the
village itself was shut in by these hills,
the view from the summit behind the
town is quite extensive, taking in Her-
mon, Carmel, Gilead, Tabor, Gilboa, and
the plain of Esdraelon. It is one of the
most beautiful views in the Holy Laud.
Hisfor)/. — Naza.-eth is not mentioned
in the 0. T. nor by any classical author,
nor by any writer before the time of
Christ. It was for some unknown reason
held in disrepute among the Jews of
Judaaa. John 1 : 47. It was situated in
a mountain, Luke 4 : 29, within the pro-
vince of Galilee, Mark 1 : 9, and near
Cana, as John 2 : 1, 2, 11 seems to imply.
There was a precipice near the town,
down which the people proposed to cast
Jesus. Luke 4 : 29. It is mentioned
twenty-nine times in the X. T. At Naz-
areth the angel appeared to Mary ; the
home of Jose;)h, Luke 1 : 26 ; 2 : 39, and
to that place Joseph and Mary returned
after their flight into Egypt. Matt. 2 : 23.
The hills and places about the town
possess a deep and hallowed interest to
the Christian as the home of Jesus during
his childhood and youth, until he entered
upon his ministry, and had preached in
the synagogue, and was rejected by his
own townspeople. Even after Capernaum
became " his own city" he was known as
" Jesus of Nazareth," Matt. 13 : 54—o8 ;
Mark 6 : 1-6 ; Acts 2 : 22 ; 3 : 6 ; 4 : 10 ;
6 : 14, and his disciples were called
'• Nazarenes." In the days of Constan-
tine, Nazareth was peopled by Samaritan
Jews, but in the sixth century Christian
pilgrimages began to be made to the
town. In 1 109, Tancred held (lalilee, and
Nazareth became the seat of a Christian
bishopric. In 1160 a council was held
at Nazareth which made Alexander III.
pope of Rome. During the Middle Ages
Christian pilgrims frequently visited
Nazareth. When the Turks conquered
Palestine, in 1517, the Christians were
driven from the town. In 1620 the
Franciscan monks gained a foothold
there, and began to rebuild the village.
At the battle of Mount Tabor, in 1799,
Napoleon with his army encamped near
Nazareth.
The town is now called En-Naxireh,
or Natnih, and has from 5000 to 6000
population, though the Turkish officials
estimate it at 10,000. There are about
20i)0 Mohammedans, 2500 Greeks, 800
Latins, and 100 Protestants. The in-
habitants pursue farming, gardening,
and various handicrafts, and the village
is quite a centre of trade for the adjoin-
ing districts. The houses are well built.
There are a large Latin church and mon-
astery, a synagogue, a Greek church, a
fine Protestajit church under the care of
the English Church Missionary Society,
a Protestant hospital, and a large female
orphanage (completed 1874). The syna-
gogue is claimed by tradition to be the
one in which Christ taught, but cannot
be traced to a date earlier than a.d. 570.
Near the (xreek church of the Annunci-
ation is a spring called " Mary's Well,"
to which the women resort every even-
ing with their water-jars for their daily
supply, and to which Mary with her holy
Child may have gone. The women of
Nazareth, like those of Bethlehem, are
distinguished for beauty above their sis-
ters in the East. The brow of the hill
over which the enraged Xazarenes threat-
ened to cast Jesus, is probably near the
Maronite church, though tradition places
699
NAZ
NEB
it at the " Mount of Precipitation," 2 or
3 miles south of the town.
IVAZ'ARITES. Num. 6 : 2, etc.
The term is derived from a Hebrew word
signifying *Ho separate.'' A Nazarite,
under the ancient law, was one, either
male or female, engaged by a peculiar
vow. It required total abstinence from
wine and all intoxicating liquors and the
fruit of the vine, that the hair should be
allowed to grow without being shorn,
and that all contamination with dead
bodies should be avoided. The Nazarito
was not even to approach the corpse of
father or m'other, Xum. 6 : 7, and if by
accident this should occur, he was re-
quired to shave his head, make offerings,
and renew the vow. When the time of
Nazariteship had expired, the person
brought an offering to the temple: the
priest then cut otf his hair and burnt it ;
after which the Xazarite was free from
his vow and might again drink wine.
The term of the vow is left indefinite.
" The daj's of the vow " is the expression
in Num. 6. We know, however. th:it
there were perpetual Nazarites. Samson
belonged to this class. It is also prob-
able that Samuel and John the Bap-
tist were perpetual Nazarites. Hannah
promised the Lord that no razor should
touch the head of her child if the Lord
would give her one, 1 Sam. 1 : 11. and
the angel predicted to Zacharias that
John would abstain entirely from wine
and strong drink. Luke 1 : 15.
It has sometimes been asserted, on the
basis of his having his head shorn at
Cenchraea, that Paul was a Nazarito.
Acts 18 : 18. This is nothing more than
a conjecture.
The exact significance of this vow is
difficult to ascertain. The most plausible
and satisfactory explanation is that it
indicates an entire consecration of the
body to the Lord, and is in the spirit
of St. Paul's exhortation to pre-ent the
body a living sacrifice, holy and acccpt-
ab'.e, unto God. Rom. 12:6. It is ex-
pressly said that during the days of his
separation the Nazarite " is holy unto
the Lord." Num. 6 : 8. The significance
of the different exercises is as follows:
The touch of the dead was considered
defiling at all times, and the indulgence
in strong drink and jvine was expressly
forbidden to the officiating priests. The
meaning of the long hair, it has been
suggested, is this : Long hair is a sign
of eflfeminacy and weakness in a man. 1
Cor. 11 : 14. In letting his hair grow
the Nazarite manifested his entire sub-
jection to God and his relinquishment
of all trust in human strength.
NE'AH {shakintj), a town on the east
side of Zebulun. Josh. 19 : 13. Porter
suggests ' Aiu, about .3 miles north-west
of Nazareth, as its site.
NEAP'OIilS {new dtij), a place in
Northern Greece where Paul first landed
in Europe, and where he probably landed
on his second visit. Acts 16 : ll': 20 : 1,
and whence he embarked on his last
journey to Jerusalem. Acts 20 : 6. It
was on a rocky eminence, the most con-
spicuous object being a temple of Diana,
which crowned the top of the hill. The
great Roman road Via Efjnatin, from
Macedonia to Thrace, passed through
Neapolis, which was S or 10 miles from
Philippi. It is now a Turko- Grecian town
of 5000 or 6000 population, and called
Kdvalla : it has numerous ruins. An-
other site has been proposed (Eski) for
Neapolis, but the arguments for it are
unsatisfactory. The Roman name of
Shechem was also Neapolis, but it is not
so named in Scripture.
NEARI'AH {serrnnt of Jehovah).
1. One of the six sons of Shemaiah. 1 Chr.
3:22.
2. A leader in the tribe of Simeon. 1
Chr. 4 : 42.
NEB'AI (/nn'tfiil), one of those who
sealed the covenant with Nehemiah.
Neh. 10:19.
NEBA'IOTH, Isa. 60 : 7, or NE-
BA'JOTH {heujhtH), Gen. 25 : 13,
the first-born, 1 Chr. 1 : 29, son of
Ishmael, whose descendants are sup-
posed to have settled in Arabia, and to
have been the Xabalheans of Greek and
Roman history. They were a pastoral
people, Isa. 60 : 7. whence the beautiful
figure of the prophet above cited respect-
ing the gathering of the Gentile nations
to the sceptre of the Messiah. Petra was
their chief citv.
NEBAL'LAT (hicfclen foU,/), a town
peopled bj' the Benjamites. Neh. 11 :
84. Two places have been proposed as
its site : (1) /ii'rt Nebofa, 4 miles north-
east of Lydda, or (2) Bir Nehola, half a
mile east of Gibeon.
NE'BAT {n^pert), the father of King
Jeroboam. 1 Kgs. 11 : 26 ; 12 : 2. etc.
601
NEB
NEB
NE'BO (prockntner), one of the As-
syrian deities, who is represented, with
Nebo. (From a Statue in the British Museum.')
Bel, as being unable to resist the destruc-
tion to which Cyrus subjected their idols.
Isa. 46 : 1. This god was called " he
who possesses intelligence," and statues
of him are still preserved. One is in the
British Museum which was erected by
the Assyrian monarch Pul. The word
"Nebo" occurs in the compounds Na-
bopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar, etc., which
points to the esteem in which the god
was held. Nebo was regarded as the
protector against misfortune.
NE'BO (prophet), a mountain of
Moab " over against Jericho," from which
Moses beheld the land of Canaan. Deut.
32 : 49. " And Moses went up from the
j»lains of Moab unto the mountain of
Nebo, to the top of Pisgah, . . . and the
Lord showed him all the land of Gilead
unto Dan." Deut. 34:1. Nebo was a
mountain in the range of mountains
called Abarim. Eusebius says it was
shown in his da}' on the other side of
Jordan, six milen to the west of Ilesh-
bon. If then definitely known, its loca-
tion was afterward lost. Of the peaks
in the Abarim range which have been
suggested as Nebo are — Jcbel Attitnm, but
this is not " over against Jericho," and
602
is too far south ; Jebel JiVdd, 15 miles
farther north than Jericho, and therefore
not answering to the scriptural narra-
tive. See Moab, Mountains of.
Prof. Paine, of the American Explo-
ration Society, identified it in 1875 with
a mountain 5 miles south-west of Hesh-
bon, on a line directly east of the north
end of the Dead Sea, and about 8 miles
east of the sea. In his view Nebo was
the eastern summit and its higher eastern
crest, while Pisgah was a projecting
shoulder to the west, affording an exten-
sive view. The former was called by
the Arabs Jebel Nebba, and the latter
Siafjhah. Jebel Nebbn is 2685 feet high,
and a crest called Shefa Nebba, about
three-fourths of a mile eastward, is 2725
feet high. This identification has been
questioned by Dr. S. Wolcott, but the
main points claimed by Prof. Paine are
corroborated by the Due de Luynes and
by Canon Tristram. See Pisgah.
NE'BO, a city east of the Jordan;
rebuilt by the Gadites, Num. 32 : 3, 88 ;
33 : 47; captured by the Moabites, and in-
cluded in the denunciations pronounced
on the land. Isa. 15 : 2 ; Jer. 48 : 1, 22.
Prof. Paine identifies the site of the city
with a ruin about a mile south of the
summit of Mount Nebo.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR (ma,,
Nebo j)rotert the croiiui /), or, more cor-
rectly, NEBUCHADREZZAR,
the son and successor of Nabopolassar,
the founder of the Babylonish mon-
archy, was the most illustrious of these
kings, and one of the greatest rulers of
history. 2 Kgs. 24 : 1 ; Dan. 1-4. We
know most of him through the book of
Daniel; but we read of him also in Be-
Csimeo of Nebuchadnezzar.
rosiis and upon numerous monumen*?.
In the Berlin Museum there is a black
NEB
NEB
cameo with his head upon it, cut by his
order, with the inscrijjtion. '' In honor
of Merodach, his lord, Nebuchadnezzar,
king of Babylon, in his life-time had
this made." From these various sources
the following details have been derived.
Xebuchadnezzar was entrusted by his
father with the important task of re-
pelling Pharaoh-necbo, and succeeded
in defeating him at Carchemish. on
the Euphrates (b. c. 605), Jer. 46 : 2.
and brought under subjection all the
territory Xecho had occupied, including
Syria and Palestine, overrunning these
countries, taking Je usalem, and carry-
ing off a portion of the inhabitants as
])risoners, including Daniel and his com-
panions. Dan. 1 : 1-4. Having learned
that his father had died, Ni buchadnczzar
hastened back to IJabylon and planted
himself tirmly on the throne, giving to
his generals instructions to bring the
Jewish, Phoenician. Syriau, and Egyp-
tian capt'ves to Babylon. Thus the re-
mark, '• In his days Nebuchadnezzar,
king of Babylon, came up. and Jehoi-
akim became his servant three years,"
2 Kgs. 24 : 1, is easily explained. The
title is given by anticipation, and the
" three years " are to be reckoned from
605 to 603 inclusive. The rebellion of
Jehoiakira, entered upon, probabl)', be-
cause Nebuchadnezzar was carrying on
wars in other parts of Asia, took place
p.. c. 602, and was punished by the irrup-
tion of Chaldseans, Syrians, Moabites,
and Ammonites, incited, perhaps, b}'
Nebuchadnezzar, who, as soon as pos-
sible, sent his troops against Jerusa-
lem, and had him taken prisoner, but
ultimately released him. See Jehoi-
AKiM. 2 Kgs. 24 : 2. After his death
his son Jehoiachin reigned, and against
him Nebuchadnezzar, for the third time,
invaded Palestine and besieged Jerusa-
lem. Jehoiachin and his family and
household voluntarily submitted them-
selves, the city was taken, and all the
treasures of the house of the Lord and
of the palace, and all the principal in-
habitants of the city, were carried to
Babylon. 2 Kgs. 24 : 1 2-1 6. Mattaniah,
the uncle of Jehoiachin, whose name was
changed to Zcdekiah, was put upon the
throne, but after a reign of nearly ten
years he rebelled, and was punished by
Nebuchadnezzar, who went up against
Jerusalem and reduced the city to the
horrors of famine before taking it.
Zedekiah's two sons were killed before
his eyes and then his eyes put out. and
he, as a captive, was carried to Babvlon.
B. c. 5S8. 2 Kgs. 25 : 7. On Nebuchad-
nezzar's order. Jeremiah was kindly
treated. Jer. 39 : 11-14.
The scenes related in the first four
chapters of Daniel occurred during
Nebuchadnezzar's reign. See Daniel.
Two incidents there recorded have re-
ceived remarkable confirmation from
recently-deciphered inscriptions, which
are quoted by Dr. Buddensieg in his
pamphlet Die Aanyrischen Auii(/rtihnvff€u
mid das Alte 7'efitnmeut, 1880 ("the
Assyrian Excavations and the Old
Testament"), pp. G4, 65. The words,
" The king spake and said. Is not this
great Babylon, that I have built for
the house of my kingdom, by the might
of my power, and for the honor of my
majesty ?" Dan. 4 : 30, are proved to
be characteristic bj' those on an in-
scription : " I say it, I have built the
great house which is the centre of
Babylon for the seat of my rule in
Babylon." Of the king's madness there
is of course no direct mention. But
I
*
TT
m
f
SL
1>
In.scribpd Brick of Nehuchiidnezza".
there is an inscription which is read by
Sir H. Rawlinson in a manner which
finds its readiest explanation in the
fact stated in Dan. 4:33: '• For four
603
NEB
NEG
years the residence of my kingdom did
not deligbt my heart; in no one of my
posi^esgions did I erect any important
building by my might. I did not put up
buildings in Babylon for myself and for
the honor of my name. In the worship
of Merodach. my god, I did not sing his
})raise, nor did I provide his altar with
sacrifices, nor clean the canals."
Nebuchadnezzar was a mighty mon-
arch, and is denominated " king of
kings" by Daniel, 2: 'M, and ruler of a
" kingdom with power and strength and
glory. ' He gave much attention to the
architectural adornment of Babylon, and
amongst other great structures bui.t the
hanging-gardens, on a. large and aitificial
mound, terraced up to look like a hill.
This great work, called by the iincients
one of the Seven Wonders of the world,
was executed in order to please his wife,
whose maiden home had been in a hilly
country. Secular history also tells us
of vast projects of irrigation and a canal-
system which he carried out. An idea
of the extent of this monarch's building
enterprises may be drawn frou) the fact
that nine-tenths of the bricks found
amongst the ruins c f the ancient caj.ital
are inscribed with his name.
Nebuchadnezzar was a cruel despot and
the perfect ty]ie of an Oriental autocrat,
as is proven by the murder of the two
boys in the presence of their father,
Zodekiah. the resoliiMon to punish a
failure to discover his dream, Dan. 2,
with the death of the astrologers, etc.,
and the requisition of worship for ihe
golden image on the plain of Dura. He
is said to have worshipped the " King of
heaven," Dan. 4 : 37, but it may be
questioned whether he did not conceive
of the .Tchovah of the Hebrews in be only
one of many gods. He died about B. c.
561. after a reign of 44 years.
NEBUCHADREZZAR, Jer. 91 :
2. 7, and elsewhere in Jeremiah. Kze.
26 : 7, the more correct translitera-
tion of the name Nkbijchadniczzah,
which see.
NEBUSHAS'BAN (Nebo 8are»
tvf), the chief of the eunuchs of Nebu-
chadnezzar. Jer. 39 : 13.
NEBUZAR-A'DAN (Xebo Pe»ch
pnnteriti/), ca))tain of the body-guard
of Nebuchailnezzar. 2 Kgs. 25 : S. He
conducted the siege of .Terusalem to a
successful issue, the particulars of which
fiOl
are given in 2 Kgs. 26 : 8-21. He treated
Jeremiah with generous consideration, as
Nebuchadnezzar commanded. Jer. 39 :
11; 40:1. His speech to Jeremiah is
preserved in Jer. 40 : 2, sqq. When
Nebuchadnezzar, five years later, be-
sieged Tyre, Nebuzar-adan came again
to Jerusalem, and carried off seven hun-
dred and forty-five Jews more into cap-
tivitv. Jer. 32 : :^0.
NE'CHO, a king of Egypt, son of
Psammetichus, founder of the twenty-
sixth dynasty, A. n. 612-596. He greatly
enlarged Egyptian trade. For peaceful
and warlike operations he had ships
built after the pattern of the Syrian
triremes. He endeavored to unite the
Red and Mediterranean Seas. Herod-
otus states (II. ^ 158) that 120,000
Egyptians lost their lives in making
the excavation. But he discontinued
his project in consequence of an oracle
which warned him '*that he was labor-
ing for the barbarians," as the Egyptians
called all such as spoke a language dif-
ferent from their own. It was after this
that he built the ships mentioned above.
He sent out a fleet manned by Phoeni-
cians, which circumnavigated Afiica in
three years. He also directed military
ojierations against enfeebled Assyria,
but was defeated i>y Nebuchadnezzar
at Carchemish, on the Euphrates, n. c.
605. History relates no further wars
of Necho's. He is brought before us in
the sacred narrative first in this expe-
dition against Assyria. 2 Chr. 35 : 20.
King Josiah marched against him, and
c'o?ed with him in battle in spite of the
message he sent that he was under a
divine commission in making war. The
battle occurred at Megiddo, and Josiah
was killfed by an arrow. On his return
Neclio drposed the son of Josiah. Jeho-
ahaz, whom the peojile had proclaimed
king, and put on the throne Eliakim,
whose name he changed to Jehoiakim.
2 Chr. 36 : 4.
NEC'ROi>IANCER. Deut. 18:11.
See Divination.
NEDABI'AII {irhom Jehovah im-
pelled), a descendant of David. 1 Chr.
9:18.
NEG'IIVAH (" Htn'iHied iiisfnnnenf),
used in Ps. 61, title ; the singular of
" Neginotli."
NiSdl'INOTH, a word occurring
in the titles of Ps. 4. 6. 54, 66, 67, 76,
NEH
NEH
and in the margin of Hab. 3 : 19. It
seems to be a general designation for
musical instruments, and is translated
"stringed instruments" in Hab. 3:19.
It thus includes the harp, sackbut, etc.
NEHEL'A.IIITE, an appellative
of Shemaiah, Jer. 29 : 24, 31, 32, and
translated in the margin "dreamer.'
As no town of Nehelam is known, it is
possible the appellation is meant as a
play on the " dreamers " whom Jeremiah
denounces.
NEHEMI'AH (whom Jehovah con-
solexj. 1. Son of Hachaliah, the dis-
tinguished and pious restorer and gov-
ernor of Jerusalem af er the Babylonian
exile. The forlorn condition of the
remnant of returned Hebrews in Jerusa-
lem awakened his deepest sj'mpathy and
enkindled his patriotism, ch. 1 : 4. The
condition of his feelings soon became
known to King Artaxerxes, at whose
court he held the high position of cup-
bearer. 2:1. At his eager request, 2:
5, the king granted Xehemiah permis-
sion to return to the land of his fathers,
2 : 7, and gave him letters of safe escort
to the governors beyond the Euphrates,
and orders for timber on the keejjer of
the royal forest.
At Jerusalem desolation and ruin met
him on every hand, but he makes the
proposition and oversees the execution
of restoring the city. 2:18. The people
co-operate heartily with their enthusias-
tic leader in the reconstruction of the
walls and gates, but the work is not com-
pleted without insidious and determined
opposition. Sanballat was at the head
of it. These enemies endeavored to
overthrow Neheraiah by false charges
of intended rebellion against the Persian
supremacy, 6 : 7-19, and to intimidate
him, but all in vain.
The work of reconstruction accom-
plished, he re-established the religious
customs of his fathers by bringing the
Law into new esteem, 8 : 3, and the re-
institution of the Sabbath, oflferingjj, etc.,
10 : 29, sqq. He also made special legis-
lation for the government of the city.
Nehemiah administered the govern-
i.ient of Jerusalem twelve years, 5: 14,
and at the end of this period returned to
Persia, where he remained for some time.
Nell. 13 : 6. During his absence most
flagrant abuses crept in, which on his
return he made it his first business to
correct, especially the violation of the
Sabbath and heathen marriages, ch. 13.
By these means he restored his people,
in some degree, to their former happy
condition, and jtrobably remained in
power till his death, which it is supposed
took place in Jerusalem. Few men in
any age of the world have combined in
themselves a more rigid adherence to
duty, a sterner opposition to wrong, pri-
vate or pub.ic, a more unswerving taith
in God, or a purer patriotism, than Nehe-
miah.
Book of, is the sixteenth in the order
of the books of the 0. T. It may be re-
garded as a continuation of or supple-
ment to the book of Ezra, which imme-
diately precedes it. It is concerned
with Nehemiah's great work of rebuild-
ing Jerusalem and the reclamation of
the customs and laws of Moses, which
had fallen into desuetude. It gives the
whole history of this movement in the
circumstances which led to it, the ele-
ments of opposition which threatened to
defeat it, and the complete success which
crowned it. Incidentally we are admitted
to a glance at the then couditiou, moral
and political, of the Jews, at the growing
bitterness between them and the Samari-
tans, and at some scenes in Assyrian life.
The account of the walls and gates in
ch. 3 is among the most valuable docu-
ments for the settlement of the topography
of ancient Jerusalem. The registers and
lists of names are also of value. Nehe-
miah is the author of the first seven
cha])ters. and part of the twelfth and
thirteenth. The chiingefrom the use of
the first person to that of the third in
the remaining chapters, and the fact
that some names in the lists were not
extant till after Nehemiah's death, point
to some other hand as their author.
2. One who returned in the first ex-
pedition from Babylon under Zerubba-
bel. Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 7: 7.
3. The son of Azbuk, who helped to
repair the gates of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 :
16.
NE'HILOTH, a word found at the
beginning of the fifth Psalm. Its signi-
fication. '• perforated." points to wind in-
struments, such as the flute. The tit'e
of the fifth Psalm may be thus trans-
lated : " A Psalm of Davii. addressed
to the master of music, presiding over
the flutes."
605
NEH
NER
NE'HUM {<-nmfort), one who re-
turned with Zerubbabel, Neh. 7:7,: he
is culleil Rehum in Ezr. 2 : 2.
NEHUSH'TA [brass), mother of
Jehoiachin. 2 Kgs. 24 : 8,
NEHUSH'TAN [bmzen thhuf), a
name given by Hezekiah, king of Ju-
Uah, 2 Kgs. 18 : 4, to the brazen serpent
that Moses had set up in the wilderness,
Num. 21 : 8, and which had been pre-
served by the Israelites to that lime.
Hezekiah caused it to be burned, because
tile people had come to regard it as an
idol, " burning incense to it," and in de-
rision gave it the name of '•' Nehushtan."
NE'IELi {(yedsured of God), a place
which formed one of the landmarks of
the boundary of Asher and Zebulun.
Josh. 19 : 27. It occurs betvveen Jiph-
thah-el and Cabul. Neiel may pos-
sibly be represented by Mi'ur, a village
conspicuously placed on a lofty moun-
tain-brow just halfway betvveen the two.
Conder suggests Y'anin, 16 miles east
of Ciesarea. as the site of Neiel.
NEIGH'BOR. Luke 10: 29. The
Pharisees restricted the meaning of the
word "neighbor" to those of their own
nation or to their friends. But our Sa-
viour informed them that all men were
their neighbors, and illustrated the
jtroposition in the parable of the Good
Samaritan who helped the wounded Jew
in spite of the bitter feeling existing be-
tween the Samaritans and the Jews.
NE'KEB [cai-ern), one of the towns
on the boundary of Naphtali. Josh. 19 :
33. It lay between Adami and Jabneel.
The English Exploration party found
in this district two sites, near each other,
called id-Dmiieh and Ntkel.
NEKO'DA [dhthuinhhcd), one
whose descendants returned from the
Captivity with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 48.
They werfe not able to prove their He-
brew extraction. Ezr. 2 : 59, 60.
NEJnU'EL {dn,, of God). 1. A
Reubcnite. Num. 26 : 9.
2. A son of Simeon. Num. 26 : 12; 1
Chr. 4 : 24 ; he is also called Jemuel in
(ien. 46: 10 and Ex. 6 : 15.
NEMU'EI.ITES, descendants of
Neinuel, the son of Simeon. Num. 26:
12.
NE'PHEG (sproiit). 1. A brother
of Korah. Ex. 6 : 21.
2. A son of David, born at .Terusalem.
2 Sam. 6: 15; I Chr. 3:7; 14 : 6.
606
NEPH'EW, in the A. V., should
always be understood "grandchild" or
" descendant " generally, as was the old
English usage. Job 18 : 19; Isa. 14 : 22.
NE'PHISH, incorrect form of Na-
phish. 1 Chr. 1 : 31 : 5 : 19.
NEPHISH'ESIM, a corruption
of Nkphiisim, which see. Neh. 7 : 52.
NEPH^TALI, NEPH'THA-
LIM, forms of "Naphtali." Matt. 4:
13, 15; Rev. 7:6.
NEPH'TOAH {openinf,), THE
WATER OF. The spring or source
of the water of Nephtoah, was one of the
landmarks between Judah and Benjamin.
Josh. 15 : 9 ; 18 : 15. It has been located
north-west of Jerusalem and identified
with Ain Lifta, a spring situated a little
distance above the village of the same
name. But Conder makes it identical
with Ain 'Atdn, south-west of Bethle-
hem, and from whence an old aqueduct
once led to the temple, and now at inter-
vals supplies the Haram area at Jerusa-
lem through Pilate's aqueduct.
NEPHU'SIM, NEPHISH'E-
SIM (ewpdusious), some who returned
with Zerubbabel from Babylon. Ezr. 2 :
50 : Neh. 7 : 52.
NER (lif/ht, lamp), father of Kish,
and grandfather of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 33.
He is named, 1 Chr. 9 : 36, as brother of
Kish. This Kish was an uncle of the
other. 1 Chr. 9 : 39.
NE'REUS, a Christian at Rome.
Rom. 16 :15.
NER'GAL (great hern), a deity of
the Assyrians, and corresponding to
Mars. 2 Kgs. 17 : 30. Monuments have
been found with his name and titles.
(See cut p. 612.)
NER'GAL-SHARE'ZER (fre-
prince), the name of two Babylonian
noblemen, Jer. 39 : 3, 13, Avho accom-
panied Nebuchadnezzar in his expedi-
tion against Zedekiah. One of these
individuals is entitled Rab-mag. This
designation probably means "chief of
the magicians." He is generally iden-
tified with Neriglissar of profane his-
tory, who married Nebuchadnezzar's
daughter, and ascended the throne two
years after that monarch's death. A
palace built by him has been discovered
among the ruins of Babylon, and his
name found on bricks.
NE'RI {lamp of Jehovah), one of the
ancestors of our Lord. Luke 3 : 27.
NEK
NEZ
NERI'AH (lanij) of Jehocnh), the
father of Baruch. Jer. 32: 12, etc.
NET. See Fish, Fishing.
NETHAN'EEL {gh-en of God). 1.
A captain in the tribe of Issachar in the
wilderness. Num. 1:8: 2 : 5 ; 7 : 18 ; 10 :
15.
2. Fourth son of Jesse. 1 Chr. 2:14.
3. A priest in David's time. 1 Chr.
15 : 24.
4. A Levite. 1 Chr. 24:6.
5. A son of Abed-edom. 1 Chr. 26:4.
6. A prince in the reign of Jehosh-
aphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 7.
7. A Levite in the lime of Josiah. 2
Chr. 35 : y.
8. One of those who married strange
wives in the time of Ezra. Ezr. 10:22.
9. A priest in the days of Joiakim.
Neh. 12:21.
10. One who played on musical in-
struments at the dedication of the wall
of Jerusalem. Neh. 12 : 36.
NETHAXI'AH {<jiven of Jehovah).
1. The son of Elishama, and of royal
blood. 2 Kgs. 25:23, 25; Jer. 40:"^ 8;
41:9.
2. A son of Asaph. 1 Chr. 25:2, 12.
3. A Levite in the reign of Jphosh-
aphat. 2 Chr. 17:8.
4. The father of Jehudi. Jer. 36 : 14.
NETH'INIM. Ezr. 2 :43, 58. The
word signifies "given" or "dedicated
persons." This class are mentioned
prominently in Ezra and Nehemiah as
returning from the Captivity and con-
stituting an oflScial order. They are
mentioned in association with the Le-
vites and priests, as well as with the
porters and singers. 1 Chr. 9:2; Ezr.
7 : 24. They had been appointed for
the first time by David, as far as we
know, to do service for the Levites. Ezr.
8 : 20. Some were therefore associated
with the temple-service and dwelt at
Jerusalem. Neh. 11 : 21. As in the
case of the priests and Levites, "no toll,
tribute, or custom " was exacted from
them. Ezr. 7 : 24. The service they per-
formed was. no doubt, of a menial sort ;
still, their names were all carefully pre-
served. Ezr. 8 : 20.
It has been thought by many that
the Gibeonites, Josh. 9 : 27. who were
made to do menial service for the con-
gregation, and also the fifty captive
Midianites, Num. 31 : 47, who were por-
tioned oflF to the Levites, occupied a
similar position to the Nethinim. The
name, however, is of a later date.
NETO'PHAH [droppimj), a town,
apparently in Judah, the name of which
occurs only in the catalogue of those
who returned with Zerubbabel from the
Captivity. Ezr. 2:22: Neh. 7 : 26 ; 1
Esd. 5 : 18. Netophah was really an old
place. Two of David's guard, 1 Chr.
27 : 13, 15, were Netophathites. The
" villages of the Netophathites " were the
residence of the Levites. 1 Chr. 9 : 16.
Levites who inhabited these vilhiges
were singers. Neh. 12 : 28. From Neh.
7 : 26, the town seems to have been in
the neighborhood (»f, or closely connected
with, Bethlehem. Van de Velde suggests
Antnbeh, 2 miles north-east of Bethle-
hem, as the site of Netophah. The
British E.xploration party note ruins
north-east of Bethlehem that were called
Mctoba or Usnm Toba, probably the
same as Antnbeh of Van de Velde, and
Conder identifies it as ancient Netophah.
NETOPH'ATHITE, an inhabit-
ant of Netophah. 2 Sam. 23: 28; 2 Kgs.
25 : 23.
NET'TLES, well-known wild
plants, the leaves of which are armed
with stings connected with a small bag
of poison ; and when the leaves are
pressed by the hand, the stings pene-
trate the flesh and produce a swelling
with a sharp, burning pain. Those who
grope among the ruins of Palestine are
often made to know that these weeds
still abound there. The presence of
nettles betokens a waste and neglected
soil; hence the figure in Isa. 34: 13;
Hos. 9 : 6. The word rendered " net-
tles" in Job 30 : 7 ; Prov.24:31: Zeph.
2 : 9 is supposed to refer to a diiferent
species of nettles, or to some shrub of
similar properties, else it could not af-
ford shelter. Tristram believes this
plant to have been the formidable
pricklv acanthus.
NEW MOON. 1 Sam. 20 : 5. See
Moox, Fkasts, Month.
NEWTES'TAf^IENT. See Bible.
NEW YEAR. See Trumpets,
Feast of.
NEZ I' AH (fnn}ou8), one whose
children were Nethinim and returned
from the Captivity to Jerusalem. Ezr.
2:54: Neh. 7:56.
NE'ZIB (statue), a city of Judah,
Josh. 15 : 43. in the lowland-, one of
007
NIB
NIG
the same group with Keilah and Mare-
shah. Eusebius and Jerome place it on
the road between Eltutheropolis and
Hebron, 7 or 9 miles from the former,
and there it still stands under the al-
most identical name of Beit Nunih or
Chirheh Aasib. The ruins are of con-
siderable extent, consisting of massive
foundations, broken columns, large
building- stones, and a grand tower 60
feet square.
NIB'HAZ(/.o;A-er), an idol-god of the
Avites. 2 Kgs. 17: HI. The name being
derived from a word meaning "to bark,"
it is supposed that the god was repre-
sented by the figure of a dog. It would
therefore be allied to Anubis of the
Egyptians. A large figure of a dog was
found on the road from Beirout to
Tripolis.
NIB'SHAN (light, soft soil), one of
the six cities in the " Midbar," or wilder-
ness of Judah. Josh. 15 : 62. It was
apparently near En-gedi, on the western
shore of the Dead Sea. Its site is unknown.
NICA'NOR {conqueror), one of the
first seven deacons appointed by the early
Church. Acts 6 : 5.
NICODE'MUS (victor of the
people), a ruler of the Jews, and a dis-
tinguished member of the sect of the
Pharisees, whose conversation with the
Messiah, as recorded in John 3, reveals
one of the grand doctrines of the
Christian system — viz., regeneration by
the Spirit of God. On this occasion he
betrayed himself as a timid disciple, or
as one just seeking after the truth, for
he came to Christ under the cover of
darkness. Later he defends Christ
against the bitter injustice of the Phari-
sees, John 7 : 60, and finally he appears
as a professed follower, helping in the
sepulture of the crucified Lord. John
19 : ;-!9.
NICOLA'ITANS, an ancient sect
whose deeds are expressly and strongly
reprobated. Rev. 2: 6, 16. Some have
supposed that they were the followers of
Nicolas, Acts 6 : 5, one of the first
deacons of the church, whom they regard
as having degenerated from the true
faith. For this view there is no
authority. Others regard the term
" Nicolaitans " as a symbolical expres-
sion. Since "Nicolas" means "victor
of the people," and " Balaam " " devourer
of the ])eople," the two. in symbolical
60S
unity, signify religious seducers of the
people. It is more ])robable that the
Nicolaitans were identical with those
who held the doctrine of Balaam, men-
tioned in V. 14. Cf. 2 Pet. 2 : 15. So,
likely, the Nicolaitans associated forni-
cation and the eating of things sacrificed
to idols with an outward profession of
Christianity.
NICOLAS (victor of the people), one
of the deacons of the church at Jeru-
salem in the days of the apostles. Acts
6 : 5. He was a native of Antioch,
converted to Judaism, and thence to
Christianity.
NICOP'OLIS (city of victory), the
city where Paul determined to winter.
Tit. 3 : 12, There has been some uncer-
tainty in respect to the city intended, as
there were four of this name in Asia, five
in Europe, and one in Africa. It must
have been one of three cities: (])Nicop-
olis in Thrace; (2) in Cilicia ; or (8) in
Epirus. The subscription to the Epistle
to Titus calls it " Nicopolis of Mace-
' donia" — /, e., Thrace. This subscrip-
I tion, however, is no part of the inspired
} text, and there is little doubt that the
view of Jerome is correct, which identifies
the Pauline Nicopolis with the noted
' city of that name in Epirus. It was
built by Augustus Ctcsar to commemorate
his victory over Antony and Cleopatra
at the battle of Actium, b. c. 31. Its
' modein name is Paleoprevesa, or "old
Prevesa." The place has extensive ruins
i of temples, theatres, aqueducts, and a
small building in the form of a pagan
temple, which tradition says was used
by Paul as a house of prayer. Some
suppose that Paul was arrested here,
and taken to Rome for his final trial.
NI'GER (black), a surname of Sim-
eon. Acts 13 : 1.
NIGHT, one division of the twenty-
four hours comjiosing a day. It includes
the period of darkness, Gen. 1 : 5, and
was divided from the day by "lights in
the firmament." Gen. 1 : 14. Figura-
tively, it has been taken to designate
death, John 9 : 4, and sin, 1 Thess. 5 : 5.
In the beautiful passage, "There shall be
no night there," Rev, 21 : 25 : 22 : 5, the
meaning is that heaven is a place where
no sorrow or sin or death finds entrance.
NIGHT-HAWK, a species of bird
unclean by the Levitical law. Lev. 11 :
16, but not the bird known to us by this
NIL
NIL
name. The translators supposed that (Strix Jlammea), which lodges in the
the common night-jar {Vaprimnhjus) \ large buildings or ruins of Egypt and
was the bird alluded to by the Hebrew Syria, and sometimes even in the dwell-
tachmas, but probably the screech-owl ing-houses, is intended. See Owl.
The Night-jar (Caprimxdgv^s).
NILE {blue, dark), the great river '
of Egypt and of Africa, and jirobably
the second longest river in the world,
its entire length being estimated at
4000 miles. The word " Nile " does not
occur in Scripture, but the river is
frequently referred to as Sihor or Shihor,
which means ''black" or ''turbid"
stream. Josh. 13 : .3 ; Isa. 23 : .3 : Jer. 2 :
18: 1 Chr. 13 : 5. It is also designated
simply " the river," Gen. 41 : 1 : Ex. 1 :
22 : 2 : .3, 5. and the '• flood of Egypt."
Am. 8:8:9:5. In the plural form this
word )/enr. rendered '• river," frequently
refers to the branches and canals i>f the
Nile. This famous river is connected
with the earliest history of the Egyptian |
and the Israelitish nations. Ex. 2:3: :
7 : 20. 21 : Xum. 11 : 5 : Ps. 105 : 29 : Jer. '
46 : 7, 8 : Zeeh. 14 : 1 7, 18. The Xile is
not named in the X. T. !
Physical Fefiturex. — The discovery of i
the true source of the Nile, and the
reason for its annual overflow, are two
scientific problems which have been dis-
cussed for upward of 2000 years. The ;
course of the stream is now known for '
about 3.300 miles, and with two interrup-
39
tions — the cataract of Syene (Assouan)
and the Upper Cataract — it is claimed
by Baedeker's Hmidhnok on Lower
Et/1/pt to be navigable throughout nearly
the whole of that distance. But as there
are many other cataracts, this statement
cannot be correct. The principal stream
is now known to be the White Nile,
while the Bine or BJnrk Nile is of greatec
importance in contributing to the annual
inundation of the lower river. The two
streams unite at the town of Khartooni,
the capital of Nubia, and from this point
to the mouths of the stream at Damietta
and Rosetta. upward of ISOO miles, it
falls 1240 feet, and attains its greatest
width a little below Khartoom and a
little above Cairo, at each of which
places it is about 1100 yards wide. The
source of the White Nile is doubtless Lake
Victoria Nyanza, the largest part of
which lies south of the equator, and from
3000 to 4000 feet above the level of the
sea. The White Nile is so named from
the color of the clay with which its waters
are stained. The Blue Nile resembles
a mountain-torrent, being liable to rise
suddenlv with the Abyssinian rains and
609
KIL
NIL
sweep away whatever it encounters in its
rapidly-descending course. The source
of the Blue Nile is high up in the Abys-
sinian mountains, from (iOOO to 10,000
feet above the sea-level, and in springs
which are regarded with superstitious
veneration by the neighboring people.
The river causes what would be other-
wise a barren valley to be one of the
most fertile regions in the world. Hence,
Herodotus justly calls Egypt "an ac-
quired country and the gift of the Nile."
The waters of the Nile now empt}" into
the sea through two streams, known as
the Damietta and the Rosetta mouths;
ancient writers, however, mention at
least seven branches or mouths through
which the Nile found its way to the sea.
There is the strongest proof that the Nile
has tilled up the sea for many miles to
the north, arid that its ancient mouths
were several miles farther south. It has
been ascertained that within the last
half century the mouth of the Nile has
advanced northward 4 miles, and the
maps of Ptolemy, of the
second and third centuries
of the Christian era, show
that the mouth was then
about 40 miles farther
south than at present.
Hence, at this rate of de-
posit, the sea-coast, in the
earlier history of ancient
Egy])t, must have been
nearly as far south as its
ancient capital, Memphis.
As rain seldom falls in
Jlgypt proper, the fertility
of the country is entirely
dependent upon the annual
rise of the Nile. This usu-
ally begins in June and con-
tinues until near the "end of
September, the river re-
maining stationary for two
or more weeks, and then
attaining its highest level
in October, when it begins
to subside. "The height
of the inundation most favorable for ag-
riculture at the present day has been as-
certained by long observation to be 2.3
cubits 2 inches — i.e., about 41 feet 2
inches, the cubit being 21 inches — while
in the time of Herodotus lO cubits suf-
ficed : and the god of the Nile in the
Vatican is therefore represcnied as sur-
010
rounded by sixteen children. A single
cubit more is apt to cause terrible de-
vastation in the Delta, and elsewhere
cover the fields destined for the autumn
crop, while a deficiency of 2 cubits causes
drought and famine in Upper Egypt."
(See Baedeker's Loicer Ef/i/pt.)
The successive years of famine in the
days of Joseph were doubtless due to a
deficient overflow of the Nile for those
years. Formerlj^ this annual inundation
turned Egj^pt into a vast lake, but in
later times the water has been distributed
by a great network of canals, from which
the huge basins of cultivated land into
which the canals divide the country, are
supplied with water of the depth required
to leave a deposit of mud to fertilize the
land. The native uses his feet to regu-
late the flow of water into each of the
squares or basins of land, and by a
dexterous movement of his toes forms or
removes a tiny embankment, as may be
required to admit the proper flow of
water. Another common mode is to use
The Shadoof.
the " shadoof," a bucket attached to a
long pole hung on a pivot, balanced by
a stone or a lumji of clay at one end, and
having the bucket on the other end. To
this (lay the Nile is lined for hundreds
of miles with these shadoofs, worked by
men, women, and children, who lift the
water out of the river to irrigate their
NIL
NIM
fields. Both these methods are believed
to be very ancient, and may be alluded
to by Moses in contrasting the fountains
and rainfalls in Palestine with the ab-
sence of this supply in Egypt : '* For the
land, whither thou goest in to possess it,
is not as the land of Egypt, from whence
yecarae out, where thou sowedst thy seed,
and wateredst it with thy foot as a garden
of herbs." Deut. 11 : 10, 11. A number
of festivals were celebrated in connection
with the annual rise of the Nile, which
appear from the monuments to have
been common as early as the fourteenth
,tHl^tt.^|^EH|+Hit11tt|h4|
r
1^1
I
If
^
The ^llomete^
century b. c. The height of the Nile was
measured by the Nilometer, a square
well having in its centre an octagonal
column, on which were inscribed the
ancient Arabic measures and Cuiic in-
scriptions. This was erected in A. D.
716, and was used to determine the
height of the overflow, upon which was
based the rate of taxation. The govern-
ment, however, cheated the poor people
by false statements of the overflow, indi-
cated by this measurement.
The ancient Egyptians worshipped the
river Nile as a god. Two of the ten
plagues sent upon Pharaoh and Egypt
before the departure of the Israelites
were turning the water of the Nile into
blood and bringing forth frogs from the
river. Ex. 7 : 15-25 ; 8 : 3-7. The papy-
rus reeds — whence paper is designated —
the flags, the lotus, and the various colored
flowers formerly beautifying the banks
of the river have nearly all disappeared,
thus fulfilling prophecy. Isa. 19 : 6, 7.
This river, so intimately associated with
the early history of the human race, is
a favorite resort for tour'.sts, who can go
in steamers as far as the First Cataract,
near Assouan (Syene), where were the
great quarries which supplied stone for
ancient Egyptian monuments, and from
Phila? up to Aboo-Simbel and the
Second Cataract. The Nile voyage,
broken by donkey rides and visits to the
pyramids, tombs, and ruins of temples
and palaces of the Pharaohs, is one of.
the greatest enjoyments and best recrea-
tions of bodv and mind.
NIM'RAH {limpid, pure), a city of
Gad east of the Jordan ; noticed only in
Num. 32 : 3, and probably identical with
Beth-nimrah. Num. 32 : 36. Its site may
be on the hill of Nimrim, about 3 miles
east of the Jordan and 10 miles north of
the Dead Sea, where are some ruins.
NIM'RIM {limpid, pure). The word
"Nimrim," plural of "Nimrah," is prob-
ably from the root I^imr', which means
a "panther" or "leopard." "The
waters of Nimrim " was a stream or
brook in the territory of Moab, referred
to by Isaiah and Jeremiah. Isa. 16:6;
Jer. "^ 48 : 34 ,• comp. Num. 32:3, 36.
There are copious springs near Nim-
rah, and Porter, Conder, and Baedeker
would locate the waters of Nimrim in its
vicinity. Farther to the south and near
the south-east corner of the Dead Sea is
a Wady N'mirah. Near the sources of
this wady are ruins bearing the name
of "the Springs of N'mirtth." Near
this wady there is another, called the
"Wady of the Willows," which may be
" the brook of the willows " of Isa.
15 : 7.
IVIxU'ROD (Jirm, strong), the son of
Cush and grandson of Ham. Gen. 10 : 8.
He is described as having been a
"mighty hunter before the Lord," and
was thus pre-eminent in the chase, a
pursuit practised very early in the
history of the race. He, however, was
also a great conqueror, "a mighty one
in the earth," and founded the classical
and most ancient kingdom of Babylon,
611
NIM
NIN
and built the city of that name and
others. Gen. 10 : 10.
The territory and kingdom of Babylon
was long known, after the name of its
first hero, as the laud of Aiinrod. Mio.
6:6.
NIM'SHI (drotrn otif, saved), the
father of Jehu, the king. 1 Kgs. 19 : 16 ;
2 Kgs. 9:2, U: 2 Chr. 22:7.
NIN'EVEH (perhaps dwelling of
Nin), the capital and greatest city of
Assyria.
Situation. — The city was founded by
Asshur, Gen. 10 : 11, and was situated on
the eastern bank of the river Tigris,
opposite the modern town of Mosul. It
was about 250 miles in a direct lino
north of the rival city of Babylon, and
not far from 550 miles north-west of the
Persian Gulf.
Ejtcnt. — Assyrian scholars are not
agreed in respect to the size of this
ancient city. Some, as Layard, regard
it as covering a large parallelogram,
whose sides were each fi'om 18 to 20
miles long, and the ends 12 to 14 miles
wide. This view would include the ruins
now known as Kouyunjik, Nimrud,
Khorsabad, and Keremies. Diodorus
Siculus makes the circumference of the
city 55 miles, including pastures and
pleasure-grounds. See article Assyria,
p. 82. This view of the great
extent of the city is, on the
other hand, sharply disputed
by Rawlinson, who thinks it
highly improbable that this
ancient city should have had
an area about ten times that
of London. He would reject
it on two grounds, the one
historical and the other topo-
graphical. He maintains
that the ruins of Khorsabad,
Keremies, Nimrud, and
Kouyunjik bear on their
b-.icks distinct local titles,
and that these titles are
f )und attaching to distant
cities in the historical in-
8cri])ti()ns. According to
his view, Nimrud would be
identified with Calah, and
Khorsabad with Dur-sargina,
oi- " the city of Sargon." He
further claims that Assyrian
writers do not cftnsider these places to be
jiaits of Nineveh, but distinct and s jia-
()I2
rate cities ; that Calah was for a long time
the capital, while Nineveh was a provin-
cial town; that Dur-sargina was built
by Sargon — not at Nineveh, but near
Nineveh ; and that Scripture similarly
distinguishes Calah as a place separate
from Nineveh, and so far from it that
there was room for a great city between
them. See Gen. 10 : 12. He also sug-
gests that a smaller city in extent would
answer the requirements of the descrip-
tion in the book of Jonah, which makes
it a city of "three days' journey." Jon.
3 : 3. He would limit its extent, there-
fore, to the ruins immediately opposite
Mosul, including two principal mounds,
known as Nebi-Yunus and Kouyunjik.
The latter mound, which lies about half
a mile north-west of the former, is the
larger of the two. In shape it is an
irregular oval, the sides, sloping at a
steep angle, furrowed with numerous
ravines, worn out by the rains of thirty
centuries. The greatest height of the
mound is about 95 feet, and it is esti-
mated to cover an area of 100 acres.
The other mound, Nebi-Yunus, is tri-
angular in shape, loftier in height, with
more precipitous sides than the other
mound, and covers an area of about 40
acres. The reputed tomb of Jon;ih is on
the western side of the mound, while the
Nergal'.s Emblem, tlie Man-Lion.
eastern portion forms a burial-ground
for Mohammedans.
Irovi Fairbav-n.
NIN
NOA
History. — As already stated, Nineveh
was founded by Asshur, or, as the mar-
ginal reading of Gen. 10 : 1 1 states,
Nimrod. When Nineveh became the
capital of Assyria is not definitely known,
but it is generally believed it was during
the reign of Sennacherib. The proph-
ecies of the books of Jonah and Na-
hum are chiefly directed against this
city. The latter prophet indicates the
mode of its capture. Nah. 1:8; 2 : 6,
8; 3:18. Nineveh was the capital of
Assyria during the height of the gran leur
of that empire, and in the time of Sen-
nacherib, Esarhaddon, and Assurbanipal.
It was besieged for two years by the com-
bined forces of the Medes and Babylo-
nians,was captured, and finally destroyed
B. c. 006.
liuins. — According to George Smith,
Nineveh is now represented by the
mounds of Kouyunjik or Telarmush,
Nebi-Yunus, and some surrounding re-
mains. The circuit of the walls, includ
ing these ruins, measures about 8 miles.
The palace-mounds are on the side next
to the river Tigris. Excavations have
been made by M. Botta, Layard, Hor-
muzd Rassam, Loftus, and George Smith.
They have brought to light, among others,
the following noted buildings : (1) Three
ruined temples, built and restored by
many kings in different ages; (2) the
palace of Shalmaneser, as improved by
subsequent rulers; (3) a palace of an-
other ruler, restored by Sennaeherib and
Esarhaddon : (4) a palace of Tiglath-
pileser II.; (5) a temple of Nebo : (6)
the south-west palace of Sennacherib;
(7) the north-west palace of the . same
ruler; (8) the city walls built by the
latter king and restored by Assurbani-
pal. For further accounts see Assyria
and George Smith's AsxijriaH Discoveries
(N. Y., 187.0).
NI.V'EVITES, the inhabitants of
Nineveh. Luke 11 : 30.
NI'SAX. Neh. 2:1. See Month.
NIS'ROCH ifjreat emjle f), an As-
syrian deity in whose temple at Nineveh
Sennacherib was murdered by his sons
Adrammelech and Sharezer. .2 Kgs. 19 :
37; Isa. 37 : 38. The etymology of the
name, even the Shemitic origin of the
word, is doubtful, iind nothing definite
is known of this deity. Some suppose
him to be represented in the Assyrian
tablets by a human form with the wings
G14
and head of an eagle. Others suggest
that the word refers to Noah's dove, which
had been made an object of worship.
Nisroch. {After Layard.)
NI'TRE, an earthy alkaline salt,
resembling and used like soap, which,
separating from the bottom of the lake
Natron, in Egypt, and rising to the
top, is condensed by the heat of the sun
into a dry and hard substance similar
to the Smyrna soap, and is the soda
of common earth. It is found in many
other parts of the East. Vinegar has
no effect upon common nitre, and of
course this could not be meant by the
wise man, who in Prov. 25 : 20 says, 'M«
he that taketh away a garment in cold
weather, and as vinegar upon nitre, so is
he that singeth songs to a heavy heart."
Now, as vinegar has no effect upon nitre,
but upon natron or soda its action is very
obvious, it seems the English translation
should have been "natron." In Jer.
2 : 22 the same word again is improperly
used : " For though thou wash thee with
nitre, and take thee much soap, yet thine
iniquity is marked before me, saith the
Lord God." The alkaline earth natron
is obviously designed in this passage. It
is found as an impure carbonate of soda
on the surface of the earth in Egypt and
Syria, and is also native in some parts
of Africa in hard strata or masses, and
is called trona, being used for the same
purposes as the barilla of commerce.
NO. See No-AMON.
NOADI'AII {irhnni Jehovah meets).
1. A Levite. Ezr. 8 : 33.
2. A prophetess upon whom Nehemiah
invoked the vengeance of (iod for her
NOA
NOA
attempt to hinder him in his work of
reconstruction. Neh. 6 : 14
NO'AH i)-ef<t),a.n eminent patriarch,
and the ninth in descent from Adam.
Gen. 6 : 8. He is described as a" just and
perfect" man who ''walked with God,"
Gen. 6 : 9, as a '' preacher of righteous-
ness," 2 Pet. 2 : 5, and has a place in the
catalogues of those who were eminent
for their faith. Heb. 11 : 7. Xoah is the
second father of the human race, all the
families of the earth being in a direct
line of descent from him.
The life of this patriarch was cast in
times of such unusual violence and
wickedness that the Almighty deter-
mined to destroy the agents in order
thereby to purify the world. Gen. 6:13.
This he accomplished by visiting the
earth with a deluge, which submerged
in its waters all the human family, Gen.
9:11, except eight persons. God re-
vealed his design to Xoah a full century
before its execution, and commanded
him to construct an ark. See Auk.
This preacher of righteousness during
this period warned his contemporaries
and exhorted them to repent. At the
end of this time Noah went into the
ai"k with his wife and his three sons
and their wives. By commandment of
God he also took with him of the clean
and unclean animals of the earth. These
alone were saved. All the rest in " whose
nostrils was the breath of life, of all that
was in the dry /aufl died." The waters
prevailed upon the earth one hundred and
fifty days, Gen. 7 : 24, at the end of which
time a wind from God dried them up, and
the ark rested upon the " mountains " of
Ararat. See Ararat.
The first thing Xoah did upon leaving
the^rk was to offer up on an altar which
he built a sacrifice that proved to be
well-pleasing to God. Gen. 8 : 20. He
thereupon received the promise that no
more should such a widespread destruc-
tion of the human race occur, and as a
pledge of this covenant God appointed
the rainbow. Its appearance was there-
after to remind men of the divine prom-
ise. Two commandments were also
given to Xoah. The one referred to the
meat of strangled animals or animals
dying a natural death : this he was for-
bidden to eat. The other referred to
murder, which was fo be punished by
the death of the murderer. Gen. 9 : 1-7.
The last incident narrated of this
eminent man betrays his weakness. He
had planted a vineyard, and, drinking
to excess, he on one occasion exposed
his shame. Ham. seeing his father's
nakedness, informed his brothers, who,
however, with becoming modesty, re-
fused to look upon their father in this
condition. On arousing from his de-
bauch the father uttered a «urse upon
the head of Canaan, Ham's son, and
uttered a special blessing upon Japheth.
Gen. 9:20-27.
Xoah was 950 years old at the time of
his death. Our Lord illustrates the sud-
I dcnness of his second coming and the
wickedness of the world by the circum-
! stances prior to the Flood. Matt. 24 :
32. 38.
NO'AH (mntiou), one of the five
rlaughters of Zelophehad. Num. 26 : 33 ;
27:1 ; 36:11 : Josh. 17:3.
NO-A'MON (place of Amou?), a
populous and celebrated city of Egypt,
and the capital of Upper Egypt, named
after the god Anion, and called by the
Greeks Diospolis, or " city of Zeus," but
better known by the name of "Thebes."
It was situated on both sides of the Xile,
from 400 to 500 miles from its mouth.
The only mention of the city in the Bi-
ble occurs in the prophecies. It is called
No. Eze. 30 : 1 4-1 6 : Jer. 46 : 25, and. mar-
gin, X'^o-amon, rendered '' populous No."
Nah. 3 : 8.
The Xile valley at Thebes, resembles
a vast amphitheatre, enclosed by the
grand forms of the Arabian and Lib3-an
mountains, the river running through
nearly the centre of this space. The
area surrounded by these mountain-
bulwarks is filled with ruins — avenues
! of sphinxes and statues, miles in length,
at the end of which were massive col-
umnal structures, the entrances to im-
mense temples and palaces, and colossal
images of the ancient Pharaohs, relics
of regal magnificence so extensive and
stupendous that the beholder might well
imagine all the grandest ruins of the
Old World had been brought together on
this Theban plain. The extent of the
city has been variously given by histo-
j rians. According to Strabo, it covered an
area 5 miles in length and 3 miles in
: breadth, and Diodorus makes its circuit
about the same. Wilkinson also infers
from its ruins that its length must have
615
NOA
NOB
been about 5^ miles and its breadth 3
miles. Others suppose that the ancient
city of Thebes, or No-amon, included
the three sites of Luxor, Karnak, and
Thebes, and that in the days of its glory,
from B. c. 1600 to B. c. 800, it stretched
Colossi: tiie Vocal Meiiiiion of Thebes.
about .3.3 miles on both banks of the Nile.
Certainly the ruins testify to a city of
great splendor, whose buildings, palaces,
and monuments were among the most
imposing in the world. Tlie temples,
tombs, and palaces have been described
under the article Egypt. The two co-
lossi, or immense statues, before the
destroyed temple of Amenophis III.,
are still standing, jiavtially buried in the
sand and considerably mutilat'd. They
are, however, yet some GO feet high, and
one of them is the *' vocal Memnon,' so
celebrated for the musical sound which
it is re])uted to have given forth, when
touched by the morning beams of the
rising sun, as a greeting of Ameno])lns
to his mother, Aurora. One of the obe-
lisks of Luxor, or Thebes, was trans-
ported to France in the reign of Louis
Philippe, and now stands in the I'lace
de la (oncordc in. Paris. The grandeur
of Thebes duiing the j)criod when it was
the capital of Upper Egypt was well
known to Homer, who speaks of its
hund.ed gates and twenty thousand war-
chariots, and Diodorus was infonied
that Sesostris took the Held with 000,000
tnfi
infantry, 24.000 horsemen, and 27,000
chariots. Thebes was captured and
sacked by Sargon, probably in the reign
of llezekiah, Nah. 3: 8, 10; was twice
destroyed — by Nebuchadnezzar and by
Assurbanipal. as predicted by Jeremiah,
48 : 25, 26 ; and was again burned by
the Persian Cambyses, B. c. 525, and
finally destroyed by Ptolemy X. Lath-
urus, B. c. 81.
NOB {lul<jht), a city of the priests
in Benjamin, near Jerusalem. 1 Sam.
22 : I'J : Isa. 10: 32; Neh. 11 : 31, 32.
In the time of Saul the tabernacle
and the ark were probably at this
place. 1 Sam. 21 : 1, 4. The city was
destroyed by Saul. 1 Sam. 22: 9-19.
Van de Velde proposed to identify
Nob with cl-Uuwujeh, H miles north-
east of Jerusalem, on the road to Ana-
thoth. and this view is favored by Tris-
tram, Baedeker, and Grove ; but Jeru-
salem cannot be seen from that point,
which is against this identification.
Porter suggests a site about half a
mile south of Tiileil el-Fitl (Gibeah),
where are ruins of cisterns, a tower,
and large hewn stones — a site which
commands a distant view of Zion.
Conder, however, considers Nob and
the Mizpeh of Jud. 20 : 1 ; Josh. 18 : 26 ;
1 Sam. 7: 15 as the same place, locating
both at jVehi Sumwil, about 4 miles from
Jerusalem, where he finds traces of a
court of the tabernacle. The site of
Nob n)ay be there, but that there should
be any trace of the ancient tabernacle
is exceedingly improbable. Moreover,
AVilson questions the proposed identifi-
cation of Conder, and would place its
site on the hill Scopus; while another
writer suggests that Nob is Almon under
another name, and proposes to place it 1
mile north-east of Anathoth.
NO'BAH (Ixfihi !!(/), the conqueror
of the citv of Kenath." Num. 32:42.
^O'liAll {l"(r/.-in;/],i\ name of Ke-
natii and the villages dependent on it,
given by Nobah when he conquered the
place. Num. 32:42; Jud. 8:11. It
would appear to have retained the name
for 200 years. It was about 48 miles east
of the Sea of (ialilee. See Kknath.
NO'BLKMAN, perhaps an officer
in the court of Ilerod. He came to
Christ to entreat him to heal his child,
who was at the ])oint of death. John
4:46-54. He believed Christ's words,
NOD
NUM
" Thy son liveth," and on returning '<
home found his child restored. '
NOD (Jii(/ht), the region eastward of
Eden, to which Cain fled from the pres-
ence of Jehovah. Gen. 4 : 14, 16. The
Chaldee interpreters apply the term to
Cain, and not to a land : "' He dwelt a
fugitive in the land."
IVO'DAB {noln'lihj), an Arab tribe
against which the trans-Jordanic tribes
waged war. 1 Chr. 5:19. The other
names associated with Nodab — Hagar
Jetur, and Nephish — were sons of Ish-
mael, 1 Chr. 1 : 31, which seems to point
to Nodab's descent from Ishmael also.
NO'E, the same as Noah. Matt. 24 :
37, etc.
NO'GAH {bn'f/htnef)fi), a son of
David, born at Jerusalem. 1 Chr. 3 :
7 : 14 : 6.
NO'HAH (rest), the fourth son of
Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 2.
NOI'SOME (Old French voiser," to
hurt") is used in the A. V. in the sense
of '' baneful." Ps. 91 : 3 : Eze. 14 : 21.
NON ( /?/?//). 1 Chr. 7 : 27. See Nrx.
NOPH, a city of Egypt. Isa. 19 :
13; Jer. 2:15; Eze. 30 : 13, 16; Hos.
9 : 6. See Mkmphis.
NO'PHAH (hlast), a town of Moab.
Num. 21 : 30. Ewald locates Nobah near
Ileshbon, and identifies it with Nophah.
Canon Cook suggests that Nophah may
be identical with A)-)ieibah,\0 miles south-
east of Medeba.
NOSE-JEWELS, mentioned in
Isa. 3 : 21, consisted of a ring of gold
Nose-Jewels worn in tlie East.
or other metal upon jvhich jewels were
strung. The nose-rings now worn by
the lower classes in Egypt are from 1
to 1^ inches in diameter, and are
passed through the right nostril.
NOVICE. 1 Tim. 3 : 6. The word in
the Greek means '* newly planted." Paul
counsels that such persons should not be
raised to the position of overseers or pas-
tors, urging that they were liable to be-
come proud and commit faults. There
were necessarily many novices in the
earlv church organizations.
NUM'BER. The following num-
bers were understood by the Hebrews
to have a symbolical or representative
significance :
1. T/n-ee was deemed to have a pecu-
liar mj'stic meaning. It is the number
of the Deity (the Trinity), of the thrice-
repeated '• Holy," Isa. 6:3; of the three-
fold priestly blessing, Num. 6 : 23-26 ;
Daniel's three hours of prayer. Dan.
6 : 10, etc.
2. Four symbolizes the world or hu-
manity. There are four winds, Eze. 37 :
9, four beasts, Rev. 4 : 6, and four living
creatures with four faces, four wings,
and four sides. Eze. 1 : 5—10, etc.
3. Five, the half of ten, as in E.x. 22 :
1 ; Lev. 22 : 14: Matt. 25 : 2, etc. The
Decalogue is divided into two tables,
each containing five commandments.
4-. Seven, the union of three and four,
is the number of the covenants between
God and man. It implies perfection.
The number occurs very frequently in
connection with both holy things and
things unholy; for example, the seven
priests that carried seven trumpets seven
times in front of the ark and around the
walls of Jericho, Josh. 6 : 4, the seven
days in the week, the seven churches.
Rev. 1 : 4, the seven jears of plenty in
Egypt, Gen. 41 : 26, the seven angels
with seven golden vials. Rev. 15 : 1 ; but
also the seven heads and seven crowns
of the dragon. Rev. 12 : 3.
5. Ten, the number of fingers (two
hands), symbolizes harmony and com-
pleteness. It is the number of the fun-
damental commandments.
6. Twelve, the multiple of three and
four, is also a covenant number, like
seven. Hence we have the twelve
tribes, the twelve stones in the high
priesfs breastplate, Ex. 28 : 21, twelve
apostles, twelve gates in the New Jeru-
salem, etc.
7. Forty, four multiplied by ten; as
617
NUM
NYM
the forty days of our Lord's temptation,
Matt. 4, the forty years in the wilder-
ness, etc. -
8. Seveuttj, seven multiplied by ten ;
as the seventy elders of Israel, Num. 11:
16, the seventy disciples of our Lord.
Luke 10 : 1.
It is very difficult, if indeed at all
possible, to get the exact and definite
meaning of these numbers, and we must
not carry the search too far. But that
they had a special meaning for the He-
brews there can be little doubt. (Com-
pare the extended and ingenious treat-
ment of Lange, Com. on Revelation, pp.
14 xqq.)
NUM'BERS, BOOK OF, the
fourth book of Moses, and so called on
account of the two censuses to which
it refei's. It gives some detached legal
enactments and many valuable histor-
ical facts.
1. In the first division, chs. 1-10 :
10, an account is given of the prepa-
rations for the departure from Sinai.
In ch. 6 we have the description of
the Nazarite's vow.
2. The second division, ch. 10 : 11-
14, contains an account of the jour-
ney from Sinai to the borders of Ca-
naan. In chs. 13 and 14 the spies are
mentioned by name, and a most in-
teresting description is given of their
discoveries in Canaan, their return to
the camp, and the treatment they re-
ceived.
3. The third division, chs. 15-19,
gives various legal enactments and a
few historical facts.
4. The last division, chs. 20-36.
contains an account of the events of
the last year before crossing the Jor-
dan. In ch. 20 we have the descrip-
tion of Moses smiting the rock and
the notices of Miriam's and Aaron's
deaths. In ch. 21 we have a picture
of the discontentment and rebellion
of the Israelites, their puni^^hment
through fiery serpents, and the sim-
ple remedy of a brazen serpent erected
on a pole. Comp. Johii 3 : 14, 15. Chs.
22-24 are concerned with Balaam. In
ch. 32 the land east of the .Jordan is as-
signed to Reuben and (lad, and in ch. 33
a list is given of the various stations in
the wilderness.
NUN ( fixh), the father of .Joshua. Ex.
33 : 1 1 ; also called Non. 1 Chr. 7 : 27.
018
NURSE, The position was one of
much importance and honor. Rebek-
ah's nurse accompanied her mistress
to Canaan, and was buried with much
mourning at Allon-bachuth. Gen. 24 :
59 ; 35 : 8. The tenderness of a nurse
is not infrequently referred to. Isa. 49 :
23 ; 1 Thess. 2 : 7.
NUTS. Those mentioned in Gen.
43 : 11 are doubtless pistachio-nuts,
which were produced in Sj'ria, but not
in Egypt. The pistachio tree (Pintdcia
vera) resembles the sumac, to whose fam-
ily it belongs. It is still cultivated in
the Levant, and produces thin-shelled
nuts resembling almonds, but smaller
and with a green meat tasting like that
of the walnut.
Pistacliio-Nnts.
Another word translated "nuts" in
Cant. 6:11 denotes what are known in
our markets as " English walnuts," pro-
duced by a noble tree (Jixjhius renin)
which is everywhere cultivated in the
Eas^.
NYIW'PHAS {hrf(le;/ron,»). a mem-
ber of the church of Laodica>a. Col.
4: 16.
OAK
OAT
O,
OAKS (nfrnny is the meanin.^ of most
of the six Hebrew words thus rendered).
In the following passages, at least, the
word probably denotes the terebinth, or
the elm of Hos. 4 : 13, see Teh. Tkek:
Gen. 35 : 4, 8; Jud. 6 : 11, 19; 2 Sam.
18 : 9, 10, 14 ; 1 Kgs. 13 : 14 ; 1 Chr. 10 :
12; Isa. 1 : 30; Eze. 6 : 13. In other
instances "oak"' may denote aui/ strong
flourishing tree, Am. 2 : 9, or a grove of
such trees.
Botanists find three species of this
tree in Palestine. One of the most uni-
The word translated "plains" in
several passages — Gen. 12 : 6 : 13 : 18;
14 : 13 : 18 : 1 : Dent. 11 : 30 : Jud. 4:11;
9 : 6, 37 ; 1 Sam. 10 : 3 — means j^Iacex
noted for one or more oaks. See cut
under Abraham's Oak.
OATH, a solemn afiirmation, made
with an appeal to the Deity in attesta-
tion of its truth. Heb. 6 : 16. The cus-
tom of taking oaths was in vogue in tho
earliest patriarchal times, Gen. 21 : 23,
but their use is not confined to men.
God also has bound himself by oaths.
versa! and characteristic bushes of the ] Acts 2 : 30 : Gen. 26 : 3 ; Deut.' 29 : 12,
country is the prickly evergreen-oak
(Qiierciis jjneiido-rocci/'era), which has a
leaf like the holly, but smaller. This I Lord prohibits careless and profane oaths
etc. Their use was the subject of legis-
lation, Ex. 20 : 7 ; Lev. 19 : 12. and our
oak now rarely exceeds 12 feet in height,
but when the destruction of trees was
less universal it doubtless attained great
size and age. *' Abraham's Oak," in the
field of Mamre, near Hebron, the noblest
tree of Southern Palestine, is of this
species, and is 23 feet in girth ; and there
are said to be still finer specimens in the
north and east.
The Valonia oak (Q. a-ffilops) sheds its
leaves and more resemb'es some of our
own species. The trunk is unusially
massive, and the tree often grows to a
magnificent size. It is not seen in the
south, but abounds in the north, especi-
ally about Mount Tabor and also east
of the Jordan, and is doubtless the " oak
of Bashan." Isa. 2 : 12, 13 ; Zech. 11 : 2.
It produces very large acorns, which are
eaten by the poor, while their cups are
employed by tanners under the name of
Valeria, and exported from many parts
of the Turkish empire.
Another kind (Q. infectoiia) some-
times occurs in Samaria and Galilee as
a small tree with deciduous leaves, white
beneath. Travellers through the unin-
habited districts of Gilead and Bashan
have found there magnificent forests of
all three species.
In the Bible we find these noble trees
often mentioned for the purpose of desig-
nating the locality of important events,
as in Gen. 35 : 8 : Josh. 24 : 26. Oak-
wood was used for idols. Isa. 44 : 14.
Matt. 5 : 34-36. Various formularies
were emj»loyed for oaths, such as : 'M«
the Lord liveth," 1 Sam. 14 : 39 ; " Would
God," Num. 14 : 2; "J« the Lord liveth,
and (iH thy soul liveth." 2 Kgs. 2 : 2, etc.
From our Lord's prohibition of profane
and careless oaths, we learn that oaths
were taken by the more common things,
such as the throne of God, Jerusalem,
the earth, etc., Matt. 5 : 34, xqq., and the
temple, the gold of the temple, and the
altar. Matt. 23 : 16-22.
As to-day the elevation of the right
hand is associated with taking an oath
in our courts, so amongst the Hebrews
oaths were frequent!}' accompanied with
peculiar ceremonies. As far back as
Abraham's time lifting the hand was
practi.'-ed in this connection. Gen. 14:
22; Deut. 32:40, etc., as also placing
the hand under the thigh of another.
Gen. 24:2: 47:29.
In the 0. T. the oath is taken as a
ratification of agreements lietween the
most diverse parties. The king or ruler
takes an oath, solemnly pledging him-
self to perform a promise, 2 Kgs. 25 :
24 ; Matt. 14 : 7 ; the subject to his
sovereign, Eccl. 8:2; the governor ex-
acts the oath from the priests, Neh. 5 :
12; the master from his servant. Gen.
24 : 2 : the patriarch from his people.
Gen. 50 : 25, etc.
Our Lord's ])rohibition of profane and
careless swearing. Matt. 5 : 34. has been
619
OBA
ODE
understood by some — as the Friends —
to exclude all oaths whatever. No doubt,
should tlie spirit of Christ couipleely
pervade the world, the simple assevera-
tions "Yea" and "Nay" would be all-
sufficient.
The most solemn oath that a Moham-
medan can make is, " By the beard of
Mohammed."
OBADI'AH (servant of Jehovah).
1. A descendant of the house of David.
1 Chr. 3:21.
2. A chief of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 3.
3. One of the six sons of Azel. 1 Chr.
8 : 38 : 9 : 44.
4. A son of Shemaiah. 1 Chr. 9:16.
5. A Gadite who joined David in the
wilderness. 1 Chr. 12 : 9.
6. A godly officer in the court of Ahab
who concealed one hundred and fifty
prophets in the persecution of Jezebel.
1 Kgs. 18:3-16.
7. A prince who taught the Law in
Jehoshaphat's reign. 2 Chr. 17 : 7.
8. Father of Ishmaiah. 1 Chr. 27 : 19.
9. One of the overseers of the temple-
repairs in Josiah's reign. 2 Chr. 34 : 12.
10. A son of Jehiel. Ezr. 8 : 9.
11. One of those who sealed the cove-
nant with Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 5.
12. A j^orter in Jerusalem. Neh. 12 :
25.
13. The prophet whose prophecy is
placed fourth among the minor proph-
ecies. Absolutely nsjthing is known of
his life. His prophecy was uttered sub-
sequently to B. c. 588, as we draw from
Ob. 11, where the capture of Jerusa-
lem and the captivity of Jacob are re-
ferred to as past events. The captivity
of this verse is in all probability that by
Nebuchadnezzar in B. c. 588.
Prophecy of, contains (1) a general
arraignment of Edom for its pride and
presumption, vs. 1-9. (2) A more par-
ticular statement of its offence as violence
against Jacob, his brother, and neglect
to help Jerusalem against the enemies
that took her inhabitants captive, vs.
10-16. (3) An account of the prosperity
of Zion when Jacob should return from
his captivity and Esau be discomfited,
vs. 17-21. It is doubtful whether the
final verses have yet been fulfilled.
There is a striking resemblance between
the first nine verses of this prophecy
and Jer. 49:7-16. One prophet must
have read the other's pro{)hecy.
620
O'JBAL (bare), a son of Joktan who
gave his name to an Arab tribe. Gen.
10:28. The name is written •' Ebal "
in 1 Chr. 1 : 22.
O'BED {.•serving). 1. The son of
Ruth and Boaz, and father of Jesse.
Ruth 4 : 17; 1 Chr. 2 : 12. His name
occurs in the genealogical tables of our
Lord. Matt. 1:5; Luke 3 : 32.
2. A descendant of Sheshan by his
Egyptian slave Jarha. 1 Chr. 2 : 37.
3. One of David's warriors. 1 Chr. 11 :
47.
4. One of the porters of the temple.
1 Chr. 26 : 7.
5. The father of Azariah. 2 Chr. 23 : 1.
0'BED-E'DOfll(.ve/-tv<»<o/"^(/o;»).
1. A Gittite who lived in David's t'lme,
1 Chr. 13 : 13, and at whose house the
ark was deposited, after the dreadful
death of Uzzah. 2 Sam. 6 : 6-10. The
blessing which came on the house of
Obed-edom for the ark's sake encouraged
David to remove it to Jerusalem. 2 Sam.
6:10-12.
2. The temple-treasurer in the reign
of Amaziah. 2 Chr. 25 : 24.
O'BILi {camel-driver), the overseer
of the camels in the reign of David. 1
Chr. 27 : 30.
OBLA'TION. Lev. 2 : 4. See Of-
FERIXG.
O'BOTH (bottles, water-shins), one
of the stations of the Israelites east of
Moab. Num. 21 : 1 0 ; 33 : 43. It was the
first encampment after the brazen ser-
pent was set up, and before they reached
Ije-abarim. It is pe.haps near the
Wndy el-Ahsa, on the pilgrim-route be-
tween Damascus and Mecca. This was
probably on the boundary between Edom
and Moab, and extends north-westward
to the Dead Sea.
OCCUPY (from the Latin or-f»;)ore),
literally "to lay hold of," then "to use,"
" employ," "trade with ;" and, in aneu-
te- sense, " to trade " is used in all these
senses in the Bible.
OC'RAN (troiiblffl, or troxbfer), the
father of Pagiel, a ]irince of the tribe
of Asher nfter the Exodus. Num. 1:13;
2 : 27 : 7:72: 10 : 26.
O'DED (f^/vw /////). 1. Thefitherof
the prophet Azariati. who flourished in
Asas reign. 2 Chr. 16 : 1-8. In v. 8, Oded
is called " prophet," where probably
" the son " is meant.
2. A prophet at the time of Pekah's
OFF
OFF
invasion of Judah who prevailed upon :
the victorious armv to let the captives
free. 2 Chr. 28:9-11. j
OFFEND, OFFENSE'. These j
words are often wronscly translated in
the A. V. (as Matt. 5 rib; 18 : (i). The
Greek verb strictly means •• to make to
stumble." And so the noun means '* that
which causeth to stumble," or leads to
sin. It is in these senses that the eye is
said "to oflfend" (better "causeth thee
to stumble"), Matt. 5 : 29 — that is, it
may allure to sin. So, in Matt. 18 : 7,
" offenses " are causes of sin. Our Saviour
is said to be a " rock of offense," Rom.
9 : 33, because the humility of his life
and death was an obstacle in the way of
the Jews' accepting him, as they associ-
ated with their idea of the Messiah the
external grandeur and jiomp of the world.
The "offense of the cross," Gal. 5:11, is
that in the doctrines of Christ or in the
cross which is offensive to the natural man.
OFFERING, Gen.4: 3, OBLA-
TION. Lev. 2 : 7. Offerings or sacri-
fice among the Jews formed the most
essential part of religious worship.
They indicated confession, self-dedica-
tion, expiation, and thanksgiving. The
books of Leviticus and Numbers are our
principal sources of information on the
subject.
The offerings were either bloody or
bloodless, and taken from the animal
and vegetable creation. Of animals
only tame ones were used, as oxen, goats,
and sheep. To these must be added the
dove. Lev. 5 : 11, etc. From the vegeta-
ble kingdom, wine, flour, etc., were set
apart. Human sacrifices or offerings were
especially forbidden. Lev. 18 : 21 ; 20 : 2.
In the act of offering, the offerer, after
bringing the victim to the altar, laid his
hand on its head. Lev. 1:4: 4:4, etc.
He then slew it. Lev. 1 : 4. himself, or
the priest for him. 2 Chr. 29 : 24. The
blood was received by the priest, who
either sprinkled or poured it upon ob-
jects. The victim was then flayed and
cut in pieces. Lev. 1 : 6, 8. some or all of
which, according to the kind of offering,
were burnt on the altar. In the case of
some of theofferings the victim was lifted
up or waved, in token of its presentation
to Jehovah.
The first offerings of which record is
made are those of Cain and Abel. Gen.
4 : 3-8. Both the animal and the vegeta-
ble kingdoms contributed on this occa-
sion. The second offering is that of
Noah, Gen. 8 : 20, after the Flood.
The various offerings were the burnt-
offerings, meat-offerings, peace-offerings,
and the sin- and trespass-offerings.
The hnint-ojfer'nKj was to be a male
without blemish, of the herd and of the
flock, offered voluntarily at the door of
the tabernacle, the hand of the offerer
being upon the head of the victim. Lev.
1 : 2-4.
The design of the burnt-offering was
an atonement for sin. Lev. 1:4: comp.
Heb. 10 : 1-3, 11. It was presented every
day, Ex. 29:38-42, on the Sabbath,
Num. 28 : 9, 10, and on the great day of
atonement. Lev. 16:3, and the three
great festivals. Num. 28 : 11-31 ; 29.
The 7neat-(>Jf'eri)i</ consisted of flour,
or cakes, prepared with oil and frank-
incense. Lev. 2:1; 6:14-23. It was to
be free from leaven and honey, but was
to have salt. Lev. 2:11, 13. With this
was connected the drink-offering, which
was never used separately, but was an
appendage of wine to some sacrifices.
Ex. 29:41. A meat-offering was pre-
sented every day with the burnt-offer-
ing. Ex. 29:40, 41.
The first-fruits, offered at Pentecost,
Lev. 23:17-20, and at the Passover,
Lev. 23:10-14. were called tcare-ojfer-
hifjs ; those offered in harvest-time,
Num. 15 : 20, 21, heitve-offeriugs.
Peave-(>fferh\ijH were eucharistic in
their nature, and were offered in
thanksgiving or at a special dedica-
tion of something to the Lord. Lev.
3: 7:11-21. The animal as well as
the vegetable kingdom contributed to
this class of offeiings.
The «//)- and ti etipaHS-offerinrja were
expiatory. It is difficult to determine
exactly how they were distinguished.
The first seem to have more especial
reference to universal sinfulness, the
second to specific acts of sin. Both
alike testify to the consciousness of
sin and the felt need of atonement.
Sin-offerings were presented by the
high priest for personal offences, for
national sins, and on the great day of
atonement, when he confessed the sins
of the whole nation with his hand on
the scapegoat's head, and the goat
was driven off into the wilderness.
Lev. 16 : 1-34, etc.
631
OFF
OIL
These offerings all had a typical
significance, especially the expiatory
offerings. While they ever reminded
the people of God's holiness and of
their own sinfulness, which demands
expiation, they also prefigured the
atonement of Jesus Christ, on whom
was laid the iniquity of us all, and
" his own self bare our sins on the
tree."
OF'FICER, the translation of
several Hebrew and Greek words. The
commonest in the 0. T. is the term mean-
ing '' scribe who keeps registers and ta-
bles." Ex. 5 : U. The N. T. words re-
late to legal functionaries: (1) Bailiffs,
Matt. 5 : 25 : John 7 : 32, 45 ; Acts 5 :
22; (2) Those who register and collect
tlie fines imposed by courts of justice.
Luke 12 : 58.
OG (Zodry-oecZ^ecZ/), aking of Bashan,
of gigantic stature, Deut. 3 : 11, who
opposed the passage of the Israelites
through his territories. Deut. 3 : 1.
He was defeated in a pitched battle
in Edrei, and, together with his sons,
was slain. Deut. 1:4; Num. 21 : 34.
His sixty fenced and walled cities were
distributed amongst the Reubenites, the
Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manas-
seh. Deut. 3 : 3, 4 ; Num. 32 : 23. He
was a giant. Josh. 13 : 12, and his long
iron bedstead was regarded as a curios-
ity, and was preserved as a memorial of
Lis huge stature. Deut. 3 : 11.
O'HAD (jioioer), one of the sons of
Simeon, (ien. 46 : 10; Ex. 6 : 15.
O'HEL (te)it), a son of Zerubbabel.
1 Chr. 3 : 20.
OIL 9 amongst the Hebrews, was
made from olive - berries and from
spices. Ex. 25 : 6. It was used —
1. In the preparation of food, much as
butter and lard are used to-day. 1 Kgs.
17 : 12-15; Ex. 29 : 2 ; Lev. 2 : 4, etc.
2. As a cosmetic for anointing the
body, the beard, and the head. 2 Sam.
14 : 2 ; Ps. 23 : 5 ; Luke 7 : 40, etc.
3. For illuminating ])urposes in lamps.
Ex. 25 : 6 ; 27 : 2U ; Matt. 25 : 3, etc.
4. In worship. The first-fruits. Num.
18 : 12, and the tithes were dedicated to
the Lord. Neh. 13 : 5. The meat-offer-
ings were also dipped in oil. Lev. 2 : 10;
7 : Ifi, etc.
5. In the ritual of consecration of
kings and high priests. 1 Sam. 10 : 1 ;
Lev. 8:12, etc.
622
6. For medicinal purposes. Mark 6 :
13 ; Luke 10 : 34 ; Isa. 1:6; Jas. 5 : 14.
7. For anointing the dead. Matt. 26 :
12 ; Luke 23 : 56.
The practice in the early Church of
anointing the bodies of persons whose
lives were despaired of was derived
from Jas. 5 : 14. The Roman Catholic
Church has placed the practice among
the sacraments, denominating it " ex-
treme unction."
As an ordinary cosmetic, the use of
oil is significant of joy and gladness,
Ps. 92 : 10, and the omission of it be-
tokens sorrow. 2 Sam. 14 : 2 ; Matt. 6 :
17. See Olive.
OIL-PRESS. " The oil of Pales-
tine is expressed in a rude way. The
olive is subjected to pressure in a mill
consisting of a great millstone with a
hole in its centre; this stone is laid on
one of its flat surfaces, and a beam of
wood fastened upright in the axis. The
upper surface of the stone is slightly
depressed, except at its margin and
around the central hole. Another mill-
stone is set up on its edge in the depres-
sion of the upper surface of the lower
stone. Through the axis of this stone
passes a long beam, which is fastened
at one end by a pin to the axis of the
horizontal stone, and at the other to a
whiftletree, to which a horse or ox is
geared when the mill is in operation.
The upright stone is moved around the
axis of the lower, and crushes the olives
by its great weight. The oil which is
expressed by this crushing mill is in-
corporated with the crushed mass, which
is then transferred to baskets of flexible
structure, 18 inches wide and 6 inches
deep. A pile of these baskets, 8 feet or
more in height, is raised within a hollow
erect cylinder of stone, which is open in
front by a slit, 4 inches in width, from
top to bottom of the cylinder. Into the
top of this cylinder passes a piston, which
is connected with a lever, to which are
attached heav'y stones, and by means of
the piston the baskets of olives are sub-
jected to as much pressure as is necessary
to extract the oil. The quality of oil thus
made is quite inferior to that imported
from Italy and Friince. It is largely used
in making soap, and was formerly much
more used for burning than now." — Dr.
PoHt.nf Beirut, ((yontributcd.) SeeOnvK.
OIL TREE {tree of oil). Isa. 41 :
OIN
OLI
19. In 1 Kgs. 6 : 23, 31, 32, 33 these
words are rendered " olive tree," and
represent the material of the cherubim,
doors, and posts of Solomon's temple.
They are translated "pine" in Meh. 8 :
15. But the olive tree is also unmistak-
ably mentioned in this verse. If the oil
tree was not the olive tree, what was it?
Tristram and others believe it to be the
oleaster {Eien<iuiiH auijusti/olius). This
shrub has no affinity to the
olive, though resembling it
in leaf and general aj)pear-
ance and yielding from its
berries an inferior oil. It
is found plentifully on the
highlands of Palestine and
about Jerusalem, thus meet-
ing the direction of Neh. 8 :
15, as the BdUiniteft jE(iiip-
tioca, a shrub of the Jordan
valley, does not. Dr Tris-
tram therefore suggests in
one place (under "Oil
Tree") that its "fine hard
wood" was the wood of the
cherubim, but in another
place (under "Olive") states
that material to have been
olive wood (as the A. V.
reads). The latter opinion
has a strong probability in
its favor, and it does not
appear that the oleaster is
more than a large shrub,
though the author cited
calls it, as compared with
the olive, " a smaller tree."
For the passage in Nehe-
miah there would then be
no present explanation un-
less, we believe, as is very
possible, that the term " oil
tree," in later times at least,
was extended or restricted
to the oleaster.
OINT'MENT. Isa. 1:6; Matt. 26:
12. See Anoixt and Oil.
OLD TESTAMENT. See
Bible.
OL'IVE. From ancient times this
has been one of the most common fruit
trees of Palestine. Deut. 6 : 11. As the
olive stands in the orchard it resembles
the apple tree in shape, size, and mode
of cultivation. Its leaves are narrow, dull
above and silvery beneath, so that the re-
sulting gray-green of these trees becomes
beautiful by association. Hos.l4 : 6. The
white flowers, produced in the greatest
profusion, are like those of the lilac, to
which the tree is botanically allied; and,
though millions are prematurely scatter-
ed by the breezes. Job 15 : 33, enough re-
main to load down the trees with fruit.
This latter is like a plum in shape and
color, being first green, then ]iale, and,
when ripe, nearly black. Olives are some-
Olive Branches and Olives.
times plucked in an unripe state and jjut
into some pickle or other preserving liquid
and exported. For the most part, how-
ever, they are valuable for the oil they
produce, which is expressed from^ the
fruit in various ways, and constitutes
an important article of commerce and
luxury. Job 24 : 1 1 ; Eze. 27 : 17. The
fruit is gathered by beating, Deut. 24 :
20, or shaking the tree, Isa. 17 : 6; and
by Jewish law gle;vnings were to be left
for the poor. A full-sized tree in its vigor
623
OLI
OH
annually produces from ten to fifteen gal-
lons of oil.
The olive seems to flourish best where
it can get its roots into the crevices of
the rock. Deut. 32 : 13. It grows slowly,
lives to an immense age, and still bears
fruit when the trunk is but a hollow shell
or strip of such a shell, illustrating Ps.
92 : 14. The olive-branch is regarded
universally as the symbol of peace, Gen.
8:11, and plenty.
The olives from which oil is to be ex-
pressed must be gathered by the hands
or softly shaken from the trees before
they are fully ripe, in September or Oc-
tober. The best oil is that which comes
from the fruit with very light pressure.
This is sometimes called in Scripture
"green oil," not because of its color —
for it is pellucid — but because it is from
unripe fruit. It is translated, in Ex. 27 :
20, " pure oil-olive beaten," and was used
for the golden candlestick. For the ex-
traction of the tirst oil panniers or bas-
kets are used, which are gently shaken.
The second and third pressing produces
inferior oil. The best is obtained from
unripe fruit ; the worst from that which
is more than ripe, and which often is not
gathered till winter. The oil of Egypt
is worth little, because the olives are too
fat. Hence the Hebrews sent gifts of oil
to the Egyptian kings. Hos. 12 : 1.
The olives are themseh es eaten, and
the oil is employed not only as salad, but
as butter and fat are in our domestic
economy, and the inferior qualities are
used for making soap. It is observed
by travellers that the natives of oil-
countries manifest more attachment to
this than to any other article of food,
and find nothing adequate to supply its
place. For other uses see Oil.
A press was often used for the extrac-
■0 V
^sffe
i^^^'^m^^
Oil Pies'- and Glut liet*
tion of the oil, consisting of two reser-
voirs, usually 8 feet square and 4 feet
deep, situated one above the other and
hewn out of the rock. Job 29 : 6. The
berries, being thrown into the up[»er one,
were trodden out with the feet. Mic. 6: I.').
Olive-wood, which is close-grained,
of a dark amber color, and beautifully
veined, was probably used in the temple.
624
1 Kgs. 6 : 2.3, .31, .33. See Oil Tuke.
Ordinarily, at present, there are no
fences about olives, but each tree has its
one or more owners, and is inherited,
bought, or sold separately, while the
ground belongs to the village. This
tree, like the apple, requires grafting,
for seedlings produce but scanty, small,
and poor fruit.
OLI
OLI
Olivk. WiLn. Rora. 11 : 17-24 does
not teach that a wild twig grafted upon
a good stock will produce good fri.it, for
this is not the fact. Paul refers rather
to the adoption of the Gentiles among
God's people as a process " contrary to
nature," but accomplished bv grace.
OL IVES, AND OL'IVET,
MOUNT OF, a noted mountain or
range of hills east of Jerusalem.
Nantes toid Scripture Historij. — The
mountain derives its name from the
olive trees which formerly abounded on
its sides, some of which are still found
thereon. It is called ** Olivet '' and
" Mount of Olives" in the 0. T., 2 Sam.
15:30: Zech. 14 : 4, and is also alluded
to as the "mount/' Neh. 8 : 15, the
mount facing Jerusalem, ] Kgs. 11 : 7,
the '"mountain which in on the east side
of the city," Eze. 11 : 2.'5 ; and the "mount
of corruption " probably refers to a por-
tion of Olivet. 2 Kgs. 23 : 13. It is also
called, in the N. T., "Mount of Olives"
and " Olivet," and was a scene of several
of the most interesting events in the life
of our Lord. Matt. 21 : 1 ; 24 : 3 ; 26 : 30 ;
Mark 11 : 1 ; 13 : 3 ; 14 : 26 ; Luke 19 : 29,
37: 21 : 37 ; 22 : 39; John 8:1; Acts
1 : 12. The modern Arabic name is
sometimes Jebel ez-Zeffini, or " mount
of olives," but tnore usually it is Jehrl.
ef-Tur, or "mount of the summit." The
mountain is first men ioned in connection
with David's flight from Jerusalem to
escape from Absalom. 2 Sam. 15 : 30. 32 ;
16 : 1. Upon it Solomon built high
places for the gods of his numerous
wives, but those idolatrous places were
destroyed by King Josiah. 1 Kgs. 11 : 7 :
2 Kgs. 23 : 13, 14. When the captive
Jews celebrated the feast of tabernacles,
the olive, pine, myrtle, and palm branches
used in building their booths were
brought from this mountain. Xeh. 8:15.
The greatest interest, however, in this
mountain is in connection with the clos-
ing scenes of our Saviour's jninistry.
At Bethany, on the eastern slope .of the
mountain, lived Mary, Martha, and
Lazarus, and here he performed his last
and greatest mirac'e ; from Olivet he
made his triumphal entry into Jeru-
salem ; upon it he spent the nights
during the week of his passion ; from
its slopes he looked down upon .Jeru-
salem and wept over fhe ungrateful city
as he foretold its fearful doom : on the
40
night of his betrayal he retired to a
garden at its foot, and spent those hours
of prayer and agony : and after his
resurrection, in the presence of his dis-
ciples, he ascended from Olivet to heaven
to sit on the right hand of the Father in
his glorv. John 11 : 1 : 12 : 1 : Malt. 21:
1 : Mark 11 : 1 ; Luke 19 : 29-38 : 21 : 37 ;
Matt. 28 : 36 ; Mark 14 : 32 ; Luke 22 :
39: 24: 50: Acts 1: 12.
Phi/nkal Features. — Olivet, or the
Mount of Olives, is not a single peak,
but a ridge having not less than four
separate summits. Osborne describes
six prominent heights in the Olivet
range, but he includes Scopus, on the
north, and the hill of "Evil Counsel,''
on the extreme south, of the ridge. The
Olivet range extends north without any
marked depression to the portion called
Scopus, and the general elevation of the
ridge is a little less than 3<'00 feet above
the sea-level. It lies directly east of
Jerusalem, and is separated from the
city by the valley of the Kedron. The
four chief peaks south of Scopus are :
(1) The northern summit, called T7//
Galilmi, from a tradition that the angels
stood upon it when they spoke to the
disciples. Acts 1:11. It is about half a
mile north-east from the city, and is
2682 feet above the sea. (2) The central
summit, or the " Moi^nt of Ascension,"
2665 feet in height, is situated directly
east of the temple-nrea, and is the Mount
of Olives proper. Three paths lead to
this summit — one by a nearly direct
ascent, another winding around the
southern shoulder, and a third j)ath lead-
ing around the northern shoulder. On
the top of this peak is a chapel built
upon the site of a church erected by
Helena, the mother of Constantine, since
tradition points out this spot as the place
of the ascension of Christ. The monks
point out even the footprint made by
the ascending Lord, and the spot, a little
south of this, where Christ is said to
have taught the disciples the model, or
Lord's, prayer. The true place of the
ascension, however, was beyond the
summit of Olivet, and near Bethan3\
Luke 24 : 50. (3) The third summit,
ab')ut 600 yards south-west of the former,
and three-fourths of a mile from Bethany,
is called " the Prophets," from a curious
catacomb called the " Prophets' Tombs "
on its side. (4) The fourth summit,
625
OLI
OLI
about 1000 yards from No. 3, is the
'' Mount of Offence," so called from the
idol-worship which Solomon established
there. Xone of the depressions which
separate these summits are very deep ;
some are to be regarded as quite slight.
It is evident that in ancient times this
mountain-ridge was covered with olives,
myrtles, figs, cypresses, and some species
of the terebinth or oak, and also abounded
in flowers. '" The olives and olive-yards,"
says Stanley, ''from which it derived its
name must in earlier times have clothed
it far more completely than at present,
where it is only in the deeper and more
secluded slopes leading up to the north-
ernmost summit that these venerable
trees spread into anything like a forest.
And in those times, as we see from the
name of Bethany ('house of dates'), and
from the allusions after the Captivity
and in the gospel history, myrtle-groves,
pines, and palm trees — all of which have
now disap])eared — must have made it a
constant resort for pleasure and seclu-
sion. Two gigantic cedars, probably
amongst the very few in Palestine, .-^tood
near its summit, under which were four
shops where pigeons were sold for puri-
fication. The olive and fig alone now
remain — the olive still in more or less
abundance, the fig here and there on the
roadside, but both enough to justify the
Mussulmans' belief that in the oath in
the Koran, ' By the olive and the fig,'
the Almighty swears by his favorite
city of Jerusalem^ with this adjacent
mountain." — Sinai o)id Palestine, p. 184.
As our Lord must frequently have
looked over the city and the surrounding
country from the top of this mount, it
will be interesting to describe the scene
now'jjresented to the eye of the traveller
from this spot. The view from the top
of the minaret upon the central summit,
or Mount of Ascension, is extensive and
magnificent. '' Beyond the valley of the
Kedron extends the spacious plateau of
the Haram esh-Sherif, where the Dome
of the Rock and the Aksa mosque pre-
sent a particularly imj)osing appearance.
The spectator should observe the direc-
tion taken by the temple-hill, the higher
site of tha ancient Bezctha, to the north
of the temple, and the hollow of the
Tyropceon, which is jtlainly distinguish-
able, though now filled with rubbish,
between the tem))lc-hill and the upper
part of the town. The dome-covered
roofs of the houses form a very peculiar
characteristic of the town. Toward the
north, beyond the olive-grove outside
the Damascus Gate, is seen the upper
(western) course of the valley of the
Kedron, decked with rich verdure in
spring, beyond which rises the Scopus.
The view toward the east is striking.
Here, for the first time, we perceive that
extraordinary and unique depression of
the earth's surface which few travellers
thoroughly realize. The blue waters of
the Dead Sea, lying at the foot of the
mountains which bound the eastern
horizon, and apparently not many hun-
dred feet below us, are really no less
than 3'JOO feet below our present stand-
point. The clearness of the atmosphere,
too, is so deceptive that the mysterious
lake seems quite near, though it can only
be reached after a seven hours' ride over
barren, uninhabited ranges of hills. The
blue mountains which rise beyond the
deep chasm, reaching the same height
as the Mount of Olives, once belonged
to the tribe of Reuben, and it is among
these that Mount Nebo must be sought.
To the extreme south of that range a
small eminence, crowned bj' the village
of Keruh, is visible in clear weather.
On the eastern margin of the Dead Sea
are seen two wide openings : that to the
south is the valley of the river Arnon,
and that to the north the valley of the
Zerha. Farther north rises the Jehd
Jiltnf, once the possession of the tribe
of Gad. Nearer to us lies the valley of
Jordan, the course of the river being
indicated by a green line on a whitish
ground. Toward the south-east we see
the course of the valley of the Kedron,
or 'Valley of Fire,' and on a hill-pla-
teau, to the left, the village of Afni Din.
Bethany is not visible. Quite near us
rises the ' Mountain of Offence :' beyond
the Kedron that of 'Evil Counsel,' and
farther distant, to the south, is the sum-
mit of the ' Frank Mountain,' or ' Hill
of Paradise,' with the heights of Beth-
lehem and Tekoah : to the south-west,
on the fringe of hills which bounds the
])lain of Re[thaim on the south, lies the
monastery of Mar Elijnn, past which
winds the road to Bethlehem. That town
itself is concealed from view, but the
large village of Bet .Jala and several
villages to the south of Jerusalem, such
627
OLI
ON
as Beit Sufafa and Esh-Sh era/at, are
distinctly visible." — Baedeker's Pales-
tine and Syria, p. 219.
The slopes of Olivet are terraced and
cultivated, but the vegetation is not
luxuriant. The principal trees now are
the olive, fig, and carol), with here and
there a f«w apricot, almond, terebinth,
and hiwthorn. At the western base of
the mountain is Si/irnn, a miserable
little village. Jewish tradition declares
that the shekinah, or divine presence,
after retiring from Jerusalem, dwelt
three years and a half on Olivet, to see
whether the Jews would repent, but
■when they would not, retired to his own
place. See Jerusalem and Gethsem-
ANE.
OL'IVE-YARD, a grove of olives,
tended for the sake of the fruit. Ex. 23 :
11, etc.
OLYM'PAS, a Christian at Rome.
Rom. 16 : 15.
O'MAR (eloquent f), a grandson of
Esau. Gen. 36 : 11, 15 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 36.
O'MEGA. Rev. 1 : 8. See Alpha.
O'MER. Ex. 16:36. See Measures.
OM'lll I xerrnnt of Jehovah). 1. An
officer in the army of Israel. 1 Kgs. 16 :
16. He was engaged in the siege of
Gibbethon, a Philistine city, when he
received intelligence that Zimri, another
officer of the army, had assassinated the
king and usurped the throne. The arm^',
by general acclamation, made 0;nri king,
and, raising the siege of Gibbethon,
the}' forthwith marched to Tirzah, where
Zimri resided, and captured it. Zimri
set fire to the house he occupied, and was
consumed. The Israelites were then
divided into two parties; but after a
short struggle Omri prevailed and
took the throne, which he disgraced
through a reign of twelve years. Omri,
in the sixth year of his reign, built Sa-
maria, which thereafter became the
capital of the ten tribes. The prophet
Mieah, ch. 6:16, speaks of the " statutes
of Omri,'' and denounces them. They
were probably of an idolatrous charac-
ter.
2. A descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr.
7:8.
3. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr.
9:4.
4. Chief of the tribe of Tssachar in the
reign of David. 1 Chr. 27 : 18.
ON (utrenyth), a grandson of Reuben
628
who took part with Korah, Dathan. and
Abiram in their rebellion. Num.16: 1.
As his name is not subsequently men-
tioned, it has been conjectured that he
repented and withdrew.
ON (sun, litjht), a celebrated city of
Lower Egypt, Gen. 41 : 45, 50 ; called
Bethshemesh, or " house of the sun,"
Jer. 43 : 13, and known to the Greeks as
Ileliopolis, or "city of the sun." Eze.
30 : 17, margin. Some suppose it to be
referred to as the " city of destruction "
in Isa. 19 : 18, 19. The Arabs call it,
A{)i ShentH, or the " fountain of the sun."
On was situated upon the Pelusiac
branch of the Nile, about 20 miles north-
east of ancient Memphis, and 6 miles
north from Cairo.
History. — On was one of the oldest
cities in the world. Its origin and founder
are unknown, but it has an obelisk which
has been standing about 4000 years. It
has been considered the Rome and the
Athens of ancient Egypt, the centre of its
religion and learning. In it stood the
great temple of Ra, with one exception
the most famous ancient shrine in Egypt.
Ra, next, to Ptah, was the greatest
Egyptian deity, bearing seventy-five
diii'erent forms, and regarded as a king^
of gods and men, and as the sun who
illumines tlie world with the light of his
eyes, and is the awakener of life. Every
Pharaoh was also regarded as a human
embodiment of Ra. and hence one of his
tit'es was " Lord of Ileliopolis." To the
chief shrine of the god Ra each king pre-
sented special offe ings, making it one
of the richest temples of ancient times.
The immense wealtli of this shrine is
men ioned in various papyri, particu-
larly the '• Harris Papyrus," in London,
which gives a list of the gifts of Rameses
III. Its companies of priests and at-
tendants are reputed to have numbered
over 12.000. The legend of the wonder-
bird Phoenix, early used to illustrate the
doctrine of the resurrection, arose here;
to this city Joseyih, delivered from prison,
came with royal honors to marry the
daughter of Potipherah, (''dedicated to
Ra '). Josephus reports that On was the
home of Jacob on his arrival in Egypt.
In its grandeur it was the resort of men
of learning from all countries. In its
schools and universities Moses, accord-
ing to Manetho, was instructed in all the
learning of the Egyptians, and hither
ON
OXA
came Plato, Eudoxus, and the wisest of
the Greeks to be initiated into the mys-
tic lore of its priests. From the teachers
of its ancient schools Herodotus gained
his knowledge of the counry and its
history. In the time of Strnbo, B. c. 00,
this famous seat of learning had ceased
to exist, though he was shown the houses
of the priests and the dwelling occupied
by Plato, lie states that its teachers
were admirably imbued with the know-
ledge of heavenly things, and that they
could be persuaded only by ])atience and
politeness to communicate some of tlieir
doctrines, which they concealed from
barbarians. Josephus speaks of a tem-
ple built nt Heliopolis by order of Ptol-
emy Philoinetor for the .Jews when Onias
was high priest, and which lasted for
ODelisk at On, or Heliopolis.
220 years, when it was destroyed by
Vespasian. The city,, however, is said
to have been devastated by Cambys«s at
an earlier date.
Present Condition. — The site of this
once famous city is now marked with a
few ruins of massive walls, fragments
of sphinxes, a noted obelisk of red gran-
ite (»f Syene (one of the two which stood
before the temple of the Sun), and some
low mounds enclosing a space about
three-quarters of a mile long by half a
mile wide. The obelisk, rising amid the
desolation, is 66 feet high. and. except a
small one found by Lcpsius in iVlemphis,
is the oldest one yet discovered, having
been erected by Usertcsen, the second
king of the twelfth dynasty. Each of
the four sides is covered with hierogljph-
iis, rendered illegible en two sides by
the mud-cells of bees. The inscriptions
are, however, the same on each of its
faces, and simply record when, whj', and
by whom it was erected. It is partly
buried in the sand. '' There," sa_A s
Schaff, " it has been standing for near-
ly 4000 ye<irs. and there it still stands in
solitary grandeur and unbroken silence.
Had it a mouth to sjiciik, it could tell of
the visit of Abiahaui and Sarah, of the
wisdom and purity of Joseph, the in-
quisitiveness of Herodotus, the sublime
speculations of Plato, the mysteries of
Egyptian learning find idolatry, the rise
and fall of ancient empires." It appears
to the traveller as the only imj.ortant
survivor of the avenues of spinxes. the
temples, palaces, colleges, and obelisks
beheld or described by the Grecian his-
torians. Formerly the two obelisks of
Alexandria called the "Needles of
Cleopatia" or the "Obelisks of Pha-
raoh " stood at On, but they were re-
moved in the reign of Tiberius, and one
of them now stands on the bank of the
Thames, in London (since 1879) ; the
other has been presented to the city of
Nevf York, whither it is to be trans-
ported (in ISf^O).
Tradi ion indicates On as the place to
which Joseph and Mary and the child
Jesus came to escape from the cruelty
of Herod, and a sycamore tree is shown,
under which they are reputed to have
rested in their flight.
O'NAM (stroiK/). 1. One of the sons
of Shoba). Gen. 36 : 23 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 40.
2. A son of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr. 2 : 26, 28.
O'NAN iHtmng), the second son of
Judah, Gen. 38 : 4: 1 Chr. 2 : 3, who
refused to raise up seed to his elder
brother after his death. Gen. 38 : 8, 9.
629
ONE
OPH
He died before the migration of Jacob's
family to Egypt. Gen. 46 : 12 ; Num.
26:19.
ONES'IMUS {useful), a slave of
Philemon in whose behalf Paul wrote
the Epistle to Philemon. Col. 4:9. He
seems to have fled from his master,
Phile. 15, but returned to him a Chris-
tian. His conversion was brought about
through Paul at Rome. Phile. 10. Tra-
dition says he was afterward made
bishop of Bertea, in Macedonia.
ONESIPH'ORUS {profit-hvtufi-
iiKj), a primitive Christian who minis-
tered to the wants of Paul at Ephesus,
and afterward sought him out at Piome
and openly sympathized with him. 2
Tim. 1 : 16-18; 4: 19.
ON'IO^, a well-known garden vege-
table which grew in great perfection in
Egypt, and was longed for by the Israel-
ites. Num. 11 : 5. The onions of Egypt
are of large size and exquisite flavor,
" differing from the onions of our coun-
try as much as a bad turnip diff"ers in
palatableness from a good apple."
O'NO {strong), a town in Benjamin,
and reoccupied after the Captivity. 1
Chr. 8:12; Ezr. 2 : 38 ; Neh. 7 : 37. A
plain and a valle}' — the two perhaps
identical — were connected with it. Neh.
6:2; 11 : 35; 1 Chr. 4 : U. As it is
named with Lod, Van de Velde, Por-
ter, Baedeker, and others locate it at
Kefr 'Ana, 5 miles north of Lydda
(Lod).
ON'YCHA, an ingredient of the
sacred incense which was prepared un-
der divine direction. Ex. 30 : 34. It
was probably the horny lid or door of a
univalve shell {Strom bits) found in the
Red Sea. When burnt this " operculum "
emits a strong pungent odor.
O'NYX, one kind of chalcedony : a
precious stone, Ek. 25:7; Eze. 28:13,
exhibiting two or more colors disposed
in parallel bands or layers. The Hebrew
word shoham is uniformly so translated
in the Bible. Opinion is divided as to the
exact meaning of the term. Josephus
says the oiii/x is meant. It was found
in the land of Havilah, Gen. 2:12, and
was evidently of high value, as it is
mentioned among precious stones and
metals. Job 28 : 10; Eze. 28 : 13. It
adorned the breastpin te of the high
priest and the two shoulders of his
ephod. Ex. 28:9-12, 20. David also
630
collected onyx-stones for the adornment
of the temple. 1 Chr. 29 : 2.
O'PHEL {hi/l, swelling), a hill of
ancient Jerusalem. More accurately, it
was the southern extremity of the hill
on which the temple stood, and from
whence the hill sunk gradually toward
the surrounding vallevs. It was enclosed
and fortified by a wall, 2 Chr. 27 : 3 ;
33: 14; Neh. 3:26, 27; 11:21, but it is
now outside the walls of the city. The
term has usually been understood to ap-
ply to the entire hill. Warren, however,
suggests that Ophel was originally the
designation of the palace which Solomon
built, a building which in later reigns
would command the Kedron valley by a
wall at least 150 feet in height, increased
to 200 feet by the building of the royal
cloisters. The excavations of Warren
exposed a wall 70 feet in height, which
he supposes to have been Manasseh's,
and in conjunction with it is a great
tower built of drafted stones — perhaps
that " which lieth without." Upward
of 50 shafts were sunk about Ophel in
search of the wall, and a line of wall
was found to extend as far as 700 feet
from the first tower in a south-easterly
direction along the ridge of Ophel,
There it ends abruptly. About 200 feet
southward in the same line some mas-
sive walls were uncovered. On the east-
ern side of Ophel is the Fount of the
Virgin, and below is the pool of Siloam.
See Jerusalkm.
O'PHIR (fruitful ?), one of the sons
of Joktan. Gen. 10 : 29 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 23.
O'PHIR, the celebrated gold-region
to which the ships of Solomon and Hi-
ram sailed from a port on the Red Sea,
and from whence they returned bearing
gold, silver, precious stones, and algum-
tree wood ; and they also brought ivory,
apes, and peacocks, though it is not said
that these latter came originally from
Ophir. 1 Kgs. 9 : 2S ; 10:11,22. The
ships of Jehoshaphat, built to make a
similar voyage, were wrecked at Ezion-
geber. 1 Kgs. 22 : 48. The abundance and
fineness of the gold of Ophir were pro-
verbial. Job 22 : 24 ; 28 : 1 6 ; Ps. 45 : 9 ;
Tsa. 13 : ! 2 ; 1 Chr. 29 : 4 ; Tobit 13 : 1 7 ;
Ecclus. 7:18.
The precise situation of Ophir is an
unsettled question in scrijitural geogra-
phy. Three chief locations have been
suggested: (1) Arabia; (2) India; (3)
OPH
OR A
Eastern Africa. The arguments in favor
of each location may be briefiy stated as
follows :
1. Ai'abia. — The reason for placing
Ophir in Arabia is that this land of gold
was probably named after Ophir, a son
of Joktan, and a descendant of Shem,
whose dwelling was between Mesha and
Sephar, a mount of the east. (4en. 10 :
29, 30. Now, we find that Ptolemy, in
his description of Arabia Felix, speaks
of a town called Sapphara or Saphar,
which resembles the Hebrew Sephar.
This would place Ophir in Southern
Arabia, upon the border of the Indian
Ocean. Kitter objects to this location
because Arabia does not now produce
gold. There is abundant evidence, how-
ever, to show that in ancient times gold
was obtained in Arabia. Solomon re-
ceived gold brought by the queen of
Sheba, and T3'rian merchants traded in
Arabian gold. 1 Kgs. 10 : 15 ; 2 Chr. 9 :
14; Eze. 27:22. Diodorus and Pliny
also testify that Arabia formerly abound-
ed in gold, as well as in precious stones
and sweet-smelling wood like the algum
trees.
2. I)idln. — The argument of Ritter,
Ewald, and Max Miillcr in favor of lo-
cating Ophir in India is that some of
the articles brought in the ships of Solo-
mon are productions peculiar to India.
Max Mliller has also made an ingenious
linguistic argument in favor of this
theory, based upon the fact that the
names of some of these articles are for-
eign words in Hebrew, and that they be-
long especially to the Sanscrit, the pa-
rent language of Eastern India. Xeither
of these considerations is of suflBcient
weight to decide the question.
3. Eastern Africa. — The idea that
Ophir was identical with Sofala, on the
Mozambique coast of Africa, appears to
have been first suggested by Portuguese
travellers in the sixteenth century. Some
French scholars have approved of the
theory, but it has not met with general
favor.
It is safe to conclude from the above
statements that when the Hebrew wri-
ters spoke of going to Ophir they re-
ferred to the Joktanite Ophir of the
Arabian coast, though it is not improb-
able that the voyage of Solomon's ships
extenrled to India. -
OPH'NI (mouldy), a town in Benja-
min. Josh. 18 : 24. It was probably iden-
tical with Gophna of Josephus and with
the modern village of Jufna, or Jifnn.
about 2 or 3 miles north-west of Bethel.
It was an important town in the time of
Vespasian.
OPH'RAH {female fawn), the son
of Meonothai. 1 Chr. 4 : 14,
OPH'RAH (/eHio/e/rn6-»). the name
of at least two places in Scripture.
1. A town in Benjamin toward which
an invading company of Philistines
went. Josli. 18 : 23 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 17. Some
suppose it is identical with Ephrain or
Ephron, 2 Chr. 13:19. and with the
city of Ephraim, to which our Lord re-
tired after raising Lazarus. John 11: 54.
Eusebius and Jerome located it about 5
Roman miles east of Bethel. This would
identify it with the modern village et-
Talyibeh.
2. Ophrah of the Abi-ezerite. Jud. 6 :
11,24. This was the place where Gideon
saw the angel, erected an altar, and
where he was buried. Jud. 8 : 27, 32.
Here Abimelcch slew seventy of his
kindred, and the town appears to have
been near Shechem, in the territory of
Matiasseh. Jud. 9 : 1, 5, 6, 15. Conder
proposes to identify it with the modern
village of Ferata, near Shechem.
OR'ACLE. This term is in the 0.
T. in every case but one applied to the
most holy place in the temple, whence
God declared his will to ancient Israel.
1 Kgs. 6 : 5, 19-23 ; 8 : 6. But in 2 Sam.
16 : 23 it is used in the ordinary sense.
In the X. T. it is in the plural, and is
applied to the Scriptures, which contain
the will of God. Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5:12;
1 Pet. 4:11. Once they are called ''liv-
ing " because of their quickening effects.
Acts 7 : 38.
By the oracles, in the heathen world,
were understood the shrines where ut-
terances concerning the future were given
and the utterance ifself. The Greeks
had many such oracles, of which the
most famous was the oracle of Delphi.
The priestess, sitting on a tripod over a
chasm from which an intoxicating vapor
was said to ascend, uttered incoherent
words, which were then interpreted by a
prophet. These oracles at one time stood
in high repute and were consulted by
kings. They did not, however, with-
stand very long the corruptive power
of money and bribery.
631
OR A
OSS
OR'ATOR, on ADVOCATE,
because acquainted with Rouian law.
See Tektit-lus.
OR'DINANCES. The term, as
used by the sacred writers, designates
laws and commandments of (iod, Ex.
18 : 20, or of civil rulers, 1 Pet. 2: 13,
and sometimes religious ceremonies.
Heb. 9 : 1, 10. In one passage, 1 Cor.
11 : 2, the word is a translation for the
Greek word parnilo>iiii, which in twelve
other passages of the X. T. is more cor-
rectly translated "tradition."
O'REB (raven), a prince of Midian
defeated and driven back by Gideon.
Jud. 7 : 25. His fate is alludeJ t) in Ps.
83: 11 and Isa. 10:26.
0'REB(mi-e»). The"ro3kofOreb"
was named after Oreb, one of the princes
of Midian, whom the men of Ephraim
slew. Jud. 7 : 25 : Isa. 10 : 26. Reland
and others would locate Oreb east of the
Jordan and in the neighborhood of
Bethshean, at a place called Orbo. It
appears from Jud. 8 : 4 that Gideon
crossed the river in pursuit of the kings
of Midian. Hence, Couder formerly
suggested that the Midianite leaders
were executed on the west side of the
Jordan and their heads carried to Gid-
eon, on the other side, and that the rock
Oreb was at Ash el-(Jhorah. He adds :
** The sharp peak overlooking the broad
plain north of Jericho would indeed
form a natural place for a public execu-
tion, which would be visible to the whole
multitude beneath." — I'aleHtine. Qiuir-
ter/,/, July. 1874. p. 184. In the H,nid-
book of the Bible, however, he appears
to have abandoned this identification,
which leaves that of Reland as the only
probable location of Oreb suggeste 1.
O'REX (pine tree), a son of Jerah-
meel. 1 Chr. 2: 25.
OR'GAN. Gen. 4: 21. The ''organ,"
as it is called, is thought to have been
what the ancient Greeks called the " pipe
of Pan." It consisted of seven or more
reeds of unequal length. These are still
usel by the shepherds of the East, and
in skilful hands produce quite tolerable
music.
ORI'ON, a constellation of about
eighty stars, south of Taurus, and, part-
ly, of the equator. Job 9 : 9. The Arabs
called it the *• Giant," moaning thereby
Nimrod. The consiellation is also men-
tioned in Job 38 : 31 and Am. 5 : 8.
632
O R ' N A M E IV T S. The fondness
which the human race in general, and
Oriental nations in particular, have for
personal ornaments was shared in by
the ancient Hebrews. The first mention
of jewelry is in Gen. 24 : 22, where
Abraham's servant j)resented Rebekah
with earrings and bracelets. The weak-
ness of Hebrew women for jewelry is
well brought out. Jer. 2 : 32 : "Can a
maid forget her ornaments ?" The orna-
ments worn by the Hebrews consisted
of bracelets, necklaces, earrings, nose-
rings, Eze. 16 : 11, 12, etc. Isaiah, ch.
3 : l(i-25. gives a graphic picture of the
fashionable woman of his day and her
ornaments. The apostles exhort the
women of their day to adorn themselves
with good works, I Tim. 2 : 10. and with
a meek and quiet spirit rather than with
the wearing of gold. 1 Pet. 3 : 4.
OR'NAN. 1 Chr. 21 : 1 5. See Auaunah.
OR' PAH i/aic),, or lutnie), the
daughter-in-law of .Naomi, who with Ruth
accompanied her part of the way on the
road to Bethlehem. Her affection, how-
ever was not so strong as Ruth's, and,
kissing Naomi, she returned to her
j)e:)plc and her gods. Ruth 1 : 4, 14.
OR'PHAXS. Special privileges
Avere accorde I to tbem by the Mosaic
Law, as well as to the widow and
stranger, Dcut. 14 : 21, and special kind-
ness and leniencv enjoined toward them.
Deut. 24 : 17. Job adduced it as one of
his merits that he had helped the father-
less. Ch. 29 : 12. etc. James, ch. 1 : 27,
classes the visitation of orphans amongst
the acts of pure and undefiled religion.
The word. John 14 : IS. translated " com-
fortless " is ''orphans" in the Greek.
O'SEE, the Greek form of writing
" Hosea." Rom. 9 : 25.
OSHE'A {(lefii-erintce), the original
name of .Joshua. Num. 13 : 16.
OS'PRAY, mentioned with the ossi-
frage as an unc'ean bird. Lev. 11 : 13;
Deut. 14 : 12. If not a generic term for
eagles, perhaps the short- toed eagle
{CircnetHH tinU'K'nn), by far the most
abundant of the Palestine species.
OS'SIFRAGE (Heb. the breaker).
The original word well suits the remark-
able habits of the lammergeier, or
bearded vulture, known also among the
Alps, and one of the most formidable
birds of its tribe. It is mentioned with
the ospray, as above. The propriety of
OST
OST
the name "ossi-frage" — i.e., "bone-
breaker" — is seen from the following
de.*cription : " Marrow- bones are the
dainties he (the lammerge^er) loves the
best : and when the other vultures have
]>icked the flesh otf any animal, he comes
in at the end of the feast and swallows
the bones, or breaks them and swallows
Ossifiat^e or I.nmmf rgeipr {Gypaetxis havhatus).
the pieces if he cannot get the marrow
out otherwise. The bones he cracks by
taking them to a great height and letting
them fall upon a stone. This is probably
the bird that dropjied a tortoise on the
bald head of poor old ^schylus. Not,
however, that he restricts himself, or the
huge black infant^ that he and his mate
are bringing up in one of the many
holes with which the limestone precipice
abounds, to marrow, turtle, bones, and
similar delicacies ; neither lamb, hare,
nor kid comes amiss to him. though, his
power of claw and beak being feeble for
so large a bird, he cannot tear his meat
like other eagles. To make amends for
this, his powers of deglutition are enor-
mous."— -A'. H. Simpson.
OS'TRICH, a remarkable bird of
the hot regions of Africa and Arabia,
often attaining the height of 7 feet, of
which the head and neck make .3. It is
also 7 feet from the head to the end of
the tail when the neck is stretched hori-
zontally on a line with the body. The
ostrich loves solitary and desolate places,
and is the bird intended in Job 30 : 29 ;
Isa. 13 : 21 : 34 : 13 : Jer. 50 : 31» ; Mic.
1 : 8 (though called the owl), and its cry
is piercing and mournful.
The plumage of the ostrich is white
and black. Its weight (which is often
75 or 80 pounds) and the construction of
its body prevent its flying.
The habits of this bird are described
with scientific accuracy in Job 39 : 13-18,
Its timidity is such that the least noise
frightens it from the nest, which is often
made on the ground and in the most
exposed places ; and from the same
cause the young of the ostrich are often
suddenly abandoned. Hence she seems
to be regarded as lacking the usual
share of instinct or natural affection.
Lam. 4:3. A modern traveller tells us
that the Arabs meet sometimes with
whole nests of these eggs (containing
from thirty to fifty in number), 5 inches
in diameter, and weighing several
pounds; some of them are sweet and
good, others are addled and corrupted ;
others, again, have their young ones of
different growth, according to the time,
it may be presumed, since they have
been forsaken of the dam. They often
meet with a few of the little ones no
bigger than well-grown pullets, half
starved, straggling and moaning about
like so many distressed orphans for their
mother. In this manner the ostrich may
be said to be " hardened against her
young ones, as though they were not
hers ; her labor," in hatching and at-
tending them, being " vain, without
fear " or the least concern of what be-
comes of them afterward.
The most remarkable characteristic
of the ostrich is the rapidity with which
it runs, and which the fleetest horse
cannot equal. The surprising swiftness
of this bird is expressly mentioned by
Xenophon. Speaking of the desert of
Arabia, he states that ostriches are
frequently seen there; that none could
take them, the horsemen who pursue
them soon giving it over, for they es-
caped far away, making use both of
633
OTH
OVE
Ostrich.
their feet to run and of their wings,
when expanded, as a sail to waft theiu
along. This representation is confirmed
by the writer of A Voi/atje to Seneyiil,
who says, " She sets off at a hard gallop,
but, after being excited a little, she ex-
])ands her wings as if to catch the wind
and abandons herself to a speed so great
that she seems not to touch the ground.
I am persuaded," continues the writer,
" she would leave far behind the swiftest
English courser." See Owl, Peacock.
OTH'NI {linn of JeJiov(th), son of
Shcmaiah, anda " mighty man of valor."
1 Chr. 26 : 7.
OTH'NIEL, the son of Kenaz, Jud.
1: lii, who displayed his valor in seizing
the citiy of Debir, or Kirjath-scpher, for
which exploit he was rewarded by the
gift of the daughter of his uncle Caleb
in marriage. Josh. 15: 17. Afterward ho
was made the instrument of delivering
the Israelites from the oppression of the
king of Mesopotamia. Jud. 3 : 8, 9.
OU'CHES were sockets in which
precious stones were set. Ex. 39 : 6.
OUTLANDISH. The women who
" caused Solomon to sin " are so called.
Neh. 13 : 26. The term means " foreign."
OVENS. Ex. 8:3. In the Eastern
cities the ovens at the present day are
not materially differeut from our own.
The more common way of constructing
them in the country, however, is to take
ajar or pot of a cylindrical shape, and,
after having partly filled it with pebbles,
to apply heat and use it for baking. The
dough is plastered upon the outside, and,
when baked (as it is almost instantly)
comes off in thin cakes. All Eastern
bread is of this thin sort. The bread
made in this way is clean and white.
OVE
OWL
The Bedotiin Arabs use three or four dif-
ferent ovens, the description of which
may throw some light upon the oven of
the Bible.
1. The unnd oven. — This is nothing
more than the sand of the earth, upon
which a fire is made until it is supposed
to be suflRciently heated. The fuel and
fire are then cleared away, and the dough
is laid on the hot sand in flat pieces
about the thickness of a plate. Isa.
44 : }.'), 19. These are the "ash-cakes,"
Gen. 18 : G ; 1 Kgs. 17 : 13 ; 19 : 6. See
Cakk.
2. The earth oven is a
round hole in the earth.
Stones are first put into
this, and a fire is kindled
upon them. When the
stones have become
thoroughly hot, the fire
is removed and the
dough spread in thin
flakes upon the heated
stones, and turned as of-
ten as may be necessary.
The ovens used in Per-
sia are about 2^ feet w ide
and not less than 5 or 6
feet deep. They resem-
ble pits or wells, and
sheep are hung length-
wise in them and cooked
whole. These may be
what are rendered in
our version " ranges for
pots." Lev. 11 : 35.
3. Portable oven. —
This is an earthen ves-
sel without a bottom,
about 3 feet high,
smeq,red outside and
inside with clay and
placed upon a frame or
support. Fire is made
within it or below it.
When the sides are suf-
ficiently heated thin
patches of dough are
spread on the inside,
and the top is covered
without removing the
fire, as in the other
cases, and the bread is
quickly baked. To this
we may refer the phrase " baken in the
oven." Lev. 2 : 4.
Convex plates of iron, pans or plates.
flat stones, etc., are often used for bak~
ing. See Baki:, Bread.
OVERSEERS'. Acts 20: 28. This
term denotes the pastor of a congrega-
tion of Christians, and is identical with
presbyter or elder. Comp. v. 17. The
same Greek word is elsewhere translated
"bishop." See Bishop.
OWL. In Deut. 14: 16,17; L«a.34:
11, 15; Ps. 102:6 this word doubtless
denotes some one or other of the five
species of owl common in Egypt and
Svria. The Hebrew word translated
Eagle Owl. {Bubo Maximus. After Houghton.)
" owl " in eight other cases means the
ostrich, as is often indicated in the
margin. Some of these birds we know
635
ox
OZN
are very abundant in Palestine, espe-
cially among ruins, and their doleful
hooting as they seek their prey by night
intensities the present desolation of these
former habitations of pride and glorj'.
The prophecies of Isa. 34 find a fulfil-
ment in modern Petra — ancient Iduiuasa
— as described by Irby and Mangles :
" The screaming of eagles, hawks, and
owls, which were soaring above our
heads in considerable numbers, seem-
ingly annoyed at any one approaching
their lonely habitation, added much to
the singularity of the scene." See
Night-hawk, Ostrich.
OX, a well-known domestic animal,
clean by the Levitical Law, strong and
patient of labor, of great use in agricul-
tural pursuits, and one of the most val-
uable possessions of the Jewish husband-
man. Gen. 24 : 35 : 30 : 43 ; 1 Sam. 11 : 7 ;
Job 1 : 3. Oxen were used for ploughing.
Deut. 22:10; 1 Kgs. 19:19; Job 1 : 1 1 ;
Prov. 14 ; 4; Isa. 30 : 24 ; for drawing,
Num. 7 : 3, 7, 8 ; for threshing or treading
out grain, Deut. 25 : 4 ; 1 Cor. 9:9; for
beasts of burden, 1 Chr. 12 : 40 ; for sac-
rifice, Gen, 16 : 9; 1 Kgs. 8 : 63 ; 2 Chr.
29 : 33 ; to produce milk and butter, Deut.
32 : 14 : Isa. 7 : 22 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 29 : and
their flesh as food. 1 Kgs. 19 : 21 ; 1 Chr,
12 : 39, 40 ; Matt. 22 : 4. The full-grown
ox was, however, rarely slaughtered either
for food or sacrifice, being esteemed too
valuable for any ordinary' use of this kind.
The young animal was taken instead. Of
the herds of Moab in our day Tristram
says : " Unlike the sheep, the cattle do not
find their way across Jordan to the mar-
kets of Jerusalem or Nablous. Beef is
a costly luxury, for the bullocks are as
valuable for the ])lough as the heifers
are for milch-kine." The cattle of the
Jews were probably broken to service
when three years old. Isa. 15 : 5 : Jer.
48 ; 34.
The oxen of ancient Egypt are shown
by the monuments to have been large
and handsome creatures, and it is likely
that those of Palestine were then similar,
though they have now much deteriorated,
636
in size at least. As is shown by the above
synopsis, oxen were used in general as
horses are now.
East of the Jordan vast herds of cattle
grazed through the entire year, being
driven to new pastures as old ones were
exhausted. This was sometimes possible
in Western Palestine, owing to the vari-
ety of elevation and climate. When these
resources failed, a niixtme of grains (as
the Hebrew indicates) called "fodder"
or ''provender,'" Job 6:5; Isa. 30 : 24,
was given, or the toi'n '"straw" left by
the threshing-machine. See Thresh.
In the more populous districts cattle
were stall-fed, as to some extent in all
parts, 1 Kgs. 4 : 23 ; Prov. 15 : 17 ; Hab.
3:17, At present the herds and flocjks
of a whole village are commonly pastured
together, and at night driven intj some
large cave, natural or artificial. It is
possible that the cave shown at Bethle-
hem as our Saviour's biithphice was thus
used — in part at least — an I was really
the manger in which the ncvv-born Clirist
was laid.
Vario'.is provisions of the Mosaic Law
conce ning cattle are recorded in the fol-
lowing additional references : Ex. 20 :
1 0 ; 21 : 28 ; 34 : 1 9 ; Lev. 19 : 19 ; 25 : 7 ;
Deut. 22 : ], 4, 10.
Henls were often left to care for them-
selves in the vast feeding-grounds east of
the Jordan. These half-wild cattle will
gather in a circle around any strange
object, and, if irritated, charge upon it
with their horns. Ps. 22 : Li.
The ;/'//(/ ax of Deut. 14 : 5, or xoild
hill/ of Isa. 61 : 20. is probably the oryx,
a powerful creature of the antelope kind,
See AfjRicr-i-TruK. Herd.
OX'-GOAD. See Gokd.
O'ZEM (HfreiH/th). 1. The sixth son
of Jesse. 1 Chr. 2 : 15.
2. A son of Jerahmecl. 1 Chr. 2 : 25.
OZI'AS, the same as Uzziah. Matt.
1 : 8, 9,
OZ'NI {hrtvi'vff ears ; atteittirp), a son
of Gad ; called Ezbon in Gen. 46 : 16.
OZ'NITES, descendants of Ozni.
Num, 26 : 16.
PA A
PAL
P.
PA'ARAI, one of David's mighty
men, 2 Sam. 23 : 'So; called Naarai in 1
Chr. 11 : 37.
PA'DAN ijield), Padan-aram. Gen.
48 :7.
FA'DAN-A'RAM (the lore h>;,h-
htnd), the country from which Abraham
obtained a wiie for hi:- son Isaac. Gen.
2i : 10 ; 25 : 20 ; 28 : 2, 5, 7, from whence
Jacob secured his wives, and where Laban
lived. Gen. 31 : J8; 33 : 18; 35 : 9. 2(> ;
46 : 15. Padan-aram has usually been
identified with Mesopotamia, the region
between the two great rivers Euphrates
and Tigris, and is believed moie par-
ticularly to designate tiie plain, in dis-
tinction from the mountain )us district,
in the North of Mesopotaujia. Another
theory in respect to the location of Padan-
aram has been advocated at various pe-
riods, to which attention has been directed
of late by Dr. Merrill and Prof. Paine.
They suggest that Milton places Haran
(and of course Padan-araui) south or west
of the Euphrates, and Dr. Beke (18-15)
wrote a learned work to prove that Pa-
dan-aram was in the vicinity of Damas-
cus. This view, however, is opposed by
the great majority of the most eminent
scholars, and has too few facts in its favor
t) give it much impo;tance. See Me.so-
POTAMIA and Syria.
PAD'DLE, a small spade. Deut.
23 : 13.
PA'DON {delii-eraiicc). ancestor of
a family of Nethinim which returned
with Ze'rubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 44 : Xoh. 7 : 47.
PA'GIEL (Godal/otx) was the chief
of the tribe of Asher in the wilderness.
Num. 1:13: 2:27: 7:72.77: 10:26.
PA'HATH-MO'AB d/ovemor of
Mottb), the head of one of the princi-
pal families of the tribe of Judah. whose
descendants returned with Zerubbabel.
Ezr. 2:6; 8:4: 10:30; Xch. 3:11;
7 : 11 ; 10 : 14. With respect to the name,
it may be noticed (hat. according to I
Chr. 4 : 22, a family of Shilonites, of the
tribe of Judah, had in early times " do-
minion in Moab."
PA'I (/deatiiK/), a place in Idumsea.
1 Chr. 1 : 50. See Pat.
PAIiXT, PAINTING, and PIC-
TURE. Paint was well known as a
cosmetic in Egypt and Assyria, and uni-
versally applied by the women of those
counti-ies to the eyes. Also among the
Hebrews the custom obtained, though it
must be noticed that it is always spoken
of in terms of contempt. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30 ;
Jer. 4 : 30 : Eze. 23 : 40. SeeEvK, Paint-
ing as a decoration was much practised.
In the houses the walls and beams were
colored, Jer. 22 : 14 ; also idols, either in
the form of sculptures or in the form of
drawings on the walls of temples, were
colored. Wisd. 13 : 14 : Eze. 23 : 14. But
pictures, in the modern sense of the
word, as jiroducts of free art, were un-
known to the ancient Jews, and would
])erhaps have been regarded as viola-
tions of the second commandment. The
drawings upon mummy cases were, how-
ever, doubtless familiar to them.
PAL'ACE. In the 0. T. the word
is used both in a wider sense, denoting
the whole mass of buildings, courts, and
gardens belonging to a royal residence
and enclosed by the exterior wall, Dan.
1 : -J ; 4:4, and in a narrower sense, de-
noting some special j)art of the whole
construction : lor instance, the fortress
or citadel. 1 Kgs. 16 : 18 ; 2 Kgs. 15 : 25.
In the X. T. the word generally signifies
the residence of any man of wealth or
prominent social position. Matt. 26 : 3 ;
Luke 11: 21; John 18: 15. The '-palace"
of Phil. 1 : 13 is the barrack of the
Praetorian camp attached to the emperor's
palace in Rome, on the Palatine. The
emperor was '"praetor" or e«.mmander-
in-chief: so the barrack of his body-
guard was the prtetorium. The Roman
governors occupied Herod's palace in
Jernsa'em.
The most interesting building of this
kind men'^ioned in the 0. T. is the pal-
ai-e erected by Solomon. 1 Kgs. 7 : 1-12.
It occupied an area of about 150,000
square feet, consisted of several inde-
pendent structures — the house of the
forest of Lebanon, the hall of judgment,
the porch, etc. — and took thirteen years
to build. Besides the description given
of this building in First Kings, there is
another by Joscphus, but they remained
' 637
PAL
PAL
almost unintelligible as long as the
principles of Greek or Egyptian archi-
tecture were applied to them, while the
investigations of the ruins of the pal-
Giouiid-plan of Solomou'n Palace.
aces in Nineveh and Persepolis have
thrown much light on the subject.
PA'LAL (Judge), the son of Uzai,
who assisted Nehemiah in restoring the
walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 25.
PAL'ESTINE {landnfsnjonrverH),
a country east of the Mediterranean Sea,
and sacred alike to Jew, Mohammedan,
and Christian. See Majjs at the end of
the volume.
Ninne. — " Palestine " — or '' Palestina,"
which has become the most common name
for the Holy Land — is found only three
times in our version of the Bible, Ex.
15:14; Isa. 14: 29, .^1, and in the 0. T.
represents the Hebrew name elsewhere
rendered " Philistia." Ps. 60 : 8 ; 87 :
4; 108 : 9 ; Zoph. 2 : 5. etc. The term,
therefore, originally referred only to the
country of the Philistines, ancl in its
Greek form is so used by Josephus.
The name is also applied to the whole
land of the Hebrews by Josephus, Philn,
and by (Treek and Roman writers. Its
first and native name was " Canaan."
Gen. 12 : 5 ; 16 : 3 ; Ex. 15 : 1 5 ; Jud. 3 :
I. It was also known as the Promised
Land, land of Israel, land of Judah or
"Judaea," and the Holy Land. Gen. 12:
7 ; Ps. 105 : 9 ; Zech. 2 : 12, etc.
Situnfion and Extent. — Palestine is
situated at the south-eastern end of the
I Mediterranean Sea, being the southern
1 portion of the high table- and lowlands
lying between the great plains of Assyria
and the shores of that sea. This central
location in the midst of the great nations
of the East has been frequently noticed.
It was about midway between Assyria
and Egypt on the south-west, and be-
tween Persia and Greece on the north-
west, being on the high-road from one
to the other of these mighty powei'S, and
often the battle-field on which they fought
to decide which sliould become the mis-
tress of the world. This central position
gave it the opportunity to become ac-
quainted with the progress whiah these
great nations hid gained in the arts, the
sciences, and in civilization. This also
exposed it to the powerful religious in-
fluences which these great but idolatrous
nations constantly exerted. The weak-
ness of the Hebrew nation in following
these forms of false religion and wor-
ship caused it to be frequently visited
with the judgments of the Almighty.
The boundaries of Palestine cannot
now be accurately determined. While
the boundaries between the tribes were
defined with much care and precision,
the portions bordering on other nations
t^ tlie north, east, and south on their
outlying sides were describe! in general
j terms only, and these border-lines seem
to have varied at different ])eriods of their
history. The land promised to Abraham
I and described by Moses extended from
Mount Hor to the entrance of Hamat'i,
and from the " river of Egypt" to "the
great river, the river Euphrates." Gen.
15 : 1 8 ; 17 : S ; Num. 34 : 2-12 : Dent. 1 : 7.
Some understand by the" river of Egypt"
the Nile, but, as Eastern Egypt was never
held by the Hebrews, such a. promise was,
of course, never fulfilled. To account for
this it is said that the promise was made
upon conditions which the nation failed
to meet, and hence the failure of the He-
brews to possess all the laml which, ac-
cording to this view, had been promised
to them. Others suppose that the" rivor
PAL
PAL
of Egypt " means the Wady el-An'sh, and
all this territory was actually possessed
during the period of the monarchy un-
der David and Solomon. Palestine in
its greatest extent, therefore, was bound-
ed on the north by Syria, on the east by
the Euphrates and the great desert, on
the south by Xegeb or "the south coun-
try," and on the west by the Mediterra-
nean Sea. Scarcely more than one-half
of this region lay west of the Jordan be-
tween that river anil the great sea, the
other portion lyingto the eastward and in-
cluding all the fertile table-land between
the. Jordan and the great Arabian desert,
which reached to the borders of Assyria.
The greatest length of Palestine is about
160 miles, its breadth not far from 90
miles ; the average length of the terri-
tory, according to the latest authorities,
is about 150 miles, its average breadth
west of the Jordan a little more than 40
miles, and its breadth east of the Jordan
rather less than 40 miles. The total area
of that portion which lies between the
Jordan and ''the great sea" is about
fifiOO square miles ; that portion east of
the Jordan has an area of about 5000,
and perhaps of 6000, square miles, mak-
ing the whole area of Palestine, on both
sides of Jordan, 12,000 or 13,000 square
miles, or about equal to that of the two
States of Massachusetts and Connecticut.
Phi/sicnl FcnfureH. — This land natu-
rally divides itself into four long parallel
tracts, extending north and south, two
of them low and two of them elevated:
( I) The plain along the sea-coast, broken
at the north by Carmel : (2) The hill-
country and table -land between the
Jordan valley and the coast-plain, reach-
ing from the north to the south end of
the land, and broken only by the great
plain of Jezreel, or Esdraelon ; (3) The
valley of the Jordan, with its remarkable
depression below the level of the sea;
(4) The high table-land east of the Jor-
dan, reaching from Mount Heiiuon on
the north, through Bashan. Gilead. and
Moab. and extending eastward to the
Arabian desert. Each of tliese four
natural divisions will be descrilied, be-
ginning with the jilain along the Medi-
terranean Sea.
1. The coaxt-pliiln. — This district is
supposed to have been formed by the
denudation of the mountains, the sand-
dunes along the shores, and partly by
the deposit of the Nile mud, which has
been noticed as far north as Gaza. Ibis
plain extends without a break from the
desert below Gaza to the ridge of Car-
mel: north of Carmel is the plain of
Acre, which reaches to a headland known
as the ** Ladder of Tyre ;" north of this
headland lies the narrow plain of Phoe-
nicia. That portion of the plain which
lies between Carmel and Jaffa (Joppa)
was known as the plain of Sharon. A
great portion of this ]»lain is flat, but
north of Jaffa are low hillocks, through
which, in ancient times, tunnels were cut
to drain the marshy land lying back of
them. The soil is of marvellous fertility,
producing good crops without irrigation,
though it is tilled in the rudest manner.
" Deep gulleys intersect the plain." says
Conder, '• running westward to the sea.
and carrying down the drainage of the
mountain-system. They have generally
high earthen banks, and in some cases
contain perennial streams. The neigh-
borhood of these streams is tiiarshy,
especially toward the north of Sharon,
and the dunes and marshes together
reduce the arable land by about one-
fourth. The maritime plain is some SO
miles long, and from 100 to 200 feet
above the sea, with low clifl's near the
coast. Toward the north it is 8 miles,
and near Gaza 20 miles, broad." — Hrnid-
book,\).2ll. Wilson speaks of the broad
expanse of the Philistine plain as cover-
ed in harvest-time with a waving mass
of golden grain unbroken by a single
hedge, and j)resenting one of the most
beautiful sights in Palestine. The stub-
ble becomes so dry under a scorching
Syrian sun that a spark would set it on
fire, and the flames would sweep over it
like the fires upon an Americ in prairie.
Such a fire was no doubt kindled bj'
Samson when he turned his three hun-
dred foxes or jackals with their fire-
brands into the standing grain of the
Philistines in the time of wheat-harvest.
Jud. 15 : 4, 5. The Shephelah, or ''low
country," in which were the towns of
Beth - shemesh, Aijalon, Timnah, and
Gimzo, 2 Chr. 28 : 18, consisted of a
series of low undulating hills lying be-
tween the great southern plain on the
coast and the hill -country toward Jeru-
salem. There is not to be found a single
good harbor along this entire coast.
2. 7'he highlands icest of the Jordan. —
639
PAL
PAL
Next to the coast-plain eastward comes
the high-table land, including the hill-
country of Judaea — a tract about 25 miles
wide, and which begins at the foot of
Lebanon in the north and extends south-
ward through the hills of Galilee, is
broken by the plain of Jezreel, rises
again with the hills of Samaria, and
extends southward beyond Jerusalem for
about 50 miles. It has been designated
geologically as the '' back-bone of Pales-
tine." As seen from the sea, it has a
general resemblance to a long continuous
wall. The following are the heights
al>ove the sea of some of its chief points :
Hebron, 2840 feet; Olivet, 2005 feet:
Nebi Samwil, 2900 feet; Mount Ebal,
3029 feet; Nebi Ismail, 1790 feet; and
Jebel Jermuk, 4000 feet. " The hills are
broad-backed," says Wilson, '* and pre-
sent none of the grander features of
mountain-scenery, but every here and
there a rounded summit rises above the
general level of the range and affords
striking panoramas of the surrounding
country : such are the views from Mount
Ebal, Little Hermon, Nebi Ismail, near
Nazareth, and the hill on which Safed
stands, each embracing no inconsiderable
portion of the Holy Land. The effect of
the view is increased by the transparency
of the atmosphero, which diminishes
apparent distances in a manner unknown
in moister climes, and by the rich and
var3'ing tints that light up the steep
slopes of the Jordan valley. Through
the centre of the hill-country runs the
main road from Jerusalem through Sa-
maria to Galilee, following nearly the
line of the watershed, and passing close
to many of the chief cities of Judah and i
Israel. It is the route now usually |
followed by travellers, and was probably
always one of the most important
thoroughfares in the country. East of
tliis road the hills descend abru{)tly to
the Jordan valley; west of it they fall
more gradually to the coast-plain. The
Avonderful ramifications of the valleys '■
which cut up the hill-country on either J
side of the watershed form one of the }
peculiar features of Palestine topog- i
raphy ; rising frequently in small up- '
land plains of great richness, such as
el-Mitkhiui, near NablQs, the valleys at
first fall very rapidly, and then, alter a
tortuous course, reach the ]>Iain on the
one side and the Jordan valley on the ;
640
other. The effect of this is to split up
the country into a series of knife-like
ridges, generally preserving an east-aml-
west direction, and effectually preventing
any movement over the country from
south to north, except along the central
highway ; the valley of the Kishou,
which spreads out into the broad plain
of Esdraelon, and the valley of Jezreel,
are the only two which are more than
mere torrent-beds." — /Jih. Eduvntar, vol.
ii. p. 214. Near Jerusalem the tract
becomes lower, about 2600 feet above the
sea. and the hills are capped with chalk,
but south of Jerusalem the ridge becomes
higher and more rug'j;ed, the slopes to
the west very steep, deep ravines run-
ning north and south, while south of
Hebron is a plain upon the table-land,
partially broken by a valley extending
from Hebron to Beersheba, and thence
north-westward nearly to Gaza. Pres.
Bartlett, speaking of the hill-country of
Judah, says : '' Perhaps no one aspect
of Palestine along its central line of hills,
both here and north of Jerusalem, strikes
the stranger more with surprise than the
amount and roughness of its rock- sur-
face. It is not unlike the stony parts of
New Hampshire in this respect. At the
first glance, especially in its present
wretched desolation and neglect under a
government that crushes all the hopes
of industry, and in possession of a people
that destroy and never replace, the
thought of the superficial observer is
that of disappointment. He sees it
almost treeless, rocky, and rough and
neglected, and thinks that it is, after all,
a much overrated and overpraised coun-
try. But when he looks more closely ho
perceives that all this rock, being lime-
stone, and not sandstone or granite, when
it pulverizes, carries with it. not barren-
ness, but fertility. He observes how the
noble olive grows in successive tiers up
the sides of seemingly hopeless hills,
what sunny exposures are everywhere
offered to the vine, and how green arc
the wheat-fields even when wedged in
among the cliffs, and how all these hills
nppcar once to have been diligently and
laboriously laid out in terrac^es iilmo.-t to
their tops; and he changes his niind.
He travels through a multitude of fertile
valleys, and crosses ])lains, like that of
Esdraelon, as rich of soil as a Western
prairie, almost abandoned now. He
PAL
PAL
passes from the deep tropical valley of
the Jordan by the D.ead !Sea to the high
mountains of Galilee and the still higher
range of Lebanon, and sees how this
little country, not larger than Wales, is
fitted to produce almost every species of
fruit or grain, of whatever climate, upon
the globe. And as he watches the brooks
and springs of water, and the singular
variety of surface, orchards, glens, bold
mountains, fertile flowery plains, pictu-
resque sites — such as those of Jerusalem,
Hebron, Samaria, and a multitude of
other places — he cannot but perceive
how in its palmy days, when the heights
were crowned with foliage, the hillsides
with cattle, and the fields with grain,
Palestine must have been indeed a goodly
land, presenting to its children home-
attractions and inextinguishable recol-
lections beyond even those of Scotland,
Switzerland, or New England." — From
Egypt to Palestine, p. 409.
8. The Jordan vallet/ and jilain. — This
valley, extending from the base of Her-
mon to the south end of the Dead Sea,
is one of the wonders in physical geog-
raphy. It varies greatly in width from
half a mile to 5 miles, and at some points
is 12 miles broad. At the foot of Her-
mon this valley is about 1000 feet above
the sea ; at Lake Huleh, about 12 miles
south of Hermon, the valley is upon the
sea-level ; at the Sea of Galilee, some 10
miles farther south, the valley falls 682
feet below the level of the sea; while at
the Dead Sea, about 65 miles south of
Galilee, the valley sinks to the astonish-
ing depth of 1300 feet below the ocean-
level. The sea has on its shore a salt-
mountain, Jebel Usdum, a long mass of
rock-salt several hundred feet high,
nearly 7 miles long, and from 1 to 3
miles wide. The mountain is capped
with marl and gypsum, and in this region
are numerous salt pillars, among them
one spire which tradition points out as
Lot's wife. Bitumen abounds also, and
sometimes is strongly impregnated with
sulphur. See Salt Sea. The mountains
on either side of this immense depression
rise to a height, near Beisan. of about
2000 feet above the valley, while near
Jericho they are nearly 4000 feet above
the river Jordan. These heights, com-
bined with the deep depression, aff"ord a
great variety of temperature, and bring
into close proximity-productions usually
41
found widely apart in the temperate and
torrid zones. See Jordan.
4. The table-land east of the Jordan.
— The broad eastern plateau beyond
Jordan may be described as having a
general altitude of about 2000 feet above
the sea, though at some points it attains
a height of 3000 feet : the surface is tol-
erably uniform, but broken on its west-
ern edge by deep ravines running
into the Jordan valley. Within this re-
gion were the ancient forests and rich
})astures of Bashan, famous from a vei-y
early age, and still regarded as among
the most fertile portions of Palestine.
This plateau, upon its extreme eastern
edge, sinks away into the Arabian desert.
Eastward of the Sea of Galilee, however,
it is broken by a mountainous tract ex-
tending from 40 to 50 miles from north-
east to south-west. The region known
as the Lejah is one vast lava-bed, bro-
ken by deep ravines, where water is found
and where people dwell in caves. See
Bashan.
This volcanic or basaltic tract rises
gradually from the north, and is inter-
spersed with many isolated hills, some
of which Robinson supposes to be cra-
ters of extinct volcanoes. Nearly op-
posite Jericho is the range of Abarim,
which includes Nebo and Pisgah, the
plaee where Moses viewed the land and
died. Deut. 34 : 1-6. See Abarim.
Mountains, Passes, and Plains. — The
only mountain of importance along the
coast is the promontory and ridge of
Carmel, which extends north-west and
south-east, being from 12 to 18 miles in
length, about 1750 feet high at its high-
est point, find about 600 feet high where
it breaks off into the sea. Among the
noted elevations of the district known
as " the hill-country," west of the Jor-
dan, are the following : At the extreme
north the Anti Lebanon range, and
southward, in Galilee, Little Hermon,
Tabor, the Horns of Hattin, the hill
of Nazareth, and Mount Gilboa: still
farther south. Mount Ebal, Mount Geri-
zim, Gibeah, Olivet, the mountain Quar-
antania, and, at the extreme south,
Mount Seir. Among the mountains
in the district east of Jordan are
Mount Gilead, the range of Abarim,
which included Pisgah, Nebo. and Peor,
Among the noted "passes " on the west
side of Jordan is that at Beth-horon,
641
PAL
PAL
the one in the south at Akrabbim, and
that on the road from Jerusalem to Jeri-
cho through the Wudi/ Kelt. There are
numerous other deep ravines on both
sides of the Jordan, like that of M((r
Snba, and of the Callirrhoe along the
Zerka Main. Among the plains, the
two most remarkable are the plain of
Jezreel and the plain of Sharon. See
Jezreel and Sharon.
Rivers, Lakes, and Fountains. — The
great river of Palestine is the Jordan,
which divides the land into two almost
equal portions. It has no important
tributary from the west, but there are
some small streams, as the Derdarah,
the Nahr el-Jalnd, rising in the fountain
of Jezreel, and the Wady el-Faria. Of
the streams running into the Mediter-
ranean are the Leontes, the Bel us, the
Kishon — ''that ancient river" — the Zer-
ka, north of Coesarea, and the Aujeh,
near Jaffa, which drains the mountains
of Samaria. The streams running into
the Jordan from the east are the Wadij
Za'areh, the Yarmuk or Hieromax, the
Jabbok — now called the ez-Zerka — the
Zerka Main, the Arnon — now called the
el-Mojib — and the Wady Kerak. Many
of the so-called " rivers " of Palestine
are only winter-torrents, whose beds are
dry in summer. The lakes of import-
ance are Lake Huleh, or the '' waters of
Merom," the Lake of Galilee, and the
Salt or Dead Sea. A description of
these is given under their respective ti-
tles. Palestine was noted of old for its
fountains. Among the most important
are those which constitute the sources
of the Jordan, as the great fountain at
Banias, the ancient'' Caesarea Philippi,"
at Tell el-Kady, the ancient Dan, the
fountain of Jezreel, the source of the
Kishon, the fountain of Nazareth, that
of et-Tahiijhah, the hot springs of Ti-
berias, the various fountains in and
about Jerusalem — of which Robinson
says there are not less than thirty — the
"fountain of Elisha,'' n^ar ancient Jeri-
cho, those near Hebron, and tlie noted
fountain near ancient En-g(Mli. Upon
the east of the Jordan, near the Dead
Sea, were the famous hot springs of Cal-
lirrhoe, the great fountains which are
the sources of the Yarmuk or Hieromax,
and, besides these, the copious fountains
at some of the principal towns, as Kuna-
wat, Hebron, Omam, and Basra or Boz-
642
rah. The mineral springs are found
chiefly in the valley of the Jordan, and
are divided by Robinson into three
classes: (1) Hot sulphur springs,
which are found in five places — near
Tiberias, on the western shore of the
lake, with a temperature of 144° ; near
Um Keis, in the valley of the Yarmuk,
with a temperature of 109° ; at Callirr-
hoe, east of the Dead Sea ; and in Wady
Hamad. (2) Warm saline springs occur
at only one place, the Wady Malih, south
of Beisan, which have a temperature of
98°. (3) Warm springs in general, of
which there are several. The " fountain
of Elisha," near Jericho, is slightly
warm, but not brackish, and the same is
true of the fountains et-Tahighah and
el-Feshkah, on the western shore of the
Dead Sea, except that the latter is quite
brackish.
Geology. — There never has been a com-
plete geological survey of Palestine.
The general character of its formation
has been ascertained, however, and will
be briefly described. The Lebanon and
Anti-Lebanon ranges of mountains are
chiefly composed of hard limestone over-
laid with a formation of soft white chalk,
the latter containing numerous fossils,
those of the fish being the most common.
These formations occur in Western Pal-
estine, though in the higher hills of
Galilee there is a second layer of lime-
stone above the chalk. The upjier
limestone varies from white to reddish-
brown, has few fossils, and abounds in
caverns, the strata being sometimes vio-
lently twisted, as between Jerusalem
and Jericho, and in other places blends
into dolomite or magnesian limestone, as
on the western shore of the Dead Sea.
East of the Jordan and south of Her-
mon are vast beds of volcanic rock, and
in the Lejah district there is a great
field of basalt covering about 500 square
miles. East of the Dead Sea occurs the
Nubian sandstone, while beneath this
formation, especially near Pctra, igne-
ous formations are to be found, the
chains of Sinai and Serbal being formed
of dltferent varieties of granitic rock.
The geological origin of the great de-
I prcssion of the valley of the Jordan
j may be due to volcanic causes, though
1 this question has not yet been settled.
I Some think the basins of the Sea of
i Galilee and the Dead Sea resemble era-
PAL
PAL
ters; others attribute the chasm to the
gradual action of the ocean at some im-
mensely remote period. All agree that
the theory which ascribes the formation
of the Dead Sea to the time of the over-
throw of the cities of the plain is without
any scientific support, and it is not re-
quired by the language of Scripture.
The soil of Palestine is noticed under
Agriculture.
Climate. — Though the present climate
of Palestine appears to be unhealthy
for Occidentals, it is on the whole mild,
and tends toward an extreme of heat
rabther than of cold. The mean tem-
perature at Beirut (a little north of Pal-
estine proper) of each month for a pe-
riod of ten years was as follows: Janu-
ary, 57.3°: February, 58.6°; March,
63.3° ; April, 67.3° ; May, 73.3° : June,
78.1° : July, 83° ; August, 83.4° : Sep-
tember, 81.6° ; October, 77.8°; Novem-
ber, 67.6°: December, 61.5°, — making
the mean for the whole period 71.1°.
The coldest month, on the average, was
January: the warmest, August. The
average summer heat, according to Con-
der, ranges between 100° in the plains
and 85° in the mountains as a maximum
temperature in the shade. In the plains
the winter temperature seldom falls be-
low freezing-point, but in the mountains
frost and snow are of frequent occur-
rence. On the sea-coast the heat of the
summer is tempered by the cool breezes,
but in the valleys of the Jordan the
heat is often terrible, sometimes reach-
ing 110° in the shade.
According to Dr. Barclay, the highest
temperature at Jerusalem is about 92°
and the lowest 28°, the mean tempera-
ture being not far from 62°. About the
sairje temperature doubtless prevails
throughout the whole hill country. Mount
Hermon. in the north, 9300 feet high, is
never entirely clear of snow, though
sometimes there is very little of it left
upon its sides late in autumn. As a
rule, the year consists of two seasons
only, the rainy and the dry. The rainy
season begins near the end of October,
sometimes preceded by violent thunder-
storms. This may be the " former rain "
noticed in the Bible. Deut. 11 : 14 : Joel
2:23. The winds from the south and
south-west bring frequent showers. De
cember is usually stormy, January and
February cold and rainy, the rain fall-
ing in the valleys and uplands and the
snow upon the mountains. The "latter
rains " come in March and April. If
scanty, they impair, or even destroy, the
crops ; if violent, they sometimes sweep
away the fruit trees and gardens, and do
not spare the mud hovels, or even the
better houses of the peasantry. The
average annual rainfall at Jerusalem
has been found to be about 60 inches,
while with us it is 45, and in California,
where the climate resembles Palestine,
it is only 20 inches. The annual rain-
fall at Beirut for the ten years noted in
the previous paragraph was 63 inches,
the least for any one year being 57, and
the greatest 74. The average number
of rainy days in a year was 63. The dry
season extends from April to November,
during which period the sky is almost
uninterruptedly cloudless. Thunder-
storms occasionally occur in May, but
are very rare. 1 Sam. 12 : 17, 18. Mists
hover about the mountains, but other-
wise the atmosphere is generally bril-
liantly clear. Heavy dews fall at night,
even in the midst of summer, except in
the desert. The east wind, or sirocco,
blows during February, March, and
Apiil. and sometimes darkens the air
with clouds of fine dust. A drought of
three months before harvest is fatal to
the crops, the harvest coming in the
valley of the Jordan a month in ad-
vance of that on the highland. The
barley-harvest usually comes early in
May in the valley; the wheat-harvest is
a few weeks later. But the harvest-time
varies in different years, and even in dif-
ferent parts of the country, in the same
season, owing to the different elevations
of the land.
In regard to the climate and seasons
of Palestine now, Warren says :
'^ There is but one rainy season, and
then a long interval of drought and des-
olation from July — I might say May —
to November. During this long period
scarcely a green blade can be seen as far
as the eye can stretch over the vast plains,
nothing but sticks, stones, and dust, the
monotony relieved only by the noise of
the wild artichoke careering on the wings
of the whirlwind, or by a troop of Bed-
ouins rushing off on a j^lundering ex-
pedition. Toward the end of October
there is a sullen stillness in the air; the
atmosphere is loaded to the senses, and
643
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the soul is heavy with melancholy, wait-
ing for the rains. Then the spell of
drought is broken; a storm occurs. For
three days there is abundance of soft
showers, with a few downpours, and again
often some weeks of drought until the
winter solstice; then there is a thorough
break up : cold and rain spread over the
land. In January the rain falls now and
again for three days, with a week's in-
terval ; but February is the really rainy
month. I have known it to rain every
day throughout the month. There is,
however, no certainty in the matter;
one year the rain is later than the next.
In March there are pleasant showers and
storms, and in April there are showers
and often intervals of intense cold; even
snow I have known at Jerusalem during
that month. May is frequently a month
of hot winds blowing from the east, but
in June there are clouds and a few show-
ers. Now, it is this early portion of the
year that would be most affected by the
growth of trees and the terracing of the
hillsides. The April showers would be
extended into May, the June clouds and
showers into July ; the latter rains of
June will fall in abundance, giving a
second season — a never-ending succes-
sion of crops — when the ploughman will
overtake the reaper and the treader of
grapes him that soweth seed. The rich
soil is well prepared to yield a second
crop year by year; all that is required
is water and warmth, and this it will
have, for water will now be found gush-
ing from the rocks, from springs which
have long been silent. Carried along the
hillsides in ducts, it may be used for ir-
rigation purposes in the undulating coun-
try, and then into the plains, to be used
again, or else it may assist in filling up
the wells of the plain to near the surface
of the ground — wells which are now 30
to 90 feet deep — with water. The water
so freely used will evaporate and form
clouds over the land without ever
reaching the sea, thus preventing the
formation of the unhealthy lagoons of
half- salt, half- fresh water along the
shore of Palestine, now so common.
" Philistia, Sharon, and the other
plains bordering on the sea, are even
now exceptionally fertile, but they may,
by a regular succession of crops, be
made to yield far more abundantly, and
the advance of the rolling sand-hills may
044
be arrested — an advance which, if not
looked to, will soon overwhelm the fair-
est of the maritime plains. The rich
ground between Gaza and Ascalon, be-
tween Ascalon and Jaffa, which the
sand has swallowed up, must again be
uncovered. United action is requisite
for this, for individual efforts can be of
no avail: the rolling sand-hills are a
common enemy, and must be attacked
by the nation."
Of the effect of the "former rains" in
October and November, Tyrwhitt Drake
wrote in 1872 : " These rains produced an
immediate change in the appearance of
the country. Grass began to sprout all
over the hills; the wasted grain on the
threshing-floors soon produced a close
crop some 0 inches high. The cyclamen,
white crocus, saffron crocus, and jonquil
are in fall flower on the mountains : the
hallnt ( Quercus lefjilops) is fast putting
out its new leaves, and in sheltered nooks
some of the hawthorn trees are doing
the same. . . . These, to our notions, are
hardly signs of coming winter, but the
advent of numberless starlings and com-
mon plovers on the plains and woodcock
in the woodlands points to rain not far
distant."
Productions. — Among the trees and
plants of Palestine, the more important
are the cedar and the cypress, now quite
rare; the Aleppo pine, still abundant on
the slopes of Lebanon ; the terebinth,
evergreen oak, and the common oak, for
which Bashan was famed ; the locust tree,
the carob — the pods of which were the
"■ husks" the prodigal would have eaten —
the walnut, the plane tree, the tamarisk,
the common willow, the white or silver
poplar, the maple, juniper, ash, alder,
and hawthorn. Of fruit trees there are
the sycamore-fig, olive, quince, mulberry,
almond, banana, pomegranate, orange,
pear — though not abundant — and the
common fig, which is one of the staple
products of the country. The prickly
pear is used for hedges; the palm tree,
once abundant, is now rarely seen ;
though the date-palm is occasionally
found, yet its fruit does not ripen.
Vines are very common, grapes being
one of the principal products of the
hill-country. Melons of various kinds,
cucumbers, lettuce, ])urslane, endive,
gourds, and pumpkins are likewise
common, some of the latter attaining
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great size. The egg-plant and cauli-
flower are also common, and artichokes
and asparagus grow wild. Potatoes are
grown in some places, as at Jerusalem.
Among the flowering-plants may be no-
ticed the tulip, various kinds of the an-
emone, the lily, the white narcissus, the
iris, the flowering oleander, the honey-
suckle, the jessamine, the primi-ose, mis-
tletoe, acacia, poppy, geranium, and
jiink, and altogether more than five
hundred diff"erent varieties of wild-
flowers of rich and delicate color, giv-
ing the country, in the height of the
season, a showy and gorgeous appear-
ance. Indeed, the wild flowers of Pal-
estine are the chief natural attractions
of the country. The various grains
grown in Palestine are described under
Agriculture and under their diflerent
titles.
The wild animals of Palestine are
about the same as in ancient times, ex-
cept that the lion and a species of the
wild ox have become extinct. The num-
ber of species of mammals is about eighty
— a large number for so small a country.
Among the animals are the badger, bat,
bear, zemer, coney, various kinds of deer,
ferret, fox, wild goat, hare, hedgehog
and porcupine, hya;na, jackal, cheetah
or leopard, wild boar and wild ass, the
mole, mouse, the jerboa or jumping
mouse, weasel, and the wolf. Of domestic
animals there are the camel, dog, cat,
goat, horse, mule, ass, ox, sheep, and the
half-wild swine. Of the reptiles and
''creeping things" of Palestine every
traveller is painfully conscious. They
are the adder, lizard, chameleon, frog,
shrill-crying little gecko, the viper, and
scoi'pions under every stone. Insects
abound on every hand. The more
common are the ant, honey-bee, flea,
locust, wasp, hornet, spiders without
number, various kinds of gnats and
flies, beetles, and butterflies. Of fish
the most common are the carp, perch,
minnow, barbel, bream, sheat-fish, and
the dog-fish, all of which abound in
the Jordan and the Sea of Ualilee.
Larger fish are found in the Mediter-
ranean, among them the shark, which
was doubtless the " great fish " (incor-
rectly rendered "whale") that swal-
lowed the truant prophet Jonah.
The birds of Palestine are very numer-
ous, more than three hundred and twenty
species having been already identified.
The hills abound in fine specimens of the
partridge, and quails are found in the
grain-fields. Wild ducks frequent the
plains of the Jordan, and pigeons swarm
everywhere. Large flocks of storks and
cranes hover about the plain of Jezreel,
while sparrows and swallows swarm in
the ruins of towns and boldly enter the
very sanctuaries of the Muslims in Jeru-
salem and elsewhere. The most con-
spicuous of the birds of prey are the
eagle, ospray, vulture, kite, the lapwing
or hoopoe, the filthiest of scavengers
among birds, the hawk, and the majestic
lammergeier. The ravens are still abun-
dant as in the days of Elijah, and are
of various kinds. Singing-birds are not
wanting. Cant. 2 : 12: Ps. 104 : 10, 12,
the more common being the thrush,
nightingale or bulbul, and the cuckoo,
whose sweet call-notes are often heard
in spring. The cormorant, heron, and
pelican arc also found upon the lakes or
along the coast. Gulls and petrels skim
the shores of the sea : jays and wood-
peckers sport in the forests of Carmel,
Gilead, and Bashan ; kestrels, griflons,
and buzzards soar over the rugged Clio's
of Jordan or sweep across the marshes
of the plains ; bats and owls swarm in
the numerous caverns in the sides of the
deep ravines and limestone precipices
abounding in the land ; larks and linnets
are taken in snares, tamed, and used like
pigeons as decoys to catch other birds :
while chattering sparrows are on every
hand, until we do not wonder that a
single one of these birds was counted
worth next to nothing — two for a
farthing or five for two farthings.
Matt. 10 : 29 : Luke 12 : 6. While the
thrift, prosperity, and true religion of
the people of Palestine have disappeared,
and with them the beauty and natural
loveliness of the land, the prominent
physical features remain as they were
4000 years ago. and our eyes behold the
same valleys, hills, and mountains, our
feet may cross the same streams, and our
thirst may be quenched from the same
fountains and wells that were famed in
the days of the patriarchs. The same
kind of animals survive to bear bur-
dens for the trader and to feed the
hungry now as in those remote ages,
the same kind of insects annoy and
destroy the comfort of the "sojourner,"
645
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and the same sort of birds delight the
eye with their majestic flight or please
the ear with their song.
Palestine is itself one vast ruin ; even
the very land seems to sympathize with
the general desolation which rests upon
its cities and towns. A bad government
has for years not only failed to protect
its inhabitants: it has burdened them
with taxes, and when it had brought
them to poverty it added extortion to
oppression, allowed jus ice and honestv
to be disregarded by its ofiicials, made
bribery and corruption so common, and
the reward to the extortionate so great,
that no officer could afford to be honest
or dare to be just. The whole system of
civil rule is on a rotten foundation, and
cannot be made solid so long as it is
based on the Turkish belief that a
Christian and a Jew can never be raised
to an equality with a follower of Mo-
hammed. Added to this there are great
physical causes which have been sug-
gested as reasons why a land once so
fruitful has become so barren and deso-
late. Among these are: (1) Rains have
ceased to fall in proper proportion ; (2)
Clouds fail to protect the soil from the
sun in spring; (8) There are neither
people, facilities, nor skill to till the land
properly; (4) Soil once terraced on the
mountain-sides is now washed into the
valleys.
Respecting the possibilities of recover-
ing the former fertility and productive-
ness of the Holy Land, Warren eloquentl)'
declares : *' Put the country under proper
cultivation, and will not all be changed?
Ptich loam clogs the valleys, the hillsides
are bare. The work to be done is not
difficult. It is practicable; it is going
on in Spain, and even in parts of Pales-
tine at the present time. Walls of rough
stones are built along the hillsides, 3 to
4 feet high, according to the steepness
of the slope, and the space between them
and the hill filled up with the jet loam;
this is continued from bottom to top
until the mountain -side presents the
appearance, from the o))posite side, of a
series of steps : from the bottom it looks
like a great stone wall ; from the top, like
a loamy plateau. On these terraces are
planted the young trees, figs, olives, mul-
berry, apricot, the pine, those of a more
delicate nature being planted on the
northern terraces in order that they may
648
suffer less from the sun's rays, the walls
not being exposed to the heat. These
trees thrive rapidly, as they will do in
Palestine, and spread out their leaves
and thrust their roots into the rocky
clefts. The rain falls, but not as hereto-
fore ; there are no bare rocks for it now
to course down, no torrent is foaming in
the valley. No ! Now it falls on the
trees asid terraces, it percolates quietly
into the soil and into the rocky hillside,
and is absorbed, scarcely injuring the
crops in the valley, where before it would
have ruthlessly washed them away.
" The water that thus sinks into the
rocks is not lost, for it will shortly re-
issue at some distance lower down in
perennial springs, so refreshing in a
thirsty land. The rain that remains in
the soil keeps about the roots of the
trees, enabling them to spread out their
leaves in rich groves over the land to
protect it from the sun, whose rays are
now intercepted and absorbed by the
leaves and fruits, giving forth no glare
or reflection, but a delicious green shade.
The soil, though warm, is not burnt up
at once, but every day gives out a moist-
ure which rises above the trees, and on
reaching the higher and cooler winds is
condensed into visible vapor or clouds,
constantly forming as the breeze passes
over the groves, thus protecting them
from the sun as with an umbrella. The
climate becomes changed, for the rocks,
once bare and exposed to the sun, have
now upon them soil, and, sheltering the
soil, trees, and, sheltering the trees,
clouds. Thus where were but glaring
sun, dry winds, dry with stony land,
absence of vegetable products, are now
to be found fleecy clouds floating through
the air, the heat of the sun tempered by
visible and invisible vapors, groves with
moist soil, trickling streamlets issuing
from the rocks, villages springing up
apace — Palestine renewed."
Bixton/. — The history of the Holy
Land is treated in detail under Canaan,
Israel, JunAH, and Jkrusalkm. A con-
cise general view may here be added for
convenience to the reader. The history
of this land may be not inappropriately
divided into five great periods : (1) Be-
fore the Israelitish conquest; (21 Under
the Judges and kings; (3) During the
Captivity and Maccabaean period ; (4)
The Roman and Christian period • (5)
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The Mohammedan period. An outline
only can be given under each period.
1. Before the hraelitish Conquest. —
The earliest inhabitants of Palestine of
whom we have any notice were Hamites,
descended from Canaan, and included
ten or more tribes, grouped under the
general name of Canaanites. Gen. 10 :
15-18. Some suppose these tribes were
in two groups, Sidon and Heth, and that
the curious inscriptions found at Hamath,
yet undeciphered by scholars, are of
llittite origin. At an early date there
may have been only four leading tribes
within the bounds of Palestine — Jebus-
ites, Amorites, Girgasiies, and Hivites ;
others were soon added, however, and
appear in the days of Abraham, the
Hittites probably coming from the north,
as did also the Amorites. The walls of
the temple at Karnak, in Egypt, bear a
hieroglyphic inscription, lately deci-
phered, recording an invasion by Thoth-
mes III. of the countries east of the
Mediterranean, including Palestine, and
the conquest of one hundred and nineteen
towns and cities, a large portion of them
being identified as cities mentioned in
the Ij.ble. For the later conque^^t of the
land by Joshua, and the division of it
among the tribes, see Canaan.
2. Under the Jnihjen and KhifjH. — Dur-
ing the rule of the Judges the land was
not under any united or strong govern-
ment. The fortunes and the ])Ossessions
of the people were subject to constant
fluctuations — sometimes overrun by ene-
mies, at others victorious over them, as
under the leadership of Samson, Gideon,
and Jephthah : but there was little general
security, and the former tribes kept the
new settlers in a state of constant alarm.
They longed for a central and monarch-
ical government, and God granted their
desire, though warning them, through
the prophet Samnel. of the result. Under
David and Solomon the nation was con-
solidated and reached the highest point
of temporal prosperity. The rupture fol-
lowed, and for five hundred years the na-
tion gradually declined in greatness and
power, until it fell into captivity under
the Assyrian and Babylonian empires.
See IsRAET, and Jchah, Kingdoms of.
M. The Coptivily and Maecohpean Rule.
— After the seventy years' captivity por-
tions of the southern nation returned to
repeople Palestine. The ten tribes com-
posing the northern kingdom of Israel
were "lost," and portions of their terri-
tory were repeopled by a mixed class,
afterward known as Samaritans. Later,
Philip and his son Alexander extended
the Grecian conquests into Asia. The
decisive battle of Issus, B. c. 333, in which
Darius was completely defi ated, caused
Palestine to pass from the Persian to the
Grecian sway. The country was ruled
under the Seleucidae by governors ap-
pointed by the king at Antioch. The
war of independence, under the leader-
ship of the Maccaba?an princes, is among
the most important events of this period.
4. Hoitiaii and Chrixfian Period. — About
B. c. 40 the Parthians plundered Syria
and Palestine; Herod I. (afterward the
Great) obtained the vassal-kingship from
the Romans, and was confirmed in ofiice
B. c. 37. After his death (b. c. 4), and dur-
ing the ministry of our Lord, the land
was divided and ruled by his sons and by
Roman procurators. Herod Antipas and
Pilate being among those more prominent
in biblical hi.-tory. A national (Je\\ish)
insurrtcti(*n broke out in consequence
of the maladministration of the Roman
governor, and in A. D. 70 the capital,
Jerusalem, was captured after great
loss of life. The whole land was soon
after reduced to the condition of a
colony, and the Jews excluded from
their capital. Later, the eastern empire
gained the ascendency in Western Asia,
and under the Constantines the land was
favored, Christianity was recognized,
churches built, Christian sees established,
and partial prosperity restored. The
birth of the false prophet Mohammed,
A. D. 570, and the rapid rise of Moham-
mcdrnism, led the way for the Holy
Lr.nd to fall into the hands of the Arabs.
5. The Mohammedan Period. — The
battle of Hieromax (Yarmuk), a. d. 634,
opened the whole of Palestine to the
Arabs, followers of Mohammed. The
political history of the Arab rulers of
these centuries presents a continuous
scene of war and bloodshed, accompanied
by an interminable series of intestine dis-
sensions, intrigues, and murders. The
Arabs, however, made considerable pro-
gress in scientific knowledge, in phil-
osophy, and in mathematics. The
infernal disorders of the Muslim empire
aided in giving success to the bold bands
of Christian Crusaders who were deter-
649
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mined to wrench the Holy Land from
the hand of the Muslim, and for a time
they held the country, but their rule was
comparatively short: and. thouj^h four
or five crusades were undertaken with
remarkable zeal, the Mamelukes suc-
ceeded in coming into possession of the
land, to be followed by the Osmans, who
have held the country under their mis-
rule, scarcely interrupted by the famous
invasion of the French under Napoleon
I., who signally defeated the Turks in
battle on the plain of Jezreel. The
recent intervention of England and the
nations of Europe was supposed to
promise some reforms in misgoverned
Turkey and its possessions, inchiding
Palestine, but the realization of the
promise must be found in the future,
if at all.
Palestine now belongs to the pashalic
of Damascus, which includes the three
sub-pashalics of Beirut, Akka, and
Jerusalem.
Present Inhabit ants. — As no census of
Palestine has been taken un.ler its pres-
ent rule, the number of its inhabitants
can be only approximately determined.
The estimates of the present population
vary widely. The pashalic of Jerusalem,
according to Hitter, has 602,000 ; the
pashalic of Acre, according to Robinson,
has 72,000 ; the remaining part of the
pashalic of Sidon in Jerusale;u and the
East Jordanic region is estimated to
contain about 150,000, making a total
population of 824,000. Dr. Hitchcock, in
Johnson's Cydnpredia, supposes the pres-
ent population "to be well on toward
400,000, less than a tenth of what it
probably was in the time of Solomon."
The correct number can only be ascer-
tained by a census under a government
with more trustworthy officials than the
present Turkish rule sustains. Of the
population of Palestine })robably about
20,000 are Jews, chiefly dwelling in the
four sacred cities of Jcrusaleui, Safed,
Tiberias, and Hebron. The Samaritans
number scarcely one hundred and fifty,
dwelling in Nablils. The rest of the
population is Mohammedan and of a
mixed character, from the ancient Syri-
ans and their conquerors the Arabs.
Computations based on the statements
of Joscphus make the population of
Palestine in the tisne of our Lord from
4,000,000 to 0,000,0(10; the number in
6;j0
the most prosperous days of the mon-
archy under Solomon is estimated at
from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000.
The peasantry of Judiea are termed
fellaheen Araha, but M. (lanneau argues
that this sedentary and not nomadic race
must be distinguished from the nomad
Arabs who came from Arabia with Caliph
Omar. He thinks that the fellaheen Arabs
are descendants, not of the conquering
Arabs, but of the peasants found by them
upon the soil. *' Of what race, then, were
these peasants? Were they Jews ? No;
for the wars of extermination waged by
Vespasian, Titus, Trajan, and Hadrian,
and the persecutions of the Christian em-
per(;rs left not one stone upon another of
either political or ethnic Judaism. . . .
Jewish tradition, properly so called, is
for ever lost in Palestine ; and all the
Jews now found there have, without ex-
ception, come to the country at a com-
paratively recent date." Were they
Greeks? No: for they spoke a Sem-
itic dialect. M. Ganneau's conclusion
is "that the fellaheen of Palestine,
taken as a whole, are the modern rep-
resentatives of those old tribes which
the Israelites found in the country, such
as the Canaanites, Hittites, Jebusites,
Araorites, Philistines, Edomites, etc."
He designates these as " pre-Israelite"
races. " Each successive change in the
social and political condition of the
country has more or less affected it in
various ways; and we must not be sur-
prised, when we study the fellaheen,
at finding Jewish, Hellenic, Rabbinic,
Christian, and Mussulman reminiscences
mingled pell-mell and in the quaintest
combinations with traits which bring
us back to the most remote and obscure
periods of pre-Israelite existence.
'• The tenacity with which old relig-
ious customs have been kept up is an-
other remarkable circumstance. Not
only have the fellaheen, as Robinson
conjectured, preserved, by the erection
of their Mussulman knhhehs and their
fetichism for certain large isolated trees,
the site and the souvenir of the hill-
sanctuaries and shady groves which
were marked out for the execration of
the Israelites on their entry into the
Promised Land, but they pay them al-
most the same veneration as did the
Canaanite Kooffars, whose descendants
they are. These makomn, as Deuter-
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onomy calls them — which Manasseh
rebuilt, and against which the proph-
ets in vain exhausted their invectives
— are word for word, thing for thing,
the Arabic makoms, whose little white-
topped cupolas are dotted so pictu-
resquely over the mountain-horizon of
Central Judeea.
" In order to conceal their suspicious
origin, these fellah sanctuaries have been
placed under the protection of the purest
Mohammedan orthodoxy by becoming
the tombs or shrines of sheyJchs, welijn,
and )iehijs — elders, saints, and prophets —
deceased in the odor of sanctity. But
there are many traces of their true ori-
gin beneath this simple disguise."
On acciiunt of the close connection
between the names and places, Moses
insisted upon destroying both. The
fellaheen will "swear fluently and
perjure themselves without scruple by
any other sacred object, even by the
Sakhrah — the rock upon which stood
the altar ; but if they take an oath on
their local sanctuary, it is extremely
rare to find them faithless or bearing
false witness."
Antiquities and Explorations. — Pal-
estine has no wonderful pyramids and
obelisks like Egypt, nor has it ruins of
vast temples and palaces like Assyria.
There are few remains of the work and
art of the Israelites, most of the ruins
of edifices being not older than the Ro-
man period. There are some coins of the
Maccaba?an era, some of the stones of
Solomon's temple and palace have been
found, and the enclosure of Abraham's
tomb at Hebron has not been explored
and its age is unknown. The wells at
Beersheba are. however, of the patri-
archal ages, and the well at Sychar has
also been generally accepted as the one
dug by the patriarch .lacob.
The exploration of this land may be
traced back to the era of pilgrimages,
when Eusebius and Jerome wrote a de-
scription of Palestine in the Onomasticon.
Little was added to the information they
gathered until a recent period, when Seet-
zen(lS!15-l807).Burckhardt(l8lfl), Irby
and Mangles (1817), and. pre-eminently,
Robinson f ] 8.38 and 1852) brought a true
critical and scientific method to the ex-
amination of this land of lands. Be-
sides these, a multitude of noted trav-
ellers have visited and explored the
country, and presented the results of
their labors to the world.
In 1865 the English Palestine Fund
was formed for an exact survey and
thorough scientific exploration of West-
ern Palestine. This has been completed,
and the results have been very satisfac-
tory, the latest being given in the ad-
mirable large sheet-maps of the whole
territory between the Jordan and the
Mediterranean, accompanied by full de-
scriptive memoirs of the survey.
The American Palestine Exploration
Society was formed in 1870 to make
a similar survey of the Holy Land east
of the Jordan. This work is yet incom-
plete, and only a few results have been
attained, the most important being the
reidentification of Mount Xebo and the
\ taking of a large number of photographs
of scenery, ruins, and inscriptions. The
Moabite Stone, found by Mr. Klein in
1868 (see Dibon), had caused explorers
to expect rich results from a thorough
survey of the East Jordanic region —
expectations which may yet be realized.
Mean\while, there are a number of
topographical questions unsettled in
respect to cities in the West Jordanic
territory, as the locations of Capernaum,
Chorazin, Bethsaida, Cana of Galilee,
Emmaus and the sites of the lost cities
of the plain, the true Calvary, and a
large number of points in Jerusalem
topography. Some of these will be
settled more surely with the spade
than with the pen: others it may be
impossible to solve satisfactorily by
either method. It is, however, remark-
able to note how completely every suc-
cessive fact in the history or topography
of this land has tended to throw addi-
tional light upon the Book of books, and
to add to the external evidence of its
divine origin, by showing how writers
of such a variety of grades of intelli-
gence, trained under such widely-differ-
ent circumstances, and at eras separated
by upward of fifteen centuries, each re-
corded descriptions, allusions, and inci-
dents which are now found to be in exact
accord with what we know must have
been the physical features of the land,
the character, customs, conditions of the
people, and the influences existing at
each of the periods of which he professes
to write. Renan happily calls Palestine
'Hhe fifth Gospel." The Book fits the
651
PAL
PAL
Land, and the Land testifies to the ac-
curacy and the inspiration of the Book.
The literature upon Palestine would
fill a large library. Tobler notes over
one thousand writers on the topic. A
few of the most important and of the
later works only can be given on the
subject. Onomasticoit, by Eusebius and
Jerome (:^30-338), edited by Lasson
and Parthey (1862); Desci-ijttioncH
Terrie Sanctis, of writers in the eighth,
ninth, twelfth, an 1 fifteenth centuries,
edited by Tobler (1874); Aleppo to Je-
rusalem, by Maundrell (1097); Palentina
IlluRtrata, by E.eland (1714); Voyages
a)id Travels in the Leinnt, by Hasselquist
(1749-1752), edited by Linnaius (1760);
Travels in Syria (oid the Holy Land,
by Burckhardt (1822); Egypt, Nubia,
Syria, arid Asia Minor, by Irby and Man-
gles, (1822); Biblical Researches, by Rob-
inson (1838-18 II and 1850); Lands «f
the Bible Visited and Described, by John
Wilson (1847); Physical Geography of
Palestine, hy Robinson (1865); Expedition
to the Dead Sea and Jordan, by Lynch
(1849); Sinai and Palestine, by Stanley
(1857); Land and Book, by*Thomson
(1859, and new edition 1880) ; Narra-
tive of a Journey through Syria and
Palestine, by Van de Velde (1858 and
1865) ; Jiiib Hoy on the Jordan, by
Macgregor (1870); Land of Israel, by
Tristram (1805); Natural History of the
Bible, by Tristram (1867); Land of
Moab, by Tristram (1873); Geography
of Palestine, Bitter, translated by
Gage (1866); Damascus ; (liant Cities
of Bashan,hy Porter (1855-1865) ; Hand-
hook of Syria and Palestine, by Mur-
ray (1875); Bible Educator, hy Plumptre
(1873-1875); Handbook of Syria and
Palestine, by Baedeker (1876); Bible
Lands, their Modern Customs, etc., by
Van Lennep (1875) ; Quarterlies Pales-
tine Exploration Fund (organized, 1805-
1880); American Palestine Exploration
Society's Statements (1871-1877); Our
Work in Palestine (ISlo); Through Bible
Lands, by Schaff (1878); Tent-work in
Palestine, by Conder (1878) ; From Egypt
to Palestine, by Bartlett (1879); Hand-
book to the Bible, by F. R. and C.
R. Conder (1879); Sheet Maps and
Memoirs of the Palestine Exploration
Fund (1880).
PAL'LU {distinguished), the .-ocond
son of Reuben, and founder of Ihu luniily
052
of the Palluites, Ex. 6 : 1 4 ; Num. 26 : 5, 8 ;
1 Chr. 5:3; called Phallu in Gen. 46 : 9.
PAL'LUITES. See above.
PALM TREE. The date-palm
{Phtjenix dactyllfera) is found from the
Indus to the Nile, through most of
Northern Africa, and upon all the warm-
er shores of the Mediterranean, but it is
now rare in Palestine. Yet in ancient
times, when the land was peopled with
many industrious inhabitants, it was
very common. Lev. 23 : 40 ; Deut. 34 :
3; Jud. 1: 10; 3 : 13; 4:5. Ancient
historians corroborate this statement,
and inform us that the region of the
Dead Sea was noted for the palm, of
which there were groves twelve miles in
extent.
The general figure and appearance of
this tree is familiar to our minds from
pictures and descriptions. It grows in
sandy soils, in hot and dry climates, but
flourishes best in the vicinity of streams
and where it can be watered, and in
vallej's and plains, especially where the
water is moderately salt or brackish. Ft
is always green and grows to a great
height — from 00 to 100 feet. Its straight
and slender trunk rises very high before
it puts forth any leaves, and its foliage
is in one mass at the top. Cant. 7:7;
Jer. 10 : 5. This ever green and stately
tree is the emblem of the righteous. Ps.
1 : 3 and 92 : 12. The columns of costly
edifices were sometimes hewn in imita-
tion of its trunk, as may be observed in
some of the ruins of Egypt. Palm trees
were carved upon the doors of the tem-
ple. 1 Kgs. 6 : 32 ; comp. Eze. 41 : 19.
It is a peculiarity of palms and simi-
lar endogenous trees that the diameter
of the trunk is as great as it ever be-
comes when the tree first rises above the
ground, as seen in the cut of young
palms. Hence there is growth yet com-
pleteness almost from the first.
Strictly speaking, the palm has no
braniihes, but at the summit from forty
to eighty leaf-stalks s])ring forth, which
are intended in Neh. 8 : 15. These are
set around the trunk in circles of about
six. The lower row is of great length,
and the vast leaves, often 12 feet in
length, bend themselves in a curve to-
ward the earth ; as the circles ascend the
leaves are shorter. In the month of
February there sprout from bct»veen the
junctures of the lower stalks and the
PAL
PAL
trunk little scales, which develop a kind
of bud, the germ of the coming fruit.
These germs are contained in a thick
and tough skin not unlike leather. Ac-
Date- Palm. {After rhotograph.)
cording to the account of a modern
traveller, a single tree in Barharv and
Egypt bears from fifteen to twenty large
clusters of dates, weighing from fifteen
to 'twenty pounds each. The palm tree
lives more than two hundred years, and
is most productive from the thirtieth un-
til the eightieth year. The Arabs speak
of three hundred and sixty uses to
which the different parts of the palm
tree are applied.
The inhabitants of Egypt, Arabia, and
Persia depend much on the fruit of the
palm tree for their subsistence. Camels
feed on the seed, and the leaves, branches,
fibres, and sap are all very valuable.
When the dates are ripe they are
plucked by the hand or shaken into a
net, which is held below. The person
who ascends the lofty trunk is assisted
by the ragged processes or scales with
which the body of the tree is armed.
The dates ripen at diflerent times, so
that a tree is comuionly ascended two or
three times in a season. When gathered
they are spread upon mats in the open
air, and after a few days begin to be
used. Some are eaten fresh, and some
are laid aside for future use. Others
yield a rich syrup ; which being ex-
pressed, the remaining mass is steeped
in hot water, and after being macerated
and cleansed affords a pleasant drink.
These different kinds of syrups are the
celebrated date-icine, which was greatly
prized in ancient times by the Orientals.
Some suppose it to be the *' strong
drink" often named in the Scriptures;
but this term rather designates all in-
toxicating liquors except wine. See
WlXK.
The shoots, which are annually cut
away from the bottom of the tree, and
the leaves themselves, are used fur mak-
ing ropes, baskets, sacks, mats, fans,
hats, and sandals. The Hebrews were
accustomed to carry the leaves, which
they called '' branches," in the solemn
festivities of the feast of tabernacles,
and to strew them in the way of tri-
umphal processions. Thus branches
were spread in the way of Christ upon
his entry into Jerusalem. John 12 : 13.
They were anciently used as a symbol
of victory, and carried before the con-
queror in triumphal processions. Hence
the force and beauty of the figure in
Rev. 7 : 9.
The former abundance of the palm
and the estimation in which the He-
brews held it are seen from many Bible
names and references. Phoenicia and
Phoenice came from the Greek name of
the palm; Elim and Elath, or "trees,"
refer evidently to this species ; Hazezon-
tamar, "the filling of the palm trees,"
is identified with En-gedi, Gen 14 : 7 j
2 Chr. 20 : 2, whose palm trees are men-
tioned by Josephus and Pliny ; Tamar,
•' a palm," occurs twice in Ezekiel for a
place, and, referring to the tree as tall,
straight, and graceful, was a favorite fe-
male name among the Hebrews; Baal-
tamar, " the sanctuary of the palm,"
occurs ; Bethany is "■ the house of dates :"
and Jericho is often called " the city of
palm trees." This tree is found upon
653
PAL
PAP
ancient Hebrew coins as the symbol of
Judsea, and Roman coins struck after
the conquest of Judaea have a palm with
an inscription commemorating the event.
PALxU'CRIST, mentioned in the
margin of Jonah 4 : 6, is the Gourd,
which see.
PALM'ER-WORM, a destructive
insect of the locust tribe, figuratively
spoken of in Joel 1:4; Am. 4:9 as an
instrument employed to afflict the rebel-
lious Jews. See Locust.
PAL'SY (contr. from paralysis), a
disease which deprives the part affected
of sensation or the power of motion, or
of both, according as the sensory or the
motor nerves, or both, are attacked. As
the term is used in the N. T. it imports
apoplexy, or paralysis of the whole sys-
tem; paralysis of one side; a paralysis
affecting the whole body below the neck;
and a paralysis caused by a contraction
of the muscles, so that the limbs can be
neither drawn up nor extended, and soon
become emaciated and dried up. 1 Kgs.
13:4-6; Matt. 4:24; 12:10-13; Luke
6:6; John 5 : 5-7. A fearful form of
this disease is known in Eastern coun-
tries. The limbs remain immovably fixed
in the position in which they were at the
time of the attack, and the suffering is so
exquisitely severe that death is often oc-
casioned in a few days. Matt. 8 : 6.
PAL'TI (de/ireraiice of Jehovah), a
Benjamite, and one of the twelve spies.
Num. 13 : 9.
PAL'TIEL (deliverance of God),
the chief of the tribe of Issachar, and
one of the twelve appointed to superin-
tend the division of the land of Canaan.
Num. 34 : 26.
PAL'TITE, THE, one of David's
mighty men, 2 8am. 23:26; called the
Pelonite in I Chr. 11 : 27.
PAMPHYL^A (region of ever;/
tribe), a Roman province in Asia Minor.
Acts 27 : 5. It was bounded on the east
by Cilicia, on the north by Pisidia — from
Avhich it was separated by the Taurus
Mountains — on the west by Lycia, and
on the south by the sea. Claudius made
Pamphylia an imperial province, includ-
ing in it the regions of Pisidia and
Lycia, which are distinguished from
Pamphylia proper. Acts 13 : 13, 14; 14 :
21: 27:5.
Physical Features. — Sweeping around
the head of the bay in crescent form and
654
extending to the Taurus Mountains on
the north is a plain about 80 miles long
and 30 miles broad. This is Pamphylia
proper. Three principal rivers intersect
this plain, the Catarrhactes, the Cestrus,
and the Eurynedon. The Cestrus was
navigable for 7 miles to the city of Perga,
which appears to have been the capital
of the province, and Attalia its chief sea-
port. Acts 14 : 25.
Htstorij. — Pamphylia, according to
Herodotus, was a small territory during
the Persian war, when it sent only thirty
ships, while Cilicia contributed one hun-
dred. The Romans united it to the
province of Asia, but later it was de-
tached, and was included in the juris-
diction of M. Tullius Cicero. Its capital,
Perga, was the first place in Asia Minor
visited by Paul on his first missionary-
tour, and there Mark left him. Acts 13 :
13. On his return from Pisidia he
preached at Perga, and from Attalia
sailed to Antioch. Acts 14 : 24-26.
Strangers from Pamphylia were at Jeru-
salem on the day of Pentecost.
PAN^ is, in our version, the rendering
of six different Hebrew words, of which
two seem to have denoted flat plates of
metal, such as are still used in the East
for baking cakes of meal, while the others
seem to have denoted deeper vessels, used
for b )ilin'; purposes. Lev. 2:5; 6 : 21.
PAIV'NAG. Eze. 27:17. Our trans-
lators wisely did not render this word
into English. The most probable opin-
ions are that it meant some kind of
spice, or that it is millet. It has also
been interpreted "balsam," "cassia,"
" sweetmeats," " panax."
PA'PER, 2 John ver. 12, PAPER
REEDS. See Books, Bulrush.
PA'PHOS (hoili»r/, or hot), a town
in the western end of Cyprus. There
were two towns of this name — old Pa-
phos, or Paphos of the poets, situated on
a height about 2 miles from the sea, and
new Paphos, on the seashore, about 10
miles to the north-west of the old town.
It was founded B. c. 1184. Paul and
Barnabas visited it, and the Roman
governor was converted. Acts 13 : 6-11.
At the old town there was a famous
temple dedicated to Venus, which was
visited annually by great numbers of
heathen ])ilgrims. There are still exten-
sive ruins and catacombs on its site.
Not long before the visit of Paul and
PAP
PAR
Barnabas the new town had been de-
stroyed by an earthquake. Augustus
rebuilt it, and it became famous from its
shrine and from the worship of Venus.
Mingled with the ruins of palaces and
churches are the poor dwellings and
hovels of the Greek and Mohammedan
inhabitants. The harbor is now nearly
filled up. The modern name of the town
is B'iff'i.
PAPY'RUS. Job40:21. See Reed.
PAR'ABLE (from a Greek word
signifying conqjan'non) is used in the
Bible in both a wider and a narrower
sense. In the first case it comprises all
forms of teaching by analogy and all
forms of figurative speech, and is applied
to metaphors, whether expanded into
narratives, Eze. 12 : 22, or not. Matt.
24 : 32 ; to proverbs and other short sav-
ings, 1 Sam. 10 : 12 ; 24 : 13 ; 2 Chr. 7 :
20 ; Luke 4 : 23 ; to dark utterances or
signs of prophetic or symbolical mean-
ing. Xum. 23 : 17, 18 : *24 : 3 ; Eze. 20 :
49; Heb. 9 : 9, etc. In the second case
it means a short narrative of some every-
day event, by which some great spiritual
truth is conveyed to the hearer. In this
sense the parable differs —
1. From the fable, by its higher aim
to illustrate spiritual truth, and by the
intrinsic possibility and probability of
its fictitious narrative, which could have
happened, though perhaps it did not
actually happen ; while the fable uses
the wonderful, and even the impossible
(thinking, talking, acting animals and
plants), for teaching maxims of prudence
and lower morality, the parables of Christ
always keep within the limits of the
simple every-day experience.
2. The parable diflfcrs from the allegory
by its meaning, its idea not being repre-
sented, but simply suggested. The alle-
gory is self-interpreting, the imaginary
persons being named and performing
acts which declare the meaning: while
the parable must be interpreted by means
of a knowledge of him who speaks it and
of those to whom it is spoken. The alle-
gory itself says what it means : the par-
able receives its whole meaning from the
situation which called it forth. For him
who knows not Christ the parable of the
Sower contains nothing beyond a com-
mon every-day experience, but to him
who knows the Man sitting there in the
boat and speaking to the multitude on
the shore this parable reveals a sublime
spiritual truth.
From this peculiarity of the character
of the parable it is easy to understand
its signification in the teaching of Christ,
and easy to derive the law for its in-
terpretation. " The purpose of our Lord
in teaching bj' parables was twofold — to
reveal and to conceal the truth : to reveal .
to those who really sought the truth, to
conceal from those who did not desire
such knowledge, thus rewarding the for-
mer and punishing the Intter." — Schaff.
To him who has, the parable gives more;
but it takes away from him who has not.
No pondering over its details will ever
bring out its meaning, for, although ihe
idea may be reflected a thousand times
from every turn of the narrative, still it
is not present in the words: it is a light
thrown upon the words from without,
from the situation, from the speaker.
Teaching by parables was an ancient
method. Striking instances occur in the
0. T. — Nathan's address to David, 2
Sam. 12:1-4; the woman of Tekoah.
2 Sam. 14:6; the rebuke of Ahab. 1
Kgs. 20 : 39 ; the denunciation of Isaiah,
Isa. 5:1-7 — and later on, the method
found much favor with the Hebrew
teachers. But it reached its perfection
by the application it found in the teach-
ing of Christ,
Matthew gives, in ch. 13, seven par-
ables, which represent the several stages
of the kingdom of God and its relation
to the world: (1) The parable of the
Sower, or the beginning of the kingdom
and its reception or rejection by tlie
different classes of men ; (2) The parable
, of the Tares, or the kingdom of heaven
; in conflict with the kingdom of Satan :
! (3) The parable of the Mustard-seed and
I (4) the parable of the Leaven, or the
! growth of the kingdom of heaven exten-
j sively, comprising all nations and in-
! tensively pervading all forms of human
I life ; (5) The parable of the Hidden
Treasure; (G) The parable of the Pearl
of Great Price: and (7) The jiarable of
the Net cast into the Sea, or the relation
between the kingdom of heaven aud
individual man and his eff"orts to grasp
it and to develop it.
The parables oecurnn-; in the N. T.
are :
1. The Sower. Matt. 13:. 3-8; Mark
4:3-8; Luke 8: 5-8.
655
PAR
PAR
2. The Wheat and the Tares. Matt.
13 : 24-30.
3. The Mustard-seed. Matt. 13 : 31,
32 ; Mark 4 : 30-32.
4. The Leaven. Matt. 13 : 33.
5. The Seed cast into the Ground and
Growing up Secretly. Mark 4 : 2(>-29.
6. The Hidden Treasure. Matt. 13 : 44.
. 7. The Pearl of Great Price. Matt.
13 : 45, 46.
8. The Net cast into the Sea. Matt.
13 : 47, 48.
9. The Lost Sheep. Matt. 18 : 12, 13;
Luke 15 : 4-6.
10. The Merciless Servant. Matt. 18 :
23-34.
11. The Two Debtors. Luke 7: 41, 42.
12. The Good Samaritan. Luke 10 :
30-35.
13. The Importunate Friend. Luke
11 : 5-S.
14. The Rich Fool. Luke 12 : 16-20.
15. The Return from the Wedding.
Luke 12 : 35-40.
16. The Fig Tree. Luke 13 : 6-9.
17. The Great Supper. Luke 14 :
16-24.
18. The Lost Piece of Money. Luke
15 : 8, 9.
19. The Prodigal Son. Luke 15 : 11-32.
20. The Unjust Steward. Luke 16 :
1-8.
21. The Rich Man and Lazarus. Luke
16: 19-31.
22. The Unjust Judge. Luke 18 : 2-5.
23. The Pharisee and the Publican.
Luke 18 : 10-13.
24. The Pounds. Luke 19 : 12-27.
25. The Laborers in the Vineyard.
Matt. 20: 1-16.
26. The Two Sons. Matt. 21 : 28-30.
27. The Vineyard let to Husbandmen.
Matt. 21 : 33-39; Mark 12 : 1-9 ; Luke
20:9-15.
28. The Marriage-Feast. Matt. 22 :
2-14.
29. The Wise and the Foolish Virgins.
Matt. 25 : 1-13.
30. The Talents. Matt. 25 : 14-30.
31. The Sheep and the Goats. Matt.
25 : 31-46.
The number of parables in the Gospels
differs according to the range given to
the application of the tertn. (ireswell
reckons 27; Trench, 30 ; Plumptre, 31;
others, 50.
Matthew and Luke give us most of the
parables. Mark dwells more on the acts
656
than the discourses of Christ. John has
no parables proper. He took them for
granted from the earlier Gospels, and
gives us instead those higher discourses
of our Lord respecting his relation to
the Father.
The best special works on the parables
are by Lisco, Greswell, Trench, Arndt,
Arnot, Stier. Our Lord has himself ex-
plained the parable of the Sower and the
parable of the Wheat and the Tares.
His explanation must be the standard
by which our interpretations are to be
regulated and measured.
FAR'ACL-ETE. See Advocate.
PAR'ADISE, a word of Persian
origin, meaning a "garden." "orchard,"
or other enclosed place, filled with beauty
and delight. Hence it is used figuratively
for any place of peculiar happiness, an I
particularly for the kingdom of perfect
happiness, which is the abode of the
blessed beyond the grave. Luke 23 : 43 ;
2 Cor. 12 :'4 : Rev. 2 : 7. See Ede.v.
PA'RAH Ihei/er-fnipu), a place in
the territory of Benjamin. Josh. 18 : 23.
It has been located south-ea?t of Mich-
mash, at the ruined village Farnh,iit the
junction of the Wadi/ Farnh with the
Wndi/ Sitweiin't, and about 6 miles north-
east of Jerusalem.
PARALYT'IC. See Palsy.
PA'RAN {place of c(ivenis), a wil-
derness or desert region west of the
Elanitic Gulf, and within the Sinaitic
peninsula. It was bounded on the north
by the wilderness of Shur and the land
of Canaan ; on the east by the great
valley of the Arabah — which separated
it from the mountains of Moab — and the
Gulf of Akabah ; on the south by a great
sand-belt, separating it from the gran-
itic mountains of Sinai : and on the west
by the wilderness of Etham, which sepa-
rated it from the Gulf of Suez and from
Egypt. A range of mountains sweeps
around this wilderness on all sides ex-
cept the north. It is a high limestone
plateau, crossed by low ranges of hills
and intersected by few watercourses,
always dry except in the rainy season.
In this blanched and dreary waste of
chalk, covered with coarse gravel, black
flint, and drifting sand, upon which a
slight coating of vegetation struggles for
existence, the Israelites spent thirty-
eight years after leaving Sinai. Num.
10 : 12. The modern name, Badiet et
PAE
PAR
Tih, or "desert of the wandering," com-
memorates this historic fact. Across
this desert lay the road from Canaan to
Egypt which was travelled by Abraham,
Jacob, and Joseph. The north-east
corner of the wilderness is a hilly pla-
teau, the home and pasture-gi'ound of
the patriarchs, the Xejeb, or " south
country," of Scripture.
Scripture Histori/. — Paran is first men-
tioned in connection with the conquest j
of the confederate kings, when it ap]iears j
to have been the home of the Horites. !
Gen. 14:6. Hagar and Ishmael, after |
being driven away by Abraham, went
into the wilderness of Paran, Gen. 21 :
21 ; the Israelites entered it soon after
leaving Sinai, Num. 10 : 12, 33 ; 11 : 3,
34, 35; 12: 10; the spies were sent up
to Canaan and returned from this region :
and eighteen stations of the Ism elites'
journey are noted in this wilderness.
Num. 13 : 3, 26 ; 33 : 17-30 : eomp. Deut.
1 : 1. Probably, during their thirty-
eight years of sojourn in the wilderness,
the people were scattered over a wide
extent of territory, like the modern Bed-
ouin tribes. David found refuge in this
wilderness, 1 Sam. 25 : 1. and Hadad
passed through it when escaping to
Egypt. 1 Kgs. 11 :18.
PARAN, MOUNT OF, the place
where the Lord is said to have shined
forth. Deut. 33 : 2 ; Hab. 3 : 3. It was
probably the most southern portion of
the mountain-plateau in the north-east-
ern part of the wilderness of Paran, now
Jehel Mngra'h. In this region is situ-
fited 'Aln Gadls, which some identify
with Kadesh, and the one encampment
in the wilderness of Kadesh. Jehel
Mngrd'h would always be the most con-
spicuous object, and would completely
shut out from view the more fertile
mountains beyond.
PAR'BAR occurs only in 1 Chr.
26 : 18, where it denotes some ])lace on
the western side of the temple-enclosure.
PARCH'ED CORN, mentioned
in Ruth 2:14, consisted of roasted
heads of gr.ain.
PARCH'ED GROUND. The
Heb:ew word thus rendered. Isa. 35 : 7,
denotes that optical delusion known by
the name of '•mirage," and frequently
occurring in the African and Asiatic
deserts. On account of the different
refraction of the solanravs in the various
42
layers of the atmosphere, the white, bar-
ren sand-waste suddenly assumes the
aspect of a beautiful lake surrounded by
trees and a most luxuriant vegetation.
PARCH'MENTS. The skins of
beasts were early and extensively^ used
for writing : the lonians wrote upon
sheep-skins five centuries before Christ.
Yei-y slight preparation was used, how-
ever, until under Eumenes, a king of
Pergamos, a mode of producing a reall}^
fine material was discovered, whence the
skins thus prepared were called by the
Latins perffrimeuo, which is translated
"parchments." 2 Tim. 4:13.
PAR'DON. Ps. 25:11. The
scriptural import of this term is very
imperfectly indicated by the comnn n
acceptation of it among men. In the
dispensation of grace pardon is insejia-
rably connected with justification. Hence
it is spoken of as the covering of sin,
Ps. 85:2: the non-imputation of it, Ps.
32 : 2 ; a blotting out, Ps. 51 : 1, 9 ; Isa.
43 : 25 ; forgetting it, Heb. 8:12: passing
by it or removing it to an immeasurable
distance from us. Ps. 103 : 12 ; Mic. 7 :
19.
It is evident that God only has power
to bestow pardon, Mark 2 : 7, 10-12, and
that it proceeds from free sovereign
grace, Eph. 1 : 6, 7, through the media-
tion and atonement of Jesus Christ. Heb.
9 : 9-28 : 1 John 1 : 7.
Men are commissioned to preach par-
don and salvation through the blood
of Christ, but no man can forgive sin
or pretend to the right and power of
absolution without direct and daring
blasphemy.
PAR'LOR. See Dwellings.
PARMASII'TA (>iuperior), one of
the ten sons of Haman ; slain by the Jews
in Shushan. Esth. 9:9.
PAR'MENAS {Htendfast), one of the
seven di-acons ordained by the disciples
to administer alms to the widows and
the poor of the church. Acts 6 : 5.
PAR'NACH {>iii-ift), the father of
Elizaphan, chief of the tribe of Zebulun.
Num. 34 : 25.
PA'ROSH (flea). Of his descend-
ants one grou]), comprising 21 72 persons,
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel,
Ezr. 2:3; Neb. 7:8; and another, com-
prising 150 males, with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 3.
PARSHAN'DATHA {given by
prayer), the eldest of the ten sons of
657
PAR
PAR
Haman ; slain by the Jews in Shushan.
E.sth. 9 : 7.
PAR'THIA. Originally a province
of Media, on its eastern side, in the time
of the apostles it had spread its sway
from India to the Tigris, and from the
Kharesem desert to the southern ocean.
Seleucia was a chief city, and Ecbatana
was its king's summer residence. Par-
thia was united to the Persian empire
under C3'rus, b. c. 550. But in b. c. 25f)
it revolted and became an independent
empire. At last, however, Parthia was
conquered by the Persians and united
to their empire, A. D. 220.
PAR'THIANS, inhabitants of Par-
thia, were at Jerusalem during the Pen-
tecost. Acts 2 : 9. They spoke the Per-
sian language, so that, in Scripture and
other ancient writing, ''Persia" and
"Parthia" are often used interchange-
ably. Coming from the ruins of the
Persian empire, they were a powerful
enemy to the Romans, whom they
defeated at Carrhae [Httrun). Under
Mithridates I. their cavalry and bow-
men were very expert, and dangerous
to an opposing army. They Wde ac-
customed to shoot their arrows while
at full s|)eed. They possessed, also,
considerable knowledge of architecture
and art. But it is for their remark-
able skill in archery that they are
now remembered, and for a long time
tliey were Rome's formidable rival in
the East.
PARTI'TION, MIDDLE
WALL OF, is supposed to have
refe.cncc to (he wall in the temple which
separated the court of Israel from the
court of the Gentiles, Eph. 2 : 14, and is
figuratively used to denote whatever in
their laws or customs separated the Jews
from the Gentiles, and rendered the
former any more the objects of divine
favor than the latter. See Temple.
\A
TiiC Greek
PAR'TRIDGE (Heb. the caller).
The Greek Tpuriud'^c (OttccnbiH naxntilifi)
is very common in Palestine, and one or
two other kinds are found. The modern
peasants esteem the flesh of these birds
a lu.xury : and as, when hunted, they try
to save themselves by running rather
than by flight, they are often chased till.
b<^ing fatigued, they can bo knocked
058
Piuliidge.
down with a stick or a stone. 1 Sam.
26 : 20. The partridge lays many eggs,
whifh are prized by the Syrians and
gathered in large numbers. The ancients
undoubtedly hunted the bird and its eggs
in the same way as is n(»w eustomar3\
Thus the partridge often laid her eggs
and brooded upon them in vain, which
is the meaning of Jer. 17 : 11.
PAR
PAS
PAR'UAH {hloxHomiuy), the father !
of Jehoshaphat, one of Solomon's officers. ;
1 Kgs. 4: 17. i
PARVA'IM {eastern recjlous) occurs
only once, 2 Chr. 3 : (i, and is the name
of the country or place producing the
gold which Solomon used for the decora- •
tion of the temple ; but this country or
place it has not been possible to identify.
Some regard it as an abbreviation for
*• Scpharvaim," or " Sephar," supposed
to be a seaport in Arabia.
PA'SACH {cut off ), one of the chiefs
of the tribe of Asher. 1 Chr. 7 : ;^3.
P A S - D A M ' M I M {hnundary of
blood), the scene of fierce contests be-
tween the Israelites and the Philistines.
1 Chr. 11 : 13. It is called Ephes-dammim
in 1 Sam. 17 : 1. It was on the side of
the valley of Elah, and A'an de Velde
proposes to identify it with the ruins
called Damnm, 3 miles ea.'t of Shochoh,
about 11 miles south-west of Jerusalem.
PASE'AH {Inme). 1. One of the
descendants of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:12.
2. One whose descendants returned
from Babylon with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2 :
49; called Phascah in Neh. 7 : 51. One
of the family, Jehoiada. assisted in re-
building the gate under Nehemiah. Neh.
3:r,.
PASH'UR {freedom). 1. The son
of Malchijah, and founder of a family
of priests, 1 Chr. 9 : 12 ; 24 : 9 ; Xeh. 11 :
12, which seems to have returned with
Zerubbabel, and which, in the time of
Nehemiah, was one of the chief houses,
its head being the head of a course. Ezr.
2 : 38 ; Xeh. 7:41: 10 : 3. Sent by King
Zedekiah to Jeremiah to inquire about
the issue of Nebuchadnezzar's prepara-
tions against Jerusalem, Pashur received
a sombre warning, Jer. 21 ; but when
later on the siege of Jerusalem was raised
by the advance of the Egyptian army,
Pashur, together with other prominent
men, demanded of Zedekiah that Jer-
emiah should be put to death as a traitor,
and the prophet was actually cast into
the dungeon or well where was mire.
Jer. 38.
2. The son of Immer, also a priest,
and chief governor in the house of the
Lord. Jer. 20 : 1 . In the reign of Jehoi-
akim be caused Jeremiah to be put in
the stocks because he prophesied evil
against Jerusalem; but the prophet pro-
nounced a fearful sxintence against him.
Jer. 20 : 1-6, and his name was changed
to Magok-missabib, which see.
PAS'SIOi^. Acts 1:3. The word,
in this connection, denotes the last suf-
ferings of Christ, or rather his death as
the consummation of his sufferings. The
expression in Acts 14 : 1 5 and Jas. 5 : 17
signifies like propensities, feelings, and
susceptibilities. See Choss.
PASS'OVER, the principal annual
feast of the Jews, which typified the
sacrifice of Christ, the Lauib of God,
slain for the sins of the world. Comp. 1
Cor. 5 : 7, 8, Christ our Passover is slain
for us, etc. It was appointed to com-
memorate the exemption or "passing
over" of the families of the Israelites
when the destroying angel smote the
first-born of Egypt, and also their de-
parture from the land of bondage.
At even of the 14th day of the first
month (Nisan) the Passover was to be
celebrated, and on the loth day com-
menced the seven days' feast of unlea-
vened bread. The term " Passover "' is
strictly applicab'e only to the meal of
the paschal lamb, and the feast of un-
leavened bread was celebrated on the 15th
onward for seven daj's to the 21st inclu-
sive. This order is recognized in Josh.
5 : 10, 11. But in the sacred history the
term "Passover" is used also to denote
the whole period — the 14th day, and the
festival of the seven days following. Luke
2:41 ; John 2:13,23;' 6:4: 11:55.
As to the time of the celebration of
the Passover, it is expressly appointed
" between the two evenings," Ex. 12 : 6 ;
Lev. 23 : 5 : Num. 9:3, 5, or, as it is
elsewhere expressed, "at even, at the
going down of the sun." Deut. 16 : 6.
This is supposed to denote the com-
mencement of the 15th day of Nisan,
or at the moment when the 14th day
closed and the 15th began. The
twenty-four hours, reckoned from this
point of time to the same ))eri()d of the
next day, or 15th, was the day of the
Passover. At sunset of the 14th day
the 15th btgan. and with it the feast
of unleavened bread. The lamb was to
be selected on the 10th day, and kept
u|) ti'l the 14th day, in the evening of
which day it was to be killed. Ex. 12 :
3-6. A male lamb was demanded, not
more than one year old and without
blemish ; but often several households,
comprising, perhaps, one hundred per-
059
PAS
PAT
sons, associated and had a lamb in
common, in which case each person was
provided with a piece at least as large
as an olive. The feast began by the
handing around of a cup of wine mixed
with water, over which the head of the
family or the chief of the association
pronounced the benediction. The lamb,
roasted whole, and the other dishes were
then placed on the table, and after a
second cup of wine the meal was eaten.
Everybody present partook of the lamb,
the bitter herbs, and the unleavened
bread, and care was taken that uo bone
was broken. What was left of the flesh
was immediately burnt. After the meal
followed the third cup of wine, then the
singing of psalms and hymns, and finally
a fourth, and perhaps a fifth, cup of
wine. Then followed the feast of un-
leavened bread, occupying seven days,
the first and last of which were pecu-
liarly holy, like the Sabbath. Ex.12:
15, 16.
The "preparation of the Passover,"
John 19 : 14, or "the day of the prep-
aration," Matt. 27 : 62, was the Paschal
Friday, as in John 19 : 31 and 42, or
the day preceding the regular Sabbath
(Sabbath eve). It was, then, at the close
of the 14th day of the month, when the
feast of unleavened bread, called, in the
larger sense, the Passover, Luke 22 : 1,
approached, that Jesus directed the lamb
for the paschal sacrifice to be [)repared
for himself and his disciples. This being
done immediately after sunset of the
14th, which was the beginning of the
15th, the paschal supper was eaten.
After this supper, and in the course of
that night, Christ was arrested, tried
during the niglit, condemned the next
morning, crucified at 9 A. m., and died at
3 p. M. of the 15th of Nisan (this being
a Friday). The whole series of events
occurred between what we should call
Thursday evening and Friday evening.
The facts of chief importance in rec-
onciling all the evangelists are that
the word "Passover" is applied some-
times strictly to the 14th day, and at
other times to the whole festival of un-
leavened bread ; that the Passover, or
paschal supper, strictly speaking, was
celebrated at 6 p. m. at the close of the
14th or at the beginning of the 15th
day of the month, and that the 15th of
Nisan, or first day of the festival, was
660
the day of the crucifixion. This has
been verified by astronomical calcula-
tion, which proves that in the year a. d.
30, the year of our Saviour's death, the
15th of Nisan (April 7), fell on a Fri-
day, which agrees with the testimony of
all the evangelists.
PAS'TOR. Jer. 2 : 8. See Shepherd.
PAT'ARA, a seaport-town on the
south-west shore of Lycia, near the left
bank of Xanthus, and opposite Rhodes.
Acts 21 : 1, 2. It was about 7 miles east
of the mouth of the river, had a con-
venient harbor, and was visited by ships
of all nations. The gospel was early
preached there, and it became the seat
of .a bishopric and was represented in the
Council of Nice. The city was giveu up
to the worship of Apollo, its founder,
Patarus, being reputed to be a son of
that god. Patara is now in ruins, but
retains its ancient name. The remains
prove it to have been a city of consider-
able importance. Among them are a
theatre, some massive walls and arches,
a gate of the city with three arches nearly
perfect, and numerous sarcophagi. Near
the theatre is a deep circular pit, and a
square pillar rising above it, which
Lewin thinks was the seat of the oracle
of Patareus Apollo. The port is com-
pletely filled with sand, and is a malari-
ous swamp; all communication with the
sea is cut off by a sand-beach, and the
sand is also gradually encroaching upon
the ruins.
PATH'ROS {refiinn of the sonth), a
district of Egypt near Thebes; named,
as some suppose, from a town called
Ha-hathor, or "the abode of Hathor,"
the Egy|)tian Venus. Originally it was
ruled by its own kings, independent of
Egj'pt. It was probably the Thebaid of
the Greeks and the Said of the Arabs.
The countrj' is mentioned in the Proph-
ets, and nearlv alwavs in connection with
Egypt. Isa. li : n ; ■ 19 : 1 1 -1 3 ; Jer. 44 :
1-15 ; Eze. 29 : 14. Its inhabitants were
known as the Pathrusim, the descend-
ants of Ham through Mizraim. Gc«.10:
14; 1 Chr. 1: 12.
PATHRUSIM. See above.
PA'TIENCE. With God, patience
is a form of his infinite love which causes
him to bear long with sinners, Isa. 30;
1 S ; liom. 3 : 25 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 9, and to send
them warnings of judgments before the
judgments arc executed, llos. 6:5; Am.
PAT
PAT
1:1; 2 Pet. 2 : 5. With man, patience
is a grace enabling bim to bear with
meekness and confidence the trials which
God sends him, Rom. 2:7; 2 Tim. 3 : 10,
and to deal with his t'ellow-iiitn with
love and forbearance. 1 Thess. 5 : 14. In
many passages of our English Version
where ''patience" occurs, '' endurance "
or " constancy " would be a better render-
ing of the (jrreck [vnoiJiOvrj).
PAT'MOS, a little rugged island in
the /Egean Sea, 20 miles south of Samos
and 24 miles westof Asia Minor. Rev. 1 : 9.
It is from 15 to 25 miles in circumference,
and is very rocky and barren. The coast
is rock-bound, but indenteil with several
deep bays. It has only a few large trees,
among them a palm, some olives, and
cypresses. The barrenness of the island
made it a suitable spot for the banish-
ment of Roman criminals. To it the
apostle John was banished by the em-
peror Domitian, A. n. 95. Its rocky
solitude well suited the sublime nature
of the Revelation. There is a grotto on
a hill in the southern part of the island
Isle of Patmos.
which tradition points out as the place
where John received the Revelation.
Upon the summit of the mountain is a
monastery built in honor of St. John,
and having a library containing about
two hundred and forty manuscripts. In
the Middle Ages the island was called Pal-
mosa, and now benrs the name of Patnm.
PA' TRIARCH. Acts 2 : 29. In
the early history of the Jews we find the
ancestor or father of a family retaining
authority over his children and his |
children's children so long as he lived,
whatever new connections they might
form. When the father died the branch-
families did not break off and form new
communities, but usually united under
another common head. The eldest son
was generally invested with this dignity.
His authority was paternal. He was
honored as the central point of connec-
tion, and as the representative of the
whole kindred. Thus each great family
had its patriarch or head, and each tribe
its prince selected from the several heads
of the families it embraced. These
princes were called '* elders of Israel,"
See Eldf.rs. The word "patriarch" is
also applied to the founder of a family
or to any illustrious ancestor. Acts 2 : 29.
In later ages < f the Church the same
title is found, but is applied to ecclesi-
astical dignitaries, and denotes the sup-
posed paternal character of their author-
ity. The sons of Jacob, as the progenitors
of the .lewish nation, are called, by way
of distinction, " the twelve patriarchs,"
Acts 7 : S.
PAT'ROBAS {fi/e of his father f),
a Christian in Rome to whom Paul sends
salutation, Rom. 16 : 14, was. according
to a late tradition, one of the seventy
disciples, and became bishop of Puteoli,
where he suffered martyrdom on No-
vember 4, which accordingly is his
anniversary in the Romish ca'endar,
661
PAT
PAU
PAT'TERNS, in Heb. 9 : 23, should
be *' copies."
PAU (bleariucj), a place in Iduuitea;
called Pai in 1 Chr. 1 : 50; Geu. 36 : 39.
It may be identical with Phauara, a
ruined site in Idumaja.
PAUL (smitll), OR SAUL {a-sl-ed
for). 1. Life. — Paul, or Saul, was a native
of Tarsus, in Cilicia, and inherited the
privileges of a Roman citizen. Acts 22 :
28, 29. His original Hebrew name was
" Saul," which he exchanged afterward in
his intercourse with the Gentiles for the
Hellenistic or Latin form, "Paul." His
descent and education were Jewish, but he
had also a good knowledge of the Greek
language and literature, and quotes from
three poets not much known — Aratus,
Acts 17 : 28 : Menander, 1 Cor. 15 : 33 ;
and Epimenides. Tit. 1 : 12. Being a
Jew of the tribe of Benjamin, born in
the Greek city of Tarsus, and a Roman
citizen, he combined the three great
nationalities of the Roman empire, and
was providentially prepared for his
apostolic mission among Jews and Gen-
tiles, Greeks and barbarians. Under the
instruction of Gamaliel, a distinguished
rabbi at Jerusalem, Acts 5 : 34, he be-
came master of the Jewish law. Acts 22 :
3; Gal. 1 : 14, and was also taught a
useful mechanical trade, according to the
custom of the rabbis. Acts 18 :'3. His
residence at Jerusalem commenced at an
early period, Acts 26 : 4, and he was
probably from twenty-two to twenty-
five years old when Christ commenced
his public ministry. He belonged to
the strict sect of the Pharisees. Acts
23:6.
The preaching of the apostles, and
especially the fact of Christ's resur-
rection, on Avhich they placed their
chief stress, excited a violent opposi-
tion among the Jews. Stephen, an
eloquent and powerful advocate of
the new religion, was seized and
stoned to death. Among the spec-
tators and promoters of this bloody
deed was Paul. Acts 7:58; comp,
22 : 20. His temperament, talents,
and education fitted him to become
a leader in the persecution ; and he
commenced his career with a degree of
fanatical zeal b(jrdering on madness.
He even sought for authority to go to
Damascus, whither many of the disci-
ples had fled after the murder of Ste-
662
phen, to bind and drag to Jerusalem,
without distinction of age or sex, all
the followers of Christ whom he could
tind.
Just before he reached Damascus,
however, he was arrested by a miracu-
lous light so intense as to deprive him
of sight. Acts 9 : 8, 9. At the same time
Christ revealed himself as the real object
of his persecution. Acts 26: 15; comp.
1 Cor. 16 : 8. From this time he became
a new man, and received from the lips
of Christ himself his commission as an
apostle to the Gentiles. Acts 26 : 10.
The miraculous restoration of his sight,
his baptism, and the gifts of the Holy
Spirit followed in quick succession, and
we soon find him zealously preaching the
faith he had set out to subvert. Acts 9 :
20, 21 ; Gal. 1 : 16.
To this one purpose he thenceforth
gave all the energies of his mind and all
the affections of his heai-t. Forsaking,
and indeed forgetting, all other purposes
and pursuits, he devoted the residue of
his life to the cause of Christ with a
singleness of purpose and an energy of
devotion that have no parallel in history.
The Acts trace his career till the first
imprisonment at Rome, which lasted two
years, A. n. 61-63, and left him compara-
tively free to labor for the gospel. After
this we are left in the dark. Some
scholars maintain that he suffered mar-
tyrdom in the Neronian persecution of
The Triiilit ioiial Iohuii in the Ct'iiturion 's House
Rome in which I'aul was hiipri.-oiif'ii.
A. n. 64; others that he was freed from
the first Roman imprisonment, made
new missionary tours in the East, and
|)OSsibly also to the West as far as
Spain, was taken prisoner to Rome a
Portrait of Paul. {From a Homan Two-leaved Tablet not lata- than the Fourth Century.)
PAU
PAU
second time, and suffered martyrdom
A. D. 67 or 68. The hypothesis of a
second Roman imprisonment has some
support in an ancient tradition (men-
tioned by Eusebius), and explains cer-
tain historical allusions in the Pastoral
Epistles, which cannot well be placed
before the first imprisonment, but were
probably composed between the first
and the second Roman imprisonments,
except Second Timothy, the last ot all
Pauline Epistles. Ancient tradition is
unanimous as to his martyrdom in
Rome, and the place of his execution by
the sword is still shown a little distance
from the city. He himself alludes to his
approaching martyrdom in those noble
words, 2 Tim. 4 : 6-8 : I am already
being offered, and the time of my depar-
ture is at hand. I have fought the good
fight, I have finished the course, 1 have
kept the faith : henceforth there is laid
up for me the crown of righteousness,
which the Lord, the righteous Judge,
shall give to me at that day : and not
only to me, but also to all them that
have loved his appearing.
2. Character of Paul. — Whether we
regard his sudden and radical change
from an enemy to a most devotetl friend
of the Christian religion, or the purity
and loftiness of his character, or the
strength and depth of his mind, or the
extent of his missionary labors, or his
whole heroic career from his conversion
in Damascus to his martyrdom in Ptome,
St. Paul is beyond doubt one of the most
remarkable men that ever lived, and
perhaps the greatest man in the history
of Chris: ianity. Without money, without
family, without friends, lonely by land
and lonely by sea, he faced a hostile
world and converted it to Christ, whom
he himself once persecuted, and by his
Epistles and example he still rules the
theology and feeds the devotions of
believers in all parts of Christendom.
His motives are above suspicion ; his
intellect is a))parent on every page of
his letters; it is impossible to charge
him with hypocrisy or self-delusion, as
even infidels admit; he furnishes an
irresistible argument for the divine truth
of the religion he taught and practised
to the end.
3. ChrouologicalSnmmaryofthe Cliiff
Eveuta in the Life of Paul (from Sohaff's
History of the Apontolic Churrh):
664
A. D.
Paul's conversion 37
Sojourn in Aral)ia 37-40
First journey to Jerusalem after his
conversion, Gal. 1 : 18 ; sojourn at
Tarsus, and afterward at Autioch,
Acts 11 : 26 40
Second journey to Jerusalem, in com-
pany with Barnabas, to relieve tlie
famine 44
Paul's first great missionary journey,
with Barnabas and Mark ; Cyprus,
Antioch in Pisidia, loonium, Lystra,
Derbe ; return to Antioch in Syiia.. 45-49
Apostolic Council at Jerusalem; con-
flict between Jewish and Gentile
Christianity; Paul's third journey
to Jerusalem, witli Barnabas and
Titus; settlement of the difficulty;
agreement between the Jewish and
Gentile apostles; Paul's return to
Antioch; his collision with Peter
and Barnabas at Antioch, and tem-
porary separation from the latter.... 50
Paul's second missionary journey
from Antioch to Asia Minor, Cilicia,
Lycaonia, (ialatia, Troas, and Greece
(Pbilippi, Thessalonicii, Beraia, Ath-
ens, and Corinth). From tin's tour
dates theChristianization of Europe. 51
Paul at Corinth (a year and a lialf).
First and Second Epistles to the
Thessalonians 52-53
Paul's fourth journey to Jerusalem
(spring) ; short staj' at Antioch. His
third missionary tour (autumn) 54
Paul at Ephesus ( Ih ree years) ; Epistle
to theGalatians(ofior 57). Excursion
to Macedonia, Corinth, and Crete
(not mentioned in tlieActs); First
Ejiistle to Timothy (?). Return to
Ephesus. First Epistle to the Cor-
inthians (spring, 57) 54-57
Paul's departure from Ephesus (sum-
mer) to Macedonia. Second Epistle
to the Corinthians 57
Paul's third sojourn at Corinth (three
months). Epistle to the Romans 57,58
Paul's fifth and last journey to Jeru-
salem (spring), where he is arrested
and sent to Csesarea 58
PauTs cai)tivity at Csesiuea. Testi-
mony before Felix. Festus, and
Agri'ppa (the Gospel of Luke and
tlie Acts commenced at Csesarea,
and concluded at Rome) 58-60
Paul's voyage to Rome (autumn); sliip-
wreck at Malta; arrival at Rome
(spring, 61) GO, 61
Paul's first captivity at Rome. Epistles
to the Colossians,'Epliesians, Piiilip-
pians, Philemon 61-63
Conflagration at Rome (July) ; Nero-
niau per.secuiion of the Christians;
martyrdom of Paul (?) 64
Hypothesis of a second Roman cap-
tivity and preceding missionary
journeys to the Enst, and j)o!<sihly
to Spain. First Epistle loTimothv;
Titus (Hebrews?), Second Timothy. 63-67
PAV
PEA
4. The Epistles of Paul are thirteen,
or, if we count the Hebrews (as the pro-
duct of Paul's luind, though probably
not of his pen), fourteen, in number.
They are the most remarkable body of
correspondence in the historj- of litera-
ture. They are tracts for the times, and
yet tracts for all times. They will be
found separately considered under their
titles. Here only some general reinarks
are given. They may be arrange J dif-
ferently.
{<i) ChronohxjIcalJii :
1 iiiid 2 Thessaloniiius, written a. d. 52, 53,
from Corinth.
Galatians, written a. d. 56-57, from Epliesus.
1 Corintliians. written a. d. 57, from Ephesns.
2 Corinthians, written a. D. 57, from Mace-
donia.
Romans, written A. n. 5S, from Corinfli.
Colossians, Ephesians, Pliilippians, and Phil-
emon, written a.d. 61-6:^, Irom Rome.
Hebrews, written a.d. 64(?), from Iinly.
1 Timothy and Titus, written a. d. G5 or 57 (?),
from Macedonia.
2 Timothy, written a. r;, 67 or G4 (?j, from
Rome.
The time of the composition of tlic
Pastoral Epistles de]»ends upon the
question of the second Roman cap-
tivity. The Second Epistle to Timothy
was at all events the last, whether writ-
ten in the first or second ca})tivity.
(b) 7'opicaffy :
Romans and Galatians : doctrines of sin and
grace.
1 and 2 Corinthians: moral and practical
questions.
Colossians and Philippians : person of
Christ.
Ephesians: the Church of Christ.
1 and 2 Tliessidonians: tlie second advent.
1 and 2 Timothy and Titus: church goveru-
njent and pastoral care.
Philemon : slavery.
Hebrews: the eternal priesthood and sacri-
fice of Christ.
(c) As to importance, the order in our
Bible is pretty correct. The Epistles are
all important, but were not equally well
understood in all ages of the Church.
Thus the Galatians and Romans were
more appreciated in the time of the
Reformation than in any preceding cen-
tury: they are the stronghold of the
evangelical doctrines of total depravity
and salvation by free grace. Paul's
Epistles give us the most complete ex-
hibition of the various doctrines of
Christianity and of the spiritual life of
the apostolic Church, and are apjjlicable
to all ages and congregations.
Works on the life and Epistles of Paul
are very numerous, and constantly in-
creasing. We mention only three, which
are very elaborate, yet popular, and en-
riched with fine maps and illustrations:
Conybeare and Howson (1854 and later
editions), Thomas Lewin (1S75, 2 vols.),
and Canon Farrar (1871), 2 vols.). — See
map of journeys of St. Paul at the close
of this volume.
PAVE'MEXT, an area in Pilate's
court-room, the floor of which was paved
with marble or other stones. John 19 : 13.
See Gabbatha.
PAVIL'ION, a small movable
tabernacle or tent, chiefly used for a
king, prince, or general. 1 Kgs. 20 :
12-16; Jer. 43: 10. The Psalmist sub-
limely describes .Jehovah as surrounding
himself with dark waters and thick clouds
of the skies as with a tent or pavilion.
Ps. 18:11.
PEACE. Employed in various
phrases, such as *' Peace be lo thee," "Go
in peace," etc., this word occurs both in
the 0. T. and the X. T. as a common
form of salutation. E.\. 4 : 18 ; Mark 4 :
;U: Luke 10: 5; John 20 : 19, 21 ; Rom.
1:7.
In a more special sense, the word
denotes a Christian grace obtained by
faith in Christ, who by his dtath has
restored us to peace with God. Rom. 5 :
1 : Eph. 2:14. Peace with ourselves
springs from peace with God, and peace
with God from the assurance of pardon
and reconciliation with God by the
atoning merits of Christ, who "is our
peace." Without such peace there can
be no true happiness.
PEA'COCK. 1 Kgs. 10 : 22. This
singular and beautiful bird is mentioned
among the articles imported by Solomon
from Tharshish, the modern Ceylon or
Malabar coast of India, whore the peacock
is indigenous. In .Job 39 : 1-! another
Hebrew word is found, better rendered
"ostriches," and the word "ostrich"
should be translated (as it is elsewhere)
"stork." The wings of the ostrich can-
not raise it from the ground ; yet in
running it catches (or, as the word ren-
dered " goodly " imports, " drinks in ")
the wind. The consti^uction of the ostrich
and that of the stork are thus contrasten,
as are also their habits; for the stork is
665
PEA
PEK
as proverbial for her tenderness to her
young as is the ostrich tor her seeming
indifference. Job 39: 14-16. See Ostrich,
Stork.
a'
Peacock.
PEARLi. Tlie best pearls are pro-
duced by a shell-fish of the oyster
species, thou<^h they are found in other
niollusks. The j)earl-oysters grow in
clusters on rocks (hence called "pearl-
banks") in the Persian Gulf, on the
western coast of Ceylon, on the coasts
of Java, Sumatra, etc., and in some ])arts
of Europe. The shells are obtained by
diving, and this is done by a class of
persons trained to the business. The
Ceylon pearl-fishery bank is about 15
miles from the shore, and 72 feet deep
on an average. The fishery begins in
April, when the sea is most calm, and
continues five or si.x weeks. One
shell contains from eight to twelve
pearls. The largest are of the size
of a walnut, but they are rarely ns
large as a cherry • stone. The shell
of the ])earl-oyster, or, more properly,
the interior coat, is called *'mothcr-of-
(566
pearl." A single pearl has been valued
at $350,000.
Pearls were anciently, as now, used in
the East as personal ornaments. 1 Tim.
2:9; Rev. 17:4; 18:12-
y 16. From the various il-
lustrations in which the
pearl is introduced in the
N. T., it was evidently
regarded as among the
most precious subs-tances,
and, compared with gems,
it was esteemed as more
valuable than at present.
Matt. 7:6; 13 : 45, 46;
Kev. 21:21.
PED'AHEL {ivhom
God delivers), the son of
Ammihud, chief of the
tribe of Naphtali, one of
the superintendents of the
division of Canaan. Num.
34 • 28
PEDAH'ZUR {uhom
the Jiock — i. e. God — de-
livers), the father of Gam-
aliel, and chief of the
tiibe of Manasseh in the
time of the Exodus. Num.
1 : 10; 2 : 20j 7 : 54, 69 ;
10 : 2:^.
PEDA'IAH {who VI
Jehovah deh'vem). 1. The
father of Zebudah, Jehoi-
akim's mother. 2 Kgs. 23:
'M>.
2. The brother of Shealtiel. and father
of Zerubbalel. 1 Chr. 3:17-19.
3. One who assisted Nehemiah in re-
pairing the walls of Jcruhalcm. Neh.
3:25.
4. A Levite who stood on the left hand
of Ezra when he read the Law to the
])eople. Neh. 8 : 4 ; called Phaldaius in
1 Esd. 9 : 44.
5. A Benjamite, ancestor of Sallu.
Neh. 11:7.
6. A Levite in the time of Nehemiah.
Neh. 13 : i;^.
,7. The father of Joel, chief of the
half-tribe of Manasseh in the reign of
David. 1 Chr. 27 : 20.
PEEP, to " chirp " like young birds.
Isa. 8 : 19; 10 : 14. The wizards who
pretended to raise the dead spoke in low
shrill tones because the dead were suj)-
poscd to speak thus.
PE'KAH {npeii-ryed), a general of
pf:K
PE^
the Tsrat'litish army who assassinated the
king Pekahiah in his palace and usurped
the government ; but his reign, which hist-
ed twenty years, b. c. 758-738, was highly
inauspicious; the country was invaded
and greatly harassed by the Assyrians,
and the king himself became finally the
victim of a conspiracy. 2 Kgs. 15*: 25.
PEKAHI'AH (Jehovah hun ojjened
hix e.'/ex) succeeded
his father. Men ah em, _^ -
as king of Israel in
760, and reigned only
two years, being mur-
dered bv Pekah. B.C.
758. 2 Kgs. 15 : 22-20.
PE'KOD {v{sit<,-
tionf), a symbolical
name for Babylon.
Jer. 50 :21. In^Eze.
23 : 2'i it appears to
be applied to a Chal-
daean province. A
Pekod is mentioned
in the cylinder of
Sennacherib as near
the Hauran, and Le-
normant thinks it was
the collective name of
several tribes in the
Euphrates valley.
The exact meaning
of the term is not
known. Some ex-
plain it as "visita-
tion," "punish-
ment," others as
"perfect." "noble."
PEL A^IAH
{ichom Jehovah dis-
tiitgitishes). 1. A de-
scendant of David. 1
Chp. 3 : 24.
2. A Levite who I
assisted Ezra in ex-
pounding the Law,
Neh. 8 : 7, and sealed
the covenant with Ne-
hemiah, Neh. 10 : 10 ;
called Biatas in 1 Esd.
9:48.
PELAL I'AH
jndges), a priest in
the return from the
11 : 12.
PELATI'AH {whom Jehovah de-
livers). 1. The graixlson of Zerubbabel.
1 Chr. 3:21.
2. A Simeonite captain on an expedi-
tion to Mount Seir. 1 Chr. 4 : 42.
'6. One of the heads of the people, who
sealed the covenant with Xehemiah.
Neh. 10 : 22.
4. One of the five-and-twenty men who
withstood the prophet Ezekiel and coun-
selled the peojde of Israel wickedly, but
was suddenly struck dead while the
(whom Jehovah
Jerusalem after
Captivity. Neh.
The Pelican.
prophet was uttering his prediction.
Eze. 11 : 1-13.
PE'LiEG (divininii), a son of Eber ami
brother of Joktan, in whose time — that
is, in the age immediately succeeding
the Deluge — the family of Eber was
divided, the elder branch, which de-
667
PEL
PEN
scended from Peleg, remaining in Meso-
potamia, while the younger branch,
descending from Joktan, emigrated to
Southern Arabia. Gen. 10 : 25 : 11 ; 16 j
1 Chr. 1 : 25.
PE'JLET {deliverance).
1 . A son of Jahdai, descend-
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2: J7.
2. One of the Benjamites
who joined David at Zik-
lag. 1 Chr. 12 : '.i.
PE'LETH {Hic!ffue>^f<).
1. A Reubenite whose son
On joined Dathan and
Abiram in their rebellion.
Num. 16 : 1.
2. A son of Jonathan,
and a descendant of Ju-
dah. 1 Chr. 2 : 3M.
PEXETHITES. 2 Sam. 8 : 18.
See Chkuethites.
PEL'ICAN (Ileb. the vmniter). a
voracious water-bird, unclean by the
Levitical law, Lev. 11 : 18, of singular
construction and habits, resembling the
goose, though nearly twice as large. Its
liill is 15 inches long. The female ha>!
a large pouch or bag capable of contain-
ing 2 or 3 gallons of water, and food
enough for six common men. Out of
this pouch she feeds herself and her
young, and from this habit and the red
nail at the end of her bill came the
notion that she fed her offspring on her
own blood. The pelican was formerly
more abundant than now in the Levant,
but Dr. Thomson has seen it at Lake
Huleh and the Sea of Galilee. Having
gorged itself with fish, this bird flies
miles into the wilderness, where it sits
in some lonely place " for hours, or even
days, with its bill resting on its breast,
a picture of melancholy." Ps. 102 : 6.
The margin correctly reads ** pelican"
for "cormorant" in Isa. 34:11; Zeph.
2:14. (See cut, p. 667.)
PEL'ONITE, a designation ap-
plied in 1 Chr. 11 : 27, 36 to Helez and
Ahijah, two of David's mighty men, of
whom th<; former is called the Paltite in
2 Sam. 23 : 26.
PEN. The instruments with which
the characters were formed in the writing
of the ancients varied with the materials
upon which the letters were to be traced.
lI})on hard substances, such as stone or
metallic jjlates, a f/mrer of steel was
used, the saujc which Job calls " an iron
668
I pen." It is possible that an instru-
ment pointed with diamond, such as
glaziers now use, was not unknown, as
"the sin of Judah ix written with a pen
of iron, and with the point of a diamond ;
Pens and Writing-Materials.
it is graven upon the table of their
heart, and upon the horns of your altars."
Jer. 17 : 1. Upon tablets of wax a me-
tallic pen or fitt/hi8 was employed, having
one end pointed to trace the letters, the
other broad and fiat to er.ise any errone-
ous marks by smoothing the wax.
Upon paper, linen, cotton, skins, and
parchments, it was in very early times
common to paint the letters with a hair-
pencil brought to a fine point. Thercetl
2>eu was introduced afterward, and at
first used without being split at the
point. The reed pen is used by the
modern Turks, Syrians, Persians, Abys-
sinians, Arabs, and other Orientals, as
their languages could not be written
without diflSculty with pens made from
quills. A particular kind of knife is
used to split the reed. Jer. 36 : 28.
PENI'EL, on PENU'EL {face of
God), a place between the Jabbok and
Succoih where Jacob had his mysterious
wrestling with the Angel. Gen. 32 : 24-32.
The usual, and probably the original,
form was " Penuel," and this is the form
in the Samaritan Pentateuch. Five
hundred years later, when pursuing the
Midianites. Gideon found a city and
tower at Penuel, and slew the men of
the city. Jud. 8 : 17. 18. Jooboam went
from Shechem and built Penuel. 1 Kgs.
12 : 25. Its site has long been counted
as unknown, for the region in which it
was situated has been only slightly ex-
plored. Dr. Merrill, however, identifies
Penuel with a point south of the Zerka
(Jabbok), near its junction with the
Jordan.
PEN
PEN
PENIN'NAH (cornl). one of the two
wives of Elkauah, the father of Samuel.
1 Sam. 1 : 2.
PEN'KNIFE. Jer. 36 : 23. See
Knife.
PEN'NY. This word, so translated
in our English Version for the Greek
denarius, is equivalent to about sixteen
cents or eight pence, and was a regular
day's wages. The "penny" shown to
Christ bore the likeness and name of
Cfesar (Tiberius), who had then been
emperor for seventeen or eighteen years.
Matt. 22 : 19, 21. DeiuuinH ought to
have been retained or Anglicized into
detmr, with a marginal note giving its
precise value. Sec Monry.
PEN'TATEUCH, THE, is the
collective name for the first five books
of the 0. T., the books of Moses. The
name is of Greek origin, meaning "five
volumes," and was probably introduced
by the Alexandrian translators of the 0.
T. As also the names of the separate
books — Genesis, Exodus, etc. — are of
Greek origin, referring to the contents
of the books, and as, in tlie. Jewish man-
uscripts, these books form only one roll
or volume, it has been conjectured that
the division itself is due to the (rreek
translators. In Scripture the Penta-
teuch is called "a book of the law of
the Lord given l)y the hand of Moses,"
2 Chr. 34 : 14; "the book of the law of
the Loud," 2 Chr. 17 : 9 ; " the book of the
law," 2 Kgs. 22 : 8 : " the b >ok of the
covenant," 2 Chr. 34 : 30 ; 2 Kgs. 23 : 2,
21 ; " the law of Moses," Ezr. 7:6; '• the
book of the law of Moses," Neh. 8:1;
" the book of Moses," Ezr. 6:18; Neh.
13 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 25 : 4 ; 35 : 12 ; or simply
" the law," Matt. 12 : 5 ; Luke 10 : I'G ;
John 8 : 5, 17. Among the Jews the
several books are designated by their
initial letters — BereHhitlt ("in the begin-
ning"), ASV(ej»c«^/j (" names"), etc. ; among
the Christians, with reference to their
subject-matter — Geiiesi>i giving the prim-
itive history, as a preparation IVirlhc the-
ocracy, from the Creation to the death
of Jacob; Exncln^, the foundation of the
theocracy, by the legislation from Blount
Sinai; LevlticiiH, the inner organization
of the theocracy by the ceremonial laws
on the Levitical wo:shiy) ; Xuiuherfi, the
actual establishment of the theocracy liy
the march through the wilderness and
the conquest of Canaan : and Deuteron-
ovii/, the final and compreheusive re-
capitulation of Mosaic legislation. The
whole is one compact and complete
representation of the Hebrew theocracy,
the first and the last books having a
more universal character, the three inter-
mediate ones a more specifically Jewish
character. Exodus giving the prophetic,
Leviticus the priestly, and Numbers the
kingly, aspect of the theocracy.
With respect to the authorship of this
work, various circumstances have during
the last two centuries caused souie
doubt whether it can legitimately be
ascribed to Moses. Moses is always
spoken of in the third person, and in
the last passages of Deuteronomy his
death and burial are related. Names
of places occur, though we know that
they did not come into use until after
the conquest of Canaan — such as " Dan,"
Gen. 14 : 14; Deut. 34 : 1 : comp. Josh.
19 : 47, an:l " Hebron." Gen. 13 ; 18;
23 : 2 ; comp. Josh. 14 : lii ; Jud. 1 : 10.
The names of the Lord, " Jehovah " and
"Elohim." alternate in such a way as
to indicate a double authorship, and al-
leged difle-ences in style and language
and repetitions seem to point the same
way. On these grounds a school of
modern critical scholars contends that
the Pentateuch, at least in its present
shape, was not written by jVIoses, or hy
any single author, but is a compilation
of much later date and from very differ-
ent sources.
However ingenious many of the ar-
guments against the Mosaic authorship
may be, the collected evidence in its favor
is ncveithe'ess overwhelming. The unity
of the composition, as set forth above, is
so strong that no attempt at breaking it
has ever succeeded, and the book itself,
directly and indirectly, bears testimony
to its essential Mosaic origin. In Deut.
31:9-12, 2 4-2fi we are told that Moses
wrote " this law," and when he was done
with it he placed it in the hands of the
Levites, to be kept in the ark of the
covenant and to be rend to the people
every seventh year on the feast of the
tabernacles. "This law" may mean
Deute-onomy alone, an 1 not the whole
Pentateuch ; but other passages refer in
exactly the same manner to other parts
of the work. He wrote, by divine com-
mand, the book of the covenant and the
ten commandments, Ex. 24 : 3-7 ; 17 :
669
PEN
PEO
14, and also the camping-stations of the
Israelites in the wilderness. Num. 33 :
2 S. The presumption is that he wrote
the rest, unless there are convincing
arguments to the contrary (as in the
account of his death at the close of Deu-
teronomy, which is evidently added by a
later hand). The Mosaic authorship of
the great body of the Pentateuch is sus-
tained by uninterrupted and unanimous
tradition of the Jewish Synagogue and
the Christian Church, and by the internal
evidence of the work itSL'If. Moses was,
of all men, best qualified to write it.
He had the best preparation, he knew
all about the events in which he figured
so prominently. The book contains so
many and so close references to Egypt
— the land, the people, and the civiliza-
tion— that its author must not only have
lived for a long time in Egypt, but also
have received the beneSt of a thorough
Egyptian education an 1 partaken in
Egyptian lite from a superior position;
see, for instance, the references to iniga-
tion, Deut. 11 : 10 ; to war. Dent. 30 : 5 ;
to mining, Deut. 8:9; to criminal pun-
ishment, Dcut. 25 : 2, etc. Kext, the
narrative of the passage through the
desert gives so correct and so fresh a
description of the event that it could
never have been made by .any one who
had not taken part in that long trial,
and hardly by any other than by him
•who was the leader. The language,
also, and the theology (especially the
eschatology) of the Pentateuch are ar-
chaic, and antedate the compositions
of the Davidic, and still more of the
post-Exilian, period. There is no man
in the whole subsequent history of
Israel, as far as we know, who could
at all account for the peculiarities of
the Pentateuch near so well as the great
lawgiver, who is the central figure of the
book. Ezra, for instance, to whom some
nltra-critics assign the authorship, never
was in Egypt nor in the wilderness, and
lived in the reproductive period of re-
construction or restoration of the theoc-
racy founded by Jehovah through Moses
centuries before. Thus from various
sides we are led to feel not only that
Moses has written the Pentateuch, but
also that he was the only one who could
have written it: and the objections have
so much the less power, as a Mosaic
authorship by no means excludes either
(i70
the use of earlier documents or the addi-
tion of later notes.
For further details see the special
articles on the separate books : Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deu-
TEUOXOMY.
PEN'TECOST (from a Greek word
signifying ^/Vi'eM) is the name by which
the N. T. denotes the second great festival
of the Jews, called by them " the feast of
weeks" or "the day of first-fruits." It
was celebrated on the fiftieth day (hence
the name) after the Passover, reckoning
from the second day of the Passover (the
IGth of Nisan), Lev. 23 : 11, 15, to the
morrow after the end of the seventh
week. Lev. 23 : 15, 16 ; Deut. 16 : 9. It
was originally a simple thanksgiving for
the harvest, which in Palestine fell in
the weeks between the Passover and the
Pentecost. The festival was kept only
for one day, and the principal rite con-
sisted in the offering of two loaves made
of the finest flour of the last crop's
wheat.
Later (^n, however, after the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem and the dispersion of
the Jewish nation, the least assumed an
historical character. It was made out
from Ex. 19 that the giving of the Law
on Mount Sinai took place on the
fiftieth day after the deliverance from
Egypt, and in course of time, and among
Jews living in other climes with another
harvest-season, this becanie the principal
signification of the festival.
In the Christian Church, Pentecost is
celebrated seven weeks after Easter, in
commemoration of the outpouring of the
Holy Spirit on the disciples, as the birth-
da v of the Christian Church. Acts 2 :
1-14.
PENU'EL {face of God). 1. A Ju-
dite. 1 Chr. 4 : 4.
2. A chief Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 25,
28.
PENU'EL. See Peniel.
PE'OR (cleft), the mountain-peak
to which |}alak brought Bahuun. to curse
Israel. Nun). 23 : 28. The camp of
Israel was at this time in the Jordan
valley, near the Dead Sea. Beth-pcor
was " over against " the csim]). Deut. 3 :
21) ; 34 : fi. Peor is described as *' facing
Jeshimon," and tiiis is also said of Pis-
gah. Prof. Paine has recently identified
Pisg.ah with Jclnl Situjlmh, and found
upon that mountain three summits. The
PER
PER
first or westeru summit he regards as
the station of Balaam, from which he
might see the utmost part of the people,
Num. 22 : 41, and the second summit
was the top of Peor, " that looketh to-
ward Jeshimon." He was standing at
the very point, the best in all the land
for looking down upon God's people, and
from it he exclaimed, " How goodly are
thy tents, 0 Jacob, <nid thy tabernacles,
0 Israel !" See Pjsgah.
PER'AZIM (breaches), a mountain
upon whicli divine vengeance would be
manifested. Isa. 28 : 21. It is not else-
where mentioned in Scripture, but has
been regarded as identical with Baal-
perazim of 2 Sam. 5 : 20 and I Chr. 14:
8-17, where David won his victory over
the Philistine?. The latter place was in
the valley of Rephaim. See Baal-pek-
AZIU.
PE'RES. Dan. 5 : 2S. See Mkxk.
PE'RESH (dnnf,), son of Machir,
and descendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7 :
16.
PE'REZ (Vr reut). See Pharez.
PE'REZ-UZ ZA, OK UZ'ZAH
(hrenking of Uzznh), a place called also
Nachon and Chidon. 2 Sam. 6 : 6-8; 1
Chr. 13 : 'J-1 1 : 15 : 13. It was near Jeru-
salem, and there Uzzah died for his pre-
sumptuous rashness in attempting to
steady the ark of God.
PERFECTION. That which is
entire and c >mplete in all its parts,
■ without defect or blemish, is per-
fect. Thus even the most insignificant
thing can be perfect — perfect in its
kind; and, although perfection can
never raise a thing above its kind, it
nevertheless confers on it the highest
value which it ever can reach. When
Christ says, •* Be ye the efore perfect,
even as your Father which is in lieaven
is perfect," Matt. 6 :«.48, the memiug is
n )t that we should be perfect as G;jd, but
simply that we should realize all the possi-
bilities which are involved in our nature
and conditions as his children — that is,
we should be entire in our faith and
w.thout blemish in our love.
PER'FUME. Ex. 30 : 35. The
use of perfumery to give an agreeible
odor to the person and apparel is. and
ever has been, widely prevalent in East-
ern countries. In the passage cited, how-
ever, the composition which is called a
perfume was t j be used in the tabernacle
service. The composition of it is pre-
scribed with great particularity, and the
making or using it for any other purpose
was forbidden under severe penalties. It
is of little importance what the ingredi-
ents were, or what was specially denoted
in the manner of using it. It had its
value as a test of obedience, and may
have had some signiticancy to tlie view
which we cannot appreciate. The "art
of the apothecary," after or according to
which the compound was to be made,
probably consisted quite as much in the
preparation of perfumes as in the sale
of drugs and medicines. See Incexse.
PER'GA {t:.rtieniitij, OT place of ukjj-
(ials), a city of Pamphjdia. a province of
Asia Minor, and situated on the river
Cestrus, about 7h miles from the sea. It
was the original capital of the province.
The inhabitants were (Greeks, and had a
temple, a stadium, theatres, and a far-
faned temple of Diana, standing on a
high eminence. Coins of Perga have
been found bearing the image of this
celebrated goddess. Paul and Barna-
bas, with Mark, landed at Perga in the
spring, when the roads to Pisidia would
be cleared of snow. Paul preached in
the city, and Mark here forsook him
and returned to Jerusalem. Acts 13 :
13; 14:25. There are extensive ruins
at the place, which is now called £>i/ci
KalexHi bv the Turks.
PER'GAMOS {place of uiiptiah),
a celebrated city of Mysia, about 3 miles
north of the river Caicus and 20 miles
from the sea. It was noted for its wealth,
which had its origin, it is said, from the
time that 9000 talents were entrusted by
Lysimachus. a su^-essor of AUxander,
to the keeping of Philataerus. who (b. c.
283) appropriate 1 the money, declared
himself independent, and founded a
successful dvnast\% which lasted for
over four centuries, when the treasure
was bequeathed to the Romans. The
city was celebrated for ( 1 ) literary
character; (2) idolatry. It had avast
library of 200,000 volumes (rolls), rival-
ling that at Alexandria, but Antonv pre-
sented this library to Cleopatra, when
it was removed to Eg3'pt, and. with the
Alexandrine Library, destroj'ed by Ca-
liph Omar. At this city also the art of
preparing skins for writing was greatly
improved, and our word "parchment"
is derived from the Latin clmrta pei'-
f)71
PER
PER
(jamena, or '"paper of Pergamos." The
city had, in a grove near by, a cluster
of famous temples dedicated to Zeus,
Minerva, Apollo, Venus. Bacchus, and
JEsculapius. One of the seven churches
of Asia was at Pergamos, " where Satan's
seat is." Rev. 1 : 11 : 2 : 12-17. The term
" Satan's seat " some regard as referring
to the worship of ^Esculapius, whose
common emblem was the serpent. Oth-
ers think it denotes the particular wick-
edness of the various idolatries and the
trials which had come upon the church,
one faithful member, Antipas, having al-
ready suffered martyrdom. The city is
now called Betgainu, and has a popula-
tion of from 20,000 to 30,000, of which
about 2000 are Christians, having sev-
eral churches. The rest of the inhab-
itants are Turks and Mohammedans.
There are ruins of fine churches and
temples, indicating the former grandeur
of the city, but the modern houses are
small and mean.
PERI'DA. See Pert'pa.
PER'IZZITES {v!Ufu,rr>i). The
Canaanites apparently lived in the cities
of Palestine, while the Perizzites lived
in the open country ; accordingly, the
two together made up the inhabitants
of the country, and were scattered over
the land, from which they were, how-
ever, in great measure expelled during
the Conquest. Gen. 13 : 7 ; 34 : 30 ; Josh.
17 : 15 ; Jud. 3 : 5 ; 1 Kgs. 9 : 20 ; 2 Chr.
8:7: Ezr. 9 : 1.
PERSECU'TION is the applica-
tion of coercive means in matters of
conscience, or the infliction of pains and
y)enalties for conscience' sake. Under
the Mosaic dispensation, which considers
(jrod as the King of the Hebrew nation,
the enforcement of religious views was a
part'rtf the criminal law. To worship
another god was treason, and was pun-
ished as such. Deut.13. Foreigners who
dwelt in Palestine were not compelled
to embrace Judaism, but they would not
obtain full citizens' rights unless fulfill-
ing this condition, Ex. 12 : 48, and for
open idolatry they were punished. Lev.
18 : 26; 20 : 1-5.'
Under the Christian dispensation,
which considers God as the Father of
all men, persecution becomes itself a
crime, which, however, does not encroach
on the right of the Christian Church to
exclude any member for heretical doc-
43
trine or scandalous conduct. 1 Cor. 5 :
3-5, 13.
Persecution in the Christian Church
has indeed been defended by reference
to the Mosaic Law, but it is manifestly
contrary to both the spirit and action of
Christ and the apostles, who bad rather
suffer than inflict punishment, and who
trusted to the power of the truth, and not
to carnal weapons, for the universal suc-
cess of their religion. Thus Jesus said,
*• My kingdom is not of this world." John
18 : 36. And Paul affirms, " The weapons
of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty
through God to the pulling down of
stronjrholds." 2 Cor. 10 : 4.
PERSEP'OLIS, a celebrated city,
and the capital of Persia. It is not
mentioned in the canonical books of the
Bible, but is noticed in the Apocrypha.
2 Mace. 9:2. It was probably founded
by Darius Hystaspes, and became a resi-
dence of Persian monarchs until the
time of Alexander the Great, who
wantonly burned the city. It partially
recovered, and was again attacked by
Antiochus Epiphanes, who attempted to
plunder it. The city was situated near
the plains of Meif/nsht, where extensive
and magnificent ruins still exist, and are
called Chchl-Minar, or "forty pillars."
PER'SIA (Heb. PharoH, pure, or
ti(jers ?), a country in Central Asia. The
term is generally applied in Scripture to
the entire Persian empire, but in Eze.
S8 : 5 it appears to designate Persia
proper. The latter country was bounded
by Media on the north, Carmania on the
: east, Susiana on the west, and the Persian
Gulf on the south. The Persian empire,
however, extended from the Indus on the
I east to Thrace on the west, and from the
Black and Caspian Seas on the north
to the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf,
and the Red Sea on the south. It in-
cluded all "Western Asia and portions
of Europe and Africa. Persia proper
was in general an unproductive country,
low and sandy on the gulf, hilly and
mountainous inland. The interior was
a great plateau, having an average ele-
vation of 4000 feet above the sea, broken
by mountains and valleys and inter-
spersed with fruitful plains.
History. — Persia was settled originally
by Aryan tribes from the east, probably
about B. c. 880. They were brave and
enterprising, and divided into ten castes
673
PER
PET
or tribes, of which the Pasargadae were
the nobles. Their hmguage was closely
allied to the Sanscrit, and in their re-
ligion they were dualists, believing in
one supreme god and in one great power
of evil. These good and evil beings
were regarded as co-eternal and co-
equal. The founder of the Persian
dynasty was Achgemes, and it was
tributary to the Medes for a time, un-
til a revolt under Cyrus about b. c. 588.
Their sway was then rapidly extended
over Asia Minor, and in B. c. 539 over
Babjion, where the Persians came into
contact with the captive Jews, Cyrus
issuing a decree permitting these cap-
tives to return to their own land. 2 Chr.
36 : 20-23 ; Ezr. 1 : 8. Cyrus died in
B. c. 529, and his tomb is still pointed
out near the ancient capital, now known
as Mnryhah. A later king, called Ar-
taxerxes in Scripture, forbade the re-
building of the temple, but Darius
Hystaspes authorized the work to go
on. Ezr. 4 : 5-24 ; 6 : 7-12. Xerxes,
who was probably the Ahasuerus of the
book of Esther, succeeded him, and was
defeated by the Greeks, assassinated, and
succeeded by his son Artaxerxes Longi-
manus, who was friendly to the Jews.
Ezr. 7 : 11-28; Neh. 2 : 1-9. Only one
of his successors is noticed in Scripture,
Darius the Persian. Neh. 12 : 22. After
lasting about two hundred years the
Persian empire was overthrown by Alex-
ander the Great, b. c. 330, and followed
by the Macedonian, the third great
world-empire. Dan. 8 : 3-7.
Present Condition. — Persia now has an
area of about 500,000 square miles and
a population of about 10,000,000. Its
principal seaport-town is Bushire, a
city of 30,000 inhabitants having con-
siderable trade with England. The chief
ruler is called the Shah. The province
of Shiraz is properly the ancient king-
dom of Persia before Cyrus. Within it
are the ruins of Persepolis, the palace of
Darius, which was burned by Alexander
the Great when in a drunken frolic, fire-
temples, inscriptions, altars, and various
mementoes of the old Persian faith, which
is still held by the Parsees. Christian
missions have been established among
the Nestorians in Persia by the Amer-
ican Congregational, and the American
Presbyterian Board of Missions, which
have met with encouraging success.
674
PER'SIANS, inhabitants of Persia.
Dan. 6 : 28. See Persia.
PER'SIS (a Persian woman), a
Christian woman in Rome to whom
Paul sends his salutation. Rom. 16 : 12.
PERU'DA (kernel), a servant of
Solomon whose descendants returned
with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2 : 55 ; called
Perida in Neh. 7 : 57.
PESTI'LENCE expresses all sorts
of distempers and calamities. Jer. 21 :
6. The Hebrew word, which properly
signifies the " plague," is applied to all
epidemical ancl contagious diseases.
Pestilences are still very common in
Asia and Africa. It is supposed to ha\ e
been by a species of pestilence that the
first-born of Egypt were cut off. Ps. "78 :
50, 61.
A pestilent fellow is one who is mis-
chievous and disposed to corrupt and
ruin a multitude. Acts 24 : 5. See
Plague.
PE'TER {stone, or rock; Syriac
Cephas ; Greek Petros), one of the
twelve apostles, one of the three fa-
vorite disciples (with John and James),
and the most active of all in word and
deed (except Paul, who did not belong
to the twelve). His original name was
'' Simon " or ** Simeon." He was a son
of Jonas (John, according to the read-
ing of the best manuscripts), a brother
of Andrew, probably a native of Beth-
saida in Galilee. He was a fisherman
by trade, and resided at Capernaum
with his wife and mother-in-law, who
was healed by Christ of a fever. See
John 1 : 42 ; 21 : 15 ; Matt. 16 : 18 : Luke
5 : 3-10 ; Matt. 8 : 14, 15; Mark 1 : 29-31 ;
Luke 4 : 38. When he forsook all to
follow Christ he must have made a
considerable sacrifice. His new name
" Peter "(" rock-man ") was given him
when he was called to the apostleship,
John 1 : 42, and was solemnly confirmed
when he, in the name of all the other
apostles, made that remarkable confes-
sion of the divinity of our Lord which
is the fundamental creed of Christendom
and the immovable foundation of the
Christian Church. Matt. 16 : 18. The
name " Peter " or " Cephas " was a
prophecy of the prominent position
which he, as the confessor of Christ,
would occuj)y in the primitive age of
the Church. He laid the foundation of
the Church among the Jews on the day
PET
PET
of Pentecost, Acts 2, and, after a special
revelation, among the Gentiles also, in
the conversion of Cornelius. Acts 10.
He appears throughout in the Gospels
and the first part of the Acts as the head
and mouthpiece of the twelve. He had
an ardent nature, a sanguine, impulsive,
hopeful temperament, was frank, open,
fresh, enthusiastic, and energetic, and
born to take the lead, but apt to over-
rate his strength and liable to change
and inconsistency. He was the first to
confess and the first to deny his Lord
and Saviour, yet he repented bitterly,
and had no rest and peace till the Lord
forgave him. He had a great deal of
genuine human nature, but divine grace
did its full work, and overruled even
his faults for his advancement in hu-
mility and meekness, which shine out
so beautifully from his Epistles.
The labors of Peter are recorded in the
Acts. Chs. 1 to 12 and ch. 15. He was
the leading apostle from the day of Pen-
tecost to the Council of Jerusalem, in
A. D. 50. After that time his where-
abouts are involved in obscurity. Paul
mentions him as being at Antioch, about
A. D. 52, and censures him for inconsist-
ency of conduct, which he showed at
that time toward the Gentile converts,
from fear of ofl"ending the Judaizing
party. The alienation of the two apos-
tles was merely tempora^J^ We must
admire the meekness and humility with
which Peter bore the sharp rebuke of
his younger colleague, and with which
he alluded afterward to the Epistles of
his " beloved brother Paul," 2 Pet. 3:15,
as much as the boldness and fearlessness
with which Paul stood up for principle
and the rights and liberty of the Gentile
Christians. Paul mentions him again,
A. T). 57, 1 Cor. 9 : 5, as engaged, in
company with his wife, in missionary
journeys and labors, perhaps among the
dispersed Jews in Asia Minor, to whom
he addressed his Epistles. 1 Pet. 1 : 1.
This allusion to Peter's wife is important
as proving that he did not give up the
family ties when he entered upon his
spiritual calling. Clement of Alexan-
dria expressly states that Peter and Philip
had children, and that both took about
with them their wives, who aided them
in ministering to women at their own
homes. It is a singular fact that he
whom Roman Catholics hold to be the
first pope should have been and remain-
ed a married man and thus protested
against clerical celibacy.
According to the unanimous testimony
of Christian antiquity, Peter suffered
Portraits of Peter nnd Paul. (Prom a Gilded
Glaus Cup fi/und tn the Catacombs of Rome.)
martyrdom in Rome under Nero, but the
length of his residence in Rome and the
year of his martyrdom are uncertain.
When Paul arrived at Rome, a.d. 61,
and during his imprisonment, A. D. 61-63,
no mention is made of Peter. It is
therefore improbable that he reached
Rome before the close of 63. The report
of a twenty or twenty-five years' resi-
dence of Peter in Rome rests on a chron-
ological miscalculation of Eusebius and
Jerome, who assume that he went to
Rome A. n. 42, immediately after his de-
liverance from prison (Acts 12 : 17, "he
went into another place"), and is en-
tirely irreconcilable with the silence of
Scripture, and we may say even with the
mere fact of Paul's Epistle to the Romans,
written in 58 ; for Paul says not a word
of previous labors of Peter in that city,
and never built on other men's foun-
dation. Peter's martyrdom may have
taken place either in A. D. 64, during the
ten-ible Neronian persecution after the
great conflagration, or in 67. He is said
to have been crucified, and thus he fol-
lowed his Lord literally in the mode of
his death. Comp. John 21 : 18, 19,
Origen adds, however, that Peter, deem-
ing himself unworth}' to be, in the mode
of his death, conformed to his Master,
was at his own request crucified with
his head downward.
675
PET
PHA
The Epistles op Peter belong to the
last years of his life, and are addressed
to churches in Asia Minor, chiefly planted
by Paul and his comjninions. They con-
tain precious consolations and exhor-
tations, and confirm the harmony of his
doctrine with that of the apostle of the
Gentiles, 1 Pet. 5 : 12,- 2 Pet. 3 : 15.
They breathe a sweet, gentle, lovely,
humble spirit, thoroughly mastered and
softened by divine grace, and are full of
joy and hope in view of the threatening
persecutions.
The First Epistle is dated fromBabylon,
1 Pet. 5 : 13: but commentators difiFer.
Some refer it to the famous Babylon in
Asia, which after its destruction was
still inhabited by a Jewish colony, and
remained for several centuries a chief
seat of rabbinical learning; others refer
it to Babylon in Egypt, now called Old
Cairo; still others understand it mys-
tically of heathen Rome, in which sense
" Babylon " is certainly used in the Apoc-
alypse of John. Tlie last view is favored
by the terms co-elect (" elected together
with lion") and Marcus my son, which
occur in the same verse, and which
scarcely bear a literal interpretation
('* Peter's wife and son "), but probably
mean the Christian Church and Mark
the evangelist, who was his spiritual son.
In this case the passage would be the
first, and the only scriptural, proof for
Peter's presence in Rome. If the letter
was written during or after the terrible
persecution of 64, he might have had
good reason to call Rome by the name
of Bal)ylon, the ancient enemy of the
people of God. Mark was a companion
and interpreter of Peter in his mission-
ary labors. The Epistle was transmitted
by Silvanus, 1 Pet. 5 : 12, a disciple and
fellow-laborer of Paul, and a connecting
link between him and Peter, well qual-
ified to assure the Jewish converts in
the churches of Asia Minor of the har-
mony of the two great apostles in all the
essential doctrines of salvation.
The Second Epistle is a valedictory of
Peter, written shortly before his martyr-
dom, with warnings against Antinomian
heresies, which began to disturb the har-
mony and purity of the Church. The
external testimonies in favor of the
Second Epistle are not so numerous as
those in favor of the First, nor was it as
much used. But the author expressly
676
designates himself as an eye-witness of
the transfiguration of Christ on the
mount, 2 Pet. 1 : 16-18, and bears am-
ple evidence of apostolic depth and unc-
tion. It attests some of the most im-
portant facts in our Lord's ministry ; it
confirms the unity of apostolic teaching;
it adds the doctrine of the final destruc-
tion of the material universe to make
room for a new heaven and a new earth
" wherein dwelleth righteousness ; " and
it appropriately closes with the exhor-
tation to " grow in grace and in the
knowledge of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ. To him be glory both now
and for ever."
PETHAHI'AH {whom God sets
free). 1. The head of the nineteenth
course of the priests in the reign of
David. 1 Chr. 24: 16.
2. A Levite who had married a foreign
woman in the time of Ezra, Ezr, 10 : 23,
and probably the same who conducted
the solemn service of the fast. Neh.
9 : 5.
3. A descendant of Judah who held an
office at the Persian court. Neh. 11 : 24.
PE'THOR (soothsai/er .?), the native
place of Balaam, situated " upon the
river," probably the Euphrates, as it
was in Mesopotamia. Num. 22 : 5 ;
Deut. 23 : 4. Pethor has been sup-
posed to be identical with Balis, on
the Euphrates, where Benjamin of
Tudela states there is the "tower of
Balaam, son of Beor." Some scholars
have recently proposed, however, to
locate the country of Balaam in Syria,
but this view lacks sufficient support.
See Pada\-aram.
PETHU'EL (ri.'^ion of God), or
perhaps METHU'EL (peace of God),
the father of the pro|)het Joel. Joel 1 : 1.
PE'TRA. Isa. 16 : 1. See Skla.
PEUL'THAI (waffes of Jehovah),
a Levite porter, the eighth son of Obed-
edom. IChr. 26 : 5.
PHA'LiEC, same as Peleg, the son
of Eber. Luke 3 : 35.
PHAL'LU {distinyaished). Gen. 46 :
y. See Pallu.
PHAL'TI {deliverance of Jehovah),
called PHAL'TIEL, 2 Sam. 3:15, the
man to whom Saul gave Michal, the wife
of David. 1 Sam. 25 : 44.
PHAL'TIEL. See above.
PHANU'EL {ftre of God), father
of the prophetess Anna. Luke 2 : 36.
PHA
PHA
PHA'RAOH, an Egyptian word
applied by the Egyptians themselves to
their kings as a generic name or title,
and adopted into Hebrew, where it was
used either alone or with the addition
"king of Egypt," or, as in two cases,
followed by a proper name — Pharaoh-
nechoh and Pharaoh-hophra. The word
was formerly derived from the Egyptian
article Pi or Ph and the word Ru, de-
noting " the sun," as the Egyptian king
was considered the representative on
earth of the sun-god, or from the
Coptic oHi-n, " king." Modern Egypt-
ologists (De Rouge, Brugsch, and Ebers)
define its meaning as "the great house,"
and its application would thus be equiv-
alent to our "the sublime porte." On
account of the great uncertainty which
still surrounds Egyptian chronology, it
has proved very difficult to identify the
different Pharaohs mentioned in the
Bible, but, in many points, the investi-
gations of Egyptologists and biblical
scholars have reached pretty certain
conclusions. Ten Pharaohs are men-
tioned in the 0. T.
1, The Pharaoh of the time of Abra-
ham. Gen. 12 : 15. He is probably
identical with Salatis, the head of the
fifteenth dynasty, one of the Shepherd-
kings (Hyksos), foreigners of the Semitic
race, who conquered Egypt and, having
become Egyptianized, ruled it for several
centuries. The date of Abraham's visit
to Egypt is most probably fixed at about
B. c. 2080.
2. The Pharaoh of Joseph, Gen. 41,
was the last, or the last but one. of the
fifteenth dynasty ; probably identical
with Apophis, who reigned at least 26
years, b. c J 876-1850.
8. The Pharaoh of the Oppression — J
"the new king over Egypt who knew -
"not Joseph," Ex. 1 : 8, and under whose
reign Moses was born — is now by most
Egyptologists identified with Barneses
II., the third sovereign of the nineteenth
dynasty (the Sesostris of the Greeks),
the most prominent of the Pharaohs, a
conqueror of many lands, the master- j
builder of Egypt, whose statues and
temples in ruins are found all over the
Nile valley from Zoan (Tanis) to Kar-
nak and Aboo Simbel. The other theory,
which seeks the Pharaoh of the Oppres-
sion in Aahmes I. (the Amosis of jose-
phus), who began to reign B.C. 1706 as
the first sovereign of the eighteenth
dynasty, is now pretty generally aban-
doned. See Egypt.
4. The Pharaoh of the Exodus, Ex.
5 : 1, before whom Moses wrought his
miracles, and who perished with his
army in the pursuit of the Israelites,
was Menephtha, the thirteenth son of
Barneses II., who began to rule b. c.
1325. His reign was inglorious and
marked a period of decline. He did
not even finish his father's tomb. On a
monument of Tanis mention is made
of the fact that he lost a son, and Dr.
Brugsch connects this with the death
of the first-born, the last of the plagues.
5. The Pharaoh whose daughter,
Bithiah. was given in marriage to
Mered, a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr.
4 : 18.
6. The Pharaoh who gave the sister
of his queen in marriage to Hadad, an
Edomite of royal blood, who escaped the
massacre of Joab and fled to Egypt. 1
Kgs. 11 : 18-20.
7. The Pharaoh whose daughter Solo-
mon married and brought "into the city
of David until he had made an end of
building his own house, and the house
of the Lord," 1 Kgs. 3 : 1, consequently
before the eleventh year of his reign, in
which year the temple was finished. 1
Kgs. 6 : 37, 38. This Pharaoh after-
ward made an expedition into Pales-
tine, took Gerar, slew the Canaanites
who dwelt in the city, and gave it to
his daughter, Solomon's wife. 1 Kgs.
9:16.
8. The Pharaoh in whom King Hcze-
kiah put his confidence in his war with
Sennacherib, 2 Kgs. 18 : 21, probably
identical with Sethos or Zet.
y. Pharaoh-nechoh, also called simply
Necho, was the fifth or sixth ruler of the
Saite dynasty, and reigned from b. c. 610
to 594. He made an expedition against
Assyria, but was encountered by Josiah,
king of Judah, who sided with Assyria,
but was defeated and killed at Megiddo.
2 Chr. 35:20-24; 2 Kgs. 23:29,30.
The Jews then raised Jehoahaz, the
younger son of Josiah, to the throne,
but he was deposed by Necho, who gave
the sceptre to Jehoiakim, the elder son
of Josiah. Necho's army was afterward
defeated at Carchemish by Nebuchad-
nezzar, and he lost all his Asiatic pos-
sessions. 2 Kgs. 24 : 7. See Necho.
677
PHA
PHA
10. Pharaoh-hophra, the Apries of
secular historians, was the second suc-
cessor of Necho, and entered Palestine,
probably in B. c. 590, in order to relieve
Jerusalem, which was besieged by Nebu-
chadnezzar. Jer. 37 : 0-8; Eze. 17 : ll-Ki;
coiup. 2 Kgs. 25 : 1-4. The campaign
was of no avail. Jerusalem fell, and
Nebuchadnezzar made a successful in-
vasion into Egypt. Pharaoh-hophra
was afterward deposed by his own sub-
jects, and, though he was at first treated
kindly by his successor, Amosis, he was
finally strangled. In their prophecies
Jeremiah and Ezekiel give a very
striking picture of this king, his arro-
gance and conceit, which corresponds
closely with that given by Herodotus.
PHARAOH'S DAUGHTER.
Three Egyptian princesses are mentioned
in the Bible.
1. Moses' preserver. Ex. 2:10.
2. Bithiah, the wife of Mered, an
Israelite. 1 Chr. 4 : 18.
H. A wife of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 3 : 1.
PHA'RES. Matt. 1:3; Luke 3 : 33.
See Pharez.
PHA'REZ (a breach), a son of
Judah, and twin-brother of Zarah, Gen.
33 : 29 ; 46 : 12, the ancestor of a great
family called the Pharzites, Num. 26:
20 ; Ruth 4 : 12, 18 ; 1 Chr. 2:4; 4:1:
9:4; called Perez in Neh. 11 : 4, G, and
Phares in Matt. 1:3; Luke 3 : 33.
PHARISEES, THE (from a
Hebrew word meaning ncpardted), form-
ed one of the most conspicuous and
powerful sects or parties among the
Jews in the time of our Lord. The
name does not occur before the N. T.
period, and the origin of the sect is
somewhat obscure. It is probable, how-
ever, that the Pharisees were simply a
continuation or development of the As-
gideans (" the pious ") in the time of the
Maccabees. 1 Mace. 2 : 42 ; 7:13; 2
Mace. 14 : 6. Under the foreign rule,
and more especially under the Syrian
government, which left no means unem-
ployed— even resorting to violence — in
order to effect an amalgamation of the
ditlerent nationalities under its sway, it
was natural that there should rise among
the Jews a party which oj)posed this
influence and labored to preserve the
national integrity. The Pharisees were
this party, and much of their influence
with the people was no doubt due to
678
their political position. On the acces-
sion of Herod. (5000 Pharisees refused to
take the oath of allegiance, but were " put
down with a strong hand ;" and, again,
it was the Pharisees who originated and
organized that desperate resistance to
the Romans which finally led to the
dispersion of the whole nation. In a
constitution, however, like that of the
Hebrew theocracy, a political party must
always be a religious sect at the same
time, and with the Pharisees their
political position was a simple conse-
quence of their religious standpoint. As
they were national in politics, they were
orthodox in religion ; and in opposition
to the two other sects, the Sadducees and
the Essenes, they stood among the people
as the true expounders of the Law. In
the time of our Lord, however, their
orthodoxy had degenerated into mere
formalism.
The principal points of difference be-
tween the Pharisees and the Sadducees
were the doctrine of the immortality of
the soul and a future reward or punish-
ment; the doctrine of a divine Provi-
dence acting side by side with the free
will of man ; and the doctrine of an oral
tradition descending from Moses and
involving the same authority as the
written Law, — all of which doctrines the
Pharisees accepted, while the Sadducees
rejected them. It was, however, more
especially the last-mentioned doctrine
which gave the Pharisees their peculiar
character, and which caused our Lord to
denounce them so often and so severely.
Teaching that God had given to Moses,
on Mount Sinai, an oral explnnation
with respect to the proper application
of the written Law, and commanded him
to transmit this explanation by word of
mouth, the Pharisees ended by placing
the oral explanation above the written*
commandment, the tradition above the
Law. Entangled in the minute and
subtle application of the Law, they
missed its spirit; and though to the very
last there were found noble characters
among them, such as Nicodemus, Joseph
of Arimathea, Gamaliel, and others,
self-conceit, arrogance, and hypocrisy
became the general characteristics of the
sect. They were exceedingly particular
in refraining from anything which had
not been duly tithed, but they forgot to
pay that tithe which is most necessary
PHA
PHI
of all, and which consists in meekness
and mercy. Matt. 23 : 23; Luke 18 : 12.
They were exceedingly particular in
avoiding anything which the Law de-
clared unclean, but they forgot to acquire
that cleanness which is the most import-
ant of all, and which consists in the
purity of the heart. Matr. 15 : 11. And
while they themselves degenerated into
empty formalists, they troubled the con-
science of the people by the absurd im-
portance they ascribed to the most futile
questions, such as what material the
wick of the Sabbath-lamp was to be
made of, whether or not it was permitted
to eat an egg laid on a Sabbath-day,
etc. Hence we understand how the}'
could at the same time be the true
bearers of Judaism in politics and in
religion, and yet be punished by our
Lord bv the severest denunciations.
PHA'ROSH. Ezr. 8 : 8. See Parosh.
PHAR'PAR (swi/t), a river of
Damascus named by Xaaman. 2 Kgs. 5 :
]2. It is about 8 miles from Damascus,
and is the modern Au-aj, while the
Abana is the modern Barada. The
Pharpar, or Aicaj, rises high up on the
eastern side of Hermon, near the moun-
tain-village of Beit Jann. There are
several other small streams, which unite
near Sasa, and the river flows eastward
in a serpentine course through a deep
glen and thickets of poplars and willows,
and through green meadows rendered
fertile by its waters. It empties into a
lake or marsh called Bahret Ilijtnith,
about 4 miles south of the lake into which
the Barada falls, and about 16 miles
south of Damascus. In spring and
summer these so-called ''meadow-lakes"
are of considerable size, but in autumn
and winter they are mere morasses.
The AirnJ flows across the plain of
Damascus, but its waters are diminished
by canals constructed to irrigate the
fields and gardens almost up to the walls
of the city. Its length is from 30 to 40
miles, and it is a much smaller stream
than the Barada, for it is described as a
little and lively stream, often dry in the
lower part of its course, while the Barada
is perennial and is a copious stream in
the hottest season. The traveller from
Banias to Damascus now crosses a deep
ravine east of Hermon, through which
runs the Nahr Barhar, a name in which
the ancient Pharpar survives, according
to Baedeker, but it no longer falls into
the ef-Awaj.
PHAR'ZITES, a family descend-
ing from Pharez, and belonging to the
tribe of Judah. Num. 26 : 20.
PHASE'AH. See Paseah.
PHASE'LIS, a town on the border
of Lycia and Pamphylia, where the
Jews settled. It was at one time a place
of considerable importance, but later
became a resort of pirates. It is now
called T(krova. It is mentioned only in
the Apocryphal book of Maccabees.
1 Mace. 15:23.
PHE'BE {shUiiufj). See Phcebe.
PHEN'ICE, OR PHEINI'CE. 1.
Another and more accurate form for Phoe-
nicia. Acts 11 : 19; 15:3. See Phocnicia.
2. A town and harbor, more properly
Phoenix (from the Greek word for the
palm tree, which was indigenous to
Crete). The town was on the south-west
coast of the island of Crete. It had a
safe winter harbor, into which the cap-
tain of the ship upon which Paul was a
prisoner attempted to ?ail after leaving
Fair Havens. He was caught in the
storm, however, and his ship was wrecked
on the island of Melita. Acts 27 : 8. 12.
Phoenix or Phenice has been identified
with the harbor of Liitro, about 35 miles
west-north-west from Cape Matala. It
has lately been shown that this place
has an admirable harbor with a good
depth of water, and sheltered from the
winter winds.
PHI-BE'SETH. See Pr-BEsmT.
PHI'CHOLi (according to some,
strong; according to others, woiuh of
all), chief of the army of Abiiiielech,
king of the Philistines of Gerar in the
times of Abi-ahani, Gen. 21 : 22, and of
Isaac. Gen. 26 : 26.
P H I L A D E L'P H I A (hrotherh,
love), a city on the borders of Lj'dia and
Phrygia, about 25 miles south-east of
Sardis. It was built l)y Attalus Phila-
delphus, king of Pergamos, Avho died
B. c. 138. It then came into the hands
of the Romans; was destroyed by an
earthquake a. d. 17 ; was restored, and
continued a place of importance to the
Byzantine age : was taken by the Turks
in A. D. 1392. Philadelphia is mentioned
in the N. T. as the seat of one of the
seven churches. Rev. 1 : 11; 3 : 7-13.
The church at this place was highly
commended, and it is noticeable that the
679
PHI
PHI
city has survived all the vicissitudes of
earthquakes and wars until the present
day. Its bishops were at the councils
of Nicsea, Laodicaea, and Constantinople ;
and when Tamerlane destroyed the seats
of the other Christian churches and mas-
sacred the Christians, Philadel{)hia
escaped, and was an asylum for some
of the Christians of Sardis. Even the
sceptical Gibbon speaks of its preserva-
tion as remarkable. A solitary pillar is
still one of the most conspicuous features
of the town, and the modern name is
Allah Shell)-, or "city of God," seeming
to illustrate the promise in Rev. 3 : 12.
The modern city, situated upon four or
five flat summits at the foot of Mount
Tmolus, contains about 3000 houses and
10,000 inhabitants, mostly Turks. The
dwellings are mean and badly built, and
the streets filthy. The ruins include a
wall and about 25 churches. In one
place there are four large marble pillars
which may have once supported the dome
of a church. Tradition points out an old
mosque in which the primitive Chris-
tians addressed in the Apocalypse are
said to have worshipped. Earthquakes
have'frequently overthrown the city and
rendered even its walls unsafe.
PHIIiE'MON, a native of Laodicaea
and a resident of Colosste, was a man
of means and influence, the head of a
large household and of a Christian con-
gregation in his own house. He had been
converted to Christianity through Paul,
probably during the apostle's stay at
Ephesus, A. D. 54-57, and appears, from
the letter addressed to him by Paul, to
have been a large-hearted and sympa-
thetic character.
Thp: Epistlp: of Paul to Philemon
was written at the same period as those
to the Ephesians and Colossians^that
is, toward the close of the a])ostle's first
captivity in Rome, a. n. 02 or 63. Ones-
imus, a slave of Philemon's, had com-
mitted some crime — theft, it would seem
— and fled from the house from fear of
punishment. Arrived at Rome, he met
with Paul, and was converted to Chris-
tianity : and when he was ready to
return penitently to his former master,
the apostle furnished him with a letter
bespeaking for him a good reception as
a brother and freeman in Christ.
About the genuineness of the letter
there can be no doubt, and, though short
680
and occasioned by a private aff'air, it is a
" gem of Christian tenderness," and an
invaluable testimony to the character of
the apostle as a perfect Christian gentle-
man.
PHIJLE'TUS (amiahle), one whom
Paul associates with Hymeneus as an
errorist. 2 Tim. 2 : 17. " They appear
to have been persons who believed the
Scriptures of the 0. T., but misinter-
preted them, allegorizing away the doc-
trine of the resurrection, resolving it all
into figure and metaphor. The deliver-
ing over unto Satan seems to have been
a form of excommunication declaring the
person reduced to the state of a heathen,
and in the apostolic age it was accom-
panied with supernatural or miraculous
effects upon the bodies of the persons so
delivered." — Waterland: Importance of
JJoctrine of Holy Trinity.
PHIL'IP {lover of horses). 1. The
apostle, a native of Bethsaida, and
known to the Lord before called to follow
him. He is always mentioned as the fifth
among the twelve. Matt. 10 : 3 ; Mark 3 :
18; Luke6:U,: John 1 : 43-46 ; Acts 1 :
13, but the Gospels contain only a few no-
tices of him. According to tradition, he
preached in Phrygia and died at Hier-
apolis.
2. The evangelist, one of the seven
persons appointed to the office of deacon
in the primitive church in .Jerusalem,
Acts 6 : 3-5, and who preached the gospel
with great success in Samaria. Acts 8 :
6-8. While there he received a divine
intimation to go southward from Samaria
to the road leading from Jerusalem to
Gaza. In the course of his journey he
found a distinguished Ethiopian trav-
eller on his way home from Jerusalem
— probably either a Jew or a proselyte
to the Jewish religion — who had been
to the city to celebrate some feast. He
was an oflUcer of high rank in the court
of Candace, queen of Ethiopia, and as
he was sitting in his chariot in the
leisurely pursuit of his journey he read
aloud a portion of the Jewish Scriptures.
At this time Philip saw him, and was
divinely admonished to approach him.
Without hesitation he obeyed the sugges-
tion, and ran to overtake the chariot.
He overheard the traveller reading Isa.
53 : 7, 8, and immediately inquired of him
if he understood the force and scope of
the passage. The traveller meekly ac-
PHI
PHI
knowledged his need of instruction, and
invited Philip to take a seat with him in
the chariot. The latter then explained
the great subject of redemption, to which
the passage so naturally led: and the
result was that the traveller became a
convert to the faith of the gospel and
was baptized. Philip was next found a^;
Azotus, about 40 miles from Gaza, and
afterward settled, it is supposed, in
Caesarea. Acts 21 : 8. He had four
daughters, who were endued with gifts
of prophecy. Acts 21 : 9.
3. The tetrarch. Luke 3 : 1. See
Herod.
4. The husband of Herodias. Matt.
14 : 3. See Hkrod.
6. The foster-brother of Antiochus
Epiphanes, who appointed him regent
of Syria and guardian of his son, An-
tiochus V. 1 Mace. 6:14, 15, 55. He
is probably identical with that Philip
who was made governor of Jerusalem
in B.C. 170. 2 Mace. 5 : 22 ; 6:11.
6. King of Macedonia, B. c. 359-336,
father of Alexander the Great. 1 Mace.
1:1; 5:1.
7. Another king of Macedonia, b. c.
220-179, defeated by the Romans. 1
Mace. 8 : 5.
PHILIP'PI (see Philip), the chief
city of the eastern division of Macedo-
nia, situated near the borders of Thrace
and 8 miles north-west of Neapolis,
which was its seaport. It lay between
two mountain-ranges, and a paved Ro-
man road led over the steep range Sym-
bolum from Neapolis to Philippi, over
which Paul went.
Hifitnry. — The place was at first called
Crenides, or " fountains," from its numer-
ous springs. It also at one time bore the
name of Datum. Philip, the father of
Alexander the Great, took it from the
Thracians, garrisoned it as a frontier-
town, and gave it his name. It is made
famous by the noted battle of Philippi,
fought, A.D. 42, between Oetavius and
Antony on the one side, and Brutus and
Cassius on the other. In honor of this
victory Augustus made Philippi a "col-
ony." These colonies were miniature
Romes established on foreign soil. The
Roman law was administered, and the
Roman language was used even among
natives who spoke Greek.
Scripture Re/ere)>ce». — Philippi was
the first place in Europe to receive the
gospel. Paul and Silas preached there;
Lydia became a convert : the apostles
cast out the '' spirit of divination " from
a damsel ; were thrown into prison and
miraculously delivered ; the jailer was
converted. Acts 16. Afterward, Paul
revisited Philippi, and perhaps remain-
ed for a considerable time. Acts 20 :
1-6. The Christians of that city on
four occasions sent contributions for
his support, and he wrote to them the
Epistle to the Philippians. Ignatius
! visited the city, a. p. 107, on his way
to Rome, where he suffered martyrdom,
and Polycarp sent the church at Phil-
ippi all the letters of Ignatius which
Sardis had received, thus keeping up
their sympathy with the suffering Chris-
tians.
Present Appearance. — The ruins of the
citadel are still seen on the summit of a
rounded hill. The circuit of the walls
which enclosed the hill and a part of the
plain can be traced. Next to the theatre
is a temple of Silvanus, and various tab-
lets show the list of donors, the members
of the sacred college, etc. Four massive
pillars mark the site of the forum, where
the apostles were publicly scourged".
About 10 furlongs to the west of Phil-
ippi is a small river called the Gangas or
Gangites, now the Boiimabachi, which is
probably the place where the Jews had
their place of prayer.
PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE
TO. is the eleventh in the order of the
books of the N. T., and was addressed
by Paul to the Christians at Philippi,
with whom he appears to have enter-
tained particularly friendly relations.
They had kindly ministered to his ne-
cessities by sending Epaphroditus to
him with a present of money ; and when
Epaphroditus returned to Philippi, Paul
acknowledged the kindness shown to
him in grateful and affecting terms, and
took occasion to warn the church in
Philippi against certain Judaizing teach-
ers. The second chapter contains one of
the most important passages on the doc-
trine of the person of Christ and his
states of humiliation and exaltation.
The Epistle was probably written about
62, when Paul was a prisoner at Rome.
About its genuineness there can be no
j reasonable doubt.
The following is the analysis of the
Epistle given by Dr. Braune in Lange's
681
PHI
PHI
Commentarif : I. Address and salutution. !
1 : 1, 2. II. Situation and labors of the
apostle at Rome. 1 : 3-26. III. The
Lord's example and pattern for the
observance of the church. 1 : 27-2 : 18.
1 v. Paul's assistants and colaborers.
2 : 19-30. V. Warning against Juda-
istic false teachers and wicked deceiv-
ers, in contrast with the apostle. 3 :
1-4 : 1. VI. Final exhortation to co-
operation between himself and the
Philippian church. 4:2-20. VII. Sal-
utation and benediction. 4 : 21-23.
PHILIS'TIA {f'nid of sojourners),
in Ps. 60 : 8 ; 87 : 4 ; 108 : 9, the only
places where the word "Philistia" oc-
curs, is the same Hebrew word elsewhere
translated " Palestine." " Palestine "
originally meant only the district in-
habited by the "■ Philistines." In Ps.
83 : 7 the word is rendered " Philistines."
Josephus calls these people " Palestines."
Situation (tnd Extent. — Philistia, or the
" land of the Philistines," included the
coast-plain on the south-west of Pales-
tine, from Joppa on the north to the
valley of Gerar on the south, a distance
of about 40 miles, and from the Medi-
terranean on the west to the Judaean hills.
Its breadth at the northern end was 10
miles, and at the southern about 20. It
appears to have extended as far inland
as Beersheba. Gen. 21 : 33, 34; 28 : 1,
14-18; Ex. 23 : 31; Josh. 13 : 2, 3.
Warren limited it, somewhat more close-
ly, to the plain reaching 32 miles from
Ekron to Gaza, with a breadth of from
9 to 1(5 miles. It is bounded on the
north by the plain of Sharon, east by the
hill-country, south by "the south coun-
try," and west by the Mediterranean.
Physical Features. — Along the whole
sea-board are white sandy diines. Behind
these is the broad undulating plain,
from 50 to 300 feet above the sea-level,
with a deep rich soil. To the east of
this plain is found a series of low spurs
and undulating ground culminating in
hogs' backs, running nearly north and
south, and rising in places 1200 feet
above the ocean ; to the east of these is
a steep descent of about 500 feet to the
valleys, and east of these the hill-country
of Judah begins. From the deep and
narrow ravines of the hill-country rapid
torrents roll during the rainy season.
On coming into the plain the water forms
marshes and pools and quietly sinks
682
away, most of the water reaching the
ocean underground. The sand from the
shore is constantly encroaching upon the
fertile land. This whole great maritime
plain was called in the Hebrew the She-
phelah, signifying properly "low coun-
try," and sometimes so rendered in the
English version, 2 Chr. 26:10; 28:18,
as likewise the " low plains," 1 Chr. 27 :
28 : 2 Chr. 9:27; the " plain," Jer. 17 :
26; the "valley." Josh. 11 : 16; Jud.
1: 9.
History. — The origin of the Philistines
has been a matter of much discussion.
That the Hebrews regarded the Philis-
tines as a branch of the Caphtorim is
clearly stated in Jer. 47 : 4 : Am. 9:7;
Deut. 2 : 23. In the last text, " the Caph-
torims which came forth out of Caphtor"
are said to have destroyed " the Avim
which dwelt in Hazerim " — i. e., in the
villages — ''even unto Azzah" (Gaza).
These could certainly have been no other
than the Philistines. The Hebrew words
in Gen. 10 : 14 which are translated
''out of whom" — i.e., the Casluhim —
" came Philistim " appear to mean, not
that the Philistines were descended from
the Casluhim, but that the\' came out of
or passed through their country. The
purport of the two passages seems there-
fore to be that the Philistines (or Caph-
torim) who took possession of the Holy
Land entered it on the south-west by
way of the land of the Casluhim (Egypt),
having, as is probable, come thither
from Crete. But although the balance
of authority places the Caphtorim in
Crete, the evidence is by no means con-
clusive. The Vulgate in several places
identifies them with the Cappadocians,
and some modern critics identify' them
with the Cyprians. Baedeker (Hand-
book) says : *' Their original home, the
land of Caphtor or Kaftor [Kaft being
the same word as Gypt in Egypt), must
have been in the Delta of the Nile, and
not in Crete, as was once sup])Osed. '
It would seem that the Philistines who
were settled in the land in the time of
Abraham, whose capital was Gerar and
whose king wjis called Abimelech, Gen.
21 : 34; 26 : 14, did not possess Gaza
or either of the five Philistine cities that
became powerful in later times. In Gen.
10 : 19, (iaza is named as the frontier-
town of the Canaanites in the direction
of (ierar, and from Deut. 2 : 23 it ap-
PHI
PHI
pears that the Aviins held it till they
were driven out by the Caphtorim. This'
seems to indicate a second immigration
of Philistines, probably direct from
Crete or Cyrus, that may have taken
place but little before the time of Moses.
Abraham found them in possession of
the •' south country," but they seem then
to have treated with him as an equal in
power. He made a treaty with their chief,
Abimelech, at Beersheba, and this treaty
was renewed in the days of Isaac. Gen.
21 : 32, 38 : 26 : 12-23.
But at the Exodus the Philistines seem
to have been such a mighty and warlike
people that it was thought best for the
Israelites to avoid their land, lest " the
people repent when they see war, and
they return to Egypt." Ex. 13 : 17.
Thenceforward, during the whole pe-
riod of 0. T. history, the Israelites and
the Philistines were frequently brought
in contact. The Philistines are men-
tioned three hundred and ten times in
the 0. T. from Genesis to Zechariah, but
the limits of this article will allow of
only the briefest outline of the leading
events.
PLiilistine. (iVovi an Egyptian Painting.)
The land of the Philistines was within
the limits of the land promised to Israel,
Num. 34 : 5, 6; Eze. 13 : 17; 23 : 31,
and it was assigned to Judah and Dan,
Josh. 15 : 45-47 : 19 : 41-45, but no at-
tempt to conquer it was made under
Joshua's leadership. They had a league
of their five chief towns, Gaza, Ashdod,
Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron, under the
direction of the five lords or kings.
After Joshua's death Gaza, Ashkelon,
and Ekron were taken. Jud. 1:18, but
not permanently held, by Israel. The
Philistines gained the ascendency and
long held it, although occasionally
shaken off' for a brief period, as by
Shamgar, Jud. 3 : 31; 10 : 7 ; and
Samson. Jud. 13 to 16. Even Samson,
who broke up the subjection of forty
years, did not succeed in permanently
delivering his people from the Philistine
yoke. Under Eli the Israelites again
resisted, but were defeated at Aphek,
30,0011 slain, and the ark captured.
1 Sam. 4 : 1-11. Under Samuel's leader-
ship success crowned the arms of Israel.
1 Sam. 7 : 11-14. When Saul became
king he continued the contest against
the ancient foe, and Jonathan and his
armor-bearer began the fight which ter-
minated in the slaughter of the Philis-
tines at Michmash. 1 Sam. 13 and 14.
David killed Goliath later, and the
Philistines were pursued to the gates of
Gath and Ekron with great slaughter
(30,000 killed and 60,000 wounded, ac-
cording to Josephus). 1 Sam. 17.
David, after inflicting many defeats
upon the Philistines, sought refuge
among them from the malignitv of Saul.
1 Sam. 19 : 8: 23 : 1-5; 27 : 1-7 ; 29;
Ps. 56, title. Saul and his sons were
slain at Gilboa by the Philistines. 1 Sam.
31; 1 Chr. 10 : 1. When David became
king the Philistines attacked him. He
defeated them at Baal-perazim and
Rephaim. During Solomon's reign the
Philistines were subjects, 1 Kgs. 2 : 39,
40; 4 : 21, 24, and he fortified Gezer
and some other border-towns. After
the division of Israel the Philistines en-
gaged in hostilities at various times
with both kingdoms. 1 Kgs. 16 : 15;
2 Chr. 21 : 16, 17. Jehoshaphat, Uzziah,
and Hezekiah defeated them. 2 Chr. 17 :
11; 26 : 6: 2 Kgs. 18 : 8. As Philistia
was on the great route between Egypt
and Assyria, it was often involved in the
great wars between those powers. Ash-
dod was taken by Sargon, king of Assyria,
after a siege of three years, Isa, 20 : 1,
and to Sennacherib most of the towns
683
PHI
PHI
became subject. Isa. 36. Pharaoh took
Gaza. Jer. 47 : 1.
Before the Jewish Captivit)' the king-
dom of the Philistines had disa])peared,
and a few of their towns only retained
some importance. Upon the return from
captivity some of the Jews married
Philistine women, "wives of Ashdod."
Neh. 13 : 23. After the time of Alex-
ander the power of the Philistines was
entirely gone. Later the country shared
in the reverses and desolations of the
Syrian and Egyptian, Maccabaean, and
Jewish and Roman wars.
Customs, lielujinn, etc. — According to
all accounts, the Philistines far surpassed
the Hebrews in culture, and in war-
chariots and cavalry they were superior
to the Israelites. 1 Sam. 13 : 5.
The heavy-armed soldiers wore a round
copper helmet, a coat-of-mail, brazen
greaves. Their weapons were a javelin
and long lance, and each had an attend-
ant to bear his shield and weapons, like
the Greeks in the Homeric poems. The
light-armed soldiers were archers. The
Philistines had fortified encampments,
surrounded their towns with lofty walls,
and kept the territories they had con-
quered in subjection by means of garri-
sons. They were a commercial as well
as a warlike people, and not only
competed with the Phoenicians by sea,
but endeavored to keep in their own
hands the inland and caravan traffic.
Their chief god was Dagon, Jud. 16 : 23 ;
1 Sam. 5 : 1-5, who, as well as the god-
dess Derketo, had the form of a fish.
Baalzebub, 2 Kgs. 1 : 2, 3, 6, 16, the
fly-god of Ekron, was famed for his
oracles. On their various campaigns
they took their idols with them. 2 Sam.
6 : 21 ; 1 Chr. 14 : 12. Their seers or
prophets seem to have formed a distinct
profession.
Prenent Cvndition. — It is .a remarkable
fact that the principal towns of IMiilistia,
Gaza, Ashkelon, Joppa, Ashdod, Laehish,
and Gath, have never once disappeared
from history, but exist at the present
day under the names of Gnzzeh, Ah/cuIhii,
Yafa, Exdwd, Umm Ldkin, and lieit
Jihrin — that is, Beth - gcborim, "the
house of the giants." iMany other of
the modern names also preserve the
memory of the old Philistine history
and worship. Low mounds at intervals
show the sites of former cities. Four
684
and a half miles from Gaza a colossal
marble statue has recently been discov-
ered (1879). The total height of the
figure is 15 feet. The hair hangs in
long ringlets down upon the shoulders,
and the beard is long, indicating a man
of venerable age. The right arm is bro-
ken in half, while the left arm is crossed
over the breast to the right shoulder,
the hand being hidden by the drapery
of a cloth covering the shoulders. There
is no inscription on the figure or the
pedestal, which is a huge block carved
in one piece with the figure. The statue
was found in a recumbent position, bur-
ied in the sand, on the top of a hill near
the sea. It had evidently been removed
from its original site, which is unknown.
Its estimated weight is 12,000 pounds.
Lieut. Conder thinks it is the statue of
Marnas (the Cretan Jupiter), the god
of Gaza, which once stood in the princi-
pal temple of Gaza, bat which had been
buried, perhaps at the time of the de-
struction of the temple, b}' Porphyrins,
A. D. 406. See Palestine Exploration
Fund's Qaarter/i/ Statement for January,
1880.
The inhabitants are a race distinct
from the rest of the inhabitants of
Palestine, and it has been suggested
that the feUahin, or peasantry, are of
Canaanite origin, though no doubt a
mixed race as now constituted.
For the present condition of the land
of the Philistines, see Ashdop. Ashkelon,
Ekron, Gath, Gaza, Gkfiau, Gibbethon,
Jabnrkl. Metheg-amma. Palestine.
PHILIS'TIM, PHILISTINE.
See above.
PHILOL'OGUS(?em-Hef7), a Chris-
tian in Rome to whom Paul sends a
salutation. Rom. 16 : 15.
PHILOS'OPHY. During his visit
to Athens, Paul was encountered by cer-
tain philosophers of the Epicureans and
of the Stoics, Acts 17 : 18, the two
great moral schools of Greek philosophy.
This is the only instance related in the
N. T. of an encounter between Chris-
tianity and Western speculation. But
Eastern speculation, in many ways and
under many forms, tried from the earliest
times to penetrate into the mysteries
of Christianity, and in the philosophy
against which Paul warned the Coios-
sians. Col. 2 : % et neq., we recognize n()t
only an outgrowth of Eastern specula-
PHI
PHCE
tion, but the prototype of that phantastic
mysticism which afterward played so
conspicuous a part in the history of the
Eastern Church under the name of Gnos-
ticism. Comp. 1 Tim, 6 : 20.
PHIN'EHAS {Ijrazeu mouth). 1. A
son of Eleazar, and grandson of Aaron,
Ex. 6 : 25: 1 Chr. 6:4, 50 filled the
office of high priest of the Jews for
nearly twenty years. His zeal and
promptitude in punishing the sin of
Zirari turned away the anger of the
Lord against the nation, and was re-
warded by the promise to his family of
perpetual succession in the Jewish priest-
hood. Num. 25 : 6-15. This promise
was fulfilled ; for except the interval
from Eli to Zadok, the priesthood con-
tinued in the family of Phinehns until
the destruction of the temple and the
captivity of the nation.
2. A son of Eli, and noted for his
wickedness. 1 Sam. 1:3; 2 : 34; 4:4,
11, 17, 19; 14: 3.
3. A Levite in the time of Ezra. Ezr.
8 : 33.
PHLE'GOX {flnme), a Christian
in Rome to whom Paul sent salutation.
Rom. 16 : 14.
PHCE'BE, a distinguished member
of the church at Cenchra?a, a city of
Corinth. Rom. 16 : 1. She is called a
"servant of the church" (see Deacox-
ESS) ; and the strong commendation of
the apostle shows her to have been
prominent in works of faith and labors
of love.
PHCENICE. See Phentce.
PHCENI'CIA, a country north of
Palestine, so named by the Greeks, e'ther
from the abundance of palm trees or from
Phoenix, the brother of Cadmus. It con-
sists of a narrow strip of country between
the Lebanon mountains and the Medi-
terranean Sea, and extended from the
"Ladder of Tyre" to the Nnhr Auly, 2
miles north of Sidon. It was about 30
miles long. It included the plain near
Sidon and back of Tyre, which was from
1 to 5 miles wide. Along the shore it
was sandy, but behind this sand-belt
was fertile land, and upon the slopes of
the mountain good pasture and excellent
timber. Promontories jut out into the sea,
making good harbors and sites for towns,
as at Tyre, Sidon. and Beirut. The coun-
try is well watered, its principal rivers
being the Leontes, Bostremus, Lycus, or
" dog river," Adonis, and Eleutherus. Its
principal towns are Arvad, Tripoli, Bei-
rut, Sidon, and Tyre.
Phoenicia was included in the Land of
Promise, but it was not occupied bv the
Israelites. Josh. 13 : 4-6 : Jud. 1 : 31, 32.
David and Solomon traded with its king,
receiving timber from its territory, and
employing its sailors, laborers, and skilled
workmen. 2 Sam. 5:11:1 Kgs. 5 : 9, 17, 18.
Ahab married a princess of this country,
and there Elijah found a refuge. 1 Kgs.
16 : 31 : 17 : 9 : Luke 4 : 26. Jesus also
visited this country — the only time he
passed the borders of Palestine. Matt.
15 : 21 ; Mark 7 : 26. Paul visited Tyre.
Sidon, and Ptolemais. Acts 21 : 2, 3, 7 ;
27 : 3.
The name " Phoenicia " does not occur
in the 0. T. : in the X. T. it appears
once as '* Phoenicia " and twice as
'' Phenice." Acts 21 : 2 : 11 : 1 9 ; 15 : 3.
There are numerous prophecies in the
0. T., however, concerning the overthrow
of cities in this country, which have been
signally fulfilled. See Tyre and Sidox.
Present Coudition. — Phoenicia is now
a land of ruins, the whole shore from the
: " Ladder of Tyre " northward, according
to Porter, being strewn with them.
'' Heaps of hewn stones and quantities
of marble tessera? lay in my path, while
broken shafts and mounds of rubbish
were seen to the right and left, here
crowning a clifiF, there washed by the
waves. One thing I specially noticed :
from the time I left Achzib till I reached
: the fountains [of Tyre] I did not see a
1 human being: a mournful and solitary
silence reigns along Phoenicia's coast."
— Ghtut CiticH, p. 277. Stanley writes
in a similar strain : " There is one point
of view in which this whole coast is
specially remarkable. 'A mournful and
solitary silence now prevails along the
shore which once resounded with the
world's debate.' This sentence, with
which (libbon solemnly closes his chapter
on the Crusades, well sums up the general
impression still left by the six days' ride
fr(mi Beirut to Ascalon ; and it is no
matter of surprise that in this impression
travellers have felt a response to the
strains in which Isaiah and Ezekiel
foretold the desolation of Tyre and Sidon.
In one sense, and that the highest, this
feeling is just. The Phoenician power
which the prophets denounced has en-
685
PHCE
PHR
tirely perished." — Sinai and Palestine,
p. 266.
PHCENIC'IANS. At the very
dawn of history the Phoenicians appear
to occupy one of the most prominent
places among the nations of the earth.
They were closely related to, if not
identical with, the Canaanites, Gen. 10 :
15, and of the whole group of Semitic
languages their language was nearest
allied to the Hebrew ; indeed, the few
remnants of the Phoenician tongue —
names of persons and places, inscriptions
on coins and monuments, etc. — which
are still extant can be interpreted only
by means of Hebrew. The nation, though
cultured in literature and art, was de-
based by its religion. The worship of
Baal was made corrupt and revolting
in the extreme. While the burning of
children to this god may have originated
in the idea that sin required some blood-
expiation, the form of the sacrifice was
so cruel, and many features of the wor-
ship were so shameless, that they tended
to destroy all virtue in the people, and
the nation died of immoral rottenness.
Passion and licentiousness were deified
in connection with the worship of Astarte,
the Phoenician Venus. 2 Kgs. 23 : 7 ; Deut.
23:17, 18; 1 Kgs. 14:24; 15:12; 22:
46 ; Hos. 4 : 14. Their religion was a kind
of Nature-worship, centering in the idea
of generation, and most of their gods,
such as Baal, Ashtaroth, etc., seem to have
had a double signification — one allegor-
ical and lofty, and another literal and
sensuous. Their occupation was com-
merce. They maintained commercial
stations on the shores of the Red Sea
and all along the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean. They worked the silver-mines
of Spain and the lead-mines of Cornwall,
and their sailors brought amber from
the Baltic and tin from Britain. Through
their commerce they became the bearers
of civilization, and from them both the
Greeks and the Romans learnt the use
of letters and of coins, of the compass
and of astronomy in navigation, of glass,
purple, etc.
Between the Jews and the Phoenicians
friendly relations seem to have been
established very early. Palestine was
the granary of the Phoenician cities, and,
indeed, all its surplus products — wheat,
honey, oil, balm, etc. — were exported
from Tyre and Sidon, Eze. 27 : 17, as the
6S6
Jews had no ports themselves. Under
King David these friendly relations
grew into an alliance, and the conquest
of Edom and the establishment by the
Jews of a harbor at Ezion-geber, on the
Red Sea, did not cause any disturbance.
Phoenician mechanics worked at the
erection of the temple in Jerusalem be-
side Jewish, and Phoenician vessels sailed
together with Jewish from the port of
Ezion-geber for Ophir and other places.
1 Kgs. 10 : 1], 22 ; 9 : 26-28 ; 1 Chr. 14 :
1 ; 2 Chr. 8:18; 9 : 10. After the seces-
sion of the ten tribes the Phoenicians
sided with the kingdom of Israel and
broke the old covenant with Judah, Joel
3:4-8; Am. 1:9, 10; Isa. 23 ; Eze. 28 ;
they even went so far as to sell the Jews
to the Edomites as slaves. The influ-
ence, however, of the Phoenician idolatrj'
on the Israelites was very baneful, though
it would seem that the Phoenicians them-
selves were not so very anxious to make
proselytes ; at least, they did not inter-
fere when Elijah slew four hundred and
fifty prophets of Baal at the brook of
Kishon. 1 Kgs. 18 : 40.
PHRYG'IA (dn/, barren), a district
of Asia Minor, whose limits varied so
much at different times that no exact
boundaries can be given. Its settlement
was very early. Phrygian traditions
and those of the Egyptians make them
the most ancient race of men in the
world. Profane writers say that the
Phrygians migrated from Macedonia
long before the Trojan war. Phrygia is
mentioned in Homer's Iliad. It then
appears to have included a large part of
Central Asia Minor. Later it was divided
into Phrygia Major on the south, and
Phrygia Minor on the west. It was of
a very irregular and undefined shape ;
and when Galatia was a part of it,
Phrygia touched, so it was said, upon
every other province in Asia Minor.
The Romans divided it into three dis-
tricts. Part of it belonged to the prov-
ince of Asia and part to Cilicia, and
1 in N. T. times it was not a regularly-
I defined Roman province, but an ancient
country, apportioned to other provinces,
but mostly included in the ])rovinee of
Asia. Within its limits were the cities
of Laodica-a, Hierapolis, Colossa), and
Antioch of Pisidia.
Phrygia is mentioned three times in
the book of the Acts, People from there
PHU
PHY
were present at Pentecost, Acts 2 : 10,
and the apostle Paul twice traversed the
country. Acts 16 : 6 : 18 : 2:}. Some con-
verts were made, and we find Paul
"strengthening all the disciples." Acts
18 : 23. At the Council of Nice, a. d.
325, the Phrygian churches were repre-
sented b_v eight bishops, and still more
attended the Council of Constantinople, i
A. D. 381.
PHU'RAH {bomih), the armor-
bearer of Gideon, who accompanied
him into the camp of the Midianites.
Jud. 7 : 10, 11.
PHUT, Gen. 10 : 6, oh PUT, Nah.
8 : 9 (probably a bow), the name of the
third son of Ham and of the country
occupied by his descendants.
VUVT' {aj/iieteft, or n hnw f\ Gen.
10:6; more properly, PUT. 1 Chr.
1 : 8. Phut was a son of Ham, and pro-
genitor of an African people of the same
name, though sometimes the name is
rendered " Libya" or "Libyans." Jer.
46 : 9; Eze. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 5 : 38 : 5 ; Nah.
3 : 9. These people probably occu])ied
Libya, in North Africa, to the west of
Lydia, or Ludim, near the Mediterranean
coast. This is the land of the Moors in
modern times.
Mr. Poole would identify Phut with
Nubia, south of Egypt. The Egyptian
monuments mention a people called
"Pet," whose emblem was a bow un-
strung, and who dwelt between Egypt
and JEthiopia. Phut may be Pet, or
To-Pel, and therefore modern Xubia, as
To-mern-Pet of the monuments answered
to the island of Meroe.
PHU'VAH {mouth), a son of Issa-
char. Gen. 46 : 13: called Pua in Num.
26 : 23. and Puah in 1 Chr. 7:1.
PHYGEL'JLUS {fugitive), a Chris-
tian of Pronconsular Asia who "turned
away " from Paul. Nothing more is
known of him than his name and this
circumstance. 2 Tim. 1:15.
PHYLACTERIES ( preservation,
or safetjuard, with reference either to the
preserving of the words of the Law in
the memory or to the preservation of the
person from danger, as by the amulets
or charms of modern superstition). The
practice of using phylacteries was found-
ed on a literal interpretation of Ex. 13 :
9, 16; Deut. 6:8; 11 : 18, where God
commands the Hebrews to bear the Law
in their hearts and in their heads, and it
is still continued in our days. There are
two kinds of phylacteries ^ — -one to be
worn on the forehead, between the eye-
brows, and another to be worn on the
left arm. The former was called a
" frontlet," and was composed of four
pieces of parchment, on the first of which
was written Ex. 12 : 2-1 0 : on the second,
Ex. 13 : 11-21 ; on the third, Deut. 6 :
4-9; and on the fourth, Deut. 11: 18-21.
These pieces of parchment, thus inscrib-
ed, were inclosed in a piece of tough
skin, making a squai-e, on one side of
which was placed the Hebrew letter shiu,
V!, and this box was tied to the forehead
with a thong or riband. Some wore them
both evening and morning, and others
only at morning prayer.
The Phylactery.
The other kind of phylacteries con-
sisted of two rolls of parchment, written
in square letters, with an ink made on
purpose, and with much care. They
were rolled up to a point, enclosed in a
sort of case of black calfskin, and then
put upon a square bit of the same
leather, whence hung a thong of the
same, about a finger in breadth and
about two feet long. These rolls were
placed near the elbow of the left arm,
and after one end of the thong had been
made into a little knot in the form of
the Hebrew letter yod, % it was wound
about the arm in a spiral line, which
ended at the top of the middle finger.
PHYSI'CIAN. It was natural
that the Jews should have learned some-
thing about medicine in Egypt, where,
at the time of their stiiy in the country,
687
PIB
PIL
this art was cultivated with great zeal.
It also appears from several passages in
the books of Moses that at his time there
were not only midwives, but also sur-
geons and physicians, among the Jews.
Thus it was ordained, Ex. 21 : 19, that
he who hurt another should not only pay
for the loss of time, but also "cause him
to be thoroughly healed." At a later
period surgeons and physicians became
quite numerous. 2 Chr. 16 : 12 ; Jer. 8 :
22 ; Mark 5 : 26. A special physician
was appointed at the temple, and every
parish had its surgeon and physician.
The art, however, never reached any
high degree of perfection in Palestine,
because the people were prevented from
acquiring sufficient anatomical know-
ledge by their great aversion to contact
with dead bodies; and to the last we
find them employing amulets, charms,
invocations, etc., as remedies. Some
medical knowledge was demanded of
the priests, who exercised a kind of
sanitary superintendence ; also the
prophets gave medical advice. 2 Kgs.
4:18; 20 : 7. But generally medicine
was cultivated as a separate profession.
Luke was a physician. Col. 4 : 14.
PI-BE' SET H, OR PIB'-
ESETH, a city of Lower Egypt,
named from the goddess Bubastis. The
hieroglyphic name is " Pe-Bast," " the
house of Bast," the Egyptian Artemis,
the goddess of fire, the calf-headed
goddess, also shown with a lion's head.
The name appears in Scripture only as
one of the cities of Egypt which Ezekiel
foretold would be destroyed. Eze. 30 : 17.
From this it would seem to have been a
city of great importance. The name
appears occasionally in Eg3'])tian annals.
An earthquake is mentioned on Mane-
tho's list which took place there about
B. c. 2470. Herodotus speaks of the
temple of the goddess Bubastis, whom
he identifies with the Greek Artemis, as
the most beautiful he had ever seen. It
was built of the finest red granite, in the
midst of a sacred enclosure 600 feet
square.
Ruins still bearing the name of Fel
Besta mark the site of the ancient city,
which was situated on the eastern or
Pelusiac branch of the Delta, some 20
miles from the Nile and 40 miles north-
east of Memphis. Remains of the an-
cient houses of brick and of a fortress
688
are found. The temple is entirely ruined,
but the names of several of the sover-
eigns have been traced out, including
those of Rameses II. and Shishak. The
city was taken by the Persians, b. c. 352,
and the walls were overthrown. It con-
tinued to exist, however, as a consider-
able city under the Roman empire.
PICT'URE. See Paint.
PIECE OF GOLD— e.^., 2 Kgs.
5 : 5 — should be " shekels of gold," as
there was no coined money in Pales-
tine before the Persian period.
PIECE OF MONEY. See Money.
PIECE OF SILVER. In the
0. T. the word " pieces," in every pas-
sage but one, is inserted in the A. V.,
the phrase being '' a thousand," or the
like, " of silver," and may be iuterpreted
"shekels," as the shekel was the common
weight for money. See Money.
In the N. T. " piece of silver " is the
translation of " drachma," Luke 15 : 8,
and of a coin of uncertain value, prob-
ably shekel. Matt. 26 : 15.
PI'ETY occurs only once in our
version, 1 Tim. 5 : 4, where it denotes
the reverence which children owe their
parents.
PIG'EON. See Dove.
PIHAHI'ROTH [month, or en-
tntnce of caverns, or place of rexeyvoirs),
the last place where the Israelites en-
camped before crossing the Red Sea.
Ex. 14 : 2, 9; Num. 33 : 7, 8. Robinson
identifies it with Ajriid, 12 miles from
Suez, now a watering-place for caravans,
and is approved by Lepsius. 'In a curi-
ous papyrus deciphered by Chabas it is
said that Pehir (which seems to be the
same as Pihahiroth) was the place from
which King Rameses was supplied with
garlands of beautiful flowers. Stanley
says that there is now no appearance
of verdure there.
PI'LATE, John 19 : 1, or PON'-
TIUS PI'LATE, Matt. 26 : 2, was
appointed procurator of Judiea, a. d.
29. The proper residence of the pro-
curator was Caesarea, but it was custom-
ary for him to go to Jerusalem at the
great festivals for the purpose of secur-
ing order and safety in the city, and thus
it happened that Pilate was present in
Jerusalem during the Passover when our
Lord suftercd death. The chief duty of
the procurator respected the revenues,
but in a minor territory, such as Ju-
PIL
PIN
daea, which was dependent on a larger
contiguous province (Syria), the procu-
rator was the head of the whole ad-
ministration, and held the highest mili-
tary and judicial authority: and thus
Pilate became the judge of our Lord.
The administration of Pilate was ex-
tremely ott'ensive to the Jews, and more
than once he drove them to the very
verge of insurrection. He seems to have
nourished a special contempt for them
and taken pleasure in showing it, but
when, by cruelty and perfidy, he had
brought them into a rage, he generally
became frightened and yielded. Having
transferred the military headquarters
from Caesarea to Jerusalem, he sent the
standards with the images of the em-
peror into the city. As soon as this
became known the Jews rushed in great
multitudes down to Caesarea, and de-
manded to have the standards removed,
because, as idols, they defiled the Holy
City. Pilate permitted the multitude to
be surrounded by soldiers, and told them
to disperse quietly or else they would be
massacred. But when the Jews declared
that they would die rather than tolerate
the images of the emperor within the
walls of Jerusalem, Pilate was frightened
and yielded.
The principal feature in the character
of Pilate was weakness, and it became
piteously apparent during the trial of
our Lord. When Jesus was arraigned
before him he was not only anxious to
avoid trying him, but he once and again,
in the most solemn and impressive man-
ner, even in presence of his malicious
and bloodthirsty persecutors, declared
his conviction of his perfect innocence.
He even remonstrated with them on the
iniquity and unreasonableness of their
conduct, and would fain throw upon
them the whole responsibility of the
deed they were about to perpetrate.
Xevertheless, as soon as he saw that
the acquittal of Jesus might be so con-
strued as to arouse the suspicion of the
emperor, he renounced his own conviction
and delivered up the innocent Saviour
to the hands of the enraged multitude
to be crucified.
In 36 the governor of Syria raised some
severe accusations against Pilate, who
went to Rome to defend himself before
the emperor. He did not succeed, how-
ever, and was banished to Vienne, in
4i
Gaul, and there, or, according to another
tradition, on the mountain near Lake
Lucerne which bears his name, he
committed suicide shortly after. The
Fathers speak often about an official
report of the trial and condemnation
of our Lord sent by Pilate to Tiberius,
but the Acta PUuti now extant are
spurious.
PIL'DASH {Jlavie of fire), a son
of Nahor, Abraham's brother. Gen.
22 : 22.
PIL'EHA, one of the chiefs who
signed the covenant with Nehemiah.
Neh. 10 : 24.
PIL'LAR. This word is often used
metaphorically in the Bible, thus a pil-
lar of fire, cloud, smoke, etc., denoting a
fire, a cloud, or a mass of smoke in the
form of a pillar. Ex. 13 : 21 ; Jud. 20 :
40. Besides, in architecture, where it
was employed both as support and orna-
ment, it was common to erect a pillar as
a monument of some distinguished per-
son or event. Gen. 28:18; 35: 20;
Josh. 24 : 26.
" The plain of the pillar," Jud. 9 : 6,
properly the " oak of the pillar," a tree
near Shechem under which Abimelech
was crowned.
PIL'LAR OF SALT. See Salt.
PILL'ED. Gen. 30 : 37. The same
with "peeled."
PIL'LOW, a cushion for the head.
Mark 4 : 38. Jacob used a stone for his
pillow. Gen. 28: 11. 18; in Eze. 13 : 18,
20 pillows are spoken of as an appli-
ance of luxury.
PIL'TAI (whom Jehovah delivers), a
priest. Neh. 12 : 17.
PINE. Isa. 41 : 19 ; 60 : 13. This
is mentioned as a tree of Lebanon. The
root of the original word denotes "curv-
ature " or " duration," neither of which
meanings suits the pine. Tristram sug-
gests the elm, a species of which grows
upon Lebanon, and Gesenius the oak,
but the proper translation is very doubt-
ful. Another word is rendered "pine
branches" in Neh. 8 : 15. where the Oil
Tree (to which refer) is undoubtedly
meant. (See cut, p. 690.)
PIX'NACLE. The word translated
"pinnacle," Matt. 4:5; Luke 4:9,
signifies, not a summit, but a wing : and
the part of the temple to which our
Lord was taken by Satan was probably
the elevation over the roof of Solomon's
689
PIN
PIS
porch, to which there was a passage by
stairs, and which overlooked the valley
on the east, and had beneath a perpen-
dicular depth of 600 or 700 feet, for at
this part of the valley a wall had been
The Eastern Pine.
cnrried up to a level with the ground on
which the temple t^tood (some historians
say 750 fei-t).
PI'NON (darkness), one of the dukes
of Edom. Gen. 36 : 41 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 52.
His tribe was settled, according to later
traditions, at Punon, one of the stations
of the Israelites in the wilderness.
PINS. See Nail, Weaving.
PIPE, OR FLUTE, similar to the
present instrument, was the principal
perforated wind instrument among the
Hebrews, as the harp was the principal
.string instrument. It was made of
different materials, reed, copper, bronze,
etc., and was played on all occasions — the
procession, 1 Kgs. 1 : 40, the banquet,
Isa. 5 : 12, the wedding, the funeral.
Matt. 9 : 23. Thus, in times of joy
and in times of sorrow, in the religious
festivals and in private life, the ])ipe,
the simplest, ancl probably the oldest,
690
musical instrument, was heai'd. See
Music and Musical Instruments.
PI'RAM (perhaps /?eef <i8the wild ass),
king of Jarmuth, one of the Amorite chiefs
in the time of Joshua. Josh. 10 : 3.
PIR'ATHON {prince-
ly), a place in Ephraim, the
home and burial-place of
Abdon, one of the judges of
Israel. Jud 12 : 15. One of
David's mighty men was a
Pirathonite. 1 Chr. 27: 14j
11 : 31 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 30.
Robinson and others iden-
tify it with the modern vil-
lage Fer'ata, lying about 6
miles west-south-west of jVa-
hluf (Shechera), on a summit
among low hills.
PIRATHONITE,
THE. 1. One of the
judges of Israel, Abdon
ben-Hillel. Jud. 12 : 13, 15.
2. A captain in David's
army, and one of the king's
guard. 1 Chr. 27 : 14; 2
Sam. 23 : 30; 1 Chr. 11 :
31.
PIS'GAH [piece, or ihe.
hei(/ht), the summit from
which Moses, before his
death, gained his view of
the Promised Land. It was
in Moab, one of the moun-
tains of Aharim, and asso-
ciated with Nebo. It was
in the territory afterward assigned to
Reuben, and thus was north of the Ar-
non. Num. 21 : 20 ; Deut. 3 : 27 ; 4 : 49 ;
34: 1. Pisgah had places on its top with
a flat surface, and even cultivated land.
Balak brought Balaam *' into the field of
Zophim, to the top of Pisgah," and there
he "built seven altars." Num. 23: 14.
Sitnntinn. — While the general posi-
tion of Pisgah is clearly given in the
Scriptures, the precise spot remained
unidentified until a recent period. So
late a AVriter as Dean Stanley says :
" In the long line of those Eastern
mountains which so constantly meet
the view of the traveller in all the
western parts of Palestine, the eye
vainly strives to discern any point
emerging from this horizont.al plat-
form which may be fixed as the top
of Nebo. Nothing but a fuller descrip-
tion than has ever yet been given of
PIS
PIS
these regions can determine the spot
where the great lawgiver and leader of
his people looked down upon their em-
battled ranks, and over the ' land which
he was to see with his eyes, but was not
to go in thither.'" — Sinai aud Palestine.
p. 294.
liecent Identification. — Nebo and Pis-
gah are so associated together in the
sacred record that the fixing of one
would lead to the certain fixing of the
other. Hence the two are considered in
this article, but some additional par-
ticulars will be found under Need, which
see.
In the last edition of his Biblical Re-
searches, Robinson speaks of finding
in the list of ])laces in the Belka the
name Neba, which might possibly repre-
sent the ancient Xebo.
In Nov., Ibifi.'], De Saulcy was informed
by his Arab guide that the name of a
certain mountain was Jehel NehCi, and
thought he had discovered Nebo. Find-
ing, however, no name corresponding to
Pisgah, he was inclined to put this at
Ran-el-Fenhkhah, on the opposite shore
of the Dead Sea. This was evidently
fanciful, as Nebo and Pisgah must be
sought near together.
Ill 1804. Tristram visited this region,
and published an account of Nebo in
his Land nf larael.
The identification of Mount Pisgah
by Prof. Paine, of the American Pales-
tine Exploration Society, was made in
1873, and published in 1875.
Prof. Paine's attention was attracted
by a well-marked promontory 4 or 5
miles to the south-west from Heshban.
This rises above all the nearer hills
and runs nearly on a level westward far
into the great valley, until it suddenly
drops oflF and falls away. The eastern
portion of this is Jebel Nehd. From '
this a series of fine flat summits stretch
out toward the west, " looking together
like a great railway embankment ab-
ruptly broken off." Its western end is
made up of three summits in a cluster,
the last lying to the south-west. An
Arab said that this summit was Jehel
Siaghah. It is a mile and a quarter
directly west from the other summit, '
and separated from it by the Wddi/
Haind. This summit, 2."?60 feet above
the level of the ?ea, has nothing in
front to obscure the view. From this
point are plainly visible "the south
country," two-thirds of the Dead Sea,
the minarets of Jerusalem, and, in short,
the whole of Palestine as it is described
in the view of Moses. Deut. 34 : 1.
" Two conclusions," says Prof. Paine,
•' are irresistible — namely, the highest
portion of the range is Nebo ; the ex-
treme headland of the range is Pisgah."
These points he thinks are proven from
the names, the positions, and the biblical
descriptions.
The observations of the Due de Luynes
(made in 1864, and before Tristram's and
Prof. Paine's, but published afterward)
led him to the same conclusion. Hence
there is an independent concurrence of
opinion between two observers. Fur-
thermore, Prof. Porter of Belfast, in a
journey east of the Jordan, was told
that the name of a certain mountain
was "Mount Siaghah," and the thought
at once occurred to him that this was
a corruption of the Hel)rew Pisgah. In
the Arabic language there is no P, and
that could account for the omission of
the initial Hebrew letter. He lingered
for hours upon the summit, and on the
spot compared the view with that de-
scribed as before Moses. The descrip-
tion and the view correspond : " Not
only are the leading features given, but
they are given in the exact order in
which the eye takes them in. To my
right stretched away the whole range
of Gilead. On the north-western hori-
zon I saw the pale summits of Naphtali,
now covered with snow ; the mountains
of Ephraim and Manasseh were there
too, and all the land of Judah, and a
section of the Negeb to the south ; while
at my feet was spread out the whole
plain of the valley of Jericho." The
Due de Luynes describes Jebel Si&ghah,
or Pisgah, and the view from its top, in
these graphic words :
" Observing that a second height of
this mountain seemed more elevated and
to give a perspective of greater extent
over the Dead Sea and the Holy Land,
we proceed thither. In spite of the hazy
state of the horizon, we ascertained that
from this elevation one discerned the
north and the north-west shore of the
Dead Sea from the mouth of the Jordan
as far as nearly to Jehel Endonm and to
.Tehel Safd'i, the whole mountain-chain
from Hebron to the Quarantania Mount,
691
PIS
PIT
all the land from the mountain of Hes-
ban, of Jebel 0>iha, and of es-Salt, even
into the Ghor, to the mountains of
Nahloun, of Jeiii'n, and of Nazareth.
Mount Tabor, a part of its plain, and
even Banias, as our guides assured us :
only they said that one could not see
the snow of Hermon, even in the purest
atmosphere. The perspective of that
elevated spot was without limits, and
its effect of the utmost majesty. It is un-
derstood that tradition [Scripture] causes
Moses to be conducted to this place by
Jehovah, in order to show him all the
Promised Land. The view from this
second height does not reach as far as
the place where Segor is admitted to be,
the refuge of Lot, whether situated at
Wddy ex-Snfieh, or supposed to lie in
Wddij Eddrda. . . . We were, then, on
the summit of Pisgah, amon» the heights
of Mount Nebo, and in the chain called
Abarim : we were beholding the same
spectacle that Jehovah spread before
Moses, after having prohibited him from
crossing the Jordan." — Voj/ac/e d' Ex-
ploration a la Mer Morte (1866-67), pp.
150-152.
PISID'IA ipitchii), a district of Asia
Minor. The boundaries varied at dif-
ferent times. It lay to the north of
Pamphylia and to the south of Phrygia,
and was during the republic contained
in the province of Cilicia.
The ranges of the Taurus Mountains
extended through it, and the mountains
are cut by deep defiles, through which
dash rapid torrents. The inhabitants
also were rough highlanders, famous for
their warlike character, and long main-
taining their independence. They were
also notorious robbers, and in this region
Paul may have been " in perils of waters,
■in perils of robbers." 2 Cor. 11 : 26.
Paul twice visited Pisidia, passing
directly north from Perga to Antioch,
Acts 13 : 14, and again returning through
Pisidia to Pamphylia. Acts 14 : 21-24.
See Antioch.
PI'SON [the full-flnwinf/, Gesenius,
or the free-flowiny, Fiirst), one of the
four " heads " into which the stream that
watered Eden was parted. Gen. 2:11.
There have been numberless conjectural
identifications of the Pison, which of
course will dcpeiul for their likelihood
upon the location of Edkn, which see.
If Eden was in Armenia, near the sources
692
of the Euphrates and Tigris, then the
ancient Pison may be the modern
I 'ha 8 is.
The Rev. L. W. Bacon sums up these
views by stating that "for the river of
Havilah, the Pison, some like (for the
sound of the name doubtless) the Pha-
sis ; others (because it is so great and
beautiful), the Halys ; and others, the
Cyrus, flowing into the Araxes." The
above writer would identify the Pison
with the Jorak or Acampis, that rises in
the same mountain with the Araxes and
the Euphrates, and bounds Colchis on
the west.
If, on the other hand, Eden was near
the mouth of the Euphrates, some would
identify the Pison with the river Jaab,
which em})ties into the Tigris near
Kurnah. — Newman's Babi/lon, p. 68.
Among other streams which have been
suggested as identical with the Pison
are the Indus, the Ganges, the Hyphasis,
the Nile, etc. Dr. Tayler Lewis sug-
gests the northern shore of the Arabian
Sea. — Lange's Genesis, p. 219. See
Havilah.
PIS 'PAH (expansion), an Asherite
chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 38.
PIT. This term is used to render
several Hebrew words. It denotes a
cistern or a reservoir, which the Eastern
people are in the habit of preparing in
those regions where there are few or no
springs for the purpose of preserving
rain-water for travellers and cattle.
These cisterns and trenches are often
without water, there being no supply
for them except from the rain. It was
into such a dry cistern that Joseph
was cast. In old decayed cisterns the
water leaks out or becomes slimy, and
such a pit becomes the image of drear-
iness and misery. Jer. 2:13; Ps. 40 : 2 ;
Zech. 9:11.
Next, the word is used for the grave
and as an image of the realm of death,
Ps. 28 : 1 ; 30 : 3. 9 : 88 : 4. and finally
it is employed as the name of the game-
trap, Eze. 19 : 8. The pit here spoken
of is used at this day in all wild coun-
tries. A deep hole in the earth is covered
very slightly with boughs or shrubs,
upon wliich is placed a living lamb,
which by its cries allures the lion or
wolf; and when the beast makes a sud-
den spring upon his prey, he is caught
in the pit below. This affords a sig-
PIT
PLA
nificant figure of the devices of crafty
men and devils. Ps. 119 : So ; Prov. 26*:
27; Eze. 19 : 4.
PITCH. This word is used in the
Bible for asphalt or bitumen, a light,
inflammable, and nearly black mineral
which in its soft form is called slime.
Gen. 14 : 10. In this latter state it was
formerly obtained in pits near the Dead
Sea (hence called the " Lake of Asphal-
tites "). On exposure this jtitch becomes
dry and hard like mortar, for which it
was often used, especially in stone-work.
It wns also employed for coating the
outside of vessels and for making water-
tight the papyrus boats of Egypt. Gen.
11 : 3 ; 6 : U ; Ex. 2 : 3. There is refer-
ence to its inflammable nature in Isa.
34 : 9. The ancients obtained pitch in
various-localities of the Old World. At
the present time fragments of asphalt
occasionally rise from the bottom of the
Dead Sea, having been dislodged by
earthquakes and other causes, and are
washed ashore.
PITCH'ER. The custom of draw-
ing water in pitchers still prevails in the
East, an earthen vessel with two handles
or in modern times a skin-bottle being
used for the purpose ; and the letting
down of the pitcher upon the hand.
Gen. 24 : 18, justifies the inference that
it was carried upon the head or left
shoulder and balanced with the right
hand, and when presented was rested
on the left hand.
PI'THOM (house, or temple, of Turn,
who was the Sun-god of Heliopolis), a
"treasure city," or depot of provisions,
built by the Israelites in Goshen. Ex.
1 : 11. It was probably not far from the
"Bitter Lakes" of Suez and near the
canal. Some critics identify it with the
Patoumos of Herodotus and the Thoum
of the Antonine Itinerary, between Heli-
opolis and Pelusium, 50 Roman miles
from the former and 48 miles from the
latter. It was situated upon the canal
of the Red Sea, and near the site of the
present Abbaxeh, at the entrance of the
Wd'ly FvmUat. Brugsch, following the
information given on the monuments,
places Pithom in the Sethroitic nome,
between the Pelusiac and Tanitic arms
of the Xile. This district bears the name
of Sukhot, or " tents," in the inscriptions,
and is supposed to refer to the nomadic
or shepherd life of the people.
PI'THON (probably harmle'^.s), a
son of Micah, a descendant of Saul. 1
Chr. 8 : 35; 9 : 41.
PLAGUE, an eminently contagious
and destructive disease, a virulent typhus
accompanied by loathsome eruptions,
prevalent in the East from the earliest
ages, and still ravaging Egypt even in
modern times. Ex. 11 : 1. Besides in
this its specific sense, the sacred writers
also employ the word to express any
terrific and desolating disease, Lev. 13 :
3 : 1 Kgs. 8 : 37, or any severe calamity
or scourge, Mark 5 : 29, 34 : Luke 7 : 21,
or as a general term for the judgment
of God. Ex. 9:14. The judgments of
God on Pharaoh are called plagues. In
the A. V. "plague" is the translation of
seven words.
PLAGUES OF EGYPT. When
the Lord had ordered Moses to lead the
people of Israel out of Goshen and con-
duct them to Canaan, and Pharaoh,
hardening his heart, opposed the com-
mand of the Lord and would not let the
people go, ten fearful plagues fell upon
the land of Egypt.
1. The waters of the Nile changed into
blood ; the fishes died, and no man could
drink of the river. But the magicians
imitated the miracle, and Pharaoh hard-
ened his heart. Ex. 7 : 14—25.
2. Then followed the plague of the
frogs; but this too was imitated by the
magicians, and Pharaoh hardened his
heart still more. Ex. 8 : 1-15.
3. With the third plague, however —
I that of lice — the magicians gave in, and
acknowledged, "This is the finger of
God." Ex. 8 : 16-19.
4. The fourth plague sent swarms of
flies out over the country, and the people
were devoured by their venomous bite.
Ps. 78 : 45. Pharaoh now relented and
declared himself willing to yield, but on
the removal of the plague he again hard-
ened his heart. Ex. 8 : 20-32.
5. A very grievous murrain attacked
the horses, asses, camels, oxen, and sheep
of Egypt, while those of the children of
Israel were free. Ex. 9 : 1-7.
6. Boils broke out upon man and beast,
even upon the magicians themselves.
Ex. 9 : S-12.
I 7. Then a frightful thunderftorm, with
hail, passed over the land of Egypt, de-
stroying the growing crops, breaking
j trees, overthrowing buildinss every-
693
PLA
PLO
where, but sparing Goshen. Alarmed,
Pharaoh promised to yield, but on the
withdrawal of the plague he again hard-
ened his heart. Ex. 9 : 13-35.
8. Locusts followed, and ate up what
the hail-storm had left ; but Pharaoh
sent Moses and Aaron away from his
presence, and heeded not the warning.
Ex. 10 : 1-20.
9. A thick darkness fell for three days
upon the land. For three days no man
was able to rise. But in Goshen there
was light. Then Pharaoh was seized by
despair, and he threatened Moses with
death if he ever saw his face again. Ex.
10 : 21-28.
1 0. Finally, the first-born of the Egyp-
tians were smitten at midnight ;" and
Pharaoh rose up in the night, he, and
all his servants, and all the Egyptians;
and there was a great cry in Egypt, for
there was not a house where there wan
not one dead." Ex. 12 : 29, 30. Pharaoh
now yielded, and allowed the children
of Israel to leave Egypt.
These ten plagues were doubtless
spread over a long time, and probably
they followed, as much as possible, the
order of the seasons ; for some of them
were not only distinctively Egyptian,
but really only an aggravation of yearly'
maladies. Canon Cook, in the liihle
CV>H)W(e»^rn-?/, distributes them thus: The
first was toward the end of June, when
the Nile begins to overflow. The seeoud
came three months later, at the time of
the greatest inundation, in September,and
was an attack on a native worship. The
third was early in October, and the/o(tr//i
after the subsidence of the inundation.
The fifth was in December or January;
the sixth, shortly after; the seventh, at
the time when hailstorms occur now in
Egypt, from the middle of February to
early March. The eighth was when the
leaves are green, toward the middle of
March. The ninth was peculiarly Egyp-
tian, and was the immediate precursor of
the te)ith. During this time the Israel-
ites had frequent opportunities to gather,
and thus were prepared lor their exodus.
It is interesting to know that the so-
called ten persecutions of the ('hristian
Church are thus numbered in remem-
brance of the ten plagues. The num-
ber, in reality, is either greater or less —
greater if all be counted, less if only the
important persecutions be enumerated.
691
PLAIN. This word is often used
alone, leaving the particular plain in-
tended to be inferred from the connec-
tion ; as, for instance, in Deut. 1:1,*
2:8; or in Gen. 13 : 12 ; 2 Kgs. 26 : 4,
etc., where the plain of Jordan is obvi-
ously intended. In other passages the
name of the plain is added, such as
EsnuAELON, Shakon, etc., which see.
PLAIT'ING, braiding the hair. 1
Pet. 3 : 3. The business of dressing the
hair is mentioned by Jewish writers as
an art by itself, practised by women.
The hair was folded up in curls, tied up
in knots, and put into the form of horns
and towers, made b}' their crisping-pins
with their cauls and round tires, etc.
Isa. 3 : 18-22.
PLAN'ETS. 2 Kgs. 23 : 5. See
Staks.
PLAS'TER was used by the ancient
Hebrews as a wall-covering. Lev. 14 : 42,
48 ; Dan. 5:5. It is also mentioned as
forming a coat over the stones on which
the Law was to be engrossed. Deut. 27 :
2 4.
' PLAT'TED, woven together. Matt.
27 : 29.
PLEDGE, that which is given as
security for the performance of a con-
tract. The Jewish law contained many
wise and benevolent provisions on this
subject, Ex. 22 : 25, 26; Deut. 24 : 6,
10, 12, 17, and anything like oppression
in respect to pledges was severely rep-
robated. Job 22 : 6; 24 : 3-7. The
hand-mill could not be taken as a pledge,
and the garment, if taken, should be
rendered back before sunset. The cred-
itor was not allowed to enter the house
of the debtor in order to take the pledge,
but was compelled to wait before the
door until it was brought to him.
PLE'IADES, a cluster of stars,
placed by modern astronomers in the
neck or near the shoulder of the constel-
lation Taurus. They appear about the
middle of April, and hence are associated
with the return of spring, the season of
sweet influences. Job 9:9; 38 : 31 ;
Am. 5 : 8.
PLOUGH. There can be no doubt
that the ancient Hebrew plough was
substantially like that still used in Syria,
so unchangeable are the customs of the
East. It was very light and simple,
perhaps merely a crotchcd stick, having
a wooden share shod with one of those
PLU
POE
triangular or heart-shaped points of iron
which the inhabitants of the Palestine
towns still do a great business in sharp-
ening. 1 Sam. 13 : 20. A single upright
held b}-^ one hand, Luke 9 : 62, while the
goad was carried in the other, guided
this primitive instrument, which turned
the earth equally on both sides. The
coulter is not now used in Oriental
ploughing, and probably never was, so
that in the above passage of First Sam-
uel some other implement must be in-
tended.
Eastern Plough.
The slight scratching Avhich consti-
tutes Eastern ploughing never requires
more than one pair of cattle, and often
a single cow or ass or camel was doubt-
less used, as now. In ignorance or dis-
regard of Deut. 22 : 10 the modern
Syrians often use the ox and ass un-
equally yoked. Sometimes several teams
work together and move in succession
across the field, as did Elisha and his
servants. 1 Kgs. 19 : 19. The writer
has seen eleven j-oke thus ploughing in
the same Jordan valley.
Land was probably, as now, often
broken up before the rainy season, that
it might be rendered absorbent. Steep
? laces were tilled with mattocks. Isa.
: 25. Fields were frequently ploughed
twice. It seems to be, more than for-
merly, the practice in Palestine to drop
the seed in the furrow just before a
plough which covers it.
Ploughing is mentioned as early as the
time of Job. It is also spoken of in Gen.
45 : 6, for ''earing" (akin to "arable")
properly means " ploughing." 1 Sam. 8 :
12. The prophecies of Isa. 2 : 4 and
Joel 3:10 are not here to be overlooked.
PLUMB'-LINE, Am. 7:7,8,
PLiUM'MET, Isa. 28:17, a line
by which a plummet or leaden weight
hangs, and by the application of which the
exact perpendicular may be ascertained.
POCH'ERETH {Hnnrin<i), one of
Solomon's servants, whose children re-
turned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 57 ;
Neh. 7 : 59.
POETRY, HEBREW. The
Jews were an imaginative people. With
them poetry and music, closely connected,
accompanied domestic and social life in
all its more prominent scenes, such as the
wedding, the harvest, and other feasts.
Am. 6 : 5 ; Ps. 4:7. Victory in battle was
celebrated by song ; see. for instance, the
song of Moses, Ex. 15, and the song
of Deborah. Jud. 5. The death of a
beloved person was deplored in songs :
see, for instance, the maidens' song over
Jephthah's daughter, Jud. 11 : 40, and
David's song at the death of Saul and
Jonathan, 2 Sam. 1 : IS, and afterward
at the death of Abner. 2 Sam, 3 : 33.
It is therefore quite natural that so large
a part of the 0. T. — more than one-third
— consists of poetry, but these PoetUal
Bookx — Job, the Psalms, the Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon,
to which may be further added, besides
numei-ous poetic fragments in the his-
torical books, such as Gen. 4 : 23 j Ex.
32 : 18 ; Num. 21 : 17, the Lamentations
of Jeremiah and the Prophets (with the
exception of Daniel), as most of these
writings, though not strictly poetry,
oscillate between poeti-y and prose —
were in the Jewish canon included
among the JHagio(/rapha, or Holy Wi'it-
In Hebrew poetry two forms, the lyric-
al and the didactic, predominate. To
the didactic the poetic portions of the
prophetic writings belong. There is no
epic and no dramatic poetry, strictly so
called, in the Bible. The book of Job and
the Canticles are sometimes called He-
brew dramas, and have undoubtedly a
dramatic drapery, but the former is chief-
ly didactic, the latter lyrical. The Psalms
are, without any qualification, the highest
specimens of sacred poetry which man-
kind possesses ; and in spite of the very
strong marks of nationality they bear,
both in style and in imagery, they have
become, nearly to the whole world, the
most striking and most complete expres-
sion of that which moves deepest in the
human soul. They owe this pre-emi-
nence to their spiritual character. The
Hebrew poetry is now passionate and
pathetic, as in the Psalms and the Proph-
695
POI
POM
ets J now contemplative and didactic, as
in the Proverbs and Eccle!<iastes. But in
both cases the pervading spiritual cha-
racter is religious.
The relation between man and God,
his Creator and his Judge — that is, his
Father — is, directly or indirectly, the
sole theme of all Hebrew lyrics, and
in the treatment of this theme, its aw-
fulness and its consolation, man has
not failed to feel the inspiration from
above.
The power of Hebrew poetry to strike
the imagination and move the heart —
its poetical essence — has always been
recognized ; but its poetical form was
for a long time overlooked, and is hardly
yet fully understood. Hebrew lyrics
have a division into verses and strophes,
and employ occasionally alliterations
and rhymes, but they have no regular
metrical S3'stem, the verses containing
an unequal number of syllables and the
strophes an unequal number of verses.
They were destined to be sung, and
consequently adajited simply to some
melody. The principal element of their
poetical form is therefore their rhythm,
and, again, this rhythm depends much
more on the ideas than on the words. Its
principal feature is the so-called paral-
lelism— a correspondence between two
or more sentences of similar or opposite
meaning hy which the idea receives its
full and harmonious expression. The
correspondence may be one of harmony
or of contrast or of progressive thought,
and accordingly it is called synonymous
or antithetic or synthetic parallelism.
Synonymous parallelism expresses the
same idea in different but equivalent
words, as in the following examples:
" Wiiat is man that thou art mindful of
him?
And the son of man that thou visitest
hira ?"— Ps. 8 : 4.
" The heavens declare the glory of God :
And the firinanicnt, showeth his handi-
work."—P.s. 1{) : 1, 2.
Antithetic parallelism expresses the
idea through a contrast, as in the fol-
lowing examples :
" Evil-doers shall bo cut off:
But tlios(! Miat wait upon the Lord, they
shall inherit the earth."— Ps. 87 : 9.
" A soft answer turneth away wrath ;
But grievous words stir up anger."
Pkov. 15 : 1.
696
Synthetic parallelism expresses the
idea through a progress or gradation of
thoughts, as in the following example :
"The law of Jehovah is perfect, converting
the soul.
The testimony of Jehovah is sure, making
wise the simple.
The statutes of Jehovah are right, rejoiciug
tlie heart.
The commandment of Jehovah is pure, en-
lightening the eyes.
The fear of Jehovah <\s clean, enduring for
ever.
The judgments of Jehovah are truth, they
are righteous altogether.
More to be desired are (hey than gold, yea,
than nuich fine gold." — Ps. 19 : 7.
POI'SON. This word is in our
translation the rendering of two different
Hebrew words, of which the one, derived
from a root signifying " heat," is applied
to animal poisons, Deut. 32 : 24, 33 ; Ps,
58 : 4; while the other, though its deri-
vation is somewhat doubtful, seems to
have been applied to vegetable poisons.
The latter is sometimes translated with
"gall" or " water of gall." Jer. 8 : 14;
9:15.
POLL, POLLED. When used as
a noun, "poll " means a head, Num. 3 :
47 ; and when used as a verb, it means
to cut the hair from the head. 2 Sam.
14 : 26.
POL'LUX. See Castor.
POLYG'AMY. See Marriage.
POMEGRAN'ATE (pronounce
pum-yran'ndtf). This word designates
a large bush {PiniicK ffrn)i(itiiiii) of the
myrtle family, and its fruit. Our English
name comes from the Latin, which means
"grained apple," referring to the beauti-
ful pink pips or grains which fill the
interior. The pomegranate has been
cultivated from early times in Syria,
Num. 13 : 23 ; Deut. 8 : 8, and the warmer
regions of the East. It rarely exceeds
10 feet in height, and has small lance-
shaped, glossy leaves, of a reddish-green
when young, but becoming pea-green
and remaining alive through the winter.
The flowers are of a brilliant scarlet or
orange, and in August or September the
fruit ripens. This is of the size of an
orange, flattened at the ends like an
apple, is of a beautiful brown-red color,
Cant. 4:3; 6:7, has a hard rind, and is
filled with pulp of a highly-grateful
flavor. The abundant juice was made
into wine. Cant. 8 : 2, and used for a
cooling drink. Some cultivated trees
POM
PON
bear sweet fruit and some sour, while the
wild pomegranates yield only a small and
worthless apple.
Jiimmon, the Hebrew word for this
fruit, gave name, in whole or in part, to
several places in Palestine, near which
the pomegranate was doubtless abundant.
The Pomeyiuuate.
The bush of this kind under which Saul
tarried must have been of unusual size.
1 Sam. 14 : 2.
" The graceful shape of the pomegran-
ate was selected as one of the ornaments
on the skirt of the high priest's blue
robe and ephod, alternating with the
golden bells, Ex. 28 : 33, 34; 39 : 24-20,
and hence was adopted as one of the
favorite devices in the decoration of
Solomon's temple, being carved on the
capitals of the pillars. 1 Kgs. 7 : 18, etc.
Whether the design was taken from the
fruit or the flower, it would form a
graceful ornament. We have frequently
noticed the poniegranate sculptured on
fragments of columns among the ruins
of Oriental temples.
" The Syrian deity Rimmon has been
supposed by some to have been a per-
sonification of the pomegranate, as the
emblem of the fructifying principle of
nature, the fruit being sacred to Venus,
who was worshipped under this title.
Hadad-rimmon is mentioned in Zech.
12 : 11, Hadad being the Sun-god of the
Syrians: and when combined with the
symbol of the pomegranate, he stands
for the Sun -god, who ripened the fruits,
and then, dying with the departing
summei", is mourned ' with the mourning
of Hadad-rimmon.' " — Trintmm.
P03I'MELS, convex projections on
the capitals of pillars. 2 Chr. 4 : 12, 13.
In 1 Kgs. 7 : 41 the same ornament is
called " bowls."
PONDS. The ponds of Egypt were
sheets of water along the Nile, left by
its inundations. Ex. 7 : 19; 8 : 5.
PON'TUS {the sen), the north-east-
ern province of Asia Minor, bordering on
the Euxine Sea. Under the
Romans the name comprised
the whole district from the
river Halys on the west, sep-
-^ arating it from Bithynia. to
- y Colchis and Armenia on the
~' ' east : it was separated on the
south from Cappadocia by
lofty mountains. It was
originally considered a part
of Cappadocia, and called
*' Cappadocia on the Sea."
Pontus rose into power un-
der Mithridates, who was
defeated by Pompey, B. c.
66, after a long struggle,
and was brought under the
Roman yoke. The western portion of
the emj)ire of Mithridates was united
partly with Bithynia and partly with
Galatia, but for a long period the re-
gion properly called Pontus remained
under the government of independent
chieftains. It was really made a prov-
ince under Nero before Paul's death.
Polemo II.. who married Bernice, great-
granddaughter of Herod the Great and
sister of Herod Agrippa, Acts 25 : 13,
was its last king. This marriage of a
Jewess with the king must have had an
influence upon the Jewish population of
Pontus, of whom some representatives
were in Jerusalem on the day of Pente-
cost. Acts 2 : 9. Aquila, a Jew born
in Pontus, Acts 18 : 2, was a very use-
ful helper of Paul, and Peter addressed
his First Epistle ''to the strangers
scattered throughout Pontus." 1 Pet.
1:1. It formed part of the later Greek
empire ; became the seat of a new Chris-
tian empire founded by Alexius Com-
nenus in the thirteenth century ,• was
conquered by the Turks in a. d. 1461,
and remained under their dominion.
It corresponds nearly with the modern
province of Trebizond, which came into
some prominence during the Russo-
Turkish war in 1877-78. The coun-
try contains valuable mineral deposits,
extensive forests, and some fertile
districts.
697
POO
POT
POOLS, See Bethesda, Siloam,
Solomon's Pools, Jerusalem.
POOLS OF SOL'OMON. Eccl.
2 : 6. See Solomo.v.
POOLS OF WATER. Eccl. 2 :
6. See Clsterns, Water.
POOR. By ordaining that land
could be sold only for a term of years,
but should return to its original owner
at the jubilee, Lev. 25 : 23-28, the Mo-
saic Law found an effective check to
pauperism. But also in other ways it
took great care of the poor. All kinds
of offering and sacrifice were accommo-
dated to their condition. Lev. 5 : 7, 11 ;
12 : 8. The gleanings of fields and vine-
yards and the harvest of the seventh
year and part of the third tithe belong-
ed to them. Lev. 19 : 10 ; 25 : 25-41.
Judges were charged to do them justice,
but not unjustly to favor them for their
poverty. Ex. 23 : 6 ; Lev. 19 : 15; Ps.
82 : 4. God claimed to be the special
protector of them. Prov. 14 : 31.
In the N. T. the word " poor " is used
figuratively to denote those who are
humble of heart, Matt. 5:3; but also
literally, as when Jesus said " The poor
have the gospel preached to them," Matt.
11 : 5, and touchingly declared, " Ye have
the poor always with you: but me ye
have not always." Matt. 28 : 11.
POP'LAR {white). The storax
(see Stacte), being ordinarily only a
bush, does not meet the conditions of
Hos. 4 : 13. Four or more species of
poplar are found in the Holy Land, and
this fact, with the white appearance of
some kinds — e. f/., Poptdus albn — war-
rants us in preferring the A. V. Gen.
30 : 37.
POR'ATHA (favored by fate), one
of the ten sons of llaman whom the Jews
slew in Shushan. Esth. 9 : 8.
PORCH. Jud. 3 : 23. See Dwell-
ings.
PORCH, SOLOMON'S. John
10:23. SeeTKMi'LK.
POR'CIUS FES'TUS. Acts 24 :
27. See Festus.
POR'TERS, such as attend the
gate of a city or house to open and shut
it. 2 Sam. 18 : 2(5; 2 Kgs. 7 : 10. The
temple had 4000 of them. 1 Chr. 23 : 5.
They were classified, and had leaders or
directors. 1 Chr. 26 : 1-19; 2 Chr. 8 :
14. Besides keeping guard at the tem-
ple, they had also charge of the freewill
698
offerings and of the treasure-chambers of
their respective wards. 2 Chr. 31 : 14.
POR'TION. Among the Egyp-
tians, Greeks, and Hebrews of ancient
times the portion of food intended for
every guest was set before him separate-
ly. When it was intended to confer spe-
cial honor upon any one a portion much
greater than common was given to him.
Gen. 43 : 34. A " worthy portion," 1 Sara.
1 : 5, means, literally, a " double portion."
POSSESS'ED WITH A DEV-
IL. See Devil.
POST (the Hebrew word means
a runney), a messenger or bearer of
tidings, especially of royal despatches.
Esth. 3:13, 15; 8:14; Jer. 51:31.
That they were employed in very early
times is proved by Job's comparison. 9 :
25. To convey intelligence quickly, the
Persian kings placed sentinels at proper
distances, who, by crying to one another,
gave notices of public occurrences. This
method being impracticable for secret in-
telligence, Cyrus established posts that
rode night and day. Persians and Ro-
mans impressed men and beasts into this
public service, and to this fact our Lord
alludes. Matt. 5 : 41. The regularity
and swiftness of the Roman posts were
admirable.
POT. See Pottery.
POT'IPHAR {belonqinij to the sun),
a distinguished officer in Pharaoh's court,
who elevated Joseph to a place of trust
and committed to him the charge of the
household. Gen. 37 : 3fi.
POTI-PHE RAH, a priest or
prince of On, and father-in-law of Jo-
seph. Gen. 41 : 45. The marriage of
Joseph to Asenath and her conversion
to faith in the one God form the sub-
ject of an old romance which exists in
a Latin, Greek, and Syriac version. It
is chiefly made up of Jewish legends,
but belongs, nevertheless, to the Chris-
tian era. The title is The Life and
Confession of Asenath., Dauffhter of Pen-
te.phres [Potipherah] of Heliopolis, a
narrative [of what happened] when
the benntifnl Joseph took her to xoife.
The story is thus summarized (Schafp,
Throuqh Hihle Lands, pp. 57, 58) : Ase-
nath was a proud beauty, living in great
splendor with seven attendants, and dis-
daining all lovers except Pharaoh's old-
est son, who loved her, but was forbid-
den by his father to marry her. When
POT
PR^
she saw Joseph from her window as he
entered Heliopolis to collect corn in the
first year of plenty, she was captivated
by his beauty, ran down, hailed him as
" My lord, blessed of the most high Uod,"
and at her father's bidding went forward
to kiss him. Joseph refused to kiss an
idolatrous woman, but, seeing her tears,
he laid his hand upon her head and
prayed God to convert her to the true
faith, and then departed. She threw
her idols out of the window, repented
seven days, saw an angel of comfort, and
was married to Joseph by Pharaoh with
great pomp.
POT'TAGE. Gen. 25:29. At this
day, in many parts of the East, lentiles
are boiled or stewed like beans with oil
and garlic, and make a dish of a choco-
late color, which is eaten as pottage.
Other ingredients were used, as in
soups of modern times. 2 Kgs. 4 : 39.
POT'TER'S FIELD, THE.
Matt. 27 : 7. See Aceldama.
POT'TERY. The potter's art was
one of the first kinds of manufacture in
Egyptian Potter and Pottery.
which man became proficient. The
Israelites worked at the trade while
in Egypt, Ps. 81 : 6 : they used earthen-
ware during their passage through the
wilderness: and from the earliest time
of their settlement in Canaan the trade
was established among them. In Jeru-
salem there was a royal establishment
of potters, 1 Chr. 4 : 23, from which it
has been conjectured that the potter's
field received its name.
The method employed by the Israelites
and often hinted at by the proj)hets
seems to have been exactly the same as
that employed by the Egyptians, such
as we find it minutely illustrated by
Egyptian wall-paintings. The clay was
trodden by the feet into a uniform paste,
Isa. 41 : 25 ; Wisd. 15 : 7, and a sufficient
mass was then placed by the potter on
the wooden disc of the wheel. The
wheel was turned by the hand or worked
by a treadle, Isa. 45 : 9 ; Jer. 18 : 3, but
generally by an attendant, and not by
the potter himself. When finished the
vessel was coated with glaze and burnt
in a furnace. Such vessels were used,
however, not only for culinary purposes,
but also as a means of preservation ;
from Jer. 32 : 14 it appears that deeds
were kept in them.
POUND. See Measures.
PR.ETO'RIUM. This word de-
noted the headquarters of the Roman
governors, and we find in Scripture
three prajtoriums mentioned.
1. At Jerusalem. Mark 15 : 16. The
same Greek word is rendered "common
hall" and, margin, "governor's house,"
Matt. 27 : 27 ; " hall of iudgment " and
"judgment-hall." John 18 : 28, 33: 19:
9. This prajtorium was the headquarters
of the Roman governor Pilate, who had
probably established himself in the mag-
nificent palace erected by Herod the
Great on the western hill of Jerusalem.
It occupied a vast rectangular space and
contained barracks for the soldiers by
whom Jerusalem was kept in subjection.
This prsetorium communicated with the
temple, which was situated on the east-
ern hill, by a causeway crossing the Tyro-
poeon valley. It was in this prgetorium
that Jesus was tried before Pilate. Some,
however, would identify the prastorium
with the fortress Antonia, at the north-
west corner of the temple-area. See
Lange on Matt. 27 : 27.
2. At CjBsarea, Acts 23 : 35 ; translated
" Herod's judgment-hall." This was the
gorgeous palace in which Herod the Great
resided during his latter diiys. It prob-
ably stood on the commanding eminence
near the middle of the city. There Paul
was kept a prisoner for two years.
3. At Rome, Phil. 1 : 13: translated
699
PEA
PEA
*' palace," and in the margin " Caesar's
court." Tiiis has been interpreted — (1)
As in the A. V., "the palace" — i. e. the
palace of the Caesars, on the Mount
Palatine, which was garrisoned by a
body-guard of soldiers called Praetorians.
(2) As the general camp of the Praeto-
rian guard, situated just without the
city walls, before reaching the fourth
milestone. It was established by the
emperor Tiberius.
PRAISE. In the ordinary Scripture
use of the term, it denotes an act of
worship, and is often used synonymously
with thanksgiving. It is called forth by
the conteuiplation of the character and
attributes of God, however they are dis-
played; and it implies a grateful sense and
acknowledgment of past mercies. Ex-
pressions of praise abound in the Psalms
of David, in almost ever^^ variety of force
and beauty. Ps. 33 : 1 ; 138 : 1 ; 106 : 2.
PRAY, PRAY'ER, the most es-
sential act of private devotion and pub-
lic worship in all ages and nations. It is
rooted and grounded in man's moral
and religious constitution, enjoined by
God, and commended by the highest
examples. It is sjjeaking to God and
offering to him our petitions for mercies
needed, and our thanks for mercies ob-
tained. It embraces invocation, sup-
plication, intercession, and thanks. 1
Tim. 2:1. It may be either mental or
vocal, private or public, in the closet or
in the family or in the house of God.
We are commanded to pray for others
as well as for ourselves, Jas. 5:16; for
kings and all that are in authority, 1
Tim. 2:2; for kindred, friends, and
even for our enemies, persecutors, and j
slanderers. Matt. 5 : 44. God is the [
only object of prayer and worship. ,
Matt. 4:11); Deut. 6 : 13 ; 10 : 20. We i
may pray for all things needful to our 1
body and soul, for our daily bread as I
well as for all spiritual mercies. Prayer
should be offered to God the Father, in 1
the name of the Son, through the Holy
Spirit. But inasmuch as Christ and the
Holy Spirit are strictly divine in essence
and character, they may also be directly ]
addressed in prayer. Comp. Acts 7 : 59,
00 ; 1 Cor. 1:2; Phil. 2 : 9. To pray
in the name of Christ means to pray I
in harmony with his Spirit, trusting in i
his all-prevailing mediation, with hu- j
mility and resignation to the holy will
700
of God. Such prayers will always be
heard in God's own best way and time
(which, however, often diflFers from our
own short-sighted views), and will always
have a wholesome efl'ect upon the soul of
him who prays. Comp. 5latt. 6:6; 7 :
7-12; 21:22; John 16 : 23, 24, 26;
Jas. 5 : 15. The Holy Spirit enables
us to pray aright. Rom. 8 : 26.
All the great saints of God were fervent
and mighty in prayer — Abraham, Gen.
20 : 17; Jacob, Gen. 32:26-31 ; Moses,
Num. 11 : 2 ; Deut. 9 : 19, 20 ; Joshua,
Josh. 10:12; Samuel, 1 Sam. 12 : 18;
David (all his Psalms); Elijah, 1 Kgs.
17 : 1 ; 18 : 42, 45 ; Jas. 5 : 17, 18 : Elisha,
2 Kgs. 4 : 33, 34 ; Hezekiah, 2 Kgs. 19 :
15-20; 20 : 2-6; Daniel, Dan. 6 : 10;
Hannah, 1 Sam. 1 : 12; Anna, Luke 2 :
37; the apostles. Acts 1 : 14, 24; 2 : 42;
4:31; 6:4; 8:15; 12:8, 12; 16:25,
26 ; 20 : 36 ; 21 : 5 : Rom. 1:9; 12 : 12 ;
1 Thess. 5 : 17. Our Saviour himself
often withdrew into a solitary place to
pray, Mark 1:35; Luke 5: 16; Matt.
14 : 23 ; 26 : 39, and taught his disciples
how to pray. Matt. 6 : 9-13 ; Luke 11 : 2-4.
The posture of the body in prayer is
immaterial. Prayer may be offered on
the knees or standing or prostrate, with
eyes closed or lifted up to heaven, with
hands folded, clasped, or stretched out.
The main thing is the reverential frame
of mind, which will naturally express
itself in one form or other, according to
the state of feeling and the customs of
the age and country. The length of
prayer is likewise unessential. God
looks to the heart. Better few words
and much devotion than many words
and little devotion. See Matt. 6 : 7.
The prayer of the publican in the
temple, Luke 18 : 13, and the petition
of the penitent thief, Luke 23 : 42, we;e
very short and very efl'ective.
The objections to prayer proceed from
atheistic and fatalistic theories. Prayer
implies the existence of God and the
responsibility of man, and has no mean-
ing for those who deny either. It is
more natural that (iod, who is infinitely
merciful, should answer the prayer of
his children than that earthly parents
should grant the requests of their chil-
dren. See Matt. 7:11. Yet our prayers
were foreseen by him, like all other
free acts, and included in his eternal
plan. ** In spite of all objections, men
PRA
PRA
pray on as by universal instinct. The
reply to the objections is that we pray
to a living, loving Person, near at hand,
Egyptian.
Postures in Prayer.
knowing our thoughts, able to control all
things — One who has declared himself a
hearer of prayer, and who has made it a
condition on which it seems good to him
to put forth his power. The essence of
belief in prayer is that the divine mind is
accessible to supplication, and that the
divine will is capable of being moved.
Prayer depends on God's will, but does
not determine it. Man applies, God com-
plies ; man asks, God grants.
*' Prayer has a subjective value. It is
necessary to individual piety, produces
solemnity, enlightens- and quickens the
conscience, teaches dependence, gives
true views of God, and produces such
a change in us as renders it consistent
for him to change his course toward us.
In the family, prayer intensifies and ex-
acts devotion, secures domestic order,
strengthens parental government, and
promotes religion. And objectively the
Bible and Christian history abound in
examples of answered prayer.
" The main arguments for forms of
prayer are that they have been of almost
universal use ; that they guide the wor-
shippers without forcing them to depend
on the moods of the leader; where they
are used, all know what is to be said
and done ; they secure provision for
unlearned ministers : secure dignitv% de-
cency, harmony, and guard against exces-
sive show, arbitrary freedom, improper,
absurd, extravagant, confused, and im-
pious utterance, and against weariness
and inattention ; they unite the hearts
and tongues of all worshippers, so that
they do not worship by proxy ; they
unite different ages of the Church and
preserve true doctrine and discipline.
" Extempornueous (though not rash
and unstudied) prayer is claimed to be
more particular than general forms can
be. It secures freedom, fervor, spon-
taneity, and adaptation to the circum-
stances; it is less formal and monoto-
nous : suits itself to changes in language
and opinions."
PR AVER, HOURS OF. Prayer
is no more confined to a particular hour
than to a particular place. Comp. John
4 : 24. We may pray anywhere and at
all times, and should pray without ceas-
ing. 1 Thess. 6 : 17. Nevertheless, it is
good to observe special hours of praj'er.
The Jews prayed at 9 a. m., 12 m., and 3
p. M. To these were added the beginning
and end of niirht and the time of meals.
Ps. 55 : 17 : i>an. 6:10; Luke 18 : 1 ;
Acts 3:1: 10 : 3. 9. 30.
PRAYERS OF CHRIST. There
are several prayers of Jesus recorded in
the N. T. : the model prayer for his
disciples. Matt. 6:9, 13; Luke 11 : 2-4 ;
brief thanksgivings. Matt. 11 : 25, 26;
John 6 : 11 : 11: 41. 42 : the petition in
Gethsemane. Matt. 26 : 39 ; comp. the
similar petition, John 17 : 1. 2 ; and the
exclamations on the cross, " Father, for-
give them," ''Eli, Eli," '' Father, into thy
hands." The Lord's Prayer, so called,
is intended for his disciples, who need
701
PRE
PRI
often to pray for the forgiveness of their
sins. See Lord's Prayer.
The most important })rayer of our
Lord is the one recorded by John. Ch.
17. It is called the sacerdotal or hi<jh-
priestly prayer because in it he inter-
cedes for his people and enters upon his
function as the High Priest in offering
his own spotless life as a perfect sacri-
fice for the sins of the whole world. It
is divided into three parts : first, he
prays for himself, for his glorification,
vs. 1-5 ; then for the preservation of his
disciples, vs. 6-19 ; finally, for all be-
lievers of future times, for their unity
and perfection in the kingdom of glory.
The connecting idea of the three parts
is the redeeming work of God as ac-
complished by Christ, carried on by the
apostles, and to be completed in the
kingdom of glory. " This sacerdotal
prayer, spoken in the stillness of the
night under the starry heavens, before
the wondering disciples, in view of the
approaching consummation of his work,
for himself, his apostles, and his Church
to the end of time, is peculiarly his own,
the inspiration of his grand mission,
and could be uttered only by Christ,
and even by Christ only once in the
world's history, as the atonement could
occur but once; but its effect vibrates
through all ages. It is not so much the
petition of an inferior or dependent sup-
pliant as the communion of an equal
and a solemn declaration of his will
concerning those whom he came to
save. While praying to the Father, he
teaches the apostles. He prays as the
mighty Intercessor and Mediator, stand-
ing between earth and heaven, looking
backward and forward, and comprehend-
ing all his present and future disciples
in one holy and perfect fellowship with
himself and the eternal Father. The
words are as cle.ar and calm as a mirror,
but the sentiments areas deep and glow-
ing as God's fathomless love to men, and
all efforts to exhaust them are in vain."
—Schaff.
PREACH'ING. The word is not
used in the Hible in its present technical
sense, but means proclamation by pub-
lic authority, as a herald or crier. But
ere the Bible closed the institution of
preaching sprang up, and hence in the
Epistles tlie (ireek word ap|)ro.\i mates
to our meaning. In the ancient Hebrew
702
state there was no preaching, but after
the Exile some instruction in the Law
was given to the people, Neh. 8, and our
Lord improved the opportunities afford-
ed him by the synagogue discburses to
set forth the kingdom. See Synagogue.
Since the full establishment of the Chris-
tian Church preaching has been regarded
as a sacred profession, and has, for the
most part, been confined to an ai)pointed
and specially trained order of men.
PREPARATION, or PREP-
ARA'TION-DAY, is the term for
Friday, because on that day preparation
was made and meals cooked for the Sab-
bath. It might be rendered " fore-Sab-
bath " (comp. the Greek in Mark 15 : 42)
or " Sabbath - eve" (comp. the (German
Sonnabeud for "Saturday"). Matt. 27:
62; Mark 15 : 42 ; Luke 23 : 54; John
19 : 14, 31, 42.
The "preparation of the Passover,' in
John 19 : 14, means the Paschal Friday,
or the Friday occurring during the week
of the Passover (as in vers. '61 and 42).
On that Friday (the loth of Nisan)
Christ was crucified.
PRES'ENTS played in old time
and in Eastern countries a much larger
part in social life than now, though in
many Eastern countries at this day even
the common people, in their familiar
visits, take a fiower or an orange, or
some other token of respect, to the per-
son visited. Gen. 32 : 13. See Gift.
PRESS'ES, Isa.l6:10,oR PRESS'-
FATS, Hag. 2:16, were vessels or cis-
terns placed in the side of a hill, into
which the juice of grapes flowed when
it was pressed out by treading them with
the feet or by pressing them with a ma-
chine. Prov. 3 : 1(»; Matt. 21 : 33. Such
are now used in Persia. The upper ves-
sel, being 8 feet square and 4 deep,
is used to press out the juice, which
runs into another cistern below. For
an illustration of the process, see Wine.
PREVENT', in the A. V., never
means, as at present, " to hinder," but
" to go before," " to anticipate." 1 Thess.
4 : 15.
PRICKS, OR GOADS, long, sharp-
pointed sticks, which were used to drive
cattle, etc., by pricking them. The ex-
pression in Acts 9:5 is a proverb, and
originated in this — that restive oxen of-
ten j)ush themselves or kick back against
the goads, and thus wound themselves
PKI
PRI
the more deeply. Hence the proverb is
used to denote the folly and madness of
resisting lawful authority. A great num-
ber of heathen writers use the proverb
familiarly, and always to signify the ab-
surdity of such rebellion.
PRIEST (contracted from presbi/ter,
"elder") is the general name for minis-
ters of religion in all ages and countries.
In the sacred Scriptures it denotes one
who offers sacrifice. Previous to the
Mosaic dispensation the offering of sac-
rifices pertained to private individual?.
Fathers were the priests of their own
families, though perhaps a more general
priestly office existed, such as that exer-
cised by Melchizedek. The patriarchs,
Noah, Abraham, etc, themselves offic-
iated as priests of their households,
Gen. 8 : 20; 12 : 8, and it seems that
the priestly dignity descended in the
family by birthright to the first-born. As,
at the first institution of the Passover,
the head of each family was ordered
to kill the paschal-lamb it is probable
that the household priesthood still pre-
vailed at that time. But when the dis-
pensation by Moses was given, a partic-
ular order of men was appointed to that
special service, Ex. 28, with very solemn
and imposing ceremonies ; and from that
time the offering of sacrifices was chief-
ly restricted to those who were duly in-
vested with the priestly office. 2 Chr. 26 :
IS.
All the male descendants of Aaron
were priests by birthright, and the first-
born, in regular succession, inducted into
the office of high priest. Certain blem-
ishes, however, specified in Lev. 21 : 16-
24, disqualified a man, not for the order,
but for performing the functions of the
office ; and after having been consecra-
ted and entering on the duties of his of-
fice, his life lay under a stricter rule than
that of the Levite or the layman. As
the priesthood was confined to the fam-
ily of Aaron, the number of priests was
at first very small. Josh. 3:6; 6:4, but
in the time of David it had greatly in-
creased ; 8700 priests joined him at He-
bron. 1 Chr. 12 : 27. He divided them
into twenty-four courses — sixteen of the
family of Eleazar, and eight of the fam-
ily of Ithamar ; and, as these courses
officiated in regular succession, chang-
ing every Sabbath. 2 Chr. 23 : 8, each
course would be in attendance at the
sanctuary at least twice a year. During
the period of the Captivity this division
into courses seems to have fallen into
some confusion. Among the 4289 priests
who accompanied Zerubbabel, only four
courses were represented, Ezr. 2 : 36-39 ;
Neh. 7 : 39-42, and courses are afterward
mentioned which cannot be identified
with any of the original ones.
A Priest.
The chief duty of the priests was to
prepare and offer the daily, weekly, and
monthly sacrifices, and such as were
brought by individuals at the great an-
nual festivals or at especial occasions.
But generally they conducted the public
service, officiated at purifications, took
care of the holy vessels, of the sacred
fire and the golden lamp, of all the fur-
niture of the sanctuary. In war they
sounded the holy trumpets and carried
the ark of the covenant. In peace they
703
PRl
BRI
Courses op Priests. (From Ayre's Treasury of Bible Knowledge )
In David's reign. 1
1
In List in Ezr. 2 ; In Nehemiab's time.
In Zerubbabel's time.
1 Chr. 24.
Neb. 7.
Neh. 10.
Neh. 12.
1. Jelioiaril). 1 Clir.
Joiarib.
9: 10; Neh. 11 : 10.
2. Jedaiah
Children of Jedaiah.
Jedaiah.
3. Harim.
Children of Harini.
Harim.
liehum (Harim, 15).
4. Seurini.
5. Malchijali.
Children of Pashur.
1 Clir. 9 : 12.
Malchijah.
fi. Mijamin.
Mijamin.
Miamin (Miniamin,
17).
7. Hakkoz.
Mereraoth, son of
Hakkoz. Neh. 3: 4.
Meremoth.
8. Abijah.
Abijah.
Abijah.
9. Jeshuah.
House of jeshua '">).
Ezr. 2:3G; Neli. 7 :
39.
10. Sliecaniah.
Shebaniah.
Shechaniah (Shebani-
ah, 14).
11. Eliashib.
12. Jakini.
13. Huppali.
U. Jeshebeab.
15. Bilgab.
Bilgai.
Bilgati.
If). Iniuier.
Children uf Imnier.
Aniariai).
.\mariah.
17. Hezir.
18. Aphses.
19. Pethaliiali.
20. Jebezekel.
...
21. Jacliin. N.h. 11 :
10; 1 Cbr. 9 : 10.
22. Gamul.
23. Delaiab.
24. Maaziali.
Maaziah.
Maadiah (Moadiah,
17).
PosT-ExiMAX CoiTUSKS, which cannot be identified with original ones.
Neh. 10.
Neb. 12.
Neh. 11: 1
Chr. 9.
Neb. 10.
Neb. 12.
Nob. 11 ;
Chr. 9.
1
Seraiah.
.Seraiah.
Seraiah (?).
Cinnetbon.
Ginnetlio.
Azariah.
Ezra.
Azariah.
Barucli.
Jeremiah.
Jeremiah.
Meshullam.
Pashur.
Shemaiah.
Shemaiah.
Hattush.
Hattush.
Sallu.
Malluch.
Mallueh.
Amok.
Obadiah.
Iddo.
Adaiah (?).
Hilkiah.
Daniel.
i
Jedaiah (2).
1
ministered as judges at the trial of jeal-
ousy, at the estimation of the redemp-
tion-money for a vow, etc. They kept
a kind of superintendence over the lep-
ers, and, finally, they e.\])ounded the
Law to the people. It appears, how-
ever, from 2 Chr. 17 : 7-10: 19 : 8-10;
Eze. 44 : 24, etc. that the priests often
704
neglected the judicial and teaching
functions of their ofliice.
The consecration of a priest took
place with great solemnity. The cere-
monies, which were minutely prescribed
by Moses. Ex. 29 : 1-37 ; Lev. 8, 9, last-
ed for seven days, and consisted in sac-
rifices, washings, the putting on of the
PRI
PRO
holy garments, tlie sprinkling of blood
and anointing with oil. The garments
of the priest consisted of a white linen
tunic, reaching' from the neck to the
ankles, with tight sleeves, and held to-
gether around the waist with a linen
girdle embroidered with blue, purple,
and scarlet. On the head he wore a
kind of tiara, formed by the foldings
of a linen cloth, and of a round, turban-
like shape. His feet were probably naked.
After entering on the duties of his oflBce
he was not allowed to mourn or defile
himself at the death of any, with the
exception of his nearest relatives, or to
practice those cuttings and shavings
which were common among the people,
or to marry a divorced woman, etc.; as
his office was to approach the Lord on
behalf of the people, his duty was to
remain pure within and clean without.
For the maiittennnce of the priests
thirteen cities with ])asture-grounds, sit-
uated in the tribes of Jiidah, Simeon, and
Benjamin, were set aside when the peo-
})le settled in Canaan. Josh. 21 : 1?>-19.
To these were added one-tenth of the
tithes paid to the Levites, Xum. 18 : 26-
28 ; a special tithe every third year. Deut.
14 : 28: 26 : 12; the redemption-money
paid for the first-born of man and beast.
Num. 18 : 14-19, and for men or things
specially dedicated to the Lord. Lev. 27 ;
the first-fruits of corn, wine, and oil. Ex.
23 : 19 ; Lev. 2 : 14 ; Deut. 26 : 1-10 ; a
part of the spoil taken in war. Num. 31 :
!'5-47 : and finally, when they were of-
ficiating, the shew-bread and the flesh
of the burnt-oiferings, peace-offerings,
and treppass-off"erings. Num. 18: 8-14;
Lev. 6 : 2fi-29 ; 7 : <".-10. These provis-
ions, large though they seem to be, were
nevertheless by no means sufficient to
maintain the priestly order with that
independence and dignity which was
not only becoming, but necessary. On
the contrary, under the kings many
priests fell into abject poverty. 1 Sam.
2 : 3fi.
PRINCE. Besides in its ordinary
sense, the word is used in the A. V. of
(1 ) Local governors or magistrates, 1
Kgs. 20 : 14: (2) Satraps, Dan. 6:1;
(3) (Inardian angels. Dan. 6 : 1.
PRINCIPALITY, in the expres-
sion ''principalities and powers," Eph.
1 : 21; 3 : 6; Col. 1 : 16; 2 : 10, etc.,
denotes an order of angels.
45
PRINT'ED, in Job 19 : 23, should
be rendered " inscribed."
PRIS'CA {nncieut). 2 Tim. 4 : 19, on
PRISCIL'LA, Acts 18:2, 18, 26;
Rom. 16 : 3 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 19, was the
wife of Aquila, and partook with him
not only in the exercise of hospitality
in their house, but also in his labors for
the Christian Church.
PRIS'ON. As, according to the
Mosaic Law, trial followed immediately
after apprehension, and imprisonment
was not used as a punishment, we hear
very little of prisons among the Hebrews
until the times of the kings. During
All Aiicieut Inner Prison.
the passage through the wilderness two
persons were put ''in ward," Lev. 24 :
12 ; Num. 15 : 34, and from Gen. 37 : 24
and Jer. 38 : 6-11 it appears that the
dry well or pit was used as a place of
confinement or detention. Under the
kings the prison formed a part of the
palace, 1 Kgs. 22 : 26: 2 Chr. 16 : 10;
Jer. 32 : 2, and the same was the case
under the Herods. Luke 3 : 20 ; Acts 12 :
4. The Romans used the tower of An-
tonia, in Jerusalem, and the prajtorium,
in Cagsarea, as prisons. Acts 23 : 10, 36.
Also the sacerdotal authorities had a
prison in Jerusalem. Acts 5 : 18-23 : 8 :
3: 26 : 10.
PROCH'ORUS {leader of the cho-
rnx), one of the seven deacons. Acts
6 : 5.
PROCON'SUL, AND PROC-
URATOR. See Deputy and Gov-
ERXOn.
PROM'ISE, in opposition to
'' threatening," signifies generally an
705
PRO
PRO
assurance of the bestowal of some good
or the removal of some evil, but refers
more especially to the spiritual gifts of
God — the Messiah, the Holy Spirit, and
the Christian Church. Thus those who
have received these gifts are called
"children of the promise." Rom. 9 : 8.
PROP'ER, in Heb. 11 : 23, "a
proper child." means '^handsome."
PROPH'ET (from a Greek word
signifying upeaker, xitterer). The term
is used in a wider sense, signifying
simply " interpreter," in close corre-
spondence with its etymology, and thus
it is applied to every one who has re-
ceived a communication from God which
he utters or interprets. Abraham is
called a prophet. Gen. 20 : 7, in this
sense of the word, and in the same man-
ner Aaron is called the prophet of Moses.
Ex. 7:1. As a communication from
God is most likely, however, to refer to
the future it becomes naturally a pre-
diction in the mouth of the interpreter,
and this element of prediction, added to
that of interpretation, gives a more
special sense to the term, '* prophet"
signifying a man who is authorized by
God to reveal something with respect to
the future.
The prophets of the 0. T., at once
interpreters and predicters, formed a
special institution in the Hebrew the-
ocracy, an independent link of the great
providential scheme which made the
children of Israel, the chosen people
among whom the Messiah was to be
born, a transition between the old and
the new dispensations. Resting on
Moses, they pointed toward Christ;
preaching the Law, they promised the
Gospel. Scattered prophecies occur even
before Moses, but it was not until the
time of Samuel that tlie prophets became
a regular order in the Hebrew theocracy,
like the priests, and afterward the kings.
During the period of the Judges the
priesthood seems to have become some-
what degenerate, and its influence on
the people was lowered. Under these
circumstances, Samuel undertook to cre-
ate or develop a new moral power in the
nation by the organization of the pro-
phetical institution, and so successful
was he in this undertaking that in Holy
Scripture he is ranked beside Mo.'ses as
one of the pillars of the people. Jer. 16 :
1; Ps. 97 : 6; Acts 3 : 21. Schools or
706
colleges — in fact, the first theological
seminaries — were established first at
Ramah, 1 Sam. 19 : 19; afterward at
Bethel, 2 Kgs. 2 : 3, Jericho, 2 Kgs.
2 : 5, Gilgal, 2 Kgs. 4 : 38, and in other
places. 2 Kgs. 6 : 1. Under the leader-
ship of some elderly prophet, who was
called their "father" or ''master," 1
Sam. 10 : 12; 2 Kgs. 2 : 3, promising
young men were gathered into these
schools and instructed in the interpre-
tation of the Law, in music, and in
poetry. The connection between proph-
ecy and poetry and music was old, Ex.
15 : 20 : Jud. 4:4; 5:1, and continued
to the last. 1 Sam. 10 : 5 ; 2 Kgs. 3:15;
1 Chr. 25 : 6. Having gone through
the school and completed his instruc-
tion, the prophet entered on his office
as an instructor of the people, leading
all the while a stern and austere life.
2 Kgs. 4 : 9, 38; 1 Kgs. 19 : 8 : Matt.
3:4.
Although the prophets formed a regu-
lar order like that of the kings or the
priests, there was, nevertheless, no un-
interrupted succession of prophets. They
arose only when specially called by God.
What they learnt in these schools was
only a preparation to make them fitter
instruments in the hands of God ; the
principal constituent of their office was
the divine authorization, given them in
the form of inspiration. But this the
prophetic gift was quite independent
of the prophetic education ; Amos was
not educated as a prophet when the
divine word came to him. Am. 7:14.
The question of the psychological
connection between the divine inspi-
ration and the mind of the prophet in
its natural state has been much debated,
but is in reality inapproachable, because
one part of the combination — the divine
inspiration — cannot be made the subject
of research. From the prophetic writ-
ings, however, the manner in which the
divine inspiration took hold of the hu-
man mind and used it as its instrument
is very apparent. Sometimes it is
through dreams, Dan. 2 ; sometimes
I through visions, Isa. 6 ; Eze. 1 ; some-
, times through direct communication.
I 1 Kgs. 13 : 20-22 ; 1 Sam. 3. Of these
1 various methods, that of the vision is
[ the most common, and, indeed, the writ-
j ings of the prophets have the general
I character of visions, as if a curtain had
PKO
PRO
been removed from before the eyes of
the prophet, and he had been allowed to
see and scan the plans of God in all his
dealings with his creatures. Thus en-
dowed, the prophet was in truth within
the pale of revealed religion what the
oracle attempted to be within the pale
of natural religion. But while the
oracle, resulting from the natural ex-
altation of the human mind, never
reached beyond an obscure and uncertain
conjecture, the prophet, inspired by Grod,
told the certain truths. The prophets
saw the future rather in space than in
time, and as a picture of events very
close together, though they may have
been very far apart. They described the
future as a common observer would de-
scribe the stars, grouping them as they
appear to his eye. Thus Isaiah, chs. 10
and U, connects the deliverance of the
Jews from the yoke of the Assyrians
with the deliverance by the Messiah ;
Zechariah (ch. 9) connects the triumphs
of Alexander with the coming of 'the
Messiah, although the events were three
hundred years apart; Joel, ch. 2:28,
connects the effusion of the Spirit on the
day of Pentecost and the last day ; and
so does Peter. Acts 2. Our Lord's great
eschatological discourse, Matt. 24 and 25,
is a familiar instance of the same fact.
Sent by Jehovah to reveal and enforce
his will, to reform or revise the theocratic
constitution, and to prepare the way for
Christ, 2 Kgs. 17 : 13 ; Jer. 25 : 4, the
prophet stood as a mighty power among
the peoj)le, guiding and rebuking them
and their rulers. He was the true leader
of the people, not only in religious, but
also in political and social, movements.
He kept the theocracy alive, saved it from
stagnation and degeneracy, and led it to-
ward its final completion in Christ.
Besides the prophetical utterances
scattered through the historical and
poetical books, sixteen of the Hebrew
prophets have left us writings which
now form parts of the canon. Two of
the greatest prophets, Elijah and Elisha,
have left no special books, but their acts
are recorded in the Kings. In all, the
Jews reckoned forty-eight prophets and
five prophetesses. The canonical proph-
ets cover a period of over four hundred
years, from about B. c. 850 to 420, and
fall, according to their chronological
order, into three groups, as follows :
I. PROPHETS BEFORE THE BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY.
Prophet.
Probable Dates.
Kings of Judah.
Kings of Israel.
Jonah.
Bet. 850 and 784.
Jeroboam II.
Joel.
About 850.
Uzziah.
Amos.
Bet. 810 and 785.
Uzziab.
Jeroboam II.
Hosea.
Bet. 790 and 725.
Jeroboam II.
Isaiah.
Bet. 763 and 697.
Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah.
Micah.
Bet. 758 and 697.
Jotiiam, Ahaz, Hezekiah.
Nahuni.
Bet. 720 and 698.
Latter part of Heztkiah.
Zephaniah.
Bet. 620 and 609.
Beginning of Josiah's reign.
Jeremiah.
Bet. 628 and 588.
f Josiah, Shalliim, Jehoiakin, Jeconiah,
t and Zedekiab.
Habbakiik.
Bet. 612 and 598.
Jehoiakin.
n. PROPHETS DURING THE BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY.
Prophet. ' Probable Dates.
Kings of Judah.
Kings of Israel.
Daniel. Bet. 606 and 534. Taken captive in 4th vear of Jehoiakin.
Ohadiah.* Bet. 588 and 583.
Ezekiel. Bet. 595 and 536.
IIL PROPHETS AFTER THE RETURN FROM THE CAPTIVITY.
Prophet.
Haggai.
Zechariah.
Malachi.
Probable Dates.
Kings of Judah.
Kings of Israel.
Bet. 520 and 518.
Bet. -520 and 518.
Bet. 436 and 420.
Nehcmiah, governor.
* Other writers m.ike Obailiah the earliest among the prophets, b. c. 890-880.
707
PRO
PRO
PROPH'ETESS signifies not only
the wife of a prophet, Isa. 8 : 3, but also
a woman that has the gift of prophecy.
Ex. 15; 20. Among these were Miriam,
the sister of Aaron and Moses, Ex. 15 :
20 ; Deborah, who sang with Barak,
Jud. 5:1; Hannah, the mother of
Samuel, 1 Sam. 2:1; Anna, who was in
the temple. Luke 2 : .36 ; the four daugh-
ters of Philip the Evangelist. Acts 21 : 9.
PROPITIATION denotes the
action of a person who in some appointed
way averts the wrath aroused by some
offence, and brings about a reconcilia-
tion. Thus, Christ is the "propitiation
for our sins." Rom. 3:25; 1 John 2:2;
4:10. The same Greek word is used by
the Septuagint to denote " sin-offering,"
Eze. 44 : 27 and 45 : 19; " atonement,"
Num. 5:8; the " mercy-seat," Heb. 9 :
6 ; and the covering of the ark of the
covenant. Lev. 16:14.
PROS'ELYTE, Matt. 23 : 15, a
name given by the Jews to such as were
converted from heathenism to the Jewish
faith. According to the Mosaic Law,
foreigners who resided in Palestine were
entitled to kind treatment, Deut. 10 : 18,
19, and the protection of the cities of
refuge. Num. 35 : 15, on the conilition
that they kept the Sabbath, Ex. 20 : 10,
and abstained from blasphemj' and idol-
atry. Lev. 20 : 2 ; 24 : Ifi. They might
even partake in the celebration of the
day of atonement. Lev. 26 : 29, the feast
of weeks, Deut. 16 : 11, and that of
tabernacles ; but the Passover they co\ild
not eat without having been circumcised,
Ex. 12 :48; Num. 9 : 14— that is, with-
out having adopted the Jewish ritual
together with the Jewish faith, and be-
come Jews. Later on, especially after
the Captivity, when Jews were living in
all countries, it could not fail that the
heathens, especially the women, should
feel attracted by this higher type of
religion, and the Jews themselves were
very eager to make converts. In Da-
mascus almost all the women were con-
verted to the Jewish faith.
There were two classes of proselytes.
I. Full proselytes, called "proselytes of
righte;)usness," who were circumcised
and in full communion with the syna-
gogue. They were usually more fanatical
than the native Jews. Comp. Matt. 23 :
15. 2. Half proselytes, called "pros-
elytes of the gate" (from Ex. 20:10,
708
"' Thy stranger that is within thy gate"),
who embraced the monotheism and Mes-
sianic hopes of the Jews without sub-
mitting to circumcision and conforming
to the Jewish ritual. The latter class
are called in the N. T. religious, devout,
God-fearing persons. Acts 13 : 43, 50 ;
16 : 14: 17 : 4, 17 ; 18 : 7. They were
among the first converts, and formed
generally the nucleus of Paul's congre-
gations. To these half proselytes be-
longed Cornelius, Lvdia, Timothy, Titus.
PROVERBS Vre sayings embody-
ing some rule of conduct or some ob-
servation from life in a striking and
catching form. In modern times collec-
tions of such proverbs have been made
in almost every country, and these
collections have attracted much atten-
tion, because they generally give very
striking pictures of the character of a
nation, its wisdom and its follies, its
passions and its humors.
PROVERBS OF SOLOMON,
the name of one of the poetical books of
the 0. T. ; so called from the contents
and the chief author.
1. Contents. — The Proverbs are a col-
lection of wise maxims woven into a
didactic poem, and making up a popular
system of ethics. They are a guide of
practical wisdom, the moral philosophy
of the Hebrews. We have a similar
collection in the book of Jesus Sirach in
the Apocrypha. The following are the
principal parts :
('0 The praise of Wisdom, chs. 1-9,
a connected series of proverbs. Brief
introduction. 1 : 1-6. The fundamental
thought that all true wisdom comes from
above and has its beginning in the fear
of (iod. V. 7. Then short discourses on
various topics of religion and morality,
rewards of those who seek wisdom, ad-
monitions to seek it, warning against
the allurements of the strange woman,
ch. 7; Wisdom's appeal to men, her
claims, her relation to Jehovah, ch. 8,
and her invitation to her feasts. Ch. 9.
(h) The proverbs of Solomon, chs,
10-22 : 1 6, a collection of various maxims
of an ethical and practical nature.
(r) A connected series with precepts
on justice and prudence. Ch.' 22 : 17-
24 : 22.
{d) Unconnected proverbs of various
wise men. Ch. 24 : 23-34.
(e) Another collection of Proverbs of
PRO
PRO
Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah,
king of Judah, copied out. Chs. 25-29
(/) "The words of Agur, the son of
Jakeh." Ch. 30 : 1-33. Ancient inter-
preters take "Agur" to be a symbolic
name of Solomon, like " Koheleth ;" but
then he would not be called the son of
Jakeh. Probably the real name of some
Hebrew sage.
{(/) "The words of Lemuel the king,
the prophecy that his mother taught
him." Ch. 31 : 1-9. " Lemuel " is per-
haps a symbolical name for Solomon —
i. e.. he who is turned to God.
(h) An alphabetical poem in praise
of a virtuous woman. Ch. 31 : 10-31. A
real gem.
2. Poetic Form. — The poetic structure
of the Proverbs is that of Hebrew paral-
lelism in its various forms. They con-
sist of single, double, triple, or more
couplets, the members corresponding to
each other in sense and diction, either
sj'nonymously or antithetically. De-
litzsch calls them two-liners, four-liners,
six-liners, eight-liners. The first sec-
tion, chs. 10-22 : 1 6, contains exclusively
two-liners. Besides these, there are a
few three-liners, five-liners, and seven-
liners, where the odd line is either a
repetition of or a reason for the idea
expressed in the first lines. A few
specimens will make this clear.
(a) Single synonymous couplets:
''Mv son forget not my law :
"And let thy heart' keep my command-
ments.—"—Ch. 3 : 1.
"Whom Jehovah loveth he correoteth :
Even as a father the son in whom he
delighteth."— Ch. 3 : 12.
"Blessed the man who finds wisdom:
And tlie man who obtains understand-
• ing."-CH. 3:13.
(b) Single antithetic couplets :
"A wise son maketh a glad father:
But a foolish son is the grief of his
mother."— Ch. 10 : 1.
"Hatred stirreth up strifes:
But love covereth all sins."
Ch. 10:12.
"The wages of the righteous is life:
The gain of the wicked is sin."
Ch. 10 : 16.
3. Author. — No doubt Solomon is the
chief, but not the sole, author. He bears
the same relation to the Proverbs as
David does to the Psalms. He struck
the keynote of proverbial poetry and
philosophy, as David did of Hebrew
psalmody. He was very famous as a
composer of proverbs. 1 Kgs. 4 : 29-34.
Yet many of his "three thousand prov-
erbs " were lost, and, on the other hand,
the Proverbs of our canon contain vari-
ous collections of a later date. The
compilation was probably made at the
time of Hezekiah. Ch. 25 : 1.
4. Vuhie. — The Proverbs contain a
vast amount of wholesome lessons for all
times. They have furnished the richest
contributions to the proverbial diction-
aries of all Christian nations.
The proverbs of the Bible are far
superior to those of any other collection
of the kind, such as the Sayings of the
Seven Wise Men of Greece, the Anren
Carmina, attributed to Pythagoras, the
Remains of the Poetse Gnomici, the collec-
tion of Arabic proverbs. They bear the
stamp of divine wisdom and inspiration.
They abound in polished and sparkling
gems. They contain the practical wis-
dom (cholcma) of Israel. They trace
wisdom to its true source, the fear of
Jehovah. Ch. 1 : 7. Nothing can be
finer than the description of Wisdom in
the eighth chapter, where she is per-
sonified as the eternal companion and
delight of God, and commended beyond
all earthly treasures, ch. 8 : 11-21, 34,
35:
"Wisdom is better than rubies,
And no precious things compare witli
her.
"I, Wisdom, dwell with prudence,
And fiud out knowledge of wise counsels.
'The fear of Jehovah is to hate evil ;
Pride, haughtiness, and an evil way,
And a perverse mouth, do I hate.
" Counsel is mine, and reflection ;
I am understanding; 1 have .strength.
"By me kings reign,
And princes decree justice;
By me princes rule.
And nobles, even all the judges of the
earth.
" I love them that love me ;
And they that seek me early shall find
me.
" Riches and honor are with me.
Yea, endurinj,' riches and righteousness.
709
PRO
PSA
"My fruit is better than gold, yea than re-
fined gold;
And uiy increase than choice silver,
"I walk in tlie way of righteousness.
In the midst of the path of rectitude ;
To ensure abundance to those that love me,
And to fill their storeliouse. . . .
"Blessed is the man thai heareth me.
Watching daily at my gates.
Waiting at the posts of my doors !
For whosoever findeth me findetii life;
And shall obtain favor from Jehovah."
The description of the model Hebrew
woman in her domestic and social rela-
tions, ch. 31 : 10-31 (in the acrostic
form), has no parallel for truthfulness
and beauty in all ancient literature, and
forms the appropriate close of this book
of practical wisdom ; for from the family,
of which woman is the presiding genius,
spring private and public virtue and na-
tional prosperity.
PROVINCE is used in the sense
2 Cor. 9:2; Heb. 10 : 24.
PROVOKES literally, to "call
forth;" hence, "to challenge," "incite."
In this sense used in the A. V. of 1
Chr. 21 : 1 ; Rom. 10 : 19 ; 11 : 11, 14;
of "tribe" in 1 Kgs. 20 : 14, 15, 17.
PSALMS, THE BOOK OF.
A psalm, from a Greek word signifying
" to strike the lyre," " to play," " to sing,"
is a lyric poem of religious character and
aim — a song in praise of God. The
collection, or rather series of collections,
of Hebrew Psalms is called in the He-
brew Bible " Praises," or " Book of
Praises," praise of God being the pre-
dominant character even of the Psalms
of repentance and sorrow ; in the Septu-
agint, " Psalms " or " Psalter," a stringed
instrument on which the accompaniment
was played ; and in the N. T., " Psalms "
or " The Book of Psalms." In our canon
it occupies the principal place among
the poetical books, preceded by Job and
followed by the Solomonic writings.
This collection of one hundred and fifty
Psalms forms the first hymn-book for
public worship, and is even to this day
in more general use among all churches
as a manual of private devotion and
public worship than any Christian hymn-
book. This fact is the best vindica-
tion of the Psalms against faultfinding
writers.
IHviiion of (he Paalma. — In the He-
brew Bible the Psalms are divided into
710
five distinct collections or books. The
close of each is indicated by a doxology
and a double " Amen," which were
added, not by the authors, but by the
collectors for liturgical purposes. Book
I. contains forty-one Psalms, of which
thirty-seven are of David and four
anonymous — viz., 1, 2, 10, and 33.
Book II. contains thirty-one Psalms —
from 42 to 72 — by different authors :
seven by the sons of Korah, one by
Asaph, nineteen by David, three anony-
mous, and one by Solomon or for Solomon,
after which the note is appended, " The
prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are
ended." Ps. 72 : 20. Book III. contains
seventeen Psalms — from 73 to 89 : eleven
by Asaph, four by the sons of Korah, one
by David (86), and one by Ethan the
Ezrahite (89). Book IV. contains seven-
teen Psalms — from 90 to 106 : one by
Moses (90), two by David (101 and
103), the rest anonymous. Book V.
contains forty-four Psalms — from 107
to 150 : fifteen of David, one of Solomon,
and the rest anonymous, including the
fifteen Songs of Degrees, or pilgrim
songs (120-134), and closing with the
Hallelujah Psalms (146-150).
This division is traced back to the
time of Nehemiah, as in 1 Chr. 16 : 35,
36 there is a free quotation from the
concluding doxology of the fourth book.
Ps. 106 : 47, 48. It is marked in the
Septuagint. and mentioned but rejected
by some of the Fathers, as opposed to
the authority of the apostle, who speaks
of the "Book of Psalms." Acts 1: 20.
The principle has been variously stated
as an analogy to the five Books of
Moses, as a chronological order, as an
arrangement by authors, by contents,
for liturgical purposes, etc. It seems,
however, that the grouping of the Psalms
was not controlled by any one principle
exclusively, though, on the other hand,
the division shows too much method to
be considered arbitrary or accidental.
The collectors probably so arranged the
Psalms as to combine historical, dogmat-
ic, and liturgical order with convenience
for public use — much in the same manner
as many Christian hymn-books combine
the order of subjects with that of the
festivals of the church-year, sacrificing
merely logical consistency to practical
convenience. Minor collections were
made at different times — such as the
PSA
PSA
Korahite selection, the *• Pilgrim Songs,"
Songs of Degrees, the Hallelujah Psalms
— and were afterward incorporated in
the larger divisions. A few Psalms are
repeated with some variations in different
books — viz., 14 and 53 ; the latter part
of 40 and 70 ; 57, 60, and 108— which
proves that the five books were originally
separate collections. The time of the
final completion of the collection cannot
be positively fixed ; the last two collec-
tions must have been made after the
Captivity, as is shown by the style and
subject of some of the Psalms included
in them. The whole collection was prob-
ably completed at the time of Ezra. At
all events, the present Psalter is a
gradual work, and reflects the piety of
several generations — from the golden
age of the theocracy to the return from
exile.
The Inscrijitions. — All the Psalms,
with the exception of thirty-four, which
in the Talmud are called '' Orphan
Psalms," have titles or superscriptions
which in the Hebrew text are numbered
as verse 1, while in the English Version
they are more properly separated from
the text and printed in small type as
headings. Some also regard the phrase
"Hallelujah, Praise ye the Lord!" at
the beginning of several Psalms as a
title, and thus reduce the number of
Psalms without titles to twenty-four.
The origin of these titles is unknown.
They were probably added by the col-
lectors of the several books, and resemble
in this respect the headings of the
Gospels and the subscriptions at the
close of the Epistles in the N. T. They
are, however, of great antiquity, and
often of much value for the interpreta-
tion. They are found in all the Hebrew
manuscripts, and embody the popular
traditions concerning the authorship,
historical occasion, musical character,
etc., prior to the Greek translation. In
some instances their meaning has been
lost, and the Septuagint does not even
attempt a translation ; but. so far as we
are able to interpret them, they give us
valuable information about the authors
— David. Asaph, the sons of Korah, etc. ;
the particular kind of poem ; the musical
and liturgical character: the particular
instrument used for accompaniment ;
the historical and personal occasion, etc.
Notices of the last kind, however, occur
only in the Psalms of David, and refer
mostly to events in his life. Many of
them are copied, word for word, from
the historical books. Comp. Ps. 52 with
1 Sam. 22 : y : Ps. 54 with 1 Sam. 23 :
19 ; Ps. 56 with I Sam. 21 : 11-15. Much
dispute has been occasioned b}' the term
'' Selah," which is not found in the in-
scriptions, but in the bodj' of the Psalms ;
but most probably it gives simply a
musical direction.
Character of the Psalms. — It is a re-
markable fact that the Psalms, written
by pious Jews centuries before Christ,
have been used in the Christian Church
down to this day for the highest purposes
of devotion, and that they answer this
object now as well as ever, among
Greeks, Latins, and Protestants of all
names. Some denominations in Scot-
land and the United States to this day
use them almost exclusively in public
worship. We can ask for no stronger
proof of the inspiration of the Psalms.
They spring from the deep fountains of
the human heart in its intercourse with
God. They express the general religious
feelings of thanks and praise, of repent-
ance, grief, despondency, hope, and joy ;
and they do this in such a manner as to
find an echo in every pious soiil in every
age and in every clime. It is true we
cannot always feel the full force of every
Psalm, and often we would like to know
more of the particular situation out of
which it has grown, in order that we
may understand all its details. The
Psalms are poems, and, like other poems,
they require a corresponding state of
feeling in order to open uj) their whole
inner meaning. Some Psalms can only
be appreciated in seasons of peculiar
trial -and distress ; others only in times
of persecution from without: still others
only on occasions of festive joy and
exaltation. But the more varied our
religious experience is, the more we
wonder at the fertility and applicability
of the Psalms to all conditions of life.
Hence no books of the Bible, except the
Gospels, have taken such a hold upon
the heart of Christendom as have the
Psalms. For centuries they were the
only hymn-book and prayer-book of the
Jewish and Christian Churches. They
have suggested many of the noblest
Christian hymns. They are to this day
indispensable feeders of public and
711
PSA
PTO
private devotion in all parts of the ]
world, and will continue to be to the
end of time. There is soinetliing exceed-
ingly elevating and comforting in the
idea that our religious feelings have
moved the saints of God in all ages —
that Moses and David and Asaph gave
utterance t'j our own spiritual experi-
ences.
Authors of the Psdlms. — The composi-
tion of the Psalms embraces a period of
nearly a thousand years, from Moses to
the return from the Captivity or the time
of Ezra, but most of them belong to the
reigns of David and Solomon. About
two-thirds of them are ascribed in the
titles to specific authors, as follows : (1)
To David, eighty — viz., 1-41 (including
1 and 2, wliich are anonymous), 61-71,
101-103, 108-110, 123, 124, 131-133,
138-145. He is the largest contributor
and the master-singer of Israel ; hence
the whole collection is frequently called
" The Psalms of David." The general
characteristics of these eighty Psalms
are simplicity, freshness, vigor, and a
rare combination of childlike tenderness
with heroic faith ; and, viewed as a
whole, they present a picture of a man
severely struggling, through internal
and external obstacles, toward the city
of God. (2) To Asaph, twelve Psalms —
73-83 and 50. Asaph, of the tribe of
Levi, was one of David's musicians and
leader of the choir, 1 Chr. 15:17,19;
2 Chr. 29 : 30, and his Psalms have a
more didactic character. (3) To the
sons of Korah, a family of poetical
priests of the age of David, 1 Chr. 6 : 16;
9 : 19 ; 26 : 1, 2 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 19, fourteen
Psalms, corresponding to the fourteen
classes of singers of that family — viz.,
42-49, 84, 85, 87, 88. Seven of them
belong to the age of David and Solomon.
But, properly speaking, only eleven
Psalms belong to the sons of Korah.
Psalms 42 and 43 are reckoned as one,
and 88 and 89 bear also the names of
Hcman and Ethiin. These Psalms arc
gf'nernlly distinguished by poetic vivacity
and bold flight of imagination. (4) To
Solomon, two : 72 and 127. ( ;')) To Moses
one: 90.
Clit8sificfttio)t of (he PxnlviR aecordhig to
their Coiiteiifs.
I. Psalms of Adoration Jind Prsiiso: j
Ps. 8, 19, 24, 33. 34, 36. 96. 100, 103,
712
107, 121. and the Hallelujah Psalms,
146-150.
II. Psalms of Thanksgiving for mercies :
To individuals, Ps. 9, 18, 22, 30.
To the people of Israel, Ps. 46, 48,
65, 98.
III. Penitential Psalms :
Ps. 6, 25, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143.
IV. Pilgrim Psalms for festive journeys
to Jerusalem (" Songs of Degrees"
— /. e., steps, ascension) :
Ps. 120-134.
V. Historical Psalms, recording God's
merciful and righteous dealing with
his people in time past:
Ps. 78, 105, 106.
VI. Prophetic and Messianic Psalms,
based upon the promise to David
and his house (2 Sam. 7 : 12-16) :
Ps. 2, 8, 16, 22, 40, 45, 68, 69, 72,
97, 110, 118.
VII. Didactic Psalms :
(a) On the character and fate of the
righteous and the wicked : Ps. 1, 5,
7, 9-12, 14, 15, 17, 24, 25.
(b) On the excellency of God's law :
Ps. 19, 119.
(c) On the vanity of human life : Ps.
39, 49, 90.
(d) On the duty of rulers : Ps. 82. 101.
VIII. Imprecatory Psalms, mostly by
David :
Ps. 35, 52, 58, 59, 69. 109, 137.
PSAL'TERY was a stringed in-
strument with ten strings, like a harp,
but its shape is much disputed. See
Harp, Musical Instruments.
PTOLEMiE'US, OR PTOL'-
EMY, is the common name of the
Egyptian kings of the Greek dynasty.
1. Ptolkmy I. SoTER, B. c. .323-285,
the founder of the dynasty; probably
an illegitimate son of Philip ; served as
a general in the army of Alexander;
seized Egypt in 323, and maintained
himself there against Perdiccas, 321,
Demetrius, 312, and Antigonus, 301.
When invading Syria, in 320, he swept
down upon Jerusalem on a Sabbath-day,
occupied the city, and carried away a
number of Jews as prisoners to Egypt.
But he treated them well, and founded
a flourishing Jewish colony in his king-
dom. It is commonly supposed he is
meant, in Dan. 11 : 5, by '' the king of
the south."
2. Ptolemy II. PFiiLADELrHiis, b. c.
PTO
PUD
285-247, son of the preceding ; reigned
in peace after the marriage of his daugh-
ter, Berenice, with Antiochus II. of Syria,
Dan. 11 : 6 ; founded the great library
and museum in Alexandria; attracted
to that city such men as the poet The-
ocritus, the geometer Euclid, the astron-
omer Aratus, etc. : is said to have given
the first impulse to the Septuagint trans-
lation of the 0. T. ; and was prominent
in bringing about that amalgamation of
East and West, of Jewish wisdom and
Greek philosophy, which left so deep
traces in the history of both Judaism
and Christianitj^
3. Ptolemy III. Eitergktes, b. c. 247-
222, son of the preceding ; invaded Syria
to avenge the repudiation and murder of
his sister : conquered the country as far
north as Antioch and as far east as Bab-
ylon ; oflFered sacrifices in the temple of
Jerusalem, according to the custom of the
Law; and brought back to Egypt the
gods and their molten images, which
Cambyses had carried to Babylon. Dan.
11 : 7-9.
4. Ptolemy IY. Philopator, b. c.
222-205, son of the j)receding ; defeated
the army of Antiochus the Great at
Raphia, near Gaza, 215, Dan. 11 : 10-
12; offered sacrifices of thanksgiving in
the temple of Jerusalem : but when he
attempted to penetrate into the sanctu-
ary, he was suddenly struck by paraly-
sis.
5. Ptolemy Y. Epiphaxes, b. c. 205-
181, son of the preceding; was only five
years old when his father died. During
his minority- A ntiochus the Great conquer-
ed Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Judtea, and
a great number of Jews who remained
true to the Ptolemaean dynasty fled to
Egypt, where the high priest, Onias,
founded the temple at Leontopolis. By
the mediation of the Romans, Ptolemy
and Antiochus were afterward reconciled,
but the Egyptian power was now rapidly
decreasing. Dan. 11 : 13-17.
6. Ptolemy YI. Phii.ometor, b. c.
181-146, son of the preceding; was a
mere infant when his father died. Up
to her death, in 173, his mother. Cleopatra,
reigned in his stead, tind she kept peace
with Syria. But, in 171, Antiochus Epiph-
anes sought and found an occasion to
attack Egypt, defeated Ptolemy YI., and
carried him away a prisoner. Again it
was tlie interference of the Romans which
saved Egypt, 168; but the power of the
country was now really broken, and it
gradually glided into the position of a
Roman province. Dan. 11 : 25-30. Un-
der the reign of Ptolemy YI. the Jewish
temple at Leontopolis was completed;
and thus there existed a Judaism inde-
pendent of Jerusalem and in intimate
contact with the classical civilization.
PTOLEMA'IS (from one of the
Ptolemies of Egypt), the city called
Accho in Jewish annals, and Ptolemais
under Macedonian and Roman rule. It
is often mentioned in the Apocrypha. 1
Mace. 5 : 15, 22, 55: 2 Mace. 13: 24, 25,
etc. Paul, on returning from his third
missionary-tour, visited Ptolemais, and
abode there one day. Acts 21 : 7. The
place is now called Akkn, or St. Jean
d'Aoe, the name given to it by the
Knights of St. John, who settled there
soon after the conquest of Jerusalem by
Saladin, A. D. 1187. See AccHO.
PU'A. See Phivah.
I PU'AH (h/o»?/,). 1. Of the tribe
of Issachar, who judged Israel after
Abimelech. Jud. 10 : 1.
2. One of the two niidwives whom Pha-
raoh ordered to kill all Hebrew male chil-
dren at their birth. Ex. 1 : 15-21.
PUB'LICAN, an inferior collector
of the Roman tribute. Matt. 18 : 17.
The principal farmers of this revenue
were men of great credit and influence,
but the under-farmers, or publicans,
were remarkable for their rapacity and
extortion, and were accounted as oppres-
sive thieves and pickpockets. Hence it
is even said that the Jews would not
allow them to enter the temple or the
synagogues, to partake of the public
prayers or offices of judicature, or to
give testimony in a court of justice.
There were many publicans in Judaea
in the time of our Saviour. Zacchjeus
was probably one of the principal re-
ceivers, since he is called "chief among
the publicans," Luke 19 : 2; but Mat-
; thew was only an inferior publican.
Luke 5 : 27. The Jews reproached
Jesus with being a "friend of publi-
cans and sinners " and eating with them.
Luke 7 : 34.
PUB'LIUS, the governor of Melita,
who received St. Paul when he was
I shipwrecked off that place. Acts 28 :
7 8.
' PU'DENS, a Christian in Rome
713
PUH
PUN
who sent a salutation to Timothy
through St. Paul. 2 Tim. 4:21.
PU'HITES, the name of a family
descending from Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 53.
PUjL {lord:'), the first king of Assyria,
who invaded Canaan, and by a present
of 1000 talents of silver (equivalent to
nearly $2,000,000 in our day) was pre-
vailed on by Menahem to withdraw his
troops and recognize the title of that
wicked usurper. 2 Kgs. 15 : 19. This
is the first mention of Assyria in the
sacred history after the days of Nimrod,
and Pul was the first Assyrian invader
of Judaea.
PUIj, a region mentioned in Isa. 66 :
19. The name is the same as that of Pul,
a king of Assyria, which signifies "ele-
phant " or " lord." The country is named
with Tarshish, Lud, Tubal, Javan, and
" the isles afar oS"." Bochart, Hender-
son, Michaelis, and others suppose it to
be the island of Philae and the surround-
ing regions. Porter, Grove, Poole, and
other authorities make it some distant
province of Africa. It is identified by
the Septuagint with Phut, which is join-
ed with Lud in Eze. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 5, and
perhaps therefore denotes Libya. See
Phut.
FUL'PIT, in Neh. 8 : 4, was a plat-
form set up in the open air for the ac-
commodation of Ezra.
PULSE {seeds). Our English word
means peas, beans, lentiles, and the pro-
duce of similar podded plants, but in
Dan. 1 : 12, 16 the Hebrew probably
denotes vegetable food in general, and
in 2 Sam. 17 : 28 parched peas, which
are still a favorite food in the East.
PUN'ISHMENT. The principle
of punishment prevalent in all modern
criminal codes is simply to protect soci-
ety against crime. In the penal enact-
ments of the Mosaic Law this principle
is present, but only as a modification or
qualification of the supreme principle
of the Law — to do justice. Both capi-
tal and secondary punishments were in-
flicted chiefly from a regard to what jus-
tice demanded, but in cases which lay
absolutely outside the pale of human
justice, and had no connection with so-
ciety beyond the bad example set, the
ofl'cnder was "cutofi"" from the people
and left to the direct handling of God.
1. Capital punishment was executed
in various ways — by stoning, Ex. 17 :
714
4 ; Luke 20 : 6 ; John 10 : 31 ; Acts 14 :
5; hanging. Num. 25 : 4; 2 Sam. 21 : 6,
9 ; burning, Gen. 38 : 24 ; Lev. 21 : 9 ;
shooting, Ex. 19 : 1 3 ; sword, 1 Kgs. 2 : 25 ;
19 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 21 : 4 ; strangling (though
mentioned only by the rabbins) ; drown-
ing, comp. Matt. 18 : 6 ; Mark 9 : 42 ;
sawing asunder, 2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; pound-
ing in a mortar (though hardly a legal
punishment), Prov. 27 : 22 : 2 Mace. 6 :
28 ; precipitation, 2 Mace. 6 : 10; Luke
4 : 29 ; and Crucifixion, which see. Of
these, stoning was the most common form
of execution. It was inflicted not only
for murder, but also for striking or revil-
ing a parent, Ex. 21 : 15 ; for blasphemy,
Lev. 24 : 14, 16, 23 ; adultery, Lev. 20 :
10; Deut. 22 : 22 ; rape, Deut. 22 : 25 ;
idolatry. Lev. 20 : 2 ; Deut. 13 : 6, 10,
15,17; false witness in capital cases,
Deut. 19 : 16, 19 ; but a verdict of ston-
ing could only be given on the testimony
of two witnesses, and these were requir-
ed to cast the first stones, directly on the
chest of the off'ender. Deut. 13 : 9 ; 17 :
7. Several of the other forms of execu-
tion, such as hanging and burning,
were seldom used except after death by
stoning had taken place.
2. Secondary punishments were regu-
lated chiefly after the idea of retaliation
— '* breach for breach, eye for eye, tooth
for tooth." Ex. 21 : 23-25; Deut. 19 :
18-21. But there was on this point a
remarkable diff'erence between the Mo-
saic Law and the old Prankish or Anglo-
Saxon or Scandinavian laws. Accord-
ing to the Mosaic Law, the retaliation
was never given into the hands of the
off"ended, but took eff"ect onl}' after judi-
cial procedure. In some cases retaliation
was simple restitution with a fine added ;
thus, he who stole a sheep was to restore
four sheep, and he who stole an ox five
oxen. Ex. 22 : 1. In other cases it meant
compensation for loss of time or power,
Ex. 21 : 18-36; Lev. 24 : 18-21 ; Deut.
19 : 21, or even for loss caused by acci-
dent. Ex. 22 : 6. When restitution or
compensation could not take place — as,
for instance, in the case of slander —
whipping, and even scourging, were
employed. But the Law forbade to give
more than forty stripes, Deut. 25 : 3, and
the Jews took great care not to give more
than thirty-nine, the punishment being
inflicted by means of a whip with three
thongs, and thirteen strokes being dealt.
PUN
PUT
Imprisonment was not prescribed by tbe
Law, but was known in the times of the
kings. 2 Chr. 16 : 10 ; Jer. 37 : 15.
3. Finally, the Pentateuch mentions
some thirty-five cases in which the pen-
alt}' incurred is that of being '' cut off"
from the people," but the exact meaning
of this expression is disputed. Some
commentators hold that it means death,
while others, and among them the rab-
binical writers, explain it as a kind of
excommunication. It probably stood in
some connection with the punishment of
banishment, which consisted in confine-
ment to a certain locality or exclusion
from the presence of the king. 2 Sam.
14: 24; 1 Kgs. 2 : 26, 36, 37.
PU'NITES, THE, the descendants
of Pua, or Phuvah, the son of Issachar.
Num. 26 : 23.
PU'NON (dai'Joiesft), one of the sta-
tions of the Israelites, Num. 33 : 42, 43,
between Zalmonah and Oboth. Accord-
ing to Jerome it is identical with Pheium,
celebrated for its copper-mines, in which
convicts were sentenced to labor, between
Petra and Zoar. Palmer suggests its
identity with 'Aiiezeh, one of the three
stations, on the Darh el-Hajj. — Desert
of the ExnduH, p. 430.
PURIFICA'TIONS formed a very
conspicuous feature among the ritual
observances of the Jews, and were per-
formed in various ways, though gener-
ally by means of water. Besides their
spiritual meaning, referring to the pur-
ity of the heart, they had often also a
sanitary purpose. After the Captivity,
however, they were carried into ex-
tremes, especially by the Pharisees.
Mark 7 : 3. 4.
PU'RIM {lot^), a Jewish festival in-
stituted to commemorate the preserva-
tion of the Jewish people, by means of
Mordecai and Esther, from the massacre
ordered by Haraan, Esth. 9 : 20-32, re-
ceived its name from the circumstance
that Haman sought to ascertain by lots
the day on which to execute the massa-
cre. The festival was celebrated on the
fourteenth and fifteenth of the month
Adar (March). The book of Esther was
then read aloud in the synagogue, and
whenever the name of Haman occurred
the whole congregation answered, " Let
his name be blotted out." After the
service on the fifteenth, the festival gen-
erally ended with great merry-making.
I Purim is not mentioned in the N. T.,
unless it be the feast spoken of in John
5:1.
PUR'PLE. The purple dye so fa-
mous among the Orientals of ancient
days was produced from a species of
shellfish peculiar to the Mediterranean
Sea. It was highly esteemed also among
the Hebrews. The hangings of the tem-
ple and some of the priests' garments
[ were of this color. Ex. 25 : 4 : 35 : 6 ;
39 : 29; 2 Chron. 3 : 14, also the robes
; of rojalty and distinction were of pur-
i pie. Judg. 8 : 26: Esth. 8:15. It would
1 seem, however, that the Hebrews used
j the term "purple" with considerable
latitude, applying it in general to every
color into the composition of which red
entered.
j PURSE, a sort of girdle, such as is
j often found at the present day in East-
ern countries. One part of the girdle,
sufficient to encompass the body, was
sewed double and fastened with a
buckle. The other was wound around
above or below the first fold, and tucked
under. The first fold had an opening,
closed with a leathern cover and strap,
I through which the contents of the purse
I were passed. Matt. 10 : 9 : Mark 6 : 8.
PUT. 1 Chr. 1:8: Nah. 3:9; else-
where Phut. Pnun, Libya, which see.
PUTE'OLI {sulphurous icells or
I »pri)if/s), a seaport of Campania, in It-
aly, situated upon the northern shore of
a small bay running northward from the
Bay of Naples, and now called Pozzuoli
Bay. The town was originally confined
to a rocky promontory, but afterward
; extended to a considerable distance east-
I ward and northward. Puteoli was the
great port of Rome, and through it
' passed the immense exports and imports
I of the imperial city. Especially was it
the port for the Alexandrian corn-ships,
which were allowed the peculiar privi-
lege of entering the bay with all their
sails set. Its ancient Greek name was
Dica?archia. It was a favorite water-
ing-place of the Romans, its hot springs
being considered efficacious for the cure
of various diseases. Puteoli is connect-
ed with many historical personages.
Sclpio sailed hence to Spain ; Cicero
I had a villa near the city ; here Nero
planned the murder of his mother; Ves-
pasian gave to this city peculiar privi-
leeces : and here Hadrian was buried.
PUT
PYT
The Castor and Pollux landed the apos-
tle Paul there, Acts 28 : 13, 14, and he
tarried in the place, where there were
Christians, for a week before setting
out for Rome, 141 miles distant. The
modern name of Puteoli is Puzzuoli.
There are considerable remains of an-
cient structures, including an aqueduct,
reservoirs, baths, and a building called
the temple of Serapis. Thirteen arches
can still be counted of the twenry-five
which originally supported the great
pier, thrown out for protection against
the waves and for convenience in land-
ing passengers and merchandise.
PU'TIEL {<tjflii-ted of God), the fa-
ther-in-law of Eleazar, the son of Aaron.
Ex. 6 : 25.
Tlie Addiix
PY'GARG. Deut. 14 : 5. This is
believed to have been some species of
antelope, perhaps the addax [Antilope
addftx).
PYR'RHUS, father of Sopater of
Berea, mentioned in Acts 20 : 4; a gen-
uine name, found in the best Greek texts,
though not in the A. V. The father was
716
or Pygaig.
doubtless a Berean «as well as the son,
but whether he was a Christian cannot
be determined.
PY'THON, occurring Acts 16 : 16,
ma''gin. was a surname of Apollo, the
god of divination in the Greek mythol-
ogy, and hence applied to all oracular
and divinatory spirits. See Divination.
QUA
QUA
Q
QUAILS. Ex. 16 : 13 ; Num. 11 :
31. After much criticism of this traus-
lation, the verdict of etymology, zoology,
history, and of most of the important an-
cient versions, is strongly in favor of the
above rendering. At the season when
the Israelites gathered them, quails
still migrate from Africa northward in
immense numbers. Such facts as that
160,000 were taken in one season on the
small island of Capri, near Naples, and
100,000 in a single day near Nettuno, at-
test their present abundance on the coasts
of the Mediterranean, and travellers tell
us that they still cross Arabia in clouds.
All the conditions of the above pas-
sage in Numbers are met by the habits
of these birds. Following up the Red
Sea, they would naturally cross the nar-
row gulfs which enclose the Sinaitic
(Cotwnix vulgaris.)
peninsula, and, being weak of wing and
according to their custom flying be/ore
the wind and at night, they would come
"from the sea" exhausted, and be eas-
ily taken by hand, as they are still often
caught under similar circumstances. In
their flight quails skim along the ground,
which seems to be the meaning of the
expression, " two cubits high." Prudent-
ly making provision for the future, the
Israelites would spread out their flesh
to dry, as Herodotus tells us the Egyp-
tians were accustomed to do. It is be-
lieved that the " homers " in Num. 11 : 32
does not denote the measure of that name,
but rather '' a heap," which is sometimes
the meaning of the Hebrew word. It is
evident that in the feeding of the mul-
titudes of Israel for more than a month
with these birds there was a miraculous
employment of the provisions of Na-
ture.
The quail (Coturiiix vulgaris^ abounds
through almost the entire Old World. It
resembles the bird called by the same
name in New England {Ortyx Virgiiu-
umts), but its note is like peek-ichit-ichit
rapidly repeated.
QUARANTA'NIA, a mountain
about 7 miles north-west of Jericho,
which tradition points out as the
scene of the temptation of Christ.
It rises abru]itly from the plain to
the height of 1200 to 1500 feet, re-
sembling a perpendicular wall of
rock. Upon its sides are numer-
ous grottos and caverns, where
hermits once dwelt in numbers,
and which were also the retreat
of robbers. On the top of the
mountain are ruins of a chapel.
The mountain is not named in the
Bible.
QUARRIES, THE. The
Hebrew word thus translated in
Judg. 3 : 19, 26 is elsewhere ren-
dered by " graven" or " carved
image."
QUAR'TUS {fourth), a Chris-
tian who lived at Corinth and sent,
through Paul, his salutations to the
Christians in Rome. Rom. 16 : 23.
QUATER'NION. When Peter is
said to have been delivered to four qua-
ternions of soldiers, and to have passed
through a first and second watch. Acts
12 : 4, 1 0. it is to be understood that he was
guarded by four men at a time — viz., two
in the prison with him, and two before
the doors — and that they were relieved
every three hours, or at each success-
717
QUE
QUO
Bound between two
QUEEN OF HEAVEN, the
title of the goddess of the Moon among
the Assyrians, from whom her wor-
ship spread into Asia Minor. To the
Shemites she was generally known
under the names of Astarte, Ash-
taroth, etc. Cakes having the image
of the moon stamped on them are sup-
posed to have been presented in sacri-
fice as a part of her worship. Jer. 7 :
18; 44 : 17, 18, 19, 25.
QUICK'SANDS are referred to
in Acts 27 : 17, and were known as
Soldiers. (From an old Roman , ^ o x- i ^i t
Drawing.) t'"® (rreater Syrtis and the Lesser
Syrtis, two sandy gulfs on the north
ive watch of the night, by four others,
makine: in all sixteen men.
QUEEN is the rendering of three
different Hebrew words, of which the
first is applied to a queen-regnant — as,
for instance, the queen of Sheba, 1 Kgs.
10 : 1, and Athaliah, who usurped the
throne of Judah, 2 Kgs. 11; the second
to a queen-consort — that is, to the wives
of first rank in the royal harem, as dis-
tinguished from the concubines, Esth. 1 :
9 ; 7:1; Cant. 6:8; and the third to a
queen-mother — as, for instance, Bath-
sheba, 1 Kgs. 2 : 19 ; Maachah, 1 Kgs.
15 : 13; 2 Chr. 15 : 16; Jezebel. 2 Kgs.
10 : 13. It was a natural result of the
practice of polygamy that the queen-
consort never attained that dignity which
in our times such a position confers, while
the queen-mother came to occupy one
of the most dignified and powerful po-
sitions in the state. The following is a
list of queen-mothers through the suc-
cessive reigns of the monarchs of the
kingdom of Judah :
Kings. Qtieen-7nOihers.
Solidiiou Bathsheba.
Rehoboam Naamah.
j^^^^ ■[ Maachah or Michalah,
Jehoshaphiit Azubah.
Jelioraiu Not mentioned.
Ahaziah Athaliah.
Joash Zibiah.
Ainaziah Jehoaddan.
Uzziah Jecoliah.
Jotham Jernsha.
Ahaz Not mentioned.
Hezekiali Abi or Abijah.
Manasseh Hephzibah.
Anion MeshuUemeth.
Josiah .Tedidah.
Jehoahaz Hamutal.
Jehoiakitn Zebudah.
Jehoiachiii Nehushta.
Zedekiah Hamutal.
718
em coast of Africa. The Greater Syrtis
was near Cyrene, and is the ''quick-
sands " probably intended in the nar-
rative of Paul's voyage.
QUIRIN'IUS. See Cyrenius.
QUIT is used in 1 Sam. 4 : 9 and 1
Cor. 16 : 13 in the sense of ''acquit."
QUIVER, the box or case for ar-
rows. Gen. 27 : 3. The word is often
used figuratively. Isa. 49 : 2 ; Lam. 3 :
13. In Jer. 5:16 the slaughter and des-
olation which should be brought upon
Egyptian Quivers with Bows.
the Israelites by the invasion of the
Chaldaeans is expressed by the calling
their quivers "an open sepulchre," or
their arrows certain death. See Armor.
QUOTA'TIONS from the 0. T. in
the N. T. are very numerous, but vary
both with respect to the method of quot-
ing and with respect to the application
of the words quoted. The Greek trans-
lation, the Septuagint, is generally used,
QUO
QUO
and how widely diffused and how closely
followed this version was among the Jews
of the time of our Lord may be seen
from the circumstances that, in cases in
which no fault of meaning is involved,
even its incorrectnesses are retained in
the quotations such as Matt. 15 : 9 ; Luke
4 : 18 ; Acts 13 : 41 ; 15 : 7-10 ; Rom. 15 :
10, etc.; in Heb. 1 : 6 is found a quota-
tion from Deut. 32 : 43 which is an inter-
polation of the Septuagint. In cases,
however, in which the errors of the ver-
sion involve a discrepancy of meaning,
the N. T. writers invariably correct the
Septuagint by the Hebrew, such as Matt.
21 : 5 ; 1 Cor. 3:19, etc. Often the quo-
tations are directly from the Hebrew
without any reference to the Septuagint,
such as Matt. 4 : 16, 16; John 19 : 37;
1 Cor. 15 : 54. In Mark 12 : 30; Luke
10 : 27 ; Rom. 12 : 19, the Septuagint
and the Hebrew are combined. Besides
these direct quotations, the books of the
N. T. are crowded with allusions to and
suggestions from the 0. T., both con-
scious, with appropriate adjustment, and
unconscious. To this difference in the
method of quoting corresponds a differ-
ent method of application. When the
N. T. writer ascribes something projihet-
ical or typical to the passage quoted, he
generally introduces it with the word
'• fulfil," such as Matt. 2 : l.i, IS. 23, etc..
and the application is authoritative. But
in other cases the application may be
considered ojitional, referring to the
generally prophetical and typical cha-
racter of the 0. T. in its relation to the
N. T., and a natural result of the force
with which the 0. T. book had impressed
the minds of the N. T. writers.
The precise relation of the N. T. quo-
tations to the Hebrew Scriptures and to
the Greek Septuagint is not yet suffi-
ciently cleared up, but has been much
investigated of late. Mr. D. C. Turpie,
in his book. The Old Textament iit the
Xeio (Lond., 1868), establishes the fol-
lowing result:
Passages in which the Septuagint version
is correctly accepted 53
Passages in whtoli the Septuagint version
is correctly altered 10
Passages in whicii the Septuagint version
is incorrectly accepted 37
Passages in which the Septuagint versrun
is incorrectly altered 76
Passages in which the Hebrew, the Sep-
tuagint, and the New Testament all
ditier 99
ISfnny of the differences are, however,
exceedingly minute, and "correct" and
" incorrect " merely mean accurate agree-
ment or disagreement with the original
Hebrew. Prof. Bohl of Vienna, in his
books Forschuiufen uach eiuer Volkshibel
zur Zeit Jean (Wien, 1873) and Die Alt-
testameutlichen Citnte im N. T. (Wien,
1878), maintains that the N. T. writers
quoted directly and correctly from a
, current Aramaic version, which has in-
! deed perished, but which was in Christ's
day read and memorized by all classes
among the Jews as the people's Bible.
Hence the N. T. quotations are incor-
j rect in the same way and to the same
I degree as are the quotations from the
i present A. V.
719
RAA
RAB
R.
RA'AMAH (trembling), a commer-
cial country which traded with Tyre.
Eze. 27 : 22. This land furnished spices,
gems, and gold, and was probably named
after a son of Cash, whose descendants
are believed to have settled upon the
south-western shore of the Persian Gulf.
The Septuagint renders Raamah by
Regma, a place mentioned by Ptolemy
in the territory of the Nariti, an Arabian
tribe settled in the above locality.
RAAMI'AH {whom Jehoiuth makex
tremble), Neh. 7 : 7, OR REELAI'AH
(id.), Ezr. 2 : 2. one of the chiefs who
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel.
RAAM'SES. Ex. 1:11. See Ram-
J5SES.
RAB 'BAH (greatness). 1. The
chief city and capital of the Ammonites.
Jos. 13 : 25. Its full name is " Rabbath
of the children of Ammon." Deut. 3:11.
It is also called " Rabbath of the Ammon-
ites." Eze. 21 : 20. Greek and Roman
writers call it " Philadelphia," a name
given by Ptolemy Philadelphus, by
whom it was rebuilt. Its modern name
is Amman. Rabbath was situated in a
small valley at the head of a stream
running into the Jabbok, about 22 miles
cast of the Jordan. 14 miles north-east
of Heshbon, and 19 miles south-east of
Ramoth-gilead.
Hisfori/. — Rabbah is first mentioned
as the place of the " bed," or sarcophagus,
of Og, king of Bashan. Deut. 3:11.
Joab besieged it, and, by order of David,
Uriah was here slain. 2 Sam. 11 : 1-17.
Joab took the •' city of waters " — that is,
probably, the lower city, through which
the stream flowed — while the citadel held
out until David came with reinforce-
ments. 2 Sam. 12 : 26-31 ; 1 Chr. 20 :
1-3. Afterward, when David fled from
Jerusalem to Mahanaim, a citizen of
Kabbah gave him provisions. 2 Sam.
17 : 27-29. At a later period the Am-
monites regained their independence,
but the overthrow of Rabbah was pre-
dicted. Jer. 49 : 23 : Eze. 21 : 20 ; 26 : 5 ;
Am. 1 : 14. Under the Ptolemies it
continued to be a city of importance,
having a garrison for repelling the at-
720
tacks of Bedouins, and it supplied water
for travellers across the desert. In N. T.
times Rabbah was one of the cities of
Decapolis, under the name of " Philadel-
phia," and it continued as an important
town until the fourth century, being the
seat of a Christian bishopric; it was finally
overthrown by the Saracens. Earth-
quakes have contributed to its ruin.
Present Appearance. — The ruins of
Rabbah are among the most imposing
on the east side of the Jordan. Among
them are those of a theatre — the largest
known in Syria — capable of holding 6000
spectators, a smaller theatre, or odeum,
baths, a beautiful Grecian temple, large
basilicas, or Greek churches, a vast pub-
lic building with arches still standing,
and the citadel on a hill; the remarkable
ruins are strewn over a space of several
acres. Most of them, however, belong
to the Gneco-Roman period. A paved
Roman street is quite perfect, the wheel-
ruts being distinctly visible. Eight Cor-
inthian columns of the theatre remain.
The coins of the city bear the image of
Astarte and the word " Heracleion,"
from '• Hercules," the idol which followed
Moloch. Immense flocks and herds of
the Arabs come to Rabbah for water and
for shelter from the noonday heat, giving
to the place the appearance and odor of
a farm-yard, strikingly fulfilling the
prophecy, " I will make Rabbah a stable
for camels, and the Ammonites a couch-
ing-place for flocks." Eze. 25 : 4, 5.
2. A town of .Judah in the hill-country,
noticed with Kirjath-jearim. Jos. 15 :
60. Conder suggests that it may be
identified with the present ruin Jiiibba,
in the hills near Beit Jihrin.
RAB'B ATH - AM'MON. Deut.
3:11. See Rabbah.
RAB'BATH-MO'AB. See Ar.
RAB'BI, a title of dignity, literally
signifying " my master." It was given
by the Jews to distinguish teachers of
their Law, and frequently applied to our
Lord by the disciples and the people.
Matt. 23 : 7, 8 ; 26 : 2b, 49 ; Mark 9:5;
11 : 21 ; 14 : 45 ; John 1 : 38, 49 ; 3:2,
26. etc. The usual Greek word in the
RAB
RAC
Gospels as the title of Christ is " teacher."
Matt. 8 : 19; 9 : 11, etc. The Jews
distinguished between Bah, "master,"
Edbhi, ''my master," and Rahhoni, "my
great master." The last was the most
honorable title of all.
RAB'BITH (mHltitnde), sl town of
Issachar, apparently in the southern lim-
it of the tribe. Jos. 19 : 20. Drake would
identify it with Arraheh, but Conder
locates it at the present village Rabu,
on the watershed south of Gilboa.
RABBO'NI. John 20 : 16. See
Rabbi.
RAB'-MAG (perhaps the mantel- of
the mayi) signified an officer of great
power and dignity at the Babylonian
court. Jer. 39 : 3, 13.
RAB'SARIS {chief eunuch), the
title of a high Assyrian or Babylonian
officer. 2 Kgs. 18 : 17 ; Jer. 39 : 3, 13.
RAB'SHAKEH seems to be the
name, not of a person, but of an officer —
the chief butler or cupbearer — who was
sent with Rab-saris, the chief of the
eunuchs, and Tartan, messengers of the
king of Assyria, to Hezekiah, summon-
ing him, in the most indecent and blas-
phemous manner, to surrender his capi-
tal. 2 Kgs. 18 : 17-37.
RA'CA (irorthUsn), a term of con-
tempt. Matt. 5 : 22.
RACE. Heb. 12 : 1. See Games.
RA'CHAB, the Greek form of " Ka-
hab." Matt. 1 : 5.
I RA'CHAL (trnffie), a place in Judnh
; to which David sent some of his spoils.
i 1 Sam. 30 : 29. Its site is unknown.
Tomb of Rachel, near Bethlehem. (Aftei- a Photograph.)
RA'CHELi (a ewe), the daughter of j her character — her theft of Laban's idols,
Laban, the wife of the patriarch Jacob, her shrewdness in concealing the fact
and the mother of Joseph and Benjamin. — does not command our respect. She
Her history is given in Gen. 29-35. The died after giving birth to Benjamin, and
incidents of her life — her beauty, the on her grave, near the road from Beth-
passion with which she was loved, etc. — lehem to Jerusalem, Jacob set up a
are of a charming impressiveness, but pillar. Gen. 35 : 19. At the time of
46 721
RAC
RAI
Samuel and Saul the pillar was still
standing. 1 Sam. 10 : 2. At present a
small white mosque, erected by the Mo-
hammedans, indicates the place. Jere-
miah, 31 : 15-17, represents Rachel as
weeping in her grave when her children
pass by on their way to Babylon, and
Matthew, 2:17, 18, applies this to the
massacre of the innocents.
RACHEL'S TOMB. Gen. 35 .
19, 20. The traditional site of the tomb
of Rachel is on the road from Jerusalem
to Bethlehem, about half a mile from the
latter place. An insignificant building
with a dome in the Muslim style marks
the spot. The building has been repeat-
edly restored, and is not older than the
fifteenth century. The tomb is revered
by Muslims, Christians, and Jews and
visited by pilgrims. (See cut, p. 721.)
RAD'DAI {trendinf/ down), a brother
of David, the fifth son of Jesse. 1 Chr.
2 : U.
RA'GAU, the same person as Reu,
one of the ancestors of our Lord. Luke
3 :35; Gen. 11 : 20, 21.
RAGU'EL i/rfend of God), the
father of Jethro, Num. 10 : 29; called
Reuel in Ex. 2 : 18.
RA'HAB, a woman of Jericho who
kept a public-house, and. as most sup-
pose, was of depraved character. She
had heard of the Israelites and of the
favor of God toward them, Josh. 2 : 8-
11 ; and when the two spies sent out by
Joshua came to Jericho to explore the
land of promise, she concealed them from
the officers who were sent in search of
them, and at a convenient time let them
down by a cord upon the outside of the
city wall, to which her house joined. It
was agreed between her and the spies
that she should take a scarlet thread aud
fasten it in the window or aperture
through which they had escaped, and
when the city was destroyed her house
and all that were in it should be protected.
Josh. 2 : 1 7-28, When the city was taken
and burnt, Rahab and her family were
preserved, Josh. 6 : 17-25, and it is sup-
posed she married into a noble family
of the tribe of Judah. She is called
Rachab, Matt. 1 : 5, and her faith is
commended among the worthies in Heb.
11 :31.
RA'HAB (violence), a symbolical
term for Egypt. Isa. 51 : 9, 1 0. 1 5. It may
also apply to its king. Eze. 29 : :'. : 32 : 2.
722
In Job 26 : 12 the same word is trans-
lated ** the proud," and there is a similar
reference in Isa. 30 : 7, translated
*' strength," but rendered by Gesenius
'' violence."
RAIN. The force of the various
allusions to this subject cannot be ap-
prehended without some knowledge of
the natural conditions of Palestine.
Rain falls very frequently during what
we call the cold months, from November
to April. Sometimes it rains powerfully
for several days, with thunder and light-
ning and a strong wind. In the summer
season, from May to October, the earth
is parched, verdure is destroyed, and
vegetation languishes. The first rain
after the summer drought usually falls
in October, and is called the former or
autumnal rain, because it precedes seed-
time and prepares the earth for cultiva-
tion. The latter rain falls in April, just
before harvest, and jierfects the fruits of
the earth. Deut. 11 : 14 ; Hos. 6:3; Joel
2 : 23. Storms after this time were re-
garded by the Jews as unseasonable, and
even miraculous. Prov. 26 : 1 ; 1 Sam.
12: 16-19. The average present rain-
fall at Jerusalem is 61.6 inches, which is
greater than that of almost any part of
the United States. See Palestine.
RAIN'BOW, a seven-colored semi-
circle produced by the reflection of the
sun's rays from the drops of falling
water, and appearing in its greatest
brilliancy when the spectator is placed
between the shining sun on the one side
and a raining cloud on the other. It
may be formed in waterfalls, fountains,
etc., but when formed in the atmosphere
it always shows that the rain has passed
away. The same laws by which this
effect is produced were probably in
operation before the Deluge. The rain-
bow, which had hitherto been a beautiful
object in the heavens, was appointed as
a sign of the covenant that the earth
should not be again destroyed by a
flood. The meaning of the covenant
would be in substance. "As surely as
that bow is the result of established laws
which must continue as long as the sun
and atmosphere endure, so surely shall
the world be preserved from destruction
by a deluge." Gen. 9 : 12-17.
RAI'SINS, or grapes dried in
bunches, are mentioned 1 Sam. 25 : 18;
30 : 12; 2 Sam. 16 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 40.
KAK
RAM
RA'KEM (flower-gardening), a de-
scendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr, 7 : 16.
RAK'KATH (sAore), a fortified city
of Naphtali. Josh. 19 : 35. According
to the Rabbins, it stood where Tiberias
afterward stood, but there seems little
authority for this statement, and no
trace of that name has been found in
the neighborhood. See Tiberias.
RAK'KON (thinness), a city of Dan,
probably not far from Joppa. Josh. 19 :
46, Conder claims to have recjvered
the site of Rakkon at Tell er- Hnkkeit,
on the shore north of Joppa. It is a
high point covered by an accumulation
of blown sand, and situated near the
mouth of the turbid river Aujeh, or
" yellow water."
RAM (high, exalted). 1. A descend-
ant of Judah, and son of Hezron, 1 Chr.
2:9, 10 ; called Aram in Matt. 1 : 3,
4 ; Luke 3 : 33.
2. A descendant of Judah, and son
of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr. 2 : 25, 27.
3. One to whose kindred Eliphaz be-
longed, Job 32 : 2 ; identified by some
with Aram. Gen. 22 : 21.
RA'MA, a Greek form of " Ramah."
Matt. 2 : 18.
RA'MAH (high ])lace), the name of
several towns in Palestine.
1. A city of Benjamin near to Gibeah,
and occupied once by Saul. Josh. 18 : 25 ;
Jud. 19 : 13 ; 1 Sam*. 22 : 6. It was on
a site naturally strong ; was fortified by
Baasha, but the king of Judah stopped
the work through the co-operation of the
Syrians. 1 Kgs. 15 : 17-22 ; 2 Chr. 16 :
1-6. At the capture of Jerusalem by
Nebuchadnezzar the captives were
placed under guard at Ramah ; among
them was the prophet Jeremiah. Jer.
,39:8-12; 40:1. It was here his
prophecy was fulfilled, " A voice was
heard in Ramah, lamentation and
bitter weeping." Jer. 31 : 15. This
prophecy was again illustrated and
fulfilled by the slaughter of the inno-
cents at Bethlehem when Jesus was
born. Matt. 2:17, 18. Ramah was re-
occupied after the Captivity. Ezr. 2 :
26 : Neh. 7 : 30. The town has been
identified with er-Ram, about 5 miles
north of Jerusalem, where broken
columns, many large hewn stones in
the houses, and other ancient remains
are to be found. . The village is a small
and miserable one, having only about
fifteen families, but the view from it is
very extensive.
2. The birthplace, home, and burial-
place of the prophet Samuel, the word
being a contraction of " Ramathaim-
zophim." 1 Sam. 1:1; 2 : 11 ; 7 : 17 j
8 : 4: 15 : 34; 16: 13; 19 : 18 ; 25 : 1 ;
28. Stanley says that the position of
this Ramah is the most complicated and
disputed problem of sacyed topography.
The place was on an eminence south of
Gibeah, the birthplace of Saul, and is
also said to be " of Mount Ephraim," a
district, however, without defined boun-
daries. 1 Sam. 1 : 1, 19. The following
sites for Ramah have been proposed:
(1) Nehy-Samicil, 4 miles north-west of
Jerusalem, where it is placed by the
common tradition of Muslims, Jews,
and Christians, and Grove is inclined
to favor it; (2) Er-Rnm, which is the
same as Ramah, No. 1 ; (3) Ramleh, 2
miles south-west of Lydda ; (4 ) Ramah, a
short distance above Bethlehem ; (5) the
" Frank mountain," 3 miles south-east
of Bethlehem, a site favored by Ge-
senius; (6) Ramet el-Khalil, a group of
ruins a little north of Hebron, favored
by Walcottand Yande Yelde; (7) Rama,
a village 3^ miles west of Samir, favored
by Schwarze; (8) Ram-allnh, 5 miles
north of Aeby-Samwil, favored by Ewaldj
(9) Seba. 6 miles west of Jerusalem, pro-
posed by Robinson, and Conder points
out some curious facts about Sufn in
connection with Ramathaim-zophim.
The true site of this Ramah must re-
main undecided until explorers furnish
us with more definite information.
3. A place on the border of Asher,
probably not far from Tyre. Josh. 19 :
29. Robinson places this Ramah at the
modern village Rameh, about 13 miles
south-east of Tyre, but Porter and Grove
appear to put it at a Rameh, 3 miles east
of Tyre.
4. A fortified place of Naphtali. Josh.
19 : 36. It may be identical with the
modern village of Ravieh, 10 miles
north-west of the Sea of Galilee and
on the road to Akka.
5. A name for Ramoth-Gilead, which
see. 2 Kgs. 8 : 28, 29.
6. A place mentioned in Neh. 11 : 33
as reinhabited by Benjamites after their
return from exile.
RAMATHA'IM-ZO'PHIM
(double height of the watchers), the full
723
RAM
RAP
name for Ramah, No. 2, which see. 1
Sam. 1:1.
RA'MATHITE, a native of Ra-
mah. 1 Chr. 27 : 27.
RA'MATH-LF/HI {hill of Lehi),
the place where Samson slew a thousand
Philistines with a jaw-bone. Jud. 15 : 17.
See Lehi.
RA'MATH-MIZ'PEH {heiaht of
the wnfch-toicer}, a frontier-town in Gad.
Jos. 13 : 26. Perhaps Jebel Onha or Jebel
Jilnd, the highest peak of Gilead, 2 or 3
miles west of En-Salt, which is supposed
to represent Ramoth-gilead.
RA'MATH OF THE SOUTH,
a place in the southern border of Simeon.
Josh. 19: 8; 1 Sam. 33: 27. In the latter
passage it is called *' South Ramoth " to
distinguish it from Ramoth beyond Jor-
dan. It has been identified with Jebel
Bnrabir, a hill 45 miles south-west of
Beer-sheba, and also with Knnnul, 20
miles south-east of Beer-sheba; and
lasHy, with Tell el-Lekit/eh, near Beer-
s 11 p n 1
RAM, B AT TERING. Eze. 4:2;
21 : 22. See Battering-ram.
R AME'SES {mil of the nan), a prov-
ince and city in Egypt; called also
RAAM'SES. Gen. 47: 11; Ex. 12: 37;
Num. 33 : 3, 5. It was without doubt
identical with Goshen as a district. Tlie
city of Rameses was in the valley which
extends from the Pelusiac branch of the
Nile to the Red Sea or the Bitter Lakes
of Suez. It was probably the capital of
Goshen. See Gen. 46 : 10. Its precise
location has not been determined. It
has been proposed to identify it with —
(1) Letopolis, now Baboul, a few miles
south of On; (2) with On; (3) with
Ileroopolis, about 20 miles north-west
of the Bitter Lakes ; (4) at Zoan, or
the modern Son, a theory maintained
by Dr. Brugsch ; (5) with a ruin near
AbboHiih.
RAMI'AH {Jehovah exalted), one
who had mairied a foreign wife. Ezr.
10 : 25.
RA'MOTH {heifihtH), one who had
married a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 29.
RA'MOTli. 1 Sam. 30 : 27. See
Ramath and Remkth.
RA'MOTH-GIIi'EAD {hei,iht of
Gilead), a city of tlie Amorites, and
afterward a chief city of Gad, east of
the Jordan, and given to the Levites,
and also made a city of refuge. Dent. 4 :
724
43 ; Josh. 20 : 8. It was also called
Ramah. 2 Kgs. 8 : 29 ; 2 Chr. 22 : fi. It
was the headquarters of one of Solomon's
commissariat-ofiicers. 1 Kgs. 4 : 13. It
came into possession of the Syrians, and
Ahab and Jehoshaphat formed an alli-
ance to recover it, but Ahab was mortally
wounded. 1 Kgs. 22:2-30; 2 Chr. 18.
Later, Joram was wounded at the same
place, and the city was taken. Jehu was
in command, and anointed king of Israel
by order of Elisha. 2 Kgs. 8 : 28; 2 Chr.
22 : 5. 6. Ramoth-gilead has been
identified by man^^ travellers with E>i-
Salt, though this has been questioned.
Es-Salt is situated about 25 miles east
of the Jordan, and 13 miles south of the
Jabbok. It is now the most important
and populous place in that district, and
is the capital of Belka and the residence
of a Turkish governor of the third rank.
The place lies 2740 feet above the level
of the sea, has a healthy climate, and
from three hundred to four hundred
Arab families and about eighty families
of Greek Christians. There are some
ruins of the Roman period, and a castle
on the top of a hill. The hiils around
it bear many traces of ancient rock-
tombs. Three miles to the north-west
is Jebel Jelad, 3650 feet in height,
and said to be the highest eminence
in Gilead. Upon it Dr. Merrill traced
a solid wall with remains of towers and
angles.
RAMS' HORNS. See Trumpet.
RANG'ES, 2 Kgs. 11 : 8, 15 ; 2 Chr.
23 : 14, means "ranks of soldiers."
RAN'SOM, the price paid to pur-
chase the freedom of a captive or slave.
Matt. 20 : 28 ; Mark 10 : 45 : 1 Cor. 6:19,
20 ; 1 Tim. 2 : 6. Under the Levitical law,
an offering was required of every Israelite
over twenty years of age at the time the
census was taken. This off"ering is called
a ransom or atonement-money. Ex.30:
12-16. It amounted to half a shekel, or
about twenty-five cents. It was to be
made upon penalty of the plague; and
every person, rich or poo;\ was required
to give that sum, and neither more nor
less. 1 Pet.l: 18, 19.
RA'PHA {tall). 1. A descendant
of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 2.
2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 37.
RA'PHAEL {the divine healer) is,
according t<t .lewish tradition, one of
the four anffcls who stand around the
RAP
REA
throne of God (Michael, Uriel, Gabriel,
Raphael ). The name is not in the Bible.
RA'PHU (healed), father of the
Benjamite spy. Num. 13 : 9.
RA'VEiV {hlach). Cant. 5 : 11.
Under this term are evidently included
the various birds of the crow family,
some eight or more species of which are
found in Palestine.
The raven, like most of its congene -s,
feeds principally on carrion. It resembles
our crow in size, shape, and color, and
is ceremonially unclean. Lev. 11: 15.
When about to feed upon a dead body,
it is said to seize first upon the eyes.
Hence the allusion, Prov. 30 : 17. im-
plying the exposure of the body in the
open field, than which nothing was re-
garded as more disgraceful. See Burial.
Ravens live in desolate regions. Isa.
34: 11, and it is only by restless flight
over large areas that they are able to
obtain even an uncertain living. Job
38 : 41 ; Ps. 147 : 9 ; L.)kc 12 : 24. But
Raven. {Coixus Cm ax. After Houghton.)
they do not, as has been believed, turn
their young from the nest before they
are able to supply themselves with food.
Whether the raven sent out of the ark
by Noah ever returned to him is not
agreed : according to the literal reading
of the Hebrew, also of the Samaritan
text, and the Chaldee, it did; but a
different opinion is supported by the
LXX., the Syriac, the Latin, and most
of the Fathers. Gen. 8 : 7.
There is no reason for questioning the
simple statements of 1 Kgs. 17 : 4-7 con-
cerning the miraculous feeding of Elijah
at the brook Cherith by these birds.
RA'ZOR. Th« usage of shaving the
head after completing a vow must have
established the barber's trade quite early
among the Hebrews. The instruments
used were exactly the same as in our
days — the razor, the scissors, the basin,
and the mirror. Razors are mentioned
in Num. 6:5; Jud. 13 : 5: 16 : 17; 1
Sam. 1:11; Eze. 5:1, and figuratively
in Ps. 52 : 2 ; Isa. 7 : 20. See Hair.
REAI'A [ivliom Jehovah caret for),
a descendant of Reuben, and son of
Micah. 1 Chr. 5 : 5. The name is iden-
tical with —
REAI'AH. 1. A descendant of
Judah through his son Shobal. 1 Chr.
4:2.
2. One whose children returned with
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 47 : Neh. 7 : 50.
725
KEA
RED
REAP'ING. See Agriculture.
RE'BA (the fourth), one of the five
Midianite kings whom the Israelites
slew. Num. 31 : 8 ; Josh. 13 : 21.
REBECCA. Rom. 9: 10. See Re-
BEKAH.
REBEK^AH (a cord with a noose,
enchaining), the daughter of Bethuel,
sister of Laban, and wife of Isaac. The
circumstances of her marriage with Isaac
constitute one of the most charming and
beautiful passages of the sacred history.
Gen. 24. After she had been married
twenty years without children, she be-
came the mother of Jacob and Esau.
AVhen they grew up Jacob became the
favorite of his mother, and this undue
partiality was the source of much mis-
chief. She persuaded him to obtain his
father's blessing by practising a deceit,
and he had to flee for fear of his brother's
revenge. She died before Isaac, and was
buried in Abraham's tomb. Gen. 49 : 31.
RECEIPT OF CUS'TOM.
Matt. 9 : 9, See Publican.
RE'CHAB [hn-Hemau). 1. The
father or ancestor of Jehonadab. 2 Kgs.
10 : 15, 23 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 55 ; Jer. 35 : 6-19.
2. One of the captains who conspired
to murder Ish-bosheth. 2 Sam. 4 : 2.
3. One who assisted in repairing the
walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3: 14.
RE'CHABITES, THE, were a
tribe of Kenites or Midianites, 1 Chr.
2 : 55, descended from Jonadab, or Jeho-
nadab, the son or descendant of Rechab,
2 Kgs. 10 : 15, from whom they derive
their name. They were worshippers of
the true God, practised circumcision, and
stood within the covennnt of Abraham,
but they were not reckoned as children
of Israel, and perhaps they did not feel
themselves bound by the Mosaic Law
and ritual. The introduction of the
worship of Baal by Jezebel and Ahab
was a horror to them.
Jonadab appears to have been very
zealous for the pure worship of God, and
was associated with Jehu in the destruc-
tion of the idolatrous house of Ahab.
He established a rule for his posterity
that they should possess neithrr land
nor houses, but should live in tents, and
should drink no wine or strong drink.
In obedience to this rule, the Rechab-
ites continued a separate but peaceable
people, living in tents and removing
from place to place as circumstances re-
726
quired. When Judsea was first invaded
by Nebuchadnezzar they fled to Jerusa-
lem for safety, where it pleased God,
through the prophet Jeremiah, to exhibit
them to the wicked inhabitants of Jeru-
salem as an example of constancy in
their obedience to the mandates of an
earthly father. Jer. 35 : 2-19.
Some highly -interesting facts are
known respecting the present condition
of the Rechabites. They still dwell in
the mountainous tropical country to the
north-east of Medina. They are called
Belli Khaibr, " sons of Heber," and
their land is called Khaibr. They have
no intercourse with their brethren, the
Jews, who are dispersed over Asia, and
are esteemed as "false brethren " because
they observe not the Law.
RE'CHAH (utmost part), a place,
apparently in Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 12.
RECONCILE, Eph. 2 : 16,
RECONCILIA TION. Heb. 2 : 17.
These terms imply the restoration of
man to the favor and grace of God
through the atonement made by Jesus
Christ. Reconciliation is a change of
relation of two parties from enmity to
peace. It is twofold — man-ward and
God-ward. God is reconciled to man
by the satisfaction of his justice through
the atoning sacrifice of Christ ; man
is reconciled to God as his loving
F.ather, as exhibited in the sacrifice
of his Son, which removes distrust and
creates gratitude and love. Both sides
are combined in 2 Cor. 6 : 18-20 ; comp.
Rom. 5 : 11, where the English Version
renders the Greek word by " atonement"
(which is etymologically correct, but
not according to modern theological
usage).
RECORD^ER, the annalist of the
king, and also his councillor, and an
officer who stood thus very high in the
kingdom, as is manifest from the
commissions entrusted to him, such
as representing the king and super-
intending temple-repairs. Compare 2
Sam. 8 : 16; 20 : 24 : 1 Kgs. 4:3; 2
K-s. 18 : 18, 37; 2 Chr. 34: 8.
RED HEIF'ER. See Offering.
RED SEA, a long, narrow arm of
the ocean separating Asia from Africa.
It was called by the Hebrews " the sea,"
Ex. 14 : 2, 9, 16, 21, 28; 15 : 1, 4, 8, 10,
19 ; Josh. 24 : 6, 7, etc. ; the " Egyptian
Sea," Isa. 11 : 15, but especially the " Sea
RED
RED
of Supk," apparently so named from the
wool-like weeds growing in it. Ex. 10 :
19 ; 13 : 18 ; 15 : 4, 22 ; 23 : 31 ; Num.
15 : 25 : 21 : 4, etc. The Greeks called
it the "Erythraean" or Red Sea, and it
bears this name in the N. T., Acts 7:36:
Heb. 11 : 29 — a name derived, perhaps,
from the red coral or zoophytes in the
sea, or, as some conjecture, from Edom,
which signifies " red." The Egyptians
called it the *' Sea of Punt" or Arabia,
and the Arabs " Bahr el-Hejaz," or " El-
Bahr el-Alimar." The sea washes the
shores of Arabia on the east, and those
of Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia on the
west. See Map of Sinai, at the end of
this volume.
Physical Fealnrex. — The Red Sea con-
sists of a long, narrow arm of the Indian
Ocean, projecting noith-west inland a
distance of 1450 miles. It is connected
with the ocean by the narrow strait of
Bab-el-Mandeb, only 18 miles wide. The
sea, at its greatest breadth, is 221 miles :
toward its northern end it gradually
contracts, and then divides into two
arms — the Gulf of Akabah on the east,
and the Gulf of Suez on the west, the
latter extending to within 70 miles of
the Mediterranean. Between these two
arms is the Sinaitic peninsula. The Red
Sea covers an area of about 180, (00
square miles, and is at some places
1000 fathoms deep, but its average
depth is from 400 to 600 fathoms. The
shores are flanked by a network of
submerged coral-reefs and islands ex-
tending a long way from the coast
and rendering the navigation of the
sea perilous, especially in its narrower
parts. The western of the two arras,
now called the Gulf of Suez, is 150
miles long, and about 20 miles in
average breadth. An ancient canal
once connected the Nile with this arm
of the Red Sea. It was built, as some
suppose, by the Pharaohs, and is cer-
tainly known to have been in use for
navigation in the fourteenth century
before Christ. It was about 62 Roman
miles in length, 54 feet wide, and about
7 feet deep. It has been recently utilized
in the construction of a modern canal.
A greater ship-canal, opened in 1869,
now connects the Mediterranean Sea
with the Red Sea at Suez. The eastern
arm, called the Gulf of Akabah, is 105
miles long and about 15 miles wide.
No rivers fall into the Red Sea, but a
large number of rain-torrents run into
it. The water is a blue color, remark-
ably clear, and changing to green near
the shoals or reefs. Notwithstanding
assertions to the contrary, the sea has
been shown to be subject to the tides,
the difference between high and low tide
being from 3 to 7 feet. The north
wind prevails in summer in the northern
part of the sea; the south-east wind in
winter, especially in the southern part
of the sea ; but the north-west is most
prevalent in this part of it in winter.
The coasts of the Red Sea are chiefly
barren rock or sand, and therefore gen-
erally destitute of inhabitants. A short
distance inland the mountains are from
4000 to 7600 feet high. There are only
two or three towns of consequence in
the entire 1400 miles of its African side.
Suez, a town of 14,000 inhabitants,
Kiiser, the harbor of Upper Egypt, with
1200, Sanakim, a seaport of Soudan,
with 10,000, and Masau'a, a port of
Ab^'ssinia, with 5000, are the only towns
of any size on the African shore. There
are few also on the Arabian side, the
most important being Jedda, where the
Muslims point out a stone structure
called *' Eve's Tomb," a building of
comparatively recent times. The mother-
of-pearl shells were once very abundant,
but have diminished of late, from the
eagerness of fishermen in prosecuting
their trade. Many curiously-colored
shells are also gathered and sold as
curiosities to travellers — among them
the mnrex, the "porcelain shell," the
pink unrdam — and black, purple, and
white coral is very abundant.
One of the most important facts in re-
gard to the phj'sical features of the Red
Sea is the partial drying up of its
northern extremity. The land at the
head of the Gulf of Suez has gradually
risen since the Christian era, and the
sea has re'ired. How much farther
north it extended in historic times has
not been definitively determined, but it is
estimated at not less than 50 miles, which
would narrow the land at the isthmus to
about 20 or 25 miles in width. The re-
peated explorations of the isthmus have
shown conclusively that in the times of
Moses the sea included the " Lake of the
Crocodile " and the more southern of the
" Bitter Lakes," and the northern end
727
RED
RED
of these and the head of the Red Sea
were probably in that age identical.
Scripture References. — The grand event
associated with the Red Sea is the pas-
sage of the Israelites and the overthrow
of the Egy|)tians. Ex. 14, 15. This
miraculous event is frequently referred
to in the Scriptures. Num. 33 : 8 ; Deut.
11:4; Josh. 2: 10; Judg. 11 : 16; 2 Sam.
22 : 16 ; iV eh. 9:9-11; Ps. 66 : 6 : Isa. 10 :
26 ; Acts 7 : 36 ; 1 Cor. 10 : 1, 2 ; Heb. 11 :
29, etc. The place of the crossing has been
a matter of much controversy. It should
be remarked, as preliminary to this dis-
cussion, that the head of the gulf is
probably at least 50 miles farther south
than it was at the time of the Exodus.
If the Red Sea then included the Bitter
Lakes of Suez and the Birket et- Timanh
("Lake of the Crocodile"), the cross-
ing may have been farther north than
would now appear possible. Thus the
predictions of Isaiah, 11 : 15 ; 19 : 5,
" The Lord shall utterly destroy the
tongue of the Egyptian Sea," " The
waters shall fail from the sea," are
fulfilled.
Stanley says that the place of passage
has been extended by Arab tradition
down the whole Gulf of Suez.
The following are the principal theories
respecting the plac^i of crossing of the
Red Sea :
1. The modern theory of Schleiden,
revived by Brugsch, that the Israelites
did not cross the Red Sea, but the Ser-
bonian bog. This conflicts with the
}ilain narrative of Scripture, which says
they crossed the Red Sea. And it also
requires that Rameses be transferred to
Zoan, about 40 miles farther north than
Brugsch had positively fixed it from the
inscriptions, in his earlier works.
2. The tradition of the peninsular
Arabs, which places the crossing south
of Jehel At(ik((h. But the physical
features of the country are against this
place, for the mountains shut down to the
sea, leaving only a foot-path impractica-
ble for such a host to pass, and this moun-
tain extends for about 12 miles.
3. M. de Lcsscps puts the passage be-
tween the Crocodile Lake and the Bitter
Lakes, while M. Ritt finds it along the
dike at Chahx)/. If the Red Se;i extended
to these ]»oint8, its dep'h an<l breadth
then have not been ]>rovcd sufKcient to
meet the scriptural conditions.
728
4. Others, as Niebuhr, Laborde, Well-
sted, Robinson, Hengstenberg, Tischeu-
dorf, Ewald, Kurtz, Keil, Schaff, Bartlett,
place the crossing in the neighborhood of
Suez. This general locality seems to meet
the requirements of the narrative. Rob-
inson made a thorough investigation,
and concluded that the place of passage
was near the small arm of the sea which
runs up from Suez. A strong north-east
wind, acting upon the ebb-tide, would
drive out the water from the shallower
part, while the deeper portions would
still remain covered, thus constituting
a wall (or defence] to the Israelites on
the right hand and on the left. Others
insist upon the likelihood of the cross-
ing from Wddy 7'airdrik, farther south,
since it is argued that a sea at leist
12 miles broad would have been needed
to overwhelm the whole army of the
Egyptians.
But so many have been the changes
of this region in the lapse of ages that
it will not probably be possible to de-
cide with certainty upon the exact spot.
Either of the two points hist suggcfted,
in Robinson's opinion, " satisfies the con-
ditions of the case; in either the deliver-
ance of the Israelites was equally great
and the arm of Jehovah alike gloriously
revealed."
After crossing, the Israelites marched
down and encnnped on the east side of
the Red Sea (Gulf of Suez). Num. 33 :
10. From the way of the Red Sea came
locusts, Ex. 19 : 12-19, and the quails
which supplied them with food came
from the same source. Num. 11 :31.
They journeyed by the way of the Red
Sea (the eastern arm or Gulf of Akabah)
to compass Edom. Num. 21 : 4. In the
prosperous reign of Solomon he " made
a navy of ships" at Ezion-geber and
Elath, which were ports at the head of
the Gulf of Akabah. 1 Kgs. 9 : 26 ; 10 :
22: 2 Chr. 8:17, 18.
RED SEA, PASSAGE OF.
See Exoni's, Route of. and Rkd Ska.
REnEEM', REDEEMER,
REDEMP'TION. In the 0. T. these
terms arc specially applied to the repur-
chase of an estate, a field, which had come
into some stranger's possession. Ac-
cording to the Mosaic Law, the original
owner of such an estate or his descend-
ants, or even his nearest kinsmen, still
retained a right of proprietorship, which
REE
REG
they could enforce after ransouiing the
estate — that is, by paying back the sum
for which it had been sold. Henje arose
a number of metaphorical applications
of the terms referring to this relation
between God and his people, the chil-
dren of Israel, whom he redeemed from
the bondage of Egypt. Ex. 6:6; Isa.
43 : 1 ; 44 : 22 : 48 ': 20.
In the X. T. the terms generally refer
to the repurchase of the freedom of a
person. To purchase a person's liberty
for him is to redeem him, and the price
paid is called the ransom. Sinners are in
hondage to sin, but Christ, having given
h;s blood or his life as a ransom for them,
rerleems them, and is therefore called their
Redeemer. Matt. 20 : 28 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 18.
This ransom has an infinite value, being
thework of the (iod-man, and is sufficient
to redeem all men from captivity; butil
is efficient and available only for the re-
demption of such as accept and appro-
priate it by a living faith in Christ Jesus,
and walk not after the flesh, but after the
Spirit.
REED, used generically for various
tall plants of the grass or sedge order.
See Bulrush, Fi.ag, Rlsh. Fishpoles.
canes, and rods, Matt. 27 : 29, are formed
of it. These plants flourish in marshes
or in the vicinity of water-courses; heiice
the allusion. Job 40: 21. It is often used
by the sacred writers to illustrate weak-
ness and fragility. 2 Kgs. 18 : 21 ; Isa.
36 : 6 ; 42 : 3 ; Eze. 29 : 6 ; Matt. 12 :
20.
Reeds were also used to make pens of
(see Pen), and also as measuring-rods.
Eze. 40 : 5. See Measures. From their
height and slender shape, plants of this
kind are moved by the slightest breath
of vind, 1 Kgs. 14 : 15, and hence noth-
ing could be more unimportant in itself
than such a motion, and nothing more
strikingly illustrative of fickleness and
instability. Comp. Matt. 11 : 7 and Eph.
4: 14.
The true reed of Egypt and Palestine
(Annir/n (ioiKf.r) has a slender jointed
stalk like bamboo, about 12 feet in height,
with a fine large brush of bloom at the
top. This flexible stalk often lies pros-
trate before the wind, ready to rise again
at the first lull. About the perennial
waters of the Holy Land there are often
dense canebrakes of. this plant, in the
midst of which wild beasts find their
lairs. With one or more hollow tubes
of reed, musical instruments are con-
structed by the youth of the country,
and it is likely that David first learned
to plav on a similar primitive reed-organ.
REED, MEASURING. Eze. 40:
5. See Measures.
REELiA'IAH (whon). Jehovah malcen
tremble), one who returned with Zerub-
babel, Ezr. 2:2: identical with Raamiah,
in Xeh. 7 : 7.
REFIN'ER. This word is often
used figuratively by the sacred writers.
Its peculiar force in the passage Mai.
3 : 3 will be seen when it is remembered
that refiners of silver sit with their eyes
steadily fixed on the furnace that they
may watch the process, and that the pro-
cess is complete and perfected only when
the refiner sees his own image in the
melted mass. Similar passages occur.
Isa. 1 : 25 : Zech. 13 : 9 : Jer. 6 : 29, etc.
REF'UGE, CITIES OF. Num.
35.- See City.
RE'GEM ifrieud), a descendant of
Judah. and son of Jahdai. 1 Chr. 2 : 47.
RE'GEM-ME'LECH {/rieucl of
(he kiiiff), one of the persons who were
sent by those in captivity to make in-
quiries at the temple. Zech. 7 : 2.
REGENERA'TION. This term
occurs only in Matt. 19 : 28 and Tit. 3 :
5. As used by Matthew, it refers to the
renovation or consummation of all things
at Christ's second advent, when there
shall be "new heavens and a new earth."
" The washing of regeneration,'' in the
latter passage, signifies the new birth
from above or from the Holy Spirit,
who makes us new creatures in Christ
Jesus. Other words conveying precisely
the same idea are of frequent occurrence.
Our Saviour says to Nicodemus, ''Ex-
cept a man be born again" (or rather,
♦•from above," "from God"), "he cannot
see the kingdom of God." John 3 : 3.
Christians are described as born of God,
John 1 : 12, 13; 1 John 2 : 29; 5 : 1. 4.
They are also represented as begotten
of God or by the word of God. Jas. 1 :
1 8 ; 1 Pet. 1 ': 3, 23. And the same thing,
in substance, is presented under the idea
of a new creation, 2 Cor. 6 : 17; a re-
newing of the mind, Rom. 12 : 2 : a re-
newing of the Holy Ghost, Tit. 3:5; a
resurrection from the dead. Eph. 2:0;
a being quickened, etc. Eph. 2:1,5.
Regeneration, then, may be regarded as
729
REH
REH
the communication of spiritual life to a
soul previously dead in trespasses and
sins by the almighty energy of the Holy
Spirit, making use of the word of truth
as an instrument; in consequence of
which divine operation, the soul begins
to apprehend spiritual things in a new
light, to believe them in a new manner,
to love them with an affection not before
felt, and to act henceforth from new mo-
tives and for new ends.
REHABI'AH (lohom Jehovah en-
hiDjeii), a descendant of Moses. 1 Chr.
23': 17.
RE'HOB {street, broad place). 1.
The father of Hadadezer, king of Zobah.
2 Sam. 8 : 3, 12.
2. A Levite who sealed the covenant
with Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 11.
RE'HOB {broad place), the name
of three towns.
1. The extreme place reached by the
spies. Num. 13 : 21. It is named also
Beth-rehob. 2 Sam. 10 : 6, 8. Accord-
ing to Robinson, it was near Tell el-
Kady, at the castle of Hunin, in the
mountains west of the marsh of the
Huleh, and in the upper Jordan valley.
Thomson suggests that it was at Banias.
2. A place in Asher. Josh. 19 : 28. It
was probably near to Sidon.
3. Another town of Asher, given to
the Gershonite Levites. Josh. 19 : 30 ;
21:31.
REHOBO'AM {enlarger oft'hepeo-
pie), a son of Solomon by the Ammonite
princess Naamah, 1 Kgs. 14 : 21 ; ascend-
ed the throne after the death of his fa-
ther, at the age of forty-one, and reigned
seventeen years, b. c. 975-957. It ap-
pears that the taxes which Solomon had
laid on the people had become an oner-
ous burden ; and when Rehoboam went
down to Shechem to be anointed and
crowned, the representatives of the ten
tribes met him with a unanimous de-
mand for relief in the taxation. It is
also probable that this proceeding of the
ten tribes was influenced by the strong
jealousy which reigned between Eph-
raim and Judah. The accession of Da-
vid to the throne, and the transference
of the ark and the royal residence to
Jerusalem, had given the tribes of Ju-
dah and Benjamin a decided promi-
nence, and Ephraim felt very sore. The
situation was critical, and Rehoboam
showed himself utterly incapable of
730
managing it. Following the advice of
his younger courtiers, he gave a most
insolent answer, the effect of which
was that the ten tribes revolted, leaving
Judah and Benjamin alone in their al-
legiance to him. He at once proposed
to employ force for the purpose of re-
ducing the rebels, but was admonished
Relioboatn. (From Sculptures at Kamak.)
The inscription has been read, " Kingdom of
Juduh."
by the prophet Shemaiah to forbear. 1
Kgs. 12 : 24. Continual wars, however,
prevailed between the two parties, and
a still greater calamity soon fell on the
head of the unhappy king. Allured by
the enormous riches which Solomon had
accumulated in Jerusalem, and prob-
ably also instigated by Jeroboam, the
Egyptian king Shishak, the founder of
the twenty-second dynasty, invaded Ju-
dah. Jerusalem was taken, and Reho-
boam had to buy an ignominious peace
by surrendering all the royal treasures.
This victory of Shishak is found com-
memorated by artistic representations
on the side of the great temple of Kar-
nak.
REHO'BOTH {wide placen), a
name for three places.
1. A well belonging to Isaac, and the
third dug by him. Uen. 26 : 22. It has
lately been identified. 10 miles south of
I5cersheba, at the head of the great Wad if
Itrfah, and is now known as er-Iiuheiheh.
Near some stone ruins is an ancient well,
the troughs and other masonry which still
REH
REN
remain being of immense proportions,
and apparently of very great antiquity.
One of the troughs is round and the other
circular, and cut in solid blocks 6 feet by
5 feet and 5 feet high. Palmer states that
the appearance of the masonry, which is
more massive and antique than any other
in the neighborhood, renders it probable
that it is the well which Isaac dug.
Though Robinson could not find it,
Stewart and Rowlands each found it, as
an ancient well and 12 feet in circumfer-
ence ; but it was so built over and filled
with rubbish that neither Palmer nor
Drake could at first discover it.
2. " Rehoboth iy the river," mentioned
as the home of Saul or Shaul, an early
king of the Edomites. Gen. 36 : 37 ; 1
Chr. 1 : 48. The " river " is supposed
to be the Euphrates. The name is
represented by Jtnhahah, attached to two
places on the Euphrates, one 28 miles
below the junction of the Khabour and
3 miles from the western bank : the
other lower down, on the eastern side.
The former is perhaps the true site of
ancient Rehoboth.
3. The " city Rehoboth," one of the
four founded by Asher or Nirarod. Gen.
10 : 11, 12. The text has been variously
explained. Some regard it as denoting,
not a separate city, but the " streets of
the city " — that is, of Nineveh ; others
prefer to regard it as a distinct city.
Rawlinson would identify it with Sele-
i»ii/nh, near Kalah, which has extensive
ruins.
RE'HUM (compassiounfe). 1. One
who returned with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:2;
called Nehum in Neh. 7 : 7.
2. The chancellor who wrote to Arta-
xerxes in order to prevent the rebuilding
of the walls and temple of Jerusalem.
Ezr. 4 : 8, 9. 17, 23.
3. A Levite who assisted in repairing
the wall of Jerusalem. Xeh. 3:17.
4. One who signed the covenant with
Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 25.
.5. A priest who returned with Zerub-
babel, Neh. 12 : 3 ; called Harim in v.
15.
RE'I {friendly), one who remained
true to David when Adonijah rebelled.
1 K??. 1 : 8.
REINS. The reins or kidneys were
considered by the Hebrews to be the
seat of certain aifections and emotions
which we attribute to the heart. Hence
a number of peculiarly Hebrew expres-
sions. Ps. 7 : 9 ; 16 : 7 ; Jer. 17 : 10 ; 20 :
12.
RE'KEM {variegation, Jloicer-gnr-
deii). 1. One of the Midianite kings
who were slain by the Israelites. Num.
31 : 8 ; Josh. 13 : 21.
2. A descendant of Judah, and son of
Hebron. 1 Chr. 2 : 43.
RE'KEM { ffoirer-f/ardenivg), a city
of Benjamin. Josh. 18 : 27. Its site is
unknown.
REMALI'AH {ichom Jehovah.
ndoren), father of Pekah. 2 Kgs. 15 : 25,
27, 30, 32, 37 : 16 : 1, 5 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 6 :
Isa. 7: 1. 4, 5. 9:8 : 6.
RE'METH [height), a town of Issa-
char. Josh. 19 : 21 : possibly the same
with Ramoth, 1 Chr, 6 : 73, and the
Jarmuth of Josh. 21 : 29, where it is
named as a Levitical city. Porter has
suggested that it was at Wezar, a little
village upon Mount Gilboa, about 5
miles north of En-gannim; others have
proposed Rameh.
REM'MON {pnviegrannte), a city
of Simeon. Josh. 19 : 7. See Rimmon,
No. 1.
REM'MON-METH'OAR, a
landmark of Zebulun. Josh. 19 : 13.
"Methoar" is not a part of the proper
name, and the clause should read,
" Remmon which reaches to Neah." See
Rimmon. No. 2.
REM'PHAN, occurring only in
Acts 7 : 43, which is a quotaiion from
Am. 5 : 26, where the corresponding
word in the Hebrew is " Chiun." It is
probable, therefore, that they are in-
terchangeable names for a god wor-
shipped secretly by the Israelites in
Egypt and in the wilderness, answer-
ing, probably, to Saturn or Moloch, the
star-god. Some refer this worship to
the time of Amos.
REND. To rend the garments, or
"tare" them, 2 Sam. 13 : 31, was from
the earliest period a sign of grief or
penitence. Jacob and David did it on
various occasions, and so did Joshua,
Josh. 7 : 6, and Hezekiah. 2 Kgs. 19 : 1.
The high priest wns forbidden to rend
his clothes. Lev. 10 : fi ; 21 : 10, prob-
ably meaning his sacred garments. Per-
haps those referred to in Matt. 26 : (55
were such as were ordinarily worn, or
merely judicial and not pontifical gar-
ments. Sometimes " rending " denoted
731
EEP
REP
anger or indignation mingled with
sorrow.
REPENTS REPENT'ANCE.
The Greek word so translated means
literally "to perceive afterward," henee
" to change one's mind." In the Bible
it designates the turning from sin to
Grod, or conversion. It is the beginning
of the preaching of John the Baptist and
of Christ. Matt. 3 : 2 ; 4 : 17 ; Mark 1:15.
It implies, 1. A knowledge of sin and
guilt: 2. A deep sorrow for it; and 3. A
determination to break with it and to
begin a new life of obedience and holi-
ness. This is "repentance unto life."
Acts 11: 18; 28 : 20.
Dr. A. A. Hodge thus distinguishes
between repentance and conversion :
" 1. Conversion is the more general
term, and is used to include the first
exercises of faith, as well as all those
experiences of love of holiness and
hatred of sin, etc., which are consequent
upon it. Repentance is more specific,
and expresses that hatred and renuncia-
tion of sin and that turning unto God
which accompanies faith as its conse-
quent. 2. Conversion is generally used
to designate only the Jirst actings of the
new nature at the commencement of a
religious life, or at most the first steps
of a return to God after a notable back-
sliding, Luke 22 : 32, while repentance
is applied to that constant bearing of the
cross which is one main characteristic
of the believer's life on earth. Ps. 19 :
12,13: Luke 9: 23; Gal. 6:U; 5:24."
— Outlines of Theology, enlarged ed., p.
489.
God is said to repent. Gen. 6:6: Jon.
3 : 9, 10. This, however, is merely
attributing to God human ideas. He
cannot truly repent, since he never does
wrong and is unerring wisdom. But
God's actions, looked at from earth, may
nppear to indicate a change of purp')se.
The "repentance" of Judas, Matt.
27 : 3, shows that one -may sorrow over
sin and its terrible consequences without
thereby gaining spiritual life. This is
the sorrow which leads to despair.
RE'PH.\EL (whom (iml heah), a
Levite port<'r. 1 Chr. 26 : 7.
RE'PHAH [riches), a descendant
of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 2.').
REPHAI'AH (whom Jrhorah
herdf'.(l). 1. A descendant of David. 1
Chr. 3:21.
732
2. A Simeonite chieftain in the reign
of Hezekiah. I Chr. 4 : 42.
3. A descendant of Issachar. 1 Chr.
7:2.
4. A descendant of Saul, 1 Chr. 9 : 43 ;
called Kapha in 1 Chr. 8 : 37.
5. The son of Hur, and ruler of the
half part of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 9.
REPH'AIM {<)i<intH), the name of a
race of giants who lived east of the Jor-
dan. Chedorlaoraer defeated them. Gen.
14 : 5. Their land was promised to Abra-
ham's seed. 15 : 20. At some time before
Israel's coming they were driven out of
their possessions, Deut. 2 : 10 (Heb.), and
lived in the West of Palestine, where
they had possessions. Josh. 15 : 8. See
REPH AIM,VAL'LEY OF. It
is first mentioned in Josh. 15 : 8 ; 18 : 1 H,
and there translated " the valley of the
giants." It was one of the landmarks
of the land of Judah ; named after the
Rephaim, or "giants," who at an early
period were found on both sides of the
Jordan. Comp. Gen. 14 : 5 ; Deut. 3 :
11-13; Josh. 13:12: 17:15. David
twice defeated the Philistines in this
valley. 2 Sara. 5 : 17-25 ; 23 : 13 ; 1 Chr.
11 : 15, 16; 14 : 9-16. The valley was
noted for its fertility, Isa. 17 : 5. Its
position as a boundary of Judah would
indicate it to have been south of the
valley of Hinnom. On the road to Beth-
lehem there is a cultivated plain about
a mile long, bordered on both sides by
hills, and gradually sloping into a deep
valley at the south-west, called Wddji ef-
Werd, or " the valley of roses." This
plain is called Bekn'a bj' the Arabs, and
since the sixteenth century an attempt
has been made to identify it with the
valley of Rephaim. Tobler proposed to
identify Rephaim with the Wddy dev
Yaniii, to the west-north-west of Jeru-
salem, but this would contradict the
account of Josephus, and the other
location is quite generally accepted.
REPH'IDIM (rentH, re/rexhmn,t>i\
the last station of the Israelites before
reaching Sinai, and where Moses smote
the rock and the Amalckites were de-
feated. Ex. 17 : 1, 8-16. The location
of this station and of the battle-field has
been a difficult problem in biblical geog-
raphy. The members of the British
Ordnance party, after a thorough scien-
tific survey of the whole region, con-
KES
RES
eluded that the battle of Rephidim must
have been fought in one of two places.
1. In the Wddy Feiran. — This place
was approved as the site of Rephidim
by all of the party except the Rev. F.
W. Holland, and this has been the pre-
valent view ever since the fifth century.
Feiran is rather a broad valley, and
would furnish a practicable route for a
large body like the Israelites, going from
the wilderness of Sin into the mountain-
region, where they received the Law.
The Amalekites would regard themselves
as threatened by such a company, and
would attempt to defend their country.
The Feiran would be a strong military
position. In this deep valley they might
defend themselves from invasion, secure
from the danger of a flank attack. Pal-
mer discovered an Aiab tradition point-
ing to the rock from which Moses
brought the water, Ex. 17 : 1, 8, at a
place called Heftjj el-Khnttattn. Bedouins
say of this rock, which is fountl a few
miles before the fertile part of the valley
commences, '' Our lord Moses smote it,
and water miraculously flowed from the
stone." Nearly opposite Wddii Alei/nt;
which comes into Feiran from the south,
is a mountain, Jehel Tahnuoh, which the
British party consider to be the hill on
which Moses sat and surveyed the battle,
while Aaron and Hur held up his hands.
There .are churches and chapels on this
hill, which mark it as a very sacred
spot in the eyes of the old inhabitants
of Paran, and Antoninus Martyr, in
the seventh century, mentions a chapel
built there in honor of Moses. This spot
is 25 miles from Sinai {Jehel Miifsa),
which would be more than a day's
journey ; but Palmer thinks there was
a break in the march, Ex. 19 : 2, and
thnt the operations of '• pitching in the
wilJerness" and "encamping before the
mount " were separate and distinct.
Rephidim has been located in Feiran by
Sfanley, Ritter, Stewart, Lepsius, and
others. See Si.vvi.
2. In yVd'f)/ es- Sheikh. — This is an
easterly continuation of Wady Feiran,
and is the site advocated for the battle
of Rephidim by Rev. F. W. Holland. It
includes the pass of e^- Wafi'i/eh, a narrow
defile 300 yards long and from 40 to 60
yards wide, having a level bed, but en-
closed on either side by perpendicular
locks. A conspicuous hill on the north
side of the defile is observed, at the foot
of which the Arabs point out a rock that
they call " the seat of the prophet
Moses." This is about 12 miles from
Sinai [Jebel Musa), and hence within a
day's journey. Ex. 19 : 2 ; Num. 33 : 15.
Robinson, Keil, Delitzsch, Porter, and
others locate Rephidim in some part of
this valley en-Sheikh.
RE'SEN (bridle), a noted Assyrian
city between Nineveh and Calah. Gen.
10 : 12. Rawlinson, who places Calah
at Nimrud and Nineveh immediately
opposite Mosul, would locate Resen be-
tween the two, near the village of Sela-
iniyeh, about 3 miles north of Nimrud,
where are Assyrian ruins. Fergusson
identifies Calah with Kalah Sherghat,
and Resen with Nimrud. Some have
conjectured that the four cities of Gen.
10 : 12 were all afterward combined
under the one name "Nineveh," and
that " the great city " referred to this
united whole. Instances of such con-
solidation have been numerous enough
to render this theorj' plausible.
RE'SHEPH i^flame, lightning), a
descendant of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 25.
RESTITU'TION, an act of justice
by which a wrong done is repaired, and
that which has been unjustly taken from
a person restored to him. The Mosaic
Law demanded that, in case of theft, the
restitution sliould be fourfold, and in
cases of carelessness the amount was
graduated according to guiltiness. Ex.
22: 1-15.
RESURRECTION. The resur-
rection of the dead, both of the just and
unjust, is a fundamental doctrine of the
Christian faith, and is most fully set
forth by St. Paul. 1 Cor. 15. It is in-
separable from the doctrine of the
immortality of the soul, and gives it its
necessary completion. If the dead rise
not, then is not Christ raised: and if
Christ is not raised, then is our faith
vain : we are yet in our sins.
No truth is more clearly and forcibly
presented in the Scriptures, and no fact
is better and more decisively proved in
history, than is the resurrection of Jesus
Christ. 1. It was prophesied. Ps. 16 :
10, 11 ; Acts 2 : 25-32. 2. Christ him-
self repeatedly and distinctly foretold
it. Matt. 16 : 21 ; 20 : 19. 3. The pre-
cautions of his enemies to prevent it,
the failure of all these precautions, and
REU
REU
the measures taken to disprove the event,
prove it. 4. The abundant, decided, and
consistent testimony of witnesses who
could not be deceived, and who had no
inducement to deceive others, and all
this in the face of every danger. 5. The
change which took place in the minds
and conduct of the apostles between the
crucifixion and the tirst Pentecost, and
which would be wholly inexplicable if
the resurrection had not taken place.
6. The supernatural evidences arising
from the fulfilment of the promise that
the Holy Spirit should be poured out on
them all attest the same truth. 7. The
Christian Church could never have been
founded without the fact of Christ's
resurrection, and is a constant living
proof of it.
Thus the resurrection of Christ from
the dead is clearly proved ; and, being
proved, it ratifies and confirms in the
fullest manner the truth and divinity of
his character and mission, shows the
efficacy of his atonement, is an evidence,
e.irnest, and example of the resurrection
of his people, John 14 : 19, and imports
that all judgment is committed into his
hand. Acts 17 : 30, 31.
Among the Jews, at the time of our
Lord, the Saddueees altogether rejected
the doctrine of the immortality of the
soul and the resurrection of the dead,
but the Pharisees and the great mass
of the peo|)le had accepted it ; and
traces of this doctrine, more or less
vague, we find not only among the peo-
ple of the covenant, but also among
the heathen, and from the very earliest
times. Indeed, so deep-rooted is the
natural conviction of the human mind
on this point that no nation, people, or
tribe have ever yet been found who do
not, in some form, recognize the doc-
trine of a state of existence after the
death of the body ; and this conviction
is satisfactorily met only by the simple
and sublime doctrine of our holy relig-
ion, which brings life and immortality
to light.
REU [friend), a patriarch in the line
of Abraham's ancestors. Gen. 11 : 18-21 ;
1 Chr. 1 : 25.
REU'BEN [behold a nan!) was the
eldest son of Jacob and Leah. (icn. 29 :
32. He lost the privileges of birthright
in consequence of a grievous sin. Gen.
35 : 22 ; 49 : 3, 4. In spite of his im-
734
pulsiveness, however, he was kind of
heart, as shows his relation to the con-
spiracy against Joseph. Gen. 37 : 18-30 ;
42 : 37. It was said of Reuben by his
father Jacob, " Unstable as water," Gen.
49 : 4, and Deborah and Sisera sang in
reproach of Reuben, Jud. 5 : 15, 16; the
tribe, at times, showed military prowess
and extended its boundaries. 1 Chr. 5 :
1-10, 18-22. At the tirst census in the
wilderness his descendants, the Reuben-
ites. or the tribe of Reuben, numbered
46,500, Num. 1 : 20, 21, but at the sec-
ond census they had decreased to 43,730.
The Reubenites soon became wealthy
herdsmen, but they were averse to war,
Jud. 5 : 15, 16, and were the first who
were carried away into captivity.
REU'BEN,TER'RITORY OF.
The region allotted to this tribe in the
Promised Land lay on the east side of
the Jordan and the Salt Sea. It ex-
tended from the river Arnon on the
south, beyond the Wddii HesJihan on
the north, reaching to the possessions
of the tribe of Gad, and from the Jor-
dan valley it stretched eastward indefi-
nitely to the desert. The allotment is
described in Josh. 13 : 15-21 ; comp.
Num. 32 : 37, 38. This region had been
held by the Moabites, who were driven
out by Sihon, king of the Amorites, and
he in turn was dispossessed by the Is-
raelites. Num. 21 : 24; Dent. 3 : 16, 17;
Josh. 13 : 15-28. This district consist-
ed of three parts — the low region along
the sea and the river, the mountains, and
beyond them, to the east, an extensive
rolling plateau known as the Belkah,
well watered and abounding with forest
and pasture-land well adapted for herds-
men. It included the fertile plains of
Medeba, fourteen important towns, be-
sides the "cities of the plain," and the
entire kingdom of the Amorites. It was
excellent for grazing, having fine pasture-
land. Among its prominent towns were
Medeba, lleshbon, Dibon, Baal-meon,
Beth-peor, Bezer, Jahazah, and Kede-
moth. A notice of these cities will be
found under their respective titles.
The people of this territory were aid-
ed in conquering it by the entire body
of the Israelites, and they in turn aided
their brethren in conquering Western
Palestine when they returned to their
own country, erecting a stone memorial,
in connection with other tribes east
KEU
REV
of the Jordan, to note the common in-
heritance. Josh. 22 : 10-34. For an
account of the tribal history, see pre-
vious article. Their territory has only
been partiallj' explored, but the finding
of the " Moabite Stone" at Dibon, and
the many ruins with which the surface
of the whole region is strewn, give prom-
ise of rich results when carefully and sei-
entificallv explored.
REU'BENITES, descendants of
Reuben. Num. 26 : 7 ; Josh. 1 : 12 and
elsewhere.
REU'EL {friend of God). 1. One
of the sons of Esau by his wife Bashe-
math. Gen. 36 : 4, 10, 13, 17 ; 1 Chr. 1 :
35, 37.
2. Ex. 2 : 18. See Jethro.
3. Num. 2 : 14. See Deuel.
4. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 9 : 8.
REU'MAH {exalted), the concubine
of Nahor, Abraham's brother. Gen. 22 :
24.
REVELA'TIOX. God has re-
vealed himself in the works of creation,
Ps. 19 : 2; comp. Rom. 1 : 19, 20; Acts
14 : 17 ; 17 : 26-28; in the conscience
of man, Rom. 2 : 14, 15; comp. John
1 : 9 ; 8 : 9 ; and in the history of nations
and of the world. Acts 14: 17; comp.
John 1 : 5, 10. But this triple revela-
tion, though a most precious guidance
intellectually and morally, never leav-
ing man wholly without testimony of
God, is. nevertheless, only an indirect
revelation, requiring the interpretation
of human reason and liable to its mis-
takes. The full revelation of God is
found only in his holy word, Ps. 119 :
105 ; comp. Ps. 19 : 8, 9, and in the per-
son of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ,
2 Pet. 1:19; 2 Tim. 3 : 15-17 ; Heb. 1:1,
2:4: 12, 13, a direct revelation breaking
miraculously through nature and his-
tory, and laying hold miraculously in
the conscience of man on a new life.
This revelation is the foundation of our
religion, which is therefore of divine
origin and authority. All religions
claim to be founded on revelation, but
only the Jewish religion of the old cov-
enant and the Christian religion are
really revealed by God. All heathen
religions are religions of Nature, the
outgrowth of the human mind groping
in the dark after the unknown God.
REVELATION OF ST. JOHN.
1. Contents. — This is the last and the
most mysterious book of the Bible. It
is the divine seal of the whole. It is
for the N. T. what Daniel is for the 0.
T. It gathers up all the former proph-
ecies and extends them to the remotest
future. It represents the Church in
conflict with the great secular powers.
It unrolls a sublime panorama of Christ's
victorious march through the world's
history till the appearance of the new
heaven and the new earth, when the
aim of creation and redemption shall
be fully realized. The theme is the di-
vine promise " I come quickly," with the
corresponding human prayer, " Even so,
come. Lord Jesus." It gives us the as-
surance that the Lord is coming in every
great event, and overrules all things for
his glory and the ultimate triumph of
his kingdom.
2. Character and Aim. — The beginning
and the end of Revelation are as clear
and dazzling as the sunlight, but the
middle is dark and mysterious as mid-
night, yet with the stars and the full
moon shining from the firmament. The
book reminds one of the chiaroscuro of
the great painters, and of a mantle of
the richest black broidered all over with
brilliant jewels. The epistles to the seven
churches, chs. 1-3, the description of the
heavenly Jerusalem, chs. 20, 21, and the
interspersed lyric anthems and (Joxolo-
gies, 4:11; 6:12-14; 7:12; 14 : 13, etc.,
are as sublime, inspiring, beautiful, and
familiar as are any portions of the Scrip-
tures. They are sufiicient to prove the
divine inspiration of the whole. But
the bulk of the book is full of puzzling
enigmas which will not be satisfactorily
solved before the millennium. In the
light of fulfilment we shall understand
this prophetic panorama of Church his-
tory, but not before. Nevertheless, the
Revelation answers an important prac-
tical purpose, just as the prophecies of
the 0. T. (notwithstanding their obscu-
rities, which gave rise to all sorts of
conflicting interpretations), did to the
Jews, before Christ's first coming, man-
na in the wilderness and a light shining
in darkness. The history of exegesis
shows that the situation of the Church
materially influenced the interpretation
and application of this wonderful book,
and that it is in every age of the
Church, especially in periods of perse-
cution, a book of hope and comfort to
735
REV
REZ
all who are waiting for the coming of
our blessed Lord.
3. Autho7-8hip.— The ecclesiastical tra-
dition (Papias, Justiu Martyr, Melito of
Sardes, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of
Alexandria, Origen) ascribL-s the Reve-
lation to John the beloved disciple.
This is confirmed by the testimonv of
the book itself. 1:4, 9 ; 21 : 2 ; 22 : 8.
It is true he does not call himself an
apostle, but simply a servant of Christ,
but he appears as the superintendent of
the churches in Asia Minor, banished,
for the testimony of Jesus, to Patmos,
and entrusted with the most important
visions of the future ; all of which is only
applicable to John the apostle, and not
to some obscure '' Presbyter John." It
is true there are internal difficulties, espe-
cially the discrepancy between the style
of the Apocalypse — which is strongly
Hebraistic — and the style of the fourth
Gospel, which is purer Greek. But we
must remember the difference of the
subject, the intimate connection of the
Apocalypse with the Hebrew proj)hecies
of Daniel and Ezekiel, and the fact that
John was "in the spirit" when the Rev-
elation was dictated to him. Moreover,
there are, on the other hand, some strik-
ing resemblances between the style of
the Apocalypse and that of the Johnn-
nean writings — e. g., the name •' Word "
{Logon), as applied to Christ.
4. Place and Time of Composition. —
The visions were received on the island
of Patmos, in the ^gean Sea, about 24
miles west of the coast of Asia Minor.
See Patmos. The time of composition
was the end of the reign of Domitian,
about A. T>. 95, who banished several
Christians to inhospitable climes. This
rests on the testimony of Irenajus (about
170), Eusebius, and Jerome, and answers
the character of the book, which treats
of the last things, and was probably
written last as the concluding seal of
the N. T. Some modern scholars, how-
ever, from supposed internal evidence,
have assigned the composition much
earlier — to the year 68 or 69, before the
destruction of Jerusalem (a. d. 70), but
they differ as to the particular emperor
under whom it was written, whether it
was Nero (the supposed Antichrist) or
Galba or Vespasian us, and they regard
the book simply as a proj)hetic descrip-
tion of the approaching downfall of an-
7.*'>6
cient Judaism (Jerusalem) and heathen-
ism (Rome), and the succeeding reign
of Christianity on earth as the true mil-
lennium. John, no doubt, like all the
Jewish prophets, took his starting-point
from his age and surroundings, but his
vision extended to the most distant fu-
ture of the new heavens and the new earth.
REVENGE' is the most primitive
mode in which crime is dealt with in
society, and the whole tendency and
spirit of the Mosaic Law goes to dis-
courage and check it. This law per-
mitted a man to execute punishment
upon the slayer of any of his relatives,
but for the purpose of restraining the
blood-feuds common in the E;ist at that
day. In the N. T. the feeling of re-
venge is strongly condemned. Matt.
5 : 39.
REVENUE. In its first days, up
to the time of the kings, the Hebrew
commonwealth knew of no public reve-
nues. Imposts were made for religious
purposes, but all public works, properly
speaking, such as fortifications, or even
the erection of the tabernacle, were made
by free-will contributions. With the
kings came the revenues. The revenues
of Saul and David seem, however, to
have consisted principally in war-spoils
and presents, but Solomon introduced a
regular system of taxation, which was
continued under Persian and Roman
rule. Ezr. 4 : 13.
RE'ZEPH {stone heated for baking),
a city which Sennacherib boasted to the
Jews that he had subdued. 2 Kgs. 19 :
12; Isa. 37 : 12. Its site is perhaps at
Rasapha, a day's march west of the Eu-
phrates, on the road from Raca to Hums.
REZI'A {deli(iht), a chieftain of
Asher. 1 Chr. 7 : 39.
HWZl^ [stable, firm). 1. King of Da-
mascus : allied himself with Pekah and
defeated Ahaz, but was himself defeated
by Tiglath-pileser II., his capital de-
stroyed, and his people carried away
into captivitv. 2 Kgs. 15 : 37 ; 16 : 5-9 j
Isa. 7 : 1-8;' 8 : 6; 9 : 11.
2. One whoso descendants returned
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 48; Neh. 7 :
50.
RE'ZON (prince), son of Eliadah,
revolted from Hadadezer, and, having
enlisted a company of adventurers and
m.ade several incursions into the coun-
try around Damascus, finally succeeded
RHE
RIG
in obtaining the crown, and became a
sore vexation to Israel in the daj's of
David and Solomon. 1 Kgs. 11 : 2o. i
RHE'GIUM {breach), a city on the
coast near the south-western end of
Italy, and opposite Messina, on the
north-eastern point of Sicily, from which
it is separated by a strait 6 miles wide.
The emperor Caligula proposed to make
a port there for the Alexandrian corn-
ships, but died before completing it.
Paul was detained at this phiee for a
day when on his voyage to Rome. Acts
28 : 13. It is now called Rhcfjijio, and ;
is a flourishing commercial town and the
capital of Calabria, having about 10,000
inliabitants.
RHE'SA (head), a name occurring
in the genealogy of Jesus in Luke 3 : 27 ;
probably not a proper name, but only a
title.
RHO'DA (rose, rose tree), a maid in
the house of Mary, mother of John Mark.
Acts 12 : 12-15.
RHODES (a rose), a noted island
in the Mediterranean, 13 miles from the
coast of Asia Minor. It is 46 miles long,
18 miles wide, and has an area of about
420 square miles. The island is fertile,
and carries on an extensive commerce.
The city of Rhodes, at the western end
of the island, was celebrated in the clas-
sic age. It was founded about B. c. 400
by the Dorians, and was very prosper-
ous in the reign of Alexander. Jews
were among its inhabitants during the
Maccabajan period. Paul visited it on
his return from his third missionary
journey. Acts 21 : 1. He might have
there seen fragments of the greatest of
the Seven Wonders of the world — the
famous Colossus of Rhodes. This was
made of brass, and was 105 feet high.
It stood Jit the right of the port as vessels
entered, and not astride the channel, as
so generally represented in pictures. It
was erected B.C. 290, and overthrown by
an earthquake B. c. 224. The city had
also a beautiful temple of Apollo, built
by Herod the Great. In the Middle
Ages the city was held by the Knights
of St. John ; it was captured by the
Turks in 1522, and is now under their
rule. The modern city is a place of
considerable trade, and the island has a
population of about 30,000, of which
21,000 are Turks.
RI'BAI (for whom Jehovah pleads),
47
the father of Ittai the Benjamite. 2 Sam.
23 : 29: 1 Chr. 11 : 31.
RIB'LAH (ferlUity), an ancient city
in the north-eastern frontier of Canaan.
Num. 34 : 10, 11. Some regard it as
being the same as Diblath, Eze. 6 : 14,
but Conder places Diblath at the mod-
ern village of Dihl, while Riblah is
identified with the modern town on the
east bank of the Orontes 35 miles north-
east of Baalbek. The ancient town was
upon the great road from Palestine to
Babylon, and was a convenient military
headquarters for the Babylonian kings
and others invading the country. Here
the Egyptian king Phavaoh-nechoh put
Jehoahaz in chains and made Eliakim
king, and here Nebuchadnezzar brought
Zedekiah, murdered his sons before his
eyes, then put out his eyes and bound
him in chains to be carried to Babylon.
2 Kgs. 23 : 29-35; 25 : 1-7 : Jer. 39 :
5-7. Riblah is now a mean and poor
village in the midst of a plain of
great fertility, and its position shows
that it con:manded the roads to Nineveh,
Babylon, Phoenicia, and Palestine, mak-
ing it of great strategic importance.
About 10 miles west of Riblah is the
great fountain of the Orontes, still called
el-Aiu, or "the fountain," which is sup-
posed to be indicated by " on the east
side of Ain." Num. 34 : 11. Grove
thinks the Riblah which marked the
boundary of the Promised Land could
not have been as far north as Riblah in
I the land of Hamatb, and he would look
; for the former near the Sea of Galilee,
in the vicinity of Banias. No such
I place has been found in that region,
and most authorities agree that there
I was but one Riblah, and hence that it
i was on the Orontes. as .-tated above.
RID'DLE. The Orientals have
always been fond of such exercises of
ingenuity as were requisite to answer
riddles. " Hence it was quite in the order
of things that Samson should propose
one. See Samson's riddle. Jud. 14 :
12-19. EzekieFs riddle, 17:2, was
rather an allegory.
RIGHT'EO t'SNESS, Isa. 45 : 23,
is an essential attribute of the divine
nature, and as it is frequently used is
nearly allied to, if not the same with,
justice, holiness, and faithfulness. Ps.
119 : 142 ; Isa. 46 : 13 ; 51 : 5, 6, 8 : 56 :
1. The "righteousness which is of
737
RIG
RIN
faith," Rom. 10 : 6, is the righteousness
which is obtained by the grace of Grod
through faith in Jesus Christ. Rom. 3 :
21-26; 10:4, 10; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal.
2 : 21. The word is also used to denote
the perfect obedience of the Son of God.
Rom. 5 : IS. ''Righteousness" is very
commonly used for uprightness and just
dealing between man and man, as in Isa.
60 : 1 7, and for holiness of life, as in Dan.
4:27: Luke 1 :6 : Rom. 14: 17; Eph. 5 : 9.
RIGHT HAND. Ps. 21 : 8. The
right hand is the symbol of power and
strength, whence the effects of the divine
omnipotence are often ascribed to the
"right hand of the Most High." Ex.
15 : 6; Ps. 77 : 10. The right hand com-
monly denotes the south, as the left hand
denotes the north. Gen. 14 : 15. It is
said to have been the custom among the
Jews to swear by the right hand, and
that this is implied in Isa. 62 : 8. It was
certainly common to swear by the hand.
Gen. 14 : 22 ; Deut. 32 : 40. To give the
right hand was a mark of friendship.
Gal. 2 : 9. Hence the force of the ex-
pression, Ps. 144 : 8 : " Their right hand
is a right hand of falsehood." The right
hand being a most useful member of the
body, especially to laboring-men, to cut
it off implies the greatest sacrifice.
Matt. 5 : 30. To be seated at the right
hand is a token of peculiar honor, 1 Kgs.
2 : 19; and when the expression is used
respecting Christ, Acts 7 : 55, it implies
his unequalled dignity and exaltation.
RIM'MON {pomegranate). 1. The
name of an idol worshipped in Damas-
cus. 2 Kgs. 5 : 18. Naaman, who was
in the habit of attending the king in his
idolatrous services in the temple of Rim-
mon, seems to have been perplexed about
a question of duty as to continuing this
practice. See Naaman.
2. A Benjamite, father of the two men
who slew Is^h-bosheth. 2 Sam. 4 : 2, 5, 9.
Rlitl'MON {ponief/ratiate), a name
of not less than three places.
1. A town in Judah, afterward given
to Simeon. Josh. 15 : 21, 32 ; 19 : 7 ; 1
Chr. 4:32; Neh. 11:29; Zech. 14:10.
Some have identified this with the ruin
Utiini er- /ietniDin'u, 13 miles south-west
of Hebron, nnd nearly the same distance
north-cast of I'eer-sheba. On the top of
the hill are foundations of important
buildings, and also rock-cut cisterns.
Two miles south are two other hills,
738
containing ruins and a fine spring with
a reservoir.
2. A Levitical city in Zebulun. 1 Chr.
6 : 77. It is also called Remmon-meth-
oar. Josh. 19 : 13. It is identified with
the present village Rmnmaneh, about 6
miles north of Nazareth.
3. A rock whither the 600 surviving
Benjamites retreated after the slaughter
of their tribe. Jud. 20 : 45, 47; 21 : 13.
Its site is at the modem village Jiummon,
about 10 or 15 miles north of Jerusalem,
on a limestone hill visible in all direc-
tions, having rugged sides difficult of
ascent and deep valleys around it. The
houses cling to the sides as huge steps.
The view from the top of the hill is ex-
tensive.
RIM'MON-PA'REZ (pomegran-
ate of the breach), an encampment of the
Israelites in the wilderness. Num. 33 :
19, 20. The phrase probably refers to
some special breaking forth of the wrath
of God, as at Korah's rebellion. Re-
land suggests that it may be found at
Jebel Ikhrhnm, 75 miles south-south-
west of Beer-sheba.
Rings and Sis^nets.
1, 2. Assyrinii Riugs in ihe British Miisfum. .1. 4.
Porcelain Kings. 5, 6, 7. Kgyptiun Kings, will) im-
pressious from them.
RIIVGS were used for o. naments and
RIN
ROD
as seals. When used for ornament, they
were worn not only on the fingers and
in the ears, but also around the wrists
and ankles and in the nostrils. Isa. 3 :
20, 21 ; Luke 15 : 22 ; Jas. 2 : 2. As a
seal the ring became a token of authority,
and the giving of a ring the sign of im-
parting authority. Gen. 41 : 42 ; Esth.
3 : 10, 12; Dan. 6 : 17. See Clothes.
RIN'NAH (nhout), a descendant of
Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 20.
RI'PHATH (a crusher), a son of
Gomer. Gen. 10 : 3. His descendants
have by some been identified with the
Ripheans, the old name of the Paphla-
gonians ; by others they have been located
in the Rhiepean Mountains, north of the
Caspian Sea.
RIS'SAH {a ruin, a worni),^ station
of Israel. Num. 33 : 21, 22. It has been
identified with the Roman Rasa, 30
miles from Elath, near the hill now
named Ras el-Kan, or " head of the
plain," north-west of Ezion-geber. Wil-
ton would place it Sii'Ain el-Jughamileh,
125 miles south-south-west of Beer-
sheba ; Reland locates it at el-Knsahy,
55 miles south-west of Beer-sheba.
RITH'MAH {hroom), a station of
Israel, Xum. 33 : IS, 19, named from
retem or rethem, " the broom," a species
of low bush growing in the wilderness.
Some regard it as being the same as
" Kadesh " of Num. 13 : 26 ; Rowlands
suggests that it is at Sahel er-Retmah,
west of 'Ain Kadesh, which he makes
Kadesh.
RIVER OF E'GYPT. This
phrase is found five times in the English
Bible, and is the translation of two
Hebrew terms.
1. Nahar MizraJm, rendered "river"
in. Gen. 15 : 18, and usually denoting a
perennial stream ; hence it perhaps re-
fers to the Nile, and to the Pelusiac
branch of the Nile, as the eastern limit
of the territory promised to Abraham,
but which his posterity never occupied,
possibly because of its desert character.
2. Nahal Mizrnim. Num. 34 : 5 ; Josh.
15 : 3, 4, 47 ; 1 Kgs. 8 : 65 ; 2 Kgs. 24 : 7.
This phrase does not denote a perennial
stream, but usually a torrent bed, either
partially or totally dry in summer, and
having a running stream only in the
rainy season. Nahal, therefore, exactly
corresponds with the Arabic word teddy,
for which we have no English equivalent.
Hence " Nahal Mizraim," or *• torrent of
Egypt," is generally used in Scripture
to designate the old boundary between
Palestine and Egypt, and is identified
with the modern Wddy el-Arish, which
drains the great central basin of the
desert, between the passes of Jebel et-Tih
and Sinai. The various wddies of this
region unite in one, but without forming
a perennial stream, and the torrent-bed
reaches the Mediterranean about 40 miles
south-west of Gaza, and nearly midway
between the Red Sea and the eastern
branch of the Nile.
RIZ'PAH, a concubine of Saul who
watched day and night for many months
(probably from March to October) over
the bodies of her two sons, who had been
put to a violent death by the Gibeonites.
2 Sam. 21 : 10, 11.
ROAD means " raid " in 1 Sam. 27 :
10. Our " road " is, in the A. V., always
" path " or " way."
ROBBERS OF CHURCHES.
See Churches. Robbers of.
ROB'BERY is one of the chronic
troubles in Palestine, where the Bedouin
of to-day are robbers. The 0. T. reveals
a similar state of things during the pe-
riod of the Judges, when might was
right. Some of the inhabitants were
"Hers in wait," who robbed "all that
came along that way." Jud. 9 : 25.
Hosea and Micah, by a few touches,
paint a sad picture of pillage and rob-
bery in the northern kingdom in their
day. The Romans did not improve
matters, but rather made them worse ;
and incidental notices in the N. T.
prove the insecurity of person and
property in Palestine in the first cen-
tury. Luke 10 : 30; John 18 : 40 ; Acts
5 : 36, 37 ; 21 : 38 ; 2 Cor. 11 : 26. The
"thieves" between whom our Lord was
crucified were highway robbers. Matt.
27 : 38.
One of the usual camping-places, a
day's journey north of Jerusalem, is
called the "Fountain of the Robbers."
ROBE. 1 Sam. 24 : 4. See Mantle.
ROB'OAM, the Greek form of
" Rehoboam." Matt. 1 : 7.
ROD means a shoot or branch of a
tree, and in this sense it is applied figu-
ratively to Christ, Isa. 11 : 1, and to the
tribes of Israel as springing from one
root. Ps. 74 : 2 ; Jer. 10 : 16. Meaning
also a staff", it is used as a symbolical
739
ROD
ROxM
expression for that which supports and
strengthens, Ps. 23 : 4; Isii. 3:1; Eze.
29 : () ; tor power and authority. Ps. 2 :
9 ; 110 : 2 ; 125 : 3 ; Jer. 48 : 17 ; Eze.
19:14; 1 Cor. 4:21; Rev. 2 : 27 ; and
for the afflictions with which God disci-
j)lines his people. Job 9 : 34 ; couip. Heb.
12:6, 7. The phrase "passing under
the rod," Eze. 20 : 37, originated from
the manner in which the Jews used to
select the tenth of their sheep. Lev. 27 :
32. The lambs were separated from the
dams, and enclosed in a sheepcote with
only one narrow way out ; the dams were
at the entrance. On opening the gate
the lambs hastened to join their dams,
and a man placed at the entrance
touched ever^' tenth lamb with a rod
dijjped in ochre, and so marked it with
his rod, saying, " Let this be holy in the
name of the tenth."
ROD'ANIM occurs in some copies,
1 Chr. 1 : 7, instead of '' Dodanim."
ROE, ROE'BUCK {beauty), an
animal especially fleet of foot, 2 Sam.
2 : 18 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 8, and elegant in form.
IkOf, or Gazelle. (Gazeila Boreas. After Wood.)
Cant. 2 : 9, 1 7 ; 8 : U. The gazelle ( Ga-
zella dorcns) satisfies these and all other
requirements, and is still very abundant
in Palestine and adjacent regions. The
Jews might use the roe as food, Deut.
12 : 15, 22 : it was hunted, Lsa. 13 : 14;
" it is amiable, affectionate, and loving,
by universal testimony," Prov. 5:19;
and it has ever been admired for its
beauty, which is the meaning of its He-
brew name. "'i'abitha" or "Dorcas"
means " a gazelle." Acts 9 : 3fi.
RO'GEL {a fuller) occurs in the
margin to 1 Kgs. 1 : 9 instead of " En-
rogel."
ROGE'LIM, a town of fiilend.
the home of IJarzillai. 2 Sam. 17 : 27 ;
19 : 31.
740
ROH'GAH (outcry), an Asherite
chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 34.
ROLL.. Jer. 36 : 2. See Books.
ROLLS, HOUSE OF. See House.
ROMAN CITIZENSHIP. See
CiTIZKNSHlP.
RO'MANEM'PIRE. The empire
of Rome arose from the republic, or
commonwealth, and succeeded the Mace-
donian empire, which was founded by
Philip and Alcxnnder, in extending its
sway over the greater part of the then
known world. The references to the
Roman dominion in the Bible chiefly
allude to the empire in its earlier his-
tory, including the reigns of Augustus,
Tibe-ius, Claudius, and Nero.
The extent and power of the empire
ROM
ROM
during this period were greater than at
any earlier, and possibly than at any
later, time. It reached to the Atlantic
on the west, the Euphrates on the east,
the African desert, the Nile cataracts,
and the Arabian deserts on the south,
the Rhine, the Danube, and the Black
Sea on the north. Jt also conquered
Great Britain, leaving Germania on the
north and Parthia on the east as semi- ;
independent powers. Gibbon estimates
the population of the empire in the reign
of the emperor Claudius at 120,000,000.
When a countrj' was conquered by Rome
it became a subject province, governed
by officers appointed by the authorities
at Rome. Occasionally, however, the
local rulers Avere left in possession of
their territory, subject to the Roman
power. Augustus divided the provinces
into two classes — 1. Imperial; 2. Sena-
torial. He retained in his own hand
provinces requiring a large military
force, giving the more peaceful prov-
inces to the control of the Roman sen-
ate. Among the provinces of the impe-
rial class were Gaul, Lusitania, Syria,
Phoenicia, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt.
Among the senatorial provinces were
Africa, Numidia, Asia. Achaia and Epi-
rus, Dalmatia, Macedonia, Sicily, Crete
and Cyrene, Bithynia and Pontus, Sar-
dinia and Boeotia. Many changes, how-
ever, were made in these provinces at
various periods ; as, for example, Cyprus
and Gallia ceased to be imperial and
became senatorial provinces, while Dal-
matia ceased to be a senatorial and be-
came an imperial province. These divis-
ions of the country are referred to by
the N. T. writers, who speak of the rulers
of senatorial provinces as anthupatoi, or
"proconsuls;" the ruler of an imperial
province is styled hi/emon, or " governor."
Cyrenius is called " governor of Syria," j
Luke 2:2; Pilate, Felix, and Festus are
spoken of as "governors" — that is, pro-
curators— of Juda?a. Matt. 27 : 2 ; Acts
23 : 24; 24 : 27. Three Roman emperors
are named in Scripture, Augustus, Ti-
berius, and Claudius. Luke 2:1; 3:1;
Acts 11 : 28 ; 18 : 2. The emperor Nero
is also alluded to as '"Augustus" and
"C»sar." Acts 25 : 10. 11, 21, 25, 26;
Phil. 4 : 22. When Christ was born at
Bethlehem, a general peace prevailed
throughout the Roman dominions. The
changes effected by that power largely
contributed toward giving increased
facilities for the spread of Christianity.
Piracy and robbery had been suppressed,
military roads constructed, efficient gov-
ernments capable of executing the laws
instituted, commerce had increased, the
Latin language had spread in the AVest,
as the Greek had already done in the
East, and the condition of the people in
all the civilized countries offered facilities
never before known for the spread of a
new religion. Under the preaching of
the apostles, Christianity was made
known in most of the Roman provinces
of Asia Minor, in the south-eastern
provinces of Europe, and as far west as
Rome, and possibly even to Spain. It
was likewise proclaimed in Africa, and
eastward as far as Babylon. Thus the
gospel was preached in apostolic days
throughout the entire extent of the
Roman empire. See Rome.
R O ' M A N S, E P I S T L E OF
PAUL TO THE, is the sixth in
order of the books of the N. T. It was
written at Corinth, a. d. 58, just as Paul
was leaving that city for Jerusalem,
and transmitted through Phoebe. Rom.
15:25; comp. Acts 20:2.8,16: Rom.
16 : 1, 23; 1 Cor. 1 : U; 2 Tim. 4:20.
It is the most important and most
systematic of all the apostolic Epistles.
It is the fullest exposition of the great
truth that the gospel is a power of
universal salvation on the sole condition
of faith. In Rome, the mistress of the
world, he yjroclaimed the gospel as the
poxcer of God. which alone can save; in
Corinth, the city of philosophy and art, as
the uiidoni of God, which is wiser than all
the wisdom of men. Ch.l : 16, IT contains
the theme. Chs. 1 : 1 8 to 3 : 20 is the nega-
tive part, showing the need of salvation
or the general depravity of both Jews
and Gentiles. Ch. 3 : 20' to the close of
cb. 8 presents the positive part, and ex-
hibits the saving grace of God in Christ,
bv which the believer is justified, sancti-
fied, and glorified. Chs. 9-11 treat of the
historical progress of Christianity from
Jews to Gentiles, the rejection of the
Jews in consequence of their unbelief,
and their ultimate repentance and ac-
ceptance after the fulness of the Gentiles
has come in. The last five chapters
contain practical exhortations of the
greatest spiritual power and unction.
The Epistle to the Romans is the bul-
741
ROM
ROM
wark of the evangelical doctrine of
justification by faith.
The origin of the Roman congregation
is involved in obscurity. Its first mem-
bers may have been converted on the
day of Pentecost, since Jews from Rome
were among the witnesses of the pente-
costal miracle in Jerusalem. Acts 2:11.
At all events, it was already a large and
flourishing congregation when Paul
wrote his Epistle. He had not been
there, but intended to visit the metrop-
olis of the world, and wrote this letter
to prepare the way for his coming. He
did visit Rome afterward, but as a
prisoner of Jesus Christ, and sealed his
testimony with his blood.
The genuineness of the Epistle to the
Romans is beyond all reasonable doubt.
No man could have written it but Paul,
and he could have written it only b}'
inspiration. Luther called it "the chief
part of the N. T. and the purest Gospel ;"
Coleridge, " the most profound work in
existence;" Meyer, "the grandest, bold-
est, and most complete composition of
Paul." The Reformation of the sixteenth
century vvas inspired by the Epistles to
the Romans and Galatians.
RO'3IANTI-E'ZER (/ hnve ex-
alted his help), son of Heman and head
of the twenty-fourth course of singers in
the reign of David. 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 31.
ROME, the celebrated city and capi-
tal of the Roman republic and empire,
and once the proud mistress of the world.
It is situated on the river Tiber, about
15 miles from its mouth. The ancient
city was built upon seven hills. It was
founded about 754 years before the
Christian era: legendary history ascribes
its founding to Romulus. The principal
interest to the Bible-reader in the history
of Rome relates to the N. T. period.
Rome, in the N. T. times, was
the capital of the empire in its greatest
prosperity, and the residence of its em-
perors. Among its inhabitants were
many Jews. Acts 28 : 17. They had
received the liberty of worship and
other privileges from Caesar, and lived
in the district across the Tiber, near
the Porta Portese. At the time of
Paul's visit the city had outgrown
the old Servian wall, and consisted of
an extensive and irregular mass of
buildings unprotected by any outer city
wall. This was a period between two
742
noted epochs in its history — the restora-
tion by Augustus and that effected by
Nero. It was the boast of Augustus
that he found a city of brick and left
one of marble. The streets are de-
scribed as being at that time generally
narrow and crooked, flanked by crowded
lodging-houses of great height — so great
that Augustus made a law limiting them
to 70 feet. Gibbon estimates the popu-
lation of the city at this time as nearly
1,200,000, of which probably one-half
were slaves, and the larger part of the
remainder were paupers supported in
idleness by an unwise system of public
gratuities. Paul was kept at Rome two
whole j^ears, dwelling in his own hired
house with a soldier who had charge of
him. Acts 28 : 1(5, 30. In accordance
with the usual Roman custom of treat-
ing prisoners, he appears to have been
bound to the soldier with a chain. Acts
28 : 20; Eph. 6 : 20; Phil, 1 : Ifi. To
those coming to visit him he preached
the gospel, no one forbidding him. Acts
28 : 30, 31. An old legend declares that
the Mamertine prison was the place where
Paul and Peter were confined together
as fellow-prisoners, though there is no
historic proof of this supposition. This
prison still exists under the church of St.
Giuseppe; while a chapel on the Ostian
road is pointed out by tradition as the
place where the two parted when on their
way to martyrdom. Some historians deny
that Peter ever visited Rome, and it is
quite certain, from the silence of the N. T.,
that he could not have been there till the
latter part of his life, but tradition unani-
mously affirms that he suffered martyrdom
in Rome under Nero. It is the prevailing
opinion that Paul was acquitted on his
appeal to Cfesar, but that he was after
a time again imprisoned at Rome. Sev-
eral of his Epistles are believed to have
been written from this city, as those to
the Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians,
Philemon, and the Second E])istle to
Timothy, the latter shortly before his
death. 2 Tim. 4: 6. On Paul's approach
to Rome he was met by brethren, who
came out on the Appian Way as far as
the little town of Ap{)ii Forum. Acts 28 :
15. In his letter to the Philippians he
also refers to the "palace" or Caesar's
court. Phil. 1:13. This probably does
not refer to the imperial ]ialace, but to
the residence of the Praetorian guards
R{)M
ROM
or to a miltary barrack attached to the
imperial house. There were Christians
also belonging to the imperial household,
even during the reign of the cruel iN'ero.
Phil. 4 : 22.
Gardens, Colosseum, and Catacombs.
— There are many traditions connect-
ing various other localities in Rome with
the visit and residence of Paul, but most
of them have very little real historical
support. Among the sites which may
unquestionably be connected with the
Kouian Christians at or near the apos-
toiic age are :
1. The 0 a) dens of Nero, in theVatican,
near St. Peter's. Within these, in the
Neronian persecution, A. d. 64, after the
great conflagration, Christians, wrapped
in skins of beasts, were torn by dogs, or,
clothed in inflammable stufl's, were burnt
as torches during the midnight games;
others were crucified,
2. The Colosseum. — In this vast theatre
games of various sorts and gladiatorial
shows were held, and within its arena
many Christians, during the ages of
persecution, fought with wild beasts,
and many were slain for their faith.
.3. The C'rttaeovibs.-^Thes^e are vast
subterranean galleries (whether orig-
inally sand-pits or excavations is un-
certain). Their usual height is from 8
to 10 feet and their width from 4 to 6
feet, and they extend for miles, especi-
ally in the region of the Appian and
Nomentane Ways. The Catacombs were
early used by the Christians as places
of refuge, worship, and burial. More
than four thousand inscriptions have
been found in these subterranean pas-
sages, which are considered as I elong-
ing to the period between the reign of
Tiberius and that of the emperor Con-
stantine. Among the oldest of the in-
scriptions in the Catacombs is one dated
A. D. 71. The names of twenty-four
Christians at Rome are given in the salu-
tations contained in the Epistle to the
Romans. The house of Clement of Rome,
where the early Christians ])robably met
for worship, has recently been discovered
beneath the church of St. Clement.
Rome, as a persecuting power, is re-
ferred to by the "seven heads" and
" seven mountains" in Rev. 17 : !>, and
described under the name of " 15aby!on "
elsewhere in the same book. Rev. 14 : 8 ;
16: 1!); 17 : b: 18: 2, 21.
744
Post-Biblical History. — The Chris-
tian church at Rome, which appears to
have been founded before the visit of the
apostle, probably by Roman Jews who
had heard the gospel in Jerusalem on
the day of Pentecost, Acts 2:10, was
strengthened by Paul, and the metro-
politan character of the city gave the
church a posiiion of importance and
gradually increasing power, until it be-
came the seat of a metropolitan bishopric,
and then of the papal see. The earli-
est religious centres under Christianity
were, Ephesus, Antioch, Alexandria,
and Rome. Each of these gradually
claimed superior powers in the Church,
and their decrees were accepted as law.
Soon the bishop at Rome, from his posi-
tion in the capital of the world, and from
an assumption that he was the spiritual
successor of Peter, claimed supreme
power in the Church, and, after long
reg.arding thrmselves as his equals in
rank and authority, the patriarchs of
Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople
were led to acknowledge the claim of
the Roman bishop to a primacy of
honor, but not to a supremacy of juris-
diction (about A. D. 451-604). Since the
ninth century the great schism divided
Christendom into the Roman Catholic
Church and the Greek Church, inde-
pendent of the papal power of Rome.
The popes ruled Europe with vary-
ing degrees of power and ability un-
til the Reformation broke out, in the
sixteenth century, since which era the
papal power has gradual!}' declined at
Rome. The French army entered Italy
in 1796, and later the pojie became a
prisoner, first at Rome, then in France,
and Rome was formally governed by
France (1806). In 1814 the pope return-
ed to his palace, but in 1848 tlie people
rebelled, and established a republic.
France again interfered; the republic
ended. The pope returned, but when
the French troops were withdrawn in
1870, Italy became united under A'ictor
Emmanuel. Rome was made the j)olitical
capital of the nation (1871), and the
temporal power of the holy see was
abolished. The ])ope still occupies the
Vatican, and is supported by contribu-
tions of l{oman (Catholics of France,
Austria, Belgium, Englj^nd, the United
States, and other countrit.-'. Pius IX.
indignantly refused thvj government
ROD
RUE
pension, and called himself a prisoner
in the Vatican. Leo XIII., though firm
in maintaining his claim to the " patri-
mony of Peter," is more jjeaceable and
conciliatory.
ROOF. See Dwellings.
ROOM, in the phrases " upperm'ost
room " or " chief room," Matt. 23 : 6 ;
Mark 12 : 39 ; Luke 14 : 7, 8, 9 ; 20 : 46 ;
denotes the seat of honor at the table,
the first place on the first couch. See
Eating.
ROPES, 1 Kgs. 20 : 31, and
CORDS. Josh. 2 : 15. The putting
ropes upon the neck was significant of
great earnestness and distress. The
"cords of his sin," Prov. 5 : 22, probablj-
denotes the power of sinful habits. And
in Isa. 33 : 20 and Jer. 10 : 20 allusion
is made to the construction of a tent.
The " silver cord," Eccl. 12 : 6, is beau-
tifully interpreted by Delitzsch as the
soul, which holds the body in life, the
"bowl" is the body, and the golden oil
within it is the spirit. Zech. 4 : 12.
ROSE (arricl bulb). The mean-
ing of the original excludes from our
consideration the true rose and several
other plants suggested. It is the opin-
ion of some of the best authorities that
the polyanthus narcissus (N'arcis'ins ta-
zettn) is intended in Cant. 2 : 1 and Isa.
35 : 1, where alone the rose is mentioned.
This, beautiful and fragrant narcissus
grows in the plain of Sharon, as is re-
quired by these references, and during
its season of bloom is sold in the ba-
zaars of the East and carried by every-
body as a specially favorite flower.
The " rose of Sharon " of modern writ-
ers is a rose-like species of cistus, while
the "rose of Jericho" is a small woody
plant with minute cruciferous flowers.
True wild roses are rarely seen except
in the extreme Xorth of Palestine.
ROSH {head, chief). 1. A son of
Benjamin. Gen. 46 : 21.
2. As occurring in Eze. 38 : 2, 3 ; 39 :
1, the word has been translated in our
version, but is probably a proper name,
denoting one of the three great Scythian
tribes of which Magog was the head.
ROS'IN. Eze. 27 : 17, margin. The
text correctly reads "balm."
ROWERS. Eze. 27:26. See Ship.
RU'BIES. There is much uncer-
tainty concerning this translation. Some
would render the word " red coral," and
others "pearl" or "mother-of-pearl,"
both of which latter are often of a
ruddy hue. The word occurs in Job
28 : 18; Prov. 3 : 15,: 8 : 11; 20 : 15 ;
31 : 10 ; Lam. 4 : 7, but seems never
associated with the name of any pre-
cious stone.
True rubies are of a red color. They
are next to the diamond in hardness,
beauty, and value, and once command-
ed even a higher price. See Stones,
Precious.
RUDDER-BANDS. See Ship.
RU'DIilIENTS, the first and sim-
plest principles of a science or literature.
The word is translated " rudiments " or
" elements " without distinction, as both
mean the same thing. Gal. 4 : 3, 9 ; Col.
2 : 20.
RUE, a well-known herb (Jiiifa
graveofena) which often grows wild in
Palestine, and was also cultivated for
Rue. (Euta Graveolerts. After Carruihers.)
its disinfectant and other medicinal
properties. It was among the things
which the hypocritical and inconsistent
Pharisees tithed, though uncommanded,
745
RUF
RYE
while they neglected to obey the import-
ant and positive precepts of the Law.
Luke 11 : 42.
RU'FUS (red), a Christian to whom
Paul sent his salutation, Rom. 16 : 13 ;
probably identical with Rufus, the son
of Simon the Cyrenian. Mark 15 : 2L
RU'HAMAH [co^njjasslonated. hav-
ing obfaixed inercy), a sj'mbolical name
applied by Hosea. 2 : 1.
RU'MAH. 2 Kgs. 23 : 36. See
Arumah.
RU'MAH {lofty), the home of Pe-
daiah, the father of Jehoiakim's mother.
2 Kgs. 23 : 36. Conder proposes to iden-
tify it with a ruined village, Rnmeh, north
of Nazareth. Others have supposed that
it was the same as Dumah, near Hebron.
See Josh. 15 : 52.
RUSH. The proverbial expression
" branch and rush " occurs in Isa. 9 :
14 and 19 : lo in the sense of "top"
and "bottom" or "utterly." Another
word thus translated in Job 8:11 refers
to the famous papyrus or paper-reed, de-
scribed under Bulrush.
RUTH (a friend, or, according to
others, beauty), a Moabitish woman, Ruth
1 : 4, who married a son of Naomi and
showed her strong attachment to her
mother-in-law by leaving her own coun-
try and following her mother-in-law into
Judaea. Her kindness was abundantly
rewarded, as she soon found favor in the
eyes of a kinsman, who afterward married
her, through which event she became the
ancestor of the royal family of David.
RUTH, THE BOOK OF, so
called, not from the author, but from
the chief person, Ruth the Moabitess, is
properly inserted between Judges and
Samuel, as it is an appendix to the
former and an introduction to the latter.
The history relates to the time of the
Judges, 1:1, perhaps during the judi-
cature of Gideon, about b. c. 1241 or
later, and forms a bright contrast to the
dark and chaotic state of society at that
time. It is a beautiful episode of domes-
tic life, showing how domestic virtues
may be practised and domestic happi-
ness enjojed even in periods of revolu-
tion and anarchy.
By the urgency of famine, Elimelech
was obliged to emigrate with his family
from Canaan to Moab, where he died,
leaving a widow, Naomi or Noami, and
two sons, who married women of Moab
746
by the names of Orpah and Ruth. On
the death of the sons the widowed moth-
er resolved to return to her country, and
thereby she put the filial aflFection of her
daughters-in-law to a severe test. But
Ruth accompanied her with a devotion
that was prepared for every sacrifice :
" Whither thou goest, I will go, and
where thou lodgest, I shall lodge," etc.
1 : 16, 17. They arrived at Bethlehem
in extreme poverty, and Ruth went out
to glean after the reapers in the harvest-
field of Boaz, a wealthy kinsman of her
deceased father-in-law. Attracted by her
personal appearance and filial devotion,
he encouraged her return from day to
day, and, after redeeming the patrimony
of Elimelech, married her. From this
union sprang Obed, the father of Jesse,
the father of David, and through him our
Saviour according to the flesh. Matt. 1 : 6.
The age and authorship of this book
cannot be definitely ascertained, but it
cannot have been written before the time
of David, since he is mentioned as the
last in the genealogy. 4 : 18-22. It has
been variouslj' ascribed to Samuel, Heze-
kiah, and Ezra.
The practical lessons of the book are
manifold and impressive — the sure re-
ward of filial devotion and trust in God ;
the true use of the calamities of life;
the overruling providence of God in
the private atiairs of a humble family
as well as in the palace of princes and
the public events of nations. It also
shows that God had children outside of
Canaan and the Jewish theocracy, and
the incorporation of Ruth into the
Church of the 0. T. may be regarded
as an intimation of the future call of the
Gentiles to the gospel salvation.
RYE. This word occurs in Ex. 9 :
32 and Isa. 28 : 25. The same Hebrew
noun is translated "fitches" in Eze. 4 :
9. Rye being a northern grain and
rarely cultivated in the East even in
our day, Celsius' view is universally ac-
cepted— that in all these passages the
reference is to spelt [Tritivnni fipelta), a
grass closely resembling wheat and long
cultivated in the Levant. Though the
flour of its grain is inferior to that of
the latter, it is mixed with it for bread.
Spelt seems to have been sown later than
wheat, on the border or headland of the
field, to which there is reference in the
word " place" of Isa. 28 : 25.
SAB
SAB
S.
SABACHTHA'NI (thon hast for-
saken me), one of the words uttered by
Christ on the cross. Matt. 27 : 46 ; Mark
15 : 34. It is part of the phrase in Syro-
Chaldee.
SAB AOTH, OR SABA'OTH
[hosts). The phrase " Lord of Sabaoth "
occurs twice in the N. T. — in Rom. 9 :
29 and Jas. 5:4. It is a common blunder
to understand it as referring to the Sab-
bath or as implying rent. But it is the
Greek transliteration of the Hebrew Tse-
bnoth, " hosts '" or " armies," so often re-
curring in the 0. T., "the Lord of hosts,"
Isa. 1 : 9, "the Lord God of hosts" — i. e.,
the heavenly bodies, the angels, or the
people of God. Sometimes it means
nothing more than that God will guide
Israel to victory.
SAB'BATH (rest). The word first
occurs in Ex. 16 : 23, but the institution
of a day of rest is much older — is founded,
indeed, in man's nature, and, like mar-
riage, was instituted in Paradise. Gen.
2 : 2, 3. The word usually indicates the
seventh day of the week, which by God's
appointment was set apart for his service,
but it is used also of other days or times
separated and sanctified in a similar way.
Lev. 19 : 3, 30 ; 25 : 4, and in the orig-
inal text of the N. T. for a whole week
Matt. 28 : 1 ; Mark 16 : 2 ; Luke 24 : I
John 20 : 1; Acts 20 : 7; 1 Cor. 16
2. In a spiritual sense it designates
the eternal rest in heaven. Heb. 4 : 9
(marg. and Greek). In the Christian
Church the first day of the week has
been substituted for the last. There is
no explicit command on the subject, but
the Church nat irally commemorated the
great event which was in a sense her
birth, the resurrection of Christ. By
changing the day the Church threw off
the Jewish regulations which had load-
ed down the Sabbath, and turned it into
a day of ecclesiastical bondage. The
Jews were not peculiar in their day of
rest. It is a natural institution, and was
observed also by some pagan nations
quite independent of Judaism. Origi-
nally it was devoted to simple rest from
worldly toil. The fourth commandment,
Ex. 20 : 8-11 ; Deut. 5 : 12-15, enjoins
no specific religious service, except in
the general direction to keep it holy.
But the opportunity thus given was im-
proved. Subsequent legislation made it
a day of holy convocation. The sacri-
fices of the temple were doubled: the
shew-bread was changed; the inner court
of the temple was opened for solemn ser-
vices ; the prophets and the Levites took
the occasion for imparting religious in-
struction to the people. It was a day
of holy joy. There was freedom for so
much social enjoyment. Indeed, the
fear was that the day would be " wasted
by idleness and degraded by sensuality
and drunkenness " because it was so joy-
ous. Neh. 8 : 9-12; Hos. 2 : 11..
But after the Captivity arose the
school of the Pharisees, and by the;u
the attractive character of the Sabba'ic
observances was destroyed. In place
thereof they imposed upon the people
the yoke of a pedantic, scrupuloas,
slavish Sabbatarianism which made the
Sabbath an end instead of a means,
hampered the spirit of true worship,
and laid greater stress upon a punc-
tilious obedience to mere hum;in reg-
ulations than upon the commands of
the Law. Some of their ridiculous
prohibitions are the following :' Walk-
ing in the grass on the Sabbath, be-
cause the bruising would be a kind of
threshing ; wearing nailed shoes, be-
cause they would be a sort of burden:
mounting a tree, lest a twig should be
broken.
It was against this perversion ^f the
commandment that our Lord prcttested.
He refused his sanction to Pharisaic
legalism. Much to the consternation
of the religious party of the day, he
vigorously defended his Sabbath mira-
cles. The example of Christ represents
the Sabbath, not as a day of gloom, but
as a pleasant and healthful day of rest,
quiet religious service, and Christian
benevolence.
He kept the Sabbath in the highest
sense of the term. He observed every jot
and tittle of t!ie Mosaic Law in the free-
747
SAB
SAB
dom of the spirit. From him we learn
that religion is the uppermost business
of the day, that acts of necessity and
mercy are to be performed, that worldly
occupations are to be put as far as pos-
sible out of our thoughts. It is true we
transfer the fourth commandment to the
tirst day of the week, but we do not
thereby violate the spirit of the divine
law: for what God asked for was the
entire seventh of our time. We may
tht-refore claim the blessing which God
has pronounced upon those who keep
the day holy.
It is a matter of secondary importance,
and yet it shows the natural basis of the
fourth commandment, that this division
of time is scientifically correct. The
night's sleep does not restore all the
waste of the day ; additional rest, there-
fore, is demanded for health. It is an
interesting fact that the blasphemous
abolition of Sunday by the French Revo-
lutionists and the substitution of a day
of rest every ten days was found poor
policy, as the rest was insufficient.
The Christian Church keeps the first
daj' of the week, which celebrates the
close of the spiritual creation, just as
the last day celebrated the close of the
physical creation. We have the fullest
Avarrant for this change. Upon the first
day of the week Christ arose from the
dead. We find the disciples, before the
Ascension, assembled on that day, and
Jesus appeared to them. John 20 : 26.
According to tradition, which is con-
firmed by every probability, the outpour-
ing of the Holy Ghost on the day of
Pentecost was on Sunday. Paul preached
at Troas on the first day of the week — evi-
dently, among those Christians, the day
of religious service. Acts 20 : 7. Paul
tells the Corinthians that every one is to
lay by him in store upon the first day
of the week as he is prospered. 1 Cor.
16 : 2. It was u])on the Lord's day —
and by this name he calls it — that John
on Patmos saw through the opened door
into heaven. Rev. 1 : 10.
The first day of the week is therefore
the Christian Sabbath, the day of rest
and worship. And God has further con-
firmed the change by giving it his bless-
ing, as he blessed the Sabbath of crea-
tion-week.
Around the Lord's day we do well to
thiow .-afcguards. It is, in a sense, the
748
palladium of Christian liberty. The
various states and cities have good laws
for the protection of the civil Sabbath
and against its open desecration. The
positive observance of the reli(jiou8 Sab-
bath can, of course, not be enforced by
law, and must be left to the individual
conscience. The American churches are
unanimously in favor of a quiet Sabbath,
in opposition to the evils of the so-called
"continental Sunday," and earn est efforts
have been made to protectus against them.
Our Lord states the case most con-
cisely : *' The Sabbath was made for
man." Mark 2 : 27. It is the divine
gift, which, when accepted and properly
used, contributes to man's physical, moral,
and spiritual happiness and welfare, and
gives a foretaste of the saint's everlast-
ing rest in heaven.
The following are among the leading
passages of the Bible respecting the
Sabbath and its proper observance :
The divine institution of the Jewish
Sabbath. Gen. 2 : 2, ,3 ; Ex. 20 : 8-11 ;
Deut. 5 : 1 2, 1 5 5 Eze. 20 : 12 ; 44 : 24.
Servile labor forbidden. Ex. 16 : 23,
29; 20:10,11; 23:12; 34 : 21 ; 35 :
2, 3; Deut. 5 : 14, 15; Jer. 17 : 21, 22;
Mark 15 : 42 ; 16 : 1, 2 ; John 19 : 14,
31, 42.
The profanation of the Sabbath the
cause of national judgments. Neh. 13 :
15-18 ; Eze. 20 : 1 5, 1 6 : 23 : 38, 47.
The Jewish Sabbath re-established
under the gospel dispensation. Matt. 5 :
17; 12 : 12; Mark 2 : 27.
The change of the Sabbath from the
seventh to the first day of the week.
Gen. 2:2; Ex. 20 : 11 : Luke 23 : 5<5 ;
John 20 : 19 ; Acts 20 : 7 ; 1 Cor. 16 :
2; Rev. 1 : 10.
The duties of the Sabbath enjoined.
Lev. 19 : 30 : 26 : 2 : Eze. 46 : 3 ; Mark
6:2; Luke 4 : 16, 31 ; Acts 13 : 14-16,
27, 42, 44 ; 17 : 2, 3.
Works of necessity and mercy to be
done on this day. Matt. 12 : 1, 3, 5, 7,
12, 13 ; Mark 2 : 23, 27 ; 3 : 2, 4 ; Luke
6 : 9 ; 13 : 15, 16 ; 14 : 3, 5 ; John 6 :
8-10, 18; 7 : 22; 9 : 14.
Blessings promised to those who keep
the Sabbath. Isa. 56 : 2, 4, 5, 7; 58 : 13,
14.
Threatcnings against Sabbath-break-
ers. Ex. 31 : 14, 15; 35 : 2 ; Num. 15 :
32-36 ; Jer. 17 : 27 ; Eze. 20 : 13, 16, 23,
24; 22: 8, 14, 26,31 ; 23 : 38,46.
SAB
SAD
Sabbath privileges taken .away. Isa.
1 : 13; Lam. 1:7; 2:6; Hos. 2 : 11;
Am. 8 : 10, 11. See Lord's Day.
SABBATH DAY'S JOUR'-
NEY. See Mkasures.
SABBATICAL YEAR. Ex.23:
11. See Year, Sabbatical.
SABE'ANS. Two tribes of this
name are mentioned in the A. V.
1. Descendants of Seba, Isa. 45 : 14:
it should be simply "people of Seba,"
son of Cush.
2. In Joel 3 : 8 the descendants of
Sheba, son of Joktan, are meant. Pos-
sibly a third tribe is spoken of in Job
1 : 15. The translation " Sabeans " in
Eze. 23 : 42 is incorrect; read, as in the
margin, "drunkards."
SAB'TA,SAB'TAH(«/n-A-(»^),the
third son of Cush. Gen. 10 : 7 : 1 Chr. 1 : 9.
SAB'TECHA, SAB'TECHAH
[striking ?), the youngest son of Cush.
Gen. 10 : 7 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 9.
SA'CAR [hire). 1. The father of
Ahiam, a warrior of David's, 1 Chr. 11 :
35 ; called Sharar in 2 Sam. 23 : 33.
2. A Levite porter, and the fourth son
of Obed-edom. 1 Chr. 26 : 4.
SACK'BUT. A sackbut is a wind
instrument, but that meant in the orig-
inal of Dan. 3 : 5, etc., was a stringed
instrument of a triangular shape, played
with the fingers. It had four strings,
and had a very penetrating sound. In
process of time the strings were in-
creased to twenty. See Mcsic.
SACK'CLOTH. This was a coarse
Sitting in Sackcloth.
fabric, as the Hebrew word " sack "
mean.s, made of black goats' hair and
other materials, and worn either as a
sign of repentance. Matt. 11 : 21, or as
a token of mourning. Gen. 37 : 34 ; 2
Sam. 3:31; Esth. 4 : 1, 2 ; Job 16 : 15 ;
Ps. 30 : 11; Isa. 20 : 2; Rev. 6 : 12.
Hence the frequent occurrence in Scrip-
ture of figurative language connecting
sackcloth with mourning and darkness.
Isa. 3 : 24; Eze. 7 : IS ; 27 : 31; Am.
8 : Id.
SACRIFICE. Gen. 31 : 54. Sacri-
fices were in use from the earliest periods
of the world, and among all nations.
The universality of sacrificial rites is a
powerful argument on behalf of their
naturalness : they meet the demand of
the sinner for some way of appeasing
the offended divinity. But Christians
have no need of them, simply because
of the one perfect Sacrifice once ofl'ered
on the cross. See Offerings.
SACRILEGE, the crime of vio-
lating or profaning sacred things. Rom.
2 : 22. The Jews at some periods were
eminently guilty in this particular, inas-
much as they withheld the tithes and
offerings which God required of them,
Mai. 3 : 8-10, and converted his holy
temple into a market. Matt. 21 : 12. 13.
SAD'DLE. Lev. 15 : 9. Among
the ancients saddles were very simple
— merely a mat or quilted cloth ; such
is the present Orien'al saddle.
SAD'DUCEES, a Jewish sect often
mentioned in the N. T. The origin of
the term and its meaning arc involved
in obscurity, but the must satisfactory
theory is that the sect was derived from
Zadok and constituted a kind of " sacer-
dotal aristocracy." This e.xplains Acts
5 : 17. The Zadok spoken of is the
famous high priest of that name whom
Solomon appointed to succeed the de-
posed Abiathar. 1 Kgs. 2 : 35. The
Sadducees were a small party, of limited
influence among the people, and of a
rationalistic turn of mind. From their
connection with the high priests, they
were men of position, and probably of
more or less wealth. They were world-
ly-minded and had only a superficial
interest in religion. They are the fore-
runners of the modern reform Jews.
Their theology was in direct contra-
diction to the Pharisaic, and, from its
nature, could not be popular. It em-
braced four principal tenets: (1) A
denial of the divinity and consequent
749
SAD
SAL
authority of the oral Law, the body of
commentary on the written Law which
the Pharisees, without any historic evi-
dence, maintained was handed down by
tradition from the lawgiver himself.
(2) The Sadducees accepted the teaching
of Moses only, and seem to have rejected
the later books of the 0. T. (3) The
denial of man's resurrection — the soul
dies with the body. Matt. 22 : 23. Of
course the doctrine of future rewards
and punishments fell with it : likewise
belief in angel or spirit. Acts 23 : 8 (4)
Their fourth principal tenet was that
man had the most absolute moral free-
dom, for upon this freedom was depend-
eut the moral quality of his actions.
This tenet was, however, so far "pushed
as almost entirely to exclude the divine
government of the world."
In the N. T. they are not spoken of
with the same bitterness as the Phari-
sees : yet they were determined foes to
our Lord, and made common cause with
them in condemning him to ihe cross.
Annas and Caiaphas were Sadducees.
The sect disappears from history after
the first Christian centur}'. They have
their successors in the worldly Jews and
Christians of the present day.
SA'DOC {just), one of our Lord's
ancestors. Matt. 1 : 14.
SAF'FRON. Cant. 4: 14. Undoubt-
edly this is the saffron crocus ( Crocnn
sativns), which, with other species of
this plant, abounds in Palestine. This
kind is in high repute as a perfume ;
hence its mention among spices. The
pistils of its blossoms, gathered, dried,
and pressed into cakes or ground, be-
came the saflfron of commerce, which is
used as an orange dye and is also
employed in medicine in the East.
This substance is also valued for
adding flavor and aroma to food and
drink.
SAINTS, the title given by the sa-
cred writers to believers in Christ, Heb.
6 : 10, or the people of God. Ps. 16 : 3 ;
Rom. 1 : 7 ; 8 : 27. A saint is one who
is separated from the world and conse-
crated to the service of God. It does
not necessarily imply entire personal
holiness, but that believers are called to
holiness and are to strive after it. The
special application of the term to apos-
tles and evangelists and a select number
of men who constitute as it were a spirit-
750
ual nobility-is not biblical, but dates from
the fourth century.
SA'LA, SA'LAH {sprout), a de-
scendant of Shem, Gen. 10:24: 11:
12-15 ; Luke 3 : 35 ; in 1 Chr. 1 : 18, 24
the name is given as Shelah.
SALi'AMIS ( peaceful, or beaten), a
seaport-town with a good harbor, on the
eastern coast of Cyprus. It was visited
by Paul and Barnabas on their first
missionary journey. Acts 13 : 5. The
city was once the capital of Cyprus, and
stood on the north side of the river Pe-
dia?us. The land is low in this region,
and this river is the only true one in the
island, the other streams being merely
winter-torrents. We read of " syna-
gogues," from which it is evident that
the Jewish population in the city was
numerous. The island was productive,
and its trade in fruit, wine, flax, and
honey, and the farming out of the cop-
jier-mines by Augustus to Herod, would
naturally attract many Jews to this citj'.
In the time of Trajan and Hadrian, there
were great insurrections of the Jews ;
Salamis was partially destroyed, and its
demolition com])leted by an earthquake,
but it was rebuilt by a Christian empe-
ror and named Constantia. Its site is
now traced by broken cisterns and col-
umns and the foundations of ancient
buildings. The ruins are known as Old
FannKjufitn.
SALA'THIEL {I have ashed God),
a descendant of David, 1 Chr. 3 : 17;
most often called Shealtiel.
SAL'CAH, AND SAL'CHAH
{pilyrimagef), a city on the caste; n
frontier of Bashan ; captured by the
Israelites and assigned to the half
tribe of Manasseh, but close to the
border of Gad. Deut. 3 : 10; Josh.
12 : 5; 13 : 11 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 11. Salcah
is identical with modern Sulkhad, 56
miles east of the Jordan, at the southern
end of Jehel fj<(nr<tn. Near it begins tlie
great desert, which stretches to the Eu-
phrates. The city occupies a command-
ing position ; on the summit of a hill is
a castle dating back to a period as early
as the Romans, and surrounded by a deep
moat now partially filled with stone.
On several of the portals there are Roman
eagles and Arabic and Greek inscriptions.
Some of the latter have been found bear-
ing the dates A. D. 11)6 and A. D. 246.
There are about eight hundred stone
SAL
SAL
houses, many of them in a good state of
preservation, but occupied by only a few
families. The view from this site em-
braces the ruins of many other cities.
SA'IjEM {peace}, the place of which
Melchizedek was king. Gen. 14 : 18 ;
Heb. 7 : 1, 2. This word is only used
elsewhere in Ps. 76 : 2. Some would
interpret it, in the first two passages,
not as signifying a place, but that Mel-
chizedek was " king of peace." The
majority understand it to mean a place,
and it is usually interpreted as referring
to Jerusalem. Thus Josephus under-
stood it. The name '' Jireh," from Uen.
22 : 14, was supposed to have been added
to '•' Salem " to form '' Jerusalem," but this
is uncertain. Jerome made the Salem
of Gen. 14 : 18 and the Shalem of Gen.
33 : 18 identical, and fixed it 6 miles
from Scythopolis, while Van de Velde
discovered the name in that neighbor-
hood; but if such a Salem existed, it
cannot be proved to be the town of Mel-
chizedek. There might be an identity
between Salem and Salim. See Salim.
SA'IjI3I {peace, or fountains f), a
place named to mark the locality of
/Enon, where John baptized. John 3 :
23. Soipe identify it with Salem. Eu-
sebius and Jerome mention Salim as
near the Jordan, 8 Roman miles south
of Scythopolis. Robinson suggested
that it was identical with the village of
Salim, 3 miles east of Nabliis. Bar-
clay proposed to identify it with Wddy
Selim, 5 miles north-east of Jerusalem,
a wild ravine running down from Ana-
thoth, but Conder appears to adopt the
location suggested by Robinson. See
Eno.v.
SAL'LiAI {bnsket-maker). 1. A Ben-
iynite who returned to Jerusalem. Neh.
11 : 8.
2. A priest who returned with Zerub-
babel. Neh. 12 : 20.
SAli'LU (weiijhed). 1, 2. A Benjam-
ite and a priest. Neh. 11 : 7 : 13 : 7 ; 1
Chr. 9:7.
SAL'MA, OR SALOMON {clothed, n
jarnient). The son of Nashon, prince of
Judah, and father or ancestor of Boaz,
the husband of Ruth. Ruth 4 : 20 and
m irg. ; 1 Chr. 2:11; Matt. 1 : 4, 5. He
is conjectured to be the same with the
son of Caleb, the son of Hur, 1 Chr.
2:51, since it is. possible that Caleb
adopted him.
SALMANA'SAR. 2 Kgs. 17 : 3.
See Shalmanezer. •
SAL'ittON {shadii), Ps. 68 : U, or
ZAL'MON, Jud. 9 : 48, was one of
the high hills which environed the
ancient Shechem and afi'orded pastur-
age for Jacob's flocks. See Zalmox.
SALMO'NE {clothed), a promontory
forming the eastern extremity of the
island of Crete, and noticed in the ac-
count of Paul's voyage to Rome. Acts
27 : 7. It is a bold headland, visible at
a considerable distance, and usually iden-
tified with Cape Sidero. One writer has
suggested a promontory several miles
south of this point, known to the natives
as Plaka, and to sailors as Cape Salmone.
SALO'ME. 1. The wife of Zebedee,
and the mother of James the elder and
John the Evangelist, and probably the
sister of the Virgin Mary, John 19 : 25 ;
was one of the followers of Christ, Matt.
27 : 56 ; Mark 15 : 40 ; 16 : 1, though she
seems, like many others, to have at first
mistaken the true nature of his king-
dom. Matt. 2D : 21.
2. The name of •* the daughter of Her-
odias " who danced before Herod. Matt.
14 : 6 ; Mark 6 : 22. . She is not named in
the N. T., but bv Josephus {Aniiq. 18, c. 5,
'^ 4). The graphic account of Herod's
feast mav be traced to Chusa, the wife
of Herod's steward, Luke 8 : 3, who was
probably present. Salome married her
uncle Philip, tetrarch of Trachonitis, and
next Aristobulus, king of Chalcis.
SALT is abundant in Palestine. The
famous Jehel Undnm is substantially a
mountain of rock-salt about 7 miles long,
from IV to 3 miles wide, and several hun-
dred feet high. This ridge, almost en-
tirely composed of this mineral, extends
to the south from the south-west corner
i of the Dead Sea. Besides the rock-salt
to be obtained from this ridge and its
! vicinity, the Jews used, and preferred
for domestic purposes, salt obtained by
evaporation from the waters of the Med-
I iterranean and Dead Seas. On the east-
ern shore of the latter it is found in lumps
often more than a foot thick, in places
which the lake had overflowed in the
rainy season. The stones on the shore
are covered with an incrustation of lime
or gypsum. Branches and twigs which
fall into the water from the bushes be-
come encased in salt; and if a piece of
i wood is thrown in, it soon acquires a
751
SAL
SAL
bark or rind of salt. From this fact
some have attempted to explain the
transformation of Lot's wife into a pil- i
lar of salt. Gen. 19 : 26 : while others
suppose that the expression is figura-
tive, denoting that she was made an
everlasting monument of divine dis-
pleasure (salt being an emblem of per-
petuity), and others still think that she
was miraculously transformed into a solid
column of salt.
At the south-western extremity of the
Dead Sea there is a plain of consider-
able extent east of Jebel Usdiini, the soil
of which is entirely covered with salt,
without the slightest trace of vegetation.
This is believed by Robinson to be the
** valley " (or plain) "of salt," where
David's army vanquished the Edomites.
2 Sam. 8: 13;' I Chi. 18: 12; 2 Chr. 25:11.
By the " salt-])its," Zeph. 2 : 9, we are
not to understand quarries from which
rock-salt is extracted, but such pits as
the Arabs, even at this day, make upon
the shore of the Dead Sea, in order that
they may be filled when the spring fresh-
ets raise the waters of the lake. When
the water evaporates, it leaves in the pits
a salt crust about an inch thick, which
furnishes the salt used throughout the
country. Pits of this sort seem to be
alluded to in Eze. 47 : 11. In Josh. 15 :
62 a "city of salt " is mentioned, in the
neighborhood of the Dead Sea.
The uses of salt are sufficiently known.
Most food would be insipid without it.
Job 6 : 6. Salt being thus essential to
the enjoyment of food, the word was
used to denote the subsistence which a
person obtained in the service of another.
Thus, in Ezr. 4 : 14, the words trans-
lated " we have maintenance from the
kiiu/s palace " are in the original " we
salt" (or are salted) "with the salt of
the palace." And even now, among the
Persians and East Indians, to "eat the
salt " of any one is to be in his employ-
ment. Salt was also used in sacrifices.
Lev. 2 : 1.3 : Mark 9 : 49. In the last
passage reference is had to the perpetuity
of suffering.
New-born children were rub')ed with
salt. Eze. 16 : 4.
Salt, as a preservative from corrup-
tion, symbolized duriibility. fidelity, and
purity. Hence an indissoluble and per-
petual covenant is called a "covenant
of salt." Num. 18 : 19: Lev. 2 : 13; 2
752
Chr. 13 : 5. The idea of sacred obligation
to the king is involvec in the above quota-
tion from Ezra. Among the modern Arabs,
to " eat salt" with any one is a pledge
of perpetual and mutual friendship.
No plants can germinate in a soil cov-
ered with salt. Hence a "salt land" ia
an unfruitful, desert land. Jer. 17 : 6.
Salt was also used as a visible emblem
of sterility. When Abimelech took
Shechem, Jud. 9 : 45, he " beat down
the city and sowed it with salt," as a
token that it should continue desolate.
In like manner, the emperor Frederick
Barbarossa, when he destroyed Milan,
in the year 1162, caused the ground to
be ploughed and strewed with salt.
On the other hand, as salt renders food
savory, it is employed as an emblem of
holy life and conversation. Mark 9 : 50;
Col. 4:6. In Matt. 5 : 13, Christ calls
his disciples "the salt of the earth" —
i. €., of mankind, because the latter was
to be enlightened and purified bj' their
agency and preserved for their sake.
There is reference in the remainder of
the verse to the fact that, as Oriental
salt often contains mineral impurities,
by exposure to rain or dampness this
material may lose its savor or valu-
able part, and become " good for nothing
but to be cast out, and to be trodden un-
der foot of men."
SALT, CIT'Y OF, the fifth of
the six cities possessed by the children
of Judah, and situated in the wilderness
of Judah. It is mentioned between Nib-
shan and En-gedi. Josh. 15 : 62. Several
sites have been suggested for this city.
1. Van de Velde found a Nnhr Muleh
("salt"), one of four ravines forming
the Wdily el- Bedim, and would locate
the city of salt in that vicinity.
2. Others propose to place it at the
ruin Um-hn(/hek, or Em-herhek, lying a
short distance north of the salt moun-
tain of JeOel Uufhim.
3. Conder suggests that it is identical
with the present large ruin Tell cl-Mihl,
east of Beer-shrba.
SALT SEA, OR DEAD SEA.
No men. — This sea is called in the Scrip-
tures the "sea of the plain," Deut. 4 :
49; 2 Kgs. 14:25; the "salt sea,"
Deut. 3:17; Josh. 3:16; 12 : 3 ; the
"east sea," Joel 2 : 20 ; Eze. 47 : IS;
Zech. 14 : 8 ; and " the sea." Eze. 47 :
8. It also appears as the " valo of Sid-
48
Tlie-Salt or Dead Sea. {After Sketch by Maj(y WiUon.)
The figures denote the depression below the Medilcrraueau Sea.
SAL
SAL
dim." Gen. 14 : 8. In 2 Esd. 5 : 7 it ap-
pears as the •' Sodomitish sea;" in the
Talmud as the "sea of Sodom " and the
"sea of salt;" in Josephus iisthe"as-
phaltic" and " Sodomitic lake." The ti-
tle "Dead Sea" was not found in Jew-
ish writers, but was inti'oduced at an
early period by the Greek authors. The
Arabs give it the same name, but more
commonly call it the Bahr L ul, or " Lake
of Lot."
Situation and Extent. — The Salt or
Dead Sea is situated only 16 miles from
Jerusalem, in a straight line, and is
plainly visible from the Mount of Olives.
It occupies the deepest portion of the
great depression which extends from
the range of Lebanon on the north to
the (Julf of Akabah on the south. It
lies between 31° 6' and 31° 40' N. lat.,
and 3o° 24' and 35° 37' E. long. The
sea is 46 miles long, lOJ miles in its
greatest width, and covers an area of
nearly 300 square miles, varying some-
what with the season of the year, as the
flats are submerged by the rise of water
from the winter floods and laid bare by
the excessive evaporation of the summer.
Phyiical Features. — The sea is of an
oblong shape, and fills the lower end of
an oblong depression. The enclosing
mountains on each side run due north
and south in parallel lines, and over-
hang the sea at a height of more than
1500 feet, coming on the east side close
to the water's edge. At the southern
end the shore, for some 2 or 3 miles, is
flat as far as the base of Jebel Undnm,
"the salt mountain." The oval contour
is interrupted by the Liaan Peninsula,
or "the tongue," a broad promontory
extending northward from the south-
east corner for a distance of 10 miles,
and having a breadth of from 5 to 6
miles. It was visited by Lynch, but to
Palmer and Drake is ascribed the credit
of being the first thoroughly to explore
this curious spot. It is described by
Palmer as a plateau of soft chalk marl,
encrusted with salt, and containing large
quantities of sulphur in a very pure
form. The surface is for the most part
perfectly flat, but a few plateaus rise up
here and there uj)<)n it. The strip of
land which connects it with the shore is
low, and the promontory appears to have
been an island at some ])eriod when the
level of the sea was hijrhcr than it is at
754
present. The ruins of a tower built of
solid masonry and of a small reservoir
were discovered. On the site were some
broken columns of considerable architec-
tural pretensions, and many pieces of
glass and pottery lying in the ash-heap
contiguous to the ruins, but nothing
could be found to indicate the date.
Depth and Level. — The soundings of
Lynch showed that the bottom of the
lake was a comparatively level plain of
blue mud and sand, with crystals of salt.
The greatest depth is 1310 feet; the mean
depth north of the Lisan Peninsula, 1080
feet ; the greatest depth south of the
peninsula, 11 feet. The level of the
surface varies from 10 to 15 feet, accord-
ing to the season of the year : the mean
level below the Mediterranean Sea is
1293 feet (Lynch made it 1316 feet);
below Jerusalem, 3697 feet. Tristram
found the height of the crest of the
beach to, be 18^ feet above the level of
the water, and the line of driftwood some-
what less. A French geologist, M. Lar-
tet, found the ancient deposits of the
Dead Sea at least 300 feet above the
present surface of the lake, so that the
water must once have stood at that level.
The bottom is still subsiding, as is shown
by a curious fact. Drake says : " At the
southern end the fords between the Lisan
and the western shore are now impassable,
owing to the depth of the water, though I
have been told by men who used them
that they were in no places more than 3
feet deep some fifteen or twenty years
ago. Again, the causeway which con-
nects the Rijni el- nahr with, the main-
land has, according to the Arabs, been
submerged for twelve or fifteen years,
though before that time it was frequent-
ly dry." Earthquakes, as in 1834 and
1837, throw up large quantities of bitu-
men from the bottom of the lake at its
southern end. It was formerly supposed
that the lake was at some early historic
period connected with the Red Sea, but
recent geological researches have shown
any such connection very improbable,
since a hill of cretaceous formation, 781
feet above the sea, separates the wat&»'s
of the Dead Sea from those of the (Julf
of Akabah, and the streams north of the
hill flow northward into the Dead Sea.
Triliutaries. — The river Jordan emp-
ties into the Dead Sea at its northern
end. There are numerous uCvlirs up >n
The Dead Sea at "Ain Feshkah : North-west Side. {After Tnitram.)
Tlie Dead Sea from Jebel Usdiiui (Mountain ol' Salt) : South end. {After Tristram.)
SAL
SAL
the east, south, and west sides, the most
of which are winter-torrents, corppletely
dry in summer. The principal streams,
mostly perennial, are, beginning at the
north-east and following southward: the
Zerlia Main (the ancient Callirrhoe, and
Grove suggests possibly the more ancient
En-eglaim). the Mnjih (Arnon of the Bi-
ble), Kerak, Sifirh'i/eh (brook Zered), Sii-
fieh, and, on the west, the ' Ai)t Jidy (En-
gedi).
The xonter has a clearness and purity —
in color, at least — unequalled. The tur-
bid flood of the Jordan in times of fresh-
et can be distinctly traced by its coffee-
brown color for a mile and a half into the
lake. It has been estimated that 6,000,000
tons of water fall into the Dead Sea dai-
ly, the whole of which enormous quantity
must be carried off by evaporation, as
the lake has no outlet. Hence the water
is impregnated with mineral substances
containing on an average twenty-five
per cent, of solid substances, one-half
of which is cJiIoride of sodium (common
salt). Among the other substances are
chloride of magnesium, which gives the
water its bitter taste, and chloride of cal-
cium, which makes it smooth and oily
to the touch. There is also a large amount
of bromine, and many other mineral sub-
stances exist in smaller quantities. The
quantity of solid matter is more than
eight times as great as in sea-water.
The specific gravity varies from 1.021
to 1.25(> — that is, if a gallon of distill-
ed water weighs 10 pounds, a gallon of
water from the Dead Sea would some-
times weigh 12^ pounds.
From its density it seemed, in the
ptorm encountered by the boats of
Lynch's party, " as if their bows were
encountering the sledge-hammers of the
Titans instead of the opposing waves of
an angry sea." But when the wind
abated the sea as rapidly fell. "Within
twenty minutes from the time we bore
away from a sea which threatened to
engulf US, we were pulling away at a
rapid rate over a placid sheet of water
that scarcely rippled beneath us." Tris-
tram also noted the rapid subsidence of
the surface after a storm : " Such a mass
of water, so absolutely stagnant, T never
saw liefore. In the morning it had been
lashed by the gale; now it at once sug-
gested, as its appropriate description, 'a
sea of molten lead.' "
766
The spray leaves incrustations of salt
upon clothes, hands, and faces, convey-
ing a prickly sensation wherever it
touches the skin, and exceedingly pain-
ful to the eyes, lips, and nostrils, which
smart excessively.
linthhuj. — Most visitors try a bath in
the waters of the Dead Sea. Bathers can
float with equal ease upon their backs
or breasts, sit upon the water as one
would upon a feather-bed, and place
themselves in any attitude they please
without fear of sinking. Swimming is
made difficult by the tc ndency of the feet
to rise to the surface with a suddenness
that produces an unpleasant and some-
times painful effect upon the back, and
there is a constant tendency to roll over.
Josephus says that when Vespasian
went to see the Dead Sea, '' he com-
manded that some who could cot swim
should have their hands tied behind
them and be thrown into the deep :
when it so happened that they all swam
as if wind had forced them upward." A
salt crust is soon formed over the body
b.y the rapid evaporation, and the water
leaves a greasy feeling on the skin.
Asphalt lies in large masses at the bot-
tom of the sea, and sometimes large
fragments, loosened b}- storms and earth-
quakes, rise to the surface.
Ai\iii)nl ovd Ve(/etoh/e Life. — Tristram
observed that among the rounded peb-
bles of the beach dead land-shells were
thickly strewn. Quantities of very small
dead fish lay on the gravel, killed by the
salt water and thrown up by the flood,
and on these various birds were feeding.
Among the birds noticed were the
partridge, raven, thrush, bulbul, spar-
row, wild duck, brown-necked raven,
kingfisher, gull, dunlin, teal, redshank,
wagtail, pochard, duck, cormorant,
heron, golden eagle, plover, stork, crane,
grakle, snipe, catbird, hawk, and quail,
and Lynch saw a duck upon the water
about a mile from the shore. So the re-
port that a bird trying to fly over the sea
would fall dead, is without foundation.
Among the wild beasts are the jackal,
fox, coney, hare, ibex, porcupine, leop-
ard, wild boar, and hyaena. These facts
are enough to show how absurd are the
stories aboiit the shores of this sea being
destitute of birds and animals. At the
same time, it is quite certain that no
form of either vertebrate or molluscous
SAL
SAL
life can exist for more than a very short
time in the sea itself, and that all that
enter it from the Jordan are almost im-
mediately poisoned.
Various experiments have been made
by putting sea-fish into the waters, and
it was found that they invariably died
very speedily.
Plants. — Among the trees and plants
are the pistachio (the terebinth of Scrip-
ture), spina Christi (Christ thorn), tama-
risk, osher, oleander, lily, yellow hen-
bane, nightshade, mallow, mignonette,
and a species of kale resembling that on
the shores of the Great Salt Lake in
Utah. About the springs are clumps of
tamarisk trees, canebrakes 20 feet high,
and dense bushes, through which the
wild b()ar beats paths. Wherever there
is fresh water the climate stimulates a
luxuriant vegetation.
Warm springs are numerous. The
' Ain Ghniceir shows a temperature of
96° in January. Another sulphur spring,
within 6 inches of the sea, had a tem-
perature of 95°, and its heated water
extended out for 200 yards into the lake.
Climiite. — The climate, owing to the
great depression of the valley, is semi-
tropical. On the 14th of January, Tris-
tram noted that the thermometer reached
84° during the day. and at 1 A. m. stood at
62° Fahrenheit. Warren found the heat
at 'Ain Jidy (En-gedi), in July, to be
110° after sunset. See Climate, under
Palestine.
Present Appearance. — Lynch describes
the scene near Rds es-Feshka as "one
of unmixed desolation. Except the cane-
brakes clustering along the marshy
stream, . . . there was no vegetation
whatever; barren mountains, fragments
of rocks blackened by sulphureous de-
posits, and an unnatural sea, with low
dead trees upon its margin, all within
the scope of vision, bore a sad and som-
bre aspect. We had never before beheld
such desolate hills, such calcined barren-
ness." When the members of the Brit-
ish Ordnance Survey found themselves
on the shores of the Dead Sea, " the sky
was overcast with clouds, and a dense
haze, obscuring the mountains, made the
landscape as dreary and monotonous as
it could be. In an aspect such as this
the Dead Sea seemed more than ever to
deserve its name. Not a sign of life was
there — not even any motion save a dull
mechanical surging of the water. The
barren shore was covered with a thick
incrustation of salt, relieved only by
occasional patches of black, rotting mud
or b}- stagnant pools of brine. All along
the dismal beach large quantities of
driftwood are thickly strewn, and amongst
them might be detected the blackened
trunks of palms." See Deut 34 : 3.
Tristram describes the appearance at
the north end of the sea as follows :
'' The beach is composed of a pebble
gravel, rising steejily and covered for a
breadth of 150 yards from the shore with
driftwood. Trunks of trees lay tossed
about in every possible position, utterly
devoid of bark, grim and gaunt, a long
and disorderly array of skeleton forms.
There was a great variety in the species
of timber, but a very large proportion of
the trees were palms, many with their
roots entire. These must have been
tossed for many years before they were
washed up along this north shore. The
whole of the timber is indeed so satura-
ted with brine that it will scarcely burn,
and when it is ignited emits only a pale
blue flame. It is diificult to conceive
whence such vast numbers of palms can
have been brought, unless we imagine
them to be the collected wrecks of many
centuries, . . . accumulating here from
the days when the city of palm trees ex-
tended its groves to the edge of the river."
— Land of Israel, p. 247.
Below 'Ain Feshkah, on the west shore,
the lake is fringed with canebrake, sep-
arated from the water by a narrow strip
of shingle and conglomerate. Farther
south are huge boulders, rolled down on
the narrowing beach from the hills above.
The coast-line shows many indentations
and irregularities.
Bible Histori/. — The earliest mention
of this body of water is in Gen. 14 : 3,
where we read that the confederate kings
were joined together in "the vale of Sid-
dim, which is the Salt Sea." Most
writers have identified this vale of Sid-
dira with the portion of the Dead Sea
south of the Lisan Peninsula, which is
very shallow, but some recent explorers
incline to a northern location, in the Ghor
of the Jordan. The Salt Sea is mentioned
as one of the boundaries of the land of
Canaan and of the tribes. Num. 34 : 3,
12; Deut. 3 : 17 ; 4:49; Josh. 15:2, 5;
18 : 19 ; 2 Kgs. 14 : 25. In Eze. 47 : 18
757
SAL
SAM
and Joel 2 : 20 it is mentioned as " the
east sea," in distinction from " the west
sea," which was the Mediterranean.
The cities of the plain, which were
destroyed by '* brimstone and fire from
the Lord out of heaven," were near the
Dead Sea. Gen. 19 : 24. The suppo-
sition formerly most common was that
these cities were submerged by the wa-
ters of the sea at the time of the great
catastrophe — a theory which appears
to be inconsistent with the geological
and physical character of the region.
For the disputed question respect-
ing the sites of the cities of the plain,
see Sodom and Gomorrah.
The Salt or Dead Sea is not men-
tioned in the N. T.
SALT, VAL^LEY OF, more
accurately a " ravine," and the bat-
tlefield between Judah and Edom.
It is five times mentioned in Scripture
in connection with two remarkable vic-
tories of the Israelites.
1. That of David over the Edomites
when 18,000 of them were slain. 2 Sam.
8 : 13; 1 Chr. 13 : 12; and compare the
title to Ps. 60.
2. The victory of Amaziah, who slew
10,000 Edomites and hurled 10,000 more
over the ''rock" (Petra). 2 Kgs. 14 : 7 ;
2 Chr. 25 : 11. It has been proposed to
locate this valley near the salt mountain
Jebel Uadvm, in the plains south of the
Salt Sea; but Grove objects to this, and
holds that '' salt " is not necessarily
the right translation of the Hebrew
melach, and infers that Amaziah brought
his prisoners to Selah (margin, "the
rock," or Petra) ; hence that he would
scarcely carry so many prisoners for 50
miles through a hostile country. It
would seem more likely, therefore, that
the Valley of Salt was in Edom, near to
Petra.
SA'IjU {weighed), a Simeonite chief.
Num. 25 : 14,
SALUTES Matt. 10 : 12, SALU-
TA'TION. Luke 1 ; 41. The saluta-
tions of the Jews were usually of a re-
ligious character — at least, in form —
and were attended with much ceremony,
as they are to this day among the Ori-
entals, even the Bedouins of the desert.
Sometimes there was nothing but the
simple exclamation, "The Lord be with
you I" or " Peace be with you !" To
this last and most common form strik-
758
ing allusion is made by our Saviour.
John 14 : 27 ; 20 ; 19, 26. It passed into
the epistolary salutation. Ptom. 1 : 7, etc.
The time occupied in the ceremonies of
salutation, repeatedly bowing, kissing
the beard, etc., was often very consider-
Modes of Salutation in the East.
able. Gen. 33 : 3, 4, and hence the caution
in 2 Kgs. 4 : 29; Luke 10 : 4 against
saluting.
SAL VA'TION, or deliverance, sup-
poses evil or danger. Ex. 14 : 13; comp.
Ps. 106 : 8-10 with Isa. 63 ; 8, 9. But
in its ordinary use, in the N. T. especi-
ally, the term denotes the deliverance
of sinners from sin and death through
faith in Christ. " The day of salvation,"
2 Cor. 6 : 2, "the gospel of your salva-
tion," Eph. 1:13, and other like phrases,
are employed in this sense. They all
suppose mankind to be lost and ruined by
sin, and hence to be in a state of guilt
and deplorable misery and exposed to
the just penalty of the divine law. The
salvation which the gospel offers in-
cludes in it the pardon of sin and de-
liverance from its power, pollution, and
consequences, and also sanctification of
the soul and the joys of the eternal
world. Matt. 1:21; Gal. 3 : 13 ; 1 Thess.
1:10; Heb. 5 : 9. Hence it is justly
called a ip-edt salvation. Heb. 2 : 3.
SAMA'RIA (natch-post), a noted
city of Central Palestine, founded by
Omri, king of Israel.
Situation. — The city of Samaria was
30 miles north of Jerusalem and 6 miles
north-west of Shechem, and situated
near the centre of a beautiful basin
about 6 miles in diameter and sur-
rounded by hills. The hill of Samaria
was to the east of the centre of this
basin, and about 1542 feet in height
above the level of the sea. It was of
SAM
SAM
an oblong form, with steep and terraced
sides. The whole region about it is
fertile, the site being a strong one for
defence and the view from the summit
very beautiful. From its top the Medi-
terranean Sea can be plainly seen.
HiHtory. — Shemer sold the ground upon
which Samaria was built to Omri, the
king of Israel, for two silver talents, and
the latter built a city, calling it Samaria,
B. c. 925. 1 Kgs. 16 : 23, 24. It appears
that previous to this Shechem had been
the capital, and Tirzah the court-resi-
dence in summer. 1 Kgs. 15:21, 33;
16 : 1-18. But Omri now made Samaria
the capital of Israel — a position which
it continued to hold
years, until the fall
kingdom, b. c. 721.
of many idolatrous
erected a great temple to Baal ; Jehu
destroyed it, and massacred the priests.
1 Kgs. 16 : 32, 33; 2 Kgs. 10 : 18, 28.
Twice the city was besieged by the
Syrians — in the reign of Ahab, b. c,
901, and in the reign of Joram, b. c.
892. 1 Kgs. 20 : 1. At the latter siege
the people were reduced to the most ter-
rible distress by famine, but were won-
derfully delivered, in accordance with
for two hundred
of the northern
It was the seat
practices. Ahab
the prophecy of Elisha. 2 Kgs. 6 : 24-33 ;
7 : 1-20. About one hundred and seventy
years later the city was captured by the
king of Assyria, after a siege of nearly
three years: the northern kingdom was
destroyed, and the ten tribes carried into
captivity. 2 Kgs. 18 : 9-12. Colonists
from Assyria were sent to repeople the
country. " 2 Kgs. 17 : 24 : Ezr. 4 : 9, 10.
The city of Samaria continued to be a
place of some importance. It was cap-
tured by Alexander the Great, who peo-
pled it with Syro-Macedonians ; it was
again taken by John Hyrcanus, after a
year's siege, and razed to the ground,
B. c. 109. It was rebuilt and adorned by
Herod the Great, who named it Sebaste
in honor of Augustus, who gave it to
him, and settled a colony of six thou-
sand persons there, composed of veteran
soldiers and peasants. He enlarged the
city, and surrounded it with a wall and
colonnade.
In N. T. times, Philip preached the
gospel in Samaria, Acts 8:5, 9, and
the place became an episcopal see.
Septimius Severus planted a Roman
colony there in the third century of
the Christian era, but politically it was
secondary to Ctesarea. The city was
Ruins of the Colonnade of Samaria.
also surpassed in prosperity by Ne-
apolis (Sichem). During the siege of
Jerusalem, Samaria fell into the hands
of the Muslims, but the Crusaders estab-
lished a Latin bishop there, thus reviv-
ing the old episcopal see. In a. d. 1184,
759
SAM
«AM
Saladin marched through the city ; and
notices of the place occur in the accounts
of travellers from the fourteenth to the
seventeenth centuries.
Present Condition. — The ancient city
of Samaria is now represented by
the modern village Sehasfii/eh (from
"Sebaste"), situated upon the slope of
the hill, having houses built of stones
taken from the ancient remains. In and
among the houses are scattered many
fragments of ancient buildings, such as
hewn blocks, shafts of columns, capitals,
and portions of entablatures. Vines grow
luxuriantly around the bases of broken
shafts, grain is j^lanted amid shattered
columns, sculptured blocks of limestone
are embedded in the rude terraces of the
vineyards. The most imposing ancient
building is the half-ruined church of John
the Baptist, now turned into a mosque.
Tradition states that John the Baptii^t
was buried here. The church stands in
a conspicuous position on the brow of a
hill, the present edifice being the work
of the Crusaders of the twelfth century.
On the round hill above the village,
to the west, are the remains of the
palace erected by Herod the Great in
honor of Augustus. On the terrace to
the south runs the famous colonnade,
about 3000 feet in length, of which one
hundred columns still remain, some
standing, some overthrown or buried
beneath the soil. Besides the tomb
of John the Baptist, tradition points
out the resting-place of Obadiah and
Elisha under a stone slab near the
ruined church. The prophet declares,
" I will make Samaria as an heap of
the field, (mil as plantings of a vine-
yard : and I will pour down the stones
thereof into the valley, and I will dis-
cover the foundations thereof," Mic.
1 : 6. This prophecy has been literally
fulfilled.
SAMA'RIA, KINGDOM AND
COUNTRY OF, a territory which
laj' north of Judah, and, in N. T. times,
between that country and the region
known as Galilee.
Situation and Extent. — The kingdom
of Samaria, as referred to in the 0. T.,
was synonymous with the kingdom of
Israel. This varied in extent at dif-
ferent tinies, at one period embracing all
the territory allotted to the ton tribes,
at others covering a more limited region.
7U0
In the days of Jeroboam it extended on
both sides of the Jordan ; but this terri-
tory was much reduced, first by the in-
vasion of Pul, and later by that of
Tiglath-pileser, when the Israelites on
the east side were taken captive. The
extent of the kingdom was then con-
fined to the region between the Jordan
and the Mediterranean, and to that
portion north of the kingdom of Judah,
it being, in fact, only a subject province
of Assyria. See Israel, Kingdom op.
In N. T. times Samaria was the region
between Galilee on the north and Judsea
on the south. Its boundaries have been
traced by the British Ordnance Survey
in accordance with the description by
Josephus. The northern limit is de-
fined by the towns of Beth-shan ( lieisan),
En-gannim {Jenin), and Caphar-out-
heni [Kcfr Adhan), being properly com-
mensurate with the northern boundary
of Manasseh. Beth-shan and the valley
of Jezreel at one time belonged to
Samaria, but were subsequenth' taken
by the Jews. The southern boundary,
as noted by Josephus, appears to have
been the great valley called Wddy Deir
BuUut, which rises near the Libben (the
ancient Lebonah), and leaves Sliiloh in
the territory of Judah. Antipatris {Ran
el-Ain), Annath {Aina), and Borceas
[Brnhin) are found on the frontier-line.
According to Josephus, Samaria had no
sea-coast, since the whole plain of Sharon
up to Ptolemais belonged to Judah. It
is doubtful, also, what portion of the
west Jordan valley belonged to Samaria,
but it probablj' did not extend south of
the Wddy Far'ah. The Roman high-
way from Galilee to Jerusalem ran
along the Jordan by way of Jericho,
and was the one commonly used by
pilgrims. It is important to note this
position of Samaria as throwing light
upon the route pursued by Jesus and
other Galileans in going up to Jerusalem,
for they would avoid, as far as j)ossible,
passing through the territory of their
neighbors, the Samaritans.
Hintory. — The history of the country
of Samaria to b. c. 720 belongs to the
kingdom of Israel. After Israel was
carried into captivity the history of the
Sainaritans. as such, begins. Who were
these Samaritans? The word occurs
I only once in the 0. T., 2 Kgs. 17 : 29.
i and then it seems to be used rather of
SAM
SAM
the Israelites. But after they were
carried away, men from Assyria were
brought as colonists into the cities of
Samaria, 2 Kgs. 17 : 24, and these were
the ancestors of the Samaritans men-
tioned in N. T. times. A much-debated
question has been whether those Samar-
itans were of purely foreign extraction
or were of mixed Jewish blood. The
latter opinion seems most reasonable.
It is hardly to be supposed that all
the Jews could have been carried away
out of the land, and this opinion is
supported by -the fact that money was
contributed from the cities of Manasseh
and Ephraim to repair the temple in Jo-
siah's time, 2 Chr. 34 : 9, and idols were
destroyed in the same region. 2 Chr. 34 :
6, 7. The Assyrian colonists obtained a
priest to teach them " the manner of the
God of the land," and combined some
forms of Jehovah-worship with their
idolatry. 2 Kgs. 17 : 25-41.
When the Jews returned from the
Captivity with a spirit more exclusive
than ever, the contrast between Jew and
Samaritan was very strongly marked.
The Samaritans wished to have a share
in rebuilding the temple, but the Jews
refused to allow them to co-operate. The
breach widened, and the Samaritans suc-
ceeded in hindering the work at Jeru-
salem by misrepresentations to the Per-
sian kings. Ezr. 4; Neh. 4, 6.
At length the opposition culminated
in the setting up of a rival temple by
the Samaritans on Mount Gerizim. The
occasion of this seems to have been the
expulsion from Jerusalem by Nehemiah
of a son of the high priest, who was a
son-in-law of Sanballat. Neh. 13 : 28.
According to Josephus, the person ex-
pelled was Manasseh, whose father-in-
law, Sanballat, obtained from Alexander
the Great permission to erect the temple.
But the temple was probably erected at
an earlier date. After this time the city
of Samaria declined, and Shechem in-
creased in importance. This temple
was destroyed by John Hyrcanus after
standing for two hundred years.
Conflicts between the Jews and the
Samaritans were frequent. A party
of Samaritans defiled the temple at
Jerusalem with bones of the dead.
There was a general insurrection among
them in the time of Pilate, whose severity
resulted in his removal from office. A
crowd arrayed themselves against Ves-
pasian, and he slew 11,600 of them.
The bitter animosity between the two
races must be understood in order to
comprehend many facts in the N. T.
history. Thus the Galileans avoided
going through Samaria, as far as pos-
sible, in their journeys to Jerusalem,
since they were exposed to insult, as-
sault, and even danger of death. The
Seventy were not to go among the
Samaritans, Matt. 10 : 5, and the in-
hospitality of that people excited the
blazing indignation of James and John.
Luke 9 : 52-56. Yet Jesus showed
himself to be far superior to the narrow
feeling of race by his parable of the
Good Samaritan, Luke 10 : 30, 37 ; his
commendation of the healed Samaritan,
Luke 17 : 11-19; and his conversation
with the woman of Samaria. John 4 :
1-42. This interview throws light upon
the Samaritan character and claims.
The woman asserts for them Abrahamic
descent — "our father Jacob" — but this
the Jews would not allow. It was prob-
able that the people had become more
and more of a mixed blood, since, ac-
cording to Josephus, many renegade,
apostate, and law-breaking Jews sought
refuge among the Samaritans. The
gospel gained some success there. Acts
1:8: 8 : 5-26. But most of the Sa-
maritans adhered to their old religion,
and therefore frequently came into col-
lision with Christianity and with the
Roman emperors, particularly in A. D.
529. About this time they martyred
Christians and destroyed churches.
J*ustinian subdued them and slew many
of the insurgents. During the Crusades
they are not mentioned. In the twelfth
century Benjamin of Tudela found about
a thousand adherents of the sect of the
Samaritans at Xablus, and a few also
at Ascalon, Caesarea, and Damascus.
During the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries various letters passed between
the Samaritans and Western scholars in
regard to their Pentateuch.
Present Condition. — The only repre-
sentatives of the Samaritans are found
in a community living at Nabliis
(Shechem), and consisting of some forty
to fifty families. They possess the Pen-
tateuch, in the old Hebrew or Samaritan
writing, which has attracted great at-
tention from scholars as a very ancient
761
SAM
SAM
version. Three times a year, at the feast
of unleavened bread, the feast of weeks,
and the feast of tabernacles, they make a
Cylinder enclosing tbf Samaritan Pentateuch
at NabluH.
pilgrimage to the sacred Mount Gerizim.
They celebrate all the Mosaic festivals,
and at the Passover they offer sacrifices.
SAMAR'ITANS, the inhabitants
of Samaria, 2 Kgs. 17 : 29, but in the
N. T. the term is applied to the people
7f)2
that were planted in Samaria, in the
place of the exiled Israelites, by the
Assyrian king. 2 Kgs. 17 : 24. This
defiled origin, Ezr. 4 : 1, the course
pursued by the Samaritans before the
Persian kings, Neh. 4 : 1, connected
with their construction of the Mosaic
Law, Deut. 27 : 11-13, and their sepa-
ration from the Jews in their place of
worship, Luke 9 : 52, 53 : John 4 : 20,
21, rendered the animosity between them
very bitter, Matt. 10 : 5 ; John 4:9; and
hence the very name ''Samaritan" was,
with the Jew, a term of reproach and con-
tempt. John 8 : 48. The Samaritans ex-
pected a Messiah, John 4 : 25, and many
of them followed Christ. Acts 8:1; 9 :
31 ; 15 : 3. See Samaria, KI^GDOM of.
SAM'GAR-NE'BO (sword of
Nebo), a Babylonish prince. Jer. 39 : 3.
SAM'LiAH igariiieut), an ancient
Edomite king. Gen. 36 : 36, 37; 1 Chr.
1 : 47, 48.
SA'MOS (o height), an island in the
^gean Sea, a few miles from the main
land, and 42 miles south-west of Smyrna.
The island is 27 miles long, 10 miles wide,
and has an area of 165 square miles. It
was the seat of Juno-worship, the birth-
place of Pylhagoras, and noted for its
valuable pottery. Paul visited the island
on his third missionary journey. Acts
20 : 15. Samos was then the capital of
the island. Two miles to the west was
the temple of Juno ; there was a sacred
way, which can still be traced, from the
city to the temple. The modern name
of the port at which Paul landed is Ti-
f/aiii. The island now contains about
60,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its
productions of oil, wine, oranges, grapes,
raisins, and silk.
SAMOTHRA'CIA (Thraciav Sa-
unas), an island in the north-eastern part
of the ^gean Sea, and a conspicuous
landmark to sailors. It is 8 miles long
and 6 miles broad. Homer says that
from its lofty ridges the battlefield of
Troy might be seen, and one of its
mountains has an elevation of 5248 feet,
affording a wide view. Paul visited it
on his first missionary journey. Acts 16 :
11. The island is still called Somothraki,
and contains from 1000 to 2000 inhabit-
ants, siibicct to Turkey.
SAM'SON ixutiUk'e), son of Manoah,
of the tribe of Dan. and for twenty years
a judge of Lsracl. The circumstances at-
SAM
SAM
tending the annunciation of his birth
are remarkable. Jud. 13 : 3-23. See
Manoah. He was distinguished for his
gigantic strength, and is the Hercules
of the Hebrews. Contrary to the wishes
of his parents, who were observers of
the Law, Ex. 34 : 16 ; Deut. 7 : 3, he
married a woman of Timnath, a Philis-
tine city. On his way to that city he
slew a lion, Jud. 14 : 5-9, and afterward
found in the carcass of the beast a swarm
of bees, and he ate of the honey himself
and took some to his parents. This oc-
currence gave rise to an enigma, which
he propounded at his marriage-feast,
promising a valuable present to any who
would solve it within seven days, pro-
vided they would make a like present to
him if they failed. Unable to solve the
riddle themselves, they resorted to Sam-
son's wife, who, by the most urgent en-
treaties, had obtained from him a solu-
tion of it. By cruel threats they extort-
ed from her the secret, and told it to him.
But he knew their treachery ; and. though
he kept his word and made them the
present, it was at the expense of the
lives of thirty of their countrymen.
He also forsook his wife, who hall' been
tlius false to him. See Riddle.
On returning to Timnath with a view
to a reconciliation with his wife, he found
she had married again, and he was not
permitted to see her. He immediately
caught three hundred foxes, and, fasten-
ing a firebrand to every pair of them,
let them loose upon the fields and vine-
yards of the Philistines, and spread fire
and desolation over the country. The
Philistines, to be avenged, set fire to the
house where Samson's wife lived, and she
and her father were burnt in it. This
wanton barbarity again drew upon them
the vengeance of Samson, who came upon
them and routed them with imm-ense
slaughter. Jud. 15 : 1-8.
He then took up his abode on the rock
Etam, in the territory of Judah, whither
the Philistines came to revenge them-
selves, laying waste the country on every
side. Three thousand of the men of -Ju-
dah remonstrated with Samson for thus
exciting the resentment of the Philis-
tines, and he consented that they should
bind him and deliver him into their
hands. This they did ; but in the
midst of their exultations he burst his
bands and fell upon his enemies, put-
ting a thousand of them to death and
the residue to flight. Jud. 15 : 9-19. It
was on this occasion that he was mirac-
ulously supplied with water from a foun-
tain opened on the spot— not in the jaw-
bone with which he had slain the Philis-
tines, but in the place where the bone was
found and used. Jud. 15: 17. margin.
His sensual nature betrayed him into
an illicit connection with a woman in
Gaza. His enemies meanwhile sur-
rounded the place, expecting to kill
him in the morning, but at midnight he
arose and carried ofi" the gates of the
city. Jud. 16 : 3. After this, Samson
went to the valley of Sorek, where he
attached himself to Delilah, a mercenary
woman, by whom, after a variety of arts
and stratagems, the secret of his great
strength was discovered to lie in the
preservation of his hair, for he was a
Nazarite. Jud. 16 : 17. The Philistines
came upon him 'while he was asleep, re-
moved his hair, bound him with fetters
of brass, put out his eyes, carried him
to Gaza, and threw him into prison.
Having thus secured their formidable
foe, the Philistine nobles assembled for
a feast of joy, and, to add to their mer-
riment, they proposed to have Samson
brought. So a lad led him in and sat
him down between the two main pillars
of the house where the nobles and a
multitude of people, both men and
women, were assembled, besides three
thousand persons upon the roofs of the
cloisters around, beholding the cruel
sport. Samson requested the lad who
had charge of him to let him rest him-
self against the pillars on either side of
him. This being granted, he prayed for
strength, and, laying^hold of the pillars,
he bowed with all his might, carrying
the pillars and the whole structure with
him. and burying himself and the vast
multitude within and around the courts
in one common destruction. Samson is
ranked with the heroes of the faithful.
Heb. 11 : 32, 33. But we must, of course,
not judge him from the standpoint of the
N. T. He lived in the wild anarchical pe-
riod of the Judges, when might was right,
and he was iust the man for that time.
SAM'UEL {heard nf God), the son
of Elkanah and Hannah, was a celebra-
ted Hebrew prophet, and the last of their
judges. He is one of the purest and
noblest characters in the 0. T. history.
763
SAN
SAN
While he was a child he oflBciated in some
form in the temple, and was favored with
revelations of the divine will respecting
the family of Eli, the high priest, under
whose care and training his mother had
placed him. 1 Sam. 3 : 4-1 +. See Eli.
After the death of Eli, Samuel w;is ac-
knowledged as a prophet, and soon com-
menced a work of reformation. Idolatry
was banished, the worship of the true
God was restored, and Samuel was pub-
licly recognized as a judge in Israel.
Residing on his patrimonial estate in
Ramah, he made annual circuits through
the country to administer justice until his
infirmities forbade it, and then he de-
puted his sons to execute this dutj'.
They proved themselves unworthy of
the trust, and so general was the dissat-
isfaction of the people that they deter-
mined on a change of government. To
this end they applied to Samuel, who,
under the diviije direction, anointed
Saul to be their king, and Samuel re-
signed his authority to him. 1 Sam. 12.
After Saul was rejected for his disobe-
dience in the matter of Agag, Samuel
was instructed to anoint David as king,
after which he returned to Ramah, where
he died. 1 Sam. 25 : 1. See Sail.
First and Skcond Books of, are called
also the First and Second Books of Kings.
They bear Samuel's name, perhaps be-
cause he wrote the history of his own
times as given in the First Book, and
therefore the entire work went under his
name. But it is more probable that the
name was in consequence of Samuel be-
ing the hero of the first part of the his-
tory, and that the author belonged to a
later period. The Hebrew is singularly
clear and pure from Aramaisms.
The two books are thus analyzed in
Lange's Commentan/ : 1st ])art : Sam-
uel's life and work as judge and proph-
et. 1 Sam. 1:1-7. 2d part: Saul, chs.
8-31: (1) Founding of kingdom, his ap-
pointment, chs. 8-15; (2) His fall. Chs.
16-31. 3d ])art : David. 2 Samuel :
1st part: David king over Judah only,
2 Sam. 1-5 : 5. 2d part : David king
over all Israel. Chs. 5 : 6-24.
These books formed only one in the
Hebrew canon. They arc the antece-
dents to the books of the Kings, but are
not from the same hand. " In King.s
are many express references to the Law ;
in Samuel, none. In Kings the Exile is
764
often alluded to : it is not so in Samuel.
The plans of the two works vary. Sam-
uel has more of a biographical castj
Kings more the character of annals."
SANBAL'LAT {a hero?), a native
of Horonaim, in Moab, who sadly im-
peded the efforts of the Jews to rebuild
the walls of the city by inciting a move-
ment on the part of the Arabians and
others who comprised the "army of Sa-
maria," which apparently Sanballat com-
manded. Neh. 4 : 2. After Nehemiah's
departure he insinuated himself suffi-
ciently with the high priest to be able
to marry his daughter to the high priest's
grandson. But Nehemiah, returning,
promptly deposed the latter. 13 : 28.
We have no further biblical information
about him.
SANCTIFY is to prepare or set
apart persons or things to a holy use.
Ex. 13 : 2. The term '' sanctification,"
when applied to men, denotes the effect
of God's Spirit upon the soul. It com-
prehends all the graces of knowledge,
faith, love, repentance, humility, etc.,
and the exercise of them toward God
and man. 2 Thess. 2:1:^; 1 Pet. 1 : 2.
It is a process by which the soul is
cleansed from the pollution and delif-
ered from the power of sin, and at the
same time endued with those s|»iiitual
graces above named, without which there
could be no taste or fitness for the joys
or employments of the heavenly world,
Heb. 12 : 14. Sanctification is the fruit
of union to Christ by faith, and it is in
the knowledge and belief of the truth
as it is in Jesus that the soul becomes
the subject of the sanctifying influences
of the Spirit. John 17 : 17. From this
inward sanctification proceeds every good
word and work. Tit. 2: 1 1-14. WhcnChrist
speaks of sanctifying himself, John 17 :
19, it is in allusion to the law which re-
quired the sacrifice to be set apart to a
holy use. He sej)arates or dedicates him-
self as fi sacrifice to God for them.
SANCTUARY, a holy or sanctified
place. Ps. 20 : 2. ]iy this name that part
of the temple of Jerusalem was called
which was the most secret and most re-
tired, in which was the ark of the cove-
nant, and where none but the high priest
might enter, and he only once a year, on
the day of solemn expiation. Lev. 4 : 6.
It is also applied to the furniture of this
holy place. Num. 10 : 21, the apartment
SAN
SAX
where the golden candlestick, table of ',
phew-bread, altar of incense, etc., stood,
2 Chr. 26 : IS, and to the whole taber-
nacle or temple. Josh. 24 : 26 ; 2 Chr.
20 : 8. It is called the " sanctuary of
strength," because it was a strong place
and easily fortified, and it belonged to
(xod, the Strength of Israel. Dan. 11 : 31 : '
a " worldly sanctuary," as it was of a
carnal and earlhly typical nature. Heb.
9:1. It is also applied to any place
appointed for the public worship of God,
Ps. 73 : J7; to heaven, where God and
his holy angels and saints for ever dwell,
Ps. 102 : 19 : and, in allusion to the
Jewish sanctuary, whose brazen altar
protected petty criminals, a place of ref-
uge and shelter is called a ''sanctuary,"
Isa. 8 : U; Eze. 11 : 16. The land 'of
Israel was called God's sanctuary. Ex.
15 : 17 ; comp. Ps. 78 : 54 : 114 : 2.
SAND (from a root meaning to ichirl).
The wastes of Palestine consist mainly
of parched soil and grave!. Sand oc-
curs only along the shores of the seas
and rivers. It is found in some parts
of the desert of Sinai, and abundantly
in Egypt. On the west especially the
Nile valley is ever menaced by " the
sands of the African desert — sands and i
sand-drifts which in purity, in bright- j
ness, in firmness, in destructiveness, are (
the snows and glaciers of the south." —
Stanley. The pyramids and most of the
ancient remains of Egypt stand upon the
edge of the whirling sand-wastes, and
therefore are liable to be covered up,
as indeed many have been. Here all
stirring of the surface is quickly and
utterly obliterated. Ex. 2 : 12. God has
placed the sand for a bound of the sea
by a perpetual decree. Jer. 5 : 22.
^and is also figuratively used to de-
note an innumerable multitude or great
abundance. Gen. 32 : 12 : 41 : 49, and
also that which is heavy. Job 6:3;
Prov. 27 : 3. Issachar was to " suck
of the abundance of the seas and of
treasures hid in the sand." Deut. 33 :
19. Some authorities find here an
allusion to the great* value of the
sand of the river Belus, near Acre, for
the manufacture of glass. But in this
sand the moUusk {Murex tnincuhiH) used
for the purple dj'e is abundant, and vast
quantities of crushed shells attest the
ancient productiveness of this industry
at Acre. Lieut. Conder understands
these to be the " treasures hid in the
sand," and claims this to be the inter-
pretation of the Jewish rabbis.
SAN'DALS. Mark 6: 9. SeeCLOTHES.
SAN'HEDRIN, incorrectly but com-
monly SAN'HEDRIM. The word is
a Hebrew transliteration from the Greek
word synedrion, which means "council."
The Sanhedrin was the highest council
of the Jews. When it was founded is
uncertain. The Jews trace back to the
time of Moses, and see its beginning in
the elders. Others see the germ in the
tribunal established by Jehoshiiphat. 2
Chr. 19 : 8-11. But much more likely
the Sanhedrin dates from the extinction
of the Great Synagogue, and therefore is
after the Captivity and Return ; some put
it down so low as b. c. 107. We must
distinguish between two kinds of San-
hedrin— the provincial' which was com-
posed of twenty-three members in every
town of 120, and of three where there
was a smaller, population, and the Great
Sanhedrin, which numbered seventy-one
and was governed by a nnsi, or president,
and two vice-presidents; besides, there
were secretaries and other officers. It
met in a room adjoining the temple, and
the seats were arrange I in the form of a
semicircle. After the destruction of Jeru-
salem it removed to Tabneh, and finally
to Tiberias, where it became extinct, A. d.
425. It had greatly changed its cha-
racter before it ended. It appears, from
the statements in the Talmud, that Her-
od put all the Great Sanhedrin to death
except one. But, although this be false,
the complexion of the body was altered
for the worse. Indeed, some say that the
Sanhedrin really did not exist in Christ's
day, but the council which arrogated to
itself this name was "an arbitrary, in-
competent, and special gathering." But
in its glory it was the supreme privy
council of the Jews — not only their
court of final appeal and last resort, but
also an executive and legislative assem-
bly, shaping the general polity of the
nation. Its power in matters civil and
religious was practically unlimited. It
decided all cases brought upon appeal
from the lower courts ; it had authority
over kings and high priests : in it w.as
vested the trial of heresy, idolatry, false
prophets ; and it alone had power to
pronounce the sentence of death. When
the Jews came under the Roman govern-
765
SAX
SAR
ment the range of its jurisdiction was
decreased. The death power, according
to Talmudic tradition, was taken from
it three years before the death of Christ.
Owing to its altered character, it declined
in influence until its extinction was no
loss. The Sanhedrin consisted of the three
classes, the priests, the elders, and the
scribes. The confirmation and execution
of a capital sentence rested with the
Roman procurator. The Gospels truth-
fully, therefore, relate that, while Christ
was condemned by the Sanhedrin for
blasphemy, he was accused by the Jews
of treason, and thus brought under Ro-
man judgment. Cf. Matt. 26 : 65, 66:
John 19 : 12 ; also 18 : 31 : " It is not
lawful for us to put any man to death."
The stoning of Stephen, Acts 7: 57-59, was
either tumultuous or else, if ordered by
the Sanhedrin, illegal, as Josephus {A)it.
XX. 9^1) expressly declares was the exe-
cution of James, *• the Lord's brother,"
A. I). 62, during the absence of Albinus,
the Roman procurator. See Council.
SANSAN'NAH [pnlm-hranch), a
place in the Negeb, or '" south country,"
Josh. 15 : 31 ; also called " Hazar-susah "
or "Susim," "horse-court" — that is,
"depot of horses." Josh. 19 : 5 ; comp.
1 Chr. 4 : 31. Wilton locates it in the
modern Wdrly es-Suuy or Siinieh, on the
caravan-route south of Gaza, the high-
road between Egvpt and Palestine.
S APH (Yrr//). a" Philistine giant, 2 Sam.
21 : 18: called Sippai in 1 Chr. 20 : 4.
SAPH'IR (fnir), a town addressed
by the prophet Micah. Mic. 1:11. Ac-
cording to Eusebius and Jerome, it was
in the mountain-district between Eleu-
thcropolis and Ascalon. About 7 miles
north-east of Ascalon is the modern e«-
Snwnfir, with which some would identi-
fy Saphir; it is not, however, in the
mountain-district, but on the open plain.
There is another place of the same name
a little to the north, which Baedeker sug-
gests may be the site of Saphir.
SAPPHI'RA (henxti/u/), the wife
of Ananias, and partner in his guilt and
punishment. Acts 6 : 1-11.
SAP'PHIRE. This was one of
the precious stones of the high priest's
breastplate, and of the foundations of
the Apocalyptic city, Ex. 28 : IH; Rev.
21 : 19, and is often mentioned in the 0.
T. It was certainly of a blue color. Ex.
24 : 10; Ezc. 1 : 26; 10 : 1. But it is
766
generally agreed that the ordinary sap-
phire of the ancients was our hipia-laziiU,
an opaque mineral of a dark azure hue.
Some scholars still hold that the Bible
references require a transparent, hard,
and valuable gem like the true sapphire.
This stone is next to the diamond in lus-
tre, beauty, and hardness. It differs only
in color from the Oriental ruby, varying
from the deepest to the lightest blue, and
even to pure white. See Sto.\p:s, Precious.
SA'RA, same as Sarah. Heb. 11 : 11 ;
1 Pet. 3 : 6.
SA'RAH {priuce8H). 1. The half
sister and wife of Abraham, called
"Sarai" down to Gen. 17 : 15, when God
changed her name from "my princess,"
as for Abraham, to " princess," for all
the race. In addition to the notice of her
in the article Abraham, it may be proper
to say that she as well as Abraham was
the subject of special promises. Gen. 17 :
16. Her conduct in Egypt, Gen. 12 : 15,
and toward Hagar, Gen. 16 : 6 ; 21 : 10,
and also when Isaac was promised. Gen.
18 : 15, evinced great weakness, but her
exemplary faith is commended by the
apostles. Heb. 11 : 11 : 1 Pet. 3:6.* She
lived to one hundred and twenty-seven
years of age, or upward of thirty-six
years after the birth of Isaac, and was
buried in a field of Machpelah, which
Abraham bought for the purpose.
2. A woman mentioned in Num.26:
46. See Skrah.
SA'RAI (»»// pn'iicens), the original
name of Abraham's wife, Sarah, which
see. Gen. 11 : 29.
SA'RAPH (hinnnny), a descendant
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 22.
SAR'DINE, Rev. 4 : 3, or SAR'-
DIUS, Ex. 28 : 17, a gem of a blood-
red or flesh color, susceptible of a high
polish, and also called " sard " or " car-
nelian." Its former name it obtains
from Sardis, in Asia Minor, where it
was first found. This stone has long
been a favorite for the engraver's art.
" On this stone all the fine.-<t works of
the most celebrated artists are to be
found ; and this not without good cause,
such is its toughness, facility of work-
ing, beauty of color, and the high polish
of which it is susceptible, and which
Pliny states that it retains longer than
any other gem." — KiNC. : Antique (icnis.
SAR'DIS, a city in Asia Minor, and
the capital of Lydia. Sardis was situ-
SAR
SAR
ated at the foot of Mount Tmolus, about
50 miles north-east of Smyrna and 80
miles south-east of Thyatira. It was
on the river Pactolus, celebrated for its
•'golden sands," and some 2 miles from
the river Hermes. The site was one of
great beauty.
///s^o>7/.— Sardis had great celebrity as
the resilience of the famous Croesus, whose
name is the synonym for riches. When
Cyrus conquered him, B.C. 548, he is said
to have taken treasure of the value of
$600,000,000. The Persians kept a gar-
rison in the citadel. Alexander gained
possession of the city after the battle of
Grranieus, and garrisoned it. Antiochus
the Great sacked the city, b. c. 211: af-
terward it was subject to the kings of
Pergamos. An earthquake destroyed it
in the reign of Tiberius, a. n. 17, but it
was rebuilt, the emperor remitting the
tribute for five years and granting the
money to assist in reconstructing the
city. The prosperity of Sardis arose
from its convenience as a commercial
mart and prosperous manufactures. The
art of dyeing wool was discovered there.
Sardis was the seat of one of the seven
churches of Asia, and the Christians
seem to have been so corrupted by the
prevailing worldliness that they receiv-
ed a severe rebuke. Rev. 3 : 1-5.
Present Condition. — The ruins of Sar-
dis are now called Sert-Kalesm'. Among
the remains are two massive columns
over 6 feet in diameter, standing up-
right, and supposed to have belonged to
the massive temple of Cybele; the sen-
ate-house, called the house of Croesus,
having one hall 156 feet long by 43
broad, with walls 10 feet thick. A
Roman sarcophagus has lately been
discovered, a famous tomb of Alyattes
— one of the wonders of the world — a
gigantic mound, several tumuli, and Ro-
man walls in ruins. The place was also
famed in classic story for the '• golden
sands" of Pactolus. The site is now
very unhealthy, and few, if any, people
inhabit it.
SAR'DITES, the descendants of
Sered, son of Zebulun. Xum. 26 : 26.
SAR'DIUS. Ex. 28 : 17. See Sar-
dine.
SAR'DONYX, only mentioned in
Rev. 21 : 20. Like the sardine, this stone
is a variety of chalcedony. The sar-
donyx combines the qualities of the sard
and onyx, whence its name. In this gem
as used, a white opaque layer rests upon
a transparent red stratum, as King states,
or the reverse, according to Pliny. The
sard and sardonyx are found in Judaea.
SAREP'TA {smeltinj-house), the
Zarephath of the 0. T., a Phoenician
town on the Mediterranean Sea between
Tyre and Sidon. Luke 4 : 26. It is now
called Sanifend, south of Sidon.
SAR'GON (in Assyrian Sdrnikin,
"established is the king"), the suc-
cessor of Shalmaneser and father of
Senn icherib, king of Assyria by usur-
pation, B. c. 722-705. Of his existence
nothing was known for many centuries
save the single fact, incidentally stated
by Isaiah as the mere date of one of his
prophecies, that Tartan took Ashdod by
command of Sargon. Isa. 20 : 1. The
name was a stumbling-block. But Isaiah
was correct, and to-day the buried ruins
of the Khorsabad palace attest the ac-
curacy of the prophet. From excava-
tions made at the latter place, we are
able to form a chronology, defective,
however, of sixteen of the seventeen
years of his reign. These ruins prove
him, says Prof. Schrader, the distin-
guished Assyriologist, who is the au-
thority' for these statements, " to have
made a quite unmistakable progress in
originality and fineness of design, in
neatness of execution and variety of
pattern." The colored enamelling of
bricks was carried to a finish unat-
tained in later Assyrian history. The
reign was an almost unbroken series of
military triumphs : all the nations round
felt the power of his arm. His annals
describe his expeditions against Babylon
and Susiana on the south; Media on the
east: Armenia and Cappadocia on the
north ; Syria, Palestine, Arabia, and
Egypt on the west and south-west. He
had, indeed, very able generals, of whom
Tartan was the chief; but this fact does
not detract from his personal glory.
The expedition against Philistia in
which the city of Ashdod was taken, as
Isaiah mentions, 20 : 1, took place in
B. c. 711. But this was not the first
time Sargon was near Judah, for in B. c.
720 he conducted an expedition against
Eg3pt. and in the year before he took
Samaria, carrying away part of the in-
habitants. 2 Kgs. 17^ 6; 18 : 9-11.
'• The king of Assvria" referred to is not
767
SAK
SAU
Shalmaneser, but Sargon. who claims it,
and the indefiniteness about 18 : 10 —
'* they took it " — agrees with the inscrip-
tions, and shows that during the siege
Sargon became king. The inscriptions
show further that Judah was alreadj^ a
vassal of Sargon at the time of the siege
of Ashdod. For the interesting account
of this event given by the conqueror him-
self see Smith (George), Ansijrinn LHscov-
eries, pp. 289-292. The next year after
this important capture Sargon turned his
arms against Merodach-baladan, king
of Babylon, and reduced him to vas-
salage. In B. c. 707 he completed the
building of the palace of Khorsabad,
which was near Nineveh, and in this
magniticent building, in B. c. 705, he
was murdered.
SA RID {a surrivnr), a landmark in
the boundary of Zebulun. Josh. 19 :
10, 12. The Syriac version reads '' As-
dod," and the Septuagint reads " Sed-
douk." Conder suggests that Sarid may
be identical with Tell Shadnd, on the
north side of the plain of Esdraelon,
south-west of Nazareth.
SA'RON. Acts 9 : 35. See Sharon.
SARSE'CHIM, the chief of the
eunuchs in Nebuchadnezzar's army at
the taking of Jerusalem. Jer. 39 : 3.
SA'RUCH. Luke 3: 35. SeeSEitUG.
SA'TAN [adverKnnj), the adversary
of God and man, the foe to goodness, and
the author of evil. The references in
Scripture to Satan, but not commonly by
this name, are numerous. The ])roper
name appears five times in the 0. T. — 1
Chr. 21 : 1 : Job 1 : 6, 12 : 2:1; Zech.
3:1; in the N. T. twenty-five times;
the word "devil" occurs twentj'-five
times; "the prince of this world," three
times; "the wicked one," six times;
" the tempter," twice. In one remark-
able verse several epithets are combined
— the old serpent, the devil, and Satan,
who deceiveth the whole world. Rev.
12 : 9. The most striking mention of
Satan is in Job, where he appears
among "the sons of God." This is in
itsdf sufficient to prove the subordina-
tion of the powers of evil unto God and
the permissive nature of sin, and Satan
has no authority to vex save as God
grants it. The existence of Satan is a
perpetual incMiace to godliness, but by
resisting him we j)ut him to flight and
deepen our moral nature.
768
SA'TYR, a fabled creature of Greek
mythologj', compounded of a man and a
goat, and supposed to be the deity of
forests and rural places. Isa. 13 : 21 ; 34:
14. The expression "satyrs shall dance
there," etc., denotes that the place shall
become as a rude, wild, uncultivated
waste. It is possible that after the des-
olation of Babylon some species of ape
or, baboon may have been found in that
region, and may be meant by this word.
^W]\j {desired). 1. AkingofEdom.
Gen. 36 : 37, 38; called Shaul in 1 Chr.
1 : 48, 49.
2. The first king of Israel, the son of
Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin. His
personal appearance was so remarkably
fine and noble as to be particularly men-
tioned by the sacred historian. His
search for his father's asses was the oc-
casion of his visit to Samuel, whom he
consulted as a "seer," on the advice of
his servant. Samuel, having been divine-
I3' admonished of the approach of Saul
and instructed what to do, invited him
to his house and treated him with marked
distinction. The next day Samuel made
known to him privately that he was to
have the rule over Israel, and while they
were in the way he took a vial of oil,
and. pouring it on his head, anointed
him for the regal office. Toconvincc Saul
that this thing was of the Lord, Samuel
predicted three signs, the last Saul's
power to " prophesy," which would be
fulfilled on his home-journey. The events
happened as Samuel had foretold and
Saul prophesied. By prophecy we are lo
here understand excited proclaiming or
singing, and not a foretelling of the future.
1 Sam. 9; 10 : 1-10. At this point we
are obliged to depart from the order in
First Samuel. The brutal insult of Na-
hash was avenged by Israel under the
leadership of Saul, who from his home
at Gibeah, whither he bad gone after his
secret anointing, sends an urgent order
upon every man in the nation to follow
him. Some 330,000 assembled under his
leadership, and a great victory was
gained. Ch. 11. Thus the Lord pre-
])ared the way for Saul's acceptance by
the people as their king. Oh. 10 : 17-25.
At first, Saul lived unpretendingly, al-
most as a private citizen — indeed, his
sway seems to have been limited. But
after a little while (comp. 10 : 26, 27 ; 13 :
2) he lived in more regal fashion. It is
SAU
SCH
impossible to say bow old he was at this
time, but perhaps about forty years. He
was emphatically a military king, and so
successful was he that the borders of
Israel must have been considerably en-
larged and the fear of Israel very wide-
spread. His reign opened favorably.
Jiut he soon proved he was no ideal
prince. So impatient was he that he
could not wait at Gilgal for Samuel to
come, as he had appointed, and so he
offered sacrifice ; for doing which he was
reproved by the old prophet, 13 : 14,
yet the divine favor was not withdrawn.
Very strange, if not the result of madness,
was his insisting that Jonathan should
die, though the army interfered in time.
The declaration of Samuel that the Lord
would not establish his house preyed
upon his mind, and he was a changed
man from this time forth. He treated
God's command carelessly, ch. 15, and
was again severely rebuked by Samuel ;
nor did he show any real repentance. He
looked upon his attendants with sus-
picion. He played the coward before the
Philistines. Music relieved him, but his
malad}' was no ordinary lunacy. His
treatment of David, his first love for him,
his failure to remember him, the return of
his affection, and then the complete turn
against him, indicated the state of his
mind. He pursued DaviJ, though twice
he was momentarily softened by David's
words and deeds. Ch. 24 : 16 ; 28 : 2 1. \Ye
can understand how jealousy, nourished,
became mad;iess at last. Then, too, we
see the hand of God. Saul breaks down
completely. On the eve of a battle,
which his unsettled mind forebodes will
be decisive, he seeks a witch, and of
her demands an interview with Samuel.
The woman performs her incantations,
but, to her horror, she herself sees an
apparition and hears the voice of the
dead. Samuel charged Saul with his
disobedience to the divine command in
the matter of Amalek, assured him that
all his efforts to obtain aid elsewhere
were vain if God had become his enemy,
and admonished him that defeat and
ruin were at hand, and that he and his
sons should the next day be inhabitants
of the world of spirits. Ch. 23. I
The last flicker of the old fire of cour- '
age sufficed to enable Saul to inan him- I
self for the conflict, notwithstanding this
crushing intelligence. He gave the
49
Philistines battle, but was rou'ed with
dreadful slaughter. Among the killed
were Saul's three sons, Saul, finding
himself wounded and likely to fall into
the hands of the enemy, threw himself
upon the point of his own sword. When
the Philistines found the body of Saul
they severed the head from it and fas-
tened the body on the city wall, from
which it was afterward taken in the night
by some of his friends from a distance,
and carried to Jabesh-gilead and buried.
1 Sam. 31.
SAUL OF TAR'SUS. See Paul.
SAVIOUR. Luke 2:11. See
Christ.
SAW, This tool, among the He-
brews, probably resembled that so often
depicted upon the Egyptian monuments.
It was only single-handled ; the teeth ran
in the opposite direction to ours, therefore
the workman pushed the saw from him,
as is the custom now in the East. Be-
sides a saw for wood, Isa. 10 : 15, there
is mention of a kind for stone. 1 Kgs.
7 : 9. Saws were used likewise as instru-
ments of torture. 2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; cf. 1
Chr. 20 : 3 ; Heb. 11 : 37. Tradition
asserts that in this manner the prophet
Isaiah was killed, and history recounts
instances of this use of the saw among
the Egyptians, Persians, and Romans.
SCAPEGOAT. Lev. 16 : 20. See
Goat.
SCAR'LET. Gen. 38 : 28. See
Colors.
SCEP'TRE, a wooden staffer wand,
5 or 6 feet long, usually overlaid with
gold or decorated with golden rings,
with an ornamented point. It was
borne in the hands of kings and others
in authority as a token of power. Gen.
49 : 10 ; Num. 24 : 17. When the scep-
tre was held out to be touched by an in-
dividual approaching the throne, it was
a sign of the royal acceptance and favor.
There is no biblical instance of a
''sceptre being actually handled by a
Jewish king. The term is used meta-
phorically. The use of a staff as a
symbol of authority was not confined to
kings: it might be used by any leader."
—Siuifh.
SCE'VA (fitted), an Ephesian Jew-
ish priest whose seven sons practised ex-
orcism. Acts 19 : 14.
SCHISM means a rupture or separa-
tion, 1 Cor. 12 : 25, but it is supposed to
7.69
SCH
SCO
denote in this passage any such aliena-
tion of feeling among Chi-istians as vio-
lates the spiritual union which ought
to exist among them, though there be
no doctrinal error or separate commu-
nions.
SCHOOL, Acts 19 : 9, SCHOL'-
AR, 1 Chr. 25 : 8, SCHOOL'MAS-
TER. Gal. 3 : 24. Schools existed
among the Jews from a very early pe-
riod. They were established under the
supervision of the prophets to train
young men to become expounders of
the Law, and so fit them for the priestly
and prophetical oflBces. 1 Sam. 19 : 1 8-24 •
2 Kgs. 2 : 3. 5, 7, 12, 15. The children
were taught to read by their parents
and in common schools, and in higher
seminaries were instructed by doctors in
the Law and traditions. The system of
education in religious matters was quite
advanced and very popular. It was set-
tled just at what age a child should be-
gin, how many scholars a teacher should
have, and by whom he should be paid.
See Education.
The schoolmaster, in Paul's use of
the term, Avas a person to whom was
committed the care of children, to
lead them, to observe them, and to in-
struct them in their first rudinunts.
Thus the oflSce nearly answered to
that of a governor or tutor. Gal. 4 : 2,
3, who constantly attends his pupil,
teaches him, and forms his manners. It
is said. Gal. 3 : 24, 25, " The law was our
schoolmaster to bring vh unto Christ." It
pointed out Christ in the Scriptures, es-
pecially in the figures and the prophecies
of the 0. T. ; but, since we are supposed
to be advanced to superior learning, and
are committed to the tuition of the faith
which we have embraced, we have no
longer need of a schoolmaster, as such
is of no further use to young persons
when advanced to years of maturity.
SCHOOLS OF THE PROPH-
ETS. 1 Sam. 10 : 5. Sec Phophkts.
SCOR'PION, a venomous creature
allied to the spider, but resembling the
lobster so much that the latter is called
the sea- scorpion by the Arabs. Its shape
and general appearance are seen in the
cut. Its usual length is 1 or 2 inches,
but in tropical climates it is sometimes
found 0 or 8 inches in length, and its
sting is attended with excruciating pain.
Rev. 9 : 3-6, terminating often in violent
770
convulsions and death. The malignity of
the venom is according to the s^ize and
complexion of the different species.
! Scorpions are found in all warm cli-
mates, and are abundant in Palestine,
whe;e eight species are known, and are
especially common about Mount Sinai.
Deut. 8:15. They remain dormant dur-
ing the cold season, but through the rest
of the year swarm under stones and in
all the crannies and crevices of walls and
houses. Their food consists of beetles,
locusts, and other insects. I'he sting is
a curved claw at the end of the tail, and
Scoi pioii.
this latter the animal, in running car-
ries over its back in a threatening atti-
tude. Luke 11 : 12 seems to mean merely
the bestowal of a dangerous and unwel-
come gift rather than a good one, and
may refer to the Greek proverb: "A
scorpion instead of a perch."
An instrument resembling a whip, but
so formed with knots or small stones as
that each blow should inflict a sharp
stinging pain, is perhaps alluded to in
1 Kgs. 12 : 11. See Scourgk.
" Maaleh-akrabbim," Josh. 16 : 3 ; Jud.
1 : 36, is literally "the ascent of scor-
pions," and derives its name from the
multitude of scorpions which infest it.
SCOURGE. After the Babylonish
Captivity the scourge was formed of
three lashes or thongs made of leather
or small cords, thirteen strokes of which
were equal to thirty-nine lashes, and not
more than forty could be given under the
Law. Deut. 25 : 1-3 ; 2 (or. 11 : 24. The
sufferer was tied by his arms to a low
pillar, his back laid bare and his body
bent forward, and the blows so apj)licd.
Sometimes sharp iron points or sharp-
SCR
SCR
cornered pieces of metal were fastened to
the end of the thongs, to render the suf-
fering still more extreme. It is debated
whether the whip was used before the
Flngellum or ycourge.
Captivity. Certainly the rod was, as is
the case to-day in the East. The pun-
ishment was inflicted in the synagogue.
Matt. 10:17: 23 : 34 : Acts 5 : 4(1. The
Romans used to beat with rods and whips ;
the number of blows was unlimited. But
so degrading was this punishment in its
nature and effects that no citizen of the
Roman empire could be subjected to it.
Acts 22 : 25, 26. Many were known to
die under the cruel infliction. Some-
times it took place on the way to execu-
tion, and sometimes it was itself the
only punishment. The punishment with
rods or twigs seems to have been a sepa-
rate infliction. 2 Cor. 11 : 2.3.
In our Lord's sconrging. Matt. 27 : 26 :
Mark 15 : 15 ; John 19 : 1 , we see a literal
fulfilment of Isaiah's prophecy. 53 : 5.
SCREECH-OWL. See Owl.
SCRIBE. There are two Hebrew
woi-ds which mean "a writer," but one
is usually translated in the A. V. by
Officer, which see. The other is cor-
rectly rendered '* scribe." The art of
writing may well, among the Hebrews,
have been in early times a rare accom-
plishment, and therefore a class of men
would arise who earned their living by
carrying on correspondence orconducting
accounts. But the first one of the class
mentioned in the Bible is Sheva, the
scribe of David, 2 Sam. 20 : 25, and that
it was an honorable post is proven by the
mention of him by name. The duty of
the king's scribe was to record the edicts,
and on one occasion at least to act as a
kind of treasurer. 2 Kgs. 12 : 10. Scribes
also officiated in the army. Jer. 52 : 25.
It is, however, the N. T. usage which
is most familiar to us. Scribes and Phar-
isees are inseparably linked. But these
''scribes" are wholly diff'erent. They
were the copyists of the Law, and be-
cause such a minute acquaintance with
it as their business implied led them to
become authorities upon the details of
Mosaism, it came to pass that they were
popularly regarded as the teachers of
the Law. This class of men originated,
it would seem, during the Exile. Ezra
was their leader and pattern. Ezr. 7 : 6.
They were held in great respect, but in
many cases they were unworthy of it.
As the distance from the close of the
canon increased, these privileged and
learned expounders of the Law took
greater liberties with the text and made
it void through their traditions. Mark
7 : 13. But the position some of the
class occupied as members of the San-
hedrin, Matt. 26 : 3, the associates of
the priests in the most important mat-
ters, Matt. 21 : 15, their numbers, and
the popular awe of them, increase our
estimate of the courage evinced by Jesus
in attacking them, as he did repeatedly
and in the most unmeasured terms.
Matt. 23 : 1-33. They were his de-
termined and wily foes. Luke 5 : 30 : 6 :
7 ; 10 : 25. That there were exceptions
is manifest, for Jesus speaks of scribes
being sent of God. Matt. 23 : 34, and one
of his parables relates to a scribe "in-
st"ueted unto the kingdom of heaven."
Matt. 13 : 52. The scribes formed a
regularly organiz'^d college, into which
members were admitted by special ex-
amination. The scribes and lawyers
were one class. See Lawykrs.
771
SCR
SEA
A Jewish Scribe.
SCRIP, in 1 Sara. 17 : 40, means a
shepherd's bag. In the N. T. "scrip"
means a wallet suspended from the
shoulder for carrying food. Matt. 10 ;
10 ; Luke 10 : 4.
SCRIP'TURE. See Bibt.k.
SCUR'VY. Lev. 21 : 20 and 22 : 22.
The disease known by this name, in
modern times, is usually caused by long
confinement in cold and damp climates,
without fresh provisions. In the progress
of it, the skin becomes dry and scaly
and livid spots appear. Probably this
appearance of the skin is all that is
denoted by the word "scurvy" in the
passagps cited.
SCYTH'IAX, a name used in-
(iefinitely by ancient writers, sometimes
to denote all the nomadic tribes that
roamed over the countries north of the
Black and Caspian Seas, and sometimes
for a particular people remarkable for
their rude and barbarous condition.
Col. 3:11.
SCYTHOP'OLIS {city of the
Sci/thidHH), a city in Palestine, and iden-
tical with ancient Beth-shean. It is no-
ticed by this name in the Apocryphal
book of Judith. See Bkth-shkan.
SEA. The Hebrew word ymn, or
"sea." is used in Scripture: (1) for the
*• gathering of waters," or the ocean,
(Jen. 1:2, 10: Deut. 30:13; (2) as re-
ferring to the Mediterranean Sea, under
the title of the " hinder." the " western,"
the " utmost," sea, or the " sea of the
Philistines," the "great sea," or simply
" the sea," Deut. 11 : 24; 34 :2; Joel 2 :
20; Ex. 23:3] ; Num. 34:6, 7; Josh.
15 : 47 ; Gen. 49 : 13 ; Ps. 80 : 11 ; 107 :
23 : 1 Kgs. 4 : 20 ; (3) as referring to the
Red Sea, Ex. 15 : 4; (4) as referring to
inland lakes, like the Salt, or Dead, Sea ;
(5) to any great collection of waters, as
the Nile or the Euphrates in time of a
flood or high water. Isa. 19 : 5 ; Am. 8 :
8, A. V. "flood;" Nah. 3:8; Eze. 32 :
2 ; Jer. 51 : 36.
SEA OF CHIN'NERETH. Num.
34: 11. See Galilkk. Sea of.
SEA OF JA'ZER, Jer. 48 : 32.
See Jazkr.
SEA OF TIBERIAS. John 21 :
1. See Gamleb, Sea of.
SEA, THE DEAD. See Salt
Sea.
SEA, THE MEDITERRA-
NEAN. See Mediterranean Sea.
SEA, THE MOLT'EN, ou
BRA'ZEN, the name of the large
copper or bronze laver made by Solo-
mon for the temple, and which stood
upon twelve metal oxen in the south-
east corner of the court of the priests.
It is described in 1 Kgs. 7 : 23-26. It
was 7i feet high, 15 feet in diame'er,
and 45 feet in circumference, and con-
tained 16,000 gallons (2 Chr. 4 : 5 says
SEA
SEA
24,000). The Gibeonites, it is said,
were at firet einplojed to bring the
water I'equisite to fill it, but at a later
day it was supplied by a conduit from
the pools of Bethlehem. Solouion made
it of the copper captured from Tibhath
and Chun, cities of Hadarezer, king of
Zobah. 1 Chr. 18 : 8. Ahaz took down
the sea from oft' the brazen oxen and
])ut it upon a pavement of stones. 2
Kgs. 16 : 17. The Assyrians broke it
in pieces. 2 Kgs. 25 : 13. See Layer.
SEA, THE RED. See Red Sea.
SEA, THE SALT. Gen. 14 : 3.
See Salt Sea.
SEAL. 1 Kgs. 21 : 8. This was usu-
ally employed to authenticate public or
private papers. Jer. 32 : 10. If a door
or box was to be sealed, it was first fas-
tened with some ligament, upon which
clay or wax was spread and then im-
pressed with a seal or signet. Frequent-
ly a ring with some inscription on it was
used as a seal, by the
delivery or transfer of
which the highest of-
fices of the kingdom
were bestowed. Gen.
41 : 42; Esth. 3 : 10.
In sealing the sepul-
chre, Matt. 27 : 66, it
is proWable that the
fastening of the stone
which sejured the en-
trance was covered
with clay or wax, nnd so impressed with
a public or private seal that any viola-
tion of it could be discovered at once.
See Rings, Letters.
Modern travellers describe the seal
used in the East, at the present day, as
made of cornelian, or agate, with the
name or title of the writer, or some verse
of the Koran or other motto, engraved
upon it. 2 Tim. 2:19. It is fastened
into a ring and worn on the hand. Cant.
8 : 6. When used it is either applied to
the wax, or is covered with some sub-
stance which, being stamped on the
paper, leaves the desired impression.
The word " seal " is used figuratively
in the Bible to denote an act or token or
process of confirmation. Rom. 4:11;
Eph. 4 : 30.
SEA'SONS. In Palestine the year
is very nearly divided by the equinoxes
into two seasons — the dry and the rainv.
In the proaiisc made to Noah, Gen. 8 :
Phcenician Peal.
22, this division seems to be indicated,
and the two portions of the year a-e
designated as "seed-time and harvest,"
"cold and heat," "summer and winter."
More particularly, rp-nin-harvent con-
tinues from the middle of April until
near the middle of June. During this
period the sky is clear, the air warui, and
even hot in the valleys and on the coast,
very much like the beginning of summer
with us. As it proceeds the heat in the
plains is great. For the next two
months the heat increases, and the
nights are so warm that the people
sleep in the open air upon the roofs of
their houses. The Arabs call this the
veiintl enmnier.
The season of fniits lasts from about
the middle of August to the middle of
Xovember. The intensity of the heat
is greater by day, but toward the end
of summer the nights begin to be cool.
During these three periods, up to the
beginning or middle of September, there
are no showers, rain being as scarce in
summer as snow. 1 Sain. 12:17. Hence
the proverb, Prov. 26 : 1 . From the end
of April until September a cloud rarely ie
to be seen upon the face of the heavens.
During all this time the earth is moist-
ened by the dew, which is, therefore, a
frequent emblem of divine grace and
goodness. Sometimes a cloud appears
in the morning, but it disappears with
the dew as soon as the sun exerts its
power. Hos. 6 : 4. The dry grass of the
fields sometimes takes fire and produces
desolating conflagration, and the parched
earth is cleft and broken into chasms.
This is more particularly the case when
the east wind blows, (ien. 41 : 6 ; Hos.
13 : 15. Between the middle of Septem-
ber and the middle of October there are
two or three days of rain. Avhich suflices
to refresh all nature, so that the whole
land is clad in verdure.
This prepares the earth for seed-
time, which continues from early in
October until early in December, im-
mediately following the former or "early
rain." which is so needful for the sower.
In the early part of this period it is still
quite hot, so that all journeys are made
by night, as the temperature is then
agreeable and the sky is clear. As the
year advances, however, there are alter-
nations of heat and cold, as with us in
autumn. The weather becomes unset-
773
SEA
SEA
tied, and there are fogs and clouds even I
when there is no rain. In the moun- '
tains snow sometimes falls toward the j
middle of December. The streams are
still small, and many of their channels
altogether dry. In the latter part of
November the trees lose their foliage, and
tires are made toward the last days of
seed-time. 1
Winter strictly includes the period
from the middle of December till the
middle of February. Snow occasionally
falls on the highlands, but seldom re- j
mains more than a few hours, except
upon the mountains. Ps. 147 : 1(5, 17. Ice
is rare, and vegetable life is seldom in- 1
jured by frost and does not require pro- |
tection. During the winter months the |
roads are very bad. Matt. 24 : 20. The
greatest cold lasts about forty days, from
the 12th of December to the 20th of Janu-
ary. The north wind is now exceeding-
ly penetrating. Gen. 31 : 40. Yet in the
level country, when the sun shines, it is
quite warm. Josephus says that in his
day it was as warm in winter at Ceesarea,
on the coast, as at other places in sum-
mer. In this season hail- and thunder-
storms arc common; the brooks rise, and
all the streams fill their channels. To-
ward the end of January the fields be-
come green, and there is every appear-
ance of approaching^ spring. In the
early part of Februai'y the trees are in
leaf, and before the middle of the month
some fruit trees are in blossom — first
the almond, then the apricot, peach, and
plum. Other trees blossom in March.
From February until April it is still
cold, but less so, and the spriiu/ may be
said to have arrived. The heats of noon
are greater and greater, especially in the
flat coiintry. The rains continue, but
in smaller and smaller quantities. Thun-
der and hail are more frequent. Toward
the close of this period the rains cease,
and the last falls in the early part of
April, and is called the "latter rain,"
which seems to give strength to the fill-
ing grain. The crops of grain are as
much advanced in February as with us
in May and June. The wheat and bar-
ley have at this time nearly attained
their height. The grain has fully ripened
in the sruthern part of Palestine by the
midille of April, and in the northern anfl
mountainous parts three weeks later:
but sometimes, when the sowing has
77'i
been in January, the grain does not
come to maturity before July or August.
Upon the sixteenth day after the first
new moon in April, there was a solemn
presentation made to the Lord of the
first sheaf of ripe barley. The grain,
however, as we may readily suppose, was
mature sometimes earlier and sometimes
later. It was common to reckon four
months from seed-time to harvest. The
cutting and securing the grain was car-
ried on for about seven weeks — that is,
from the Passover until Pentecost, which
last is therefore called the "feast of
weeks." This was a season of very
great enjoyment and festivity when the
harvest had been plentiful. The reap-
ers— that is to say, the children, slaves,
and other domestics — indulged in mirth
and joined in songs suitable to the occa-
sion, and in congratulations to the mas-
ter of the harvest. Ps. 126 : 6 ; Isa. 9 : 3.
The grain was then gathered and bound
into sheaves, as with us. See Hail,
Rain, Palestine.
SEAT, MO'SES', Matt. 23 : 2, is
a figurative expression, denoting the as-
sumption of the same authority or ofiice
as belonged to Moses.
SEATS. Matt. 21 : 12. The nations
of the East seat themselves upon the
mats or carpets with which their floors
are covered. In the houses of the rich
there are spread pillows or cushions
stuffed with cotton, or, in some cases, a
broad but very low sofa or divan with
arms, stufi"ed cushions, and costly orna-
ments. Upon these divans, as well as
upon the floor or ground, they sit, with
the legs bent under and crossed, in a
half-kneeling posture.
The ancient Hebrews used the posture
which has just been described. After
the Captivity, however, the rich and
noble adopted the Persian method of
lying down at table upon couches. Am.
6 : 4, which was likewise practised by
the Greeks and Romans. In the pas-
sage of Amos it is said of the luxurious
sinners who lived nearly eight hundred
years before Christ, they "lie upon beds
of ivory, and stretch themselves upon
their coiu'hes." These " beds of ivory "
were probably divans, such as those
above mentioned, but riclily decorated
with ivory. They used at table very
low and broad divans, and the guests
stretched themselves at full length. Each
SEB
SEC
divan held three persons. The back was
supported by a cushion, and the face so
turned toward the table that the head
was held up with the left hand upon an-
other cushion. The right hand was thus
free to reach the food. The second per-
son lay with the back part of his head
toward the breast of the former, and the
third, in like manner, with the back part
of his head toward the second. Thus
they lay, so to speak, in the bosoms of
their neighbors. Luke 16: 23; John 13 :
23. This was the ordinary posture at
meals, and the feet of the guests were
distant from the table. Hence we can
readily form an idea of the scene de-
scribed in Luke 7 : 38.
In the eating-room there were com-
monly three such divans; the middle
place of the middle divan was accounted
most honorable. This was the seat which
the Pharisees so much aflfected at feasts.
1 Sam. 9:22; Matt. 23 : 6 ; Luke 14 :
8, y. At the present day the corner of
the bed-divan is the seat of dignity, and
so it was in ancient times among the
Hebrews. Am. 3 : 12. This manner of
reclining at meals — at least, in Persia
— was imitated by the women. Esth.
7:8. It is uncertain whether Hebrew
women ate in the same apartment with
the men. See Eat, Eating.
SE'BA {vKoi ?), a wealthy and com-
mercial region of Ethiopia. Ps. 72:10;
Isa. 43 : 3 ; 45 : 14 ; Eze. 23 : 42. Seba
appears to have corresponded to the
northern portion of Abyssinia. Jose-
phus placed the original Seba at Meroe,
but the name seems, in later times, to
have included a region of considerable
importance on the south-western coast
of the Red Sea. Its inhabitants are
mentioned with Sheba, Ps. 72 : 10, the
trading-people of the other side of the
sea. The inhabitants of both Sheba and
Seba were called Sab^eans by Greek and
Latin writers, but the Hebrew words are
distinct. Meroe lay between the river
Astaboras, the northern tributary of the
Nile, and the Astapus or " Blue River."'
The capital city was about 90 miles south
of the junction of the Astaboras and the
Nile. Extensive ruins 20 miles north-
east of Shendy, in Nubia, near the Nile,
may indicate the site. See Sab/EUS.
SE'BAT, OR SHE'BAT. Zech.
1 : 7. See Moxth.
SEC'ACAH {enclosure), one of the
six cities in the wilderness of Judah, on
the western side of the Dead Sea. Ju<h.
15 : fil. Conder suggests its identity
with the ruin Slkkeh, east of Bethany.
SE'CHU (Me A(7/, ore/H?HeHce),aplaQe
apparently on the route between Gibeah
and Kamah — that is, between the resi-
dence of Saul and that of Samuel — noted
for the "great well " or cistern. 1 Sam.
19 : 22. Swartz speaks of a large pit at
Bir Nehalla, near jVehi/ Sdmtcil. which
may mark the place, but Conder pro-
poses to locate its site at Suiceikeh, im-
mediately south of Beeroth.
SECT, The word appears eight
times in the A. V. It has a twofold
meaning — either a " chosen set of doc-
trines or mode of life, Acts 24: 14; 2
Pet. 2:1; or else a 2>'fi'f.'/ adhering to
the doctrine." — Sniifh. But it does not
necessarily imply any error of doctrine
or practice. It is always in the singular,
and always as a translation of the (ireek
term " heresy," which signifies, primarily,
" choice," then *' party," '• sect," and is
used of the religious parties among the
Jews, Acts 5:17; 15 : 5 ; 26 : o ; of tlie
Christians in general, who were for a
long time calleJ by the Jews, in con-
tempt, "the sect of the Nazarenes," Acts
24 : 5 ; of parties within the Christian
Church, I Cor. 11 : 19 ; of heresies proper,
or errors — that is, wilful perversions of
Christian truth. 2 Pet. 2:1; Gal. 5 : 2(t.
It is easy to see how Christianity was
originally considered as a new sect of
Judaism ; hence, Tertullus, accusing
Paul before Felix, says that he was
chief of the seditious sect of the Naz-
arenes, Acts 24 : 5, and the Jews of
Rome said to the apostle, when he ar-
rived in that city, that, as to "this
sect," it was everywhere spoken against.
Acts 28 : 22. The word " heresy," in
Acts 24 : 14, is the same in the orig-
inal with the word "sect" in Acts 24 :
5; so that the apostle replies directly
to the argument of Tertullus, and ad-
mits that, " after the manner of a sect,
producing division and schism, as my
persecutors say, so worship I the God
of my fathers." In countries having
an established Church or a State relig-
ion, the word "sect" is applied to
those communities or bodies of Chris-
tians who separate themselves from the
Establishment. In the United States
the word cannot of course be used in this
SEC
SEL
sense with any propriety, there being no
national Church. Each separnte com-
munion enjoys its own rights and priv-
ileges as fully as any other, and, while
there are no sects, properly speaking,
there are a great number of denomina-
tions, as Roman Catholic, Presbyterian,
Episcopal, Baptist, Methodist, etc., etc.
SECUN'DUS {secotid, or fortutinte),
a Christian of Thessalonica. Acts 20 : 4.
SEDI'TIONS, Gal. 5 : 20, should
be " divisions."
SEED, MIN'GLED. Lev. 19 : 19.
Travellers tell us that women are em-
ployed in Aleppo and elsewhere in
cleansing the minghd deed from all ad-
mixture, to prepare it for sowing.
SEED-TIME. Gen. 8 : 22. See
Seasons.
SEER. 1 Sam. 9 : 9. See Prophets.
SEETHE, to boil. Ex. 16 : 23.
SEi'GlJB (efevated). 1. The young-
est son of lliel, who built Jericho. 1 Kgs.
16 : 34.
2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 :
21, 22.
SE'IR (//«?■»•?/), a Horitechief who gave
bis name, probably, to the mountainous
region wherein he lived. Gen. 36 : 10.
SE'IR {hail)/), the name of a region
and of a place.
1. The land or mount of Seir was a
mountain-district extending from the
Dead Sea to the eastern arm of the Red
Sea. It was bounded on the east by the
Arabian desert, and on the west by the
deep valley of the Arabah. The moun-
tains are of sandstone and granite, the
principal peak being iMount Jlor. which
is 4800 feet high. This district was an-
ciently inhabited by the Horites. Gen.
14:«; Deut. 2:12. Afterward, Seir
was the possession of Esau and his pos-
terity. Gen. 32:3; 33:14,10; 36:8,9;
Deut. 2:4, 22; 2 Chr. 20 : 10. Hence,
Seir sometimes means Edom. 'I he Is-
raelites, when refused permission to go
to Moab through Edom, marched round
the mountain, down the Arabah. between
the limestone cliffs of the Tih on the west
and the granite range of Mount Seir on
the east, until they could turn to the
left and march north toward Moab.
2. Mount Seir, a place noted as one of
the landmarks in the boundary of Judah.
.losh. 15 : 10. It was between Kirjath-
jearim and Beth-shemesh. and may be
the high ridge between the Wddi/ A/t/
776
and the Wddi/ Ghurnh. In the pass
leading to Beit Ainmi, near Tektiti, is the
modern village of Sair, hidden between
the hills and surrounded with gardens,
and which Conder supposes may have
been the Seir of 2 Chron. 20 : 23.
SE'IRATH {she-goat), the place of
refuge whither Ehud fled after his mur-
der of Eglon. Jud. 3 : 26, 27. Perhaps
it may be found in Mount Ephraim, a con-
tinuation of the rugged bushy hills which
stretched to Judah's northern boundary.
SE'LA, AND SE'L AH (rock), a cele-
brated city of Edom, the Greek name
being " Petra," or "rock." It was so
called from its remarkable situation,
" the rock," for which the Hebrew word
is " Sela," and the Greek is •' Petra."
Sela was situated about halfway between
the southern end of the Dead Sea and
the northern end of the Gulf of Akabah.
The city lay in a deep cleft of the range
of Mount Seir, near the foot of Mount
Hor, and in its situation and in its his-
tory was one of the most remarkable
cities of antiquity.
Uisfori/. — Sela is only twice mentioned
in the 0. T. Aniaziah captured it, and
called it Joktheel — that is, " subdued of
God." 2 Kgs. 14 : 7. It was afterward
a possession of Moab, and was then ex-
horted to send a tribute of sheep to Zion.
Isa. 16 : 1. In some other passages the
word *' rock " is supposed to refer to Sela,
as in Jud. 1:36; 2 Chr. 25:11, 12; Isa.
42 : 11 ; Ob. 3 ; but some of these seem
lo be indefinite, and cannot be referred
to the city with any certainty. Sela is
not mentioned in the N. T., but has a re-
lation to a N. T. character, for the first
wife of Herod Antipas, whom he divorced
to take Herodias, Luke 3:19, was the
daughter of Aretas, king of Petra, and
this wickedness of Herod led to war.
Aretas was the general name of the
sovereigns of Arabia Petra^a, a kingdom
which gradually included the territory
belonging to the ancient Edomites, who
were driven out by the Nabatheans, an
Arabian tribe descended from Nebajoth,
the eldest son of Ishmael. Gen. 25 : 13;
Isa. 60 : 7. In b. c. 301, Antigonus, one
of Alexander's successors, sent two ex-
peditions against them, but with slight
success. Petra became an important
trade centre. It is mentioned by Strabo,
< Pliny, .Joscphus, Eusebius, and Jerome.
It became an ecclesiastical see, and its
The Rock-Temples at tela (Petia). { Ajter a Vhotngraph.)
SEL
SEL
bishops are mentioned as late as A. D.
536. Afterward, Petra entirely disap-
peared from history, and remained un-
known for thirteen hundred years. Since
1807 it has been visited and described by
many travellers, of whom the most noted
were Seetzen (1807), Burckhardt (1812),
Irby and Mangles (1818). The reports
of these early travellers seem almost as
unreal as an Arabian tale, but later re-
searches have shown that Petra was
really one of the most wonderful cities
of the earth. Robinson, Porter, Baede-
ker, and Stanley describe it fully.
Present Appearance. — Petra is ap-
proached from the east through a re-
markable and famous defile, the Sik, or
"cleft," between rocks of red sandstone
rising perpendicularly to the height of
100, 200, or 300 feet. This gorge is about
a mile and a half in length. It is a dry
torrent-bed, and is known among the
Arabs as Wddij Monsn, from the tradi-
tion of the Koran that this cleft was
made by the rod of Moses when he
brought the stream through into the
valley beyond. The road through this
cleft was once regularly paved like the
Appian Way, and the jiavement still re-
mains in some places. The clitfs are of
sandstone, and the rocks show beauti-
fully-variegated colors of crimson, indi-
go, yellow, purple, etc. At the end of
the defile, and fronting it, is a temple
excavated from the rock. This is the
80-called Khaznet Fir'aun, or "Treasury
of Pharaoh." The facade is 85 feet in
height; the sculpturing is in excellent
preservation; five out of six columns are
standing. The portal leads into a spa-
cious chamber 12 yards square and 25
feet high. About 200 yards farther are
the ruins of the magnificent amphithe-
atre, the chief boast of Petra. It is
hewn entirely from the rock, and is JIO
yards in diameter; thirty-three tiers of
seats rise one above another, and the
whole would probably acc-ommodate from
three thousand to four thousand specta-
tors. Among the other principal objects
of interest are the Kasr Fir'aun, or " Pha-
raoh's palace,'" the triumphal arch, sev-
eral temples, and numerous tombs, some
of very elaborate workmanship. The
whole valley of Petra is about three-
quarters of a mile long and from 250 to
500 yards wide. The situation of this
city in the midst of the desert greatly.
778
enhances the impression made by the
ruins. The complete destruction and
desolation of the place fulfils the proph-
ecy of Jeremiah. 49 : 16, 17.
SE'LAH. Hab. 3 : 3, 9, 13. This
is a musical term, and occurs seventy-
one times in thirty-nine Psalms, also in
Hab. 3 : 3, 9, 13 — in all, therefore, sev-
enty-four times in the Bible. The most
probable definition of it is that it " di-
rects the falling-in of the sound of the
priests' trumpets into the Levites'
psalm-singing and playing on stringed
instruments. It occurs, therefore, where
very warm emotions have been express-
ed." " Higgaion," joined with " Selah,"
Ps. 9 : 16, some render " a louder strain,"
others, "piano." But we know nothing
definite about it.
S E ' 1. A- K AMMAHLE'KOTH
(rock of divixions), a natural stronghold
in the wilderness Maon, south-east of
Hebron, and where David made a re-
markable escape from Saul. 1 Sam. 23 :
28. It has been identified with a place in
the present Wddy Malakif, east of Maon.
SE'LED (exttltntion), a descendant
of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 30.
SELEU'CIA, the seaport of Anti-
och, and the place at which Paul and
Barnabas embarked on their first mis-
sionary journey. It was on the Medi-
terranean, about 5 miles north of the
river Orontes and 16 miles west of Anti-
och. Seleucia lay on the slope of Mount
Corypha?us, and was founded by Seleu-
cus Nicator, died B. c. 280. To distin-
guish it from other cities named from
the same founder, it was sometimes
called "Seleucia ad Mare," or "Seleucia
by the sea," and, from Mount Pierus, it
was called " Seleucia Pieria." The city
appears to have been a very beautiful
one under the rule of the Seleucidae. The
harbor was excellent, enclosing a basin
of 47 acres. The masonry is yet in
good preservation, although the port is
choked with sand and mud. There is
still a gateway at the south-eastern cor-
ner of the city, through which Paul and
Barnabas probably passed. The Arabs
called it Selukii/rh, and the city is now
in a desolate condition, only a small vil-
lage existing near its site, and called
Ff- KahtKi.
SELEU'CUS, the name of five
kings called the Seleucidae. Scleucua
I'hiiopator was the fourth, and is men-
SEM
SEN
tioned in the Apocrypha, 1 Mace. 7 : 1 ; |
2 Mace. 3 : 3, and elsewhere. He was
the son of Antiochus the Great, whom
he succeeded, b. c. 1 87. His policy toward
the Jews was conciliatory. In 2 Mace.
3 there is an interesting account of
the attempt he made to plunder the
temple and how signally he failed.
Heliodorus, who was the agent in this j
business, poisoned him, b. c. 175. He
was succeeded by Antiochus Epiphanes.
Daniel describes him, 11 : 20, as " a
raiser of taxes," because he had to re-
sort to extraordinary measures to raise
the requisite revenues.
SEM, Greek form for "Shem," used
in Luke 3 : 36.
SEMACHI'AH {Jehovah suHtaiui^
him), a grandson of Obed-edom, and a
Levite porter. 1 Chr. 26 : 7.
SEM'EI {renoicned), one mentioned
in our Lord's genealogy. Luke 3 : 26.
SENA'AH {thoriuj), a place (named
with the article) whose inhabitants re-
turned from captivity with Zerubbabel.
Ezr. 2 : 35 ; Xeh. 7 : 38 ; 3:3. Eu?ebi-
us and Jerome mention Magdal Sciindh,
7 miles north of Jericho, but it cannot be
certainly identified with this Senaah.
SEN'ATE. The word denotes the
"elders of Israel," one of three classes
composing the Sanhedrin ; the other
two were the priests and the scribes.
Acts 5 : 21.
SE'NEH (hvsh, or thom-roch), the
name of one of the sharp rocks by which
Jonathan sought the Philistines. 1 Sam.
14:4. In the Wady Suiceinit, a deep
valley south of Michmash, about 6^
miles north of Jerusalem, are two re-
markable hills, one on each side of the
valley, which are supposed to be Bozez
and ,Seneh.
SE'NIR (ront-of-mail, or cntnract),
a name for Mount Hermon. 1 Chr. 5 :
23 : Eze. 27 : 5. See Hkumox.
SENNACH'ERIB {B.^h. Sauherib,
Sin, the moon, (sent many brothers — /. e.,
he was not his father's eldest son) was king
of Assyria when Hezekiah reigned in Ju-
dah. He was the son and successor of Sar-
gon. Judah had paid tribute to Assyria,
but under Hezekiah it revolted, and so re-
venge was determined upon; accordingly,
Sennacherib appears in the Bible as the
invader of Palestine on two occasions.
The first time he was pacified by a trib-
ute. 2 Kgs. 18 : 14. But, Hezekiah hav-
ing the second time revolted, he sent an
embassy with a few troops to the capital
and demanded submission. He also sent
an insulting letter to Hezekiah, who went
up to the house of the Lord and prayed
for deliverance. His prayer was an-
swered, for the Assyrian army besieging
Libnah was smitten with a plague so se-
Sejinacherib on his Tliione. {From monuments
at Kouyunjik.)
vere that it is stated 185,000 died in one
night. The effect of this catastrojihe
was that the siege was raised and Sen-
nacherib retreated to Nineveh. 2 Kgs.
19 : 35. Many years — perhaps twenty —
after this he was worshipping in the
house of his god Nisroch when Adrani-
melech and Sharezer, his sons, smote liim
with the sword. 19 : 37. He was succeed-
ed by Esar-haddon.
Sennacherib's reign lasted twentv-two
77'J '
SEN
SER
years, B. c. 705-682. It was brilliant.
He crushed the revolt of Bab^-lon. at-
tacked Sidon, made many cities tribute,
and, as Sargon had done, laid a heavy
hand upon the neighboring nations, lie
made Nineveh his capital and adorned
it with many splendid buildings. His
palaces were large and beautiful. His
monuments exist in unexpected places.
Thus, at the mouth of the iVahr ti-Kalb,
near Beyrout, and close by an inscription
of Ranieses the Great of Egypt, is the
record of his arrival.
SENU'AH (bristlinfj), properly,
" Hasenuah," with the definite article, a
Benjamite. 1 Chr. 9:7; Neh. 11 : 9.
SEO'RIM {barley), the head of the
fourth priestly course. 1 Chr. 24 : 8.
SE'PHAR, a boundary of the Jok-
tanites. Gen. 10 : 30. It was probably
in South-eastern Arabia, near the shore
of the Indian Ocean, where is an ancient
seaport-town called Zufdr.
SEPH'ARAU {reparation), a place
from whence captive Jews would return
to the cities of the South. It is named
only in Ob. 20. Some identify the place
with Sardis in Lydia ; others with Zare-
phath; while modern Jews regard it as
Spain, and others identify it with Sip-
phara. See Sr.FHAnvAiM.
SEPHARVA'IM {the two Slpparas,
one being on each side of the river), a
place in Assyria from whence colonists
came into Israel or Samaria. 2 Kgs. 17 :
21; 18:34; 19:13; Isa. 36 : 19 ; 37 : 13.
Rawlinson and others have proposed to
identify it with Sippara, a town on the
Euphrates, between Hit and Baljylon.
It was built on both sides of the Eu-
phrates, or of the canal, and the one was
called S!par-8a-SamaH — /. c, "consecra-
ted to Samas, the sun-god ;" the other was
called Sipar-sn-Aintiiif, "consecrated to
the goddess Anuit." On the monuments
it is called " Sippara of the Sun." It had
a library, probably similar to that found
at Nineveh, which has been deciphered by
George Smith and others. The modern
town Moxaib now stands near its site.
SE'PHARVITES, the inhabit-
ants of Se))harvaim. 2 Kgs. 17 : 31.
SEP'TUAGINT, the (Jreek ver-
sion of the 0. T. See Biblk.
SEP'ULCIIRE. See B«)inAi,.
SSE'RAH { priiK-etifi), ii daughter of
Asher. Gen. 46 : 1 7 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 30 ; called
Sa:ah in Num. 26 : 40.
7SU
SERAI'AH {warrior of Jehovah).
1. David's scribe, 2 Sam. 8:17; called
Sheva in 20 : 25, Shisha in 1 Kgs. 4 :
3, and Shavsha in 1 Chr. 18 : 16.
2. The high priest in the reign of Zed-
ekiah, taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar
and killed at Riblah. 2 Kgs. 25 : Ib-Jl ;
1 Chr. 6: 14; Jer. 62:24-27.
3. A Netophathite who submitted to
Gedaliah. 2 Kgs. 25 : 23 ; Jer. 40 : 8.
4. A Judite. 1 Chr. 4:13, 14.
5. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4 : 35.
6. A priest who came back with Zerub-
babel, Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 10 : 2 ; 12 : 1, I -I ;
called Azariah in Neh. 7 : 7.
7. One of the ancestors of Ezra, Ezr.
7:1; Neh. 11 : 11 ; called Azariah in 1
Chr. 9 : 11.
8. An oflScer whom Jehoiakira com-
manded to take Baruch and Jeremiah.
Jer. 36 : 26.
9. The brother of Baruch. who was a
member of the court and held, during
the journey of Zerubbabel to Babylon,
the position of leader of the caravan,
for so the words '"'quiet prince" shoidd
read. Jer. 51 : 59, 61.
SER'APHIM (princrs>^), the mmo
given by Isaiah to the spirits wniting on
the Lord, and which are apparently the
most exalted of the angelic host. Isa.
6 : 2, 6.
SE'RED {fear), one of Zebulun's
sons. Gen. 46 : 14 : Num. 26 : 26.
SER'GEANTS. Acts 16 : 35, 38.
This was a class of public officers under
the Roman government. They were ap-
pointed to carry the fasces, or bundle of
rods, before the supreme magistrates,
and to inflict the punishment of scourg-
ing and beheading upon criminals.
SER'GIUS PAU'LUS, the pro-
consul or deputy governor of Cyprus at
the time of Paul and Barnabas' visit.
He showed his intelligence and candor
by sending for the apostles and accept-
ing the overthrow of Elymas, the sor-
cerer, as demonstration of the overthrow
of the creed Elymas represented. Fe
embraced the gospel. Acts 13 : 7, 12.
Some think the apostle Paul took this
name instead of Saul, in compliment to
his distinguished convert: which is im-
probable. It is a proof of Luke's minute
accuracy that he call'* Sergins I'aulus a
proconsul because the island had been
governed by a propraetorduring the reign
of Augustus, but in the reign of Claudius,
SER
SET
the time of the visit, as is proved by coins,
it was under proconsular government.
SER'PEiVT. In its ordinary scrip-
tural use, this word does not denote any
definite species, but snakes as a class, or
some one or more kinds made definite
by (he context. The serpent is a crea-
ture distinguished for its subtility, (len.
3:1, and wisdom in avoiding danger.
Matt. 10 : 16, as well as for the instinct-
ive dread which it inspires in man and
most animal.--. About one-sixth of all
the species known are venomous.
The devil is called '• the serpent" and
"the old serpent," Kev. 12:9. 14, 15,
probably in allusion to his subtility and
luaiice, and also to the fact that in tempt-
ing our first parents to disobey God he
employed a serpent or assumed the form
of one. 2 Cor. 11 : 3.
The serpent is used by the sacred wri-
ters as an emblem of wickedness. Matt.
23 : 33, cruelty, Ps. 58 : 4 ; Prov. 23 : :'2 ;
Eccl. 10: 11, and treachery. Gen. 49 :
17. There is allusion to the art of
taming and charming these reptiles in
Ps. 58:5; Eccl. 10:11,; Jer. 8:17;
Jas. 3 : 7. Eating dust is ascribed to it.
Gen. 3 : 14; Isa. 65 : 25 ; Mic. 7:17, be-
cause it is swallowed bj' the serpent with
its food, or the expression is figurative
for its life in the dust. There is no rea-
son to suppose that this creature was
able to go otherwise than on its belly
before the fall, but subsequent to that
event its normal mode of progression
was constituted a mark of condemna-
tion. The worship of these reptiles is very
common in India and other parts of the
O'd World, and probably originated, in
part at least, from fear of the more ven-
omous and powerful kinds. " It was
probably from a tradition of the instru-
mentality of the serpent in the fall of
man that it was used throughout the
East as an emblem of the spirit of dis-
obedience and of the evil spirit. The
doctrine of Zoroaster — that the evil one,
in the guise of a serpent, first taught
men to sin — is a plain tradition of the
history of the fall.
" To this we may add that on the
monuments of Egypt there not unfre-
quently occurs the figure of a man in
reiral costume (probably an incarnate
deity) piercing with a spear the head of
a large serpent — remarkably suggestive
of a tradition of the prophecy that ' the
seed of the woman should bruise the ser-
pents head.'" — TriHtnim. The sacred
symbol of the globe and serpent is found
on almost all the monuments of Egypt.
See Adder, Asp. Cockatrice. Viper.
SERPENT, BRAZEN. Xum.
21 : 9. Asa punishment for the mur-
muring of the Israelites, God sent into
the midst of the camp a venomous ser-
pent, called " fiery," probably, from the
burning wliich followed its deadly bite.
There a;e many species of such dan-
gerous serpents still found in the wil-
derness of Sinai, the various kinds of
which, or perhaps some particular spe-
cies, may here be intended. The destruc-
tion of life was fearful, and the people
entreated Moses to intercede for their
deliverance. To test the sincerity of
their penitence, Moses was commanded
to make a serpent of brass resembling
the serpents which were among them,
and put it upon a pole, that it might be
seen from all parts of the camp, and
then whoever was bitten should be heal-
ed by sim])ly looking at the brazen fig-
ure ; and it was accordingly dene, and
all the promised effects followed. This
passage of history is alluded to by our
Saviour as an illustration of the work
he came to do. John 3 : 14, 15.
SER'PENT, FIERY FLYaNG.
Isa. 14 : 29 ; 30 : 6. This creature has
no connection with the preceding. The
phrase maj' be a figurative expression
for the swiftly-darting sand-serpents
of Eastern deserts, or a mere poetic
expression, like the entirely fabulous
dragon or winged serpent of modern
literature.
SE'RUG (brrnnh), one of the post-
diluvian patriarchs, in the line of Shem,
Gen. 11 : 20, 23 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 26 ; called Sa-
ruch in Luke 3 : 35.
SER'VANT. Phi^e. 16. The word
so rendered is generally to be interpreted
" bondman " or " slave." But there were
also servants in our sense of the term:
thus. Joshua was servant to Moses. Elisha
to Elijah, and Elisha himself had a ser-
vant, Gehazi. There are other instances.
See Slave.
SER'VITOR, a servant. 2 Kgs.
4 : 43.
SETH (rnmpejisntiou), son of Adam
and Eve, was born when Adam was one
hundred and thirty years old, and lived
nine hundred and twelve vears. Gen. 5 :
7S1
SET
SHA
3. Tradition ascribes to Seth the inven-
tion of letters.
SE'THUR {hidden), the spy from
Asher. Num. 13 : 13.
SEVEN. Gen. 2:2. As from the
beginning this was the number of days
in the week, so it has ever in Scripture
a sort of emphasis attached to it, and is
very often and generally used as a round
number, or, as some would say, a. perfect
number. Clean beasts were taken into
the ark by sevens. Gen. 7 : 2. The years
of plenty and famine in Egypt were
marked by sevens. Gen. 41 ; 2, 3. With
the Jews not only was there a seventh-
day Sabbath, but every seventh year was
a Sabbath, and every seven times seventh
year was a jubilee. Their great feasts
of unleavened bread and of tabernacles
were observed for seven days. The
number of animals in many of their
sacrifices was limited to seven. The
golden candlestick had seven branches.
Seven priests with seven trumpets went
around the walls of Jericho seven days,
and seven times on the seventh day. In
the Apocalypse we find seven churches
addressed, seven candlesticks, seven
spirits, seven stars, seven seals, seven
trumpets, seven thunders, seven vials,
seven plagues, and seven angels to pour
them out.
*' Seven " is often put for any round or
whole number; just as wo use "ten " or
"a dozen;" so in 1 Sam. 2:5; Job 5 :
19; Prov. 26 : 16, 25; Isa. 4:1; Jer.
16:9; Matt. 12 : 45. In like manner
"seven times," or "seven-fold,"' means
"often," "abundantly," "completely."
Gen. 4 : 15, 24 ; Lev. 26 : 24 ; Ps. 12 : 6 ;
79 : 12: Matt. 18 : 21. And seventy
times seven is still a higher superlative.
Matt. 18:21, 22.
SHAALAB'BIN {cihi of jachnh),
a town of Dan, Josh. 19 : 42 ; also called
Shaalbim. Jud. 1 : 35 ; 1 Kgs. 4: 9.
Now the present village Selbi't, near
Aijalon, south-east of Lydda.
SHAAL'BIM. See above.
SHAAL'BONITE, THE. 2 Sam.
23 : 32 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 33. Eliahba, one of
David's thirty-seven heroes, is so called.
It is not known where Shaalbon was.
SHA'APH (dn-ixio,,). 1. 2. Two
names in the genealogy of Judah. 1 Chr.
2 : 47, 49.
SHAARA'IM (twoyafcs). 1. A city
in the ])lain of Judah ; called also Sha-
782
raim. 1 Sam. 17 : 52 ; Josh. 15 : 36.
Probably identical with the ruin Saireh,
west of Beit Atab.
2. A town in Simeon. 1 Chr. 4 : 31.'
In the list of Joshua it appears as Sha-
RUHEN and Shilem, which see.
SHAASH'GAZ {heanty's lustre f),
the eunuch in the second house of the
harem of Xerxes. Esth. 2 : 14.
SHABBETH^AI {sabbath-bor„), a
Levite who assisted Ezra in expounding
the Law and in dealing with the illegal
marriages. Ezr. 10 : 15; Neh. 8 : 7; 11 : 16.
SHACH''IA (Jehovah protevty), a
Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8 : 10.
SHAD'DAI (the mighty), the name
for God in common use, along with
"El," before Jehovah was revealed. It
is translated " the Almighty."
SHAD'OW. The word is used in
Col, 2:17: Heb, 8:5; 10 : 1 to express
the relation between Judaism and Chris-
tianity. The rites of the old religion
prefigured the realities of the new.
SHA'DRACH {royal ?). Dan. 1 : 7.
See Abednego.
SHA'GE {erring), the father of one
of David's warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 34.
SHAHARA'IM {the two daious), a
Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 8.
SHAHAZ'IMAH {heights), a town
in Issachar, apparently between Tabor
and Beth-shemesh. Josh. 19 : 22.
SHA'LEM {j)eaceful). Gen. 33 : 18.
If this term indicates a place, it may be
identified with the present village of
Salim, 3 miles east of Shechem. Some
would render it, however, " in peace."
and would read the verse, "Jacob came
in peace to the city of Shechem."
SHA'LIM, THE LAND OF,
which means " the land of foxes " or
"jackals" through which Saul passed.
1 Sam. 9:4. It may have been eastward
from Shalisha,
SHAL'ISHA, LAND OF (tri-
anifuhir), a district near Mount Ephraim.
1 Sam. 9 : 4. In it, perhaps, the city of
Baal-shalisha was situated. 2 Kgs, 4 : 42.
Eusebius and Jerome place it about 15
Roman miles north of Lydda {JJioxjjolis).
See I'aaf.-shalisha.
SHAL'LECHETH (n cnnting
down), the name of a gate of the tem))le.
1 Chr. 26:16. Literally, it means the
" gate of projection " — that is, from
which were thrown out the sweepings,
ashes, and otfal of the temple. Tl:e
SHA
SHA
eauseway was made by Solomon from
his own palace by way of the Tyropoeon
valley to the western wall of the temple ;
to this causeway the gate led. Grove
would identify it with the gate Sinsleh,
at the western wall of the Haram en-
closure, 600 feet above the south-western
corner.
SHAL'LUM {retribution). 1. The
murderer of Zachariah, king of Judah.
He usurped the crown, but was slain by
Menahem at the end of the first month
of his reign, B. c. 771. 2 Kgs. 15 : lO-l.o.
2. The husband of the piojihetess
Huldah in the reign of Josiah. 2 Kgs.
22:14; 2 Chr. 34:22.
3. A man of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 40, 41.
4. The fourth son of Josiah, king of
Judah, and king three months, 1 Chr.
3 : 15; Jer. 22 : U ; called Jehoahaz in
2 Kgs. 23 : 31-34; 2 Chr. 36 : 1-4.
5. A man of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4 : 25.
6. A high priest. 1 Chr. 6 : 12, 13;
Ezr. 7 : 2.
7. A son of Naphtali. 1 Chr. 7 : 13.
See Shillem.
8. The chief of a family of porters. 1
Chr. 9 : 17. His descendants returned
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 42 : Neh. 7 : 45.
9. One of the porters. 1 Chr. 9 : 19, 31.
10. A chief Ephraimite. 2 Chr. 28 : 12.
11. A Levite porter who had a foreign
wife. Ezr. 10 : 24.
12. A similar oflFender. Ezr. 10 : 42.
13. One who helped to build the wall.
Neh. 3 : 12.
14. The uncle of the prophet Jeremiah.
Jer. 32 : 7.
15. A temple-doorkeeper. Jer. 35:4.
SHAL'LiUN [retributiou), one who
helped in repairing Jerusalem's walls.
Neh. 3:15.
SHAL'MAI (wjT/ thanks). Some of
the Nethiniras were his children, and
returned. Ezr. 2 : 46 ; Neh. 7 : 48.
SHAL'MAN, the name of an As-
syrian king before Pul. Hos. 10 : 14.
The ordinary opinion, that it is a
contraction for " Shalmanezer," seems
to be incorrect.
SHALMANE'ZER (Salman 18
gracious), a king of Assyria whose reign
lasted from B. c. 727-722, coming be-
tween those of Tiglath-pile?er and Sar-
gon. He comes into biblical notice as
the invader of Israel. The king, Hoshea,
had revolted, but he conquered and ex-
acted a tribute. 2 Kgs. 17 : 3. He then
returned home, but, as Hoshea revolted
a second time and allied himself with
So, king of Egypt, Shalmanezer return-
ed, ravaged Samaria, besieged Hoshea
in his capital, and after three years the
city fell. But during this time a rebellion
headed by Sargon had broken out in
Assyria, and Shalmanezer was deposed.
It is not stated in 2 Kgs. 17 : 6 that
Shalmanezer took Samaria, but that the
kinrj of Assyria did. See Sargon.
SHA'MA (obedient), a warrior of
David's. 1 Chr. 11 : 44.
SHAMARI'AH (whom Jehovah
keeps), a son of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 11 :
19.
SHAM'BLES, a meat-market. 1
Cor. 10 : 25.
SHA'MED (a destroyer), a Benjam-
ite. 1 Chr. 8 : 12.
SHAME'FACEDNESS, a mis-
print or corruption in 1 Tim. 2 : 9 for
" shamefastness," in the sense of being
fast or established in modesty and devo-
tion.
SHA'MER (a keeper). 1. A Levite.
1 Chr. 6 : 46.
2. A chief of Asher, 1 Chr. 7 : 34 ;
called also Shomer in v. 32.
SHAM'GAR (cup-bearer f), a judge
of Israel of whom it is related that he
slew six hundred Philistines with an
ox-goad and delivered Israel. Jud. 3 : 31.
SHAM'HUTH (desolation), one of
David's captains. 1 Chr. 27 : 8.
SHA^UIR (a thorn), a Levite. 1
Chr. 24 : 24.
SHA'MIR (a sharp point), a name
for two places.
1. A city in the mountains of Judah.
Josh. 15 : 48. It is probably the ruins
of Somerah, west of JJebir.
2. The place in Mount Ephraim where
Tola lived. Jud. 10 : 1, 2. Swartz places
it at Sanur, on a hill 6 miles north of
Samaria ; but Van de Yelde at Sammer,
10 miles south-south-east oi NablAis.
SHAM'MA (desolation), an Asherite
chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 37.
SHAM'MAH (desolation). 1. A
duke of Edom. Gen. 36 : 13, 17 ; 1 Chr.
1 : 37.
2. The third son of Jesse, 1 Sam.
16 : 9 : 17 : 13 ; called also Shimeah
and Shimma.
3. One of the three greatest of David's
mighty men. 2 Sam. 23 : 11, 33.
4. One of David's mighties, 2 Sam.
783
SUA
SHA
23 : 25 ; called also Shammoth the Ha-
rorite in 1 Chr. 11 : 27. and Shainhutli
the Izrahite in 1 Chr. 27 : 8.
SHAM'MAI {desolated). 1, 2, 3.
Three descendants of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 :
28, 32, 44, 45; 4:17.
SHAM'MOTH. 1 Chr. 11: 27. See
Shammah, 4.
SHAMMUA, SHAMMU AH.
1. The spy from Reuben. Num. 13 : 4.
2. One of David's sons, born in Jeru-
salem, 2 Sam. 5:14; 1 Chr. 14 : 4 j called
Shiraea in 1 Chr. 3 : 5.
3. A Levite. Neh. U : 17.
4. A priest in the days of Jehoiakim.
Neh. 12 : 18.
SHAMSHERA'I {heroic), a Ben-
jamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 26.
SHA'PHAM {bald), a Gadite. 1
Chr. 5 : 12.
SHA'PHAN {conei/), the scribe or
secretary to King Josiah. 2 Kgs. 22 :
.3-14; 2 Chr. 34:8-20, etc.
SHA'PHAT {judge). 1. The spy
from Simeon. Num. 13 : 5.
2. The father of Elisha. 1 Kgs. 19 :
16, 19; 2 Kgs. 3 : 11 ; 6: 31.
3. One of the royal line of Judah.
1 Chr. 3 : 22.
4. One of the Gadite chiefs. 1 Chr. 5 :
12.
5. One of David's chief herdsmen.
1 Chr. 27 : 29.
SHA'PHER (b right ne8H), a station
of the Israelites at a mountain in the
Arabian desert. Num. 33 :'23. Rowlands
would identify it with Jebel Arnif, a
rocky promontory on the western shore
of the Elanitic Gulf; but others propose
Jebel esh-Shureif, a hill 70 miles north-
west of Elath.
SHAR^AI {Jehovah frees him), one
who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 40.
SHAR'AIM (two guten). Josh. 15 :
36. See Skaauaim.
SHA'RAR {cord), the father of one
of David's warriors, 2 Sam. 23 : 33:
called Sacar in 1 Chr. 11 : 35.
SHARE'ZER { pri„ce of Ji re), the
son of Sennacherib, who joined his
brother Adrammelech in murdering their
father. 2 Kgs. 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38.
SHAR'ON {the plain), a level tract
along the Mediterranean, between Cajs-
jirea and Joppa; called also Saron. Acts
9 : '\b. It is 25 or 30 miles in length,
and from 8 to 15 miles in width.
Scripture History. — Sharon is first
784
noticed in the Bible as Lasharon, the
Hebrew article being taken as part of
the word. Josh. 12 : 18. It was renowned
for its fertility. The flocks of David fed
there, and Isaiah praised its excellency
and uses it both in promise and in
threatening. 1 Chr. 27 : 29 ; Isa. 35 : 2 :
65 : 10 ; 33 : 9. The Rose of Sharon is
ce'ebrated in Solomon's Song. 2:1.
Present Condilio)i. — The luxuriance
and fertility of the plain of Sharon are
noted to this day, although the frequent
raids of the Bedouin make its cultiva-
tion difficult. The plain has on the
north a range of inland cliffs. A por-
tion of the plain is composed of marl
and alluvial soil, another portion of red
sandstone and shelly breccias of blown
sand in large patches. The hills are of
softest chalk, gently sloping, paniy
covered by woods of oak, the trees stand-
ing at intervals like a park, the ground
being sandy in some places and of a
loam or limestone character in others.
Sharon is mentioned in connection
with Gilead in Bashan in 1 Chr. 5:10.
Stanley, noting the difficulty of suppos-
ing that the pasture-lands of Gad could
have been so far from the home of the
tribe east of the Jordan as Sharon would
have been, thinks that " Sharon " — which
has in the Hebrew exactly the same
meaning as Mishor — may signify the
Mishor, or *' upland downs," of Gilead
and Bashan.
SHAR'ONITE, THE. Shitrai
is so called. 1 Chr. 27 : 29.
SHARU'HEN {pleamnt dwelling),
a city in Simeon. Josh. 19 : 6. It was
in the " south country," and may have
been identical with the large ruin eih-
Sheriah, north-west of Beer-sheba.
SHASH'AI {whitish, or noble), one
who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 40.
SHA'SHAK {eagerness), a Benjam-
ite. 1 Chr. 8 : 14, 25.
SHA'UL {desired). 1. A son of
Simeon bv a Canaanitish woman. Gen.
46 : 10 ; Ex. 6:15; Num. 26 : 13 ; 1 Chr.
4: 24.
2. An Edomite king, 1 Chr. 1 : 48, 49 :
in A. V. of Gen. 36 : 37 he is called
Saul.
3. A Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 24.
SHA'ULITES, descendants of
Shaul, 1. Num. 26: 13.
SHA'VEH (n plain), a valley on
the north of Jerusalem; known also as
SHA
SHE
the '• King's Dale." Gen. 14: 17; 2 Sam.
18 : IS. See King's Dale.
S H A'V E H-K I R I A T H A'l M
(pfain of Kirjnthaim), a plain or valley
near the city Kirjathaim, in Moab. Gen.
14 : 5. Afterward it belonged to Reuben,
Num. 32 : 37; Josh. 13 : 19. Eusebius
says it was well known in his day as a
village 10 miles west of Medeba.
SHAV'SHA (warriot* of Jehttvah),
the scribe or secretary to David, I Chr.
18 : 16 ; called also Seraiah and Shisha.
SHE^AL {askiuc/), one who had a
foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 29.
SHEAL'TIEL. ( / hnve anked him
of God), the father of Zerubbabel. Ezr.
3 : 2, 8 ; 6:2; Neh. 12 : 1 ; Hag. 1 : 1, 12,
U: 2:2, 23.
SHEARI'AH {whom Jehovah esti-
mates), a descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 38 ;
9 : 44.
SHEARING -HOUSE, a spot
Vtetween Jezreel and Samaria where Jehu
slew forty-two of the royal family of
Judah, 2 Kgs. 10 : 12, 14, According to
Eusebius, it is in the plain of Jezreel, 15
lloman miles from Legio (Lejuu), and
Conder suggests Akadnh as the site, on
the western side of the great plain.
SHE'AR-JA'SHUB {n remnant
returns), the symbolical name Isaiah
gave his son. Isa. 7 : 3.
SHE'BA (an oath). 1. The son of
Bichri, a Benjamite who revolted from
David, was pursued by Joab. and be-
headed in the fortress of Abel-beth-ma-
achah. 2 Sam. 20 : 1-22.
2. A Gadite chief. 1 Chr. 5:13.
SHE'BA (mnnr). 1. One of Ham's
descendauts. Gen. 10 : 7 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 9.
2. One of ShemV descendants. Gen.
10 : 28 ; I Chr. 1 : 22.
3. One of Abraham's descendants by
Ketiirah. Gen. 25 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 32.
These were all founders of tribes.
SHE'BA {seven, or an oath), a name
for a region in Arabia and a town in
Palestine.
1. A wealthy region in Arabia border-
ing on the Red Sea. It included the
most fertile districts of that country.
The queen of Sheba visited Solomon,
coming "to Jerusalem with a very great
train, with camels that bear spices, and
very much gold, and precious stones."
1 Kgs. 10:1-13; 2Chr.9:l-12. Many
ancient writers noted the abundance of
spices in the Yemen, or Sabscan country.
5U
Herodotus says that the whole tract
exhaled an odor of marvellous sweetness,
and Diodorus relates that the perfume
extended far out to sea; while Strabo
asserts that the enormous profits of the
spice trade made the Sabseans one of the
wealthiest nations on the face of the
earth. They used gold and silver most
lavishly in their furniture, their utensils,
and even on the doors and roofs of their
houses. Precious stones also abounded
there. Its chief cities were Seba {Sana)
and Sephar {Zafar).
2. A town in Simeon, mentioned be-
tween Beer-sheba and Moladah. Josh.
19:2. Shema is named next to Moladah
in Josh. 15 : 26, and is probably identical
with this Sheba. Two miles east of
Beer-sheba, on the road to Moladah, is
a mound called el- Seha, -which may mark
the site of ancient Sheba. It has a well
separate from those at Beer-sheba.
SHE'BAH {seven, or on oath), a
well dug by Isaac's servants, and from
which Beer-sheba was named. Gen. 26 :
33. See Beer-sheba,
SHE'BAM {coolness), one of the
towns east of the Jordan desired by
Reuben and Gad. Num. 32 : 3. See
Shibmah and Sibmah.
SHEBANI'AH {mhom Jehovah has
made groic np). 1. A priest who blew a
trumpet at the bringing up of the ark.
1 Chr. 15 : 24.
2. A Levite who sang and sealed the
covenant. Neh. 9:5: 10 : 10.
3. A priest who sealed the covenant.
Neh. 10 : 4 ; 12 : 14.
4. A Levite who did the same, Neh.
10 : 12.
SHEB'ARIM {ruins), a place near
Ai to which the Israelites were pursued.
Josh. 7 : 5. The term may mean " pre-
cipices," or possibly " fissures," but the
location is unknown,
SHE'BER {breaking), a son of
Caleb, the son of Hezron, 1 Chr. 2 : 48.
SHEB'NA (3/o«//0. 1. The "treas-
urer," or prefect of the palace of
Hezekiah, Isa. 22 : 15-25, a man of
great pride, but whose ignominious fall
is prophesied by the prophet.
2. The scribe or secretary of Hezekiah ;
a different person from the preceding,
though with the same name. Isa. 36 : 3 ;
2 Kgs. 18 : 18. 37; 19 : 2. He was one
of the ambassadors sent to Rabshakch.
SHEB'UEL {captive of God). 1. A
785
SHE
SHE
deseendant of Moses, 1 Chr. 23 : 16 ; 26 :
24 ; also called Shubael in 1 Chr. 24 : 20.
2. One of the Levite singers, 1 Chr.
25 : 4 ; called Shubael in 25 : 20.
SHECANI'AH {/umiliar wUh Je-
hor(th). 1. One of the priests chosen b}'
lot during David's reign. 1 Chr. 24 : 11.
2. A Levite in the reign of Hezekiah.
2 Chr. 31 : 15.
SHECHANI'AH {familiar with
Jehovah). 1. A descendant of the regal
line. 1 Chr. 3:21, 22.
2, 3, The fathers of persons with Ezra.
Ezr. 8 : 3, 5.
4. One who headed the party against
foreign marriages. Ezr. 10 : 2.
5. The father of Shemaiah, a gate-
keeper. Neh. 3 : 29.
6. The father-in-law of Tobiah the
Ammonite. Neh. 6 : 18.
7. Head of some with Zerubbabel.
Neh. 12 : 3.
SHE'CHEM (the shoulder-blade).
1. The ravisher of Dinah, slain by
Simeon and Levi. Gen. 33 : 19 ; 34.
2. A man of Manasseh. Num. 26 : 31 ;
Josh. 17 : 2.
3. Another descendant of Manasseh.
1 Chr. 7 : 19.
SHE'CHEM (shouMer), a town in
the valley between Mounts Ebal and
Gerizim ; called also Siehem, Sychem,
and Sychar ; in later times it was known
as Neapolis, and now its Arabic name is
Nabliis. It was 34 miles north of Jeru-
salem, about 7 miles south-east of Sa-
maria, and its site is unrivalled for
beauty in Palestine. Two mountains
parallel to each other, Ebal and Gerizim,
almost meeting at their bases and only
a mile and a half apart at their summits,
enclose a beautiful little valley extend-
ing east and west, not more than a
hundred yards wide at the narrowest
part, and widening out in both direc-
tions. At the narrowest part of the vale
is the town of Nablfls, clinging to the
slope of Gerizim, the " mountain of
blessing." It is at an altitude of 1950
feet above the sea.
Scripture Hintory. — The city is men-
tioned forty-eight times in the Bible.
Its history begins four thousand years
ago, when Jerusalem had no existence,
extends through Scripture from Abraham
to Christ, and continues to the present
day. When Abraham came from Chal-
daja to the land which God should give
786
him, he halted at the "place of Siehem."
Gen. 12 : 6. When Jacob came from
Mesopotamia, Shechem was a Hivite
city, and Jacob bought from Hamor the
parcel of the field which he afterward
gave to his son Joseph. Gen. 33 : 18, 19;
43 : 22 ; Josh. 24 : 32 ; John 4 : 5. She-
chem was captured and the male inhab-
itants murdered by Simeon and Levi.
Gen. 34 ; 49 : ^-7. Abraham worshipped
under the oak which was by Shechem,
and there Jacob buried the images
brought by his family from Padan-aram;
and Joseph came from Hebron to She-
chem and Dothan, seeking his brethren,
and there also Joseph was buried. Gen.
27:12-28; Josh. 24:32, A solemn
dedicatory service of the whole nation
took place near Shechem. Deut. 11 : 29,
30. Abimelech caused the Shechemites
to revolt from the Hebrews and to elect
him as king, but after a reign of three
years he was expelled, and in revenge
destroyed the city and sowed the grounl
with salt. Jud. 9. It was rebuilt, and
Ilehoboam went there to be crowned :
but, in consequence of the revolt, he fled.
The city was fortified by Jeroboam, who
made it the first seat of the northern
kingdom. 1 Kgs. 12 : 1-19, 25; 2 Chr.
10. Men of Shechem were slain by
Ishmael. Jer. 41 : 3, 5. After the Cap-
tivity, Sheshem became the centre of
Samaritan worship. See Samaria.
N. T. references to this city are few.
Jesus visited the region, preached to a
woman at Jacob's well, and many from
Sychar believed on him. John 4 : 5, 39-
42. Whether Sychar occupied precisely
the same site as ancient Shechem has
been a question in dispute among
scholars. Stephen refers to the sepul-
chres of the patriarchs at Sychem. Acts
7: 16. During the Christian period
Neapolis became the seat of a bishop.
Justin Martyr was born there. The
Crusaders took it after the conquest of
Jerusalem ; Baldwin II. held a great
diet there, A. n, 1120.
Present Appearance. — Modern travel-
lers bear uniform testimony to the beauty
of the scenery' of Nablfls. Dr. Robinson
calls it " a scene of luxuriant and almost
unparalleled verdure." Dean Stanley,
says it is " the most beautiful — perhaps
the only very beautiful — spot in Central
Palestine," and Tristram says the land-
•scape is " the richest in Palestine." It
SHE
SHE
is abundantly supplied with water ;
vegetation is luxuriant; there are olive
trees and orange groves and palm trees.
The streets of the town are cleaner,
and its houses as a rule better, than those
of Jerusalem, being high, built of stone,
and crowned with domes. The side
streets are often like low cellars, quite
dark, vaulted, and narrow, and so low
that the passengers can scarcely stand
upright, except in the centre of them.
The town is a considerable centre of
trade and manufactures. Cotton became
the staple of the place a few years ago,
and a cotton-mill was erected. There is
also a trade in wool, and there are a
score of manufactories of soap, which is
made from olive oil. The bazaar exhibits
a great variety of wares.
The inhabitants are chiefly Mussul-
mans. Tristram estimated the popula-
tion at 9000, of whom about 650 were
Christians, 200 Samaritans, and a few
Jews. There is a Protestant school, sup-
ported by the English Church Missionary
Society. Baedeker estimates the popu-
lation at 13,000, including 140 Samari-
tans, a few Jews, 600 Christians of the
Greek Orthodox Church, and a few
Latins and Protestants. The people still
preserve their ancient reputation as rest-
less, turbulent, and quarrelsome.
Among the principal attractions of the
town is the great mosque Juini el-Kehtr,
originally a church of the Crusaders,
dedicated to St. John, and completed
A. D. 1167. There are two other mosques
which were originally churches of the
Crusaders. In the south-western part
of the town is the Samaritan .synagogue
{Kem»et es-Sdinirfli), a small, plain
whitewashed room, the pavement of
which is covered with matting and must
not be trodden on with shoes. The
Samaritans still retain their hereditary
form of worship, and possess the famous
Samaritan Codex of the Pentateuch, which
is guarded with great care. Sometimes
a copy is shown instead of the original, -i
which they derive from a grandson of
Aaron. See Samaria.
The well which Jacob dug, and upon
which our Lord rested and talked with a
woman of Samaria, is near Nablfls. See
Jacob's Well.
A little distance north of Jacob's well
is the reputed site of Joseph's tomb, Josh.
24 : 32, which has been preserved from
788
molestation from age to age by the com-
mon reverence in which the patriarch is
held by Jew, Samaritan, Christian, and
Muslim alike. The building shown is
comparatively modern, being a common
Muslim tomb in a square enclosure. It
was recently restored bj' Mr. Rogers, an
English consul at Damascus, in 18G8.
The Muslims claim that Joseph's body
is in the cave of Machpelah, at Hebron,
having been carried thither from She-
chera.
The granite shafts belonging possibly
to the Samaritan temple on Gerizim are
to be found amidst the ruins of a Roman
villa in the plain, and again in another
site of same date at a little distance.
At the foot of the northern slope of
Gerizim is a cemetery. The place is
called El ^«i«f/(" the column "), and the
Rev. George Williams has with much
probability identified it with " the pillar
that was in Shechem," where Abinielech
was made king, Jud. 9 : 6, and with the
oak of Moreh, near which Abraham built
his first altar to the Lord after entering
the Promised Land, and where Joshua
set up a great stone. Josh. 24 : 26.
SHE'CHEMITES, the family of
Shechem. Num. 26 : 31.
SHECHI'NAH {resting-place).
This familiar word is found in the Tar-
gums and in Christian writings, although
not in the Bible, but the fact it presents
often is, for the shechinah was enveloped
in the pillar of cloud and of fire, and
was " the glory " which covered the tab-
ernacle and filled Solomon's temple. In
the N, T. there is reference to this " glory
of the Lord " in Luke 2:9; Rom. 9:4;
John 1:14, etc.
SHED'EUR {darting of fire), the
father of the prince of Reuben at the
time of the Exodus. Num. 1:5; 2 : 10;
7:30, ?>b; 10:18.
SHEEP, SHEP'HERD,
SHEEP -MASTER, SHEEP-
COTE, SHEEP'FOLD. The.-heep
is mentioned about five hundred times
in the Bible, and seems likely to have
been the first animal domesticated by
man. Gen. 4 : 4. The sheep anciently
kept by the Israelites were probably of
the broad-tailed variety, in which the
tail is a mass of delicate fat sometimes
weighing 14 pounds, or even more. Ex.
29: 22: Lev. 3:9, 11.
Sheep often constituted the chief wealth
SHE
SHE
of a man in patriarchal times ; and hence,
with the Jews, the care of sheep was
among the earliest and most respectable
employments, Gen. 4:2: Ex. 3:1; Job
42 : 12; 1 Sam. 16 : 11, though it was
odious to the Egyptians. The office of
chief shepherd, Heb. 13 : 20 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 4,
is often mentioned by heathen writers.
It was an office of great trust and respon-
sibility, as well as of distinguished honor.
2 Kgs. 3 : 4. Chardin saw a clan of
Turcoman shepherds whose flocks con-
sisted of 400,000 beasts of carriage, such
as camels, horses, oxen, cows, and asses,
and 3,000,000 of sheep and goats. Dr.
Shaw confirms his statement.
Eastern Slieepfold.
The shepherd or " sheep-master " was
constantly with his flocks by night and
by day, to number, gather, feed, conduct,
and guard them. Gen. 31 : 39 ; Luke 2 :
8, and was often attended with a despised
dog. Job 30 : 1. His care of the sheep
was constant and tender, and his control
over them very great. Isa. 40 : 11 ; John
10 : 1-16. Rev. John Hartley, a mission-
ary in Greece, tells us that he was once
passing by a flock of sheep, and, having
heard it said they would obey the shep-
herd's voice, he asked him to call one of
his sheep, which instantly left its pas-
turage and approached the hand of the
shepherd with a prompt obedience which
he never saw in any other animal. It
is also universally true in that country
that a stranger they will not follow.
They flee from him, for they know not
the voice of a stranger.
It is said that the shepherds of Judaea
gave each Iamb a distinct name, and
that they, instantly obeyed the voice of
the shepherd, coming and going daily at
his call. An ancient Jewish writer, born
and educated in Egypt, states that the
sheep, in the season of shearing, would
run to the shepherd at his call, and,
stooping a little, put themselves into liis
hands to be shorn and stand quietly until
he had done.
The docility, timidity, and liability to
wander (all which are among the charac-
teristics of this animal) are often figura-
tively employed by the sacred writers,
as 2 Chr. 18 : 16 ; Ps. 119 : 176 ; Isa. 11 :
6 ; 53 : 6, 7 ; Mic. 5:8; Matt. 9 : 36.
In the 0. T. the word "shepherd" is
used figuratively for Jehovah. Ps. 80 : 1 ;
Jer. 31 : 10 ; and for kings, Eze. 34 : 10 ;
but in the N. T. it denotes Christ, John
10 : 11, etc.; Heb. 13 : 20; 1 Pet. 5 : 4,
aud also those teachers who presided in
the synagogues. This use of the
==. word gave rise to the application
of the word " shepherd " or " pas-
tor," in modern times, to minis-
ters of the gospel, and those under
their spiritual care are called the
"fold" or "flock."
It was the business of the shep-
herd to count the sheep daily, per-
haps oftener, and he was account-
able for any that were missing.
Gen. 31 : 38, .39: Ex. 22 : 12, 13;
Lev. 27 : 32 ; Jer. 33 : 13. See Rod.
Sometimes a lamb was taken into
the tent and brought up like a dog. 2 Sam.
12 : 3. It is common in Armenia to see
shepherds carrying in their bosoms the
lambs of the flock they are tending.
They are too feeble to roam with th^^ir
dams, and nothing evinces more tender-
ness and care than gently leading such
as are with young, or such as have young
lambs to which they give suck. Isa. 40 :
11. Two of our American missionaries
tell us that while travelling in Armenia
they passed several shepherds, probably
from the neighboring villages, carrying
in their bosoms the lambs of the flocks
they tended. The same scene had already
frequently interested them by presenting
the source of the beautiful imagery of
the prophet. It is exhibited only at one
season of the year, when lambs are fre-
quently brought forth during the day at
a distance from the fold. The new-
comers, being too weak to follow the
flock in its rovings after grass, are carried
in the bosom of the shepherd, and not
unfrequently they so multiply as to fill
his arms before night. They are then
taken to the fold, and guarded there
until sufficiently strong to ramble with
789
SHE
SHE
their dams. One of these enclosures
presents an amusing scene when the
sheep return anxiously bleating in the
evening from their day's pasture, and
scores of hungry young ones are con-
ducted by shepherds' boys each to its
own mother.
The time of shearing was a season of
great festivity. 1 Sam. 25: 7. 8, 11 : 2 Sara,
13 : 23. The flock was collected in an
uncovered enclosure called a " sheepfold "
or " sheepcote." Num. 32 : Ifi : 2 Sam. 7 :
8 ; Jer. 23 : 3 ; Zeph. 2:6; John 10 : 16.
Here their legs were tied together, and
the "shearing-house," 2 Kgs. 10 : 12, U,
literally means the " tie-house." They
were never housed at any season of the
year.
A watch-house was often erected in
the vicinity of the flocks, from which the
approach of danger could be easily des-
cried. This is called the " tower of the
flock." Mic. 4 : 8. The wool of the sheep
was probably made into cloth, Lev. 13 :
47; Deut. 22 : 11, by women. Prov. 31 :
13. It formed part of the tribute paid
by the Moabites to Israel, 2 Kgs. 3 : 4,
and was a common article of merchan-
dise. Eze. 27 : 18. Ewes' milk was an
important part of daily food. Deut. 32 :
14 ; 1 Cor. 9 : 7. The flesh of sheep and
lambs was eaten. 1 Sam. 25 : 18; 1 Kgs.
1 : 19; 4 : 23 ; Ps. 44 : 11. If Josh. 6 :
4 is correctly rendered, as probably it is
not, rams' horns were made into trum-
pets. Sheep-skins were used as a cover-
ing for the tabernacle, Ex. 25 : 5, and
the poor clothed themselves in them.
Heb. 11 : 37.
The sheep was especially the animal
of sjicrifice, and there were few off'erings
required in which the lamb or the ram
WHS not admissible. As an animal sym-
bolical of innocence and purity, the sheep
was well fitted for this use. With refer-
ence to his sacrificial mission, as well as
to his meekness, patience, and submis-
sion, Christ is often called " the Lamb,"
" the Lamb of God," " the Ijamb slain."
John 1 : 29, 36 ; Rev. 13 : 8 ; 22 : 1, 3.
SHEEP-GATE, an ancient gate
of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 1, 32; 12 : 39.
Barclay concludes that it must have been
near the temple, and between the tower
of Me;ih and the Prison-gate. Compare
Acts 3 : 32 with 12 : 39 ; A. V. " jjrison-
gate." Tradition identifies the Sheep-gate
with Saint Stephen's gate, which leads to
790
Gethsemane and Mount Olivet. Grove
would place it near the Bab el-Kattnnln.
SHEEP-MARKET. John 6 : 2.
" Market " is an interpolation by the
translators; it should probably read
" gate."
SHEETS, Jud. 14 : 12, should be
" shirts," either the thin garment worn
next to the body or the loose night-
wrapper.
SHEHARI'AH {Jehovah seeks
him), a Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 26.
SHEK'EIi means "weight," then a
particular weight of uncoined gold or
silver, to the value of 20 gera. Ex. 30 :
13. See Money.
SHE'LAH (petition), the third son
of Judah. Gen. 38 : 5, 11, 14, 26; 46 :
12 : Num. 26 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 2:3; 4:21.
SHE'LAH {s2irout). 1 Chr. 1:18,
24. See Salah.
SHE'LANITES, the descendants
of Shelah. Num. 26 : 20.
SHELEMI'AH (irhom Jehovah re-
2)fiys). 1. 1 Chr. 26 : 14. See Micsn el-
em iar.
2, 3. Two persons who had foreign
wives. Ezr. 10 : 39, 41.
4. Father of Ilananiah. Neh. 3 : 30.
5. A priest appointed by Nehemiah a
treasurer. 13 : 13.
6. Ancestors of one in time of Jehoi-
akin. Jer. 36 : 14.
7. Father of one of Jeremiah's ac-
cusers to Zedekiah, 37 : 3 ; 38 : 1 ; per-
haps identical with him mentioned in
36 : 26.
8. Father of the captain of a ward who
arrested Jeremiah. 37 : 13.
SHE'LEPH {draini out), the sec-
ond in order of the sons of Joktan. Gen.
10 : 26 : 1 Chr. 1 : 20.
SHE'LESH (tried), an Asherite
chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 35.
SHEL'OMI (pacific), the father of
the prince of Asher in time of Moses.
Num. 34: 27.
SHEL'OMITIK pacific). 1. The
Danite mother by an Egyptian of a
stoned blasphemer. Lev. 24 : 11.
2. A daughter of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr.
3*19
3. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 23 : 9.
4. A Kohathitc Levite, 1 Chr. 23 : 18;
called Shelomoth in 24 : 22.
5. One who had charge of the dedi-
cated things in David's reign. 1 Chr.
26 : 25, 26.
SHE
SHE
6. A son of Rehoboara. 2 Chr. 11 : 20.
7. One whose sons returnei with Ezra.
Ezr. 8 : 10.
SHEL'OMOTH. 1 Chr. 24 : 22.
See Shelomith, 4.
SHELiU'MIEL {friend of God),
the prince of Simeon in the wilder-
ness. Num. 1:6; 2 : 12; 7 : 36, 41;
10 : 19.
SH£M (name), the eldest son of Xoah,
preserved with his wife in the ark. His
conduct toward his father on one oc-
casion is recited to his praise. Gen. 9 :
20-27. The Jews are his descendants,
and, besides, there are the Aramseans,
Persians, Assyrians, and Arabians. The
languages spoken by the descendants of
Shem (the Hebrew, Chaldee, Assyrian,
and Arabic) are called Shemitic lan-
guages.
SHE'3IA (* »;»o/). 1. A descendant
of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 43, 44.
2. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 5 : 8.
3. A Benjamite chief. I Chr. 8 : 13.
4. One who stood by Ezra during the
reading of the Law. Xeh. 8 : 4.
SHE'MA {nonor), a place in JuJah,
Josh. 15 : 26; 19 : 2, and the same as
Sheba, No. 2.
SHEMA'AH {rumor), a Benjamite
whose sons joined David at Ziklag. 1
Chr. 12 : 3.
SHEMAFAH {Jehovah hears). 1.
A prophet in the time of Rehoboam, and
a chronicler of his reign. 1 Kgs. 12 : 22 ;
2 Chr. 11 : 2 ; 12 : 5, 15.
2. A descendant of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr.
3 : 22.
3. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4 : 37.
4. A Reubenite. 5 : 4.
5. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. Levites. 9 : 14
of. Neh. 11 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 9 : 16 ; 15 : 8, 11
24: 6; 2 Chr. 17 : 8; 29 : 14; 31 : 15
35: 9.
12. The eldest son of Obed-edom. 1
Chr. 26 : 4, 6, 7.
13. A messenger of Ezra's. Ezr. 8 :
13, 16.
14. 15. A priest and another who had
foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 21. 31.
16. A traitor. Neh. 6 : 10.
17. A priest who sealed the covenant.
Neh. 10:8; 12:6, 18, 35.
18. One of the princes of Judah. Neh.
12 : 34.
19. One of the choir at the dedication
of the wall. Neh. 12 : 36.
20. A priest. Neh. 12 : 42.
21. The father of a prophet in the time
of Jeremiah. Jer. 26 : 20.
22. A false prophet o? Jeremiah's
time. Jer. 29 : 24, 31, 32.
23. The father of a prince in Jehoi-
akin's reign. 38 : 20.
SHEMARI'AH (whom Jehovah
keeps). 1. One of David's soldiers at
Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 5.
2, 3. Two who had foreign wives. Ezr.
10 : 32, 41.
SHEM'EBER {lofty flight), one of
the allies who were attacked by Chedor-
laomer. Gen. 14 : 2.
SHE'MER. {lees of loine), the owner
of the hill which King Omri bought and
covered with the city of Samaria, giving
it its former owner's name. 1 Kscs. 16 :
24.
SHEMI'DA, SHEMI'DAH
{fame of wisdom), a man of Manasseh.
Num. 26 : 32 ; Josh. 17 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 7:19.
SHEMI'DAITES, the descendants
of the above. Num. 26 : 32.
SUt:WI'SlTH.{theeighth),&musicA\
term which appears in 1 Chr. 15 : 21, an 1
in the titles to Ps. 6 and 12. Its mean-
ing is uncertain, but probably it refers to
the time of the piece, rather than any
instrument.
SHEMIR'AMOTH {name mnsit
hifjh). 1. A musical Levite in David's
day. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20; 16 : 5.
2. A Levite in the reign of Jehosh-
aphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 8.
SHEMITIC, OR SEMIT'IC,
LANGUAGES. See Shem.
SHEMU'EL {heard of God). 1.
The representative of Simeon in the
division of the land. Num. 34 : 20.
2. Samuel the prophet. 1 Chr. 6 : 33.
3. A chieftain of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 2.
SHE\ [the tooth). Samuel erected
the stone Ebenezer between Mizpah and
Shen. 1 Sam. 7 : 12. It was probably
so named from a tooth-shaped rock.
SHEIVA'ZAR {fierii tooth), de-
scendant of David. 1 Chr. 3 : 18.
SHE'NIR, a name given to Mount
Hermon by the Sidonians. Deut. 3:9;
Cant. 4 : 8. See Hermon.
SHE'PHAM (hear-region), a land-
mark on the eastern boundary of the
Promised Land, between Hatser-enan
and Riblah. Num. 34 : 10, 1 1.
SHEPHATHI'AH {Jehovah
Jndi/es), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 9 : 8.
SHEPUATV AH {Jehovah judges).
791
SHE
SHI
I. The fifth son of David. 2 Sam. 3:4;
1 Chr. 3:3.,
2. A Benjamite warrior with David at
Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 5.
3. The chief of the Siraeonites in
David's time. 1 Chr. 27 : 16.
4. A son of Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 21 : 2.
5. 6. Two persons whose posterity re-
turned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 4, 67 :
Neh. 7 : 9, 59.
7. One of the posterity of Judah.
Neh. 11 : 4.
8. One who desired Jeremiah's exe-
cution. Jer. 38 : 1-4.
SHEP'HERD (pastor). John 10 :
II. See Sheki'.
SHEPHERD. Ps. 23 : 1. See
Sheep.
SHE'PHI (a naked hill), a descend-
ant of Seir, 1 Chr. 1 : 40 ; called Shepho
in Gen. 36 : 23.
SHE'PHO (svinothuefifi). See above.
SHEPHU'PHAN {>ierpeut), a
grandson of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 8:5;
called Shupham in Num. 26 : 39, Shup-
])im in 1 Chr. 7 : 12, 15, and Muppim in
Gen. 46 :21.
SHE'RAH (blood-kindred), daugh-
ter of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 24.
SHEREBI'AH (heat of Jehovah),
one of the chief Levitical friends and
helpers of Ezra, and one who sealed the
covenant. Ezr. 8 : 18, 24 ; Neh. 8:7; 9 :
4; 10:12.
SHE'RESH (root), a descendant of
Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7:16.
SHERE'ZER (Asia- protect the
kluff .'), a man mentioned in Zech. 7 : 2.
SHER'IFFS, mentioned in Dan.
3 : 2 as among the Babylonish digni-
taries, were probably officers like the
mufti, or the ** head-doctors of tlie Law
in the Turkish empire."
SHE'SHACH, a symbolical name
for Babylon, Jer. 25:26; 61:41, from
its goddess Shach reduplicated, as Misael
is called Meshach.
SHE'SHAI (whitish), one of the
three sons of Anak. Num. 13: 22: Josh.
16: 14: Jud. 1:10.
SHE'SHAN (lllj/), a descendant of
Judah. 1 Chr. 2: 31, 34. 35.
SHESHBAZ'ZAR (Jire-,rn;hl,,-
per), the Persian name borne by Zc ub-
babel at the Persian court. Ezr. 1 : S,
11 : 5: 14. 16.
SHETH (inmult). 1. The patriarch.
1 Chr. 1 : 1.
792
2. In Num. 24 : 17 not a proper name ;
read: "children of tumult," not "chil-
dren of Sheth." Jer. 48 : 45.
SHE'THAR (a star), one of the
Persian princes. Esth. 1 : 14.
SHE'THAR-BOZ'NAl (star of
splendor), a Persian officer in Syria. Ezr.
6:3, 6; 6:6, 13.
SHE'VA (Jehovah contends). The
name is corrupted from Seraiah.
1. The son of Caleb ben-Hezron. 1
Chr. 2 : 49.
2. The scribe of David. 2 Sam. 20 : 25.
SHEW'-BREAD was unleavened
bread prepared anew every Sabbath, and
presented hot on the golden table set in
the sanctuary, in twelve loaves of a
square or oblong shape, according to
the number of the tribes of Israel. Ex.
26 : 30. Salt and frankincense were put on
each row. The loaves were placed either
in two piles or in two rows, with six
loaves in each, and it was called "shew-
bread," or " bread of the face," or the
" bread of setting before," because it
stood continually before the Lord : later
'•bread of ordering." 1 Chr. 9:32;
marg. ; Neh. 10 : 33.
Table of Sliew-bi\nd.
The incense having been burnt, the old
loaves were removed everj' Sabbath, Lev.
24 : 8. and, as a general rule, were to be
eaten by the priests alone, and by them
only in the court of the sanctuary. 1
Sam. 21: 1-6 ; Matt. 12 : 3, etc.
SHIB'BOLETH (on ear of com,
or a stream, a flood). Jud. 12 : 6. In the
course of a war between the Ephraimites
and the Gilcaditc.x. the former were rout-
ed and fled toward the Jordan. The
Gileadites had taken care t ) post a party
at the fords, and" when an Ephraimite
SHI
SHI
who had escaped came to the river-side
and desired to pass over, they asked him
if he were not an Ephraimite. If he
said, " No," they bade him pronounce
** Shibboleth," and if he pronounced it
"sibboleth," according to the dialect of
the Ephraimites, they killed him. Thus
fell 42,000 Ephraimites in a single day.
Comp. Matt. 26 : 73. Milton says, with
reference to that event,
"Without reprieve, adjudged to death,
For want of well pronouucing shibboleth.''^
The word is now used for a test or the
watchword of a party.
SHIB'MAH {/raff ranee), a town in
Reuben, east of the Jordan. Num. 32 :
38. See Sibmah.
SHI'CRON ((fnt)iJcenne8><), a land-
mark of Judah between Ekron and Jab-
neel. Josh. 15 : 11.
SHIELD. Jud. 5 : 8. See Armor.
SHIGGA'ION. Ps. 7, title. It
probably means a dithyrambic ode, er-
ratic— I. e., wild and mournful.
SHIGI'ONOTH, the plural of
Shiggaion. Hab. 3 : 1.
SHI'HON {destruction), a place in
Issachar. Josh. 19 : 19. Eusebius calls
it a village near Mount Tabor, but its
site is unknown.
SHI'HOR. 1 Chr. 13 : 5. See Nile.
SHI'HOR-LIB'NATH {Mack-
white), a landmark of Asher. Josh. 19 :
26. The term is usually supposed to re-
fer to a river which formed the extreme
point of the frontier toward the south,
and must have included Dor. It is
probably identical with the modern
Nahr Zerka, or " Blue River," which
runs into the Mediterranean, 8 miles
south of Dor.
SHIL'HI {armed), the grandfather
of Jehoshaphat. 1 Kgs. 22:42; 2 Chr.
20 : 31.
SHIL'HIM {armed men), a town in
Judah. Josh. 15 : 32. Wilton proposes
to locate it at the ruin es-Saram, and
Conder has conjectured that it might be
at Shelkhah.
SHIL'LEM {requital), a son of
Naphtali, and ancestor of the Shillem-
ites. Gen. 46 : 24 : Num. 26 : 49.
SHIL'LEMITES. See above.
SHILO'AH {sending forth), the
quietly-flowing stream Siloam. Isa. 8 :
6. See Siloam.
SHI'LOH. The word " Shiloh," as
used in Gen. 49 : 10, has given rise to much
discussion. Many of the best schohirs
consider it as referring to the town. But
it is better to adopt the traditional view,
and interpret "Shiloh" of the Messiah.
The word in this connection, according
to the majority, means, " He whose
right it is." Others translate " Peace."
Cf. Isa. 9 : 6. Still others, " The sceptre
shall not depart from Judah till He
comes to whom it belongs."
SHI'LOH {place of rest), a city
north of Bethel, south of Lebonah, on
the east of the road from Bethel to She-
chem. Jud. 21 : 29. It is now called Sei-
Inn, and is 17 miles north of Jerusalem
and very nearly midway between Bethel
and Shechem, being about 9 or 10 miles
from each.
Scripture History. — Joshua selected
Shiloh as the site of the tabernacle, and
there made the allotments of the Prom-
ised Land. Josh. 18 : 1, 8-10. During
the period of the Judges, for three hun-
dred years, the tabernacle remained here,
and in its honor a festival was annually
celebrated, on which occasion the daugh-
ters of Shiloh danced, and thus gave an
opportunity for the Benjamites to carry
otF two hundred of them as wives. Jud.
21 : 19-23. Shiloh was the residence of
Eli and of Samuel, 1 Sam. 3 and 4, and
thither tidings were brought to the old
man of the capture of the ark by the
Philistines. The ark was never brought
back to Shiloh, and tiie tabernacle was
removed to Nob and thence to Jerusa-
lem. 2 Chr. 1 : 3, 4. Th« prophet Ahi-
jah lived there. 1 Kgs. 14:1-17. Shi-
loh seems to have been desolate in Jere-
miah's day. Jer. 7 : 12, 14; 26 : 6, 9. In
the time of Jerome the place was a ruin.
In the Middle Ages it was erroneously
supposed to have lain near Nebj/ Samu-il.
Present Appearance. — It has been iden-
tified without doubt with iS'ejYjoj, a ruin-
ed village on a low hill, showing traces
of ancient building-material and early
foundations. The most interesting fea-
ture is a sort of level open court, 412
feet long and 77 feet wide, partly hewn
out of the rock, " which might have been
the actual spot where the ark rested, for
its custodians would naturally select a
place sheltered from the bleak winds that
prevail in these highlands." (See Recor-
er}i of Jernsaleiu, p. 364.) In a little val-
ley about half a mile from the ruins are
793
SHI
SHI
S'filuii (iiiicieiit Sliiloli).
the spring and well of Shiloh. and this
must have bern the spot where the
" daughters of Shiloh " were seized. In
the neighborhood of this spring are
many rock-hewn tombs, in which, ac-
cording to Jewish tradition, were laid
the bodies of Eli and his sons. From
its central, and at the same time seclu-
ded, position, Shiloh was well adapted
to be the resting-place of the ark and
the principal sanctuary of the Jewish
nation.
SHILO'NI, the descendant of She-
lah. Neh. 11 : 5.
SHI'LONITE, the resident of
Shiloh; so Ahijah is called. 1 Kgs. 11 :
29.
SHI'LONITES, THE, members
of the house of Shelah. 1 Chr. 9 : 5.
SHIL'SHAH {triad— \. e.. the third
8oti), an Asherite chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 37.
SHIM'EA, SHin'F.An {the hear-
ing— i. e., aiiHincriuf/ — praijer). 1 . Brother
of David, 2 Sam. 21 : 21 : called Sham-
mah and Shinima.
2. A son of David by Bathsheba. 1
794
Chr. 3:5; called Shamraua and Sham-
muah.
3. A Merarite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 30.
4. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 39.
5. A Bcnjamite. 1 Chr. 8:32.
SHIM'EAM {the henrimi—i. e., nu-
sweriiif/ — prayer), 1 Chr. 9 : 38 ; same as
4, above.
SHIM'EATH (the hearivff), an Am-
monitess, the mother of Jozachar or Za-
bab, one of the murderers of King Jo-
ash. 2 Kgs. 12 : 21 : 2 Chr. 24 : 2fi.
SHIM'EATHITES, a family of
scribes. 1 Chr. 2 : 55.
SHIM'EI (reuowned). 1. A son of
Gershon, the son of Levi. Num. 8 : 18;
1 Chr. 6:17, 29; 23:7, 9, 10; Zech.
12: 13: called Shimi in Ex. 6:17.
2. The Benjamite of the house of Saul,
living at Bahurim, who cursed David
when the latter was fleeing from Ab.«a-
lom. 2 Sam. 16:5-13. David forbade
any violence at the time. On his victo-
rious return Shimei sought the forgive-
ness of David, who not only spared his
life then, but covenantctl with him never
SHI
SHI
to put hiin to death. 2 Sam. 19 : 23. On
his death-bed, however, he charged Sol-
omon to remember Shimei as a guilty
man. Solomon accordingly forbade him
to leave Jerusalem on pain of death.
This prohibition he violated by going to
Gath in search of two fugitive servants,
and suffered the threatened penalty. 1
Kgs. 2 : 46.
3. One of David's mighty men who
opposed Adonijah. 1 Kgs. 1 : 8.
4. The Benjamitish provision-officer
of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 4 : 18.
5. The brother of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr.
3 : 19.
6. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4 : 26, 27.
7. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 5 : 4.
8. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 :
42.
9. Head of the tenth musical course.
1 Chr. 25 : 17.
10. The overseer of David's vineyards.
1 Chr. 27:27.
11. A Levite who assisted in Hezeki-
ah's purification of the temple. 2 Chr.
29 : 14.
12. A l^evite in Hezekiah's time who
had charge of the temple-treasure. 2
Chr. 31 : 12, 13.
13. A Levite who had a foreign wife.
Ezr. 10 : 23.
14. 15. Two persons who put away
their foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 33, 38.
16. One of the ancestors of Mordecai.
Esth. 2 : 5.
SHIM'EON (a heariuff), one who
had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 31.
SHIM'HI {reiioioied), a Benjamite.
1 Chr. 8 : 21.
SHI'MI. Ex. 6 : 17. See Shimei, 1.
SHIM'ITES, the descendants of
Shimei, 1. Num. 3 : 21.
SHIM'MA {the hearing), David's
third brother. 1 Chr. 2 : 13.
SHI'MON {desert), a descendant of
Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 20.
SIIIM'R ATH (ica/c^i ), a Benjamite.
1 Chr. 8:21.
SHIM'RI {watchful). 1. A Simeon-
ite. 1 Chr. 4 : 37.
2. Father of one of David's guard. 1
Chr. 11 : 45.
3. A Levite in Hezekiah's reign. 2
Chr. 29 : 13.
SHIM'RITH {irntihfid). a Moab-
itess, mother of Jehozabad. one of the
murderers of King Joash. 2 Chr. 24 : 26 :
called Shomcr in 2 K^s. 12 : 21.
SHIiyi'ROI*!, mistaken spelling for
SHI.>I'RON {watch), the fourth son of
Issachar. Gen. 46 : 13 ; Num. 26 : 24 ; 1
Chr. 7:1.
SHIM'RON (watch-post), an ancient
city of Canaan, over which Jabin was
king. Josh. 11 : 1 ; 19 : 15. The Shim-
ron-meron of Josh. 12 : 20 is probably
the same with Shimron. It may be iden-
tified with the village es-Semirlyeh, about
5 miles from Acre, on the road to Tyre,
and the castle Sonielaria Templi of the
Crusaders, where a solemn conference
took place, a. d. 1277. Conder speaks
of a Shimron — not, apparently, Shim-
ron-meron, but another, farther south.
SHIM'RONITES, the descendants
of Shimron. Num. 26 : 24.
SHIM'RON-ME'RON. Josh. 12:
20. See Shimron.
SHIM'SHAI {sHuuij), the scribe or
secretary of Rehum the chancellor. He
joined in opposing the rebuilding of the
temple under Zerubbabel. Ezr. 4 : 8, 9,
17, 23.
SHI'NAB(coo;/;..7),thekingof Ada-
mah, in the valley of Siddim, when Che-
dorlaomer invaded the land. Gen. 14 :
2.
SHI'NAR, THE LAND OF
(castiii'j out? country of two rivers/^,
the region where the people, after the
Flood, made bricks and used slime (bit-
umen) for mortar. Gen. 11 : 2, 3. " Shi-
nar" was probably the Hebrew name for
the plain of Mesopotamia, on the Eu-
phrates and the Tigris. It would seem
originally to have denoted the northern
part of Babylonia, as " Chaldaea " denoted
the southern part; but subsequently,
like '"Chaldasa," it was sometimes used for
the whole. Gen. 10 : 10 ; Isa. 11 : 1 1 ;
Dan. 1:2: Zech. 5 : 11. In Josh. 7 : 21
it is rendered '* Babylonish." Among its
cities were Babel (Babylon), Erech or
Orech (Orchoi). Calneh or Calno (prob-
ably Niffer). and Arrad.
SHIP. Dean Howson says that more
about the ancients' merchant-ships is to
be learned from Luke than from all the
writers in classic literature. Some of
these ships were very large, and prob-
ably the majority carried from 500 to
1000 tons. They were steered by two
large paddlos at the sides, Acts 27 : 40,
carried usually but one mast with a huge
sail, but were also propelled by oars,
hence required rowers, were ornamented
795
SHI
SHI
by im.ages in the bow and stern and
fiojures painted on the side of the bow,
which made "the sign" — e. g., Castor
and Pollux. Acts 28 : 1 1. They were fur-
nished with undergirders, which passed
round the frame at right angles to its
length and " frapped " it when the
planks were in danger of starting, an-
chors like ours, except that they had
no flukes, sounding-lines; "could sail
within seven points of the wind ; seem
to have had somemode of keeping the
log; and it has been supposed that with
a fair breeze they could make seven knots
an hour." — Ai/re. Nor need they hug the
shore. The Hebrews were not sailors.
We have no information in regard to the
ships of their nautical neighbors. The
reference to mdder-bttnch, Acts 27 : 40,
is thus explained : the rudder-paddles
already mentioned " were lashed up lest
they should interfere with the gruund-
tackle. When they Avished to steer again
and the anchor-ropes were cut, they un-
fastened the lashings or bands of the
paddles." Ancient ships were properly
galleys.
SHI'PHI (abwHlnnt), the father of
the prince of Simeon in Hezekiah's time.
1 Chr. 4 : 37.
SHIPH'MITE. Probably Zabdi,
1 Chr. 27 : 27, was a native of Shepham,
which see.
SHIPH'RAH (heavh/), one of the
chief midwives among the Hebrews in
Egypt. Ex. 1:15.
SHIPH'TAN ijndicinl), the father
of the prince of Ephraim. Num. 34 : 24.
SHI'SHA {Jehnrah coutendfi}, father
of the scribes of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 4:3;
same with Seraiah.
SHI'SHAK, the head of the twen-
ty-second dynasty, Sheshonk I., who re-
ceived the fugitive Jeroboam, 1 Kgs. 11 :
40, and in the fifth year of Rehoboam,
B.C. 969, invaded Judaea and spoiled the
temple. 14:25, 26; 2 Chr. 12: 2-9. At
Karnak, on the Nile, there is an inscrip-
tion which records this expedition. The
king presents, among his other captives,
one with an unmistakable Hebrew phys-
iognomy. The accompanying inscrip-
tion, " Indaha-malck," has been inter-
preted " Kingdom of Judah." If this
is correct, then Uehoboam is probably
meant.
Other inscriptions give a particular
list of the "fenced cities" mentioned in
796
Head of Sliisliak. {Prom temple at Karnnk )
2 Chron. 12 : 4 as having been taken in
this expedition.
SHIT'RAI (scribe), one of David's
chief herdmen. 1 Chr. 27 : 29.
SHIT'TAH TREE. Isa. 41 : 19.
See Shittim-wood.
SHIT'TIM (acacias), the last en-
campment of the Israelites before enter-
ing Canaan ; the scene of the sin with
the Midianites, and of its terrible pun-
ishment, Num. 25; 31 : 1-12; the com-
pletion of the Law and the farewell of
Moses ; the sending forth of the spies
to Jericho ; and the final preparation
before crossing the Jordan. Josh. 2.
Physical Features. — Shittim — also
called Abel-shittim, or "the meadow
of acacias," from the number of acacia
trees in it — was the green, fertile, well-
watered plain stretching from the foot
of the mountains of Moab to the Jordan.
Tristram describes it as "by far the
largest and richest oasis in the whole
Ghor." Many acacia (shittim) trees still
grow there. The plain now bears the
name of (jhor es-Seisaban. At the north
is Tell Niwriv (Beth-nirarah). South of
this are Tell Kefrain (Abel-shittim and
Abila of Josephus), Tell er-Ravm (Beth-
haram), and Sinceimeh, which Dr. Mer-
rill and others would identify with Beth-
jeshimoth. See Abki, -shittim.
SHIT'TIM, THE VALLEY
OF, referred to in Joel 3 : IS, may
denote the same valley mentioned above,
SHI
SHO
indicating that the blessing should spread
even beyond the borders of Judah. Some,
however, suppose that the reference is to
a valley in which acacias grew, on the
west side of the Jordan, and nearer
Jerusalem.
S H I T ' T I M- W O O D (from the
shittah tree, Isa. 41 : 19) was much used
in constructing and furnishing the taber-
nacle. Ex. 25 : 15, 16. The only tim-
ber tree of any size now found in the
Arabian desert is the nei/al (Acacia aei/al).
The large specimens of this have been
mostly destroyed for charcoal and other
uses, but the writer saw a fiei/((l in Wd<Ji/
Feirnn 3 feet through, and Tristram
speaks of trees of this kind on the west
of the Dead Sea which would make
planks ** 4 feet in diameter." There can
be litfle doubt that this acacia was once
abundant in the Sinai region and is the
shittim of Scripture.
Shittim-wood {Acacia).
The aeyal is a very thorny tree, some-
what resembling our apple tree when
seen from a distance, but with decom-
pound leaves, small leaflets, and little
! yellow balls of fibrous bloom, followed
by locust-like pods. Its wood is close-
j grained, hard, brownish-hued, and well
adapted for cabinet-work. From cuts
or cracks in the trunk and limbs of this
! and one or two other acacias gum-arabic
I exudes, and is collected. The burning
bush, Ex. 3 : 2, on philological grounds,
\ is believed to be a similar but smaller
I tree, the mint {Acacia Nilolic<(), found
occasionally in this region. Several
! localities mentioned in the Bible were
named from the shittim.
SHI'ZA (loving), the father of a
Reubenite captain. 1 Chr. 11 : 42.
S H O ' A (opulent). Eze. 23 : 2.3.
Whether this is the name of a place,
as Palmer suggests, or merely a title,
is uncertain. Ewald renders it ''cry-
ing;" Keil renders it '"noble;" and the
former takes it to be the name of some
Chaldtean tribe.
SHO'BAB (apostate). 1. A
child of Bathsheba by David. 2
Sam. 5 : 14; 1 Chr. 3 r'o; 14 : 4.
2. A son of Caleb, son of Hezron.
1 Chr. 2 : 18.
SHO 'BACH (pouring). 1.
The general of Hadarezer, king of
the Syrians of Zoba. David defeat-
ed and slew him. 2 Sam. 10 : 15-18.
In 1 Chr. 19 : 16, 18 he is called
Shophach.
SHO'BAI (taking captive), one
whose children returned with Zerub-
babel. Ezr. 2 : 42 ; Neh. 7 : 45.
SHO'BAL (flowing). 1. The
second son of Seir the Horite. and a
sheik of the Horites. Gen. 36 : 20 ;
1 Chr. 1 : 38.
2. The son of Caleb, son of Hur.
1 Chr. 2 : 50, 52.
3. In 1 Chr. 4 : 1, 2 he is identical
probably with 2.
SHO'BEK (forsaking), one who
sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : 24.
SHO'BI (taking captive), a
chief Ammonite who provisioned
David during Absalom's rebellion.
2 Sam. 17 : 27.
SHO'CHO, 2 Chr. 28: 18,
SHO'CHOH, 1 Sam. 17 : 1, and
SHO'CO, 2 Chr. 11 : 7. See SocoH.
SHOES. See Cr.OTHKS.
SHOE-LATCHET. Mark 1 : 8.
See Ci.oTHKS.
SHO'HAM (onyx), a Merarite Le-
vite. 1 Chr. 24 : 27.
797
SHO
SHU
SHOMIER ^rt keeper). 1. A man
of Asher, 1 Chr. 7 : 32 ; called Shaiuer
in V. 34.
2. Thefather of Jehozabad, who killed
Joash, 2 Kgs. 12 : 21 ; called Shiuirith
in 2 Chr. 24 : 20.
SHO'PHACH (j)onri,uj). 1 Chr.
19 : 16, 18. See Shubach.
SHO'PHAX. Num. 32 : 35. The
word should probably be writtert in con-
nection with the preceding Hebrew word,
''Atroth Shophan " — that is, '"Ataroth of
the burrow " — to distinguish it from the
Ataroth in v. 34. See Atroth.
SHOSHAN'NIM (lih/), Ps. 45 : 69.
title, SHOSHAN^NIM - E'DU TH
(lily, a tent 1)11011 1/), Ps. 80, title, prob-
ably signifies the melody to which the
Psalm was sung. Some have regarded
it as the title of a bridal-song, while
others think it means a musical in-
strument.
SHOUL'DER. Gen. 49 : 15. To
bare the shoulder is significant of ser-
vitude,, and to withdraw it denotes
rebellion. Neh. 9 : 29. To bear upon
the shoulder is to sustain. Isa. 9:6;
22 ■ 22
SHO'VEL. See Fan, Winnow.
SHRINE. See Diana.
SHROUD, in Eze. 31:3, means
" cover," '• shelter."
SHU'A (richer), father-in-law of
Judah. Gen. 38 : 2, 12; 1 Chr. 2 : 3.
SHVAH {n pH). 1. A son of Abra-
ham by Kcturah. Gen. 25 : 2; 1 Chr.
1 : 32. Bildad is called the Shuhite.
Job 2 : 11.
2, A name in 1 Chr. 4:11.
SHU'AL {<i fox), an Asherite. 1 Chr.
7 : 36.
SHU'AL (fox, or jnrhd), THE
LAND OF, a district toward which
one of the three devastating bands of
Philistines went from Miehmash. 1
Sam. 13 : 17. It was prol;ably not far
from Bethel. It is not mentioned else-
where, but there is a wild region cast
of Tdiyiheh containing a ravine named
that of "hya'nas," and it may be id n-
tical with the land of Shalim. 1 Sam.
9:4.
SHU'BAEL [rnpiive of Ood). 1.
In 1 Clir. 24 : 20. See She'bukl, 1.
2. In 1 Chr 25 : 20. See Shkbuki,. 2.
SHU'IIAiVI (perhaps pit-diuu'i). a
{"•m of Dan. Nuui. 26:42; called Hu-
shim in Gen. 46 : 2.'^.
798
SHU'HAMITES, the descendants
of the above.
SHU'HITE. SeeSHUAH, 1.
SHU'LAMITE, the woman from
Shulem ; probably Shunem, and hence
Abishag the Shunammite. Cant. 6 : 13.
SHU'MATHITES, the inhabit-
ants of an unlocated village Shumah. 1
Chr. 2 : 53.
S H U ' N A M M I T E . See Snu-
LAMITE.
SHU'NEM {two resting-places), a
city in the territory of Issachar. Josh.
19 : 18. The Philistines encamped there
before the great battle of Gilboa. 1 Sam.
28 : 4. David's wife, Abishag, was of
Shunem, 1 Kgs. 1 : 3, and it was the
residence of the Shunammite woman who
entertained Elisha. 2 Kgs. 4:8. It an-
swers to the modern Siileni, on the south-
western slope of Little Hermon, about
53 miles north of Jerusalem, 8 Roman
miles from Tabor, and 3^ miles north of
Jezreel. The village is encircled by en-
closed gardens and luxuriant fields of
grain. Poitcr noticed children playing
bareheaded in the grain-fields under the
burning sun, thus illustrating how the
Shunammite's child may have played in
the prophet Elisha's day. The villagers
are rude and hostile. The ])lace is in
full view of the sacred sites on Mount
Carmel ; it has a spring, from which,
doubtless, the Philistine army was sup-
plied with water.
SHU'NI (quiet), a son of Gad. Gen.
46: 16; Num. 26: 15.
SHU'NITES, the descendants of
the above.
SHIJ'PHAM, SHUP'PIJU {ser-
poitx). 1. A Benjamite. Num. 26:39;
1 Chr. 7 : 12.
2. A Levite porter. 1 Chr. 26 : 16.
SHU'PHAMITES, descendants
of Shupham.
SHUR (fort), a place in the wilder-
ness, on the south-west of Palestine, in-
cluding the whole district between the
north-eastern frontier of Kg.vpl and the
land of Canaan. The wilderness is also
spoken of as the "wilderness of Etham."
Num. 33 : 8. We first read of Shur in
the account of Hagar's flight, and this
regi»)n Litei- became the dwelling-place
of the wild Ishmnelites. (Ten.l6:7: 26:
18. Abraham dwelt between Kadcsh
and Shur. (Jen. 20 : 1. It was over
against Egypt, and probably the place
SHU
SHU
was the last Arabian town before enter-
ing Egypt. 1 Sam. 15 : 7 ; 27 : 8. Some
would identify it with Ayiai Miisa, or
'* wells of Moses," 7 or 8 miles from
Suez.
SHU'SHAN (a lihj), a celebrated
city, known to the Greeks as " Su?a,"
in the province of Elam, a part of an-
cient Susiana.
Histori/. — " Shushan the palace," as it
is named in the prophecy of Daniel and
by Neheraiah, is mentioned over twenty
times in the Bible, nineteen of the ref-
erences being in the book of Esther. In
Dan. 8 : 2 it is placed in the province of
Elam. Elam is mentioned as a son of
Shem, and then in connection with Che-
dorlaomer's invasion of Canaan and in
the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and
Ezekiel. The province was probably in-
dependent of Babylon, and perhaps su-
perior to it, but in later times came un-
der the power of Persia. Gen. 10 : 22 ;
14:1; Isa. 21:2; Jer. 49:31: Eze. 32:
24. See Elam. The city of Susa was a
j)lace of great antiquit}'. Its name ap-
pears in the Assyrian inscriptions of As-
sur-bani-pal, the Sardann.palus of the
Greeks, b. c. 650,' who took it, and the
record gives a ground-plaoi of the city.
From the tablets, as deciphered by George
Smith, we take the following : •' I over-
whelmed Elam through its extent. . . .
Their bodies like bows and arrows filled
the vicinity of Shushan. , . . Shushan,
his royal city. I captured." Susa was
possessed by the Babylonians after the
division of the Assyrian empire by Cy-
axares and Xabopolassar. In Belshaz-
zar's last year Daniel was at Shushan in
the palace when he saw the vision. Dan.
8 : 2. By the conquest of Babylon the
Persians under Cyrus came into posses-
sion'of Susa, and Darius Hystaspes and
the Achsemenian princes made it the
capital city. lie founded the grand pal-
ace described in Esth. 1:4, 0. It was
cooler than Babylon, and. having excel-
lent water, Susa was a suitable metrop-
olis of the Persian empire. The kings
made it their residence the chief part of
the year, leaving it only during the sum-
mer for Ecbatana, among the mountains.
After the battle of Arbela, Alexander the
Great found in the city, treasures worth
over twelve millions sterling, and all the
regalia of the great king. His preference
for Babylon caused Stisa to decline, and
it was not again made the capital city.
It was conquered by Antigonus. B. c. 315,
who obtained treasures worth about three
millions and a half sterling. It was
again attacked by Molo, B. c. 221, who
took the town, but did not capture the
citadel. In the conquest of Persia by
the Mohammedans, in A. D. 640, Susa
was captured, fell into decay, and its
site was for a long period unknown.
The region was famed for its fertility,
and the Kerkhah water was so excellent
that it was carried about with the great
king on his journeys. For an illustra-
tion of a palace see Assyria, p. 80.
Present Appearance. — The site of Shu-
shan has been identified with the mod-
ern Shiifih or Siix, between the river Cho-
aspes {Kherkhah) and the Ulai {Enlsems).
These are really two branches of the
same river, which divides about 20
miles above Susa. Hence, Daniel might
be standing on the '* banks of the Ulai "
and also "between Ulai." Dan. 8 : 2, 16.
The site is nearly due east of Babylon
and north of the Persian Gulf. The
ruins cover an area some 3 miles in cir-
cumference, being 6000 feet long from
east to west and 4500 feet wide from
north to south. There are four distinct
and spacious platforms or mounds ; the
western one, of earth, gravel, and sun-
dried bricks, is smallest, but loftiest, be-
ing 119 feet above the river, with steep
sides, having a round space at the top,
and is supposed to have been the site of
the citadel of Susa. South-east of this
is a great platform of 60 acres, the east-
e-n face of it being 3000 feet long. A
third platform, north of the other two,
is a square of 1 000 feet each way. These
three mounds together form a space point-
ing almost due north, 4500 feet long by
3000 feet wide. Remains have been
found belonging to the great palace
built by Darius, the father of Xerxes,
as appears from inscriptions on the ped-
estals, written in three languages. The
central hall was 343 feet long and 244
feet wide, and this was probably used
for the great state ceremonies. The
bases of four of the immense columns
and the position of all the seventy-two
pillars of the original palace have been
discovered. It was in the great palace
and the surrounding buildings that the
principal scenes of the book of Esther
took place. The " King's Gate." where
799
SHU
SID
Mordecai sat, Esth. 2 : 21, was probably
a hall 100 feet square, supported by pil-
lars in the centre, standing 150 feet from
the northern portico. Between these two
was probably the inner court, where Es-
ther appeared before the king. The
royal house and the house of the women
were behind the great hall, toward the
south, or between the great hall and the
citadel, communicating with it by a
bridge over the ravine. The "court of
the garden of the king's palace" was
in front of the eastern or western porch,
and in it Ahasuerus made a feast *' unto
all the people seven days, . . . where
were white, green, and blue hangings,
fastened with cords of fine linen and
purple to silver rings and pillars of
uiarble." Esth. 1 : 5, 6. The feast was
evidently out of doors, in tents ]>ut up
in one of the palace courts. The effect
of such a group of buildings, including
a stately central palace standing high
above the plain, upon an elevated pla-
teau interspersed with trees and shrubs,
must have boen ver^' magnificent. The
tracing out of these ruins in detail has
furnished the most interesting corrobo-
ration of the Scripture history. On the
low ground near the river is a building
believed by the natives to be the tomb
of Daniel.
SHU'SHAN-E'DUTH, Ps. 80,
title, the same with Shoshannim. See
Shoshannim.
SHU'THALHITES, the descend-
ants of Shuthelah. Num. 26 : 35.
SHU'THELAH {nohe of hreah-
i»t/), a son of Ephraim. Num. 26 : 35,
36: 1 Chr. 7:20, 21.
SHUT'TLE, a well-known instru-
ment used by weavers for throwing the
thread of the woof across the warp. Job
7:6. As it moves with great swiftness
from one side to the other, so as scarcely
to be seen in its passage, it is used fig-
uratively to denote the rapid flight of
time.
SI'A, SI'AHA (rnnffregntifni), the
ancestor of some who returned. Ezr. 2 :
44: Neh. 7:47.
SIB'BECAI, SIB'BECHAI
(thicket of Jehoviih), one of David's
mighty men. 2 Sam. 21 : 18 ; 1 Chr. 11 :
29 ; 20 : 4 ; 27 : 11 ; called Mebunnai in
2 Sam. 23 : 27.
SIB'BOI^ETH. See Shibboleth.
SIli^jI'IAII {coulneHH, or fragrnuce),
800
a city east of the Jordan, built or forti-
fied by the Reubenites : called also She-
bam and Shibmah. Josh. 13 : 19 ; Num.
32 : 3, 38. It is not noticed again until
the prophet's lament over Moab. Isa.
16 : 8, 9 ; Jer. 48 : 32. At that time it
was a Moabite town noted for its grapes.
Jerome says it was 500 paces from Hesh-
bon. A trace of the name is found in
the ruins es-Sameh, 4 miles east of Hesh-
bon.
SIB'RAIM {twofold hope), a land-
mark in the northern boundary of Pales-
tine between Damascus and Hamath.
Eze. 47 : 16.
SI'CHEM. Gen. 12 : 6. See She-
CHKM.
SICK'LE. Deut. 16 : 9. We have
preserved in Egyptian monuments the
form of the ancient sickle, which bore
a very close resemblance to our imple-
ment. The scythe was unknown in Bible
times.
SID'DIi»I, THE VALE OF.
The name is variously interpreted.
Fiirst and Stanley render it " the valley
of the open " or "well-cultivated fields;"
Gesenius and Kalisch, as "a valley filled
with rocks and pits" or a "plain cut up
by stony channels ;" Conder renders it
" the valley of cliffs ;" others as " the
valley of gypsum." The place is men-
tioned in Scripture only in connection
with the battle between Chedorlaomer
and the five confederated kings of Sodom
and the adjacent cities. The vale is said
to have been full of slime-pits. Gen. 14 :
3-10. The "slime" means bitumen,
which abounds in the neighborhood of
the Dead Sea, and especially at the
southern extremity. The site of the
vale of Siddim is connected with that of
the destroyed cities of the plain. The
theory has long prevailed that these
cities were at the southern extremity of
• the Dead Sea, and were submerged in it.
j In that event the southern part of the
j Dead Sea, below the Lisan Peninsula, is
taken as their site, and this would cor-
respond with the vale of Siddim; and
; thus it is indicated upon many maps.
Many scholars, however, are now of the
opinion that the cities were not at the
south end of the sea, but ])robably at the
north end, and hence that the vale of
Siddim must be found in that region
! also. The sea is not of recent origin, as
. the theory of the submergence of those
SID
SIL
cities would indicate, but the lake is
only the remains of a larger and more
ancient sea. Dr. Merrill, who favors the
northern sites for the lost cities, de-
scribes a series of singular pits extend-
ing across the Shittim plain, which local
tradition declares are very old and were
used for military purposes. For a more
full treatment of these disputed sites see
Sodom. Salt Sea, and Zoar.
SI'DON. Gen. 10 : 15, 19. See
ZlDON'.
SIDO'NIANS, inhabitants of Sidon.
SIEGE. Deut. 20 : 19. See War.
SIEVE. Isa. 30 : 28. The bolter,
or sieve, which is so necessary «an article
in our day in the preparation of meal
for bread, etc., was in ancient times
made of rushes and papyrus. Ancient
writers say that only the Gauls had
sieves of horsehair. What was left in
the bolter was put into the mill a second
time. Sieves of various degrees of fine-
ness were no doubt used, for the same
authors tell us of four different qualities
of meal.
SIGI'ONOTH. See Shigioxoth.
SIG'NET. Gen. 38 : 10. See Skal.
SIGNS, John 4 : 48, and WON'-
DERS (as they are usually connected),
sometimes denote those proofs or demon-
strations of power and authority which
were furnished by miracles and by other
tokens of the divine presence, as in Acts
2 : 22, and at other times those unusual
appeara-nces which betoken the approach
of a great event, as in Luke 21 : 1 1, 25.
SI'HON {sweephif) rncay), a king of
the Amorites who lost his dominions in
consequence of his refusal to permit the
Hebrews to pass through them on their
way from EgA'pt to Canaan. Sihon him-
self, was slain in battle, his army was
routed, Heshbon, his capital, was taken,
and his country distributed between
Reuben and Gad. Num. 21 : 21-80 ; Deut.
1:4: 2 : 24-32 : Josh. 13 : 15-29.
SI'HOR. Isa. 23 : 3; Jer. 2:18.
See Nile.
SI'HOR-LIll'NAH, the name of
two separate valleys, according to the
Septuagint, Josh. 19 : 26, now called
Shughur and el-Belat, which run into
each other. See Shihor-libnath.
SI'LAS, Acts 16 : 40, contracted
from SILVA'NUS [woody), 2 Cor. 1 :
19, is called one of the-chief of the breth-
ren, Acts 15 : 22, and a faithful b:-other.
51
1 Pet. 5 : 12. He is supposed to have
been a native of Antioch, and a member
of the Christian church there. Acts 15 :
37-41. He was the associate of Paul in
several of his missionary tours, and his
fellow-prisoner at Philippi. Acts 15 :
40 ; 16 : 25, 29 ; 17 : 4, 10, 15. He is
called a prophet, Acts 15 : 32, but what
was the precise nature of this otfice in
the days of the apostles is not clear.
SILK. The only uttdoiibted reference
to silk occurs in Rev. 18 : 12. It is a
question whether the Hebrews knew any-
thing about it, although there are two
passages in which a word so translated
is emploved. Prov. 31 : 22 ; Eze. 16 : 10,
13. The ''silk" of the A. V. is rather
byssus, or fine linen. But in N. T. times
silk was common.
SILj'LiA (« twiij), a place near which
King Joash was slain. 2 Kgs. 12 : 20.
It was evidently in the valley below
Millo.
SILO'AH, THE POOL OF,
properly "the pool of Shelach" — that
is, "the dart." Neh. 3:15. See Siloam.
SILO'AM, OR SHILO'AH [Hcnt),
the name of a pool and of a t^wer.
1. A pool near Jerusalem, referred to
as "the waters of Shiloah that go soft-
ly," and as "the pool of Siioih by the
king's garden." Isa. 8 : fi : Neh. 3 : 15.
It is also called " the [)ool." John 9 : 7-
11. These texts give us no clue to the
location of the pool. Josephus mentions
it as a fountain and says it was at the
mouth of the Tyropoeon valley, and there
is no doubt as to its identity with a pool
now existing at the mouth of this valley,
about 450 yards south of the Haraiii wall
and 60 yards west of the southern pont
of Ophel at Jerusalem. There are really
two pools, of which the smaller may be
properly the pool of Siloam. It is 52
feet long, 18 feet wide, and 19 feet deep.
A flight of steps leads to the bottom, and
the pool has yet a good supply of water,
generally somewhat salt to the taste, per-
haps from the soil through which it per-
colates, and it is. moreover, polluted by
the washerwomen and tanners by whom
it is constantly used. The pool is part-
ly hewn out of the rock, partly buiU with
masonry, and columns extend aloni; the
side walls from top to bottom. The water
is supplied from the Fountain of the Vir-
gin, with which the pool is connected by
a zigzag tunnel, cut in the solid rock,
801
SIL
SIL
1708 feet long. Robinson, Barclay, and
Warren crawled through this passage,
which is 1() feet high at the entrance, and
only KHnches at its narrowest part. The
water runs from the lower end of Siloam,
and loses itself in the gardens of the val-
ley below. There is a second and lower
pool, which lies outside the ancient city
wall and is now nearly filled up, its hot-
tnn being overiirrown with trees. The
Pool of Siloam.
Arabs call it Birhet el-Homrn, or the
" red pond." Warren sup])oses this to
have been the pool dug by King lleze-
kiah, the "king's pool" of Nehemiah
and the Siloam of Josephus. It w.as to
the pool of Siloam that a Levite was sent
with a golden pitcher on "the last day,
that great dnv of the feast" of taber-
nacles. To this Jesus alluded when,
standing in tlie temple, he cried, " If
any man thirst let him come unto me
and drink." John 7 : 37-o9. To this
pool the blind man was sent to wash,
and retuined seeing. John 9:7-11. Its
waters now refresh the gardens be'ow.
making them the greenest spots about
Jerusalem, and abounding in olives, figs,
and pomegranates.
2. The tower of Siloam, which killed
eighteen men in its fall. Luke 13 : 4.
There is nothing in the text to deter-
mine the spot where the tower stood.
The name is jnoscrved in a wretched
802
little village among the tombs on the
east side of the Kedron, and now called
Kefr Silwan. The village is at the foot
of the third height of Olivet, near the
spot where Solomon built the temples to
Chemosh, Ashtoreth, and Milcolm, known
as " the Mount of Corruption."
SILVA'NUS {a-oody). See Silas.
SILi'VER, a well-known precious
metal. The Tarshish whence it was ob-
tained was j.robably in Spain, as silver
is still brought from the same region
which furnished it in the days of Solo-
mon, 1 Kgs. 10 : 22, as well as from
many countries then unknown. That
the value of this metal was recognized
very early in human historv is evident.
Gen. 13 : 2; 44 : 2 ; Job 28 : 1. The
reason probably is that, like gold, it is
often found in a state of purity in the
earth, and therefore easily discovered.
It was used in the construction of the
tabernacle, Ex. 26 : 19, 32, for the fur-
niture of the temple, 1 Chr. 28 : 14-17,
and also for musical instruments, Num.
10 : 2, and for adorning idols. Isa. 40:
19. And that it was abundant in that
day appears from 1 Kgs. 10 : 27.
Silver constituted the chief medium
of trade, though it was not coined, but
used by weight, Gen. 23 : 16, and the
Hebrew word for this metal denoted
money in general, as does the French
word anient. The "pieces of silver"
(thirty of which were given as the price
if innocent blood. Matt. 26 : 15^ 27 : 3)
were ])robably shekels of silver, worth
fifty cents each. The " silverling," Isa.
7 : 23, is supposed to have been of like
value.
In Mai. 3 : 2, 3 there is manifest refer-
ence to the " cupellation " of silver by
means of lead, the process of purifica-
tion employed before the discovery of
quicksilver.
" 'A very beautiful phenomenon, known
as the fulguration of the metal, attends
the removal of the last portions of lead
from the silver. During the earlier
stages of the process the film of oxide
of lead, which is constantly forming over
the melteil mass, is renewed as rapidly
as it is removed: but when the lead has
all been oxi<Hzed. the film of litharge
upon the silver becomes thinner and
thinner as it flows ofi". It then exhibits
a successi<»n of the beautiful iridescent
tints of Newton's rings; and at length
SIL
SIM
the film of oxide suddenly disappears,
and reveals the brilliant surface of the me-
tallic silver beneath.' — Miller's Chemis-
try. The brilliant tints of the film of
oxide in its later stages, and the sudden
flashing forth of the metal in its full
pure glory, form a striking illustration
of the offering of righteousness which the
refining and purifying influence of the
Christian faith produces." — Prof. Dtane.
SIL'VERLING. Isa. 7 :'23. See
Silver.
SIM'EON [a heariiu/). 1. Sop- of
Jacob and Leah. Gen. 29 : 33. Accord-
ing to the prediction of Jacob, Gen. 49 :
5-7, and as a punishment for his offence
in the matter of the Shechemites, Geii.
34 (see Dinah), his posterity dwindled,
comp. Num. 1 : 22, 23 ; 26 : U, and their
inheritance was only a dismembered
portion of the terrritory of Judah. Josh.
19:1.
2. A man of singular piety residing at
Jerusalem. Luke 2 : 25. He had been
favored with a divine intimation that he
should live to see the incarnate Redeem-
er, the Lord's Christ, and, being led by
the Spirit into the temple at the partic-
ular time when the infant Jesiis was
brought thither by his parents, accord-
ing to the requirement of the Law, Ex.
13 : 12 ; 22 : 29, he took him up in his
arms and uttered the most devout thanks-
givings to God, accompanied with a re-
markable prediction respecting the vari-
ous effects of his advent.
3. A man of this name was among the
prophets and teachers of the Chris^tian
church at Antioch. Acts 13 : L Some
have supposed (though without warrant)
that he is the same with Simon the Cy-
renian. Matt. 27 : 32.
i. ''Simeon" is a Hebrew name, and
in Acts 15 : 14 is the same with " Simon."
5. A name in our Lord's genealogy.
Luke 3: 30.
SIxU'EON, THE TERRITORY
OFj the south-western portion of the
Promised Land. The district assigned
to Simeon lay within the inheritance of
Judah, and included eighteen cities in
the South of Palestine around the well
of Beer-sheba. Josh. 19 : 1-9 ; 1 Chr. 4 :
28-33. On its entrance to the Promised
Land, Simeon was the smallest of all the
tribes, having at that time only 22,200
able-bodied men. Num. 26 : 14. At a
later date some of the towns within its
territory were possessed by Judah, as
Hormah and Beer-sheba, while Ziklag
became a Philistine, and then a Judsean,
town. 1 Sam. 27 : 6 ; 30 : 30 ; 1 Kgs. 19 :
3. After the division of the kingdom
the territory of this tribe appears to
have been subject to many changes, as
the population was partly in fellowship
with the northern kingdom, though it
seems to have shared in the reformation
under Asa and Josiah. 2 Chr. 15 : 9 : 34 : 0.
SIM'EONITES, the members of
the tribe of Simeon. Xum. 25 : 14; 26:
14. No eminent person is recorded as
of this tribe save Judith, a heroine of a
story in the Apocrypha, although there
is a Jewish tradition that it furnished
schoolmasters to the other tribes.
SI'MON (o heariiKj). contracted from
SI^i'EON, a native of Samaria, and a
famous sorcerer, who professed to be a
convert to the Christian faith, and was
baptized as such by Philip, but was
severely rebuked by Peter as a hypocrite
because, under the influence of merce-
nary motives, he desired apostolic gifts.
Acts 8 : 9. Hence the buying and selling
of ecclesiastical rights, benefits, or priv-
ileges is called simony — a high oflence
against the purity and integrity of the
Christian faith, and one of which the
seller and buyer are equally guilty.
2. Simon Peter, Matt. 4: 18. See Peter.
3. Simon the Canaanite, Matt. 10 : 4,
or Simon Zelotes (or the zealous), one
of the twelve apostles; was one of the
party called Zealots, hence his name.
The epithet "Canaanite" is properly
•' Kananite," the Chaldee for " zeal,"
and has no reference to locality.
4. The brother of our Lord, Matt. 13 :
55; Mark 6:3; not to be confounded
with the preceding, nor with Symeon,
who succeeded James as bishop of the
church in Jerusalem.
5. A Pharisee. Luke 7 : 36.
6. A leper. Matt. 26 : 6.
7. The father of Judas Iscariot. John
6:71.
8. The man of Cyrene who was com-
pelled to bear our Saviour's cross when
the latter was no longer able. Matt. 27 :
32: Mark 16:21; Luke 23:26; John
19 : 17.
9. The tanner at Joppa with whom
Peter lodged. Acts 9 : 43.
SIM'RI (icatch/id), a Merarite Le-
vite in the time of David. 1 Chr. 26 : 10.
803
SIN
SIN
SI?f, Gen. 4 : 7, is the transgression
of the law of God. 1 John 3 : 4. All
unrighteousness is sin. 1 John 5 : 17.
The word is sometimes used for a sin-
offering, as in Hos. 4:8: Rom. 8:3; 2
Cor. 5 : 21. In the text first cited refer-
ence is had to the eating, either from
greediness or in violation of the Law,
of that which was brought as a sin-
oflfering.
The Bible t-aces the introduction of
sin to the fall of our first parents. There
is none sinless. But sins ditfer in enor-
mity. John distinguishes the '' sin not
unto death " and " the sin unto death."
1 John 5:16. The verse teaches that
a man can drive out God's S[)irit from
his heart and cut himself off from
all intercession. There is also an "un-
pardonable " sin. Matt. 12 : 81 , 32. This
is the result of absolute resistance to
the operation and influence of the Holy
Spirit upon the heart ; it is final im-
penitence, excluding the possibility of
conversion, and hence of forgiveness.
SIN (mire), a city of Northern Egypt,
known to the Greeks as Pelusium. It
was " the strength," or stronghold, " of
Egypt." Eze. 30 : 15, 16. The city was
situated upon the most easterly mouth
of the Nile, only a few miles from the
sea. A Sallier papyrus records a great
battle at Sin between Barneses and the
Sheta, and the reputed wonderful de-
liverance of Sethos from Sennacherib —
when mice gnawed the Assyrian bow-
strings and shields by night, rendering
the arms of the Assyrians useless — took
place near this town. Herodotus re-
ports a statue of Sethos with a mouse
in his hands standing in Vulcan's tem-
ple, probably in commemoration of this
deliverance by mice. Ezekiel's proph-
ecy, " Sin shall have great y)ain," was
fulfilled by the great cruelty inflicted
upon the Egyptians by Cambyses, who
conquered thc-m near this city. The
site of Sin, or Pelusium, may be marked
by some mounds at el-Farma, though
some suppose it is at Ahon Kh^oyar, west
of the old Pelusiac branch of the Nile.
SIN, WILDERNESS OF, a
region between Elim and Rephidim.
Ex. 16 : 1 ; 17 : 1; Num. 33 : 11, 12.
Here the Israelites were first fed with
manna and quails. The wilderness ex-
tends 2.T miles along the east shore of
the Red Sea, from Wddy Taiyibeh to
804
Wddi/ Feiran ; it is now called the
plain of el-Markha. It is barren, but
has a little vegetation, and when the rain-
fall was larger and the drainage from
the mountain descended more gradually,
instead of sweeping everything before it
as now. it may have afforded fair pastur-
age. Travellers report seeing numer-
ous quails upon this plain in modern
times.
SI'NA, the Greek form of "Sinai."
Acts 7 : 30, 38.
SI'NAI (buniiiig bush?), a name of
a peninsula and of a mountain, or group
of mountains.
1. The peninsula of Sinai is a tri-
angular region lying between the two
arms of the Red Sea. On the west it
extends along the Gulf of Suez for
about 190 miles, and on the east along
the Gulf of Akabah about 130 miles,
while the base of the triangle, on a line
from Suez to the nortli end of Akabah,
is l.oO miles long. It includes an area
of about 11,500 square miles, or a little
less than that of Massachusetts and
Connecticut.
Physical Feninres. — This district con-
sists largely of sterile ranges of moun-
tains, furrowed by v:udies, or valleys
with watercourses, which are scantily
filled only after a rain. Projecting into
it wedgewise from the north is the desert
of Tih, or " wilderness of wandering,"
of limestone formation. South of the
hills of the Tih ])lateau is a broad belt
of sandstone, extending nearly from
Suez to Akabah. South of this is a
great cluster of granite mountains, in
such a rugged, tumbled chaos as scarce-
ly to admit of classification, the highest
peaks reaching to an elevation of be-
tween 8000 and 9000 feet. Between
the mountains are deeply-cut valleys,
through which a large company might
march into the very heart of the moun-
tain-region. The mountain-ranges ex-
tend down the east side of Suez and
down the west side of Akabah, the two
ranges meeting in an angle at the
southern portion of the jieninsula. where
the mountains are the most precipitous
and elevated, and where they often as-
sume fantastic shapes and take on gor-
geous colors. This huge range is com-
posed of gneiss and granite, or, more
exactly, of colorless quartz, felspar,
green hornblende, and black slate, with
SIN
SIN
considerable outcropping of limestone.
It is rich in mineral wealth of iron,
copper, and turquoise, so that the
Egyptians called it the " land of copper."
Mines were once extensively worked in
this region by the ancient Egyptians
and others, but they have been long
neglected. The most important were
probably the mines of Maghara, siter-
ated on the slope of a precipitous
mountain, about 145 feet from the
bottom of the valley. The opening is
broad but low, and the shaft pene-
trates the rock to a considerable depth,
numerous pillars having been left to
support the roof. From these a tur-
quoise of a beautiful green color was
taken, and copper was found together
with a species of malachite. The miners
were condemned criminals and prison-
ers of war. See a striking account of
this mining in Ebers' Uarda.
HiHtorij. — This region was known and
settled nearly as early as Egypt itself.
The first Pharaoh, having conquered the
mountain-tribes, claimed to have dis-
covered the mines. The region was
dependent on the Pharaohs until the
time of the Hyksos kings ; after their
expulsion the region was again sub-
dued by Egypt, but possesses its chief
interest from the journej' of the Israel-
ites, who wandered in it for forty years
previous, to their entrance into Canaan.
Christianity was planted here very early,
perhaps by Paul ; the peninsula was an-
nexed to the Roman empire, A. D. 105.
In the fourth century it was peopled by
anchorites and various brotherlioods of
hermits and monks, their principjil
settlement being on Mount Serbal and
in the Wddy Feiran. They suffered
terrible massacres from the Saracens,
A. D, 373 to A. D. 411, In the reign of
Justinian a church of the Virgin was
founded on Mount Sinai. Later, the Mo-
hammedans overran the peninsula, and
its lonely valleys have been, and are still,
traversed by hosts of Mecca pilgrims.
Numerous inscri[)tions have been
found in several of the valleys of the
peninsula, but chiefly in the Wddj/ Mn-
hiitteh, or the " written '' valley. Ebers
counted more than a hunilred inscrip-
tions, chiefly in groups, occurring
quite frequently in a few hours' trav-
el. Most of them are on the western
side of the vallevs. They were once
806
regarded as very mysterious, some sup-
posing them to have been made by the
Israelites. The inscriptions are mostly
in the Nabataean character, but some
are in Greek, and a few in Coptic and
Arabic. They are roughly engraved on
the rock, which was seldom smoothed
for the purpose, and the little figures
are often extremely rude and inartistic.
They represent armed men, travellers
and warriors, camels, horses with and
without riders, goats, stars, crosses, and
ships ; a priest with raised arms and an
equestrian performer are also among the
figures worthy of notice. They are now
believed to be not older than the second
century before Christ, while some are
not older than the fourth century of
the Christian era.
Among the highest summits in the
peninsula are Jeiel (the Arabic word
for "mount") Serbal, 6734 feet; Jebel
Musa, 7363 feet; Jebel Umm Shomer,
8449 feet; Jebel Katharina, 8536 feet;
Jebel Zebir, 8551 feet.
2. *' Sinai " is also used to designate
the range of mountains from which the
Israelites received the Law. The at-
tempt to decide which of the numerous
peaks in this extended range is the true
Mount of the Law has been a source of
protractcl and animated discussion. In
tletermining its iilentity with any exist-
ing peak several conditions must be
met: (1) The mountain must have be-
fore it an open space within sight of
the summit, Ex. 19 : 11 ; 20 : 18, large
enough to contain at least two millions
of people ; (2) It must rise sharply from
the plain, since the people "came near
and stood under the mountain," Deut.
4 : 11 ; it " might be touclieil," Heb. 12:
18; and Moses was commanded to "set
bounds . . . round about," Ex. 19 : 12 ;
(3) As the Israelites remained in the
neighborhood for a year, they must have
found a sufficient supply of water and
pasturage.
At least five mountains have been at
different times identified with the Mount
of the Law, but two of these, Jebal el-
Ejnieh and .JvAxtl Vnim Alaioi, do not at
ail fulfil the conditions, and must be set
aside. Joscphus says that Mount Sinai
was the highest of the district, and this
led to its identification with Jrlicl Kuth-
fin'iia (8536 feet high), and its twin peak
Jebel Zebir (8551 fect). But the moun-
SIN
SIN
tains surrounding these summits so hem
them in that they are not visible from
any place in the neighborhood where a
large number of people could be assem-
bled. The question was thus narrowed
down to Jehel Serbal, Jebel Miisa, and
Mas Sii/sd/eh.
Jebel Serbal is described by Wilson
(Bible Educator, iv. p. 186) as "perhaps
the most striking mountain in the penin-
sula. It rises abruptly to a height of
more than 4000 feet above the valley at
its base [6734 feet above the sea-level],
and its summit, a sharp ridge about 3
Outline Map of ^Mount Siuai. {After the Ordnance Survey.)
miles in length, is b oken into a series ' in such a confusion. Nor is there any
of peaks, varying little in altitude, but place in the neighborhood for the en-
rivalling each other in the beautv and i campment of a large host. Holland
grandeur of their outline." There are | [Recovery of JermnJem,\). 4:10) describes
'' some ten or twelve peaks, which vary ] the valleys at its base as "a wilderness
so little in altitude that when seen from of boulders and torrent-beds," and the
lower ground or from a distance the eye ' space between the valleys as "a chaos
fails to distinguish the highest." Evi- of rugged mountains."
dentlv the true Sinai is not to be sought The members of the Ordnance Survey
807
SIN
SIN
unanimoasly reached the conclusion that
the renl Sinai was to be found in Jehel
Musa, including its peak Una Sitfudfeh,
which is situated a little north-west of
the centre of the Sinnitic group, and
some 20 miles east by south of Jebel
Serbitl.
" Jebel Musa" is the general name
.applied to a mountain -mass, 2 miles long
and 1 mile broad, which extends north-
east and south-west. At its southern
extremity is a peak 7363 feet in height,
to which the name of '•'Jebel Musa"
("Mount of Moses") has been for ages
applied. This is the truditiuual mount
of legislation.
Has Si(fm/ch, which was formerly
thought to be a separate mountain, is
now known to be only a northern peak
of this mass of Jebel Mnsa, This north-
ern peak, ()'j;>7 feet in height, is now re-
garded as the place of the actual giving
of the Law. To avoid confusion arising
from this double use of the name "Jebel
Musa," Wilson suggests " Musa-Sufsa-
feh " for the whole mountain, thus limit-
ing the name of " Je')el Musa" to the
southern peak. Many writers — Hitter,
the great German geographer, among
them — supposed that this southern peak
was the scene of the giving of the Law,
and that there was to the south of it a
plain of great extent ; but Dean Stanley
describes the valley as " rough, uneven,
and narrow," and the surveyors found
no plain which would accommodate the
hosts of Israel.
At the northern end of the mountain,
however, all the conditions are met in
the peak of lids Sufsd/eh.
This whole block is isolated from the
surrounding mountains by deep valleys,
so that boundaries might have been set
completely around it. Ex. 19 : 12, 23.
To the north of Ran Su/sufeh, and ex-
tending to its very base is the plain of
I'Jr Rdltnh, 2 miles long and half a mile
wide, embracing 400 acres of available
standing-ground, directly in front of the
mountain. The plain, with its branches,
contains 4,293,000 square yards, in full
view of the mount, affording more than
sufficient standing-ground for the two
millions of the Israelites. Here they
might stand "at the nether part of the
mount," Ex. 19: 17, which rises so
abru]>tiy from the plain as to answer the
description of " the mount that might
808
be touched." Heb. 12 : 18. This fulfils
all the conditions of the Scripture nar-
rative; and the conclusion is that this
stately, awful-looking, isolated mass
Rns Safsdfeh is the very mountain
where "the Lord came down upon
Mount Sinai, on the top of .the mount,"
Ex. 19 : 20, and where " God spake all
these words" of the ten comma ndmenis.
Ex. 20 : 1-17. The southern summit
{Jebel Mnsa) is completely hidden from
the plain, and Palmer suggests that it
may have been to this secluded spot
Moses went when the Lord called him
up to the top of the mount. Ex. 19 : 20.
There, too, perhaps, he was " with the
Lord forty days and forty nights." Ex.
34 : 28. Near the base of Ran Snfsd/eh
is the Harun, or " hill of the golden
calf." On the eastern declivity is the
convent of St. Katharine, founded by
the emperor Justinian in A, D. 627,
where Tischendorf discovered the famous
Codex SinaiticHi, one of the oldest and
best manuscripts of the N. T. in exist-
ence. Four running streams are found
in the vicinity, and there is no other spot
in the whole peninsula which is nearly
as well supplied with water as the
neighborhooil of ^febel Mn8n. Besides,
there is no other district in the penin-
sula which affords such excellent pas-
turage as the neighborhood of Jebel
Musa. We add the testimony of modern
travellers. Dr. Robinson, on his visit in
1838, first ascended Ran Snfsdfeh, and
pointed it out as the true locality of leg-
islation. In his account he says ( liil)-
lival Res. I. 107): "The extreme diffi-
culty, and even danger, of the ascent was
well rewarded by the prospect that now
opened before us. The whole plain Er
Rdhah lay spread beneath our feet, with
the adjacent »'af///v and mountains; while
Wddjf enh-SheIkh on the right, and the
recess on the left, both connected with
and opening broadly from Er Rdhah,
presented an area, which serves nearly to
double that of the plain. Our convic-
tion was strengthened that here, or on
some of the adjacent clifTs, was the spot
where the Lord ' descended in fire' and
proclaimed the Law. Here lay the plain
where the whole congregation might be
assembled ; here was the mount that
could be apjiroached and touched, if not
forbidden : and here the mountain-brow
where alone the lightnings and the thick
SIN
SIP
cloud would be visible, and the thunders
and the voice of the trump be heard
when the Lord 'came down in the sight
of all the people upon Mount Sinai.'
We gave ourselves up to the impressions
of the awful scene, and read, with a feel-
ing that will never be forgotten, the sub-
lime account of the transaction, and the
commandments there promulgated, in the
original words as recorded by the great
Hebrew legislator. Ex.19 : 9-25 ; 20 : I-
21." Dr. Schaff, who visited Mount
Sinai in 1877, gives the following de-
scription ( Throuijh Bible L(tnd>i, p. 177) :
"Then we climb with difficulty, and some
danger, over granite blocks to the giddy
height of R((8 Sufsd/eh. Here, on a pro-
jecting rock, we rest an hour, looking
down on the vast plain of Er Rdhah and
the adjoining icddys of eih-SJiei/ch and
Ijejah, and looking beyond to the am-
phitheatre of mountains whic!i wall them
in and meditating over the past, which
here assumes the character of a present
overpowering reality, we are lost in
amazement at the panorama of terrible
sublimity of nature, and the immeasur-
able significance of that historic event
which is felt to this day all over the
world as far as the ten commandments
are known and read. It is difficult to
imagine a more solemn and impressive
sight. We then descend a steep ravine
(imagining that we follow the track of
Moses, Ex. 32 : 17, 10), over confused
heaps of rocks, to the valley Er Rdhuh,
and return to our camp near the convent.
It was the most fatiguing, as well as the
most interesting, day's work of moun-
tain-climbing I can remember. I fully
satisfied my mind that Ran Sufudfeh is
the platform from which the Law was
proclaimed. Here all the conditions re-
quired by the Scripture narrative are
combined. Moses may have received
the Law on the higher Jp/iel Munn, but
it must have been proclaimed to the peo-
ple from Rns Su/ndfeh, which can be seen
from every part of the plain below. For
Er Jidhah is a smooth and gigantic camp-
ing-ground, protected by surrounding
mountains, and contains, as has been as-
certained by actual measurement, two
millions of square yards; so that the
whole people of Israel could find ample
room and plainly see and hear the man
of God on the rocky pulpit above. Dean
Stanley relates that 'from the highest
point of Rns Sufudfeh to its lower peak,
a distance of about 60 feet, the page of
a book, distinctly but not loudly read,
was perfectly audible, and every remark
of the various groups of travellers rose
clearly to those immediately above them.'
Descending from that mount through a
ravine between two peaks, Moses and
Joshua might have first heai'd the shouts
of the people before the}' saw them dan-
cing round the golden calf. Ex. 32 : 17,
19. In one word, there is the most com-
plete adaptation of this locality to all
the circumstances of the Sinaitic legis-
lation as described by Moses. Tradition
is for Jehel Musa, the Bible for Jins Snf-
sdfeh. But, after all, they form but one
mountain (as do the five peaks of Si^ibal),
and tradition in this case is at least very
near the truth. '
SINCER'ITY stands opposed to
dissimulation or hypocrisy, and implies
the entire correspondence of the heart
with the expressidns of the lips. 2 Cor.
1:12. The original word refers to the
bright and penetrating light of the sun,
and denotes such things as, on being ex-
amined by the brightest light, are found
pure and unadulterated.
SI'NIM. This geographical term
occurs only once in the Bible, in Isa.
49 : 12. The country meant is generally
considered to be China, though some
would leave it an open question.
SIN'ITE, a tribe descended from
Canaan. Gen. 10 : 1 7 ; 1 Chr. 1:15.
SIN-MONEY, money sent by per-
sons at a distance, with which to buy the
required offerings, 2 Kgs. 12 ; 16; and,
as there was usually some surplus, it
was the perquisite of the priest, and was
called "sin-money." or " sin-ofFering
monev." Num. 18 : 9.
SIN-OF'FERINGS. Num. 18 : 9.
See Offering.
SI'ON ilnftij), the name of two
mountains in Palestine.
1. One of the various names of Mount
Hermon. Deut. 4 : 48: See HEUiroN.
2. The Greek form of the Hebrew
name " Zion." Matt. 21 : 5j John 12 :
15. See Zro\.
SIPH'MOTH (fnut/nl places), a
place in the South of Judah frequented
by David when an outlaw. 1 Sam. 30 :
28.
SIP'PAI {thre>^hoh1 ?), a Philistine
giant, 1 Chr. 20 : 4 ; called also Saph.
809
SIR
SLA
SI'RAH, THE WELL OF (re-
treat), the })lace from which Abner was
recalled by Joab, who put him to death
at Hebron. 2 Sam. 3 : 26. It is now
called 'Ain Surah, a spring about 1 mile
from Hebron, and a little to one side of
the main road.
SIR'ION {breastplate ?), a Zidonian
name of Mount Hermon. Deut. 3 : U ;
Ps. 29 : 6. Perhaps this name was ap-
plied to a part of Hermon only.
SISAM'AI {distimfHisheiU), a de-
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 40.
SIS'ERA (battle-array). 1. The
general of Jabin's army. Jud. 4 : 2.
See Barak, Deborah, Jakl.
2. The ancestor of some who returned
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 53 ; Neh. 7 : 55.
SIS'TER'S SON. In Col. 4:10
the term should be "cousin." In bib-
lical usage, this word is not limited to
our sense, but, like *' mother," '' father,"
"son;" "daughter," has a far wider ap-
plication. Thus, in 2 Sara. 13 : 2, it
means a step- or half-sister, in Matt. 13 :
56 a cousin, and in Rom. 16 : 1 merely a
fellow-believer.
SIT'NAH {strife), the name of the
second of two wells dug bj' Isaac in the
valley of Gerar, and for which the herd-
men disputed. Gen. 26:21. It is be-
tween liehoboth and Beer-sheba, in a
small valley called Shutuet er-Rnheibeh,
names in which are doubtless preserved
both the Sitnah and Rehoboth of the
Scripture.
SI' VAN. Esth. 8 : 9. See Month.
SKINS. Heb. 11 : 87. See Clothisg.
SLAVE, SLAVERY. Slavery is
contrary to the constitution and destina-
tion of man and to the spirit of the Bible,
which begins and ends with freedom, and
represents man as made in the image of
God, and places him, as lord, at the head
of the whole creation. (Jod gave A<lam
an equal and only partner in Eve. Slav-
ery, like polygamy and war, was the con-
sequence of sin, and spread with sin
among all ancient nations. The Bible
tolerates, regulates, moderates, and re-
strains this abnormal institution, but
provides also for its ultimate extinction.
'•The manner in wliicli (!hrist and the
apostles dealt with an institution so
universally previtlent in its worst f(»rms,
and so intimately interwoven with the
whole public and private life in the
Roman empire, is a strong proof of their
810
divine wisdom. Christianity accomplish-
ed what no other religion has even at-
tempted before or since. Without inter-
fering with slavery as a political and
economical question, without encourag-
ing any revolution or agitation, without
denouncing the character or denying the
rights of the slave-holder or creating
discontent among the slaves, without
disturbing the peace of a single family,
without any appeal to the passions and.
prejudices of men on the evils and abuses
of slavery, without requiring, or even
suggesting, immediate emancipation, in
one word, without changing the outward
and legal relation between the two par-
ties, but solemnly enforcing the rights
and duties arising from it to both, —
Christ and the apostles, nevertheless,
from within, by purely spiritual and
peaceful means, by teaching the com-
mon origin and common redemption, the
true dignit}', equality, and destiny of
men, by inculcating the principles of
universal justice and love, and by rais-
ing the most degraded and unfortunate
classes of society to virtue and purity,
and to spiritual freedom in Christ, pro-
duced a radical moral reformation of the
system, and prepared the only effectual
way for its gradual, legitimate, and harm-
less extinction." — Schaff : Slavery and
the Bible (1861).
A. Hkbiiew Slavery. — There were
only two conditions known among the
Jews — independence and servitude.
Whenever a man was too poor or
otherwise unable to be independent,
he became a slave. Slaves, among
the Hebrews, were of two general
classes: 1. Hebrews; 2. Non-Hebrews.
1. Hebreins. — There were three ways
whereby liberty could be taken from a
Hebrew: (I) Poverty. Hemight sell him-
self in default of payment of debt. Lev.
26 : 39. (2) Theft, when he could not pay
the amount required. Ex. 22: 1, 3. Ac-
cording to Josephus, he could only be
sold t) a Hebrew. (3) Parents could sell
their daughters as maid-servants, but
they we.e ultimately to be their masters'
concubines. Ex. 21 : 7. There were three
ways by whii-h the servitude might end :
(I) When the debt or other obligation
was met : (2) When the year of Jubilee
had come, Lev. 25 : 40 ; (3) At the con-
clusion of six years of service. Ex. 21:
2 ; Deut. 15 : 12. Indeed, no servitude
SLA
SMY
could last longer than six years. In
case, however, the slave did not wish to
go at the expiration of the time, either
because he loved his master or his wife
— presumabl}' a foreigner — and children,
who must be left behind, as they were the
master's property, the master announced
this fact to the judges, and then bored
his ear through with an awl. Ex. 21 : 6 ;
Deut. 15 : 17. That this was done speaks
volumes for the mildness of Hebrew slav-
ery. Indeed, the Law made the condi-
tion of a slave very tolerable. The owner
was expressly forbidden to " rule over
him with rigor." Lev. 25 : 43. Xor was
he suflFered to go away empty, but must
be furnished liberally out of the flock,
out of the floor, and out of the wine-press.
Deut. 15 : 14r. A slave might even marry
a daughter of his master. 1 Chr. 2 : 35.
In the case of a female Hebrew slave,
there was not the release at the end of
six years ; but if marriage with the
owner or his son did not take place, she
was not to be sold to a foreigner, but " he
shall cause her to be redeemed" — i.e.,
he should return her to her father or find
her another Hebrew master, or else free
her absolutely. Ex. 21:7-11. When
Hebrews became the slaves of non-He-
brews, they might be redeemed or re-
deem themselves, or else go free at the
year of jubilee. Jewish Hebrew sla-
very terminated at the Captivity.
2. No)i-Hehrews. — These constituted the
majority of the slaves among the He-
brews. They were mostly captives made
in war from the neighboring tribes, but
besides were purchased of dealers, Lev.
25 : 45, foreigners reduced to this con-
dition, or else the children of such slaves.
Gen. 14 : 14: Eccl. 2 : 7. This sort of
slavery survived the Captivity, but was
oppos'ed by the Pharisees. Thirty shek-
els seems to have been the average price
of a slave. Ex. 21 : 32. The slaves' lot
was comparatively happy. Their per-
sons were protected against violence ; for
if they lost an eye or a tooth from rough
handling, they got their liberty. Ex. 21 :
26, 27. To kill one was murder. Lev.
24:17,22. They had full religious
privileges, since they were circumcised.
Gen. 17:12.
Slavery at best is bondage, and hence
we find the service of these slaves was
menial. They ploughed the fields, did
the housework, ground the corn, took
off" and put on their master's sandals,
washed his feet, and performed all the
services expected of those in their con-
dition. But slaves, by their industry
and ability, could raise themselves to
positions of trust, becoming stewards,
as was Eliezer, Gen. 15 : 2, or independ-
ent freemen, as was Ziba. 2 Sam. 9 : 2,
10.
B. Ro>fAN Slavery. — The Gospel of
Jesus Christ, declaring freedom from
the slavery of sin, was preached unto
them who were literally bound. The
early Christian Church was largely com-
posed of slaves, and around them were
thrown none of the protections which
rendered a Hebrew slave so safe. On
the contrary-, the Roman master regard-
ed his slaves as his absolute property.
He might treat them kindly — and doubt-
less many did — but no law compelled him
to do so. The Roman proverb. '" So many
slaves, so many foes," tells a pitiful story
of wrong. This was the sort of slavery
mentioned incidentally in the N. T. It
is remarkable that nothing is said about
its abolishment. On the contrary, the
slaves were enjoined to be obedient to
their masters, and to prove their Chris-
tian character by their patience under
suff"ering.
The Bible lias furnished the defenders
of slavery with proof-texts, but yi t the
study of the Bible has led to the abolish-
ment of the system. The Mosaic legis-
lation on the subject induced such mild-
ness that the very idea could not be tol-
erated, and so, in Christ's day, Hebrew
slavery of both kinds was utterlj' extir-
pated. The N. T. directions had a sim-
ilar result. A Christian could not hold
souls in bondage for whom the blood of
Christ was shed. And so slavery ended
in the empire among Christians. To-
day it is acknowledged throughout Chris-
tendom as a crime: while Mohammedan-
ism holds fast to slavery and polygamy
— the two twin-sisters of barbarism. The
liberty in Christ Jesus extends to the body
as well as to the soul. The gospel, in
emancipating from the bondage of sin,
breaks the backbone of every other kind
of bondage, and substitutes for it the ser-
vice of God, which is perfect freedom.
SLIME. Gen. 11 : 3. See Pitch.
SLING. See Arms.
SxlIYR'NA (u'j,nh), a city of Asia
Minor named in Scripture as containing
811
SMY
SMY
one of the seven churches of Asia. Hev.
1 : U; 2:8-11.
Sifiintion, — Smyrna is on the ^gean
Sea, at the bottom of the Ilermajan GuM',
the entrance to which is opposite the
island of Mitylcne. The modern town
is situated 2^ miles from the ancient one
of the same name, partly upon the slopes
of Mount Pagus, and partl}^ on the low
ground at its foot. Tue city was about
40 miles north of Ephesus.
History. — Some piratical Greeks built
a fortification on Mount Pagus about
B. c. 1500 ; Theseus built a city and call-
ed it Smyrna, after his wife, B. c. 1312.
It was on the border-line between Ionia
and ^olia, and was possessed by both
parties alternately in the times of the
Trojan war. The king of Sardis de-
stroyed it, B. c. 628 ; Alexander the Great
built a new city, B. c. 320, From this
time Smyrna became an important com-
mercial place. It was subject to the
Romans and was famous for its beauty,
Antigonus calling it " the beautiful."
Christianity was early planted there,
and the church is commended in the
Revelation of John. Polycarp, a pu])il
of St. John, suffered martyrdoiu at
Smyrna, a. d. loo, in extreme old age,
perhaps illustrating the prophecy, ''Be-
hold, the devil shall cast Home of you
into prison, that ye maj^ be tried; and
ye shall have tribulation ten days : be
thou faithful unto death, and I will give
thee a crown of life." Rev. 2:10. His
grave, with a plain monument, is shown
on a hill. The city sent a bishop to
the Council of Niee, A. D. 325 ; it was
captured by the Turks, A. d. 1313, and
is still in their possession. It has
several times suffered from fires and
earthquakes.
Present Condition. — The modern city
of Smyrna has a population of about
180,000 to 190,000, of which not a fourth
are Turks. There are many Europeans,
and several Greek, Roman Catholic, and
Protestant churches are sustained. Prof.
A. H. Sayce, of Oxford, England, speaks
of the new quay of the city, in 1880, as a
busy centre of trade, and when its cafes
are lighted up at night the traveller may
imagine himself in fairy-land. '' The en-
chantment is rudely dispelled if wecturn
down one of the narrow alleys which
lead into the back streets of the town.
Dark, dirty, and noisome, full of uptorn
812 •
stones and deep holes into which the un-
wary passenger may fall at any moment,
they produce an impression of cheerless
insecurity. And the impression is not
diminished by the sight of the few way-
farers that timidly and hurriedly pick
their way through them. Each man is
armed to the teeth, and seldom walks
through the streets at night except in
com])any with two or three friends. In
fact, Smyrna, with all its trade, its wealth,
and its prosperity, is an eminently unsafe
place. Police, in the true sense of the
word, there are none, and the number of
desperadoes that crowd to it from all
parts of the Levant makes midnight
wanderings extremely dangerous. Dur-
ing the day it is possible to pass from
the quay to the principal street, which
runs parallel with it, through a number
of passages and arcades. The gates of
the<e, however, are closed at nightfall,
and the courts and houses within them
made secure from the intruder. Even
during the day, except on the quay,
walking in Smyrna is not an agreeable
pastime. The streets are so wretchedly
paved — or, rather, unpaved — that it is
as fatiguing to walk through them as
over a bed of granite boulders. . . . The
shops of Smyrna, however, are good and
numerous : and if we wander on to the
bazaar in the Turkish quarter, we may
purchase in abundance Turkey carpets
and Persian rugs at higher prices than wo
should have to give for them at home, or
antiquities of all kinds, especially coins,
which are mostly local forgeries."
Concerning the people Prof. Sayce
adds: "Creeds and nationalities of all
kinds jostle one against the other at
every turn. There is the stately Turk,
in baggy trousers, scarlet waistband,
and blue jacket, his head covered with
a fez, or, if he claim descent from the
prophet, with a green turban ; the con-
sular kavass, strutting along in the
proud consciousness of self-importance,
his yataghan clashing behind him ; the
Egyjitian, in a long gown of colored
silk ; the Arab, in cotton robe and white
head-dress; the Armenian, with keen
eye and dark visage : or the multitudi-
nous swarm of P]uropcans, of every
country and race, among whom the
Greek naturally predominates. Pres-
ently there is a pressure of the crowd
toward one side of the road as a long
SMY
SMY
train of camels, tied to one another by
a rope and led by a donkey, comes sol-
emnly along, their heads bent stupidly
down and their backs laden with the
wares of the East."
Ruinao/theGity. — A graphic description
of theiuteresting ancient ruins of Smyrna
is given by Prof. Sayce in The New York
Independent, 1880, which we condense:
" At the foot of Mount Pagus are the
remains of the seats of the Greek the-
atre, though their place has been taken
by Jewish graves, and the marble blocks
which once clothed them have been con-
verted into Jewish tombstones. The
whole side of the hill, in fact, has be-
come a vast Jewish cemetery. The an-
cient temple of Zeus and a ruined watch-
tower are also found on the side of the
hill, and extensive fortifications crown
the top of Pagus. Court after court of
ruined masonry, crumbling towers, and
broken walls are seen along the ridge.
Here we come across a huge vaulted
chamber of Roman brickwork, there
solid walls of Macedonian construction,
there again the irregular building of the
Middle Ages. In one spot is a ruined
mosque, once a Christian temple, in
which, according to the legend. Poly-
carp preached. Below flows the thin
and narrow stream of the Meles, span-
ne 1 by two aqueducts, one of Roman, the
other of Turkish, workmanship.
" Perhaps even more famous among
guides and tourists than the fortifica-
tions with which the mount is crowned
are the beds of oyster-shells which are
passed on the way back into the town.
Speculations have been various about
them, but a morning's examination was
sufficient to reveal their origin. Plenti-
fully mixed with the shells I found frag-
ments of Macedonian and Roman pot-
tery and the bones of animals. These
beds, therefore, are the kitchi-n-niidden^,
or refuse-heaps, belonging to the houses
of wealthy Greeks and Romans which
once occupied the slope of the hill. The
oyster-shells are the remains of banquets
enjoyed, it may be, two thousand years
ago."
Such is Smyrna, the home of that lit-
tle band of Christians to whom the wri-
ter of the Apocalypse promises a crown
of life in spite of tribulation and pov-
erty. The city was not more than four
hundred years old when St. John the
814
lUyine saw his vision in Patmos. I*
had been built by Lysimachus, the gen-
eral of Alexander the Great, of whom
the Macedonian wall on Mount Pagus is
a lasting memorial. Of the other struc-
tures which adorned the Greek city — the
temples of Cybele and Nemesis, the town-
hall, the public library and public hos-
pital, the Homerium, or monument of
Homer — not a vestige remains.
As already noted, the city was once de-
stroyed and rebuilt. The more ancient
ruined town is thus described :
" There was an older city than the
Smyrna of the Apocalypse. It was the
quick eye of Alexander the Great that
chose the present site. For four hun-
dred years previously no Smyrna had
existed. The ancient city had been de-
stroj'ed by the Lydians, and its inhabit-
ants scattered through the villages of
the plain. That ancient city stood on
the steep hill which forms part of the
range of Sipylus and rises above Burna-
bat, on the northern side of the bay. It
was discovered b}' the French explorer
Texier, who imagined he had found in
it the relics of the half-fabulous Tantalus.
Here he uncovered some remarkable
tombs, built of Cyclopean masonry and
hidden under vast cairns of unshaped
stones. The largest of these, erected on
one of the points of the hill, he surnam-
ed the Tomb of Tantalus. It is built of
large stones, beautifully cut and fitted
together without cement, in the shape of
an arched corridor, the arch being form-
ed by the gradual overlapping of the
successive layers of stones. Still higher,
through the prickly shrubs and dry grass,
is the ancient Acropolis, surrounded by
a wall of Cyclopean workmanship, and en-
tered by a gateway whose lintel and posts
are single blocks of stone. Below, on
the western side, are the foundations of
a temple, probably that of the great
Asiafic goddess Cybele. From time to
time new tombs are found on this steep
and rocky site. Sometimes they are cut
in the rock, like rectangular couche> ;
sometimes they consist of terra-cotta
sarcophagi, into which the bodies of the
dead have been made exactly to fit.
Some tombs of the latter kind were dis-
covered lately, and in them several ar-
chaic ornaments of gohl which take us
back to an early period in the history
of Greek art. ... It was this primeval
SNA
SOA
city which was besieged in vain by
Gyges, the founder of the last Lydian
dynasty, the Gog of the 0. T., and its
origin was traced back to the Amazons
— the mythical companions of the Asiat-
ic goddess. I believe that the legends
of the Amazons in Asia Minor mark the
presence of Hittite conquest and culture
and the worship of the Assyrian goddess
of love and war which the Hittites brought
with them from their capital, Carche-
mish. If so, we may see in Old Smyrna
an ancientHittite outpost, or, atallcvents,
a city which owed its origin to the civiliza-
tion carried, in a remote epoch, by Hittite
chieftains from the banks of theEuphrates
to the far West."
SNAILi. The word thus rendered in
Lev. 11 : 30 may denote some species of
Snnil.
lizard — perhnps the sand-lizard, which
is found in the desert of Sinai and in
many parts of Palestine. These crea-
tures are eaten by the Arabs, but are
esteemed unclean by the Jews.
In Ps. 58 : 8 the common snail or the
slug is doubtless meant. The former is
eaten by the Jews, as by most Orientals.
These creatures, of many species, ex-
ceedingly abound in Bible lands. Snails
xeem to waste themselves by covering
their path with a thick shining slime.
Though they secrete themselves in crev-
ices of the rocks, yet during the long,
dry summer multitudes of them perish
from the heat, being utterly shrivelled
and wasted away in their shells. The
melting away spoken of in Psalms is
doubtless to be taken in one or the
other of these senses.
SNOW, vapor congealed in the ai-,
and often falling in large, broad flakes proportion of potash from their
815
resembling wool. 2 Sam. 23 : 20 ; Ps. 147 :
16. The allusions to snow in the sacred
writings, especially to its whiteness, are
frequent. Ex. 4:6: Num. 12 : 1 0 ; 2 Kgs.
5 : 27 ; Ps. 51 : 7 ; Isa. 1:18. The com-
parison in Prov. 25 : 13 has reference to
the use of snow brought from the moun-
tains to cool the drink of the reapers in
the heat of harvest, as we use ice. Snow-
water is softer and more detergent than
common water; hence the allusion in Job
9 : 30. Snow is found on Mount Lebanon,
and it lies in the ravines of Hermon and
other peaks throughout the year. Rob-
inson states, "Snow often falls in Jeru-
salem in January and Februarj' to the
depth of a foot or more, but does not
usuallv lie long."— /?//>. Res. I. 429.
SNUFF-DISHES, SxNUFFERS.
Ex. 25 : 38 ; 37 : 23. See Candlestick.
SO, the king of Egypt, mentioned
once in the Bible, 2 Kgs. 17 : 4 ; prob-
ably identical with Sevechus, the sec-
ond king of the twenty-fifth dynasty.
He reigned ten or twelve years. Hosea
made an alliance with him after Israel
had become the vassal of Assyria. The
discovery of this led to the imprisonment
of Hosea and the captivity of the ten tribes.
SOAP. Jer. 2 : 22 ; Mai. 3 : 2. Sev-
eral kinds of shrubby alkaline plants,
one of which is figured, grow very
abundantly in the vicinity of the Dead
Salsoia Kali.
and Mediterranean Seas. The
dry and burn these, and obtain a
Arabs
large
ashes.
soc
SOD
With this, from oil and other fatty sub-
stances, a soft soap has been made by
the Jews from very early times. They
used it not only for washing their per-
sons and their clothes, but in smelting
metals as a flux, or substance which
cleansed them and made them flow
more readih\ In Isa. 1 : 25 the reading
should be, instead of '*{)urely," "as with
alkali." Making hard soap from olive
oil is the only important manufacturing
business of modern Jerusalem, There
is considerable exportation from Pales-
tine of the alkali mentioned above. See
Nitre.
SO'CHO, AND SO'CHOH
(hrauchex). 1 Chr. 4 : 18; 1 Kgs. 4 : 10.
See SocoH.
SO'COH (branchea), a name of two
towns in Judah.
1. A city in the plains of Judah. Josh.
15:35. It is also called Shoco, 2 Chr.
11 : 7, Shocho, 2 Chr. 28 : 18, and
Shochoh. 1 Sam. 17 : 1. At this place
Goliath was slain and the Philistines
were defeated. The town was included
in one of Solomon's commissariat dis-
tricts ; was fortified b}' Rehoboam ; was
seized by the Philistines in the time of
Ahaz ; and in the time of Eusehius and
Jerome was called Socchoth, and lay be-
tween 8 and 9 Roman miles from Eleu-
theropolis, on the road to Jerusalem. It
is identified with the ruins enh-Shuioei-
keh and the Wddj/ Siimt, or "valley of
Elah," about 3^ miles south-west of Je-
rusalem.
2. A town in the mountains of Judah.
Josh. 15 : 48. It has been identified with
esh-Sfiiiwei/ceh, about a mile to the north
of Jattir and 10 miles south-west of He-
bron, in the Wddy eJ-Khalil.
SOD, SOD'DEN, the preterite and
past participle of " seethe." Gen. 25 : 29 ;
Ex. 12: 9.
SO'DI (ft (■oufi.fhtvt), the father of
the spy from Zebulun. Num. 13 : 10.
SOb'OM [htirnhiff?), the principal
citv in a group of cities in the vale of
Siddim, which were destroyed on aocount
of the great wickedness of their inhab
itants. Gen. 10:19; 13:3, 10-13; 19:
1-29. Sodom is first mentioned in de-
scribing the Canaanitish border; it was
afterward chosen by Lot as his home,
the country around it being fertile, well
watered everywhere, " even as the gar-
den of the Lord." It was plundered bv
816
Chedorlaomer and his allies, but the cap-
tives and booty were recovered by Abra-
ham. The history of its great wicked-
ness and its terrible punishment is given
in Gen. 18 : 16-33 : 19 : 1-29. Sodom is
often held up as a warning to sinners to
escape the terrible vengeance of God.
Deut. 29 : 23 ; Isa. 1 : 9, 10 : 3 : 9 ; 13 :
19; Jer. 23 : U ; 49:18; Eze. 16:49,
50; Am. 4 : 11 ; Zeph. 2:9; Matt. 10 :
15; 11:23, 24; 2 Pet. 2:6-8; Rev.
11:8.
Sif nation. — The overthrow of the cities
of the plain, including Sodom, was so
complete that their sites have never
been certainly' determined. It was
formerly a common opinion that the
Dead Sea covered the place occupied
by these cities, and early travellers fan-
cied that they could discern broken col-
umns and other relics of the doomed
cities in the waters of the lake. The
southern part of the Dead Sea, below
the " tongue," or Lisan Peninsula, is
very shallow, having an average depth
of not more than 13 feet, and here some
would place the sites of the lost cities.
There is no scriptural evidence, howev-
er, that the cities were submerged, but
the whole drift of the history, as well as
the geological character of the region,
is directly opposed to such a theory.
There are only two possible localities
for these cities — the lower end of the
lake, or the upper end of the same.
Tradition, from the time of Josephus
and Jerome, has pointed to the southern
site. This view has been further urged
from the name Jihel Lhdnm, the latter
word having a supposed resemblance to
Sodom, and Umliim being at the south
end of the lake. Some also have be-
lieved that it was favored by the fact
that pillars of salt, detached from the
great salt clilTs at the southern end, have
borne the name of "Lot's Wife." A
stronger argument in favor of the south-
ern site is drawn from the fact that Abra-
ham, standing near Hebron, beheld the
smoke of the country. Gen. 19 : 27, 28.
Another argument is found in the nu-
merous "slime-pits," or wells of bitu-
men or asphaltum, found in great masses
on the southern shore. (Jen. 14: 10. This
view has been advocated by Robinson and
Lynch, and favored by Porter, Baedeker,
Schaff, and many others. The arguments
in favor of the northern site are : that
SOD
SOL
Lot chose the "plain of Jordan," which
must have been at the north end of tlie
Dead Sea. Gen. 13 : 11, 12. This plain
of Jordan would be visible to Abraham
and Lot standing at Bethel, while they
would not be able to see the south end
of the lake from that point. It is also
argued that the hill near Hebron from
whence Abraham beheld the burning
cities, being about midway between the
north end and the south end of the lake,
would enable him to see the smoke aris-
ing from the northern end quite as clear-
ly as from the southern end of the sea.
It is also claimed that the northern site
better suits the details in the account of
the attack of Chedorlaomer. Dr. Mer-
rill further asserts that there are numer-
ous slime-pits in the vale of Shittim. at
the northern end of the lake, and that
there are several sites upon the plain
which might harmonize with those of
the lost cities. Tristram proposed a
site for Zoar at the northern end of the
sea, but this has not been satisfactorily
established. The argument against the
northern site, based on the fact that pil-
lars of salt have been found at the south
end named " Lot's Wife." is of little value,
since these pillars are constantlychanging
by the action of the weather, and to sup-
pose that a pillar of salt of the size of
a person would stand for four thousand
years is simply absurd. The northern
site has been strongly advocated by
Grove, Tristram, Merrill, and others,
but the question is one which is unde-
cided, since able scholars strongly ad-
vocate each of the locations. See Salt
Sea and Gomorrah.
SOD'OMA. Rom. 9 : 29. The Greek i
name for Sodom, which see. i
SOD'OMITES. The word has no '
reference to Sodom, but is the biblical
term for those who practise sodomy — a
sin to which the inhabitants of that city
were addicted. Gen. 19 : 5. i
SOL'DIERS. See Armies.
S0L'03I0IV {peaceful), from B. c.
1021-981 king of Israel, was the son
and successor of David. Soon after the
birth of Solomon, the prophet Xathan i
was sent by divine authority to give him
the name of *' Jedidiah," signifying ''be-
loved of the Lord."
Toward the close of David's life a
conspiracy was detected to place Adoni-
jah on the throne. To settle the gov-
52
ernment in the order of the divine ap-
pointment, David caused Solomon to be
invested with the robes of royalty and re-
signed to him voluntarily the sceptre of
government, giving him a solemn charge
respecting the administration of it.
The early part of his reign was ex-
ceedingly ])rosperous, and was marked
by several public acts which displayed
his wisdom and piety. 1 Kgs. 2 : 19, 27,
31: 3 : 1, 9, 16-28. "His court was dis-
tinguished for its magnificence, his do-
minions and revenue were vast, his
personal character exalted, his wisdom
proverbial, and his capital and palace
renowned for wealth and splendor. 1
Kgs. 4 and 10. During his reign, for
the only time in Jewish history, there
was a flourishing commerce. The great
event of his reign was the erection of the
temple in Jerusalem (hence called Sol-
omon's temple), begun in his fourth and
finished in his eleventh year, which was
designed by David, his father. 1 Chr.
21 : l-Il. The plan and materials of
the house and the furniture, as well as
of the royal palace, are minutely de-
scribed, 1 Kgs. 6, 7 (see Temple), as are
also the services nt the dedication of it.
1 Kgs. 8. After this, Solomon received
a renewed assurance of the divine favor
and of a gracious answer to his prayers
and supplications, and at the same time
one of the most fearful denunciations of
wrath in case he should forsake God's
law. 1 Kgs. 9 : 1-10.
In the latter part of Solomon's reign
he was led bj- his numerous foreign wives
and concubines into the practice of idol-
atry and other abominable sins, which
drew upon him and the country heavy
judgments. 1 Kgs. 11. From the height
of wisdom he sunk to the depth of folly.
We are told that the Arabs call the south-
ern side of the Mount of Olives the
"Mount of Solomon," because his idol-
atrous altars were built here. It is
called the "Mount of Corruption," 2
Kgs. 23 : 13, from the same cause. He
reigned forty years, and was succeeded
by his son Rehoboam. 1 Kgs. 11 : 42. 43.
" Solomon," wrote his biographer,
" spake three thousand proverbs, and
his songs were a thousand and five."
1 Kgs. 4 : 32. Thus he was a volumi-
nous author and handled many topics.
His repentance after his long course of
folly is thought to be expressed in Ec-
817
SOL
SON
clesiastes, which teaches the sad but
wholesome lesson of the vanity of all
things and the paramount importance
of " fearing God and keeping his com-
mandments."
The life of Solomon is very simply and
truthfully told in the Bible. No excuse
is made for him, no sin is glossed over.
This is in itself a strong proof of the
genuineness of the record, and a great
contrast to the legends in which he is a
hero of unparalleled splendor, to whom
all power upon earth is committed. His
life, so brilliant in its promise, so pros-
perous in its course, so disastrous in its
close, albeit his sins were forgiven, is
not alone in history. Two characters
are recalled — Seneca, the tutor of Nero,
who combined great wisdom with low
avarice, and Lord Bacon, 'Hhe wisest,
brightest, meanest of mankind." These
instances show us that there may well
be great elevation of sentiment with
great laxity of life ; that the pearls of
wisdom can be cast before the swiue of
selfishness and folly. There is, however,
this difference — that Solomon was en-
dowed with divine wisdom, and that his
folly belongs to the later period of his
life and cannot impair the authority of
the inspired writings of his youth and
manhood.
SOL'OMON'S POOLS. The
three pools of Solomon are in a narrow
valley south-west of Bethlehem, on (he
road to Hebron, and still supply Jeru-
ssilem with water through an aqueduct.
Sec Eccl. 2 : 6. The)' are partly hewn
in the rock and partly built with ma-
sonry, are all lined with cement, and
are formed <>n successive levels, one
slightly above the other, with conduits
leading from the upper to the lower, and
with flights of steps from the bottom to
the top of each pool. The waters, gath-
ered from the surrounding country into
a large fountain or reservoir near the
upper pool, are from thence conducted
by an underground passage into the
pools. The main supj)ly of the water,
however, comes from the spring, or foun-
tain. The upper pool is 380 feet long.
2'M feet broad at the east and 229 feet
at the west end, is 25 feet deep, and 1(10
feet above the middle pool. This mid-
dle pool is 423 feet long, 2oO feet broad
at the east and KiO feet at the west end,
is 39 feet deep, and 248 feet above the
818
lower pool. The lower pool is 582 feet
long, 207 feet broad at the east and 148
feet at the west end, and is 50 feet deep.
Dr. Thomson says, "When full of water,
it would float the largest man-of-war
that ever ploughed the ocean." These
pools were built to supply Jerusalem
with water.
SOLOMON'S PORCH, a clois-
ter or colonnade on the east side of the
temple and of the court of the Gentiles.
John 10 : 23 : Acts 3 : 11 ; 5 : 12. The
ceiling, finished with cedar, was 40 feet
above the floor and supported by a
double row of white marble Corinthian
columns. See Jertsalem and Temple.
SOL'OMON, PROVERBS OF.
See Proverbs.
SOLOMON'S SER'VANTS.
Their descendants are mentioned in Ezr.
2 : 55, 58 ; Neh. 7 : 57, 60. These "ser-
vants " were probably his slaves, but
(hey had been converted, and their con-
nection, although enforced, with the con-
struction of the temple and the other
splendid structures of Solomon, gave
their children a certain standing.
SON. The Hebrews used all terms
of relationship in a much looser way
than we do. *' ' Son ' implies almost any
kind of descent or succession. 'Son of
a )ear ' — i. e., a year old ; ' son of a bow *
— i. €., an arrow." " Son," when it ex-
presses human connection, is used for
grandson — e. </., Gen. 29 : 2 — and for re-
moter descendants — e. */., Matt. 22 : 42.
SONG OF SOL'OMON. The
book is entitled the "Song of Songs" —
i. e., the most beautiful of songs — also,
after the Latin, the " Canticles." 1( has
always formed part of the canon, and
has been held in the highest esteem. The
Rabbins have a saying : " Proverbs are
the outer court of Solomon's temple;
Ecclesiastes, the holy place ; Canticles,
the holy of holies." There are many
theories in regard to its authorship, its
object, and its proper character. There
are three principal interpretations, and
each appears under diflerent forms.
1. The Literal. — It was written by
Solomon on the occasion of his mar-
riage either with the daughter of Pha-
raoh or with a beautiful shepherd-
maiden. Its dialogues an<l monologues
introduce these characters : a lover,
Shelomoh (Solomon); a bride, the
Shulamite (perhaps Abishag, the Shu-
SON
soo
nammite) ; and a chorus of virgins,
daughters of Jerusalem.
2. The Typical. — It was written to set
forth the Hebrew ideal of pure conjugal
love, and throughout expresses typically
the love of Christ for his Church. This
interpretation commends itself by the
fact that the 0. T. frequently represents
the union of Jehovah to his people as a
marriage relation, and by the further
fact that St. Paul speaks of husband
and wife as reflecting the sacred union
of Christ and his Church, which is his
Bride. Eph. 5 : 3o.
Z. The Alle(/oricaI. — It is in no sense
historical. The persons and objects de-
scribed are mere figures or names for
spiritual persons and objects, which
latter are alone contemplated by the
inspired writer. The Song is thus a
description of the love of Jehovah for
Israel, or of Christ for his Church.
This is the view advocated by Jewish
and by the majority of orthodox Chris-
tian commentators. Thus interpreted,
the book has held its place in the heart
of Christendom.
The general use of the Canticles has
been prevented by their supposed indeli-
cacies, but these can easily be explained
and removed by a fuller understanding
of Oriental customs and by a more correct
translation. Our present Version need-
lessly increases their number, while pru-
dery and custom find them where they are
not. A revised translation and a health-
ier mind would entirely banish them.
For instance, in 5 : li the reference
is to the clothed, and not to the naked,
body ; for the " sapphires " are a figure
of the dress of sapphire blue, or of the
girdle of such gems which bound it, and
in V. 15 the mention of legs is harmless.
Dr. Kitto aptly reminds us that Oriental
women keep their faces covered, but are
"perfectly indifferent" to a display of
their bosoms. Hence, as those parts
habitually uncovered with us are free
subjects of description, it is no shame
for them to dwell upon the beauty of
that part habitually uncovered with them.
SOIV OF GOD. Dan. 3 : 25. This
is one of the titles of our divine Re-
deemer, and is applied to none else ex-
cept in a conne(!tion which shows the
sense. It is applied to angels. Job 38 :
7, and to Adam, Luke 3 : ;H8, as created
immediately bv God's hand, and to be-
820
lievers. Rom. 8 : 14, 15 ; 2 Cor. 6 : 18, as
adopted into Grod's spiritual family ; but
when applied to Christ, it is in a pecu-
liar and exalted sense which cannot be
mistaken. It signifies his (h'n'iie nature,
as the term '' Sou of man " signifies his
hiimau nature. He is the Son of God,
the eternal, the only begotteu Son. Comp.
John 1:18; 5:1 9-26 : 9 : 35-38 ; Matt.
11 : 27 ; 16 : 16 ; 21 : 37, and many pas-
sages in the Epistles. While he directs
us to address God as "our Father," he
himself never addresses him thus, but
always as ^' tiiy Father," or *' Father"
simply, because of his peculiar intimacy
with God, far above the level of human
children of God, who are made such only
by regeneration and adoption.
SON OF MAN. Matt. 8 : 20. This
title is given to our Saviour eighty times
in the N. T. It is also applied to hiui
by Daniel. 7 : 13. The Jews perfectly
understood it to denote the INIessiah. It
sets forth his peculiar and intimate
relation to mankind in his incarnate
state, as the phrase *' Son of God " de-
notes his peculiar relation to the divine
Being.
The phrase "the Son of man," how-
ever, does not express simply the hu-
miliation and condescension of Christ,
who became bone of our bone and flesh
of our flesh, but also his exaltation
above the ordinary level of humanity.
He calls himself, not <i son of man (among
other children of men), but the Son of
man (above all others) — tlie ideal, the
universal, the perfect Man. So, on the
other hand, he calls himself not a, but
the, Son of God — the only-begotten and
eternal Son of the Father. Compare
such passages as John 1:51; 3:13: 6 :
53 ; Matt. 9:6; 12 : 8 ; 18 : 11 ; Mark
2: 10, 28.
The term sow of man is applied to Eze-
kiel and Daniel, meaning merely " man,"
as it does in Num. 23 : 19; Job 25 : 6 ;
Ps. 8 : 4. etc.
SONS OF GOD. Thus the angels
are called in Job 1 : 6 ; 2 : 1 : 38 : 7. But
in the verse Gen. 6 : 2 this designation
is not allowable. The best interpreta-
tion is that it refers to the race of Seth,
who intermarried with the race of Cain,
the dauirhters of men acv.ursed.
SOOTH'S. \YER was one v.-ho
pretended to foretell future events. Dan.
2 : 27. The original word comes froio the
SOP
SPA
verb to ''divide," because the soothsayer
dissected the entrails of jinimals for the
purpose of telling from their appearance
what would come to pass. The Philis-
tines appear to have been notorious for
their practice of this magic imposition.
Isa. 2 : 6. This was a common mode of
divining among the Romans.
SOP. John 13 : 2(5. Our ordinary
table-utensils were unknown among the
Hebrews. Hence, in eating broth or
milk, it was either taken with the hollow
of the hand or the bread was dipped into
it. This is at present the usage in all
the Oriental countries — even at the table
of tlie Persian king. Thus the reapers
of Boaz dipped their " morsel in the
vinegar," Ruth 2:14, and thus our
Saviour " dipped the sop," or morsel,
and gave it to the traitor Judas.
SOP'ATER (father saved), a Be-
rajan who was Paul's companion. Acts
20 :4.
SOPH'ERETH {scribe), one whose
descendants returned with Zerubbabel.
Ezr. 2 : 65 ; Neh. 7 : 57.
SOR'CERY, one of the arts of the
magicians, Ex.7: 11 — hence called "sor-
cerers " — by the use of which they pre-
tended to predict future events, cure
diseases, work miracles, etc. Acts 8:9:
13 : 6. The practice of sorcery, or any
confidence in it,, is threatened with the
severest judgments. Mai. 3:5; Rev. 21 :
8 ; 22 : 1 5.
SO'REK, VALLEY OF (a choice
vine), the home of Delilah, whom Samson
loved. Jud. 16 : 4. Conder identifies it
with the present Wddij Siirar, which has
a broad flat valley, in the neighborhood
of Beth-shemesh and Zorah. On the
northern side of this valley is a ruin
caljed S'lirlk. Perhaps it was along this
same valley that the lowing kine drew
the ark. See Bkth-shf.mesh.
SOSIP'ATER ipreservatif.u of a
ffitlur), a native of Bera?a, and a kins-
man of Paul. Rom. 16:21.
SOS'THENES (safe it, strength), a
ruler of the Jewish synagogue at Corinth.
He was seized and beaten in that city
by a party of Greeks, who were thus
B.xcited to acts of violence by what they
thought the unjustifiable and malicious
persecution of Paul. Acts 18 : 17. It is
thought that he afterward became a
convert to the Christian faith. 1 Cor. 1 :
1,2.
SO'TAI (a deviator), one whose de-
scendants returned with Zerubbabel,
Ezr. 2 : 55; Neh. 7: 57.
SOUL. Gen. 2 : 7. The Scriptures
evidently distinguish between the soul
and the'spirit. 1 Thess. 6 : 28 : Heb. 4:
12. The word which we call "soul" is
used to denote mere animal life — the seat
of sensations, appetites, and passions.
Gen. 1 : 20. Here the word translated
"life" is the same with that which is
elsewhere translated "soul." Hence it
may be inferred that, as we have our
bodies and animal life in common with
brutes, it must be the spirit which was
created in the likeness or image of God,
and which raises man above the brutes
that perish and makes him a rational
and accountable being. Very often,
however, the word " soul " is used in a
wider sense, and designates the whole
immaterial or spiritual nature of man ;
as when we say that man consists of body
and soul.
The immortality of the soul is a funda-
mental doctrine of Christianity, which
brought life and immortality to light; so
what the ancients hoped or guessed we
know. Even among the Jews the truth
was only partially revealed. Much more
is said about the grave than of the life
beyond, and the prevailing tone, in view
of death, is one of great sadness. In
Christ, however, we are made alive, and
can never die. To the Christian, death
is robbed of its sting; it is converted
into a friend who ushers the soul into
the company of the blessed.
It is the immortal soul which is the
subiect of future reward or punishment.
SOUTH RA'MOTH, a place to
which David and his outlaws resorted.
1 Sam. 30 : 27, It bordered on the deseit
south of Judah.
SOW, SOWER. Matt. 13 : 3. See
AGmcuLTrRE, Season.
SPAIN, a well-known country of
Europe, though the name anciently in-
cluded the whole peninsula now occupied
by Spain and Portugal. The Hebrews,
in the time of Solomon, were acquainted
with the position and wealth of Spain.
Paul desired to preach the gospel there.
Rom. 15 : 24-28. Whether he ever visited
Spain is a question in dispute among
scholars. Those who hold that Paul was
ttvice imprisoned at Rome think that he
visited Spain between his first and
821
SPA
SPI
second imprisonments. Christianity was
introduced into that country at a very
early period, as Irenjeus and TertuUian
testify. See Tarshish.
SPAN. Isa. 40 : 12. See Measures.
SPAR'ROW. The original word
might properly have been always trans-
lated, as it is generally, "bird" or
" fowl." It denotes, indefinitely, some
of the sparrow -like { jxisnerine) species,
which in multitudes inhabit the Holy
Land. In the East such little birds have
Tree-Sparrow. (After Mood.)
always been sold at the merest trifle for
food. Matt. 10 : 29. The blue thrush of ,
Palestine is peculiarly a solitary species, j
and in all its habits exactly meets the
description of Ps. 102 : 7. Birds of the j
sparrow kind often build their nests in |
the mosques and pnb'ic buildings of the
East. The writer, during service in the
English church at Nazareth, observed a
house-s])arrow enter through a broken
pane of glass nnd fly to its nest, high
overhead, illustrating Ps. 84:-'?.
SPEAR. 1 Sam! 13: 22. See Arms.
SPEAR'IWEN. The word so trans-
lated in Acts 23 : 2'^ is of rare occurrence
and of doubtful meaning, but it most
probably refers to light- armed troops.
822
SPECK'LED BIRD. Jer. 12 : 9.
See Hy^na.
S P I ' C E R Y, S P I C E S. The
former word occurs in Gen. 37 : 25, and
should be the rendering instead of
"spices" in Gen. 43 : 11. It is believed
to denote gum-tragacanth, the product
of several species of Aftnnjnlits, shrub-
by and exceedingly thorny plants very
abundant in Palestine. This gum had
medicinal value.
The term "spices," the translation of
two other words, as
used by the sacred
writers, is much
more comprehensive
than the modern use
of it. With them it
includes not only
fragrant gums, as
myrrh, and also
roots and barks, as
cassia, cinnamon,
cane, etc., but the
odors of flowers and
various perfumes.
Cant. 4:14. Spices
were imported into
Judaia chiefly from
Southern Arabia.
Sweet spices, Mark
16 : 1, are merely aro-
matic substances used
in embalming. The
word '• spices " fully
expres.-ed the mean-
ing of the origi-nal
word, without the ad-
jective.
SPI'DER, a
well-known little
creature of very singular structure and
habits. The tliinness and frailty of its
web are made emblematic of a false hope
and of the schemes of wicked men. Job
8: U: Isa. 59 : 5.
Another word thus rendered in Prov.
30 : 28 has been thf)ught by some of the
best authorities to refer to the tjecko, a
kind of lizard which is able to run on
perpendicular walls, or even on an in-
verted surface. See Ferret. But so
sk Ifiilly does the spi<lor use her feet in
making her web and climbing upon it
and upon walls th:it they may well be
termed hauifx, and thus our present trans-
lation is rendered \ery plausible. Tlie
spider's spinning-organs serve as both
SPI
SPO
hands and eyes. Spiders are abundant
in Palestine, as elsewhere in the world.
SPIKE'NARD, an aromatic plant
from which was made the costly oint-
ment poured on Jesus' head and feet.
Cant. 1 : 12; 4 : 13, 14; Mark 14 : 3;
John 12 : 3. There is little question
that the spikenard was the dried stem
of an herb of the valerian family {Anr-
dnstachys jatamausi), which grows ex-
clusively in India and was once very
precious. If the penny {denarius) was
Spikenard {Narciostachi/s Jatamansi).
equal to fifteen cents, the pound with
which Mary anointed our Saviour was
valued at a sum equal to forty-five dol-
lars. This ointment was evidently en-
closed, like other unguents or perfumes,
in a slender-necked and closely-sealed
flask or bottle of alabaster. It is not
agreed whether breaking this box was
merely opening the seal or was the
fracture of the frail neck, but probably
it was the latter.
SPIN, SPIN^MNG. The nations
of antiquity placed great stress upon
this womanly occupation — indeed, it was
a necessary duty, since the preparation
of the materials, no less than the mak-
ing of the dress itself, fell upon the
women. In the Bible there are only
two direct notices of the art, Ex. 35 :
25, 26: Prov. 31 : 19; but, since it is
?poken of as a matter of course, we infer
the custom was universal. Distaff-spin-
ning was the mode, as is now the case
in the East, wheel-spinning being ap-
parently unknown. The Hebrew women
sj>un wool and flax from the distaff" and
twisted the thread by means of the spin-
dle, and made up camel and goat-hair
into sackcloth for mourning, girdles, and
tent-covers. The women also made rope
and cord. The men did not engage in
such work. See Distaff.
SPIR'IT. Both in Greek and lie-
brew the word for this implies a '• blow-
ing " or "breathing;" its primary sense
is '' wind." In 2 Thess. 2 : 8 it is used
for breath, in Eccl. 8 : 8 for the vital
principle; while in other places it de-
notes the soul. Angels, both good and
bad. souls without bodies, are thus desig-
nated. Matt. 14 : 20: Luke 24 : 39.
Metaphorically, the tendenc}' or incli-
nation is similarly called: hence we
have a spirit of grace and of supplica-
tion, Zech. 12 : 10, a spirit of infirmity.
Luke 13 : U, etc.
The Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is the
third Person of the Holy Trinity, of one
essence or nature with the Father and
the Son, yet distinct from them. He is
the Author of regeneration and sanctifi-
cation. He applies the work of re-
demption to us, and makes us parta-
kers of all the benefits of Christ, of his
righteousness, life, and death. He is our
Advocate, who pleads our cause, who
strengthens and comforts us and pre-
pares us lor glory in heaven. Matt. 1 :
18, 20 : 28 : ly : John 1 : 33 ; 14 : 26 ;
16 : 7, 8 ; 20 : 22 : Acts 2:4: Rom. 5 :
.5; 2 Cor. 13:14; 1 Thess. 4 : 8. Our
English Version uses, in most passages,
the term Holy Ghont ; in four passages,
Holy Spirit, which is better.
SPIRITUAL BODY. Paul so
calls the resurrection body, 1 Cor. 15 : 44,
which will be divested of all sensual
and animal appetites, and be perfectly
fitted for pure spiritual exercises and
enjoyments, in perfect unison with the
redeemed and completely sanctified
soul.
SPOIL. Ex. 3 : 22. The original
word in this passage means "to recover
propertv taken away by violence." 1
Sam. 30 : 22.
SPONGE, a submarine substance,
composed of fibres interwoven in a sur-
prising manner, and surrounded by thin
membranes, which arrancre themselves
in a cellular form. Matt. 27 : 48. It ab-
823
SPO
STA
sorbs a great quantity of fluid, and parts
with it upon a strong pressure. Drink
could be easily convened in this form
where cups could not be used. This
substance is inhabited by animals, like
the coral, who use the openings of the
sponge to suck in and throw out water.
SPOUSE. See Mauiuagr.
SPRINKLING, BLOOD OF.
Heb. 12 : 24. The Jewish high priest,
on the great day of atonemenf. carried
blood into the inner sanctuary and
sprinkled it upon the mercy-seat. It
was by this sprinkling of blood that an
"atonement" was made "for the holy
place, because of the uncleanness of the
children of Israel." Lev. 16:16. The
blood of sprinkling was typical of the
atoning blood of Christ. When this
has been applied to the soul of the be-
liever, he may approach the presence
of a holy God in the name of the great
Advocate and Redeemer, confident of a
gracious reception. The blood of Abel,
alluded to in the above passage from
Hebrews, called only for vengeance, Gen.
4 : 10, 11, but the blood of Christ speaks
of pardon, peace, and eternal life.
STA'CHYS {an ear of com), a Ro-
man Christian friend of Paul's. Rom.
16:9.
STAC'TE (a drop), prescribed in
Ex. 30 . 34 as one of the ingredients of
the sacred incense. Stacte was either
myrrh flowing spontaneously from the
balsaniodendron, or it was a gum from
the storax tree (Sti/rax officinale). This
latter is a large shrub which grows
abundantly on the lower hills of Gali-
lee and on Tabor and Carmel. Its oval,
dark-green leaves are white beneath, and
in March its twigs are profusely hung
with sweet-scented, snow white flowers,
which resemble the flowers of the orange
in color, size, and perfume, making it a
shrub of rare beauty. The styrax of
modern commerce has an entirely differ-
ent origin. See Myhrh.
STAR OF THE WISE MEN.
Matt. 2 : 1-21. There are two theories
in regard to this episode in our Lord's
infancy.
The first theory is that the star which
the wise men saw was a miraculous star
beyond astronomical calculation, prob-
ably a meteor, and, having attracted
their attention in their native country,
it actually served as their guide to Pal-
824
estine and '' stood over where the young
child was." Matt. 2 : 9. This theory is
in entire keeping with a literal meaning
of the text, and is the one certain to oc-
cur to the ordinary reader. Nor need
there be any objection on the score of
improbability. Our Lord's birth was a
most stupendous event. In honor of it
the angelic host openly revealed them-
selves, and many circumstances remark-
ably conspired to render it possible. That
the heavens should be laid under contri-
bution and one of the heavenly bodies
be the appointed, the silent leader of the
magi, whose coming prophesied the in-
gathering of the learning and the treas-
ure of the Gentiles, was in itself a prob-
able event. The earth felt the tread of
his blessed feet; why should not the sky
lend one of its jewels to light the path
of his seekers ?
The second theory asserts that the
"star" of the wise men was a conjunc-
tion of Jupiter and Saturn, in the sign
of Pisces, with the later addition of
Mars and probably an extraordinary
star of uncommon brilliancy. Jewish
astrologers ascribed to this conjunction
a special signification, and connected it
with the birth of Moses and with the
coming of the Messiah. This theory
rests upon astronomical proof, and was
the suggestion of Kepler (1571-1630),
the eminent and devout astronomer,
who on Oct. 10, 1604, observed a star
of uncommon brilliancy enter the con-
junction of Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars.
This excited his interest, as it seemed
to give an explanation of the star of
the wise men. By careful calculation,
he discovered that a similar conjunc-
tion had taken place three times, B. c.
7 or 6. This puts the first appearance
of the star one or two years before the
birth of Christ, and allows time for the
journey of the magi from the far East.
Kepler's calculation has been verified
by modern astronomers — Schubert at
Petersburg, Ideler and Encke at Ber-
lin, and Pritchard at Greenwich — and
is pronounced to be "as certain as any
celestial phenomenon of ancient date."
This is a remarkable verification of
Scripture from an unexpected quarter.
" The star of astrology has become a
torch of chronology," as Ideler says.
The magi, with their astrological ideas
and widesprca'l Messianic expectations,
STA
STE
must have been attracted by such a con-
stellation in the highest degree. Divine
Providence usualh- acts through natu-
ral agencies and adapts revelation to
the capacity, and even the weakness, of
men. But if we take this theory, it is
necessary to give the description Of
Matthew a liberal construction, remem-
bering that the Bible, in alluding to
astronomical phenomena, uses popular,
not scientific, language, derived from
their appearance to our eye, as we all
now speak of the rising and setting
sun, moon, and stars.
STARS, Under the name of stars
the Hebrews comprehended con.'^tella-
tions, planets, and heavenly bodies —
indeed, all luminaries except the sun and
moon. The Psalmist, to exalt the power
and omniscience of God, Ps. 147 : 4, de-
scribes him taking a review of the stars
as a king takes a survey of his army and
knows the name of every one of his sol-
diers. To express a very extraordinary
increase and multiplication, the sacred
writers use the similitude of the stars of
heaven or of the sands of the sra. Gen.
15:5; 22:17; 26:4: Ex. 32:13,
etc.
No part of the visible creation ex-
hibits the glory of the Creator more
illustriously than do the starry heavens.
Ps. 19 : 1. When we seriously contem-
plate the moon and stars, the work of
the fingers of God, we cannot but be
astonished that he should condescend to
pay any attention to man. Ps. 8 : H. The
celebrated philosopher Kant declared :
"Two things fill my mind with ever-
growing reverence and awe — the starry
heavens above me, and the moral law
within me.''
Stars are sometimes symbolically put
fnr'rulers and princes, Dan. 8:10; some-
times, also, for pastors and ministers.
Rev. 1:16, 20. The angels, too, appear
to be intended by the term. Job 38 : 7.
and sometimes it points prophetically to
the Lord of angels. Num. 24 : 17.
Jesus Christ is called the '' Morning
Star," Rev. 22 : Ifi. as he introduced the
light of the gospel day and made a fuller
manifestation of the truths of God than
the ])rophets. whose predictions are now
accomplished.
STA'TER. This coin, mentioned
in the margin of Matt. 17 : 27, in the
text vaguely spoken of as " a piece of
money," was in value equal to four drach-
mas or a shekel.
STEEL. Ps. 18 : 34. This word
occurs four times in our English Bible,
and should in every instance be rendered
"copper." It is not certain that the
ancient Hebrews were acquainted with
steel, though it seems to have been known
to the Egyptians.
Iron from the north. Je-. 15 : 12, may
denote a superior kind of the metal, or
that which had been unusually hard-
ened.
STEPH'ANAS (cro,ru) was one of
the earliest converts to Christianity in
Corinth, 1 Cor. 16 : 15. and received
baptism at the hands of Paul. 1 Cor. 1 :
16.
STE'PHEN(rro?r»), usually known
as the first martyr, was (me of the seven
men of honest report who were elected,
at the suggestion of the twelve apostles,
to relieve them of a ])articular class of
their labors. Acts 6:5. He was a fore-
runner of the apostle Paul. He is de-
scribed as a man full of faith and of the
Holy Ghost. Acts 6 : 8. 10. He argued
for the new faith with convincing power.
It was to sto]) lips so eloquent that he
was arrested and placed before the "coun-
cil." the Sanhedrin. But a? he realized
his position the prospect of testifying in
that assemblage of the chief of his peo-
ple to the love and work of Jesus so
wrought upon him that his spirit rose
within him, and his face had such beauty
and purity, such thoughtfulness and man-
liness, that he awed his judges, for on hiin,
their victim, they beheld the angel-face.
His defence was a calm historical ))roof
of the two points: 1. God had not limit-
ed his favor to the Holy Land or to the
temple; 2. The Jews had always op-
posed to this free spirit of their God a
narrow, bigoted spirit. How long he
would have spoken none can say, but
the manner in which these quiet and
truthful words were received caused him
to break off abruptly into fierce invec-
tive and reproach ; but so direct was its
appeal to the consciences of the populace
that they were excited to madness. Acts
7 : 54, and fell upon Stephen like wild
beasts, shouting and stopping their ears ;
and after they had forced him beyond
the walls of the city, they stoned him to
death, Saul being present and conspicu-
ous in this tumultuous transaction. The
825
STE
STO
last breath of the martyr was spent, like
that of his divine Master, in prayer for
the forgiveness of his murderers. It is
worthy of remark that this prayer of
Stephen is directed to the Lord Jesus,
or rather it seems to be a continuation
of the prayer respecting himself which
was addressed immediately to Christ, as
the word " God " in v. 59 of our trans-
lation is an interpolation.
The date of Stephen's martyrdom was
about A. D. 'M. His blood was the seed
of the Church, and was soon followed by
the conversion of his bitterest persecu-
tor.
STEWARD, the chief overseer of
the household, as Eliezer, Gen. 15 : 2. and
Chusa. Luke 8 : 3. Ministers, I Cor. 4:1.
2 ; Tit. 1 : 7, and Christians generally, 1
Pet. 4 : 10, are by a natural metaphor
called stewards.
STOCKS, the name of a machine
or instrument by which the feet of pris-
oners are secured. Job 13 : 27; 33 : 11.
It is said that the jailer at Philippi, to
whose custody Paul and Silas were com-
mitted with a strict charge to keep them
safely, not only put them in an inner
prison or dungeon, but made their feet
fast in the stocks. Acts 16 : 24.
The upper half being removed, each
leg is placed, just above the ankle, in the
groove of the lower half, and then the
upper part is so fastened down as to
confine them inextricably.
Ancient Stocks.
The "stocks" used on Paul and Silas
could be turned into an instrument of tor-
ture by widely separating the legs. The
" stocks " used on Jeremiah, Jer. 20 : 2,
were, ])roperly speaking, the ])illory, be-
cause the neck and arms as well as the legs
were confined, and so the liodv was bent.
826
STO'ICS were a sect of heathen
philosophers, much like the Pharisees,
who took their rise from one Zeno, a
Cyprian of Citium, the name coming
from the stoa, or porcb, in which he
taught, in the third century b. c. While
in some respects there is a similarity
between their opinions and those of
Christians, there is yet the broad dif-
ference that Stoic morality was based
on pride ; Christian, on humility. They
generally taught that it is wisdom alone
that renders men happy, that the ills of
life are but fancied evils, and that a wise
man ought not to be moved with either
joy or grief; and in their practice they
affected much patience, austerity, and
insensibility. The Stoics were known
for many ages, especially at Athens,
where some of them encountered Paul.
Acts 17 : 18. The most distinguished
members of the school were Epictetus,
who died about A. d. 115, and the em-
peror Marcus Aurelius, A. D. 121-180.
Of all the ancient sects, the Stoics were
most strict in their regard to moral virtue.
They believed in the unity of the divine
Being, the creation of the world by the
Logos or Word, and a superintending
providence administered in conformity
with the will and purpose of God.
STONE. Gen. 35 : 14. Houses of
stone were common among the Hebrews,
as they are now in Palestine. The more
elegant structures were built of hewn and
squared stones. Amos says to the lux-
urious Israelites, " Ye have built houses
of hewn stone, but ye shall not dwell in
them." Am. 5:11. When Solomon was
about to raise the temple, he " command-
ed, and they brought great stones, costly
stones, (i)id hewed stones, to lay the foun-
dation of the house." 1 Kgs. 5 : 17.
Stones were often used as we use
knives, Ex. 4 : 25 ; Josh. 5 : 2, and wc
j are told that stone knives were used by
the Egyptians in jiropaiing dead bodies
for the process of embalming. The dis-
ciples of Christ are called stones, or lively
(living) stones, 1 Pet. 2 : 5, in allusion
to their connection with Christ, upon
whom they are built up compactly to-
gether, as upon the one only foundation
which God has laid, the living Stone, 1
Pet. 2 : 4, or the Source of life.
A "heart of stone" is a figurative ex-
pression, importing great hardness and
impenitency. A stone is sometimes put
STO
STO
for an idol. Hab. 2 : 19. Heaps of stones
were raised to mark some signal provi-
dence of God in the way of either de-
liverance or punishment. Josh. 4 : 4-7.
The weights of the Hebrews were also
called stones.
STONE, WHITE, is supposed by
many to be an allusion to the practice
of some ancient nations of passing judg-
ment on an accused person. Rev. 2 : 17.
Those in favor of acquitting him cast a
white ball into an urn, and those who
adjudged him guilty cast in a black ball;
and if the number of the former exceeded
that of the latter, the prisoner was dis-
charged. Others think reference is made
to the white stones which were given to
conquerors in the Olympian games with
their names written upon them, and the
value of the prize they won. So the new
name mentioned in Isa. 62 : 2 may de-
note the adoption of the individual into
the famil}' of God, by which he is ad-
mitted to privileges and blessings known
only to him who possesses them. Arch-
bishop Trench brings out what is prob-
ably the best interpretation. He repudi-
ates the idea that this symbol was
borrowed from hettthoi antiquity, and
maintains it was a diamond, the Urim
and Thunimim.
STONES, PRE'CIOUS. About
twenty different names of such stones
are found in the Bible. In many in-
stances it is at present impossible to
determine precisely what gem was in-
tended by these names. This whole sub-
ject is one of great difficulty, for the
mineralogy of ancient times was very
vague and imperfect. The same word
was often used for different gems or
substances possessing some common
property. Thus. " adamant " ("uncon-
querable") might mean steel, quartz,
corundum, or any other very hard sub-
stance; "crystal" {kernph) meant either
ice or transparent quartz. The same
ancient names were applied differently
by different authorities, and even by the
same writer. Even where a word has
passed unchanged in form from Hebrew
through Greek or Latin into modern use,
it cannot be certainly concluded that the
present application is the early one.
The stones of the high priest's breast-
plate were engraved with the names of
the tribes, Ex. 28:21. but it is certain
that at that time the art of cut'ing the
harder gems was unknown. According
to Professor Maskelyne. a recognized
authority, we must for this reason ex-
clude from the breastplate the diamond,
sapphire, emerald, and topaz. In place
of these there may be substituted, re-
spectively, rock-crystal (or chalcedony),
lapis-lazuli, garnet, and chrysolite. The
ruby and chrysoberyl would be too hard
to claim a place in this list. Few dia-
monds were ever known of the size of
these stones, which Josophus tells us
were large, and which probably reached
at least an inch square. If the diamond
is mentioned in the Bible, it is probably
only in the N. T. See Jasper.
The sacred ornament of the high priest
was probably broken up early in our
era, but the gems which composed it are
doubtless somewhere in existence in the
Turkish empire or in Persia. It is not
probable that all of these large engraved
precious stones will alwaj'S remain in
obscurity. " What a source of rejoicing,
both to arehjeologists and, above all, to
the religious world, will be the identifi-
cation of even one of these venerable
relics! — a contingency by no means to
be pronounced chimerical in an age
which has witnessed the resuscitation of
Sennacherib's own cup, signet, and
queen's portrait." (See C. W. King's
Precious Stones <tnd Metals : art. " Urim
and Thummim.")
In the very earliest times men set a
high value on some of these minerals.
Gen. 2:12; 1 Chr. 29 : 2. The Tyrians
traded in precious stones, which they
obtained from India, Arabia, and Syria.
Eze. 27:16, 22.
Figuratively, the various gems are
used in the Bible to emphasize such
ideas as value, beautv. and durabilitA', in
Cant. 5: U: Isa. 54: 11, 12 : Lam. 4: 7;
Rev. 21 : 18-20: and passages already
mentioned.
STON'ING was the most general
punishment inflicted on notorious crimi-
nals, and is usually meant where no
other description of capital punishment
is expressly mentioned, as in Lev. 20 :
10. Idolaters, blasphemers, Sabbath-
breakers, incestuous persons, and stub-
born or rebellious children were liable
to it. The culprit was led out of the city
and, as some have su]iyiosed, was bound.
The witnesses against him were required
to commence the work of death, and
827
STO
STO
probably they divested themselves of ;
clothing that it might be done more I
effectually. Acts 7 : 58. At the murder
of Stephen they committed the custody
of their clothes to Saul, who was not
improbably, from his talents and ardor,
a ringleader of the mob and one of the
most violent of the persecutors, and the
multitude followed the example of the
leaders until the victim was beaten to
death. The Rabbinical writers say that
the first stone was cast by one of the wit-
nesses on the chest of the convict; and if
this failed to cause death, the bystanders
proceeded to complete the sentence.
Some think thnt the frecjuent taking
up »f stones by the Jews to throw at our
Saviour, and the stoning of Stephen, Acts
7 : 59, and of Paul, Acts 14 : 19, were
vestiges of a punishment called the
'•rebels' beating," inflicted by the mub,
with lists, staves, or stones, on the ex-
citement of the moment.
STORK {the j)ion8), a bird of pas-
sage, much like the crane, but larger.
It°feeds on insects, snails, frogs, and
The Stork. (Ciconia Alba. After Tiistram.)
offal, and was reckoned among unclean
birds. The common stork {Cicmn'a dilxi)
.><tands nearly 4 feet high, and is white
except the extremities of the wings,
on lofty ruins, but in Europe it every-
where appropriates chimney-tops and
the eaves of houses.
In nel)rew as in T>ntin the stork is
which are black. Its long legs enable it i "the pious bird," and its Englisii name
to seek its food in the water as well as
on the land, and its bill is so formed as
to retain its slippery jirey. In Palestine
it builds its nest on trees, Ps. 104 : 17, or
828
comes, indirectly at least, from the (J reek
Htorije, which signifies "natural affec-
tion." I'nquostionibly. these birds ex-
hibit unusual tenderness t )ward their
STK
STR
young and their mates, but the ancient
opinion that the offspring recognize their
parents all through life and carefully
tend them in age, it is a pity to say, is
probably apocryphal.
Storks are singularly regular in their
migrations to and from Africa. They
pass over Syria in vast flocks, which
sail high in the heaven, and as their
legions wheel in the sky and even dim
the sunlight the most stupid mind is
awakened to admiration. Jer. 8 : 7.
"In various parts of Holland the nest
of the stork, built on the chimney-top,
remains undisturbed for many succeed-
ing v'ears, and the owners return with un-
erring sagacity to the well-known spot.
The joy which the}' manifest on again
taking possession of their deserted dwell-
ing, and the attachment which they
testify toward their benevolent hosts,
are familiar in the mouths of everj' one.
"In all the countries where the stork
breeds it is protected : boxes are provided
on the tops of the houses, and he con-
siders himself a fortunate man whose
roof the stork selects. There is a well-
authenticated account of the devotion of
a stork, which at the burning of the town
of Delft, after repeated and unsuccessful
attempts to carry off her young, chose
rather to remain and perish with them
than leave them to their fate. Well might
the Romans call it pin aris !
"The beauty and power of the stork's
wings are seized on as an illustration by
Zechariah : * The wind u-nn in their wings,
for they had wings like the wings of a
stork.' 5 : 9. The black pinions of the
stork, suddenly expanded from their
white body, have a striking effect, having
a spread of nearly 7 feet, and the bird
on the wing, showing its long bright-red
bill and steering itself by its long red
legs, stretched out far behind its tail, is
a noble sight. The stork has no organs
of voice, and the only sound it emits is
caused by the sharp and rapid snapping
of its bill, like the rattle of castanets." —
Tristram.
This bird seems to be fond of the
society of man, is often seen stalking
in the crowded street, and is supersti-
tiously protected in the East. Its marked
preference for Muslims over Christians
is, however, not due to special attach-
ment to the faith of Islam, as the Turks
boast, but to the greater amount of offal
to be found about Mohammedan dwell-
ings, and, what is more creditable, to
the kinder treatment the bird receives at
their hands.
The black stork (Ciconin nigra) is
abundant about the waters of Palestine.
It builds its nest in trees, is somewhat
smaller and darker -colored than the
white species, and is unlike it in shun-
ning the societv of man. See Peacock.
STRAIN AT, misprint for "strain
out." Matt. 23 : 24.
STRANG'ER. Gen. 15 : 13. This
word has a variety of significations in
the sacred writings, as —
1. One who is in a foreign land, at a
distance from the place of his nativity.
Gen. 23 : 4.
2. One who is not a Jew. Ex. 20 : 10 ;
Isa. 14:1.
3. One not of Aaron's family. Num. 3 :
10: 16:40.
4. One that is not of the royal stock
and family. Matt. 17 : 25. 2fi.
5. Unknown, disregarded. Ps. 69 : 8.
But usually the " strangers " were like
our "naturalized citizens" — persons from
foreign parts who come to reside per-
manently among us, and who are in all
respects one with us. This element was
very numerous in Israel, owing to the
presence of the "mixed multitude" dur-
ing the Exodus, and also because so
many Canaanites continued to reside in
the land. Among both these classes
there would be ])roselytes. and with them
marriage was permitted. This is the Rab-
binic opinion. Captives were accounted
strangers. Jewish law held them, equally
with the Jews, under control. They
amassed property, and were able to share
in the worship provided they were cir-
cumcised. By this act they became one
with the chosen people, and all offices
were open to them save the kingship.
Deut. 17 : 15. It is d-oubtful whether
they could be landowners, although they
might hold mortgages. Xeh. 9:2; 13 :
3 prove that after the Captivity the Jews
were more exclusive. Our Lord, by his
parable of the Good Samaritan, rebukes
this narrow spirit.
In the N. T. "proselyte" takes the
place of the 0. T. term " stranger." The
strangers were generally foreigners, oc-
casionally in its more technical sense, as
opposed to a citizen.
STRAW. Gen. 24 : 25. The straw
829
STR
SUP
wanted by the Jews for bricks, Ex. 5 :
7-18, was to lay them on when fresh
moulded. For want of it their mould
fell in pieces, and their work was vain.
STREET. Gen. 19 : 2. The streets
of Oriental cities are usually narrow.
Mats are sometimes spread across from
roof to roof to shade the streets from the
sun. Some streets were named as in
modern times, Ezr. 10 : 9 ; Acts 9:11,
but it is supposed that in other passages,
2 Chr. 32 : 6 ; Neh. 8:1,3, 16, the word
translated " streets " means squares or
open places around the gates. *' Each
street and bazaar in a modern town is
locked up at night, and hence a person
cannot pass without being observed by
the watchman. The same custom appears
to have prevailed in ancient times."
Cant. 3:3. To make " streets " was to
secure commercial accommodations. 1
Kgs. 20 : 34.
SU'AH {sweepinqs), an Asherite
chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 36.
SUB'URBS. Lev.25:34. See City.
SUC'COTH {booths), a name for
two places.
1. The place to which Jacob journey-
ed after leaving Esau, and where he
built him a house and made booths for
his cattle. Gen. 33 : 17. It was given
to the tribe of Gad. Josh. 13 : 27. From
this fact it would appear to be on the
east side of the Jordan. Gideon severe-
ly punished the people of the place for
not aiding him against the Midianites.
Jud. 8 : 5-8, 14-16. At this town were
the brass-foundries for casting the met-
al-work for the temple. 1 Kgs. 7 : 46 ; 2
Chr. 4 : 17. In the valley of the Jordan,
about a mile from the river, and 10 miles
south of Beisan. is a ruin called Sukiit,
which is identified by Robinson and
others as Succoth. But the position of
this place is on the wrong side of the
Jordan for Succoth. The Talmud calls
Succoth, Tarala, and Dr. Merrill discov-
ere<l a site on the east side of the Jor-
dan, called Tell Baruln, which is 1 mile
north of the Jabbok. This is probably
ancient Succoth. The j)rincipal mound
is thickly covered with broken pottery.
2. The first camping-place of the Is-
raelites in the desert. Ex. 12 : 37 ; 13 : 20 ;
Num. 33 : 5, 6. It was a day's journey
from Kanieses, and must have been 12
or 15 miles east of that jtlace. Some
would identify it with liirket Timseh, or
830
"lake of crocodiles," a few miles north
of the northern end of the Red Sea.
SUC'COTH-BE'NOTH (te.uts
of daughters), an idol-divinity of the
Babylonians for which the transplanted
Babylonians built a temple upon their
arrival in Samaria; but nothing more
is known about it. 2 Kgs. 17 : 30.
SU'CHATHITES, a family of
scribes at Jabez. 1 Chr. 2 : 55.
SUK'KIIMS, the name of a portion
of the allies of Shishak, king of Egypt,
in the invasion of Judaea. 2 Chr. 12 : 3.
They are supposed to have been a tribe
of Ethiopians from the shores of the Red
Sea.
SUM'3IER. See Seasoxs.
SUM'MER-HOUSE. See Dwell-
ings.
SUN. The Hebrews, according to
the latest researches, gave the sun a
name whose root means "to run," be-
cause it was, as they regarded it, the
greatest heavenly wanderer. The Psalm-
ist compares him to a bridegroom coming
out of his chamber as a strong man to
run a race. Ps. 19 : 5.
The worship of this luminary was one
of the earliest forms of idolatry, and ex-
isted in all the nations around Palestine;
it is therefore mentioned in all parts of
the 0. T. Manasseh introduced it in its
purest form — as it existed among the
Assyrians — into Judah. 2 Kgs. 21 : 3, 5.
He and his successor. Anion, dedicated
horses and chariots to the sun, and burn-
ed incense to it on the housetops. 2 Kgs.
23 : 5, 11. The worship the Israelites
met with in Egypt at On, the Baal and
Moloch worship in Palestine, were all
derived from the sun-worship.
SUN'DAY is of heathen origin (like
our designations of the other days of the
week), and means "the day of the sun,"
or " sacred to the god of the sun." It
does not occur in the Bible, but is now
in common use for the first day of the
week, which has taken the place of the
Jewish Sabbath, and should properly be
called the Lord's Day, Rev. 1:10, as the
day of the resurrection of Christ. See
Lord's Day and Saubath.
SUPERSCRIPTION. Mark 15:
26. See Cross.
SUPERSTI'TIOUS. Acts 17 : 22.
This term in the original signifies noth-
ing ofiensive, but simply that the Athe-
nians were remarkably religious in their
SUP
SWE
polytheistic way. They had more gods,
more temples, more festivals — in short,
more religious observances — than the
apostle had seen elsewhere, and he was
about to tell them what he thought were
errors in these services.
SUP'PER. Lukel4:16. See Eating.
SURE'TY. In Heb. _ ^
7 : 22, Jesus is called the
** Surety of a better testa-
ment" (covenant), because
his divine character, posi-
tion, and dignity give to
the new covenant of grace
its value. We are sure it
will be carried out.
The danger of becoming
surety for others is strongly
represented. Prov. 6 : 1 ; 11 :
15; 17:18: 20:16; 22:26.
The striking or joining of
hands wjis a token of sure-
tyship. Job 17 : '^.
' SIJ'SA,aiinmeforSniT-
SHAiV, which see. Esth. 2 : li :
9 : 11, IS.
SUSAxX'NA (lily), one
of the women who minis-
tered to Jesus. Luke 8 : y>.
SU'SI {hiin^eman), the father of the
spy from Manasseh. Num. 13:11.
SWAL'LO W. In Ps. 84 : :i there is
reference to this bird's habit of niiiking
its nest in all buildings to which it can
gain access. Swallows still rear their
young about the mosques which occupy
the site of Solomon's temple, and circle
often build within reach of the hand.
The incessant and rapid flight of this
bird explains Prov. 26 : 2.
In Jer. 8:7 and Isa. 38 : 14 another
word is found, which seems to refer to the
swift, a bird of tlie swallow family and a
regular migrant, which in Palestine the
The Swift.
above these hallowed places as of old.
In Palestine and other Eastern countries
they are so rarely disturbed that they
The Purple Gallinule.
swallow is not. Its harsh and constant
cry is specially appropriate to the sec-
ond passage. Several species of swSfts
and swallows inhabit the Holy Land and
breed in the cliffs or about buildings.
SWaN. This bird is mentioned only
in Lev. 11 : 18 ; Deut. 14 : 16, and there
as unclean. The swan is very rare in
the Levant, while there seems to be
no reason why it should not be eaten,
it is possible that the sacred ibis,
once abundant in Egypt, may be
meant, or the purple gallinule.
Either of these birds might natu-
rally be forbidden as food, from its
unclean diet, and the former, also,
as connected with idolatry.
SWEAR. Ps. 15 : 4. See Oath.
SWEARING, V0K:E Of'.
Lev. 5:1. The import of this ex-
pression in the Hebrew is '• hear the
voice of adjuration, execration, oath,
or curse" — /. e., hear this voice when
one is adjured or put upon his oath
as a witness in court. The precept
relates to the case of one who is
summoned to give evidence before the
civil magistrate. Judges among the
Jews had power to adjure not only* the
831
SWI
SYC
witnesse?, but the person? suppecled, as
appears from the high priest'f adjuring
our Saviour, who thereupon answered,
though he had before been silent. Matt.
26 : 63. If a person " heard the voice
of swearing "' — i. e., if he were adjured
by an oath of the Lord to testify what
he knew in relation to any matter of
fact in question, and yet, through fear
or favor, refused to give evidence or
gave it but in part — he was to " bear
his iniquity." It seems to be implied
that such a one should be considered in
the sight of God as guilty of the trans-
gression which he has thus endeavored
to conceal.
SWINE, Deut. 14 : 8. or HOG, was
unclean by the ritual law, and an ubject
of utter abhorrence to the Jews. Hence
the employment of the prodigal son im-
plies the most contemptible degradation.
Luke 15 : 15. Eating the flesh of swine
is mentioned among the sinful practices
of the Jews. Isa. '65:4: 66 : 17. The
filthy hnbits of this animal illustrate one
feature in the character of sinners. 2 Pet.
O . 09
4W • -< - .
The herd of swine miraculously de-
stroyed, Matt. 8 : 32, perhaps belonged
to Jews, and, if so, were of course kept
in violation of their own law. Lev.
11:7.
To cast " pearls before swine," Matt.
7 : 6, is not more vain and wasteful than
to offer the words of truth and wisdom
to those who are known to despise them,
and who would only return the ofl'er with
insult and abuse.
As the Moslems hold the hog in fully
as great abhorrence as do the Jews, it is
very rarely that this animal is seen in
Palestine or Mohammedan countries.
SWORD. See Arms.
SYCAMINE, the familiar black
mulberry [ Morua itiijid), which is still
called in (Jroece i>i/rinneiie<i. Luke 17 :
(i. Both the black and white species are
now largely cultivated in Syria to feed
silkworms. The mulberry belongs to
the same natural order of plants with
the sycamore and the fig. See MuL-
BKRRY.
SYCAMORE (Oreek, ff/-vn,f-
liern/). This tree (FiciiH tnjrmnunni) is
now rarely seen in Palestine cxeopt along
the coast, though it is abundant in Egypt.
It belongs to the genus of the common
fig, which it closely resembles in fruit,
S.S2
while its aromatic leaf is shaped like
that of the mulberry. From these two
resemblances comes its name.
The sycamore is a large and noble
tree, affording a dense shade, while the
branches are remarkably spreading and
are easily leached. This was the reason
why Zaccha?us climbed it in order to get
a glimpse of Jesus as he passed. Luke
19 : 4. It was once exceedingly abun-
dant in the valley of the Jordan, 1 Kgs.
10 : 27 ; 2 Chr. 1:15; 9 : 27, but all are
now gone save a few aged survivors near
Jericho.
Its fruit grows singly or in clusters
on small sprigs, which grow directly
from the branches and trunks, independ-
ently of the leaves. Sycamore fruit re-
seml)les in shape and peculiar method of
flowering that of the Fig, which see. It
Sycamore.
is. however, smaller, b.it sweeti?=h and
edil)le, especially if cut or nipj)ed a few
days before it is quite ripe, that the ac-
rid properties may be discharged. In
Am. 7:14 we should read, in this sense,
"cutter" (instead of "gatherer") "of
sycamore fruit." As the sycamore bears
continuously for more than half the year,
it is in this respect a valuable tree. The
wood, though porous, is exceedingly du-
rable, being the material of the Egyptian
SYC
SYN
mummy-cases, which are three thousand
or more years old. It seems to have
been valued on this account or for its
fruit by David. 1 Chr. 27 : 28. There
is allusion to its peculiar sensitiveness
to frost in Ps. 78 : 47.
In our own country the plane tree,
button-ball, or cotton-wood is often called
sycamore: while in England, and more
rarely here, a species of maple (Acer
psendoplatauus), used as a shade-tree,
bears this name. These trees have no
relationship to the true sycamore, and
should be otherwise designated.
SY'CHAR [drnulceur). John 4 : 5.
It is generally supposed that Sychar is
a name of Shechem, perhaps given to it j
in derision. This was Robinson's view, !
and he seems to have followed a monk-
ish tradition of the Middle Ages. The
objection to identifying Sychar with
Shechem is that Jacob's well, at the
entrance into the valley, is a mile and
a half from Shechem, and the woman,
if belonging to Shechem, would not go
so far for water when plenty was nearer
at hand. Hence Thomson, Canon Wil-
liams, Conder, Baedeker, and others
identify Sychar with the little village of
'Askor, on the eastern slope of Ebal,
about a mile and a half from Shechem,
and to the north-east of Jacobs well.
The village is merely a modern one
built of mud, but there are remains of j
ancient tombs near the road beneath it. |
SY'CHEM, a Greek form for She- ,
chem. Acts 7:16. \
SYE'NE {opening, or I'e;/), the fron- j
tier-city of Egypt, on the south, and
bordering on Ethiopia. Eze. 29 : 10 : 30 :
6, margin. It was situated on the Nile,
below the First Cataract, and is repre-
sented-now by the Arabic village of As- '.
soiin)), or Asirnii, a little north of the
ancient site. The well-known rock called ,
syenite is quarried here, and hence its
name. It was a chief city of the Shep-
herd-kings. The expression (in the mar-
gin), "from Migdol to Syene " — that is.
from the fortress near Pelusium, at the
mouth of the Nile, to Syene, on the bor-
ders of Ethiopia — was used to describe
the whole land of Egypt. |
SYL'VANUS. See Silas. I
SYN'AGOGUE (an axxemhfage).
There is no conclusive evidence that
stated meetings of the people for social
religious services, or meetings for receiv- i
53
ing public instruction, were known among
the Jews before the Captivity. After
that event such meetings became com-
mon, and were called synagogues. They
were probably held at first in private
houses or in the open air. After a time
buildings were erected expressly for their
use, and these were also called " syna-
gogues," signifying properly the collec-
tion of worshippers, but figuratively the
place of meeting. Tradition says there
were no less than four hundred and eighty
of these buildings in the city of Jerusa-
lem before it was subdued by the Romans.
Probably this is an exaggeration. To
build a synagogue was considered a deed
of piety and public usefulness. Luke 7 :
5. They might be built in any place
where there were worshippers enough to
associate for the purpose. Ruins of an-
cient synagogues are found at Tell Hum,
Meiron, Safed, Arbela. and Kefr-Bereim.
There was some resemblance between the
construction of these synagogues and that
of the temple. The centre building,which
was called the temple, was furnished with
an ark or chest containing the copy of
the Law which was read. A low desk or
pulpit was erected about the middle of
the synagogue. Some of the seats were
higher than others, and were assigned
to the elders. They were called chief
or uppermost seats. Matt. 23 : 6. The
officers of each synagogue were:
1. The arvhist/ii(i(jnfjn/i, "the chief
ruler of the sjnagdgue." Mark 5 : 35 ;
Acts 18 : 8.
2. The council, composed of aged and
influential men, presided over by the
chief ruler, Mark 5 : 22 : Acts 13 : 15,
who had authority to scourge and to ex-
communicate. Matt. 10 : 1 7 ; John 16 : 2.
3. " The minister," Luke 4 : 20, who got
the building ready for service and taught
the school connected with the synagogue,
4. At least two alms-collectors, and at
least three distributers.
5. One who was not a permanent
officer, but who offered prayer and read
the Scriptures as the " delegate of the
congregation." Some erroneously con-
nect this office with that of "the angel
of the congregation." Rev. 1 : 20.
6. Three of the council, the "dele-
gate," the three deacons for alms, the
interpreter, who read the Hebrew and
translated it into the vernacular, the
theological schoolmaster and his in-
833
SYN
SYN
terpreter; these constituted the so-
called " men of leisure," permanently
on duty, who constituted a congrega-
tion (ten being the minimum number),
"so that there might be no delay in
beginning the service at the proper
hour, and that no single worshipper
might go away disappointed."
The service of the synagogue was as
follows : The people being seated, the
minister, or angel of the synagogue,
ascended the pulpit and offered up the
public prayers, the people rising from
their seats and standing in a posture of
deep devotion. Matt. 6:5; Mark 11 : 25 ;
Luke 18 : 11, 13. The prayers were nine-
teen in number, and were closed by
reading Deut. 6 : 4-9 ; 11 : 13-21 ; Nuni.
15 : 87-41. The next thing was the rep-
etition of their phylacteries, after which
came the reading of the Law and the
Prophets. The former was divided into
fifty -four sections, with which were
united corresponding portions from the
prophets, see Acts 13 : 15, 27 ; 15 : 21,
and these were read through once in the
course of the year. After the return
from the Cajjtivity an interpreter was
employed in reading the Law and the
Prophets, Neh. 8 : 2-8, who interpreted
them into the 8yro- Chaldaic dialect,
which was then spoken by the people.
The last part of the service was the ex-
pounding of the Scriptures and preach-
ing from them to the people. This was
done either by one of the officers or by
some distinguished person who happened
to be present. This happened with our
Synaof)giie at Meiron. (After Photograph of Palestine Fund.)
Saviour, Luke 4 : 17-20, and there are
several other instances recorded of him-
self and his disciples teaching in the
synagogues. Matt. 13 : 51 ; Mark 6:2;
John 18 : 20 ; Acts 13 : 5, 15. 44 ; 14 : 1 ;
17 : 2-4, 10, 17 ; 18 : 4. 26 ; 19 : 8. The
whole service concluded with a short
prayer or benediction. The days of
public worship were the second, fifth,
and seventh ; the hours, the third, sixth,
and ninth.
SYNAGOGUE, THE GREAT,
the name given to the council of one
hundred and twenty men who, according
834
to Rabbinic tradition, under the presi-
dency of Ezra, formed the Hebrew canon
and established the synagogue-worship.
They had successors in eminent scribes.
The tradition, however, is questioned, and
doubtless is not entirely correct. Still,
it is probable there was such a body as
the predecessor of the Sanhedrin.
SYN'TYCHE (evct), a female
member of the church at Phili])])i who
is exhorted by Paul to be reconciled with
Kuodia (incorrectly " Euodias"). Those
who maintain there was an order of dea-
conesses in the apostolic Church con-
SYR
SYR
sider that these women were members
of it, and consequently their ditierence
was censurable. Phil. 4 : 2.
SY'R'ACUSE, a noted city in the
eastern part of Sicily at which Paul spent
three daj'S while on his voyage to Rome.
Acts 28 : 12. It is well situated for
commerce, having the best harbor in
Sicily. The city was colonized by the
Corinthians, b. c. 758, and in the third
century before Christ its walls, according
to one authority, were 22 miles in cir-
cumference. It was taken by the Ro-
mans, B. c. 212, after a long struggle.
Archimedes, who had greatly aided in
the defence by his mechanical genius,
was killed in the general slaughter. In
Paul's time it was a convenient place
for the Alexandrian corn-ships to stop
at, for the harbor was good and the water
from the fountain Arethusa excellent.
The modern town is situated upon the
islet Ortygia. but the principal ancient
ruins are upon the main island. The
present town has little commerce and
enterprise. It bears the Italian name
SiracHsa.
SYR'IA, the Greek name for the
country known to the Hebrews as
"Aram." It may signify' "the region
of Tyre." This country included, in a
stricter sense, only the highlands of
Libanus and Anti-Libanus, but in a more
extended sense it reached to the Taurus
Mountains on the north and across the
Euphrates, eastward to the Tigris and
the great desert, and westward to Phoeni-
cia and the Mediterranean Sea. It was
about 370 milts long and 1.50 miles wide,
and may be called a continuation of
Palestine on the north. In its most
extended sense it consisted of Syria of
Damascus, Syria of Zobah, and Syria of
the Two Rivers, which was nearly the
same as Mesopotamia. For this latter
district see Mesopotamia.
Phyaical Fenfires. — Syria proper is
naturally divided into three or four
separate sections: (1) North of the
Orontes. The principal feature of this
region is Mount Amanus [Mufsd Dfif/h),
between 5000 and 6000 feet high. East
of Mount Amanus is a hilly tract, drained
by the streams which fall into the Lake
of Antioch. Beyond this lies the dry
upland tract extending^ to the Euphrates.
(2) The Orontes valley extends from
Antioch to Eleutherus. Through this
district, and almost parallel to the coast,
runs a mountain-range which is steep
toward the Orontes, but descends into
low, irregular hills on the west. East of
the fertile valley is another range of
mountains of less elevation. (3) The
valley of the Leontes {Litany), which
flows between the two great mountain-
ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon.
See Lebanon. The valley between the
mountains is called " Coele-Syria," or
"hollow Syria." Among the rivers of
Syria, besides the Orontes and the Leon-
tes, are the ^^naf/a, known as the Abana
of Scripture, and the Avaj, or Pharpar.
The chief mountains of Syria are: Great
Hermon, 9383 feet high, in the Anti-
Libanus or eastern range ; Jehel Makh-
icnl, near Beirut and Tripoli, 10,016 feet
high; andi)«Ar-e/-A''or//7/.10.052feet high,
in the Lebanon, or western range. Mons
Carius of the ancients is on the coast,
and Amanus {Miixd Dayh) borders on
the Taurus range. Of the mountains on
the east of Jordan to the south, the
largest number are volcanic until the
table-lands of the Hauran are reached.
See MoAB. On the climate of Syria
consult the article Palestine.
Among the principal cities may be
noticed Damascus, Antioch,' Hamath,
Gebal, Berytus or Beirut. Tadmor or
Palmyra, Heliopolis or Baalbec, Alejipo,
Emesah, and Zedad. Baalbec is one of
the most wonderful ruins in Syria;
Damascus is its oldest and largest city;
Beirut is a flourishing seaport town,
which is a progres.-^ive and energetic
modern city and the seat of an American
Protestant college.
History. — Syria was first settled bj'the
Hittites and other Hamitic races. Later,
a Shemitic element entered it from the
south-east, under leaders such as Abra-
ham and Chedorlaomer. In early times
the country was divided among many
petty kings, as those at Damascus, Re-
hob." Zobah, and Geshur. 1 Kgs. 10 : 29:
2 Kgs. 7 : 6. Joshua subdued the country
in the region of Hermon and Lebanon.
Josh. 11 : 2-18. David conquered the
Syrians of Damascus and reduced the
country to submission. 2 Sam. 8 ; 10 :
6-19. It continued subject to Solomon,
but near the close of his reign an inde-
pendent kingdom was formed at Damas-
cus. 1 Kgs. 4:21: 11 : 2.3-25. The kings
of Damascus became formidable enemies
835
SYR
SYR
of Israel, and were frequently engaged
in wars with one or tlie other of the
Israclitish nations. 1 Kgs. 15: 18-20; 20;
22; 2 Kgs. 6:8-33; 7; 9: U, 15; 10:
32, 33 ; 13 : 3, 14-25. The attempt of the
king of S^-ria and of the king of Israel
to overthrow Judah led Ahaz to seek the
aid of the king of Assyria, and at the
end of the conflict Syria became a part
of the great Assyrian empire. It was
ruled by the Babylonians, by the Per-
sians, and conquered by Alexander the
Great, b. c. 333. At his death it came
into possession of one of his generals,
Seleucus Nieator, who made Syria the
head of a vast kingdom and founded
Antioch as its capital, b. c. 300. The
country was less prosperous under his
successors, the most remarkable of them
being Antiochus Epiphanes, who was a
most cruel oppressor of the Jews. He
plundered the Jewish temple, dese;;rated
the holy of holies, and caused a revolt of
the Jews under the Hasmonean princes,
who gained their independence. The
Parthians, under Mithridates I., overran
the eastern provinces, B. c. 164, but, later,
Syria was added to the Roman empire
by Pompey, B. c. 64. In the organiza-
tion under Augustus, Syria became an
imperial province, of which Antioch was
the capital. Several districts, however,
retained a degree of indc])endence for
some time, and took the position of pro-
tected states. Of these, Chalcis was a
little kingdom; Abilene, a tetrarchy ;
Damascus, partially independent (till
the time of Nero) ; while Judtisa, being
remote from Antioch, the capital, and
having a restless people, was put under
a special procurator, subordinate to the
governor of Syria, but having the power
of a legate within his own province.
Damascus was under a governor or eth-
narch, appointed by Aretas, king of
Arabia Petrtea, when Paul escaped from
it. 2 Cor. 11:32. Palmyra<li<l not actu-
ally belong to the empire until a later
age — about a. d. 114. Cliristianity spread
in Svria through the preaching of Paul.
Acts 15 : 23, 41 ; 18:18; 21:3; (ial. 1 :
21. The country was overrun by the
Saracens, a. d. 632, but was under the
control of the Crusaders for a time.
Solim r. conr|uered the country, a. i>.
ir)17, and it has s'.nce belonged to the
Turkish empire, with the exception of a
few years when it was controlled by
836
Egypt. See Map at the end of thd
Dictiunary.
Present Condition. — Syria is now one
of the divisions of Asiatic Turkey, and
contains about 60,000 square miles.
The population is estimated at about
2,000,000, and consists of a very mixed
race, including many wandering tribes
of Bedouins poorly governed. In religion
the people arc Mohammedans, Jews, and
Christians of various churches. The
American missionaries have been very
successful in establishing missions and
churches, and Protestant missionary so-
cieties in Europe also have prosperous
missions in the country. The language
usually spoken is the Arabic. Syria has
great natural resources, and, under a
good government, it would have a prom-
ising future.
The mode of travelling in Syria is
much the same now as in the days of the
patriarchs. There are no railroads, and
the only modern cai'riage-roads are the
diligence-route from Beirut to Damascus,
built by a French company after the mas-
saci-e of Christians in 1S60, and, in Pal-
estine, the road from Jaffa to Jerusalem.
Horses, mules, donkeys, and camels, ac-
companied by dragomans, tents, cooking-
utensils, beds, blankets, and whatever else
may be actually necessary for the trav-
eller, are still the means of transporting
passengers and tourists through this land.
Steamers ply along the coast from the va-
rious Mediterranean ports, but inland the
primitive method of journeying followed
four thousand years ago still prevails.
Under Syrians proper arc usually
classed all the descendants of the people
who spoke Aramaic at the beginning of
the Christian era, except the Jews. The
Aramaic language has been displaced by
the Arabic, the l^ormer being spoken in
only a few (perhaps three) villages of
Antiibinus. Some (Ireeks have recently
settled in the country, but there are few,
if any, descendants of those Greeks who
settled in Syria during the supremacy
of the Europeans, which extended over
nearly one thousand years. The Arabi-
ans are of two classes — the settlers in
I towns, and the Bedouins, or nomadic
tribes. The latter are professed Mus-
lims, living a half-savage life, dwelling
in tents, and jireying upon the traveller,
the settled inhabitants, and not infre-
quently upon one another. The Bedouin
SYR
SYR
regards with great scrupulosity the law
of hospitality, and protects a guest for
three days after his departure from his
camp, if he has been hospitably received.
There are many small tribes of these
nomadic Arabs, and thej' are generally
at war with each other or have deadly
blood-feuds existing among them, render-
ing it unsafe to travel within anj^ region
over which they roam. About four-fifths
of the whole population of Syria are
believed to be Muslims and followers of
Mohammed. The native Christians
chiefly belong to the (ireek Church, but
usually speak and conduct their services
in the Arabic tongue.
The Roman Catholic, or Latin. Church
includes several sects. Among them are
the Maronites and the European monks.
The Maronite population of Lebanon
alone is upward of 200,000. They live
by agriculture, silk-culture, and raising
cattle. The Jews in Syria, and especially
Palestine, are rapidly increasing, though
they still form only a small fraction of
the entire population in any section of
the country. Syria has not been very
thoroughly or scientifically explored, and
the ruins and inscriptions, as those at
Hamoth, when investigated thoroughly,
may hereafter throw much clearer light
upon its earlv historv.
SYR'IA-MA'ACHAH. 1 Chr.l9 :
6. See ARA>r and Maachah.
SYR'IAC. the ancient language of
Syria, a dialect of the Aramaean. The
word occurs in Dan. 2 : 4, where it should
be "Aramaic," as it is in the Hebrew. The
Chaldseans spoke in Aramaic in order to
conform to the custom of the court, but
this was not their proper or scientific
language. Daniel at this point begins
to employ Chaldee in his book, and
continues its use to the end of the sev-
enth chapter. '• The tongue of the
Chaldseans," Dan. 1 : 4, was the old
Chaldee, the language of Akkad, used
by the original inhabitants of Baby-
lonia, and in the time of Nebuchad-
nezzar a dead language.
The language now called Syriac first
comes to notice in the second century
A. D., but ceased to be a vernacular before
the twelfth century. It contains the most
extensive literature of any Aramaean dia-
lect, chiefly theological, and. of greatest
importance, a translation of the Bible —
commonly called Peshito ("simple"),
because it was literal and not para-
phrastic— which was made in the sec-
ond century. It is the earliest of the
direct versions.
SYR'IAN, inhabitant of Syria.
Gen. 25 : 20, and elsewhere.
SYRO-PHCKNIC'IA. See Ph(e
NICIA.
SY'RO-PHCENI'CIAN, a title
applied to the woman who besought
Jesus to heal her daughter. Mark 7 :
26. She is also called a woman of
Canaan. Matt. 15 : 22. " Syro-Phoeni-
cian " may denote a mixed race, half
Syrian, half Phoenician, or the peo-
ple in the Phoenician portion of the
Roman province of Syria may have
been so called, to distinguish them
from the Phoenicians of Libya or the
Carthaginians.
837
TAA
TAB
T.
TA'ANACH, AND TA'NACH
{sandy noil), an old city of the Canaan-
ites. Josh. 12 : 21. Joshua conquered
its king, and it was in the territory of
Issachar, but assigned to Manasseh, and
then to the Levites. Josh. 17:11-18;
21 : 25 ; Jud. 1 : 27. Barak's victory
was gained at Tabor, not very near Ta-
anach, as Some assert. Jud. 5:19. In
later times, with Megiddo and other
places, this city formed a part of one
of Solomon's commissariat districts. 1
Kgs. 4 : 12. The Aner of 1 Chr. 6 : 70
may possibly be the same as Taanach.
Taanach was situated on the south-west-
ern edge of the plain of Esdraelon, 4
miles south of Megiddo, 13 miles south-
south-west of Nazareth, and 48 miles
north of Jerusalem. The village is sit-
uated on the southern side of a large
isolated hill, or tell, which is covered
with ruins, cisterns, and rock-hewn
tombs. The modern village is a mean
one bearing the name of Tadunk.
TA'ANATH-SHI'LOH {ap-
pronch to Shiloh), one of the landmarks
on the border of Ejjhraim. Josh. 16 : 6.
It has been regarded by some as identi-
cal with Shiloh, but it is more probably
T'ann, a ruined site north of Yannn
(Janohah).
TAB'BAOTH {rinfjs), the ancestor
of Nethinim who returned with Zc:"ub-
babel. Ezr. 2 : 4P, ; Neh. 7 : 46.
TAB'BATH (celebrated), a place
noted in the account of the flight of
the Midianite host. Jud. 7 : 22. Grove
suggests its identity with Tuhukhat-
Fahil, a remarkable mound or bank
about 600 feet high, east of the Jordan,
opposite lieimtn (Beth-shean).
TA'BEAL (God is good), the father
of one who was proposed king of Judah
by the army of Pekah, the son of Rema-
liah. Isa. 7 : 6. The name is Syriac,
and it has been conjectured that he was
a descendant of Naaman.
TA'BKEIj (God in (/ood), a Persian
officer in Samaria during the reign of
Artaxerxes. Ezr. 4 : 7.
TAB'KKAII (a hiiniiticf), a place
in the wilderness of Paran. Num. 11 :
838
3 ; Dent. 9 : 22. It was also called Kib-
roth-hattaavah,from the pestilence which
followed upon the excess of the Israel-
ites in eating quails. The Israelites
rested there tor at least a month.
TA'BERING. This obsolete word
occurs in Nah. 2 : 7. It means " to beat
as a taber " or " tabret." The picture is
of a company of Ninevite women beat-
ing upon their breasts as players upon
a taber. A taber is a small drum beaten
by one stick, to accompany a pipe.
TAB'ERNACLE probably means
a tent or movable dwelling-place. Ex.
25 : 9. In this sense it is used in Num.
24 : 5 ; Job 11 : 14 ; 22 : 23 ; Matt. 17 :
4, but in the Scriptures geoerally it is
applied to the structure which was pre-
pared by Moses, under the divine direc-
tion, in which the Jews were to worship.
There is undoubted mention in the 0.
T. of two sacred tabernacles, the one
erected in the wilderness and the other
that in which David put the ark, and
where it remained until the completion
of the temple. 2 Sam. 6:17; 1 Kgs. 8 :
1 ; 1 Chr. 16 : 1. The old tabernacle,
meanwhile, was at Gibeon. It is uncer-
tain whether Solomon removed it or the
Davidic tabernacle into the temple —
most likely the latter. 1 Kgs. 8 ; 4.
Some commentators claim that prior to
the Sinaitic tabernacle there was a tent
used for divine worship. They appeal
to Ex. 33. The tabernacle there referred
to was, they say, either the tent Moses
had set apart for this purpose, or a sa-
cred tent the Israelites had possessed in
Egypt. But if the Hebrew verbs, which
are all in the future in this ])assage, are
read in the future tense, then the taber-
nacle meant is that constructed in the
wilderness after the divinely-revealed
plan. See Lange, Comtneutdri/ on Exo-
dus, p. 137.
Our Version often confounds "tent"
and "tabernacle," as in Ex. 33:7-11,
where the word should be *'tcnt" through-
out. The importance of this distinction
is manifest. The Bible account in regard
to this structure is derivcil from Ex. 26
and 36 : 8-38. In this article we follow
TAB
TAB
in the main Mr. Fergusson's article "Tem-
ple" in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible.
" The tabernacle comprised three
main parts — the tabernacle, strictly so
called, its tent, and its coveriny. The
tabernacle itself was to con-
sist of curtains of fine linen
woven with colored figures
of cherubim, and a structure
of boards which was to con-
tain the holy place and the
most holy place ; the tent was
to be a true tent of goats'-
hair clo4;h, to contain and
shelter the tabernacle ; the
covering was to be of red
rams' skins and sealskins,
and was spread over the
goats'-hair tent as an ad-
ditional protection against
the weather." — Bible Com-
mentary, in loco.
The court of the taberna-
cle was surrounded by can-
vas screens. Those of the
tabernacle were 5 cubits
(about 8 feet) in height,
and hung from brazen pil-
lars, 8 feet apart, by hooks
and fillets of silver. Twenty
of these pillars were on each
side, and ten on each end.
The space thus enclosed was
150 feet by 75. The enclo-
sure was only broken on the
eastern side by the entrance,
30 feet wide, which was clos-
ed by a curtain of fine-twined
linen with embroidered fig-
ures of cherubim. This cur-
tain could be drawn up or
aside at pleasure. The pil-
lars were kept firm by cords
an J tent-pins of bronze, had
their capitals overlaid with
silver, and stood on bases
of bronze. Ex. 27 : 9-18.
At the upper end of this
enclosure, and facing the
entrance, which was toward
the east, stood the taberna-
cle itself. This tabernacle
proper was 45 by 15 feet, and 15 feet
high. The sides ano rear were en-
closed with boards, anl the front was
open. Each of these boards was fur- ;
nished with two tenons at its lower ex- i
tremity, which fitted into silver sockets |
placed on the ground. At the top, at
least, they were fastened together by
bars of acacia-wood run through rings
of gold. The middle bar, which reached
from end to end, was, properly speaking,
the ridge-pole of the tent. According-
ly, we must conceive of the tabernacle,
not as having a flat roof, but a pitched
one, like an ordinary tent. See illus-
tration, by which the arrangements of
the coverings will also be understood.
839
TAB
TAB
Over the top was thrown a rich, gor-
geous fabric of various materials, the
connection and disposition of which, as
well as of the other parts of the cover-
ing, are prescribed with the utmost mi-
nuteness. Ex. 26 : 1-aO. The entrance
or door of the tabernacle was covered
with a beautifully-embroidered curtain
suspended on five columns. The inte-
rior was subdivided into two apartments,
separated, each from the other, by a
richly-wrought curtain hanging entirely
across and reaching from the top to the
bottom. This was called '' the veil," or
" second veil," Heb. 9 : 3, because the
first entrance was also curtained. The
outer apartment was called the "holy
place," or " sanctuary," or the " first
tabernacle," and the inner was the " sec-
ond tabernacle," or the " most holy
place," or the " holiest of all." Heb. 9 :
2-8.
As to the furniture of the court, there
were — (1) The altar of burnt-offering,
which stood near the centre of the en-
closure. See Altar. (2) The brazen
laver, Ex. 30: 18, corresponding to the
molten sea, 1 Kgs. 7 : 2.3, which stood
between the altar and the tabernacle, in
its shape resembling an urn . It contained
water for washing the hands and feet of
the priests when they were about to enter
the sanctuary. See Ska. Buazen.
As to the furniture of the tabernacle
itself, there were — ( 1 ) The golden candle-
stick, standing on the left of a person
entering the sanctuary. See Candle-
stick. (2) The table of shew-bread,
opposite to the candlestick. See Shew-
BiiEAD. (3) The alt<a.r of incense, be-
tween the shew-bread and the candle-
stick, and in front of the ark. See Al-
tar. (4) The ark of the covenant. See
Ark.
The tabernacle and its court were fin-
ished with perfect exactness according to
the pattern or model supernaturally re-
vealed to Moses. Hcl). 8 : 5. It is esti-
mated that the silver and gold used in
its construction (to say nothing of the
brass or copper, the wood, the curtains
and canopies, the furniture, etc.) amount-
ed in value to 81.250,000.
When it was finished, after about nine
months' labor, it was consecrated, with
very solemn and imj)osing rites, to the
service of Jehovah. Ex. 30 : 23-33 ; 40 :
y-11 ; Heb. 9:21.
840
While passing through the wilderness
the tabernacle was always pitched in the
midstof the camp. The tents of the priests
and Levites surrounded it in appointed
order, and at some distance from them the
residue of the tribes, in four great divis-
ions consisting of three tribes each, and
each division with its appropriate name
and standard or banner. Num. 2 : 2-34.
The tabernacle and its furniture were
so constructed as to be conveniently ta-
ken down, transported, and set up again,
and particular individuals or classes had
their respeative duties assigned to them.
Every encampment and removal, and
even the order of the march, was direct-
ed expressly by Jehovah. On the day
the tabernacle was completed God re-
vealed himself in a cloud, which over-
shadowed and filled it. By this cloud,
assuming the shape of a pillar or col-
i uran, their subsequent course was gov-
' erned. When it rested over the tent the
people always rested, and when it moved
the tabernacle was taken down, and the
whole host followed wherever it led. In
the night this cloud became bright like
I a pillar of fire, and preceded them in
I like manner. Ex. 40: 35-38; Num. 9:
15-23. When the journeyings of the
people" were ended and they entered Ca-
naan, the tabernacle was erected at Gil-
gal, Josh. 4:19, where it continued un-
til the country was subdued, and then it
was removed to Shiloh, 1 Sam. 1 : 3,
where it stood between three hundred
and four hundred years. It was thence
removed to Nob, 1 Sam. 21 : 1-9, and
thence, in the reign of David, to Gibeon,
1 Chr. 21 : 29, where it was at the com-
mencement of Solomon's reign, 2 Chr. 1 :
1-13; and when the temple was finished,
some suppose the sacred fabric, with its
vessels and furniture, was removed into
it. See Temple.
The "tabernacles" spoken of in Am.
5 : 26 as existing in the northern king-
dom of Israel were probably ])ortable,
carried upon the shoulders, and con-
tained the idol.
TABERNACLE OF WIT'-
NESS, Num. 17 : 7, 8, TAII'ERNA-
CLE OF TEST IMONV. Ex. 38 :
21. These terms may refer to the Law,
which was deposited in the tabernacle,
and which testified to God's authority
and holiness, Ex. 25 : 21, or they may
refer to the revelations which God made
TAB
TAB
of himself in the tabernacle, and by
which he testified his presence and maj-
esty in the most sublime and mj'sterious
manner.
TAB'ERNACLES, FEAST
OF, one of the three greatest Jewish
feasts. The law for it is laid down in
Lev. 23 : 34-43, Num. 29 : 12-40. It
was designed to commemorate the long
tent-life of the Israelites during the
Wandering. The feast began on the
fifteenth day of the seventh month, and
lasted eight days — seven for the feast
and one day for a *' solemn assembly," a
sabbath of rest. In Num. 29 : 12-39 the
proper sacrifices for each day are given.
During the whole time, the people dwelt
in booths. Like the other feasts, the
place for keeping this one was Jerusalem.
The city must have presented a very
animated and picturesque appearance.
The booths were erected on the tops of
houses, in the courts of the temple, and
in the streets and on the neighboring
hills. There was also much innocent
mirth ; indeed, it was distinguished
for this. It was commanded to rejoice
before the Lord. On the first and last
days there was a holy convocation.
Deut. 31 : 10-13 enjoins the reading of
the Law to the whole people every sev-
enth or sabbatical year at the feast of
tabernacles. This regulation, as in-
terpreted by later Jewish practice, is
obeyed by reading, on the first day of
the feast, certain portions of Deuteron-
omy.
In Ex. 23 : 10 this feast is called "the
feast of ingathering," because it cam.e
at the end of the harvest, 15th to 22d
Tisri — September-October. References
to the observance of the feast are found
in the 0. T. in Neb. 8 : 13-18 ; Hos. 12 :
9; Zech. 14 : 16-19, nnd in the N. T. in
John 7 : 2, 37, 38. In the latter passage
our Lord is by some supposed to refer
to a daily custom at the feast, adojited
in later times. The Israelites, dressed
in holiday clothes, repaired to the tem-
ple at the time of morning sacrifice. A
priest then took a golden ewer, holding
about two ])ints and a half, went to the
pool of Siloam, filled his ewer, and re-
turned to the temple by the Water-gate.
His approach was the signal for a blast
of trumpets. Before the peojile he as-
cended the steps of the altar, and poured
the water into that one of the two silver
842
basins which was on the eastern side.
Into the other wine wiis poured. There
were small openings in the bottoms of
each, and so the two streams flowed,
mingled together, through pipes, into
the Kidron. But on the eighth day this
ceremony was omitted. Hence our Lord
on that day offers himself to the people
as the Source of living waters.
Again, in John 8:12, some see an al-
lusion to another post-biblical ceremony
in this pre-eminently popular feast; viz,
to the torch-feast — /'. e., the lighting of
the great golden candelabras in the court
of the women on the evening of the first
day of the feast. Before them the men
performed a torchlight dance with music
and singing.
TAB'ITHA {fjnzelle), an exemplary
disciple of Christ at Joppa, whose deeds
of benevolence had greatly endeared her
to the people. After she was dead and
her body prepared for the grave, she
was miraculously restored to life through
the instrumentality of Peter. Acts 9 :
36-40.
TA'BLE. The table of ancient
times was nothing but a circular skin
or piece of leather spread upon the mat-
ted or carpeted floor, and this, at home
as well as by the way, answered for table
and cloth. Near the edges of this leath-
ern tray there are holes or loops, through
which, when the meal is coinplefed, a
cord is drawn, by means of which the
whole affair is compressed into a small
compass and hung upon a nail. Bread
was kneaded upon it.
The nearest approach to what we c:ill
a table is a mere stool, which is placed
in the centre of the leather we have
mentioned. This might be intended in
Jud. 1 : 7. Its only use is to hold the
principal dish or dishes. There have
been seen among the Arabian nobles and
in cities long tables. These, however,
were only a span high and not a yard
wide, and were entirely uncovered, and
usually held nothing but the dishes.
More frequently all such conveniences
are wanting, and the dishes stand on the
leather.
Instead of a table-cloth, there is spread
round the leathern tray a long cloth, or
two such cloths, of a dark color, which
prevent the soiling of the carpet. Among
poorer people there is nothing of the kind,
and every one uses his handkerchief by
TAB
TAB
way of napkin. Instead of plates, there
are set thin, round cakes of a coarse kind.
After the Captivity raised tables like
ours became common, and the Persian
practice of reclining on couches at meals
was introduced. For the manner of sit-
ting, see Seats, Eat.
In Mark 7:4'' tables " is a mistrans-
lation for ''beds" or "couches." The
"writing-table" of Zacharias, Luke 1 :
63, was a waxed tablet, on which one
wrote with a stylus.
TA'BLES, TO SERVE. Acts 6 :
2. This expression may denote either
actual attendance upon the gathering
and distribution of food for the poor, or
attention to the pecuniary affairs of the
church. The word is used for the '* tables "
of money-changers. Matt. 21:12; John
2 : 15.
TAB'LET. See Book, Table.
TA'BOR {monnd, height). 1. A\
mountain of Palestine; by Greek and
Roman writers called Itabyrion and
Atybyrion ; now known by the Arabic
name of Jebel et-Tnr. Tabor is situated
on the north-eastern edge of the great
plain of Esdraelon, and on the borders
between Zebulun and Naphtali. It is 6
miles south of east from Nazareth, and
10 miles south of west from the southern
extremity of the Sea of Tiberias.
History. — The position of Tabor, over-
looking the great battle-plain of Pales-
tine, Esdraelon, made it a suitable place
for the Israelites to assemble for battle.
There Barak gathered his forces — 10,000
men — for the overthrow of Sisera. Jud.
4 : 6-14. Some of Israel's warriors had
been slain there by the Midianites before
Gideon's victory. Jud. 8 : 18. Tabor is
extolled with Hermon in Ps, 89 : 12, and
mentioned with Carmel in Jer. 46 : 18.
Idolatries practised upon that mountain
were a " net spread upon Tabor." Hos.
5 : 1. Tabor is not mentioned in the N.
T. A tradition dating certainly as early
as Origen and Jerome made this the
Mount of Transfiguration. Mark 9:2-!
10. But the summit of Tabor must at
that time have been covered with houses,
since the townwas then existing which \
Antiochus the Great founded, b. c. 218, j
on the top of the hill. Furthermore, the \
Mount of Transfiguration was probably
in the region of Ctesarea-Philippi, as the
transfiguration occurred only a few days
after Christ had arrived at that place and !
solicited the great confession of Peter.
However, the legend attached to Tabor
led to the erection, before the end of
the sixth century, of three churches, in
memory of the three tabernacles. After-
ward the Crusaders erected a church and
a monastery, which were destroyed by
the Muslims.
Present Appearance. — Mount Tabor is
one of the most remarkable of the moun-
tains of Palestine. It rises from the
plain as an isolated mass, only connected
on the west by a low and narrow ridge
with the hills of Nazareth. Its appear-
ance varies with the point of observation.
From the south it has the form of a dome
or the arc of a circle ; from the west-
north-west, that of a truncated cone. It
rises from the surrounding table-land to
the height of 1053 feet, and its summit
is 2018 feet above the Mediterranean.
The ascent is steep and rugged, but
persons can reach the summit on horse-
back. The time required for ascending
is about an hour. The southern slope is
of barren limestone rock ; the other sides
are wooded with the oak, terebinth, mock-
orange, and trees *' resembling the scat-
tered glades in the outskirts of the New
Forest." The soil is fertile, yielding
luxuriant pasture. Partridges, hares,
foxes, and other kinds of game abound.
Porter speaks of seeing jackals, wolves,
and a panther while he was visiting Ta-
bor. The mountain has a flat summit a
little less than a quarter of a mile long
and an eighth of a mile wide. Two
monasteries of comparatively modern
date occupy the top of the hill, one be-
longing to the Greeks and the other to
the Latins. There are also ruins of tow-
ers, fortifications, vaults, cisterns, and
other structures of various periods, Jew-
ish, Greek, Roman, Christian, Saracenic,
Frank, and Turk, blended together in
a confused mass. The view from the
summit of Tabor is the best in all Cen-
tral Palestine. To the north and east
are Mount Hermon. the Sea of Galilee,
the mountains of Bashan and Gilead ;
to the south and west, the great plain
of Esdraelon, Gilboa, Carmel, and the
Mediterranean. Standing on this spot,
the traveller sees why Tabor was the
gathering-place of the northern tribes,
and can trace out the great battlefields
below.
2. A city in Zebulun, assigned to the
843
TAB
TAD
Levites. 1 Chr. 6 : 77. Probably the
same as Chisluth-taboh, which see.
TABOR, THE PLAIN OF.
This should rather be the '• oak " or
"terebinth of Tabor." It is mentioned
only in 1 Sam. 10 : 3. What is meant
by "Tabor" it is impossible to say. It
has been suggested that " the oak of
Tabor" was the same as the " Allon-
bachuth" the oak under which l>eborah
was buried. Gen. 35 : 8. But Conder
proposes to identify this Tabor with tl-
Bukeia, a plain south of Jerusalem.
TAB'RET. See Timbrel.
TAB'KI>ION {lii„»m,ni is hi,,,]),
the father of Benhadaib I., king of Syria,
a contemjiorary of Asa, king of Judah.
1 Kgs. 16 : 18.
TACH'ES were hooks or clasps of
gold and copper, used in connecting tlie
curtains of the tabernacle. Ex. 26 : 6, 11.
TACH'MONITE, a corruption for
" Hachmonite," the apjiellation of Jasho-
beam. 2 Sam. 23 : 8 : cf. 1 Chr. 11 : 11.
TACK'LING. Isa. 33:23; Acts
27 : ly. Strictly, in the former pas-
sage, it is used for the ropes attached
to the mast: in the latter it is used
loosely, and imports the sails, cordage,
baggage, and indeed all the instruments
of sailing except the anchors or what
was indispensable to the preservation
of the ship.
TAD'MOR(Heb. rn^/rr;-, "palms"),
a city in the wilderness, built bv Solomon.
1 Kgs. 9:18; 2 Chr. 8 : 4. There is no
Temple of the Suu.
Taduior ( i';ilniyi;i;.
Street of Culuujiii
other Scripture mention of this city, and
hence no other clue to its site or after-
history. It has usually been identified
with the famous city of Palmyra. Some
critics, indied, assert that there is little
authority for the insertion of the letter d
in the name mentioned in these passages,
and would make the place built rather
Tamar. on the south of the confines of
Judah. Eze. 47:iy. Palmyra was within
the extensive em])ire of Solomon, and
it is most natural to identify Tadmor
with it.
SUudtidi,. — Palmyra occupied the most
favorable position on the great caravan-
1 route between ilie rich cities of the East
i and the ports of the Mediterranean. A
spring of good water makes it a natural
halting-place. It was 120 miles north-
east of Damascus and 60 miles from the
Euphrates, according to the liihlical Edu-
i-ator, but Baedekers Handbook makes
it a five davs' journey with camels, in
long. 38^= 30'' E."and lat. 33° .58' N.
Htxiiinj. — Pahnyra has no Scripture
history, and hence only a brief sketch
of it need be given here. It was men-
tioned by Pliny, Josephus, Jerome, and
other early writers. About a. d. 2(50 it
became famous in Iloman history from
845'
TAH
TAH
Zenobia, "the Queen of the East," a
woman of extraordinary ability. After
the assassination of her husband, Oden-
athus, she ruled the realm, and under
her Palmyra reached the height of its
glory, extending its su])remacy over
Syria, Mesopotamia, and even parts of
Egypt. She was subdued by the Ro-
man emperor Aurelinn, and led through
the streets of Rome to grace the empe-
ror's triumphal procession. The inhab-
itants of Palmyra afterward revolted,
and were slain in great numbers by the
Romans. Later, Palmyra was merely
a frontier-town in the direction of the
wilderness, fortified by Justinian. In
1173 the rabbi Benjamin of Tudela
found a considerable colony of Jews
there. It then fell into oblivion until
visited by members of the English
factory at Aleppo, in 1678. Since then
the city has been explored and de-
scribed by many travellers.
Present Condition. — Porter says : " In
describing the ruins of Palmyra, it
would be almost impossible to exag-
gerate. There is nothing like them
in the world. In no other spot in the
world can we find such vast numbers
of temples, palaces, colonnades, tombs,
and monuments grouped together so as
to be seen at a single glance. The ruins
extend over a plain about '•^ or 4 miles in
circuit. The most noteworthy are,
" 1. The Temple df the ,•?»,».— This was
dedicated to Baal. The edifice was en-
closed by an outer wall, 256 yards in
length and 50 feet high, flanked by
pilasters 68 feet high. On the north
side this wall is still tolerably pre-
served. Round the whole of the inte-
rior ran a double colonnade or cloister
like that surrounding the court of the
Gentiles in the temple at Jerusalem.
The number of columns was three
hundred and ninety. Near the centre
of the court is the temple proper, 65
yards long and 34 yards wide, and still
well preserved. In the great court is
an Arab village of some fifty houses.
"2. The Street of CohniniH. — This ex-
tends from the temple of the Sun west-
ward across the plain, through the cen-
tre of the ancient city. It vvas 1 240 yards
in length, and consisted of rows of col-
umns 55 feet high. Wood thought there
were four rows of columns, making the
original number about fifteen hundred.
846
Baedeker supposes a double row having
seven hundred and fifty columns. About
one hundred and fifty of these are yet
existing.
"3. The Tombs. — Some of these are of
great magnificence, and appear to have
been intended for temples as well as
tombs. The inscriptions show that
these tombs mostly belong to the first
three centuries of our era. The an-
cient name is still retained in the form
of Thachnor."
TA'HAN {station, camp), an Ephra-
imite. Num. 26 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 25.
TA'HANITES, the descendants
of Tahan. Num." 26 : 35.
TAHAP'ANES. Jer. 2: 16. See
Tahpanhes.
TA'HATH (station). 1. A Levite.
1 Chr. 6 : 24. 37.
2, 3. Two Ephraimites. 1 Chr. 7 : 20.
TA'HATH ( plfice, station), one of
the camping-stations of Israel in the
wilderness. Num. 33 : 26, 27. Palmer
notes that the difficulty at Kibroth-hat-
taavah began with the mixed multitude,
"or riffraff," and he found a Wddy Tah-
I meh, and " Tahmeh " denotes, in Arabic,
I " a mixed multitude in a state of sedition."
I Tahath is probably to be found in the
I region of the Tyahah Arabs, sind at
i Jchel et-Tih.
j TAH'PANHES, a city on the
I Tanitic branch of the*^Nile, in Lower
Egypt, and called Tahapanes and Te-
haphnehes ; possibly the Hanes of Isa.
30 : 4 ; Jer. 2 : 16*: 43 : 7, 8, 9 ; 44 :
1; 46:14; Eze. 30:18. The name
resembles that of the Egyptian queen
Tahpenes, referred to in 1. Kgs. 11 : 18-
20. .Jeremiah, after the murder of Ged-
aliah, was taken to this place, and Pha-
raoh had a palace buiit or restored there,
made of clay in a brick-kiln. The chil-
dren of Noph (Memj)his) and of Taha-
panhes are used to represent the entire
body of the Egyptians. Jer. 2:16. It
is identical with the Daphne of the
Greeks. The site of Daphne is sup-
posed to be marked by a mound called
Tel De/enneh, which lies nearly in a
direct line between the modern Z/tn
and Piunium.
TAH'PE\ES (head of the world n,
the queen of Egvpt, whose sister Hadad
marricl. 1 Kgs! il : 18-20. The Pharaoh
belonged to the twenty-second dynasty.
TAHRE'A (cnnniny), a descendant
TAH
TAN
of Saul, 1 Chr. 9 : 41 ; called Tarea in
8 : 35.
TAH'TIM-HOD'SHI, THE
LAND OF. This is admitted to be
an inaccurate text, but neither the Sep-
tuagint nor the Syriac version throws
light on the true reading. The land
was visited by Joab while taking the
census of the land of Israel. 2 Saiu.
24 : 6. Some make it a proper name,
some translate it as above ; others trans-
late the first part, and make " Hodshi "
a proper name. This is done by Fiirst,
who makes Hodshi a city in Northern
Palestine. Porter (in Kitto) says it was
manifestly a section of the upper valley
of the Jordan, probably that now called
Ard-el-HQleh, lying deep down at the
western base of Hermou. Fausset places
it east of the Jordan.
TAL'EXT. See Measurks.
TAL'ITHA-CU'MI, a phrase in
the Syro-Chaldaic language, the lit-
eral translation of which is given by
the evangelist: "Damsel" (or "maid-
en"), "arise." Mark 5 : 41. This name
is now given to an excellent female
training-school founded and conducted
by the Sisters of Kaisorswerth, in Jeru-
salem, outside of the Jaffa-gate.
TAL'MAI {hrntherhi). 1. A son of
Anak. Num. 13 : 22 ; Josh. 15 : 14 j Jud.
1:10.
2. A king of Geshur, father-in-law of
David. 2 Sam. 3 : 3.
TAL'3ION (opprenned), a Levite,
one of the heati-doorkeepers in the tem-
ple, whose descendants returned with
Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 9 : 17: Ezr. 2 : 42 :
Neh. 7 : 45: 11 : 19: 12 : 25.
TAL'MUDjTHE (tenchfvr,). This
body of Jewish laws upon all topics is
divided into two parts — the Misfmn, or
the text, and the Gemnra, or commentary.
The Mishna ("repetition") is a collec-
tion of various Jewish traditions, with
expositions of Scripture-texts. These, the
Jews pretend, were delivered to Mo?es
on the mount, and were transmitted from
him. through Aaron, Eleazar, and. Joshua,
to the prophets, and by them to the men
of the Gre^t Synagogue and their suc-
cessors until the second Christian cen-
tury, when Rabbi Jehuda reduced them to
writing, and so he is the collector of the
existing Mishna. The Gemara ("teach-
ing") is the whole body of controversies
and teachings which arose in the acade-
mies after the close of the Mishna. There
are two of them, known, in connection
with the Mishna, as the Jerusalem Tal-
mud (third and fifth century), prepared
by the rabbis of Tiberias, and the Baby-
lonian Talmud (fifth century).
The Talmud is useful as an aid in
studying the teaching of Christ. It
explains some of his allusions, and, as
a Teacher sent from God, proves his
unique superiority to the Jewish doc-
tors of the Law.
TA'MAH (lanc/hter), the ancestor of
Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel,
Neh. 7 : 55 : called Thamah in Ezr. 2 : 5.3.
TA'3IAR ipnhn tree). 1. The wife
of Er and Onan successively, the sons
of Judah. The patriarch refused to give
her his remaining son, Shelah, and there-
fore Tamar, in order to remove the re-
proach of childlessness, and likewise to
be revenged on Judah, contrived to in-
duce the latter to unintentionally commit
incest. The story is told in Gen. 38.
2. The sister of Absalom, whom Am-
non, bv artifice, defiled. 2 Sam. 13; 1
Chr. 3*: 9.
3. A daughter of Absalom. 2 Sam.
14 : 27.
TA'MAR (palm tree), a place on the
south-eastern frontier of Judah. Eze.
47 : 1 9 ; 48 : 28. According to Eusebius
and Jerome, it was a day's journey south
of Hebron toward.Eiim. Bobinson iden-
tified it with the ruins of Knrxnh, about
a day's journey south of el-Milh (Mala-
tha or Maladah) ; Wilton identifies it with
Hazar-gaddah ; but both these sites are
as yet only conjectural. Some suppose
that this, instead of Palmyra, was the
" Tadmor in the wilderness" built by
Solomon. See Tadmor.
TAM'MUZ {sproul of life), probably
the same with the Adonis of Grecian
mythology, who was fabled to have been
killed by a wild boar while hunting, and
to have been passionately bewailed by
Venus. The worship of Tammuz, as
conducted in Syria, was accompanied
with obscene rites. It took place in
Julv. Eze. 8 : 14.
TA'NACH. Josh. 21 : 25. See
Taanach.
TAN'HUMETH {comfort), the
father of a captain under Gedaliah.
2 Kgs. 25 : 23 ; Jer. 40 : 8.
TA'NIS. Eze. 30 : 14, margin. See
ZOAN.
847
TAN
TAR
TAIV'NER. The occupation of
tanning was considered disreputable in
antiquity, especially by the Jews. Ac-
cordingly, tanners were obliged to carry
on their trade outside of the town, as is
the case in the East at the present day.
Peter showed his independence in stop-
ping with Simon, a tanner, at Joppa.
Acts 9 : 43.
TA'PHATH (drop), Solomon's
daughter, who married the son of
Abinadnb. 1 Kgs. 4 : 11.
TAP'PUAH {apple free), a de-
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 48.
TAP'PUAH {{qiple-vegion), a name
for two places.
1. A city in the plain-country of
Judah, Josh, 15 : 34 ; probably the same
as Beth-tappuah, now Teffiih, 4 miles
north-north-west of Hebron, Ganneau
suggested its identity with Artitf.
2. A place on the border of Ephraim
and Manasseh, Josh. 16 : 8 ; 17 : 8 ;
probably the same as En-tappuah. Josh.
17 : 7. Around the city was a district
called the land of Tappuah ; the city
belonged to Ephraim, and the land to
Manasseh. Josh, 17 : 8, It was ap-
parently near the torrent Kanah, but
has not been identified. Which of the
two places above mentioned is referred
to in .Tosh. 12 : 17 is uncertain.
TA'RAH {.station^ a station of the
Israelites in the wilderness, between
Tahath and Milcah, Xum. 33 : 27, 28 ;
possibly in the region of the Tawaruh
Arabs.
TAR'ALAH (a reeJiitfj), a city in
Benjamin, between Irpeel and Zelah.
Josh. 18 : 27.
TA'REA ( flir/hf). See Tahrea.
TARES, bearded darnel {LnHum
temnlentnm), a grass sometimes found in
our own grain-fields, but very common
in Eastern countries. Matt. 13 : 2.').
Until the head ap[)ears its resemblance
to wheat is very close. The seed is
noxious, even when ground with wheat
in small quantities producing dizziness,
and in larger proportions convulsions
and death. Many instances of such
pernicious efTects are on record, some
having been observed in England.
Owing to its smaller size, the grain
of tares is readily separated from wheat
by winnowing. Travellers describe the
process of pulling up this grass and
separating it from the genuine grain,
848
Tares.
and their descriptions perfectly accord
with the language of our Saviour in
the parable.
TAR'GET. 1 Sam. 17 : fi. See Armor.
TAR'PELITES, THE, an As-
syrian people sent to colonize Samaria.
Ezr. 4 : 9.
TAR'SHISH, AND THAR'-
SHISH (ror/.7/ ground?). 1 Kgs. 10:
22: 22:48, In the genealogies given
in Genesis we find''Elishah and Tar-
shish, Kittim and Dodanim. By these
were the isles of the Gentiles divided in
their lands." Gen. 10 : 4, 5. We read
of "the kings of Tarshish and of the
isles." Ps. 72: 10. Solomon's "ships
went to Tarshish with the servants of
Iluram ; ever}' three years once came
the ships of Tarshish, bringing gold
and silver, ivory, and apes, and pea-
cocks." 2 Chr. 9 : 21. Tarshish is men-
tioned with difitunt places: "The isles
afar off." Isa. 66 : 19. It must have been
on the seacoast, for we frequently read
of the " ships " and the '' navy " of Tar-
shish. See 1 Kgs. 10 : 22; Ps. 48 : 7 ;
Isa. 2 : Ki ; 23 : I, 14 ; 60 : 9 ; Eze. 27 :
25. It was the seat of a vast and profit-
able commerce with Tyre. Eze. 27 :
12-2.'). .Jonah embarked from Joppa
for Tarshish. Jon. 1 : 3; 4 : 2.
TAR
TAX
Situation. — There has been much dis-
cussion as to the site of Tarshish.
1. Some have identified it with Tarsus
in Cilicia. There is a similarity in the
names, and there has always existed an
extensive commerce between Joppa and
Tarsus, so that vessels were constantly
passing from one port to the other. The
Arabs identify Tarshish with Tarsus.
But this opinion is very slenderly
supported.
2. Most scholars would identify Tar-
shish with the southern part of Spain
and with Tartessus. This was a Phoe-
nician colony, the emporium for the
products of Spain as well as the Phoe-
nician dep6t for the exports from Great
Britain. Thus there was an extensive
trade in the various products mentioned
as carried by the ships of Tarshish.
Eze. 27 : 12; corap. Jer. 10 : 9. But
from the fact that ships of Tarshish
sailed also from Ezion-geber, on the Bed
Sea, 1 Kgs. 9 : 20 ; 22 : 48 ; 2 Chr. 9 :
21 ; 20 : 36, some have inferred that
there was also a Tarshish in the re-
mote East. Others, however, suppose
that "ships of Tarshish" was the gen-
eral name for a certain class of vessels
fitted for long voyages, like the British
East Indiamen, and hence not neces-
sarily trading to an Eastern port of
the name of Tarshish.
TAR'SUS, celebrated as the birth-
place of the apostle Paul. Acts 9:11,
30 ; 11 : 25 ; 21 : 39 : 22 : 3. It was the
capital of Cilicia, in Asia Minor, and
'* no mean city." It stood in the centre
of a spacious and fertile plain, 12 miles
from the Mediterranean, which lay to the
south, and about the same distance from
the Taurus range, on the north. The
city stood on both banks of the river
Cydnus, which has since changed its
channel. At the mouth of the river
were docks, and the port of Tarsus
was a place of much commerce, being,
indeed, identified by some writers with
Tarshish, which see.
Tarsus was said to have been founded
by the Assyrian Sardanapalus. It suf-
fered severely during the civil wars fol-
lowing the assassination of Caesar. Au-
gustus made it a free city. It possessed
a Roman stadium and gymnasium, and
became famous as the seat of one of
the three great universities of the pagan
world, ranking next to Athens and
54
Alexandria. The imperial family of
Rome selected tutors from the literati
of Tarsus. Hence the boyhood of the
apostle Paul was passed in a city not
only of great commercial importance,
but one offering opportunities for secu-
lar learning as well. The modern city
is called Tosonn. It stands about a
mile from the Cydnus, and is a mean
Turkish town with narrow and filthy
streets and low, flat-roofed houses. The
population is about 30,000 during the
winter season. In summer it is re-
duced to 4000 or 5000 by the migration
of the inhabitants on account of the
miasma, which renders the city un-
healthy.
TAR'TAK (prince of darkness), one
of the gods of the Arvites, colonists
whom Shalmaneser placed in Samaria
to occupy the land after the original
inhabitants had been removed. 2 Kgs.
17 : 31. It has been identified with
the Accadian god Turtak, who specially
watched over the Tigris.
TAR'TAN. 2 Kg?. 18:17. It is
the name of an office — commander-in-
chief of an army — not a proper name.
TAT'NAI ((/ift), a Persian governor
in Palestine. Ezr". 5 : 3. 6; 6 : fi, 13.
TAVERNS, THE THREE, a
place where some of the " brethren "
came to meet ,Paul on his journey to
Rome, and, by their coming the apostle
took fresh courage. Acts 28 : 13-15.
It was on the Ap])ian Way, 33 miles
south-east from Rome, and 10 miles
from Appii Forum. It was also at the
junction of the road from Antium,
and a great number of travellers passed
through it. It may have taken its name
from the three taverns or places of re-
freshment for travellers. But Luke does
not translate the Roman word, but simply
transfers it into Greek as " Tres Ta-
bernae." There are no remains of The
Three Taverns by name at the present
day, but the site may be placed near
the modern Cistema.
TAXES. As the government of the
Jews shifted from the lax rule of the
Judges to the firmer hold of the kings,
and from a domestic to a foreign power,
the taxes and the mode of their collec-
tion likewise altered. Taxes were first
exacted for religious purposes — for the
support of the priests and Levites.
They were called the Tithks, First-
849
TAX
TAX
FRUITS, and the Redemption money
(see separate titles). "The payment
by eaeh Israelite of the half shekel as
atonement-money for the service of the
tabernacle on taking the census of the
people, Ex. 30 : 13, does not appear to
have had the character of a recurring
tax, but to have been supplementary to
the freewill-offering levied for the con-
struction of the sacred tent." Ex. 25 :
1-7. The taxes were light; when the
Jews got a king their burdens were
largely increased. In addition to forced
military service, heavy taxes were laid
upon the productions, monopolies sprang
up. 1 Kgs. 10 : 28, 29. We find the most
detailed account of these taxes in the
history of Solomon's reign, but doubt-
less the same phenomena appeared in
all subsequent reigns. Great complaints
were made. 1 Kgs. 12 : 4. The idolatry
of the king occasioned less anxiety than
his extravagance. The pocket is touched
sooner than the heart. The Persians,
like all conquerors, required the con-
quered to pay heavily. A wise man
like Nehemiah did what he could to
lessen the evils, but he was only par-
tially successful. He exercised economy,
and refused for himself the usual sup-
plies furnished for the governor. Neh.
5 : 14. Read Neh. 5 : 1-1 1 for a sad
picture of the times. This taxation
led, apparently, to such a neglect of
the tithes that a special poll-tax of
one-third, Neh. 10 : 33, afterward in-
creased to one-half, a shekel was laid
for the temple-services. The latter
amount was exacted in N. T. times.
Matt. 17 : 24.
During the Gracco-Egyptian period,
which followed, there was a continuance
of oppression, owing to the wretched
system of "farming" the revenues.
This, of course, led to incalculable
troubles. After the Romans had made
themselves masters of Palestine they
left the collection of the taxes to the
native kings, who were required to send
a large tribute yearly to Rome. But
when the Jewish kings gave waj' to
Roman governors, then the system of
tax-collection so familiar to us by the
N. T. came into vogue. It was a tax
on poll and ground, on product of field
and hand. " There were duties to be
paid at harbors and the gates of cities,
and there was also a house-tax in .feru-
850
salera, but Agrippa I. remitted it."
Under these payments the people
groaned, but particularly because it
was a galling proof of their subjection.
TAXING, DAYS OF THE,
mentioned in Luke 2 : 2. Properly it
was an enrolment, like our census, but,
as its object was taxation, there was a
registration of property. It was held,
under an imperial order, through all the
Roman world. We read of another en-
rolment in Acts 5 : 37. That Joseph and
Martj were enrolled proves that the Ro-
man and the Jewish usages were em-
ployed— tribal registration, which was
the Jewish usage, supplemented by fam-
ily, '' for the Romans required the enrol-
ment of women, and possibly their actual
presence at the place of enrolment. This
mixture of Roman and Jewish usage, so
likely to occur in an enrolment made
under a Jewish king, yet by order of the
Roman emperor, is a strong proof of the
accar;icy of Luke's account." And yet
upon this circumstance depended the
Bethlehemie birth of Jesus ! " The Sa-
viour of the world was registered in the
first census of the world." There is no
direct proof that Augustus ordered a
universal census, but it is reasonably
inferred, from the known fact that he
prepared a list of all the resources of
his empire, which was read in the
senate after his death. Herod mani-
festly could not resist such an order,
inasmuch as he was but a tributary
king. And, as Dr. Woolsey says, "if
the census was made under the direc-
tion of the president of Sj'ria, by Jew-
ish officers, it would not greatly differ
from a similar registration made by
Herod, nor need it have alarmed the
Jews if carefully managed."
The interesting question in connection
with this enrolment is, " How can we
vindicate the veracity of Scripture in say-
ing that it was first made when Cyreni-
us (P. Sulpicius Quirinius) was governor
of Syria?" To this question, for a long
time, no definite answer could be given.
It formed one of the commonplaces of
infidelity. Josephus states that Quirinius
came to Juda;a as imperial legate, and
in A. n. fi or 7 he completed a census.
But this date is ten years after our Lord's
birth. The best explanation of the
difficulty is to maintain that Quirinius
was iioice governor of Syria, as lately
TEA
TEL
proved — the first time before Christ's
birth, or B. c. 4-1 ; the second time,
A. D. 6 onward. See Cyrenius.
TEARS, Allusion is supposed to
be made in Ps. 66 : 8 to an ancient
custom, which was preserved among the
Romans, of collecting the falling tears
of mourners at funerals and putting
them into a bottle or urn, called a
"lachrymatory," or "tear-bottle." The
vessel was afterward fixed upon the
sepulchres of the dead, thus seeming to
preserve a memorial of the affection and
grief of the survivors.
TE'BAH {slaughter), eldest of the
sons of Xahor by his concubine Reumah.
Gen. 22 : 24.
TEBALI'AH {Jehovah purifies),
third son of Hosah, of the children of
Merari. 1 Chr. 26 : 11.
TE'BETH. Esth.2:]6. See Month.
TEETH. Gen. 49 : 12. See Tooth.
TEHAPH'NEHES. Eze. 30 : 18.
See Tahp.whes.
TEHIN'NAH {cnj for mere,/), the
father or founder of Ir-nahash — the citv
of Nahash — and son of Eshton. 1 Chr.
4:12.
TEIL TREE. The word thus
rendered in Isa. 6 : 13 is translated
"elm" in Hos. 4:13 and "oak" in
many passages, which are mentioned
under Oaks. See also Nuts. In most,
perhaps all, of these places the terebinth
{PtHtacia of several species) is doubtless
meant.
This tree has pinnate leaves, small
red berries, and belongs to the order of
the sumac. According to the writer's
observation, the terebinth was most
abundant fn the North of Palestine, and
especially above Lake Merom, where
somp of these trees were very sym-
metrical, dense, and spreading, with
luxuriant foliage of a blue-green, afford-
ing a delightful shelter, if not appropri-
ated as Arab burying-places. Such
specimens show that the terebinth, if
suffered to reach age, is a noble tree, and
that Absalom might easily have been
caught in riding under one of them. It
is an Eastern idea that this tree lives a
thousand years, and when it dies the race
is renewed by young shoots from the
root; so that the tree may, in a sense,
be called perpetual. Hence the allusion
in Isa. 6:13.
" In Smyrna, Constantinople, and other
Eastern cities the cypress overshadows
the Mu.^lim's grave, but the terebinth
the Armenian's. They say that this
homeless people brought this tree with
them from the shores of Lake Van, and
love to see those who are dear to them
sheltered in their last sleep by its ances-
tral shade." — Wnrburton.
TE'KEL. Dan. 5 : 25. See Menr.
TEKO'A, AND TEKO'AH ( pitch-
ing of tents/), a city on the borders of
the desert to which it gave its name:
" The wilderness of Tekoah." 2 Chr. 20 :
20; Jer. 6:1. It was colonized bv Asher,
1 Chr. 2 : 24; 4:5: fortified by Reho-
boam. 2 Chr. 11 : 6. The "wise woman"
who interceded for Absalom resided here,
2 Sam. 14 : 2, 4, 9, and here also was the
birthplace and residence of the prophet
Amos. Am. 1 : 1. Tekoa was situated
about 5 miles south of Bethlehem, at .a
place still called Teh'un, on a broad hill-
top. The region is bleak and desolate,
and the inhabitants wild and uncivil.
There is a fine view toward the east, and
the Dead Sea is visible. " The ruins at
this place are extensive [covering 4 or 5
acres], but uninteresting. To the east
are many excavated caves and cisterns,
but the town itself is simply a heap of
ruins, the stones of which are small and
friable." There are ruins of a Greek
church and baptismal font and of a fort-
ress.
TEKO'ITES, inhabitants of Te-
koa. 2 Sam. 23 : 26; 1 Chr. 11 : 28 ; 27 :
9: Xeh. 3 : 5, 27.
TEL'ABIB {cnru-hiU), a city of
Chaldaea or Babylonia, on the river
Chebar, the residence of Ezekiel. Eze.
3:15.
TE'LAH {breach), an Ephraimite.
1 Chr. 7 : 25.
TEL. 'AIM {ynuytg Inmbs), the place
where Saul collected and numbered his
host before his attack on Amalek. 1 Sara.
15 : 4. Possibly it may be identical with
Telem, as suggested by Wilton, who sup-
poses it to have been at El Kuseir, a
ruin between the Dead Sea and Beer-
sheba. See Tki-em.
TELAS'SAR, and THELA'S AR
{the hill, of Asshur), a place inhabited by
the "children of Eden " and subdued by
the Assyrians. 2 Kgs. 19 : 12; Isa. 37 :
12. Rawlinson puts it in Western Meso-
potamia, near Harran and Orfa; Layard
at Tell Afer, 40 miles west of Mosul.
851
TEL
TEM
TE'LiEM (oppressioti), a temple-
porter. Ezr. 10 : 24.
TE'LEM (oppressiou), a city in the
South of Judah, occurring between Ziph
and Bealoth. Josh. 15 : 24. It is possibly
identical with Telaim, which see. Wil-
ton associates it with Dhiilldm, a district
south-east of Beersheba, in the neigh-
borhood of Moladah {el-Milh), and per-
haps, it may be, at Kiihbet el-Baul.
TEL'HARE'SHA, and TEL-
HAR'SA {/orext hill), a place in
Babylonia from which some Jews who
could not prove their pedigree returned
to Judjea with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 59;
Neh. 7 : 61, Rawliuson thinks it was in
the low country near the sea; Fiirst
places it in Upper Mesopotamia, on the
Chebar.
TEL-illE'LAH (salt /nV/), .a place
in Babylonia from which persons of
doubtful pedigree returned. Ezr. 2 : 59 ;
Neh. 7:61. Rawlinson would identify
it with a city near the Persian Gulf, the
Tlielme of Ptolemy ; Fiirst would place
this also near to Tel-harsa, in Upper
Mesopotamia.
TE'MA (suiith deaert), an Tshniaelite
tribe descended from Tema, Gen. 25 : 15 ;
1 Chr. 1 : 30, and settled in Arabia. Tema
is mentioned with Sheba, Job 6:19, and
with Dedan. Isa. 21 : 14 ; Jer. 25 : 23.
On the great caravan-road from Damas-
cus to Mecca and on the eastern border
of Syria is a town called Teymn', near
Dumah and Kedar, which is supposed to
represent Tema.
TE'MAN {Houth desert), a country
named from the oldest son of Eliphaz, the
son of Esau. Gen. 36: 11. These people
were called Temani, or Temanites, and
seem to have been noted for wisdom.
Jer. 49 : 7 ; Ob. 9. They are especially
mentioned in the prediction against
Edom. Jer. 49 : 7 ; Eze. 25 : 13 : Am. 1 :
12; Ob. 9; Hab. 3 : 3. Their country
seems to have been the south-eastern
])art of Edom, the land of " the sons of
the east." P^usebius and Jerome men-
tion a Teman 15 miles from Petra.
TEMANI, AND TF/MANITE.
Gen. 36 : 34 : Job 2 : 1 1. etc. See Tkman.
TEM'ENI, the father of Tckoa. 1
Chr. 4 : 6.
TEM'PERANCE, in the A. V.,
does not mean moderation only in the
use of wine or other drink, but nelf-con-
trol leading to moderation in everything.
852
It is to be regretted that this good word
should be doubly perverted — first in the
direction mentioned above, and second
to mean total abstinence from drink.
This perversion leads to inaccurate
thinking. 1 Cor. 9 : 25.
TEM'PLiE, the sacred edifice erected
at Jerusalem upon Mount Moriah. See
Jerusalem. In its general form it
resembled its prototype, the tabernacle,
after which it was modelled. There are
three temples mentioned in the Bible.
We shall treat them in their historic
order.
1. The Temple of Solomou. — The idea
of building a temple to take the place of
the tabernacle as the permanent place
of worship for the Jewish Church was
first, it would seem, the idea of David.
1 Chr. 17 : 1. And, although forbidden
by the Lord from beginning the work,
he ever held it in mind, and joyfully
accumulated from the spoils of his
enemies and from the revenue of his
kingdom a fund for this purpose. In
1 Chr. 22 : 14 the amount is thus given
in the chronicler's report of David's
speech to Solomon : " I have prepared
for the house of the Lord one hundred
thousand talents of gold and one million
talents of silver, and of brass and of iron
without weight." Reckoning the talent
of silver at 3000 shekels of silver, and
the talent of gold as worth sixteen times
that of silver, this amount of money, put
into our coinage, would be, according to
Lange {Commentan/, in loco): Silver,
$1,710,000,000; gold, $2,737,500,000:
total, $4,447,500,000— "a sum incredibly
high for the requirements of worship at
that time." But, reckoning the shekel
after the king's weight, or half the value
of the shekel of the sanctuary, then the
above sum is cut down one-half, and we
can parallel it from secular history.
Besides gold and silver, David collect-
ed immense quantities of brass (bronze
or cop))er), iron, stone, timber, etc., and
he secured skilful mechanics and arti-
ficers for every branch of the work. 1
Chr. 22; 29:4, 7. Ho also furnished
the design, plan, and location of the
building; in all which he was divinely
instructed. 1 Chr. 21; 22; 28:11-19.
He was not permitted, however, to see a
single step taken in its erection. 1 Kgs.
5 : 3. The superintendence of the build-
ing was committed to Solomon, the son
TEM
TEM
and successor of David, who couimcnced
the work in the fourth year of his reign.
There were 183,600 Jews and strangers
employed on it — of Jews 30,000, by ro-
tation 10,000 a month ; of Canaanites,
153,600, ot whom 70,000 were bearers of
burdens, 80,000 hewers of wood and
stone, and 3600 overseers. The parts
were all prepared at a distance from the
site of the building, and when they were
brought together the whole immen!;e
structure was erected without the sound
of hammer, axe, or any tool of iron, 1
Kgs. 6 : 7, and at the tnd of seven and
a half years it stood complete in all is
splendor, the glory of Jertisalem. and
the most magnificent edifice in the
world, B. c. 1005.
Court of
Gentiles.
Level of the Temple-Platform.
(After Beswick, 1875.)
Lik« the tabernacle, it had its front
toward the east. All the arrangements
of the temple were identical with those
of the tabernacle, and the dimensions
of every part exactly double those of the
previous structure.
We shall give an idea of the temple
of Solomon by condensing the account
in Stanley's History of the Jewish Church,
Lecture 27. On the eastern side was a
cloister or colonnade. The later kings,
however, continued it all around. This
portico opened on a large quadrangle,
surrounded by a wall, partly of stone,
partly of cedar, and planted with trees.
Within this quadrangle was a smaller
court, on the highest ridge of the hill,
which enclosed the place of David's sac-
rifice— the rocky threshing-floor of Arau-
nah the Jebusite. This rock was levelled
and filled up, so as to make a platform
for the altar, which was a square chest
of wood, plated outside with brass, fill-
ed inside with stones and earth, with the
fire on a brass grating at the top, the
whole placed on a mass of rough stone.
South of the altar was the brazen laver,
supported on twelve brazen bulls. This
was used for the ablutions of the priests
as they walked to and fro barefooted
over the rocky platform. On each side
were the ten lesser movable vessels of
brass, on wheels, for the washing of the
entrails. Round about the lesser court,
in two or three stories raised above each
other, were chambers for the priests and
other persons of rank. 2 Chr. 31 : 11 ;
Jer. 36 :10. In the. corners were the
kitchens and boiling-apparatus. Eze.
46 : 20-24. Each had brazen gates. 2
Chr. 4:9. In the court was the '"tem-
ple " properly so called. In front towered
the porch, in height more than 200 feet.
Behind it was a lower edifice, lessening
in height as it approached its extremity.
On the sides were small chambers, enter-
ed only from without through a sandal-
wood door on the south, and gilded
chambers above them accessible to the
king alone. 1 Kgs. 6 : 8. The two elab-
orate pillars called Jachin and Boaz
stood immediately under the porch.
Within, another pair of folding-doors
led into the holy place. It would have
been almost dark were it not that, in
place of the original single seven-
branched candlestick, ten now stood on
ten tables, five on each side. 1 Kgs. 7 :
49. AVithin the chamber were the table
of shew-bread and altar of incense. The
holy of holies was separated from the
holy place by a " wall of partition,"
penetrated, however, by folding-doors
of olive-wood, over which hung a parti-
colored curtain embroidered with cher-
ubs and flowers. 1 Kgs. 6:31. The
holy of holies was a small square cham-
ber, absolutely dark except by the light
received through this aperture. In it
were two huge golden figures, standing
upright on their feet, on each side of the
ark, which rested upon a protuberance
of rough rock. Above the ark the wings
of these cherubim met. The walls of
the chambers which ran round the rest
of the building were not allowed to lean
against the outer walls of this sanc-
tuary.
853
TEM
TEM
The quarries of Solomon have recently
been discovered under the present city
of Jerusalem, near the Damascus-gate.
They are very extensive, and to-day
exhibit, in partially-excavated blocks of
stone, the evidence of the monarch's
architectural tastes and requirements.
The temple of Solomon stood, alto-
gether, four hundred and twenty-four
years, but it was plundered by Shishak,
king of Egypt, during the reign of Re-
hoboam. 1 Kgs. 14 : 25, 26. After this
it was frequently profaned and pillaged,
and was at last broken down and de-
stroyed by the king of Babylon, and the
nation itself carried into captivity, 2
Kgs. 25 : 8, 9, 13-17 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 18, 19,
B. c. 598.
2. The Temple of ZenibbabeL — In
B. c. 636, Cyrus the Persian, conqueror
of Babylon, gave permission to the Jews
to return. Many availed themselves of
the opportunity, and returned in a groat
caravan under Zerubbabel. The latter,
as Jewish governor, and Joshua, the
high priest, superintended the people in
rebuilding the temple. Cyrus permitted
and encouraged them to do this work,
and in the second year after their return
the}' laid the foundation. Ezr. 3 : 8.
Owing to the opposition of their enemies,
it was not, however, completed until
twenty years had gone by, B. c. 515.
The story of this long struggle and
trouble is told in the book of Ezra.
This second temple, though inferior in
many respects to the first — having no
ark, no mercy-seat, no visible revelation
of the divine glory, no sacred fire, no
Urim and Thummim, and no spirit of
prophecy, Ezr. 3 : 12, 13 — still was in
breadth and height, in almost every di-
mension, one-third larger than Solo-
mon's. In three particulars the gene-
ral arrangements differed from those of
the ancient sanctuary : (1) There were
no trees in the courts ; (2) At the north-
western corner was a fortress-tower, the
residence of the Persian, afterward of
the Roman, governor; (•')) The court of
the worshippers was divided into two
compartments, of which the outer en-
closure was known as the court of the
Gentiles or heathens. It furnished a
fixed plac(! of worship for the nation,
and ultiniiitely bccnme the theatre of far
more glorious illustrations of the divine
attributes than the first temple ever wit-
854
nessed. Hag. 2 : 6-9 ; Mai. 3:1; Col. 2 :
9; 1 Tim. 3: 16.
3. The Temple of Herod. — The tem-
ple of Zerubbabel had stood nearly five
hundred years and was much decayed
when Herod the Great, with a view to
secure the favor of the Jews and obtain
to himself a great name, undertook to
rebuild it; so that it was not a new edi-
fice, strictly speaking, but rather a com-
plete repair of the second temple. He
began the work twenty years before the
birth of Christ, and completed the main
building in one year and a half, and the
mi I
THE TEMPLE 0
COURTOFTKECnniEsI
^c^
□ □
ANTOHI^
BMtIS
3 — a
omnrFm,^! 1 ^ 1
CAUSEWAI
BRIDCC
ilHC TEMPLE
Recotistiuctiori of tlie Teinj)le.
1. According to Wilkinson: 2. According to Korgus-
son ; S. According to Porter ; 4. According to Lewin.
adjoining buildings in eight years. But
the work was not entirely ended till
A. D. 61, under Herod Agrippa II. So
the statement in John 2 : 20 is correct.
We shall describe the temple as it stood
in the days of our Saviour, condensing
in the main the statements of F. R. and
C. R. Conder in the Haudbook to the
liible (N. Y., 1879). The temple was
located in the present Haram enclosure,
the wall of which has been most care-
fully and elaborately surveyed. See
Quarterly Statement for January, 1880,
of the Palestine Exploration Fund,
The building stood upon the top of
Mount Moriah, but not in the middle
of the area, which was .iOO cubits square
(cubit = 16 in.). Along the ramparts of
TEM
TEM
the temple-hill ran double cloisters or
arcades, and there the money-changers
sat. Matt. 21 : 12. The royal cloister
was triple, and was on the south side ;
Solomon's Porch was on the east. The
pillars could hardly be spanned by three
men; two of them still exist. The en-
closure was entered through five gates.
The gate Shushan was directly opposite
to the temple proper. There were sev-
eral courts about the temple which were
upon different levels. The outer court,
or court of the Gentiles, came first, then
the court of the women, the court of Is-
rael, the court of the priests, and then
the temple itself. Between the first two
came the "soreg" ("interwoven"), or
" middle wall of partition." Eph. 2 : 14.
It had thirteen openings ; upon it, at in-
tervals, were square pillars with Greek
inscriptions, threatening death to the un-
circumcised intruder. The charge that
Paul had brought such a Greek into the
enclosure aroused the Jerusalem mob.
Acts 21 : 28. The court of the women, 135
cubits square, was so called, not because
it was set apart exclusively for their
use, but because they were not allowed to
come any nearer the temple. There were
three gates, of which the eastern, cover-
ed with gold, was the larger. The women
had a gallery above the cloister, erected
in order to avoid the crowding at the
feast of tabernacles. In this court were
probably the thirteen money-chests,
Mark 12 : 41. The court of hrnel, 10
cubits by 1.35, was fifteen steps higher
up, and upon them the fifteen Songs of
Degrees (Ps. 120-134, inclusive) were
sung. The musical instruments were
kept there. It was merely a platform,
and had no cloisters or columns. Only
men especially purified could enter it.
The court of the priotts, or sanctuary,
135 by 176 cubits, was 2h cubits higher
than the court of Israel, the wall being
I cubit high, with three steps above it.
On the wall there was a platform, from
which the priests blessed the people.
There was no communication between
this court and the lower, except through
the side-chambers of the gate Nicanor,
which stood above the fifteen steps
already mentioned. The court of the
prifsts had seven gates. The south-
eastern gate was called the Water-gate,
because the water used in the feast of
tabernacles was brought through it.
I There were no cisterns within the court,
and the altar was joined to the earth,
having no excavations under it. The
north-western gate was called Moked
(''hearth"), and was the guard-house
of the priests who kept watch round the
fire, whence the name. The north-east-
ern gate was called Nitzotz ("promi-
nence"), because it was a kind of out-
standing tower. Above the Water-gate
was a room called Aphtinas, in which
the incense was made. The Saxhedrix,
which see, sat in the so-called Pavement,
! or chamber of hewn stone, which opened
on this court. In this court, directly
before the temple, was the altar, which
was built of solid stone, cemented,
whitewashed at intervals, and had a
line of red paint drawn round it. See
Altar. Lieut. Conder points out that
the Talmudic description indicates a
much ruder structure than is usually
supposed. There were holes in the foun-
dation through which the blood flowed
into drains, and a man-hole to facilitate
the examination of the drains. To the
left was the laver.
We come now to the temple, and, con-
tinuing to take the guidance of the
' Handbook, give the following facts : The
facade of the temple was a square of 100
cubits, and was gilded. The entrance of
the temple was 20 cubits wide and 40
high. Over it hung the golden vine,
supported, probably, by nails. The
temple was of two stories; in the lower
there were thirty-eight chambers in
three tiers: in the upper, none. The
holy house was entered from the porch
by a gate 20 cubits high and 10 broad,
with double doors, opening out and in ;
before it hung a veil of equal width
with the doors. Before the entrance to
the holy of holies hung two veils or two
curtains, 1 cubit apart, and, inasmuch
as the opening of the outer curtain was
upon the north, while the inner was on
the south, no glimpse of the holy of
holies could be obtained by any one but
the high priest. (See Handbook to the
Bible, p. 123.)
The allusions to the second (third)
temple are neither man 3' nor important.
. The scene of the purification of Mary,
j Luke 2 : 22, must have been at the gate
i Nicanor, since here it took place. The
' Child Jesus was found amid the doctors
of the Law, who sat on the steps of the
855
TEM
TEM
H. . ,- . ki I I i.,i r . I 1
I- "I "- F'3EI
llll'illillL
bridge:
COURT OF GENTILES
m
STOA BASILICA
rian of Herod's Temple.
1. The Holy of Holies. 4. Altar of BnrntOfTcTing.
2. The Holy Place. 5. Inner Gate of Temple.
3. The Court of the Priests. 6. Court of the Women.
temple-courts. Luke 2 : 46. The Beau-
tiful Gate, Acts 3 : 2, was probably the
entrance from the Tyropoeon bridge to
the beautiful southern cloister built by
Herod. The castle of Antonia, from
which, by a secret passageway, the
Roman soldiery could be poured down
into the temple-area to preserve order —
as notably to rescue Paul, Acts 21 : 31, 32
— was situated upon the north-western
corner of the outer cloister, and had four
towers with a large interior space. It
was arranged by John Hyrcanus for a
residence, and enlarged by llerod.
This third temple was destroyed by
the Romans on Friday, Oth day of Ab
(August), A. n. 70, and the prophecy of
Jesus was literally fulfilled. Matt. 24:
2. The emperor Julian endeavored to
rebuild it, A. I). 3()3. To this end he
advanced funds from the ])ublic treasury
and applied the contributions from the
856
Jews, who were enthusiastic over the
proposition. But the work met with a
check from an unex])ected quarter. God
used Nature to defeat the plan : *' As the
workmen dug down to the foundations
terrific explosions took place ; what
seemed balls of fire burst forth ; the
works were shattered to pieces ; clouds
of smoke and dust enveloped the whole
in darkness, broken only by the wild and
fitful glare of the flames. Again the
work was renewed by the obstinate zeal
of the Jews; again they were repelled
by this unseen and irresistible power, till
they cast away their implements an<i
abandoned the work in humiliation and
despair." — Mflman: History of Chris-
tiaiiiti/, vol. iii. p. 27.
There stands to-day, upon the site of
the temple, a Mohammedan inosque. the
Dome of the Rock, so called from the
famous Sakhfah, or Holy Rock, which,
TEM
TER
according to Mohammedan tradition, at-
tempted to follow Mohammed on his
memorable night-journey to heaven, but
was held back by the hand of the arch-
angel Gabriel : in proof, both the '' foot-
print of Mohammed" and the "hand-
print of Gabriel " are shown. Some
consider that this rock was the site of
the great altar of burnt-oflering. In
confirmation is adduced the hole in the
rock, and the cave under it, which, upon
this hypothesis, was the cesspool.
Up to quite recent times the Haram,
as the enclosure containing the site of
the temple is called, was closed to all
non-Mohammedans, but the pressure
brought to bear after the Crimean war
(1856) was too great, and now travellers
find no difiiculty in gaining admittance.
TEMPLE, CAPTAIN QF.
See Captain of the Temple.
TE>1PT, Matt. 22 : 18, TEI»IP-
TA'TION. Luke 4 : l.S. These words
are used in various senses. The ordi-
nary import of them is allurement or
enticement to sin. Hence our great ad-
versary the devil is called " the tempter."
Matt. 4 : 3. They also denote the trial
of a person's faith or obedience, Gen.
23 : 1 ; Jas. 1 : 2, 3, or the trial of God's
patience and forbearance. Ex. 17 : 2 ; 1
Cor. 10 : 9. The prayer, '" Lead us not
into temptation," Matt. 6 : 13, does not
imply that God leads us into sin, Jas.
1:13, 14, but it is a prayer that he may
guard and protect us from temptation.
When it is said that the lawyer and
others tempted our Saviour, Matt. 16 :
1 ; 19 : 3 : Mark 10 : 2 ; Luke 10 : 2.5. it
is meant that they tried to ensnare him
or lead him into the commission of some
offence.
TEN C03IMAIVD'MENTS,
THE. By this title the writing con-
tained on the two tables of stone given
on Mount Sinai is usually designated.
But the phrase, in the original, is "the
ten words," and it were well to retain it.
The Greek word decalofpie exactly ex-
presses the Hebrew. " The word of the
Lord," the constantly-recurring term for
the fullest revelation, was higher than
any phrase expressing merely a com-
mand, and carried with it more the idea
of a self-fulfilling power. Other phrases
for the ten words are " the words of the
covenant," "the tables of testimony," or
more briefly " the testimony." Ex. 25 :
16; 31 : 18, etc. The chest which con-
tained the two tables was therefore called
the ark of the covenant: the tent under
whose cover the tables rested became the
tabernacle of witness or of testimonv.
Ex. 38 : 21 ; Num. 17 : 7 : 2 Chr. 24 : 6,
etc. The ten words, originally spoken,
Ex. 20 : 1, were written by the finger of
God on two stone tablets, Ex. 24:12;
but Moses having broken them in his
anger, those the Jews possessed were
duplicates. Ex. 34 : 1.
It is common to assign four "words"
to the first table and six to the second.
But the command to honor parents is
based upon the Fatherhood of God, and
is a relif/ious duty. St. Paul, in Rom.
13 : 9, enumerates only five commands as
applying to man exclusively.
it is at least possible that all the com-
mandments were in the concise legal
form in which some are expressed. The
"reasons annexed" are probably mere
scholia, or notes, which crept into the
text, or else verbal commentary of God,
made at the time. In this way the
discrepancy between Ex. 20 and Deut. 5
is easiest removed.
The number ten symbolizes the com-
prehensiveness and completeness of this
moral law. The first table, with five
commandments, enjoins the duties to
God; the second, with five command-
ments, the duties to our neighbor. All
these duties are comprehended and sum-
med up in this : Thou shalt love God
supremely, and thy neighbor as thyself.
Love is the fulfilment of the whole law.
Matt. 22 : 37, 38; Rom. 13 : 9 : Gal. 5 :
14: Jas. 2:8.
The civil and ceremonial law of the
Jewish theocracy rested on the Decalogue,
and is divided into seven groups, each
with ten commandments.
TENT. See Dwellings.
TENTH DEAL. See Measures.
TENT- MAKERS. Acts 18 : 3.
Tent-making is said to have been Paul's
trade, but the word so translated is
supposed to refer to the manufacture of
tent-cloth rather than to the preparing
of tents. Some suppose that he made
military tents, the material of which was
goatskins.
TE'RAH (loiterer), the father of
Abraham, who accompanied him to Ila-
ran, in Mesopotamia, where he died at
the age of two hundred and five, Abraham
857
TER
TET
being then seventy-five years of age.
Gen. 11:31, 32.
TER'APHIM iginers of prospenty).
The word is sometimes left untranslated ;
elsewhere "images," Gen. 31 : 19, 34, 35 ;
1 Sam. 19 : 16; "idolatry." 1 Sam. 15 :
23. The derivation is not settled. Ge-
seriius takes it from a root meaning " to
be rich," so the teraphim dispensed
prosperity. From the passages quoted
it is plain that this word denotes house-
hold idol-gods or images. But since
these were used as means of supernatural
knowledge, they might be found in pos-
session of those who were not idolaters.
There is a very remarkable occurrence
of the word in Hos. 3 : 4, where teraphim
are associated with idolatry. They were
Teraphim.
small imnges, probably resembling the
human form, and were regarded as oracles.
The use of teraphim came to the He-
brews from the family of Laban, for they
were Aramaic deities. But, once intro-
duced, they were tenaciously held to.
We find them mentioned in a familiar
way in the historical books. Jud. 18 : 17;
1 Sam. 19 : 13, 16: 2 Kgs. 23 : 24, etc.
They were not idols in the worst sense.
They were used by Jehovah-worship-
pers acquainted with the second com-
mandment. Thus we find a Levite
in Micah's family using them, and in
David's house were teraphim. 1 Sam. 19 :
13. But in the days of the prophets thev
868
were denounced as idolatrous, and Jusiah
destroyed them, 2 Kgs. 23 : 24, margin
— an indication of the growth of correct
religious feeling and the spread of know-
ledge.
In regard to their size and appearance
nothing definite is known. Probably
they were varied. They may best be
compared to the household penates of the
classic world.
TER'EBINTH. See Teil Trre.
T E ' R E S H {xevere), one of two
eunuchs who conspired against Ahasu-
erus. Esth. 2 : 21 : 6:2.
TER'TIUS {the third), Paul's
amanuensis, to whom he dictated the
Epistle to the Romans. Rom. 16 : 22.
TERTUL'L-US (diminutive of
" Tertius "), a lawyer, probably a Roman,
who, in consequence of their lack of
familiarity with Roman forms of law,
was hired by the Jews to act as prosecu-
tor in the case of Paul before Felix. Acts
24 : 1-9.
TES'TAMENT. Heb. 9:15. The
word "testament," when applied to our
Scriptures (as "the Old and New Testa-
ments"), is used in the same sense with
" covenant." The old covenant is spoken
of in Ex. 24 : 8, and the new in Matt.
28 : 28. The former was ratified by ihc
blood of sacrifices, and the latter (of
which the other was a type) was ratified
by the blood of Christ.
TES'TAMENT, OLD, NEW.
2 Cor. 3 : 6. See Bible.
TESTIMONY, TES'TIMO-
NIES. Ps. 119 : 88, 99. These terms
sometimes denote the whole revelation
of God's will. They frequently occur in
this sense in the above Psalm. They
also refer to the tables of stone, which
were part of the covenant between God
and the people of Israel, Ex. 25 : 16;
and hence the ark in which they were
deposited is called "the ark of the testi-
mony." Ex. 25 : 22. See Auk. The
gospel is also called "the testimony" in
1 Cor. 1:6; Rev. 1 : 2, and elsewhere.
See Witness.
TE'TRARCH. This title was
given to a sovereign prince, and strictly
denotes one who governs the fourth part
of a province or kingdom. Matt. 14 : 1.
In our Scriptures, however, it is applied
to any one who governed a province of
the Roman empire, whatever portion of
the territory might be within his juris-
THA
THE
diction. The tetrarch had the title of
king. Matt. 14 : 9.
THAD'DiEUS. Matt. 10 : 3. See
JUDE.
THA'HASH (a badger, or seal), a
son of Nahor by Reuinah, his concubine.
Gen. 22 : 24.
THA'MAH. Ezr.2:53. SeeTAMAH.
THA'MAR. Greek form of Tamar,
1. Matt. 1:3.
THAM'MUZ. See Tammuz.
THANK-OF'FERING. See Of-
ferings.
THA'RA. Luke 3 : 34. See Terah.
THAR'SHISH {fortress), a Een-
jamite. ] Chr. 7:11).
THAR'SHISH, a more accurate
form of Tarshish, which see. 1 Kgs. 10 :
22 ; 22 : 48.
THE'ATRE, a place of public
amusement, where popular assemblies,
courts, elections, etc., were often held.
Acts 19 : 29, 31.
" The taste for theatrical amusements
was never strongly developed among the
Jews, though some of their later rulers,
especially the Herods, favored them and
established theatres in Palestine. Herod
the Great introduced Greek actors at
his court in Jerusalem, greatly to the
scandal of tbe Jews, and l>uilt a the-
atre and amphitheatre at Caesarea." —
Hackrtt.
THEBES. See No-amon.
THE'BEZ {brightness), the town
where Abimelech was killed. Jud. 9 : 50 ;
2 Sara. 11: 21. It is now Tubas, a. place
11 miles north-east of Shechem {Noblun],
on the road to Beth-shean {Beisau). It
is a handsome village, situated in the
midst of groves of olive trees, on the
west slope of a basin, but possessing no
spring.
THELA'SAR. 2 Kgs. 19: 12. See
Telassar.
THELAS'SAR. See Telassar.
THEOPH'ILUS {lover of God), a
distinguished individual, probably of
Greece or Rome, to whom, as his par-
ticular friend or patron, Luke addressed
both his Gospel and his history of the
Acts of the Apostles. Luke 1 : 3. The
title "most exceMent" probably denotes
official dignity. Acts 23 : 26 ; 24 : 3 ,• and
26 : 25.
THESSALO'NIANS, EPIS'-
TLES TO. They were written by
the apostle Paul to the church of the
Thessalonians, and are the earliest of
his writings and the oldest portions of
the N. T. They were probably written,
near the close of A. d. 52 or the begin-
ning of 53, from Corinth, not from Athens,
as the subscription states. The first was
composed in consequence of the recep-
tion of Timothy's on the whole cheer-
ing intelligence about the Thessalonian
church. But Paul learned that his
favorite theme of the speedy coming
of Christ had given rise among some
of them to the erroneous impression
that their dead were separated from
Christ so much that they could not join
in the triumphs of his return. Others
of them had grown careless, paralyzed
by the hope. Accordingly, he devotes
his Epistle to the removal of these
troubles, the more particularly since un-
authorized prophets had fanned their
enthusiasm and occasioned, on the part
of the sober-minded, contempt for the
prophetic gift. '* The apostle therefore
wrote to confirm them in the faith, to
strengthen them against persecution, to
rectify mistakes, and to inculcate purity
of life." But, this Epistle not fully an-
swering its purpose, Paul wrote a. second
shortly after. Some one had forged a
letter in his name, advocating the very
delusion he deprecated. 2 Thess. 2 : 2.
He therefore corrected the mistake and
tried to put a stop to the ensuing evils.
We thus analyze the Epistles : First
Thessalonians. — I. After a salutation, 1 :
1, Paul gives thanks to God for their
conversion and advancement in the faith,
1 : 2-2 : 16, and then expresses his desire
to see them and his loving care over
them. 2 : 17-3 : 13. II. In the didactic
and hortatory part he exhorts them to
holiness and brotherly love, 4 : 1-12; he
speaks of Christ's advent, 4 : 13-5 : 11 ;
and adds various admonitions. 6 : 12-24.
He then concludes with a charge that the
Epistle be generally read, with greetings
and a benediction. 5 : 25-28.
Second Thessalonians. — Besides the
salutation, there are three sections, an-
swering to the three chapters : I. A
thanksgiving and prayer for the Thes-
salonians. 1 : .3-12. li. Instruction and
exhortation in regard to the '' man of
sin." 2. III. Sundry admonitions: (1)
To prayer, with a confident expression
of his hope respecting them, 3 : 1-5 ; (2)
To correct the disorderly. 3 : 6-15. He
859
THE
THE
then concludes with a special remark,
showing how his letters were thereafter
to be identified, and the usual salutation
and apostolic benediction. 3 : 16-18.
THESSALONI'CA, a city of
Macedonia. It was anciently called
Thermge ("hot baths"), but Cassander,
one of the generals of Alexander the
Great, rebuilt the city, and called it,
after his wife, Alexander's sister, Thes-
salonica. The city was situated at the
north-east corner of the Thermaic Gulf.
It was in Paul's time a free city of the
Romans, the most populous city in
Macedonia, and the capital of one of
the four Roman divisions of Macedonia,
which extended from the river Strymon
on the east to the Axius on the west.
Scripture History. — Paul and Silas, in
A. D. 58, came to Thessalonica from
Philippi, which was 100 miles north-
east, on the Via Egnatia. There was the
synagogue of the Jews. For at least
three Sabbaths the apostles preached
to their countrymen. A church was
gathered, principally composed of Gen-
tiles. At length the persecution became
so violent as to drive the apostle away.
He desired to revisit the church there,
and sent Timothy to minister to them.
Among his converts were Caius, Aris-
tarchus, Secundus, and perhaps Jason.
Acts 17: 1-13; 20:4; 27 : 2 ; comp.
Phil. 4 : 16; 2 Tim. 4 : 10. Paul wrote
two Epistles to the Thessalonian church
from Corinth. 1 Thess. 1 : 1 ; 2 Thess. 1 : 1.
Thessalonica.
The "rulers" of the city, Acts 17 : 6, S,
are called, in the original, "politarchs."
This is a peculiar term, not elsewhere
found in the N. T., but this very Avord
appears in the inscription on a tri-
umphal arch believed to have been
erected after the battle of Philippi.
The names of seven politarchs are given.
During several centuries Thessalonica
was an important centre of Christianity
in the Oriental Church, and from it the
Bulgarians and Slavonians were reached.
Present (Jonditinn. — Thessalonica still
survives as a Turkish town, under the
name of S(tlonik<i. It has a conspicuous
and beautiful situation on a hill sloping
back from the gulf, and its palaces and
mosques present a fine appearance. Its
walls are some 5 miles in circumference.
860
The streets are narrow and irregular.
Many of the mosques were formerly
Christian churches. It is also the seat
of a Greek metropolitan, and contains
numerous churches and schools of dif-
ferent denominations. Its commerce is
extensive; some four thousand vessels
visit its harbor every year, representing
the trade of France, Austria, Italy, Eng-
land, Greece. Switzerland, Belgium, the
United States, etc. The population is
about 80,000, of whom 30,000 are Jews
and 10,000 Greeks. Among the most
important of the ancient monuments
are a hippodrome, a. colonnade built
under Nero, the triumphal arch com-
memorating the battle of Philippi, and
another triumphal arch, of the time of
Constantine.
THE
THI
THEU'DAS {thnnksgivhui), an in-
surrectionary chieftain mentioned by
Gamaliel. Acts 5 : '^6. Josephus men-
tions a similar character of this name,
but his insurrection occurred some eleven
years after Gamaliel's speech. An ex-
planation of the difficulty is to identify
Theudas with Matthias, an eloquent and
})opular Jewish teacher, who headed a
band in the days of Herod and destroyed
the Roman eagle set up by the king over
the great gate of the temple, being out-
raged by Herod's impiety. " The name
'Matthias' in Greek would be ' The-
odotus,' and this is equivalent to 'Theu-
das.' " But perhaps it is best to say that
this Theudas was an obscure individual
who is not mentioned elsewhere. The
name was a common one.
THIEF, THIEVES, THE
TWO. Theft is always severely pun-
ished in rude societies. The Mosaic Law
is severe. The thefts would naturally
be, among the Jews, of live-stock most
frequently; accordingly, the Law, Ex.
22 : 1-4, limits itself to only this class
of cases. Restitution was obligatory —
five oxen in return for one stolen, four
sheep for one. Resistance to robbrry
even to the death was innocent. If the
thief did not or could not restore, he was
to be sold for his theft. Prov. 6 : 31
mentions a sevenfold restitution, and
Lev. 6 : 1-5 also apparently conflicts
with Exodus, because it lays down a
trespass-offering and the restoration of
the principal and the fifth part more.
Perhaps the Law varied. It added to
the ignominy of our Lord's position that
he was crucified between thieves, or, more
properly, robbers. Tradition calls the
penitent thief Demas, or Dismas : the
impenitent, Gestas. It is probable that
at first they both reviled him, but his
noble courage softened the heart of
" Dismas " into admiration, love, and
belief. Luke 23 : 32, 39-43.
THIGH. The practice of putting
the hand under the thigh might denote
the obedience or subjection of the in-
dividual, or it might be connected with
the rite of circumcision as a token of
God's faithfulness. Gen. 24 : 2. The
inscription upon the thigh. Rev. 19 : Ifi,
alludes to the custom of inscribing the
names and deeds of conquerors on their
garments and weapons. The name might
be inscribed on the sword, which was
girded on the thigh, or on that part of
the dress which covered the thigh.
Jacob's thigh was smitten by the angel,
Gen. 32 : 25, to show that he had super-
natural power, and that he yielded in
mercy and not from necessity. See
Jacob.
THIM'NATHAH, now Tihneh,
north-east of Lydda. Josh. 19 : 43. See
TlMNAH, 1.
THISTLES AND THORNS.
Gen. 3 : 18. Palestine abounds in all
manner of such plants, as is indicated
by the fact that about eighteen different
Hebrew words for them are found in the
0. T. These are translated by " bramble,"
" brier," the above terms, and a few
others, without much method or consist-
ency.
The figurative use of these plants
denotes desolation. Prov. 24 : 31 ; Isa.
5:6; Hos. 2:6: 9:6: 10 : 8 ; the visi-
tations of Providence, Num. 33 : 55 :
Jud. 2:3:2 Cor. 12 : 7 ; difliculties and
hindrances, Prov. 15 : 19; and troubles.
Prov. 22 : 5.
The "crowning with thorns," Matt.
27 : 29, was probably the wanton inven-
tion of the Roman soldiery, and made no
part of the established punishment. Very
possibly the Saviour's enemies used for
this purpose the twigs of the Christ-thorn
[Zizyphus itpina-Chiisti), which are slen-
Palestine Thorn (Zizyphus Sjjina- Christi).
der, yet armed with terrible spines, and
are still found growing in the vicinity of
Jerusalem.
In the Holy Land various kinds of
buckthorn, with other allied and equally
formidable shrubs, are abundant, as is
also the box-thorn ( Li/ciiim Enropennn).
True thistles and thistle-like centaureas
are common. In the Jordan valley a
solanum {S. suuctuni) grows from 3 to 5
861
THO
THO
feet high, clothed with spines. Tristram |
observed that the common bramble
(Enbns fructicoHus) was very abundant |
jjetween the ancient Beth-shean and the \
fords of Succoth, and these were perhaps j
the thorns of Jud. 8:7, 16. The most
formidable of all is that herbaceous plant
the acanthus, well called by botanists
spinosus. These are a few of the multi-
tude of thistles and thorns that cover
the land and often choke the very crops.
Matt. 13 : 7.
Of the shrubby burnet Miss M. E.
Rogers justly says : " No plant or bush
is so common on the hills of Judi«a,
Galilee, and Carmel as this. It is used
extensively for fuel, especially for the
bakers' ovens, and the 'crackling of
thorns under a pot/ Eccl. 7 : 6, may often
be heard in Palestine."
This low burnet is commonly pulled
up and laid upon the tops of the mud
walls enclosing houses or gardens. Being
held in place with clay, few animals or
men will attempt to cross a wall thus
guarded. Often the still more formidable
Christ-thorn is used for the same purpose,
illustrating H )S. 2 : 6.
A traveller in Jn(la?a remarks: "As
we rode through Ri])hah we perceiv-
ed it to be a settlement of about fifty
dwellings, all very mean in their appear-
ance, and every one fenced in front with
thorn-bushes, while a barrier of the same
kind encircled the whole of the town.
This was one of the most effectual de-
fences which they could have raised
against the incursions of horse-riding
Arabs, the only enemies whom they
have to dread, as neither will the
horse approach to entangle himself
in these thickets of brier, nor could
the rider, even if he dismounted, get
over them, or remove them to clear a
passage without assistance from some
one within.
" There are a great many more thornv
plants in Pa'estine than in America, and
these plants love the wheat-fields. The
farmers have a habit of going out before
these thorns go to seed and gathering them
with a sickle and forked stick, and burn-
ing them or threshing them out for the
donkeys to eat. But some farmers are
lazy and do not take this trouble, and
sometimes even an industrious farmer
will neglect a corner of his field, and it
will ])rosently be overrun with coarse
«62
thorns. But the stalks of these thorns
rot away and disappear in the winter,
and only their seeds remain concealed in
the ground at the season of sowing. The
earth looks like that of the rest of the
field, and the farmer ploughs in his seed
with a good heart in hopes of an abun-
dant return. But the thorns spring up
with the wheat, and, being much stronger,
their roots soon twine about those of the
wheat and absorb all the water from the
ground in which they both grow together,
and their branches overshadow the green
blades, and so the plants either make no
seeds, or so few and poor ones that the
farmer does not care to pick out the
stalks from the thorns, and he either
burns them together or threshes out all
as food for his donkey. Matt. 13 : 18-23."
— Post.
THOM'AS {tioin), one of the twelve
apostles, was also called " Didymus "
(''the twin"). We know little of his
history. He seems to have been of
singular temperament, cautious, scepti-
cal, thoughtful, and gloomy, yet holding
fast tenaciously what he once believed.
John 11 : Ifi ; ' 14 : 5 ; 20 : 20-29. He
represents the honest, truth-loving scep-
ticism among the apostles; he would not
believe in the resurrection till he had
tangible evidence of it, but then he ex-
claimed, " My Lord and my God !" Those
who, not having seen, yet believe, are
highly commended. There are various
traditions in regard to his history after
the ascension of Christ. The earlier rep-
resent him as preaching in Persia; the
later, in India. He suffered martyrdom.
THORN IN THE FLESH,
PAUIi'S. In two passages, 2 Cor.
12 : 7-10 and Gal. 4:14, 15, Paul al-
ludes to some circumstance or infliction
which hindered his ministry ; but, as he
does not say what it was, but calls it
merely a " stake in the flesh," there have
been numerous conjectures. This is one
of the questions, as Dean Stanley well
says, " where the obscurity for us is oc-
casioned by the very fact that it was
plain to contemporaries." The explana-
tions which have at various times been
advanced may be divided into three
classes :
1. Spiritnal triah. — Either sensual
temptations, as is the favorite view of
Roman Catholic writers, or temptations
to unbelief, doubts arising from the
THO
THE
memory of his sinful past; so Luther
and Calvin and other of the Reformers.
2. Extermd calitmitien. — Either his
persecutions and sufferings or else his
Judaizing opponents, as Chrysostom and
the Greek Fathers thought. But some
of the ancient and mediieval as well as
the modern commentators have been dis-
satisfied with these explanations because
they do not meet the difficulty, and ac-
cordingly have favored —
3. Some bitdili/ ailiiieiit. — Almost every
disorder — pleurisy, the stone, defect of
utterance, hypochrondria, headache, ear-
ache, epilepsy, iicute ophthalmia — has
been suggested and advocated by the
fathers and schoolmen. Tradition sup-
ports the notion that the " thorn " was
some sort of pain in the head. Accord-
ing to modern opinion, the choice lies
between epilepsy and acute ophthalmia.
In favor of the former is the life Paul led,
his trances, his enthusiasm followed b^'
depression, his enormous nervous strain;
this would be enough to shatter his sys-
tem. But against any such notion is
Paul's physical activity, his balanced
mind, his self-control, ami his confidence.
No such objection seems to lie against
acute ophthalmia— a disease which is
quite common in the East. It may well
have been caused in his case by the
bright light which fell upon his eyes
at his conversion, and increased, or at
least not lessened, by his wandering, la-
borious life. There are many indications
that this interp- etation of the " thorn "
is correct. Paul says that the Galatians
would have plucked out their eyes and
given them to him, Gal. 4:15; the very
word he uses, 2 Cor. 12 : 7 — " stake," not
"thorn" — would, as Canon Farrar says,
"most appropriately express the inci-
sive pain of ophthalmia, which is as if
a splinter were run into the eye." The
disfigurement it causes would have made
him the object of contempt and loathing
he represents himself to have been. Gal,
4: U: 2 Cor. 10:10. Paul's failure
to recognize the high priest, Acts 23 : 5;
his dread of being left alone, shown by
his allusions to it as a trial, I Thess. 3 :
1; 2 Tim. 4: 16: his expression, "Ye
see with what large letters I write unto
you with my own hand," Gal. 6:11; his
employment of an 3,manuensis for at
least the major part of his Epistles, cf.
Rom. 16 : 22, — these are facts looking in
the same direction. Accepting this in-
terpretation, what light it throws upon
^he life of Paul ! How it elevates our
conception of his heroism ! how it in-
creases our respect for his work ! We
see that he was not able to move about
or write as he would, but was dependent
upon others ; and yet, notwithstanding
his suff'ering and his persecutions, his
dimmed vision and his interrupted toil,
he struggled and labored for his Master
unto death.
THORNS. See Thistles.
THREE TAVERNS. See Tav-
erns, Thk Three.
THRESH, THRESHING-
FLOOR. The ancient threshing-
places were selected on the highest sum-
mits, open on every side to the wind.
Hence the point of rock over which the
temple stood had been used for this pur-
pose by Oman. 1 Chr. 21 : 15-28. Though
called " floors." they were nothing but
flats of ground from 50 to 100 feet in
diameter, annually levelled and rolled,
so as to be as hard as a floor. Often
there was, as is still frequently the case,
but one such place for a village, and
each husbandman, in a fixed order, must
take his turn for using it.
The sheaves were thrown together in
a loose heap, and the grain beaten out
by a machine or by the f< et of oxen.
Deut. 25 : 4. The threshing-machine
was formed of a heavy square frame
with rollers, each of which was encir-
cled by three or
four iron rings
or wheels ser-
rated like the
teeth of a saw.
Isa. 41 : 15, If..
The machine
was drawn by a
pair of oxen, the
driver sitting on
a cross-piece
fastened into
the frame ; and
as the heavy
rollers passed
- 0 0 -_ over it the grain
Threshin2-Instrument(up- was crushed out
per view). on every side,
and the straw, by being torn, was ren-
dered suitable for fodder. Sometimes
this frame was so constructed as to re-
semble a cart, Isa. 28 : 27, 28, and fur-
863
THR
THR
nishes a striking figure of violence and
destruction. Am. 1:3; Hab. 3 : 12. As
the grain accumulated it was formed
into a great heap in the centre of the
floor, around which the oxen were driv-
en. It was customary for the owner to
sleep near by to protect the grain from
thieves. Ruth 3:2-14. Tender cereals
were beaten out with a stick. Isa. 28 :
27. After the grain was threshed and
winnowed (see Fan), the chaff was col
lected on a neighboring hill and burned.
Isa. 5 : 24 ; Matt. 3 : 12. The fruits of
the harvest were then doubtless some-
times stored in caves, as is now a com-
mon Syrian custom. Here grain is safe
partly by superstition, and partly by a
stifling gas which it generates in such
of these instruments is thus described
by a traveller in Syria in 1837: "The
threshing-instrument is a board about 3
Threshing-Instrument (side view).
close places ( Underground Jerusalem,
p. 481).
Tristram says : " When winnowed and
sifted the wheat is stored in underground
pits. These * silos/ or granaries, are
hollow chambers about 8 feet deep, care-
fully cemented to exclude the damp, and
with a circular opening about 15 inches
in diameter, which could easily be con-
cealed. In such receptacles the corn
will keep good for several years. Many
such may still be seen in different parts
of the country. I have found them on
Mount Carmel, often close to an ancient
wine-press, and about many of the de-
serted cities of Southern Judah. Such
a storeliouse as those on Mount Carmel
is probably alluded to in Jer. 41 : 8.
" Generally, owing to the insecure state
of the country, these storehouses are
made under the house, especially under
the most retired portion, the apartments
of the women." 2 Sam. 4:6; 17 : 18, 1 9.
In the latter passage the well is prob-
ably the storehouse under the women's
chamber.
In the interesting passage, Isa. 41 :
15, 16, " a new sharp threshing-instru-
ment having teeth" is mentioned. One
864
B
Thresliing-Sledge of Palestine.
A, Upper side; B, Lower side.
feet wide, 6 or 8 feet long, and 3 inches
thick. On the lower side many holes are
made, from 1^ to 2 inches in diameter, in
which are fastened pieces of stone, flint, or
iron. These project, it may be, from a half
to three-quarters of an inch from the face
of the board, and serve as teeth to tear
the beards of the grain in pieces. Oxen
are fastened to the forward end of the
board and driven round the floor, draw-
ing it after them. The driver of the
oxen usually stands or sits on the in-
strument. This is the common thresh-
ing-instrument in these countries. I
saw it everywhere, and I have seen no
other. The oxen are usually without
muzzles, and are often, as they pass
around, taking up from time to time a
few straws and feeding on them. I do
not recollect of seeing the horse used in
any instance on the barn-floor — the oxen
very often." See Agriculture.
THRONE, the seat of a king on
state occasions. In the East the usual
position is squatting or reclining; hence
a chair is a scat of some dignity. 2 Kgs.
4: 10. The word "chair," with the no-
tion of royalty, is the Hebrew word for
** throne," the chair of the king, such as
David, 2 Sara. 3 : 10, and Solomon sat
upon, 1 Kgs. 2:12; 7:7, when they dis-
pensed judgment. The throne of Solo-
mon was quite unique. 1 Kgs. 10 : 20.
It was made of wood inlaid with ivory
and covered with gold, except where the
ivory showed. It was approached by
six steps, each step having upon it two
lions; thus the twelve lions symbolized
the twelve tribes. The chair had arms,
upon which were lions. (See cut.) The
back was rounded. When the king sat
THU
THY
upon his throne he was clad in royal
robes. 1 Kgs. 22 : 10 ; Acts 12 : 21.
Naturally, the throne being the sign
time, and the first N. T. mention of
Thyatira, Acts 16 : 14, connects it with
the purple-seller, Lydia. Three votive
inscriptions have been found among
its ruins purporting to have come from
the guild of " The Dyers." It has
been supposed that perhaps Lydia re-
turned to her own city and aided in es-
tablishing Christianity there. Thyatira
was the seat of one of the seven churches
of Asia. Rev. 2 : 18-29. Its population
was made up of various races, and it is
a question what is meant by the refer-
ence to Jezebel. A shrine stood outside
the walls, in the midst of the " Chal-
daean's court," dedicated to Sambath, a
sibyl, Chaldaean, Jewish, or Persian.
Grotius refers it to the wife of the bishoj).
Present Conditinn. — The city is now
called ak-Hissar, or " white castle."
The scarlet cloth dyed there has the
reputation of being unsurpassed for
brilliancy and permanence of color.
The population is estimated at from
17,000 to 20,000. There are a Gieek
church and several mosques.
THY'INE-WOOD. This was ob-
A Chair of State or Throne. (From Afsyrian
Monuments at Khorsabad. After Layard.)
of royalty, the word is applied to the
centre of divine authority and used in
other figurative wavs.'
THU 31 MUM. Ex. 28 : 30. SeeTTRur.
THUN'DER is very rare in Pales-
tine from the middle of April to the
middle of September. Hence it was a
striking miracle when, in answer to
Samuel's prayer, God sent thunder and
rain in wheat-harvest (May 18 to June
15). 1 Sam. 12:17. Thunder was re-
garded as Jehovah's voice. Job 37 : 2 ;
Ps. 18 : 13: 81 : 7 ; Isa. 30 : 30, 31.
When the people heard God's voice, they
said that it thundered. John 12 : 29.
Thunder accompanied the giving of the
Law. Ex. 19:16. It was a symbol of
divine power, implying j^osslble ven-
geance upon wrong-doers. 1 Sam. 2:10;
2 Sam. 22 : 14 : Isa. 29 : 6 : Rev. 8 : 5.
TH YATI'R A, a city of Asia Minor,
on the northern border of Lydia, near
the road from Pergamos to Sardis, and
some 27 miles from the latter city. It
lay near the river Lycus and was a
Macedonian colony, bearing successive-
ly the names of Pelopia, Semiramis, and
Euhippia. Dyeing was an important
branch of its business from Homer's
Thyine-Wood (Thuya Articulata).
tained from a small tree {Thuya articu-
lata) belonging to the cone-bearing or-
865
TIB
TIB
der and resembling our cedar and arbor-
vitae. It was highly valued by the
Romans, in the days of their luxury,
for cabinet-work, being very compact
and fragrant and of a handsome brown,
often variegated by knots. It was ob-
tained in Northern Africa, and from it
is still collected the true gum-sanda-
rach. Rev. 18: 12.
TIBE'RIAS, a town of (Galilee,
situated on the western bank of tlie Sea
of Galilee, which is called "the Sea of
Tiberias " only bv John, who was the last
of the N. T. writers. John 6 : 1 ; 21 : I.
Hiiitory. — The city is only once men-
tioned in the N. T. John 6 : 2.3. Although
it was an important and busy town in
Christ's time, there is no record that he
ever visited it. It was then a new city,
built by Herod Antipas, a. d. 16-22, and
named in honor of the emperor Tiberias.
Josephus, who mentions the city very
frequently, says that Herod built it on
a site where were ancient sepulchres
belonging to an extinct and forgotten
city. Thus it was unclean to the Jews,
and Herod brought in many strangers,
foreigners, and slaves. A palace was
erected, with an amphitheatre, bath-
houses, temples, and costly works of
art. An aqueduct 9 miles long brought
in fresh water. During the Jewish wars
Josephus fortified Tiberias. After Jeru-
salem was destroyed the Sanhedrin set-
tled here, and for many centuries it was
one of the most celebrated seats of Jew-
ish learning. The Jewish Mixhna, or an-
cient traditional law, and the Masorah
were compiled here.
Present Condition. — The modern city
called Tabarii/eh stands on the south-
western shore of the lake, some 4 miles
from its southern extremity, in lat. 32°
46' 14". It occupies only a small por-
tion of the ground covered by the an-
cient city, the remains of which stretch
southward for a mile and a quarter, to
the hot springs. Many of the old stones
have been removed for use in the modern
buildings, but some very fine specimens
of polished marble and black basalt
remain. For view, see Galilke, Ska op.
The modern city is surrounded on the
land-side by a wall much broken and not
repaired. The great earthquake on New
Year's day, 1837, overthrew the city and
destroyed six hundred lives. A small
church standing on the reputed site of
St. Peter's house, and a mosque half in
ruins, arc the principal buildings to at-
tract attention. Although the town is
extremely picturesque as seen from the
distance, with its wall, minaret, and
palm trees, it is found on closer acquaint-
ance to be in a state of filth which even
in the East can be scarcely paralleled.
This is aggravated by the excessive heat,
the tem[)erature often attaining 100°
Fahr. Tiberias is still one of the four
holy cities of the Jews, and more than
one-half of the inhabitants are Jews of the
poorer class, who live, in great measure,
on the aims sent by their coreligionists
in various parts of the world. Many
of the Jews are immigrants from Poland.
There are also Mohammedans and Chris-
tians. The population is some 3000 or
4000. The famous hot springs, to the
south, are still much resorted to for
medicinal purposes. The temperature
ranges from 131° to 142° Fahr. On a
slight eminence, 1 mile west of the
town, lies the Jewish burial-ground, in
which some of the most celebrated of
the .lewish Talmudists are interred.
TIBERIAS, THE SEA OF.
John 6:1," 21 : 1. See Galilee, Sea of.
Head of Euipeior Tiberius. (From a Coin.)
TIBE'RIUS, CLAUDIUS
NERO (full title), Luke 3:1, was the
867
TIB
TIM
step-son and successor of Augustus, Luke
2 : 1, and, though with some apparent
virtues, was one of the most infamous
tyrants that ever scourged the empire
of Rome. All the events of Christ's
manhood took place during this reign.
He began well, but quickly "degenera-
ted into a gloomy despot." Madness was
probably the excuse for his cruelties.
He began his reign a. d. 14, reigned
during the eventful period of the suc-
ceeding twenty-three years, and was
finally murdered by sutfocation.
TIB'HATH (butchery). 1 Chr. 18 :
8. See Brtah.
TIB'NI {building of Jehovah), a
claimant to the throne of Israel, and
one who for four years headed half the
people in a struggle against Omri, whom
the army had proclaimed king after
Zimri's death. Tibni was defeated, and
probably killed. 1 Kgs. 16 : 21, 22.
TI'DAL {great son), a king who
joined Chedorlaomer. Gen. 14 : 1-9.
_ TIG'LATH-PILE'SER {my help
■in the son of Esarra's — i. e., Adar), " the
second Assyrian king mentioned in the
Scriptures as having come into contact
with the Israelites," and the second of
the name. He invaded Samaria. 2 Kgs.
15 : 29, and after some .years he returned
and did much more damage, destroying
Damascus and taking many captives, 1
Chr. 5 : 2fi. The occasion of the first
attack was probably the refusal of Pe-
kah to pay tribute; of the second, the
call of Ahaz upon him for assistance
against Pekah and Rezin, the king of
Syria. Tiglath-pileser at Damascus
met Ahaz, who became his vassal. 2
Kgs. 16 : 10. His wars were insignifi-
cant. He reigned b. c. 747-739, having
probably usurped the throne.
TI'GRIS.Gen.2:U. SecHiDnRKKL.
TIK'VAII, TIK'VATH {expec-
tation). 1, The father-in-law of Hul-
dah the prophetess. 2 Kgs. 22:14; 2
Chr. 34 : 22.
2. The father of Jahaziah. Ezr.lO:15.
TIL'GATH-PILNE'SER,acor-
ruption, peculiar to Chronicles, of Tig-
LATH-PiLESF.n, which see.
TI'LON {lofty), a descendant of
Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 20.
Tm/E'US {polluted?), the father
{bar is Aramaic for "son") of a man
whom Jesus cured of blindnesd. Mark
10::fi.
S68
TIM'BREL, a musical instrument,
supposed to have resembled very nearly
the instrument of modern days called
the tambourine. Ex. 15 : 20. A skin is
stretched over a rim like the end of a
drum ; around the rim are hung little
Timbiel. {After specimen in Kensington Museum,
London.)
bells, and the player strikes the skin with
the knuckles of one hand and shakes
it with the other hand. It was used in
ancient, times chief!}' by women.
TIME. See Days, Hours, Watches
OF THE Night.
TIM'NA, TIM^NAH {restmincd).
]. The concubine of Eliphaz, son of
Esau, and mother of Amalek. Gen. 36 :
12, 22 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 39.
2. An Edomite sheik. Gen. 3^ : -10 ; 1
Chr. 1:51.
TIM'NAH {portion assigned), a
name of two towns.
1. A town on the northern border of
Judah. Josh. 15 : 10, occui)ied by the
Philistines. 2 Chr. 28: IS. This is
probably the same place which is called
Tiinnathah, Thamnatha. and Timnath,
and which apparently belonged to Dan.
It is now represented by the modern
Tibneh, a ruin on a hill 740 feet above
the sea-level and 2 miles west from Beth-
shemesh.
2. A town in the mountains of Judah,
south of Hebron, .Josh. 15 : 57 ; prob-
ably a ruin called Tibna, a third place
of the name, near Jeb\i and wett of
Bethlehem.
TIMNATH, ANn TIM'NA-
THAH [portion assigned), the name
of two places.
I. A place to which Judah was going
when he was met by his daughter-in-
TIM
TIM
law Taiiiar, Gen. 38: 12-14; perhaps
identical with Timnah, 1.
2. The home of Samson's wife, Jud.
14 : 1, 2, 5 ; probably also identical with
TiMNAH, above, the modern Tibneh, west
of Beth-shean. There are traces of an-
cient cultivation and rock-hewn wine-
presses, suggesting the vineyards in
which he slew the lion.
TIM'NArH-HE'RES. Jud. 2 :
9. See TlMXATH-SERAH.
TIII'NATH-SE'RAH (portion
of ahnnrlance), AND TIM'NATH-
HE'RES [portion of the sun), a city
in Ephraim assigned to Joshua, and the
place of his residence and burial. Jud.
2:9; Josh. 19 . 50 ; 24 : 30.
1. Christian tradition points to a.Tibneh
(not that under Timnath), on the Roman
road from Jerusalem to Antipatris and
some 14i miles north-north-west of Je-
rusalem as the site of ancient Timnath-
serah. Jerome speaks of this place as
on the border between the possessions
of Dan and Judah. The ruin of Tibneh
has a remarkable rock-cemetery, con-
taining nine tombs, south of the site of
the town; one of these tombs is large,
with a portico supported on rude piers
of rock. There are niches for over two
hundred lamps, once burning in front
of the tomb-entrance. Within there is
a chamber with fourteen graves, or ko-
kini, and a passage leads into an inner
chamber with only one koka. There is
no direct evidence of the date of this
tomb, which some have regarded as the
tomb of Joshua, but this is hardly prob-
able. Another curious fact is that near
the tomb is a great oak tree called sheikh
et-Tei)n, ''the chief of the servant of
'xod." There is also a village, about 3
miles to the east, called Ke/r hhii'a, or
" Joshua's village."
2. Another site proposed for Timnath-
heres or -serah is at Ke/r Hdris, 9 miles
south of Nnblns (Shechem). The Samar-
itans state that Joshua, son of Nun, and
Caleb were here buried. The two tombs
of Caleb and Joshua were noticed here
by Rabbi Jacob of Paris, a. d. 1258.
Conder inclines to this as the burial-
place of Joshua, since Jew and Samar-
itan both point to it. (See picture of
the tomb of Joshua under Joshua.)
TIM'NITE, THE (i. e., the Tim-
nathite), Samson's father-in-law. Jud.
15: G.
TI'MON (honorinff), one of the seven
deacons ordained by the apostles on tho
election of the Jerusalem church. Acts
6: 5.
TIJ>IO'THEUS (honoring God), the
Greek name of Timothy, used generally
in A. V. Acts 16 : 1.
TIM'OTHV (honoring God), an
evangelist and pupil of St. Paul. He
was a Lycaonian, a native of either
Derbe or Lystra. His father was a
Greek and a heathen ; his mother,
Eunice, was a Jewess, and a woman of
distinguished piety, as was also his
grandmother, Lois, 2 Tim. 1 : 5, and by
them he was early educated in the holy
scriptures of the 0. T. 2 Tim. 3 : 15. Paul
found him in one of the cities above named,
and, being informed of his good standing
among the Christians there, selected him
as an assistant in his labors, and, to
avoid the cavils of the Jews, performed
on him the rite of circumcision. 1 Cor.
9 : 20. He afterward became the com-
panion of Paul, and that he was the
object of the extraordinary affection and
solicitude of that apostle his letters
plainly show. He was left in charge of
the church at Ephesus, and that, prob-
ably, when he was quite young, thirty-
four or thirty-five. 1 Tim. 4 : 12. The
post-apostolic tradition makes him bish-
op of Ephesus. In that case he would
be the '* angel " of that church addressed
in Rev. 2 : 1-7, or his predecessor.
Epistles of Paul to. These, with
that to Titus, are commonly spoken of
as the Pastoral Epistles because they are
predominantly given up to directions
about church work. The First is sup-
posed to have been written about the
year 04, and contains special instructions
respecting the qualifications and the
duties of sundry ecclesiastical officers and
other persons, and the most affectionate
and pungent exhortations to faithfulness.
The Second Epistle was written a year
or two later and while Paul was in con-
stant expectation of martyrdom, 2 Tim.
4 : 6-8, and may be regarded as the
dying counsel of the venerable apostolic
father to his son in the Lord. It con-
tains a variety of injunctions as to the
duties of Christians under trials and
temptations, and concludes with expres-
sions of a full and triumphant faith in the
Lord Jesus Christ, and in all the glorious
promises made to his true followers.
869
TIN
TIS
TIN, a well-known metal in use at
a very early period, Num. 31 : 22, and
an article of Tyrian commerce, probably
obtained from Spain or England. Eze.
27 : 12. Captain Burton has recently
found tin-ore in the land of Midian.
In Isa. 1 : 25 the word *" tin " doubtless
means a sort of dross.
TINK'LING. See Bell, Clothes.
TIPH'SAH {ford), a name for two
places.
1. A city on the western bank of the
Euphrates. The name connected with
the Hebrew word signifies " to pass over,"
which is represented in Greek and Latin
by ThapsacHs, a town situated at one of
the most frequented fords of the Euphra-
tes. The city was large and flourishing,
being a great emporium of trade between
Assyria and the West, and in a direct
line from Tadmor. It has been found
that the only practicable ford of the
Euphrates is at Hamuiam, 181 miles
higher up the river than Deir, which
was formerly thought to be the true
j)osition, but where the river is not
fordable. 1 Kgs. 4 : 24.
2. Menahem, king of Israel, "smote
Tiphsah and all that vevp therein, and
the coasts thereof." 2 Kgs. 15 : 16.
This place has been identified with the
above, but some leading scholars would
put this Tiphsah in Palestine, near to
Tirzah, or a ford of the Jordan. Conder
suggests its identity with the ruin Tafaah,
south of Shechem.
TI'RAS {desire?), the youngest son
of Japheth. Gen. 10 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 5.
Probably the Thracians are meant.
TI'RATHITES, THE iunte), one
of three families of Levites at Jabez.
1 Chr. 2 : 55.
TIRES. This generally denotes an
ornamental head-dress, but it may mean
other parts of the attire ; and in Isa. 3 :
18 the original probably signifies a neck-
lace, the parts of which might have
resembled the moon in sha])e.
TIR'HAKAH {exalted?), king of
Ethiopia and Upper Egypt. 2 Kgs. 19 :
9 ; Isa. 37 : 9. In legends he was one
of the greatest conquerors of antiquity.
His triumphs westward are said to have
reached the Pillars of Hercules. But in
the East he seems to have been twice
badly beaten by the Assyrians and shut
up in his own domains. Still, he was
formidable enough to cause Sennacherib
870
great uneasiness ; for when the latter
heard of his coming he demanded the
immediate surrender of Jerusalem. 2
Kgs. 19 : 9. Tirhakah reigned, prob-
ably, twenty-eight years. The dates are
uncertain, but perhaps his rule extended
from B. c. 695 to 667.
TIR'HANAH {favor), a son of
Caleb, son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2 : 48.
TIR'IA {godly fear), a descendant
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:16.
TIR'SHATHA, THE {lord of
the province), the title of the Persian
governors. Ezr. 2 : 63 ; Neh. 7 : 65, 70 ;
8:9; 10 : 1.
TIR'ZAH {charm), the youngest of
the five daughters of Zelophehad. Num.
26:33; 27:1; 36:11; Josh. 17 : 3.
TIR'ZAH {delif/ht), one of the
thirty-one cities of the Canaanites taken
by Joshua, Josh. 12 : 24, and for fifty
years the capital of the northern king-
dom of Israel, until Omri built Samaria.
1 Kgs. 14 : 17 ; 15 : 21, 33 ; 16 : 6, 23.
It is also mentioned in the reign of
Menahem, b. c. 772, 2 Kgs. 15 : 14, 16,
and its fame for beauty appears from
Cant. 6 : 4. Tirzah has been usually
identified with TeUuzah, situated on a
hill 2 miles north-east of Mount Ebal, 5
miles east of Samaria, and 30 miles north
of Jerusalem. The village occupies a
fine elevation in the midst of immense
olive-groves. Wilson and Conder, how-
ever, dispute this identification, and favor
instead that at Tel-dsir, an important
and ancient site, standing in the midst
of a well-wooded country on the main
road from Nablds (Shechem) to Beinttn
(Beth-shean), and 12 miles east of Sa-
maria. There are numerous ancient
sepulchres and caves north of the village,
which may jicrhaps include the tombs of
the first four kings of Israel, buried at
Tirzah. 1 Kirs. 16:6.
TISH'BITE, THE. Elijah is
called the " Tishbite." 1 Kgs. 17 : 1. The
word is usually taken to indicate the
place of his birth or residence. Thisbe,
a city of Na])htali, known as the home
of Tobit. We may presume that Elijali
moved to (Jilead some time before he
stood before Ahab. There has been an
unsuccessful attempt to give a quite
different interpretation to the phrase
"the Tishbite" — viz., "the stranger."
This interpretation is usually treated as
unsound.
TIS
TOB
TIS'RI. See Moxth.
TITHES, on TENTHS, a form
of tax known long before the time of
Moses, Gen. 14 : 20 : 28 : 22. and prac-
tised under the civil and religious gov-
ernment of heathen nations. It was
introduced into the Levitical code, and
consisted in rendering a fixed propor-
tion of the produce of the earth, herds,
etc., to the service of God their King,
whom they were taught to consider as
the proprietor of all. One-tenth of this
produce went to the use of the Levites,
who had no part in the soil, and of course
were dependent on their brethren for the
means of subsistence. One-tenth of their
tenth they paid in their turn to the priests. ■
Num. 18 : 21-32. |
The nine parts were tithed again, and
of this second tithe a feast was made in
the court of the sanctuary, or in some
apartment connected with it. If, how-
ever, the Jew could not with convenience
carry his tithe thither, he was permitted
to sell it and to take the money, adding
one-fifth of the amount — that is, if he
sold the tithe for a dollar, he should
bring, in money, a dollar and twenty
cents — and to purchase therewith v?hat
was required at the fc;ist after he came
to the sanctuarv. Lev. 27 : 31; Deut. 12 :
17, 18; 14:22-27.
At this feast of thanksgiving they en-
tertained their families and friends, and
also the Levites. It has been supposed
by some, from Deut. 14 : 28, 29, that in
every third year a third tithe was re-
quired, but it is more probable that in
the third year the second tithe above
mentioned was consumed at home, in-
stead of at the sanctuary, so that the
poor neighbors and friends, and espe-
cially such as were aged and infirm,
might partake of it.
The cattle were tithed by letting them
pass out of an enclosure, under a rod
held by some person, who touched every
tenth beast, which thereupon became the
property of the Levites : so that, if ex-
changed, both were forfeited. Lev. 27 :
32, o3.
It does not appear that the tithe of
herbs was demanded. The Pharisees,
however, tithed their mint, anise, cum-
min, and rue; nor was it for this that
our Saviour condemned them, but for
neglecting weiglitVer things, as mercy,
judgment, and faith, while they were
so scrupulously exact in matters of in-
ferior moment. Matt. 23 : 23.
TIT'TLE, the very least point.
Matt. 5 : 18; used of the fine stroke by
which some letters were distinguished.
To omit this stroke condeumed the entire
copy of the Law made by the scribe.
TI'TUS, a Gentile by descent, and
probably converted to Christianity under
the preaching of Paul. Tit. 1 : 4. He,
however, refused to subject him to the
rite of circumcision, though, as some
have inferred, he was strongly urged
so to do. Gal. 2 : 3-5. Titus was the
companion of Paul in many of his
trials and missionary-tours, 2 Cor. 8 :
6, 16, 23, and was entrusted with sev-
eral important commissions. 2 Cor. 12 :
18; 2 Tim. 4 : 10 ; Tit. 1:5.
Epistle of Paul to, was designed to
instruct Titus in the right discharge of
his ministerial oflBces in Crete, a difiicult
field, owing to the character of the in-
haljitants, who were noted for lying,
idleness, and gluttony. Tit. 1 : 12. The
Epistle was probably written from Asia
Minor in the year 65, when Paul was
on his way to Nicopolis.
TI'ZITE, THE, the designation
given to Joha, one of David's mighty
men. 1 Chr. 11 : 45.
TO'AH {incUmd), a Kohathite Lf-
vite, 1 Chr. 6:34; called Tohu in 1
Sam. 1 : 1.
TOB {(food), the place or district be-
yond the Jordan to which Jephthah fled,
Jud. 11 : 3, 5; also called Ish-tob. 2 Sam.
10 : 6, 8. It lay beyond Gilead, toward
the eastern deserts. There is a modern
place called Taiyibet, an Arabic form of
" Tob," 12 miles south-east of the Sea of
Galilee, which would identify it with the
southern part of Bashan.
TOB-ADONI'JAH {good is my
Lord Jehovah), one of the Levites sent
bv Jehoshaphat to teach Judah the law
of the Lord. 2 Chr. 17 : 8.
TOBI'.4lH [ij'.oduess of Jehovfth).
1. One whose descendants came from
Babylon with Zerubbabel, b^it who could
not prove whether they were of Israel,
owing to the loss of their family-tree.
Ezr. 2 : 60 : Xeh. 7 : 62.
2. An Ammonite of considerable in-
fluence, and a leader in the opposition
which was made to the rebuilding of
the temple by Nehemiah. Being con-
nected bv marriage with some influeu-
871
TOB
TOG
tial families, he became the head of a
formidable party, and maintained a cor-
respondence with the nobles of Judah
adverse to the interests of Neheiniah and
his party, and even descended to threats,
expecting by these to deter him from
the prosecution of his purpose. Dur-
ing the absence of Neheniiah from
Jerusalem, Tobiah obtained apartments
in the temple for his private residence;
but Nehemiah, as soon as he returned to
Jerusalem, expelled him and his furni-
ture from the holy place, and ordered
the chamber which had been thus dese-
crated to be thoroughly cleansed. Neh.
2 : 10, etc.
TOBI'JAH {yoodness of Jehovah).
1. A Levite sent out through Judah by
Jehoshaphat to teach the Law. 1 Chr.
17: 8.
2. One to whom a memorial crown was
given by the prophet. Zech. 6:10, 14.
TO'BIT (»iy goodness ; contracted
from goodness of Jehovah), the hero of
the book named below.
TO'BIT, BOOK OF, one of the
most interesting of the Apocrypha of the
0. T., but devoid of historical value and
plainly a romance. The story of Tobit
may be thus given. lie was a Naphta-
lite who remained faithful to the temple-
service amidst the defection of his coun-
trymen, but, notwithstanding, he shared
with them in their misfortunes and was
carried to Nineveh by Shalmanezer. His
wealth and his position at court gave him
opjtortunity to help his people and thus
win their regard, and for a time his life
was enviable. But a change of rulers
changed his fortune. When Sennacherib
came to the throne, he was compelled to
flee from the king's wrath at his con-
duct in burying the Jews whom the
king had killed. All his property was
confiscated. But on the entreaty of
a nephew, the new king, Esarhaddon,
who succeeded Sennacherib, allowed him
to return to Nineveh. Shortly there-
after he lost his eyesight through the
injury his opened eyes received from
the warm swallows' dung which fell
upon them, causing albugo — /. e., white,
hard (lakes on the eyes, which are of
great<'r or less extent, and not trans-
parent. A quarrel with his wife about a
kid led to her reproaches, under which he
wept grievously and in sorrow prayed.
At this point the episode of Sarra, of
872
Ecbatana in Media, is introduced. She
was the wife of seven who were success-
ively killed on the wedding-night by
Asmodieus. Her prayer for death was
made at the same time with Tobit's
prayer for the same. " And Raphael
was sent to heal them both " — that is, to
scale away the white spots from Tobit's
eyes — " and to give Sarra for a wife to
Tobias the son of Tobit, and to bind
Asmodseus the wicked demon." This
was thus brought about: Tobit sent his
son to Media to recover some money lent
in the days of his yirosperity to one
Gabnel. He improved the occasion to
give his son much good advice. The
angel Raphael, in the guise of " Azarias,
son of Ananias the great," saluted Tobias
and made the journey in his company.
The capture of a fish put in Tobias' hands
the means of curing his father and rid-
ding Sarra of the demon. His journey
was eminently successful. He recovered
tlie money loaned, married Sarra, to
whom Raphael introduced him, and re-
turned home with these treasures, greatly
to the delight of Tobit, who had begun
to be a little fearful for his safety. The
book ends with the restoration of Tobit's
eyesight and prosperity, his consequent
psalm of gratitude, which is a worthy
echo of the canonical Psalms and the
best piece of writing in the book, and
mention of the death of Tobit and
Tobias.
The above narrative is plainly far be-
neath the dignity of Scripture, and study
of the book leads to the discovery of
many serious errors, not only historical,
but moral, such as the meritoriousness
of good works, a reliance upon angels,
and a belief in demons. The book is
indeed a romance, a good specimen of
its class, but devoid of probability and
in part based upon Job.
'rhe author of the book was undoubt-
edly a ^GVf, and probably one who lived
in the far East. Critics are much divided
in regard to the time of composition.
Various dates, from b. o. 338 to A. n. 250,
have been assigned to it, but it may per-
haps with most reason be set down to
the period near the close of the Macca-
bajan wars.
TO'CHEN (a measure), a place in
Simeon. 1 Chr. 4 : 32 ; not identified.
TOGAR'MAH, a descendant of
Japheth. Gen. 10 : 3.
TOG
TON
TOGAR'MAH, the name of a|
people descended from the race of Gomer,
the Cimmerians, and remotely from Ja-
pheth. Gen. 10 : 3 ; I Chr. 1 : 6. The
" house " or race of Togarmah are men-
tioned in Eze. 38 : 6, with their swarms
of mercenary troops, as belonging to the
extreme north. In Eze. 27 : 14, Togar-
mah is described as furnishing horses
and mules to the Tyrian markets. Hence,
Togarmah seems to be Armenia, derived
from Thorgom, a descendant of Gomer,
according to tradition, and rich in horses.
See Armknia.
TO'HU. 1 Sam. 1 : 1. See Toah.
TO'I [wauderiiii/), king of Hamath,
2 Sam. 8:9, 10; called Tou in 1 Chr.
18 : 9, 10.
TO'LA {rcorni). 1. Eldest child of
Issachar, progenitor of the Tolaites.
Gen. 46 : 13; Num. 28 : 23 ; 1 Chr. 7 :
1, 2.
2. A judge of Israel, Abimelech's
successor; judged twenty-three years.
Jud. 10 : 1, 2.
TO'LAD (birth), a city in the South
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4: 29. See El-tolad.
TO'LAITES, descendants of Tola.
Num. 26 : 23.
TOLL. In Ezr. 4 : 13; 7 : 2+there
is mention of " toll, tribute, and cus-
tom " as the three branches of the Per-
sian king's revenue from the .Jews. The
" tribute " was the money-tax imposed
on each province, and apportioned out
to the inhabitants by the local author-
ities. The "custom," or provisicni, was
the payment in kind, which was an in-
tegral part of the Persian system. The
"toll" was probably a payment re-
quired of those who used the bridges,
fords, and Persian highways. See
TaXKS. TuiBlJTE.
TOMB. Matt. 27 : 60. See Burial.
TONGUES, CONFU'SION OF.
Originally "the whole earth was of one
language and of one speech." Gen. 11 : 1.
This biblical statement is confirmed by
the researches of philologists, which
show a great resemblance between the
different families of languages spoken by
the descendants of the Babel-builders.
The Bible states that I he present ditTer-
ences are due to the divine intervention.
God confused the speech of the builders,
so that they were obliged to abandon
their work, thus forestalling "the wide
dialectical differences which ordinarily
require time and difference of place and
habits to mature." — Fuusset. See Lan-
guage.
TONGUES, GIFT OF, one of
the mysterious phenomena connected
with the work of the apostles. It belongs
to the miraculous gifts which adorned
the primitive age of the Church. Our
Lord, immediately before his ascension,
promised his disciples that they should
speak with new t(»i</ue8. Mark 16 : 17.
This promise had the beginning of its
fulfilment on the day of Pentecost. Acts
2. We must, however, distinguish be-
tween the proper essence of this speaking
with tongues, as a gift of the apostolic
Church in general, and the particular
fonn under which it made its first ap-
pearance on that day. Only in this way
can we understand 1 Cor. 14. Luke does
not describe as a eommou event the phe-
nomenon of Pentecost, nor was that won-
drous scene repeated in the house of Cor-
nelius. Acts 10 : 46. Pentecost stands
alone, and the subsequent gift of tongues
must be looked upon as a different mani-
festation of one and the same Spirit. This
can be made evident.
1. The tongues of Pentecost we:e
tongues like flames of fire. Their com-
ing upon the disciples was preceded by
violent noises. It seemed a literal pos-
session. They spoke involuntarily, and
with strange power. But in the Cor-
inthian church there was no such thing.
The speaking took place in the meetings
of the church. It was done quietly. It
came in as part of the service. It could
be omitted or suppressed. 1 Cor. 14 : 28.
2. On Pentecost the disciples spoke
strange languages, understood by those
to whom they were native. Acts 2 : 6.
The words employed plainly indicate
that the miracle was with the disciples.
But in the Corinthian church the words
spoken under this influence were unt
understood until the speaker had him-
self interpreted his words or been inter-
preted. 1 Cor. 14 : 13, 27.
Wc may, however, find resemblances
between the Pentecostal phenomenon and
those in the Corinthian church. In each
case the speaking with tongues was pri-
marily an address to God, and not to
men. It was an act of worship, per-
formed, not to impress unbelievers, but
out of the joy of their hearts. Acts 2:4;
cf. v. 6; 1 Cor. 14 : 26. Again, it ap-
873
TOO
TOP
peared to unfriendly or listless hearers
as madness or intoxication. Acts 2:13;
1 Cor. 14 : 23. To those who understood,
however, the speaking was edifying.
It should be remarked that the Cor-
inthians were by no means the only
Christians who enjoyed this spiritual
gilt of utterance. It formed, indeed,
part of the work of the Spirit upon these
primitive believers. See Acts 10 : 46.
Nor did it die out in the first century.
Irenajus, a father of the latter half of the
secoi.d century, writes : " We hear many
brethren in the church, having propheti-
cal gifts, and by the Spirit speaking in
all kinds of languages." We define this
phenomenon, in the case of these Chris-
tians, as an involuntary praying or
singing in an ecstatic state in which the
Holy Uhost rules the human mind and
plays, as it were, upon it as an instru-
ment. " Vehemently borne along by the
Spirit, forgetting the world and himself,
enraptured in the immediate enjoyment
of the Deity, the speaker with tongues
broke forth in a communication of di-
vine mysteries or a song of praise for the
wonderful works of eternal love." The
interpretation of this strange speech
could be made only by those in a simi-
lar ecstasy. St. Paul advises that where
there is no interpreter there be no such
speaking.
It will be seen that we hold the ability
of speaking in a foreign language with-
out any study therein was not part of
this gift of tongues ; that was done only
on Pentecost. Paul was a master in
speaking with tongues, but he was igno-
rant of the language of Lycaonia. Acts
14:11-14. There is a primitive and
reliable tradition that Peter used Mark
as his interpreter in Rome. The fact of
the Greek language being so widespread
prccludeil the necessity of such miraculous
l>()wer. The instances of the "speaking" ,
cited in the N. T. arc all of one descrip-
tion— nut evangelistic, but declarative:
Christian to Christian, not to foreigner.
Indeed, the expression "'to sjieak with
iifiw tongues ' seems of itself not to point [
to foreign dialects — for they were not |
new — but to a language different from :
all dialects in use, a language of the
new Spirit poured out upon the dis-
ciples."
In modern times, in the congregation
of the Rev. Edward Irving, in London,
874
1830, there was a marvellous })henomenon
similar in some respects to tbat de-
scribed in 1 Cor. 14. It continued for
some time in connection with jjrojihetic
utterances. Out of the excitement it
caused grew the so-called Catholic Apos-
tolic Church, of which Mr. Irving was
first leader, although it was not fully
organized till after his death.
TOOTH. The law of retaliation
allowed the Jewish magistrate to give to
one who had been deprived of a tooth or
an eye the tooth or eye of the aggressor
in revenge. Ex. 21 : 24. The Jews con-
strued this law to justify private revenge,
and this construction and the whole
principle of the law were condeujned by
our Saviour, and the law of forbearance
and forgiveness commended. Matt. 5 :
39. Cleanness of teeth is a figurative
expression for famine. Am. 4:6. Gnash-
ing the teeth indicates terror, rage, and
despair. Matt. 8 : 12. The phrase in
Eze. 18 : 2 denotes that the children
suffer for the sins of their fathers.
TO'PAZ. Eze. 28 : 13 ; Rev. 21 : 20.
It seems quite agreed that this was the
modern chrysolite, a rather soft and
transparent or translucent gem, usually
of a pale green. It is also called jofrtV/«f
and olivine.
The true topaz is ordinarily pellucid
and of a yellowish tint, but sometimes
of a brown, blue, or green hue, or even
colorless. A single gem of this kind has
been sold (it is said) for upwards of
$1,000,000. The finest specimens are
found in the East Indies.
The " topaz of Ethiopia." Job 28 : 19,
or Southern Arabia (see Ethiopia), was
probably distinguished for its beauty and
value. That the most precious stones
were once found tliere profane history
asserts.
TO'PHEL {lime), a place east of
the Arabah. Deut. 1 : 1. It is identical
with the Tiijileli of Rawlinson. a large
village with about six hundred houses,
a little south-east of the Dead Sea.
Numerous springs and rivulets and
j)lantations of fruit trees — apples, apri-
cots, figs, pomegranates, and olives —
make tlic place very attractive, and it
might naturally be selected as a land-
mark.
TO'PHET, and once TO'-
PHKTH. 2 Kgs. 23 : 10. Various in-
terpretations are given: "drum," "gar-
TOR
TRA
den," " place of burning " or '* burying,"
''abomination," '• pleasant," and •* tabret-
grove." Tophet was in "the valley of
the son of Hinnoni," which is '* by the
entry of the east gate." 2 Kgs. 23 : 10.
Hence it lay in the valley, east or south
of Jerusalem, and the supposition is
that it was originally a beautiful place,
watered from the pool of Siloam, a part
of the king's garden, and perhaps a
music- or tabret-garden. But afterward
it became polluted by abominable idola-
trous rites, sacrifices to Baal and Moloch,
Jer. 7 : 31, 32 ; 19 : 13 : was made a re-
ceptacle for all the filth of the city ; fires
were kept burning to destroy the refuse;
and hence "Tophet" became the syno-
nym for the place of punishment and for
fearful judgments. Jer. 19 : 6, 11-14. In
the terrific wars waged around Jerusa-
lem, Tophet became the receptacle for
innumerable dead bodies. Isa. 30 : 33.
See H INN DM.
TORCH'ES. John 18 : 3. Resin-
ous wood, or the twisted fibres of wool ^
or flax saturated with inflammable
matter, served for torches, and in some
parts of the Old World at this day the
like substances are borne aloft in iron !
frames.
TORMENT'ORS. This probably
means the keepers of the prison, who
were often emploj'ed to torture criminals
in various wavs. Matt. 18 : 34. I
TOR'TOISE. This translation,
Lev. 11 : 29, is doubtful. Bochart's view
has most adherents — that the creature
intended was the dhnUb of the Arabs, a
slow-moving lizard, sometimes attaining
the length of 2 feet, and found in the
Syrian and Arabian wilderness. The
Septuagint has, in place of ''tortoise,"
"fand-crocodile," but this reptile seems
to be meant by the "'chameleon" of the
next verse. A large land-tortoise is
found in all these regions, and, like the
dhahh, is eaten by the natives. There is
also in Palestine a water-tortoise.
TO'U. 1 Chr. 18 : 9. See Toi.
TOW, the coarse part of flax. Jud.
16 : 9. See Flax.
TOWER. Matt. 21 : 33. Towers
were common in vineyards, Isa. 5 : 2,
and are often seen at the present day.
They are sometimes 30 feet square and
60 feet high, and are a kind of pleasure-
house, serving as a shelter for the watch-
men and as a summer retreat for the
owner, affording an extensive prospect
and fresh air.
TOWER OF BABEL. See
Babel, Tower of, Language, Tongues,
Confusion of.
TOWER OF ED AR, Gen. 35 : 21,
OR TOWER OF THE FLOCK,
as it is called in Mic. 4 : 8. This is sup-
posed to have been a particular tower
about a mile from Bethlehem, and to
have been erected, like other towers, for
the use of shepherds and herdsmen to
superintend their flocks and descry the
approach of danger. 2 Chr. 26 : 10. Some
have supposed that the phrase "tower
of the flock " had prophetic reference to
Bethlehem as the birthplace of the
Saviour.
TOWER OF SHE'CHEM.
This seems to have been a very strong
and spacious citadel overlooking the
town of Shechem, to which the inhabit-
ants fled for refuge when the town was
besieged by Abimelech. Fearing that
this would not protect them, they es-
caped to the temple of one of their idol-
gods, which was also fortified, and the
supposed sanctity of which they hoped
would deter Abimelech from attacking
it; but he surroundei it with fire made
of green boughs, and burned or suffoca-
ted the whole multitude. Jud. 9 : 46. See
MiLLO. House of.
TOWER OF SILO'AM, sup-
posed to have been a high structure
erected near the fountain or pool of Si-
loam. Luke 13 : 4. Christ's reference to
its destructive fall shows how far he rose
above the current superstition which con-
sidered individual misfortunes as indi-
vidual punishments.
TOWN-CLERK, an oflice of rank
and dignity in Ephesus, as is evident
from the conduct of this functionary as
recorded in Acts 19 : 35, 41. He appears
to have been the keeper of the archives
of the city, presided over municipal
gatherings, put matters to vote, and
performed the duties of the chief mag-
istrate when the latter was away. The
speech which the town-clerk delivered
on the occasion referred to was very in-
genious, revealing great tact and ability
to subdue popular excitement.
TOWNS. See Cities.
TRACHONI'TIS (a rugged re-
gion), one of the five Roman provinces
into which the district north-east of the
875
TEA
TEA
Jordan was divided in N. T. times. It
lay to the ea!<t of Ituia^a and Gaulonitis
and to the south of Damascus, and in-
cluded the remarkable region of the
modern Lejah (see Argob) and part of
the western slopes of Jehel Haurun.
The emperor Augustus entrusted it to
Herod the Great on the condition that
he should clear it of robbers. Herod
Philip succeeded to the tetrarchy. Luke
3:1. He died a. d. 33, and the empe-
ror Caligula bestowed the province of
Trachonitis upon Herod Agrippa I.
Later it was part of the dominions of
Herod Agrippa II., A. D. 53.
TRADI'TION, a precept or cus-
tom not contained in the wiitten law,
but handed down from generation to
generation. Matt. 15 : 2. The Jews
ujaintain that (rod gave Moses, besides
the law which we have in the 0. T., a
variety of precepts, which ho made
known to Joshua, by whom they were
communicated to the elders, and by
them to the judges, prophets, etc. ; that
they were finally collected from various
sources and recorded in what is called
the Talmud, which see. Many of their
traditions were in direct opposition to
the law of God, a striking example of
which is given by our Saviour in con-
nection with the passage above cited.
There were, however, a variety of tra-
ditions or doctrines and precepts which
persons divinely inspired taught by
word of mouth. 2 Thess. 2: 15 and 3:
6. The only way in which we can know
satisfactorily that any tradition is of di-
vine authority is by its having a place
in those writings which are generally
acknowledged to be the genuine produc-
tions of inspired men. All traditions
which have not such authority are with-
out value, and tend greatly to distract
and mislead the minds of men.
TRANCE. This word occurs only
twice in the 0. T., Num. 24 : 4. 16, and
in both instances is supplied by the
translators, and not found in the orig-
inal. In the A. V. of the N. T. it
occurs three times. Acts 10 : 10 ; 11 :
5; 22 : 17. The word is translated
elsewhere by " astonishnwent," '' amaze-
ment." Mark 5 : 42 ; Luke 6 : 26. The
word etymological 1)' denotes a state of
mind in which external objects are en-
tirely unnoticed and forgotten, and the
soul seems for the time to have pass-
876
ed out of the body, and to be occupied
in purely spiritual contemplations. This
state may sometimes be the effect of nat-
ural causes ; but in the case of Peter
there was an interposition of supernat-
ural power.
TRANSFIGURATION, THE.
This event marks the culminating-point
in Christ's life. It is recorded almost in
the same words bv the three synoptists,
Matt. 17 : 1-13 : Mark 9 : 2-1*3 ; Luke
9 : 28-36, but John characteristically
omits all mention of it. The term de-
notes a change of aspect or appearance,
not of substance or bodj'. The change
was seen in the face of the Redeemer
and in his a])parel. It was exceedingly
majestic and glorious, and is particularly
described by the evangelists and alluded
to by Petor.' 2 Pet. 1 : 16-18. The design
of this miraculous event was manifold,
but chiefly to attest in the most solemn
and mysterious manner the divinity of
the Me.'-siah's person and mission; to
support the faith of the disciples by
evidence of the existence of a separate
state, which was furnished by the ap-
pearance and conversation of Moses and
Elias ; and as showing, by the audible
declaration of the Fatlier, a broad dis-
tinction between this Prophet and all
others: ''This is my beloved Son. hear
ye him." Ih^ place of the Transfigura-
tion was probably the western slope of
Hermon, as it occurred a few days after
the confession of Peter at Caesarea-
Philippi, which lay at the foot of Mount
Ilermon, and on the eve of Christ's last
journej' to Jerusalem, Mount Tabor, the
traditional site, does not answer the con-
ditions. Its summit was then a fortified
and occupied camp.
The time of the event was most likely
the night, as then it could be better seen ;
besides, the disciples were awakened by
the light. Again, it was the next day
before they descended. Luke 9 : 37.
Peter, Janus, and John were the sole
spectators; our Lord, Moses, and Elijah,
the actors. It was partly an objective
appearance, partly a spiritual vision.
TRANSGRES'SION. Heb. 2 : 2.
The two words "transgression" and
"disobedience" used in this passage are
by common usage nearly synonymous.
The former may be considered as passing
over the bounds prescribed by a law, or
doing the things we ought not to do, and
TRE
TRI
"disobedience" as a refusal to do what it
enjoins, or not doing the things we ought
to do. The two words are here united,
so that every violation of the command
may be included.
TREASURE-CITIES. Ex. 1 :
11, TREASURE-HOUSES. Ezr.
5 : 17. The kings of Judah had keepers
of their treasure both in city and CDuntrj',
1 Chr. 27 : 25, and the towns where
these treasures were deposited were
called "treasure-cities," and the maga-
zines or houses for their safekeeping
were called " treasure-houses." See
PiTHOM.
TREAS'URY, John 8 : 20,
TREAS'URIES, 1 Chr. 9 : 26. the
place in the temple where gifts were
received. See Temple.
TREE OF KNOWLEDGE.
Gen. 2 : 9. See Adam.
TRES'PASS usually denotes an
offence committed against or an injury
(lone to another. Lev. 6:2. It implies
a departure from duty in respect to God
or man. Matt. 6:15.
T R E S'P A S S-O F'F E R I XG,
Lev. 5 : 6. See Offiuuxg.
TRI'ALi. Judicial procedure was
usually very swift and simple; no such
formalities as are common with us could
have existed in the patriarchal or the
Mosaic days. The patriarchs were the
natural guardians of the public peace.
When the Israelites had multiplied into
a great nation and were living in the
wilderness, Moses found his attempted
imitation of the patriarchal judgeship
was too laborious, and therefore gladly
adopted the suggestion of Jethro and
appointed inferior judges fur minor
cases. Ex. 18:13-26; Deut. 1:9-17.
There is an appearance of appellate
courts in Judah in the days of Jehosh-
aphat. Originally, it is probable, each
man or woman pleaded for himself or
herself; but when the .Jews passed under
the Roman domain, they were required
to hire pleaders. Acts 24 : 1-9. Judges
are repeatedly exhorted to act justly.
Deut. 16 : 18, 19; Isa. 1 : 23, 24; Luke
18 : 1-6. In criminal cases at least two
witnesses were necessary. Deut. 17 : 6 ;
19 : 15. If the witnesses swore falsely,
then they were to be punished as the
accused would have been had he been
guilty. Deut. 19 : 16-21. The cases of
Christ and Stephen illustrated how short
an interval elapsed between sentence and
execution.
TRIBE. The posterity of each
of the twelve sons of Jacob is calle<l
a tribe. Ephraim and Manasseh, the
sons of Joseph, founded. Gen. 48 : 5,
two tribes, and are therefore mention-
ed in the list of the families in Num.
26 : 28. In the distribution of the
Promised Land, however, only twelve
shares were made, for the tribe of Levi
were to minister in the temple and to be
supported by the contributions of the
rest. See Levites, Tithes, etc. The
twelve tribes continued to be one peop'e
until after the death of Solomon, when
ten of them revolted and beciame a
separate monarchy under Jeroboam,
and were called the kingdom of Israel,
leaving the tribes of Benjamin and Ju-
dah under the government of Rehohoain,
with the name of the kingdom of Judah.
See Hebrews, IsraeLj Kingdom of,
Judah, Kingdom of.
Each was headed by a prince — an ar-
rangement which lasted, it would seem,
during the monarchy. Num. 1:16; cf.
1 Chr. 27 : 22. The tribes possessed
considerable independence ; they were a
confederacy rather than a union. Thus
they waged wars separately. Jud. 1:3;
1 Chr. 4 : 41, 43; 5 : 10, 18-22. The
judges were, in some instances at least,
of only local jurisdiction. The period
))receding the monarchy contained more
than one outbreak of hereditary jealousy
between the tribes, especially between
the powerful tribes of Judah and Ephra-
im, 2 Sam. 2:4-9; 19 : 41-43, in so
much that it was deemed best to anoint
Rehoboam in Shechem. 1 Kgs. 12 : 1.
We see further confirmation of this state
of feeling in the fact that when the dis-
ruption took place the rallying-cry of
the ten tribes was " 0 Israel !" as if this
shout was territorially understood.
The tribal idea is kept up in the N.
T. Our Lord appointed twelve apostles,
and in the Revelation the seer of
Patmos carries the division into hea-
ven itself in the number of the seals,
the gates, and the foundation. Rev. 7 :
4-8; 21 : 10-21.
The names of the twelve tribes were,
arranged alphabetically and not accord-
ing to seniority : Asher. Benjamin, Dan,
Ephraim. Gad, Issachar, .ludah. Man-
asseh, Naphtali, Reuben, Simeon, Zebu-
877
TRI
TRI
lim. The tribe of Levi, as already re-
marked, was scattered among the other
tribes.
T R I B E S • Charncteristicn and
Prnmineiit Members of each of (he Twelve
Tribes. — In this article will be contained
in a condensed form information about
each tribe additional to and of a dif-
ferent kind from that given under the
respective titles, which .«ee.
Asher. — The tribe of Asher was de-
scended from the eighth son of Jacob,
the second son of Zilpah, Leah's maid.
The name means ''happy," in reference
to Leah's feeling at his birth. Gen. 30 :
12, 13. Our definite knowledge of
Asher is of the slightest. Four sons
and one daughter, besides two grand-
children, accompanied him into Egypt.
Gen. 46 : 17, 18. He stood in the" re-
maikiiblo group around Jacob's death-
bed, and received the promise of a
fruitful land: " Out of Asher his bread
nhnK, be fat. and he shall yield royal
dainties." Gen. 49 : 20. The tribe went
out of Egypt under Moses, nnd sent
its spy from Kadesh-barnea. Num. 13 :
13. Its position on the march was
between Dan and Naphtali, on the
north side of the tabernacle. Num. 2 :
27. The territory of Asher has alreadj'
been described. See Asher. It is notice-
able that the blessing of Moses. Deut.
33 : 24, 25, like that of Jacob, related
merely to fruitfulness and general pros-
perity, so the tribe was never distin-
guished for mental qualities, although
it was possessed of a rich territory and
increased very rapidly. Comp. Num. 1 :
40 with 26 : 47. With the exception
of Simeon, it is the only tribe west of
the Jordan which furnished no hero or
judge to the nation ; the j)rophetess
Anna, however, was an Asherite. Luke
2 : 36.
Benjamin. — As in the case of Asher,
so with Benjamin, the ])rophotic blessing
of Jacob was fulfilled. Gen. 49 : 27.
Fierceness, courage, cunning, and am-
bition were tribal traits. On the other
hand, it was not distinguished for zeal
for Jehovah, like the tribe of Levi. The
fact that the tribe produced Ehud, Jud.
3 : 15: Saul, 1 Sam. 9:1: Shimei. 2
Sam. 19 : 16, and the nameless but in-
famous libertines of Gibeah, Jud. 19,
shows that Benjamin was all through
ils history inclined to lawless conduct.
878
I But there is a light upon the dark cloud.
Out of Benjamin came Mordecai, the
I deliverer of the Jews, Esth. 2 : 5, and
no Christian can utterly condemn a
people which produced, though late in
its history, so grand a man and so great
a leader as the apostle Paul. Rom. 11 : 1 j
I Phil. 3:5. As he was proud of his own
i Benjamite birth, we must give the tribe
j credit for some excellence, inasmuch as
! it produced one of Israel's first judges,
! her first king, and the great apostle to
^ the uncircumcision. The political for-
tunes of Benjamin were linked with
i those of Judah, and cannot well be
separated. But, although these two
tribes were so closely united, they dif-
fered greatly. One minor but distin-
guishing characteristic was the preva-
I lence of left-handed slingers. Jud. 20 :
j 16. The city of Jerusalem Avas partly
1 on Benjamite territory. The tribe did
■ not at first acknowledge the kingship
of David, 2 Sam. 2:8, 9, although
afterward tbe situation of the capital
j was a strong reason for fidelity to the
Davidic kings.
Dan. — These descendants of Jacob's
coucubine Bilhah were admitted to full
tribal standing. Gen. 49 : 16. Their
great man is Samson. Jud. 13 : 2, 24.
In numbers in the wilderness they
ranked next to Judah, the largest of
the tribes. Num. 1 : 38. It was the last
tribe to receive its inheritance. Josh.
19 : 48 ; and, although among the lar-
gest tribes, it was assigned the smallest
territory, and even all of that did not
I come to them. The divine intention in
this may have been to incite them to
further conquests; at all events, this
I was the efi"ect, for we soon find them
I sending out five men upon an expedition
to the northward with a view to new settle-
ments on their re{)ort. The cit.y Laish
j was afterward taken by the tribe. Jud.
t 18. The chapter explains "the warlike
{ and independent character of the tribe,
I betokened in the fact, specially insisted
on and reiterated, 18 : 11, 16, 17, of the
complete equipment of their six hun-
dred warriors, and in the lawless and
freebooting style of their behavior to
Micah."
Ephraim. — This tribe was the great
rival to Judah, the chief fomenter of
I trouble, and the staunch supporter of
I revolt from the yoke of Rehoboam. It
TRI
TRI
was energetic, restless, conscious of itf^
strength, and full of conceit, wish-
ing to have the lead in ever}- matter.
Ephraim and Manasieh were usually
interested in the same enterprises, but
the former, though really the smaller
tribe, was the more important. Deut.
33 : 17. Ephraim acted badly toward
every leader who did not take special
pains to please them — e. if., toward
Gideon, Jephthah, and David. Jud. 8 :
1 ; 12 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 41-43. In one
instance, however, they nobly inter-
posed to clothe, feed, and restore to
freedom their captive brethren of Ju-
dah. 2 Chr. 28:9-15. The seventy-
eighth Psalm was designed to soothe
their tribal soreness at the transfer-
ence of the religious capital from
Shiloh to Jerusalem. David had nu-
merous Ephraimites among his state-
officers— e. g., 1 Chr. 27 : 10, 14. The
political history of Ephraim after the
disruption is treated under Israel,
KixcnoM OF.
Gad. — One of the tribes on the east
side of the Jordan, because predomi-
nantly shepherds, but who joined, ac-
cording to agreement, in the Conquest.
Josh. 1:16. They were very warlike,
men of might and of war, fit for the
battle, that could handle shield and
buckler, whose faces were the faces of
lions, and as swift as the roes upon
the mountains. 1 Chr. 12 : 8. The tribe
produced three men famous in different
ways — Jephthah, the conqueror and
judge, Jud. 11 : 1 ; Barzillai, the noble-
hearted friend of David, 2 Sam. 17 :
27-29 ; 19 : 31-40 ; and that meteor, the
prophet of evil, who appeared and de-
parted so abruptly, Elijah, the man of
God. 1 Kgs. 17 : 1. The territory of
Gad was for a long time the battlefield
between Sj'ria and Israel. 2 Kgs. 10 :
33. Tiglath-pileser finally carried Gad
away captive, and the Ammonites occu-
pied their cities. 2 Kgs. 15 : 29 ; 1 Chr.
5 : 26 ; Jer. 49 : 1.
lasachar. — The "blessing" of Jacob
upon Issachar was rather equivocal :
Issachar is a strong he-ass crouching
down between the cattle-pens, and he
saw that rest was good, and the land
that it was pleasant; and bowed his
shoulder to bear, and became a slave
unto tribute. The prophecy indicated
an easy-going people who preferred
farming and agricultural labors to po-
litical distinction, and who would pur-
chase ease at the sacrifice of liberty.
And the rich territory of the tribe
favored just this life. However, it
was not without national feeling, for
it responded to the call of Deborah ;
indeed, some have supposed the battle
took place in its tribal limits. Jud.
5 : 15, 19. In David's time it was
able to furnish 145,000 soldiers. 1 Chr,
7 : 1-5. " The descendants of Issa-
char," says Dr. Kalisch, " were men of
prudence and wise calculation. Hav-
ing, therefore, gained abundant wealth
and resolved to enjoy it, they pursued
a domestic and foreign policy calcu-
lated to realize this end. Their
shrewdness not only enabled them
safely to keep aloof from all external
dangers and peacefully to yield them-
selves to secure tranquillity, but to
win the esteem and deference of the
fraternal tribes by useful and valuab'e
councils." Cf. 1 *Chr. 12 : 23, 32. Is-
sachar seems to have put itself under
the protection of Zebulun. But the
tribe produced some men of mark.
Tola, one of the Judges, was of Issa-
char. Jud. 10 : 1, 2. The Omri who
was prince of Issachar during David's
reign may have been the forefather of
the Omri who usurped the throne of
Israel. 1 Chr. 27 : 18; 1 Kgs. 16 : 16.
Baasha, another usurper, and a fero-
cious man, was also of Issachar. Some
men of this tribe responded to the in-
vitation of Hezekiah, and, although
not properly cleansed, partook of the
Passover. 2 Chr. 30 : 18. Shortly
after this came for them the Ass3-rian
captivity.
Jndah. — See Judah, Tribe of, King-
dom OF.
Levi. — See Levite.
Manasfieh. — One of the largest of
the northern tribes, and distinguished
by its possession of territory on both
sides of the Jordan. It did not, how-
ever, play a very prominent part, leav-
ing the leadership to Ephraim, with
whom it shared. The prominent men
in Jewish history who were Manassites
are the judges Gideon, Jud. 6: 11;
Jair, 10 : 3 ; Jephthah. 11 : 1. Manas-
seh joined the side of Ish-bosheth, but
finally submitted to David. 1 Chr. 12 :
31. After the disruption the people
879
TRI
TRO
followed the example of Ephraim, fell
into idolatry, and so prepared the way
for their downfall. There were some,
however, in the tribe of better mind,
who came to Jerusalem to take part
with their brethren in the religious
revivals under Asa, 2 Chr. 16 : i) ;
Hezekiah, 30 : 1, 10, 11, 18; 31 : 1 ;
and Josiab. 34 : 6-9.
Naphtnli. — " A hind let loose, he
giveth goodly words;" so does Jacob
describe the tribe, indicating grace and
eloquence. Barak is the most noted
member of the tribe. The " hind " sym-
bolized a swift warrior. 2 Sam. 2 : IS ; 1
Chr. 12 : 8. In Barak these qualities
come out. The song of Deborah is also
his composition, and, as has been said,
" Even if the tribe gave no other proof
of its poetical genius, of the careful
culture of the mind, and of the artistic
conceptions of which it was capable, it
amply deserved the encomium bestowed
upon it that it uttered 'goodly words '
(words of beauty)." The territory of
Naphtali belonged to the northern king-
dom, and therefore was exposed to all
its foes. Ben-hadad, king of Syria,
plundered it, 1 Kgs. 15 : 20; Tiglath-
pileser took the inhabitants captive. 2
Kgs. 16 : 29. But upon (lod's book of
remembrance there stood his prophecy
of a better day for Naphtali, Isa. 9:1.
2, and Uod, who " watches the turning
of the ages," at last carried it out, and
upon the hills of Naphtali walked the
Light of the world. Matt. 4 : 3-16.
Reuhe.n. — One of the trans-Jordanic
tribes, but without a striking point in
their history. They fell into idolatry,
like their neighbors, were carried into
captivity, 1 Chr. 5 : 26, and their terri-
tory was occupied by Moab. Comp.
Josh. 13 : 16-21 with "isa. 15.
Simeon. — Although one of the most
numerous tribes at Sinai, Num. 1 : 23,
they had become the smallest at Shittim.
26 : 14. They are altogether omitted
from Moses' blessing. Both facts are to
be traced to the same cause — the shame-
less conduct of the tribe in the matter
of Baal-peor. in which they had the
example of their chief. 25 : 14. Ja-
cob foretold that Simeon would " be
scattered in Israel," (i!en. 49 : 7, and,
as a matter of fact, it was so small that
its lot was assigned '' within the inherit-
ance of the children of Judah," Jos»h.
8S0
19 : 1-9, although the ostensible reason
was that " the part of . . . Judah was too
much for them." "No eminent person
is recorded as of this tribe, though the
Jews have a tradition that it furnished
schoolmasters to the rest of the nation."
— Ayre.
Zebulun. — As already remarked, the
fortunes of Issachar and Zebulun were
closely united, as in Moses' blessing:
''Rejoice, Zebulun, in thy going out;
and, Issachar, in thy tents." Deut. 33 :
18, The tribe of Zebulun possessed the
fisheries of Galilee's lake. Their bravery
received the praise of Deborah. Jud. 5 :
18. Their most noted men were Elon,
the judge, Jad. 12 : 11, 12, and Ibzan,
his predecessor, but the great man was
Jonah. 2 Kgs. 14 : 25.
TRIB'UTE, that which is paid to
rulers in token of subjection and for the
support of government. Gen. 49 : 15.
By the Jewish law, Ex. 30 : 13, a trib-
ute or capitation-tax was half a shekel,
or twenty-five cents, which was expended
in the temple-service. The conversation
of our Saviour with Peter on the subject
of paying this tribute-money was de-
signed to show him that, being himself
the Son of God, the King for whose
service the tribute was paid, he might
justly be exempted from paying it ; but,
to prevent any needless irritation on the
part of the oflRcers or nation, he by
miraculous power provided the means
of paying the required tribute, which
amounted to fifty cents for both. Matt.
17 : 24.
TRO'AS, a city of Lesser Mysia, in
the north-eastern part of Asia Minor, on
the sea-coast, 6 miles south of the en-
trance to the Hellespont, and 4 miles
south of the Homeric Troy. It stood
on a gentle eminence, having Mount
Ida behind it and the island of Tenedos
in front. Alexandria Troas, as its name
implies, owed its origin to Alexander the
(ireat. He chose the site with his usual
happy discernment, but did not live to
cover it with buildings. These were
built by Antigonus, whose name the city
consequently bore for a short time. The
city was improved by Lysimachus, the
famous king of Thrace, and received a
Roman cohmy during the reign of Au-
gustus. It was to the Romans, in fact,
that most of the buildings whose ruins
still remain were due. Even the walls
TEO
TEU
were repaired and strengthened by them,
and it was under their rule that the com-
mercial prosperity of the city reached
its height. Its port was excellent, and
made Troas for many centuries the key
of the commerce between Asia and Eu-
rope. Paul visited Troas twice, and
perhaps three times. The first visit
was on his second missionary journey.
It was from Troas that, after the visit
of the "man of Macedonia," he sailed
to carry the gospel into Europe. Acts
16 : 8-11. On his return journey he
stopped at Troas for eight days and
restored Eutychus to life. Acts 20 : 5-
10. Upon one visit he left his cloak
and some books there. 2 Tim. 4: 13.
Present Condition. — Troas is ni)w an
ut'er ruin. The walls can still be traced
for a circuit of several miles. The ex-
ploration of the ruins is somewhat fa-
tiguing, as the ground is thickly strewn
with stones and other fragments of an-
cient buildings, and planted with a for-
est of valonia oaks, whose branches
make riding difficult and finding one's
way still more so. Without a guide
well acquainted with the place, it would
be impossible to discover any road at
all among the mazes of the wood.
There are the remains of a gymna-
sium, 413 feet long and 224 feet wide.
This structure Prof. A. H. Sayce de-
scribes (1880) as "a vast ruin whose
desolation was only equalled by the soli-
tude of the forest in the midst of which
it stood. It had the shape of a hall,
with pilasters along the sides, in front
of which must have risen the columns
that supported the vaulted roof. The
line of the hall was broken in the cen-
tre by four square apartments formerly
adorned with marble pillars and cor-
nices. The break had the appearance
of a transept in a Gothic cathedral, the
two cross-aisles being entered through
lofty arches, one of which still remains
perfect. Within, all is a confused chaos
of stone and brick, of fallen columns
and disfigured ornaments. Only enough
is left to tell us that the building was a
gymnasium with baths attached. The
Turks, who call it the Bal Serai, or
'honey pahice,' have long used it as
an inexhaustible quarry for the neigh-
boring villages, and repeated earth-
quakes have aided their endeavors to
undermine the solid masonry of St.
56
Paul's contemporaries. At the north-
eastern angle of the building are a few
ruined arches, which once supported
an aqueduct, and at a little distance,
among the trees, are the scanty relics
of a Doric temple.
"There are ruins of another large
building of brick, which belongs to the
Roman period. All that now remains
of it is a vaulted chamber of consider-
able size, which opens into smaller
chambers on each of its four sides.
Above are other chambers, similarly
vaulted, while the whole structure
is surrounded by an enormous plat-
form of brick. What its original use
can have been is a matter of dispute.
According to one conjecture, it was a
temple ; according to another, a bath-
house ; but neither conjecture is sup-
ported by the form and structure of the
building. All we can say with certainty
is that the present ruins represent but a
small part of the original edifice, the
foundations of which can still be traced
among the grass and brambles."
The harbor is blocked by a sand-bar.
The place is now called Enki Stainbnnf,
or "Old Constantinople," and it is said
that Constantine hesitated between Troas
and Constantinople as the site of his
capital.
TROGYL'LIUM, a town and cape
on the western coast of Asia Minor, be-
tween Ephesus and the mouth of the
Meander, opposite Samos, at the .foot of
Mount Mycale. Paul there spent a night
on his third missionary journey. Acts
20 : 15. An anchorage a little east of
the point is still called St. Pmd's
Port.
TROOP, BAND, often means a
small body of marauders, as in Gen.
49 : 19 ; 2 Sam. 22 : 30 ; Jer. 18 : 22 ;
Mic. 5:1.
TROPH'IMUS {foster-child), a
native of Ephesus, Acts 21 : 29, and a
convert to the faith of the gospel, prob-
ably under Paul's ministry. Acts 20 :
4. He became one of the apostle's com-
panions and helpers in missionary trav-
els and labors. 2 Tim. 4 : 20.
TROW, in Luke 17 : 9, nieans to
"think," "believe."
TRUM'PET. The trumpet difiFer-
ed little from the horn, and in partic-
ulars which are no longer discoverable.
Ex. 19 : 16. The silver trumpets were
881
TRU
TYR
Trumpets.
used by the priests alone in publishing
the approach of festivals and giving sig-
nals of war.
TRUMPETS, FEAST OF.
This feast— enjoined Num. 29 : 1-6:
Lev, 23 : 24 — was the New Year's day
of the civil year, coming on the first
of Tisri (October), and was further
called by the Eabbins "the birthday
of the world," because in Tisri the late
fruits were gathered and seed was sown.
It was characterized by the use of both
the straight trumpet and the cornet in
the temple, by the blowing of trumpets
everywhere, unless the festival fell on a
Sabbath (in this case no trumpets were
blown outside of the temple), and b}' the
offering of a young bullock, a ram, and
seven first-year lambs, with meat-offer-
ings and a kid for a sin-offering in
addition to the daily sacrifices and the
eleven victims of the new moon, the
ordinary feast of the first day of the
month. It was one of the seven days
of holy convocation. The feast differed
from the other feasts of new moon, which
also had their trumpet-blowings over the
burnt-offerings, by its being a day of rest
and service.
TRYPHE NA, and TRYPIIO'-
SA, two women of Rome whom Paul
commended for th^-ir zeal. Roin. 16 : 1 2.
TSEB'AOTH,LORDOF. This
is a transliteration from the Hebrew
which is more accurate than the com-
mon form " Sabaoth," which occurs in
Rom. 9 : 21» : Jas. 5 : 4. See Saraoth.
TU'BAL, fifth son of Japhcth, whose
descendants probably jieopled a country
l^'ing south of the Caucasus, between
the Black Pea and the Aranes, whose
inhabitants wc:e the Tihareni of the
Greeks, Gen, 10 : 2. Tlie Circassians,
882
who inhabit this region, are slave-deal-
ers, and they of Tubal traded in the
" persons of men." Eze. 27 : 13 ; 38 : 2 ;
comp. Rev, 18 : 13.
TU'BAL-CAIN (hammer-blows of
the dmith?), a son of Lamech by his
wife Zillah, Gen. 4 : 22, He is said to
have been an instructor of every artificer
in brass (copper) and iron. Thus he was
the original maker of tools.
TUR'BAN. See Clotiiks,
TURTLE-DOVE. The word
"turtle," and words of similar sound in
Latin and Hebrew, are imitative of the
plaintive notes of sevcial species of
doves, Ps. 74 : 19, B\' the Jewish Law.
the poor who could not afford a more
costly sacrifice were permitted to bring
two turtle-doves or two young pigeons.
Lev, 12 : 6-8, As the former are not
domesticated and breed everj'where in
prodigious numbers, this provision was
a great boon to the needy. The outward
circumstances of Christ's parents are
thus indicated in Luke 2 : 24,
The turtle-dove is a bird of passage,
Jer. 8:7; Cant. 2:12, Early in April,
Palestine everywhere suddenly swarms
with these creatures, while a few days
before not one was to be found. The
most common s])ecies ( Titrtiir <iun'ti(f>)
also breeds in England and in many ])arts
of Europe, The ])alui-turtle nests in the
tree from which it is named, and there-
fore could have been obtained by Israel
in the valleys of the Sinaitic desert,
where this tree is found. The collared
turtle is the only other species found in
Palestine. By reason of its pairing for
life and its unusual fidelity to its mate,
this bird is the symbol of purity. See
DovR.
TU'TORS means "guardians," Gal.
4: 2.
TYCH'ICUS, a companion of Paul,
Acts 20 : 4, and evidentlv a devoted and
faithful disciple, Eph. 6": 21, 22 ; Col. 4 :
7, 8.
TYRAN'NUS {tiimut), the name
of the (ireek rhetorician of Ephesus in
whose lecture-room Paul delivered dis-
courses daily for two years. Acts 19 :
9. Paul and he must have occupied
the same room at different hours. Ho
may have been a convert,
TYRE, AND TY'RUS (Hcb. Tsnr,
"rock;" Arabic S!ir),-A celebrated city
of Phoenicia, on the eastern coast of the
TYR
TYR
Mediterranean Sea, 21 miles south of Si-
don, in lat. 33° 17' N.
Situation and Extent. — Tyre was situ-
ated upon what was originally an island,
or perhaps two islands, about 1 mile
long, and lying parallel to the shore at
the distance of half a mile. There was
also a city called " Palsetyrus " ("Old
Tyre") upon the mainland. Pliny
gives the circumference of the island
Tyre at 2i miles, and of the whole city,
including Palactyrus, at 17 miles.
Hiatorij. — Phoenician and Greek tra-
ditions make Tyre a very ancient city.
According to Herodotus, the priests at
Tyre told him the city was founded b. c.
2750. The first Scripture mention is in
the time of Joshua, b. c. 1444, and it was
then " a strong city." Josh. 19 : 29. It
was coupled with the Zidonians. Jer.
47:4; Isa. 23:2, 4, 12: Josh. 13 : 6 ;
Eze. 32 : 30. The two cities Tyre and
Sidon, being only 20 miles apai-t, were
intimately associated. Indeed, Tyre
must have included not only the city
proper, but some of the adjacent coun-
try. See PHa-;MCiA. Tyre, under King
Hiram, held friendly relations with Is-
rael, under David and Solomon. Da-
vid's census extended thither to embrace
the Jews. 2 Sam. 24 : 7. The Tyrians
furnished the timber for the temple and
great buildings of Jerusalem. The ce-
dars of Lebanon were floated from Tyre
to Joppa, some 85 miles, and thence ta-
ken to Jerusalem. Tyrian artists also
were skilful in the fine work required.
As a reward for his services, Iliram was
presented with twenty cities in Northern
Galilee, but he was not well pleased with
them and called them " Cabul " ("dis-
pleasing" or "despicable"). 2 Sam. 6:
11; 1 Kgs. 6:1; 7 : 13 ; 9:11, 12; 1
Chr. 14:1; 2 Chr. 2:2, 3,11. Iliram
and Solomon were also associated in
commercial enterprises. 1 Kgs. 9:27;
10: 11-22; 2 Chr. 8 : 17. 18; 9 : 21.
From Tyre came the many fatal influ-
ences toward idolatry wliich corrupted
the chosen people. See ZinoN and Ph(i;-
NiciA. At a later period the friendly re-
lations were changed to hostility. Tyre
rejoiced in the distress of Israel, and
God's proplict predicted the terrible
overthrow of the proud heathen citv.
Isa. 23 : 1, 5, 8, 1:)-I7 ; Jer. 25 : 22 ; 27 :
3 ; 47 : 4 ; Eze. 26 : 2-15 ; 27 : 2-S. 32 ;
29 : 18 ; Hos. 9:13; Joel 3:1; Am. 1 :
884
9. 10; Zech. 9 : 2, 3 ; comp. Ps. 45: 12;
83 : 7 : 87 : 4. The prophecies were no-
tably fulfilled. Shalmaneser, king of As-
syria, besieged Tyre in b. c. 721. The
siege lasted for five years, but the city
was not taken. Nebuchadnezzar besieg-
ed it for thirteen years, ending with b. c.
592; whether he captured and destroyed
this city is. strange to say, a matter which
history does not enable us to determine.
Josephus docs not make it clear, and the
passage in Eze. 29 : 18, " Yet had he no
wages, nor his army, for Tyrus," is dif-
ferently interpreted, some understanding
that he did not take the city at all, and
others that he took it, but found no ade-
quate booty to compensate for the long
siege. At any rate, Tyre came under
the Persian dominion and furnished
that power with a large fleet. This ex-
cited the hostility of Alexander the
Great, who determined to de^^troy the
power of the city. Not being able to
reach the walls with his engines, he col-
lected together all the remains of the
ancient city Paltetyrus — stones, timber,
rubbish — and threw them into the nar-
row channel. Thus was fulfilled in a
most remarkable manner the prophecy
of Ezekiel. 26:3, 4, 12, 21. After a
siege of seven months the city was ta-
ken. Some 8000 men were slain in tlie
massacre which followed; 2000 were
crucified, and 30,000 men, women, and
children were sold into slavery. The
city was also set on fire by the victors.
Zech. 9:4; Joel 3 : 7. After Alexan-
der's death Tyre fell under the dominion
of the Seleucidae, having been besieged
for fourteen months by Antigonus; at a
later period the Romans possessed it.
In N. T. times Tyre was a popuhuis
and thriving city. Christ referred to it
and visited its "borders." Matt. 11:21,
22 ; 15 : 21 : Mark 7:21. Whether he
went into the city itself cannot be deter-
mined. The borders of the territory of
Tyre (" its coar^ts ") reached southward
to Carmel and eastward to Iturasa, ac-
cording to Josephus. Paul spent seven
days at Tyre, Acts 21 : 3, 4, which early
became the seat of a Christian bishop-
ric. In the fourth century Jerome
speaks of it as the most noble nnd
beautiful city of Phoenicia, and as still
trading with all the world. During the
Middle Ages it was a pl.ace of some
consequence, and was regarded as well-
TYR
TYR
nigh impregnable. On the side next the
sea it had a double, and on the land i-ide
a triple, wall. After being subject to
the Romans for four hundred years,
Tyre came under the dominion of the
Saracens in the seventh century. In
A. D. 1124 the Crusaders captured it. In
1 291 the Muslims gained possession of the
city, which was destroyed by them, and
has never since regained its prosperity.
There is an interesting description of
the siege of Acra (Ptolemais) and the
possession of Tyre b3' the army of the
sultan of Egypt and Damascus. It is
given by Marin us Sanutus, a Venetian,
in the century following the capture:
*' On the same day on which Ptolemais
was taken, the Tyrians, at vespers, leav-
ing the city eaipty, without the stroke of
a sword, without the tumult of war, em-
barked on board their vessels, and aban-
doned the city to be occupied freely by
their conquerors. On the morrow the
Saracens entered, no one attempting to
prevent them, and they did what they
pleased." About A. D. 1010-11 it was
visited by Sandys, who said of it : ''But
this once famous Tyre is now no other
than a heap of ruins; yet have they a
reverent aspect, and do instruct the
pensive beholder with their exemplary
frailty. It hath two harbors, that on the
north side the fairest and best through-
out all the Levant (which the cursours
enter at their pleasure), the other choked
with the decayes of the city." Maundrell
(1697) says of Tyre : "On' the north side
it has an old Turkish castle, besides which
there is nothing here but a mere Babel
of broken walls, pillars, vaults, etc., there
being not so much as an entire house left.
Its present inhabitants are only a few
poOr wretches that harbor in vaults and
subsist on fishing." — Smith's Bible Dic-
tionary, vol. iv., p. .3337.
Present Condition. — The present town
lies at the north west end of the former
island, which has an area of ab»ut 125
acres. The large embankment or cause-
way thrown up by Alexander the Great
was 60 yards wide and one-fourth of
a mile long. But this has been widen-
ed, by the gradual deposit of sand, to
a mile on the main land and 600 yards
where it reaches the old ramparts. The
west and south sides of the island are
now used for gardens and burial-grounds.
Traces of the ancient wall are found.
One stone is 17 feet long and 6^ feet
thick. There are huge stones and frag-
ments of marble columns along the shore
and beneath the water. They are bare
as the top of a rock, and there the fish-
ermen spread their nets — a wonderful
fulfilment of a prophecy uttered nearly
twenty-four hundred j^ears ago : " I will
make thee like the top of a rock ; thou
shalt be a place to spread nets upon."
Eze. 26:14. The most interesting of
the old buildings yet remaining is the
church of the Crusaders, which prob-
ably occupies the site of a church con-
secrated A. D. 323, when Eusebius preach-
ed the sermon.
The modern city has miserable streets
and dilapidated houses. Its shipping
C(msists of a few fishing-boats. Cotton,
tobacco, and millstones from the Hau-
ran are exported. The population num-
bers about 5000, nearly half of whom
are Muslims, while the other half con-
sists of Christians and a few Jews. A
Franciscan monaster}' and a convent of
the French order of the Sisters of St.
Joseph are established here, and schools
have been founded by an English mis-
sion. A short distance from the city, on
the main land, is the traditional tomb
of Hiram : the remains of the ancient
aqueduct by which the city was supplied
with water from Rds el 'Ain can be
TYROPfE'ON. See Jerusalcm.
TY'RUS. See Tyre.
885
UCA
UNI
U.
U'CAL (/ am strong) occurs only
once, Prov. 30 : 1, as the name of one
of the persons to whom Agur's words
are spoken.
U'EL (will of God) had. daring
the Captivity, married a foreign wife,
Ezr. 10 : 34; called Juel in 1 Esdr. 9 :
34.
UK'NAZ, in the margin to 1 Chr.
4:15, is the proper name " Kenaz "
with the copulative conjunction pre-
fixed, but the preceding proper name
has been omitted.
U'LAI {strong water ?), a river of Su-
siana, on whose banks Daniel saw his
vision of the ram and he-goat. Dan.
8:2-16. It is doubtless the Eulaeus of
the Greeks and Romans, a large stream
in the vicinity of Susa (Shushan). Re-
cent explorations have shown that the
river Choaspes (Kerkhan) divides about
20 miles above Susa. The eastern branch,
which received the Shapnr and fell into
tlie Karan, was probably the Ulai. This
bifurcation of the stream explains the
otherwise difficult passage, " I heard a
man's voice between the banks of Ulai,"
Dan. 8 : 16 — that is, between the banks
of the two streams of that divided
river.
U'LAM (porch, vcfitibnle). 1. A de-
scendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7:17.
2. A descendant of the house of Saul.
1 Chr. 8 : 39, 40.
UL'IiA (yoke), an Asherite chieftain.
1 Chr. 7 : 39.
UM'JMAH (conimnniti/), a citv of
Asher. Josh. 19 : 30. Dr. Thomson as-
sociates it with the modern Alma, north
of Achzib, on the Ladder of Tyre, somo
6 miles from the seashore.
UNCIRCUMCIS'ION. Rom. 2 :
25. See CiuciiMcrsKn.
UNCLEAN'. Lev. 5 : 2. See Clk.vx
AVn U.VCLKAN.
UNCLEAN' MEATS. IIos. 9 : 3.
See Clkan and Unci^kan.
UNCOVERING the head was a
token of mourning and captivity. Lev.
10:6; Isa. 47:2.
UNCTION is used figuratively with
reference to the ceremony of anointing,
886
and signifying the communication of a
divine grace. I John 2 : 20, 27.
UNDERGIRD'ING a vessel
means to pass a strong cable around the
hull to prevent it from opening. The
ship which carried St. Paul to Italy was
undergirded. Acts 27 : 17. Lord Anson
mentions a Spanish man-of-war that
was saved by throwing overboard one
tier of guns and taking six turns of a
cable around the ship.
UNDERSET'TERS, projections
by which the brazen laver was orna-
mented and supported. 1 Kgs. 7 : 30.
U'NICORN (reein, or hitjh), a very
unfortunate translation of a word which
occurs seven times in the 0. T. That
fabulous creature the unicorn certainly
is not meant by the reein. Critics are
agreed that the passages mentioning it,
correctly understood, require an animal
with two horns. This animal was dis-
tinguished for his ferocity, Isa. 34 : 7,
strength. Num. 23:22; 24:8, agility,
Ps. 29 : 6, wildness, Job 39 : 9, as well
as for being horned and destroying with
his horns. Deut. 33 : 17 ; Ps. 22 : 21.
For various reasons, this animal could
not have been the rhinoceros. Probably
it was the now extinct aurochs ( Boh
p)-imi(je)iin8), a long-horned and pow-
erful ox, which existed in the forests
of Europe nearly, or quite, until the
Middle Ages. Caesar found it in the Her-
eynian forest, and gives this description :
'* These uri are scarcely less than ele-
phants in size, but in their nature, color,
and form are bulls. Great is their strength,
and great their speed : they spare neither
man nor beast when once they have caught
sight of them." An allied species of bo-
vine animals of great size and strength
is known to have existed in Palestine,
as the bison (/iinon bonasnn), and some
of these, now called aurochs, are still
found in the forests of Lithuania.
The Scripture references will be found
peculiarly appropriate to an animal of
the ox kind. Assyrian monuments rep-
resent the king and his warriors hunting
a wild bison, which " aj)])ears to have
been considered scarcely less formidable
UNI
UR
Bison. (Bison bona^us. AjUr TrUlraiii.)
and noble game than the lion." In a bone-
cave in Lebanon the teeth of the aurochs
or a similar ox have been discovered. Al-
together, the above interpretation may
be regarded as quite established.
U NITY OF THE SPIRIT is
unity of judgment, affection, and feel-
ing among those who constitute the one
body of Christ, Eph. 4 : 3, and it is the
gift of God. Jer. 32 : 39. It was re-
markably enjoyed in the early ages of
the Church, John 17 : 21 ; Acts 4 : 32. and
is to be sought after as among the chief
of Christian graces. 2 Cor. 13 :11.
UN''NI {depresxed). 1. A Levite ap-
pointed to play the psaltery. 1 Chr. 15 :
18,20.
2. Another Levite, living after the re-
turn from Babylon. Neh. 12 : 9.
UNRIGHTEOUS MAMMON.
Luke 16 : 11. See Mammox.
UPHAR'SIN. Dan. 5 : 25. See
AIk.vk.
U'PHAZ, probably the same as
Ophir, which see. Jer. 10:9; Dan.
10 : 5.
UP'PER COASTS are the coun-
tries of Galatia and Phrygia through
which Paul passed at the beginning of
his third missionary-tour. Acts 19 : 1.
UP'PER ROOM. Mark 14 : 15.
See Dwrr.MNGS.
UPPERMOST ROOMS. Luke
12 : 39. See Synagogues.
UR (li'i/hf), the father of one of Da-
vid's men, 1 Chr. 11 : 35 ; called Ahas-
bai in 2 Sara. 23 : 3-1.
UR OF THE CHAL'DEES
{llciht?, or, from the rendering in the
Septuagint, rer/ion), the place at which
Abraham resided with Terah, his father,
before he was called to go into the land
of Canaan. Gen. 11 : 28, 31 ; 15 : 7. It
is mentioned in the 0. T. as ''of the
Chaldees," and Josejihus calls it "a city
of the Chaldajans." Stejihen speaks of
it as in Mesopotamia. Acts 7 : 2. These
are the only biblical clews to its site,
and hence the identification has been a
disputed question. Among the places
which have been suggested as the site of
Ur are —
1. The modern Or/ah, or Ur/a, in
Northern Mesopotamia, some 20 miles
887
URB
URI
north of Ilaran and a short distance
east of the Uj)per Euphrates. It is
about 450 miles north-north-east of Je-
rusalem in a straight line. This is the
classic Edessa. It is now a city of
about 50,000 to 60,000 inhabitants, near-
ly equally divided into Muslims and
Christians (Jacobites and Armenians).
Among the arguments for making this
Urarc: (1) The resemblance in name.
(2) The long-standing tradition among
both Jews and Mohammedans that Abra-
ham dwelt there. At the base of the
mountain, to the south-east of the town,
is the cave which tradition says was hio
birthplace, and over it is a mosque so
holy that only Muslims are allowed to
enter it. There is a pool called liirket-
el'Ibrahim el Khaleel, the '' pool of Abra-
ham the beloved." (3) The saying of
Josh. 24 : 2 that it was " on the other
side of the flood " — ;'. e., east of the
Euphrates. But in opposition to this
identification it is urged, among other
things, that Chaldoea did not extend
into Upper Mesopotamia, that the his-
tory points to a longer migration be-
tween Ur and Haran than the 20 miles
between Orfnh and Haran. Uz is also
connected with Orfnh by tradition.
See Uz.
2. Warka, in south-eastern Mesopo-
tamia, 120 miles s )uth-east of Babylon,
4 miles east of the Euphrates. The
tract of land is slightly raised above the
ordinary water-level. Upon a sandy
platform are situated the remains of
numerous ancient buildings. A ram-
part of earfh, nearly 6 miles in circum-
ference and 40 feet high, surrounds the
area. This is now commonly supposed
to represent the city of Ereo*h of Scrip-
ture and the Orchoc of the Greeks. A
tradition of the Talmud and in early
Arabic works makes this Ur. Worka
is a city of tombs, and is now utterly
desolate.
3. Mugfieir, "mother of bitumen," a
ruined site about 0 miles west of the
confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris,
and about 125 miles north-west of the
Persian Gulf. The ruins now cover an
oval space 1000 yards long and 800
broad. The Koran and the Talmud
contain legendary accounts of the es-
cape of Abraham from the fire into
which idolaters threw him at Ur. The
most remarkable ruin at Minjlicir is a
8C3
temple built of bricks laid in bitumen,
and many of them inscribed with the
name of Unikli, a Chaldaean monarch
whose date is supposed to have been
B. c. 2230. This is perhaps the most
ancient Chaldaean site discovered. Kaw-
linson. Porter, Eadie, and others accept
this as the most probable site of Ur of
the Chaldees.
UR'BANE (from the La^n nrhanua,
''refined," " polite "), one of the Chris-
tians in Rome to whom St. Paul sent a
salutation. Rom. 16 : 9.
U'RI [fienj). 1. Of the tribe of Ju-
dah, the father of Bezaleel, one of the
architects of the tabernacle. Ex. 31 : 2;
35:30; 38:22; 1 Chr. 2 : 20 ; 2 Chr.
1:5.
2. The father of Geber, the commis-
sariat-officer of Solomon in Gilead. 1
Kgs. 4 : 19.
3. A gatekeeper of the temple Avho in
the time of Ezra had married a foreign
wife. Ezr. 10 : 24.
URI'AH, 2 Sam. 11 : 3, or URI' AS,
Matt. 1:6, a Hittite by descent, but
probably converted to Judaism, com-
mander of one of the bands of David's
army, and the husband of Bathsheba.
His death was purposely brought about
by an understanding between Joab and
David, in order that David's guilt in the
case of Bathsheba might be concealed,
and that he might obtain her for his wife.
U'RIEL (fire of God). 1. A Le-
vite of the family of Kohath. 1 Chr. 6 :
24.
2. The chief of the Kohathites in the
time of David. 1 Chr. 15 : 5, 11.
3. The father of Maachah or Michai-
ah, Rehoboam's wife and mother of
Abijah. 2 Chr. 13 : 2. In 2 Chr. 11 : 20
Maachah is called " the daughter of
Absalom," which may be explained by
her mother, Tamar, being a daughter
of Absalom.
URI'JAH ifiame of Jehovah). 1.
High priest in the reign of Ahaz, 2 Kgs.
16:10-16; called Uriah in Isa. 8:2;
complied subserviently with the demand
of the king to make an altar after the
idolatrous pattern of that of Damascus,
and to off'er sacrifices on it.
2. The son of Shemaiah of Kirjath-
jearim : prophesied in the days of Jo-
hoiivkim, and fled from the king's wrath
to Egvpt, buf was seized there, brought
back,"and slain. Jer. 26 : 20-23.
URI
UZA
3. A priest of the family of Koz, the
ancestor of Meremoth, Neh. 3:4, 21 ;
perhaps the same as mentioned in Neh.
8:4.
U'RIM AND THUM'MIM {light
(I lid perfection) denote some part of the
high priest's apparel. In Ex. 28 : 15-
/iO it is prescribed that the Urirn and
Thummim shall be placed beneath the
breastplate, in order to be on the high
priest's heart when he goes in before the
Lord ; and when Aaron was arrayed,
Moses himself put the Urim and Thum-
mim into the breastplate. Lev. 8 : 8. In
the blessings of Moses he speaks of the
Urim and Thummim as the crowning
glory of the Levite tribe ; and when
Joshua is solemnly appointed to succeed
him, Num. 27 : 21, the high priest, Elea-
zar, is said to ask counsel for him after
the judgment of Urim. But nowhere in
Scripture are the Urim and Thummim
described, and, as Jewish tradition can
give no information, we do not know
what they really were.
U'SURY, by modern usnge, means
exorbitant or unlawful interest, but in
the Scriptures it means .'imply interest.
The Law of Moses prohibited the Jews
from taking any interest of each other
for the loan of money or of anything
else, though they were allowed to take
it of foreigners. The exchangers of
money were in the habit of receiving it
at low interest and loaning it at high
interest, taking the difference for their
gain. Eze. 22 : 12. The practice of usu-
ry is severely denounced in the Scrip-
tures. Neh. 5 : 7, 10 : Ps. 15 : 5 : Pro v.
28 : 8. It has sometimes been asked
why the Jews were permitted to take
usury of strangers, while they were for-
b'idden to take it of each other. It is
quite clear that the civil economy of
the Jewish state excluded the general
use of usury as a means of gain in
a medium of exchange. They had no
commerce with foreign nations, as we
have in modern times, or as the Gentile
nations had in that age. They had
their inheritance apportioned to them
in the division of the land, and were
rather branches of the same family set-
tled together than independent commu-
nities, and their united business trans-
actions were to be of the most friendly
nature. In dealing with foreigners
whose object was gain, they were allow-
ed to avail themselves of the ordinary
principles of trade.
U'THAI (Jehovah succors). 1. A
descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 9:4; called
Athaiah in Neh. 11:4; was one of
those dwelling in Jerusalem after the
Captivity.
2. A son of Bigvai ; returned home in
the second caravan with Ezra, Ezr. 8 :
14 : called Uthi in 1 Esd. 8 : 40.
UZ [fruitful in trees). 1. A son of
Aram, and grandson of Shem. Gen. 10 :
23; 1 Chr. 1:17.
2. A son of Dishan, and grandson of
Seir. Gen. 36:28.
UZ, THE LAND OF {fertile
laud). Uz, or, more correctly, " Huz,"
i was the country of Job. Job 1:1. It is
' mentioned in the ethnographical tables,
Gen. 10 : 23, and it was settled by a son
of Aram. Comp. 1 Chr. 1 : 17. Job was
! " the greatest of all the men of the East "
— in Hebrew, Beue-Kedem, the people
who dwelt in Arabia. Job 1 : 3, 15-17.
i Uz is grouped with Egypt, Philistia, and
■ Moab, Jer. 25 : 20, and with Edom. Lam.
4:21.
! Situation. — The position of the land
of Uz has been a subject of much dis-
pute. According to Josephus. Uz was
the father of the inhabitants of Damascus
and Trachonitis. Many traditions put
it at Orfah. on the Euphrates. See Ur.
Near the Haran-gate in that city is
"Job's well," which is a sacred shrine
to the people because the patriarch drank
of its waters. Porter found many tradi-
tions of Job in the Hauran, and numer-
ous places named after the patriarch.
The land of Uz seems most likely to
have been in general that portion of
Arabia Deserta east of Edom and south
of Trachonitis, extending indefinitely
toward the Euphrates.
U'ZAI (xtronff), the father of Palal,
who assisted Nehemiah in repairing the
walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 25.
TJ'ZALi, the sixth son of Joktan.
Gen. 10 : 27 : 1 Chr. 1:21. His descend-
ants settled in Yemen and built the city
of Uzal, which from the earliest times
was one of the principal towns of the
country. Its name was afterward changed
to *'Sana," and it is now the capital of
I Yemen. Niebuhr describes it as a beauti-
ful town, situated on a plateau, and
resemb'ing Damascus on account of its
i rippling waters and fine trees.
889
uzz
UZZ
UZ'ZA {nfrciu/th). 1. An inhabitant
of Jerusalem in whose garden Manasseh,
king of Judah, and his son Anion were
buried. 2 Kgs. 21 : IS, 2(). The location
of the garden is not known.
2. A Benjamite descending from Ehud,
1 Chr. 8 : 7, ami, according to the Tar-
gum on Esther, the ancestor of Mordecai.
3. The ancestor of the family of
Hethinim which returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 49 ; Neh. 7:51.
4. A Levite of the family of Merari.
1 Chr. 6 : 29.
UZ'ZA, GARDEN OF. 2 Kgs.
21 : 26. See UzzA, 1.
UZ'ZAH (streugth), a son of Abin-
adab, in whose house at Kirjath-jearin:
the ark had rested, was instantly killed
by the immediate action of Uod for lay-
ing his hands upon the ark, while guid-
ing the carriage on which it was brought
to Jerusalem, in violation of the express
provisions of the divine law. Num. 4 :
15; 2 Sam. 6:3-8. In 1 Chr. 13 : 7-11
he is called Uzza.
UZ'ZEN-SHE'RAH [em- <,f She-
rnh), a city of Sherah, the daughter or
descendant of Ephraim. I Chr. 7 : 24.
Probably it was near Beth-horon, and
its site may be marked by Beit Sira, 3
miles south-west of the lower Beth-
hornn.
UZ'ZI {mh/hf. of Jehovah). 1. A son
of Bukki, and the father of Zerahiah, in
the line of the high priests, 1 Chr. 6 : 5,
6, 51 ; Ezr. 7 : 4, but not a high priest
himself.
2. The grandson of Issachar. 1 Chr.
7 : 2, 3.
3. A Benjamite, son of Bela. 1 Chr.
7:7.
4. Another Benjamite, ancestor of
several families settled in Jerusalem
after the Captivity. 1 Chr. 9 : 8.
5. A son of Bani, a Levite, and over-
seer of the Levites in .Jerusalem in the
time of Nehemiah. Neh. 11 : 22.
6. A priest in the time of Jozakim,
the high priest. Neh. 12 : 19.
7. A priest assisting Ezra in dedicat-
ing the walls of Jerusalem ; perhaps the
same as the preceding. Neh. 12 : 42.
UZZ I' A {xtreiKjth of Jehovah), one
am
of David's guard; surnamed the " Ash-
tcratbite." 1 Chr. 11 : 44.
UZZI'AH {nii,jht of Jehovah). 1.
The son and successor of Amaziah,
king of Judah ; called Azariah in 2
Kgs. 14: 21 and elsewhere; began to
reign at sixteen, and reigned fifty-two
j-ears, B. c. 808-756. His career was
most prosperous. He walked in the
vfnys of his father David, and as a
consequence was blessed with victory
over his enemies and great fame and
love. But he was puffed up by success
so long continued, and presumed to
burn incense on the altar like the
priests. Azariah, tiie high priest, and
eighty others opposed him ; but God
most eff"ectually checked him by mak-
ing him a leper, dwelling in a separate
house until death. 2 Kgs. 15:1-7; 2
Chr. 26. A great earthquake occurred
in his reign. Am. 1:1; Zech. 14 : 5.
2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 6:21.
3. The father of one of David's
officers. 1 Chr. 27 : 25.
4. A priest. Ezr. 10 : 21.
5. A Judite. Neh. 11 : 4.
UZZI'EL (viicfht of Jehovah). 1.
The fourth son of Kohal-h, Ex. 6 : 18, 22;
Lev. 10:4; the ancestor of the Uzzielites,
and, through Elizaphan, also of the Ko-
hathites, Num. 3:19, 27, 30, his house
numbering one hundred and twelve
adults in the time of David. 1 Chr.
15 : 10.
2. A Simeonite captain who in the
time of Hezekiah destroyed the remnants
of the Amalekites in the valley of Gedor.
1 Chr. 4 : 42.
3. A son of Bela the Benjamite. 1 Chr.
7:7.
4. A Levite musician in the time of
David, the son of Heman. 1 Chr. 25 : 4;
called Azareel in 1 Chr. 25 : 18.
5. A Levite of the family of Jeduthun
who was very active in cleansing and
sanctifving the temple after the pollu-
tions of Ahaz. 2 Chr. 29 : 14-19.
6. The son of ILarhaiah, active in re-
pairing the walls of Jerusalem in the
days of Nehemiah. Neh. 3 : 8.
UZZI'ELITES, descen.lants of
UzziEL, 1. Num. 3 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 26 : 23.
VAG
VEN
V.
VAG'ABOND (from the Latin
vnyahundns) means a fugitive, a wan-
derer, and is so used in the A. Y., but
not opprobriously, as we now use the
word. Gen. 4:12; Ps. 109 : 10 ; Acts
19: 13.
VAJEZ'ATHA (Persian, strong as
the w'nul), one of the ten sons of Haman
slain by the Jews in Shushan. Esth.
9 : 9.
VALE, VAL'LEY. Five Hebrew
words are translated " vale " or '' valley."
1. EmeJ,-, signifying a "deep" valley,
and implying a long, broad sweep be-
tween parallel ranges of hills, as the
valley of Achor, Aijalon, Elah, Jezreel,
Succoth, etc.
2. Gai or f/e, signifying a "bursting"
or a " flowing together." and used to
designate narrow ravines or glens, as of
Hinnom or Salt. This name is given to
the secluded spot where Moses was
buried. Deut. 34 : fi.
.3. Nnchal, meaning a "wadv-bed,"
filled with water in winter, but drj' in
summer; and hence it is sometimes ren-
dered "brook," "stream," "river," etc.
Such beds or valleys were Chereth, Esh-
col, Sorek, Zered, etc.
4. Bik'ah, properly a " cleft," but
applied to a broader space than a cleft
or valley, and meaning sometimes a
'•plain," as that between Lebanon and
Anti-Lebanon and Megiddo. Josh. 11 :
17; 13:17; Zeeh. 12:11.
5. Hn-shephehih, wrongly rendered
" valley," meant a broad tract of low
hills between the mountains of Judah
and the coast-plain. Deut. 1:7; Josh.
10 : 40.
VAL'LEY-GATE. 2 Chr. 26 : 9.
See Jerusalem.
VALLEY OF BACA. See Baca.
VALLEY OF DECISION. Joel
3 : 14. See Jehoshaphat.
VAL'LEY OF SALT. See Salt.
VAL'LEY OF SO REK. Jud.
16 : 4. See Sorek, Valley of.
VANI'AH (weak), a son of Bani :
had married a foreign wife, but sent her
away on the comniiand of Ezra. Ezr.
10 : 36.
VASH'NI occurs in 1 Chr. 6 : 28 as
the name of the first-born of Samuel,
while in 1 Sam. 8 : 2 the name is Joel.
As Vashni, with a very slight modifica-
tion, would mean "and the second," it is
probable that in 1 Chr. 6 : 28 the name
of Joel has dropped out.
VASH'TI (Persian, a heantiful
woma)i), queen of Persia, and the re-
pudiated wife of Ahasuerus. Esth. 1 : 9.
See Esther.
VAT. Isa. 33 : 2. See Wine-Fat.
VEIL is, in our translation, the ren-
dering of several Hebrew words which
properly mean shawls or mantles. Gen.
24 : f)5 ; 38 : 14 ; Ruth 3:15; Cant. 5 :
7; Isa. 3 : 23. These shawls or mantles
may occasionally have been drawn over
the face, but they were not designed for
that purpose. Veils proper were used
by the Hebrew women only on special
occasions — as ornaments. Cant. 4: 1, 3;
6:7: as a bridal-?ymbol. Gen. 24 : 65 ;
29 : 25 ; and for the purpose of conceal-
ment. Gen. 38:14. Generally the He-
brew women appeared in public without
veils. Gen. 12:14; 24:16: 29:10; 1
Sam. 1 : 12, and so did the Egyptian and
Assyrian women, as seen by the Egyptian
and Assyrian sculptures and paintings.
The custom now almost universal among
Oriental women to be veiled whenever
they appear in public dates from the
Koran, 33 : 55, 59, which forbids the
Mohammedan women to show themselves
unveiled outside of the circle of their
nearest relatives.
VEIL OF THE TAB'ER-
NACLE, OR TEMPLE. See Taber-
nacle and Temple.
VEN'GEANCE. Rom. 12: 19. This
word often denotes merely punishment,
without any reference to the state of
mind in which it is inflicted. In the
passage cited and elsewhere. Deut. 32 :
35, the exclusive right of God to punish
wrong-doers and to vindicate the truth
is plainly asserted. Hence every act of
revenge is an interference with the divine
prerogative. The word is applied to God
in the same manner in which " anger,"
" hatred," etc., are applied — not as de-
891
VER
VIN
nLttin<5 a state or temper of mind, but as
implying an act or course of proceeding
such as usually indicates a particular
state of mind, when done or pursued by
man.
VERMIL/ION, a chemical sub-
stance used for coloring red, and much
valued for ornamenting dwellings, Jer.
22 : 14, and painting images. Eze. 23 :
1-1. The custom of painting, and some-
times gilding, the ceilings of houses is
still prevalent in the East.
VTAL. 1 Sara. 10 : i. See Censkr.
VIL'LAGES. Lev. 25:31. See City.
VliVE, VINEYARD. We first
read of a vineyard in the history of
Noah. Gen. 9 : 2i). The cultivation of
the vine had attained to some perfection
in very early times. In tiie accounts of
Melchizedek, who set bread and wine be-
fore Abraham, of Lot, who was drunken,
of aged Isaac, when regaled by his sons,
in the prophecy of dying Jacob, and in
the book of Job, we have the earliest ac-
counts of wine as a common drink. Gen.
14 : 18 ; 19 : 32 ; 27 : 25 ; 49 : 12 ; Job
1 : 18 ; Prov. 23 : 30, 31 ; Isa. 5:11.
The original home of the Eastern
grape-vine ( Vitis viui/era) was Armenia
and neighboring countries. But Pales-
tine seems scarcely second to any country
in the world in adaptation of soil and
climate for its culture. Especially is this
true of its southern districts. " Here,
more than elsewhere in Palestine, are
to be seen on the sides of the hills the
vineyards, marked by their watch-towers
and walls, seated on their ancient ter-
races, the earliest and latest symbol of
Judah. The elevation of the hills and
table-lands of Judah is the true climate
of the vine. ' He bound his foal t'» the
vine, and his ass's colt to the choice
vine; he washed his garments in wine,
and his clothes in the blood of grapes.'
It was from the Judaean valley of
Ejhcol, ' the torrent of the cluster,' that
tile spies cut down the gigantic cluster
of grapes. ' A vineyard on a hill of
olives,' with the ' fence.' an I 'the stones
gathered out,' and ' the tower in the
midst of it,' is the natural figure which,
both in the prophetical and evangelical
records, represents the kingdom of
Judah." — Stnii/ei/.
Grapevines were usually propagated
by layers. They were sometimes planted
beside ridges of stones, upon which they
892
crept, and which afforded a dry and
warm exposure for ripening the fruit.
Miles of such stone-heaps remain in
regions now utterly desert about Beer-
sheba and east of the Jordan. At other
times vines were annually trimmed down
to a permanent stock, which was fastened
to a stake, or a post was erected with a
crosspiece, or upon four or more pillars
a trellis or arbor was supported, upon
which the boughs spread. Very often,
however, the Syrian vines are trained
upon a perpendicular trellis or frame-
work in straight rows ; sometimes upon
trees, and particularly the fig tree,
whence the proverbial expression, " To
repose under one's own vine and fig
tree," as an emblem of peace and se-
curity. Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3 : 10. Vines
are found at Hebron trained in this
manner, and bearing clusters of ten
pounds' weight, or even more. Some-
times they were trained upon the side
of the house. Ps. 128 : 3.
Vineyards were enclosed with a hedge
or a wall, to defend them from the
ravages of beasts, to Avhich they were
often exposed. A tower was also built
as the station of a watchman. Num. 22 :
24; Ps. 80 : 8-13 ; Prov. 24 : 31 : Cant.
2:15; Matt. 21 : 33, See Tower.
The Hebrews devoted as much care to
their vineyards as to their agriculture.
When Isaiah predicts the invasion of
the Assyrians, he declares that the vine-
yard where there were a thousand vines
for a thousand pieces of silver shall be
even for briers and thorns. Isa. 7 : 23.
When he would represent sorrow, he
says, " The new wine mourneth, the
vine languisheth, and all the merry-
hearted do sigh." Isa. 24 : 7. So Zech-
ariah, 8:12, foretells future prosperity
thus: "The seed nhall be prosperous,
tlic vine shall give her fruit." See also
Hab. 3 : 17; Mai. 3:11.
The pruning of the vine is a familiar
operation, which we all know to bo
nocessary in order to its fruitfulness.
The law which forbade the Israelites
to gather the grajjcs of the first three
years. Lev. 19 : 23, gave occasion to the
more careful and unsparing use of the
])runing-knife; hence the young stock
came to much greater strength. A
traveller mentions a custom of the
vine-dressers to prune their vines
thrice in the year; the first time, in
VIN
VIS
March. When clusters begin to form,
they again lop oflF those twigs which
have no fruit ; the stock puts out
new twigs in April, some of which
form clusters, and those which have
none are again cut off in May. The
vine shoots a third time, and the new
branches have a third set of clusters.
See John 15 : 2, in which passage the
word " purgeth " may be rendered
"pruneth."
What remains of the culture of the
vine is very simple. Once or twice in
the season the plough was run through
the vinej'ard to loosen the earth and
free it from weeds ; the stones were
gathered out, and a proper direction
was given to the growing branches.
Isa. 5 : 2. The vine-dressers, or keep-
ers of the vineyard, formed a distinct
branch of laborers. 2 Kgs. 25 : 12.
The regular vintage begins in Syria
about the middle of September, and lasts
about two months. Lev. 26 : 5 ; Am. 9 :
1?). llipe clusters, however, are found
in Palestine as early as June and July,
although the regular vintage begins in
September. This difference may arise
from the threefold growth of the vine,
already mentioned. The first gathered
in Canaan is probably meant in Num.
13 : 20.
The vintage was celebrated by the
Hebrews with still more festivity than
the harvest, Isa. 16 : 9. and was some-
times a season of wicked mirth. Jud.
9 : 27. See Grapes.
VIN'EGAR. The Hebrew word de-
notes a beverage either consisting simply
of wine turned sour, and for that reason
proscribed to the Nazarite, Num. 6 : 3,
or .produced artificially. Its excessive
acidity, Prov. 10 : 2fi. made it an un-
palatable drink, Ps. 69 : 21 ; but, like
the Roman poscn, it was much used for
sopping bread. Euth 2 : 14. It was
this beverage which was offered to our
Saviour in his dying moments. Matt.
27 : 48 ; Mark 15 : 36 ,. John 19 : 29.
The effervescence which it produced
when poured upon nitre was well
known to the Hebrews, and is used to
represent in an impressive manner the
incongruity of mirth and sorrow. Prov.
25 : 20.
VINE OF SOD'OM. There is
reference to this plant only in Deut.
32 : 32. Josephus describes fruits grow-
ing near the Dead Sea, " which indeed
resemble edible fruit in color, but on
being plucked by the hand are dissolved
into smoke and ashes." These are the
apples of Sodom of which the poets
sing, and which are supposed to be
mentioned in the above passage.
A surprising number of plants has
been proposed as the vine of Sodom,
while some have supposed that there
was here reference merely to a popular
fiction, as perhaps in the case of the
dragon, satyr, and unicorn. If we are
to interpret Deuteronomy and Josephus
literally, the colocynth seems best to
answer the conditions, because it is the
only vine suggested, and abounds in
these regions, while its fruit, though
beautiful to the eye, is exceedingly
nauseous to the taste, and when rijie
there is nothing within it but seeds
and a drv powder. See Gounn.
VINEYARDS, PLAIN OF
THE, Abel-ceramim. Jud. 11 : 33.
Possibly marked by the ruin Beit el-
Kerm, "house of the vine," east of the
Jordan and north of Kevak, but very
uncertain.
VI'OIj. This was an instrument of
music, and supposed to be the same with
the psaltery. Am. 6 : 5. See Music.
Chanting to the sound of it was to make
like sounds with the voice, so modulat-
ing the tones as to correspond with the
sounds of the instrument.
VI'PER. This word in the 0. T.
possibly designates some j)'trticular spe-
cies of hissing and venomous serpent,
but its exact application cannot be de-
termined. In the N. T. the Greek word
thus rendered was used for (n)>/ poison-
ous snake. The viper which fastened on
Paul's hand. Acts 28 : 1-6, was doubtless
the snake of that name ( Vipern napift),
still common in the Mediterranean isl-
ands. It has now disappeared from
Malta with the woods to which it is par-
tial. The viper is an emblem of what-
ever is deceitful and destructive. Matt.
3 : 7 ; 12 : 34 ; 23 : 33 ; Luke 3 : 7. See
Cockatrice and Asp.
VIS'ION. Num. 24 : 4. In former
times God was pleased to reveal himself,
and communicate his will in visions,
which were caused either in the night in
ordinary sleep, Dan. 7 : 1, or by day in
a temporary trance. Acts 10:11; 26:
13. See Dream, Trance.
893
VOP
VUL
VOPH'Sl {viy increase), father of
Nahbi,the spy selected from the tribe of
Naphtali. Num. 13 : 14.
VOW, in the scriptural use, means a
solemn religious promise or covenant by
which one binds himself to do or suffer
certain things, depending on God for
power to accomplish them. The first in-
stance of such a vow recorded in Scrip-
ture is that made by Jacob when on the
fxight to Padan-aram. Gen. 28 : 20-22 ;
31 : 13. As vows Avere voluntary en-
gagements, not prescribed by the Mo-
saic Law, they were made with prayer
and paid with thanksgiving. Num. 6 : 2-
21 ; Jud. 11 : 30, 31 ; Ps. 61 : 5 ; Acts 18 :
18. See Nazarites.
VUL'TURE. In Lev. 11 : 14, Deut.
14: 13, and Isa. 34 : 15, in place of this
word, we should probably read " black
Wiie" [Mllvus mitjrans). This is a bird
which, except in the winter months, col-
lects in Palestine in great numbers and
is very sociable in its habits, according
to the reference in Isaiah. Another He-
brew word rendered "vulture" in Job
28 : 7 is elsewhere correctly rendered
Kite, which see.
It is a striking instance of the accu-
racy of the Scripture writers that, while
Egyptian Vulture, or "Pliaraoh's Hei
the peculiar faculty for discovering their
food which carrion-dcvourers possess is
])()|iularly attributed to the sense of smell,
the iJiblc attributes it to sight. In the
book of Job the characteristic of the
eagle is that "her eyes behold afar off."
Job 28 : 7 refers to the same peculiarity,
"There is a path which the vulture's eye
894
hath not seen," implying that its vision
is most acute and penetrating. It is well
proved that birds of pre,y discern their
booty at vast distnnces. thiit the eager
flight of one is observed nnd followed
by another, and so on, till many iire
gathered together wheresoever the car-
case is.
WAF
WAR
W.
WATER, a thin cake of fine flour
used in various oSerings anointed with
oil. Ex. 16 : 31 ; 29 : 2, 23 : Lev. 2:4;
7: 12; 8:26; Num. 6:15, 19.
WA'GES. When wages are first
mentioned in the 0. T., they were paid,
not iu money, but in kind. Gen. £9 : 15,
20 ; 30 : 28 : 31 : 7, 8, 41 . But the Law
was very strict in requiring daily pay-
ment of wages, Lev. 19; 13: Deut. 24:
14, 15, and employers who withhold the
laborer's wages or refuse to give him
sufficient victuals are strongly censured.
Jer. 22 : 13 ; Mai. 3:5; j"ub 24 : 1 1 .
Wages paid in money are mentioned in
the N. T. Matt. 20:2; Luke Z:U; 1
Cor. 9 : 7.
WAG 'ON. The Egyptian wagon,
which is well known to us from pictorial
representations, consisted of two solid
wooden discs connected with an axle, on
which a body very similar to that of our
wheelbarrows was placed. This primi-
tive vehicle was diawn by oxen, iind it
was sometimes covered. The wagons
mentioned in Num. 7 : 3, 8, for carrying :
the tabernacle, were no doubt built on
this pattern.
WAILi, to mourn with loud and vio- !
lent expressions of distress and despair, i
Eze. 32 : 18. |
WALL OF PARTFTION. Eph.
2:14. See Temple. j
WALLS, The walls with which, in j
ancient times, all cities were surrounded,
in -contradistinction from open or un-
walled villages, were generally built of
earth or clay or sun-dried brick. Hence
it was necessary to build them of great [
thickness, in order to ensure their per- j
manency. Houses were often erected on
top of them, or they were provided with
fortifications (fenced walls). When any
breach took place in such a mass of
earth, either by heavy rains or some de- .
feet in the foundation, the consequences j
were very serious. Ps. 62 : 3 ; Isa. 30 :
13. See City.
WANDERING IN THE WIL-
DT:RNESS. See- Wildk.i;ni:s.s, thk, j
OF THF, WaXOERINP..
WAR. From the natu:c of the arms
and the customs of the ancients, their
battles were truly murderous. Scarcely
ever was any quarter given, except where
the vanquished was retained as a slave,
and consequently the number of killed
was often immense. 2 Chr. 13 : 17. Al-
though the military art was comparative-
ly simple, yet ingenious stratagems of
various kinds were practised. Enemies
were then, as now, surprised and over-
come -by unexpected divisions of the
forces, by ambushes, and by false re-
treats. Gen. 14:15; Josh. 8:12; Judg.
20:36-39; 2 Kgs. 7:12. In lack of
artillery, unwieldy machines for casting
heavy stones and other destructive mis-
siles were invented. We find, however,
little allusion to these in the Bilile.
About the end of the ninth or the be-
ginning of the eighth century before
Christ, Uzziah " made in Jerusalem
engines invented by cunning men, to
be on the towers and upon the bulwarks,
to shoot arrows and great stones withal."
2 Chr. 26 : 15.
A siege was thus conducted: All the
trees in the neighborhood were cut down
and used in the construction of field-
fortifications. Deut. 20:20. "Mounts"
or ''banks" in the direction of the city
Avere thrown up, and gradually increased
in height until they were half as high as
the city's wall. 2 Sam. 20 : 15 ; 2 Kgs.
19 : 32, The next step was to erect
towers on the top of these banks. 2 Kgs.
26 : 1. These steps taken, the siege was
commenced in earnest. The water-sup-
plies of the besieged were, as far as pos-
sible, cut off": intercourse with neighbor-
ing towns or villages was ended. Thus
starvation must eventualh' set in in the
doomed city. But use was made of other
measures than these passive ones. The
towers spoken of bristled with armed
men. Archers and slingers incessantly
fired at the soldiers upon the wall.
Battering-rams, which see, hammered
against the gates or walls; scaling-
ladders were placed against the walls;
the gates were even at times fired. Jud.
9 : 52. But the besieged had weap"ns
also. Huge stones wcie hurled with
896
WAR
WAR
terrible effect from the walls. Boiling
oil. rings heated red hot, — these were
employed to cripple the foe. Sallies were
made to burn the besiegers' works or to
drive them away. Jud. 9 : 53 ; 2 Sam.
11 : 21.
But there was no part of the ancient
military preparations more terrible
than chariots. Ex. 14 : 7 ,• Deut. 20 : I ;
Josh. 17 : 16; Jud. 4: 3. They were in
common use wherever there was any cav-
alry. 2 Sam. 10: 18; lChr.l8:4; 2 Chr.
12 : 3 ; 14 : 9. See Chariot. Walls and
towers were used in fortifications, and
the latter were guarded by soldiers, and
are called " garrisons." 2 Sam. 8:6; Eze.
26:11. See Ward.
As to the order of battle we have no
certain knowledge. The prophet alludes
to it. Jer. 12 : 5. Among all ancient na-
tions it was customary to take previous
refreshment of food, in order to give
strength to the army. The soldiers, and
especially the commanders, arrayed them-
selves in their costliest garments and
fairest armor, except in cases where dis-
guise was attempted. 1 Kgs. 22 : 30.
Various passages lead to the opinion
that divisions of the army were common,
as in modern times. Gen. 14 : 15 ; Jud.
7:16; 1 Sam. 11:11. The most fre-
quent division of the host was into tens,
hundreds, and thousands, and each of
these had its commander or captain.
Jud. 20 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 8:12; 2 Kgs. 11 :
4. Among the Hebrews these divisions
had some reference to the several fam-
ilies, and were under the heads of fam-
ilies as their ofiicers. 2 Chr. 26 : 6 ; 26 :
12. The captains of hundreds and of
thousands were of high rank, or (so to
spi>ak) staff-officers, who were admitted
t'> share in the councils of war. 1 Ch.-.
1G:1. The whole army had its com-
mander-in-chief or capta'n, who was
over the host, and its scribe, or keeper
o' the muster-roll. 1 Kgs. 4:4; I Chr.
18 : 15, 16 : 27 : 32-34; 2 Chr. 17 : 14;
26 : 11 . In Isa. 33 : 18 the words trans-
lated *' he that counted the towers " j)rob-
ably indicate what we should call a chief-
engineer.
Under David the army of 288,000 men
was divided into twelve corjis, each oi"
Egyptian Troops in Ranks. {From Monuments at Thebes.)
which was consequently 24,000 strong '
nnd had its own general. 1 Chr. 27.
Under Jehoshaphat this was altered, and
there were five unequal corps, under as
many commanders. 2 (,'hr. 17 : ll-lU. i
The cohort had five hundred or six hun-
dred men, and the legion embraced ton
cohorts. I
8U6
The light troops were ])rovided with
anus which they used at some distance
from the enemy, such as bows and ar-
rows. They are designated in 2 Chr. 14:
8 ; while the heavy-armed were those who
bore shield r.nd spear. 1 Chr. 12 : 24. The
light troops of the army of Asa were taken
princifially from the tiibc of Benjamin
WAR
WAT
because of their extraordinary accuracy
of aim. Jud. 20 : Ki. See Armor, Arms.
Kings and generals had armor-bear-
ers, selected from the bravest of their fa-
vorites, who not onh^ carried their ar-
mor, which was in those daj'S a neces-
sary service, but stood by them in the
hour of danger, carried their orders, and
were not unlike modern adjutants. 1 Sam.
31 : 4.
The troops were excited to ardor and
bravery by addresses from their priests,
who were commanded to appeal to them.
Deut. 20 : 2. In later times kings them-
selves were accustomed to harangue their
armies. 2 Chr. 13 : 4. Finally (perhaps
after the sacrifices had been offered), the
summons was given by the holy trum-
pets. Num. 10 : 9, 10 : 2 Chr. 13 : 12-14.
It was the practice of the Greeks, when
they were within half a mile of the en-
emy, to sing their war-song. A similar
custom probably prevailed among the
Jews. 2 Chr. 20': 21. Next followed the
shout, or war-cry. which the Romans ac-
companied with the noise of shields and
spears struck violently together. This
war-cry was common in the East, as it
is to this day among the Turks. It was
the '' alarm " or " shout" so often men-
tioned in Scripture. 1 Sam. 17:52; 2
Chr. 13 : 15 ; Job 39 : 25 : Jer. 4 : 19.
War, like slavery and all forms of
violence, is a consequence of sin; it is
organized cruelty and wholesale murder;
as Gen. Moltke ("the thinker of battles")
says, even a victorious war is a great
national calamity ; but it is overruled
for good by that all-wise Providence
whioh maketh the wrath of nmn to praise
him. Christinnity was introduced into
the world by the angelic nnnonncement
of '" on earth peace, good-will toward
men." It has done much to prevent the
passions of war, to mitigate its horrors,
to counteract its evils by individual and
organized care of the sick, the wounded,
and the prisoners, to encourage the settle-
ment of international disputes by peace-
ful arbitration (as in the Alabama dif-
ficulty, which threatened war between
England and the United States, but was
peacefully adjusted by the Geneva tribu-
nal Dec, 1871), and it looks forward to the
time when men "shall beat their swords
into ploughshares and their sprars into
pruning-hooks, when nation shall not
lift up sword against nation, neither
57
shall they learn war any mo;e." Isa. 2 :
4: Mic. 4:3; Joel 3 : 10 ; Rev. 21 : 3, 4.
WARD, a prison, or an apartment
thereof. Gen. 40 : 3; Acts 12 : 10. Also
a garrison or military post, Neh. 12 : 25,
or a class or detachment of persons for
any particular service. 1 Chr. 9:23;
25 : 8 : Xeh. 13 : 30. See Prison.
WARD'ROBE, the place where the
royal robes or priests' vestments were de-
posited. 2 Kgs. 22 : 14.
WARES, See Commercr.
WASH ING OF THE HANDS
AND FEET, THE, was rendered
necessary and refreshing by Oriental
customs and climate. The hands should
be scrupulously clean, inasmuch as all
persons at table put their fingers into the
same dish. The feet should be washed
because the sandals afforded no protec-
tion against soil; and besides, the feet
Washing the Hands.
would he hot. The protest of Christ
against the handwashings of the Phari-
sees was directed against their character-
istic elevation of it into a matter of
religious observance. Mark 7 : 3. He
and his disciples were exposed to unjust
insinuations because they neglected the
Pharisaic rules. Matt. 15 : 2 ; Luke 11 :
38.
The washing, by the host, of the feet
of the guest was a significant attention,
1 Sam. 25 : 41 ; Luke 7 : 38, 44; John
13 : 5-14; but usually water was pro-
vided and the guests washed their own
feet, or had them washed by servants.
Gen. 18:4: Jud. 19:21.
WATCHES OF THE NIGHT.
The original division of the night was
int ) three watches — "the beginning of
the watches," from sunset to 10 o'clock.
Lam. 2: 19; "the middle watch," from
10 to 2 o'clock, Jud. 7:19: and "the
897
WAT
WAT
morning watch," from 2 o'clock to sun-
rise. Ex. 14 : 24; 1 Sam. 11 : 11— but
after the Captivity the Jews adopted
the custom of Rome and Greece, whicli
divided the twelve hours of the night
into four watches, beginning with 6
in the afternoon — ''even,'" from 6 to 9
o'clock; "midnight," from 9 to 12;
'•cock-crowing," from 12 to 3; and
mornin:;, from 3 to 6; Matt. 14:25;
Mark 13 : 35; Luke 12 : 38.
WATCH'MAN. Cant. 5:7; Isa.
21 : II. In Persia the watchmen were
required to indemnify those who were
robbed in the streets, and hence they
were extremely vigilant to give the
alarm and protect the city and its in-
habitants from violence. Eze. 33 : 2-6.
The watchman was also required to call
the hours of the night in a loud voice
as he patrolled the streets. This is
customary at the present day in some
large cities. In time of danger the
watch mtJn were posted in towers over
the giites of the city. Isa. 21 : 8 ; 62 : 6.
WA'TJER. The searcitv of water
is one of the cjilamities of the Eastern
world, on I the distress which is often
experienced by man and beast for want
of it. is indescribable. Thus the gather-
ing of water in cislern-i an I reservoirs
and its distribution throug'i canals, form
:i conspicuous feature of Ea.storn life.
In Prov. 21 : I the original term, ren-
dered "rivers," signifies "divisions,"
" partitions." " sections," and refers to
the ancient Oriental methods of convey-
ing water to orchards and gardens. This
was by means of canals or rivulets flow-
ing in artificial channels, called in He-
brew "divisions" — /. c, "cuts" or
"trenches" — which distributed the
water ^n every direction, to irrigate
abundantly the otherwise parched and
b irrcn soil. With a similar allusion,
the Psalmist (Ps. 1:3) says of the godly
man, the lover of the divine law, that
" he shall be like a tree planted by the
rivers of water" (divisions or sections
of water), "that bringeth forth his fruit
in his season, his leaf also shall not
wither." The reference is doubtless to
trees noarished by artificial irrigation,
nnd the manner of this irrigation has
been elnborMtely described by several
modern travellers, (ienorally, garden."
contain a large qnadrnngnlar plat i>f
ground, divided into lesser squares, with
898
walks between them. The walks are
shaded with orange trees of a large-
spreading size. Every one of these
lesser squares is bordered with, stone,
and in the stone-work are troughs, very
artiticially contrived, for conveying the
water all over the garden, there being
little outlets cut at every tree for the
stream, as it passes by, to How out and
water it. In Deut. 11 : 1(1 it is said of
the Land of Promise, " The land whither
thou goest in to possess it. is not as the
land of Egypt, from whence ye came
out, where thou sowedst thy seed, and
wateredst it with thy foot, as a garden
of herbs." The phrase " watering with
the foot " may refer to the construction
or opening of the channels and water-
courses like those above mentioned,
which was accomplished by the action
of the foot. So also in 2 Kgs. 19 : 24, " I
have digged and drunk strange waters
and with the sole of my feet have I
dried up all the rivers of besieged
places" — /. ('., "I iiave digged new
channels by the labors of the spade,
have turned the rivers out of their an-
cient courses " — which consequently were
dried up — '• and thus have made my
army to drink of strange waters, flow-
ing in channels to which they had never
before been accustomed." Another, and
some think much more natural, opinion
is that allusion is made to the machinery
for drawing up water by means of a rope
or string of buckets attached to a wheel,
which was turned like a modern tread-
wheel. Besides its onlinary use, water
was employed symbolically, as in the
Tabernaclks. Fea.st OF, which see, and
once at least on a fast-day. 1 Sam. 7 : <>.
Water indicates cleansing, and therefore
is used in baptism and also of spiritual
blessings. John 3:5; 7:37-39; Rev.
22: 17.
WA'TER OF JEAI/OUSY.
Num. 5 : 11-31. See AinLTKifV.
WA TER OF SEPARA TlOiV,
oii WATER OF UNCLEAN'-
NESS, was sprinkled upon a person
defiled by contact with the dead. See
Num. 19.
WA'TER-POT. The custom of
washing the feet necessitated the use
of a large amount of water on festive
occasions. Ilonce, in John 2 : 6 there is
mention made of six stone water-pots
which held about 25 galUms apiece.
WAV
WEE
Stoue NViiier-jais.
The wiiter-pot of the woman of Samaria,
John 4 : 28. was much smaller.
WAVE-OF'FERING, a peculiar
•feature of the rite of peace-offering, the
right shoulder of the victim, considered
the choicest piece, being " heaved," and
eaten only by the priests, while the breast
was "waved," and eaten by the wor-
shippers. On the second day of the
Passover a sheaf of corn was waved to-
gether with an unblemished lamb of the
first year. From this ceremony the days
were to be counted till Pentecost, on
which feast the first-fruifs of the ripe
corn and two lambs of the first year
were waved. Ex. 29 : 24. 27 ; Lev. 7 :
30, 34 : 8 : 27 ; 9 : 21 : 10 : 14. 15 : 23 :
10, 15, 20 ; Num. 6 : 20 ; 18 : 11, 18, 26-
29.
WAX, a well-known substance made
from the combs of bees, easily softened
and dissolved by heat, is often used in
Scripture as a means of illustration. Ps.
68 : 2 ; 97 : 5 ; Mic. 1 : 4.
WEAN. Asa daily portion was not
allotted to Levite children until they
reached the age of three years, 2 Chr.
31 : 16, it has been inferred that among
the Jews children continued to suckle
up to that time. The weaning was cele-
brated by a feast. Gen. 21 : 8.
WEAP'ONS. Neh. 4 : 17. See
Arms.
WEA'SEL, generally agreed to
mean the mole. See Mole. Lev. 11 :
29.
WEAVE. Various woven fabrics
are spoken of as having been produced
by the Israelites during their wander-
ings— such as curtains of goats' hair,
Ex. 26 : 7; woollen garments. Lev. 13 :
j 47 : twined linen, Ex. 26 : 1 ; and the
embroidered raiment of the priests.
Ex. 28 : 4, 39. Afterward the art of
weaving is often mentioned, 1 Chr. 4 :
21; 2 Kgs. 23 : 7; Prov. 31 : 13, 24;
also the various tools — such as the
shuttle, the beam, the thrum, etc. Job
Ancient Roman Loom.
7 : 6 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 7 : Isa. 38 : 12. The
loom itself is not mentioned, however.
WEDDING-GARMENT. The
wedding-garments were furnished by the
host, and were required to be worn by
those who were admitted as guests at
marriage-suppers. Matt. 22 : 11.
WEEK. The division of time into
portions of seven days found among
many different nations which cannot
have adopted it from one another —
such as the Chinese, Peruvians, etc. —
is by some referred back to the order
of the creation, and by others to the
" seven planets," the principal fact in
ancient astronomy.
The Jews gave no special names to the
days of the week, but simply distin-
guished them by their number, as the
first, second, or third day. The names
of the days now in use in the English
language are derived from the Saxon, in
which they had a mythological signifi-
cation.
Besides weeks of seven days, which
were rendered from one Sabbath to an-
other, the Jews had a week of years, or
seven years, and a week of seven times
seven years, which brought in the fiftieth
or jubilee vear.
WEEKS, FEAST OF. See
Pentecost.
899
WEI
WHI
WEIGHTS. See Measures.
WELLiS were very essential in a
dry and hot country like Palestine, and
were generally provided at each place
of pasturage with a great outlay of
labor. They were deep, John 4:11,
and difficult both to dig and preserve,
and hence were a valuable part of the
husbandman's property. Num. 20 : 17-
19. They were sometimes owned in
common. Gen. 29 : 2, 3. To protect
them from the sand and from being
used by others, they were covered,
usually with a stone, and surrounded
with a low wall. Gen. 29 : 2, 8. To
stop them up was, and still is. regarded
as an act of hostility. Gen. 26 : lo, and
to invade the right of property in them
was often the cause of sharp contention.
Gen. 21 : 25. The water was sometimes
drawn by a well-sweep and bucket, some-
times by a windlass, but generally by
pitchers and a rope. In a country where
water was so valuable and so difficult to
be procured, the well naturally became
the centre of many scenes of actual life
— the halting-place of the traveller. Gen.
24: 11; the camping-plaee of armies,
Jud. 7 : 1, etc. — and it furnished an
appropriate emblem of rich blessings.
Jer. 2 : 13 ; 17 : 13. See Jacob's Well
and Brer-sheba,
WHALE. In the Mosaic account
of the creation, when we are told that on
the fifth day God created great whales,
sea-monsters in general are doubtless
meant. Gen. 1 : 21. The original of
*' whale " is often translated ** dragon "
or "leviathan," and, according to the
derivation of the Hebrew, the word de-
notes a creature of great lent/tli, without
being restricted to marine animals.
Neither the 0. T. nor the N. T., when
correctly rendered, affirms that it Was
a whale which swallowed Jonah, but
"a great fish." Jon. 1:17; Matt. 12 : 40.
The creature referred to is very likely
to have been the white shark, which is
abundantly capable of such a feat.
The whale is, however, occasionally
found in the Mediterranean Sea. The
skeleton of one was to be seen in Bey-
rout in 1877. See Jonah, Leviathan.
WHEAT, In Palestine this most
important of all grains was sown after
barley, late in the fall. It was not only
scattered broadcast and then ploughed,
harrowed, or trodden in, Isa. 32 : 20, but
yoo
it seems, according to the Hebrew of
Isa. 28 : 25, fo have been planted in rows
or drills, as it certainly often is at pres-
ent in Syria. Wheat-harvest is about a
montli later than barley-harvest, usually
in May.
Sixty, or even one hundred, grains
may sometimes be counted in an ear of
this cereal, according to Tristram, and,
as several stalks may spring from a
single seed with thorough cultivation,
the increase of Matt. 13 : 8 is not at all
incredible.
Wheat is still produced for export
east of the Jordan, where probably
Minnith, Eze. 27 : 17, was located. The
whole land once produced vast quantities
of this cereal, and will again when agri-
culture is protected and encouraged.
Deut. 8:8. In the days of Jacob this
grain was already so much cultivated in
Mesopotamia that " wheat-harvest " de-
noted a well-known season. Gen. 30 : 14.
The many-eared variety, or mummy-
wheat, still sometimes cultivated in
Eg3'pt and represented on its monu-
ments, is referred to in Pharaoh's dream.
Egyptian Wheat.
Gen. 41 : 22. In our translation this
grain is often mentioned under the
general name of " corn." See Corn,
TllHKSFI.
WHIT'ED SEP'UT.CHRES.
Matt. 23 : 27. It was customary to
VVID
WIL
whitewash the Jewish sepulchres annu-
ally, that they might be distinctly seen
and avoided, inasmuch as coming in
contact with them was the occasion of
ceremonial defilement. Num. 19 : 16.
This practice gave them a clean and
beautiful appearance, and presented a
striking contrast to the dark and oflPen-
sive mass of putrefaction within.
WID'OW. By the Jewish law, Dent.
25 : 5, if a married man died leaving no
children, his brother was required to
marry the widow, in order, first, that the
estate might be kept in the family, and,
second, that he might, in their descend-
ants, perpetuate the name. This pre-
scription i-efers only to the family and
the estate, and pays no regard to the
individual ; but there are other prescrip-
tions in the Mosaic Law which show
great kindness and circumspection in
behalf of the widowed woman. Ex. 22 :
22; Deut. 14 : 29 ; 16 : 11, 14; 24 : 17,
19-21: 26:12; 27:19.
WIFE. See Marriage,
WILD BEASTS. See Beast.
WIL'DERNESS, Ex. 14 : 3, and
DESERT. These words do not
necessarily imply a mere waste, but
rather extensive tracts not under culti-
vation and afi"ording rich and abundant
pasturage. Josh, 15:61; Isa. 42: 11.
The principal tracts of this description
were the wilderness of Jericho, those of
Judah, En-gedi, Ziph-maon, Beer-sheba,
Tekoa, Gibeon, and Bethaven. See these
under their respective heads.
WILDERNESS OF SIN. Ex.
16 : 1. See AVildeuness, the, of the
Wanpering, and Zin, Wilderness of.
WILDERNESS, THE, OF
THE WANDERING, usually
spoken of as THE WIL'DERNESS,
the region in which the Israelites spent
forty years, between Egypt and Canaan.
It is called sometimes the "great and
terrible wilderness" by way of eminence.
Deut. 1:1; 8:2: Josh. 5:6; Xeh. 9 :
19, 21 ; Ps. 78 : 40, 52 : 107 : 4 ; Jer. 2 :
2. In general, it may be identified with
the great peninsula of Sinai, the tri-
angular region between the Gulf of
Akabah, Seir, and Edom on the east,
and the Gulf of Suez and Egypt on the
west. See Sinai. In this region there are
several smaller wildernesses, as Etham,
Paran, Shur, Zin, which see. What is
known distinctively as the "wilderness
of the Wandering," Bailiet et-Tih, is the
great central limestone plateau between
the granite region of Sinai on the south,
the sandy desert on the north, and the
valley of the Arabah on the east. The
explorations of travellers and the British
Ordnance Survey have made this region
quite well known.
The route of the Israelites from Egypt
to Kadesh can be traced with reasonable
accuracy. Instead of entering the Prom-
ised Land immediately from Kadesh,
they were driven back into the wilder-
ness for their disobedience, and there
wandered for forty years. It need not
be supposed that they were continually
on the move or that they were unable to
find their way. They probably lived a
nomad life, as do the Bedouin Arabs of
the present day, moving from place to
place and pitching their tents wherever
they could find pasture for their flocks.
Some of the stations named cannot be
identified, though the line of march
may be traced until they left the wil-
derness and advanced toward the Prom-
ised Land by Mount Seir and Edom.
See Map at end of book.
It is said of those composing the
British Survey : " Not a single member
of the expedition returned home without
feeling more firmly convinced than ever
of the truth of that sacred history which
he found illustrated and confirmed by
the natural features of the desert. The
mountains and valley's, the A'ery rocks,
barren and sun-scorched as they now
are, only seem to furnish evidence which
none who behold them can gainsay that
this was that ' great and terrible wilder-
ness' through which Moses, under God's
direction, led his people." — Recovery of
Jerusalem, p. 429. (See also Palmer's
Desert of the Exodus.) See SiNAi and
Exodus.
WILL, in the sense of a testament-
ary writing, does not occur in Scripture,
and. with respect to landed property,
such a disposition must have been very
limited, on account of the right of re-
demption and general re-entry in the
jubilee year. With respect to houses in
walled towns such difficulties did not
exist, and it is apparent, from 2 Sam.
17 : 2.3 ; 2 Kgs. 20 : 1 ; Isa. 38 : 1, that
property of this kind was bequeathed by
will.
WIL'LOW, a familiar tree, often
901
WIL
WIN
referred to in the Bible, which flourishes
best in marshy ground and on the
borders of watercourses. Several species
grow in Palestine. The beautiful weep-
ing willow is also called the Babylonian
willow, in allusion to Ps. 137 : 2 ; and,
as this tree flourishes on the banks of
the Euphrates, the name is otherwise
appropriate. Before the Captivity the
willow was an emblem of joy. Lev. 23 :
40. but afterward, through the influence
of the Psalm mentioned above, it ceased
to be associated with the palm, and, like
the cypress, became significant of sorrow.
The oleander of our conservatories is
indigenous in the Holy Land and fringes
many of its waters with living green, the
lower Jordan, however, being too warm
for it. Sometimes it grows to such size
that travellers encamp under its shade.
On the western shore of the Sea of Galilee
it is especially abundant, as the poet
Keble beautifully sings :
" Where Gennesaret's wave
Delights the flowers to lave,
That o'er her western slope breathe airs of
balm.
All through the summer's night
Those blossoms, red and bright,
Spread their soft breasts, unheeding, to the
breeze,
Like hermits watching still
Around the sacred hill.
Where erst our Saviour watch'd upon his
knees."
As the oleander resembles the willow
in leaf, general appearance, and love of
water, it may be sometimes referred to
under that name. Dean Stanley has sug-
gested that it may be the tree "planted
by the rivers of water," mentioned in
Ps. 1 : 3. But the oleander was a wild
shrub, and was not jdnxted. The palm
meets the conditions better.
WIL LOWS, BROOK OF
THE, on the southern boundary of
Moab. Isa. 15 : 7. It is now the Wddy
el-Aksn.
WIM'PLES, supposed by some to
mean a broad, full mantle or shawl, like
the veil which Ruth bad. Ruth 3:15,
and by others a veil, coif, or hood. Isa.
3:22.
WIND. The east wind was, in
Palestine, injurious to vegetation. Its
general character may be inferred from
Gen. 41 : 6 ; Job 1:19; Ps. 11 : (i ; Isa.
27 :S: Jer. 4: 11-1.3; Eze. 17 : 1 0 : 19:
12 ; 27 : 2« ; IIos. 13 : 15. The south
1)02
wind brought heat, Luke 12 : 55, coming
from Arabia ; the simoom, however, did
not reach Palestine. The south-west and
the north gave fair weather. Job 37 : 9,
22 ; Prov. 25 : 23. The west wind, com-
ing, from the Mediterranean, gave rain.
WIN'DOW. In Eastern houses the
windows are single apertures in the
wall, opening upon the court within, not
upon the street without, which gives a
melancholy aspect to the streets. There
is, however, sometimes a projecting
balcony or porch in front of the house,
carefully closed by lattice-work, and
opened only at the occasion of some
festival. From such a place Jezebel is
supposed to have been looking out when
she was seized and put to <leath by Jehu.
2 Kgs. 9 : 30. And this was proliably
called the "casement." Prov. 7 : 6 ; see
also Cant. 2 : 9. Glazed windows were
entirely unknown among the Hebrews,
and are scarcely ever seen in the East
at the present day. Before the Christian
era, and, indeed, for several centuries
after, glass was too costly to come into
general use.
WINE, There has been some cvn-
troversy as to the nature and qualities
of the liquor which is called wine in our
Scriptures. Various words are used in
the Hebrew text, and no doubt various
products are thus denoted, but the cha-
racteristic common to them all seems ta
be that of an intoxicating drink. Lev.
10 : 9 ; Eph. 5:18; 1 Pet. 4 : 3.
Like all other countries, Canaan had
wines of various strength and ciiaracter.
The vine grew luxuriantly in Palestine,
bearing immense clusters of grapes, and
various kinds of wine produced in Pal-
estine were remarkable both for their
power and their flavor, such as the wine
of Lebanon and that of Helbon. near
Damascus, Eze. 27:18; Hos. 14:7.
Often mentioned in connection with corn
and oil as one of the great gifts of Na-
ture to man, it was kept in every house-
hold and ])roduced on occasions of hos-
pitality or festivals. (Jen. 14 : 18; John
2 : 3. But by the .Tews, as by other peo-
ple, it was often misused, and its misuse
is most severely condemned not onlv in
the N. T., but" also in the 0. T., Prov.
20 : 1 ; 23 : 29-35 ; Isa. 6 : 22 ; 28 :
1-7 : 66 : 12 ; Hos. 4:11, and in some
case-: it is expressly forbidden. liCv. 10 :
9; Num. 6:3. In the Mosaic ritual it
WIN
WIN
formed the usual drink-ofTering at the
daily sacrifices, Ex. 29 : 40, nt the pres-
entation of the first-fruits, Lev. 23 : 13,
and at other offerings, Num. 16 : 5, and
a tithe was paid of it. Deut. 18 : 4. The
Na/.arite was forbidden to drink wine
during the continuance of his vow, Num.
6 : 3, and the priest before performing
the services of the temple. Lev. 10 : 9.
The ''mixed wine" often mentioned
by the sacred writers, Ps. 75 : 8 ; Prov.
23 : 30, was not diluted with water, but,
on the contr;ir_v, was increased in strength
or improved in flavor and color by a mix-
ture of drugs, herbs, and spices. Cant. 8 :
2. Some suppose, however, that the
phrase "mixed wine" denotes wine ren-
dered stronger by being shaken up and
mingled with the lees.
WINE-FAT, WINE-PRESS.
An excavati<jn (probabl}' rectangular)
was made in the rock, or was formed in
the ground and lined with mason-work,
in which to crush the grapes. This was
the])ress (Hcb. </<ith), and nnother cavity,
arranged to catch the juice, was the fat
or vat. Ancient excavations of this kind
remain in Palestine, and one of them is
thus described by Robinson with his
usual accuracy : " Advantage had been
taken of a ledge of rock : on the upper
side a shallow vat had been dug out, 8
feet square and 15 inches deep. Two
feet lower down another smaller vat was
excavated, 4 feet square by 3 feet deep.
The grapes were trodden in the shallow
upper vat, and the juice drawn off by a
hole at the bottom (still remaining) into
the lower vat." Both these vats are re-
ferred to in Joel 3:13. By the larger or
upper receptacle Gideon threshed wheat
for the sake of concealment. Jud. 6 :
11. Such rock presses as these are still
used in some parts of Syria.
Travellers tell us that the first vin-
tage usually begins in the latter part of
August: that they often see the black
grapes spread on the ground in beds, ex-
posed to the sun to dry for raisins, while
S\\\\\\.\\\\N\\\\\M/////////////7/////////^
at a little distance one or two, and some-
times as many as five, men are seen, with
feet and legs bare, treading the fruit in a
kind of cistern, or vat. usually about 8
feet square and 4 feet high, with a grated
aperture near the bottom, through which
■ -.- V ■.-.^^..■A)
the expressed iuice runs into a vessel be-
neath. Isa. 63 : 3: Hag. 2:16. The tread -
ers sung and shouted, Isa. 16 : 10, while
the red blood of the grapes flowed around
Egyptians expressing the Juice of the Grape.
them and thoroughly stained their flesh
and garments. Isa. 63 : 1-3 ; Jer. 25 :
30: 48:33; Lam. 1:15: Rev. 19:13-
15.
903
WIN
WIT
The ancient Egyptian mode of express-
ing the juice of grapes may be learned
from the preceding cut. The fruit ia
placed in a cloth, which is twisted and
strained until the liquor is wrung out
into a vessel below.
'• (xath," a wine-press, is of common
occurrence in the names of Hebrew lo-
calities. "Gethsemane" means '• an oil-
press."
WINE-VES'SEL-S. The Hebrews,
as well as the Greeks, preserved their
wine in large earthen vessels or jars, '
which were buried up to their necks in
the ground. These jars were quite large,
containing often as much as one of our |
barrels. The must, or new wine, after [
being poured.into such vessels, was stirred
thrice a day for about twent}' days with j
wooden rods. When wine was to he trans- >
ported, the Persians sometimes decanted [
it into flasks or bottles, but skins are now
in common use, as they were among the 1
ancients. The Hebrews poured even the
must, or new wine, into skins, but for ;
this purpose they used such as were ;
fresh and flexible, and therefore not Ha- j
ble to be broken by the fermentation of i
the liquor. iMatt. 9:17. j
By "new wine," Joel 1 : 5, is intended ;
sweet wine, which was purer and strong- ]
er and more capable of preservation, and
of course more inebriating. Isa. 49 : 26 ;
Acts 2 : 13.
Drinking wine in bowls, Am. 6 : fi, is
supposed to refer to the richness and
magnificence of the vessels, and not to
the quantitv of wine drank.
WIN'NOW. The process of win-
nowing among the Hebrews was much
like that sometimes in use at the present
day. The grain was taken upon a shovel
and thrown up in the wind, and the light-
er chaff and straw separated, sometimes
by the help of a fan. Isa. 30: 2-4; 41 :
15, 16; Matt. 3 : 12. It was common to
winnow grain at evening, when, in Pal-
estine, the sea-breeze usually blows.
Ruth 3 : 2. See Fan, Thresh.
WIIV'TER lasts, in Palestine, from
the beginning of December to the begin-
ning of February, and is characterized
by severe winds, frost, and snow-falls in
the mountains, and by vehonent winds,
rain, and hail-storms in the lowland.
Cant. 2:11. See Sf.asons.
WISDOM or SOL'0>IO\,
THE BOOK OF, one of the most
OOf
interesting and valuable of the Apocry-
pha, gives a glowing exposition and
commendation of true wisdom as de-
scribed in Job 28:12 et acq.; Prov. 8
and 9. Wisdom is represented as
emanating from God as the highest
good, and as the fountain of all true
virtue and happiness. It was with God
when he created the world, 8 : 24-;i() ; is
initiated in his secret counsels, 8:22;
emanates from him and accompanies all
his actions, rules and governs the world,
and renews all things. 8:15. This idea
prepared the way for the Logos doctrine
of Philo and St. John. The literary
form of its exposition resembles that of
the Ecclesiasticus and the Proverbs.
The Solomonic authorship is assumed,
8:10: 9:7, but only in the sense of
personation. The author was probably
a Jewish philosopher or theologian of
Alexandria. He was a full believer in
the 0. T. revelations, but also acquaint-
ed with Hellenic culture. From his
school proceeded Philo, to whom the
book has sometimes been ascribed; but
the author was no doubt older, and
stands between Jesus, son of Sirach,
and Philo, about B. c. 100. The book,
which was composed in Greek and is
somewhat artificial in style, is not
quoted before Irenacus.
WISE MEN. Matt. 2 : 1. See Maoi.
WIST, identical with "knew." Ex.
16 : 15; Acts 12 : 9 ; 23 : 5.
WIT, from the A. V. witmi, to know.
Gen. 24 : 21 ; Ex. 2 : 4. Hence " to do
to wit" is "to cause you to know." 2
Cor. 8:1.
WITCH'CRAFT, 1 Sam. 15 : 2.3,
WITCH, Deut. 18 : 10, WIZARD.
Lev. 20 : 27. A man who pretends to
supernatural power, so that he can fore-
tell future events, cure diseases, call up
or drive away spirits, or disclose infor-
I mation be3'ond the reach of the natural
powers, is called a wizard. A woman
I of like practices is called a witch, and
j the evil art itself is called witchcraft.
Not only those who made such foolish
I and wicked pretensions, but also those
I who suffered themselves to be duped
thereby, are most severely denounced
both in the 0. T. and in the N. T. Ex.
! 22 : 18; Deut. 18 : 11. 12; Lev. 20 : 6 ;
i Nah. 3:1: (Jal. 5 : 20.
WITHERED HAND. Matt. 12:
i 10; Mark 3 : 1,3; Luke 6 : 6, S. The
WIT
WOE
man's hand was not only paralyzed, but
dried u]).
WITHS, a band of pliable twigs
(as of the willow or osier kind), twisted
closely together while green, and used
instead of ropes. The marginal reading
of Jud. 16 : 7 is '• small cords."
WIT'iVESS, one who gives testi-
mony. Two or more witnesses were
required by the Mosaic Law in judicial
investigations, Deut. 17 : 6, 7: and when
the sentence of stoning was pronounced,
they were required to commence the pro-
cess of execution. Acts 7 : 58. A false
witness was to suffer that penalty which
his testimony might have brought over
the accused.
The witness of the Spirit with our
spirit, Rom. 8 : 16, denotes the con-
sciousness, more or less distinct, of the
operations of the Spirit upon the mind,
enlightening the understanding and in-
clining the subject of them to do the will
of (lod.
John often exhibits the gospel in the
light of a testimony, 1 John 5 : 9, and
Christ himself is called "the faithful and
true Witness," Rev. 1:5:3:14. not only
to the glory and perfection of the Father,
but also to his own divine mission and
to the universality and perpetuity of his
kingdom.
WIZ'ARD. See Witchcraft.
WOE. Xum. 21 : 29. This term often
denotes a feeling of compassion or sym-
pathy, Matt. 24 : 19, or a simple lamen-
tation as, "Alas for me !" Ps. 120 : 5. In
other connections it is equivalent to the
threatening of punishment. Hab. 2 : 6,
9, 15. 19; Zech. 11 : 17.
WOLiF, a fierce, cruel, ravenous
animal, in size and general appearance
resembling a dog, and a most terrible
enemy to sheep. Isa. 65 : 25 ; Matt. 7 :
1 5 : 10 : 1 6 : John 10 : 1 2 ; Acts 20 : 29.
The rapaciousness of the tribe of Ben-
jamin was foretold by Jacob by a com-
parison with the wolf. Gen. 49 : 27. See
Jud. 20 and 21 and comp. 1 Sam. 9 :
1 and 20 : 31 and Acts 9:1: Rom. 11 :
1 ; Phil. 3 : 5. The Bible-writers also
illustrate the cruelty of Israel's oppress-
ors by an allusion to the wolf, Eze. 22 :
27, and the sallying forth of the evening
wolf in search of prey, Hab. 1:8. is
emblematical of the destruction which
awaits wicked men. Jer. 5 : 5, fi. The
allusion Zeph. 3:3 is to the circum-
stance that the wolf in its greediness
often seizes on more than it can con-
sume. The wolf still lurks in Palestine,
the dread of shepherds. As there found,
it is of a pale fawn-color, but, although
thus lighter than the common European
species {Cauis lupus), seems to be only a
variety of it.
WO'MAN, the companion and helper
of man, and by express command made
subject to him. Gen. 3 : 16. The social
position, however, of the Hebrew women
contrasted very favorably with that now
occupied by Oriental women, especially
among Muslims. They managed the af-
fairs of the household, bringing the water
from the well, Gen. 24 : 15 ; 1 Sam. 9 :
11, attending to the flocks, Gen. 29 : 6 ;
Ex. 2:16. preparing the meals, Gen. 18 :
6: 2 Sam. 13 : 8, spinning, Ex. 36 : 26 ;
Prov. 31 : 19, and making clothes. 1
Sam. 2:19: Prov. 31:21. Women
mixed very freely in social life, par-
taking in festivals both as hostess and
guest. Job 1:4; John 2:3; 12:2.
See also Miriam, Ex. 15 : 20, 21 : Jeph-
thah's daughter, .Jud. 11 : 34 ; the maid-
ens of Shiloh dancing in the vineyards,
Jud. 21 : 21 : the woman feting Saul and
David. 1 Sam. 18 : 6, 7, etc. They even
held positions in public life. See Mir-
iam, Ex. 15 : 20 : Huldah, 2 Kgs. 22 :
14; Noadiah, Xeh. 6 : 14 ; Anna, Luke
2 : 36: and Deborah.
The word "woman," when used as a
term of salutation, as in Matt. 15 : 28;
John 2 : 4, implies no disrespect, but
great tenderness and courtesy. It was
thus that our Saviour addressed Mary
under the most touching circumstances.
John 20 : 15.
WOOL, as the principal material for
the manufacture of clothing, was highly
valued bv the Jews, Lev. 13 : 47 ; Deut.
22 : 1 1 ; job 31 : 20 ; Prov. 31 : 13 ; Eze.
34 : 3 : Hos. 2 : 5, and the wool of Da-
mascus enjoyed a great reputation in
the market of Tyre. Eze. 27 : 18.
WORD (Lofjos), THE, is one of
the titles of Jesus Chiist. Just as we
express ourselves by words, so God ex-
presses his mind to the world, his bound-
less love, his inflexible justice, through
Christ, his Word. The term occurs only
in the writings of John. John 1 : 1-1 4 ; 1
John 1:1; Rev. 19 : 13. It has been
made a question whether John borrowed
the term from Philo, who also uses
905
WOR
WOR
it, or whether he used it independently.
But they do not mean the same thing.
The "Word "of Philo was an abstrac-
tion; the "Word "of John was the Son
of God.
WORD OF GOD. See Bible.
WORKS. Good works, Eph. 2 : 10,
are such as proceed from love to God
and are done in obedience to his law and
from a regard to his glory. We are saved
by faith, "but faith without works is dead"
— i. e., it is without any evidence of life.
Works constitute the evidence and deter-
mine the strength and character of faith.
Jas. 2 : 17, 18, 26. In some places the
word is used in our translation to de-
note miracles. Num. 16 : 28; John 6 :
20; 10 : 25.
WORLD. This word in the A. V.
is the translation of five Hebrew and four
Greek words. It is therefore not always
plain in what sense it is used. The Ile-
Isrew terms have these literal meanings :
" The earth," " rest," " the grave," Isa.
38 : 11 : "the world," corresponding to
aion in the N. T., or that which is finite,
temporary. Job 11 : 17 ; " the veiled," un-
limited time, whether past or future ; used
verj' frequently, and generally translated
" for ever :" and fina^lly, the poetical term
for " world," which occurs some thirty-
seven times, but in various meanings
which are easily understood. When the
Hebrews desired to express the universe,
they employed a phrase like " heaven and
earth and the sea, and all that in them
is." Ex. 20 : 11.
In the N. T. the Greek words are
equally diverse :
1. Aiou, " duration," thus used of time
past, Luke 1 : 70, of time present, with
the idea of evil, both moral and physical.
Mark 4:19. Hence "children of this
world," or worldly men, Luke 16 : 8 : and
so Satan is called " the god of this world."
2 Cor. 4 : 4. Aion is also put for endless
duration, eternity, 1 Tim. 6 : 16, to signify
the material world as created by the Deity,
Ileb. 11 : 3 ; also the world to come, the
kingdom of the Messiah.
2. 0'*', the earth, in contrast to the
heavens. Rev, 13 : 3.
3. Konmon, used in several senses: {a)
the universe, the heavens, and the earth,
Matt. 13 : 35, and thence for the inhabit-
ants of the universe, 1 Cor. 4 : !), and an
aggregate. Jas. 3:6. {h) This lower
world as the abode of man, .lohn 16 : 18 :
906
the inhabitants of the earth or mankind.
Matt. 5 : 14. (c) The present world, as
opposed to the kingdom of Christ. John
12 : 25 ; specifically, the wealth and en-
joyments and cares of this world, Matt.
16 : 26, and so for those who seek the
opposite things to the kingdom of God,
the worldlings. John 15 : 19.
4. Oikoumene, the inhabited earth,
Matt. 24 : 14, the people of it. Acts 17 :
31, sometimes the Roman empire (the
then civilized world). Acts 17 : 6, in-
cluding Palestine and adjacent parts.
Luke 2:1; Acts 11 : 28.
The Jews distinguished two worlds,
or Eeons, the present seon to the appear-
ance of the Messiah, and the future
aeon, or the Messianic era, which is
to last for ever. The closing days of
the present order of things were called
" the last days." Isa. 2:2; Mic. 4:1;
Acts 2 : 17. The same phraseology is
found in the N. T., but the divid-
ing-line is marked by the second in-
stead of the first advent of the Mes-
siah. Matt. 12 : 32 ; 1 Cor. 10 : 11 ; Gal.
4:3: Heb. 1:2; 6:5: 9 : 26.
WORM. Several Hebrew words are
thus translated which seem to designate
indefinitely caterpillars or maggots,
either as destructive, as loathsome, or
as helpless and insignificant. For the
larva of the clothes-moth, evidently
mentioned in Isa. 51 : 8, see Moth. In
Mic. 7 : 17, "worm" should be " ser-
pent" or "reptile." From the circum-
stance that maggots are found in putre-
fying flesh, we have the figurative ex-
pressions in Job 19 : 26 ; 21 : 26 ; 24 :
20 : Isa. 14 : 1 1. Owing to the constant
accumulation of filth and putrefaction
in a valley near Jerusalem it was always
alive with worms, and fires were main-
tained day and night to consume the
sources of pestilence. Hence the allu-
sion Isa. 66 : 24 : Mark 9 : 44, 46, 48.
At an advanced stage of some diseases
worms are bred in the flesh from the
eggs of the insect. Job 7:5; 17 : 14;
Acts 12 : 23. The meanness of these
creatures, and their liability to be trod-
den under foot, aff'ord the illustrations
in Job 25 : 6: Ps. 22 : 6: Isa. 41 : 14.
WORJtI'WOOD. At least five
species of this ])lant (Artenn'm'a) are
found in the Holy Land, and are dis-
tinguished for intense bitterness. Hence
this word is often joined with or used in
WOR
WRI
the same sense as "gall" and "hem-
lock" to denote what is offensive and
nauseous. Deut. 29:18; Prov. 5:4;
Am. 5:7; 6 : 12. To be obliged to use
it as food expresses the extreme of suf-
fering. Jer. 9 : 15; 23:15; Lam. 3: 15,19.
WOR'SHIP. This word, as used
in our Bible, has various significations.
In most instances it means simply an
act of respect, Matt. 9:18; Acts 10 :
25, and does not imply any religious
emotion. Where the act respects the
divine Being, the only proper object
of religious worship, the connection
shows it. John 4 : 24; Heb. 1:6; Rev.
22 : 9. It becomes idolatry when ten-
dered to anv other person or thing.
Dan. 3 : 5. 12. 14: Acts 19 : 27.
WORSHIPPER, in Acts 19 : 35,
should be '' temple-keeper," a term ap-
plied to cities devoted to the worship of
some special idol, as Ephesus was to that
of Diana.
WOT, WOT'TETH, indicative
present of the old verb "to wit" — i.e.,
"to know." Gen. 39 : 8.
W^REST'LING. See Games.
WRIT'ING is either ideographic or
phonetic. In ideographic writing the
signs used represent the ideas them-
selves, either pictorially by direct imi-
tation of the object, or symbolically, as
when the picture of an eye is used to
convey the idea of sight or knowledge,
and the picture of a lion the idea of
courage. In phonetic writing the signs
simply represent the sounds of which a
word is composed, sometimes encompass-
ing them in whole syllables, sometimes
dissolving them in single letters. Ideo-
graphic writing — that is, writing by
pictures or in hieroglyphics — is an art
of very ancient date, and is even now
common in many savage nations. In
its most unimproved form it is found
among our American aborigines, and
was the common method used by the
Mexicans, some of whose ancient pic-
tures of this kind are preserved.
The most numerous and remarkable
specimens of hieroglyphic writing exist
in Egypt ; they have been sought out by
travellers and copied in drawings and
copperplates, but have baffled the in-
genuity and labor of many ages. A
distinguished French antiquary, Cham-
pollion, was the fi.rst who succeeded in
deciphering a great number of them,
and his labors have thrown great light
upon the Scriptures and vindicated the
Mosaic history from a multitude of ob-
jections. Now a hieroglyphic inscrip-
tion can be read as accurately as a class-
ical one.
As an example of an old method of
phonetic writing may be mentioned the
cuneiform inscriptions found on old As-
syrian, Babylonian, and Persian monu-
ments. The characters very much re-
semble arrow-heads, and the key to
decipher them was not found until be-
tween 1800 and 1815, by Grotefend. It
is evident also that the Jews were very
early in possession of phonetic writing.
Through all the Mosaic history books
and writing are mentioned as in familiar
use. Ex. 17 : 14 ; 2 Sam. 11 : 14 ; 1 Kgs.
21 : 8, 9, 1 1 ; 2 Kgs. 10 : 1, 2, 6, 7. The
alphabet which the Jews used was a de-
velopment of the Phoenician alphabet,
and underwent various changes in course
of time. The materials used in writing
were tablets of stone. Ex. 31 : 18; 32 :
15, 16, 19; 34 : 1, 4, 28, 29, or box- wood
and brass, or plaster, Deut. 27 : 2 : Josh.
8 : 32, or skin, which was made into the
finest parchment or vellum. For hard
materials an iron stylus or engraver's
tool was used. Job 19 : 24 : Ps. 45 : 1 ;
Isa. 8:1; Jer. 8:8; 17 : 1, but for
parchment a reed pen and ink. 2 Cor.
3:3; 2 John 12: 3 John 13. The
parchment was not cut in leaves, form-
ing a book, but put together in long
rolls. See Pen.
The practice of employing an aman-
uensis was much more common in an-
cient days than now. Hence, Paul
gives as an authentication of his letters
a few words written with his own hand.
1 Cor. 16 : 21 ; Col. 4:18; 2 Thess. 3 :
17. This fact also explains Rom. 16 :
22. The size of the apostle's writing is
indicated. Gal. 6 : 11.
The ink of the ancients was made of
pulverized charcoal or the black of burnt
ivory and water, with the addition of
some kind of gum. The ink of the
East at the present day is a much
thicker substance than ours, but is not
permanent : a wet sponge will obliterate
the finest of their writing. The inkhorti
was, and is, a long tube containing the
reed pens, with a little case fastened at
the side to hold the ink. The whole is
thrust into the girdle. See Book.
907
YAR
YOK
Y.
YARN, LINEN. I Kgs. 10 : 28.
There is a diversity of opinion as to the
meaning of this term. There is very
strong reason to doubt the correctness
of the rendering in our translation, and
to substitute for it '* the drove" — i.e.,
of horses. See Eze. 27 : 7.
YEAR. The Jewish year had two
commencements. The religious year be-
gan with the month Abib (April), the
civil with Tisri (October). The year was
solar. There were two seasons, summer
and winter. Ps. 74 : 17; Zech. 14 : 8 ;
Jer. 36 : 22; Am. 3 : 15. The months
were lunar, of thirty days each, and
twelve in number, although a thirteenth
was sometimes necessarily intercalated.
It was called Ve-adar. The festivals,
holy days, and fasts of the year were as
follows :
1. The feast of the Passover, the 14th
day of the first month.
2. The feast of unleavened bread, in
the same month, from the 15th to 21at,
inclusive.
3. The feast of Pentecost, called also
feast of harvest and " day of first
fruits," on the day which ended seven
weeks, counted from the 16th of the
first month, that day being excluded.
4. The feast of trumpets, on the first
day of the seventh month.
5. The day of atonement, a fast, on
the 10th day of the seventh month.
6. The feast of tabernacles, or of
gathering, from the 15th to the 22d
day, inclusive, of the seventh month.
The post-Mosaic festivals are Purim,
in the twelfth month of Adar, loth to
15th day, and dedication, on the 25th
day of the ninth month.
YEAR Ol JUBILEE. Lev. 26 :
8-10. See Ji iulkk, Ykaii of.
YEAR, SABBATICAL. In the
seventh year all agricultural labor was
suspended, and spontaneous productions
were left to the ))oor, the traveller, and
the wild beasts. Lev. 25: 1-7. This was
(1) For the sake of the ground; (2) For
the preservation of wild beasts ; and (8)
To make the people provident and sen-
sible of dependence. The people could
908
fish, hunt, take care of bees and flocks,
repair buildings, manufacture clothes,
and carry on commerce. This year was
religiously observed. Deut. 31 : 10-13.
There was, moreover, a general release ;
no debt to a Jew was allowed to stand, but
must be forgiven. Deut. 15 : 1-1 1.
It has been inferred from 2 Chr. 26 :
21 that this sabbatical year was neglect-
ed during seventy Sabbatical cycles —
('. e., four hundred and ninety years.
Whether it was ever observed is not a
matter of certain record, but there is an
allusion to it in 1 Mace. 6 : 49, and Luke
6 : 1 has been interpreted to refer to the
" first Sabbath of the second year in the
cyc'e."
YOKE. This was much lighter than
ours, and probably much larger, so that
the cattle stood farther apart and the
plough could more easily be made to
avoid obstructions. It was simply a stick
' e e ^ ^
Yoke in Use in Palestine.
a, b, timber of the yoke ; c, d, the linws ; e, e. pegs
between which, at ;/, the end of the shafi comes, ttie
shaft itself having been run through the rope between
/ and the cross-piece of wood h, i.
laid upon the necks of the cattle, to
which it was held by thongs instead of
wooden bows, and in a similar manner
it was attached to the plough-beam. In
modern Syria wooden pins are sometimes
used instead of thongs, the lower ends
of which are held by a parallel stick
nnder the necks of the oxen.
The yoke was an a))])ropriatc emblem
of subjection and of slavery, imprison-
ment, and severe rule, while the removal
of it indicated the corresponding deliver-
ance. Gen. 27 : 40 ; Jer. 2 : 20 ; Matt. 11 :
29, 30. Breaking the yoke also reprosonta
the rejection of authority. Nah. 1 : 13.
ZAA
ZAC
z.
ZAANA'IM (remnvalx), THE
PLAIN OF, more accurately "the oak
of," where Heber the Keiiite pitched his
tent. Jud. 4:11. This has been identi-
fied with a plain some 2 or 3 miles
north-west of the Waters of Merom {Luke
NitUJt), in the line of the hills which
form the western boundary' of the Jordan
valley. The plain is about 2 miles long
and 1 mile wide, and completely sur-
rounded by hills. The hills are well
wooded and have manj' "oaks." In the
middle of the western side of this plain
is the site of Kedesh-naphtali, or Kedesh.
Conder says that Kedesh-naphtali is 30
miles from Tabor, over a difficult country.
He suggests another Kedesh, and the
identification of Zaanaim with Bessuiu,
east of Tabor. See Zaanaxmm.
ZA'ANAN (place of flocks). Mic. 1 :
n. Conder suggests for it Khitrbet
Sameh. See Zenan.
ZAANAN'NIM [removnh), a place
on the border of Naphtali. not far from
Kedesh. Josh. 19 :
Zaaxaim, which see.
ZA'AVAN (dhqiiietefj), a Horite
chief. Gen. 36 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 42.
ZA'BAD {qift). 1. One of David's
mighty men. 1 Chr. 2 : 36. 37 ; 11 : 41.
2. An Ephraimite slain by the Gath-
ites. 1 Chr. 7:21.
3. One of the murderer? of King Joash,
2 Chr. 24 : 26 : called Jozachar in 2 Kgs.
12 : 21, probably the more correct form.
• 4, 5, 6. Three who had foreign wives.
Ezr. 10 : 27, 33, 43.
ZAB'BAI {pure). 1. One who had
a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 28.
2. The father of a repairer of the
wall. Neh. 3:20.
ZAB'BUD iqiren), one who returned
with Ezm. Ezr. 8:14.
ZAB'DI {qifl of Jehovfth). 1. A
Judite. Josh. 7:1, 17, 18.
2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8:19.
3. The superintendent of David's vint-
age. 1 Chr. 27 : 27.
4. A musical Levite. Neb. 11 : 17.
ZAB'DIEL (r///> of Gofl), 1. The
father of the chief of David's guard. 1
Chr. 27 : 2.
Identical with
2. A prominent priest who returned.
Neh. 11 : 14.
ZA'BUD (fpveu), "the friend" of
Solomon. 1 Kgs. 4 : 5.
ZAB'ULON, the Greek form of
Zebclun, which see. Matt. 4: 13, 15,-
Rev. 7 : 8.
ZAC'CAI (pure), the ancestor of
seven hundred and sixty persons who
returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2:9;
Neh. 7:14.
ZACCHiE'US (pure). The story
of his conversion is related only by
Luke. 19 : 2-10. He was a rich Jew,
resident in -Jericho, and chief officer of
the tax- or tribute-collectors in that
place, and hence "a sinner," for the
Jews regarded all publicans or tax-
gatherers in this light. The revenue in
Jericho was doubtless considerable, and
mainly derived from taxes on the balsam
so abundantly produced in the neighbor-
hood, all along the banks of the Jordan.
His desire to see Christ was so much
excited that he took pains to climb into
a tree by the roadside that he might
have a fair view of him as the crowd
passed. Jesus, knowing his character
and motives, proposed to spend the day
with him, to which Zacchaus gladly
assented. His mind was probably
brought at once under the influence of
the Spirit of God, and on that very day
he and his family became interested in
the salvation of the gospel. He gave
the best evidence of the sincerity of his
conversion by declaring his intention to
give half his goods to the poor and to
restore fourfold for every illegal exaction
he had made. Our Lord probably passed
the night in his house, and on the next
morning passed on with the Passover pil-
grims to Jerusalem. The name Zacchaeus
appears in the 0. T. in the form " Zaccai."
ZACCHE'US. See Zacchj-us.
ZAC'CHUR (mindful), a Simeonite.
1 Chr. 4:26.
ZAC'CUR (miudful). 1. A Reu-
benite, the father of the spy from that
tribe. Num. 13 : 4.
2. A Merarite Levite. 1 Chr. 24 : 27.
3. A son of Asaph, and head of a
909
ZAC
ZAL
course of singers. 1 Chr. 25 : 2, 10; Neh.
12:35.
4. One who helped to build the wall.
Neh. 3 : 2.
5. A Levite who sealed the covenant.
Neh. 10: 12.
6. A Levite, father of a treasurer under
Nehemiah. Neh. 13 : 13.
ZACHARI'AH {remembered hij
Jehovah). The name is the same in
Hebrew as Zechariah, which also see.
1. Son and successor of Jeroboam II.,
king of Israel, and the last of the house
of Jehu. 2 Kgs. 14 : 29. He reigned only
six months, and then fell by the hand
of Shallum, who took the throne. 2 Kgs.
15:8-11; comp. Am. 7: 9.
2. The father of Abi or Abijah, King
Hezekiah's mother, 2 Kgs. 18 : 2 ; called
Zechariah in 2 Chr. 29 : 1.
ZACHARI'AS, properly ZACH-
ARI'AH {remembered by Jehovah). 1.
Our Lord mentions a Zacharias, son of
Barachias, as having been slain between
the "sanctuary" (not '* altar," but the
inner shrine) and the temple, Matt. 23 :
35; Luke 11: 61; probably the person
of that name whose death under such
circumstances is mentioned in 2 Chr. 24 :
20-22. It is true that not this Zachariah,
but Urijah, was the last 0. T. martyr,
Jer. 26 : 23 ; but inasmuch as Second
Chronicles was the last book of the canon
according to the Jewish arrangement,
our Lord took an instance from it, as he
took Abel from Genesis, the first. The
principal objection to this identification
is that this Zacharias is stated to have
been the son of Jehoiada, and not of
liarachiah ; but the word " son " may be
used in its usual lax sense, and Barachiah
may have been his grandfather.
2. The father of John the Baptist, and
husband of Elisabeth, which it is inter-
esting to remark is the same name as
'* Elisheba," the name of the wife of
Aaron. Ex. 6 : 23. He was a priest of
the course of Abia, which was the eighth
of the twenty-four classes into which the
descendants of Eleazar and Ithauiar, the
sons of Aaron, were divided. 1 Chr. 24.
Each of these ministered in the temple
one week. But this fact does not enable
us in any wise to determine the date of
the occurrence mentioned in Luke 1.
Of Zacharias and Elisabeth we read :
"They were both righteous before (iod.
walking in all the commandments and
910
ordinances of the Lord blameless. And
they had no child, because that Elisa-
beth was barren, and they were both
now well stricken in years." It was
while Zacharias served one day in the
temple that an angel appeared to him
and prophesied the birth of a son. But,
although for this he had long been pray-
ing, he did not believe that God would
thus signally answer his prayer. He
required a sign, and he received one —
dumbness up to the time of the circum-
cision of the child. To the wonder of
the attendant people he silently dis-
missed, but conveyed by action enough
to let them know he had seen a vision,
he was a deaf-mute until, in obedieniie
to the angelic direction, he had named
the infant born to him John. Then
he not only spoke, but was filled with
the Holy Ghost, and in a strain of the
most devout gratitude and praise he
poured out his soul. And, thus singing,
he passes out of history.
ZA'CHER {memorial), a Benjamite,
1 Chr. 8:31; called Zechariah in 1 Chr.
9 : 37.
ZA'DOK {jnM). 1. SonofAhitub,
of the family of Eleazar, and one of the
two high priests in the time of David,
Abiathar being the other. 2 Sam. 8:17.
He joined David at Hebron, I Chr. 12 :
28, and was always faithful to him,
staying behind in Jerusalem at his re-
quest during Absalom's rebellion, and
subsequently anointed Solomon king, 1
Kgs. 1 : 39, and was rewarded by Solo-
mon for his faithful service by being
made sole high priest. See Abiathar.
2. A priest in the time of King Ahaz-
iah. 1 Chr. 6:12.
3. The father of King Uzziah's wife.
2 Kgs. 15:33; 2 Chr. 27:1.
4. One who repaired a part of the
wall. Neh. 3 : 4.
5. 6, 7. Three other persons. Neh. 3 :
29; 10:21; 13:13.
ZA'HAM {loathing), son of Reho-
boam. 2 Chr. 11 : 19.
ZA'IR {small), a place in Iduma^a
where Joram overcame the Edomites.
2 Kgs. 8 : 21. The name does not occur
elsewhere. It has been regarded as
equivalent to Zoar, and again to Seir,
but more probably is identical with
Zneirah, on the south-western side of
the Dead Sea.
ZA'LAPH {bruise), the father of
ZAL
ZAR
one who helped to build the wall. Neh,
3 : HO.
ZAL'MON ixhadij), one of David's
guard, 2 Sam. 23:28; called Ilai in 1
Chr. 11 : 29.
ZAL'MON {ahadij), MOUNT, a
bill near Shechem from which Abimelech
cut boughs to burn the citadel. Jud. 9 :
48. Possibly the same as Salmon. Ps.
68 : 14. Mount Ebal is now called Jebel
Siilaiiiuijeh, in which some trace a resem-
blance to '* Zalmon."
ZALMO'NAH (sharf)/), a station of
the Israelites in the wilderness. Num.
33 : 41, 42. It lay to the east of Edom.
Palmer and Raumer suggest its identity
with Ma'dii, a short distance east of
Petra. Another suggested site is in
Wddy el-Ithm.
ZALMUN'NA (shelter devled to
oue /), one of the two kings of Midian
slain by Gideon. Jud. 8 : 5-21 ; Ps. 83 :
11.
ZAMZUM'MIMS. Deut. 2 : 20. See
ZUZIMS.
ZANO'AH. Jekuthiel is called, in
the A. V. of 1 Chr. 4:18, the father of
Zanoah, but this means he was the
founder of the village of that name.
See Zanoah, 2.
ZANO'AH {marsh, bog), a name for
two towns,
1. A town in Judah, in the lowlands
or "valley." Josh. 15:34; Neh. 3:13;
11 : SO. Robinson fixed its site up the
valley of Sorek, east of Beth-shemesh,
at Zamu'a, on the slope of a hill, 10
miles west-south-west of Jerusalem. Con-
der proposes to identify it with Zami'a,
south of Beth-shetnesh.
2. A town in the highlands of Judah.
Josh. 15 : 56. Robinson proposed Za'uu-
taK, 10 miles south-south-west of Hebron,
and Conder, after proposing and aban-
doning another site, appears to accept
Robinson's identification.
ZAPH'NATH-PAANE'AH, the
name or title given by Pharaoh to .Joseph
immediately after his elevation. Gen. 41 :
45. The etymology of the word is un-
certain, some deriving it from a Hebrew
root, " the revealer of mysteries," others
from an Egyptian root, " the preserver
of the age."
ZA'PHON (the north), a city of Gad,
east of the Jordan, " in the valley." Josh.
13 : 27. The word" translated " north-
ward " in Jud. 12 : 1 is rendered in the
Septuagint '' to Zaphon." The Talmud
identifies it as Amathus, and it is now
represented by the ruined site Amatch,
south-east of the Sea of Galilee.
ZA'RA {n'sin;/ of light), the son of
Judah. Matt. 1 :' 3. See below.
ZA'RAH (risiitff of light), a son of
Judah by Tamar, Gen. 38 : 30 ; 46 : 12 ;
called Zerah in Num. 26 : 20 ; Josh. 7 :
1, 18 ; 22 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 4, 6 ; 9:6; Neh.
11 : 24, and Zara. Matt. 1 : 3. The nnme
is properlv Zerah.
ZA'REAH (hornets' toton). Neh. 11 :
29. See Zorah.
ZA'REATHITES, the inhabitants
of Zareah or Zorah. 1 Chr. 2 : 53.
ZA'RED (exuberant r/rowth). Num.
21 : 12. See Zered, Valley or Brook
OF.
ZAR'EPHATH (»meIth>r,-hovse),
AND SAREP'TA. Luke 4: 26. Zar-
ephath was a town of Phoenicia, on the
shore of the Mediterranean, between
Tyre, which is 14 miles southward, and
Sidon, which is 7 miles north.
Scripture History. — At Zarephath, Eli-
jah found shelter with a widow-woman
during the great famine in Israel. 1 Kgs.
17 : 8-24. The prophet Obadiah men-
tions it as marking the limits of Israel's
victory. Ob. 20. Jesus made reference
to this incident in Elijah's life. Luke 4 :
26.
Present Ajjpearance. — Not a house now
remains: only ruins mark the site. They
extend for a mile along the seashore,
and contain many fragments of columns.
A little chapel, or n-ely, bears the name
of El-Khuds, the Mohammedan title of
Elijah, and possibly marks the site of
the chapel erected by the Crusaders over
the spot where the widow's house is sup-
posed to have stood. There is no tomb
within, because, as the Mussulmans say,
Elijah is not yet dead: he "flies round
and round the world." Tradition also
claims this as the spot where our Lord
rested when he visited these coasts.
On the slope of a hill more than a mile
back from the coast is the modern village
of Sura/end, which represents the ancient
Zarephath.
ZAR'ETAN (cooling ?). Josh. 3 : 16.
See Zrrkrath or Zereda.
ZA'RETH-SHA'HAR (splendor
of the dawn), a city in Reuben, on a hill
in a valley. Josh. 13 : 19. About a mile
and a half east of the Dead Sea, near
911
ZAR
ZEB
the mouth of the Wdcfy Zeiku Main, is
a place called Zara, or Sara, a heap of
stones in a little green plain, which may
mark the site.
ZAR'HITES, THE, the descend-
ants of Zarah, the son of Judah. Num.
26 : i;J, 20 ; Josh. 7:17; 1 Chr. 27 : U,
13.
ZAR'TANAH (cooling), probably
the present ruin Sareni, near Beth-
shean ; but Drake would identify Sareni
with Zarthan. 1 Kgs. 4 : 12.
ZAR'THAN (cooliiifj), a town in the
Jordan valley. 1 Kgs. 7 : 46. Between
it and Suecoth were the clay-grounds in
which Solomon cast the brass utensils
for the temple-services. Drake mentions
a very conspicuous mound, 3 miles south
of Bethshean, called Tel/. Sarem — a name
identical with Siapa/a, which the Alexan-
drine Codex has for Zarthan. This may
be the same as Zerbda, which see.
ZAT'THU, OR Z AT'TU {a sprout),
one whose descendants returned with Ze-
rubbabel, Ezr. 2:8; Neh. 7:13, and
married foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 27.
ZA'VAN {(lifiqnieted). See Zaavax.
ZA'ZA iplcnti/), a son of Jonathan,
and a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 :
33.
ZEAL'OTS, the name of a party
among the Jews, half religious and half
political, founded by Judas the (ialilean
or the Gaulanite, Acts 5 : 37, and, after
the death of him and his sons, led by
Eleazar, one of his descendants. Con-
tending that God was the only king of
Israel and refusing to pay the tribute to
the Romans, they broke out into open
rebellion under the lead of Judas, but
were soon dispersed, and, while after-
ward attempting to maintain themselves
b}' a kind of guerilla-warfare, they grad-
ually sunk into mere bands of robbers
and brigands, and were called Sicarii,
from the Latin nii-a, "a, dagger."
ZEBADI'AH (<fi/t of Jehovah). 1,
2. 3. Three Benjamites, sons of Beriah,
1 Chr. 8 : 15, Elpaal, 1 Chr. 8 : 17, and
Jeroham of Gedor. I Chr. 12 : 7.
4. A Korhite Levite. 1 Chr. 26 : 2.
5. A Levite teaching the Law in the
cities of Judah during the reign of Je-
hoshaphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 8.
6. A son of Asabel, the brother of Joab.
1 Chr. 27 : 7.
7. A son of Ishmael, of the house of
Judah. 2 Chr. 19: 11.
912
8. One who returned with Ezra. Ezr
8:8.
9. A priest who had married a foreign
wife after the return from Babylon. Ezr.
10:20.
ZE'BAH [sacrifice), a Midianite
king captured and killed by Gideon.
Jud. 8 : 5-21; Ps. 83 : II.
ZEBA'IM {the f/azellex). In Ezr. 2 :
57 : Neh. 7 : 59 we read of a person
named " Pochereth of Zebaiui." Some,
and Grove among them, suppose this
name to be identical with " Zeboim."
Others translate '' Zebaim " as the plu-
ral of the Hebrew word signifying *' .an-
telope" or ''gazelle," and render it" Po-
chereth-zebaim," *' snaring the ante-
lopes," as the name of some mighty
hunter.
ZEB'EDEE {Jehovah' » (/i/t), the
husband of Salome, Matt. 27 : 56 ; Mark
15 : 40, and father of the apostles James
the Great and John, Matt. 4:21; lived
as a fisherman in or near Bethsaida.
When his two sons left him to follow
Jesus, he made no objections. Matt. 4 :
21, 22 : Mark 1 : 19, 20, and his wife was
one of the women who were in constant
attendance on our Saviour, but he him-
self is not mentioned as being among
the disciples, although doubtless friend-
ly to Christ.
ZEBI'NA (bonr/ht), one who had
taken a foreign wife after the return
from Babylon. Ezr. 10 : 43.
ZEB6'II>I,ANDZEBOI'I.^{roe«).
1. One of the " five cities of the plain ;"
grouped with Sodom and Gomorrah. Gen.
10 : 19 : 14 : 2, 8 ; Deut. 29 : 23 ; Hos. 11 :
8. The question of the site of these cities
is more fully discussed under Siunisr, Sod-
om, and ZoAR, which see.
2. A place inhabited by the Benjamites
after the Captivity. Neh. 11 : 34. Its
site is unknown.
ZEBO'IM (raUe,,ofh,//f,ias), THE
VALLEY OF. It was a gorge or
ravine apparently east of Michmash, and
mentioned only in 1 Sam. 13 : 18. The
"wilderness" is the wild tr.act between
the central hills and the valley of the
.Jordan. There is in that district a ra-
vine called Shnk ed-Dnbha, "ravine of
the hyajna," which is the equivalent of
the liehrew.
ZEBU'DAH {ijiren, hextoirod), wife
of Josiah and mother of Jehoiachim. 2
Kgs. 23 : 36.
ZEB
ZEC
ZE'BUL (habttation), Abiiuelech's
officer in the city of Shechem during his
contest with the Canaaniies. Jud. 9 : 28-
4!. I
ZEB'ULOMTE, Jud. 12 : 11, or
ZEB'ULUMTES, Num. 26 : 27, '
the descendants of Zebulun.
ZEB'ULUN [habltatinu). Gen. 30 :
20; Rev. 7 : 8, the sixth son of Jacob
and Leah, Gen. 49 : K^, and the father
of three sons who became the heads of
large families.
ZEB'tlLUN {ft habitation), the ter-
ritory possessed by the tribe of Israel
descended from the sixth and last son
of Leah and the tenth-born of Jacob,
Gen. 30 : 20 : 35 : 2:^., lay in the North
of Canaan and between those of Issaehar,
Asher, and Xaphtali. At the census of
the wilderness Zeljuhm numbered 57,4 0(t.
Num. 1 : 30, 31. In the encampment their
position was to the east of the tabernacle,
Num. 2 : 7, 8, and on the march they fol-
lowed third under the standard of Judah.
Num. 10 : 14-16. At the second census
their number was 60,500. Num. 26 : 26.
Zebulun was one of the six tribes sta-
tioned on Ebal to pronounce the curses.
Deut. 27 : 13. They joined Barak and
Deborah against the army of Jabin. Jud.
5 : 18.
Sitnafwn and E.rtntt. — In the prophet-
ic blessing upon Zebulun. Jacob declared
that " his border should be unto Zidon."
Gen. 49 : 3. The boundaries of the tribe
are given in Josh. 19 : 10-16. but many
of those landmarks cannot be traced,
and hence the exact limits of Zebulun
are hard to determine. Asher lay to the
west and north-west, Naphtnli to the
north-east, the Sea of Galilee and the
Jordan on the east, and Issaehar on the
south. Some writers suppose that Zeb-
ulun did not touch the Sen of (ralilee at
any point, but others are of the opposite
opinion, and suppose the borders of Zeb-
ulun and Naphtali to have met on the
Sea of Galilee, not far from Capernaum.
Matt. 4 : 13, 16. The territory included
the great plain of Esdraelon and Mount
Carmel and the plain of Acre, thus
bringing it into immediate connection
with the trade of Phoenicia and fulfill-
ing the prophecy of Jacob. Gen. 49 : 13.
The territory was rich and fertile. It
belonged to the hill-country, but the
hills are lower and the strips of plain
more productive than in the district of
68
Naphtali, to the north- The plains and
ridges toward the north melt away into
the great plain.
Hhtory. — Zebulun was one of the four
northern tribes which bore little part in
the great events of Jewish history, being
comparatively isolated from Israel, and
at the same time thrown into more inti-
mate association with the adjoining
heathen nations, especially with the
Phoenicians. They did not drive out
the natives. .lud. 1 : 30. However, Zeb-
ulun bore a prominent part in the great
victory celebrated by Deborah and Ba-
rak. Jud. 6:14, 18; assisteil Gideon,
Jud. 6 : 35, and David. 1 Chr. 12 : 33, 40.
This tribe became involved in gross idol-
atry, and some mocked the messengers
of Hezekiah, although others united in
the penitential services. 2 Chr. 30 : 10-
18. The territory of this tribe was de-
populated in the captivity of Israel un-
der Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kgs. 15 : 29, and
alter that had no distinct tribal history.
The tribe produced Elon, one of the
judges, Jud. 12 : 12, and also Jonah.
2 Kgs. 14:25.
In N. T. times the territory once occu-
pied by Zebulun was a part of Galilee
and honored by the presence and works
of Jesus. Within its limits were Naz-
areth, Capernaum, Cana, and Tiberias.
The great prophecy of Isaiah, 9:1. 2,
was fulfilled by Jesus. Matt. 4 : 13-16.
The tribe is mentioned in Rev. 7 : 8.
ZEB'ULUN {hahitatum), a place
named in tracing the southern bound-
ai-y of Asher, Josh. 19 : 27 ; according to
Josephus. ''city of men." Perhaps the
modern Sha'ah.
ZECHARI'AH {Jehovah remem-
hers). 1. The eleventh of the twelve
minor prophets, of priestly descent, and
a contemporary of Haggai, returning
from exile with Zenibbabel and the high
priest Joshua. Ezr. 5:1. He was the son of
Berechiah. was born in Babylon, and was
both a priest and a prophet. Scarcely
anything is known of his life. His
prophecies may be set down between
B. c. 520 and 518.
Thr Book of Zkchartah consists of
two divisions: T. Clis. 1-8 : II. Chs. 9-
14- The first division contains visions
and prophecies from the .eecond year of
the reign of Darius Hystaspes. while the
temple was rebuilding, exhortations to
turn to .Jehovah, and warnings against
913
ZED
ZED
the enemies of the people of God. About
the authorship of this part of the book
there is no doubt. The second division
gives a prophetic description of the fu-
ture fortunes of the theocracy in conflict
with the secular powers, the sufferings
and death of the Messiah under the figure
of tlie shepherd, the conversion of Israel
to him, and the final glorification of the
kingdom of God. About the author-
ship of this part of the book doubts have
been raised, some ascribing it to Jere-
miah because in Matt. 27 : 9, 10 a pas-
sage is quoted under the name of Jere-
miah, while others have put it at a much
earlier or much later period on account
of the j)eculiarities of the style.
Of all the prophets, Zechariah is the
most obscure, owing to the brevity and
conciseness of the diction, the predomi-
nance of symbolical and figurative lan-
g ia.;e, and the peculiar character of the
subject — the suffering Messiah. But he
his a profound insight both into the
spiritual meaning and object of the Mo-
saic dis|)ensation as a schoolmaster lead-
ing to Christ, and into the character of
the Messiah and the universality of his
kingdom. The book contains six sj)e-
eific references to Christ: 3:8; 6 : 12;
9:9; 11 : 1 2 ; 12:10; 13 : 7, represent-
ing him as a lowly servant, a priest and
king building Jehovah's temple, the
meek and peaceful but universal mon-
arch, the shepherd l)etrayed for the
price of a slave (thirty pieces of sil-
ver), the leader to repentance, and the
Fellow of Jehovah smitten by Jehovah
himself, at once the Redeemer and the
Pattern of his flock.
Besides the prophet, twenty-seven other
persons of the name Zechariah are men-
tioned in Scripture, among whom are —
2. Seven Levites. 1 Chr. 9:21: 15 :
IS ; 24 : 2o ; 26 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 1 4 : 29 :
U; 34: 12.
;^. Four priests. 2 Chr. 35 : 8 ; Neh. 11 :
12; 12: 16, ;{o, 41.
4. The son of the high priest Jehoi-
ada, stoned in the court of the house of
the Lord on the cimmand of Joash, king
of Judah. 2 Chr. 24 : 20.
5. Two chiefs who rcturne 1 with Ezra
from Habvlon. Ezr. 8 : .'>, 11.
0. The fa the:- of Iddo. ruler of Ma-
nas-!eh in (iilead. 1 Chr. 27 : 21.
7. The son of Jeberechiah, whom the
prophet Isaia/h took as one of the f.iith
914
ful witnesses when he wrote about
Maher-shalal-hash-baz. Isa. 8 : 2,
ZE'DAD {mountain-aide), a city on
the northern boundary of the Israelites,
as described by Moses and Ezekiel. Num.
34 : 8 ; Eze. 47 : 15. It has been identi-
fied with the modern Suchtd, some 70
miles north-east of Damascus, and 35
miles south-south-east of Hums, the an-
cient Emesa. Sndnd is still a large vil-
lage, though it does not contain any
relics of antiquity except a few frag-
ments of columns built into the mud
walls of the modern houses. It is sur-
rounded by gardens and cultivated fields.
The inhabitants are all members of the
Jacobite Cliurch,and constitute the only
romnant of that ancient sect in Syria.
ZEDEKI'AH {JHHtice of Jehoch).
1 . The last king of Judah, the son of Josi-
ah, and the uncle of Jehoiachin. His prop-
er name was *"Mattaniah," but Nebuchad-
nezzar changed it to "Zedekiah" when
raising him to the throne. He commenced
his reign at twenty-one, and reigned elev-
en years, 698-588 b. c. 2 Chr. 36 : 11.
lie was a weak man, and the people
were completely demoralized. lie had
not courage to vindicate Jeremiah, but
allowed the people to be led astray by
false prophets : and the consequence was
disastrous. In the ninth year of his reign
he revolted against Nebuchadnezzar, in
consequence of which the Assyrian
monarch marched his army into Judica
and took all the fortified places. In the
eleventh year of his reign, on the ninth
day of the fourth month (July). Jerusa-
lem wa'^ taken. The king and his peo-
ple endeavored to escape by night, but,
the Chaldajan tro ps pursuing them, they
we'c overtaken in th*' plain of Jericho.
Zedekiah was seized and carried to
Nebuchadnezzar, then at llihlah, in
Syria, who reproached him with his
perfidy, car.sed all his children to be
slain before his face and his own eyes
to be put out. and then, loading him
with chains of brass, orde-ed him to be
-ent to Babylon. 2 Kgs. 25 : 1-1 I ; 2 Chr.
36 : 12, 20. Thus the double prophecy
eon'-erning him — that he should be car-
ried to Babvlon, but never see it — was
literally fulfilled. Jer. 32 : 4, 5 : 34 : :^ ;
comp. Eze. 12 : 13.
2. A false prophet in the reign of
Ahab. 1 Kgs. 22: II, 24, 25; 2 Chr.
18 : 10, 2'A, 24.
ZEE
ZEP
3. A false prophet who was put to
death by Nebuchadnezzar. Jer. 29 :
21, 22.
4. One of the princes at the court of
Jehoiakim. Jer. 36 : 12.
ZEEB (icolf ), a Midianite prince
who was slain by the Ephraiinites after
the great victory of Gideon. Jud. 7 : 25 :
Ps. 83:11.
'ZEEB, THE WINE-PRESS
OF, where Zeeb was slain. Jud. 7 : 25.
It was near a ford of the Jordan as one
comes down from the mountains of
Ephraim.
ZE'LiAH (a rib), a city of Benjamin,
Josh. 18 : 28, the site of the family tomb,
of Kish, the father of Saul, 2 Sam. 21 :
14, and probably Saul's birthplace. The
site is not known, unless it be identified
with Zelzah, which see.
ZE'IjEK (jismire), one of David's
warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : :57 ; 1 Chr. 11 : .39.
ZELO'PHEHAD (fr,t-boru). a
descendant of Manasseh who died in
the wilderness and left only daughters.
It was then ordained that, in want of
male heirs, females should succeed to
the inheritance, but not be allowed to
marry out of the tribe. Num. 26 : 33;
27 : 1, 7 ; 36 : 2, 6, 10, 11 ; Josh. 17 : 3 ;
1 Chr. 7: 15.
ZELO'TES. See Smoy, Zealots.
ZEli'ZAH (shade from the sun), a
place in Benjamin not far from Bachel's
tomb, 1 Sam. 10 : 2 ; identified by sev-
eral writers (although Grove disputes
the identification) with the little village
of Beit Jala, about a mile west of
Rachel's tomb and 8 miles south-west
of Jerusalem. Perhaps Zelah was the
same place.
ZEMARA'IM (double mount?), a
name of two places.
1. A town in Benjamin. Josh. 18 : 22.
It has long been identified with Suiiiin,
in the Jordan valley, some 4 miles north
of Jericho. The name is in the plural,
and two ruins bearing the name of
Siinna have been found close together.
2. Mount Zemaraim, in the highlands
of Ephraim, 2 Chr. 13 : 4 ; possibly the
name survives in the modern Tal'at es-
Stirnra.
ZEM'ARITES, THE, descend-
ants of Canaan. Gen. 10 : 18; 1 Chr.
1:16. _ j
ZEMI'RA (a unnff), a descendant of j
Benjamin. 1 Chr. 7:8. |
ZE'NAN (place n/Jlocks), a place in
the plain of Judah, apparently near the
western coast. Josh. 16 : 37 : perhaps the
same as the " Zaanan'' of Micah. 1:11.
Among the suggested sites are Jevi'u, a
little village south-east of Ascalon ; Zon-
abrn, 2h miles south-east of Mareshah
(Schwartz) ; and Kirbeten Seuat, a little
north of Beit Jibrin (Knobel).
ZE'NAS, a Christian whom Paul
wished Titus to bring along with him.
Tit 3 * 13
Z'EV^ix'Sl'AJl (Jehovah hides). 1.
The ninth of the minor prophets, was the
son of Cushi, and lived in the days of
Josiah. His prophecy was uttered in
the early part of the ministry of Jer-
emiah, between B. c. 620 and 609. It
is mainly designed to excite the Jewish
nation to repentance, in view of threat-
ened judgments, and to comfort the
people of God with promises of the
final triumph of righteousness. The
description of the judgment in ch. 1 : 14,
15, " The great day of Jehovah is near"
(in the Latin version Dies ine, dies ilia),
has furnished the keynote to the sub-
limest hymn of the Middle Ages, the
Dies Irse of Thomas a Celano (1250) —
so often translated, but never equalled
— which brings before us, with most
thrilling effect, the final judgment as
an awful impending reality.
2. A priest in the reign of Zedekiah.
2 Kgs. 25 : 18-21 ; Jer. 21 : 1 : 29 : 25-
29 ; 37 : 3 ; 52 : 24-27.
3. A Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 36.
4. The father of Josiah. Zech. 6 : 10.
ZE'PHATH (7Ciitch-fon-er), a city
and tower in the mountains of the
Amorites, near Kadesh, Jud. 1:17;
identified by Palmer and Drake with
the ruins of a city called Sebaitah, in
the midst of a fertile plain. It was the
same as Hormah. which see.
ZEPH'ATHAH ( watch - toicer ),
VALLEY OF, near Mareshah. 2 Chr.
14: 10. A deep valley is found near the
site of Mareshah, running down to Beit
Jibrin (Eleutheropolis), and thence into
the plain of Philistia, which Porter
identified with Zephathah. See Mare-
shah.
ZE'PHI. 1 Chr. 1 : 36. See Zepho.
ZE'PHO (watch-tower). Gen. 36 :
11, 15, OR ZE'PHI, 1 Chr. 1 : 3G, a
son of Eliphaz, the son of Esau.
ZE'PHON (a lookinrj-out), a son nf
915
ZEP
ZIB
Gad, Num. 26 : 15 ; called Ziphion in
Gen. 46 : 16.
ZEPH'ONITES, the descendants
of Zephon. Num. 26 : 15.
Z£R {Jliiit), a place in Naphtali ;
probably near the Lake of Gennesaret.
Josh. 19 : 35.
ZE'RAH (« rhing of light). 1. An
Ethiopian or Cushite king who with an
immense army invaded the kingdom of
Judah in the reign of Asa, but was com-
pletely routed at Mareshah, in the valley
of Zephathah, 2 Chr. 14 : 9 ; has by some
been identihed with Uraken I. or II. of
the twenty-second dynasty of Egypt.
2. A son of Reuel, and grandson of
Esau. Gen. 36 : 13, 17, 33 ; 1 Chr. 1 :
37, 44.
3. A son of Simeon, Num. 26 : 13;
1 Chr. 4 : 24; called Zohar in Gen. 46 :
10.
4. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 21,
41.
ZERAHI'AH {whom Jehovah
cauned to be born). 1. A priest of the
line of Eleazar. 1 Chr. 6:6, 51; Ezr.
7:4,
2. One whose descendants returned
from Babylon with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 4.
ZE'RED {e.rnberaiif (/roirth — i.e., of
trees), VALLEY on BROOK OF, a
valley separating Moab from Edom. Deut.
2 : 13, 14 ; called " Zared " in Num. 21 :
12. Robinson identilied it with \Vd /y
el-Alcni ; others, including Tristram, pro-
pose Wady Sidiyeh or the Sell Gliarubi,
a branch of the Sediyeh, down which
runs a fine stream that empties into the
south-eastern corner of the Dead Sea.
This inddi/ most likely constituted the
boundary between Moab and Edom, as
it is now the recognized boundary be-
tween Kerak and Petra.
ZER'EDA, AND ZERED'-
ATHAH {coolinff ?), a ])hice in
Ephraim, in the plain of Jordan. 1
Kgs. 11 : 26. Possibly it is the same
as Zaretan, Josh. 3 : 16; Zererath. Jud.
7 : 22; Zartanah, 1 Kgs. 4:12; Zered-
athah, 2 Chr. 4:17; and Zarthan. 1
Kgs. 7 : 46. There seems to be much
confusion in the identification of these
places, but Condcr suggests, as the site
of Zcrcda, Snrdeh, west of Bethel and
1^ miles south of .Tnfua.
ZERED'ATIIAH. 2 Chr. 4:17.
See Zkrkda.
ZER'ERATII. Jud. 7 : 22. This
yi6
would appear to be the name of a dis-
trict, and is generally connected with
the Zarthan and Zaretan of other pas-
sages of the 0. T. Conder formerly
placed it below Jezreel and near Beisan,
but later investigations have aff"orded
little confirmation of this identification
of Zererath. See Ziorkda.
ZE'RESH, the wife of Haman, and
his counsellor and instigator in iniquity.
Esth. 5 : 10.
ZE'RETH [fiplendor), a descend-
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 7.
ZE'Rl [built), a son of Jeduthun. 1
Chr. 25 : 3.
ZE'ROR {a bundle), one of Saul's
ancestors. 1 Sam. 9 : 1.
ZERU'AH (leprous), the mother of
Jeroboam I. 1 Kgs. 9 : 26.
ZERUB'BABEL {begotten in Bab-
ylon), 1 Chr. 3 : 19, or ZOROB'-
ABEL, Matt. 1:12. was the leader
of the first colony of Jews that returned
from the captivity in Babylon, Ezr. 2 :
2, and was of the family of David, a son
of Salathiel or Shcaltiel,' Hag. 1:1; Matt.
1 : 12, but called a son of Pedaiah, the
brother or son of Salathiei, in 1 Chr. 3 :
17-19. To him Cyrus committed the
sacred vessels that were returned to
Jerusalem. He laid the foundations of
the temple, Zech. 4 : 6-1 0, and was chiefly
instrumental in restoring the religious
rites of the nation. The advances of the
mixed population of Samaria, who wish-
ed to participate in the building of the
temple, he refused, and their intrigues
at the Persian court caused the work to
be stopped, but only for a short time;
finally, he succeeded in completing the
building. Ezr. 5:2; Hag. 1 : 12, 14; 2:
2, 4; Zech. 4 : 6, 10. He was the gov-
ernor of Judioa. Neh. 12 : 47.
ZERUI'AH {cle/f, wounded), a sister
of David, and the mother of Joab. 1 Sam.
26:6; 1 Chr. 2:16.
ZE'THAM {olive tree), a Levite.
1 Chr. 23 : 8 ; 26 : 22.
ZF/THAN, a Benjamite chief. 1
Chr. 7:10.
ZE'THAR {star?), a eunuch of
Ahasuerus. Esth. 1:10.
ZI'A {motion), a Gadite. 1 Chr. 6:13.
ZI'BA (xtatue), a servant of Saul,
2 Sam. 19 : 17, whom David appointed a
sort of steward to Mephibosheth. 2 Sam.
9:2-12.
ZIB'EON (dyed), a son of Scir the
ZIB
ZID
^lorite, but called a Hivite himself. Gen.
36 : 2, 14, 20, 24, 29 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 38.
ZIB'IA (a roe), a Benjamite. 1 Chr.
8 : 9.
ZIB'IAH, the mother of Joash. 2
Kgs. 12: 1 : 2 Chr. 24: 1.
ZICH'RI {remembered, renowned).
1. A Levite. Ex. 6:21.
2, 3, 4. Three Benjamite chiefs. 1 Chr.
8 : 19, 23, 27.
5. A Levite, 1 Chr. 9:15; called Zabdi
in Neh. 11:17.
6. A Levite who descended from Moses.
1 Chr. 26 : 25.
7. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 27: 16.
8. The father of one of Jehoshaphat's
captains. 2 Chr. 17 : 16.
9. One instrumental in making Joash
king. 2 Chr. 23 : 1.
10. An Ephraimite who distinguished
himself in the war between Pekah and
Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28 : 7.
11. A Benjamite. Xeh. 11 : 9.
12. A priest during the reign of Joia-
kim. Xeh. 12: 17.
ZID'DIM (the sides), a place in
Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 35 ; perhaps the vil-
lage of Kefr-Hattin, 5 miles west of
Tiberias.
ZIDKI'JAH {justice of Jehorah),
one who sealed the covenant with Nehe-
miah. Neh. 10 : 1.
ZFDON (a fishery ; Heb. Tsidon).
" Sidon," the Greek form, is found in
Gen. 10 : 15, 19, in the Apocrypha gener-
ally, and in the X. T. Zidon was a rich
and ancient Phoenician city.
Situation. — It was situated on the
Mediterranean coast, on the northern
slope of a small promontory which juts
out from a low plain, less than 2 miles
broad, between the Lebanon and the sea.
The city was 40 miles south of the
modern Beirut, 20 miles north of Tyre,
and 123 miles in a direct line north-west
of Jerusalem. Its latitude is 33° 34'
north.
Scripture References. — Zidon is one
of the most ancient cities of the world.
The person after whom it is named was
the " first-born " of Canaan, the grand-
son of X'oah. Gen. 10 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 13.
This was b. c. 2218. In Joshua's time
it was "great Zidon," Josh. 11 : 8 ; 19 :
28, and seems to have been the metrop-
olis of Phoenicia. Zidon was one of
the limits of the tribe of Asher, Josh.
19 : 28, but was never possessed by the
Israelites. Jud. 1 : 31 ; 3 : 3. In fact,
the Zidonians oppressed Israel, Jud. 10 :
12, seeming themselves to be secure from
all attacks and living " careless." Jud.
18 : 7, 28.
Tyre was one of the colonies — a "vir-
gin daughter," Isa. 23 : 12 — of Zidon, but
subsequently became the more important
town. The two names frequently recur
together as denoting not only the cities,
but the adjacent country; but the name
of Zidon alone was sometimes used to
denote the Phoenicians in general. Jud.
3 : 3. The Zidonians were famous for
commerce, manufactures, and arts. Their
sailors and workmen were noted. Zidoni-
ans assisted in the work of building the
temple. 1 Chr. 22 : 4: 1 Kgs. 5:6; Eze.
27 : 8. From Zidon also came idolatrous
abominations to corrupt Israel. 1 Kgs.
il : 5, 33 : 2 Kgs. 23 : 13. The city
was mentioned frequently in prophetic
threatenings, but with much less severity
than Tyre. Isa. 23 : 2. 4, 12 ; Jer. 25 : 22 ;
27 : 3 ; 47 : 4 ; Eze. 27 : 8 ; 28 : 21, 22 ;
32 : 30; Joel 3:4: Zech. 9 : 2.
In X. T. times Zidon (called "Sidon")
was visited by Jesus, Matt. 15 : 21 ; Mark
7 : 24 ; Luke 4 : 26, although the " coasts "
of Tyre and Sidon denoted the adjacent
region as well as the cities themselves,
and some think that the Saviour did not
enter the cities. Hearers from among
those people were drawn to his preach-
ing. Mark 3:8; Luke 6 : 17 ; comp.
Matt. 11 : 22 ; Luke 10 : 14. Herod's
displeasure with this region is noted.
Acts 12 : 20. The apostle Paul touched
at Zidon on his way to Home, and visited
the Christians there. Acts 27 : 3.
Secular History. — Homer makes special
mention of the skill of the Zidonian
workmen. The embroidered robes of
Andromache, the silver bowl given as a
prize by Achilles at the games in honor
of Patrocles, the bowl which Menelaus
gave Teleraachus, the purple of fierce
Achilles, were specimens of Zidonian
handicraft. Zidonian ships were pres-
ent at the siege of Troy, and Herod-
otus declares that the Zidonian ships
in the fleet of Xerxes were the best and
the most renowned of the famous ar-
mada. Xerxes sat in a Zidonian ship,
and the king of Zidon sat near to him
in council. Zidon flourished under the
Chaldajan and Persian dominion. It
revolted against the Persians in the time
917
ZID
ZIM
of Artaxerxes III. Ochus, but was sub-
dueJ, and 40, 000 of its citizens perished
in the conflagration of the city, the fire
being kindled by the people themselves.
The gates of the city were willingly
opened to Alexander the Great after the
battle of Issus, B. c. 333. During the
lloman period it had its own archons,
senate, and national council. A bishop
of Zidon attended the council of Niciea,
A. D. 325. After the conquest of Syria
by the Muslims, A. D. 636, Zidon sur-
rendered to these new masters. During
the crusades it experienced terrible vicis-
situdes. Baldwin I. took it. after a six
weeks' siege, in A. D. 1 1 11 : Saladin razed
the town and its fortifications in 1187;
the Crusaders again gained possession
of it in 1197, but could not retain the
town, which was once more destroyed.
It was rebuilt and razed, refortified and
again devastated. In 1291 it became the
permanent possession of the Mu.^liras,
and was destro^'ed. For several centuries
it was neglected, but gradually revived
in the seventeenth century', and still
continues to exist.
Present Condition. — The site of ancient
Zidon is occupied by the modern Saida,
beautifully situated on a promontory in
front of which lies an island. The
northern harbor, protected by a ledge
of rocks, is now used ; the southern one
is abandoned. The anchorage is bad,
and the trade of the city is unimportant.
Around the island are the remains of
quays built of large hewn stones. The
ruins of the ancient castle are approached
by a causeway. The burying-grounds
are extensive, and many curious sarco-
phagi have been discovered. One was
the sarcophagus of King Ashmanezer;
if has been pl.aced in the Museum at
Paris, and antiquarians fix its date at
from B. c. 300 to b. c. 1000. The ancient
ruins are few. There are fragments of
marble and granite columns, mosaic
pavement, pottery, etc.
In its situation and surroundings
Zidon is one of the most picturesque
cities in Syria. The gardens and or-
chards environing it are charming and
afford a great variety of fruits, such as
oranges, lemons, citrons, bananas, and
dates. The oranges of Zidon are very
famous and better than those of Jaffa.
The population is estimated at 10,000,
of whom about 7000 are Muslims and
the rest Greeks, Catholics, Maronites,
and Jews. There are nine mosques in
the town. The American Presbyterian
Board has established a flourishing Prot-
estant mission there.
ZIDO'NIAXS, the inhabitants of
Zidon. Jud. 10 : 12.
ZIF {bloom). 1 Kgs. 6:1. See MoxTH.
ZI'HA {di-y). 1. One whose descend-
ants returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 :
43 ; Neh. 7 : 46.
2. A ruler among the Nethinim. Neh.
11:21.
ZIK.'LAG {oKtponrIng of a foan-
l(iinf), a city in the South of .Tudah,
Josh. 15 : 31 ; afterward given to Simeon.
19 : 5. It was at times he'd by the
Philistines. Achish. king of Gath, gave
it to David, and it subsequently belonged
to Judah. Its chief intc'-est is in con-
nection with the life of David. 1 Sam.
27 : 6 ; 30 : 1, 14, 26 : 2 Sam. 1:1; 4 :
10 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 30 ; 12 : 1-20. It was also
inhabited after the return from the
Captivity. Neh. 11 : 28. Wilton sug-
gested its identification with 'AsliiJ. or
KukIuj, in a deep valey among the hills
of the south country, some 12 miles
south of Beer-sheba. Conder suggested
its identification with Ziiieiltknh. 1 1
miles south of east from Gaza, and 19
miles south-west of Beit Jlhrin. The
site is in the open, rol'ing plain, some
distance from the low, open hills of the
Shefalah. The ruins o-cur on three
small hills, in the form of an equilateral
triangle, nearly half a mile apart. There
is a number of ancient ruined cisterns,
of which the stones have been removed
and the sites ploughed over. Neither of
the above has been accepted as the site
of Ziklag.
ZILi'JLiAH (s-hnffe), one of the wives
of Lameoh. <4on. 4:19. 22, 23.
ZIL'PAH (droppinf/), the hand-
maid of Leah, and the mother of Gad
and Asher. Gen. 30 : 9.
ZIL'THAI {.shade). 1. A Benjam-
ite. 1 Chr. 8 : 20.
2. A chieftain of Manasseh. 1 Chr.
12 : 20.
ZIM'MAH (minchief), a Gershonite
Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 20, 42; 2 Chr. 29 : 12.
ZIM'RAN {celebrated), a son of
Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25 : 2; I
Chr. 1 : .'^2.
ZIM'RI (tnug). 1. A Simeonite
chief. Num. 25 : 14.
919
ZIN
ZIO
2. A captain under Eiah, king of
Israel. 1 Kgs. 16 : 9-20.
3. A descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:6;
called Zabdi in Josh. 7:1, 17, IS.
4. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8:36;
9 : 42.
ZIN ((t loir pnhii free). The wilder-
ness of Zin was a part of the Arabian
desert south of Palestine. Num. 13 : 21,
22 ; 34 : 3. It joined the territory of
Judah, Josh. 15: 1, 3, and lav west of
Iduma?a. Num. 20 : 1 ; 27 : 14 : 33 : 36.
Kadesh is sometimes spoken of as in the
wilderness of Zin, Num. 33 : 36, and
again as in the wilderness of Paran.
Num. 13: 26. This is explained by thefiict
that '' Paran" was the general name for
the whole desert of e^ 77/;, while Zin was
the south-eastern corner of that desert,
between the Gulf of Akabah on the south
and the head of Wddi/ Garaiyeh. It
was south and south-west of 'Azazimeh
Mountains, and east of the Ghor and
Arabah.
Zl'NA. See Zizah.
ZI'ON, AND SI'ON (dry, suuny
mnnnt). " Zion " is sometimes used to
denote the whole of Jerusalem, but in
its literal and restricted meaning it was
the south-western hill of Jerusalem.
This hill was surrounded on every side
but the north with deep valleys having
precipitous sides. To the cast was the
valley of the Tj'ropoeon, scjiarating Zion
from Moriah, the temple-mount, and
from Ophel. On the south and west was
the deep valley of Hinnom, called on the
west the "valley of Gihon." Upon the
north only is the boundary of Zion in-
definite. Some authorities think it
extended to the tower of David, near the
Damascus-gate, and suppose the Tyro-
poeon valley to have ended here. Others
would extend Zion farther northward
towartl the .Jaffa-gate. Zion was the
higher hill, being 105 feet above Moriah
and 2.539 feet above the level of the
Mediterranean. It was in the shape of
a parallelogram. The valleys were orig-
inally much deeper than at present, so
that Zion was really compassed on three
sides by precipices. It was also guarded
by a strong wall.
S'f:r{ptnre Hintori/. — The hill is first
mentioned as a stronghold of the Jcbus-
ites. Josh. 16 : 63. It remained in their
possession until captured by David, who
made it " the city of David," the (!:>pital
920
of his kingdom. He built there a citadel,
his own palace, houses for the people,
and a place for the ark of God. 2 Sam.
6:7; 1 Kgs. 8 : 1 ; 2 Kgs. 19 : 21, 31 ;
1 Chr. 11 : 5 ; 2 Chr. 6 : 2. The foregoing
six passages are all in the historical
books of the 0. T. in which the name
of Zion apj)ears. But in the prophetical
and poetical books it occurs no less than
one hundred and forty-eight times — viz.,
in Psalms, 38 times; Canticles, 1 ; Isaiah,
47: Jeremiah, 17; Lamentations, 15;
Joel, 7 ; Amos, 2 ; Obadiah, 2; Micah, 9 ;
Zephaniah, 2 ; Zechariah, 8. In the N.
T. it occurs seven times as "Sion," mak-
ing the total number of times the name
occurs one hundred and sixty-one. It
was in the later books no longer confined
to the south-western hill, but denoted
sometimes Jerusalem in general, Ps.
149 : 2 ; 87 : 2 ; Isa. 33 : 14 ; Joel 2 : 2,
etc. ; sometimes God"s chosen people,
Ps. 61 : 18 ; 87 : 5, etc. ; sometimes the
Church, Hcb. 12 : 22, etc.; and sometimes
the heavenly city. Rev. 14 : 1, etc. Hence,
Zion has passed into its present common
use in religious literature to denote the
aspirations and hopes of God's children.
Joscphus does not use the word " Zion,"
but speaks of that quarter of the city as
the *' city of David," " the upper city,"
and the " upper market-place." It was
then the aristocratic quarter of the city,
and contained the mansions of the great.
At the north-west corner stood the mag-
nificent ])alace erected by Herod the
Great and afterward called " Praitorium,"
the residence of the lloman procurator.
Mark 16 : 16. On the north of this were
three famous towers or fortresses, of
which one is now the "tower of David."
Present Coudition. — Less than one-half
of the ancient hill of Zion is enclosed
within the wall of modern Jerusalem.
In this part are now the Armenian con-
vent with its extensive grounds, syna-
gogues of the Ashkenasim, St. James'
church of the Armenians, the English
Protestant church and school, the tower
of David, etc. The only building out-
siile the walls is the mosque and tomb
of Daviil, supposed to contain the tombs
of David, Solomon, and other kings of
Judah. In the upper part is the tradi-
tional " upper room " in which the Lord's
Supper was instituted and the discijjles
waited for the descent of the Holy Ghost.
Upon the sIojk' of the hill are several
ZIO
ZIZ
cemeteries of different Christian denom-
inations and nationalities, including the
American and English. A part of the
hill is cultivated, and thus the traveller
is frequently reminded of the prophecy,
" Zion shall be ploughed like a field."
Jer. 23 : 18 ; Mic. 3 : 12. The hill sinks
into the valley of Hinnom in steep ter-
raced slopes covered with grain-fields,
vineyards, and olive trees. The excava-
tions of the British Ordnance Survey
brought to light many interesting facts
in regard to the original levels, the
ancient walls, etc., etc. See Jerusalem.
Conder notes the fact that the name
"Zion" has not been recovered, and
says : " According to Gesenius, it means
' sunny,' and the proper equivalent in
Arabic or Syriac, according to this same
authority, is S'lhi/iDi. It is a remarkable
fact that about If miles west of the Jaffa-
gate there exists a valley having exactly
this name, Wddi/ Sahyuti. . . . This dis-
covery may perhaps lead students to
consider the name 'Zion' as a name of
a district rather than that of a particular
mountain, but it would not accord with
the scriptural representations of Zion."
ZI'OK (smallness), a place in the
mountains of Judah, near Hebron. Josh.
15 : 54, Its probable site is at Sair, a
ruin on a hill 5 miles north-north-east
of Hebron.
ZIPH (a floioiuf/), a descendant of
Judah. 1 Chn 4 : 16.
ZIPH (a flowing), a name for two
places.
1. A city in the South of Judah. Josh.
15 : 24.
2. A town in the highlands of Judah,
Josh. 15 : 55 ; fortified by Rehoboam. 2
Chr. 11 : 8. When pursued by Saul, David
h'id himself " in the wilderness of Ziph."
1 Sam. 23 : 14, 15. 24; 26 : 2. The site
of Ziph is a hill about 3 miles south-east
of Hebron, on the road to En-gedi. It
is a conspicuous mound, and shows at
the present day no trace of buildings,
but there are large Jewish tombs and a
quarry. On a low hill half a mile east
are the remains of a town.
As to the " wood of Ziph," 1 Sam.
23 : 15, Conder asserts that in all
probability it never had any real ex-
istence as a " wood," but was rather a
town. "The existence," he says, "at
any time, of a wood in this part of the
country is geologically almost an im-
possibility. From Hebron to Beer-
sheba not a single spring of any im-
portance exists in the eastern hills.
. . . The country is emphatically a dry
land. Looking down on the barren
wastes which lie above the Dead Sea
between Masada and En-gedi, there is
no moisture capable of supporting vege-
table growth. The cistus and the belan
bushes grow among the ledges, but not
a single tree exists in the whole coun-
try." The translation in Josephus is
said to be " in the new place belonging
to Ziph," and the Vatican and Alexan-
drine manuscripts support this. One
mile south of Tell Zif is Khirbet
Khoreiaa, an ancient locality of which
Conder says : " We can have little
hesitation in identif\'ing with Choresh
of Zif a village or hamlet belonging to
the larger town of Tell Zif." Tristram,
however {Land of Moah, pp. 19, 20),
says: " How far the forest of Ziph ex-
tended it is not easy to say, but there
are traces of it in an occasional tree,
and there seems no reason, from the
nature of the soil, why the woods may
not have stretched nearly to the barren,
sandy marl which overlie? the limestone
for a few miles west of the Dead Sea."
ZI'PHAH, a descendant of Judah.
1 Chr. 4 : 16.
ZI PH'IMS, the inhabitants of Ziph.
Ps. 54.
ZIPH'ITES, the inhabitants of
Ziph. 1 Sam. 23 : 19 ; 26 : 1.
ZIPH'RON. See Zkphox.
ZI'PHRON, OR ZIPH'RON
{sweet odor), a city on the northern
frontier of the dominions of Israel.
Xum. 34 : 9. There is a place called
Zuferdneh on the road from Hums
(Emesa) to Hamnh (Hamath), and
about six hours' journey south-south-
east of the latter, which may be the
ancient Ziphron.
ZIP'POR (a little bird), the father
of Balak. king of Moab. Xum. 22 : 2, 4,
10, 1 6 ; 23 : 1 8 ; Josh. 24 : 9 : Jud. 11 : 25.
ZIPPO'RAH, a daughter of a Mid-
ianite priest, who was married to Moses
and bore him two sons. Ex. 2 : 21, 22.
ZITH'RI {protection of Jehovah), a
Levite. Ex. 6 : 22.
ZIZ, THE CLIFF OF. 2 Chr.
20 : 16. The paraphrase of this pas-
sage is "the going up of Ha-Ziz," and
Conder identifies the place as probably
921
ZIZ
ZOA
Hazezon-tamar and Hasnseh, a very '
large and important ruin in the main
valley, just south of En-gedi, The
similarity of the name is striking, al-
though the site seems a long waj' from
En-gedi. Others had identified Ziz
with the pass and cliff near En-gedi.
This pass was the ascent through which
invaders from the south and east, after
doubling the south end of the Dead Sea,
entered the hill-country of Judgea. Ziz
was the key of the pass.
ZI'ZA {abundance). 1. A chieftain
of Simeon, i Chr. 4 : 87.
2. A son of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 11 :
20.
ZI'ZAH {abundance), a Gershonite
Levite, 1 Chr. 23: 11 ; the same as Zina.
1 Chr. 23 : 10.
ZO'AN {low region? or j)lace of de-
parture?), a city of Lower Egypt: called
by the Greeks Tanis ; now iV'r». Zoan
was situated in Lower Egypt, on the
east bank of the ancient Tanitic branch
of the Nile. It stood in lat. 31° N. and
long. 31° 55' E. To the east was a great
plain, representing 'Hhe field of Zoiin."
History. — Zoan was an exceedingly
ancient city, built seven years after
Hebron. Num. 13 : 22. Manetho gave
an account of a city called "Avaris,"
fortified by the Shepherd-kings and
garrisoned "by 240,000 men. Avaris and
Zoan are supposed to have been iden-
tical. Tradition makes it the town in
which Moses had his memorable inter-
views with Pharaoh, recorded in the
book of Exodus. The " field of Zoan "
was the place of God's wonders. Ps.
78 : 12, 43. When Isaiah wrote, it
would appear to have been one of the
chief cities in Egypt, as he speaks of
"the princes of Zoan." Isa. 19 : II, 13;
30 : 4. Ezekiel foretells the fate of the
city in the words: "I will set fire in
Zoan." Eze. 30 : 14. There are no
other Scripture references to Zoan.
Present Condition. — Zoan has been
satisfactorily identified with the ancient
Avaris and Tanis and the modern San.
Very interesting discoveries have been
made there within a few years past
by Brugsch IJey and others. Among
the inscriptions has been found one
with the expression Sev.het Tanet, which
exactly corresponds to the " field of
Zoan." Ps. 78 : 43. Several colossal
statues of kings of the various dynas-
922
ties and a number of sphinxes have
been brought to light by excavations.
The mounds which mark the site of
the town are remarkable for their
height and extent, and cover an area
a mile in length by three-fourths of a
mile in width. The sacred enclosure
of the great temple was 1500 feet long
and 1250 feet wide. This temple was
adorned by Rameses II. There are
some dozen obelisks of great size, all
fallen and broken, with numerous stat-
ues. *• The whole constitutes," says
Macgregor, " one of the grandest and
oldest ruins in the world." The " field
of Zoan" was a rich plain extending
some 30 miles to the east. It is now
almost covered by the great Lake
Menzeleh, but some portions exhibit a
rich black loam without fences or
towns, and with only a few trees in
sight. Brugsch-Bey is of the opinion
that Zonn was identical with Rameses,
but this location was made to fit his
theory that the Israelites crossed the
Serbonian bog instead of the Red Sea.
Others have, however, accepted his
identification of Zoan with Rameses
without approving his theory of the
crossing of the Serbonian bog.
ZOAR {sniallness), one of the "cities
of the plain," Gen. 13 : 10; originally
called "Bela." Gen. 14:2. 8. This
" little city " was spared from the de-
struction which overtook Sodom and the
other cities, and made a refuge for Lot.
Gen. 19 : 20-30. Zoar was included in
the view Moses had from Pisgah. Deut.
34 : 3. The prophets Isaiah, 15 : 5, and
Jeremiah, 48 : 34, reckon Zoar among
the cities of Moab.
Situation. — The situation of Zoar, like
that of the other cities of the plain, has
been much discussed. The great major-
ity of scholars, from Ptolemy, Josephus,
Eusebius, and Jerome to the present
time, have located it near the south-
eastern shore of the Dead Sea. The
shore of the bay, which extends from
the Dead Sea into the Lisan Peninsula,
has been regarded as a probable site for
Zoar. For the general discussion as to
the relative merits of the sites at the
northern and at the southern ends of
the Dead Sea, see SinniM and Sodom.
Tristram was confident that he had dis-
covered the site of Zoar at Zlara, some
3 miles north-west of Nebo and 11 miles
ZOB
ZOP
west of the northern end of the Dead
Sea. Among the points he urges for
this special identification are the strong
resemblance of the names and the fact
that this place would be in plain view
of Moses from Nebo. Deut. 34 : 3. He
cites also several arguments for putting
all the cities at the upper end of the Dead
Sea. This seems to be among the moun-
tains, and too far from the other to be a
likely position for Zoar. Merrill sug-
gests, as the site for Zoar, Tdl Ektnun,
in the Shittim plain, north-east of the
Dead Sea, near to the mountain^ of
Moab, although it cannot be reckoned
us one of the foot-hills. There are ru-
ins here of great age, and the name
Ektatin, which has no meaning in
Arabic, appears to be the Hebrew
word Kafan, which means "little," or
*' the little one." The site would be in
the direction Lot would naturally take
in hastening to the neighboring city,
and its distance from other mounds in
the Shittim plain (which Dr. Merrill
would identify with the plain in which
stood Sodom and Gomorrah) corresponds
well with the time allowed the fugitive —
namely, from dawn to sunrise. Conder,
who would place the lost cities at the
north " end " of the Dead Sea, suggests
Tell eah-Shaghai as the site of Zoar.
It is at the foot of the eastern moun-
tains, immediately north of the Dead
Sea, and about 6 miles south of Nim-
rin.
ZO'BA, AND ZO'BAH (station), a
portion of Syria. It was one of the
kingdoms of Aram, knovyn as Aram-
zobah. See Aram. It embraced the
country between the north-east of Pal-
estine and the Euphrates. It was the
home of a powerful nation, whose kings
were engaged in frequent wars with Is-
rael during the reigns of Saul. David,
and Solomon. Saul "vexed them." I
Sam. 14 : 47. David defeated King Ha-
dadezer and the Syrians who came to his
assistance with great loss. 2 Sam. 8 : 3-
8, 12 ; 1 Chr. 18 : .3-8 ; Ps. 60, title.
Again, in David's time, they and the
" Syrians beyond the river," their allies,
were defeated by Joab. 2 Sam. 10 : 6-13 ;
1 Chr. 19 : 6. One of David's mighty
men was " the son of Nathan of Zobah."
2 Sam. 23 : 36. The nation, though se-
verely punished, was not destroyed, and
we read of a Hadadezer, king of Zobah,
in Solomon's time, 1 Kgs. 11 : 23, and
Solomon took Hamath-zobah. 2 Chr. 8 :
3. See Hamath. Other towns of Zo-
bah are mentioned — Betah, Berothai,
and perhaps Helam. 2 Sam. 8:8; 10 :
6. Porter suggests it as just possible
that the biblical Zobah, which was sit-
uated between Hamath and Damascus,
may be identical with Emesa, the mod-
ern Hums. The region possesses a rich
soil, abundant water, and a genial cli-
mate, but the towns and villages are in
ruins and the Bedouins are the princi-
pal inhabitants. The cities of Zobah
are forsaken.
ZOB£''BAII {sloic-7tioviii(j), a de-
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 8.
ZO'HAR {whiteness). 1. The fa-
ther of Ephron. Gen. 23 : 8 j 25 : 9.
2. See Zerah, 3.
ZO'HELETH (serpen^, a stone
by *' En-rogel," by which Adonijah
" slew sheep and oxen and fat cattle."
1 Kgs. 1 : 9. M. Ganneau found the
steep rock-cut steps by which people
from the village of Siloam pass down to
the "Virgin's Fount," in the Kedron
valley, bear among the Arabs the name
of Zdhweilek. This he would identify
with the stone of Zoheleth. and En-ro-
gel would be the Virgin's Fount instead
of the Well of Job { Bir Eyub), as has
been usually supposed.
ZO'HETH (derivation unknown),
a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 20.
ZO'PHAH (rt cruse), an Asherite
chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 35, 36.
ZO'PHAI (honeycomb), a Kohathite
Levite, ancestor of Samuel. 1 Chr. 6 :
26.
ZOPHAR, one of Job's three friends,
Job 2 : 1 1, is called the Xaamathite, prob-
ably because he belonged to Naamah,
Josh. 15 : 41 . a town assigned to Judah.
ZO'PHIM (icntchers). The field of
Zophim was the place on the " top of
Pisgah " to which Balak brought Ba-
laam that the false prophet might see
the camp of Israel. Num. 23 : 14. Grove
saj's that if the word rendered "field"
be taken in its usual sense, then the
" field of Zophim " was a cultivated spot
high up on the top of Pisgah. The po-
sition of the field must of course depend
upon the site assigned for Pisgah. If
Jebel Sidf^h'ih be Pisgah, as supposed by
Paine, Merrill, and others, then Zophim,
or " the top of Pisgah," was the third
923
ZOR
ZUZ
summit of Sidghah, running westward
from Nebo, which is a little higher than
the others and appears to look down
upon them. See Pisgah.
ZO'RAH, AND ZORE'AH (/*o,-
netii' town), and ZA'REAH, Neh. 11 :
29, a town in the low-country of Judah;
afterward assigned to Dan, Josh. 15 : 33 ;
19 : 41 ; the birthplace and burialplace
of Sam.'son. Jud. 13 : 2. 25 ; 16 : 31. From
Zorah the Danites sent spies to search
the land for a place of inheritance. Jud.
18 : 2. Zorah was fortified by Reho-
boam, 2 Chr. 11 : 10, and inhabited af-
ter the return from captivity. Neh. 11 :
29. The place still exists as Surah, 13
miles west of Jerusalem, 23 miles south-
east of Joppa, and 2 miles north of Beth-
shemesh. It is situated on the crest of
a hill, 1150 feet above the sea. It over-
looks the valley of Sorek. Timnah
stands some 2 or 3 miles to the south-
west, across the valley.
ZO'RATHITES, a family of the
tribe of Judah, probabl)' inhabitants
of Zorah. 1 Chr. 4 : 2.
ZO'REAH. Josh. 15 : 33. See Zo-
rah.
ZO'RITES, probably inhabitants
of Zorah. 1 Chr. 2 : 54.
ZOROB'ABEL. SeeZERUBBABEL.
ZUAR {smallneHH), father of Nethan-
eel. Num. 1:8; 2 : 5 ; 7 : 18, 23 ; 10 :
15.
ZUPH (hnuei/cnmb), a Kohathite
Levite, an ancestor of Samuel the prophet.
1 Sam. 1:1; 1 Chr. 6 : 35.
ZUPH ijlng, seff;/e). Deut. 1 : 1 , mar-
gin. From the Hebrew Suph, signify-
ing a kind of sea-weed, and the Hebrew
name for the Red Sea, which see.
ZUPH, THE LAND OF, the
farthest point of the journey of Saul,
and where he encountered Samuel at a
certain city, the name of which is not
given. 1 Sam. 9 : 5, 6. The whole of
this journey has been a curious puzzle
in Scripture topography, " for the start-
ing-point is unknown, the point to which
he returned doubtful," and the interme-
diate places have not been satisfactorily
identified. Some resemblance to Zuph
w"as thought to be found in S'oha, 7 miles
west of Jerusalem and 5 miles south-
west of Neby Sdniwil. Conder notes
that the Targum on the passage connects
the name " Zuph " with the root zephah,
meaning " to shine," and hence " to be
conspicuous," whence come the words
'• Zephathah," " Zophira," " Zephir,"
and ' Mizpeh." In other Targums the
wor^s " Zophim " and ''Mizpeh" are
used indiscriminately in speaking of
one place, both words being applicable
to a " watch-tower " or city in an ele-
vated situation. '' Zuph " was, howev-
er, also the name of a man, and it is not
impossible that the land of Zuph may
j have been named after him. 1 Sam. 1 :
I 1. In the first case the city in the land
I of Zuph would possibly be Mizpeh ; in
j the second it would be Bethlehem, the
home of Zuph. See Mizpeh.
ZUR (rock). 1. A Midianitish prince,
Num. 25 : 15 : Josh. 13 : 21, who was
slain, with others, by the Israelites
: when the Midianites suffered the judg-
ments of God for their sins. Num. 25 :
18.
2. Son of the founder of Gibeon. I
Chr. 8 : 30 : 9 : 36.
! ZU'RIEL {my rock is God), a chief
i Levite in the time of the Exodus. Num.
3 : 35.
ZU'RISHAD'DAI (m.y rock j« the
Ah)ii(/htij), the father of the chief of
Simeon at the time of the Exodus.
I Num. 1:6: 2:12; 7 : 36. 41 ; 10 : 19.
I ZU'ZIMS, the Ammonite name, Gen.
14 : 5, of doubtful derivation, for a tribe'
of gigantic stature and strength which
inhabited the country east of the Jordan
and the Dead Sea, probably between the
Arnon and the .Tnbbok. They were at-
tacked and routed by Chedorlaomer. and
1 afterward expelled by the Ammonites.
"All scrii'tl're is given bv inspiration of God, and is profitable for
doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness!
that the man of god may be perfect, thorolguly furnished unto all
GOOD WORKS." — 2 Tim. 3 : 10, 17.
924
APPENDIX.
CONTENTS OF APPENDIX.
Chronological Tables: page
1. Of the Old Testament 927-931
2. Between the Testaments 932-933
3. Of the New Testament 934-936
Origin of Nations 936
Herodian Family 937
Weights, Measures, and Money 938
Time and Jewish Year 939
Miracles in the Old Testament 940
Our Lord's Miracles 941
Parables in the Old Testament 941
Our Lord's Parables 942
Names, Titles, and Offices of Christ 942-943
Prophecies Relating to Christ •. 943
Special Prayers in the Bible 944
Summary of the Mammalia in the Bible 945
Birds in Palestine ,.946-947
Reptiles in Scripture 948
Insects in Scripture 949
Fisheries in Palestine 949
Table of Obsolete Words in Scripture 950-954
Index of Illustrations in Bible Dictionary 956-958
926
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
The chronology of the Bible, up to the building of Solomon's temple, is very largely
a matter of conjecture. The usual dates, which are here given, were computed by Arch-
bisliop Ussher and Dr. Hales. The ditterence between tliem arises from their different
source. Archdishop Ussher took the at,'es of the patriarchs at the birth of their eldest
sons, as given in the Hebrew original text, and added them together, and thus arrived
at the conclusion that the Deluge came in the sixteen hundred and fifty-sixth year
after the Creation. Dr. Hales made tlie Septuagint Version (see Bibt.e) his basis, and, add-
ing these ages as given in it, put the Deluge at two thousand two hundred and fifty-six
years after the Creation, the two texts differing by this amount. Josephus, it is worthy
of note, lias the latter date for the event. The dates from the Deluge to the entrance
into Canaan are found and differ in the same way. It is manifest that neither table can
be implicitly relied upon. The lunger Chronology of Dr. Hales is probably nearer the
fact, inasmuch as it allows more time for the spread of population and the development
of kintrdoms; as, for instance, Egypt.
The tallies we give are those of Mr. J. Gurney, revised in 1878 by the Rev. S. G. Green,
D. D., and added to the Bible /or Bib/e-Teachein printed by Eyre & Spottiswoode, Queen's
Printers, London. But the table relating to the New Testament times has been again
revised and materially altered and enlarged by the editor of this Dictionary on the
basis of Jiis History of the Apostolic Church.
THE PRINCIPAL EPOCHS FROM THE CREATION TO THE ENTRANCE
INTO CANAAN, ACCORDING TO THE DATES GIVEN BY .
USSHER AND BY HALES.
EVENTS.
HALES.
4004
3874
3769
3679
3609
a544
3382
3317
3130
3074,
3017!
2948
2348
2346
2311
12281
2247
2233
Yr. of
the
Wld.
130
235
325
395
460
622
687
874
930
987
1056
1656
1658
1693
1723
1757
1771
The Creation 541l!
Birth of Seth 5181!
Birth of Enos 4976
Birth of Cainnn 4786
Birth of Mahalaieel.... 4616
Death of Adam l
I (Hales) 4481
Birth of .Tared 4451
Birth of Enoch 4289
Birth of Methuselah... 4121
Birth of Lainech 3937
Death of Adam I
(Ussher). i
Translation of Enoch. 3914
Birth of Noah 37.55
The Deluge 3155
Birth of Arphaxad 3153
Birth of Salah .3018
Birth of Heber 2888
Death of Noah (Hales). 2805
Birth of Peleg 2754
Dispersion of man-j 1
kind (Ussher). I I
i Yr. of
the
Wld.
230
435
625
795
930
960
1122
1287
1474
USSHER.
EVENTS.
1487
1656
2256
2258
2393
2523
2606
2657
'' Yr of! Yr. of
B. c. the I B. c. tlie
"Wld. I I Wld.
2217, 1787 Birth of Ren [2624 2787
j Dispersion of man-t I
i kind(/rafes) 2554 2857
2185' 1819 Birth of Serug 2492 2919
2155 1849 Birth of Nalior 2362 3049
2126 1878 Birth of Terah 2283 3128
1998 2006 Death of Noah ( Ussher)i \
1996 2008 Birth of Abram 2153' 3258
1921 2083 Abram arrives in; j
I Canaan 2078 3333
1896 2108 Birth of Isaac 2053 3358
1836, 2168 Birth of Jacob and i
I P:sau 1993 3418
1728 2276 Joseph goes to Egvpt.. 1885 3526
1706, 2298 Jacob and all his fam-j !
' ilv go to Egvpt '1863 3548
1619 2315 Death of Jacob 1846 2365
1635 2369 Death of Joseph 1792 3619
1571 2433 Birth of Moses 1728 3683
1491 2513 The ExoDUS * 1648 3763
1451 2553 Death of Moses; En-j j
j j trance of Israel into. |
! ' Canaan
.1608 3803
* There are two prominent dates for the Exodus : The old view that it occurred under
Thothmes or Tutmes II., who reigned about B. c. 148.5. But the best Egvptologists now
consider Menephthah I., the son of Rameses IL the Great, to be tiie Pharaoh of the
Exodus, and put the event in the year b. c. 1317. See Exodus. This change of date of
course alters tlie subsequent dates, but the time thus apparentlv lost is regained bv
shortening the period of the Judges; which is allowable, inasmuch as it is not known
how many of the Judges were contemporaries.
y27
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
EVENTS FROM THE ENTRANCE INTO CANAAN, WITH CONTEMPORA-
NEOUS PERSONS AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN COUNTRIES, TO
THE CLOSE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.
Years:
B.C. i
EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES.
CONTEMPORANEOUS PERSONS |
AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN i
COUNTRIES. I
I
1429 ; Joshua dies. From that time till 1169, Othniet., Chvsan, king of Mesopotamia;
Ehud, Deborah and Barak, Gideon, Abimk
! lech, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon,
Abdon, Samson.
1169 Eli.
1129 Samuel.
1099 Saul.
1058 David reigns at Hebron, and Ish-Bosheth at
i Malianaim.
1050 David reigns at Jerusalem over all Israel.
Prophets Nathan and Gad.
iDavid brings up the ark, and places it in Zion :
extends his kingdom from Egypt to the
I Euphrates.
Solomon succeeds.
■Prophet Nathan.
jCommencement of the building of the temple.
Completion of the temple, and beginning of the
palace-building.
Prophet Ahijah.
.Solomon dies. Division of the kingdom.
1017
1014
1007
977
977
973
959
956
943
932
Eglon, king of Moab ; J a bin,
king of Canaan, etc
Nahash, king of Amnion.
Hiram I. (Abibalh), king of
Tyre; Hadadezer of Aram-
zobah; Toi of Hamatli; Ha-
nun of Araiuon.
Psinaches in Egypt; Hadad
and Gknubath in Etlom (?);
Rezon in Damascus.
Hiram of Tyre; Pseusenxes
II. in Egypt.
' Kingdom of Israel.
Jeroboam (reigns 22
j years).
Prophet Ahijah.
Sesonchis (Shishak") in Egypt,
first king of the 22d dynasty.
! Kingdom of Jiidah.
Rehof.oam (reigns 17
years).
Prophet Shemaiah.
Jerusalem plundered ^
j v>v Shishak
Ahijah, or Abijam (3,
years). !
War between Judah I |
and Israel.
Asa (41 years). 956 Nadab (2 years).
Victory over Zerah. 954 Baasha (24 years).
i Prophet JeAw.
Repulse of Baasha by the aid of.
916
900
Tabrimmon in Damascus.
Zerah (Osorkon II.) in Egypt,
Ben-hadad I. in Damascus.
the Syrians under Ben-liadad.
Prophets Azariah and
Hanani.
Jehoshaphat (25
years) fights in alli-
ance with
930 Elah (2 years).
i^\
931 ZiMRi. Civil
1 years).
929 Omri alone (6 years). I
926 Samaria made thel
\ capital. i
918 Ahab (22 years)
marries Jezebkl,
daughter of Ethbaal (Itobal) of Tyre and
Sidon.
conquers Amraon
and Moab ;
Ahab unsuccessfully!
j against Ben-hadad II. of Damascus,
Prophets Elijah and
I Micaiah. j
897 AuAZiAH (2 years).
R'-volt of Moab. |
896jKnoRAM, or JORAM'
(12 years). i
fights in alliance with' Jehoram against Moab.
Prophets Jehu, Jaha-
I zifil, and Eliezpr.
'928
CHROXOLOGICAL TABLES.
1
Years
' CONTEMPOR.VNKOUS PER.SONS
B, c.
EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES. AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN |
countries. j
892
Jehoram (8 years) ;
having previously
married Athaliali,
daughter of
Ahab.
i
Edom revolts.
Prophet Elisha.
i
885
Ahaziah (1 year)
fights in alliance
with
Joram unsuccessfully
against
Hazael, of Damascus.
884
Ahaziah aud
Athaliaii's usurpa-
Joram killed by Jehu.
tion ((3 years).
884 Jkhu (28 years).
878
Jehoash^ or JoASH (-10
years).
Tlie country east of
Jordan conquered by
Hazael.
jPropiiet Jonah.
856
Repairing of tiie tem-
Prophet Joe/ (?).
ple.
850 Jehoahaz (17 years).
Gath taken,. Terusalem
threatened,
847 and Israel greatly
reduced by
Hazael.
840
The Syrians invade
Close of the 22d dv nasty in
Judali.
839 Jehoash (16 years)
Egypt.
838
Amaziah (29 years).
defeats the Syrians
tiiree times under...
Ben-hadad III. of Damascus.
conquers Edom,
is defeated by
Jehoash, who enters
Jerusalem.
823
Jeroboam II. (41 year.?); restores the boundary of |
Israel by w
ar with the Syrians. •
809
Azariah, or Uzziah
(.52 years).
•
fortifies the Exioraite
seaport Elath.
Prophet Amos.
782
Interregnum
(10 years).
Prophet Hosea.
776
The first Olympiad.
772
Zechaui.\h
(6 months).
771
Shallvm (1 month).
Menahkm (10 years).
Israel tributary to the
Assyrians under PuL.
760
Pekahiah (2 years).
758
Pekah (20 years).
1
757
.Iotham (16 years).
Propliets Micah and
Isaiah.
752 Founding of Rome.
742
Ahaz (16 years)
747 Nabonassar in Babylon.
obtains against
Israel and the Syrians, under Rezin, |
the help of the..
Assyrians under Tiulath-
PILESKR II.
Era of Nabonassar.
Prophet Odfil.
Ahaz is dependent on
Assyria.
Many of the people
transported to
Assyria.
740
Interregnum (9 years).
734
Syracuse founded.
730
Ho.iHiOA (9 years) trib-
utary to the
Assyrians.
attem pts to free him-
self by an alliance
726
Hezekiah (29-years)
conquers the Philis-
with
So, king of Egypt (Shebek
I.), first king of the 25th
tines.
dynasty.
59
929
CHEONOLOGICAL TABLES.
Years!
B.C. i
72G
EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES.
CONTKMPORANEOUS PERSONS
AND EVKNTS IN HEATHEN
COL'NTRIE.S.
723 Samaria besieged by... i IShalmaneser IV. of As-
I I I svriii.
721 Samaria taken by I Sargon.
Israel led captive into Assvria.
The land pei>i)led by
Assyrian colonists.'
713 The surviving kingdom of Judah invaded by.
712 iDestruction of the Assyrian army. Embassy to
I Hezekiah from .'
697 'Manas-SEH (55 years). i
More Assyrian 'coh)nists are sent into the land of I
Israel by
.iSennacherib.*
iTiKiiAKAH (Tearkon) of
i Esrypt; war with Sen-
nacherib.
. Mkrodach-caladan in
I Babylon.
642
Amon (2 years). Prophet Nahum (?).
640 'Josiah (B1 years).
628 Prophets Jeremiah and Zephaniah.
609 Josiah falls in battle against Necho, king of Egypt.
Jehoaiiaz (3 months).
609 JEHOIAKIM (11 years).
606 Judah made tiihiitary liv Nebuchadnezzar. Pate
usually fixed lor commencement of the seventy
years' sulijection to Babylon.
Prophet Hahnkhik.
598 I Jehotachin (3 months). Jerusalem taken by the
! Chaldeans. Jehoiachin in exile.
597 |Zei)EKIah (Mattaniah) reigns, under the Chal-
i deans (11 years). ,
594 Ezekipl appears as prophet at the river Chebar, in|
I Babylonia. i
Zedekiah applies for hclpto j
Commencement of the siege of Jerusalem by the
Chaldeans.
Jerusalem destroyed; the king taken prisoner;]
many of the people transpfirtid to
Gedaliaii is appointed governor by Nebuchad-
nezzar, and is killed by Ishmael ; the remnanti
of the .lews flee to Egvpt. I
Prophet nixKildhd). ' I
Ezekiel's visions, fifty years after Josiah's rcfor-j
niatioD. I
664
033
630
Esar-hapdox.
Egypt suliject to Assyria
PsAMMKTicurs ill Egvpt,
first king of the 26th
dynasty.
Cy.vxares, the Median
king.
Egypt regains independ-
ence.
625 Nabopolassar independ-
ent in Baliylon.
Fall of Nineveh.
610 Necho reigns in Egypt.
610 Eclipse of Thales.
605Necho defeated at Car-
I chemish by Nebuchad-
! nezzar.
604 Nkbvciiadnezzar, king
of Babylon.
595 IfopHRA (Apries), king of
Egypt.
594 Solon at Athens.
589
588
586
574
fi61 jjelioiachin's captivity at Babylon relieved by..
!the king of Egypt.
Babylon.
Nebuchadnezzar capturesl
I Tvre under Ethbaal II.,'
570 Birth of Pytbaporas.
56!) .A.MASi.'s, kiiii: of Egypt.
561 Deatli of Nebuchadnez-
zar.
, EVIL-MERODACH.
559 Nkriglissar at Bahvlon.
* According to Schrader, who is an authority upon Assyriology, the dates of Shal-
manezer, Sargon, and Sennacherib should be: Shalmanezer, B. c, 727-722 ; Sargon, b. c.
722-705 ; Sennacherib, B. c. 705-682.
930
CHROXOLOGICAL TABLES.
Years
B. c.
EVEXTS IN THK HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES.
1st year of Cyrus.
CON'TEMPORAN'EOUS PERSONS
AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN
COUNTRIES.
561 Daniel's prophetic visions.
Palestine, a province of Persia.
536 Return of first company
of exiles to Jerusalem
under Zerubbal)el in
the
Rebuilding of the temple
begun. I
! Cambyses (Ahasuerus of
i Ezra iv.).
522 Buildins of the templel
I stopped by Pseudo-Smerdis (Arta-
xerxes of Ezra iv.).
I Darius Hystaspes (Da-
I rius of Ezra iv. 24 ; v. ;
I ] vi.).
520 Temple recommenced in
the 2d year of Darius.
Prophets Haggdi and
Zechariah.
617 The temple completed.
457
Darius invades Greece.
Xerxes I. (Aliasuerus of,
book of Esther) I
Invasion of Greece..
7th year, return from
Greece.
Esther made queen...
r2th year, Haman's
plot and death
Feast of Purira estab-
lished.
Artaxerxes I. or Lon-
gimanus (Artaxerxes
of Ezra vii.)
Return of second large
company of Jews to
j Jerusalem, under Ezra,
! with a commission
■ from the king of Persia.
4J4 Nehemiah, at Jerusalem,;
governor for twelve
years, till the year 432.
555 Nabonadius or Labyne-
I TUS, last king of Baby-
I Ion; associated with his
■ son Belshazzar.
538 Capture of Babylon by
I Cyrus.
Darius (Astyages?) rules
in Babylon.
534 Tarquin at Rome.
529
525 Cambyses conquers Egypt
521
509 Rome's first treaty with
Carthage.
490 Battle of Marathon.
48G Egypt revolts from Persia,
j and is reconquered, 484.
4861
480, Battles of Thermopylae
and Salamis.
479 Battle of Platea; sea-fight
of Mycale.
478
474
465
461 Pericles at Athens.
431
Herodotus the historian
Pelopounesian war begins.
Xerxes IT. (45 days) 4251
SoGDiANUS (fi months)... 425
The Prophet il/a/ac^i Darius II. (Nothus) ; 424 Socrates, Xenophon, and
concludes the Old Tes-; i Thucydides at Athens,
tament Scriptures.* i 1 I
* See chronological list of the prophets under Prophets.
931
CHKONOLOGICAL TABLES.
3. EVENTS BETWEEN THE CLOSE OF THE OLD AND THE BEGINNING
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.
Years!
B.C. 1
409
EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES.
366
Manasseh the priest Artaxerxes II.
I builds a temple oUj (Muemon)
' Mount Geri/iu). |
Jesliua killed in thelBattle of Cunaxa.
temple by his brother
Johanau, the high
priest.
Artaxerxes III.
(Ochus)
Arses (or Arogus).
DARirs III. (Codoniau-
uus)
332 Ijaddua the high priestl
averts Aleximdcr's'
anger from Jerusalem.!
defeated by.
again
CONTEMPORANEOUS PERSONS
AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN
COUNTRIES.
"^ TIT
4051DIONYSIUS in Sicily.
401
359
342 1st Samnite war
388 Battle of Ciiseronea.
337 Philip of Macedon ap-
I pointed general of the
336 Greeks
Alexander succeeds
Philip.
334 Alexander at Granicus;
and again
Death of Alexander.
333 at Issus ;
331 at Arbela.
326 2d Samnite war.
323
Pali^stine under Alexander's success-
I ors and the Romans.
320 Palestine seized by 'ptolemy SoTER.kingof
i Egypt.
Many Jews carried to.... Egypt and settled at
i Alexandria.
314 Palestine seized by Antigonus of Syria.
301 reverts to Ptolemy.
203 Palestine seized by.,
312
298
Ptolemy Piiiladel-
PHU.s 284
The Hebrew Scriptures
translated into Greek
about this t>me.
Ptolemy Euergetes....
Ptolemy Philopator...
Era of the Seleucida.
3d Samnite war.
280 The Acliaean League.
247llst Punic war, 264-241.
221 2d Punic war, 218-201.
212 Capture of Syracuse.
Ptolemy Epiphanes ' 204
Antiochus of Syria.
Seleucus Philopator..
176 |The temple preserved |
i from the attempts of.. Seleneus general.
, Antiochus Epiphanes.
170 Jerusalem captured, and
the temple plundered!
and polluted, by Antiochus.
Many Jews slain or sold
as slaves.
167 Martyrdom of the Mac-
cabees.
165 Jerusalem recovered by
Judas Maccau^eus.
161 Jonathan succeeds Ju-
das.
932
197 Battle of Cvnoceplialse.
187
175
168 Defeat of Perseus.
End of the kingdom of
Macedon.
3d Punic war, 149-146.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
Years
contemporaneous persons
EVENTS IX THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES.
and events in heathen
B. C.
COLTS'TRIES.
146 Carthage and Corinth de-
stroyed.
141
Siiiox frees the Jews
from foreign rule.
135
.TOHN Hyrcaxus.
129
subjugates the Edom-
ites;
109
takes Samaria, and ob-
tains Galilee.
107
Aristobulus.
106
Alexander Jaxn^us
90
1st Mithridatic war.
9i
subdues the Gileadites
and Moabites.
82
2d Mithridatic war.
79
Alexandra.
70
Hyrcanus and Aristobu-
lus contend for the su-
premacy.
66 3d Mithridatic war. |
63
They appeal to
Pompey, who subjugates
Judaea.
60
1st triumvirate.
54
The temple plundered
by Crassus.
47
Antipater appointed
governor by 0/*'.sar.
48
Battle of Pharsalia.
43
Herod and Phasael.
43
2d triumvirate.
40
Jerusalem taken by the
Parthians.
42
Battle of Philippi.
37
Herod retakes Jerusa-
lem.
31
Battle of Actium.
17
Herod begins to rebuild
the temple.
27
Augustus made Emperor.
5 or 4
Birth of CHRIST (the common era of A. D. com-
mences four years later).
Note.— In the first part of the above tables, comprising the principal epochs in the
Pentateuch, the dates assigned by Ussher and Hales respectively are given in separate
columns, Ussher (ollowing in the main the present Hebrew text," and Hales the Septua-
gint. Alter tiie entrance upon Canaan, the dates given in the tables differ from both
systems, and are the result of careful computation, together with a comparison of the
best authorities. Although it must he admitted that in the earlier parts ot the history
there are few instances in which perfect exactness can be asserted, there are so many
checks upon any serious mistake as to give a rea.sonable degree of probability to the
general line of the chronology.
It will be observed that no dates of contemporary events in heathen countries are
given before the first Olympiad, B. c. 776, secular chronology before that era being un-
certain. And some of the later dates which appear in the table have been placed there
according to the usual chronology, without reference to the questions which have been
raised as to the events themselves.
933
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
4. PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF NEW TESTAMENT TIMES.
A. D.
B.C. 5
or 4
SCRIPTURE HISTORY.
30
37
40
Birth of Christ (see above).
His return from Egvpt.
(B. c. 3.)
His visit to the Temple
at twelve years of age.
For chronological table
of the gospel history,
see article Christ.
EVENTS IN PALESTINE.
Death of Herod.
(B. c. 4.)
Archelaus in Judsea,
Samaria, and Idumea;
Herod Antipas in
Galilee and Perfea,
and Philip in Auian-
itis, Traclionitis, Pan-
eas, and Batanea.
Archelaus deposed, and
Judsea made a Roman
province
Cyrenius (Quirinius),
Governor of Syria for
the second time. The
registration, or "tax-
ing." Acts 5 : 37.
Revolt of "Judas of Gal-
ilee."
CopONius Procurator of
! Judfea.
Marcus Ambivius Pro-
curator
contemporaneous
events in the roman
EMPIRE.
Augustus Empeior of
Rome, B. c. 27-a. d. 14.
Annius Rufus Procura-
tor (al)out)
Valerius Gratus Pro-
curator
Tiberius colleague of'
Au trust us 12
44
45
His Crucifixion, Resur-
rection, and Ascension.
I Descent of the Holy
I Spirit at Pentecost.
Martyrdom of Stephen.
Conversion of Saul.
Saul's escape from Da
mascus, and first visit
to Jerusalem. Gal. 1 : 18.
Admission of Cornelius
into the Church.
James the Elder, the son
of Zebcdee, beheaded,
and Peter delivered.
Acts 12: 2, 23.
Paul's second visit to Je-
rusalem, with alms
from the church at
Antioch. Acts 11 : 30.
Paul is set apart as an
apostle. Acts 13: 2.
934 ~"
Pontius Pilate Pro-
curator
13
! 14
JAugustus dies, TiberiusI
I sole Emperor (14-37; 14
Marcellus Procurator..
Pilate sent to Rome by
the Prefect of Syria....
Maryllus appointed
llipparch.
Herod Agrippa I., king
of Judsea and Samaria.
Herod Agrippa I. dies
at Caisarea
Cuspius Fadus Procura-
tor.
26
36
36
37
37
Philoat Rome 40
Claudius Emperor (41-54) 41
Caligula Emperor (37-41)
War in Britain, 43-51.
44
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
A. D. SCRIPTURE HISTORY. EVENTS IN PALESTINE.
CONTEMPORANEOUS
EVENTS IN THE ROMAN
EMPIRE.
45
50
Paul's first missionary Tiberius Alexander
journey, occupying Procurator :
51
53
54
56
57
58
58
60
.61
61-63
63
64
64-67
Ventidius
Procurator.
Cum ANUS
about a year.
The Epislle of James (?).
Paul's third visit to Jeru-
salem, respecting the
obligations of the Mo-
saic LaAV on Gentile
converts. The apos-
tolic council of Jeru-
salem. Peaceful ad-
justment of the ques-
tion of circumcision.
Acts ch. 15; Gal. 2: 1-10.
Paul sets out on his sec-
ond missionary jour-
ney, occupying rather Antonius Felix Pro-
more than 3 years, and curator
including his fourth The Tetrarchy of Tra- Decree of Claudius bari-
46
47
51
chonitis given to
Herod Agrippa II.
(the last of tlie Hero-
dian family)
(Acts 21 : 38;.
visit to Jerusalem
He enters Europe.
Paul writes First an^ Sec-
ond Epistles to the Thes-
salonians from Corintli.
begins his third inis-l
sionary journey, occu-
pying about four
years. I
writes to the Gala- Revolt of the Sicarii
tiamd) from Ephesus, headed by an Egyptian
or from some part of '
Greece on his journey
to Corinth (57).
Paul writes First Epistle
to the Corinthians from
Ephesus; Second Epistle
from Macedonia.
Paul writes to the Ro-
mans from Corinth.
He visits (the fifth time)
Jerusalem ; is apj^re-
hended, brought before
Felix, and iiiiprisoned
for two years at Caesa-
rea. Acts 21 : 17-26, 32.
Paul appears before Fes- PoRCius Festus
tus, and is sent to Italy, curator
Paul arrives a prisoner Embassy from Jerusalem War
Pro-
ishing the Jews from
Rome
Nero Emperor (54-68).
54
to Rome respecting the
wall
at Rome in spring.
Epistle of James the
Lord's brother (?). His
martyrdom (or 69).
Paul writes to the
Ephesians, Colossians,
Philemon, Philippians
from Rome.
Paul is supposed to have
been released (?).
Epistle to the Bebreivs.
Timothy set free (13:
23).
Fij-st Epistle of Peter.
Jude writes his Epistle (?) Gessius Florus
Petor writes his Second, curator.
Epislle (?).
Britain.
with Boadicea in
60
61
AxBiNUS Procurator.
Pro-
Apollonius of Tyana at
the Olympic games.
jGreat fire at Rome; first
imperial persecution of
the Christians
63
64
935
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
A. D. SCRIPTURE HISTORY.
64-67
67
IPaiil writes Fhsf. Epistle
I to Timothy and Epistle to\
Titus('.'). After visitiiigj
I Crete and ^Iacedonia(?jj
iPauI writes Hecond Ep. tO:
i Timothy from second
lliinian captivity (?).*
Paul's aud Peter's mar-]
tyrdom in Rome (?;. !
EVENTS IN PALESTINE.
Beginning of the great
war between the Ro-
mans and Jews
Vesi'asian General in
Palestine
CONTEMPORANEOUS
EVENTS IN THE ROMAN
EMPIRE.
G8 The Revelation of JolinC?).
80-90 John writes his Gospel
and Eijistles (?).
95 John writes the Revela-
tion (?).
98-100 Death of John.
Destruction of Jerusa-
lem by Titus .,
Galba Emperor.
!a.d.
66
67
68
Otho and Vitellius Em-
perors 69
Vespasian Emperor 69
Titus Emperor ' 91
Domitian Emperor 95
Persecution of Christians.. 96
Nerva Emperor 97
Death of Apollonius j
Trajan Emperor.
98
* Those who deny a second Roman captivity of Paul and put his martyrdom in a. d.
64, assign First Timothy andXitus to tlie period of his three years' residence in Ephesus,
A. u. 54 to 57, and Second Timothy to a. u. 63 or 64. For fuller chronology of Paul's life
see Paul.
ORIGIN OF NATIONS.
NOAH'S SONS.
principal countries
peopled by them.
principal nations sprung from them.
Qr^. ^f T„^j„t7.i- Asia Minor, Armenia, I
ScmsofJapheth4. Caucasus, Europe. '
Ciomer Russians, Germans, Gauls, Britons.
Mau'og Seytliians — i.e., peoples north of Mt. Caiicasus.
Madai Medes. — Josejjhvs.
Javan lonians, and Greeks generally.
Tubal Iberians (between Black and Caspian Seas). —
Josephns.
Meshech Prohaoly Moschi (between Black Sea and Ar-
! menia).
Tiras iThracians (so classical writers; no biblical
i clew).
Assyria, Syria, Persia,!
c^„^/ cAo^ Arabia, Northern Mes-i
SomofShem. ^potamia. i
Elam Elamites of Susiana : north of Persian Gulf.
Asshur Assyrians.
Arphaxad 'Chaldaians are Arphaxadeans."— JosqoAwi.
Lud I^ydians. — So Bishop Watson.
Aram Syrians (and Nt)rthern JMesopolamians: jPndaji-
• arain).
Ciish Ethiopians or Abyssinians.
Misraim ?]gyj)tians.
Pbut I>il)yai)s.
Ciiiiaan Canaaniles.
tOen. 10: 5: " Hy tliese were \h^' isles," etc. The word translated " isles" rat lie r uk ans
covntries, especially those washed by the .sea.
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937
WEIGHTS, MEASURES, MONEY, AND TIME.
(From the Oxford Sunday-School Teachei-^s Bible, with Additions.)
WEIGHTS.
Avoirdupois.
lbs. oz. drs. lbs.
A gerah — — ••l-i9 = —
10 gerahs = 1 bekah — — 4.89 = —
2 bekahs = 1 shekel — — 8.9 = —
60 shekels = 1 maneh 2 0 14.fi28 = 2
oOmanebs = 1 talent 102 13 11.428 = 125
Troy.
z. dwt.
Rrs
— —
12
— o
0
10
0
6 0
0
0 0
0
MEASUKES.
LoxG Measure.
ft.
A digit, or finger CJer. 52 : 21) —
4 digits = 1 palm (Ex. 25 : 25) —
3 palms = 1 span (Ex. 28 : 1(5) —
2 spans = 1 cubit (Gen. 6 : 15/ 1
4 cubits = 1 fathom (Acts 27 : 28) 7
1.5 fatlioms = 1 reed (Eze. 40 : 3, 5) 10
13.3 reeds = 1 line (Eze. 40 : 3) 145
Land Measure.
Eiig. miles, paces.
A cubit — —
400 cubits = 1 furlong (Luke 24 : 13) — 145
10 furlongs = 1 mile (Malt. 5 : 41) 1 403
15 furlongs = 1 Sabbath-day's journey (John 11 : 18; Acts
1:12) 2 132
24 miles = 1 day's journey 33 172
Liquid jNIeasure.
gals.
A caph —
1.3 caph = 1 log (Lev. 14 : 10) —
4 logs = 1 cab —
3 cabs = 1 bin (Ex. 30 : 24) 1
2 bins = 1 seal) 2
3 scabs = 1 bath or ephah (1 Kgs. 7 : 26; John 2 : «) 7
10 ephahs = 1 kor or homer (Isa. 5 : 10; Eze. 45 : 14) 75
Dry Measure.
pecks, gals.
A gachal — —
20 gacbals = 1 cab (2 Kgs. 6 : 25; Rev. 6 : (i) — —
1.8 cabs = 1 omor (Ex. 16 : 36) — —
3.3 omers = 1 seah (Matt. 13 : 33) 1 0
3sealis = 1 ephah (Eze. 45 : 11) 3 0
5ephabs = 1 b'tecb (Hos. 3 : 2) 16 0
2 letecbs = 1 kor or homer (Num. 11 : 32; Hos. 8 : 2) 32 0
0.912
3.648
10.944
9.888
3.552
11.328
11.04
ft.
1.824
4.6
1
pts.
0.625
0.833
3.333
2
4
4.5
5.25
pts.
0.1416
2.8333
5.1
1
3
0
0
MONEY.
ROMAN MONEY.
A mite (Mark 12 : 42^ = SO 01.87
2 mites = 1 farthing (Mark 12 : 42) = •> 03.75
4 farthings = 1 peniiv (Malt. 22 : 19) = 0 15
100 pence = 1 pound (Matt. 18 : 24) = 15 00
938
JEWISH MONEY,
With Us value in American money.
A gerah (Ex. 30 : 13) = $0 02.73
10 gerahs = 1 bekali (Ex. 38 : 26) = 0 27.37
2 bekahs = 1 t^hekel (Ex. 30 : 13; Isa. 7 : 23 ; Matt. 17 : 27) = 0 54.74
50 shekels = 1 mitiah* (Luke 19 : 13; = 27 37.50
60 ininalib = 1 talent = 1,642 50
A (jTo/fi shekel = 8 76
A talent of gold = 26,280 00
N. B. — A shekel wonld probably purchase nearly ten times as much as the same
nominal amount will now. Remember that one Roman penny (15 cents) was a good
day's wages for a laborer.
TIME.
The natural day was from sunrise to sunset.
The natural night was Irom sunset to sunrise.
The civil day was from sunset one evening to sunset the next.
Night {Ancient).
First watch CLam. 2 : 19), till midnight.
Middle watch (Jud. 7 : 19), till 3 a. m.
Morning watch (Ex. 14: 24; till 6 a. m.
NiuHT {New Testament).
First watch, evening = 6 to 9 P. M.
Second watch, midnight = 9 to 12 P. M.
Third watch, cockcrow = 12 to 3 a.m.
Fourth watch, 7H0r«i«gr = 3 to 6 a.m.
Day {Ancient).
Morning, till about 10 a. m.
Heat of day, till about 2 p. M.
Cool of day, till about 6 p. M.
Day {New Testament).
Third hour = 6 to 9 a. m.
Sixth hour = 9 to 12 midday.
Ninth hour = 12 to 3 p. m.
Twelfth hour = 3 to 6 p. M.
N. B. Our Lord's predictions of his resurrection are in accordance with theusual ex-
pressions respecting the civil, wot \hQ natural, day. Thus, " three days and three nights"
is in the Greek all one word, which would be more correctly translated, "three civil
days."
THE JEWISH YEAR.
Mon
thof
No. of
Enclish
Jewish
Sacred
Civil
Name.
days.
moDtbs.
Products.
Festivals.
year.
year.
I.
VII.
Abib or Nisan
(Ex. 12:2; 13:4).
30
March, April.
Barley ripe.
Fig in blossom.
Passover.
Unleavened
bread.
II.
VTTT.
Jyar or /-if.
29
April and Mav.
Barlev harvest.
III.
IX.
Sisan or Sivan.
30
Mavand June.
Wheat harvest.
Pentecost.
IV.
X.
Thammuz.
29
June. Julv.
Earlv vintage.
V.
XI.
Ab (Ezr. 7 : 91.
30
Julv, Ausiist.
Ripe fiss.
VI.
XII.
Elul (Neb. 6 : 15).
29
August, Sept.
General vintage.
( Feast of Trum-
VII.
I.
Tizri (1 K;?s. 8 : 2).
30
Sept., Oct.
Ploughing and
sowing.
1 pets.
«; Atonement.
1 Feast of Taber-
l. nacles.
VIII.
IL
Bill (1 Kgs. 6 : 38).
29
Oct., Nov.
Latter grapes.
IX.
III.
Chisleu(Zech.7: 1).
30
Nov., Dec.
Snow.
Dedication.
X.
IV.
Thebeth(Estli.2:16)
29
Pec, Jan.
Grass after rain.
XI.
V.
Shebat (Zech. 1 : 7).
m
Jan.. Feb.
Winter fig.
XTI.
VI.
Adar (Ezr. 6 : 15).
29
Feb., Marcli.
Almond blossom.
Purim.
XIII.
'V Q- A. A-AV , Intercalary
N. B. The Saceed year was reckoned from the moon after the vernal equinox.
The Civil year began in September (the fruitless part of the year). Tlie prophets speak of the
sacred year;" tliose engaged in secular pursuits, of the <?!n7Vear. The year was divided into
twelve lunar months, with a thirteenth or intercalary month every third year.
* The viinah or mnveh, according to 1 Kgs. 10 : 17 compared with 2 Chr. 9 : 16, contained 100
shekels ; but according to one interpretation of Eze. 45 : 12, it contained 60. but more probably
50. The passage reads thus : " Twentv shekels, five and twenty shekels, fifteen shekels shall be
your maneh."^ This i§ variously interpreted. (1) 20 + 25 + 15'= 60. (2) 20, 2.5, 15 are different
coins in gold, silver, and copper", bearing the same name.
939
PRINCIPAL MIRACLES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.
MIRACLES.
Destruction of Sodom and Gou-orrah
Lot's wife turned to a pillar of salt
IHrlli of Isaac
The burning bush not consumed
Aaron's rod changed into a serpent
Tiie Plagues of Egypt.— (1.) Waters made blood.
(2.) Frogs. (3.) Lice. (4.) Flies. (5.) Murrain.
(6.) Boils. (7.) Thunder, etc. (8.) Locusts. (9.)
Darkness. (10.) Death of the first-born
Red Sea divided by E. wind ; Lsrael passes through. .Moses
Marah's waters sweetened do.
Manna sent daily — the Sabbath excepted
Water from the "rock Moses.
Part of Israel burned lor ungrateful and faithless dis-
content
Nadab and Abihu consumed for offering " strange
fire" Moses
The eartli swallows Korah, etc.— fire and plague follow..
Aaron's lod budding shows his clioice by Goa
Water from the rock (smitten by Moses twice; Moses
Brazen serpent; Israel healed do.
Balaam's ass speaks
The river Jordan stopped ; Israel crosses dryshod.. Joshua
Walls of Jericho fall down do.
Sun and moon stayed; hail-storm in aid of IsraeL do.
Strength of Samson
Water flows from liollow place " in Lehi." (77e6.) Samson
Dagon falls twice before tlie ark; emerods on Philis-
WROUGHT AT
End of Dead Sea
End of Dead Sea
Gerar
Mt. Horeb
Egypt 7: 10-12.
: 7 : 20-25.
RECORDED IN
Gen
Egypt
Men (if Beth-shemesh smitten for looking into the ark...
Thunder-storm causes a panic in the Philistines' army...
Thunder and rain in harvest Samuel
Sound in the mulberry trees — i.e. God goeth before..l)avid
Uzzah struck dead foi touching the ark
Jeroboam's hand withered and his new altar destroyed...
Widow of Zarephath's meal and oil increased Eliiah
Widow's son raised from death ... uo.
Drought, fire, and rain at Elijah's prayer ; Elijah fed by
ravens Elijaii
Ahaziah 'a captains consumed by fire do.
River Jordan divided by Elijah and Eli*ha succes.sively..
Elijali carried up into heaven
Waters of Jericho healed with salt Elisha
Bears destroy 42 mocking " young men" (Ileb.)... do.
Water for Jehosh.tphat and the allied army do.
The widow's oil multiplied do.
Shunammite's son given, and raised from the dead do.
The deadly pottage cured with meal do.
Hundred men fed with twenty loaves do.
Naaman cured of leprosy ; it is inflicted on Gehazi do.
The iron axe-head swims do.
Benhadad's plans discerned; Hazael's thoughts, etc. do.
Byiian army smitten with blindness do.
Syrian army cured of blindness
Elislia's bones revive the dead
Sennacherib's army destroyed by a blast
Sun's shadow goes back li) degrees on the sun-dial of
Ahaz
Uzziah struck with leprosy
Shadiach, Meshacli, Abednego, delivered from the fur-
Daniel saved in the den of lions
Jonah saved by ft great fish nnd safely landed.
940
Kadesh
Desert of Zin
Desert of Zin
On road from Pethor
River Jordan
Jericho
Gibeon
Philistia
En-hakkore
8:5-14,16-18,20-24,
9: 3-6, 8-11, 22-26.
10 : 1'2-1'J, 21-23.
1 12 : 29, 30.
Egypt 14 : 21-31.
Marah 15: 23-25.
Wildernessof Sin... 16: 14-35.
Rephidim 17 : 5-7.
Taberah I Num. 11: 1-3.
Sinai | Lev. 10 : 1,2.
Num. 16 : 32.
17: 1, etc.
20: 7-11.
21 : 8, 9.
22: 21-35.
Josh. 3 : 14-17.
6: 6-20.
10: 12-14.
Jud. 14 to ch. 16.
15 : 19, margin
1 Sam. 5 : 1-12.
6: 19.
7 : 10-12.
12: 18.
2 Sam. 5 : •2:i-25.
6:7.
1 Kgs. 13 : 4, 6.
17: 14-16.
17-24.
17andch.l8.
2 Kgs. 1 : 10-12.
2 : 7, 8, 14.
11.
21,22.
24.
3: l&-2(».
4: 2-7.
32-37.
38-41.
4a-44.
5: 10-27.
6: 5-7.
12, etc.
18.
20.
13: 21.
19 : 3.5.
Ashdod
Beth-sliernesh.
Ebenezer ,
Gilgal ,
Hephaim
Perez-uzzah
Beth-el
Zarephatn
Zarephath
Carmel,Cherith,etc.
Near Samaria
Near Jericho
East of Jordan ,
Jericho
Land of Moab..
Shunem...,
Gilgal
Gilgal
Samaria..
River Jordan.
Dotlian...
Samaria .
Jerusalem ,
Jerusalem .
Jerusalem .
Babylon.
Babylon.,
20: 9-11.
2Chron. 26: 16-21.
Dan. 3: 19-27.
6: 16-23.
Jonah 2 : 1-10.
OUR LORD'S MIRACLES.
MIKACLES.
T. Narrated only in one Gospel.
Two blind men liealed ! Capernainn.
LOCALITY. Matt. Mark.
9
9
17
Luke. John.
A dumb demoniac healed Capernaum.
Stater in tlic mouth of the fish Capernaum.
The deaf and dumb man healed Decapolis....
A blind man healed Bethsaida....
When Christ passed unseen through the '
multitude Nazareth ..-. 4
Draught of fish Bethsaida 5
Raising the widow's son Nain 7
Healing the woman with an infiriuity , Jerusalem VA
Healing the man with ihe dropsy '. Jerusalem 14
Healing the ten lepers ." Samaria 17
Healing the ear of Malchus, servant of the , j
high priest Gethsemane \ j 22
Turning water into wine Cana '■....
Healing the nobleman's son (of fever). Cana
Healing the impotent man at Bethesda Jerusalem
Healing the man born blind Jerusalem
Raising of Lazarus Bethany
Draught of fish Bethsaida.
II. Narrated m ttco Gospels.
Healing the daughter of theSyrophcenician Tyre 1.5
Feeding the four thousand Gennesarei (?) lo
Cursing the fig tree Mountof Olives 21
Healing the centurion's servant (of palsy). Capernaum 8
The blind and dumb demoniac Galilee 12
The demoniac in a synagogue Capernaum
III. Narrated in three Gospels. | I
Stilling the stojin
The legions of devils entering the swine...
Healing Jairus' daughter
Healing the woman with an issue of blood.
Healing the man sick of the palsy
Healing the leper
Healing Peter's mother-in-law
Healing the man with a withered hand
Healing demoniac child
Healing blind Bartimseus
Walking on the sea
IV. Nan-ated in four Gospels.
Feeding the five thousand
2
4
5
9
11
21
Sea of Galilee..
Gadara
Ciipernaum
Geiinesaret
Capernaum
Gennesaret
Bethsaida
Capernaum 12
Mount Hermon 17
Jerichi» 20
Sea of Galilee... 14
5
2
1
1
3
9
10
6
8
8
8
5
5
4
6
9
18
Bethsaida ' 14
(Julias.) !
CHIEF PARABLES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.
PARABLES.
SPOKEN AT
BECOKDED IN
Jnthnm. — Trees mnking a king (to men of Shpchern)
f^ii'son. — Riddle (to liis marriage -guests)
Nathan. — Poor man's ewe lamb (to David)
Woman of Tekoah. — Two brothers' strife. and\ ■,
aveiicrerof blood '. / °"- I
The smitte-n, prophet. — The escaped prisoner (toAhab)
Micaiah. — His vision do.
Jehoash, king of Israel. — The thistle and cedai-(toAnia7.i!\h)
Isaiah. — Vineyard yielding wild grapes (lo Israel)
Ezekiel. — Lion's whelps do. ,
The great eagles and the vine do. \
Tlie boiling pot do. ;
Mount Gerizim Jud. 9 : 7-1.5.
Timnath Jud. 14: 14.
Jerusalem 2 Sam. 12: 5-11.
Jerusalem 2 Sam. 14 : 6-11.
Near Apliek 1 Kps. 20: 35-40.
Samaria 1 Kgs. 22: 19-23.
Jeru.salem 2 Kgs. 14 : 9.
Jerusalem Isa. 5 : 1-6.
Babylonia Eze. 14: 2-9.
Babylonia Eze. 17:3-10.
Babylonia Eze. 24 : 3-5.
941
OUR LORDS PARABLES.
PARABLES.
T. Recorded in one Gospel only.
The tares
Tlie hid treasure
The jroodly pearl
The draw net
The unmerciful servaut
Tlie laborers in the vineyard....
The two sons in the vineyard...
Tiie marriage of the kiui^'s son.
The ten virgins
The ten talents
Tiie sheep and goats
Tiie seed growing secretly
The houseiiolder
The two debtors
The good Samaritan
The friend at midnight
The rich fool
The wedding-feast
The wise steward
Tlie barren fig tree
The great supper
The piece of money
The prodigal son
The unjust steward
The rich man and Lazarus
Tlie unprofitable servants
The unjust judge
The Pharisee and publican
Tlie pounds
LOCALITY.
Gennesaret.
Gennesaret.
{Gennesaret... 18
Gennesaret... 13
Capernaum... IS
Jerusalem.... !20
Jerusalem 21
Mt. of Olives. 22
Mt. of Olives. 25
Mt. of Olives. 25
Mt. of Olives. 23
Gennesaret...!...
Gennesaret...]...
Galilee j...
Jerusalem i...
Jerusalem ..„'...
Jerusalem. ...j...
Jerusalem 1...I
Jerusalem..
Jerusalem..
Jerusalem...
Jerusalem...
Jerusalem..,
Jerusalem.,,
Jerusalem.
Jerusalem.
Jerusalem.
Jerusalem.
Jerusalem.
H
U!
a
H
a
a
<
<
n
s
S
yi
13
1?
LESSONS.
..I
II. Recorded in tivo Gospels.
House on rock and sand
The leaven
The lost sheep
Galilee
Gennesaret.,
Jerusalem...
13
il8.
Good and evil in life and judgment.
Value of gospel.
...... Christian seeking salvation.
...... jVisible Church of Clirist,
...|... 'Danger of ingratitude.
...... Call at various epoclis.
...'... Insincerity and repentance.
...'... Need of righteousness.
...... Watchful and careless profes-sion.
...!... Use of advantages.
......Final separation of good and bad.
4 ....Gradual growth of religion.
13j...|
...| 7 Gratitude for pardon.
... 10 Compassion to suftering.
... 11 Perseverance in prayer.
...12 Worldly-mindedness.
... 12 Vigilance toward second advent.
... 12 Conscientiousness in trust.
... 13 Unprofitableness under grace.
... 14 Uuiversaliiy of divine call.
... lo Joy over penitence.
... 15 Fatherly love to penitent son.
... 16 Preparation for eternity.
... 16 Recompense of future life.
...17 God's claim to all our services.
...18 Advantage of persevering prayer.
...18 Self-righteousness and humility.
19 Diligence rewarded, sloth pun-
j ished.
6 Consistent and false profession.
8 Pervading influence of religion.
15 Joy over penitent.
III. Recorded in three Gospels.
New cloth and old garment Capernaum
New wine in old bottles ICapernaum
The sower Gennesaret
The mustard-seed
The wicked husbandmen
I 9 2 5 New doctrine on old prejudices.
1 9i 2 5 New spirit in uiiregenerate heart.
13' 4 8 Hearers divided into classes.
Gennesaret... 13 4 13 Spread of Gospel.
Tciusalem 21 12 20 Rejection of Christ by Jews.
The fig tree and all the trees Mt. of Olives. 24 13 21 Indications of second advent.
N. B.— Tiiese miracles and parables in the N. T. are grouped according to their record
by the evangelists.
THE NAMES, TITLES, AND OFFICES OF CHRIST.
45, 47.
Adam, The Second, 1 Cor. 15
Advocate, An, 1 John 2:1.
Ali>ha and Onier/a, Ilev. 1:8; 22 : 13.
A men, Rev. 3 : 14.
Author and Finisher of onr faith, Heb. 12:2.
np<l inning of the creation of God, Rev. 3 : 14.
lUcssi'd and only Potentate, 1 'I'im. 6 : 15,
lininch, Zi'ch. .3 : 8; 6 : 12.
Cajitain of s<dration, H(;b. 2:10.
Corner-stone, 1 Pet. 2 : G.
David, Jer. 30 : 9 ; Eze. 34 : 23 ; 37 : 24 ; Hos.
3 : 5.
Day-spring, Luke 1 : 78.
942
Deliverer, Rom. 11 : 26.
Desire of all natio7is, Hag. 2 : 7.
Emmanuel, Isa. 7 : 14 ; Matt. 1 : 23.
Everlasting Father, Isa. 9 : 6.
Faithful Wilne-is, Rev. 1 : 5 ; 3 : 14.
First and Last, Rev. 1 : 17.
First-hegotten of the dead. Rev. 1 : 5.
God, Isa. 40 : 9 ; John 20 : 28 ; 1 John 5 : 20.
God. blessed for ever, Rom. 9 : 5.
Good Shepherd, John 10 : 11.
Governor, Malt. 2 : (5.
Great High PrieM, Heb. 4 : 14.
Holy One, Luke 4 : 34 ; Acts 3 : 14 ; Rev. 3 : 7.
PROPHECIES RELATING TO CHRIST.
Horn of stilration, Luke 1 : 69.
/ A3f, Ex. 3 : U. with Jolin 8 : 58.
Image of God, '1 Cor. 4 : 4.
Jehovah, Isa. 26 : 4.
Jfsus, Matt. 1 : 21 ; 1 Thess. 1 : 10.
Just One, Acts 8 : 14; 7 : 52; 22 : 14.
King everlasting, Luke 1 : 33.
King of Israel, John 1 : 49.
King of the Jens, Matt. 2 : 2.
King of kings. Rev. 17 : 14 ; 19 : 16.
Lamb of God, John 1 : 29, 36.
Lawgiver, I.sa. 33:22.
Light of the ivorld, John 8 : 12.
Lir/ht, True, John 1 : 8, 9 ; 3 : 19 ; 8 : 12 ; 9:5;
12 : 35, 46.
Lion of the tribe of Judah, Rev. 5 : 5.
Living stone, 1 Pet. 2 : 4.
Lord, Matt. 3:3; Mark 11:3.
Lord God Almighty, Rev. 15:3; of holy
prophets, 22 : 6.
Lord of all. Acts 10 : 36.
Lord of glory, 1 Cor. 2 : 8.
Lord of lords. Rev. 17:14; 19 : 16.
Lord oar righteousness, Jer. 23 : 6.
Maker and Preserver of all things, John 1 : 3,
10 ; 1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1 : 16 ; Heb. 1 : 2, 10 ;
Rev. 4:11.
Mediator, 1 Tim. 2 : 5.
Mediator of the neiv covenant, Heb. 12 : 24.
Messiah, Dan. 9 : 25 ; John 1 : 41.
Mighty One of Jacob, Isa. 60 : 16.
Morning Star, Rev. 22 : 16.
Nazarene, Matt. 2:23.
Our Passover, 1 Cor. 5 : 7.
Prince, Acts 5 : 31.
Prince of life. Acts 3 : 15.
Prince of peace, Isa. 9 : 6.
Prince of the kings of the earth. Rev. 1 : 5.
PropheJ, Deut. 18 : 15 ; Luke 24 : 19.
Redeemer, Job 19 : 25 : Isa. 59 : 20.
Root and offspring of David, Rev. 22 : 16.
Root of David, Rev. 5 : 5.
Ruler in Israel, Mic. 5 : 2.
Same yesterday, to-day, and for ever, Heb. 13 : 8.
Saviour, Luke 2:11; Acts 5 : 31.
Shepherd and Bishop of sotds, 1 Pet. 2 : 25.
Shepherd in the land, Zech. 11 : 16.
Shepherd of the sheep, Great, Heb. 13 : 20.
,S7(/M, (Ten.49:10.
Son of David, Matt. 9 : 27 ; 21 : 9.
Son of God, Matt. 3:17; 8 : 29 ; Luke 1 : 35.
Son of man, Matt. 8 : 20 ; John 1 : 51 ; Acts
7:56.
Son of the Highest, Luke 1 : 32.
Son, Only-begotten, John 1 : 14, 18; 3 : 16, 18.
Star and Sceptre, Num. 24 : 17.
Tnie Vine, John 15 : 1.
Way, Truth, and Life, John 14:6.
TTV.'h^.w, Faithful and true. Rev. 3 : 14.
Wonderful, Coun.sellor, Mighty God, Isa. 9 : 6.
Word, .tolin 1 : 1.
Word of Go(Z. Rev. 19:13.
PROPHECIES RELATING TO CHRIST.
Adoration by magi, Ps. 72 : 10. 15 ; Isa. 60 : 3, 6.
Advent, Gen. 3 : 15 : Dent. 18 : 15 : Ps. 89 : 20 ;
Isa. 2:2: 9:6; 28 : 16 ; .32 : 1 ; 35 : 4 ; 42 : 6 ;
49 : 1 ; 55 : 4 ; Eze. 34 : 24 ; Dan. 2 : 44 ; Mic.
4:1; Zpch. 3:8.
Advent, Time of. Gen. 49 : 10: Num. 24 : 17;
Dan. 9 : 24 ; Hag. 2:7; Mai. 3:1.
Ascension and exaltation, Ps. 16:11; 24:7;
68:18; 110:1; 118:19.
Betrayal by on-n friend, Ps. 41 : 9 ; 55 : 13.
Betrayal for thirty pieces, Zecli. 11 : 12.
Betrayer's death, Ps. 55 : 15, 23 ; 109 : 17.
Bone not to be broken, Ps. 34 : 20.
Burial with the rich, Isa. 53 : 9.
Casting lots for vestnre, Ps. 22 : 18.
Conver.<sion of Gentiles, Isa. 11 : 10 ; 42 : 1.
a-iiciJixion,Fs. 22: 14, 17.
Death tvith malefactors, Isa. 53 : 9, 12.
Death in prime 'of life, Ps. 89 : 45 ; 102 : 24.
Death attested by convulsions of nature. Am.
5:20; 8:9; Zeeh. 14:4,6.
Descent into Egypt, Hos. 11 : 1.
Desertion by disciples, Zech. 13 : 7.
Divinity, Ps. 2 : 11 ; 45 : 7 ; 72 : 8 ; 1 10 : 1 ; Isa.
9:6; 25 : 9; 40 : 10 ; Jer. 23 : 6 ; Mic. 5:2;
Mai. 3:1.
Dominion univer.sal and everlasting, Ps. 72 : 8 ;
Isa. 9:7; Dan. 7:14.
False accusation, Ps. 27 : 12 ; 35 : 1 1 : 109 : 2.
Forerunner of Christ, Isa. 40 : 3; Mai. 3:1;
4:5.
Galilee, Ministry in, Isa. 9:1,2.
Gall and vi7iegar. Offer of, Ps. 69 : 21.
Generation, Human, Gen. 12 : 3 ; 18 : 18 ; 21 :
12 ; 22 : 18 ; 26 : 4 ; 28 : 14 ; 49 : 10 ; Ps. 18 :
50 ; 89 : 4, 29, 36 ; 1-32 : 11 ; Isa. 11:1; Jer.
23:5; 33:15.
Insult, buffet inq, spitting, scourging, Ps. 35 : 15,
21; Isii. -50:6.
Ma.<;sacre of innocents, Jer. 31 : 15.
Miracnlous potver, Isa. 35 : 5.
Mission, Gen. 12 : 3; 49 : 10; Num. 24 : 19;
Deut. 18:18; Ps. 21:1; Isa. 59:20; Jer.
33:16.
Mocking, Ps. 22 : 16 ; 109 : 25.
Nativity from virgin. Gen. 3 : 15; Isa. 7 : 14;
Jer. 31 : 32.
Nativity, Place of. Num. 24:17, 19; Mic.
5:2.
Patience under suffering, Isa. 53 : 7, 9.
Persecution, Ps. 22 : 6 ; 35 : 7, 12 ; 109 : 2 ; Isa.
49 : 7 ; 53 : 3.
Piercing, Ps. 22 : 16 ; Zech. 12 : 10 ; 13 : 6.
Prayer for enemies, Ps. 109 : 4.
Preacher, Ps. 2 : 7 ; Isa. 2 : 3 ; 61 : 1 ; Mic. 4 : 2.
Priest like Melchizedek, Ps. 110 : 4.
Prophet like 3Ioses, Deut. 18 : 15.
Purchase of potter's field, Zech. 11 : 13.
Purification of temple, Ps. 69 : 9.
Rejection by Jews and Gentiles, Ps. 2:1; 22 :
12 ; 41 : 5.
Re.mrrection, Ps. 16 : 10 ; 30 : 3 ; 41 : 10 ; 118 :
17 ; Hos. 6 : 2.
Silence against accusation, Ps. 38 : 13 ; Isa.
53 : 7.
Spiritual graces, Ps. 45 : 7 ; Isa. 11:2; 42 : 1 ;
61:1.
Trizimphal entry into Jerusalem, Ps. 8:2;
Zech. 9 : 9.
Vicarious suffering, Isa. 53 : 4-6,12; Dan. 9 : 26.
943
SPECIAL PRAYERS.
Recorded. I Subjects.
Aaron and priests... Num. 6:22-26 The Aarouic blessing of Israel.
Abraliam Gen. 15:2 Kor a son.
Abraham Gen. 17: 17, 18 For Ishniael's acceptance.
Abraham 'Gen. 18 :2;^ Vor mercy on Sodom. [wife for Isiiac.
Abraham's servant.. Gen. 24: 12 Success in liis niiss.ion when sent to find a
Aiinr Pro V. 30: 1 For moderation in liis desires.
Apostles Acts 1 : 24 On clioosing an ai>ostb'. [opian.
Asa 2 Chr. 14: 11 When going to battle with Zerah tlie Etlii-
Daniel Dan. 9:4 For the restoration of Jerusalem.
David 2 Sam. 7: 18 For a blessing on his house.
David Ps. 51 Alter his sin witii Bath-slieba.
David 2 Sam. 24 : 17 After numbering the peojjle.
David 1 ('lir. 29 : 10-19 Tiiaiiksgiving at clnse of life.
Early Church .\cts4:24 For supiiort under pensecution.
Elijah 1 Kgs. 17:20 For t!:e restoration of the Avidow's son.
Elijah 1 Kgs. 18:o6 For divine attestation of his mission.
Elijah 1 Kgs. 19:4 For death.
Elisha 2 Kjcs. 6: 17 For his servant's eyes lo be opened.
Elisha 2 Kgs. 6:18 Tiuit the armv sent to take him may be
; I blinded.
Ezekiel Ezek. 9 : 8 Intercession for the people.
Ezra Ezra. 9 : 6 Confession of sin in the people's alliances
, with the heathen.
Habakkuk Ilab. 3:1-16 For revival of God's work.
Hannah 1 Sam. 1 : U For the gift of a son.
Hezekiali 2 Kgs. 19: 15; Isa. 37:16. For protection against Sennacherib.
Hezekiah 2 Kgs. 20:3; Isa. 38: 3 When dangerously ill. [Passover.
Hezekiah iClir. 30:18 For the unprepared who had eaten of
Israel D^ut. 21:6-8 Expiation of undiscovered murder.
Israel Deut. 26:5-10 Confession on presenting first-fruits.
Israel Deut. 26: 13-15 The prayer of the tithing year.
Jabez 1 Chr. 4:10 For the divine ble-ssing.
Jacob Gen. 32:9 For deliverance from Esau.
Jehoshaphat 2Ciir. 20: 6 For protection against the armies of the
I Moabites and An)m(;nites.
Jeremiah ler. 14:7 In a great famine.
Jeremiah Jer. 15: 15-18 For comfort.
Jesus .Matt. 11: 25, 26 Tiiaiiksgiving. [of his prayer.
Jesus John 11 :41, 42 Thanksgiving for the Father's acceptance
Jesus Toiin 12:27 Imploring his Father's aid.
Jesus John 17 For himself, his apostles, and all believers.
For unity.
Jesus Matt. 26:39; Lnke22 :42 Under suft'ering in Gethsemane.
Jesus Iviike 23:34 For liis murderers.
Jesus Matt. 27 : 46 Under suspension of divine consolation.
[onah louaii 2:2 J''or deliverance from the great fish.
Josluia J(»sii. 7:7-9 After Achan's sin. [nation's sins.
Levites Neii. 9:5 Confession of (iod's goodness and their
Lord's Prayer Matt. 6:9; Luke 11:2. The model of supplication for relief of hiw
j man needs.
Manoah Tud. 13:8, 9 For divine guidance in training his child.
Moses lOx. 32:11; Deut. 9 : 26.... Forgiveness for the peoi)le's idolatry.
Moses Kx.33:12 For the divine presence.
Moses Num. 10:35. :?6 At the setting forth and stoppingoftheark.
Moses Num. 11 : 11-15 For divine help to govern the Israelites.
Moses Num. 12:13 For Miriam, for eure from leprosy, [report.
Moses Num. 14: 13-19 For the people, disappointed at the spies'
Moses Num.27: 15 For a successor.
Moses Deut. 3:24 To enter Canaan.
Nehemiah Neh. 1 : 5 For the remnant in captivity. [biah.
Nt^hemiah Neh. 4: 4 For protection against t^anballat and To-
Penitent thief Luke 23: 42 To be remembered l.y Jesus.
Pharisee's praver.... Luke 18:11 Thanksgiving for his own righteousness.
Publican's prayer... Luke 18: 13 For divine mercy.
Samson lud. 16:28 To be avenged on his enemies.
Solomon 1 Kgs. 3:5-9 For wi-^bmi to govern Israel.
Solomon !l Kgs. 8:23 ; '2Chr.6: 14. Dedication of temple. [his murderers.
Stephen Acts 7: 59, 60 Commendation of his soul ; <orgivenes3 of
944
SUMMARY OF MAMMALIA OF THE BIBLE.
Groxjxded on the Rev. W. Houghton's Paper (" Tkansactions of Society of
Biblical Archeology ").
{From the Oxford Edition Sunday-School Teaclier's Bible.)
Animal de-
noted.
Eftglish
Translation.
Hebrew
Original.
Septuagint
Translation.
Assyrian
InscTip-
tions.
Zoological Genus
or Species.
Antelope
Antelope
Ape
Ass (lame)...
Ass {wild)...
Bear
Bull (domes-
tic)
Bull iicild)...
Camel
Cat
Deer
Dolphin
Dog
Fallow deer
Gazelle
Gazelle
Goat (he)
Goat
Goat (wild)..
Pygarg Dishon vvyapyo^ Da-as-su..
Wild ox To, or Teo.... e\a(}>o'; Burkhiis.
Ape Koph TridrjKo? Udumu...,
Ass Kharaor 6vog Imiru
Wild ass Pereh rjju.i7n7os Tseri
Bear Dob apxro? Dabuu ....
Cattle, oxen.
Unicorn
Camel
Cat
Fallow deer.
Dog
Hart, hind..
Roe, roebuck,
He-goat
He-goat
Chamois
Goat Wild goat.
Eleph KTYJi'T) Alap
Re'em /nox'OKepws ... Ri-i-mti....
Gamal [Ka/aT^Ao? Gammalu.
None atAovpos None
Yachraur.... /3ou/3aAo9
' Xakhiru..
Keleb 'kvmv Kallui
Aygal eAa(/)0? Ailii
Azul Utsiiluv...
Tsebi Sopxa? Tsabii
Yatud.., Tpayos Atudu
Tsaphir Tpa.yo<; Tsapparu.
Zeiuer /ca/onjA6n-ap- Ditanu
' 5ts.
Ya'el
Greyhound.
Hare ,
Horse.
Hippopota-
mus
Hyaena
Greyhound.... Tsartsir aKeKTmp None
Hare 'Arnebeth ...\xotpoypv\- Annabu.
! Aios. '
Horse Sus in-n-o? Susu
Jackal ....
Leopard..
Lion
Mole-rat .
Mouse
Mule
Ox
Ox
Beliemoth
Doleful crea-
tures
Fox
Leopard
Lion
Mole
Mouse
Mule
Young bull....
Oxen
Behemoth...
[Oach
pi. Okhim].
Shual
Namer
Aryeh
Tiiishemeth
Y'akhbar
Pered
Shor
Bakar
dripia.
None Akhu
Ram '
Rhinoceros !
Sheep
Sheep (wild)
(See Wild
Goats.j
Unicorn (see
Wild Bull).
Wolf.
Wolf.
Ram.
Sheep..
Ayil..
Tson.
aAuj-T}^ Asi (?)
TrapSaAts Xiimru....
Aewv Ne-essu ...
acrnaya^
Mvs
rjfxiovo? Parie.
fXOCTXO^
TaOpo? Buchal
I j rimi.
/cpi'o? Ailur
AlapNahr
npofiara ,Tsieni
Arnu
Addax.
Oryx leucoryx.
Presbytes entellus.
Asinus vulgaris.
Asinus hemippus.
Ursus Syriacus.
Bos taurus.
Bos priiuijrenius.
; f Cainelus Arabicus.
\ Camel lis Baitrianus.
Felis domesiica.
Alcephalus bubalis,
Delphinus.
iCanis familiaris.
ICervus Mesopotamicus,
iGazella dorcas.
Gazella gutturosa.
Capra hircus.
Capra aegagrus.
Rupicapra tragus.
Ibex Bedennus, or Capra
Sinaitica.
Doubtful.
I Lepus Sinaiticus.
I Lepus Caspius.
Equus caballus.
Hyseua stiiata.
!Canis Vulpes.
Leopardus varius.
Felis leo.
Spalax typhlus.
Dipus, and Alactaga.
Bos taurus.
Ovis aries.
Rhinoceros unicornis.
Ovis laticaudatus.
Capra aegagrus.
Wolf..
Zeeb Ziibu. .
Rt. acal, fZe- AuKos Aciluv,
: vour. i
Canis lupus.
60
945
BIKDS FOUND IN PALESTINE,
AND REFERRED TO IN SCRIPTURE.
{From Oxford Bible.)
English name.
Avocet.
Bat (Lev. 11:19)
Bee-eater
Bittern (Zeph. 2:1-1).
Blackbird.
Blackcap..
Blue Jay.
Bulbul
Chat
Cock (Mark 14 : 30)
Cormorant (Lev. 11 :
17)
Corn-bunting
Cretchmaker's bunt-
Hebrew,
Greek.
Atalleph wKTepi<;.
Kippod exivos
Specimens found by
Palestine explorers.
Recurvirostra avo
cetta.....
Vesperugo Kuhlii.
Merops apiaster
Botaurus stellaris.
Ardeola niiuuta
Meriila.
Silvia atricapilla....
'aAeKTiup.
ShaJak /carapaKnjs .
Ixus xanthopygius.
Saxicola libanotica..
Pratincola rubicola.
Droinolsea leucopy-
gia
mg
Crane (Isa. 38 : 14) Agur x^^^^^r.
Cuckoo (Lev. 11 : lR)...'Shacliaph Aapos.
car-
Phalacrocoi^x
bo.
Emberiza miliaria
Crow (Prov. 30 : 17)
Dove (Isa. 38 : 14)
Dunlin
Ducks
Eagle (Deut. 32:11)....
" gier (Lev. 11:18).
'Oreb (copaf
Yonah TrepicrTepd..
Emberiza Cfesia
Grus cinerea. {See
Stork.)
Cuculus canorus
Oxylophiis glanda-
rius
Corvus umbrinus.
(See Pigeon.)
Tringacinclus.
Nesher aexos
Kacham nop4>vpto>v....
Fow], failed (1 Kgs. 4 : (Barburira.
23) ( Abusini
Glede(Deut. 14: 13)....|Raah
Goldfinch.
Grakle
Grouse
Harrier....
yvxjj.
Hawk (Job 39 : 26) jNetz iepa^ ,
" night (Lev. 11:
16) Tachmas v^awf
Hen (Luke 13 : 34). |
Heron (Lev. 11:19) Anaphah x°-P'^^P'-^^-
Circaetus Gallicus...
Gypsfulvus.
Neophron percno-
pterus.
Geese.
Buteo ferox (buz-
zard).
Carduelis elegans....
Amydrus Tristrami.
Pteroels Senegalhis.
Circus teruginosus...
C. cineraceus
Accipiter nisus
Where found.
Sur.
Anti-Libanus.
(?)
Jericho.
Beit Atab.
Bethlehem.
((
Ain Feshkah.
Ain Fasail.
Jordan Valley.
Ain Fasail.
Everywhere.
Yebua.
Hoopoe
Jar
Dnkipath ewoif/ .
Caprimulgus (?),
Kestrel jNetz j
" ' i
Kingfisher '
<i I j
"
Kite (Lev. 11 : 14) JAyah(generic) ikticos.
946
Ardeola coniata
A idea cinerea.
Upiii)a ('pops
Caprimulgus Euro-
I»a'us
TiniiuiK iilus alau-
dariii.s
T. (Vnchris
Alcedo ispida
Ceryle rudi.s
Aicyon Smyrnensis.
Milvus regalis.
Bethlehem.
Mar-Saba.
Desert.
Dead Sea.
Jericho.
Jordan Valley.
Bludan.
Beit Atab.
Raniloh.
Jericlio.
BIRDS FOUND IN PALESTINE.
English name.
Hebrew.
Lark.
Greek.
Specimens found by
IPalestine explorers.
Lapwing (Lev. 11 : 19). Dukipath \eno\j/
Nuthatch ' j
Owl (Isa. 34 : Vd)....
'• great(Lev. 11 :17)
Isa. 34: 15
" little (Lev. 11 : 17).
" of desert (Ps. 102:
6)
" screech (Isa. 34 :
14)
Osprey (Lev. 11 : 13)...
Ossifrage (Lev. 11 : 13).
Ostrich (Lam. 4 : 13)...
Partridge (Jer. 17 : 11).
" (1 Sam. 26: 20).
PeacockdKgs. 10:22).
Pelican (Ps. 102 : 6)....
Pigeon ^dove) ( Ps. 68 :
13; Matt. 3: 16)..
" (Gen. 15: 9)
Plover
Bath-haya'a-
nah. (TTpovOo^.
Yanshoop '■Pi'-^
Kippos extvo?.
Kos vvKjinopa^
KOS VVKTlKOpa^.
. iGalerida cristata
. Otocoris penicillata.
.](Sfe Hoopoe.)
.'Sitta Syriaca
Bubo Ascalaphus....
Athenae meridion-
alis
Lilith
Asuiyah.
ovoKevTavpoi
aAiai'eros
Peres.
ypv\l/.
Ya'anah.
Kore
(TTpovOiov..
nepSi^
Tucci vim
Kaath
Yon ah.
Gozal...
Tauiy
TreAexa?.
n-eptCTTepa.
nepiaTepd.
Otus vulgaris
Pandion haliaetus
(fisli-eater).
Gypaetus barbatus
(bone-breaker).
Struthio camelus.
Caccabis Grsecus
(Greek partridge).
Amnioperdix heyii..
Pavo cristatus.
hiati-
Quail (Ex. 10: 13) Selav.
Raven (Prov. 30 : 17)... 'Oreb.
Redstart
opTvyoixrjTpa
Kopa^
Robin.
Sandpiper.
Shrike
Sparrow (Ps. 102 : 7).... 'Tzippor (rrpovBiov
Starling ' '
Stork (Jer. 8 : 7) iKhasidah dens
Sunbird
Swallow (Prov. 26:2;| I
Ps. 84 : 3) Deror \(Trpov06<;.
Isa. 38: 14 Agur x'^kihuiv...
Charadrius
I cula
Coturnix vulgaris.
iSte Crow.)
Ruticilla phoenicura
! " tithys
lErythseus rubicula..
(Ruticilla Suecica
iCoracias garrula
Tringoides hypo-
leucos
Lanius lathora
" auriculatus..
" nubicus..
Passer salicarius
Fringilla patronia...
Sturnus vulgaris
Ciconia alba
Cinnyris osea
Where found.
Jaffa.
Anii-Libanus.
Jericho.
Bethlehem.
Jericho.
Jericho.
Swan (Lev. 11 : 18) Tinshemeth... kvkvo^
Swift (Isa. 38 : 14).. ....;Sis, Stis nepiaTepd.
Thrush.
Tit, great
Turtledove (Gen. 15 :|
9; Lev. 1:14) Tor-yonah.
Vulture (Lev. 11 : 14)... Dayah ...
Ex. 19:4 Racham.
Wagtail
Hirundo rustica
[AgGr = crane ; stxs
= swift.]
Cypsellus nielba...
" apis.
" affinis.
Petrocincta cyanus. Mar-Saba.
Trateropus chaly-j
beus Jericho.
Parus major Beit Atab.
Jaffa.
.Tordon Valley.
Bhidan.
Jericho.
Gaza.
Solomon's Pools.
Jericho.
Jordan Valley,
Ain Fasail.
Jericho.
Jordan Valley.
rpvyiav.
yv^y-
aeros.
. jTurtur auritu.s lYebua.
j " risorius [.Tericho.
J Plentiful,
Water-rail.
■Motacilla alba Raraleh.
" sulphurea. Jericho.
Rallus aquaticus "
947
KEPTILES OF SCRIPTUKE.
N. B. — The names printed in italics do uot occur in the A. V., though the reptiles so
called are now found, and probably were intended by the Hebrew writers.
English Name.
Hebrew.
Greek.
Adder (Ps. .58: 4)
Gen. 49: 17
Ps. 140: 3
Prov.23: 32; Job 20: 14-16...
Asp (Isa. 11 : 8)
Caterpillar.
Chameleon (Lev. 11: 30)
1. Pethen 'ao-Tri?
2. Shephiphon '6<|)io-
3. 'Aclitiub /3a<TiAia-KOS.
4. Tziph'oni io-Tri?
Pethen do-Tri's
1. Coach x^f'-"^'-^^
Cockatrice (Isa. 59: 5).
Crocodile {\,ev. 11 : 29).
i>a66a (Lev. 11:29)
Dragon (Isa. 34 : 13 ; Eze. 29 : 3)
Frog (Ex. 8:2; Rev. 16: 13)...
2. Tinsheraeth aanaXo^
(Mole, A. V.) i
Tzeph'a ao-Tri's
Tziph'oni. j
>cpo(c66eiAo?.
Tzab (cpoKo^eiAos )
I ;(epo-aros... j
Tan j
Tannin
Tzepharde'a /Sarpaxos
Gecko (Lev. 11 : 30) Anakah
(Ferret in A.V.).
Horseleech (Prov. 30: 15)..
Alnkah
LXX. (?)
Leviathan (Ps. 74: 14; Job
41 ; 1) Livyathan SpaKwv..
Lizard (Lev. 11: 30) Ijeiaah xa\a0uiTTi^.
Mole Tinshemelh aanaXa^ ....
Scorpion (Deut. 8: 15; Lukel j
10: 19) Akrabim crKopTrios...
Serpent(Ps..58:4; Prov.30: 19) 1. Nacbash o</)i9
Ex. 7: 9, 10 2. Tannin SpaKtav.
Ps. 58: 4 3. Pethen oo-tti?
Gen. 49: 17 4. Shephiphon o</)ts
Job 20: 16 5. Epheh ao-7ri?
Ps. 140: 3 6. Aclishub /3aaiAi<7Ko?.
Prov. 23: 32; Isa. 11 : 8 7. T.sepha ;^<^'^*? •.••••
Serpent, Fiery (Num.21 : 6-8)..!Sarfiph 6(|)i? Oavariiiv..
" Fiery flying(lsa. 14 :29)j ao-Tri?, 6(/.i? )
ireTa/mei'OS j
Snail (Lev. 11: 30) 'l. Chomet \aavpa
Ps. .58: 8 |2. Shablul Kijpos
Snake. I
Toad '
Zoological Species.
Cobra.
Cerastes Hasselquistii.
|Vi])cra Eupbratica.
Daboia xanthina.
lEgyptian cobra {Naja
I ffcje).
Psammosaurus scincus.
Hydrosaurus Niloticus.
Chameleo vulgaris.
I
Daboia xanthina.
Uromastis spinispes
(Lizard).
Probably crocodile.
Rana esculenta.
Hyla arborea.
Ptyodactylus gecko.
Hoemopis sanguisuga.
Hirudo medicinalis.
Crocodihis vulgaris.
Generic (?).
See Chameleon.
Numerous.
Generic terra.
I
Cobra vEgyptiaca.
Cerastes Hasselquistii
, (Adder).
, Echidna Mauritanica.
Vipera KupliraiUa, or
Vipera ammodytes.
Daboia xanlhinaC?).
Generic.
Tortoise (Lev. 11 : 29).,
Viper (.Tob 20: 16; Isa. 30: 6;
59:5)
Tzab.
/cpoKoSeiAo?
\fp(xaioi
Epheh exiS
Worm (Isa. 51 : 8) 1. Sfts <r>??.
Ex. 16: 20; Job 25:6; Isa. 2. Rimmah aanpia.
14: 11 la^i^t?.
Job 25: 6; Isa. 14: 11 13. Tole'ah yxuiArjf.
Worm, Earth '
" f -anker ! '.
" Palmer. j
•' Crimson^ |
948
Bnfo Pantherinus.
1. Testudo Graeca.
2. Testudo marginata
3. Emys Caspica.
Echis arenicola (Sand
viper).
Tortrix vitisana(?).
Lumbrious.
Myriapoda.
INSECTS.
Under this head are classed all those smaller animals not included in the previous
tables. They are arranged not scientifically, but ratlier, lor facility of reference, in
alphabetical order.
English Name.
Ant (Prov. 6: G-8; 30: 24)
Bee (Ps. 118: 12; 1 Sam. 14: 25)
Beetle (Lev. 11: 21,22)
Hab. 2: 11
Cochineal (Isa. 1: 18)
Flead Sam.24: 14; 26: 20)....
Fly (Ex.8: 21; Ps. 78: 45)
EccleslO: 1
Isa. 7: 18
Gadfly.
Gnat (Matt. 23: 24)
Grasshopper (Jud. 6:5: Ll*v. )
11:22) I
Hornet (Ex. 23: 28)
Lice (Ex. 8: 16)
Locust (Ex. 10: 4-6 ; Lev. 11 : 22)
Hebrew.
Greek i Zoological Species
found.
Neraalah (jt-vpurj^..
Deborah fLiKivaa
Chargol o4>i-oij.axri ■
Cii aphis Kavdapo^.
Tola'ath kokklvo^
Par'osh |«//i;AAos
1. Aroh, or Or^h... Kwo^xvia .
2. Zebul> pivia
K(i>v(a\j/...
Arbeh d<cpis.
Chagah.
Tzir'ah <r(f)yiKLa ..
Kinniin aKvi(pes.
1. Arbeh ^poOxo?.
'Formica, or Myrinica.
Apis niellifica.
Apis Ligiistica.
Bupreslis (?).
Coccus ilicis.
Pulex irritans.
Musca, or Culex.
Scarabaeus coprophagns.
Hippo bosca, or CEstrus.
I
Culex.
Bald
Joel 1 : 4.,
Joel 1:4; Nah. 3: 15
Ps. 105: .34; Jer. 51: 14.27.
Deut. 28: 42
Isa. .33: 4; Am. 7: i
Ps. 78: 46
Manna
J2. Sal'am aTraKri
3. Cliargol b<}>iofxdxr] .
J4. Chagob dxpt?.
5. Gazara Kaniti]
6. Yelek /Spovxo?.
7. Tzelatzlal 'epi<7v|3rj.
8. Gob aKpi?.
9. Chasil epiav^r].
Mosquito.
Moth (Isa. 50: 9; Job 13: 28;
27: IS) 'Ash
Spider (Isa. 59: 5) 1. Accabish....
Prov. 30: 28 |2. Semamith.
Vespa Crabro.
'CEdipoda migratoria.
;Locusta peregrina.
Truxalis.
Unidentified.
Larva of Arctia caja.
CEdipoda migratoria.
Coccus manniparus.
Ehrenb.
CTJ?
apdX«T?.
Tinea.
Epeira.
FISHEEIES OF PALESTINE.
Waters.
English Name.
Ichthyological Species.
Gennesareth, Lake Bream
Jabbok, River ...Barbel
Jordan, River Minnow
Barbel.
Bream.
Kishon, River Blenny..
Chromis Nilotica.
I rciarias macracanthus.
[Sheat-fish < Coracinus.
I (Hemichromis.
Carp.
I Perch.
Dog-fish I Labeo barbiis canis.
Barbus longiceps.
Cyprinodou Hainmonis.
Blennius lupulus.
949
— — ^ 1
WORDS OBSOLETE OR AMBIGUOUS.
Word.
Passage.
Explanation.
Ps. 35 : 15
Outcasts ; despised persons.
Adamant or dia-
Eze. 3:9
A stone of impenetrable (lit. " indomitable ")
hardness.
Adjure
Josh. 6:26
Bind under a curse ; charge solemnly.
Ado
Mark 5: 89
Stir; tumult; commotion.
Albeit
Eze. 13:7
Although it be so.
Allow
Luke 11: 48
(Lat. luudare) to praise ; to approve.
All to
Jud. 9:53
Entirely; completely.
Alms
Acts 3:3; 10:2
(Of si}i(/. num.) = charitable gift.
Aloof
Ps. 38:11
From all off = afar off; at a distance.
Amerce
Deut. 22:19
Matt. 23:23
Punisli by fine.
A sort of parsley.
Anise
Anon
.Matt. 13:20
Luke 7 : 25
i. e., in one instant = quickly.
Dressed.
Appavell 'd
Apparently
Num. 12:8
Plainly ; openly.
Ark
(ien. 6:14; Ex. 2:5, 6;
37:1
(Lat. area) covered chest.
Array, to
Matt. 6:29
Dress or clothe.
Artillery
1 Sam. 20:40
Job 17 : 8
Bow and arrows.
Old form of astonished, astounded.
Reconciliation of two persons at variance;
from tills adverb springs the verb " atone "
Astonied
At one
Acts 7: 26
(to reconcile), and " at-onement."
Attent
Away with
2 Chr. 6:40
An old part, of attend, used for "attentive."
" Put up with " or endure.
Isa. 1:13
Barbed
Job 41: 7
Fringed or bearded with projecting points.
Beam (xee Mote)
Matt. 7:3
Tree; large timber.
Beeves
Lev. 22:21
Plitr. of " beef;" used of oxen or cows.
Bestead
Isa. 8:21
Circumstanced ; situated.
Bewray
Matt. 26:73
Discover; report; inform; reveal; accuse.
Bind
Job 26: 8; Acts 9:14...
Imprison or confine closely.
Blains
Ex. 9:9
Pimples; pustules; swellings.
Blaze abroad
Mark 1 : 45
Publish loudly ; blazon.
Boiled
Ex. 9:31
Balled ; heading to blossom.
Bosses
Job 15: 26
Large studs ; projecting ornaments.
Botch
Deut. 28:27
ICruption of the skin.
Bravery
Isa. 3:18
Splendor ; finery.
Bray
Piov. 27:22...
Pound or bruise.
Brickie
Wisd. 15:13
Easilv broken; brittle.
Brigandine
Jer. 46:4
Coat of mail.
Bruit
Jer. 10:22
(Fr. bruit, noise) report ; fame.
By
1 Cor. 4:4
About, in bad sense. !
Bv and by
Matt. 13: 21; Luke 21: 9.
Immediately.
Calkers
Eze. 27:9, 27
Men who stop the seams or leaks of ships
1 with tow.
lSam.l7:22;Acts21:15.
2 8am. 17:8
That which is carried ; baggage.
Heated; exasperated.
Chafed
Chapiter
Ex. 36:38
Capital of a pillar.
Cliapt
Jer. 14:4
Cracked through heat and drought.
Cliarger
,Num.7: 13; Matt. 14:8.
A large dish.
Cliarges (beat)
Acts 21: 24
1 Discharge the cost or pay expenses.
Charily
ICor. 13
1
Sympathetic, unselfisli habit ol the soul, in-
cluding our words love, charity, sympathy,
benevolence, beneficence, philantliropy.
Cithern
1 Mace. 4:54
(Lat. cithara) a stringed instrument; the
' name has now l)ecome "guitar."
Cleave
Gen. 2: 24; Rom. 12:9
Ailherc : remain faitliful.
Cockatrice
Isa. 11 :8
A kind of crested serpent ; the basilisk.
Indulge .so as to s|)<»il a child.
Cocker
Ecclu.s. 30:9
Cockle
Job 31: 40
|Jobl5:27
The corn-rose, a weed lound among corn.
Slices or flakes of meal or fat.
Collops
950
WORDS OBSOLETE OR AMBIGUOUS.
Word.
Passage.
Explanation.
Colony
Acts 16 : 12
(Lat. colonia) a foreign town to whose in-
habitants were accorded, for distinguished
services, the same rights and privileges as
the citizens of Rome itself.
Commend
Rom. 3:5
Draw commendation upon or enhance.
Commune
Ex. 25:22; 1 Sam. 19:
3; Ps. 4:4
Parley; hold a conference; converse.
Comprehend
Isa. 40:12; Kuiu.]3:9.
Comprise ; include ; measure ; contain.
Concision
Phil. 3:2
Mere cutting off; opposed to circumcision as
religious symbol.
Coney
Lev. 11:5; Ps. 104:18.
(Lat. cvniculus) a rabbit ; small animal like
a rabbit.
Confection
Ex.80 : 35 ; Ecclus. 38 : 8.
Compound of various ingredients.
Associate with.
Consort, to
Acts 17:4
Contrite
Ps. 51:17
(Lat. con(rifn.s) bruised; ground to powder;
so of one humbled to the dust.
Convenient
Acts 24 : 25 ; Rom. 1 :
28; Eph.5:4
Becoming ; decorous.
Conversation
(1) Phil. 3:20; (2) 1
Pet. 1:15
(1) Citizenship; (2) conduct and habits of
life.
Convict.
(Used as a suisi.) a reckoning.
Convince
Job 32: 12; John 8:46.
Ex. 12:4
Count
Countervail
Esth. 7:4
(Lat. contra valere) compensate for.
Cracknels
1 Kgs. 14:3
Hard, brittle cakes.
Crisping pins
Isa. 3:22
Irons for crimping or curling hair.
Cruse
1 Sam. 26:11; 1 Kgs.
14 : 3 ; 17 : 12 ; 2 Kgs.
2:20
Small cup or vessel for liolding liquid.
Cumber
Luke 10:40; 13:7
Encumber; occupv unprofitablv.
Curious
Ex. 28 : 8 ; Acts. 19 : 19.
That with which great pains has been taken.
Damnation or con-
demnation
Rom., 1 Cor., etc
These words were used as equivalent terms
when the A. Y. was made; sonietiuus with
a deep, sometimes with a lighter, meaning.
Daysman
Job 9: 33
I7mpire; arldtrator.
A part or portion.
Deal, a
Ex. 29:40
Debtor
Rom. 1 : 14 ; Gal. 5 : 3... One bound bv or under an obligation.
Deem
Acts 27 : 27 Conclude ; judge.
Defenced
Delicately
Deut. 28:56; 1 Sam.
15:32
Tenderly ; mincingly.
Delightsome
Mai. 3:12
Delightful.
Uncover,
Discover
Isa. 22:8
Matt. 15: 17
Draught
Draught house
2 Kgs. 10 : 27 Cesspool ; depository of drainage. |
Ear, to
Isa. 30:24
Plough ; till the ground.
Earing
Gen. 45 : 6. .
Ploughing.
(Gr. hemorrhoids) discharging piles.
Injure.
Emerods
1 Sam. 5:6
Endamage
Eze. 4
Ensample
2 Cor. 10:11
Example.
Ensue
1 Pet. 3:11
Pursue diligently.
Avoid ; shun.
Service performed only when under super-
Eschew
1 Pet. 3:11
Eph. 6:6
Eyeservice
vision.
Fain
Luke 15: 16
Glad, and gladly.
Fat
Joel 2: 24
Vessel for liquor ; same as "vat."
Fitches
Lsa. 28:25, 27
Vetches ; small kind of pea.
Fret
Lev. 13: 51, 55; Ps. 39:
11
To corrode ; to perforate by eating, as a moth
does.
To scare ; frighten away.
Fray
Deut. 28:26
Gainsay
Luke 21 : 15
Speak against — i. e., contradict.
Garner..
Matt. 3 : 12
(iranary ; barn.
Gin
Am. 3:5
Trap or snare for birds.
Glister
Luke 9:29
Shine ; sparkle ; glitter.
951
WORDS OBSOLETE OR AMBIGUOUS.
Word.
Passage.
Explanation.
Greaves
1 Sam. 17 :6
Armor-plates for legs.
(]oat-of-mail.
Ihibergeuii
Jol)41:26
Halt
Jud. 3:22
Handle of knife, dagger, etc.
Hale
Luke 12: 58; Acts 8:3..
Forcibly drag, as an arrested person.
Halt
Gen. 32:31; Luke 14:
21
( Verb and part.) walk lame ; crippled.
Harness
IKgs. 22:34
Bodv-armor of a soldier.
Headtire
1 Esd. 3:6
Deut. 13:16; Jer. 49:2.
Head-dress; turban.
A ruin.
Heap
(
Ps. 49:14
Hole or covered pit ; grave.
Hell -I
Acts 2: 27
Hades, place of departed spirits.
I
2 Pet. 2:4
Gehenna, place of torment for the wicked.
Helve
Deut. 19:5
Handle of an axe.
His
1 Cor. 15
Used often for netd. " its."
Hosen
Dan. 3:21
Trowsers and stockings in one piece.
Houghs
2 Esd. 15:36
Hocks ; joints of a beast's hind-legs.
Hungered, a
Matt. 12:1
Hungry.
Importable
Prayer of Manasses....
Insupportable.
Instantly
Acts 26: 7
Earnestly ; with urgent importunity.
To hazard or risk life.
"Jot" is "jod," the smallest Hebrew letter
(i or iota in Gr.). Tittle is a little stroke or
Jeopard, to
Jot or tittle
Jud. 5: 18
Matt, n : 18
horn distinguishing one letter from an-
other, like that which in English distin-
guishes E fioni F, or G from C.
Kine
Gen. 41:2; 1 Sam. 6: 7.
The old plural of " cow ;" milch-kine =
milking-cows.
Knop
Ex. 2o:33
The bud of a flower ; carved imitation of
one; now speileri " knob."
Lack
Ex. 16: 18; Mark 10: 21.
Subdt., want or delicioncy ; v., to be deficient.
Lawyei' —
Matt. 22 :35
An expounder of the Mosaic Law.
Leasing
Ps. 4:2
Lying or falsehood.
Let
2Thess. 2:7
Hinder ; prevent.
Lewdness
Acts 18:14
Wickedness; crime.
Libertine
Acts 6:9
John 3:8
The child of a freed slave.
Desii'e ; will; like.
List
Lust
Ex. 15:9; 2 Tim. 4:3..
Desire of anv kind.
Lusty
Jud. 3:29
Healthy; vigorous; strong.
Magnifical
1 Chr. 22 : 5
Magnificent.
Marish
Eze. 47: 11
Marsii; swampy ground.
Maul
Prov. 25 : 18
Heavy hammer, of which " mallet " is the
diminutive.
Maw
Deut. 18:3
Stomach of animals.
Meet
Matt. 3:8
Suitable; accordant.
Mete
Matt. 7 : 2
(Lat. metwr) measure.
.Meteyard
Lev. 19 : 3-3
Measuring-rod ; yard-measure.
Mincing
Isa. 3 :16
Walking with verv short steps.
Minish
Ex. 5: 19
Diminish ; lessen.
Mote (.9^6 Beam)
Matt. 7:3
(Sax. mot) minute particle ; grain ; atom.
Munition
Nail. 2 : 1
Fortifications ; ramparts.
Murrain
Ex 9:3
Cattle-plague, resembling " rinderpest."
Naught
2 Kgs. 2:19; Prov. 20:
14
Bad; worthless; nothing.
Old form of " sneeze."
Neeze
2 Kgs. 4:35
Nether
Deut. 24 :6
Ps. 91 : 3
Lower, from obsolete " neath,"
Noxious; hurtful; grievous.
Noisome
Nought
Gen. 29: 15
Nothing (same as " naught ").
Nurture
Eph. 6:4
(1) Mark 1:9; (2) Acts
Education; training.
Of
13: 29; (3)1 Cor. 15:47.
Used in various senses: (1) instead of "by;"
(2) for "conceruing;" (3) "out of."
Offence
Rom. 9:33
That against which one stumbles.
Offend
Matt. 18:9
Strike or stumble against; cause to stumble.
Or ever
Ps. 90:2; Cant. 6 : 12;
Dan. 6 : 24; Acts 23 :
15
Ere; before.
9.52
WORDS OBSOLETE OR AMBIGUOUS.
Word.
Passage.
Explanation.
Ouches
Pain
Painlul
Pai iifulness
Ex. 28:11
Rev. 12:2
Ps. 73:16
2 Cor. 11:27
Eze. 32 :19
Gen. 30:37,38; Isa.
2 7
is':
Settings of gold or silver for precious stones.
Strive in pain or pangs.
Hard to do; needing effort.
Unsparing toil.
Surpass.
Strip off bark ; rob and plunder.
Small level piece of ground.
Lop; cut off, esp. hair.
Fragment of broken pottery.
Yat to receive grape-juice from the wine-
press.
Go before ; precede.
Preacher, or proclairaer of divine message.
Stimulate; challenge to action.
Farmers of public revenue; esp. native col-
I'ass
Pill, Peel
Plat
Poll, to
Potsherd
Press tat
Prevent
2 Kgs. 9:26
2 Sain. 14:26
Ps. 22:15
Hag. 2:16
1 Tliess. 4: lo
ICor. 14: 22; Acts 13:1.
2 Cor. 9:2
Matt. 9: 10; Luke 5: 27.
Num. 16 : 30; Heb. 4 :
12
Ps. 71 :20
1 Sam. 4: 9; 1 Cor. 16:
13
Luke 11:39
Gen. 49:27
Ps. 7:9
Isa. 52: 12; 58 :8
Geu.30:35
Luke 14: 8; 1 Cor. 14:
16
Prophet
Provoke
Publicans
Quick
lectors of the odious tribute imposed by
the Roman government.
Qiiii'kcn
Ravening
Alive; lively; active.
Make alive.
Acquit; conduct.
Greediness; rapacity.
Make prey; capture spoil.
(Lat. renes. kidneys) emotions; affections.
Rear-euard ; the defence behind an arinv.
Ravin
Reins
Rereward
Ringstraked
Room
Streaked or marked with circular band's or
rings.
A place or spot for one to sit or stand in.
Save.
Savor
Scant
Scrabble
Scrip
Seethe
Servitor
Sherd
Shroud
Silverlinu;
Sith
Sod, Sodden..,
Sojourn
Sometimes....
Sore
Speed
Spring
Steads
Stone-bow....
Straightway.,
Straitly
Straitness
Strake
Strake
Straw, to
1 Kgs. 3:18; Matt. 11
I 27
'Matt. 16:23
iMic. 6:10
il Sam. 21:13
llSam. 17:40;Luke22:
i 36
Ex. 16:23
2 Kgs. 4:43
I.sa. 30: 14
Eze. 31: 3
Isa. 7:23
Eze. 35:6
Gen. 25:29; Ex. 12:9..
Gen. 12:19; 19:9; Ex.
12:48
Eph.2:13; 1 Pet. 3: 20.
Gen. 19:9; 43:1; Deut.
6:22; Jnd. 21:2
Gen. 24:12; Jud. 5:30.
Deut. 4 : 49; 1 Sam. 9:
26
1 Chr. 5:22
Wisd. 5 : 22
1 Sam. 9 : 13; Luke 5 :
39
Gen. ir:"?;' Josh. eVi;
Mark 1:43
Deut. 28:. 53; Jer. 19:9.
Gen. 30: 37
Acts 27: 17
Matt. 21:8
Except, adv.
Taste; relish ; met. relish in mind.
Short; deficient; scanty.
Scratch ; make unmeaning marks.
Small bag or wallet.
Boil ; perf. " sod," part. " sodden."
Servant or attendant.
(Sax. sceard) fragment ; shred, esp. of pottery.
(Sax. scrud) shelter; covering, esp. of a tree.
A small silver coin.
Since; forasmucli as.
Boiled ; from the verb "seethe."
(Fr. sejonrner) to dwell temporarily, as a
stranger or visitor, not a settled inhaliilant.
Once; formerly; of old time.
Sadly ; grievously.
Succeed ; or subst. success.
Rise, source, commencement, e. gf., "springs
of Pisgah " (Deut. 4 : 49)— i. e., roots or fool
of the mountain.
(Sax. stede) places.
A catapult or engine for throwing stones.
Immediately ; at once.
Strictly.
Scarcity of food ; severe famine.
A streak.
Past tense of verb to "strike."
Strew or scatter.
95^
WORDS OBSOLETE OR AMBIGUOUS.
WOKD.
Passage.
Sunder, to Job 41 : 17.
Sundry Heb. 1 : 1...
Talieriug |Nali. 2 : 7..
Taelies Ex. 26 : 6.
Tale
Explanation.
Target.
Tire ....
Tittle. (See Jot.)
Touching
Tongues ,
Ex. 5:8, 18; 1 Sam. 18:
27
1 Sam. 17: 6
2 Kgs. 9 : 30 ; Isa. S : 18.
Lev. 5 : 13 ; Ps. 45
Matt. 18:iy
Acts 10:46
Travail |lsa. 53:11; Jer. 30:6.
Trow :Luke 17:9
Twain jlsa. 6: 2
Undergird j Acts 27 : 17
Undersetter 1 Kgs. 7 : 30, 34
Unicorn ,
Ps. 92 : 10.
Unwittingly Josh. 20 : 3.
Ware |Acts 14 : 6..
Wax Luke 1:80.
Whit 1 Sam. 3:18; 2 Cor.
11:5
Wimple Isa. 3 : 22.
Winebibber Matt. 11:19
Wiuefat. (See Fat.)':
Wise Lev. 19: 17
Wist Ex. 16 : 15; 34 : 29;
Mark 14 : 40
Wit, to 2 Cor. 8 : 1
With .Tud. 16:7
Withal 1 Kgs. 19 : 1 ; Acts 25 :
I 27
Wittingly Gen. 48 : 14
Wont IMatt. 27:15
Wot Gen. 39:8; Ex. 32 : 1...
Wreathen Ex. 28:14
Wrought Gen. .34:7; Ex. 36:1:
I Matt. 20:12; 26: 10..
Yearn Gen. 43 : 30; 1 Kgs.
3:26
Separate; part asunder.
Several; various; divers.
Beating, as on a taber.
ICaiclies or buttons; any fastening.
(Sax. tellan) reckoning; total.
Light shield ; buckler.
Dress, adorn, esp. the head; stibst. a head-
dress.
Prep.=concerning.
Languages, CAyx those foreign to, or unknown
by, the speaker.
Labor; pain; trouble generally.
Think ; imagine ; suppose.
Two.
Pass ropes round hull of a ship, from gun-
wale to gunwiik', and then stretch them
tight, so as to keep the timbers from
starting in a gale.
The pedestal or plinth on which the brazen
bases of the la vers stood in Solomon's
temple.
Generally allowed to be a wild bull. See
Dictiouanj.
Unconsciously ; unintentionally.
Aware; expectant.
Grow or become.
!(Sax. whit) a bit; atom.
Veil, or covering for face, throat, or neck;
I probably the original of the Eastern
"yashmak."
'Immoderate drinker of wine ; drunkard.
(Sax. wise) mode or manner, or means.
(Sex. wiste) knew.
(Sax. ivitan) to know.
Young twig of a willow ; osier.
With the same; therewith.
Intentionally ; knowingly.
Accustomed.
Know.
Twisted; turned; " wreathen work."
Worked.
Feel pain of longing desire ; hence, express-
ing the working up of uncontrollable
emotion.
954
ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Abana and Pharpar 11
Abraham's Oak 19
Absalom's Tomb '21
Addax 716
Adder, Horned 24
Adrammelecb, Figure of 26
Ain Sultan (Fountain of Elisliaj 432
Alabaster Vases 37
Alexander the Great, Head of 37
Alexandria, Ancient, Map of 39
Almond 40
Aloes 41
Altar of Burnt-offering 42
Altar of Burnt-offering (^from tlie
Alishna) 42
Altar of Incense 43
Amon 47
Amulets, Egyptian 49
Anctior 50
Anise ; 52
Anklets, Assyrian 52
Egyptian 52
Antioch in Syria , 50
Aniiochus Epiphancs, Coin of 55
a 0), Monogram of Christ 9
Apis 151
Arab, A Modern 190
\Vater Carrier 141
Arabia, Sketch Map of 61
Ararat, View of 63
Arcli, Robinson's 64
Archers, Assyrian 70
Egyptian 71
Areopagus, Mars' Hill 65
Ark of Covenant 67
Armor and Arms 68-72
Ass, Eastern Wild 77
Assarion 580
Assyria, etc., Sketch Map of 81
Assyrian King and Cup Bearer 210
Palace 80
Astarte, Figure of. 76
Athens, View of 83
Augustus, Coin of 85
Statue of. 85
Baal, Altar of. 88
Baalbec, Ruins of. 89
Babylon, Plan of 91
Bake-oven, Arabian 96
Balances, Egyptian 97
Balm 98
Banias 149
Banner, Roman, etc 208
Basins, Assyrian 102
Baskets, Egyptian 1(;3
Battering-ram, Ancient 104
Battle-axes 69
Egyptian 69
Bear, Syrian 105
Beards, Assyrian : 105
Egyptian 105
Beds, Asiatic 106
I Beer-sheba, Well at 107
Behen)oth ]08
Bellows, Egyptian no
Beni-Hassan, Tomb at 259
Bernice, Head of 112
Bethany 113
Bethesda, Pool of 115
Bethlehem, Picture of 116
Birs Nimrud 93
Reconstructed 91
Bison 887
Boar, Wild 137
Book of Law closed 140
Bottle inscribed with nameof Thothmes
i in 338
Bottles of Skin 141
Bound between Two Soldiers 718
Bows 718
j and Quivers 71
Bracelets, Assyrian 142
Bronze ". 142
Gold, Egyptian 142
Iron 142
of Cowries 142
Brick, Assyrian 143
Egyptian 143
Bricks, Jewish Captives making, in
Egvpt 143
Bridge, Ruins of. 64
Bubale, The 299
Bulrush 145
Burnt-oflering, Altars of. 42
C^SAREA 149
Philippi 149
Camel 153
Camp, Plan of 154
Cam ph ire 155
Canaan, Sketch Map of 156
Candlestick, Golden 157
Captives, Jewish, before Darius 163
Carmel, Mount 164
Castor and Pollux 166
Castor-oil Plant 344
Cedars of Lebanon 167
Censers, Egyptian 169
Centurion, Ronian 162
Cerastes, Horned 24
Chameleon 172
Chariot, Egyptian 173
Chest or Box, Egyptian.. 176
Christ, Monogram oi 207,208
Cinnamon 186
Claudius, Coin of 189
Cobra, Egyptian 76
Coin, Alexander the Great 37
Antiochus Epiphanes 55
Augustus 85
Claudius 189
Polemo 112
Coins to Commemorate the Capture of
Judaea 162
Colossi at Thebes 616
955
ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Columns, Street of. 844
Coney, Syrian 197
Coriiith and Acro-coriullius 200
Cormorant 203
Crane 203
Cross, Three Forms of the 207
Crown of Aretas 209
Assyrian 209
Herod the Great 209
Lower Egypt 209
Upper Egypt 209
Cucumber, Squirting 210
Cyprus, Map of 212
Cyrus, Reputed Tomb of. 213
Daggers 70
Damascus, View of 215
Wall of. 216
David, Tomb of. 222
Dead Sea, Map of. 753
View of, N. W 755
View of, Soutli 755
Dead, The Judgment of. 266
Decapolis, Map of 226
Denarius 580
Roman 228
Denderali, Temple at 265
Diana of Ephesus 251
Temple of. - 231
Temple of, at Epliesus 281
Dog Modelled in Clay 236
Dove, Turtle 238
Eagle 245
Eastern House, Plan of 241
Ecce Homo Arch 455
Edom,Viewof 251
Egypt, Sketch Map of 254
Egyptian Triad 256
Elijah's Sacrifice, Place of 272
Elim 273
Embalming 276
Epiicsian Temple 281
Er-Rahah, Plain of 805
p;;sdraeloii, Plain of 461
Exodus, Sketch Map of 294
Eyes, Painting of 295
Fallow Deer 298
Fans, Winnowing 300
Farthing .^80
Farthing, A 301
Fennel Flower 308
Ferret, The 302
Figs and Fig-leaves 303
Firman, Turkish 517
Fish-(;od, The 214
Fishes of Sea of tialilee 307
Fitches 308
Flagellum 771
Flax 309
Preparation of. 309
Foot-Race 324
Fountain of Elislia 432
Fox, The Syrian 313
]""rankinc('nse 314
Fringid (Garment, Eastirn 193
Furnace, Egyptian 31fi
Furniture, Eastern 316
Galilee, Sea of. Sketch Map of 320
Sea of, from Tiberias 321
Gallinule, The Purple 831
Garment, Fringed 193
Gate of Damascus 326
GaztUe 740
Gecko, The 302
(ienne.saret 160
Get hseniane, Garden of 333
Girdles, Ancient 337
(ilassblowers 338
Glass-Bottles, iCgyptian 338
Goat, Svrian 339
Gods of the Chief Egyptian Triad 256
Golden Daric 580
Gourd, Wild 344
Greece, Sketch Map of 347
Greek, A Modern 190
Guest-Chamber 242
Hair, Egyptian Mode of W( aring 351
Haniath, Inscriptidii at 353
Hands, Washing the 897
Haram Area 451
Hare ol Mount Sinai 358
Harp, Egyptian 359
Hawk '. 363
Head-dress, Assyrian King and Queen... 365
Damascus 365
Syrian 365
Hebron, Mosque at 536
View of. 371
Heliopolis, Obelisk at 629
Herdsmen, Egyptian 376
Hermon, Little 596
Mount 371
Herod Agrippa, Coin of 579
the Great, Bronze Coin of 378
Herod's Temple, Plan of 856
Hezekiah, Pool of 450
Hieroglyphics, Alexander 255
Ptoiemais 255
High Priest 385
Hippopotamus 108
Hoe, Egyptian 553
Holy Land, Map of 646-7
Hoopoe, or Lapwing 509
Hor, Mount, View of 389
Horns as Ornaments 391
Housetop, Eastern 243
Huleh, Lake 564
Husks 3%
Hvena, Striped 1^97
Hyssop 397
Incense, Altar of. 43
Inn, Eastern 403
IniK r Prison, Ancient 705
Instruments, Stringed 590
Isis, Egyptian 256
.Tacor's Well 414
,Jan'a-(iate, Interior of the 443
Jerusalem, Eastern Wall of. 443
Plans of 447
Vifw of, from the South 435
Jews, Wailing-Place of. 454
Jezreel, Plain of 461
I Jonah, Traditional Tomb of 472
I Joppa, View of 4(5
ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Jordan, Course of 478
Source of. 477
Sources of 149
Joshua, Traditional Tomb of 482
Judges, Tomb of. 147
Tombs of, Plan of. 146
Judgment, of tlie D>fad (Egyptiaiij '2t>6
Juniper Bush 4'Jl
Karnak, Avenue of Sphinxes 265
Temple at 257
Kestrel 363
Kev, Egyptian Iron 495
Kite 5U2
Lachish, Plan of .506
Lamp, Assyrian Terra-Cotta and Glass... 50S
Clialdsean 508
Lamps, Chrisiian 508
Lauditsea, Ruins of 509
Lapwing 509
Laver, Brazen 510
Lebanon, Cedars of lil?
View of. 513
Leek, Common 514
Leu tiles 515
Leopard 515
Leper, Head of 516
Leprous Beggars 516
Leviathan 517
Lily 521
Scarlet .520
Lion 522
Sculptured 9:',
Lizard 523
Locust, Flying 525
Locusts n2i
Loom, Ancient Roman 899
Mackdoxia, Map of 535
Maces and Clubs 70
Mail, Coats of, Assyrian 69
Coats of, (ireek 69
Coals of, Persian 69
Mandrake ,542
Manna Tree ,543
Map, Abana and Pharpar 11
Alexandria 39
Arabia 61
Assyria and Mesopotamia 81
iSIius' Hill 65
Mattock .5,53
Measures of Capacity ,554
Medeba, Ruined Columns at .5.55
Memnon, Vocal 616
Menephthah 1 261
Merom, Waters of 564
Mesopotamia, Sketch Map of..... 81
Mill, Women Grinding at ,571
Millet .' 572
Mint ,572
Moab, Mountains of 577
Moabite Stone, The 232
Money Bags, Egyptian 96
Mosque at Hebron ,5,36
Mourners, Eastern 588
MS8., Fac-simile of. 123
Mummies, Bandaging j)f 276
Making Casi^s for 276
3Iumiuy-Case, Lid of. 277
Mummy-Cases. Forms of. 276
Muslim Tombs 443
Mustard 591
Myrrli 591
Myrtle 592
Nain, View of. 596
Nazareth, View of. 600
Nobo, The god 602
Nebuchadnezzar, Brick of 603
Cameo of. 602
Nergal's Emblem 612
Night-Jar 609
Nilometer, Tlie 611
Nineveii, Plan of. 613
Nisroch 614
Nose-Jewels 617
Oak, Abraham's 19
Obelisk at Ou 264
Oil-Press 624
Olive Tree 624
Olives 623
Olivet from the West 626
Omar, Mosque of 4.51
On, Oi)elisk at 629
Osiris, Egyptian 256
Ossifrage 63;3
Ostrich. 634
Owl, Eagle 635
Palace, Assyrian 80
Solomon's, Plan of 638
Palm, Date....i 6,53
Partridge, The Greek 6.58
Patmos, Isle of. 661
Paul, House where Imprisoned 662
Place of Shipwreck of 560
Portrait of 663
Peacock 666
Pelican, The 667
Penny, Roman 580
Pens.'etc 668
Pentateuch, Samaritan 762
Pergamos 672
Peter, Portrait of. 67,5
Piiaraoh of Exodus 261
of Oppression 260
Philistine 683
Phylactery 687
Pine TheEastern 690
Pistachio-Nuts 618
Plough, Eastern 695
Pomegranate 697
Postures in Prayer, Arab 701
Egyptian 701
Helirew 701
Pr)tter, Egyptian 699
Pottery, Egyptian 699
Priest, A...." 38,5, 703
Prison, Ancient Inner 705
Prisoners before Sargon 163
Propvlon at Karnak 265
Pygarg, The 716
Pyramids of Egypt 263
Quail 717
Quivers, Egyptian 718
R.VCHEL, Tomb of. 721
957
ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Rameses II 260
Raven 725
Reeds 151
Rehoboaiu 730
Retem 491
Rings and Signets, Assyrian 738
Egyptian 738
Porcelain 738
Robinson's Arch 440
Roe 740
Rome, View of. 743
Rue 745
Sackcloth, Sitting in 749
Sacred Bull, Muiniuy of 561
Salsola Kali 815
Salt Sea, Map of 753
Salutation, Modes of 758
Samaria, Colonnade of 759
Sandals 192
Sarcophagus 561
Lid, Egyptian 277
Sargon, Prisoners before 163
Scorpion 770
Scourge 771
Scribes 772
Seal, Phoenician 773
Seilun 794
Selah or Petra 777
Sennacherib on his Throne 779
Sepulchre, Interior of Church of the
Holy 453
Shadoof, Egyptian 610
Shechem 787
Sheepfold, Eastern 789
Shekel ascribed to Simon Maccabsjeus 579
Shew-Bread, Table of 792
Shields and Spears 68, 70
Assyrian 70
Egyptian 68
Shiloh, Ancient 794
Shishak, Head of 796
Shittim-Wood 797
Siloam, Pool of 802
Simon the Tanner, House of 479
Sinai, Mount 805
Outline Map of. 807
Sistrum 590
Slinger, Assyrian 72
Smyrna 813
Sna'il 815
Solomon's Pools 819
Sparrow 822
Spears, Assyrian 70
Spikenard 823
Standards, Roman 16
State, ("hair of 865
Stocks, Ancient 826
Stone Water-Jars 899
Stork, Tiie 828
Street of Columns 844
Sun, Temple of, at Baalbec 89
Swift, The 831
Swords and Daggers, Assyrian 70
Sycamore 832
Synagogue at Meiron 834
Table or Triclinium 248
Tabor, Mount 844
Tadmor or Palmyra 8^5
Tamarisk 543
Tares 848
Tell Hum, Ruins at 101
Temple according to Fergusson 854
according to Lewin 854
according to Porter 854
according to Wilkinson 854
at Aboo Simbel 265
at Hathor 265
at Karnak 257
at Thebes 2.57
Great, Columns of 89
Herod's 856
of Diana 281
of the Sun 844
Platform of 853
Reconstruction of 8.54
Terapiiim 858
Thebes, Temple at 257
Tbessalonica 860
Thorn, Palestine 861
Threshing Floor, Egyptian 30
Instrument (Lower View) 8f)3
Instrument (Upper View) 864
Sledge of Palestine 864
Throne or Chair of State 865
Thvatira 866
Thyine Wood 865
Tiberias 321
Tiberius, Head of Emperor 867
Timbrel 868
Tomb, Aaron's 389
Absalom's 21
atBeni-Hassan 259
Muslim 443
of Jonah 472
of Joshua 482
of Judges 147
of Rachel 721
Tree-Sparrow 822
Triclinium, Roman 248
Troops, Egyptian 896
Trumpets 882
Tyre 883
Unicorn 887
Upper Room 242
Vases, Alabaster 37
Vulture. Egyptian 894
Gritibn, or Eagle 245
Walking, Girded for 191
Water-Carrier, Arab 141
Water-Jars, Stone 899
Wheat. Egyptian 900
Wind Instruments 590
Wine Making, Egyptian 904
Wine Press, Treading of 903
Winged Figures, Egyptian 175
Win no wing-Fans 300
Writing-Materials 668
Yoke in Use in Palestine.
Tabernacle, General View of. 8.'^9
S. E. View 840 I ZlDON.
95S
908
918
' Ccrpyrtgla. 1880. j
Th& American, Sun3/Xf School Uniorv. FhiladelpTday.
f Copyright 1880I
The America/i. Siuid<i\ Sc.hnoi Union,. VhiladelphtA.
3
I CopyTZQ'ht 1860
llie Jjnericait Simdc^ School JTmoruThUadelphicu.
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The /Initriori .?//n///jv ScAool Vrdor^ FhiLidelphuv.
Copyright leSO.i
ThjB'Americart Svndav School Vidon. YhdladeLphi/x.
Si/lorL^'
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PALESTINE
in the time of Ckrist
Scale ol' EiigLisli>Iiles
l.FfdjxLcL
-cEsareav
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32
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131
Longitude E. of GreenvdcK
36
'OrpyrigM, 1880.,
Th& American Sunday School Vmon.FhiZadeLpTda.
'Ccp^-right 1880. i
Thp AjnerixxTL Swiday School r7Uon.Fkiladd.p7da..
10
ENVIRONS
^-^^v-^
or
JERUSALEM
_ ScEiIe of F.iifaisli Mles^^
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Thf American Siiruicvf School Union. HhUadelfihia,.
11
MODERN JERUSALEM
Tiie divisions ofAndent Jerusalem are
distinffuished hy colours and named in light letters
Scale _Eii;glisIi. Feet
100 0 500 1000
I C<rpyrig}a,1880.:
The ^mericajv Sundwf School zrnion.FhiladelpTdtv.
12
Princeton Theological Seminary-Speer Library
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